UTILITY POULTRY FARMING New York State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. Library SF 488.A83A49""'""'""-"'"^'' ' fu .'.''^ poultry farming in New Zealand, 3 1924 003 111 808 attention, please | I #]T Because of a " tainted " self-interest on the part g 1 jl of journals that should be independent of pecun- g B iary gain when catering for the industry, there has | m been undue prominence given in endeavour to in- g ■ fiuence poultrymen against well established FACTS g B in Poultry rearing. h S £U Hence it is well to note that British quality, g ■ ^ stability and efficiency never have been, or J B ever will be, second to any other. j I The I Hcarson Champion I Incubator I still stands out as the premier of all hatching apparatus. Built on the hot-water tank principle, it answers every test of any climate at any altitude, and is especially adaptable to the very varied weather conditions of the Southern Dominions. It will run from year end to year end with a drawer temperature of within three degrees of a mean level. Write for our " Problem Solved " with full instructions and illustrations to TD. ■ I SPRATTS PATENT L I Fenchurch St., LONDON, England | = or to M i N.Z. Address: P.O. Box 405, CHRISTCHURCH 1 iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiira The Farmers' Go-op. ALWAYS AT YOUR SERVICE Poultrymen can secure all their requirements at "THE FARMERS." We stock a full range of all Foods etc., including: — Fowl Wheat Lucerne Chaff Lucerne Meal Poultry Meal Meat Meal Proto Nuts Chick Food Dried Blood Fowl Bones Charcoal Shell Grit Flint Grit Oyster Shell Grit Leg Rings, etc., etc. Prices and fullest information supplied on application. The N.Z. FARMERS' CO-OP. ASSN. OF CANTERBURY LTD. Head Office . CASHEL ST.. CHRISTCHURCH. -Branches and Agencies at : — Ashburton , Akaroa Blenheim Cheviot Darfield Hawarden Kaikoura Leeston Melhven Oxford Rangiora Rakaia Seddon Nelson WHEN YOU BUY Poultry Foods Look for this Brand PRODUCnVE, The Sign of " Perfection " Manufactured by A. S. PATERSON & CO. LTD. ^ CHRISTCHURCH. UTILITY Poultry Farming IN NEW ZEALAND 'By GEO. H. ^MBLER Late 0/ Church Fenton. Yorkshire, England Poultry Expert to the "New Zealand Farmer" Winner International Trophy and Championships, Crystal Palace, also 22 Challenge Cups, 18 Gold and Silver Medals, and oVer 3,000 First, Second and Special Prizes at Leading Shou)s in England and New Zealand WHITCOMBE & TOMBS LIMITED Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin and Wellington, N.Z. Melbourne and London B Cornell University 8 Library The original of tliis bool< is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003111808 PEEFACE Poultry culture, which was previously looked upon as a hobby, has now come to be regarded as a serious business. The need, therefore, is apparent for a useful book on utility poultry keeping in New Zealand. Prompted by an unflagging devotion for poultry keeping and possessed of an earnest desire to do my little to popularise this great industry, I offer my life-lcng experience to the amateur section of 1he poultry keeping community, and by so doing aim to give my readers a practical and concise treatise on the subject. The task lias not been an easy one, but unless I am greatly deceived the result will justify the labour involved. My active association with poultry keep- ing extends over a period of thirty years, and during that time I have watched with especial interest the growth of utility poultry culture. Having also passed through the trials and tribulations that beset the path of the budding exhibitor, and having attained the goal of success striven for, viz., 1st Championship and In- ternational Trophy at Crystal Palace, it occurred to me that the experience I gained on the way might be of help not only to those who are setting out on a similar journey, but also to those who are breeding fowls for the love of the hobby; as well as those who purpose making a profit and at the same time adding pleasure to their everyday life. Poultry keeping has many charms, and the opportunities for making money by it are many, while the enjoyment derived from scientific methods will more than repay the labour spent. It has often been said that experience is worth nothing unless it is bought. There is a certain amount 2 PREFACE of truth in that, bxit there is such a thing as paying too high a price, and my endeavour is to help the beginner over some of the obstacles that he is sure to encounter. This book is written from a utility point of view, the object being to enable any intelligent per- son to set about poultry keeping with some prospect of success ; and I hope that by careful study my readers will be able to discover the stepping-stones to success and avoid the many pitfalls associated with poultry keeping. It is from an accumulation of small things that great things are produced, and should my ^effort be the means of bringing more "grist to the mill" of our many poultry keepers and stimulating greater interest in the poultrj^ industry, my labours will not have been in vain. I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to the pro- prietors of Feathered World, Poultry World, New Zealand Farmer, and American Red Journal for permission to use several of the illustrations which appear. CONTENTS Chapter I. Introductory Preliminary Advice II. Selection of Site III. Housing Interior . . The Scratciiing-siied System Backyard Poultry House The Incubator Room The Intensive System The Intensive House Summary' . . IV. Selection of Stock Mating Single Pens or Trap Nests V. Poultry Breeding Scientific or Line-Breeding Explanation of Felch's Breeding Chart The Breeding of First Crosses VI. Incubation Artificial Incubation Natural Incubation Ml. Rearing of Poultry .. Natural and Artificial Methods The Heated Brooder The Unheated Brooder . . Natural Rearing . . Feeding of Chickens VIII. Feeding and General Management of Poultry. The Breeding Pen Preparing the Food Eight Essentials to Egg Production The Value of Bran Modern Feeding Methods Two Valuable By-products Foul Ground Toe Punching Chickens . . Records to be Kept Page 7 7 10 12 19 24 34 36 40 43 45 47 59 62 64 64 70 73 74 74 88 93 93 95 97 101 103 110 115 116 123 125 126 137 139 140 142 THE STUD THAT IS STILL MAKING HISTORY. Geo. H. AMBLER'S WHITE LEGHORNS THE STRAIN that is now Famous the World over and breeds the Snow White kind, the kind that wins and Lays Plenty of Eggs. During the past twenty years this stud has been awarded 24 Challenge Cups, 14 Gold and Silver Medals and over 3,000 First, Second and Special Prizes at the Leading Shows in England and New Zealand, including Firsts, Challenge Cups, Gold Medals, INTERNATIONAL Trophy and Championships Crystal Palace, also Winner Challenge Trophy' for Best Cockerel (any variety) in the show, at Christchurch (New Zealand's Premier Show.) BREEDER & EXHIBITOR OF: Black Roseoomb Bantams, Pedlg^'ee Laying White Leghorns, and Black Orpingtons, also White, and Fawn and White Indian Runner Ducks, and KHAKI CAMPBELLS The Dual Purpose Duck. For Utility, Khaki Campbells have long enjoyed a reputation exclusively their own. The Bgy laying and Foraging Qualities of these ducks will astonish you. Consistency with size and quality of egg. Birds and Eggs for Sale in Season. N.Z. Eepresentative for GLOUCESTER and ACME INCUBATORS, The last word in Incubators. The perfect products of a thousand tests. Poultry Appliances, Medicines, Etc. Plants Laid Out at a Moderate Charge. Judging Appointments (Open and Utility Classes.) Expert Eepresentative for MESSRS. A. J. PALMER & Co., Poultry Food Manufacturers. Address: Acme Poultry Farm, Rockfield Rd,. ELLERSLIE, or 45 Custflms Street East, AUCKLAND. CONTENTS n Chapter Page IX. Exhibition Poultry . . . 146 X. Breeds of Poultry . . 156 Anconas . . . 156 Andalusians . 158 Campines . 158 Dorkings . 159 Leghorns (White) . 160 (Black) . 164 „ (Brown) 165 WlNORCAS . 167 Orpingtons (Black) . 169 (Buff) . 172 (White) . 173 Plvsiouth Rocks .. . 173 Rhode Island Reds . 174 Sussex .. . 177 Wyandottes . 178 XI. Ducks . 182 Xil. Geese . 195 xril. Turkeys . 196 XIV. Diseases of Poultry .. . 201 External Parasites . 217 Some Medicines and thkir Uses . . . 220 XV. Poultry Farmer's Calendar of Work . 223 January . . . 224 February . 226 March . 228 April . 230 May . 233 June . 235 July . 237 August . . . 239 September . 240 October . . 242 November . 244 December . 247 XVI. Glossary OF Technical Terms . 249 Appendix I. The Points of a Fowl . 256 II. The Skeleton of a Fo\ VL . 257 Two Big Poultry Lines Out on their own ! A. & P. Chick Raiser For 14 y&ars A. & P. Chick Raiser has been famous for its regularity and superior quality. It has assisted materially in raising the Poultry Industry in N.Z. to its present position. It is something to claim, and to be supported by those best able to judge, that 75% of the chicks in N.Z. are reared on A. & P. Chick Eaiser. You can rely on it always being the very best procurable. "Proto Nuts To be able to procure a protein food that will give the utmost egg production without fear of ovarian troubles is a wonderful relief to poultrymen. Such a, food is "Proto Nuts," now used at alljfthe lead- ing poultry plants in New Zealand. Prepared by The A. & P. Food Co.^Ltd. The Live Stock Food Specialists Wellington LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS Pen of White Leghorns, Winners N.Z.U.P.O. Ccmpeti- page tion ... ... ... ... Frontispiece A grit and oyster-shell box ... ... ... 23 Soratohing-shed ... ... ... ... 30 Back Yard Poultry House ... ... ... 35 A simple type of chick colony house ... ... 88 Pair of White Leghorn Prizewinners ... facing 38 Pair of Ancona Prizewinners ... ... ■■• ,, 39 Intensive house ... ... ... ... ii Another type of Intensive house .:. ... .... 45 Organs and Ovary of Hen ... ... ... 54 Pair of Brown Leghorn Prizewinners ... facing 54 Pair of Black Minorca Prizewinners ... ... ,, 65 Single Testing Pens ... ... ... ... 64 Felch's Amended Breeding Chart ... ... ... 71 Pelch's Original Breeding Chart ... ... " ... 72 Diagram to illustrate first crosses ... ... ... 73 Section of Hcarson's Patent " Champion " Incubator ... 75 Progress of Incubation ... ... ... ... 78 Incubators — a few things to remember ... ... 80 View of Cellar Incubator Boom ... ... ... 8G How to set a hen ... ... ... ... 90 Pair of Black Orpington Prizewinners ... facing 102 Pair of Rhode Island Red Prizewinners ... ... ,, 103 Pair of Silver Wyandotte Prizewinners ... ... ,, 118 Pair of White Wyandotte Prizewinners ... ... ,, 119 Oats in course of Sprouting ... ... ... 119 Dry Mash Hopper ..; ... ... ... 135 Toe-punch markings ... ... ... -.'.. 141 Chick toe-punch ... ... ... ... 142 Pair of Barred Plymouth Rock Prizewinners ... facing 160 Pair of White Plymouth Rock Prizewinners ... 151 Way to take a bird frofn the show cage ... .. 154 ." Lady Cornwall " ... ... ... ... 161 "Lady West" ... ... ... ... 163 A pen of typical Utility White Leghorns ... facing 166 Mr. Bradley's Black Orpington Hen ... ... 169 A paiir of Light Sussex ... ... ... ... 177 Mr. Douthwaite's Silver Wyandotte hen ... ... 179 Mr. Willougbby Knight's Indian Runner Duck ... 184 Mr. Hawke's Indian Runner Drake ... ... 185 Hospital for Sick Poultry ... ... ... 203 The points of a fowl ... ... ... ... 256 The skeleton of afowl ... ... ... ... 258 Utility Poultry Farming Chapter I. INTRODUCTOEY. Preliminary Advice. Every would-be poultry farmer should (if possible) first of all serve an apprenticeship on some good poultry farm, and obtain more than an elementary knowledge of the business he contemplates under- taking; otherwise only a very long purse to draw upon whilst he is buying experience can possibly save him. A right start, a sure foundation, is half-way to success. Poultry keeping, however, is capable of so many sub-divisions that it is advisable carefully to deter- mine the particular object in view and then adhere strictly to the same. Some make a living by selling sittings of eggs, others by the sale of day-old chicks; others are described as egg farmers. Then there is the one who breeds exhibition birds and who, after severely culling his stock, disposes of his surplus for breeding purposes. Fattening is another branch of the great poultry industry, for great it already is though yet in its infancy in this country. The best road to success is to specialise. For a commencement keep to one variety, master all the points and details required, and then success, if striven for, will be more easily attained. Then if your in- 8 tJTiLMT POULTRY FARMING clinations lead that way, another breed or variety can be added to the stock. Determine your vocation, adhere to it and become master of it, rather than a "jack of all trades and master of none." Commence in a modest way, but let "quality" be your motto, without which success cannot be attained; extend as your business grows, and you will be constantly making profit instead of spending money on a white elephant. Those who over-capitalise from the incep- tion are doomed to failure. Acquire experience before commencing in any par- ticular branch of the business. Whatever branch you do commence, in combination with your particular tastes, will determine the breed or breeds that will interest you. Secure the best birds your means will allow. Poultry-keepers should always go "all out" for the best class of stock so far as their pockets will allow, and make an effort to "beat the best" and breed something each time to "beat the rest." There is pleasure in trying each time to breed some specimen better than the last. If you keep fowls why not own the best possible, as the inferior layer eats more than the superior one; therefore stock the material which responds to wise management and feeding, by maxi- mum returns. Always remember that a trio of good stock is better and more profitable than fifty inferior birds. Avoid too close inbreeding or breeding from immature birds, and exercise the greatest care in the introduction of new blood. Depend upon a reliable strain" and avoid buying from all sources. Let the beginner place himself in the hands of a reliable breeder, explain fully what he requires, and the amount he wishes to spend, and in most cases he will be generously treated. If a bird has a fault or weakness leave it severely alone. Don't trust to luck that the blemish may not INTRODUCTORY » reproduce itself, as indeed it may not in the first generation ; but it is almost bound to re-appear in a future one. All stock birds should be ringed, the ring bearing a number or mark which should be entered in your pedigree register. Even though you have but one pen to commence with there is no reason why this duty should be omitted. Possibly for a time you may be able to remember how each individual bird is bred, but as the number of your pens increases you will be hopelessly at sea if you have not been methodical from tlie start. Unless you pedigree your birds you will not know where you are. Before the stock is selected the poultry keeper should settle exactly what amount of accommodation there is at his disposal, after which the plans for the houses and runs should be mapped out. Fowls should not be kept unless proper and regular attention can be given to them ; and it is, strongly to be urged that this needful attention be personal. Individuality plays a large part in the successful production of anything, but probably in no other sphere of life can it be brought to bear more successfully than in the breed- ing of high-class poultry. Success with utility poultry is not determined alone by the breed kept. What has to be found out is how far does it conform to special and local conditions. We cannot tlierefore depend upon breed alone. There is no such thing as a best breed; it is a matter of strain. At one time many people thought tliat mongrels or eross-breds were always tlie most productive, but with the advent of utility poultiy farms and laying competitions a great change has taken place, and the average poultry- keeper recognises that "there are as many days for a poor hen as for a good one," whilst the tendency towards recession appeai-s to be greater in mongrels than in pure-bred stock, functionally as well as in ex- ternal characters. 10 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING Strain is an important factor in building up your structure, and upon it, along with careful manage- ment, success will depend; but without these qualifi- cations the best strains that the world of poultry can place in your hands cannot bring the reward. The four cornerstones upon which success in poultry keeping rests are: — (1) Suitable buildings properly located and kept clean. (2) The right foods correctly balanced and skil- fully fed. (3) Good fowls well and carefully bred. (4) Facility and ability in hatching and rearing chickens. Chapter II. SELECTION OF SITE. There is a great deal more in the site or location of the proposed farm than one at first glance would believe. In selecting the location there are many things to be taken into consideration, such as neajmess to a market, nature of the soil, position of runs and houses, terms of tenancy, water supply, capital at dis- posal, and whether there are buildings or not. Good out-buildings would save the cost of erecting stores, etc.. It is very important that the farm should be situated where there would be a market near at hand for the bulk of the produce at remuneirative prices throughout the year. Though the rental may be low, it is a mistake to erect premises in out of the way places, because there would be heavy charges to pay for carriage, besides other disadvantages. Therefore SELECTION OF SITE 11 it is advisable to select a place as near to a large town as possible. It is also important that there should be absolute fixity of tenure of not less than 12 or 15 years. As a general rule the land should slope to the north, cer- tainly never, when egg-production is the aim, east or south-east except in sheltered places, as the winds in these directions will penetrate the houses, however well built, and the result will be, during all seasons except early summer, a serious curtailment of the egg supply. Soil. — ^Heavy clay or damp soil should be avoided, and the farm should not be too exposed or low-lying. Preference should be given to a gravel or loam with chalky well-drained subsoil. It is erroneous to suppose the fowls will not thrive upon any soil when properly managed, yet for many reasons a gravelly one is to be preferred. It is of course drier, contains more gritty matter, and the stones in it can be made use of to lay down footings for the fowl houses to stand on, to construct duck ponds, paths, and roadways. Size. — The selected farm should not be too small as one must allow for expansion. A farm of five or six acres would be suitable to st,art with, and inquiries should be made to see if further land adjacent or near could be rented. A good many fowls can be kept in a thriving condition on an acre of land. This, of course, depends on how they are housed, whether on the intensive system, colony system, or scratching- shed system. Having selected the farm and decided on the system of housing, carefully lay out the ground for the fowl houses to stand on, paying special atten- tion to the means of intercommunication. The object is to ensure the greatest possible number of fowls being attended to by each person employed, and this is a very important consideration. The whole of 12 UTILITY POULTKT PAKMING the ground should be planned out, though all the fowl houses may not be erected and stocked at the commencement. Poultry and Fruit. — Poultry and fruit go hand in hand, and preference should be given to a poultry farm that possesses a goodly number of fruit trees. All the spaces between the ranges of the poultry houses should be utilized for fruit growing. -In this way the same ground can be made to yield two returns, fruit and poultry. Apart from this the trees will provide summer shade for the stock, and at the same time will grow and yield better with poultry running beneath them. Chapter III. HOUSING. The subject of housing poultry is a big one, and there can be no best type of house or pen. Amongst the many pitfalls that line the path of the poultry keeper, one of the worst appears to be the housing question. The first object in keeping fowls is to get eggs, and this can be "achieved only by good housing and management. Profitable poultry keeping depends first on the quality or breeding of the stock, and after that on housing and management. Housing has passed through various phases. At one time the matter was almost disregarded. Fowls were thought to know their own requirements, and in many cases were left to select their own quarters. Then came the stage when farmers and poultry keepers furnished artificial heat, it being imagined that poultry must be kept warm to encourage productive- ness. HOUSING 13 There have been many alterations brought about by the application of science to poultry farming, and probably no question connected with the industry has shown greater progress during the last ten years than that of housing. Fresh Air. — The results of scientific investigations, substantiated by the teachings of practical experience, prove that fresh air with its necessary accompaniments of space and light is the first essential factor in suc- cessful poultry raising. Fresh air produces vigour, without which production cannot be permanently maintained. Agricultural colleges, not only in England £ind America but in New Zealand, and our Government Poultry Instructors as well, are advo- cating the use of fresh air poultry houses. "We have all heard of the power of ' ' sweetness and light, ' ' and nowhere are the beneficial results accruing from them more necessary than in the houses and runs devoted to the rearing and accommodation of poultry. One great and valid reason why fowls should have a plentiful supply of fresh air is that they have no sweat glajids, so that poisonous waste matter cannot be conveyed from their bodies by means of perspir- ation. To make up for this deficiency "Dame Nature" has endowed the fowl with nine air sacs, as well as its lungs, the result being that a large amount of waste matter must necessarily be carried off in the breath. The poisons excreted in other animals by the skin are, in the fowl, carried off to a large extent by the breath. It is therefore quite easy to see the absolute necessity for an abundance of fresh air in the sleeping places. "We may readily understand why a fowl house so soon becomes stuffy and evil smelling, as the air becomes saturated with carbonic acid gas. Fowls that sleep in houses where there is overcrowding or insuffi- cient ventilation quickly become a prey to all kinds of 14 UTILITY POULTRY FAEMING disease. They begin by losing their appetite, and general ill health is followed by some definite com- plaint or disease to which so many fowls become victims. A test of insufficient air space or bad ventil- ation in a house or coop is to go inside first thing in the morning, and if there is a stuffy unwholesome smell you know that the ventilation is bad or that too many birds are being housed together. No matter how much fresh air is admitted it is im- possible for the air to be pure and healthful unless the inside of the house is kept perfectly clean. The nearer poultry are kept to a natural state the more hardy they will be. It was this fact that led up to the scratehirig. shed system. As long as the basic principles essential to the maintenance of hygienic conditions are observed, the rest is more or less a question of detail. Air Space. — It may be taken as a rough rule that each bird should have 10 cubic feet of air space in the house, and to avoid overcrowding it may be well to give a definite rule for ascertaining how many birds a given house will contain healthily. "Working this out we find that the smallest house for six fowls is 4 feet square and 4 feet high, while for twenty birds the house should be at least 6 feet square and 6 feet high. The best way to find how many fowls a house will hold for roosting purposes is to multiply the length by the width, and multiply that result by the average height and divide by 10; or reckoning the average height as 5 feet, simply multiply the length by the width and divide by 2. For example, a house 6 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 5 feet (average) high will be sufficient to roost twelve fowls. In the open fronted house, for roosting purposes only, reckon by perch room. To do this place the Housmo 15 perches lengthwise 1 foot from the back of the house and from each other, but not more than 2 feet from the front, to enable birds to get up and down with ease. For example, an open front house 6 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 5 feet (average) high will roost eighteen birds. In the intensive house for roosting as well as scratching and exercising purposes, allow at least 3 square feet each (floor space) for pullets of the light or the non-sitting breeds, and 5 square feet each for other kinds. Multiply the lenglji by the width by the height, and divide by 3 or 5, as the case may be. Ventilation. — No matter whether the house be large or small (if small the greater the necessity), great attention to ventilation is necessary; but care must be taken that ventilation is given- without draught. Draughts are harmful, whereas ventilation is absolutely essential. By ventilation is meant a constant but not too rapid changing of the air in a building, or other enclosed space. There must not be any direct flow of air on to the birds, as they dislike a draught, and as is the case with human beings, it is the cause of many colds that eventually lead to disease. Ventilation may most easily be secured in any house by having two openings covered with perforated zinc, with a space between them, thus providing an outlet as well as an inlet. These openings should be placed as high as possible at each end of the house, so that the air comes in quite above the birds' heads and become heated before it reaches them. It is well to provide the ventilators with a sliding shutter, so that the amount of air admitted may be regulated according to the temperature and the number of fowls in the house. Another method is to have a sort of wooden conduit made by nailing three pieces of wood to the side of the house, 16 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING i.e., nailing the edges of two six-iach boards to the wall, and nailing the third board on their outer edges so as to form a channel for the air to ascend. A hole is cut through the side of the house near the top of the conduit. Thus a constant supply of fresh outer air is carried up in the channel or conduit to a point well above the birds' perches, where it is dispersed. Dampness. — ^Another requisite is that the roof of the house shall be thoroughly water-tight and the floors perfectly dry. At the same time we do not recommend the use of made floors, such as concrete and the like, except in very unfavourable conditions as to drainage. If used they should be covered to a depth of at least a couple of inches with dry, loose material such as earth. Sunshine. — Provision must be made for the house to be well lighted. A dark house is always insanitary and dirty. Light is easily obtainable, and costs nothing, yet it is only in recent years that the con- structors of fowl-houses have realised that sun and light are absolutely necessary to the well-being of fowls. Houses must be built so as to get as much sunshine as possible. Open doors and windows and a direct stream of sunshine have a wonderful drying and sweetening effect. In cold weather especially, poultry delight to bask in it, and yet too often the house and run in which they are confined are thrust away into the darkest, dampest, and most dismal corner to be found. The benefits of sunshine are great, not only in the health and well-being of the stock but in the pecuniary results, and it costs nothing beyond a little forethought and contrivance. Eemember that light and disease are deadly enemies. HOUSING 17 The following lines are a quotation from a poem written many years ago by Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes : — Ood lent hii creatures light and air and water open to the skies; Man locks him in a stifling lair and wonders why his brother dies. That distinguished physician and brilliant author well knew the priceless value of pure, fresh, open air and light, and yet we find many poultry keepers neglect to provide their fowls with fresh air and tlien wonder why their birds are afflicted with a multitude of diseases, chief among them being roupy colds and fungoid diseases of the respiratory organs. Shelter. — Houses must afford shelter and pro- tection to fowls without creating such conditions as will cause Nature to i-ebel. It is recognised now that it is the height of folly to secure warmth in winter time by overcrowding birds and by the per- nicious practice of totally excluding outside air. As previously mentioned, if hygienic conditions are obsei"ved there is no reason for an expensive house. A roughly built structure, if dry and free from draughts, may be ns effective as the most elaborate building. Open-fronted or Scratching Shed Houses. — Many are the designs of houses on the market to-day, all having special points to recommend them. The open-fronted combination scratching shed and roost- ing apartment, also the lai'ge intensive house, are most populai' in New Zealand. Wlvere space is limited the combination house is just the thing, as it is possible for the birds to be confined in unfavour- able weather. Canvas shutters ai'e placed over the 18 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING wire netting of the scratcliing shed to provide shade and shelter. Both this and the intensive system are dealt with at some length under their respective headings. Stubble Houses. — The ordinary farmer will have the majority of his houses on wheels so that they may be moved about. These may be styled stubble houses. In the Mother Country after harvest many hundreds of these houses can be seen in the fields. The fowls pick up their living for several weeks, and the only attention they require is a daily supply of water. For bringing old hens through the moult and pullets on to lay, this system works admirably. Apart from this is the saving in food and the systematic manuring of the land. Continuous Houses. — ^Many poultry farmers build their houses under one roof, dividing the long con- tinuous building as desired. "Where the area is limited it is often advisable to make the poultry house a con- tinuous one, but there are a few primary rules which demand attention. Mobility. — No matter what style or system of housing is attempted, a final requirement of the house is that it should be constructed so that all the interior fittings can be taken down and the inside of the house thoroughly cleaned. The best way is to build all houses in sections, which can be easily put together and only need fiying by means of bolts or screws. Any person who has assisted in the removal of a large nailed house will readily understand that all floors and parts should be removable. The free use of lime will always be found advan- tageous, as will also a periodical spraying with a solution of Izal. HOUSING 19 The following six points should be borne in mind when the housing of fowls is being considered: — All houses must have (1) sufScient air space for the number of birds; (2) adequate sun and light; (3) adequate ventilation; (4) freedom from draught ; (5) freedom from dampness; (6) mobility. Interior. Perches. — Perches should be about 2 or 2^ inches wide, and the corners should be slightly rounded off each side where the birds' toes go. They should not be placed too high, and should be in such a position as to insure the comfort of the birds and not interfere with the nests. For the heavy breeds they should be low; eighteen inches high will be sufficient, as the birds are apt to injure themselves when jumping down from high perches. For the lighter breeds the perches may be 2 feet high, and should be movable, and hung sufficiently far from the wall to avoid damage to the cock's tail: 14 feet from the back and the same distance from each other being suitable distances. It is a mistake to follow the old-fashioned system of graduated perches, the top one reaching to the ceiling, while the bottom one is only 18 inches from the floor. The fowl has the instinct which taught its ancestor, the jungle fowl, to get away as far as possible from its natural enemies the wolf and the fox. It is an hereditary instinct, and you have only to go into a fowl-house after the birds have gone to roost to find them crowded on the highest perch, leaving the lowest, so far as they can, unoccupied. The birds often injure themselves in fighting for the top perch, and in jumping down cause 20 UTILITY POULTET FARMING bumble foot. A male bird with a bumble foot is of no use as a breeder, and a breeding pen may easily be thus rendered useless. Do not nail the perches or they will be harbours for vermin (particularly red mite). They should be suspended by wires from the roof, for this enables the poultry keeper when cleaniag the house to remove the perches without any trouble. It is a good plan to give them a thorough washing in a solution of Izal veterinary fluid, 3 ounces to a two gallon bucket of water. This will also destroy the mite which causes elephantiasis or scaly leg. Dropboards. — Underneath each perch there should be a sliding dropboard to catch the droppings. If a little sand or dry sifted earth is scattered on the board each night the droppings will be easily removed. It is very important that the dropping-boards should be cleaned daily. Nest Boxes. — There are many designs of nest boxes, but the simpler in construction they are the better, as elaborately made boxes are frequently mere har- bours for vermin. Nest boxes must be secluded, and this will assist in the prevention of egg-eating. There should always be a sufficient number to prevent hens from fighting for possession of them, as when this occurs some of the birds are nearly certain to lay away. It is advisable to have a nest for every three hens, and the size should be about 1 foot square, but they may be made continuous and to any length required. Kerosene tins make good nests and are less liable to harbour filth. Nest boxes are better in the house than out of it, as outside they get warped and let in the rain, and then cause a draught in the nest. They should be loose so that they can be taken in and out and cleaned easily. Some poultry farmers HOUSING 21 have tlieir nest boxes built so that eggs can be collected from the outside. The nesting material must be well dustoil with an insecticide, such as Izal powder, and frequently renewed. The nest boxes must be regularly cleaned out. Short straw is better than hay for use in making nests. Dust Bath. — Every pen of birds should be pro- vided with what is usually called a dust bath. The earth should be slightly moist, and mixed with an equal quantity of finely sifted ashes. The slight moisture will keep down irritating and disagreeable dust. The latter is as much objected to by fowls as by any other animal, and is very often the cause of pulmonary ti'ouble. To the mixture of earth and aslies should be added some powdered sulphur or carbolic powder, which will kill all live stock dusted out by tlie fowls, or left behind on their bodies. The box should be let into the ground with the ed^ about 6 inches above the surface. Any box 2 or 3 feet square will answer the purpose, and should be placed in such a position as to get the full rays of tlie sun. Feed Boxes. — ^All soft food should be fed in troughs ; it should on no account be thrown on the ground or amongst tJie scratching material, as cleanli- ness in feeding goes far towards success. Apart from the waste, there is always the danger of tlie birds' picking up some disesise or other with the food. There are many designs of troughs, and any one handy witli tools wui knock a ^' shaped food trough together in a few minutes. Where possible it is advisable to make them to hang up out of the way when not in use. Food hoppers, which are used in connection with the dry mash system of feeding, are dealt with in a special article by '"Rightabout," a well-known contributor to The Feathered World, London. (See page 126.) 