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CORNELL 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
 3 1924 088 047 646 
 
The original of tliis bool< is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924088047646 
 
PRIMITIVE TRADITIONAL HISTORY. 
 
 The Primitive History and Chronology of India, 
 South - Eastern and South - Western Asia, Egypt, 
 AND Europe, and the Colonies thence sent forth, 
 
 BY 
 
 J. F. HEWITT, 
 
 LATE COMMISSIONER OF CHUTIA NAGPUR. 
 
 TttlMtb ^ap, plates, anb Biagrams. 
 
 VOLUME 11. 
 
 Flower in the crannied wall, 
 
 I pluck you out of the crannies, 
 
 I hold you here, root and all, in my hand 
 
 Little flower — but if I could understand 
 
 What you are, root and all, and all in all, 
 
 I should know what God and man is. 
 
 Tennyson. 
 
 ■ 'Tis far in the deeps of history 
 The Voice that speaketh clear. 
 
 Emerson, The World-Soul. 
 
 latttBa f arkr anb ^a. 
 
 31 BEDFORD - STREET, STRAND, LONDON; 
 
 AND 27 BROAD - STREET, OXFORD. 
 M DCCCC VII. 
 
PRINTED BY JAMES PARKER AND CO., 
 CROWN YARD, OXFORD. 
 
CONTENTS TO VOLUME II. 
 
 Chapter V. The year of the head of the 
 
 BLACK horse OF THE SUN OF 
 ELEVEN thirty-three-day MONTHS 
 
 AND ELEVEN-DAY WEEKS . . 449 601 
 
 A. The Story of the Introduction of the Year . 449 — 454 
 
 B. Genealogy and ritualistic history of the 
 
 horse-headed sun-god . . 454 — 465 
 
 C. The sun-physician of this age of the sons 
 
 of the Ash-tree . . . 465 — 474 
 
 D. The New Year's Day of the eleven-months 
 
 year .... 474—495 
 
 E. Tibetan Year of eleven months . . 496 — 5 1 1 
 
 F. The Persian history of the eleven-months 
 
 year . . . 511—562 
 
 G. The Horses and Chariot of the Sun . 562 — 573 
 H. The Connection between this year and 
 
 ceremonial hair-cutting . . 573 — 584 
 
 I. The history of the Bronze Age in India . 584 — 601 
 
 Chapter VI. The fifteen-months year of the 
 
 SUN-GOD of the EIGHT-RAYED STAR 
 
 AND THE EIGHT-DAYS WEEK . 6o2 723 
 
 A. History of the founders of the year . 602 — 605 
 
 B. The birth of the sun-god born of the Thigh 605 — 644 
 
 C. The Hindu year-gods born as eighth sons 
 
 and the eight- days week of the Celtic 
 
 year .... 644 — 650 
 
 D. The year of the birth of the Buddha and 
 
 Parikshit as sun-gods . . 650 — 678 
 
 E. Persian history from the death of Khusrav, 
 
 god of the eleven-months year, to the 
 final establishment of Zoroastrianism as 
 
 the national religion . . 679 — 723 
 
iv Contents to Volume II. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter VII. The year of seventeen months of 
 
 seven-day weeks . . 724 — 814 
 
 A. The seventeen-months year . . 724 — 729 
 
 B. The ritual of the making of the Fire-pan 
 
 {Ukha) and the birth from it of the 
 
 sun-god .... 730 — 741 
 
 C. The Vajapeya sacrifice of this year . 741 — 749 
 
 D. The Chariot-races of the Sun-god of this 
 
 year .... 750 — 766 
 
 E. The seventeen-months year in the Maha- 
 
 bharata chronology . . -1^1 — 773 
 
 F. The seventeen and thirteen-months year 
 
 in Egypt .... 773—787 
 
 G. The May perambulation of boundaries dat- 
 
 ing from this year . . . 787 — 814 
 
 Chapter VIII. The years of eighteen and 
 
 TWELVE months AND FIVE AND 
 
 TEN-DAY WEEKS . . 815 965 
 
 A. The eighteen-months year of India . 815 — 834 
 
 B. The eighteen-months year of Mexico . 834 — 859 
 
 C. The Antelope and Snake dances of Mexico 859 — 871 
 
 D. Indian history of the close of the age of 
 
 the eighteen-months year as told in the 
 
 Mahabharata . . . 871—888 
 
 E. The Story of the Conquest of the Bharata 
 
 Merchant-kings by the Sanskrit-speaking 
 
 sun-worshippers as told in the Rigveda . 888 — 910 
 
 F. The twelve-months year of the Sanskrit- 
 speaking sun-worshippers . . 910 — 914 
 
 G. History as told in the Ritual of the building 
 of the brick altar of the Sun-bird of the 
 
 twelve-months year . . . 914 — 932 
 
 H. Compilation of the Rigveda and history 
 as told in the hymns of the Nmth 
 
 Mandala addressed to Soma Pavamana . 932 — 965 
 
Contents to Volume II. 
 
 Appendix A. List of the Hindu Nakshatra 
 
 Stars by Brahma Gupta . 967 — 968 
 
 Appendix B. The Thracian Carnival, by R. M. 
 
 Dawkins. The History therein told 969 — 977 
 
 Index ..... 979 — 1024 
 
 Plate III. 
 
 Plate IV. 
 
 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 The Yucatan God of Copan cum- 
 AHAU, Lord of the Bowl, de- 
 picted as the Indian elephant- 
 headed God Ganisha, Lord of the 
 Land, seated on the double Su- 
 astika. From a photograph of the 
 cast given by Mr. A. Maudslay to the 
 
 South Kensington Museum 
 
 to face p. 661 
 
 Cross at Palenque, representing the 
 bird slain by the arrow, its shaft, 
 
 AND DISSECTED BY THE AUGUR PrIEST 
 
 on the left. A variant form of the 
 story of Rigveda IV. 27, of Shyena, 
 the Pole Star bird shot by Krishanu, 
 the Rainbow archer-god. Drawn from 
 the Photograph of a Plaster Cast given 
 by Mr. A. Maudslay to the South 
 
 Kensington Museum 
 
 to face p. 853 
 
 MINOR ILLUSTRATION. 
 
 I. The Suastika of the American Indians formed of 
 four heads of the red-headed woodpecker 
 
 806 
 
ERRATA OF VOLUME II. 
 
 Page 453, line ^—for Kuru-kshethra read Kuru-kshetra. 
 
 „ 457, line ^2— for Chutisgurh read Chuttisgurh. 
 
 „ 476, line 9— for was read is. 
 
 ,, 481, line 21— for drunk read drank. 
 
 ,, 484, line n — for Annanite read Annamite. 
 
 „ 498, line 16 — after as insert the. 
 
 ,, 542, line 2%—for Irmanians read Iranians. 
 
 „ 562, line 2,— for Lohrasp read Lohr-asp. 
 
 >> 5691 line Z^—for Erecthonius read Ericthonius. 
 
 ,, 57O1 line ■3,2— for Bhuri-shravus read Bhuri-shravas. 
 
 ,, 572, line ZZ—f'"' Amar-utaki read Amar-utuki. 
 
 >j S75i line io~for Phratrian read Phratria. 
 ,, „ lines 20, 30— yb?- Erecthonius ?-Cfl(/ Ericthonius. 
 
 ,, 579, line ij—for Nupits read Napits. 
 
 ,, 586, line i^—for Trika-dra-ka rrai^ Tri-kadru-ka. 
 
 » 667, lines 6, %—for Vajrasan r«a£^ Vajrasun. 
 
 ,, 696, line 2^— for Try-ashera read Try-ashira. 
 
 ,, 816, line 10— for Kshethrapati rearf Kshetra-pati. 
 
 ,, 824, line I';— for Tarvasu read Tur-vasu. 
 
 ,, S36, line n—far Napuatl y-rarf Nahuatl. 
 
 ,, 839, line 2%— for Ziphorah f-<a(/ Zipporah. 
 
 ,, 872, line 2<j—for or read on. 
 
 ,, 918, line ^—for These read Then. 
 
 '< 954i line 20— for Bama read Rama. 
 
 ,, 970, line ■^i—for sapplings read saplings. 
 
 ,, 972, line 2—forhsxreadh.\s. 
 
PRIMITIVE TRADITIONAL HISTORY. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The year of the head of the black horse of the 
 SUN of eleven thirty-three day months and 
 
 eleven -DAY weeks. 
 
 A. The Story of the Introduction of the Year. 
 
 THE age of the three-years cycle-year of the last chapter 
 was that of the sons of the Kusha- grass {Poa cyno- 
 suroides) who measured time by ten lunar-stellar months of 
 gestation and the annual revolutions of the Great Bear, the 
 bed or waggon of the year-god drawn by the sun-ass of the 
 Ashvins. It was followed by a year introduced apparently by 
 the Ikshva-ku, sons of the sugar-cane [ikshd), who were, as 
 we have seen, the Pandyas, a red race succeeding the yellow 
 sons of the barley. They revolutionised the Indian ritual 
 of their predecessors, whose altar was thatched with sheaves 
 of Kusha-grass, and whose Prastara, the rain-wand of the 
 presiding priest, was made of three sheaves of the same 
 grass, symbolising in the three grass bundles and the 
 flowers attached to each of them the three years of the 
 cycle-year. 
 
 In the corresponding ritual of the new rulers the Prastara 
 was made of Ashva-vala (Saccharum spontaneum), the wild 
 sugar-cane or horse-tail grass '. They also subordinated the 
 altar made in the form of a woman, on which milk and 
 butter libations were poured, to a new altar to Varuna, 
 the god of the summer solstice, called the Uttara Vedi or 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah,, iii. 4, I, 17, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxvi. 
 p. 89. 
 
 n. G g 
 
450 Primitive Traditional History, 
 
 northern altar, built for the sacrifices of the Varuna Pra- 
 ghasah, the midsummer festival of that god. This altar 
 measured four to five cubits on the west and three to four 
 on the east, and on it the midsummer sacrifice of rice-cakes, 
 curds, milk and barley were offered, the barley being brought 
 by the sacrificer's wife in a winnowing basket, the Liknos 
 of Greek Bacchic worship. The gods invoked were Indra- 
 Agni, the pair of twin gods ruling the year, the Maruts or 
 tree {marom) mothers, and Prajapati (Orion) ; also on 
 this altar the enclosing triangle round the fire was made 
 of twigs of Karshmarya wood [Gmelina arborea) instead of 
 those from the Palasha tree ^. 
 
 On the top of this altar built for the sacrifices of the 
 barley-growing sons of the cow a second altar was placed 
 by the sons of the sugar-cane of the new year. This altar 
 was consecrated by the Adhvaryu with melted butter, 
 which he poured on each of the corners of the altar and 
 
 4 N 2 
 
 in the centre, in the order shown in this diagram 
 
 I s 3 
 Thus these libations symbolised the annual flight of the 
 sun beginning its year at sunset in the South-west at the 
 winter solstice, and the order of sprinkling shows that 
 the priest went round the altar contrary to the course of 
 the sun, ending with the libation to the centre navel fire 
 which he invokes as the begetter of offspring. The triangle 
 round the fire on this altar was made of Pitu-daru wood 
 {Pinus deodara), the Indian form of the pine-tree of Cybele 
 of Asia Minor, and with it a tuft of the wool of a wether, 
 fragrant gum {bdellium), and sweet smelling reed-grass 
 {sugandki tijand) were placed on the altar, thus showing that 
 the god of the new year was not Varuna's ram but the 
 sexless wether-father-god who was to rule the eleven- 
 
 • Eggeling, Shot. Brah., ii. S, 25—23, iii. 4, I, 6, Sacred Books of the 
 East, vols. xii. pp. 392, note 1—398, xxvi. p. 89. . 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 451 
 
 months year. The altar was thatched not with Kusha- 
 grass but with branches of the Plaksha-tree (Ficus infectorid), 
 shown in p. 225 to be the parent tree of the northern and 
 southern races who amalgamated as one nation under its 
 shade at the junction of the Jumna and Ganges. 
 
 On this altar was offered the omentum or membrane 
 enclosing the entrails of the eleven animals slain at the 
 New Year's sacrifice of the year, and roasted at the northern 
 fire on spits of the Karshmarya wood forming the triangle 
 round the fire of the altar on which this new altar was placed. 
 The wood will not rot in water, and the tree called Gumi 
 is that worshipped as Gumi Gosain by the northern Males, 
 who, as well as their conquerors the Chirus and Kaurs, made 
 their house poles of it ^. 
 
 The changes made in this ritual denote the accession to 
 power of a new set of rulers, more directly attached to 
 the North than the first Ikshvaku kings, and who showed 
 their close connection with the worshippers of the sexless 
 gods of Asia Minor by their worship of the pine-tree of 
 Cybele and their sacrifices of sexless victims. They are 
 called in the Rigveda the worshippers of Dadhiank, the god 
 of the horse's head and of the milk-curds [dadhi) offered 
 in libations, who succeeded the sun-ass of the Ashvins, the 
 original wild ass of Assyria and Central Asia, which drew 
 the chariots of the early Assyrian kings 2. 
 
 This new god was the deity of the horse's head originally 
 placed on the roofs of all houses in Gothic lands from 
 Scandinavia southwards by Celts, Teutons and Slavs after 
 the horse to whom the head belonged had been sacrificed 
 to Woden. This sacrifice of the sun-horse, eaten by its 
 worshippers, was the most solemn of all the sacrifices of 
 the Scandinavian Goths, and its head was in Thuringia 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., iii. 3, 5, 2, 4 — 18, iii. 8, 3, 10, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xxvi. pp. 122 — 126, 194, note i, 202 ; Clarke, Roxburgh's 
 Flora Indica, p. 486. 
 
 ' Maspero, Dawn of Civilisation, Egypt and Chaldea, p. 770. 
 
 G g 2 
 
452 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 thrown on the Midsummer fires of St. John's Day*. It 
 was also offered by the Mordvinian Ugro Finns of the 
 Volga, the race who disseminated through the ancient world 
 the creed of bee- worship described in pp. 317 — 319 as that 
 on which was founded the worship of the sexless gods, one 
 bi-sexual father and three pairs of hermaphrodite female 
 and male gods, who created all things by the male and 
 female powers united in the bi-sexual king and queen bee, 
 the symbol of the creating god. 
 
 At the Mordvinian horse sacrifice, as described by the 
 Italian traveller Barbaro, who saw it at the end of the i6th 
 century, the horse was tied by the neck to the sacrificial stake 
 in the pit of sacrifice, as victims were tied in the ritual of 
 the Indian Barhishadah, described in p. 235, and killed with 
 arrows. The skin stuffed with straw was lifted to the 
 top of the sacred tree of the sacrificial ground and adorned 
 with rags and ribbons =. The head of this year-horse slain 
 at the beginning of the year symbolised the resurrection 
 of the sun-god of that preceding it, who was again to die 
 at the end of his year's course. 
 
 The head of this horse raised to heaven after he died 
 on earth was, according to Rig. i. 84, 13, 14, found by 
 Indra in the Sharya-navan, the ship (nava) of the arrow 
 {sharya), the Great Bear constellation whence the arrow of 
 Orion's year measured by its ordained seasons and months 
 was revived in the eleven-months year to destroy that of 
 the three-years cycle. Armed with this weapon, the bones 
 of Dadhiank, the sun-horse's head, called in Tait Brah. i. 5, 8 
 the ten - head breaking {skiro-bhida) spells {mantrak) of 
 Atharvan, Dadhiank's father, the sun-god of the Atharvan 
 sun priests, Indra slew the Vritra worshippers of the year- 
 snake called the ninety-nine 3, 
 
 This number proves clearly that it was the year-god of 
 
 ■ Stallybrass, Grimm's Teutonic Mythology, vol. i. pp. 47, 48, ii. pp. 618, 
 660, 661. 
 • Max Muller, Contributions to the Science of Mythology, vol. ii. p. 469. 
 3 Rig. i. 84, 13, 14 ; Ludwig, Rigveda, vol. v. p. 27. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 453 
 
 the three-years cycle which was slain, for the new year of 
 the sun-horse was one of eleven months of thirty-three 
 days consecrated to the thirty-three ruling gods ; hence the 
 ninety-nine false gods killed by Dadhiank's bones are those 
 of three years reckoned by the new calendar, the gods of 
 the three years of the cycle-year. The battlefield was the 
 centre of the land of Kuru-kshethra, where Parasu Rama 
 had slain the Haihayas with the double axe of the thirteen- 
 months year, and there Indra, according to the scholiast 
 of the Rigveda, found the conquering horse's head near 
 the sacred centre of Tan-eshur ' consecrated to Sthan- 
 eshvara, the gnomon pole {sthdn) god Sthanu, who with 
 his nine sons and his father Bhrigu the fire-god, made up 
 the eleven Rudras, the gods ruling this year's months, to 
 whom eleven sacrificial stakes were set up at the east end 
 of the Uttara Vedi altar =. 
 
 The Atharvan priests of the sun-god of the horse's head, 
 the Atharvans of the Zend fire-worshippers who also mea- 
 sured time by this year, succeeded in the Vedic genealogy 
 of Rig. X. 14, 6 the Angiras and Navagvas, the priests of 
 the nine-days week, the line of descent there stated being 
 Bhrigus, Afigiras, Navagvas, Atharvans. This tells us that 
 the first priests in the sacerdotal genealogy of the fire- 
 worshippers were the Bhrigus, who were in popular tradition 
 the men of the ancient clan of Pisachas, meaning eaters of 
 raw flesh 3. This is asserted by themselves to have been 
 eaten by the Dards of Dardistan and the Kafirs of Kafiristan, 
 who ate both men and horses in the age when the Scythian 
 ancestors of the Indian Saka drank blood and ate raw 
 flesh. Their descendants were, as we have seen, the Jats 
 and Chirus. Their successors, the Angiras of the year of 
 
 ' Cunningham, Ancient Geography of India, Sthan-eshvara, p. 335. 
 
 * Mahabharata Adi {Sambhava) Parva, Ixvi. p. l88 ; Eggeling, Skat, Brah., 
 iii. 7, 3, 1, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxri. p. 175 ; See Plan of Sacrificial 
 ground at the end of this volume. 
 
 3 Grierson, Pisacha, 'nitoipiyos, Journal of Royal Asiatic Society for April, 
 1905, Fart. ii. pp: 285—288. 
 
454 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 six-day weeks and the Navagvas of the cycle-year, were 
 followed by the Atharvans, priests of the sun-god of this 
 year, the fire-god Athar {Zend Atar), also known as Atri, the 
 devouring {ad) ^ three {tri) who had ruled Orion's year of 
 three seasons, the year of the sun-deer. 
 
 B. Genealogy and ritualistic history of the horse-Jteaded 
 sun-god. 
 
 The line of descent of this year from that of the sun- 
 deer indicated in Indian ritual is repeated in the story of 
 the sun-god Sigurd, of the pillar {urdr) of victory {sig), the 
 first northern year-god riding the sun-horse, for he started 
 from Hinda-fjallj the deer {kinda) hill, on his sun-horse 
 Grani to ride his annual course round the heavens. His 
 cloud-horse was the gift of Grip, the seizing dog, the star 
 Sirius ruling the year of six-day weeks beginning at the 
 summer solstice. His year's journey began after he had 
 killed Fafnir, the snake-god of the three-years cycle, and 
 acquired his treasures, the insignia of the sun-god of the 
 year: (i) the helm of aweing, the night-cap of invisibility 
 given to Perseus born in the tower of the three-years 
 cycle, (2) the golden impenetrable armour worn by the 
 sun-gods Kama and Achilles, and (3) the golden year-ring of 
 the year-months given by Dushmanta to Sakuntala with 
 which Sigurd wedded Brunhilda the rain-goddess, the Valkyr 
 mistress of the springs {brunnen), where he found her asleep 
 on the hill whence he began his year's circuit 2. 
 
 This year of the sun-horse Dadhiank, beginning, as we 
 shall see, in October — November, was measured by the 
 months of gestation of the horse, and not like the cycle- 
 year by those of men and cattle, and ignored the solstices 
 and equinoxes making this latter year. It is said in the 
 Rigveda to have been brought to India by the Ashvins as 
 
 ' Grassman, Worterbuch turn Rigveda, s.y. Atri. 
 
 ' Hewitt, Ruling Racei of Prehistoric Times, toI. ii.€ssay viii. pp. 117— 124. 
 
Primitive Traditional History, 45 S 
 
 the horse's head which taught them the secrets of Tvashtar 
 who framed the years of two {tva) seasons of the Pleiades 
 and solstices, and its thirty-three gods, three elevens, go 
 with the Ashvins to drink madhu or mead^. Thus there 
 were thirty-three days in each of its eleven months, divided 
 into three eleven-day weeks, combining the five and six-day 
 weeks of the years of two and three seasons, so that the 
 number of weeks in the year and of days in the months 
 was the same. As this year of 363 days began, like the 
 Pleiades year, in October — November, it was made that of 
 the awakening of Krishna, the first Indian year-god, who 
 drove sun-horses in his chariot and reproduced in his year 
 the earliest of the Indian years measured by stars. And 
 one of Krishna's horses was Su-griva, the bird-headed ape, 
 who in the mythology of the Pleiades year turned the stars 
 round the Pole. 
 
 This year, called Tavatimsa, or that of the thirty-three, 
 was tiie second in the Buddhist historical chronology of 
 the successive year-heavens. It was ruled by Sakko, the 
 rain {sak) god. It followed the year of the first heaven, 
 that of the Shatum Maharajika Devaloko, the hundred 
 angels, the hundred Kauravya sons of Gandhari, the Pole 
 Star Vega, who had been in earlier tradition the sons of 
 the constellation Argo, the Zend Shatavaesa, or hundred 
 creators. 
 
 This year of the Zend god Atar became in their ritual 
 that ruled by the " thirty-three gods of the ritual order 
 who are round about the Havani," the mortar in which 
 Haoma or Soma was mixed = ; that is to say they as gods 
 of the year regulate the storage of the life-giving rain in the 
 centeal world's mother, the Soma-tree or plant, the mortar 
 made of the trunk enclosing the earth's Soma or sap of life, 
 
 ' Rig. i. 117,2,1.34, II. 
 
 * Mills, Zendavesta, Part iii. Yashna, i. lo ; Daarmesteter, Zatdavesia Vm- 
 ^dad Fargard, iii. i, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxxi. p. 198, iv. p. 23, 
 note I, 
 
456 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the living form of the Zend Havani, the Sanskrit Drona, 
 the hollowed-out trunk containing the sacrificial Soma. 
 
 Further evidence of the existence of this year of eleven 
 months is given by the eleven sacrificial stakes erected outside 
 the east end of the Soma sacrificial ground to which the eleven 
 victims offered to the gods of this year were tied. The first of 
 these gods was Agni, answering to Bhrigu the eleventh Rudra, 
 and the last was Varuna, on whose Uttara Vedi altar the 
 entrails of these victims were to be roasted i. Also in the 
 rules for cutting the sacrificial stake it is ordered to be cut 
 twelve and thirteen cubits long when the year thunderbolt, 
 the first trident of the year of three seasons, is one of twelve 
 and thirteen months, but when the year thunderbolt measur- 
 ing its length is that of the Tristubh metre of eleven syl- 
 lables in each verse, and which, like the Brihati metre of 
 thirty-six syllables, was a year measure, then the stake 
 was to be eleven cubits long^. Also this stake was 3 
 made of the Khadira tree {Acacia catechu), whence the 
 socket engendering the altar fire was taken. 
 
 The eleven gods of this year are invoked in the Rigveda 
 in the eleven stanzas of eight of the ten Apri hymns re- 
 cited at the sacrifice of the eleven year victims, and the 
 twelve and thirteen stanzas of the other two hymns are 
 addressed to the gods of the twelve and thirteen-months 
 year, and the same gods appear in all the hymns 4. 
 
 The first four stanzas summon to the sacrifice the gods 
 of the four seasons into which this year, like its pre- 
 decessor the cycle-year, was divided : (l) Agni, the god 
 of the sacrificial fire lit by the Samidhs or burning sticks 
 of the spring ; (2) The wind god of the hot west winds of 
 the Indian summer called Tanu-napat, the son {napat) 
 
 ' Eggeling, SAat. Srah., iii. 9, I, 4—23, Sacred Books of the East, vol. 
 xxiii. pp. 218—221. 
 
 ' Ibid., iii. 7, i, 22—24, P- '66. 
 
 3 Ibid., iii. 6, 2, 12, iii. 4, i, 20, pp. 151, 90, note 5. 
 
 * Tlie Apri hymns with eleven stanzas are Rig. i. 188, il 3, iii. 4. v. 5, 
 vii. 2, ix. S, X. 70, X. no. 
 
Primitivi Traditional History. 457 
 
 of himself, the self-engendered god, called also, like the 
 altar fire to which it is compared, Nara-shamsa, praised of 
 men ; (3) The Id or Idah, the mother-goddess of the rainy 
 season ; (4) The Barhis or sheaves, the sacrificial seats of 
 Kusha-grass on which the dead Kushika fathers of winter 
 sat at the autumn feast to the dead. The fifth stanza in- 
 vokes the gates of the sacrificial enclosure, the two door- 
 posts and the two pillars in front of the Phoenician temple 
 where animal sacrifices were offered, the Semitic Babel or 
 Jo-bab, the gates {bab) of God, the stars Gemini, the Ash- 
 vins, ruling this year. The sixth, the twins Night and 
 Day, and the seventh, the two Hotars, singers and speakers 
 of truth, the two original seasons of the year who poured 
 libations and distributed rain. The eighth, the three 
 mothers Bharati or Mahl, Ida and Sarasvati, the three 
 seasons of Orion's year. The ninth Tvashtar, the creator 
 of measured time, the years of two (tva) seasons reckoned 
 by nights, days, weeks and years. The tenth Vanaspati, 
 the lord (Jiati) of the wood (vana), the primeval mother-tree. 
 The eleventh summons all the gods who obey the cry of 
 Svaha or Hail, and who were not invoked in special stanzas. 
 Only* one god is said in the Shatapatha Brahmana to be 
 left behind and to be summoned in this verse, and he is 
 the god of cattle, Rudra, the linga god of the gnomon 
 stone or stake, of which there were eleven denoting this 
 year. He is called Svishtakrit, meaning he who offers 
 a right sacrifice, that of the eleven victims slain, while 
 these hymns were recited. He, the god of the northern 
 immigrants, is called the god "who rose in the North with 
 his raised weapon," the phallus symbolising the gnomon 
 linga, the ithyphallic Hermes which I have seen set up 
 as a boundary-mark in Chutisgurh, the exact reproduction 
 of the phallic Hermai of Greece ^. This god, the only god 
 of those summoned to whom animal sacrifices had been 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., I, J, 41-5, i. 7, 32-9) Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xii, pp. 152, 153, igg, 200, note 2, 203. 
 
458 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 offered in previous ritual, was the god of the northern 
 Asuras, the pillar-god for whom the dolmen altars were 
 built outside the sun circle within which no bloodstained 
 offerings were permitted. 
 
 These stanzas set before us a record of the past religious 
 and chronological history of the country beginning with 
 the worship of the mother-forest-tree, which at the time when 
 the ritual of this year was framed was the Khadira tree 
 {Acacia catechu), from which both the sacrificial stake and 
 the mother-fire-socket were made. Her worship was ac- 
 companied by that of Tvashtar, the Pole Star god of the 
 stellar year, who sent the Pleiades Argo and the sun-bird 
 round the Pole as the heralds of the year of two seasons. 
 After these two-season years came that of the three mother- 
 goddesses of the three seasons of Orion's year, of the rain 
 guardians, the two Hotars, the twins Night and Day, the 
 twin door-posts of the gate of the Garden of God whence 
 the four seasons of the cycle-year of Agni, god of the 
 household-fire, and of the father of the Kushika race, issue. 
 The fourth season of this and the cycle-year was the autumn 
 added to the first year of three seasons of the Ribhus by 
 Ribhu-ksha, the master {ksha) Ribhu, originally the winter- 
 god, and it was added in the cycle-year by the master (ksha) 
 god of the season-making Ribhus, who were thus as makers 
 of the cycle-year seasons entitled to ride in the three-wheeled 
 car assigned to them in Rig. iv. 36, i, which, like that of 
 the Ashvins, has three wheels denoting, as we have seen in 
 pp. 322, 323, the three years of the cycle. The sacrifice 
 offered at the recitation of these Apri hymns was, accord- 
 ing to the Aitareya-Brahmana, one to the thirty-three gods 
 who do not drink pure Soma but the intoxicating drink 
 Sural, offered at the Sautramani sacrifice, which was, as 
 I shall show later on, part of the ritual of this year's New 
 Year's festival. In the later Vedic Soma animal sacrifice, 
 the offerings, including those of the eleven slain animals, 
 
 » Haug, AitBrdh,, ii. 2, 18, vol. ii. p. 110. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 459 
 
 were divided into thirty-three parts, called fore-offerings, 
 after-offerings, and by-offerings. The by-offerings are the 
 hind-quarters of the eleven victims, each of which was 
 divided into three parts, the hind centre part being the 
 by-offering, of which eleven were offered to the eleven gods 
 of this year on the North-west corner of the Uttara Vedi 
 altar, the quarter where the sun sets at the summer solstice, 
 after the Kusha-grass had been removed from it ^. 
 
 The ritual of the animal sacrifices of the later Vedic 
 ritual is admitted in the Shatapatha Brahmana to differ 
 from that of the Asuras, who first instituted it, as they 
 divided the head, shoulders and neck and hind thighs into 
 portions for each of the thirty-three year-gods =, whereas 
 the later priests divided only specified portions, and these 
 included the hind-quarter thighs dedicated to the Great 
 Bear first as god of the left and later on of the right thigh. 
 The eleven months of the year were also commemorated 
 in the eleven stanzas of the Samidheni hymn sung at the 
 kindling of the year's fires 3, 
 
 In the Seven Babylonian Tablets of Creation we find 
 a traditional account of the worship of eleven gods ruling 
 the year which gives a most valuable clue to its history. 
 The first eleven gods were those of Kingu, the interpreter, 
 whom Tiamut, the cloud-mother, married when she made war 
 with Anu, the god of the upper firmament, and la ruling the 
 Southern abyss of waters, and to whom she gave the Tablets 
 of Destiny of the eleven guardians of the year's eleven 
 months. They were the four cardinal points and the seven 
 winds blowing round them, called (i) a scorpion of rain, 
 (2) a hurricane, (3) the leopard lightning flash, (4) a ser- 
 pent, (5) a wild dog, (6) a great tempest, (7) the messenger 
 of the fatal wind. These winds are the seven stars of the 
 Great Bear, the last fatal wind being the death-dealing 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shot. Brah., iii. p. 3, 18, iii. p. 4, 49, 11— 18, iii. p. 5, 1—4, 
 Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxyi. pp. 204, 205, 210, 212, note 2, 213, 214. 
 ' Ibid., iii. p. 3, 39, ibid., vol. xxvi. 207. 
 3 Ibid., i. p. 3, 5, 5, i, 4, i, 7 — 30, ibid, vol, xii. pp. 96, 102, note I— 'I13. 
 
460 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 wind from the star of the arrow shot by Kingu, the inter- 
 preter of the year, and this became subsequently, as we 
 have seen in p. 163, the Bow-star of Marduk in his mea- 
 surement of the year. These seven winds of the Great 
 Bear Dragon were overcome by Tishku Sirius in the story 
 of the Dragon Myth, when Tishku, a god of the summer 
 solstice, deposed the Great Bear from the rule of the 
 year ^. 
 
 In the story of Marduk's battle with Tiamut these 
 eleven gods appear as the eleven year-measurers whom he 
 trampled under foot, when he, mounted on his four-horse 
 chariot, the four seasons of the year, caught Tiamut in his 
 year-net, and took from Kingu, her interpreting star 
 (perhaps Arcturus), the Great Bear Tablets of Destiny, the 
 laws of year measurement, and appropriated them for her 
 own use =. 
 
 After his victory he made the North wind, that of the 
 summer solstice, carry away the blood of Tiamut, who 
 was thus slain at mid-summer. He cut the body of this 
 cloud-mother into two halves, making one half the heavens 
 and the other the earth, and abolished the mid region of 
 the storms, the monsoon winds from the North-east and 
 South-west by which Tiamut had measured the year. He 
 placed the dwelling of la or Enki, the earth snake, where 
 the ancient void had been, that is to say he placed the 
 house (/) of the waters (A) under the earth on which he 
 founded Ishara, the house {/) of grass {shar), the temple 
 of the barley-god of the Kushikas born from the wild grass. 
 He made Anu god of the upper firmament, Bel the fire- 
 god, originally Enlil, god of the dust whence life was born, 
 and la or Enki the earth snake gods of the three-seasons year 
 of the fire-worshippers. He made the first three stars of 
 the Lumasis, Sugi the Great Bear, Ud-gudua Virgo the 
 
 " King, SoJCH Tablets of Creation, Tablet i. 22—98, 137, The Dragon Myth, 
 pp. 116— 121, 
 • Ibid., Tablet iv. 51 ff. 
 3 Ibid., Tablet iv. 137—146, v. 1—4. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 461 
 
 sun of the resting-place of the dead (^gudua), and Sib-ziana 
 Arcturus the star of the shepherd {sib) of the life-god, rulers 
 of the twelve-months year. 
 
 The eleven year-gods of Tiamut were apparently an 
 early form of the year measurement of time during the 
 age when the year was thought to be regulated by the 
 changes of the monsoons ruled by the four constellations 
 reckoned in early Zend astronomy as governing the four 
 quarters of the heavens. These were Tishtrya Sirius, ruling 
 the East, the Hapto-iringas or seven bulls, the Great Bear, 
 the North, Shatavaesa Argo the South, and Vanant Corvus, 
 called by the Akkadians Im-dugud-khu the Great storm-bird, 
 the West, whence the monsoon comes. This star is called 
 Kakkab Ansu Kurra, the star of the animal of the land 
 of Kur or India, the sun-ass ruler of the cycle-year, and 
 the sacred animal of Assyria before the deification of this 
 year's sun-horse ^. This early year of eleven months ruled 
 by these four stars, the Hindu Lokapalas and the Great 
 Bear, the storm-god of the monsoon coming from the 
 West, was apparently a year analogous to that in which 
 the year ruler is in the story of Rama a shapeless cloud 
 monster with no limbs except her arms, who became, as we 
 have seen in p. 340, when slain by Rama and Lakshman 
 (Arcturus), the Great Bear sacrificial star Vishva-vasu, and 
 the memory of this year is preserved in Babylonian ritual 
 by the seating of Bel the fire god, the centre of the three 
 gods of the year succeeding the eleven-months year of 
 Tiamut, on his throne on the eleventh day ending the first 
 week of the eleven-months year of his New Year's festival at 
 the summer solstice, and on the eighth day ending, as we 
 shall see in Chap. VI., the first year of the next sun-god =. 
 
 The first year of eleven months seems to have been followed 
 
 ' Darmesteter, Zendavesta, Sirozah, i. 13, Sacred Books of the East, vol. 
 xxiii. p. 9 ; Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay iv. pp. 
 337. 336; R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., Primitive Constellations, The Tablet of 
 the Thirty Stars, No. xviii. vol. ii. pp. 84, 85. 
 
 ' Sayce, Babylonians and Assyrians, chap. xi. Religion, p. 247. 
 
462 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 by another in which the Great Bear stars no longer symbo- 
 lised storm and tempest, but became in Egyptian Astronomy 
 the star of the seven Khus or birds, afterwards called the 
 star of the Thigh. These stars are depicted in Vignette IX. 
 of the Ani papyrus as accompanying the victorious Horus 
 and his four sons, the four stars in the constellation Pegasus. 
 The victory thus celebrated is said in Chap. XVII. of the 
 Book of the Dead to be that in which Horus overcame Set, the 
 god ruling the South '. That the year of Horus ruled by these 
 eleven stars was that of eleven thirty-three day months and 
 three hundred and sixty-three days is made most probable 
 by the statement in the Egyptian official tradition of Horus, 
 that he started with his four sons, the four stars in Pegasus, 
 to conquer Egypt in the three hundred and sixty-third year 
 of his reign =. 
 
 Heru, the Egyptian name of this god, means the 
 Master, and that he is a sun-god is proved by his name 
 Heru-khuti, the Master of the two horizons. He was 
 born, as we have seen, from Isis, who hovered as a bird 
 over the revived Osiris, whom she brought back to Egypt 
 from the Cypress-tree of Byblos, the parent-tree of the 
 sun-god, after he had been cut into seventy-two pieces 
 by Set (p. 191). It was after he was begotten that his 
 father's body was cut into fourteen pieces by Set, that is to 
 say the revived Osiris became god of the year of thirteen 
 months divided into lunar phases of fourteen days each. 
 Horus was born in the Pisui or Crocodile marsh, whither 
 Isis was led by the seven Great Bear scorpions sent by Thoth 
 the moon-god ruling the thirteen-months year. Also his 
 mother Isis or Ausat, who conceived him as a bird, is with 
 Nepthys or Hat-hor another Horus mother who bore him 
 as the Pole star goddess in the temple of Denderah, called 
 in Chap. XVII. of the Book of the Dead an ape-goddess, so 
 that the hawk-headed Horus was an ape with the sun-hawk 
 goddess' head, that of the sun-hawk of Asia Minor. She was 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, Translation, chap. xvii. 67—92, pp. 52, 53. 
 
 ° Naville, Myth of Horus ; Lockyer, Dawn of Astronomy, chap. xxvi. p. 390. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 463 
 
 the goddess-mother of the fire-worshippers, whose sun-mother 
 was the Cypress-tree, and thus he, like the Indian Chirus who 
 were also sons of the sun-hawk, came from Asia Minor as the 
 god of the worshippers of the household-fire. 
 
 On his arrival in Egypt he fought with Set, the Egyptian 
 representation of Tiamut, and in the Egyptian statue at the 
 Louvre depicting this contest Set is represented as a crocodile, 
 and Horus, the slayer who thrusts a lance into the neck, 
 rides a horse, the sun-horse of this year. M. Clermont- 
 Ganneau has shown that the statue tells the Egyptian story 
 of St. George and the Dragon ^, and St. George is, as I 
 have shown in p. 183, the Syrian god Eliun or Elkhudr, the 
 supreme rain-god, the Greek Geourgos, the worker (ovpyos) 
 or plougher of the earth, the Great Bear plough of heaven. 
 Thus the story of the rider on the horse slaying the dragon 
 crocodile of primitive year reckonings is that of the victory 
 of the ape-god of the worshippers of the sun-hawk who rides 
 or drives the Great Bear plough sun-horse. 
 
 Thus Horus, who as the ninth of the ruling Egyptian gods 
 was originally a god of the nine-days week of the cycle-year, 
 became in his first conquering form, when he appeared in 
 Egypt as the hawk-headed sun-god, the god of the eleven 
 stars, the seven stars of the Great Bear and the four of 
 Pegasus depicted in Vignette IX. of the Ani papyrus and 
 the eleven-months year they measured, and this avatar pre- 
 ceded that in which he became the jackal-headed god Anubis, 
 Egyptian Anpu, born of the Jackal Pole-star constellation of 
 Ursa Minor =, the Greek Kvvoaovpa or dog's tail, and the son 
 of the Indian Sigala-mata, the mother of the jackal {sigalo), 
 the thirteenth month of the year of the thirteen Buddhist 
 Theris 3. It is as the god Anpu he is described in the Book 
 of the Dead, Chap. CXLV., of the twenty-one Pylons as 
 
 ' Clermont-Ganneau, Horus et St. George, Revue Archaeologique Neuv. sec. 
 xxxii. pp. 388—397. 
 
 ' Lockyer, Dawn of Astronomy, p. 146. 
 
 3 Bode, Women Leaders of the Buddhist Reformation, The Thirteen Theris, 
 Journal Royal Asiatic Society, 1893, pp. 797, 798. 
 
464 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 " the embalmer and bandager " ^ who introduced the Egyptian 
 custom of mummifying the dead which began before the age 
 of Menes, or more than 5000 B.C., and which succeeded the 
 earlier Egyptian custom of the Neolithic age of burying 
 corpses in the contracted position of an embryo foetus 
 described in p. 217. 
 
 It was the thigh of the first Horus, the ape rider on the 
 ploughing sun-horse, which became, as we shall see in the 
 Mythology of Chap. VI., the Great Bear father of the sun- 
 god of the year of the eight-days week. The eleven stars of 
 Horus also appear in the eleven stars ruled by the sun and 
 moon of the dream of Joseph, the eleventh son of Jacob, 
 whose name is a form of the Assyrian Asipu, the interpreter, 
 and who is described as a god worshipped by the earlier 
 Canaanites in the name Iseph-el, meaning Joseph the god — 
 given to the Assyrian cities taken by Thothmes III. ^ He is 
 therefore the Hebrew equivalent of Kingu as the interpreter 
 who led the eleven allies of Tiamut, and he is said in 
 Deuteronomy xxxiii. 17 (New Version) to have "the horns 
 of the wild ox," the horns of Leah his mother, the wild cow 
 with tender eyes, the wild ox-goddess Gauri with the eyes of 
 Shiva and Samirdus, the three-eyed Akkadian character ^ 
 denoting the wild ox or bull. 
 
 It was by the Hindu sons of the wild cow worshipping 
 the pillar god Rudra, the red-headed wooden pillar of Gond 
 worship, that the Hindu eleven-months year of the eleven 
 pillars and sacrificial stakes was originally framed, and it is 
 in this form that the eleven gods of this year appear in the 
 story of the slaying of Haman and his ten sons by Mordecai 
 and Esther. Mordecai is the god Marduk, who wages war 
 against the eleven gods of this year in the Seven Tablets of 
 Creation ; and in this version of the story he is aided by 
 Esther, that is by Istar, the original goddess of the rain- 
 cloud, who had, according to Dr. Sayce, become the evening 
 
 » Budge, Sook of the Dead, Translation, chap, cxlv., viii. 32, p. 247. 
 = Gen. xxxii. 9, 10 ; Sayce, Hibhert Lectures for 1887, lect. i. pp. 50, 51. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 465 
 
 and morning star of Babylonian astronomy ». Haman is 
 Baal Khamman, the gocj of the green pillar of Usof, the 
 hairy goat-jgod^, and his sons are the ten Hindu Rudras 
 headed by Sthanu, the tree pillar, who with the fire-god 
 Bhrigu rules this year. It was Marduk and Istar who 
 restored the old gods overthrown by these offerers of human 
 sacrifices after they had crucificed Haman and his sons on 
 the equinoctial cross of the cycle-yearrgod of St. George's 
 Cross. They then brought in the new year of the sun-god 
 of day of Chap. VI., whose rising and setting were heralded 
 by the morning and evening star. Pegasus, the leading 
 constellation of this year, is the Akkadian Lik-barra or 
 constellation of the striped dog 3, the tiger father of the 
 Mallis and Licchavis of India, whose king was consecrated 
 on a tiger skin 4, and it was also the flying horse of Belle- 
 rophon, the Phoenician god Baal Raphon, the healing {raphon) 
 god s. Hence the name Pegasus is of Hebrew origin derived 
 by Gesenius from Pegah, the striker, and it was on this horse 
 that Bellerophon slew the triple monster the Chimaera, the 
 god of the three-years cycle, with its forehead like a lion, 
 the middle part with the head of the Pole Star goat, and 
 its hind part like a serpent. The flying horse which secured 
 him his victory was the sun-horse who by striking the earth 
 with his hoof made the fountain of Hippocrene to burst forth 
 as the first of the holy wells of healing distributed as objects 
 of worship throughout Europe and Asia, the holy wells near 
 which the Irish Milesians made their settlements. 
 
 C. The sun-physician of this age of the sons of the Ashrtree, 
 
 The healing god of the rider on the sun-horse of the North 
 is the prototype of Cheiron the Centaur, half man and half 
 
 ' Sayce, fiibbtrt Lectures for 1887, leet iv. 99, 256, 257, note i. 
 
 ° Movers, Die Phonizier, vol. i. 394, 395, 396. 
 
 5 R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., Primitive Constellations, vol. ii. pp. 68, 69. 
 
 ■• Eggeling, Shat. Brah., v. 3, S, 3, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. p. 81. 
 
 ^ B^rard, Origine des Culies Arcadiens, chap. ii. Les Deesses, p. 116. 
 
 n. H h 
 
466 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 horse, who cut the ashen spear of the Great Potter for Peleus, 
 the father of Achilles, and ushered in the Bronze Age. This 
 succeeded that of the Lapithas, the sons of the storm (Xair 
 TuiiXMtjr), whose goddesses were the three Harpies, one of the 
 emblems of the three-years cycle-year. They were the gods 
 of time who buffeted and pecked at Phineus the sea eagle 
 (^tW or <f>i]vri) whenever he attempted to eat, and half starved 
 him, that is they by measuring the year by periods of gesta- 
 tion and not by the recurring seasons interrupted his series 
 of regular festivals. These troublers of the mother-cloud-bird 
 and disturbers of the yearly measurement of time were driven 
 from their usurped office of time-rulers by Zetes and Kalais, 
 sons of Boreas, the North god, and of the daughter of 
 Erectheus, the snake year-god, who owned the horses of the 
 year of Orion. They were the North-east and North-west 
 winds, those of the sun of the summer solstice rising at 
 mid-summer in the North-east and setting in the North-west. 
 They sailed in the Argo constellation with Jason the healer 
 (ias), the year-god of Cheiron's year, a form of the Hindu 
 Vivasvan, the god of the two (vi) lights night and day. The 
 Harpies were sent to the Strophades, the turning islands 
 marking the revolutions of the revolving sun ^. 
 
 This god, the sea eagle Phineus, competed with Perseus, 
 the sun-god born from the tower of the cycle-year, for the hand 
 of Andromeda, the Phoenician Adamath, the star- mother of the 
 red {adam) race. He interrupted their wedding, and hence 
 appears as a star-god of the constellation of Aquila the eagle, 
 which was, as we have seen in p. 333, made a year-star by 
 Vishva-mitra at the birth of Sakuntala, whose son Bharata 
 was born as the offspring of the three years' pregnancy of the 
 cycle-year. This star was the rival in the rule of the West 
 of Corvus, which, as the constellation Hasta the hand, was 
 the star of the five Pandavas grouped round their tutor Drona, 
 the god of the central tree trunks Phineus of the eagle 
 
 ' Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. ii. essay viii. pp. 190— 199. 
 ' Mahabhaiata Adi {Samhhava) Parva, cxxxvii. p. 403. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 467 
 
 constellation, was changed by Perseus into a stone, the 
 sun-gnomon-stone ^. 
 