22 UTILITY POULTRY FAEMING Shell and Grit. — A box should also be provided to hold shell and grit. Grit is just as necessary to a fowl at any stage of its existence as food, for food without grit is food wasted. Grit serves the same purpose with fowls as teeth do with human beings in masticating and preparing the food for digestion. The gastric juices in the crop and gizzard operate on the mineral matter, and so dissolve it that the elements are utilised in egg formation. Oyster shell is very good as serving the purpose of grit and supplying lime for the egg shell. The following analysis will be of use as showing the ingredients of the ordinary egg shell:— Carbonate of lime . . . . 93 -71 per cent. Carbonate of magnesia .. 1-39 Phosphate of lime . . .. 0-76 „ Organic substance . . -. 4-14 „ Total . . 100 -00 Oyster shell contains all these properties in such quantities that one pound of oyster shell grit will , supply sufficient material for the shells of seven dozen eggs. It will be seen that oyster shell is absolutely necessary for poultry, and especially for laying hens. The following is a useful design for making a grit and oyster-shell box. Procure a good wooden box from the grocer's, one which has wood of about f in. in thickness, or a little thicker. Knock out one side, and then saw the two ends, A and B, as in diagram. After that nail on a strip of wood G to D. Then procure another piece of wood and saw the same size as the ends A and B ; this you require to fix in the middle of the box to form a partition. Having made this fast, nail a strip of wood across the top part of the front, viz., from E to F. Fix a lid on the top and your HOUSING 23 box will be almost complete. The poultry farmer should make plenty of these grit and sliell boxes during leisure moments, for tliey come in very useful. LID END VIEW A grit and oyster-shell box. Water Fountains and Drinking' Water. — Glean cold water should always be before the birds. The drinking vessels should be kept scrupulously dean. Sun-wai'med water is not good for fowls, hence the drinkiiigU'ougli or fountain should always be out of tlie direct i-ays of the sun. The fact that eggs contain 73-7 per cent, of water shows the importance of pro- viding laying hens with a constant supply. Windows. — All windows should be made to open, but the inside sliould alwaj's be guarded by small mesh wire netting against the small bird pest, and also to prevent the fowls from flying against the glass. The windows may be constructed to slide, or to open outwards from hinges at the top. Both methods are good, but tlic latter is tlie bettei', as the windows may be left open in wet weather without any danger of the rain beating into the i"oosting house. Feed Plant. — A feed house should be built as a pai't of every poultry plant. It should be situated 24 UTILITY POULTET FAEMING where it can be conveniently reached from any portion of the premises, whether laying pens, chicken houses, or breeding pens. The style of the building will, to a great extent, depend upon the size of the plant. On a small farm any good dry shed will answer the purpose. Apart from the storing of food one end could be used to hold brood coops, nests, trap- nests, egg boxes, etc., when not in use. One might even use the place to run a small grist, bone, or corn mill, as money spent on a small gas engine for grinding purposes is often good economy. The ScRATCHnsTG-SHED System. Of all the many systems devised for the successful housing of fowls, none has surpassed, and it is doubt- ful if any equals, for all-round purposes, that known as the scratching-shed system. The scratching-shed system was first adopted in England some fifty years ago. American poultry keepers were quick to perceive the advantage of. the system, and it was widely adopted in the United States, where for many years it has been carried out with the greatest success. It is nothing more thaji the use of a house or shelter for the daytime and a sleeping compartment for the night. The best arrange- ment is when the two are placed end to end. A good idea of one example of the system may be gathered from the illustration depicted (p. 30). Any measure- ments may be adopted up to 18 ft. by 10 ft. for the sleeping apartment, and 10 ft. square for the shed. Beyond that the place is too big, or holds too large a flock to yield the best results. The house is designed to admit abundance of fresh air and sun- light — ^the two main factors in success with poultry keeping. Such a house is draught-proof, and it can HOUSING 25 be converted to many uses — indeed, there is no limit to its varying capabilities. The salient features may be mentioned. It should first be noted 1 hat in the roosting apartment the perch is placed right at the back, 16 inches to 18 inches from the wall, so that the tail will not crush against it. The IMTch is movable and fits loosely in its sockets, thus allowing its weeldy removal for scrubbing and disin- fecting. It is 2 inches wide on tlie top side, li inches on the bottom, and has all the corners rounded off; the most comfortable shape for a perch for all heavy fowls. Under the perch is the sliding board whieli catches the excrement, and which is at n, convenient height for scraping and sanding. By such raotliods a house is cleaned in about a couple of minutes. The nest boxes are under this board, and lire readily cleaned when the boai'd is removed. The openJMKs are all at one corner, viz., the trap-door by which the birds enter, and tlie outlet for air over the door — that is, wlien the house is closed up, in the depth of winter. The advantage of having the 11 ir inlet and outlet under shelter of the covered shed is obvious, for no cutting wind or sleet can drive in and chill the birds; yet there is plenty of fresh air when all other opening's are closed. When the fowls are on the perches exhaling warm and noxious breath, a circulation of air is set up. The cooler air comes in through tlie trap, the heated air rises and goes out over the door; yet there is no draught in the process. In the front section of the house tliere is a window space, covered with wire netting, over which a sliding glass panel or shutter may be fixed. In the summer time this may be fully opeai, and the birds will be in no draught The same atatenicnt is true regarding the door between the roosting apartment and the covered i-un. Its opening 26 UTILITT POULTBY PAEMING back against the wire netting front of the covered shed prevents wind playing on the birds on the perch, yet there is a free ventilation. The covered shed or scratching-room is airy, yet affords complete shelter, and the birds wiLL use it in wet, windy weather. Concerning its dnal purpose, any one who has reared chickens knows what it is to have to provide accom- modation for about a hundred chickens and a hundred laying hens. The latter are laying well in December and bringing grist to the miU to help keep the half-grown pullets, but where are the latter to go? They cannot remain in their coops as they have outgrown them; they cannot with advantage be placed with the old stock, and here is where the dual house comes to the rescue. Close the door and trap-door in the partition and you have two complete sheds. A fresh perch along the back of the covered shed will accommodate the hens, or, if the pullets are kept here, they will sleep comfort- ably on the floor if some bedding be placed in one comer. As it is summer time, the covered shed is not needed by the hens, but is ample shelter during wet weather for half-grown chickens. Then what of the hens in the roosting apartment? The perch and nests being at the back, most of the floor is of service to them as a scratching-shed, and is large enough for their use in summer showers. It matters very little what the buildings are made from, whether piano or motor-car cases, so long as the openings are kept to the position shown in the sketch. The fowls will keep free from colds, the house will be a pleasure to work in, and the whole building will do equally well for either utility or prize poultry. Runs. — In front of the house should be a run, the same width as the house, and 20 feet long; and of course it is uncovered. The gravel run is en- HOUSING 27 closed with 2-inch mesh wire netting, and is boarded wp 2 feet from the ground in order to prevent the occupants from fighting with those in the adjoining run. The usual plan is to erect two houses of the same size, as this saves expense and is more convenient for arranging the yard. A large grass run 90 feet in length, extends the width of the two houses. There should be gates into this from each of the gravel runs, and it will be found convenient to have another gate at the lower end. It is a good plan to plant fruit trees — stone fruits excepted — in the large grass runs, so as to absorb a certain amount of manure, and to afford shade for the birds in hot weather. How to Utilise the Buns. — When the houses are constinicted as above described, the fowls from one house have the entire freedom of the gravel and grass runs, while the fowls in the other house have only the gravel run belonging to their own house. The birds are allowed to remain thus for half a day, when they are changed, and those that had the use of the grass run before are now confined to their own part. They may have half a day each, or a whole day, according to the desire of their owner. But it probably answers best to allow one lot of fowls the use of the grass run for one aftemon and the following morning, since in this manner the fowls have the use of the grass run first thing in the morn- ing every alternate day, and then they have the opportunity of obtaining much natural food. Number of Fowls to each House. — ^Each house on the measurements given is capable of holding 25 fowls comfortably, since the correct principle of housing poultry is to allow 2 square feet of floor space to each bird. But to be on the safe side, let 28 UTILITY POULTET FARMING only 25 fowls go to each house. This will mean that 50 fowls may he kept housed on a piece of ground 120 feet by 36 feet; since the grass run never has more than 25 fowls on it at a time. If the length of the house and runs is multiplied by the width— that is, 120 feet by 36 feet— we find that 480 square yards have to accommodate 50 fowls. There being 4,840 square yards in an acre, the complete size of the houses and runs goes into this ten times — that is to say, on an acre, 20 houses, 20 gravel and 10 grass runs can be placed. Each house accommodates 25 fowls — a low estimate — so that on an acre of land 500 birds can be kept. To allow for paths and pieces of unsuitable ground, take off 40 birds, and the total number is 460. The Gravel Run. — Much of the success of the system depends on two things — the gravel run, and the shape of the grass run. As regards the former, before put- ting down the gravel it will be well either to remove the grass or to cut it very short. About 2 or 3 inches of gravel is all that is necessary; and it should be fairly small. It will at once be seen that a large proportion of the droppings from the birds will fall on this gravel, since the fowls will be on it for a much longer time than on the grass run, as they are fed on this space, and half the day are confined to it. The gravel must be well rolled down, and should be brushed over once a week. By this means nearly all the droppings are removed with little trouble, and the manure is not wasted. Once a year the gravel is picked over and fresh added if necessary ; or it may be entirely dug up, and removed to a heap some- where in the open air, and fresh gravel put down in its place. The action of the atmosphere and of the rain will thoroughly cleanse it in twelve months' time, when it can again be put down and the other HOUSING 29 removed, this latter being treated in the same manner. It will thus be seen that only two lots of gravel are required for each run. However, in ordinary cir- cumstances all that is necessary is to pick it over, and give it a thorough soaldng witli a good disinfectant, such as Izal Veterinary Fluid, and keep the fowls off it for a day or two. The Large Grass Run.— The second point of im- portance is tJie shape of the large grass run. This should be oblong, and 90 feet by 36 feet. A square run containing exactly the same number of square feet will not answer the purpose. On a square run the birds would wander all over it, but with an oblong run the number of times that they go to the farther end is small. If they find that the end nearer the house is getting stale — and they know much sooner than we do — they immediately go farther down, thus always having plenty of fresh grass. The Scratching Shed. — The scratching shed is laid down with gravel, and this is treated in the same manner as the run, and renewed once a year. The great advantage of this sjrstem is that during very bad rough weatlier the bii"ds have an excellent run where they can be fed and where they can obtain plenty of exercise. During the very cold weather it is a wise plan to cover the floor with sti'aw, and throw the aftenioon corn in this, allowing the fowls to seratch about for it, thus giving them exercise and something with which to occupy their time. Another advant«:ge derived from this shed is that the birds can be shut in at night, and be perfectly safe from vermin, and can get out any time tliey like in tlie morning. The height of these houses in front should be 8 feet, sloping down to 5 feet 6 inches at the back. One ciui tlius easily walk about inside, which is a 30 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING great convenience when cleaning or doing other necessary work. Construction. — ^As previously stated, there is no need to go to the_expense of building elaborate houses. If, however, the necessary means are available, the walls should be made of wood 1 inch in thiclness, whitewashed in the interior, and well tarred on the outside. A very satisfactory roof can be made of Scratching Shed. f-inch boards covered with a layer of roofing felt. An additional covering of corrugated iron, however, makes one of the very best roofs it is possible to have. The gate frames should be constructed of 2 by 1 inch scantling covered with 2-inch mesh wire netting. The gravel runs have to be boarded all round to a depth of 2 feet, and when a row of houses is built the division between the grass runs will have to be boarded in the same manner in order to prevent the cocks from fighting. Fencing 6 feet high has been found sufficient to keep in nearly all breeds, and for the heavier breeds, such as Wyandottes, Orpington, and the like, 4 feet is ample. The cost of building the houses and laying out the runs is, of course, considerable, and it varies to a great extent with the material utilised. HOUSING 31 We should remember in building poultiy houses that they require to be thoroughly draught-proof and water-proof. It is false economy to use inferior material. Houses such as have been described should be well built, because tliey are for permanent use, and not to be moved about The Value of the System. — It is one of the great advantages of this system that the ground can be kept quite pure and sweet for an almost unlimited number of years, if the conditions are carefully and faithfully carried out. Though the initial cost is considerable, this will soon be repaid by the greater number of fowls that can be kept to the acre. Apart from all this the birds have (1) A dry shelter to which they may go for pro- tection from rain and wind. (2) A dust bath always ready if the floor of the shed is kept covei-ed with loose litter, or a portion of it set apart for that purpose. (3) A first-class place for early morning exercise. Fowls ai'e early risers, and when the connection be- tween the house and shed is left open, as it should be, they will come out into the sweeter air of the shed, and seek for any remnants of the last night's supper which may have been scattered among the litter. (4) It is a very serviceable place in which to feed tlie birds in winter, or more especially when the gi'ound is covered with snow. (5) It is an ideal place in which to bi-ing on an early moult. If a pen of fowls (witliout the cockerel) is shut in such a shed in January or Februaiy. and fed on half rations in hard com, which should be buried in the litter, the warmth and exercise afforded quickly start the growth of new feathers and so bring the bii'ds more rapidly into condition for winter laying. 32 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING The Backyarder's House aad Run. — The first question that confronts the poultry keeper is what kind of place is best adapted for his purpose. Many are the improvements that could be suggested for the average backyard house and run. The usual practice seems to be to put a post here and another there and let the house shake itself together. For the bene- fit of the inexperienced we would say the best method is first to sketch out the plan roughly on paper, and then build to it. The house and run should face north, and all should be built on a liberal scale so as to house more stock than will be at first put in; as once the place has been constructed it is not easy to alter it. All internal fittings should be removable, so that the house can be kept scrupulously clean. Use stout timber, and where very large packing cases can be procured cheaply these are excellent. The run should face north or north-west,, and the soil should be several inches above the level of the ground outside so that the rain will not drain into it. Tf a length of match-boarding some 12 or 14 inches high is put along the bottom of the run this will prevent the rain from beating in. Both back and sides should be boarded in to protect the birds from rain and wind, as it is imperative that the hens be kept dry underfoot and overhead. The front should consist of wire netting, and the wire netting door should be at the end nearest the house. As regards the soil, this should be sifted earth, and always kept scratchable, if necessary by the addition of dry leaves, broken straw, or chaff. It is unwise to leave the run uncovered, for wet runs are harmful, especially in the winter. Cover both house and run, using match-boarding, and over this tarred sacking or special roofing felt. Sacks cut down the sides will make a good substitute. Hav- HOUSING 33 ing spread out tho sacking put a tack in here and there, and pour boiling tar over it until all is covered. Before tlie tar has set sprinkle some coarse sand over tlio surfncp. Pitch and tar together will make a good coating ; add 6 pounds of pitch — ^broken into pieces — to a bucketful of tar, boil until the pitch has melted, and then use. Galvanised iron is often used, but unleas put on the top of boards it is too warm in tlie summer and too cold in winter. Where it is used, whitewash the vmder pai'ts in the summer to take away some of the heat. The house should be well ventilated, and this will be the case if there is no smell when the door is opened in tlie inox'niug. A house 5 feet high by 5 feet wide and 6 feet lonjy will be large enough to accommodate 15 fowls, i.(>., .") X T) X 6 -r 10, ten cubic feet of air spaee hoiuir allowed for eaeh fowl. There must be a trap-door leading' from the house to the run, and the shutter that drops down over the hole should be worked by a pulley from outside the run. Make the perelies and nest box removable for cleaning- pui'poses, and hang up a piece of camphor in a muslin bag in the house. Tlie hopper and drinking fountain should be raised above the floor in order to keep them dean when the fowls serateli in the litter for their feed, while two sliallow tins should be nailed to the wall for grit and oyster shell. A dust box is necessary, and any deep box will do, but place fresli dusting material in regularly, after renuiving the old, and sprinkle it with insect powder. Make all buildings in sections, serewing the parts together with greased screws, so that they can be re- moved at will. Tar all posts that are let into the ground, also the tongues and grooves of match-board- ing to keep out the rain. In fitting match-boarding 34 UTILITT POULTEY FARMING always place it vertically, not horizontally, to allow the rain to run down, otherwise it will warp. The house should have a large window in front to admit the rays of the sun, and over this, for winter use, a thick curtain can be drawn inside the house. Make use of any walls for the back of the house and run. Don't overlook using a disinfecting paint, or white- washing the entire iuterior of the building, as this is one of the most important things to be con- sidered from a sanitary standpoint, as well as adding considerably to the light. Backyard Potjltry House. The accompanying design of a backyard poultry house practically explains itself. The chief factors to be taken into consideration in a design of this kind are cheapness and simplicity of construction. The framework should consist of 3 by 2 inch timber, and fin. or lin. rough boarding will answer in all portions where wire netting is used. No flooring is required, as the birds need all the earth space they can get in which to dust themselves and scratch for food. The nests, which are placed beneath the dropping-board, will need to be about 18 inches square. If they are made so as to slide outwards the eggs can be conveniently gathered. It is advisable to cover out- side of house with water-proof building paper to pre- vent any draughts. The same purpose may be effected by nailing battens over the cracks. The hopper and drinking fountain should be kept well up off the floor. The walls and roofs may be put together with hooks and screw eyes instead of being nailed together. This is necessary only where the owner wishes to have the building portable. HOUSING 35 s tQ 1^ "li" s G KO U N D PLAN M s » f ■ .; Doom' s' 1 1 w BACK YARD POULTRY HOUSE PKEPADEO ROOFINB .SCALE,,, swtttsfffG ttoofi Hf/raso AT Iro^ roi fi/rf Jtccess \ro ftesrs. E i-tfll-t- EAST ELEVATION ._li3i_ NORTH ELEVATION 36 utility poultry farming The Incubator Eoom. The suitability of the room selected for the incu- bator will have a very great influence on the results. Especially does this apply to those parts of the Dominion where there is a great variation in tempera- ture between day and night. Take the Christchurch district for instance, where the climate is so variable, and where the tempera-ture may vary as much as ten degrees in a few hours. Along the coastal area where the variation in daily temperature is not very great, any well-constructed room, with either an earthen or a concrete floor and good ventilation, will be suitable; but iu other less favoured areas it is necessary to be rather more particular, and if a suitable room, is not available and much incubating is to be done it will be money well spent if an incubator room is built. The main essentials to be kept ia view are : — (1) Plenty of ventilation without any draught coming directly on to the machines. (2) As little variation in temperature as possible. This should not exceed 12 degrees duriug the 24 hours, neither should the temperature fall below 50 degrees, though it would be better if it were main- tained at 60 degrees or over. (3) The room should be absolutely free from vi- bration of any sort, such as may be caused by slamming doors, blasting, and the passing of heavy traffic, or of trains. (4) The floor should be firm and solid, being made of such material as can be easily cleaned and will retain any water it may be necessary to sprinkle upon it. (5) Plenty of light is necessary; the windows should be placed fairly high, and if these are situated on either the east, west, or north they should be fitted HOUSING 37 with blinds which can be drawn to prevent the sun shining directly on the incubator. (6) The roof should be made of material which is a bad conductor of heat; a good thick thatch will serve tlie purpose excellently. For top ventilation tlie ceiling should be fitted with one or more sliding ventilators with covers attached, which may be opened or closed at wiU, this being necessaiy to allow the egress of fumes from tlie lamps, and ex- hausted air. A very good method of admitting fresh air to a room of tiiis description is to have 3-inch pipes, the upper end of which should protrude through the top of the wall into the outer air. These pipes are cai-ried dpwn on the inside of the room to within a few inches of tlie floor, and thus aU fresh air enters at the bottom, keeping the atmosphere pure and ensuring a good supply of oxygen. If two or three pipes are so placed on each side they will provide sufficient air to keep the atmosphere within pure and sweet. A long table should be placed down tlie centre on which tlie egg drawers may be rested while the eggs are aired and turned. The incubator room must not be used as a store-house, and on no account sliould kerosene be kept there. For this purpose a small oil-room should be erected in a convenient position, and the lamps should be taken into this for the purpose of cleaning and refilling. If suitable thatch is not available tiles will answer the purpose. The size of tlie room will depend entirely upon the number of incubators that it is proposed to house. If the machines are placed along each side of the room a width of 15 feet will not be too great, but if only one side is to be utilized for this purpose an inside measurement of 6 feet will be sufficient. A small porch is necessaiy, the door of which caa be opened and closed before the door of the main house 38 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING is opened. This precaution will prevent the tempera- ture from taking a sudden drop. A similar porch may be added to the brooder house. Hang a slate in the house, also a thermometer, fit a shelf the whole way round, knock a few nails ia here and there, and the house is finished. To raise chicks in large numbers and yet have them strong and vigorous, the colony house is almost in- dispensable. The largest and most successful poultry A simple type of chick colony house. farms ta England and the United States, almost to a unit, use the colony house in some form or other. The chicks are kept in large brooder houses when young, with great success, but when old enough to run about they are given the advantage of more range than is afforded in a large brooder house where there are hundreds of other chicks of the same age after the same slug or worm. Raising chickens to maturity in large flocks is much the same as rearing children in the heart of a big industrial city. There is too much jostling about and too much excite- ment. Nature did not intend that two broods of chicks should be cared for together, let alone HOUSING 39 sevei"al hundreds. Fifty little chicks are enough to have in one lot after they get old enough to scramble about much. A batch of young chicks is placed in the colony house, which is provided with a brooder or hover attachment. The upper trap-window is left dosed during cold weather, and the lamp under the hover keei)s the house amply warm; no matter how stormy or blustery the weather may be, the little fellows have plenty of drj^ floor space, covered with chaff in which to exercise. The low windows ia front give them the fuU benefit of the sun just when it is needed on the floor. The colony houses ai'c generally kept up fairly close to the other buildings while the chicks are young, but just as soon as the clover or lucerne fields commence to green out and settled weather is assured, they are moved out a little. As the chicks grow older, the houses ai'e moved further and further, until aU the clover or lucerne fields of the farm have been occupied. The houses are kept as far apart as pos- sible; rardy are they doser than 80 to 100 yards iti the row, and the rows ai"e much farther apart. They are ai-ranged in this way so that the attendant and waggon Avith water and feed mar reach them with as little driving over the field as possible. After the chicks are weaned from the hover, roosts are put in the places provided for them, and the chicks take to them like old hens do. Those from the different houses wander about together dur- ing tlie day. but are never bunched up, and the birds belonging to each house congregate about their own coop when feeding time comes. The houses are deaned every morning with as much regularity as the feeding is done. The roosts are sprayed with a strong disin- fectant, such as Izal, two or three times a week, and 40 UTHilTT POULTRY FARMING thus lice and mites never get a start. Birds grow thus naturally, like weeds, and they are a pleasure to attend to. The houses, as a rule, are about 6 by 8 feet, and 6 feet high in front by 4 to 5 feet in the rear. They are built on good stout skids, so that they may be dragged over the place at will. A single good horse can handle them. The Intensive System. The intensive system of poultry keeping has been boomed in this country for some considerable time, but although in vogue all over the Dominion, it is not yet out of the experimental stage. Although it has drawbacks, there is much to be said in its favour. The system seems specially suited to certain breeds; the White Leghorn appears to find most favour and gives best results under forcing methods. The heavy breeds are too lazy, it would seem, to keep themselves in exercise and health, but the active little Leghorn is an industrious bird, and besides laying a marketable egg is practically unexcelled as a producer. The breed is looked upon as purely a summer layer, but we have watched flocks under intensive conditions from May to August, and the results as regards eggs during these coldest months have been phenomenal. Jn this respect introduction of the scratching method of feeding has undoubtedly been of marked benefit by compelling exercise in order to secure food, and has retarded tendencies which would otherwise have been harmful in the extreme. Probably this method of feeding has not been utilised to the extent which is desirable. In too many cases are fowls fed in accordance with the convenience of owners or attendants, and not with their welfare. Part of the food must be given in a form which compels exercise. Fowls and turkeys obtain exercise by scratching more Housnsra 41 than by walking; ducks get theirs by swimming, and geese by wandering, and care should be taken to foster the natural instinct in each case. Muscular exercise has, of course, an important reactive influence on the organs and functions of the body. It causes a much more rapid flow of the blood to every part of the system. Not only does this induce wai-mth, but the whole body is more fully and regu- larly supplied with the elements it is the business of the blood to convey. That is one great benefit, and another is the more rapid combustion of the food and prevention of deposits which otherwise take place upon organs and muscles, causing congestion witli all its evil effects. Exercise of the limbs accounts for much in this way, but is not all. Here it is that we have to consider the nature of the food, which must be in conformity with the environment in which the fowls live. Pampered birds could not digest what is enjoyed by those kept under natural conditions. Intensive poultry keepers would be well advised to depend to a great extent upon grain or hard foods, — first, because by so doing they can compel the birds to take exercise before finding the greater part of their food; and, second, that as a result there will be exercise internally by use of the muscles and organs, together with more com- plete assimilation of the nutritive elements, both of which make for health, vigour, and productiveness. With so many hens housed together, however, the owner must "ca' canny," for it is not like keeping six fowls in a confined house and run. Ailments will naturally be common should the owner neglect his fowls in any way; and for this reason managemait vrill count for much. Those who are devoid of patience and lack systematic methods should not bother with the intensive system at all, for they can- 42 aTILITY POULTRY FARMING not hope to succeed. For egg production those who find it a pleasure to look after their fowls well, how- ever, will find the scheme effective, for their heart and soul will be in the business. The intensivist usually has one failing, in that whilst possessing up-to-date houses, etc., he complete- ly overlooks the necessity of having a fowls' hospital on the establishment. He wiU be well advised to construct a little house for the purpose, and stock mediciaes should be kept handy. Directly a bird is noticed to be ailing it should be separated from the rest and treated accordiag to its iUness. By this method there is less risk of suffering a heavy loss. (See page 201.) The intensivist should keep a sharp eye on his birds, and all vices, such as f eather-plucMng, feather-eating, and egg-eating should be nipped in the bud. Let him remember that he is not dealing with half a dozen layers, but probably 50, 100, 1,000, or more, as the ease may be. Then, again, broodiness must not be encouraged, and aU truants should be treated directly the fever commences. Speaking of broodiness, the question of feeding comes to our mind. There is no doubt over- feeding plays an important part in inducing a hen to become broody. A fat hen will get sluggish, and show a desire to sit, and for this reason the scratching litter comes to our assistance. A laying hen is a machine in a very real sense, for bad management wiU very quickly place her out of gear. If intensivists remembered this they would experience very little difficulty in the matter of egg production. A hen requires every comfort and care, but must on no account be coddled. Fowls are nervous creatures, and for this reason every intensivist should make his layers tame. "How HOUSING 43 can I do it when the birds refuse to be petted T' readera may ask. Patience conquers everything. One should malce a point of spending an hour or so at a stretch with one's layers, accustoming them to be ^ handled and fed from the hand. Make favourites of them, and the egg baskets will benefit. For egg production on a big scale the large intensive houses are best, but the right man must be at the helm. He should read all he can about the system, though experience will count for much. As previously stated, the system is quite in its infancy, and one man's experience may not tally m toto with another's, although both may be fairly successful. While the intensive system may be perfectly satis- factory when the aim is merely to produce eggs for the mai'ket, it is not to be recommended for breeding purposes. To produce fertile eggs containing vigorous germs the parent bird must have a certain amount of liberty. The Intensive House. The following is a sketch of a useful intensive house. It is 16 feet wide by 20 feet long, and will — at the rate of 3 square feet of ground space per bird — Chouse 100 laying hens. The front is boarded up two feet, with wire netting (covered witli canvas sea^ens) over the remainder. There are windows and an attendant's door at one end and a glass window in the roof, while the house faces north to get all possible sunshine. Care must be taken to ensure diyness. When one is housing 500 hens or more, it is considered advisable to divide them up in lots of 100 each in compartments measuring 16 feet by 20 feet. Wire netting partitions will do. A house 300 feet long by 16 feet wide will divide up into fifteen sections, and there will be sufficient accommo- dation for a total of 1,500 birds. 44 UTILITT POULTRY FARMING The largest intensive house in the world was built some time ago by Mr. Eandolph Meech, of Poole, Dorset, England, at a cost of £450, to accommodate 3,000 layers. There are many big henneries in the -L-lir7far9BB'-"A.;| w§9grj— .X Boarding dyer perches for draughl-j prevention. Floor 3 m Door FOOD, GRIT I ZJ^^^fl NEST BmES Intensive house United States accommodating up to 2,000 inmates, the largest of these belonging to those great "egg men," Messrs. Corning Bros. This firm specialises in egg production, the cockerels being sold as soon as they can be distinguished from the pullets. Coming thinks that 2,000 birds can be kept profitably in one flock and in one house. White Leghorns are special- ised in, and no male birds are kept with the hens HOUSING 45 sterile eggs being best for keeping. Dry scratching litter is placed in the houses about a foot deep. This is a very important point in this system of poultry keeping, as the action of scratching is one of the hereditary instincts in fowls, and we have proved by experiment that some fowls wiU naturally scratch even when eating out of a pail filled with grain. This natural instinct for scratching is the one thing that makes artificial poultry keeping possiile. It therefore behoves us to utilise and encourage this instinct and Aaothex type of Intensive House (for 100 hens) thus keep our confined birds healthy. We must pro- vide a material that will ensure the bird's scratching for every piece of gi'ain it obtains, and if the litter is perfect, and your birds healthy, there will be hardly any cessation in this occupation throughout the day. The litter must be removed as soon as it is well broken up, or as soon as it sliows any signs of becoming closed. Summary. Begin iy building a few houses rather than a number. Let your growth keep pace with your experience. Learn your limitations before getting too much capital tied up in the plant. In the ordinary poultry house, for roosting pur- poses only, each bird requires 10 cubic feet. Poultry houses are liable to be more or less infested with rats and mice unless some means are devised to 46 TTTiLrrr poultet faeming exclude them. In selecting a site this should be taken into consideration. Bo not think that filth in the poultry hoiise is not dangerous because it is dry. It becomes dust and every moving wind sends it into the lungs with its deadly microbes. If you do not keep the dropping-hoard clean you had better not have any, and go hajck to the earthen floor. The dropping-board is a danger if left to collect filth, being close up to the fowls. To provide birds with a scratching shed tends to prevent their tearing the ground to pieces. Moreover, some such method of keeping fowls dry and warm- footed is essential throughout winter for the maximum of egg production. The necessary amount of floor space for each bird is the same as that in the intensive house. Fire Extingnisbing Powder. — ^No poultry keeper who has incubators or brooders should be without some fire extinguishing powder. This is more efficient and better than water. The following makes a good powder : — 8 lbs. salt, 6 lbs. bicarbonate soda, 2 lbs. glauber salts, 2 lbs. calcium chloride, 2 lbs. sodium silicate. Mix thoroughly together and place in air- tight canisters, then place one or two in your incubator or brooder house in case of fire. A few shillings spent on the above may save you many pounds. On Fixing: Felt. — "When putting new felt on to your poultry house roof it will be found a source of economy to nail it down by means of laths, as other- wise the nail heads will break through the felting in about two years' time, or sometimes less, and all poultry keepers know what a nuisance this is. By first placing an ordinary plasterer's lath on, wherever a row of nails is affixed, the longevity of the felt is increased by years. SELECTION OF STOCK 47 Chapter IV. SELECTION OP STOCK. Selection is the most important pai't of the poultry industry. As all are aware, our presenlxday breeds of poultry have all descended from the common jungle fowl of India, known to naturalists as the Gallus Bankiva of Temminck. To describe this bird minutely is unnecessary; it will be enough to say that, except that the tail of tlie cock is more depressed, it resembles very closely the variety known as Black Breasted Game. The assertion that all our modem breeds ai-e derived from one fowl may seem at first sight a large demand on our powers of belief; but such is a fact, and yet it is not more wonderful than that the New- foundland and the Italian greyhound have common progenitors, a fact about whicli no biologist has the slightest doubt. The process is simple and easily understood. The original amount of character required is very slight, as a single cock will be enough to give the chai-acter- istic to a whole breed. Any peculiarity of constitution or colour may be developed and perpetuated in a similar manner, all that is necessary being care and time. That such has been the method employed in the formation of the more distinct races of our poultry is proved by the fact that a continuance of the same careful selection is needed to perpetuate them in perfection. Without foundation by long continued selection, no strain can be depended upon to breed similar specimens to the parents. It will be seen this subject needs to be carefully considered from the outset, since the future profit or loss on the undertaking will depend, to a greater 48 UTILITT POULTRY FARMING degree than the mxinitiated poultry keeper might imagine, on the choice of breeds and stock. Dis- appointment is often expressed, and in terms by no means guarded, that birds bred from special strains purchased fall below the standard of production ex- pected. To some extent this is due to the vendors of stock announcing exceptional performance in certain cases, saying nothing of those hens which fall below the mean of the race. That there is a large degree of chance or luck in buying stock, aU who have had any experience recognise. A buyer of "fancy" birds does not expect that every chicken hatched wiU be fit for exhibition, and is more than satisfied if he obtains a few of a standard high enough for that purpose. Further, if he buys a male to strengthen the blood of his flock the risks are taken into account. If Bis judgment is sound he may find that the mating yields satisfactory results, but he knows that there are in- fluences which are almost impossible to appraise, and only by mating and selection can these be determined. So it is with what may be termed the utilitarian side, and perhaps to an even greater extent, because there are latent factors that are most powerful, and are apparently more easily affected by the environ- ment than the external characteristics. One other point may here be mentioned for the consideration of those who are specially concerned with utility quali- ties — namely, whether environment is not of greater importance for them than for such as are breeding for ornamental characters, by reason of the fact that for a high standard of production physical vigour is essential. We do not mean in generation but racially. There are those who have claimed that the fact of a hen being a heavy layer is proof of constitutional vigour. This is a mistake. She may possess much vigour, but it is equally possible that she may not, SELECTION OP STOCK 49 and that she has been amenable to forcing, and is malting a final spurt before exhaustion takes place. What we have to reckon with are the latent factors, one of which is the "pull" of ancestry. Age of Breeding Stock. — In choosing our breeding stock we must not use immature birds or the result will only be loss of constitutional vigour. A very common idea is that the power to reproduce is a certain sign that the time of reproduction has arrived. That may be true with birds in a wild state; there, however, the conditions are totally different, as a wild hen is older when she begins to lay than her domesticated sister, and her ability to withstand the conditions of her environment has been abundantly tested. Breeders should ever remember that all our efforts to increase productiveness will tend to de- generacy, unless strenuously resisted by the most careful and rigid selection of birds fully matured. Experience has shown that the breeding power of domesticated birds and mammals alike precedes by a longer or shorter period the time when the best and most vigorous stock will result. In the progeny of eai'ly matings tlie duration of life is much below that where pai'ents are mature. The effect upon the physical system in this direction is therefore the detei-mining factor. Unfoi*tunately notliing is more difficult to discern or more elusive than constitutional ^dgour. Evil conditions, bad feeding and treatment work speedily, and any resultant effects are soon developed. Such is not the case when immature parents are used; in fact, the loss in one generation may be veiy small indeed, so small as to be unrecog- nisable. This is how many poultry keepers are misled : they cannot discern much difference between the chickens bred from pullets and those from older hens, or what there may be appears infinitesimal. Some- 50 UTILITY POULTBT FARMING thing may be done to overcome this by greater care in selection, but it is present and active all the same. What we have to guard against is the accumulation of influences working in one and the same direction for a series of years, minute, it may be, in each, but considerable in the aggregate. It is desirable to recognise that, for certain purposes, breeding from cockerels and pullets is unavoidable; this being true in the hatching of layers which are not intended for stock purposes. There is no doubt that the period immediately prior and up to the attainment of maturity yields the best results in numbers and physical vitality, due, it is suggested, to the fact that the functional activities are at their maximum and also that the greatest amount of vigour is present. There is a distinct falling off in both directions at the extremes of productiveness^ — -that is, breeding from immature or aged parents respectively does not yield the same satisfactory results. These facts lead to the conclusion that the progeny attain the highest standard of vigorous physical and functional strength in the second year, extending to the early part of the third year. Breeders must learn that the mating of yearlings is an economic mistake. It is one of the many instances of plucking the fruit before it is ripe. The Male Factor. — ^Professor Eugene Davenport in his work on the Principles of Breeding says it has become a proverb that the sire is half the herd. He is far more than that. He is half of the first gener- ation, three-quarters of the next, seven-eighths of the third, and so on until, if judicious selection be made for a few generations, the character of the herd wUl be fixed by the sire alone. And in respect of egg production, even the number of eggs produced by bens of a family, the quality is from the male much seijBction op stock 51 more than ihe female. No satisfactory evidence has been forthcoming as to how this is, although experi- ence has abundantly justified what is here set forth. There must be discrimination in regard to the breeding of the male. The female germ contains no fecundity chromosome until it fuses with the male cell from which the fecundity chromosome is inherited. Now supposing the female cell does contain a male chromosome, and she is, say, an A2 bird, and that she is mated to an average Al male, the chickens would not be A2 because their mother was an A2 hen. No, they would be known as variants — good, medium, and poor layers. The males would be no use for breeding heavy layers, "having come from an A2 mother whose germ cell contained a male chromosome," because the male parent could not transmit the A2 factor as he did not possess such a quality himself. "We are in our infancy with regard to pedigree layers and the law of transmission and inheritance. We can mate any two birds together and get chickens, but the fecund factor must be transmitted from the male naturally through the female to improve our laying strains. A breeder may prove this assertion by mating a flock of A2 hens with a poor Al male, for the flock average will not be improved by so doing. The experiment amply shows the importance of the male's influence in reference to egg production. In choosing your male first of all find out how he is bred, for he must possess vigour and vitality. Size is also of importance: you can err on the small side— this is better, perhaps, than the other direction — but the bird must not be stunted. At times, too early maturity leads to impaired stamina, and often in this case coarseness of comb indicates the defect. A flattened appearance about 52 UTILITY POTJLTET FARMING the face and the beak too long and straight are not healthy signs. Even the experienced hand analyses for defects after a general survey. Always look for faults. Pedigree has proved its value, particularly in the hands of practical men who have grasped the true value of some of their old birds by the practical proof of results given. The number of females in the pen is a much dis- puted question, and it is not wise to make any rule, as much depends upon the breed and upon the con- ditions under which the birds are housed and whether on free range or otherwise. Cocks on free range will manage double the quantity of those confined to small runs. Birds of the heavy breeds are not so active as those of the lighter ones and therefore do not require so many mates. If the birds are of the lighter breeds and have a good grass run, 10 to 12 will not be too many. The heavy breeds can be reduced to, say, 6 or 8. This number can be exceeded with individuals possessed of a vigorous and active habit, and kept under natural conditions. See that the male birds get their share — a generous share — of proper food. They do not pick for them- selves to the same extent as the hens, and during the chief breeding period additional maize and meat are the best form of food to give regularly, in moderation, with judgment as to condition. Never use spices or temporary stimulants, and do not allow the birds to run down in condition before taking any trouble. Too often loss of vitality in the males towards the end of the season is accountable for the weakly late chickens, which are unprofitable to hatch or rear. Having satisfied ourselves so far as the males are concerned, our next business will be in the selection of the females. SELECTION OF STOCK 53 Selecting' Females. — The selection of hens for egg production is not as yet an exact science, and although tlie careful work of many earnest students is begin- ning to bear fruit we have not yet arrived at the point where we can positively say, "This hen will lay 200 eggs," or "That hen will not lay 100," and be sure we are right. There seems to be an elusive something tliat we have not as yet quite grasped which some- times throws us wide of the mark in making such estimates. However, we can make the above state- ments and be stx"ictly correct with them in 80 to 90 per cent, of cases; and readei-s will agree this much knowledge is cei'tainly worth having. "When Hogan issued liis book The Call of the Hen it marked a mile- stone on tile road to progress in poultry keeping. It is not so much the actual statements in the book as the tremendous fillip it has given to finding out methods of identifying layers by external characteristics. The exaggerated claims made by some of the sup- portei"s of the vai'ious metliods only bewilder the beginner. Trap nesting, or better still single pen testing has not been, and is not likely to be, abolished- by any newly discovered or resuiTccted methods of finding tlie layer. While these methods are valuable for telling beforehand the likely layers, or rather with a certain amount of accuracy the bad layers, it will always remain for the single pen or trap nest to give us the true number of eggs laid by a fowl. It is like taking an expert trout fislier x-ound the rivere of New Zealand. He will tell you that some rivers are "no good," but when he tells you that this river would yield 150 fish and that one 200, you cannot be certain how nearly right he is until you have caught the fish. In order to lay well a bird must have a sound body. The first birds to be culled out of your flock as non- producers ai'e the ones that show a lack of c(msti- 54 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING tutional vigour or vitality. In order to lay well a bird must be both, vigorous and kealthy. The vigorous birds are easily recognised by experienced poultry- organs and Ovary of Hen. men. They are the early risers, the ones that dig the biggest holes ia the garden, as a bird that is iatended by nature to lay many eggs is always thinking of finding the wberewithal to do so, and is about both SEIiECTION OP STOCK 55 early and late, endeavouring to gather nitrogenous material that will enable it to perform its appointed task. It is always hunting for slugs, snails, and worms to balance up its grain ration. Nature impels it to work, and the la^y "corner-boy hen" who stands hunched up in a corner is never a good layer. In fact, vigour and health ai-e shown by a bright, fuU, and clear eye, an alert air, a weH-set body, a compara- tively active disposition, and a good circulation. After culling out the birds that lack the above characteristics, we must see that the rest are free from physical defects, such as crooked beak, excessively long toe-naUs, eyelids that overhang so that the bird cannot see well, scaly legs, or anything else that would keep the bird from seeing or getting an abundance of food. We should then proceed to throw out those that have small capacity, which in this connection means a small abdomineil cavity, for common sense teUs us that a bird must be able to consume and assimilate a Isirge amount of food if she is to produce a large number of eggs. The easiest test for capacity is to measure from the two pelvic bones to the rear point of the breast bone. This distance in good layers will be found to vary from three to five inches. The depth and width of abdomen are also important, as they mean room not only for food but also for the e^ organs and for the e^s themselves when under process of development. It frequently happens that we find a vigorous bird with large capacity that proves a poor layer. She wiU nearly always be of a "beefy" type, one that trans- forms most of her feed into fat; hence it is important that we should be able to detect the signs of this beforehand. This question is determined by a study of the bony structure, especially as applied to the shape and thickness of the pelvic bones themselves. 56 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING A wonderful difference in the thickness of these bones is observed by anyone who studies this point. This will be found to vary from l^V to li inches even in birds of the same variety. Of course, this thick- ness includes the bone, skin, fat, and gristle. The hen with pelvic bones over J inch or at most f inch thick will seldom pay to keep as a layer, and it should be borne in mind that these pelvic or lay bones should be not only thin, but straight and pliable. Those whose points turn together like the horns of a cow will never lay as well as those with straight bones. This, again, is simply common sense, as these crooked bones drive the egg out of its natural course and make its passage more difficult, so that the hen must spend more time on the nest and has less time to exercise and accumu- late food for the next egg. The skin of the abdomen in the heavy layer will be found to be soft, pliable, and wrinkled, while in the beefy hen it will be hard and smooth, with a heavy layer of fat underneath. To sum up, a good layer usually stands high in front, is inclined to fullness behind, and more often than not shows a want of it in front. The best pro- ducers usually have fairly large combs, and a rather high tail, with a prominent, large bright eye. They are usually wedge-shaped, that is rather narrow in front but wide behind and between the legs. A hen that does not lay well during the winter months should be discarded, it being recognised that pullets laying most eggs during the winter cycle are those giving the highest totals in the entire pullet year. The way to make poultry keeping profitable is to breed from hens that lay eggs when eggs are highest in price. Late Moulters. — ^When a bird stops laying in the summer she usually starts moulting. The later she lays in the summer or the longer her laying period, SELECTION OF STOCK 57 the greater will be her production, so that the high producer is the late layer and consequently the late moulter. The length of time that a hen has been moulting or has stopped laying can be determined by the moulting of the primary feathers. It takes about six weeks completely to renew the primary feathers next to the axial feathers, and an additional two weeks for each subsequent primary to be renewed. Distinct Treatment of Layers and Breeders. — This brings us to a subject that is often overlooked by many poultry keepers, viz., that the treatment of layere and breeders should be distinct. A great winter layer rarely makes a good spring breeder {i.e., the following spring). Much better results would be obtained if this were taken into consideration, and those who so often complain of infertile eggs would do well to pay attention to it. If there is a brisk de- mand for winter eggs, one that will leave the producer a good margin of profit, by all means cater for it; but the pullets that have brought this return should not be expected to add to it by producing fertile eggs. It is too much the custom nowadays to treat fowls as machines, and after they have gone through the strain of winter laying to run them on, without a rest, to the strain of spring breeding. It is foUy to expect birds to do all tliis in a satisfactory manner, and the sooner this is understood the better will it be for the poultry keeper. Handling of Breeding Stock. — This is one of the most important, most eagerly discussed, and most debatable topics in the whole range of poultry economics. The chief reason for difference of opinion is that every breeder, or poultry keeper, speaks from his own experience and his own conditions. A moment's reflection will show how these things breed 58 UTILITT POULTRY FABMING contradiction, for to start with, the man who raises Leghorns, for instance, will never encounter many of the troubles which beset the Orpington breeder. Nor will the Orpingtonian have to grapple with some matters which affect Cochin and Brahmii breeders, while the man who simply keeps his hens as "egg machines" wiH seldom be troubled with any of the many worries which beset the man who breeds for feathers and form. Then, again, eUmatie differences step in to modify these diverse conditions, so that the troubles which affect the poultry breeder at the Bluff will rest very lightly on the man who lives in the Auckland district. And quite apart and distinct from these influences, experiences differ, because breeds and strains of the same breed differ in consti- tution and character. It is essential in managing birds at breeding time to keep them dry, not merely in feather but under foot, and well housed under the shelter (if possible) of a noriJi wall, with a dry run and quarter-acre grass runs. In dealing with all breeds of fowls, but more especially the heavy breeds, whose habits are only active in genial weather — such weather as seldom comes to us in our breeding season — it is obviously better to keep them comfortable all the time rather than alternately happy and miserable. "Wet is the greatest enemy. To it one may ascribe much of the prevalence of liver and kidney disease in fowls, just as much as to unsuitable feeding. "Pre- vention is better than cure," is a hackneyed truism; but in no connection is it truer than in regard to fowls and their diseases. Profit from poultry, then, to a considerable extent, depends on a wise selection of suitable breeds and varieties for their environments. Systematic business lines should be rigidly adhered to, and sentiment for elderly fowls be entirely dispensed with. To anyone working on such lines we dare predict a balance decidedly on the right side. selection op stock 59 Mating. The reader will have learnt much of what he wishes to know from the previous section, and there is not much to add. The breeding season is the most im- portant period in the year, for upon the breeder's efforts at this time depends his success in either show pen or laying competition. If the birds are not mated properly, and proper and careful attention given to the rearing of chickens, success can hardly be hoped for. A good start is half the battle, so poultry breeders should use all their knowledge and experi- ence in the selection and mating of their breeding pen. The mating up of the breeding pens is one of the most intricate and complex problems that confront the breeder. The breeding of a high record layer, it would seem, is just as complex a problem as the pro- duction of a Clip winner. One must consider the ancestry of both sides of the house, their peculiar breeding eccentricities, their colour, their t3rpe, their carriage, colour of eggs, and their capacity to fill the egg basket. The object in mating is to reproduce the species of the breed, intensifying the good points of the parents, eliminating any defects, but, above all, producing strong, vigorous, early maturing offspring. Both fanciers and utilitarians are in unison in this last respect. To produce the healthy fowl you must have a vigorous chick, which, in turn, depends to a very great extent on strong fertility. The strength of fertility is undoubtedly affected by breeding and housing. The breeder must also have a correct under- standing of type. Most breeders know their males, that is, where they are weak and where they are strong, and for this reason they should watch the females. Watch the fancier choosing his pens: he leaves 60 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING nothing to chance; he tries to figure out which male needs the low tail of this female and the eye, colour, or markings, etc., of that female, and by judicious selec- tion balances the defects of each. He also watches the results of the previous year's mating. The chief characteristics are noted, and the youngsters that are nearest to his ideals from a breeding point of view are put on one side for the next year's breeding. There is, of course, luck in breeding just as in most other lines of life, but there is not any luck of the lottery order. You need not eispect to breed good birds from indifferent stock. You may expect to breed better birds than you have got if you know enough of the art of mating; but they are certain to be, even with the best of fortune, so very little better that no breeder of experience would countenance such false economy as the purchase of poor stock birds. In buying your stock birds the most important points to remember are health, vitality, and consti- tution. No matter whether the bird is of the best type procurable, or whether it has been bred from the highest pedigree layers in the land, if it has the slightest taint of disease, or has suffered severely at some time or other, or is deformed in any way, it should be rejected. The egg type or laying type of hen in any breed is the hen which, with the qualities that make for good egg production, has no quality that is an obstacle to continual lajdng. When we take into consideration the wonderfully high nutritive value of the egg, it is obvious that the regular, almost daily, production of an egg must be a severe strain upon the tiny organism of, say, the White Leghorn weighing between 4 and 5 lbs. In some instances these little birds will lay well over 300 eggs in 365 days, and one marvels how it is done. It must be seen at once that great care must be exercised in building SELECTION OF STOCK 61 up a strain of layers, since constitution is a very materifil matter indeed. False systems of mating and breeding will result only in physical degeneracy. Experience lias shown the importance of giving full time for development of our birds before using them as breeders. Breeding from pullets should never be advocated, since it lays tbe foundation of weakness, and all its attendant ills. In this respect Nature cannot be hurried, and breeders must be possessed of Nature's vigour. Pure-bred birds are, of course, being con- sidered, for one cannot depend on mongrels, where the various points are so mixed that if a certain thing were to be bred for, quite a different one would probably turn up. In buying stock go to the man who has trodden the same tortuous path before you. He may not have bred a cup or laying competition winner, but he has bred his stock "up," and has learned in the process much of Nature's waywardness and leanings, of which the man who has only hwnt 15th, 1916. eggs. It is safe to say the White Leghorn holds more records than all the other breeds of fowls combined. Although it does not actually hold the world's record for laying (that honour belonging to an Australian Black Orpington), nevertheless "Lady Cornwall's" 317 eggs were at the time a record* for New Zealand. For a number of seasons the New Zealand Utility *5tee cases 170 and 172. 162 UTILITY POULTRY FABMING Club's Laying Competition has been won with this variety. In the 1918-19 Test, Mr. H. W. Beck's team laid 1,560 eggs. At the Hawkes- bury Agricultural College, New South Wales, sis. White Leghorns laid 1,448 eggs in twelve months. In 1917-18 "Lady Constant," a White Leghorn pullet, won the Bendigo single test This hen has put up the remarkable feat of laying over 1,000 e^s. Her first egg was laid on April 1st, 1917, and her 1000th on 20th October, 1921— a period of four years and 203 days. Her yearly aggregates were as follows :— 1st year, 332 eggs ; 2nd year, 577 ; 3rd year, 762 ; 4th year, 931. In some scientific circles it has been contended by experts that the maximum number of eggs a fowl can lay is well under 1,000, but this authentic record settles beyond all question that it is a matter of constitution, stamina, and scientific breeding. From a monetary point of view, Messrs. Green's record breaker no doubt holds pride of place. Although ^the last Crystal Palace winning White Leghorn Cockerel, winner of International Trophy and Championship, belonging to the writer was sold for £42, the £30 paid for "Lady Cornwall" must be a record for a utility bird. From the above it would seem good specimens of the variety will bring high prices in both the utility and the exhibition worlds. The Leghorn, its real name L'ltalien blanc. was first imported into England from Italy's sunny shores, via, America, in 1853. From its introduction (though in exhibition type and size it has materially altered), it has kept in the forefront as a truly beautiful bird, and has secured a big reputation as an egg producer. When it first reached England, it was a comparatively small bird, as perky as a game bantam. Its comb was much less than what we expect to see now-a-days. BREEDS OP POULTRY 163 The lobe was small, too, but of nearly perfect almond shape, thin in substance and yellow in colour. The body was small and compact, being set on a medium Lady West St^faiw Wdib, phato Wlio laid 336 eggs in 365 days in the New Zealand U.P.C 1921-22 Laying Competition at FapanuL to short length of Hmb. The back was fairly long, with a fuU feathered tail. Above aU, its colour was not white, but that of a sun-tanned bird. The avowed 164 UTILITY POULTRY PAEMING intention of some to breed them pure white was ridiculed, and although it was unnatural to have a rich yellow leg and yellow sMn going with snow- white pliunage, expert breeders triumphed, and the exhibition "White Leghorn of to-day is the result. As soon as the colour improved, comb and lobe iacreased; then the craze for size arose; and big bodied, heavy legged birds were forced on the public as "White Leghorns. The Englishman was not backward in showing his dislike for this new type, which was a mere parody of the real article, and English breeders had to relinquish this phase or lose their occupations. We now see cockerels almost as racy and alert as the original type, white in colour, grandly feathered, of well-balanced body, business- like, and beautiful — ^birds that, in their very spright- Uness, seem to know the joy of living. Beyond an increase in size, the female has varied little from the original type, and that little may be comprised in general raciness. "Whatever else has happened, breeders have not destroyed the stylish and racy body of the hen. One has only to visit the shows in New Zealand to find the keen interest evinced in this popular variety. The utility classes provided for "White Leghorns are in every case the biggest classes in the show. Breeds may come and breeds may go, but the "White Leghorn stiU persists as one of the most wonderful layers and payers the poultry industry possesses. Leghorns (Black) . — The Black variety, so far, does not hold such a prominent position as the "White. During the past two or three years they have, how- ever, increased their popularity in New Zealand, several good pens having been imported from Aus- tralia. Like the rest of the family, they are good layers of a large white egg, and are great foragers. BREEDS OF POULTRY 165 They are also very hardy, are easily reared, and mature very quickly. The writer knows of one well- known breeder of Black Leghorns living in one of the coldest parts of Yorkshire, whose birds sleep in big open-fronted houses all through both summer and winter. During the greater part of the year these birds pick up their living in the fields and an adjoining railway goods yard, and yet they average dose upon 200 eggs each per annum, and the writer has never yet seen a sick fowl on the place. Pullets of this variety have been known to lay at sixteen weeks old, though it is better to keep them back. If they lay too soon, the eggs are on the small side and the birds stop growing. Their great precocity is seen by the fact that the cockerels frequently crow at eight or nine weeks. As the name implies, the colour should be a dense black, with either a blue or a green metallic sheen. Head points and colour of legs are the same as in the other varieties of this family. One of the greatest troubles in breeding Black Leghorns appears to be in obtaining a pure black bird in the cockerels, and a good yeUow leg in the pullets. Nearly aU the cockerels have yeUow legs, but show white in the sickle or other tail feathers, and the pullets come with dus^ coloured legs. Leghorns ( Brown) .