 Cheiron, called by Pindar the teacher with the healing 
 hand (xeip), who dwelt on Mt. Pelion, the hill of the potter's 
 clay, was the northern sun-horse god who brought to Southern 
 Europe the worship of the ash-tree, the Ygg-drasil or parent- 
 tree of the Edda. Its worshippers were the northern warriors 
 who wielded the ashen spear, the supercessor of the arrow of 
 the first Centaur Eurytos, the drawer {epva) of the heavenly 
 bow, the Greek Krishanu whose bow, as we have seen in 
 p. 275, descended to Odusseus, originally the year-star 
 Orion, Eurytos, the archer of the Great Bear bow, led the 
 Centaurs in their battle with the Lapithae at the wedding 
 of Pirithous, the revolving (^ou?) son of Ixion the Great 
 Bear god, with Hippodameia the moon-goddess, tamer of 
 horses, apparently beginning like that of Pelops a lunar year 
 of thirteen months. It was then that the nose and ears of 
 Eurytos were cut off and he was changed into the gnomon- 
 stone-god of the thirteen-months year 2. These spear-bearing 
 warriors who worshipped the sun-horse first brought to the 
 South the knowledge of massage, drugs and salves made of 
 medicinal plants, and the healing oil of Asia Minor, which 
 superseded the magical incantations and cautery which formed 
 the ground-work of medical practice in the days of sorcery 
 and witchcraft. This new knowledge was brought to India 
 by the growers of the holy Sesame oil of Asia Minor, who 
 founded in India the caste of the Telis or oil-men called the 
 Ekadas, or worshippers of eleven gods, and it was the oil 
 which, as we have seen, preceded the religious use of the 
 butter of Vedic ritual. It was according to the Mahabharata 
 the sacred unguent of the ten-headed Ravana who led, as we 
 have seen, the gods of the three-years cycle in the battle with 
 
 ' Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. ii. essay viii. p. 213 ; 
 R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., Primitive Constellations, vol. i. p. 49 ; Hartland, 
 Legend of Perseus, vol. i. p. 3. 
 
 ' Horn. Od. xxi. 295 — 302 ; Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, 
 vol. i. essay vi. pp. 555. 521- 
 
 H h 2 
 
468 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Rama, and the chariot of Ravana was drawn not by horses 
 but by mules, the produce of the cycle^year-ass who also 
 drew that of Duryodhana, the Kauravya leader, who was a 
 god of the eleven-months year ^. These Telis worship among 
 the eleven gods the Panch Pir gods of the primaeval five-days 
 week, and the boundary snake-god Goraya. Their mother- 
 tree is the Chumpa {Liriodendron Grandiflora), on which the 
 bridegroom sits as the ruling god on the world's centre tree 
 while the bride is carried round it, and its flowers are those 
 most prized for religious garlands. These represent, like 
 those of Koronis the Greek sister of Ixion, the succession of 
 freshly blossoming plants marking the sequence of the year 
 months, and it is as the sons of Bhaga-vati, the goddess of 
 the edible {bhaga) fruit produced by the time-recording 
 flowers, that these Telis were made of yellow turmeric, the 
 parent plant of the yellow race who in Greece deified the 
 oil-mother-goddess as the flower-goddess Athene =. 
 
 The eleven gods of the Telis were also the gods of the 
 Kandhs, who like the Gonds called themselves Koiloka, or 
 mountaineers, and who also, as I have shown in the full 
 account of their human sacrifices I have given in p. 387, were 
 members of the race born of the yellow turmeric. These 
 Kandhs and Telis probably like the Assyrians, whose year 
 was the early year of Kangu, used this year, sym- 
 bolised by eleven stakes denoting the months, as a tribal 
 year of the fire-worshippers long before it became a widely 
 spread year in which the months were symbolised by the 
 seven stars of the Great Bear and Pegasus. The age during 
 which this year was the dominant year in India is that of the 
 Kauravya rule, when they in the war of the Mahabharata 
 led an army of eleven akshauhinis, or revolving axle {aksha) 
 months, against the seven akshauhinis of the Pandavas, 
 whose first year measured in their thirteen years' exile was 
 
 ' Mahabhatata Vana (Draupadi-harana) Parva, cclxxix. p. 826 ; Adi (Jatu- 
 griha) Parva, cxlvi. p. 430. 
 
 ' Risley, Tribes and Castts of Bengal, Telis, vol. ii. pp. 306—309. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 469 
 
 the lunaf year of the thirteen months reckoned by seven-day 
 weeks ^. 
 
 The rulers of the eleven months of the Kauravya year were, 
 according to the Mahabharata, the eleven great Maharathas 
 or chariot drivers headed by Duryodhana, whose chariot, like 
 that of Ravana, was drawn by mules ». They led the hundred 
 sons of Dhrita-rashtra, the blind god of the gnomon-stone or 
 tree trunk, and Gandhari, whom I have shown in p. 161 to 
 be the Pole Star Vega, the goddess Dharti, worshipped as 
 the rain-sending goddess by the Chirus, Kaurs, and the 
 higher semi-aboriginal castes. She was the daughter of 
 Su-vala, the circling (vala) bird, and sister of Shakuni, who 
 is in India the kite rather than the raven, but who was appar- 
 ently, like his sister, a bird Pole Star. It was he who lured 
 the Pandavas to their temporary loss of sovereignty and their 
 exile from the throne owing to their losses in gambling with 
 him, just as in the story of Nala and Damayanti, from which 
 the plot of the Mahabharata is taken, Pushkara, god of the 
 burning summer, won all the wealth of Nala, the god of the 
 year channel {nala), and sent him forth naked into the 
 wilderness of the rainy season 3. He as the leading star of 
 the heaven symbolised in the Mahabharata would thus be 
 the Pole Star which preceded Vega, that in Cygnus, called 
 by the Greeks and Latins the constellation of the kite 
 (Jktinos Milvus), and by the Akkadians Khuzaba, the bird 
 {khu) of the forest {zaba) 4, the sacred bird of the forest races 
 of India. As the Pole Star in Cygnus he occupied the place 
 I have already assigned in p. 161 to Ambika, the mother of 
 
 • Mahabharata (Udyoga Sanjdyayana) Parva, pp. 43, 44. Perhaps the deter- 
 mining cause of the assignments of seven as the distinguishing number of the 
 Pandavas, was that their reputed sexless father Pandu, who lost his manhood 
 when he slew a Great Bear Rishi, in the form of a deer, and their grandmother 
 Ambilika, symbolised the Great Bear. 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi (Adivanskdvatarana) Parva, Ixiii. p. 180. 
 ' Mahabharata Sabha (Dyuta Anadyuta) Parva, lix. — Ixxvi. pp. 158 — 201 \ 
 Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. i. pp. 9, 10. 
 
 * R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., Primitive Constellations, vol. i. p. 126, ii, p. 1481 
 
470 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Dhn'ta-rashtra. In the original astronomical mythology, 
 when goddesses ruled heaven, the Pole Star bird was origin- 
 ally a goddess, but in the evolution of the drama of the 
 Mahabharata this goddess became the male bird who ousted 
 the Pandavas from their original rule preceding that of the 
 Kauravya sons of Vega, and it was not till the end of the 
 Pole Star period of Vega and the introduction of the worship 
 of Parikshit, the circling sun-god who goes round the heavens 
 as the sun-horse without reference to the Great Bear, that 
 they became the rulers of the country in the latter period of 
 the Pre-Vedic Age of India. 
 
 The eleven months of this year appear also in the eleven 
 sons of the blind Dlrghatamas, son of Brihaspati, the Pole 
 Star god of the long {dlrgha) darkness {tamas) of the age of 
 early year reckonings before the worship of the sun-horse. 
 He is the reputed author of twenty-five hymns, 140 — 164, of 
 the first Mandala of the Rigveda, the last of these being the 
 great Chronological hymn I have so often quoted, which 
 gives the history of the year reckoning of the ten months of 
 gestation of the year-cow of the thirteen -months year of the 
 three-years cycle-year, and of the twelve-months year of 
 Orion. This is described in stanza 48 as the year of the 
 Chariot with one wheel, twelve spokes or months, three naves 
 or seasons, and three hundred and sixty days. 
 
 Among these twenty-five hymns are two, Rig. i. 162, 163, 
 to the year-horse sacrificed as the god of this year. In 
 stanzas 2 and $ of Rig. i. 163, the Gandharva Great Bear stars 
 are said to hold the reins of this year-horse, who roams the 
 realms of Varuna, the heavens, home of the horse's reins 
 where the guardians of order dwell ; and these are called 
 in Rig. ii. 181 the sevenfold reins of Indra, and in the title 
 to Rig. X. 136 they are called the seven sons of Muni, the 
 spirit god, the Vatarashana or wind reins (rashana) of Agni 
 Vayu the wind, and Surya the Keshinah or long-haired god 
 of the solar {surya) year. Thus this hymn clearly tells us 
 that the Great Bear as the constellation of its reins directs 
 the circuit round the heavens of the sun-horse, and Rig. i. 162 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 471 
 
 gives full details of the ritual of the horse sacrifice, which I 
 will describe further on. 
 
 Dirghatamas, who was also, as I have shown in p. 290, the 
 father of the five provincial kingdoms into which India was 
 divided in this age, is a counterpart of Dhritarashtra, the 
 blind gnomon pole, both being sons of the Pole Star god and 
 both fathers of the eleven gods of this year. The mother of 
 the eleven sons of Dirghatamas was Ushinari, sister of Shiva 
 the three-eyed shepherd-god, and the eldest of these was 
 Kakshivat, the girdle {kakshia) of the pole of the earth, who 
 is said to be the father of Chandra- Kushika, the moon of the 
 Kushikas, and to belong to the race of Gautuma ^. 
 
 He is called in the Rigveda Pajra, the crafty, and is said in 
 Rig. X. 126, 3, 4 to have received from Svanaya, the thunder 
 (svana) god, ten waggons drawn by the forty flame-coloured 
 horses of Dasaratha, he of the ten chariots, the father of 
 Rama. These are the ten months of gestation of the cycle- 
 year of forty months, and the thunder-god Svana who gave 
 them is the Great Bear, the first star of its five stars forming 
 the bow of Krishanu being called, as I have shown in p. 163, 
 Svana =. In Rig. iv. 26, i Indra names Kakshivan, Kutsa 
 and Ushana, the father of Devayani, as three forms in which 
 his godhead has been revealed, and in Rig. i. 116, 7 the 
 Ashvins are said to have filled from the spring struck by the 
 hoof of Kakshivan's sun-horse one hundred casks of Sura, 
 the intoxicating Soma drunk at the Sautramani festival of 
 this year. Thus he is the Indian rider on the sun-horse who 
 creates healing springs, like Pegasus the horse of Bellerophon, 
 the healing god Baal Raphon, by striking the earth with his 
 hoof. 
 
 The year-god of this year, which was not measured by 
 the solstices or equinoxes or the changing seasons marking 
 the course of previous years, is called in the Mahabharata 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi (Sambhava) Parva, civ. pp. 314—316 ; Sabha (Jara- 
 landhabadha) Parva, xxi. p. 63 ; Udyoga Parva, Ixvii. p. 345 ; Sabha (Raja- 
 suyarambka Parva, xvii. p. 55. 
 
 * Eggeling, Shat, Brah., iii. 33, 11, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxvi.p. 72. 
 
472 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the mad god Kalmasha-pada with the spotted {katmaska) 
 feet, the god of the starry heavens who had deserted the 
 star guides of the cycle-year and returned to the vague 
 reckoning of time by the revolutions of the Great Bear 
 round the four quarters of the heavens symbolised in the 
 course of the constellation Pegasus. He ruled in the age 
 of Vashishtha, the god of the altar fire of the Angiras, 
 and his hundred sons, the equivalents of those of Gand- 
 hari. The eldest of these was Shaktri, the wet {shak) 
 god, also called Shakra, Shukra and Sakko, the Buddhist 
 ruling god of the Tavatimsa heaven of the thirty-three 
 gods of this year; Kalmasha-p^da, the star ruler, became 
 mad when he introduced this new eleven-months year, and 
 was cUrsed by Shaktri, the rain-god of the earlier religions, 
 and deserted by Vishva-mitra, who had rilled the cycle- 
 year. While mad he ate Shaktri and Vashishtha's hundred 
 sons offered as human sacrifices. Vashishtha then fled to 
 the river Shatadru (Sutlej) with the huridred springs, and 
 only came back after twelve years, when Kalmasha-pada's 
 wife gave birth to a son Ashmaka, the stone {ashma) god 
 which Vashishtha had begottert before he left. With this 
 son there was also born the son of Adrishyanti, the rock 
 (adrikd) wife " of Shakri, called Para-shara, the overhanging 
 {hard) cloud, and Aurva, the son of the thigh {uru), the 
 Great Bear thigh of the ape-god who cast a fire into the sea 
 to destroy the world, which became the head of the sea-horse 
 of this year *. 
 
 In another series of lessons in the historical mythology of 
 the Mahabharata telling of the adventures of Utanka the 
 weaver {ut part of va, to weave) of the web of time, the 
 history of this year is traced from the age of the cycle-year 
 through that of eleven months, when Pausya, the blind gOd 
 
 ' The counterpart of Adrika, the rock-hawk wife of Vasu, and mother ol 
 the royal race descended from the eel, p. 1 86. 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi (Chitra-raiha) Parva, clxxviii., clxxix. pp. 504, 511, 
 clxxxiv. pp. 519—521, clxxx.— clxxxii. pp. 512-517 ; Hewitt, ffistory and 
 Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vi. sect, b, The Sun Physieiafi, 
 PP- 3". 3I2- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 473 
 
 in Cancel: (Pushya), ruled the year ending with his gift to 
 Utanka of the lunar earrings of his wife. These Utanka, 
 riding on the black sun-horse Dadhiank of this year, took to 
 his bride, the daughter of Gautuma, the bull-god, and Ahalya, 
 the sun'hen, who was to become the rtiother of the circling 
 Sun-god of the next age •. 
 
 The invaders who introduced this new year and brought 
 into India the Bronze Age were undoubtedly a fair race whb 
 burnt their dead instead of burying them, like the Pitaro 
 Barhishadah, the fathers who ate parched barley. They are 
 called in the Brahmanas and in the Vedic hymns to the 
 Fathers, Rig. x. 15, 11, the Pitaro gnishvattah, the fathers 
 "burnt by fire ; " and at the national funeral feast held before 
 the autumnal equinox they receive porridge made of half the 
 parched barley offered to the Pitaro Barhishadah , and of the 
 milk of a cow suckling an adopted calf =, a stateihent which 
 marks them as belonging to a new race of cattle-herdsmen 
 who had, like their predecessors, come from the North and 
 settled in the land of the primitive buffalo. They belonged 
 to the same stock as the fair-haired race of the North who 
 introduced cremation into Europe, which was enjoined in the 
 religion of Odin, as is shown by the burning of Baldur, the 
 sun-god, and of his horse. The Celtic Brythons, the Gauls 
 of France, the Germans, the Romans, Cimbrians and Latins, 
 and the Achseans of Greece, whose sun-god was Achilles, son 
 of Peleus, god of the Potter's clay and wielder of the ashen 
 spear of Cheiron, all burnt their dead, and the ashes of the 
 burnt dead are found in almost all the round graves of the 
 Bronze Age in Europe, though there, as in India, the custom 
 seems to have been confined to the classes who, like the 
 Indian red race of Kshatriya or Rajputs, claimed to be 
 superior to the other dwellers in the land, and whose newly 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi {Paushya) Parva, iii. pp. 51 — 59 ; Ashvamedha (Anugita) 
 Hfva, Ivi.^viii. pp. I45 — 153; HeiVitt, History and Chronology of the Myth- 
 Making Age, chap, vi. sect, b-, The Sun Physician, pp. 312—314. 
 
 ' £ggeling, Shat. Brah., ii. 6, i, 6, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii. 
 p. 421. 
 
474 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 introduced custom was appropriated by others who hoped to 
 acquire eminence by imitating those who had become their 
 rulers. The custom must certainly have originated among 
 the forest races who dwelt in a well-wooded country, and 
 hence it was not adopted by the Semite and Zend races 
 dwelling in the treeless lands of Central Asia or by the 
 people of Egypt and Asia Minor '. That this custom of 
 burning the dead followed by the sons of the ash-tree in the 
 North and in Greece was that of a race who measured their 
 year by eleven months is proved by the number of the horses 
 of the year-gods of the Edda, who, like Baldur the sun-god, 
 rode on the horses first deified in the mythology of this year. 
 We are told that after the death of Baldur and the burning 
 of his body with that of his horse, there still remained eleven 
 horses for the gods headed by Woden's horse Sleipner with 
 eight legs, the horse that looks in all directions ; and hence 
 these horses were those which bore the gods ruling the year- 
 months in their daily journeys round the sky ». 
 
 D. The New Yeai^ s Day of the eleven-months year. 
 
 Having thus traced the eleven-months year of three 
 hundred and sixty-three days as the succession of the cycle- 
 year introduced by a fair northern race of red men, I must 
 now proceed to show in which parts of the sun-circle of the 
 year it was supposed to begin. 
 
 This year of the head of the sun-horse who brought springs 
 to the earth's surface with his hoof^ and whose worship origi- 
 nating among the Scandinavian races was disseminated by 
 them throughout the ancient world, is recorded as a national 
 year reckoning both in India and in Rome, and from these 
 sources we have most conclusive evidence showing when the 
 
 ' Ridgeway, Early Age in Greece, chap. vii. Inhumation, Cremation, and 
 the Soul, pp. 484—516; Mallett, Northern Antiquities, Prose Edda, 49, pp. 
 446—449. 
 
 » Mallett, Northern Antiquities, Prose Edda, 15, p. 411. 
 
Ptdmitive Traditional History. 475 
 
 year began. It began at Rome with the festival of the 
 Equiria, held'on the Ides the isth of October, when a race 
 of two-horsed chariots was held in the Campus Martius, and 
 according to Timaeus it was the near or left-hand horse of 
 the winning pair which was' sacrificed ^. The horse's tail was 
 carried to the Regia, the ancient royal palace in which was 
 the Sacrarium Opis, the chamber containing the national 
 treasures including the Palladium or wooden image of the 
 tree-mother of the city brought by yEneas from Troy, This 
 could only be entered by the Vestal Virgins guarding the fire 
 of Vesta on the national hearth in its central hall and the 
 Pontifex Maximus". It was the temple of Census, the 
 storing-god, guardian of the harvested grain, and represented 
 the village hall assigned to the Dravidian village headman, 
 in which his daughters, who became the Roman Vestal 
 Virgins, tended the village fire. 
 
 The blood from the horse's tail was allowed to drip on the 
 hearth, and was carefully kept by the Vestals for future use. 
 The head was cut off and decked with cakes, like the head of 
 the Mordvinian horse, and a contest for it took place between 
 the men of the Via Sacra on the Palatine and those of the 
 older and lower region of the Suburra. If the former won 
 they placed it on the gable of the Regia, as the Scandinavians 
 placed the skulls of their sacrificed horses on the gables of 
 their houses ; and if the latter, it was placed on the Turris 
 Manilla, dedicated to the Manes of the dead, the Roman 
 symbol of the Celtic Caer Sidi, or turning-castle of the Pole 
 Star age, the dwelling-place of the dead national ancestors. 
 
 The New Year's festival of the iSth October corresponded 
 with the Puanepsion of Apollo and the Oscophoria, or bringing 
 home of the grapes (oa-Kost) of Dionysos, both held at the 
 beginning of Puanepsion (October — November) ; and it is 
 also reproduced in India in the festival of the Deo-than or 
 Dithwan, the enthroning {than) or awakening of Krishna, the 
 
 ' W. Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals, Mensis October, pp. 240 — 250 ; 
 Polybius, De Bella Punico, 12, 46. 
 ' Ibid., Mensis Sextilis, pp. 213, 214. 
 
476 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 black antelope-god of the Iksh-vaku or sugar-cane kitigg of 
 this age, whose first-fruits festival it was. And in fixing their 
 year as beginning with this festival, which was held on the 
 nth of Khartik (October — November), or at the end of the 
 first week of their eleven-months year, these new comers 
 returned to the early Pleiades year of their fore-fathers, which 
 had begun in October — November, and was reproduced in 
 Europe in the Greek Thesmorphoria and the three days' 
 feast to the dead beginning the Celtic year, and which was 
 still celebrated in India in the festival of the Dipavalt or 
 Dibali, the Feast of Lamps, beginning two days before the 
 end of Ashva-yujau or Assin (September^^October), and 
 continuing as a six-day festival of the year of six-day weeks 
 till the 4th Khartik i. 
 
 This year in Jain chronology was that of the tWenty-seCond 
 Tirthakara Arishtanemi, he of the unbroken (arishta) wheel 
 (nemi), that is of a year of a continuous circuit of months 
 unbroken by solstices and equinoxes. He was conceived on 
 the twelfth day of the dark fortnight, that is on the 27th of 
 Khartik (October— November), three days before the Bengal 
 Kali-puja held on the last day of Khartik, to whom goats, 
 sheep and buffaloes were offered =, and who as Kala-nemi, 
 the wheel of time, was mother of Kansa, son of Ugra-deva, 
 whose connection with Arishta-nemi I will show presently. 
 He was born on the 5 th day of Shravana (July— August), 
 the day of the Nag-panchami festival, so that he, like the 
 black sun-horse whom he represented, began his year in 
 November. He is called in Rig. x. 178, 1-3, Arishta-nemi 
 Tarkshya, " who has begotten from the water the five lands," 
 the five kingdoms begotten by Dirghatamas, and in Rig. i. 
 89, 6, he as Tarkshya is named as a year-god with Indra, 
 Pushan and Brihaspati the Pole Star god. His name shows 
 him to be the son of Trikshi, called in Rig. viii. 22, 7 the 
 
 » Elliott, Memoirs of the Races of the North- Western Prwitues of India, 
 vol. i. pp. 245—247 ; Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India, 
 p. 432. 
 
 • Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India, pp. 430— 43I. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 477 
 
 horse of the Ashvins, which was, as we have seen, the sun-ass 
 who drew their three-wheeled car of the cyqle-year. Arish- 
 tanemi's or Tarkshya's father was in Jain history Samudra- 
 vijaya, the Conqueror of the Sea, from which his son, as 
 Tarkshya the black sun-horse, raised the five Indian kingdoms. 
 He lived in the same city with Rama, who was not the year- 
 god of the cycle-year but the brother of Krishna, called 
 Vala-rama, or the circling Rama, and Hal-ayudha, he whose 
 weapon (ayudha) is the plough {hal), the Great Bear, and 
 Krishna, called Keshava, the long-haired {kesha) god, is 
 said in the Jain Rathanemi giving Arishta-nemi's history to 
 have married the daughter of Ugra-sena of the army of the 
 Ugra king of the Bhojas^. He is called in Rig. i. 36, 18 
 Ugra-deva, the god of the Yadu-Turvasu of the cycle-year, 
 and in the Harivansa and the Mathura Krishna legend 
 this god is the husband of Kala-nemi, the wheel of time, 
 whose son was Kansa the goose, the measurer of the goose 
 [hans) year, whom Krishna, as the eighth son of Vasu-deva 
 and the sun-god of the year of Chapter VI., slew, and who, 
 as we shall see, is another form of Arishta-nemi 2. The 
 subjects of this king, who were the Turvasu or Bhoja carriers 
 of India (p. 364) 3, were the cannibal tribes, the Pisacha eaters 
 of human and animal flesh of p. 453, who have become our 
 ogres, and whose name Ugra, reproducing that of the Ugur- 
 Finns, is derived by Dr. Sayce from the Ugar or sickle-shaped 
 knife with which they sacrificed their human and animal 
 victims 4, jind which in the Bronze Age of their year succeeded 
 the stone knife of the neolithic age. 
 
 In the Jain story, Arishta-nemi, the god of these Gotho- 
 Ugur-Finn warriors who sacrificed the sun-horse, is the son of 
 Shiva, the female form of Shiva who is Kala-nemi, the Bengal 
 goddess Kali. He on the day after his birth as the Naga 
 god born on the Nag-Panchami feast-day went from Dwarika, 
 
 ' Jacobi, Jaina, Sutras UUaradhySyana, xxii., Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xlv. pp. 112— Ii6. 
 ' Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. Essay v. pp. 462, 463. 
 3 Mahabharata Adi {Sambhava) Parva Ixxxv. p. 260. 
 ^ Sayce, Uiihrt Lectures for 1887, lect. iii. p. 196. 
 