^ — The Brown Leghorn is the most charming member of the tribe. No doubt much of this is due to the beautiful colouring of its plumage, combined with its alert and sprightly carriage. There is not the least doubt the Brown Leghorn is bred nearer to the correct Leghorn lype than any of the other varieties. It has not been allowed to deteriorate through the craze for size and limb. For over forty-five years the breed has been well known in England, originating from some of 166 UTILITY POTJLTET FARMING the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea, e.g., Italy and Spain, and during the whole of that time it has steadily increased its reputation as a utility and an exhibition bird, till at the present time it is one of the most popular varieties. Its popularity has greatly increased in New Zealand also, both as an exhibition bird and as a layer. Birds of this variety have been consistent layers at the N.Z.U.P.C. Competitions, whereas both cockerels and pullets have been awarded highest honours in the show pen. In describing the colour of the Brown Leghorn, it may be noted the name is rather a mis- nomer as the variety is now bred, and black-red would better describe it. Originally the Brown Leghorn was brown, but fashions have decreed that it should be bred to a black-red standard. The main point ia breeding cockerels is to gain the rich, bright maroon top cap colour, with breast and fluff free from brown patches; good white ear lobes; sound red face, free from traces of whiteness; and sound in colour and flight feathers. Wing coverts should be steel blue, with green reflections forming a broad bar across the wipg ; primary wing feathers brown ; secondaries deep bay on outer web, which is all that appears when the wing is closed, and black on the inner web; saddle a rich orange red, with or without a few black stripes; the tail black flossed with green; any white in the tail . is objectionable ; tail coverts black, edged with brown. In breeding pullets, aim for that beautiful softness and delicate pencilling which are characteristic. The hackle should be a rich golden yeUow striped with black, the breast salmon red, deeper at the throat and lighter at the thighs; the body colour rich brown, pencilled with black, and free from shaftiness, and the tail black, with outer feathers plenciUedi with br^own. Wings should be BREEDS OP POULTRY 167 free from any red tinge. Although, probably, not quite so hardy as the Black or the White, the Brown is easy to rear, and stands confinement well. As none of the other varieties of Leghorns are extensively bred in New Zealand, they will not be dealt with separately. Needless to say, the character- istic features of aU are that they should be sprightly and active, with round and prominent breasts, the body wedge-shaped, wide at the shoulders and tapering to the root of the taU. The tail of the cock is carried fairly high, not erect or squirrel like, but making an angle of forty-five degrees with the horizontal, and is well furnished with long flowing sickles. The tail of the hen should be carried at a somewhat lower angle. The comb of the male should be fairly large (but symmetrical with other parts of the body), quite firm and erect, and evenly serrated; while that of the hen should faU gracefully over to one side of the face. The colour of the eyes should be red in all the Leghorn varieties; the lobes, white and almond shaped; leg colour, yellow in all cases. Leghorns will do well either in a tiny intensive house or running at large, and they do almost equally well in cold or in warm climates. Minorcas. — Like the Leghorn, the Minorca is of Mediterranean origin; and it takes its name from an island off the coast of Spain. The Black Minorca is the largest of the non-sitters, and many term it the queen of the non-sitting breeds. It was first intro- duced into the west of England during the early part of last century. In common with all Mediterranean varieties, such as the Leghorn, the Ancona, and the Andalusian, the Minorca takes a high place in the front rank as a layer. In fact, except it be for the Andalusian, it can claim to lay a larger sized egg than any other breed. Although it cannot be said to excel 168 UTILITY POULTRY PAEMING as a winter layer, one point in its favour is its hardi- ness. The Black Minorca is a favourite in the colder climate of Scotland, where it thrives in spite of the severe northern weather. Being of an active disposition, the Minorca is a first-rate forager. Again, early development is one of the good utility qualities possessed by this breed. Its flesh is ten- der, white, of a fine juicy flavour, and though it is not classed as a table fowl, it has many claims in that respect. A fully grown cockerel should weigh six or seven pounds, and a pullet five to six pounds. Another pleasing feature is that the Minorca is very tame, and can be trained to eat out of one's hand. It is as much at home, and exhibits its useful qualities as weU in restricted areas as on open ranges. The Minorca is closely allied to the Spanish, and at one time it was usual to refer to it as "the Red-faced Spanish." Apart from -the colour of the face, however, there is a difference in the two breeds. The head points are similar to those of the Leghorn, but larger. The Minorca, however, differs from the Leghorn chiefly through being more angular in shape. The back is longer in both sexes, and the tail is carried at rather a lower angle. The eye should be daxk or black, and the leg either a daxk slate colour or black, the latter preferred. As to general characteristics, the cock's head is long and broad, avoiding the length of the Game and the breadth of the Malay, but sufficiently wide to permit of a good base of comb ; the beak fairly long but stout, and with the slightest suspicion of a curve; the face fine, and as free from feathers or hairs as po^ble. There seems to be a strange infatuation in the Minorca, as it is usually a case of, once a Minorca fancier, always one. There are two colours, the Black and the White. It is, however, intended to deal here with BREEDS OF POULTEY 169 only the Black, the plumage of which is of the usual beetle-green sheen, free from any red in the hackles or white in the wings. Orpingtons. — The word "Orpington," and what it denotes, have without doubt caused a revolution in the poultry industry the wide world over, during the short space of time (some 34 or 35 years) Mr. J. E. Bradley's Black Oipingtoa hen, which laid 326 eggs in 365 days. since the first of the variety was introduced to the public in England. The poultry world owes much to the foresight of the late Mr. William Cook, when he took upon himself the task of producing the Orping- ton fowl, of which there are at present over a dozen varieties. The Orpington originated in the genial atmosphere of Kent, yet it is of an exceed- ingly hardy constitution, and the smaUness of its head appendages fits the breed for even 170 UTILITr POULTRY FARMING a cold climate. Its chief attractions over many other breeds are its size, its hardiness, its fast-growing proclivities, its good laying and table qualities, and its general orderliness when ranging or when confined, and, further, it is one of the finest all-round utility and exhibition fowls of the present day. Another reason why the Orpington is so popular is that no matter how disappoiatiag a breeding season may be, it is never barren, as is the case with some varieties. No Orpington is so bad in feather and form as to be useless for the utility pen or for fattening. They are great foragers, and for the poultry keeper who has a large range, and desires a good aU-round breed, they possess all that is needed. On the other hand, they are equal to the best sitting and heavy breeds, for small places, and although not such good iaten- sivists as the Leghorns and other Mediterranean breeds, manj' thousands are kept in confinement with excellent results. There is no doubt that as utility fowls, Orpingtons rank high in that class known as "general purpose" breeds. As far as Australasia is concerned, the Black Orpiagton can claim to be one of the most prolific laying breeds. In fact, a puUet of this variety holds the world's record*, vfith 335 eggs in twelve months. From this it would seem that, after aU the light talk of the 365-egg hen, the Black Orpiagton has brought it withia the range of possibility. The two-year record is also claimed by a Black Orpington in the Hawkesbiiry 'Agricultural College, New South Wales, test, this bird laying 533 eggs from April 1st, 1917, to March 25th, 1919. The Auckland, New Zealand, test was won with a team of Black Orpingtons, belonging to Mr. J. N. McLean, which laid 1,332 eggs in twelve months ; and •Subsequently beaten, see pages 172 and 173. BREEDS OP POULTRY 171 Mr. T. Conway's team of Black Orpingtons won the heavy breed test at Christehurch, with 1,167 e^s. Prom this it would seem that the Australasian Black Orpington can hold its own with most breeds. The Black owes its parentage to a clean legged Black Langshan cockerel and Black Plymouth Eock hens, with a dash of Minorca blood. It still retains the brilliant plumage of the Langshan. as well as its excellent table qualities of white, juicy, tender flesh. A typical specimen is rather short on the legs, which are free from feathers. In Australasia, many breed- ers, by introducing an out-cross, have departed from the real Orpington type. In England, type has in many cases been lost sight of, in the craze for size and feathers. Probably, no variety or breed is more suited to the amateur exhibitor than is the Black Orpington, owing to the ease with which it is reared and prepared for exhibition. It requires neither washing nor shading, and being of a quiet, docile nature, is easily trained. There is no need to describe the colour of the Black. The head should be small, neat, and carried erect; beak, strong, and nicely curved; and eye, full, bright, and iatelligent. Comb, single or rose; the single comb to be of medium size, erect, evenly serrated, and free from side sprigs. Bar lobes, medium size and rather long. Wattles medium length and well rounded. Neck, nicely curved, with full hackle. Body : Breast, deep and full, and curved well forward. Back, short, with broad shoulders, and saddle rising slightly, with fuU hackle. Wings, well formed, and carried close to the body. Tail, medium size, flowing, and inclined backwards. General Shape and Carnage : Cobby and compact, erect and graceful. Size and weight, males nine to ten pounds, and hens six to seven pounds, when fully matured. 172 UTILITT POTJLTET FAEMING Buff Orpingtons were introduced in 1894. It is said they were obtained by mating Gold Spangled Hambnrgli cocks with Dark Dorking hens, the pullets of this cross being mated to Buff Cochin cocks. Great headway was made in settling down the colour, and an improvement of type soon brought this variety into favour, with the result that it is, possibly, the most popular farmer's fowl we have. No farmstead in England is complete with- out Buff Orpingtons. Many people are somewhat prejudiced against Buffs for "always wanting to sit," as they put it. When not required for this purpose, they can easily be checked if taken the first night they remain on the nest, and shut in a broody coop. By this method they are soon brought on to lay again. Much disappointment is caused in breeding Baff Orpingtons, by obtaining birds of different strains and mating them together, for when distinct strains are used, the result is often a number of mis-marked chickens. It is much wiser to keep to one strain when requiring a fresh male or female. The Buff Orping- ton is very hardy, a splendid winter layer, very quiet in its habits, makes a good mother, and ought to be better known and more widely bred in New Zealand. The poultry fattener will buy Buff Orping- ton chickens at all times of the year in preference to almost any other breed, because he knows that they will fatten more quickly, will pluck well, and have white skin and legs, which are so requisite for the high-class poultry trade. Though Btiffs are not a popular breed in New Zealand, they hold the world's record for laying. "Lady Egg-a-Day," a Buff Orpington hen belonging to Mr. C. T. Thomas, Gerstang, Lancashire, England, laid 343 eggs in 365 days in the North American International Egg Laying Competition in 1921. The previous record was held BREEDS OP POULTRY 173 by an Australorp, which laid 339 eggs in a complete year. White Orpingtons. — The year 1896 marks the coming of the White Orpington. It appeared first as a rose comb fowl, the present day single comb White following a year or two later. It will therefore be seen that the White variety is quite a distinct breed from that introduced by Mr. Cook, and it is thought to have been formed from a cross between the Black and the Buff. At any rate, it can be bred that way, as the cross between the two colours produces some pure Albinos, and the White, as now bred, frequently throws progeny with buff or black feathers. Whites, like the other varieties, are quick growers, hardy, suitable for cold, exposed places, and can thrive where others would pine. They are a most desirable breed for those whose land may be of a clayey nature, and are profitable producers of lai^e brown eggs during the late autumn and winter months. Although there are breeds that can show a larger return in the number of eggs, there is the advantage with the White Orpington of laying them when they are most valuable. Therefore, as a winter layer, it may be trusted and recommended. The White Orpington is a charming variety, and one cannot be other than pleasantly impressed on seeing them as pure in colour as newly fallen snow, adorned with bright combs, lobes, and faces, the true indication of robust health and constitution, and the hallmark of attention. As none of the other varieties appears to be bred in New Zealand, they wiU not be dealt with. Needless to say, Orpingtons of all varieties are popular fowls, and are likely to remain so. Plymouth Bocks. — As may be imagined, the Ply- mouth Rock belongs to the American races of fowls; 174 UTILITY POULTRY PABMING and it was from the United States that the first importation reached England some time in the early seventies. The type was then far from perfect, and those English breeders who took up the breed did much to bring it to its present state of excellence. Ths very name suggests stability and readiness to with- stand the stormiest seasons, and, indeed, it is their hardiness which has always kept them in the front rank. They are established favourites, good layers of medium sized eggs, and good table fowls, rank- ing high in the general purpose class. They are, too, close sitters and careful brooders, but can easily be broken off "the broody fever." There are four recognised varieties of the Plymouth Rocks, viz., the Barred, the Black, the Buff, and the White. The last-named is the most popular in New Zealand, and some really fine specimens are bred in both Islands. The Buffs and the Whites are the besi; layers, and pullets of these varieties have put up records of over 300 eggs per year. White Rocks were first in the heavy breed test at Papanui, Christchureh, in 1916 and 1917, and second in the same test in 1918 and 1919. Rocks differ from each other only in colour and markings of plumage; all should have yellow legs and single combs. As all round utility fowls all varieties have an excellent reputation, and they have few equals as winter layers. Rhode Island Reds. — The breed of domestic fowls known the world over as Rhode Island Reds origin- ated in the little State of Rhode Island and the south- eastern part of Massachusetts. It can safely be said that the present-day Rhode Island Red may claim among its ancestors the lordly Light Brahma, the Buff Cochin, the Red Malay, the Red and Black Javas, the old American Dominique, the Rose and Single Comb Brown Leghorn, the Jied BREEDS OF POULTRY 175 Chittagong, and the Red Cochin China. There ai-e two varieties — ^the Eose and the Single Comb. It was in the year 1900 that Rhode Island Reds first began to attract attention, and unless it be the Orpington, no other breed of fowl has gained such popularity. It is in being an all round and dual purpose fowl that the Rhode Island scores over many breeds. One has but to visit the shows not only in America, but in England, Australia, and New Zealand to realise their popularity. Apart from this, there is a paper published monthly called Tke Rhode Island Bed Journal, which circulates in many parts of the world, while our most astute breeders have long recognised that this is one of the few breeds which possess a combination of utility and exhibition qualities. This wiU have a most important bearing on the prices which will be realised for good specimens, as there is no doubt that the breed has come to stay. At the present time there is a tendency among some breeders to increase tiie size too much. It must not be forgotten that this is essentially a utility fowl, and as such it is large enough, and to increase its size would be its ruin. One has only to observe how many other useful breeds have been mined by this craze for size; and Red breeders will do well to remember that "fancy" points alone do not keep a breed going, and if utility points are sacrificed for the show pen, then the Reds wiU be numbered amongst the breeds which "were but are not.'"' In shape, the Rhode Island Reds should have a long, flat, level back, not up in front like a Langshan, or down behind like a Dorking. If the hackle touches the tail when the head is pushed down and back, the bird is not typical. Its keel should be parallel to its back, and carried well forward and backward. Its front should be like a battleship, and 176 TTTILITY POULTRY FARMING not like a Canadian canoe, while quality combined with ruggedne^ should be the ideal. There is no harder breed to judge. Venetian red or sulphate of iron is the only pigment that resembles the red found in the plumage of domesticated poultry. In all there are some sisrty-four shades of red, and therefore it is the most difficult of all colours to define, as the tints range from a light orange to a deep maroon and dark salmon. Real red is found only in comb, wattles, ear lobes, eyes, etc., and what appears to be red may be a blend of red, black and white, the two latter pro- ducing shades ranging from a very dark mahogany to a lemon, ruby red, or cherry red, which are not found in the plumage of fowls. There are three shades of red found in fowls, the black red of Game, the bright red of Partridge Cochin, and the dark red of the Malay. The colour of the last-named should fit the description of the Rhode Island Red male. The ideal cock is a rich brilliant red, except where black is specified, free from shafting, of mealy appearance, or brassy effect. Depth of colour (red) is slightly accentuated on wing bows and back, but the less contrast between these parts and the hacMe or breast the better; a harmonious blending is what is desired. The bird should be so brilliant in lustre as to have a glossed appearance. The under colour should be a rich salmon red. The black in the Rhode Island Red should be sound, not pencilled or peppered. The female should have a red neck with tips on lower hackle feathers showing black ticking (not lacing) ; wing primaries, lower web black, upper web red; secondaries, lower web red, upper web black; flight coverts black ; wing bar and coverts red ; tail greenish black; plumage free from shafting and mealiness, a rich even colour of bright red: not as brilliant in lustre as the male. Little need be said as to BREEDS OP POULTRY 177 laying qualities; birds of this breed have on several occasions made good results; quite recently in America one pullet laid 309 eggs in twelve months. Sussex. — The men of Surrey and Sussex are known the world over as expert feeders and fatteners of poultry, and at the present time there is no more ■^ A Pair of IJgbt Sussex. From "Tke PouUry World. popular table fowl than the Sussex. There are four varieties, but the Light seems to be the favourite. They are hardy, vigorous birds, and adapt themselves well to all climatic conditions ; whfle there is an increasing demand for them both in Australia and South Africa, and quite recently a pen was imported into New Zealand. Birds of this breed are good layers of large brown eggs, and do well in con- finement, although, of 'course, they prefer an open 178 UTILITY POULTBT FARMING range. The hens make most efficient mothers, chicks are very hardy, easy to rear, and being quick in growth, mature early. With the aid of the fattening coop or cramming machine, a fowl is produced that for size, weight, firmness and whiteness of flesh, cannot be beaten. Wyandottes. — The "Wyandotte is without doubt of American origin, but exactly how it was produced it is difficult to ascertain. The Silver Wyandotte was the first variety. Some say it was the result of mating Silver Spangled Hamburghs with Dark Brahmas, while others attribute its origin to the union of Seabright Bantams with Yellow Chittagongs. So many articles have been written about this popular breed, and in a great many cases have been so well done, that it is rather a hard task for anyone to give fresh ideas to the breeder. When the Wyandotte first made its appearance in England it was of such a fascinating character that many of the leading fanciers took it up, with the result that it now ranks as one of the most popular breeds of the day. In England, the Silver has had to give way to the White variety, whereas in New Zealand, the Silver Laced variety vies with the Rhode Mand Red as the most popular exhibition fowl we have. In England the Whites are great layers, a White Wyandotte holding the English record with 301 eggs in one year. On the other hand Silver Wyandottes have more than held their own amongst the heavy breeds in the laying com.petitions in New Zealand. The Golden Wyandotte is also gaining popularity in this country. The mating, breeding, and rearing of either variety form a very pleasant, interesting, and profitable occu- pation, and to study one of the best specimens of these varieties from the shell to maturity is most BREEDS OF POULTRY 179 fascinating. As exhibition birds, their sti-iking beauty will always make them popular. In cockerel breeding, select a male bird as near the exhi- bition standard as possible, one that is extra strong where your birds have shown any particularly weak Beauty and productivity combined. Photo of Silver Wyandotte Hen (taken in her 14th year). Owned by Mr. T. Douthwaite, Avondale, South Auckland, and bred from imported cockerel. Cup Winner, Crystal Palace, England. This bird is the foundation of Mr. £>outhwaite*s high-class Utility Silver Wyandottes, and holds an unbeaten record in the show pen in both Australia and New Zealand, having been awarded no fewer than 29 Firsts, 2 Cups and 15 Specials in both open and utility classes, including Cups at Sydney and Hobart. points the previous season, and to him mate from four to six pullets of the same strain, choosing those that excel in type, hackles, and lacing (not too deep in colour as regards Grolds). For breeding pullets, select a few of the best shown hens or pullets having the chief points, viz., type, size, colour, and 180 UTILITY POULTET FARMING rich, fine, clear, even lacing (in Golds you need a rich colour). To them you should mate a well laced cock or cockerel, one that you are sure is from a good mother. This is important, and applies to both Golds and Silvers; double lacing on breast and uneven colour are the most common faults in pullets. In breeding Silvers you foUow the same lines as in Golds. With cockerels, special attention has to be given to top colour; while in pullets, richness and evenness of lacing, with clear, piire white ground colour are the main points. The White Wyandotte, like the other varieties, owes its popularity to its beauty and usefulnras. Its laying qualities are far famed, and as a table fowl it is hard to beat. It matures quickly, and gives a large amount of juicy meat, which further tends to show that the White Wyandotte is a utility fowl as well as an attractive one. As previously stated, its laying capacity is prac- tically second to none, and as an exhibition bird it is very popular. It is a great pity this variety is not more extensively bred in New Zealand. In breeding White Wyandottes always avoid stock birds that show any of the following defects: — ^A breast that is high up and narrow, a hollow in the comb, feathers on the shanks or between the toes, red sides (that is, red feathers on the wing bows), white lobes, or crooked toes. Pick out birds with good red eyes, deep wide fronts, neat tails, and feathers of good texture and quality. Breed from a few good birds rather than a number of second raters. There are several other varieties of this breed, but the only other that appears to be bred in New Zealand is the Partridge. Some years ago. Partridges were very popular in England, one specimen I remember weU. being sold to a near neighbour of mine for £165. Mr. George Woodward, of Australia, BREia)S OP POULTRY 181 vrhen over at the Crystal Palace Show, said he con- sidered the Partridges were the best type of Wyan- dotte exhibited. In breeding exhibition cockerels, your hens must be mated to a Wyandotte with bright bay eyes, and as near standard as possible ; especially see that he has no white inflights. To him mate cockerel-breeding females. In colour they will be a dull brown with a well striped hackle pencilling, as in the exhibition female. What you must look for most in cockerel-breeding females is size, shape, neat combs, sound flights, and under colour. The cockerels from this mating wiU be exhibition cockerels, and the pul- lets in turn cockerel-breeding pullets. To breed exhi- bition pullets, you need females as good as possible, of a beautiful, soft, golden brown, not mah(^any ground colour, as it is quite easy to get a well pencilled bird with a dark ground but not so easy to obtain one with the lighter ground. From a utility standpoint, all varieties of Wyandottes are equal to most other breeds. The females are steady sitters and careful mothers, they are very good layers, especially in winter, and although their e^s are not as large as those of two or three other breeds, they are brown-shelled, and are quite big enough to meet with a ready sale. 182 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING Chapter XI. DUCKS. Limits of space forbid the writer from going fully into the advantages lyhich the duck has over the hen. Needless to say, of the several phases of duck keeping with which we have become acquainted in New Zealand, the latest — the modem industry of breeding ducks for egg production — hap attained a greater vogue than any other. It has reached a position where it may safely be regarded as a soundly established branch of the great industry of poultry keeping. Nevertheless, no branch of the industry is more over- looked. There are many people with splendid oppor- tunities for duck keeping who do not appear to realise, somehow, that there are breeds of ducks which will lay more eggs than hens with the highest record. Up to the present duck farming has mainly been directed towards the production of ducklings for the table, egg returns being a minor consideration. With the advent of the New Zealand Duck Club, which has started many new duck breeders along the road to success, and which is working hard along the right lines, more attention is being directed to the egg- laying records, and efforts are being made to overcome public prejudice against the use of ducks' eggs. There is ample scope for the Club to adopt a publicity cam- paign. The possibilities of commercial duck keeping call for propaganda on business and educational lines. There are several varieties of ducks, all of which have sprung from the Mallard or wild duck, which is found all over the Continent of Europe, in America, Northern Africa, and "Western Asia. Choice of Breed. — Choice of breed is very im- portant. Reading and hearing of the wonderful egg DUCKS 183 records of ducks, many poultry keepers are of the opinion that "any breed and any old duck will do." That is not so; anyone taking up extensively a breed like the Aylesbury, and expecting to obtain full egg baskets all the year round, will be doomed to disap- pointment. The Aylesbury is the table duck par excellence, but is not a layer. The Indian Runner is the "egg machine," having, perhaps, one drawback, viz., smaJlness. If one does not require quantity of flesh (the Runner does give quality), then this variety is the best possible, and offers a sounder commercial proposition than any other breed or variety. The Indian Runner. — ^There is no doubt the remarkable productivity of the modern Runner duck offers possibilities to specialist breeders which are likely to be taken advantage of more exten- sively in the future. This variety has gained a promi- nent position through its remarkable capacity as an economical producer of high class eggs. If we liken the Runner to the White Leghorn fowl as a conmier- cial layer, we can judge exactly what kind of duck it is. Its propensities are extraordinary. The world's record for laying was accomplished by a Runner Duck in the recent competition at Papanui, Christchurch, New Zealand. Mr. WiUoughby Knight's duck laid 334 eggs in eleven months and 363 eggs in the twelve months; this bird also established the longest sequence on record by laying 286 eggs in 283 days; on two successive days it laid twice, and eleven weeks later again produced two eggs in one day. (Official.) In the same competition a duck belonging to Mr. R. W. Hawke laid 329 eggs. One team of Runners belonging to Mr. W. T. Green laid 2887 eggs in a two years' test at the New Zealand Utility Club's competition. Unlike ordinary ducks Runners, under pl-oper man- agement, will produce eggs, apart from short lapses. 184 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING all the year round. As all practical poultry keepers know, a duck must have twice as much animal food as a hen if she is to be kept laying, and no doubt the Mr. Willoughby Knight's Indian Rvumer Duck, which laid 334 eggs in 1 1 months and 363 eggs in 365 days, a world's record. New Zealand Utility Poultry Club's 1920-21 Competition at Papanui. Runner is so prolific by nature because this active little duck will wander long distances in search of natural food. And its keenness for devouring in- DUCKS 185 jtirious pests is a most valuable attribute. The ideal situation for the Runner is in movable houses in the open fields, where, from September to ilareh, it can roam at will and pick up most of its food. On small SUffaiu) H'eM, plioU) Indian Runner Drake, o\med by Mr. R. W, Ha^^e. holdings, these houses may if more convenient be fixtures. Duefe are particularly fond of white slugs ; indeed it would be difficult to name any of these creatures which, in many or all stages of their meta- morphosis, are not devoured by ducks; and in its 186 UTILITT POULTEY FARMING appetite for this form of food the Ruimer is insatiable. The writer has always found it a pleasing trait in the Runners that, as the old song says, "They always come home to roost." Those taking up the Runner would be well advised not to go in for too much Runner and too little duck. We need a duck, not a toy. They are being boomed for egg production, and should not be boomed for "speed." The two cannot go together. Ranking next to the Runner as a layer is the Khaki Campbell, which weighs up to five pounds. This variety gives nearly as many eggs but more flesh, and therefore claims many adherents. Both are splendid foragers, so that the distinguishing merits may be confined to those already mentioned. Buff Orpingtons come next, being both good layers and good table ducks. Water not Necessary. — Many are under the im- pression that duck keeping cannot be a success unless swimming water is available. Runners, Khaki Campbells, and Orpingtons are "land" varieties, and swimming water is not necessary to ensure fertile eggs. The KhaM Campbell. — These ducks were first in- troduced to the notice of the poultiy world by Mrs. Campbell, in 1901, as purely utility birds bred to lay eggs, and were first introduced into New Zealand by the writer and Mr. R. Cruiekshank. It was originated purposely for egg production, and it has well main- tained its originator's chief aim. It has, however, been bred to a standard type. Being essentially a utUity duck, the Khaki Campbell is seldom seen at shows. The chaste lacing of the ducks on a khaki ground colour, and the nicely blended colour of the drake are, however, very attractive. The writer first remembers seeing them in the show pen at the Crystal Palace show in 1912. Since then the breed has gone DUCKS 187 ahead by leaps and bounds, with the result that it is second only to the Runner in its popularity and as a layer. Unlike some strains of Runners, the Khafci Campbell always lays a white egg of the most delicate flavour. As a table duck it is nevertheless remarkably nice eating, and compares very favourably with the Aylesbury. In fact it just "fills the bill." Probably the fact of its having a little of the "wild duck" in its composition adds to its table qualities. Flocks of Khaki Campbells in England have averaged 286 eggs each, the famous Martock duck laying 360 ^gs in 365 days. Mr. J. Pettipher, the well-known English duck breeder and judge, states that after forty years of experience in duck breeding he never had their equals as layers. In fact the record of longest sequence of e^s in Ei^land is held by a Khaki Campbell duck. Like the Runner and Orpington, the Khaki Campbells are quite content without swimming water. They are great foragers, and if allowed free range will pick up much of their living. The drakes somewhat resemble the Rouen in head, stem, and wing bar. remainder of body khaki coloured — a brown shade of khaki, not a buff — ^the head brown bronze instead of green bronze, which harmonises better with the shade of the body. The legs and feet should be dark or orange. The carriage is not upright, but more like that of a light Aylesbury. A heavy keel is not desir- able. The disqualifications for both sexes are bright yellow bill, white bib streak from eye, or any de- formity. In the duck the plumage should be khaki colour or dark buff all over, ground colour as even as back, and wings laced with a darker shade; lightish feathers in wing bar allowable, but no green or purple on wing. The bill should be greenish black, legs and feet dull orange. Both bUl, and legs and feet are usually found several shades darker in the ducks than in the drakes. 188 UTILITY POULTBT FARMING The Aylesbury. — This is a table variety, without any claim to being a great layer. The Aylesbury, as its name suggests, came from the vale of Aylesbury, in Buckinghamshire. It is very hardy, matures early, and attains a great size. It is no doubt owing to its quick growth to table size that it has gained so much popularity; for when properly fed it is remarkably plump and heavy at eight weeks old. For successful breeding the pure white plumage and flesh coloured biUs denote quality and purity of race, and these characteristics should be taken into consideration when selecting the parent stock as distinct from the PeMn. The parents should weigh : drake, eight pounds to nine pounds; and duck, seven pounds to eight pounds. Aylesbury ducklings, if forced for the table, will weigh from seven pounds to ten pounds each at eleven weeks old. When rearing for stock purposes, this heavy feeding is not conducive to health and potency. For exhibition purposes, as much keel as possible is required, pure white plumage, and flesh-coloured bill, in addition to points required in utility stock. Other varieties of ducks are the Rouens, Pekins, Cayugas, and Muscoveys. There are also many breeds of ornamental ducks, which it would be useless mentioning here. The Rouen. — The Rouen gives great scope to the fancier, the drake especially being one of the hand- somest birds in existence, showing as he does almost all the colours of the rainbow. The contrast between the true French grey flank and claret coloured breast, with green head and white neck ring is magnificent. The duck, although very sombre in appearance, is very charming in its rich almond ground colour, with gold and black lacing throughout. The blue and white wing bars in both sexes add quite a finish to the already great advantages in colour, size, and shape. DUCKS 189 For utility purposes, the Rouen is a good layer, but does not mature so quickly as the Aylesbury; it cannot, however, be surpassed for delicious flavour. The Pekm. — The Pekin is of quite a different character and appearance from the Aylesbury and the Rouen. It should be upright in carriage, deep from stem to stem, but without keel, having a rich orange bill, and canary-coloured plumage. These birds are most useful in crossing with the Aylesbury for utility and stamina, being themselves very good egg pro- ducers; but they shotild be killed in their first feathers; otherwise, being great feather producers, they continue to moult until commencing to lay, and often after that. The Orpington. — The Buff and Blue Orpington ducks are becoming very popular, being most prolific, laying under almost any circumstances. They are of fair size for the table, and rich in flavour. The Buffs should be self coloured, although the head and neck of the drake is two shades darker. The same applies to the Blues, except that a white bib is allowed in both sexes. Their bills should be as near the colour of the plumage as possible. The Diamond or Forest Blue has also a rich blue ground, but is quite distinct from the self blues, in being almoet covered with black lacing, and having no trace of bib whatever. The Cayuga. — The Cayuga is making rapid strides in England and some parts of the North Island of New Zealand, having much improved in size and shape of late years. It is an excellent layer, and, when fully matured, is delicious in flavour. Being of dark plumage, a rich, lustrous green, it is very handsome. It can be easily kept on heavy clay soil, which in many cases would be ruinous to the Aylesbury for exhibition purposes. 190 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING When to Hatch. — ^Ducklings for the table may be hatched in any month of the year when fertile eggs are obtainable ; though, of course, August to December is the best time. To make duck rearing a success, it is of the utmost importance to begin hatching for egg production as early in August as possible, and, as hens are generally available, it is a decided advantage to put the duck eggs under them, for the ducks will begin laying again very soon, and their eggs are most valuable early in the season. "Where duck farming is attempted on a large scale, the incubator should be resorted to; and given fertile eggs from ducks on free range they will be found to hatch as well as hens' eggs. Stale, mis-shapen, or coarse-shelled eggs should never be placed in an incubator. Never let the tem- perature exceed 103 degrees : 102 degrees is safer. As duck eggs become putrid very quickly after the germ dies, they should be tested more frequently than those of the hen. This may be done on the fifth, tenth, fifteenth, and twenty-fourth days. If, when opening the machine, a strong odour is noticed, a rotten egg or dead germ must be looked for ; these can usually be detected by the colour or marbled appearance of the shell. Duck eggs will be found to chip on the twenty-sixth day, but will not hatch out untU the twenty-eighth. While newly-hatched ducklings are hardier than chickens, amateurs are apt to have more losses among them. This is owing largely to misconception. It seems odd, but is nevertheless true, that ducklings are very susceptible to damp; and, in spite of what seems to be the natural order of things, pains must be taken to ensure dry and com- fortable quarters. If given a large pan of water to dabble about in, they are almost sure to get cramp and quickly succumb. Ducklings reared for the table should not have any grain from the date of hatching till DUCKS 191 they are killed. Stock ducklings in like manner are often reared on mash only. With grain available, however, one might introduce it from the sixth week, if the duekLLugs are on range. They will then be getting tTTO meals daily. At first, a little kibbled grain may be added to the mash ; it can later be thrown broadcast on the grass, in the form of whole grain. The advantage of free range lies in the fact that the ducklings can find most of their food when out foraging; and that means economical rearing. Peed every two hours for the first week, five meals daily to the end of the month, four meals up to six or seven weeks, then three per day until marketing time. Ducklings placed on range for future stock purposes will, at six or seven weeks, do well on two meals daily — morning and evening. Ducklings need a liberal quantity of finely minced, raw, green stuff in their menu. Several times weekly, too, a little grit should be added to the mash. The former should always be available in some form. It is a good idea to provide an odd shallow vessel containing a plentiful supply of grit covered to a depth of a few inches with water. This wiU entice the ducklings to "dip" therein, and thus keep their nostrils clear. Drinking water must be provided in plenty j and the soft food should always be given in suitable troughs, never thrown on the ground. Animal food may be added to the mash from the second week; say 2^ per cent, by weight, two or three times weekly; and the proportion can be increased later. Allowance must be made, however, for animal food collected when out foraging. Mashes are best given warm, but not hot. Ducklings should be protected from the hot rays of the sun and from heavy rain storms. They also require dry bedding in their sleeping coops, which latter must be well ventilated. 192 UTILITY POUIiTEY FARMING Ducklings do not require much exercise when they are being reared for the table. A pen 8 feet 6 inches square will hold from thirty to forty youngsters during the fattening sta^e, or, if it is thoroughly ven- tilated, twice that number. Birds eight to ten weeks old have reached twelve pound per pair; and, to secure the best prices, they should be as near this weight as possible. Ducklings are not generally sold by weight in New Zealand, but in pairs. The best food on which to rear them from the shell to killing is milk and ground oats. The value of separated milk for fattening ducklings cannot be too highly spoken of. Although it does not, on analysis, appear to have much food value, yet it improves the nutritive quality of the meal ; if it can be obtained, and is used instead of water for mixing the food, the cost of feeding is substantially reduced and fattening accelerated. Failing this, some kinds of pot liquor, containing a fair amount of fat, give very good results. Market Values. — The old notion that duck eggs are strong in flavour, which was doubtless to a certain extent correct with the older and larger table varieties, has been exploded with the advent of breeds which lay white-shelled eggs, often no larger than those of a Minorca hen. With these types, unless improperly fed, the flavour of the egg is as rich and delicate as that of the choicest hen's egg; and it is no uncommon thing to hear of people who, having once tasted the former, prefer and ask specially for it. Such an egg will always sell for the same price as a first grade hen's egg. Good Strain Necessary. — So far as New Zealand is concerned, this matter practically resolves itself into a choice of three breeds — (1) The Indian Runner, (2) The Khaki Campbell, and (3) the Orpingtons (Blue and Buff). In giving first place to the Runner, it is, however, fair to say, DUCKS 193 there has from the outset been a continual breeding for eggs, and no introduction of fancy points which might possibly lead the breeder astray— simply a breeding to the type that "did the trick," and thus a perpetuation of what had from the first been striven for. Possibly strains vary in laying capabilities more in other breeds mentioned (laying strains vary just as much in ducks as in hens), and for that reason care is required in selecting laying stock. Not only have all domestic ducks great charm and beauty, they are generally hardier than ordinary fowls, need less care and attention, and may be kept on land un- suited for fowls. I may say most emphatically that, however much room there may be for new and im- proved methods of egg production in regard to hens, there are far more opportunites lost in the direction of keeping a good strain of laying ducks, especially for market purposes, at even greater advantage to the producer. Given ordinary common-sense management, the secret of success may be summed up in two words, viz., "Selective breeding." As everyone knows, you cannot trap-nest ducks ; and until quite recently, when records were kept by means of the single pen system at the New Zealand Utility Poultry Club's Laying Competition, very few had attempted to preserve a record of the laying of their ducks. Egg recording is the corner-stone of the whole business, for without it you cannot be certain of breeding from the best layers. Unless you do this year by year, it is impos- sible to make headway. Most breeders know the importance of the male influence in the breeding of fowls; so it is vrith ducks. Concentrated Wisdom foe Duck Farmers. Do not attempt to catch ducks by their legs; it is much safer to handle them by their necks. Do not reduce their weight by taking a lamp amongst them at night. 194 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING Never throw dry lime into a duck pen : it Mils. Never select the largest duck-eggs for hatching: they are usually infertile. Never set a hen on duck-eggs in a dry shed, unless you moisten the nest twice each week. Always provide plenty of carbonate and sulphate of lime to assist shell-making: oyster-shell supplies this need. Keep plenty of coarse sand, old mortar, and a little charcoal in a box, for laying ducks. Keep ducks away from the creek or dam at night time, otherwise many eggs will be lost. Ducks should always be locked iu at night, and kept on an absolutely dry, soft floor. They lay best under these conditions, and the eggs are easily gathered. To breed healthy ducklings, avoid the heavy, fattened birds, which lay but few eggs: even these are usually infertile. Never hurry the laying ducks : it usually injures them, sometimes seriously. "When handling ducks, never hold them by the wings. When sickness attacks ducks, it is useless to doctor them. The best remedy for duck ailments is to give plenty of sliced, raw onion in the mash, and an absolutely dry, soft bed. When Runner ducks are desired for egg production, have four or five ducks with one drake : two ducks and one drake usually produce too lai-ge a per- centage of drakes. Ducks for market should be fed well: feed as much as possible — up to ten weeks. They pay best when fattened before they commence to shed the young feathers. Ducks and fowls should never be kept together, as ducks render the water quite unfit for fowls to drink. GEESE 195 Chapter XII. GEESE. The two most popular varieties of geese are the Grey Toulouse and the White Embden; and these, when bred up to their respective standards, are very handsome, and exceedingly useful as food producers. Either is excellent for the table; and for utility pur- poses, a cross either way between the two is most satisfactory. The Toulouse, being practically a non- sitter, lays the greatest number of eggs. Geese are very profitable on farms where the grass is poor, improving the growth considerably; in fact, they require to be removed to weaker pasturage when, after a few years' grazing, the herbage becomes rank and tainted. Geese will also do well and fatten upon the stubble after harvest, gleaning all the scattered grain left on the ground. The Toulouse should be very massive, improving in size up to three years old, with large bow, plenty of keel, strong in head and bill, with immense guUet. The Embden is totally different from the Toulouse. Although of great size, it is much more compact in appearance, having a long, broad breast, with no indication of keel or bow whatever. The head should be large, but fine ia quality ; throat quite clean, without the slightest trace of giiUet ; neck long and swan-like. Mating, Hatching, and Bearing. — Three or four geese to one gander make up a good breeding pen; and the sexes should be quite unrelated. When once suitably mated, the birds should not be disturbed or divided, as with ordinary luck they wiU breed suc- cessfully for several years, in some cases even 12 to 20 years. With free range of grass, a little oats or 196 UTILITY POULTBT FARMING wheat in a trough of water once daily is all the food necessary for stock geese. After selecting and making her nest, the goose will usually lay her eggs there the whole of the season. Three or four eggs may be set under one hen, according to the size of the latter. Incubators will be found very useful in hatching out goslings. As soon as they are strong enough the latter should be placed with the hen on short, poor grass, with plenty of water. If the weather is stormy they may be put with a grass sod in a sheltered house or shed for the first few days, and fed with chopped egg and dry breadcrumbs. In a day or two they will take dry barley meal or whole barley. After the first ten days, goslings are very little trouble, and with plenty of grass, will eat almost any kind of meal or grain. Chapter XIII. TURKEYS. Owing to the absence of a specialist club to con- sider the interests of turkeys, but little encouragement is given to their exhibition in New Zealand, conse-* quently their breeders are fewer than the commercial value of the turkey as a table bird warrants. Yet its rearing is one of the most profitable branches of the poidtry industry. Turkeys are very handsome birds, and it is hard to find a more pleasing sight than a really fine flock of them together. They are natives of America, and were first intro- duced into England in the sixteenth century. There are eight different varieties, viz., the American Mammoth Bronze, the Cambridge Bronze, the white, the Norfolk black, the buff, the blue, and the Cam- bridge grey, which has a white bar on the wings, and TURKEYS 197 red legs. Of these, the Americaa Mammoth Bronze variety is far and away the most popular, being more easily reared; and with proper feeding, it quickly acquires flesh, and grows larger than any other sort. Again, it is of a very hardy constitution, this being of the greatest consideration to all turkey breeders. The black Norfolk is highly esteemed by some as being of large growth and body; but the quantity and quality of meat to be found on the breast are inferior to that of the American Mammoth Bronze. For home consumption, the pure white breed is to be recommended. Cockerels of this class from seven to eight months old will weigh close on twenty pounds. Speaking generally, the average bird of that age will weigh only 13 lbs. to 15 lbs., while hens range from 10 lbs. to 12 lbs. As regards quality, white turkeys are difficult to rival. In appearance they are superb, and their pure white skin makes them very tempting for the table. To no one does turkey rearing offer such prospects as to the general farmer, since free range is essential if success is to be attained; and he has a lai'ge acreage at his disposal. Those intending to take up turkey i-aising. especially on a large scale, m.ust possess certain essentials, viz.. roomy, covered-in runs for chickens in wet weather, wide pasture land or stubble to run the poults on when well grown, and land lying high and dry. Low-lying, damp, clayey ground should be avoided. The grass of the rearing ground should be kept short, so that the chicks may not get draggled with wet. Mating of Turkeys. — The mating of turkeys is very important, and there are several points which must be observed if success in rearing is to be attained. Under no consideration should immature or closely related stock be used for breeding. The birds must never, at any time, have been ailing. They 198 UTILITY POULTEY FARMING must be fairly large ; but avoid the abnormal. They miist be free from any physical defect, such as crooked breast bone, wry tails, etc. Cockerels of about 25 lbs. to 27 lbs. and pullets of 14 lbs. to 16 lbs. are the most prolific; but stronger birds and heavier weight are obtained by having age on one side — say a second season cock for pullets, or vice versa. Although turkeys are not fully matured until their third year, it is inadvisable to breed from birds older than two years ; for after that age the hens do not lay as many eggs, and, with an older male bird, the eggs are much less fertile. In breeding for exhibition purposes, heavier stock birds are necessary, and these perfect in every detail, such as colour and size of bone. It is very important that the stock birds should not be allowed to get too fat, for if they do the hens will lay a number of shell-less eggs. Turkey eggs are usually very fertile unless the breeding stock is in an overfat condition; so this danger must be guarded against. They should always have a plentiful supply of grit and oyster shell, as that helps to form the shell. The staple food for stock birds should be good oats, and a little wheat in colder weather. Turkeys usually commence laying in September ; or, with very mild weather, some will start in August. They are very shy about their nests, and some will travel quite a distance to find a secluded spot. The turkey generally lays every second day to start with, but, after the first few, every day. As a rule she will lay from fifteen to twenty eggs before becoming broody. There are exceptions to this, but they are rare. On showing signs of broodiness, the hen should immediately be placed in a pen or coop, as it is not advisable to allow her to sit her first batch of eggs. She wiU soon be broken off, and will start laying again. The first eggs should be set under TURKEYS 199 a fowl, about seven to nine, according to their size and that of the fowl. The second batch, it is advis- able to let the turkey herself sit upon, provided the nest is in a suitable place, where no others ai-e laying. The sitters do not like being disturbed. The eggs require twenty-eight days for incubation. November is a good month for hatching turkeys, which may then be grown into as fine birds as one could wish to see. January should be the latest month for hatching. Eggs should be tested on the ninth day, and a few days before they are due to hatch the broody should be well dusted with insect powder. Rearing the Youiig. — ^Most breeders have their favourite ways of raising young turkeys ; but the chief point to be remembered is frequent and regular feeding, every two hours for the first three weeks. The first six or eight weeks with young turkeys mean either success or failure ; foods and feeding constitute a vital factor, and should be of the best. So many different meals and foods are on the market at the present time that it would be practically useless to set down any definite rule; but the writer is a great believer in bread-and-nulk, fed as dry as possible. The more often it is given, quite a little at a time, the better. HardboUed eggs (when boiled for thirty minutes they are quite digestible) , boiled rice, a little biscuit meal, ground oats, plenty of chopped up green stuff such as dandelion leaves, lettuce, lucerne, nettle shoots, etc., should be mixed with the soft food after the first day. After the first week, onions, onion tops, and garlic should be used with the dandelions. After the first fortnight a good dry ehiek food can be given twice a day. The soft food must not be given too wet, but mixed to a crumbly consistency, otherwise bowel troubles wiU soon begin and cause endless anxiety. The more the young birds are looked after the better 200 Utility poultry farming they will thrive. Wet and cold are fatal, and they must not get wet the first few weeks. In the very hot weather they should be shaded from the sun. They may be kept in a covered-in coop and run, the size of which, for an ordinary brood, may be 6 ft. 6 in. long by 3 ft. wide, about 2 ft. 6 ins. high in front, and 1 ft. 6 ins. high at back. The run should be of small mesh wire netting, but the coop, which is the sleeping compartment, is divided off at about 2 ft. 6 ins. by smaU laths, say 2^ ins. apart. If a sliding shutter is provided, it can be closed during inclement weather. It should, however, not come quite to the top, so as to allow ventilation. The floor should be boarded and well littered with dry earth, sand, or chaff. The young birds and their mother must be kept free from insects, and their coops disinfected with some good specific. If "blackhead" breaks out amongst the young birds put a drop or two — ^not more — of Izal or Kerol in the drinking water or milk. The utmost cleanliness must be observed throughout. Shooting the Red. — ^Prom eight to ten weeks is generally a critical time in rearing turkeys, when they begin to develop their distinctive sex character- istics. In the young males, the carunculated skin of the throat ajid neck, and the horn-like contractile comb on the forehead, a^ume a marked character. This is what is known as ' ' Shooting the red, ' ' and the young birds lose their name of chickens and are called "poults." At this critical time animal foods should be given; and if any of the chicks appear listless or drooping, they should be given a raw egg beaten up in milk and water to drink. As a tonic, this is hard to beat; it is a fine "pick me up" for all kinds of young poultry. Use gravy and meat soup for mixing the soft foods. After the poults pass this critical time they soon become as hardy and robust as any kind of DISEASES OP POULTRY 201 feathered stock; they can be fed on almost anything, and, given free range, will find a good part of their living. If not in an exposed or bleak position they may be allowed to sleep in the open at nights. There is always, of course, a good demand for turkeys at Christmas time. The heavier the birds, the better price per pound can be obtained; so it pays to force them as much as possible for the last month or so. For fattening, give plenty of boiled potatoes, ground oats, and pollard. In rearing turkeys, it must always be remembered that cleanliness and frequent feeding, warmth, air, and exercise are the chief considerations. Chapteb xrv. DISEASES OF POULTRY. Although the cheapest and often the best treatment for a sick fowl is the axe, there are times when it is desirable to save a valuable bird, and, therefore, one of the most valuable assets a poultry keeper can possess is a knowledge of poultry diseases, their causes and cures. At some time or other disease breaks out in even the best managed yards, and unless pre- ventive measures are taken in time serious loss may result. It is impossible to go fully into the symptoms, causes, and treatment of all the diseases to which domestic fowls are subject; therefore a few of the more common ailments only are briefly dealt with. The poultry keeper will need to use his own discretion whether a bird should be doctored or, on the score of humanity, killed immediately it shows signs of sickness. As "preven- tion is better than cure," the aim should be clean birds, inside and outside, and this reeailt can be 202 UTILITT POULTEY PAEMING attained only by strict attention to the following essentials : — (1) Clean houses, dropping-boards, appliances, and runs. (2) Plenty of sunlight, and proper ventilation. (3) Deep, dry litter. (4) Clean feeding, and clean fresh drinking water. (5) Ample space, to avoid overcrowding. (6) Occasioinal use of a little potassium per- manganate in the water. (7) Epsom salts given in water once a week. Anaemia. — Symptoms'. Paleness in comb and face, dull eyes and plumage, the comb frequently covered with white powdery scurf. Cure: Keep birds in a pen where there is abundance of fresh air and sun- light, and give plenty of green food: boiled carrots in the morning and mash are very suitable, and iron in some form or other should also be given — one tea- spoonful of tincture of iron to three pints of water. If green food is scarce, one teaspoonful of Epsom salts and one of sulphur should be divided into three doses and given in the soft foods in the morning. Apoplexy.— fifj/mpfowis : The bird is found with its head hanging towards the ground, or turned back in a peculiar manner. Treatment: Opening a vein beneath the wing often affords- immediate relief. Another remedy is to paint the comb with turpentine and to give two teaspoonfuls of the following mixture three times a day : — ^bromide of potassium, 1 drachm ; water, six ounces. Do not attempt to feed the bird, and, until it can feed itself, keep it in a cool, quiet, semi-dark pen. Asthenia, "Going Light." — The malady of "going light" has always been a source of trouble to the DISEASES OF POXJLTET 203 Hospital for skk poultry B. BOAftP For Food a- wafer froayhs. C. ENAHEL ob CALVAMISED /ran troughs For Foot/ D. WOOD SHUTTER fo corer Two required. irrre when extra warmth ^-semt'Ofar/tness ts rcya/ret/. E.DOOR CATCH ISOLATE ALL SICK BIRDS AT ONCE EXTRA STRIP OF WOOD to hoM wire t/oof /n pface. A si'mp/e door cafcA uri// answer. DISrNFECT everythmg aFfer usiny^ I2A1| a/so acta/ a /ittle to l/'me i^ash. WITH GREAT CARE c/ear away and huty used fi^^r ,ji Jl From the Mospita/. ' 5 PINE WOOD SAWDUST PEAT MOSS make ^flod /if^er for v s/'c/r pou/fry. AFTER EACH CASE take the pen to pieces if lime hifss/i both sides oF the wood. V A PAINTERS ' BRUSH IS Airffe enough. From "The Poultry World.' 204 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING poultry keeper, as without any apparent cause mem- bers of a flock sometimes fall into a general decline and waste away. A bird so affected has good colour, is bright of eye, and appears to be in good health, — until picked up and handled, when . it will be found there is a great loss of weight. If sub- mitted to a post mortem examination, the organs are usually found healthy in colour, but below the normal size. In fact, beyond atrophied condition, there is no evidence of disease. The question therefore arises, what is the cause of the gradual diminution of the affected bird 1 There is no doubt that the chief cause is malnutrition, caused by a deficiency of enzymes or ferments in the area of the duodenum. As a rule, it is a long time before a cure can be effected, in- volving considerable time and attention, and frequently one's efforts are even then in vain, so that unless the bird is valuable, we should have no hesita^ tion in destroying it. It will be necessary to disinfect the ground where the carcase is buried, by watering with a one per cent, solution of sulphuric acid; the houses and runs also should be disinfected in the same way. Bronchitis. — Symptoms: Difficult breathing; the patients are usually feverish, and are constantly drinkiag; there is frequently a dry rattling cough, and in some cases a whistling sound when breathing; the faces and combs often turn a dark colour (purple) caused by the choking sensation. Causes: Bronchitis is often caused by cold, damp and draughty houses. Treatment: Give ten drops of ipecacuanha wine in a t«aspoonful of glycerine, four times daily until relief is afforded, and two teaspoonfuls of Friar's balsam in a pint of boiling water can be placed where the steam will circulate round the bird's head. Repeat several times until relief is given. DISEASES OP POULTEY 205 Another good remedy is ten drops of sulphuric and nitric acids in a quart of drinking water. This mix- ture should not be put into an iron or zinc vessel, and the attendant should be careful when handling the acids, as they are dangerous to work with. It is imperative that the bird be kept indoors. Bumble Foot. — Symptoms : Apparent lameness, due to a swelling or com on part of foot, sometimes followed by an abscess. Cause: A deposit of tuber- culous matter, the result of a blow or dropping heavily from a high wall or perch. Treatment -. Keep the bird in a pen liberally bedded with soft hay, and wash the foot in hot Izal Veterinary Fluid, 1 in 200. Next day the hot bathing must be resumed, and the swelling brought to a head by poulticing, and afterwards, when ready, make an incision like the letter X, through which all the matter must be squeezed. The wound should then be dressed with iodoform powder or liniment, and the foot carefully bound up. Kepeat the dressing if necessary. As biunble foot is seldom cured, it rarely pays to treat cocks, at least from a breeding point of view. Canker. — Symptoms : Yellow or yellowish white cheesy growth on the side or roof of the mouth, giving off an offensive odour. Causes: General unsanitary conditions. Canker is contagious, and should be treated as for roup or diphtheria. Cholera. — Symptoms: Violent diarrhoea and thirst. Droppings of a watery character at first greenish, and then thin white and frothy, often streaked with red. Highly contagious. The bird goes moping about with wings partly outstretched and feathers ruffled, the comb being dark and bloodless. Causes: Improper food, inflammation of the intestines, etc. Treatment: At once isolate all ailing birds, 206 TJTILITT POTJLTBY FARMING collect the diseased evacuations, and render them innoxious by means ol! a strong solution of Izal, 1 in 100; also disinfect the house and grounds. Give one teaspoonful olive oil. Chlorodyne is a useful remedy: dose, three to six drops every four hours, or one drop of carbolic acid in half a teaspoonful of glycerine, given in a little warm water. Medicate all drinking water with one tea- spoonful of hyposulphate of soda, and colour this mixture with enough Condy's crystals or perman- ganate of potash to make it pink. Very few birds are cured, this depending on prompt isolation and disinfection. Gloacitis or Ventg-leet. — Symptoms: Redness and swelling in the region of the vent, followed by a mUky discharge from it, and the formation of yellow incrustations that give off a very offensive odour. Commencing with the hen, it is passed on to the male bird by contagion, and from him may spread throughout the whole pen. Treatment-. Isolate all ailing birds, and give each half a teaspoonful of Epsom salts, and a quarter of a teaspoonful of flowers of sulphur may be given in the morning soft food. Soak the affected parts with Izal and warm water (1 in 200), remove aH incrustations where possible, and dress with zinc ointment. Severe cases should be treated in the same way, but dust with powdered oxide of zinc. Before treating, the attendant must be careful to wash his hands and face in disinfectant, and should on no account touch his face whilst attending a sick bird. Colds. — Colds are a common complaint amongst poultry, and very often go right through the yards. The chief symptom is a little sneezing and a watery discharge from the nostrils, or a little frothiness at the comers of the eyes. When these symptoms are noticed, the face, eyes, and nostrils should be sponged DISEASES OF POULTRY 207 with hot water to which a teaspoonful of vinegar has been added, and to the drinking water add a few drops of essence of camphor. This will keep the cold in check and prevent it from spreading. To the soft food add a teaspoonful of the following mixture for every dozen birds: — 2 ounces each of fenugreek, ground linseed, flowers of sulphur, and liquorice powder, with half a teaspoonful of carbonate of iron, ground gentian, and aniseed. Unless colds are cured in time they develop into roup. Keep the birds dry and out of draughts. Cramp in Chickens. — Symptoms: Toes closed to- gether or doubled under, walking on knuckles, caused by chickens being confined to stone or wooden floors or greenhouses. Treatment: Bathe the legs in hot soda and water, and paint outside of shanks with iodine. Encourage chickens to take exercise and run about on mother earth as much as possible. Then they should not be overfed, and are better without meat. Give one teaspoonful of cod liver oil, well mixed with the soft food (bread and milk for preference) , to each six chicks, at least twice a day. To each half pint of drinking water add one teaspoonful of saUeylate of soda. Green food must be given in abundance. Outs, Wounds, Tom Combs or Wattles, etc.