4/8 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Krishna's sea-port, where he was born, to the Raivataki hill 
 consecrated to Revati, the fish-mother constellation Pisces, 
 the Stella mother of the son of the Conqueror of the Sea 
 (Samudra-vijaya). There on the fifteenth day of the dark 
 fortnight of Ashvin, the thirtieth of September— October, 
 or the day before the beginning of Khartik (October- 
 November), the month in which he was conceived, this fish- 
 born god said to have a fish's belly, became under the Vetasa 
 or Banyan-tree the all-knowing year-god i, and this day of 
 the inauguration of Arishta-nemi as a year-god coincides 
 with that of the Roman sacrifice of the sun-horse on the 
 15th of October. 
 
 The age of the rule of the conquering Gotho-Ugro Finns 
 who worshipped the sun-horse is called in the Zendavesta 
 that of the usurpation of the Keresani, the Krishanu of the 
 Rigveda, the archer-god of the North who said, " No priest 
 shall walk the land for me as a conqueror to prosper them, 
 he would rob everything of progress = " ; and in the Krishna 
 legend the rule of these ruthless northern ogres is described 
 as that of the murderous goddess Kali and her son Kansa, 
 when priests and cattle were massacred and the temples of 
 the gods of India were like those of Scandinavia defiled 
 with blood 3, and Kansa is called in Harivansa liv. the 
 brother of Haya-griva, the god with the horse's {hayd) neck 
 igriva), who lives on human flesh ; and Arishta, here called 
 the son of Bali, the god of the food offering {bait) of the 
 Asura Daityas, is said to be a bull attendant of the two 
 Kansa and Hayagriva, the god ruling the year of the horse's 
 head, thus clearly identifying the origin of the Jain move- 
 ment with the invasion and conquest of India by these 
 Gotho-Finns. 
 
 In the Zendavesta the rule of these innovating and perse- 
 
 • Jacobi, _/(?««« Sutras, Life of Arishta-nemi, 172 — 174, Sacred Books of the 
 East, vol. xxii. pp. 276, 277. 
 
 ' Mills, Zendavesta, part iii. Yasna, Ix. 24, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xxxi. pp. 237, 238. 
 
 3 Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay v. p. 463. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 479 
 
 cuting priest-kings, the Patesi of Girsu in the Euphratean 
 Delta, is said to have been ended by the victory of the true 
 Haoma, that in which the Soma was made, as in the latest 
 Indian ritual of the triashir or three mixings of Indra made 
 of Gavashir, milk {gava), Dadhi-ashir, sour milk curds (dadh) 
 sacred to the sun-horse Dadhiank, and Yavashir, barley 
 (java) mixed with running water ^ instead of the earlier 
 sacramental drink of the Sautramani festival of this age, 
 when, as we are told in Rig. viii. 2, li, 12, the Sura or 
 spirituous liquor drunk intoxicated the worshippers. 
 
 The Shatapatha Brahmana gives a very full account of 
 the Sautramani sacrifice, and though it does not say exactly 
 when it was held, only saying it must be either at the new 
 or full moon, yet in describing its institution it shows almost 
 certainly that it took place when this year began at the 
 beginning of October — November. It is said to have been 
 offered for the healing of Indra, the rain-god, whose divine 
 power had left him at the end of the rainy season, during 
 which he had completed his victory over the Asura Na-muchi, 
 the antelope-god who does not {na) set free {muchi) the rain =. 
 He is said in the Shatapatha Brahmana and Rigveda to have 
 killed the god of drought by the foam of the water, the wet 
 wind of the South-west monsoon 3. He was healed of the 
 weakness engendered by this severe contest and his power 
 of bringing the life-giving rain restored by the Ashvins and 
 Sarasvati directing the thirty-three gods of this year 4. 
 
 Therefore it is certain that the sacrifice took place at the 
 end of the rainy season, and when we remember that the 
 Dithwan festival of the setting up and awakening Krishna 
 after the rainy season as the New Year's god of the sons of 
 the sugar-cane took place on the nth Khartik (October — 
 
 " Rig. V. 2, 7, 5, viii. 2, 7 ; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, vol. i. p. 209. 
 ° Benfey's Glossary, s.v. Namuchi. 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brak., xu. 7, 31—4, Sacred Books of the East, vo], xllv. 
 pp. 222, 223 ; Rig. viii. 14, 13. 
 ♦ Ibid., xii. 7, I, 14, ibid., vol. xliv. pp. 216, 217. 
 
480 Primitive Traditional History, 
 
 November), at the end of the first eleven-days week of the 
 eleven-months year, there can be little doubt that the Sautra- 
 mani sacrifice I will now describe is part of the same series 
 of New Year's ceremonies which began at the new moon of 
 Khartik, when all the earlier festivals of former years were 
 held, and not at the full moon which began the year in later 
 ritual. 
 
 There are two forms of this sacrifice, one of which is part 
 of the Rajasuya coronation ceremonies, which is throughout 
 treated as a New Year's feast, and the other that of the 
 annual New Year's festival. They differ somewhat in details, 
 but the main features in both are the same, the gods wor- 
 shipped being the Ashvins, Sarasvati, and Indra, and in both 
 sacrifices a rice cake, such as that offered at animal sacrifices 
 {pashu-purodashd), is offered on eleven platters, denoting the 
 eleven months of this year, to Indra ^ The sacred vessels 
 for this four days' festival are made of Ashvattha (Pipal) 
 Udumbara (the wild fig-tree), Nyagrodha (the banyan-tree), 
 and the Palasha-tree, and there are also earthen pots. The 
 following victims were offered to the three gods : a grey 
 he-goat to the Ashvins, a ram to Sarasvati, the mother-river 
 of the Kurus and of the ram sun, and a bull to Indra ; and 
 with these pashu-purodasha cakes are offered-^on twelve 
 platters to Savitri, the sun-god, as the Brahmanas tell us, of 
 the twelve-months year, on ten to Varuna, as the god of the 
 year of ten lunar months of gestation, and on eleven to Indra ^ 
 thus remembering in the same sacrifice the twelve-months 
 year of Orion, the three-years cycle-year of Varuna, and the 
 eleven-months year of Indra. 
 
 During the first three days the Sura intoxicating drink to 
 be drunk at the festival and poured out in libations was made 
 of malted rice, malted barley, parched rice, spices and millets, 
 the food of the immigrant eaters of millet and of the Kusha- 
 grass fathers, for whom stalks of Kusha-grass were added. 
 
 ' 5ggeKng, Shat. Brah., v. 5, 4, 29, xii. 12, 7, 2, 18, Sacred Books of 
 the East, vol. xli. p. 136, xliv. pp. 221, 222. 
 " Ibid., xii. 7, 2, 3, 14—20, ibid., vol. xliv. pp. 217, 220 — 322. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 481 
 
 These were mixed with the fermented juice of three species 
 of the Baer shrub {zizyphus jujubd), growing profusely over 
 the sandy plains of Northern India, where their leaves fed 
 when placed on these shrubs the lakh insects producing the 
 red lakh dye, and the tusser silk-worm, which spins the wild 
 silk whence the early Punjabis made their garments. This 
 liquor was fermented for three days and nights, and on the 
 first night the milk of one cow, on the second of two, and the 
 third of three was poured into it. 
 
 Two altars were erected on the sacrificial ground, one for 
 milk drinks and libations and the other for those of the 
 fermented Sura; and on the fourth day, when the animal 
 victims were offered, three cups of milk and as many of Sura, 
 or eighteen cups in all, were offered to the Ashvins, Sarasvati 
 and Indra, and thirty-three libations of fat gravy were 
 poured from cups made of bulls' hoofs to the thirty-three 
 gods of the year from the throne made of udumbara wood 
 and covered with a black antelope-skin. The thirteen- 
 months year was celebrated in this sacrifice in the drinking 
 of the cups of milk and Sura offered to these year-gods. 
 Three Adhvaryu priests drunk the six cups offered to 
 the Ashvins, three, the Hotri, Brahman, and Maitra-Varuna, 
 the six of Sarasvati, making twelve cups, and the thirteenth 
 cup, that of Indra, was drunk by the sacrificer, and these 
 draughts are said to represent the seasons and months of 
 the year I. The choice of Indra as the ruling god of the 
 thirteen-months year shows him to have been the god of 
 the sons of the eel Indu, the group of the Chiru, Kharwar, 
 Oraon, Munda, Santal and cognate tribes who measured 
 time by it, and both as the eel-fish and the cloud-buffalo 
 he is an indigenous deity of this national group to which 
 the first Indian kings belonged. And he as the bull-god 
 to whom a bull was sacrificed at this New Year's festival 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah.,v. S, 4, 22, xii. 7, I, I— 14, 7, 2, 39, 10, 14—20, 
 7i 3) 57i s. 8, 2, II, 21 — 31, s. 3, 5, 13 — 31, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 P- '33) xliv. pp. 213, note 2 — 217, 220 — 222, 223, note 2 — 225, note I, 240 — 
 242, 245—247, 248—259. 
 
 n. I i 
 
482 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of the northern conquerors who burnt their dead, became 
 as the adopted calf of the buffalo cow the god ruling their 
 eleven-months year, and also the wild-bull god worshipped by 
 these riding cattle-herdsmen before they came to India. 
 
 The drinking of Sura or fermented liquor at this festival 
 was not confined to that drunk by the priests and the sacri- 
 ficing king or local head of the community, but it was also 
 freely consumed by all present at the feast, who also ate the 
 flesh of the slain victims. It was, like all the early religious 
 festivals, a national orgy, which all members of each community 
 which celebrated it joined. It was a New Year's festival 
 which went back to the first stellar reckoning of time when 
 the year was measured by the apparent motions of the stars 
 and the setting sun, as in the Pleiades and first solstitial year, 
 and which did not, like the year of Orion and the cycle-year, 
 regard the sun-god as especially the sun of day who circled 
 the heavens, but worshipped him as the sun of night riding 
 the black horse slain at the end of his year. 
 
 The sacrifice of this horse probably formed in India part 
 of the original New Year's festival of this year, as in the 
 Roman ritual celebrated at the same time, but it was subse- 
 quently transferred to the mid-year or Vishuvat festival which 
 divided this year into two parts, like the mid-year festival 
 of the Pleiades year in April — May, and that of the thirteen- 
 months year in July — August, and this division adds a new link 
 to the evidence connecting this and the primitive stellar year. 
 
 The mid-year festival of this year was held at Rome on 
 the 15th of April, exactly six months after the sacrifice of the 
 horse on the isth of October. At this festival, called the 
 Fordicidia, thirty pregnant cows were offered, one for each 
 of the thirty Curiae, the villages or parishes into which the 
 Latin state was divided, and the unborn calves were torn from 
 their wombs and burnt by the Vestal Virgins. Their ashes 
 were at the Parilia or Palilia of the 21st April mixed with the 
 blood of the October horse sacrificed at the beginning of the 
 earlier year, which was now superseded by the new year of 
 the European spring, just as the original November year of 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 483 
 
 the Pleiades was superseded by that beginning on the ist 
 May. These ashes and blood were thrown upon the heaps 
 of burning bean straw, laurel and olive wood forming the 
 national fires lighted as those of the New Year's day. This 
 new opening of the year seems to be that commemorated in 
 the birth of the Jain twenty-third Tirthakara, who succeeded 
 Arishta-nemi, who ruled this year when Vega became the 
 Pole Star. Parsva is said to have been born in Vi-sakha 
 (April— May), when the moon was in the sign Libra after 
 being quickened in Push (December — January). His mother 
 was Vama, the left-hand {vdma) goddess of the retrograde 
 course of the sun, and his father, Ashva-sena, was the horse 
 {ashva) king of this sun-horse year. The sun was in Libra in 
 April — May about 11,000 B.C., while Vega was the Pole Star '. 
 This new year was also that of the Zend ritual of the 
 thirty-three lords of the ritual order ruling this year of the 
 fire-worshipping cattle-herdsmen, for it began not with the 
 summer solstice of June — July, like the original Zend year 
 described in p. 227, but with the festival of Maidhyo-zaremaya, 
 the milk giver, called by the worshippers of the kine of the 
 Gathas that of the creation of heaven. It was held from the 
 nth to the 15th of Ardibehist (April— May), that is from 
 about the 26th to the 30th of April, and lasted, like the other 
 Zend festivals of this year, five days, those of the week of the 
 Pleiades year^. It was the New Year's festival of the wor- 
 shippers of the god of cattle in whose Indian ritual thirty- 
 three cups of gravy were offered as libations and whose year 
 was led by the black horse of the sun. Thus it was the year 
 of St. George, beginning on his day, April 23rd, and he was, 
 as we have seen, the Syrian form of the Egyptian Horus, the 
 
 ' Jacobi, ya»«ii Sutras, Life of Parsva Kalpa Sutra, 149 — 152, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xxii. pp. 271, 272. Parsva means the man of the ribs (^arsa), 
 and hence it might be given to a year-god of a mid-year as a rib binding 
 the two parts together. 
 
 ' Mill, Zendavesta, part iii. Yasna, i. 9, Visparad, ii. 2, Sacred Books of 
 the East, vol. xxxi. pp. 198, 238 ; Justi, Zend Dictionary, whence the date 
 of the festival is taken. 
 
 I i 2 
 
484 Primitive Traditional History, 
 
 ape-god riding the sun-horse. Also as the year when Vega 
 was the Pole Star it was the year of the three weaving sisters 
 of the Chinese, the three stars in Lyra forming a triangle of 
 which Vega was the apex ; and these are said in the Chinese 
 ode written since Vega ceased to be the Pole Star to pass in 
 a day through the seven stages of the sky i. 
 
 The Roman New Year's day of the Parilia, the 21st April, 
 described by Ovid =, was originally the rural New Year festival 
 of the shepherds consecrated to Pales, the god of the chaff or 
 husk {palia) of the seed-grain, answering to the mother-husk 
 of the Annanite version of the Cinderella story, pp. 116, 117. 
 Her name is certainly an exact equivalent of the Akkadian 
 Pal, meaning a year, and the pudenda muHebria 3, or in other 
 words the year-husk. Pal is a Finnic form of the Hindu Bar 
 {bar-as), the Tamil Var-usham, the year, as the Finns substi- 
 tuted 1 for r, and hence the goddess Pallas was apparently a 
 husk goddess ruling this year, and brought from the Akkadian 
 theology as Asarracus, the Akkadian Asurra-ku, the god of 
 the bed (asurra), came from the Euphratean countries to 
 Asia Minor. Their god Pales of the double husk is in the 
 mythology of Southern Italy the twin brothers Palici, sons of 
 Jupiter and Thalia the plant-mother 4, the twin cotyledon 
 leaves of the parent grass sagmen sacred to Semo Sancus in 
 Italy, and of the Kusha-grass of the Indian Kushika. At 
 his festival the sheepfold sacred to the sun-ram and its gates, 
 the door-posts of the Apri hymns, were sprinkled by the 
 shepherds with purifying water at earliest dawn. The sheep 
 were driven through the fire of bean straw, laurel and olive 
 wood to consecrate them in the creating fire of the grain and 
 
 ' Legge, SUA King, Decade V. Ode 9, Sacred Books of the East, vol Hi. 
 
 p. 363- 
 
 » Ovid. Fasti, 721—782. 
 
 3 Sayce, Assyrian Grammar, Syllabus No. 6. As the Latin Mars Martis 
 was very probably a fighting storm-god brought to Italy by the Tursenian 
 seamen, whose Akkadian ancestors called the god of the South-west monsoon 
 Martu, so Pal may also have been brought by the same channel as a Latin 
 year-god. 
 
 * Virg. ^n. ix. 585 ; Macrobius, s.v. 19. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 485 
 
 olive-mother-goddess the Greek Pallas, the Roman Minerva, 
 the Egyptian goddess Min, the star Virgo. The shepherds 
 then offered millet and millet cakes, milk and food offerings 
 to the wooden image of Pales, which became the Palladium, 
 the guardian wooden god of cities given in Trojan legend to 
 Dardanus by his mother Electra, a star in the Pleiades. 
 
 A prayer was then recited by the united shepherds with 
 their faces to the East asking Pales to bless them with good 
 crops of grain and wool, and to increase their flocks by the 
 birth of healthy lambs. While saying this prayer they washed 
 their hands in the morning dew and sprinkled themselves 
 with dew from a laurel branch. A wooden bowl of ancient 
 form was then brought and filled with heated wine, and after 
 drinking this both men and women leaped three times through 
 the mother-fire exactly as the Dosadh priests do in their New 
 Year's sacrifice to Rahu the sun-god. 
 
 In this festival we see the first worship of the sun of dawn, 
 a repetition of the worship of the maiden Kore or Persephone, 
 the May Queen raised from the deadly gloom of winter, and 
 also the beginnings of the belief in baptism, a consecration 
 sacrament of the sons of the rivers, to whom water was more 
 holy and sanctifying than the Phrygian blood baths of the 
 age of pig worship. 
 
 This festival was followed by the Vinalia on April 23rd, 
 answering to St. George's Day, which was in Rome the 
 festival of Venus Ericyna, the Phoenician goddess of health 
 Erek-hayim, whom we have seen in p. 229 to be the Star 
 Virgo. This star Chitra is said in Jain mythology to be the 
 star of Arishta-nemi '. We have no trustworthy account of the 
 ritual of this Roman festival. The final festival of this Latin 
 New Year's season was the Ferialia Latina, on the 24th of 
 April, when the magistrates of the Latin cities headed by the 
 Roman Consul met on Mount Alban, the Latin national 
 mother-mountain. At this festival the Consul offered a 
 
 ' Jacobij/aiHn Sutras, Kalpa Sutra, 170, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxii, 
 P- 476, 
 
486 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 libation of milk and a pure white heifer, the emblem of the 
 rising sun, which had never been yoked, and all the assembled 
 officials representing the Latin state ate of its flesh. No 
 wine was drunk at these rites, which went back to the days 
 of the belief in the Latin parent tree, and it still survived as 
 a living creed, for little puppets, the tree children, were hung 
 on the branches of the trees of the sacred grove i. 
 
 In this review of the widespread ritual dating back to the 
 worship of the sun-horse of the eleven-months year we find 
 a complete historical picture of the pastoral Gotho-Finnic 
 race which looked on cattle as the best gifts of God, wor- 
 shipped the sun-horse, and embodied in their beliefs the 
 creeds of the early votaries of the Pleiades, and of the other 
 early years measured by the five-days week, and also in- 
 cluded the six-days week of the latest form of Orion's year ; 
 and thus their eleven-days week contained both these forms 
 of time measurements. 
 
 To complete the ritualistic record of their new year of 
 observances I have now to describe fully the Ashva-medha 
 sacrifice of the Indian sun-horse, and to learn the lessons 
 this study will teach. The dates given for the sacrifice of 
 the sun-horse in the Mahabharata is the full moon of Cheit 
 (March — April), but when we remember that this year repre- 
 sents that depicted in Rig. x. 85, the marriage hymn of the 
 union of Soma, the male moon-god of the North, to the 
 sun-maiden who had been wedded first to the Gandharva 
 Vishva-vasu, the Great Bear (v. 21, 22, 41), it is certain that 
 the months of the year must have begun with the crescent 
 new moon. That this wedding, from which the Gandharva 
 Vishva-vasu, the Great Bear, was warned away (v. 21, 22), 
 and to which the bride was brought by the Ashvins in their 
 three-wheeled car of the cycle-year (v. 14) made of Palasha 
 and cotton tree wood (v. 20), the mother-trees of the men of 
 Orion's year and of the offerers of human sacrifices (pp. 324, 
 390), was that of the moon-father-god of this year, is clear from 
 
 ' W. Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals, Mensis Aprilis, pp. 95 — 97. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 487 
 
 V. 30 and 45, the first of which describes the bridegroom as 
 wearing women's clothes like the sexless father-gods of the 
 cycle-year, and the latter prays Indra to send to the bride 
 ten sons, the eleventh of whom was the bridegroom himself, 
 the eleven gods of the year. As all nations of the Teutonic 
 stock to which these Gothic herdsmen belonged call the 
 moon masculine, the German Mond, and not by the feminine 
 names Luna and Selene of the Latins and Greeks, it is appar- 
 ently certain that the sexless moon-god who is to be the 
 father and, like Sthanu among the Rudras and Haman and 
 his ten sons, one of the gods of his own year, is a year-god 
 of invading rulers from the North who offered their monthly 
 sacrifices at the new moon. 
 
 Hence the sacrifice which in the later ritual of the Maha- 
 bharata sacrifice of the sun-horse Parikshit was held at the 
 full moon of Cheit (March — April), must have been originally 
 held at the new moon of this month, that is at the new moon 
 of the vernal equinox. But as the equinoxes were not units 
 of measurement in this year's reckoning, it seems much more 
 probable that the original date of the spring sacrifice of the 
 horse was the new moon of Vi-sakha falling six months after 
 the New Year's Sautramani festival of the new-moon period 
 of Khartik (October — November). 
 
 That this was subsequently altered in the Vedic age to the 
 full moon of Phalgun (February — March) is proved by the 
 recommendation in the Shatapatha Brahmana that the horse 
 should then be offered, and in Rig. x, 85, the wedding-hymn 
 of the god of this year, it is said in v. 15 that the wedding 
 was to take place in Phalgun but that the wedding oxen 
 were to be slain in Magh (January — February), when the 
 thirteen-months year began at the new moon. Also the 
 New Year's Huli festival of the red race which suc- 
 ceeded the Magh festival of the yellow tribes, is still held 
 at the new moon of Phalgun. Hence with regard to the 
 date in Indian ritual of the sacrifice of the sun-horse which 
 was offered in October by its original worshippers we must 
 either conclude that by a compromise with the original 
 
488 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 yellow rulers of the country, the new comers consented first 
 to sacrifice the year-horse at the New Year's feast at the 
 new moon of Phalgun, or that they before they did this 
 offered it at the mid-year festival of their year at the new 
 moon of Vi-sakha, and the question can only be fully cleared 
 up by local inquiry. 
 
 In the Ashva-medha sacrifice of this year, as described in 
 the !^rahmanas, the horse sacrificed was, like that at Rome, 
 one of those driven in the sun-chariot i. This chariot to 
 which the sun-horses were symbolically yoked in the early 
 oblations to the wind gods is the constellation of the Great 
 Bear, in which Prajapati (Orion) enclosed the Gandharvas, 
 its stars and the six Apsaras, the water {ap) mothers, the 
 Pleiades, after he had been dismembered, that is after his 
 original year of twelve months had been changed into the 
 cycle-j'ear. It is thus made the chariot of Varuna, the god 
 of the over-arching firmament of the Uttara-vedi or north 
 altar of this age 2. 
 
 In the ritual of the Soma sacrifice in which this heavenly 
 chariot is worshipped five oblations of Ghee, one to the 
 central fire, the Pole Star, and one to each of the four 
 quarters of the heavens ruled by the four Lokapala stars 
 circled by the Great Bear in his annual course, were offered 
 to its head, which was symbolically taken from its body and 
 carried round the fire while the oblations were being made 3, 
 
 That this interpretation is correct is most clearly proved 
 by the ritual of the installation as the god ruling the year of 
 Agni Vaish-vanaraj the god of the household fire who ruled 
 this sacrifice. In his installation service the first offering is 
 a cake on eleven platters, the eleven months of the year, to 
 Agni and Vishnu 4, a cake to Agni Vaish-vanara, and then 
 seven cakes are offered south and north of the central fire in 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., ix. 4, 2, 9—28, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliii 
 pp. 236—241. 
 = Ibid., 4, 2, 9, IS, ibid., pp. 229—238. 
 3 Ibid., 4, I, 13—16, ibid., pp. 233, 234, note I, 235. 
 « Ibid., vi. 6, I, 2, ix. 3, i, 2, ibid., xli. p. 247, xliii. p. 207 note. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 489 
 
 the order shown in this diagram to the seven Maruts, the 
 tree [marom) and wind mothers who in primitive mythology 
 drove the Great Bear and its attendant stars round the Pole. 
 
 6 cakes to the seven metres which symbolically measure 
 time. 
 