— Treatment: Apply Friar's balsam (externally) to any cuts or bruises; also use after dubbing, to check bleeding. Crop Binding. — Crop binding is usually caused from too much com in the crop, or on account of some indigestible substance (long grass, for instance) or mechanical obstruction blocking the passage from the gizzard to the crop. Symptoms : Swollen appear- ance of the crop; bird standing about in a listless mEumer and showing a disinclination for food. Treatment: "When the binding is caused by grain 208 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING only, this is often easily pumped out. First, mix enough permanganate of potash to a pint of hot water to make it a bright pink colour, or sufficient glauber salt to make it taste saline. Empty at least a quarter of a pint of fluid down the bird's throat, and gently knead the crop with the tips of the fingers. As the crop softens, turn the head down, open the beak, grasp the crop and squeeze it. This will cause some of the contents to be evacuated. Repeat this process, poiiring an increased quantity down the bird's throat, and keep on repeating it until the crop is empty. The bird should then be put in a coop or run by itself, and fed sparingly on bread and mUk. Fifteen drops of tincture of iron should be added to each half pint of drinking water, this tending to contract the crop. Where an operation is necessary, viz., that of opening the crop, this can be done better by two persons than by one. To perform this, take a sharp knife or lance, and having first picked the feathers from the breast in a straight line downwards, cut it open. It is advis- able to wet the feathers before plucking them, and the operator must choose a place where there are no large veins. The opening should be made over the most dependent part of the crop, and be from one and a half to two inches in length. The cause of the obstruction can then be seen and removed with a spoon handle, or one's finger (well greased and nail pared smooth). When the crop is quite empty, a little boracie lotion should be poured in and out again. The crop can then be closed up again with a few stitches of horsehair, catgut, or silk thread. Let each stitch be independent of the other, and the outer sMn sewed in the same way. Smear over the incised part with a little carbolised vaseline, and after the opera- tion keep the bird confined in a small place for a few DISEASES OF POULTRY 209 days, and feed on well prepared soft food. Do not give any hard substances till the wotind is healed. A pinch or two of table salt occasionally mixed with the meal helps assimilation and prevents sour crop. Diptheric Roup. — This is a very serious and con- tagious disease, and exhibits the following symptoms: The head may or may not be swollen, the eyes are in- flamed and often fiUed with offensive matter, and there is a discharge of sanious liquid from both eyes and nostrils, while if the mouth be opened and the throat examined, patches of yellow or white sub- stances win be seen. Owing to their wash-leather consistency, they are generally somewhat difficult to remove, and the best instrument for this purpose is a sharpened piece of wood or a quiU, as it can be burnt after using. The wound should then be painted with tincture of perchloride of iron mixture — tinc- ture, 20 drops; carbolic acid. 20 drops; glycerine, 2 drachms. To all the soft food of each bird add as much sulphur as wiU cover a sixpence. Hard swellings on the face may need lancing, and the matter extracting. Dress the sore, and wash it with peroxide of hydrogen. Very often the bird, if neglected, goes blind, and those with lumps of curdy matter under the eyelids should have this pressed out, after which the eyes should be bathed with a solution of water and Condy's crystals or permanganate of potash, just sufficient to make the water purple. The following may also be used: — ^two grains sulphate of zinc to one ounce of water; this should be allowed to drop into the eyes. There are excellent remedies for roup on the market, by poultry specialists, but it would be unfair to hint at their prescriptions. The attendant should pay scrupulous attention to his own health, and thoroughly disinfect his hands after 210 UTHilTT POUIiTKY FARMING handling birds suffering from this disease. It is not impossible for hnman beings to suffer from the same form of complaint, and it is always wise to gargle the throat daily with a solution of water and permanganate of potash while attending the birds. Thoroughly disinfect all houses, coops, and ground with a strong specific. Allow plenty of ven- tilation, without draughts. Feed birds on good food, such as bread and milt, to keep up strength, as this is one of the most valuable aids in roup or diphtheric roup. The disease is very infectious; and as a fowl drinks, the mucous may come in contact with the water, and contaminate it for those that follow. On some farms sulphate of copper is largely used, in the proportion of half a teaspoonful to each two gallons of drinking water. Only earthenware vessels should be employed. Egg' Bound. — Symptoms : The fowl goes to the nest often but does not lay. The wings and tail droop, and the bird has a depressed, mopish appear- ance. Cause: Usually an over-fat condition of the hen, which brings on a weak and inactive state of the muscles of the oviduct. Treatment: A very effective cure is to hold the vent over a jug of boiling water for several minutes, then inject a couple of teaspoonfuls of olive oil. Next, the egg should be sought for by passing an oiled finger in the vent and moving the egg towards the opening by pressing it up through the abdominal wall; this should loosen the rim of flesh which retains the egg. The bird should then be placed in a hamper by the fire, and if the egg is not passed in half an hour try again. Drugs are seldom effective, although we have found ergot useful; give five drojjs, ajid five more the hour following. After safe removal of the egg the bird should be fed sparingly on non-stimulating DISEASES OP POULTRY 211 diet, such as boiled rice or soaked bread, and a little Epsom salts shoidd be added daily to the drinking water. Egg Eatinif. — ^This is more of a habit than a disease, and frequently arises in the first instance from the accidental breaking of an e^, or from soft- sheUed eggs being laid from the roost at night. Varions are the plans for checking this vice; care should certainly be taken to avoid the risk of broken e^s by having a sufficient number of nests and making them as comfortable as possible. Tempting a culprit with a shell filled with mustard, or confining her with some china e^s is sometimes effectual, but the only certain cure is a specially constructed nest which allows the eggs to fall through a hole in the bottom, out of reach of the hen's beak. If the birds are provided with comfortable nests and given plenty of grit, exercise, and cooling food, there will not be much danger of egg eating. Egg Passage, Protrusion of. — Symptoms: Part of the internal organs protruding from the vent. This is generally the result of over-feeding, and is caused by a bird's straining to expel an egg, thus weakening the walls of the cavity, and causing them to fall down. There is practically no cure for this trouble, as when the bird wishes to lay again, unless her con- dition has been reduced, there will be a recurrence. If the affected bird is taken in hand as soon as the protrusion is noticed, a cure may be effected. First of aU wash the bowel with tepid water and after- wards with some astringent, such as strong warm tea, then gently, replace the bowel by pushing it into the vent with the finger covered with a piece of fine linen rag, afterwards withdrawing the rag. An in- jection of a small quantity of a ten per cent, solution of alum in water wiU be of great assistance, or a 212 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING small piece of ice may be inserted, which will contract the muscles. The bird should then have her legs and wings bound with tape and be placed in a sling, with the abdomen three or four inches inches higher than her head, and allowed to remain in this position for about eight to ten hours, after which the oviduct will fall into its proper place. Then feed sparingly for several days. Usually the best plan, when this trouble arises, is to kill the bird, as its edible qualities are not affected. Enteritis (Contagious), Simple^ and Kleins. — The simple, which is common amongst large flocks of poultry, is a fatal disease, and generally the result of overcrowding. Birds mope about with rufQed feathers, have excessive thirst, dark combs, and yellowish diarrhoea. The severe forms cannot be cured. The remedy lies in the prompt action of isolating all affected birds, or those appearing sleepy, and confining all healthy ones to a dry shed for ten days, after which, if healthy, they may be removed to fresh ground. The remedies advised for cholera are most suitable for the ailing birds, and others might have some germicide, such as quinine, added to their drinking water. Bum all dead bodies, and thoroughly cleanse and disinfect all vacated runs and houses, which should be left empty for a time. PavTis. — This is a very common disease of the comb, caused by a vegetable parasite or fungus, called Achorion Schouleinii, and is very contagious. In the early stages it may be absolutely destroyed by Izal. First wash the comb with hot water, and then apply a dressing of Izal Veterinary Fluid, strength 1 in 200. If proper cleanliness and disinfection were always observed in houses and runs, as well as with the birds themselves, the outbreaks of this disease would be few and far between. DISEASES OP POUIiTKT 213 Feather Pluckiiig. — Feather plucking arises from many causes, the chief of which is fowls being con- fined to smaU runs and fed on heating foods, with insufficient green food and exercise. The diet should be changed to one of a more cooling nature, and a small quantity of ordinary table salt should be added to the soft food every day, while on the other days flowers of sulphur should be added, three teaspoonfuls to enough soft food for twenty-four fowls. A tea- spoonful of sulphate of soda and half a teaspoonful of carbonate of potassium may be added to each pint of drinking water. Where the bare patches are par- ticularly red, they should be bathed with Condy's fluid, diluted, a teaspoonfxil to a quart of water; this will keep the birds clean and cool. See that the fowls are perfectly free from insects, which are frequently the cause in the beginning. Gapes. — Young chicks are more commonly affected with this malady than adult fowls. It is caused by the presence in the throat of a small red worm, known as Syngamus Trachealis. The male and female are usually joined together, the latter being the larger, the two resembling in appearance the letter Y. The eggs of this worm are only one-twentieth part of an inch in diameter, il. Meguin found that they hatch out in either earth or water where the temperature is about 68° to 70° F. The female is said to contain thousEinds of eggs, aud when these mature the parent worm dies. Treatment: Tie two straight horsehairs together and trim the loose ends from the knot. Pass this into the windpipe, give it a roUing twist, and then withdraw it. Several worms may be drawn out at one operation : repeat the process untU no more can be secured. Instead of the horse- hairs, a tail or wing feather, stripped of all the web with the exception of a smsdl tip, may be used. Dip 214 UTHilTT POULTRY PABMING the extractor in a weak solution of carbolic acid or turpentine before using. Another treatment is to put the birds in a lined basket and fill the same with fumes from eucalyptus or carbolic oU dropped on live coals. A sheet of paper should first be placed in the basket, and afterwards burnt, as the gape worms will be found on it after expectoration by the chick- ens. M. Meguin adopted the following cure: — Dissolve one part salicylate of soda in one hundred parts of drinking water to Mil aU. worms found there, and dose each bird with seven and a half grains of yellow gentian and seven and a half grains of asa- foetida mixed together. A good preventive for this complaint is to mix some finely chopped onions with the soft food. Moving the birds to drier situations will check an epidemic. Dryness and sunshine are the gape worm's chief enemies. liver Disease. — Symptoms: Listlessness, duU pur- plish comb, loss of appetite, evacuations of a yeUow mustardy colour which are fluid and frothy, and apparent lameness, especially in the right leg. This disease is frequently brought on by chills or neglected indigestion. Treatment: At once isolate all affected birds, and place them in comfortable quarters that are warm and Ught. Feed entirely on oatmeal por- ridge made with mUk. For some days the drinking water should be made to taste rather sour by adding BB nitric acid; or a teaspoonful of Epsom salts dissolved in hot water may be given the first thing. After that half the dose every other day, or ten drops of tincture of turkey rhubarb per bird each morning, and barely a quarter of a teaspoonful of sulphate of magnesia and a pinch of char- coal in the soft food, or one grain of calomel each day until cured. The liver pills and medicines sold by poultry specialists axe excellent. The first DISEASES OP POtJLTBT 215 named remedies do very well in the initial stage, but it would be well to continue treatment with some recognised liver remedy. As the birds' appetites improve, a little cooked meat and whole groats may be given, as well as bread and TfilV and green v^e- tables, such as lettuce and chopped dandelion. Allow the birds plenly of exercise, but do not give hard grain while the attack is severe. As this complaint is very infectious, all droppings must be carefully swept up, and all houses and runs should be thoroughly disinfected. Scaly Leg. — ^This is a disease caused by the presence beneath the scales of a parasite known as Sarcoptes Mutans. This mite burrows into the scales of the shanks and feet, causing much irri- tation and pain. The disease is contagious, and if a broody hen is affected it is usually passed on to her chicks; it is therefore very necessary that an affected bird be treated at once. The first symptoms of scaly leg are the elevation of the scales and the loss of colour. Later on, the legs look exceedingly rough, and underneath the scales will be seen a light- coloured, rather dry, substance, which is really the dry dermis in which the mite has its abode. There are many remedies, but all are more or less slow, and the poultry keeper will therefore need to be persistent in his ^orts. One of the most common methods is first to wash the legs in strong soapsuds, and remove all loose scales. Afterwards, with an old toothbrush, rub well into the scales an ointment composed of one part each of creosote, lard, and sulphur, and three parts kerosene oiL Repeat this treatment until the legs are smooth. Tuberculosis. — ^Tbis disease is a scourge among poultry. There is great emaciation, rufBed plum- age, and variable appetite (depending on organs 216 UTILITY POULTEY FAEMING affected) . It attacks both the lungs and the liver, and is a highly contagious disease, causing a spotted liver, or when it attacks the lungs, coughs and emaciation are generally the first things noticed. If the liver is affected, the eyes appear sunken and the comb shrivels up, the Uver becoming full of tuberculous nodules, and death ensues. Being of such a highly contagious nature, it is rendered all the more serious because it is believed possible for a diseased bird to lay eggs that contain the bacillus tuberculosis, and it is therefore not really advisable to try to effect a cure. To those who wish to attempt it, the remedy advised is creosote pUls or capsules, of one minim, liiree times a day. Keep the birds in a sunny run with free ventilation, and give good food. The better remedy is to kUl the affected birds, and bum their bodies together with any excrement from the house lately occupied. Their bodies are unfit for con- sumption, and the houses and runs should be well sprayed with some strong disinfectant. Swollen Wattles, or Dropsy of. — ^Usually a phase of roup, a sweUing of the wattles with or without breaking of the skin; and although it is termed dropsy, the wattles are usually hard, and contain more matter than dropsical fluid, especially after a few days. Bathe the part thoroughly in hot vinegar and water two or three times a day. If this does not reduce the swelling, carefully puncture the wattle at the bottom and gently empty it of aU fluid, or dissect any matter that may be found there. Syringe the wound with Izal and water (1 in 200), or a weak lotion of perchloride of iron and water (eight drops to two tablespoonfuls of water). If the swelling is not too bad, painting the wattle with iodine wiU often give the desired effect. The birds may be given half a teaspoonful of sulphur daily, as well as plenty of bread and mUk. DISEASES OP POULTET 217 Wonns. — The chief symptoms are loss of con- dition, ravenous appetite, and wasting away of the body, the result of want of cleanliness in houses and runs, dirty water and troughs. Treat- ment: The birds should go to bed supperless, and next morning give one grain santonin and seven grains areca nut to each bird. A couple of hours afterwards give a liberal mash of warm scalded bran, containing a teaspoonful of Epsom salts and a quarter tablespoonful of table salt. The rest of the day feed as usual. Repeat this treatment every other day until cured. To their drinking water add sul- phate of iron and sulphate of sodium, five grains of the former and thirty grains of the latter, in a gallon of water, and continue this for a week. Give only half the dose to young chickens. Isolate all birds affected, and bum their droppings until a cure has been effected. Give particular attention to the sanitation of the houses and runs. Soft Shelled Eggs. — The most likely cause is over-feeding or forcing by giving condiments. Fright is a frequent cause of shell-less eggs. Feed sparingly on hard grain, give half a teaspoonful of Epsom salts every other day, also plenty of green food, and provide the birds with a sufficient quantity of shell- forming materials, such as oyster-sheU, or lime water given them to drink. Extern All Parasites . The parasitic infestation of poultry causes far more loss than most breeders imagine. In well eon- ducted yards, where the stock is kept clean and healthy and the houses are disinfected by the use of creosote or hot whitewash to which some good germicide has been added, the stock wiU rarely be troubled with vermin. In many yards, birds, and 218 UTILITT POULTRY PABMIN6 especially purchases, are seldom examined, and it is often through this neglect that vermin are allowed to get a strong footing, and then they spread with . great rapidity. All parasites that prey upon fowls, whether fleas {Pulicidee), bitiag lice {Mallophaga) , or mites (Acarma), are most injurious to young chicks and "brood" hens, and no bird can thrive when a prey to the depredations of these blood- gnn lring pests. The persistent loss of chiete, and the failure of broodies to hatch their young are often due to their presence. They weaken the constitution, with the result that chickens fall more readily to other maladies, such as roup, gapes, etc. Special attention, therefore, should be paid to coops, and to sitting and nest-boxes, while perches and nesting material should be frequently cleansed and changed, and the nest-boxes dressed with hot lime. Pinewood shavings, placed in the nests instead of straw, are most beneficial. Dust baths, which are the natural remedy for lice, should be in every poultry house or scratching shed, and should consist of road sweepings or sand mixed with flowers of sulphur, pyrethrum, or Izal powder. This method wUl not only help to rid the birds of lice, but also go far towards keeping them permanently free. Depluming Mites and Parasites or Scabies. — Symptoms: The sMn of the fowl becomes rough and scurvy looking, and the feathers rot and drop off. Causes: A parasitic mite {Sarcoptes CcBvis) which feeds on the roots of the feathers, and causes irri- tation. To obtain relief, the affected bird plucks out its feathers ; it is mostly noticed on the head and neck, and is the result of filthy conditions and neglect. Treatment: Give the birds a bath in a warm solution of some disinfectant, such as Creolin, Kerol, or Izal. The solution should not be of too strong a consistency. DISEASES OP POtTLTKT 219 JTist sufSdent to kill the mite. See that the houses are kept clean and well ventilated. Red Mites. — Well-known parasites, which infest the cleanest of houses, dwelling in large numbers in any available cracks and chinks, or found clustering under perches. They attack the birds at night, swarming out in large numbers when the fowls are asleep on the perches, and going back to their cracks and other haunts during the day, as they avoid heat, Ught, and fresh air. When mature, they are of a bright crimson colour, caused by the blood taken from healthy fowls. They possess four pairs of six-jointed legs, are visible to the naked eye, and are true blood- suckers provided with a mouth capable of piercing the birds' skin. They can thus, when operating in clusters, cause the death of a large healthy fowl. Preventive measures may be taken by keeping the houses scrupulously clean, scrubbing the perches with soap and water, spraying the houses and perches with some good germicide, or painting with parafiBn once a fortnight. The Fowl Lice (Menopon Pallidum). — ^A small parasite visible to the naked eye and of a deep orange or red colour. It has a biting mouth with which it causes injury to the feathers, on which it subsists. To detect this pest it is necessary to turn up the feathers and examine the fluff at the base of the plumage, as it is rarely seen on the surface. Besides causing injury to the feathers, it causes an irritation in its passive over the skin, which leads to inflam- mation. Fowls affected in this way remain small, and go about with droopii^ wings and a very distressing chirp. 220 utility poultry farming Some Medicines and Theik Uses. Boracic Acid Powder (External) .—A good lotion is made by adding one teaspoonful to four ounces of boUiag water. Useful for swollen faces, eyes, and for bathing aU cuts and wounds from whatever cause, for cleansing instruments, as a hand wash, for in- jecting into wounds, washing out cuts, etc. Charcoal (Internal). — Dose, up to one teaspoon- ful. Useful for sour crop, bowel troubles, diarrhoea, etc. Mix charcoal, one tablespoonful ; prepared chalk, two teaspoonfuls ; soda bicarbonate, two teaspoonfuls. Dose, one teaspoonful per bird, in soft food. Good in warm weather for diarrhoea resulting from too much meat, bone, or cabbage. Safe and certain in action. Good also for yellowish droppings. Cod Liver Oil. — ^Dose, adults, one teaspoonful daily; chickens under one month, one teaspoonful to twenty in soft food, or three or four drops each. Good for cramp and leg weakness in chickens, for debility in adult birds, and useful to add colour to and promote growth of feathers. Useful in wintry weather for birds liable to colds, and can be given before and after returning from a show, etc. Creosote. — ^Dose, olive oil, one tablespoonful; creosote, two drops. Good for diarrhoea when nothing else is handy. Douglas Mxture.— One of the best iron tonics for fowls is that known as "Douglas Mixture, " the recipe for which is: — Sulphate of iron, one quarter of a pound ; sulphuric acid, half an ounce ; and water, one gallon. Place the sulphate of iron and sulphuric acid in a strong earthemware jar, pour in the water, and stir well with a stick. Leave it for a day or two protected by a wooden cover, then run it off into bottles and cork well. Dose, a teaspoonful to each DISEASES OP POULTBT 221 half pint of drmking water ; or in similar proportions in the water used for mixing the food, every third or fourth day. The drinking vessels should not be made of metal. Epsom Salts.— Dose, adults, half a teaspoonful, either dry or in warm water, latter preferred for immediate action. May be used for crop binding, soft shelled eggs, before operation, and is useful in cases of egg binding. Good for liver chiU, lead poisoning, apoplexy, giddiness, etc. Flowers of Sulplmr. — Dose, one teaspoonful to three adults, or slightly over one quarter of a tea- spoonful to each individual. Useful for white comb and in all cases of ulcers; follows Epsom salts in cloacitis. Give regularly in connection with diph- theritic cases, pip, etc. Friar's Balsam (External). — ^Apply to any cuts or bruises; also use after dubbing, to check bleeding from cut combs or torn wattles, etc. Glycerine. — ^Useful as a paint after removing yeUow diphtheritic growth from birds' mouths. Mix as follows: — Glycerine, one tablespoonful ; tincture of perchloride of iron, twenty drops ; creosote, twenty drops. A powerful dressing used with care, but may cause collapse and death of a weak bird. Serious diseases, however, require drastic treatment, while the glycerine alone is useful in cases of bronchitis. Iodine, Tincture (External). — ^Paint swellings wherever they occiar. Allow one coat to dry before applying second. Apply daily until skin looks like chipping off, then cease. Useful in cases of bumble foot and swellings of feet. Iron Sulphate — ^Label Poison. — Dose, a level tea- spoonful of powdered sulphate of iron to a gallon of drinking water. Used in cases of debility, moulting. 222 UTILITY POULTKY FARMING big chickens inclined to be leg-weak, anaemia, pale combs, and for conditioning show birds; it improves colour of buff and red birds. Don't give to white birds if for show. Olive OH. — ^Dose, teaspoonful per bird, or more: no harm from overdose. For worms, olive oil, one teaspoonful; turpentine, six drops. Potash Permanganate (External). — ^Used chiefly as disinfectant, and is excellent: is made by adding potash permanganate, half a teaspoonful, to water (boiled), one pint. Bottle and label poison. For internal use, one teaspoonful of above to half a pint of drinking water ; is useful in hot weather for roup, etc. As a lotion, one teaspoonful of above to half a pint of water, excellent for foul wounds, and external uses generally; also for drains. Rhubarb, Tincture. — ^Dose, ten drops for an adult fowl. Very useful for loss of appetite, yellowish look about head, and for dark pimply combs. Give also one quarter of a teaspoonful of sodium bicar- bonate in soft food each morning. Use until bird improves in condition. Sodium Bicarbonate. — Dose, for adults, not more than would cover a threepenny piece. Give in con- junction with rhubarb. Sodium bicarbonate, two ounces; Epsom salts, two ounces. Mix one teaspoon- ful to each quart of water. Useful for treating a flock for liver trouble. Turpentine, Oil of.— Dose, six to ten drops, in a teaspoonful of olive oil; useful for intestinal worms. Externally, in conjunction with olive oil, as a leg dressing for rheumatism, cramp, and leg weakness in chickens. Vaseline.— An excellent comb dressing, and valu- able base for ointments. Dressing for ulcerated CALENDAR OP WORK 223 comb, vaseline, two tablespoonfuls ; creosote, twenty drops; sulphur, two teaspoonfals ; boracic acid, one teaspoonful. Warm and mix. Apply as requii-ed. Zinc Ointment (External). — ^To smear on watery eyelids ; apply to ulcerated parts in cases of cloacitis ; for daily application to blistered lobes, and for keeping white lobes of show stock in good condition. C ha pter XV. THE POULTRY FARMER'S CALENDAR OF WORK. THE YEAR'S WORK IN BRIEF. Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter Work. In the farmer's life, things reciir annually from the cradle to the grave — "seed time and harvest" while the world lasts; and in the life of the poultry keeper there must a similar recurring round of duties. Therefore, if there is one thing that every poultry keeper must pay strict attention to, it is the work of eadi season of the yecu:. There is a time for everything, mating, hatching, rearing, and feeding; and if once the poultry keeper gets behind in any one of these, he will find it practically impossible to catch up again. In the following pages, readers wHL be able to follow month by month the work that should be done during the year. No matter whether a "hobbyist" or a poultry farmer on commercial lines, each is recommended at all times to remember that old precept, "procrastination is the thief of time." 224 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING JANUARY. In the month of January the population of the poultry yard is at its greatest. Not only are there half-grown chickens, but there is still the adult stock to be properly accommodated. Apart from this, Janu- ary weather is the most uncertain of all the year. It may be blazing hot, or a continuous downpour may prevail. In the former case, so fast do vermin breed upon the chickens, that it behoves the wise poultry keeper to keep an eye upon his stock. It is important, as advised for December, that the birds should have a periodical overhauling for lice. When examining for insects, first of all look at the head, since the nits or eggs from which the "crawlers" are hatched are usually found on the cap. Only by actually handling and examining can their condition and growth be truly ascertained. Nothing is so satis- factory- as weighing the birds in one's hands, and it does not require much expert knowledge to ascertain if they are much below weight. If any extra light speci- mens be found in a flock, they should be separated from the others. Most fowls of this nature are con- sumptive, or suffering from what is popularly, though mistakenly, referred to as liver disease (see page 214) . Many of the birds will begin moulting this month, and they should have a dusting with some good insecticide. During the moulting season, many show signs of debility, so that here is the need for care and watchfulness on the part of the breeders. As soon as such cases are detected, they should be removed to a cool place by themselves, then fed on the most nourishing diet, and given a tonic* to raise the system up to concert pitch. The blood must be kept in good order, otherwise a bird will soon go wrong. There are several good tonics, but none is better than the well-known Douglas Mixture (see •Such as " PalmerV* Condition Powders. CALENDAR OF WORK 225 page 220). Cod liver oil is also good for the moulting season, particularly if mixed with a little iron, as the oil greatly assists in the growth of feathers. The hirds may have a little hemp seed with advantage, as this contains a good deal of oil, and has a tendency to produce fat, both of which are good for a bird badly in the moult. By the way, if you have not been systematic, have no definite knowledge of your birds, and cannot rec<^nise them one from another, do not relegate them to the pot or get rid of them, just because they look shabby and hopeless now; for it is reaJly wonderful how a fowl, especially a hen, changes after six months in the breeding pen. Birds that looked their best in July, now frequraitly resemble nothing so much as animated scarecrows. Some of the later broods of chicks do not grow fast during the hot weather, for they like moderately warm weather and frequent showers, which not only keep the earth cool, but freshen things up, and provide an abundance of succulent green food. All breeding pens should be broken up by this time, unless it be a fecial pen where the eggs of one or two special hens are needed for hatching in order to perpetuate a strain or keep direct progeny from an old stock. Water must not be allowed to stand long in the sun, and green food must be given to the growing stock. If there is no garden or green run, nor yet any green food to be bought, get in aU the dandelion leaves possible, and give either boiled or raw, also sprouted oats and tops of nettles. A good plan is to sow rape, turnips, mustard and cress in shallow boxes filled to within an inch of the top with soil. Put over this half-inch mesh wire- netting stretched tight, and let the birds eat the tops as they grow through the netting. 226 UTILITY POUIiTRT PAEMING FEBRUARY. The duties that come with this month are many and varied. The poultry keeper scans with anxious eyes the fast growing flock, and tries to weigh the prospective qualities of the half-fledged stock before him. The young still require most jealous shading from the heat of the sun. Shade is wanted everywhere : the ducklings especially need it. It can be secured in many ways, and a few yards of canvas on a hurdle is not to be despised for this purpose. Cleaning out (owing to the heat) must be most regu- larly and thoroughly done. If the houses have not been lime washed or creosoted, get it done at once. Pour a little kerosene or crude carbolic into the crevices between the perches and their supports, unless the former are suspended by wires. Pre- vention is better than cure, and a chicken free from insects has a chance to grow. Many on reaching the ten-week old stage seem to stop growing. These need a change, and though no more room is available and the food is varied, try the effect of a mild dose of Epsom salts once a week, but not more than a tea- spoonful to six birds, so that it will not cause diar- rhoea; and add a little tonic to the soft food. Probably the liver has become sluggish, which soon puts them out of sorts; and this the salts will move into action again, while the tonic will keep it mov- ing till they have begun to pick up. "When birds feather slowly, a little powdered sulphur mixed with the soft food will often move them, because this purifies the blood and opens the pores of .the skin so that the feathers may develop more rapidly. Never keep birds with any serious fault, and do not keep fourth and fifth raters with a view to sales. Keep the stock within bounds — ^that is, retain only as many as can be easily controlled. All useless cockerels CALENDAR OP WORK 227 should be killed off to make room for the pullets. The early hatched pullets wiU give promise of early laying this month. They can be easily induced to lay— but less easily retarded. The February layer may lay ia February and March and then drop iuto a moult, but she may also recover from the moult and lay agaia some time in June — ^this, however, only under experienced and exceptionally good manage- ment. Therefore, unless the poultry keeper has to supply regular orders, it is not profitable to bring pullets on to lay too early. To bring on pullets, they should not be over-ted : always leave them with a little appetite, so that they wiU be ready for the next meal. Thi-ee good meals a day will suffice, and the morning feed should be given as early as possible. Biscuit meal dried with oatmeal, or bread and mUk, will form a good breakfast. At noon, cut bone or meat may be fed in moderation, so as not to force them too much. Any amount of green food may be given. The evening feed should consist of good, sound wheat, alternated with oats or split maize, the latter not more than twice a week. If the wheat be boiled twice a week, it will help to put on flesh quicker. To the drinking water add a small piece of sulphate of iron, just enough to flavour the water. It is the small continuous dose that does the good, and nothing is gained by increasing it. To retard egg production, move the bird to another pen and feed entirely on hard grain in limited quanti- ties. Even these measures will not prevent a bird that has matured to a certain pitch from laying. The point is to note the augury early enough and make the change at once. The careful poultry keeper will always take good care of his appliances, and just now he should look round coops and foster mothers to see how they are before storing for the 228 UTILITY POULTRY PABMING winter. What repairs are necessary should be done at once, and the whole cleaned so that they may be in readiness for the eternal round that will begin again next June. In the incubator room, all the metal parts of machines that can be conveniently got at should be taken to pieces and scalded, then dried, and finally wiped over with a "vaseliney" rag before being replaced. The lamps should be taken to pieces, the wicks thrown away, the burners boiled, and the containers scalded out; while the trays and egg- drawers and as much of the interior of the machines as can be got at will be all the sweeter for a thorough scrubbing with hot water and carbolic soap. Even greater care should be bestowed upon the parts of the foster mother, for cleansing the floors and sides of which, however, something stronger than soap in the way of disinfectant is best employed. In this connection every poultry keeper should invest in one of the bucket types of spraying machine. He will find it invaluable as an asset in quickly disin- fecting or lime washing a house, coop, or building, every crack or crevice being easily reached in a very short space of time. All sitting-boxes should be turned out and the litter burnt. They, together with the chicken coops, should undergo the disinfecting process. MAECH. This month, being between the summer and winter seasons, pro^ndes an opportunity for comparing notes. There can be only one paramount thought for this month, and that is to make our final selections from the stock. This is of the utmost importance, as is the bringing along of any of the earlier hatched stock into form. In feeding young stock, see that they get all they need. As the birds develop, they CALiENDAE OP WORK 229 will require more food, and while providing a liberal supply, see that it is of the best, or the maximum results are not likely to be obtained. While in the ordinary diet meat has not formed a part, a little can now be given with advantage aU round. The young stock will eat their food more readily, and the old ones will keep in better condition through it. All the growing stock can have plenty of milk and oat- meal, but not so much as to sicken them of it. Vary the foods as much as possible, for there is nothing like variety to keep the appetite keen. If allowed a free range, they are not likely to get too fat. March is usually an open month, bright and sunny, and therefore affords plenty of time to make final selections from the stock. Place all pullets intended for early autumn laying into the quarters that they are to occupy during the whole of the winter. Pullets dislike being changed once they are on the point of laying, and often resist it by going out of laying con- dition until the more natural season of the September following. Many poultry keepers do not differenti- ate sufficiently between autmnn and winter eggs. It is the autumn eggs that are so scarce and are most in demand. If April eggs are to be obtained, it natur- ally implies that the birds must be in their permanent quarters by March. It sometimes takes three weeks before birds settle down and actual laying com- mences. Weeding out ought to be finished this month. With the increased growth of the chickens it is im- perative that they should have every available space. There are many birds that could be placed on the stubbles, which are not used half as much as they should be. That they are rich in food is shown by the presence of floclffi of sparrows and other birds. It seems so strange that the farmer should prefer to allow wild birds the food his own birds might well 230 UTILITY POULTEY FARMING have. Place a lot of hens that are nearly laying, on the stubbles, and in a few days they are in full lay, the eggs are larger, and the birds thoroughly re- freshed by the change. If given a good house with plenty of fresh water, an excellent supply of eggs for the mere cost of gathering them is the result. Houses on the stubbles should be on wheels, and therefore easily movable. They should be moved a few yards every day, in order that the birds may thoroughly "search" the land all over. This is beneficial for the land, the fowls, and the farmer. New graia is not very suitable for birds in confinement, but for birds on a free range it will have no ill effect. The exercise provided by the foraging counteracts any trouble that might be caused when the birds are penned up. Stock birds are generally bought up extensively in March, as the time is drawing near when those which are intended for the earliest breeding should be mated. APRIL. April starts the winter season for poultry keepers; the real "winter laying" generally running from April to September, and therefore any outside work, such as painting, creosoting, or tarring, must be com- pleted. Look to spouts, eaves, and general drainage. Repair scratching sheds, and get in all necessary scratching material, grit, and other useful supplies for winter use. To be successful in winter egg pro- duction, several features or conditions must be secured in combiaation, and the lack of perhaps one of these features may nullify, to a large extent, the possession of all others. It is obviously impossible to lay down a hard and fast rule of procedure, for a great deal depends upon local conditions, individual circumstances, and the methods applicable. In the first place, however, there is no doubt that selection CAT.FTNDAB OP WORK 231 of the birds is aU-important. It is useless to choose those which axe not consistent with the breed they represent. There are standards for all breeds, and it is advisable to keep as near to the standard as possible. Then the question of housing is of very great importance, specially during the winter months. The winter is the unnatural season for e^ production, and to get a good supply of e^s at this period, no detail must be neglected, and no trouble spared on the score of inconvenience. Nothing spells disaster more surely than leaky roofs and draughty houses. Although birds can stand a good deal of cold outside, they simply detest wet litter when they come indoors. There must be sufficient litter to pro- vide tiiem with the maximum amount of exercise. The scratching sheds should be littered down to a depth of at least eight inches, with a little added each week. That which provides the maximum amount of exercise is undoubtedly long straw. At the end of two or three months, or when there is the slightest ammoniacal smeU arising from the litter, the whole of it shoidd be taken out and fresh put down. One can say, without fear of contradiction, that this scratching material and poultry manure is a very valuable by-product for anyone engaged in horti- cultural pursuits. It is not so strong as the pure poultry manure, and the addition of straw makes it d^irable in many cases, as the fibrous matter retains moisture and prevents the good effects from beiag washed through the soil too quickly. Finally comes the question of feeding. The great rock on which so many people come to grief with re- gard to winter e^s is that of feeding. If anything happens to a bird, it is nearly always put down to over-feeding. So far as winter egg production is concerned, this is a bogey that should be dispelled. 