 4 cakes to the Seven Rishis, the Great Bear. 
 
 2 cakes to the seven seasons. 
 
 7 cakes to the Aranyenuchya, the seven westward rivers. 
 I cake to the seven eastward rivers. 
 
 3 cakes to the seven domestic animals. 
 
 5 cakes to the seven vital airs '. 
 
 Here the fourth cake offered to the Seven Rishis, the Seven 
 Stars of the Great Bear, symbolises the constellation as that 
 called in the Vedic hymns of the sun-horse, quoted in p. 470, 
 the wind-reins (vdta-rasfiana) of the year-horse which drove 
 it round the Pole ; and this proves that it, which was first 
 the head of the sun-horse of this year, was also the head 
 of its chariot driven round the Pole by the seven tree 
 and wind mothers ; and that the year of this circuit was the 
 eleven-months year is proved by the cake on eleven platters 
 offered to Agni and Vishnu and the thirty-three verses of 
 the Trayastrimsa hymn recited in the ritual =. Also the 
 symbolical description of the Hindu eleven-months year 
 shows that it was one originally framed on the earliest type 
 described in the Seven Tablets of Creation, that of Kingu 
 ruled by the Great Bear driven round the Pole by the seven 
 winds and the four stars ruling the four quarters of the 
 heavens, visited in its circuit by the revolving constellation ; 
 and this year preceded that in which Pegasus was made the 
 stellar representative of the four stars of the earlier Zend 
 cosmogony. 
 
 In the ritual of the final form of the Ashva-medha sacrifice 
 given in the Shatapatha Brahmana and the Mahabharata, 
 the horse selected for the sacrifice is one that has been 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shot. Bfah,, ix. 3, i, 18—24, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliii. 
 pp. 209—212. 
 ' Ibid., ix. 3, 3, 3, ibid., xliii.p. 217. 
 
492 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 year recorded in the national history described in Chapter 
 VI., and seventeen and thirteen victims are also permitted 
 to be offered to the gods of the later seventeen-months year 
 of Prajapati and those of the thirteen-months year. 
 
 It was during this horse sacrifice that the national history 
 was recited for ten days and repeated every ten days during 
 the whole term of the year which, as that of the latest Vedic 
 ritual was one of twelve months each of thirty days and 
 three ten-day weeks, only consisted of three hundred and 
 sixty days I. The custom which resembled the recital 
 of the Celtic Brythons was probably elaborated in the 
 eleven-months year, but it had existed in some form or 
 other ever since the belief in nationality and the feelings of 
 national patriotism had been evoked. 
 
 The whole ritual differs considerably from that laid down 
 in the Ashva-medha hymn in the Rigveda, Rig. i. 163. 
 There seven gods, like those recognised in the seven cakes 
 offered to the seven Maruts round the central fire, are in- 
 voked. These are Mitra-Varuna, the original ruling gods 
 of the solstitial year, Aryaman, the guarding star Arcturus, 
 Vayu the wind-god, Indra, the rain-god, Ribhu-ksha, the 
 master {kshd) Ribhu ruling the autumn, and the Maruts, 
 the tree {marom) and wind-mothers. The only victim slain 
 beside the horse is a goat to Pushan and Indra, and both 
 this and the horse were, like the other victims tied in early 
 ritual to a stake in a sacrificial pit, slain by cutting 
 their throats, so that the blood flowed into the pit, but 
 in the later Brahmana ritual the shedding of blood was for- 
 bidden and the animals slain were strangled. 
 
 The horse after being slain is said in Rig. i. 163, 18, 19, to 
 be cut into thirty-four pieces to be offered to Agni, thirty- 
 three to the gods of the year and one to the sun-horse which 
 led it, and this dissection also took place in the Ashva- 
 medha sacrifice of the Mahabharata >. Both in the Shata- 
 
 » Eggeling, Shat. Brih., xiii. 2, 2, 2—13, xiu. 4, 3, 1— IS, xiii. J, l| 13— 'Si 
 Sacred Books of the East, pp. 298—301, 360—371, 382—384. 
 ' Mahabharata Ashva-medha {Anugita) Farva, Ixxxix. p. 224. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 493 
 
 patha Brahmana and the Mahabharata the sacrifice is 
 attended by the king and his wives, and the Mahishi or 
 chief queen plays an important part in the ritual. They 
 and the king all sleep on the sacrificial ground behind the 
 Garhapatya altar the night before the sacrifice, and after 
 the slaughter of the horse the queen, who in the Mahabha- 
 rata is Dru-padi, the tree {dru) mother, lies down near the 
 horse so that he may make her pregnant '. 
 
 Another very remarkable variation from early ritual is 
 recorded in the Mahabharata and in one of the alternative 
 forms of ritual given in the Shatapatha Brahmana. In this 
 twenty-one stakes were erected instead of the eleven stakes 
 set up for the animal victims slain at the Soma sacrifice, 
 at which the Apri hymns were recited, and the twelve stakes 
 for the fifteen victims named above, when the first four 
 victims were tied to the central stake to which the horse 
 was bound. Eighteen of these, six of Bilva {Agle marmelos), 
 the parent-tree of the Bharata Bhars ^, six of Khadira 
 {Acacia catechu), and six of Palasha {Butia frondosa), sur- 
 rounded three central stakes, two of Pittidaru [Pinus 
 deodara), and one of Raggudalla {Cordia mixd), also called 
 Cleshmataka, said in the Mahabharata to be specially set 
 up by the priests, so that the original circle was one of 
 eighteen stakes 3. The original circle first of stones and 
 afterwards in India of sacrificial stakes was, as we have 
 seen in the circle of Crom Croich and other circles of the 
 thirteen-months year (p. 284), one made of the same num- 
 ber of stones as there were months in the year of the 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shot, Brah., xiii. 4, i, 9, xiii. Si 2> 2, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xliv. pp. 349, 386 ; Mahabharata Ashva-medha {Anugita), Parva, Ixxxiz. 
 p. 224. 
 
 » Risley, Trites and Castes of Bengal, vol. ii. Appendix I. Bhar, p. 9. This 
 tree and the Acacia catechu are both especially dedicated to the sun-physician. 
 The Bel fruit of the Bilva being a most effectual specific in stomachic disorders, 
 and Catechu, another stomachic drug, is made from the fruit of the Khadira tree. 
 
 3 Eggeling, Shat. Brah., xiii. 4, 4, S, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliv. 
 P- 373. note 2; Mahabharata Ashva-medha {Anugita) Parva, Ixxxviii. 27 
 p. 222. 
 
494 Primitive Traditional History, 
 
 central god worshipped as the year-god ; and in the ritual 
 of the horse sacrifice the circle was one of eleven stakes 
 denoting an eleven - months year surrounding the single 
 centre stake to which the horse, a hornless he-goat, a cow- 
 antelope deer and a black-necked he-goat were bound. 
 Hence the present circle of the eighteen stakes denoted 
 an eighteen-months year, but before going further into this 
 question I wish to say a few words about the fifteen animals 
 bound to the twelve stakes which originally represented a 
 year of eleven months revolving round a centre which was, 
 as we have seen in p. 489, the Agni Vaishvanara, the never- 
 dying household-fire of the Pole Star, The fifteen animals 
 bound to these stakes denoted the fifteen-months year of 
 Chapter VI., and the ritual of this sacrifice treated it as 
 derived from the eleven-months year. That it was certainly 
 so derived in ritualistic Indian history is proved by the rules 
 for the recitation of the Samidheni hymn chanted at the 
 lighting of the national fire of the year, for this hymn was 
 not one of fifteen stanzas but that of eleven stanzas recited 
 at the kindling of the fires of the eleven-months year when 
 the eleven year victims were slain at the recitation of the 
 Apri hymns following that of the kindling verses. But 
 to make this hymn one of fifteen verses the first and last 
 stanza were each ordered to be repeated thrice to make 
 up the fifteen required by the fifteen months of the year '. 
 It was by a similar re-adaptation of previous ritual that the 
 eleven victims tied to a circle of eleven sacrificial stakes, 
 denoting the eleven months surrounding the Pole Star horse 
 tied to the twelfth central stake, were increased to fifteen 
 offered to the gods of the fifteen-nonths year. And in this 
 conglomerate history we find a statement that the eleven- 
 months year measured by the circuit of the Great Bear 
 Pegasus and their attendant stars round the Pole was 
 another form of the twelve-months year of Orion, and that 
 
 * Eggeling, Shat. Brah., i. 3, 5, 4—9, Sacred Books of the East, vol. »i. 
 pp. 96, 97, note 2. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 495 
 
 this eleven-months year was again superseded by a new 
 solar year of fifteen months. 
 
 We must now return to the eighteen stakes of the eighteen- 
 months year, the meaning of which is most fully explained 
 in the history of the eighteen-months year in Chapter 
 VIII., Sect. A. These and the three central stakes are 
 ordered in the Shatapatha Brahmana to be made of twenty- 
 one cubits long, and hence, according to the instructions 
 given in the Brahmana for cutting these stakes in lengths 
 denoting the number of months in the year used by those 
 who tied victims to them, these stakes ought to denote a 
 year of twenty-one months, like those of eleven, twelve and 
 thirteen cubits denoting years of these numbers of months, 
 but instead of this they are treated in the passage describing 
 the length of the stakes and the pages following it as de- 
 noting Prajapati's year of seventeen months which followed 
 that of fifteen, but in the original instructions for cutting the 
 stakes for this year beginning with the Vajapeya sacrifice, 
 it is expressly stated that these are to be seventeen cubits 
 long I. 
 
 Again the rule that the central tree of this circle of 
 eighteen stakes, twelve of which are made of trees yield- 
 ing widely-used and very efficacious medical drugs, should 
 be made of the Cordia myxa, called Bohuari in Bengali 
 and Lusra in Hindi, shows that the year-circle of which 
 it was the centre denoted a new departure in year measure- 
 ment, for the dried fruit of this tree is the Sebestan or 
 Sepistan, a drug much used by Persians and Arabs; also 
 its wood is much used as a fire-drill for lighting fires, so 
 that it was a medicinal successor to the Bel and Khadira 
 trees, and as a lighter of sacred fires competed with the 
 Pipal wood 2. 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., iii. 6, 4, 26, Sacred Books of the East, rol. xxvi. 
 p. 167. 
 
 • Clarke, Roxburgh's Flora Indica, pp. 198, 199. 
 
496 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 E, Tibetan Year of eleven months. 
 
 This eleven-months year was, as I have shown, probably 
 the original year of the Telis, Kandhs, and >lso of the 
 northern invaders, who in India conquered the yellow races 
 and began their year with the installation at the beginning 
 of October — November of Krishna as the god of the sons 
 of the sugar-cane, who then awoke from the sleep that had 
 benumbed all things on earth during the drenching down- 
 pour of the rainy season. It, as we shall now see, was taken 
 from India to Tibet by the Vajjian races who as sons of the 
 tiger ( Vyaghra, Pali Vyaggho) first established kingly rule in 
 India. They were divided into eighteen tribes, nine called 
 Mallis or mountaineers, and nine Licchavis, the sons of the 
 dog (Ak. Lig), and both were early adherents and importers 
 from the West of the successive developments of the Jain 
 doctrines of personal religion as the highest human duty. 
 They were, according to the traditional history of their 
 progress, distinguished on their first entrance into India by 
 their intolerance and their contempt with which they re- 
 garded the ancient institutions of the country ; and it was 
 not till the victory of Krishna introduced a new era of 
 national regeneration that the land recovered from the 
 effects of their despotic and unsympathetic rule. They 
 seem to have belonged to the early puritan stock who first 
 made personal conduct and education a matter of national 
 concern, and who thought that obedience to tribal rules and 
 rituals did not comprise the whole duty of man. Hence the 
 belief in asceticism showed its first germs in the reverence paid 
 to chastity in the ages of the worship of the sexless gods, 
 and with this was combined the belief in penances and 
 fasting as purifiers of the soul, enabling those whose chief 
 object was to make themselves incapable of sinning to 
 subdue their evil propensities and become righteous in 
 thoughts, word and deed. Those who believed that their 
 moral natures could be perfected by their own individual 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 497 
 
 efforts and in other similar creeds, have always shown them- 
 selves especially intolerant to others who did not hold their 
 precepts to be universally binding laws, and hence it is not 
 to be wondered at that these races, some of whom were 
 apparently cannibals, while others, like the early Hebrews 
 whom they resembled, sacrificed children, looked on the 
 southern people they had come to rule with no less disgust 
 than they themselves inspired. They were new recruits 
 to the Confederacy of the Khati, the joined northern and 
 southern races, the Hittites of India, who formed themselves 
 into a community of religious believers whose tendencies 
 were to get rid of ritualistic forms and ceremonies, and to 
 devote their whole attention to the moral training of them- 
 selves and all their brethren. 
 
 They were certainly racially allied to the Massa-Getae or 
 Greater Getae, described by Herodotus i. 200 — 216 as like 
 the early Zend fire-worshippers, dwellers on the Araxes, the 
 Zend river Daitya, where Zarathustra was born as the sun- 
 hawk. They are called by Ammianus the holiest of men, 
 and were a warlike nation which destroyed the Persian 
 army invading their territories, and killed Cyrus their leader, 
 who lived ages after the time of the eleven-months year, 
 but who in the popular story which told of his defeat and 
 death was mixed up with a much more ancient traditional 
 foe of the conquering Getae. Their queen Tomyris cut 
 off the head from his corpse and put it in a bag full of 
 blood, that he might drink the blood shed by his unjust 
 invasion of their lands. The negotiations between this 
 sternly determined queen and Cyrus recorded by Herodotus, 
 and her being chosen by the Getae to lead them in battle, 
 prove them to have been a race who were most tenacious 
 of their rights, and one whose women were no less warlike 
 than the men, and their utter defeat of the Persian army 
 shows how thoroughly well organised their government was. 
 All these traits mark their similarity to the German 
 Gothic nations among whom the women ruled and shared 
 m all the national labours both of peace and war. Hero- 
 
 II- K k 
 
498 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 dotus describes them as ignorant of iron and silver and as 
 using bronze and gold, of which they possessed large quan- 
 tities. Some of them were horsemen, while others fought 
 on foot, and they were armed with bows and spears and with 
 the Sagaris or single axe of the Scythians, whom they had 
 driven southward from their early homes in the North ', 
 and not with the double axe (7re\e«v?) of the Carians, 
 Cretans, and Indian followers of Parasu Rama. Though 
 men and women were married yet there was practically 
 among them the tribal community of women of the early 
 hunting races of the North, and they, like the Indians of 
 the age of the eleven-months year of the sun-god with the 
 black horse's head, worshipped the sun as the leading god 
 of time, the thirty-fourth of the gods invoked at the Ashva- 
 medha sacrifice of the Rigveda, and sacrificed and ate this 
 sun-horse as fastest of animals. They were entirely a pas- 
 toral people who sowed no crops and lived on the flesh 
 of their cattle and on fish. The islanders of the Araxes 
 living among them are said to have lived in summer on 
 roots, and in winter on tree fruits which they dried and 
 stored. The Massagetae were milk-drinkers, and used to 
 intoxicate themselves with the fumes of certain tree fruits, 
 which they burnt, and then they used to dance and sing*. 
 They looked on those who died of disease and whose bodies 
 they burnt as unfortunate, and thought that the happiest 
 death was that of those who when they felt their strength 
 failing summoned their relations to come and kill and eat 
 them ; and this is a custom which the Birhors of Palamow in 
 the Lohardugga district of Chutia Nagpur say their ances- 
 tors followed a hundred years ago. They are a branch of 
 the Kharwars who worshipped a trinity of goddesses Maha, 
 Maya, or Magha, the fire-goddess of Magh, represented as 
 a red piece of wood, Dudha Mai, an arrow-head, and Buria 
 Mai, a piece of white stone, whose agent is Hanuman, the 
 wind ape-god bearing a trident ; their binding marriage rite 
 
 ' Ilerod. iv. li. » Ibid., i. 202—216. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 499 
 
 was the interchange of blood showing that they are a union 
 of northern and southern stocks '. 
 
 It seems to me that it is almost certain that these Getae of 
 the Araxes, who are shown by the evidence to be a northern 
 pastoral tribe of horse and sun worshippers, who sacrificed 
 the horse with similar rites to those of the Indian Ashva- 
 medha sacrifice, who conquered both the Egyptians and 
 Persians = in Central Asia, and who only drank milk, were a 
 section of a numerous series of hordes of pastoral Finno-Goth 
 races who came down from the North as worshippers of the 
 sun-god riding on the year-horse Baldur of the Edda and 
 Sigurd of Teutonic mythology. They in Italy introduced 
 horse sacrifices and the spring festival of the Palilia, and in 
 Greece they were the Centaurs who drank nothing but milk 
 till Pholos the Centaur, whose name is an iEolic form of 
 Xoko'i, x^oo<s, the golden green of the young shoots of plants, 
 and a translation of the Zend Hari Zairi, an epithet of Soma, 
 broached for Heracles a cask of wine he had received from 
 Dionysos, and thus introduced the form of the sacrifice of 
 Soma or the national sap of life accompanied by the drinking 
 of fermented liquor which I have described in the Sautramani 
 sacrifice. This new drink led to a tumult caused by the 
 Centaurs, who besieged the house of Pholos, in which Cheiron, 
 the original milk-drinking Centaur, was slain with Pholos by 
 the arrows of the new wine-drinking sun-gods 3, who intro- 
 duced the new epoch of intoxicating New Year's feasts. 
 They pursued their conquering march through Asia followed 
 
 ' Risley, Triies and Castes of Bengal, vol. i. Birhor, 138. 
 
 ' I cannot here discuss fully the questions arising out of Herodotus' story of 
 the defeat of Cyrus and the Persians by the Massagetse, and can merely state 
 that after a careful study I have come to the conclusion that the story is 
 one in which early mythologies were mingled with the later personal history, 
 which in the age of Cyrus had begun to supersede and distort the earlier sym- 
 bolic histories. 
 
 ^ Apollodorus ii. 5, 4 ; Diodorus iv. 12 ; Meyer, Indo-Germanische Mythen 
 Gandharva Kentaura, pp. 49, 51 ; Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, 
 vol. 1. £ssay iii. pp. 549, 550, note i ; Smith, Classical Dictionary, Hercules, 
 p. 309. 
 
 K k 2 
 
500 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 by the drinkers of fermented spirits who came from Thrace 
 as followers of Dionysos, who as the god borne in the leopard 
 car of the Great Bear ^ accompanied by Silenus on the sun- 
 ass of the cycle-year, introduced into religious worship a 
 new series of dances performed by the female votaries of 
 the god, who banded themselves into travelling companies, 
 and did not, like their ancestors, content themselves with the 
 seasonal dances of their native villages. These races after 
 their victorious march through Asia entered India as con- 
 querors of the yellow races, whom they succeeded as rulers, 
 and as milk-drinkers introduced the milk libations I have 
 described, substituted the sacrifice of the bull for that of the 
 buffalo, and subsequently, when joined by the Northern 
 drinkers of fermented drink, and when they amalgamated 
 with the Indian drinkers of rice beer and fermented mahua- 
 flowers, framed the ritual of the Sautramani sacrifice. Their 
 total neglect of agriculture must have been one of the chief 
 causes of their unpopularity among the cultivating yellow 
 farmers, and their masterful ways and scornful distaste for 
 the binding restrictions of Indian village life fully accounts 
 for the traditional hatred with which they are regarded. 
 
 But in spite of their unpopularity these stern warriors 
 certainly added fresh impetus to the tendency of the mixed 
 northern and southern races of India to abandon their old 
 system of tribal and village segregation, and to form them- 
 selves into new communities bound together by the ties of a 
 
 » The Thracian God of fermented barley, Sabaius, apparently assumed his 
 leopard drawn car in Assyria, the home of the belief in the leopard-spotted 
 sun-horse Raksh of Rustum, and of his impenetrable leopard-skin armour, 
 and hence his name Dionysos may be, as Fox Talbot suggested, a Greek form 
 of the Assyrian Dian-nisu, Judge of men, and have come northwards from 
 Assyria in the same way as their gods Ilu and Asurra-ku became Assaracus 
 and Ilus in Troy. Or if the word is purely Greek it may, as Kretschmer 
 suggests, mean the young man (nttsos), son of Zeus, born of his Thigh, the 
 Great Bear mother Semele. Lenormant, Chaldccan Magic, p. I7i note 5; 
 Harrison, Prolegomena for the Study of Greek Religion, p. 412, note 1 1 
 Kretschmer, Aus der Anomia, p. 23 ; Hewitt, History and Chronology of the 
 Myth-Making Age, chap. vii. sect, a, The Birth of the Sun-god born of the 
 Thigh, pp. 397—399- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 501 
 
 religion which laid special stress on personal character, and 
 it was apparently under their rules that the Jain community 
 of warriors, traders, artisans, and agriculturists, who had not 
 yet adopted the subsequent tenet that it was a sin to destroy 
 life, who believed in the monotheistic religion of the Kabir- 
 puntis and worshipped the invisible divine spirit as the author 
 and creator of all things, began to become the nation of the 
 sons of the Tiger who crowned their king on a tiger-skin. 
 
 These people established in Tibet and Western China, 
 between Tibet and Yunnan, the religion of the Mossoos, 
 called Mossooman by Marco Polo. They are said in Chinese 
 history to have come as invaders from Tibet and to have 
 established a Mossoo kingdom with its capital at Li-kiang. 
 This was conquered by the Chinese in the eighth century A.D., 
 and they at first retained (the royal dynasty as rulers under 
 the supervision of a Chinese resident, but were subsequently 
 deprived of their administrative powers and allowed to live 
 in their ancient capital as Mandarins of the third degree. 
 These people, though they are nominally adherents of the 
 later Buddhistic creed of Buddhism taught by the Great 
 Teacher Siddharta Gautuma and his antecedent instructors, 
 still adhere to the old religion of the believers in the god of 
 the Tavatimsa heaven of thirty-three, and retain their own 
 priests, called Tong-pa by M. Bonin and Bombo by Mr. 
 Rockhill and Sarat Chandra Das^. 
 
 They worship the Buddha ape Pole Star god Shen-rezig, 
 called Gyun-drun, the god of the female Suastika pJJ, and 
 also the Tiger-god 2, and ofifer to him living animals, especi- 
 ally fowls. In Tibet under the government of the Lamas 
 they are called Bombos of the black-hat sect, who allow their 
 hair to grow long and matted like the Indian Shivites, and 
 hold a special New Year's day on the isth and i6th of 
 
 ' M. Bonin, Note sur un manuscrit Mossoo Actis du Onziime Congres 
 Internationale des OrientalUtes, Paris, 1897, sect. ii. pp. I— 10; Rockhill, 
 The Land of the Lamas, p. 217; Sarat Chandra X)a.s, Journey to Lhasa and 
 Tibet, pp. 205 — 208. 
 
 ' Terrien de Lacouperie, Tibet, Encyc. Brit., ninth edition, vol. xxiii. p. 344. 
 
502 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 August, celebrating the birth of Padma, the eleventh Buddha 
 of the Lotus {paduma), whose city was Chumpaka, the name 
 of the mother-tree of the Telis, whose year is one of eleven 
 months, and Padma's mother-tree was the red-cotton tree of 
 the Ashvins'. This festival is on the same date as that 
 of the Panathenaia at Athens, when the Greek tree-mother 
 received her annual peplos or garment representing the 
 clothing of the earth with verdure, and it is a mid-year 
 festival of a year beginning in February — March, when the 
 year of Arjuna, the follower of the sun-horse of Cheit 
 (March — April), began. 
 
 The Bombo priests, like the Indian priests of this age, 
 make their circuits round their sacred buildings from right 
 to left, contrary to the course of the sun, instead of using 
 the prescribed Buddhist Padakkhino from left to right, with 
 which every disciple was required to salute the later Buddha. 
 
 M. Bonin, the French Vice-President in Indo-China, visited 
 the Mossoo country in an official mission in 1895, and 
 acquired a peculiarly intimate knowledge of their customs 
 from one of their priests, who gave him a copy of their 
 ritual written in Mossoo characters, with a Chinese trans- 
 lation of the first six pages, giving a Chinese equivalent 
 for each Mossoo hieroglyphic. These are strictly picto- 
 graphic: thus the sign of a family is a house with a man 
 and woman, that of prayer an altar, similar symbolisms 
 being used to denote other abstract ideas, but there are no 
 characters denoting verbs. 
 
 In this ritual the ruling goddess is the female Buddha 
 Kouei-Ying with the conch-shell of the year-god Vishnu, to 
 whom rice and incense are offered. She is the goddess of 
 the Pole Star mother-tree, and her consort the male Buddha ; 
 her son, the sun-god, is represented with a halo round his 
 head. Besides these two gods, the sacred spear or fire-drill, 
 the two birds of day and night, the original Khu cloud-birds, 
 and the chief of the evil genii, the god of the underworld, are 
 
 ■ Sarat Chandra Das, Journey to Lhasa and Tibet, p. 215 ; Rhys Davids, 
 Buddhist Birth Stories, Nidanakatha, pp. 40, 41. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 5^3 
 
 represented, the last wearing the robes of a Tibet Lama. 
 M. Benin, in a paper read before the Oriental Congress at 
 Paris in 1897, translated thirty stanzas of the ritual describing 
 the course of the year of the sun and moon rising from the 
 constellation of the Tiger accompanied by a blast from the 
 conch-shell of the mother-goddess. The Tiger as one of the 
 signs of the Zodiac is, as Professor Sir R. Douglas tells 
 me, the constellation Wei containing e, /i, %, 17, 6, i, k, \, v 
 Scorpio, and this is the constellation said in the Li-chi to 
 culminate at dawn at the beginning of the Chinese year 
 in January — February, when the sun is in Pegasus, the 
 constellation of the sun-horse of this year^. This latter 
 constellation was in Akkadian astronomy called Lik-barra, 
 the striped dog or tiger. This is the second star in the 
 Tablets of the Thirty Stars beginning with Skat in Aquarius, 
 called the Star of the foundation, and they represent the 
 course of the moon through the first three months of a lunar 
 solar year beginning in Kislev (November — December) =. In 
 Chinese astronomy the month begins when the constellation 
 P> «. 7 Pegasi and a Andromedse culminates at dawn 3, The 
 three months represented by these stars are in India those 
 of the second series of three Ashtaka festivals succeeding 
 that of four beginning the original Indian eleven-months 
 year in October— November, described in pp. 257, 258. 
 In Rig. X. 189 they are called "the thirty stations ruled 
 by the mighty bull," the ruling year-god of the bull wor- 
 shippers of the eleven-months year. In the Grihya Sutras 
 they are the Thirty Sisters ruling the three Ashtaka monthly 
 festivals following the Agrahayani full moon of November — 
 December, only differing from the months of the Akkadian 
 thirty stars in beginning their months with the full moon 
 instead of with the new moon as in the Akkadian year. 
 
 " Legge, Li-CAi, book iv. The Yiieh Ling, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xxvii. p. 240. 
 
 = R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., Primitive Constellations, Tablets of the Thirty 
 Stars, vol, ii. pp. 67 — 70. 
 
 3 Legge, Li-Chi, book iv. The Yueh Ling, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xxvii. p. 301. 
 
So4 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 It was at the third festival held in the dark fortnight cf 
 Magha that the Ekashtika, the child of the "majesty of 
 Indra," was born ', according to the Atharva-veda v. 3, 10, 
 I, 2, 13, of the milch-cow mistress of the year, the daughter 
 of Prajapati (Orion), v/ho is Rohini, the Star Aldebaran in 
 Taurus. The birth of this divine child is said in stanzas 2, 5 
 and 8, 9, 10 of the same hymn to be that of the oblation of 
 the year {parivat sarinam havis) which has begun with the 
 night of his birth, beginning the ritual celebrations {ritii) and 
 the moon marking the stages of the years, thus showing the 
 year to have begun with the new moon 2. The new-moon 
 year-child is in Atharva-veda xiii. i, the child of Rohita, 
 the red bull-god " who props the earth, has ascended heaven 
 from the great flood (the ocean) and has produced heaven 
 and earth and made it firm (from the place) where the Aja 
 Ekapad, the one-footed Pole Star goat, has fixed itselfs." 
 He is the bull the constellation Taurus who in Rig. x. 189 
 rules the thirty stars, and whose wife is Rohini, the Star 
 Aldebaran, led forth by the Gandharvas, the stars of the 
 Great Bear, and the Kasyapas, the gods of the thirteen- 
 months year. She rose suddenly to heaven supporting her 
 calf with her foot 4. Hence this year-god born in Magha is 
 the calf-son of Rohini, the Queen of the Pleiades, and Rohita 
 Taurus, a god who is said in Atharva-veda xiii. i, 52 to have 
 created all breathing things through the rain, was originally 
 born when the sun was leaving Taurus at the new moon of 
 Magha (January— February), about 10,700 B.C. He after- 
 wards became, like the Soma moon-god of the marriage 
 hymn of Soma and the sun's daughter. Rig. x. 85, 14, the 
 god whose wedding or birth oxen were slain in Magha, and 
 whose wedding was completed in Phalgun (February- 
 March), following his second birth at the end of Magha, 
 
 » Oldenberg, Grihya Sutra Paraskara Grihya Sutra, iii. 3, I— 13, Sacred 
 Books of the East, vol. xxix. pp. 341 — 345. 
 
 ' Ludwig, Rigveda, vol. iii. chap. vii. Die Zeit des Veda, pp. 189, 190. 
 
 3 Bloomfield, Hymns of the Atharva-veda, xiii. I, 6,7, 25, 26, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xiii, pp. 207, 214. 
 
 ■• Ibid., I, 23, 41, ibid., pp. 210—212. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 505 
 
 which equates him with Arjuna or Phalguna of the Maha- 
 bharata, who drove the white sun-horses of that month 
 after the year-horse who began his yearly ascent in Cheit 
 (March— April). 
 
 It was the sun-god thus born in January — February who 
 set forth on his circuit round the heavens on his star tiger- 
 horse Pegasus as the sun-god of the Mossoo year-hymn, said 
 in V. 26 to be greeted at his rising by the constellation of the 
 Pig, the Great Bear, and by the two female demons with the 
 conch-shells, the two tiger-wives of the original trident god 
 of the Mons or Mallis; and this year is said in v. 14 to 
 be that of the thirty-three genii in heaven and twenty-two 
 on earth, the twenty-two half months of the year of eleven 
 thirty-three-day months. To this year-god are offered in 
 v. 19 the offerings of the five seasons of the year symbolised 
 by the five Pandavas, the green silver of spring, the red gold 
 of summer, the cloth of the rainy season, the dresses of the 
 freshly clad earth of autumn and the skin of the tiger of 
 winter. This year thus begun by the sun-god riding on the 
 winter tiger-horse Pegasus, greeted at his start by the Great 
 Bear, became the official year of China, beginning when the 
 sun is in Shih Pegasus^, and the year-god of this year, called 
 by the Tibetans Tugje chenpo Shenrezig, is represented at 
 Lhasa with eleven heads as the god of the eleven-months 
 year. He is the Buddhist god Avaloketesvara, the visible 
 {avaloketa) ^ Buddha who looks down from heaven, and who 
 was represented in the triad at Tiladaka in Magadha as the 
 child of Tara the Pole Star and the parent Buddha who 
 was originally the ape-god. This child, the sun-god of the 
 eleven-months year, is depicted as sitting on his mother's 
 lap in one of the Chinese statues in the Mus6e Guimet in 
 Paris 3. 
 
 ■ Legge, Li-Chi, ch. iv. Yiieh Ling, i. i, Sacred Books of the East, vol. 
 xxvii. p. 249. 
 
 ° Sarat Chandra Das, Journey to Lhasa and Tibet, chap. vi. p. i68, vii. 
 p. 171. , 
 
 3 Beale, Buddhist Records of the Western World, Hiouen Tsiang, vol. i. 
 p. 127, note 128, vol. ii. p. 103 ; Guide au Musee Guimet Vitrine, 20, p. 135. 
 
5o6 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 The leader of this year was in Tibetan mythology the 
 sun-horse Tamdrin, the Hindu Haya-griva, the horse-necked 
 {griva) god, the horse form of Shen-rezig, who was first the 
 ape-father-god wedded to Dolma, the Pole Star ape-goddess, 
 and who became Tam-drin, the god of the eleven months of 
 the year to rid the world of a demon called Matrankaru, who 
 ruled heaven and earth as god of the cycle-year, whom he 
 overcame and converted '. His wife, the Pole Star goddess, 
 called by the Tibetans Dorje Phagmo, the Diamond sow 
 or sow of the thunderbolt, is still represented in Tibet by a 
 female incarnation. She is the goddess who as Vajra Varahi, 
 the sow of the year-thunderbolt, drives the seven pigs of the 
 Great Bear (p. 204). 
 
 This horse Haya is said in the Shatapatha Brahmana 
 to be especially the horse of Agni Vaishvanara, that is 
 the horse which drew the year-car of the Great Bear round 
 the sacred central fire, the Pole Star (p. 488). As the horse 
 of the ruling Gan-dharva, the Great Bear, he is said to be 
 Vajin the swift racer, an epithet in Rig. x. 178, I of Tark- 
 shya, the year-horse 2. In Rig. x. 26, 5 Haya-ashva is the 
 horse of Pushan, and in ix. 96, 2 he draws the car of the 
 leader of the star flock in which Indra's friend is seated. 
 He is in ix. 107, 23 the horse of Indra and the Maruts 
 who circle the sacred central fire, and in vii. 74, 4 he is the 
 horse of the Ashvins. 
 
 The Tibetan New Year's festival was held anciently, 
 according to Sarat Chandra Das, on the 20th January, 
 but now by a similar change from Magh (January — Feb- 
 ruary) to Phalgun (February — March), which I have noticed 
 above, it is held on the 19th February 3, and at it the horse- 
 necked god is represented with three heads and four arms, 
 one hand holding and shooting the bow of heaven, that 
 
 ' Sarat Chandra Das, Journey to Lhasa and Central Tiiet, chap. v. pp. 
 
 138, 139- 
 = Eggeling, Shat. Brdk., x. 6, 4, i, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliii. 
 
 p. 40I- 
 
 3 Sarat Chandra Das, [ourney to Lhasa and Central Tibet, pp. 108, 1 18. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. S07 
 
 of Eurytos the Centaur and the Great Bear. He is driven 
 away by the priests as the most powerful of evil spirits 
 at the beginning of the sacramental service of three pills 
 of flour, sugar and butter partaken of with millet {marwa) 
 beer, at the beginning of their year ', which was originally 
 the same as the Mossoo year. That the Mossoos are the 
 surviving representatives of the ancient Indian Mons is 
 proved not only by the identity of their ritual with that 
 of the Indian eleven-months year, but also by their sexual 
 customs, which are still the same as those of the old Indian 
 matriarchal tribes, under which women, even after the in- 
 troduction of marriage, did not form permanent unions 
 but united themselves to temporary husbands ; a practice 
 which M. Bonin says the Chinese have sought to stop by 
 fining heavily all fathers of families who did not provide 
 legitimate permanent husbands for their daughters. 
 
 The evidence I have thus far brought forward as to the 
 history of the eleven-months year of thirty-three-day months 
 proves conclusively that it originated among the northern 
 worshippers of the sun-horse which they sacrificed. Their 
 method of year reckoning was certainly adopted at an early 
 stage of the development of the cult of the fire worship- 
 pers, who handed it down as a ritualistic year to their 
 successors in the Zendavesta belief in the gods of the thirty- 
 three days of the month called in Yasna i. 10, " the thirty- 
 three lords of the ritual order who are round about Havani," 
 the mortar in which the sacramental Haoma was extracted ; 
 in the year marked by the festivals at which it was con- 
 sumed and in the annually recurring seasons into which it 
 was divided. 
 
 This creed was in its main features adopted in India by 
 the sacrificers of the sun-horse, a sacrifice forming part of 
 the early Persian ritual of sun-worship, but excluded from 
 the later ritual of the Zends. I have traced the observance 
 of this year in the ritual of the horse sacrificed in the early 
 Sautramani festival, when intoxicating Soma was con- 
 
 ' Waddell, Buddhism in Tibet, pp. 361 — 364, 444 — 446. 
 
5o8 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 sumed, and in the creed of the age of the worship of the 
 Ashvins, who are said in Rig. 34 u. and in other passages, 
 to have drunk the divinely inspiring honey whence the Soma 
 beverage was fermented at religious festivals in company 
 with the thirty-three gods ruling the months of this year. 
 And I have also shown how these early sacrifices became 
 in the later Vedic ritual that of the eleven victims slain at 
 the New Year's festival, when the eleven-versed Apri hymns 
 to the gods ruling the eleven-months year were chanted. 
 
 The Tibetan evidence proves that this year was that 
 adopted in the ritual of the Bombo or black-hat priests 
 who had inherited and still maintain the creed and religious 
 observances of the early Mossoos, whom I have shown to be 
 ethnologically identical with the Indian Mon or Malli, sons 
 of the tiger, who ruled their year, and they both in India 
 and Tibet are the successors of the sons of the snake, the 
 first founders of national society based on the system of 
 village communities. 
 
 The thirty-thi'ee gods who ruled the year of these people 
 became in the later Buddhist creed those of the Tavatimsa 
 heaven of thirty-three gods headed by Sakko, called in the 
 Rigveda the rain-god Sukra. These survive in Burmah in 
 the thirty-seven Nats headed by Thagya Nat, the Burmese 
 equivalent of Sakko. They are universally worshipped 
 throughout the country by all classes of people as the 
 national guardian gods, to whom a temple called Nat-sin 
 is erected at the entrance to every village, and whose fes- 
 tivals are held at fixed dates throughout the year. They 
 are believed to be the spirits dwelling, like the gods of 
 the village grove and the parent thunder-stone, in trees, 
 pools and stones. They who were originally worshipped 
 as the Naga serpents of Indian tree-worship are the national 
 gods not only of the Buddhist Burmese but also of the 
 aboriginal tribes, and are the special deities of the Talaings 
 to whom the cocoa-nut palm is sacred. They preside over 
 harvests and the human sacrifices formerly offered to the 
 harvest-gods and those of the victims buried under the 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 509 
 
 foundations of public buildings. Their king among the 
 Takings and the god second to Thagya Nat is Min 
 Magaye or Mahagiri Nat, the heavenly blacksmith, the 
 northern god Wieland or Volundur of the Scandinavians, 
 who made shoes for the white horses of the sun, and whose 
 brother was Egel the archer '. He is the Indian Chakra- 
 varti or wheel-turning king of the Jains, called Sanat- 
 kumara, the old (sanat) smith (kumara kamar), whose 
 wife was Saha-devi, the driving {sah) rain-mother, the cloud- 
 goddess. He was the fourth Trithakara, and reappeared 
 again in the ninth Mahapadma, the great lotus, who as 
 Indra slew Namuchi, the god who would not allow the 
 rain to fall =. In Persian history he is the blacksmith 
 Kabi, whose apron was the Great Bear. Among the Celts 
 he is the smith Gavida or Govannon, guardian of the sun- 
 god Lug, and in Greece Hephaistos, who made the armour 
 and shield of Achilles, the sun-god. 
 
 Taw Sein Ko, the most reliable of the Burmese archaeo- 
 logists, and all other authorities quoted by Col. Sir R. 
 Temple in his exhaustive treatise on the Nats, agree in 
 equating thirty-three of the thirty-seven Nats with the 
 Buddhist gods of the Tavatimsa heaven, and they are 
 clearly tree and snake gods who, like all the gods of the 
 agricultural and pastoral races, measured annual time, and 
 the year which they ruled was that of eleven thirty-three- 
 day months, the year of the rain-god Sakko, and of the 
 northern thunder-smith 3, who are depicted as riding on the 
 elephant sacred to the Indian cloud-god Ganisha. 
 
 When we pass from Burmah to the adjoining country of 
 the Chams of Cambodia we find still further evidence as to 
 these thirty-three gods, who, as in Burmah, have become 
 thirty-seven. For we there find that the Cham year, which 
 is now one of twelve months, originally contained only 
 
 •' Hans von Valzogen, The Wieland Saga, p. 210. 
 
 " Jacobi, Jaina Sutras Uttaradhyayana, 37, 4, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xlv. pp. 85, note 4, 86, note i. 
 3 Temple, Thirty-seven Nats, pp, 2, 3, 8, 16, 17, 41, 42. 
 
5IO Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 ekven, for in the present calendar the twelfth god Po Klon 
 is merely a repetition of a fourth god P5 Klon Garai, who is 
 another form of the first god Po Ganvor Motri, the dancing 
 Shiva, as both of them ride on Shiva's bull Nandi. Po Klon 
 Garai, who introduced the science of irrigation and made dams 
 and water channels, is the eldest of the thirty-seven sons of 
 the seventh goddess of the year Po Sah Ino, whose father 
 was Po Yan Moh, the Cham form of the Indian elephant- 
 god Gan-isha, the cloud-god. Her mother, the grand-mother 
 of these thirty-seven gods, was Po Ino Nogar Taha, the 
 mother of the creating rice-plant and the banyan fig-tree, 
 the mother -tree of the Naga Kushikas. She was the 
 chief goddess of the national triad of gods to whom priests 
 were appointed, her companions being her grand-sons Po 
 Klon Garai and Po Rame, the gods of the fourth and sixth 
 months of the Cham year, Rame being the counterpart of 
 the Indian Rama. 
 
 P5 Sah Ino is the goddess to whom buffaloes and fowls 
 are offered, and who added to the parent rice created by her 
 mother the sugar {ikska) cane of the Ikshvaku kings its 
 sons, and it was grown among the water-channels formed by 
 Po Klon Garai. Her five-days festival is held on the tenth 
 of the second Cham month (June — July), so that she is a god- 
 dess of the summer solstice and of the year of four seasons 
 represented by the four gods added to the thirty-three 
 monthly gods symbolised in the festival by the four huts 
 in which the ceremonies are performed, and these make up 
 the thirty-seven gods who are Po Sah Ino's sons and the 
 thirty-seven Nats of Burmah. Also at her festival images of 
 tortoises sacred to the Naga Kushikas, buffaloes and human 
 beings are thrown into the sea '. 
 
 This Cham year ruled by Po Ganvor Motri, the dancing 
 Shiva, Po Ino Nogar Taha, the creatrix of the parent rice 
 and banyan fig-tree, Po Klon Garai, the irrigating god, and 
 Po Sah Ino, who added the cultivation of sugar {iksha), the 
 
 • Cabaton, Nouvelles Rechcrchcs sur lis Chams, pp. io6, 107, 109, no, 113, 
 114, IIS. 15—18, 28—32. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 5 1 1 
 
 parent plant of the Ikshvaku race, to that of rice, proves that 
 this year of the southern elephant rain-god Sakko, who was 
 originally the cloud-bird and the northern smith, was made 
 the national year of India when the northern barley and 
 sugar-growing races, whose god was the three-eyed shepherd- 
 god Shiva, bearer of the trident and the heavenly Pinaka, 
 the Great Bear Bow, had come to India from Asia Minor 
 and amalgamated with the dancing primitive races of India, 
 the growers of rice. And it thus tells in an epitomised 
 form the whole story of the primitive races of India, whose 
 god was the monsoon rain-god, and of the northern 
 immigrants who amalgamated with them, and formed the 
 confederacies of the Naga Kushika and Ikshvaku kings, 
 under whose rule the eleven-months year was made the 
 national year of India, whence it was imported with Shiva 
 worship into Cambodia, the land of the Chams. In the 
 next section F we shall see that the year is proved by the 
 Persian history of the reigns of Kaous and Ku-shrava to 
 be that disseminated in all the countries they ruled by the 
 wolf race, whose god was the wolf sun-god Lug, the god of 
 light [lux), who became in Greece the Lycian Apollo born 
 as a wolf on the yellow river Xanthus. Also the whole 
 evidence proves clearly that the national gods of southern 
 Asia, from the Persian Gulf to the coasts of Siam and 
 Cochin China, were the eleven and thirty-three gods of this 
 year of 363 days instituted by the race whose northern 
 god was the heavenly smith of the Great Bear constellation. 
 
 F. The Persian history of the eleven-months year. 
 
 The history of Persia during the age of the cycle-year 
 as told in the last chapter ended with the fall of Kaous 
 and his eagle-borne car from heaven, and I then said that 
 this fall seemed to me to mean that the age which measured 
 time by the passage of the sun through the Nakshatra stars 
 was ended, and that a new measurement of time, that of the 
 eleven-months year, had begun. This year, as we have now 
 seen, was measured by the Great Bear as the reins of the 
 
512 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 sun-horse, and in its first stage it began at the new moon 
 of October — November, and that from that time till the 
 beginning of the next year no record of the sun's position 
 among the stars was kept, though in the thirteen-months 
 year of the thirty stars, which seems to be one beginning 
 with a lunar three-months circle denoting the infancy of 
 the sun-god followed by ten months of his manhood and 
 of the gestation of his succession, the beginning of these 
 ten months seems to be connected with the position of the 
 sun in Taurus. Doubtless over the wide extent of the region 
 extending from the West of Europe to India, in which the 
 sun-horse of the year was annually sacrificed, there were 
 local differences in the measurement of the year; and we 
 shall see in Section G, and also in the history of Khu-srav 
 in this section, that before the close of the age the original 
 sun-horse Pegasus, ridden by the sun-god, became the 
 horse of the Charioteer star Auriga, with the Great Bear 
 as the holder of the horse's reins. 
 
 The new phase of Persian history opening the epoch of 
 the eleven-months year begins with a renewal of the wars 
 of the Iranians, under Kaous the Kushika king, and the 
 Turanians, under the great irrigator Afrasiab and his brother 
 Guersivaz or Keresa-vazda of the horned club or trident. 
 On the Iranian side, while Rustum, ruler of Seistan, is the 
 supreme commander-in-chief who is summoned with his 
 Indian warriors when the Iranians are defeated, the chief 
 rulers of the state are Gildarz, the Vulture Star Vega, who 
 bore the banner of the lion, and his sons, the chief of whom 
 were Giv, meaning the speaker whose banner was the wolf, 
 and Bahram the god of the Bahram fire, the central national 
 fire of the Parsi Persians, sons of the leopard {pars), always 
 burning on the national hearth the Daityo-Gatu. His banner 
 was the wild sheep '. The banner of Kaweh, the Great Bear 
 
 ' Mohl, Livre des Rois, vol. ii. Kai Kaous, pp. 105—108, Kai Khosrou, 
 pp. 466, 481, 482; Darmesteter, Zendavesta, Introduction, v. 8; VtnMdad 
 Fargard, viii. ix. 81—96, Sacred Books of the East, vol. iv. Ixxxix.— xc. 
 112— n6. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 513 
 
 Smith, floated over that part of the camp where Rustum was, 
 and he himself and his son Faramorz bore a banner of the 
 seven-headed dragon, the Great Bear, on the top of which 
 was a golden-headed lion ^. 
 
 Among the other important leaders were Thous, son of 
 Nodar or Neo-tara, the new star Orion, who bore the banner 
 of the elephant and who was always associated with the sons 
 of the wolf either as a partner in their enterprises or as 
 failing in tasks in which they afterwards succeeded. A 
 most important member of the family of Giidarz and Giv 
 was Gurazeh, bearing the banner of the wild boar [gurdz), and 
 the wolf-name of the clan is recorded in that of Gurgan, the 
 wolf {gurg) son of Milad the youth, the young sun-god, the 
 Lycian wolf Apollo, who, as we shall see, was a pointer star 
 of the Great Bear, the leading star of the Persian kings, who 
 called themselves Kayanides, or sons of the star {kayan), and 
 who were hence in the national traditional history repre- 
 sented as heavenly bodies. 
 