232 UTIIiITT POTTLTET FABMDTG Laying fowls need well feeding. It is practically impossible to over-feed a fowl in full lay. It is as well to remind the ten-o'elock-in-the-morning poultry- man that he is not likely to get his egg basket full in the winter. Between dusk and daylight the birds have a fast of about fifteen hours. It is, therefore, very important that they should not only go to roost with full crops, but be fed as early as possible in the morning. A hen may be compared in a sense to a muzzle-loading gun. You load the gun with powder, shot, and wadding, but if you omit to provide the means of igniting the powder, the gun is useless, and so it is with the laying hen. You may supply her with sufficient food to keep her in health and strength, but from this alone she can be ex- pected to spare none, or very little, for the manirfac- ture of eggs. As insect life is practically unobtainable at this time of the year, it is necessary to provide an equivalent in some form of animal food. This is to the hen what the percussion cap is to the gun; the spark which starts the egg organs into activity. The animal food may be given in the form of meat or cut bone. This must be served in a sweet, fresh state, as an extra tit-bit at noon. Should fresh meat not be procurable, granulated meat should take its place, but the latter must be fed with a mixture of meals. The birds should be brought on to this gradually, giving for a start, say, a quarter of an ounce per bird, three times a week. A hen can with safety be given up to two ounces per week, when in full lay during the winter. Grit or broken shells must always be before the birds, as well as clean water. Ducks.— In feeding ducks do not forget to supply some of their natural food, viz., fish. Though fresh fish cannot be given, fish-heads, etc. can be boiled CAI.ENDAB OP WORK 233 uatil soft, and with the bones ponnded up they go far to make a really fine addition to the menu of the duck. Too much must not be given where the e^s are used for culinary purposes. Ducks ^ould have grit, rough sand, meat or fish. Clover hay, scalded, may be used instead of cooked vegetables, especially during the breeding season, as it is an excellent pro- moter of fertility. Always remember that a bird cannot stand the oncoming winter and do its duty to- wards filling the e^-basket if it is out of condition. MAY. The poultry keeper should be seriously thinking by the end of this month of mating up his birds. Even if e^s are not wanted until weU into July, it some- times happens liiat some birds in the harem will not agree togelier, and others have to be introduced and given time to settle down. Therefw^ do not defer wiatJTig later than the end of this month. With all cnlls cleared out Mid stock birds mated, the bulk of the season's work is over, and just the ordinary routine has to be gone through daily. Birds should be fed aecording to the state of the weather, and on rations as well balanced as possible. Those that were late in moulting will be well through by Hie beginning or middle of the monli. A liberal mixed diet with plenty of green food, or liberty on a green grass run, will soon bring them on to lay, if Indian com or TwdiaTi meal be not used too freely. The birds that are to be used for breeding should have Hie best and most sheltered pens, so that, with fairly open weather, there will be a prospect of their laying when June sets in. So far as the breeding pens are con- cerned, these should not be fed on too stimulating a diet. Natnre's own course must be followed, Fordng for ^gs in the breeding pens will produce 234 UTILITY POULTRY PAEMING more dead in the shell and infertiles than live chicks. Where it can be avoided, do not use birds of the same age together. You must have some two-year-old stock on one side or the other, the female side for prefer- ence. To secure the winter egg, much depends upon when the prospective layets are hatched. If it were possible to take a census of the opinion of the many poultry keepers in New Zealand, it would result in widely divergent views as to how to develop and main- tain the winter laying powers of the average hen. In these days of high fecundity, when a hen can be bred to lay well over 300 eggs in twelve months, many would think the problem was solved. This is not so, as many would favour hens, others pullets, some sitters, and others non-sitters, while others again would pin their faith to a certain strain, breed, or variety. No matter which method is adopted, it is absolutely impossible to make up for lost time in the hatching and rearing of your future layers. The non-sitting breeds as a rule develop and mature more rapidly than the sitting varieties, and so need not be hatched so early. If sitters are hatched out in August or early Septem- ber, they wUl, if properly fed and cared for, be in good laying trim when the bad weather sets in, say by May, while with the light breeds, September or early October wiU be soon enough. One important item to observe this month is to give the birds a regular supply of green food. It is questionable if fowls in a confined run or pen can be kept healthy if green food be entirely withheld, but it is absolutely certain the egg supply would decrease. It is very rarely fowls eat more green food than is good for them, unless it is given them at unequal times and in un- equal quantities; then, possibly, they may get crop- CALENDAB OF WORK 235 bound, or suffer from sour crop. The layers should be supplied with some animal or nitrogenous food which has a stimulatiag effect on the ovaries or egg organs. Birds should not be kept under a coddling system, but reasonable care should be taken to main- tain the temperature of the house at something above the outside level. On very cold and wet days the birds are better confined in their combined houses and scratching sheds. JUNE. Probably June gives worse conditions for poultry keeping than any other month, but aU difficulties have to be overcome to obtain success. Whether fowls are kept as a hobby or as a commercial undertaking, everything possible must now be done to induce them to commence laying, for that is their mission in life, and when once they have made a start they must be kept at it. Partially boarding the fencing prevents the winds from driving across the runs, and so materially assists fertility in the breeding pen. The short days of June do not allow of much work being done out-of-doors, for the time is taken up with feeding and cleaning out, both very essential oper- ations if the birds are to thrive. Owing to the long nights, the houses ai-e now occupied much longer than they are in the summer, and less ventilation is al- lowed, so that unless they are cleaned out frequently, the air soon becomes foul and disease follows. Those houses with scratching-sheds are ideal for this weather, because the birds can be fed under cover, and then, if damp, they can dry off before going to roost. For fowls kept within enclosed areas, the opportunities for physical exercise are severely re- stricted, unless special steps are taken to provide it. Under such conditions, the tendency to increase the 236 UTILITY POULTBY FABMING body weight is altogether abnormal, whilst the absence of a natural environment makes for degeneracy. Fresh water must be provided daily ; if the weather is frosty, give the water luke warm. A small ledgs about a foot high should be provided for the vessel, so that straw is not scratched into it, thus making the water foul and tainted. If breeding stock has to be bought, see to it at once, as when the selection is left to the spring many of the best men have sold out the majority of birds, and this means taking what is left. When buying a pen of birds, let the breeder mate the stock. He will recommend a suitable mating because he knows how each one has been produced. The vendor is thus put on his honour. Pay a fair price, but do not expect pound birds for five shillings; but for a reasonable price, reasonable quality should be obtained. In mating up ducks, use a July or August hatched drake; it is generally labour in vain to depend on a two or three- year-old drake. This is usually the month of shows. When they are conducted in a friendly spirit the idea is good, and has stimulated many a man to better efforts, and made him a poultry enthusiast. To the open mind every class provides some lesson worth learning. The "know-aUs" usually fail because of their false attitude, as every man can learn something, and he who knows most usually learns most. To the beginner, the show is the best school he can attend. Here the best appear, and he has the opportunity of seeing how far he is from the ideal. As this is the end of the poultry year in New Zealand, all accounts should be squared up. Accounts give inter- estiag results, as by keeping proper records one can bring the balance forward monthly. Details of hatching experiences should be noted, and in fact all items of interest. The weak spots can thus, be seen CAIiENDAB OP WORK 237 at a glanee, and measures taken to prevent their recurrence. JULY. July often witnesses the birth of new hopes in the poultry world. So far as the poultry keeper is concerned it is the beginning of a new year. Poultry keepers, especially those who stock the heavy breeds, will during this month put down eggs in the hope of having some early chicks. During July the question of fertility wiU loom large on the horizon, for aU depends on it. In July it is not so easy to attain as in October or November, as it may be adversely affected by strong winds or bad weather. In some steep hilly pens, fertility is almost impossible during the cold months of July and August. Fertility from late hatched, weak, or debili- tated stock must not be expected. All birds in the breeding pens must be in prime condition; and they must possess every possible good quality. This period must, then, be the ideal time at which to com- mence breeding. This does not mean that a hen or pullet may not remain in good breeding condition for three or four months, but merely shows that if she has been allowed to lay freely for two or three months in advance of the breeding season, she has more or less wasted her best chick producing energies. A male bird wiU pay attention only to such of his mates as may be laying, or near it. It follows, therefore, that if you have but one laying bird in a pen, it is ex- tremely probable she will suffer from too frequent attention and get over fertilised. The begumer should therefore endeavour to make sure that two or more of the hens are somewhere near laying when mated up. If he cannot teU by the brilliance of the comb and wattles, the space between the end 238 UTIUTT POULTEY FARMING of the pelvic bones will afford him a good indication of the state of things. The beginner is often at a loss to know how many mates to put to a male bird. He must study his conditions, his run, and, above all, .his male, and then act accordingly. There is no definite number, since a vigorous cockerel at free range wiU fertilize all the eggs of a dozen pullets in midwinter, while another of the same variety in cramped quarters will manage only two, or at the most three of his mates successfully. In order to prevent too frequent inter- course, the roost should be visited three evenings a week, and the cock removed to a small pen and there confined until the afternoon feed on the day follow- ing, when he is again returned to his mates, having been liberally fed meanwhile. This little bit of extra trouble will be amply repaid by extra vigour in the chicks. The begianer should aim for and encourage a cock full of vim — ^the type that flies for his shins on his entering the pen — for the best sires have the highest spirits, are always crowing, and on the look out for a fight. Beware of the silent, greedy cock of peculiar action, for he vdll rarely beget vigorous progeny. Do not attempt to break records with breeding stock; three eggs per we'ek are often better than six from a chicken-rearing point of view. Hatch all varieties intended for exhibition at the early summer shows. Do not be afraid to use a little extra meat when the weather is very cold or frosty, for at this time of the year there is always a lack of insect life. During cold and frosty weather the eggs intended for hatching purposes should be collected several times a day, or their fertility will be weakened and may actually be destroyed. Colds will be a very common complaint at this season of the year and, as with human beings, there is no doubt that they CATiWNDAR OF WORK 239 are infectious, and very often go right through the yards. As the chickens will now have to be provided for it is advisable to look over the coops and foster mothers, and see that these are in good repair and working order. AUGUST. August usually brings better weather, and with it many would-be poultry keepers. Those intending taking up the business should not do so without studying the basic principles. Even to the veriest novice, it is quite unnecessary to say that before chickens can be had the e^s must be incubated, either under a hen or in a machine. This is a process lasting only twenty-one days, but if the e^s are very fresh, the chicks will often appear on the nineteenth or twentieth day. If the eggs are to be incubated under a broody hen, select a quiet one, and give her a good dusting with insect powder, for if she is troubled with insects she wiU not sit quietly and is liable to forsake her nest; see also that she does not suffer from scaly leg, or if she does, rub the legs over now and again with vegetable oil, tar, or kerosene. If this is not done, the chickens, after a time, will show signs of having contracted the complaint; and then more work than ever is caused. A couple of days previous to the chicks being hatched, give the hen a good dusting with insect powder; this will clear her of all lice. A clean, dry, open shed, unless a very sheltered position is available, will be found of great benefit for the first few weeks of the chickens' existence. The coops can be put under this, and thus there is some protection from the rough winds and cold storms that come upon us so suddenly at this season of the year. Even for the foster mother, such a shelter is of advantage, as the former wiU not need so much 240 TTTHilTT POUIiTBT PABMINQ attention with every gust of wind. The latter is treacherous, and may blow out the lamps of the brooder unless perfectly storm proof; and with wear the best of them go wrong. With the early hatches many breeders are worried by some of the chickens showing signs of leg weakness. In most eases this is really cramp, brought on by the cold or damp, or by being kept too long on boarded floors. Hundreds of chickens die every year through insufficient blood, it having been drawn from them by pests, which leave nothing to nourish the little chicks during the first few weeks of their existence. For ticks on the head, rub over a little ointment of veratrine, which will soon kill them. Very little of this ointment is needed. In feeding the youngsters, remember that the more they eat the better they wiU get on, but only as much food as they will readily consume should be given. Eggs laid on or after August 12th hatch out early ia September. August, for those who hatch in September, is a month of preparation; it is the month when animal and vegetable life begins to quicken, and one has only to look about to see that Nature is beginning to stir and make ready. Take every care with bought broodies: see that they do not introduce insects and disease germs into the hitherto clean yards. Just a little care now may save a lot of loss and worry later on. More than one poultry farmer has been put out of business altogether through a bought broody intro- ducing diphtheria and spreading it broadcast among the flock. SEPTEMBEE. September is pre-eminently a month of hard work for the poultry keeper; laying is at its height, chick rearing is in fuU swing, while incubators and sitting hens are likely to be taxed to the limit of their CALENDAR OP WORK 241 capacity. Now for the first time the enthusiastic novice begins to realise what a vast amount of hard work there really is in poultry farming. To the be- ginner who has limited accommodation, or even to the one who has plenty of room, the writer's advice is, get your first lot of eggs down in August, so that they begiB to hatch in September, as early as possible. Chickens hatched in September have before them the best part of the year in which to grow, since the days are lengthening and weather conditions daily improving. Yes, September is the great month for hatching out your main crop of chickens; it is the month that brings, in spite of its boisterous nature, the first breath of spring, the awakening of the life force that clothes the land with beauty. September is the time when those who are breeding poultry reap the reward of their labour of the past few months in the form of a fine flock of chickens. There is nothing more profitable to the exhibitor or utility poultry rearer than the Septem- ber hatched chickens, and every effort should be made to bring out as many as possible this month. To do this successfully, he should have made prepar- ations during July and August, so that everything wiU go smoothly when September arrives. The breeder who makes his plans beforehand is saving valuable time, and is building for good results. Hav- ing made up your mind, make a start to-day, as the successful poultry keeper is the man who sees what needs doing and does it. Although the chicken yards will be crowded with young life some of the best birds may be yet in the egg; but those not hatched out yet should soon do so. These will need to be fed for a quick healthy growth. A youngster which grows rapidly from the start looks very fresh and fit, and is possessed of excellent vitality. 242 UTILITT POtriiTRY FARMING September is the month also in which wild things are beginning to think of rearing their own broods and consequently they are to be feared by the poultry rearer most at this season. The principal enemies are rats, sparrow hawks, stoats, and weasels. A careful shutting up of all outer doors at diisk will do much to prevent mischief. September is a good month in which to examine carefully in turn aU the parent birds in the breeding pens, when perhaps un- expected things come to light. If a clean bill of health is the case, after a careful examination has been made of mouths for roup and Idndred troubles, of backs and flanks for gashes torn by the male bird, and of the vent for possible sores, few, if any, of which troubles by the way would probably be noticed without handling the stock, so much the better. Remedies for the above, if they exist, are siifiieiently obvious and well-known to render a de- tailed statement unnecessary here. Suffice it to say that isolation and individual treatment must be the immediate order of the day. In addition to any mishaps, it is useful to discover the state of fatness or otherwise of the various cocks and hens. One bird, maybe, is not getting enough, while another is in too fleshy a condition to produce a proper number of well fertilised eggs. You may, perhaps, discover that one or two of the older hens have not produced an egg since coming through the moult last autumn. OCTOBER. This is one of the most anxious months for the poultry breeder, and also one of the busiest. He will need to put in all his time, as, if he is doing a business in the sale of day-old chicks, he will find his hands fuU. Regarding the sale of eggs, these must be weU packed so as to reach their destination in a sound CALENDAR OP WORK 243 condition. Eggs with thin, fragile shells should never be sent away, as they are unsuitable for incubation purposes, and run great risk of breaking in transit. Boxes should be carefully corded and properly addressed. A wooden exterior divided internally with cardboard into compartments, each to hold one egg, is the best class of box for safe carriage. The lids of wooden boxes should never be nailed. One shudders to think of the effect upon the delicate yolks of the eggs during this operation. If the boxes are properly corded there is no need for naiMng ; at most a small thin screw at each end of the lid is all that is necessary, if cord is used as well. Broken yolks are a fruitful source of disappointment to the purchasers of sittings, and this can be avoided by careful packing and carriage. Live chickens are best sent at as early an age as possible, before they get strong enough to trample one another about, and can safely be despatched as soon as they are dry, as they will not require any food for many hours. There is undoubtedly a great future for those dealing in day-old chicks. In England, many men with less than half an acre of land are making a good living out of this particular business, and there is no reason why the poultry keeper in New Zealand, by adopting similar methods, should not add considerably to his income. The successful chicken rearer should be fuUy alive to the necessity of keeping his stock dry if he would rear the lot. Chickens are very fragile crea- tures, and the sudden and considerable changes of temperature often experienced during October cause the poultry man much anxiety for his broods. If a chick once becomes chilled during its early days, there is seldom a complete recovery, and, if success- fully reared, the injury to the constitution is never completely overcome. It is not safe to place much 244 UTILITY POULTRY FARMING value -upon stock that kas thus suffered, since they rarely prove profitable in any direction, no matter of what distinction their origin. The poultry keeper who has some early hatched chickens will be wondering if his matings have pro- duced birds up to his expectations. He wiU, however, have to wait and see how they develop. To stop hatching utility laying stock on the 11th is a most important rule to observe this month. Any eggs set after the 11th hatch out in November. Mark aU the October hatched chickais. Broodies will be plentiful ; even amongst Leghorns there is occasionally a reversion to the sitting instinct, though it is not advisable to set them. If it is your intention to feed the adult fowls on the dry mash system, begin with the youngsters, and rear them on dry mash and dry feed. Birds always do better on foods they are accus- tomed to from youth. Ovarian troubles may arise this month, also sheU-less eggs, double-yolked eggs, and protrusion of vent — ^the cause, nearly always, too stimulating a diet. What was merely a useful ration in June may be over stimulating in October. Foods which should be curtailed are: meat, dried or otherwise, fish, soft mash made of rich cooked foods. Those with birds in confined city runs must, however, still use some of this class of food. NOVEMBER. Of all the months in the year, November is the one which sees the fastest growth. Animal life is about in larvae, flies, caterpillars, and other tit-bits, and if the mother hen is given her way, she wiU almost provide for the chickens herself. Still, November is sometimes a wet month, so rearers have to avoid getting the little chicks bedraggled. Those having a special pen or one or two favourite hens may hatch CAIiENDAB OP WORK 245 a few more chickens. At this time of the year we may look for diarrhoea ia the sitting hen. "Biddy," although usually immune from most maladies, is frequently troubled with diarrhoea. This not only makes the fowl lose heat, but it puts her off her feed, and she is liable to foul the nest. The symptoms are, extreme looseness of the evacuations, which are often of a dull greenish tint, or almost black. There is always thirst, sometimes amounting to an insatiable craving. The trouble arises from indigestion or a lack of water from the very beginning, for an affected bird usually passes her com in an only partially digested state. Many a hen is shy when first let off the nest, which means she perhaps eats Uttie and drinks nothing. The outcome is a great thirst, excessive drinking, and bowel trouble. To cure such a hen, give her soft, easily digested food, with a littie diarrhoea powder mixed with it, and stir a few drops of chlorodyne iuto the drinking water. This will usually bring her round. The better plan is prevention. See that the broody is not worried by cantankerous company. Let her have all the water she wants. To withhold it or limit it only aggravates the trouble. Give her plenty of grit, shell, and a littie charcoal; instead of feeding with hard grain, such as "round com" or thin, husky barley, let her have some flat com (kibbled), plump barley, or Dari millet. Chickens should be hardened off at the earliest possible opportunily. As the birds grow, there is the choice of two things — ^putting them into larger quarters, or if this is not possible, thinning them out. "When chickens are crowded and ventilation is im- perfect the air becomes charged with carbon dioxide, which is of course, poisonous; this is breathed over and over again, and disease must eventually result in some form or other. Chickens naturally crowd 246 UTILITY POULTRY PAEMING when sleeping on the ground, henee they should be brought up on the fresh air system. Rather than keep our half-grown fowls in closed coops, we. should turn them into any old shed (providing it is dry and free from draughts). The earlier hatched chickens will be showing the sexes in a very marked manner this month, and it is advantageous for both sexes to separate them. The cockerels in many cases wiU be crowing and easily sorted out: these should be herded together and housed away from the sight of their sisters. To dis- tinguish a cockerel from a pullet, before a cockerel crows, is sometimes difficult, especially in the heavy breeds. The feathers about the middle of the back are of some service in deciding this point j those that are very pointed indicating cockerels, and the flat, oar-shaped feathers, pullets. These feathers must be looked for; they will be seen pushing their way through the first set of feathers, and under them. By the end of this month there will be no further need for any of the breeding pens, and the inmates can be more easily attended to in one or two con- venient sized flocks. It is well to dispose of the cockerels if not for use again; and except for line- breeding, a cockerel of the current year is generally preferable. Any females not wanted again for breed- ing purposes may be disposed of at once, or forced for eggs until the moult approaches, and then sent to the market or saleyards. November is a good month to hatch turkeys. Hatching geese, too, must not be over- looked. Grass runs need attention. It is better to remove the crop of hay than allow it to die down. ReaUy, the more frequently the grass is cut the more manure is absorbed and the sweeter the run. CATiKNDAR OP WORK 247 DECEMBEE. Generally, December is a warm congenial month, in which chickens progress rapidly. We have to reiterate the advice previously given with regard to cleanliness. It is not enough to have the floor clean, but the house must be free from vermin. Hot weather is the happy time for all insect pests, and they breed rapidly, but it is also the best time for ridding the house of them, because any sort of wash dries quickly. The usual high temperature of December makes it one of the favourite months for cleaning the poultry house. Some carbolic added to the whitewash spray used will soon destroy aU pests, and also act as a disinfectant. When whitewashing is done in the morning it is dry at night, so that the fowls can go back again to roost. Tar is excellent for the roofs, while creosote is a fine dressing for the sides, for it catches any spare insects which the white- wash has missed. To make the best use of it, it should be applied on an intensely hot day ; every door, window, screen, and ventilator should be closed, the birds, of course, being outside. The fumes generated are very powerful, and go through every chink and crevice of the house or building. After being dosed for an hour, open every door, etc., and allow the greatest possible draught through to remove the fumes. If insects are going to be troublesome, it wiU be during this month. It is just as weU to look over the stock occasionally, and if any lice are found, apply one or other of the well-known insect powders. An youngsters can leave the hens now, at four weeks of age, and they wiU be aU the better in a roomy house where the air is fr^ih, but at the same time free from draughts. Separate the cockerels and pul- lets, and put into convenient lots for handling. They win be found to do best in separate flocks of eight or Q 248 UTHJTT POUIiTET FABMING ten pullets and six cockerels; then, with a fair sized run, they are not crowded, and it does not foul quickly, but at the same time you have them always under your eye. No man can see fifty as he can ten fives. They pass before him, as it were in sections, and he has a better chance of detecting any trouble. The cockerels may be a little troublesome in settliag down, but if any old bird is put in the same run, he will prevent fighting, besides feeling brighter him- self. It is not often there is any trouble with the pullets. Occasionally they wiU not rest contented with new quarters and, probably, new mates; then the trouble is soon abated by adding a cock for three or four days, and, at the same time, he will not hurt the pullets. These older chickens need be fed only three times each day. The first meal must be given early, the second one say, between one and two, and the last one from seven to eight o'clock. This will give the birds a chance to rest between times, and, though exercise is a good thing, it is well to see chickens sitting down occasionally, as if they were contented with their lot and perfectly happy. They will also be ready for their next meal, which is again better than feeding when half hungry. The secret of safe rearing is to leave them on the short side. If a "standing dish" is provided, it naturally has the effect of diminishing the appetite, and the chicks become satiated. Make a practice of giving some Epsom salts in the drinking water once a week during the summer — only enough to flavour it, sind not enough to cause purging. On other days, just colour the water with Condy's fluid, which also cleanses the intestines and being iron, will act also as a slight tonic. Remember that fowls suffer from the heat just as hiunan beings do, and any little help GLOSSAET OF TECHNICAL TEEMS 249 like this will be shown in the results and the health of the stock. Keep a sharp look-out for incipient disease. Some birds find it easier to contract a chUl in the hot months than later on. There is always great danger of overcrowding this month, as adult stock is still on hand. One must not yield to these conditions, for overcrowding means delayed maturity. Many poultry farmers grumble at not getting eggs in May. This is no doubt the result of birds being overcrowded iu December, as they must have room to develop. Chaptee XVI. GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS USED BY POULTRY KEEPERS. A.O.C. — ^Any other colour. A.O.Y. — ^Any other variety. Balanced Ration. — ^Referring to the proportion of albuminoids in a ration in comparison with that of carbohydrates. Barred — ^Dark and light stripes across a feather. Bean. — Dark marking on duck's beak. Beefy. — ^Applies to a large coarse grained comb. Bloom. — Gloss on feathers — condition or sheen. Brassy. — ^YeUow feathers on shoulders and hackles of cockerels. Breast. — From point of breast-bone to throat in live fowl: each side of breast-bone in dead (table) fowl. Breed. — ^A certain kind of fowl having particular characteristics. Kind or family of a fowl. Brood. — ^Number of chicks under one hen. Brooder-house.