 The history of the eleven-months year, as far as it con- 
 cerns the issue of the strife between Iran and Turan, begins 
 with the birth under the first form of the Bahram fire of 
 Sohrab, the sOn of Rustum. This fire is that of the mother- 
 goddess of the abyss [bahtt) and Ram, the Indian and Zend 
 form of the race-god Ra. It is said in the Bundahish to be 
 kindled from the three united fires of which the first is that 
 of Frobak or Viru-bak, of the Viru or phallic age of Yima- 
 It was originally lit in Khvarizem, the Turanian country of 
 Samarcand and Bokhara north of the Oxus, thus tracing the 
 origin of the household fire to the Mongol Tartars, from 
 whom it was transferred to Kabul, Rustum's country 2. Tlie 
 second is the Gu-shasp fire of the cow [gti) horse, that of 
 Khu-srav, which was, as we shall see, instituted in this age 
 of the eleven-months year, and the third and last fire is 
 that of BOrzin Mitro, the fire of the age of Vistasp, called 
 
 Mohl, Livre des Rois, vol. ii. Kai Kaous, p. lo6, Kai Khosrou, p. 469. 
 ' West, Bundahish, xvii. 5—9 ; Darmesteter, Zendavesta Mihir Yasht, iv. 14, 
 Sacred Books of the East, vol. v. pp. 63, 64, xxiii. p. 123, note 4. 
 "• L 1 
 
514 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Gushtasp in the Shahnamah, in whose reign Zoroastrianism 
 was made the national religion. 
 
 Sohrab the watcher {sohr) was begotten as the son of 
 Rustum when the latter was hunting in the Turanian 
 country. While he was eating a wild ass he had slain he 
 left Raksh, his star-horse, to graze in the prairie. The 
 Turanian warriors seeing him caught him with a lasso and 
 carried him off, thus leaving Rustum at the beginning of 
 this age of the eleven-months year without his horse, which 
 tracked his year course through the stars. He made his 
 way on foot to the city of Saman-gan, that of the sham- 
 rock {saman), the sacred trefoil (TpnreTrjXos), on the top 
 of the Caduceus of Hermes, god of the pillar (ep/ia), where 
 he was entertained by the king and went to bed drunk. 
 In the night he was visited by Tehmimeh the unknown 
 {tehm), the king's daughter, who promised to restore Raksh 
 to him if he would wed her. They were married at once, 
 and Rustum after taking leave of her and departing on 
 his recovered star-horse, the horse of a new era, gave her 
 an onyx, like the ring given by Dushmanta to Sakuntall, 
 which was to be placed in the child's hair if it was a girl, 
 and on his arm if a boy. After Sohrab's birth his mother 
 told him who his father was, and he got from her a spotted 
 star-horse, the counterpart of Raksh. He went to join the 
 Turanian army as their year-god, and to attain that position 
 he had first to take the white tower of the revolving year, 
 as Rustum had done before he set out to free Kaous from 
 his prison in Mazanderan, the Milky Way. Sohrab took this 
 tower after he had overcome Gurdafrid, the creating beetle 
 {gurd), the daughter of Guz-dehem, the tower-god of the 
 walnut-tree (guz). This was the tree-parent of the sun- 
 god born of the walnut-tree as the sun-god of the race of 
 northern magicians '. They founded the year of the Khepera 
 beetle, which was in Egyptian chronometry one of thirteen 
 
 ■ Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vii. sect, f, 
 The Year of Odusseus as God of tlie Thigh, pp. 461, 462, the sun-god born 
 of the walnut-tree. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 515 
 
 months. In consequence of this victory, when Sohrab 
 inarched to attack the Iranians Rustum was called on by 
 Kaous to help him, and his army marched under the ban- 
 ners of six leaders, Rustum, Thous, Gudarz, Giv, Gurazeh 
 and Feriburz, sons of Kaous, whose throne was of Indian 
 ivory and teak wood. When the armies met, Sohrab 
 attacked the Iranians and completely routed them till 
 Rustum was summoned. When the father and son met 
 neither knew who the other was, for though Sohrab asked 
 Rustum who he was, Rustum denied his identity to his 
 son, whom he did not recognize, and when before the 
 battle Sohrab had asked Hejir, who had been the cus- 
 todian {hejr) of the white tower of Gurdafrid the beetle- 
 goddess, to point out to him the Iranian chiefs whose camps 
 were marked by their banners, Hejir told him that Rustum's 
 camp was that of an ally come from China '. 
 
 Both Sohrab and Rustum were clad in the impenetrable 
 armour of the sun-god, and in their first day's contest neither 
 gained any decisive advantage over the other. In that of 
 the second day Sohrab threw Rustum, when they wrestled 
 together after they had left their saddles, but spared his life 
 when Rustum told him he had no right to slay him till after 
 a second victory. When they separated, Rustum seeing that 
 his strength had diminished as the day waned, prayed to 
 God to restore it, and his prayer was answered, as he became 
 the conquering year-sun and not the gradually sinking sun 
 of day 2. He threw Sohrab when they next met, and taking 
 off his armour and opening his breast he wounded him mor- 
 tally. After giving the fatal wound he recognised the onyx 
 on his arm which showed Sohrab to be his son. Rustum 
 then begged Kaous to give him the healing balm known 
 to the sons of the Shamrock, which would restore his son 
 to life, but Kaous refused. Both armies separated ; the 
 Turanians having lost their leader returned home under the 
 
 " Mohl, Livredes Rois, vol. ii. Kas Kaous, pp. 71— 106. 
 
 ' Mallory, Morte d' Arthur, book iv. Globe edition, p. 88, where the strength 
 of Gawaine, the Celtic Gwalch-mai, the Hawk of May, the sun-god of the 
 early Pleiades and Druid's year when fighting Sir Marhaus, was increased 
 from nine to twelve, and after that it so decreased that he could fight no longer. 
 
5i6 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 guidance of Zuvareh, Rustum's twin brother, and Rustum 
 after burying his son, went back to Seistan, thus ending the 
 episode of the attempted fusion of the year of the revolving 
 sun-god of the Iranians and Turanians. 
 
 There are three most striking variants of this story in the 
 legends of the ruling sun-god of this epoch. The first is in 
 the story of Gharib and his brother Ajib in the Arabian 
 Nights, which, as I have shown elsewhere, gives an epitome 
 in the symbolic language of the historians who told national 
 history in the form of the story of the conquests of the year- 
 god of this year riding on the sun-horse '. Gharib, the 
 champion of the true religion of the worship of one God, 
 who in one part of his story fought with Rustum, had de- 
 livered Fakhr Taj, the crown {taj) of glory {fakhr), daughter 
 of Subur the Persian king, from the barbarian chief Sa'adan, 
 whose weapon was a tree trunk, and who as a worshipper of 
 the mother-tree had come from Hind or India, his mother- 
 land, with his five sons, the five days of his week. When he 
 brought her back to her father he was royally entertained by 
 him, and the hand of Fakhr Taj was promised to him. But 
 at the banquet ending the day when Gharib overthrew the 
 chief Persian champions he became drunk, and in his drunken- 
 ness he strayed into Fakhr Taj's palace, was received by her 
 as her husband before marriage, and begot on her Murad 
 his successor, whose name means the neck, thus equating 
 him with the horse-necked god of the eleven-months year. 
 He was born, like Khu-srav, also a god of the eleven-months 
 year, on the Ji-hun or Oxus, whither her father had sent 
 Fakhr Taj to be drowned, and he and his father did not 
 meet for many years, till Murad had become the leader of a 
 great army which was encountered by Gharib, neither, like 
 Rustum and Sohrab, knowing the relationship between them. 
 They, like Rustum and Sohrab, met in single combat, and 
 Gharib threw Murad and took him prisoner, and it was then 
 that Murad told him who he was 2. 
 
 ' Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, ■vol. ii. essay ix. pp. 337 — 34'- 
 ' Burton, Arabian Nights, Story of Gharib and his brother Ajib, vol. v. 
 pp. 17s— 181, 190—193, 266—268, 286—298. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 517 
 
 In the story of Sigurd, the god of the pillar (urdr) of 
 victory riding on the cloud sun-horse Grani, Sigmund, the 
 conquering {sig) moon-father of Sigurd, was the tenth son 
 of the king of the Volsungs, the woodland people, sons of 
 the tree stem [voir), whose king dwelt in a palace like the 
 revolving bed of Odusseus, the roof-beams being fixed in 
 the central mother-tree. Sigmund's sister Signy was married 
 to Siggeir, king of the Goths, and at the wedding-feast an 
 aged man clothed in a sky-blue hood and a cloudy kirtle, the 
 embodied cloud-god, strode into the hall and drew a sword 
 from under his cloak, which he thrust into the trunk of the 
 Volsung parent-tree and said that whoever should draw it 
 out would become master of the world. After the Goths, 
 King Volsung and his nine elder sons had tried in vain, 
 Sigmund drew it easily, thus performing the feat which gave 
 to Arthur, the Celtic sun-god, the crown of Britain, when he 
 alone was able to draw the year-sword of Orion from the 
 churchyard gnomon-stone at Christmas, Candlemas, Easter 
 and Pentecost, all successive New Year's days in the history 
 of time measurement ^. 
 
 When the treacherous king of the Goths worshipping the 
 sun-horse attacked and slew king Volsung, took his ten sons 
 prisoners and obtained the sword of light which Sigmund 
 had won, he ordered the ten princes to be exposed in the 
 forest to be eaten by the wolf-king and queen, who devoured 
 nine of them. But when the she-wolf attacked Sigmund he 
 fixed his teeth in her throat and drank her blood. Invigor- 
 ated by the strength thus gained he burst his bonds and 
 slew her and her mate. He then as the ruling master smith, 
 the Persian Kaweh, who had become ruler of the wolf-race, 
 lived in secret in his central smithy the Pole Star precinct, 
 visited only by his sister Signy. She sent to him her son by 
 Siggeir, when he was ten years old, to be trained, but as he 
 proved a worthless coward he returned him to his mother. 
 Signy then, like Tehmimeh, determined to have a son whose 
 
 ' Mallory, Morle d' Arthur, book i. chaps, iii., iv. Globe edition, pp. 28 — 30. 
 
5i8 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 father should be the world's ruler, and disguising herself as 
 a Turanian Finn she visited her brother in his cave, who begot 
 on her Sinnfiotli the Sohrab of the Shah-namah. He became 
 a wolf-twin of his father, and they both roamed the world as 
 destroying wolves, till Sigmund in a fit of madness slew 
 Sinnfiotli, but restored him to life by the creating power of 
 the holy shamrock, the sacred plant of the city where Sohrab 
 was born. Finally Sinnfiotli was poisoned by Borg-hild, the 
 mountain-goddess, and Sigmund became by Hjordis, the 
 mother of the herds {hjord), the cow mother, father of Sigurd, 
 who was not the son of alien Finns or Goths, but of the sons 
 of the tree united with those of the cow '. 
 
 Another parallel to the story of Rustum and Sohrab is 
 furnished by the history of the Irish sun-god Cu-chulainn, 
 the hound of Culain the smith, who was, like Sigmund and 
 Kaweh, the Pole Star smith of the year measured by the 
 Great Bear*. Cu-chulainn's strength lay in his left thigh, 
 the Great Bear thigh of the ape-god, and he was slain by 
 Lugaid after his strength had left this thigh, when on the 
 way to his last battle he was met by the three daughters of 
 Calatin, all blind of the left eye, the three one-eyed Graiae 
 slain by Perseus. They gave him out of the left hand a 
 shoulder-blade of the dog they had cooked with poison. 
 This he ate with his left hand and put under his left thigh, 
 which then withered 3. He was wedded on Samhain, the 
 1st November, to Emer, daughter of Forgall of the gardens 
 of Lug the sun-god, the Garden of God of the cycle-year, after 
 he had slain twenty-four of her twenty-seven brethren, the 
 twenty-seven days of the months of her father's three-years 
 cycle-year, leaving one alive out of each of the three groups 
 of nine-day weeks. But before his marriage he went to the 
 under-world, to the school of Scathach, the goddess of this 
 land where life was born, and in which the southern year-sun 
 
 ' Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, Story of the Niblvmga Saga, 
 vol. ii. essay viii. pp. no — 117. 
 
 " Rhys, Bibbert Lectures for 1886, lect. v. pp. 444 — 447. 
 
 ' Hull, The CuchuUin Saga, Cu-chulainn's Death, pp. 254 — 260. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 519 
 
 dies in winter. This he reached by following the wheel of 
 time and the apple of life given him as a guide by a youth 
 he met. He found Scathach teaching her two sons under 
 the world's central year-tree, and there as the winter sun-god 
 he fought with Aoife, the goddess of the year-chariot with 
 two horses and its Great Bear charioteer. When he con- 
 quered her he passed the night with her and left her in the 
 morning, giving her a gold ring, the counterpart of Rustura's 
 onyx, for the son she was to bear '. 
 
 Aoife when she heard Cu-chulainn had married Emer 
 sent her son Conlaoch, after he had been taught by Scat- 
 hach, to Ireland with instructions never to yield to anyone, 
 to fight all who challenged him, and never to tell his name. 
 He came to the court of Conchobar, Cu-chulainn's reputed 
 father, and fought and overcame Conall, a sun-champion, 
 who afterwards slew Lugaid, Cu-chulainn's slayer. Cu- 
 chulainn was then sent for, and he asked his name before 
 they fought, which Conlaoch refused to give. In the battle 
 Cu-chulainn, like Rustum, was all but worsted, and only 
 conquered by using his death-spear, the Gai Bolg, the 
 thunderbolt lightning stroke of the irresistible year-sun, 
 who makes day and night with their accompanying pre- 
 ordained changes follow one another in unvarying order, 
 and as he was dying Conlaoch told his name and showed 
 his ring 2. 
 
 After this episode of the two contending year-gods of 
 the Iranian and Turanian competing races we come to the 
 history of the god called Siawush in the Shah-namah, Sya- 
 vaksh in the Bundahish, and Shyavarshan, the black {skydva) 
 man {arskan), the black sun of night of the dark races born 
 from the union of the northern Kushika wolf-race of the 
 bow {kaus) with a Turanian mother. She was a wandering 
 princess, daughter of Guersivaz, brother of Afrasiab, called 
 Keresavazda, or he of the honied (keresa) trident club, in 
 
 ' Hull, The Cuchullin Saga, The Wooing of Emer, part ii. pp. 41—83. 
 " Gregory, Cu-chulainn of Muir-thremnt, pp. 312—316. 
 
520 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the Zendavesta. Thous and Giv, the elephant and the 
 wolf, found her deserted by her guards, as the mother of 
 Gharib was found with her infant son by Mardas, chief of 
 the Beni Kahtan, the tribe of the thirteen sons of Joktan, 
 to whom she bore his brother Sahim al Layl, he who shoots 
 his arrows by night, the night brother of the sun of day ; 
 and just in the same way Gharib himself, after he had begun 
 his career of victory as the sun-god, found Fakr Taj, the 
 crown (taj) of glory {fakhr), the mother of Murad, the 
 horse-necked god, wandering in the desert '. 
 
 Thous and Giv brought her to Kaous, to whom she bore 
 Shyavarshan, the black sun-god, the Persian form of the 
 Indian Krishna, the black antelope-god. He was put under 
 the charge of Rustum, who took him to Seistan and educated 
 him there. When his education was completed Rustum 
 brought him back, and he, Thous and Giv took him to 
 his father Kaous, who after a period of eight years' proba- 
 tion made him governor of the northern countries beyond 
 the Oxus. 
 
 It was after this that Sudabeh, the black {sud) queen 
 of Kaous, daughter of the king of Mazanderan, began to 
 fall in love with the young sun-god, and when he refused 
 her advances falsely accused him of trying to violate her, 
 an incident which occurs in the life history of many of the 
 sun-gods of the eleven-months year. Among them are 
 Bellerophon, the sun-physician Baal Raphon, accused by 
 Sthenobcea, wife of Proetus, king of Tiryns, Peleus the 
 father of Achilles by Hippolyte, wife of Akastus the healer 
 (a/ceo)), Hippolytus, son of Theseus, the organiser who drove, 
 as we shall see, the new chariot star of the year Auriga 
 as his chariot, accused by Hippolyte his mother, and Joseph 
 or Asipu the interpreter, the eleventh son of Jacob and god 
 of the eleven stars of this year, by Potiphar's wife 2. The 
 
 ' Burton, Arabian Nights, Story of Gharib and his brother Ajib, vol. v. 
 pp. 165, 166, 179 — 181. 
 
 " Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Mylh-Making Age, chap. vi. sect, i, 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 521 
 
 origin of these stories is to be found in the difference of the 
 method of reckoning time followed in the framing of the 
 eleven-months year from those pursued in the years pre- 
 ceding it. In the year of Orion and in the thirteen-months 
 year the moon had been one of the chief factors in time 
 measurement. In the cycle-year the moon had only a 
 subordinate function, as the year was measured by the sol- 
 stices and equinoxes and by a sidereal month of 27 days, 
 which was not quite equal in length to a lunar month. 
 But in the year of eleven months of thirty-three days each 
 the moon was completely disregarded except at its com- 
 mencement with a new moon, and hence arose the story 
 repeated in various forms that the moon-wife of the year- 
 god tried to become united with his successor ruling the 
 eleven-months year, and that her request was refused. 
 
 In the story of Shyavarshan and Sudabeh she summoned 
 him three times to her apartments, and as he refused on 
 each occasion to comply with her request she denounced 
 him to the king, and finally accused him of having caused 
 her to miscarry of two children, whose bodies were produced 
 and which she falsely claimed as hers. In order to decide 
 the rights of the matter Kaous directed that both Siawush 
 and Siidabeh should undergo the ordeal of fire. On the day 
 of trial Siawush, mounted on the black horse of the sun-god 
 of this epoch, passed unscathed through the flames like 
 Achilles, Zarathustra and other national sun - gods. Sia- 
 wush then begged the king to pardon Sudabeh and 
 restore her to favour, but she still continued to intrigue 
 against him, and caused him to be sent to command an 
 expedition against the Turanians and Afrasiab. Siawush 
 went to Seistan to Rustum, and with him marched at the 
 head of an Iranian army chiefly recruited from Cutch and 
 Beluchistan against the Turanian forces under Guersivaz 
 (Keresavazda) and Barman, and took Balkh on the Oxus 
 
 The connection between this year and ceremonial hair-cutting, pp. 339, 390 
 note I ; Ibid., Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay vi. pp. 523 — 532. 
 
522 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 after defeating the Turanians decisively. When Guersivaz 
 reported his discomfiture to Afrasiab the latter determined 
 to sue for peace from Siawush. He on Rustum's advice 
 accepted Afrasiab's proposals to make peace and cede 
 Samarcand with much territory to the Iranians. But 
 Kaous when Rustum advised him to ratify the peace re- 
 fused to do so, and sent Rustum back to Seistan, ordering 
 Thous to command the army in his stead ^ 
 
 On receiving Kaous' orders Siawush consulted with his 
 chief generals Bahram, the fire-god, son of Gudarz the 
 vulture, and Zengueh, son of Sheuran, the bow {sheii) god, 
 bearers of the banner of the wild sheep, the wild ass and 
 eagle-gods of the cycle-year, and sent Zengueh to Afrasiab, 
 giving Bahram the command of the army pending the 
 coming of Thous. On receipt of an invitation from Afrasiab 
 to enter Turan he crossed the Oxus or Ji-hun, the river 
 of life {ji^, and was received by Piran, who had advised 
 Afrasiab to accept the young sun-god as his ally. 
 
 Piran, Pil-sam and Human, Afrasiab's chief generals, were 
 sons of Wiseh or Vi-sakha, the god of the mid-month of 
 the Pleiades year, and brother of Pushan, who was (p. 231) 
 the supreme god of the sons of the barley month of Push 
 (December — January), the first month of the Hindu year, 
 and father of Minu-tchir, Afrasiab and Guersivaz. Hence 
 these three brethren, Piran, king of Khoten the Jade 
 country near Yarkand, Pil-sam, and Human, were the fire- 
 gods Bhur, Phur, Pir and Pil of the early fire-worshippers, 
 sons of Hum or Horn, the wild cypress tamarisk {hufii), the 
 mother-tree whence Zarathustra was born as the sun-hawk. 
 
 The epoch now introduced by the alliance of the black 
 {shyavcC) sun-god of the horse's head of the eleven-months 
 year with the Turanians was that of the descent of the 
 gardening irrigators, ancestors of the Hindu Kurmi Koifi 
 and Jat, leading agricultural clans led by Shyavarshan, who 
 became ruler of northern India, called Kang-desh in the 
 Zendavesta and Bundahish, a name surviving in that of 
 
 ' Mohl, Lwre des Rots, vol. ii. Kai Kaous, pp. 15S— 234- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 523 
 
 Kangra, the lofty Kangha where Shyavarshan built a castle, 
 called in the Zendavesta Kshathro-saoka, the " welfare of 
 the warriors of the Turanian sons of Vaisakh '." It is the 
 hill country between the Ravi {Iravati) and Sutlej {Shata- 
 dru), where the Chinab, Sutlej and Ravi rise ». His kingdom, 
 according to the Shah-namah, extended as far south as 
 Behar, where he built on the Ganges Siawush-gard, after 
 the capital he had founded in Kang-desh. On entering 
 Turan, Shyavarshan was received by Piran, Afrasiab's prime 
 minister, the ruler of Khoten ; and when he arrived at 
 Afrasiab's court he proved himself to be the conquering 
 sun-god by beating with his seven Iranian followers the 
 Turanians at the game of Polo, called in the Shah-namah 
 Gu-u-chogan, the game of the ball and mallet (chogan 
 chavigan) 3. He finally hit the ball out of sight, a feat like 
 that of the young Cu-chulainn, who beat at ball the whole 
 of the hundred and fifty boys forming the boy corps educated 
 at Conchobar's court 4. 
 
 Shyavarshan also showed himself to be the ruling year-god 
 by bending and stringing the bow of the Indian Krishanu 
 and the Assyrian god Marduk, or Amar-utuki, the light of 
 the sun, of the Indian Arjuna, the Greek centaur Eurytos, 
 and Odusseus, which Guersivaz and the Turanian champions 
 were unable to do, he having bent and strung the bow rode 
 at full speed on his black horse, and while riding shot three 
 successive arrows into the centre of the target s. 
 
 Shyavarshan, when he had concluded his alliance with the 
 Turanians and become their year-god, first married Djerireh, 
 
 • Darmesteter, Zendavesta Aban Yasht, 54, 57, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xxiii. pp. 67, notes 4, 5, 68. 
 
 ' Barnes, Kangra Settlement Report, p. i. 
 
 3 The name Polo is of Tibetan origin, it being the Tibetan name for the 
 wlUow-root ball with which it is played in Eastern India. It and its original 
 form, the game of hockey, the Celtic hurley played on foot, is of Iberian origin 
 introduced by the Iberian sons of the rivers, who made the willow their mother- 
 tree. 
 
 ' Hull, The Cu-chullin Saga, pp. 135— 138 
 
 s Mohl, Livre ies Rots, vol. ii. Kai Kaous, pp. 254, 255. 
 
524 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 daughter of Piran, and Gul-shhar, the new moon {shhar) of 
 the rose (^ul), the female moon of the southern races, and 
 afterwards Ferengis, daughter of Afrasiab, and thus became, 
 like Thraetaona, the god with two wives, forming the creating 
 trident of the northern and southern sun. The parent-god 
 of the northern and southern races united under Khu-srav, 
 son of Ferengis, called Vispanfrya in the Bundahish. Khu- 
 srav was the god called Hu-shrava in the Zendavesta and 
 Shu-shrava in the Rigveda, the glory ishrava) of the Hus, 
 Shus or Khus, sons of the bird {khu), the trading sons of the 
 primaeval cloud-bird whose name Khu appears in that of 
 Khu-srav, by which he is called in the Bundahish ==. 
 