— Large accommodation for chicksj divided into sections; artificially heated. 250 UTILITY POULTRY PAEMING Brows. — Overhanging eyebrows of a Malay fowl. Capon. — ^An emasculated male bird. Carriage.- — The style of a fowl. Chick. — Newly-hatched — up to a few weeks old. CWcfeew.— Term applied until twelve months old. Clean Legged. — ^Minus feathers on leg (opposite term to feather legged). Cobby. — Sturdily built and compact in form. Cockbreeder. — A term applied to birds, male or female, which produce better exhibition males than females. Cockerel. — ^A young male till the stage of first adult moult. Colony House. — ^A movable house to accommodate up to twenty-five birds, and used in open fields, on stubble, for instance. Comb. — Fleshy ornament on the head ,of a fowl (either sex). Comb Over. — Comb dropping over to one side of head ; a fault only in male birds. Condition. — The state of a bird's health or plumage. Coop. — Small accommodation for hen and chickens, or for the suppression of broodiness. Coverts. — ^Wing coverts or bars, applied to feathers that partially cover stiff flight feathers of the wing. Tail coverts, small curved feathers at root of tail. Cradle Comb. — ^A term usually applied to the Wyandotte's rose comb. Crammer. — A machine for "cramming," used in fattening table poultry. Crest. — Tuft of feathers on top of head. Crop. — Fowl's food receptable at bottom of neck in front of the breast-bone. Crossbred. — ^A blend of two or more varieties. Cull.- — A "waster," not up to standard require- ments, or malformed. GLOSSABT OF TECHNICAL TERMS 251 Deep Bodied.— Oi great depth from back to breast. Deep Ears. — Ear lobes. Dished. — ^A lobe which is hollow in the centre and elevated at the edges. Double Laced. — An inner ring or marking on feathers of Indian Game; also on outer edging of ground colour beyond the black lacing of Wyandottes. Dry Mash. — ^A composition of meals, bran, etc., fed to fowls in hoppers without any addition of water. A popular method of feeding fowls kept intensively. Duihing. — Cutting off the comb and wattles, etc., to leave the head smooth and clean. Duck Foot. — The back toe being carried closely to other toes instead of being well spread out behind. Ear Lobes. — The folds of sMn that hang below the ears. Red or white according to variety. Feather Legged. — Having feathers at the sides of the shanks and feet, such as in Brahmas. First Gross. — ^Bred from two pure varieties only. Flights. — The primary feathers of the wing, used in flying, but folded out of sight when not being used. Fhiff. — The downy part of the feathers. Footings. — Foot feathers of feather-legged varieties. Furnished. — Fully feathered. Fit in plumage. Gay. — The high or "squirrel" tail; also the "heavy" splashes in Anconas, etc. GUIs. — Region of the tiroat and the wattles. Gobbler. — Male turkey. Green Bone. — Fresh cut bone from butcher's; nothing to do with colour. Gullet.— Vsuallj applied to a loose pouch of sMn from under the mandible of a Toulouse goose. Hackles. — The narrow feathers on necks of fowls and saddles of cocks. Hamgers. — The shorter sickle-like feathers at the base of a cock's tail. 252 UTILITY POULTET PABMING Hard-feathered. — Tight feathering. Feathers having a hard appearance. Heavy Breeds.- — The sitting varieties. Hen Feathered. — ^Males like a hen in plumage. "Henny" males. Having no sickle or hackle feathers. High in Back. — ^A deformity of the back; round- shouldered, tantamount to hump-backed. Hock. — Joint between shank and thigh. In-breeding. — ^Breeding from blood relations. In-kneed. — ^Knock-kneed. Intensive System. — ^A method of keeping fowls, entirely in either large or small houses. Knock-kneed. — Having hocks near together. Lacing. — The outer edge of a feather, a darker hue than the ground colour. Late-hatched. — Hatched out after October. Line-ir ceding. — A term applied to a system of breeding from partly related birds. Breeding sys- tematically, keeping blood of each parent to certain defined mathematical proportions. Lobe. — ^An appendage on the side of a fowl's face, sometimes termed the ' ' deaf ear. ' ' Low Built. — Short on the leg ; body near ground. Mandibles. — The upper and lower beak. Mealy. — ^BujBf feathers dotted with white spots, giving a generally mealy appearance. Mossy'. — Confused indistinct markings. Moult. — The easting of a fowl's feathers. Muff. — Side whiskers, and beard on the heads of some French breeds. Non-sitters. — Breeds not given to broodiness. Pea Comb. — A triple comb, three small combs side by side, the middle one being the highest. Pen. — Enclosure for fowls. PewciiZmgr.^Narrow stripes across a feather either straight or crescent shaped. GLOSSABT OP TECHNICAL TERMS 253 PencUly. — Comb with thin, peneil-like spikes. Peppered. — Small black spots on feathers. Poult. — ^A young turkey. Primaries. — The first ten feathers in a fowl's wings. Pullet. — A female till the first moult, after which it is called a hen. Pure. — ^Without any alien blood; not "crossed." Quill-hound. — Retention of the web of a feather in its sheath. Racy. — ^Alert, stylish, slim. Beachy. — Term applied to height. Roach Bocft.— Having a hump on the back like a roach, bad fault. Rooster. — The popular nsune in America for a cock. Rose Comb. — A broad full comb, and covered with small points. Saddle. — Part of the back reaching to the tail in a cock ; cushion in hens. Sappy. — Cream tinge or sap on white plumage. Scales. — The homy sheaths on the legs. Secondaries.- — The quill feathers of the wing, or the second lot of stiff flight feathers. Self Colour. — Single uniform colour all over bird. Serrations. — Spikes on a single comb; should be wedge shaped. Shaft. — Stem or quill of feather. Shafty. — Quill of the feather lighter than the ground colour. Shank. — The scaly part of the leg. Sheen. — Gloss on plumage ; condition. Sickles. — The top pair of curved feathers on a cock's tail. Side Sprigs. — Extra spikes at side of the comb, bad fault. 254 UTILITY POULTET FARMING Single Comb. — As opposed to Rose or Pea comb, upright in the case of a cock, falling over in case of hen. Sitters. — ^Varieties that incubate their eggs. Smut. — Smoke coloured under colour in Buff and Red fowls. Spikes.- — Comb serrations. Spur. — Homy spike on male's shank (for defence). Squirrel-tailed. — Tail feathers almost reaching to the neck. Stag. — ^Young Game cock; Turkey cock. Standard. — ^A scale of points for judging exhibition poultry, table poultry, and eggs. Strain. — Special quality in a fowl which is per- petuated in its progeny. Striping. — ^Marking in neck and saddle hackles. Style. — Build, character, shape, etc. Symmetry. — Balance and perfection of proportion. Tail Coverts. — Curved feathers at root of tail. Tail Feathers. — Stiff and straight feathers only of the tail. Team. — ^Number of birds shown by one exhibitor. Thighs. — The joints above the shanks. The drum- stick in dressed fowls. Thumi Mark. — Indentation in comb like "thumb mark. ' ' Ticking. — Speck of dark colour on a light ground colour. Tight. — Glued down appearance of feathers. Top-knot. — The crest^ bunch of feathers on the top of the head. Trio. — A cock and two hens. Under-colour. — The fluff or part of the feathers seen only when the plumage is opened. Variety. — The division of a breed by colour or marking. GLOSSABY OF TECHNICAL TEBMS 255 Wattles. — Hed hanging flesh under heak. De- veloped most in the male birds. Weh. — ^Plat skin between toes, flat pai-t of feathers. The web of the wing is the skin seen when it is extended. Wing Bar. — ^Bar caused by wing coverts. Wing Bay. — The tJiree-comered part of the folded wing between the wing bar and point below the bar. Wing Bow. — Shoulder part of wing, above the bar. Wing Butts. — Ends or corners of the Aving, the upper ends being the shoulder butts, and lower ones the lower butts. Wing Coverts. — The broad feathers covering the roots of the secondary quills. Wry-tail. — ^A tail carried to one side of the body, level with centre of back. Deformity. 256 UTILITY POUI/TEY PABMIN6 APPENDIX I. THE POINTS OF A FOWL -5 1. Beak or Mandible. 11. Breast. 21. Wing bay or 2. Eye. 12. Wing bow. secondaries. 3. Face. 13. Wing bar or coverts. •22. Saddle hackle. 4. Wattle. 14. Thigh. 23. Sickles. 5. Ear-lobe, or deaf ear. 15. Shank. 24. Tail coverts or 6. Tuft covezing the ear. 16. Toes. hen tail. 7. Comb. 17. Hocks. 25. Stiff or hen tail. 8. Spike or serration. 18. Spur. 26. Keel, in varieties 9. Neck hackle. 19. Back toes. where this is 10. Back or saddle. 20. Fluff. prominent. •In the hen this part is termed the " Cushion.'' APPENDICES 257 APPENDIX II. THE SKELETON OF A FOWL. The drawing and accompanying details, which are by Mr. Will Hooley, can be followed quite easUy. We wiU begin with (1) the beak — ^ia more scientific terms, the mandibles, upper and lower. No. 1 is the most liable to injury and, if broken, the bird is unable to eat grain, or pick up any kind of food. No. 2 we see is apparently hinged to lie base of the skull. (3) The skull, cranium, or occipital area, is apparently in one piece, but until the birds approach the adult stage the bones are very distinct. The skull is exceedingly light, and consequently easily injured. (5) Inter orbital foramen. Immediately below figure 5 we see a very large space, which is occupied by the eye, the eyes being separated by a very thin plate of bone. The nasal cavities are also separated by a very thin bone. The reader will see by this how intimately connected is the eye with the nostril. This also ex- plains why the bird lifts its head after each sip of water. If it did not do so the water would run out of the nostrils. (4) The "atlas," and immediately be- low this is the "axis," a sort of pivot, which enables the bird to turn its head literally back to front, and so look at you while it runs away. The humane poultry keeper should make a note of the position of the "axis," because this is the easiest point to dis- locate the neck. (6) These are merely the vertebrae, known as the "cervical" vertebrse, cervical referring to the neck. (7) Commonly known as the "merry thought," really the "clavicle." (8) The terminal of the clavicle, which has much to do with the closing of the wings, muscles being attached to it that prob- 258 UTILITY POULTEY FABMING APPENDICES 259 ably act as a spring. (9) The corocoid, a bone which connects the sternum with the scapula and back of the bird. (10) The humerus, the first wingbone, is connected with the end of the corocoid and scapula or shoulderblade. (11) Ulna. (12) Radius. These two bones may rightly be termed the forearm of the bird : they carry the stiff flight feathers known as the secondaries, the feathers which show a triangular patch when the wing is closed. In preparing a bird for table the trussing needle should pass through these. (13) The metacarpal bones. This further extension of the wing carries the "primaries" or flight feathers: it is only these feathers that need to be cut to prevent a bird's flying. This part is also termed the manus or hand of the fowl, (14) and (15) being the rudimentary digits. (14) carries a tuft of feathers and a sharp claw, which the bird uses in climbing a fence, and which scratches when the bird is caught. (16) are the carpal or wrist bones. (17) scapula or shoulderblade — ^the drawing in profile shows only one. They complete the mechanism of flight. (18) is a peculiar isolated vertebra in the middle of the back, the part towards the neck being the dorsal portion, under which lie the dorsal verte- brae, whilst towards the stem we have the lumbar, or sacral vertebrae, terminating in (20) the caudal verte- brae. It must not be thought that these bones are easily discerned, for, with the exception of the thoracic vertebrae (13) they are covered with a bony plate. (19) This is the acetabulum, in the orifice of which the thigh-bone rests. If the flesh be cut from the carcase, this flat bone wiU be found to have an arrowhead pointing to the middle of the back, at the side of which is the orifice referred to. Immediately behind this we may notice a very useful hole through which the poulterer takes the trussing needle when trussing with 260 UTIUTT POULTET FAEMING string. (20) The caudal vertebrae, and the six fused bones to the rear of them, the "pygo- style," which support the sickle feathers of the fowl. (21) The very interesting "pelvic girdle." Width here is indicative of a lajdng condition, and narrowness of the non-productive state. Near laying time there may be a width of two to three inches. This part of the fowl is no doubt best known of any. Many of our New Zealand utility men have made an exhaustive study of it. (22) The femur, the first bone of the leg from the body. The socket is of quite a delicate nature, and is easily strained through catching by one leg. Nothing may be noticed at the time, but a day or two afterwards, when the incident is probably forgotten, a "mysterious lameness" appears and liver disease is suspected! (23) The second bones of the leg, the "tibia," and a thin bone alongside the "fibula" or brooch bone. Where these bones join (22), we see bones that are practically the "patella" of the fowl. (24) Tarsometarsus, the shank of the fowl. (25) Digits, or toes. (26) Spur. (27) The sternum, or breast bone, shaped very much like the keel of a boat. The breast muscles are attached to this. (28) Two first, free or floating ribs, as they are not attached at one end; these are the cervical ribs. (29) The thoracic ribs, which are attached to the sternum. These have a short rib, which brackets them together, except the last, which renders eaponising a possible task. (30) The ischium dermit, from ischo, to hold. (32) Styloid process of sternum. (33) The dorsal verte- brae immediately below (17). (34) Calcaneum. (35) Spine sternum. INDEX Age of breeding stock, 49 Air space, 14, 27 Albuminoids, 113 American Mammoth Bronze turkey, 196 Anconas, 156-157 Andalusians, 158 Aniseed, 207 Anoemia, 202 Apoplexy, 202 April, work for, 230-233 Areca nut, 217 Aristotle, 65 Artificial incubation, 74-88, 190 ; controversy regarding, 74 Artificial method of rearing, 93-101 Asafffitida, 152, 214 Asthenia, 202 August, work for, 239-240 Aylesbury ducks, 183, 188 Backyarder's House and Run, 32-35 Balancing the ration, 55, 121, 125 Barley, 119 Bendigo single test, 162 Bicarbonate of soda, 222 Black-breasted 6ame, 47 Blackhead, 200 Black Leghorns, 164 Black Minorca, 158, 168 Black Norfolk turkey, 197 Black Orpingtons, 146, 161, 169 Black Wyandotte, 68 Blood meal, 121 Bone meal, 124 Bone mUl, 24, 117, 121 Boracic acid powder, 220 Boracic lotion, 208 Bran, 117, 125, 132, 148, 217 Branches of poultry industry, 7 Bread and milk, 199, 207 Breeding stock, 57-58, 64-74; chart, 70-73 ; first crosses, 73; feeding of, 52, 116 Bromide of potaslsium, 202 Bronchitis, 204 Brooder, heated, 95-97 ; nnheated, 97-101 Brooder houses, 38 Broodies, to select, 89 Broodiness, 42, 89, 143, 174, 198 Brown Leghorns, 165 Buckwheat, 120 Buff Orpingtons, 172 Buff Plymouth Bocks, 174 Building paper, to prevent draughts, 34 Bumble foot, 205 Calendar of work, 223-249 Calomel, 214 Cambridge Bronze turkey, 196; grey, 196 Camphor, as disinfectant, 33 ; for colds, 207 Campines, 158 Canker, 205 Carbohydrates, 106, 112, 113, 116, 117, 129 Carbolic acid, 206, 209, 214 Carbonate of iron, 207 Carbonate of potassium, 213 Cayuga ducks, 189 Charcoal, 106, 214, 220 Chickens, feeding of, 103 Chick colony house, 38, 106; toe- punch, 142 Chlorodyne, 206 Cholera, 205, 212 Cicero, 68 Cleanliness, 14 ; of brooders, 99 ; of soU, 139, 200, 203, 219 Cloacitis, 206 Clover fields, 39 Coddling, danger of, 107 Cod liver oil, 207, 220 Colds, how to prevent, 26 ; to cure, 206 Comb guard, 150 Condy's crystals, 189, 202, 206, 208, 213, 222 Cooling eggs during incubation, 81 Coop, for hen and chickens, 101 Cramp in chickens, 207, 220 Creolin, 218 Creosote, 215, 216, 217, 220, 221 Crop binding, 207 Cross-breeding, 65, 69, 73 Culling, 55, 108, 148 Damp, injurious, 16, 107, 200, 204 Darbyshire, Professor, 70 Davenport, Prof. Eugene, 50 December, work for, 247-249 Diarrhoea, 205, 212 Diphtheric roup, 209 Diseases, resulting from neglect, 41; prevention of, 152; 201- 223 Dorkings, 159 Douglas Mixture, 220 Draughts harmful, 15, 25, 204, 207, 210 Drinking water, 23, 191 Dropping boards, 20, 25, 46, 138, 202 Dropsy of wattles, 216 Drying box, 154 261 262 INDEX Dry mash feeding, 116, 124, 126- 135 Ducks, 182-194, 232 Dust bath, 21, 33, 91, 102, 218 Earthenware vessels, 210 Egg, analysis of, 115 Egg-bound, 210 Egg-eating, 20, 42, 211 Egg production, 11, 43, 50, 60, 112; feeding for, 114, 122; eight essentials for, 123 Egg recording, 142 Egg testing, 82, 92 Egyptian egg ovens, 76 Enteritis (contagious), 212 Epsom salts, 115, 149, 202, 206, 211, 214, 217, 221 Ergot, 210 Eucalyptus, 214 Exercise, 40, 192, 207, 215 Exhibition poultry, 146-156 ; turkeys, 198 Exhibition records, 145 Experience, necessity for, 8 External parasites, 217 Eats, 113, 125 Fattening poultry, 120, 192, 201 PavuB, 212 Eeather-eating, 42; plucking, 213 "Feathered World, The," 126, 131, 135 Feathers, 138 February, work for, 226-228 Peed boxes, 21, 33, 135 Feeding, of male birds, 52; of chickens, 103 ; in general, 110-137; importance of varied diet. 111; of breeders, 115 ; preparation of food, 116; animal foods, 105, 121; for hard shell eggs, 124; of exhibition birds, 148; of ducks, 191; of goslings, 196; of turkeys, 199 Feed plant, 23 Pelch's Breeding Chart, 70-73 Felt, fixing with laths, 46 Females, selection of, 6B-57 Fenugreek, 207 Fire extinguishing powder, 46 Fish meal, 121 Pleas, 218 Pood, preparation of, 116; analysis of, 128 Pood values, 112-125, 128 Formulas, for dry mashes, 138-134 Poster-mother, 93-101 Foul ground, 139 Fresh air, need for, 13 Friar's balsam, 204, 207, 221 Fruit growing in conjunction with poultry, 12 Galvanised iron, objection to, 33 Game, black-breasted, 47; Indian, 160 Gapes, 213 Geese, 195-196 Gentian, ground, 207, 214 Glauber salt, 208 Glossary of poultry terms, 249-255 Glycerine, 204, 206, 209, 221 Going Light, 202 Golden "Wyandotte, 178 Grass, 104, 112, 117, 191, 196, 197 Grass run, 27, 29 Gravel run, 28 Green cut bone, 106, 114, 121 Green food, 27, 29, 104, 112, 114, 191, 207, 217 Grey Toulouse Geese, 195 Grist mill, 24 Grit, 22, 23, 91 Groats, 104, 215 Handling show birds, 151, 154 Hatching chicks, 74-93; ducks, 190 ; geese, 195 ; turkeys, 199 Hawkesbury Agricultural College, 162, 170 Heated brooder, 95-97 Hogan, 53 Hopper, dry mash, 135 Hospital, fowls', 42, 201 Hot-air Incubator, 76, 84 Hot-water incubator, 76, 84 Housing, 12-46 Hyposulphate of soda, 206 In-breeding, danger of, 8; system- atised, 64 Incubation, of fowls, 74-93 ; of ducks, 190; of geese, 196; of turkeys, 199 Incubator room, 86-38; preparing incubator for use, 76 ; records, 144 Indian Game, 160 Indian Runner Ducks, 183-186, 192 Intensive house, 43-45, 167 Intensive system, 40-45 Iodine, 207, 216, 221 Iodoform powder, 205 Ipecacuanha wine, 204 Iron, 202 Izal powder, 18, 21, 91, 102, 218 Izal veterinary fluid, 20, 29, 89, 200, 205, 206, 212, 216 January, work for, 224-225 Judges of exhibits, 147 July, work for, 237-239 June, work for, 235-237 INDEX 263 Kellner, quoted, 128, 129 Kerol, 200, 218 Kerosene oil, 215 Khaki Campbell Ducks, 186-187 192 Kidneys, disease oi, 111 Kleins, 212 Labour saving, 39, 117 Lady Constant, 162 Lady Cornwall, 62, 161 Lady Bgg-a-Day, 172 Lady West, 62, 69, 163 Langshan, 171 Late moulters, 56 Layers, eharacteristics of, 56, 62 Leghorns, 160-167 Lettuce, 104, 117, 215 Lice, 101-102, 218, 219 Light Brahma, 174 Lime, 18, 124; lime water, 217; hot lime, 218 Line-breeding, 64-73 Linseed meal, 120, 207 Liquorice powder, 207 Litter, use of, 29, 31, 45; clean- liness of, 99 ; sawdust or chaff, 105, 109, 191, 200, 202 LiTer, disease of. 111, 214 Location of poultry farm, 10-12 Lucerne, 39, 104, 117, 122 Maize, 91, 119 Male factor in breeding, 50-52 Management, general, 187-146 Manure, poultry, 137 March, work for, 228-280 Martock duck, 187 Mating of breeding stock, 59- 61 ; of geese, 195 ; of turkeys, 197-199 May, work for, 283-235 Meat, 105-106, 114, 121, 191 Medicines, 220-223 Mid'dlings, 120 Milk, skimmed, 106, 122, 192 Minorcas, 167 Mites, 218; depluming mites, 218 Moisture requisite for incubation, 83 Mongrels, disapproval of, 9, 61 Moulting, late, 56 Movable hoiises, 18, 83, 34 Natural incubation, 88-98 Natural method of rearing, 93, 101-2 Nest boxes, 20, 24, 25, 34, 218 Nitric acid, 205, 214 Nitrogenous food, 114, 121 Norfolk black turkey, 196 November, work for, 244-246 Number of fowls, 14, 27 Nutritive value of foods, 112-125, 128 Oatmeal, as chick food, 104, 120 ; for show birds, 148, 214 Oats, 118, 198 October, work for, 242-244 Olive oil, 150, 206, 210, 222 Organs and ovary of hen, 54 Orpington Ducks, 189, 192 Orpingtons, 169 Outbreeding, 65 Overcrowding stock, evils of, 100, 203 Papanui, 163, 174, 183 Paraffin, 219 Parasites, 217, 218 Partridge Wyandottes, 180 Peameal, 105, 120, 148 Peas and beans, 120 Pedigree register, 9 Pekin ducks, 189 Perches, 19, 25, 26, 205 Perchloride of iron, 209, 216, 221 Permanganate of potash, 139, 202 206, 208, 222 Peroxide of hydrogen, 209 Plato, 65 Pliny, 75 Plymouth Eocks, 173-174 Points in selection of a male bird, 51 Points of a fowl, 256 Pollard, 105, 113 "Poultry World, The," 203 Poults, 200 Protein, 112, 118, 115, 121, 122 Protrusion of egg passage, 211 Pullets, accommodation for, 26 should not be bred from, 61 should not lay too young, 64 forced by meat ration, 106 preparation for show, 150 Pure breeds, superior to mongrels, 61 Pyrethrum, 218 Quarantine, 156 Ration, laying and living, 114 Eatios, nutritive, 113, 129 Bearing chickens, 39, 93-109; ducks, 191 ; geese, 195 ; turkeys, 199 Records to be kept, 142-145 Red Mites, 219 Rheumatism, 222 Rhode Island Reds, 146, 174-177 Rhubarb, Turkey, 214, 222 "Rightabout," 116, 126-135 R 264 INDEX Kings, use of, 9 Kouen Ducks, 188 Roup, 209 Runs, 26, 27, 200 Salicylate of soda, 207, 214 Salt, 209, 217 Santonin, 217 Scabies, 218 Sawdust, value of, 109 Scaly legs, 91, 215 Scientific or line-breeding, 64-73 Scratdiing-shed houses, 17 ; system, 24-31; house des- cribed, 29-30; value of the system, 31, 40 Selection of stock, 47-63 September, work for, 240-242 Shade for show birds, 149; for ducklings, 191 ; for young turkeys, 200 Shell and grit, 22, 217 Shell of egg, 124 Shell-less eggs, 198, 217 Shelter, 17 Shooting the red, 200 Show, preparation for, 148 Silver Wyandottes, 146, 178 Simple, 212 Single pen testing, 53, 62-64, 142 Site, selection of, 10-12 Sitting box, ideal, 91 Size of poultry farm, 11 Skeleton of a fowl, 257-260 Sodium bicarbonate, 222 Soft-shelled eggs, 198, 217 Soil for poultry farm, 11 Sour crop, 209 Specialisation, the best road to success, 7, 146 Standard of perfection, 146 Statement of receipts and expen- diture, 145 Stock, selection of, 47-63 Storing food, etc., 24 Strain, 9, 10, 47 Stubble Houses, 18 Stud Register, 144 Sulphate, of copper, 210 ; of iron, 217, 220, 221; .of magnesia, 214; of soda, 213, 217; of zinc, 209 Sulphur, 202, 206, 207, 209, 213, 215, 216, 218, 221 Sulphuric acid, 204, 205, 220 Sunflowers, 136 Sunshine, 16, 202, 214 Sussex, 177 Sweating, so-called, in brooders, 98 Tank incubator, 84 Temperature for incubation, 79, 87; for brooder, 95 Testing eggs during incubation, 82, 92 Tests for egg-laying capacity, 55 Thatch roof, 37, 88 Tincture of iron, 208, 209, 221 Toe punching chickens, 140-142 Trap-nesting, 53, 62, 142 Trough, food, 135 Tubercular troubles, 98 Tuberculosis, 215 Turkeys, 40, 196-201 Turning eggs during incubation, 81 Turpentine, 214, 222 Types, tendency to change, 61 Unheated brooder, 97-101 United States, 24, 38, 44, 87, 157, 158, 174 Utility Poultry Club's competi- tions, 162, 166, 183, 193 Vaseline, carbolised, 208, 222 Vegetable food, 104, 112, 117, 122 Ventgleet, 206 Ventilation, 13, 15, 25, 36; of incubator room, 36, 79, 87; of brooders, 96, 99, 200, 202, 210 Vermin, 102, 109 Vinegar, 207 Washing show birds, 152 Water fountains, 23 Water, drinking, 106, 115, 202, 221 Water, swimming, not necessary for ducks, 186 Wattles, swollen, 216 Wheat, 117, 198 White Bmbden Geese, 195 White Leghorns, 40, 44, 60, -69, 115, 146, 160, 161, 164, 183 White Orpingtons, 173 White Plymouth Rocks, 174 Whitewash, S3, 34, 217 White Wyandottes, 178 Windows, 23, 34 Winter laying 31, 56, 57, 67, 172, 173 Worms, 217 Wounds, treatment of, 207 Wyandottes, 178-181 Zinc ointment, 151, 206, 223 Zinc oxide, 149, 206 Printed by Whitconibe dt Tombs Limitetl G336313 THOMAS DOUTHWAITE NEW ZEALAND'S PREMIER DUCK BREEDER. The Headquartefs for New Zealand's Finest, Genuine Pedigree Layers of .-. WHITE, also FAWN &. WHITE .-. INDIAN RUNNER DUCKS and SILVER WYANDOTTES rjlHE SUPEEIOEITY OP MY STEAINS is well known and proven. My customers are constantly right in the front ranks at UTILITY BSHIBITIONS and LAYING CONTESTS. In Exhibitions and Laying Competitions they have hundreds of prizes to their credit. My Ducks hold the Highest Public Eecord (for 6 ducks) in the Auckland Province with 1453 eggs in twelve months. My Runner Duck in 1921 and 1922, Papanui Laying Competition laid 327 eggs in twelve months. My Silver Wyandottes have held the Wyandotte Shield on Two occasions in the Papanui Laying Competition. In the Show Pen, Prizes won by my EUNNBES and WYANDOTTES have been won at the leading SHOWS and in the keenest COMPETITION. EGGS and BIRDS FOR SALE at Reasonable Prices. PREMIER WYANDOTTE & RUNNER DUCK FARM, Avondale South, AUCKLAND. UTILITY WINNERS DOUBLE YOUR PROFITS. BUY FROM THE BREEDER. My Records are : FIRST PRIZE— Cup and Gold Medal. Mount Albert Egg laying Competition, 1921 and 1922. Indian Runner Duck laid 335 eggs in 365 days (500 competitors) . SPECIAL CERTIFICATE for Runner-up 1920-21, 304 eggs in 50 week's Test, Second against 504 competitors. World's Record Holders. Pour Ducks average 303 eggs, viz. 335, 304, 292, 281, in last Two Tests. WiNXEES OF AUTUIIN TEST, JIOUNT ALBERT, two years in succession, proof of outstanding constitution. FIRST PRIZE on Standard Points 1920-21 Test. White Leghorns. First Prize and Cup Winners, Mount Albert. Records up to 253 eggs, 29 ozs. to the dozen. Rhode Island Reds America's foremost strains, my latest import- ation places my birds in the lead as layers and high class standard specimens, I also SPECI.4LISE in Prize Wiuuing Silver Wyandottess Black Orpingtons and White Rocks. In the Show pen my bird, have won hundreds of Prizes including Four Championships. STOCK 8c EGGS BOOKED: J. O. LAW, GORDONTON via TAUPIRI, WAIKATO- PRESERVE EGGS WITH CATHEDRAL BRAND EGG PRESERVATIVE ONE BOTTLE WILL PRESERVE 50 DOZEN EGGS. This Preparation will keep eggs as good as fresh for twelve months or more and as the yolks do not break in the cooking, the eggs cannot be distin- guished from New Laid. Unlike water glass methods, there is no solution to make. SXE^'EXS' 5IETH0D is ahead of any other preparation on the market. The only CERTAIN WAY to keep eggs fresh. Obtainable from all Stores X /6 per Jar, or direct from H. F. STEVENS, wholesale Druggist. CHRISTCHURCH. Manufacturer of the Famous Cathedral Brand Essences. Money in Poultry YES but it starts with CHICKS. When you want Healthy Thriving Chickens try EUREKA CHICK FOOD It is a Chick food made by experts from Pure Cereals carefully selected and containing ingredients bound to promote vigour and health. . EUR£KA is made to fill a need for a Chick Food of honest merit and is used by leading Poultrymen with great success. WE STOCK AND MANUFACTURE all the FOODS A POULTRYMAN REQUIRES. LET US QUOTE YOU FOR EUREKA Oyster, Pure Shell and Flint Grits. Wheat, Oats, Brand, Pollard, Maize, Straw, Chaif, Lucerne Chaff and Meal all ileals and other produce. A Trial Solicited. Satisfaction Guaranteed. GEORGE H. WOODS LTD. Corner BARBADOES ST. and FERRY RD. CHRISTCHURCH. PHONE: 811 W. A. NIXON NEW ZEALAND'S CHAMPION — UTILITY BREEDER OF — White Leghorns & Black Orpingtons I Six White Leghorn Pullets laid I Y\/\ If I 1632 eggs in 12 months, an average A^Wn. • of 272 each bird. Six Black Orpington Pullets laid 1481 eggs in 12 months, a Dominion Eeeord. A pen of my White Leghorns bred by me won the 1920-21 A.P.K.A. Competition in Auckland, and also won Special Prize forweight of eggs. Nothing mouldy about these performances. The above are my own strains and bred by myself. For particulars of Stock, Chicks, and Eggs — Jlpply W. A. NIXON, Malfroy Road, Rotorua, New Zealand. DO YOU WANT TO WIN WITH BLACK MINORCAS? Tlieil l>Uy from the most successful breeder in Australasia. Birds from our yards have won more Cups and Prizes than all the Minorca breeders in New Zealand combined. During the past 10 years we have imported several of Mr. Walter Bradley's noted Winners at Oetstal Palace and other Leading Shows in England. Our customers are constantly winning with birds bred in our yards, and with those reared from sittings of eggs procured here. BIRDS FOR EXHIBITION & STOCK at most reasonable prices. WINNERS IN EVERY BREEDING PEN JriTHIlVIIlVrC '* COLERIDGE ST., SYDENHAM. . WUlTllTlinua, CHRISTCHURCH. AYRES' Fruit Syrup Extracts. I LEMON, RASPBERRY, ORANGE, PINEAPPLE, LIME JUICE AND GINGER WINE. When you arc hot and thirsty, Always use Ayres' Fruit Syrup Extracts. The drink that cools and quenches thirst on the hottest day. There is no otliep drink like it — always wholesome, and possessing the true fruity flavour. They are undoubtedly the best and most refreshing drinks on the market, and the most wholesome for children and adults. They are quickly prepared, and one bottle makes 100 drinks Sold by Storekeepers throughout the Dominion. Ask your grocer for a bottle, but be sure it's Ayres' Price 1/6 bottle. E- C. AYRES, MPS. CHEMIST, - TIM:a.I^XJ. AGENTS FOR AUCKLAND PROVINCE: MEYERS & TOOMER, Customs Street West, AUCKLAND. Wake up Sir ! !, ==^ BE ALIVE to the fact that it is no longer necessary to pay extortionate prices for BlEDS or EGGS for sitting, etc. for we offer them FROM THE Finest Stud of White Leghopns, Black Orpingtons and Runner Ducl(s tN NEW ZEALAND. OUR EXHIBITION ENGLISH WHITE LEGHORNS ARE BRED FROM AMBLER'S CRYSTAL PALACE WINNING STRAIN direct and have won HIGHEST HONODES at the leading NOETH ISLAND SHOWS. Our UTILITY White LEGHOENS and BLACK OfiPDSfGTONS are a combination of UTILITY and TYPE with EXHIBITION POINTS, and have won numerous prizes in the show pen. Our BUNNER DUCKS are a combination of DOUTHWAITE'S and WOOD'S NOTED STRAINS. PRICES MODEHATE. Farther we GUARANTEE satisfaction COULD WE SAY MORE ? A. L/. lUINIvirN, POULTRY FARM, BUCKLAND, WAIKATO. THE LIFE OF SOCIETY By Professor J. B. Condliffe It is everyone's business to understand the principles upon which social and civic life is founded. These are set forth in a lucid and fascinating manner by Professor Cond- liffe in this stimulating introduction to the study of citizenship. FULLY ILLUSTRATED, ANNOTATED AND INDEXED Price 3/6 WHITCOMBE AND TOMBS LIMITED QUALITY TELLS EVERY TIME — IN — NEW BLOOD RHODE ISLAND REDS "IDEALISING the necessity of -*-*' improving the quality of RHODE ISLAND REDS in New Zealand, I have imported, at considerable cost, several hig winners and breeding pens from the leading breeders in AMERICA. My birds have also won more prizes and trophies during the past two years than any other ' ' Red Breeder ' ' in New Zealand. Birds for exhibition or breeding always on sale. S. MILLIGAN "Red" Poultry Farm. HOROPITO. WOOD'S RUNNER DUCKS WITHOUT AN EQUAL in New Zealand for Show purposes and wonderful Bgg laying: combined Anchor your faith .in Wood's Runners and steer straight to Victory Our RUXNERS are the result of many years practical experience coupled with Importations from Britain's best yards. LATEST Importations include trio White, also Pawn and White from Mb. E. a. Taylor (England) the World's leading- UTILITY DUCK BREEDER. Increase the Proficiency of Your Flock by using higher grade drakes. Increased prolificacy brings increased income. Eggs and Birds for Sale est Season. Prices Moderate. WE ALSO SPECIALISE IN UTILITY BLACK MINORCAS & CHINESE LANGSHANS AW/r*On RUNNER DUCK FARM, • WkJKJIJ, 96 SURREY crescent, GREY LYNN, AUCKLAND. Books for Rural Needs AGRICULTUBE By R. P. Connell. M.A. and J. W. Hadfield The most complete and accur- ate of Farm ^Manuals contain- ing just what the agricultural- ist must know. Clear, concise, comprehensive and inexpensive rice, .6/6 BOTANY ''"K"'"'' By F. Neve, M.A., LL.B., B.Sc. The volume should be the daily com- panion of every progressive farmer and worker as it combines in a skilful way the knowledge of Old World botanists with the results of botanical investigations and study in New- Zealand. THIRD EDITION Price. 4/6 WHITCOMBE AND TOMBS LIMITED Palmer's Specialised Poultry Foods "The Food that turns to Gold" IS Revelling in a Whirlwind of Popularity AN ACCEPTED FACT The importance of the part played in poultry keeping by Palmer's Foods is no longer a matter of surmise, of question, or of doubtful acceptance IT HAS BECOME AN ACCEPTED FACT "READY TO USE" POULTRY MEAL That complete Poultry food which contains all the essential elements for stimulating and maintaining high productivity, as well as the health of the birds, is now used on the leading poultry farms in New Zealand ; also being fed to the birds at Mount Albert and other laying competitions. Do you wish for any further guarantee ? PALMER'S DEVELOPING FOOD Solves the Problem of successful poultry raising and is as perfect in every detail as it is possible to blend a food for the developing of growing stock. PALMER'S CHICK FOOD The food which builds strong, lusty, vigorous birds. This well balanced chick food is a perfect product, thoroughly clean and def>endable. It is always the same — accurately mixed to an exact formula, manufactured from the finest grains and seeds procurable, and does not contain wild indigestible seeds or those of a doubtful nature. YOU cannot do without it. Palmer's Scratch Food — A mixture of the best grains, clean and sensibly balanced. „ Laying Meal — The food that produces Eggs without forcing. „ Duck Meid — For laying or breeding pen. „ Egg'a-Day — Ensures a regular supply of Eggs without forcing. Condition Powder— The ideal Conditioner for Show birds. Meat Meal, Shell Grit, Charcoal, Parrot Food, etc, A. J. PALMER & Co. Ltd. Palmerston North, Addington, Christchurch, and 45 Customs Street East. Auckland.