 He according to the Bundahish kindled the sacred fire ot 
 Gu-shusp, the cow {gu) or moon-horse succeeding that of 
 Fro-bak of Rustum, which, as we are told in the Shah-namah, 
 killed Frangrasyan and Keresa-vazda, and destroyed, accord- 
 ing to the Zendavesta, the heathen temples in the salt lake 
 Chaechasta, the modern Urumiah, in Adar-bijan, the ancient 
 Ataro-patakan near Baku, and thus re-installed the early 
 ritual of the fire-worshippers ^. 
 
 In the Rigveda i. 53, 10 he, under the name of Su-shrava, 
 is said to have conquered (i) Kutsa, the moon-god of the 
 Finns {Ku), the priest-king of the barley-growing Turva- 
 yana or Turvasu, and who was, as we have seen in p. 255, 
 the high-priest of the Tugras or Takkas, the magicians or 
 dealers in witchcraft ; (2) Divodasa, the god of the cycle-year 
 of ten [dashan) months of gestation, to whose house the 
 Ashvins, in Rig. i. 117, 18, where he is called Bharadvaja 
 the lark, brought their three-wheeled car of the cycle-year 
 drawn by the constellations of Taurus [vrisabha) the bull and 
 Simshu mara the alligator (p. 415). He is said in Rig. vi. 
 61, I, to have been given by Sarasvati, the mother-river- 
 goddess, as a son to Vadhriashva, the sexless {vadhri) horse- 
 
 ' West, Bundahish, xxxv. 18, Sacred Books of the East, vol. v. p. 135. 
 = Ibid., xvii. 7 ; Darmesteter, Zendavesta Aban. Yasht, 49, vol. v. pp. 63, 64, 
 xxiii. 65, 66, note 2. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 525 
 
 god of the cycle-year, and Agni, the fire-god of the Bharatas, 
 called Jata-vedas, he who knows the secrets of birth, and is 
 therefore the god of the year of the ten months of gestation 
 during which the embryo foetus is nursed into life and born 
 at their end as the living child. He is said in Rig. vi. 16, 19 
 to be the fire of Divodasa their king. Hence he is clearly a 
 year-god of the cycle-year of the sexless horse. The unsexed 
 parent-god, Shu-shrava, also vanquished (3) Ayu, the son of 
 Urvashi, the fire-socket, the fire-god of the phallic beliefs 
 corresponding to the Fro-bak or Viru-bak fire of Rustum. 
 
 In Hebrew genealogy he is Husham, king of the Temanites, 
 the Hushim and Shuham sons of Dan, the Akkadian Danu, 
 Pole Star god of the Himyarites of southern Arabia, the 
 land of Teman ', successor of Jo-bab, the gate (bab) of god, 
 that of the wooden door-posts guarding God's garden of the 
 cycle-year with its changing seasons ruled by the star Gemini. 
 Khu-srav, who by the introduction of a new natibnal fire 
 altered early fire-worshipping beliefs, became the reforming 
 god of the second phase of the eleven-months year. 
 
 It was after his marriages that Shyavarshan built Sia- 
 wushgard his Indian capital on the Ganges. It was founded 
 on the 3rd of Ardibehisht (April— May), which is in the 
 Persian calendar about the 23rd of April, when, as we have 
 seen in p. 484, the second form of the eleven-months year 
 began in Italy with the Palilia on the 21st of April, and 
 in the Zend countries, of which Persia was the chief in 
 this age, of the thirty-three Zend gods, with the New Year's 
 festival of Maidyo-Zaremaya, that of the creation of the 
 world, held from the nth to the 15th of this month 2. 
 
 When Afrasiab heard from Piran, who had visited Shya- 
 varshan, of this festival inaugurating a new form of year 
 measurement, he sent Guersivaz, Shyavarshan's grand-father, 
 to his court. At the festival held on his arrival Shyavarshan 
 
 ' Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. iv. sect, e, 
 Immigration of the sons of the rivers and the antelope into India, pp. 180—182 ; 
 Gen. xlvi. 23 ; Numbers xxvi. 42 ; Gen. xxxvi. 33—35. 
 
 " MoM, Livre des Hois, vol. ii. Kai Kaous, p. 281. 
 
526 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 and his Iranians beat Guersivaz and the Turanian Turks 
 at ball, as he had before defeated them at Afrasiab's court. 
 He also transfixed with his spear and carried off five heavy 
 cuirasses linked together, while none of his competitors 
 would carry off one. He then placed four shields, two of 
 wood and two of iron, back to back and pierced them all 
 four with seven arrows, a feat similar to that of the five 
 arrows shot by Arjuna into the shield-circle of the Pole 
 Star. Shyavarshan ended the festival by defeating the 
 Turanian champions Demur and Gerui, who was afterwards 
 his murderer, and thus made all the Turanians his deadly 
 enemies ^. 
 
 Guersivaz came back to Afrasiab after staying eight days 
 with Shyavarshan, and told him that he intended to make 
 himself the independent king of Turan ; and then Afrasiab 
 sent him back to ask Shyavarshan to come with Ferengis 
 to his court. Shyavarshan at once agreed to come, but 
 Guersivaz dissuaded him from going with him, saying he 
 would send a message when Afrasiab was inclined to receive 
 him favourably. He sent back with Guersivaz a letter to 
 Afrasiab saying that he hoped soon to come to him, but 
 Guersivaz misinterpreted his intentions and said that he 
 was negotiating with the Iranians and preparing to rebel. 
 Afrasiab then led an army against Shyavarshan, who after 
 Guersivaz had told him that he had done his best to pre- 
 vent the attack he had really organised, determined by the 
 advice of Ferengis to fly with his Iranian warriors , and he 
 took leave of Ferengis, telling her to go to Piran on the 
 banks of the Jihun or Oxus, where her son, conceived five 
 months before, was to be born. 
 
 This birth of Khu-srav on the Oxus is parallel with that 
 of Murad, the horse-necked {murad) son of Fakhr Taj and 
 Gharib. In the Arabian Nights' story it is said that Rustum 
 told Gharib that Sabur, king of Persia, the parallel of 
 Afrasiab and father of Fakhr Taj, had ordered her when 
 
 ' Mohl, Livre des Rois, vol. ii. Kai Kaous, pp. 281—293. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 527 
 
 she was found to be pregnant to be drowned in the Ji-hun. 
 Thereupon Gharib with Rustum as his ally attacked the 
 Persians and took their king prisoner. He then asked what 
 had become of Fakhr Taj, and was told by the two men 
 who had been sent to drown her that they had left her, 
 like Ferengis, on the banks of the river. When Gharib 
 asked the astrologers what had become of her they said 
 she was with a tribe of Jinns or sorcerers dwelling in the 
 river, the men of Piran in the Shah-namah, and had given 
 birth to a male-child Murad, whom he would not see for 
 twenty years, of which eight were passed '. 
 
 To return to the story of Shyavarshan. He in his flight 
 met Afrasiab's army but refused to fight with it. Afrasiab 
 ordered his soldiers to attack the Iranians, and they slew 
 them all except Shyavarshan, whom they did not dare to 
 attack till the rest were slain. They then wounded him 
 with their arrows, as, his year being ended, he no longer 
 wore his invulnerable armour, and he fell to the ground 
 from his black horse. He was taken prisoner by Gerui 
 Zereh, and Afrasiab ordered him to be slain. This order 
 was protested against by all the soldiers except Guersivaz, 
 and finally, in spite of the petitions of Pil-sam, brother 
 of Piran and Ferengis, Afrasiab urged on by Gerui Zereh 
 and Demur, whom Shyavarshan had beaten in the contest 
 between him and the Turanian champions, ordered Gerui 
 to kill him. Piran arrived after his death and carried off 
 Ferengis to his palace on the Ji-hun (Oxus), where Khu-srav 
 was born. 
 
 After his birth Afrasiab told Piran to bring him up among 
 shepherds, and when he was ten years old he had killed 
 lions and bears with a bow and arrows which he had made. 
 His shepherd teacher told Piran that he was beyond his 
 control, and Piran took him back to court, but fearing 
 that Afrasiab might slay him if he found out what a pro- 
 digy he was, he bade him when he saw Afrasiab to speak 
 
 ' Burton, Arabian Nights, Story of Gharib and his brother Ajib, vol. y. 
 pp. 266—272. 
 
528 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 to him like a fool. When Afrasiab had made up his mind 
 that the boy was not to be feared he sent him back to his 
 mother at her father's Indian home, Siawushgard. 
 
 When Kaous in Persia and Rustum in Seistan heard of 
 Shyavarshan's death, Rustum went to Nimroz or Babylon, 
 the capital of Kaous, and slew the black queen Sudabeh, 
 who was the first cause of Shyavarshan's misfortunes. Then 
 Rustum, as leader of the eleven year-gods of Iran, marched 
 under the banner of Kaweh against Turan, his army being 
 led by the following ten generals: — (i) Feriburz, son of 
 Kaous, with the sun banner, (2) Gudarz, (3) Thous, (4) 
 Ferhadj with the banner of the buffalo, (5) Bahram, (6) 
 Giv, (7) Gurgan, the wolf [gurg) son of Milad (Youth), 
 (8) Rehham, (9) Shapur, (10) Gurazeh, the wild boar [gurdz). 
 In this army the wolf and boar races represented by Gudarz, 
 his three sons Bahram, the fire-god, Giv, and Rehham 
 Gurgan, the wolf-god {gurg), and Gurazeh, the wild boar, 
 were superior in numbers to Thous, the star Orion, the 
 buffalo-god Ferhad, and Shapur, representing the earlier 
 indigenous gods. 
 
 In the ensuing war with Afrasiab his son Surkheh was 
 slain by Zuvareh, Rustum's twin-brother, Pil-sam by Rustum, 
 and the Turanians v/ere entirely defeated and he himself 
 almost taken prisoner by Rustum, who for seven years ruled 
 and devastated Turan, while Afrasiab sent Khusrav to hide 
 in the territory of Khoten and China. At the end of this 
 period Rustum went back to Seistan and Afrasiab came 
 home and devastated Iran for seven years. At the beginning 
 of his invasion Gudarz was told in a dream to send his son 
 Giv, the wolf-star Arcturus, to seek Khu-srav, whom he was 
 destined to find i, 
 
 Giv after seven years' wandering found Khu-srav at a 
 fountain, and was at once recognised by him as the deliverer 
 who his mother prophesied would free him ^. Giv examined 
 
 ' Mohl, Livre des Rois, vol. ii. Kai Kaous, pp. 350—383. 
 ' Ibid., pp. 389—391. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 529 
 
 his arm and found on it the sign of the royal Kushite 
 race, which was in this epoch of the eleven-months year, 
 as we shall see later, that of the goat-star Capella of the 
 constellation of Auriga the charioteer which marked the 
 shoulder and wrist of the Greek god the Olenian Poseidon, 
 god of the arm (wXevi?), driver of the first chariot horses of 
 the sun ^. 
 
 On seeing the mark Giv did homage to the young king, 
 who, mounted on Giv's horse, went with him to his mother 
 Ferengis at Siawush-gard. She told her son to go with his 
 father's bridle and star-spotted leopard-skin saddle to find 
 Bahzad, his father's black horse, whose name means, like that 
 of Pegasus, the striker {bahz) ^. When he and Giv had found 
 him, Khu-srav saddled him with the leopard-skin saddle of 
 the sun-god making his circular journey through the stars, 
 and took him round the mountain, the central mountain of 
 the world, so that he became like Bellerophon the Greek god 
 on the star-horse Pegasus. 
 
 Before Khu-srav, Giv, and Ferengis set out for Iran, 
 Ferengis opened her treasury and gave Giv the impenetrable 
 armour of the sun-god which Shyavarshan had worn. 
 On their way they were met by a Turanian army led by 
 Nestehem and Kelbad, sent by Piran with orders to slay 
 Giv and Ferengis and imprison Khu-srav, that he might not 
 become king of Iran, but Giv defeated this army and also 
 another following it led by Piran himself, taking Piran 
 prisoner. He released him when p-erengis told him that 
 he had induced Afrasiab to spare Khu-srav's life, and placed 
 him on his horse with his hands bound behind his back, 
 which he swore no one should loose except his wife Gul- 
 shhar, the new moon {shhar) of the rose {gul). On his way 
 home thus bound he met Afrasiab with his army and told 
 him of his defeat 3. 
 
 When Giv, Ferengis, and Khu-srav came to the Jihun 
 
 ' R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., Araius Phenomena on Heavenly Display, 155—166. 
 ' Mohl, Livre des Rots, vol. ii. Kai Kaous, pp. 387—397. 
 3 Ibid., pp. 397—416. 
 
 ^^- M m 
 
530 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 river of life the ferryman refused to take them across unless 
 he was paid a fee for the use of his boat, the sun-ship con- 
 stellation Argo, steered by the ferrying-star Sirius, who 
 with Procyon kept the Bridge of the Gods whence the 
 primitive sun-god went northwards at the winter, and 
 whither he returned southwards at the summer, solstice on 
 his annual journeys. The fee he asked was either the 
 impenetrable sun-armour of Giv, the black sun-horse Bahzad, 
 the striker, Ferengis, the mother of the sun-god, or the gold 
 crown worn by Khu-srav. They refused his aid on these 
 terms, and though the rains of December — ^January had 
 flooded the river they swam their horses across, thus 'making 
 Khu-srav the sun-god led by Arcturus, who rode his year- 
 path through the stars on his own black sun-horse Pegasus. 
 On their arrival at the other side the ferryman did them 
 homage, and gave Khu-srav, the new sun-god, the bow of the 
 Great Bear, the helmet of invisibility, and the lasso of the 
 hunting sun-god, the star Orion ^. 
 
 When Afrasiab came up and found that Khu-srav had 
 crossed the river which was in such high flood that the ferry- 
 man who had abandoned his trade had to withdraw his 
 boat, he returned home, and the young sun-god, who had 
 passed the Bridge of the Gods and entered on his new career 
 in the beginning of January — February, went with Giv and 
 Ferengis to Ispahan, the capital of Iran, where Gudarz dwelt. 
 Thence Gudarz sent a message to Kai Kaous at Nimroz 
 (Babylon) to tell him that Khu-srav was coming. Rustum, 
 who was there, sent Giv's wife, his daughter Banu-Gushasp, 
 child of the Gushasp fire, to meet them, and Gudarz received 
 and welcomed her on her arrival. They thence went to 
 Nimroz to Kai Kaous, who received Khu-srav as his heir, 
 but his right was disputed by Thous, son of Nodar or 
 Neotara, the new star, the star-god Orion, who supported 
 the claim of Feriburz, the still surviving son of Kaous. Kaous 
 decided that the justice of these claims should be determined 
 
 ' Mohl, Livre dts Rois, vol. ii. Kai Kaous, pp. 416 — ^420. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 53 1 
 
 by the taking of the world's central castle Bahman by the 
 rightful heir. It was the central turning castle of the Pole 
 Star god which either Feriburz or Khu-srav had, like Minu- 
 tchir and Rustum, to take before he could be acknowledged 
 as the central ruler of the earth. 
 
 Thous and Feriburz marching under the banner of Kaweh 
 reached the castle when the sun entered Leo at the end of 
 January — February, that is about 12,500 B.C., and they 
 remained there seven days trying to find some means of 
 entering it, but returned home without success. 
 
 When Giv and Gudarz the Vulture heard of their return, 
 they marched with Khu-srav against it without Kaweh's 
 banner, that is without the assistance of the Great Bear. 
 Khu-srav sent Giv to place on its walls a written summons 
 to surrender to the sun-god riding the black horse Bahzad. 
 On his afiSxing the order the defences of the castle dis- 
 appeared just as the walls of Jericho the moon-city fell 
 down before the blasts of the rams'-horn sun-trumpets of 
 Joshua or Hosh-ia, the Yah or Jehovah of the Hus, a Hebrew 
 parallel of Khu-srav ^. 
 
 As Khu-srav entered the castle at early dawn on his horse 
 the Striker, a light like that of the rising sun rose above it 
 and made it visible, and he ordered that a temple should 
 be built there in the sacred enclosure of the world's central 
 temple, and that the new fire of Adhar-Giishasp should be 
 lighted as the fire beginning his year. This is the fire of the 
 month Adar (February — March), the fire of the Hindu year 
 of the red race beginning, as we have seen in pp. 282, 283, 
 with the new moon of Phalgun corresponding to Adhar. It 
 is kindled in Zend ritual on the 9th of Adhar, that is at 
 the end of the first nine-days week of the cycle-year, and 
 then all worshippers of the sacred fire are required to visit 
 the fire temple of their town or village 2. 
 
 ' Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vi. sect, a, 
 The story of the two thieves who robbed the treasure-house of heaven, pp. 
 378-381. 
 
 Sachau, Alberuni's Chronology of Ancient Nations, p. 210. 
 M m 2 
 
532 Priinilive Traditional History, 
 
 It was the fire of Banu-Gushasp, the child of Gu-shasp, 
 the cow-horse {aspa), wife of Giv, Khu-srav's guiding star 
 Arcturus, and daughter of Rustum by his wife Giv's sister 
 Shhari-banu-irem, the child of the new-moon {shkar). Hence 
 it is the fire of the new moon of February— March intro- 
 ducing Khu-srav's fire as the successor of Rustum's fire 
 Fro-bak or Viru-bak, that of the worshippers of the phallus 
 or Viru introducing the year beginning in January — February. 
 This was the original Bahram fire of the sons of the wolf, 
 that of the first period of Kaous's reign, when he was 
 delivered from Maz-anderan, the land of the Milky Way. 
 The new Gu-shasp fire of Khu-srav or Hu-srava was, as we 
 are told in the Bundahish, first kindled by him on Mount 
 Asnavant, the holy mountain of Ataro-patakan, the fire 
 province of Baku, where the Araxes, the Zend Daitya river, 
 rose. It was kindled on this mountain in the land of the 
 god Atar, the sun-god of the Indian Atharvans, the Zend 
 Athravans, the sun-priests of this age of Dadhiank, the god 
 of the horse's head, son of Atharva, and at its foot was the 
 holy salt lake Chaechasta, the modern Urumiah, where 
 Khu-srav destroyed the heathen temples of Frangrasyan 
 on the central islands ^ ; and it was there that, as we shall 
 see, Khu-srav slew Frangrasyan and Keresavazda, the 
 Turanian leaders. 
 
 On Khu-srav's return from the lighting of his year's fires 
 Thous (Orion) did him homage, and proclaimed him as the 
 rightful bearer of the year-banner of Kaweh^. He began 
 his reign by going round his dominions accompanied by 
 eleven year-leaders : i. Thous, 2. Gudarz, 3. Giv, 4. Gurgan, 
 5. Kustihem, 6. Bahram, 7. Rehham, 8. Bijen son of Giv, 
 9. Ashkesh, 10. Feribiirz son of Kaous, and 11. Zengueh. 
 This list differs from that of the leaders _of the army of 
 
 ' West, Bundahish, xvii. 5—7, xii. 2, 6, vii. 14, 17, Selections of Zad-sparam, 
 vi. 20, 22 ; Darmesteter, Zendavesta Siroiah, i. 9, Mihr Yasht, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. v. pp. 63, 39, 28, 29, 172, 173, vol. xxiii. p. 7i "^'^ ^' 
 p. 123, note 4. 
 
 ' Mohl, Livre des Rois, vol. ii. Kai Kaous, pp. 420 — 424. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 533 
 
 Rustum which avenged Shyavarshan's death by substituting 
 for Ferhad, who bore the banner of the buffalo Shapur and 
 Gurazeh the boar, Bijen, who bore the banner of the crescent 
 moon, Ashkesh, who bore the banner of the tiger and led the 
 men of Cutch and Beluchistan, and Zengueh, son of Sheuran, 
 the god of the bow {sheu), who bore the banner of the wild 
 ass, the ass-god of the cycle-year, and who with Bahram had 
 led the Turanian army with which Shyavarshan marched 
 against Turan ^ ; and it introduces in Persian history Bijen, 
 son of Giv, who is, as we shall see, the leading hero of the 
 first period of the reign of Khu-srav, who ended his first 
 year's tour at the temple of Adhar-Gushasp, where he 
 rekindled his year's fires. 
 
 It was when the sun was in Virgo that, as we are told 
 in the Shahnamah, a new war against Afrasiab was deter- 
 mined on. This was the star of Khu-srav's mother Ferengis, 
 the Persian form of the Latin Erycina, the Greek Erigone, 
 the Phoenician Erekhayim, mother of the sun-physician. As 
 Khu-srav's star-mother Virgo, she conceived him at the 
 vernal equinox to be born at the winter solstice, when he 
 after his birth crossed the river Ji-hun to become the year- 
 god of the year when the sun entered Leo in February — 
 March. She thus as a mother-star resembled, as we shall 
 see presently, her sister Manijeh, daughter of Afrasiab, who 
 was the star Corona Borealis south of the Great Bear, in 
 which the sun was born at the winter solstice. 
 
 It was at this first review of his army held on his return 
 from his year's circuit, when the sun was in Virgo at the 
 vernal equinox, that Khu-srav divided his troops into nine 
 divisions, i. The first, the royal division of the family of 
 Kaous, was led by Feriburz his son. 2. The second, that 
 of Thous Orion of the royal line of Minu-tchir the sun-god, 
 was led by his son Zerasp, who bore the banner of Kaweh. 
 3- The leader of the third, that of the Keshwad tortoise 
 {Kesko). family, the sons of the wolf and vulture, was Gudarz 
 
 ' Mohl, Livre des Rots, vol. ii. Kai Kaous, pp. 467, 469, 482. 
 
534 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the star Vega. 4. The fourth by Kustehem, who, like 
 Thous, was the son of Neotara the new star. He is called 
 in the Zendavesta Vistauru, who was helped to cross the 
 river Vitanghahaiti by the goddess Anahita, and in the 
 popular legend reproducing this story he called Gosti Fryan, 
 the begetter of cows, is said to have effected the crossing 
 by answering the thirty-three riddles of the sorcerer Akhti, 
 thus showing him to be year-god of the Zend worship of the 
 thirty-three lords of the ritual order ^. He, as we shall see 
 later on in the story of Bijen and Manijeh, was one of the 
 pointer stars of the Great Bear with 5. Gurgan, the wolf 
 {gurg), son of Milad the youth. 6. That of the soldiers 
 of the family of Tewabeh led by Barteh. 7. The soldiers 
 of the family of Pashang (Pushan) the constellation Cancer, 
 led by Thous's son-in-law Pashang, reborn as the re-risen 
 form of his resuscitated royal ancestor. 8. Those of the 
 family of Berzin led by Ferhad, bearing the buffalo banner. 
 9. The last division was that of the sons of the boar {guraz) 
 led by Gurazeh. 
 
 These nine divisions, some of which were led by stars 
 which I can identify, represented apparently a leopard- 
 skin star-map, the saddle on which Khu-srav rode, like that 
 on the leopard-skin of Denderah dividing the heavens into 
 eight compartments, the sign of the eight-rayed star, which 
 were apparently preserved in the present map, but to it was 
 added a central ninth division ruled by Gurazeh the boar 
 {guraz) Pole Star. But it requires much more profound 
 research into the by-ways of Persian astronomical conclu- 
 sions than I am capable of undertaking to elucidate all the 
 historical riddles hidden in the field-plan of Khu-srav's 
 army. 
 
 Six special tasks were assigned to leaders selected from 
 these corps. The first was to slay Palashan, apparently the 
 god of the Palasha-tree {Butea frondosa), which is called 
 
 » Mohl, Livre des Jiois, vol. i. Newder, pp. 319, 320, vol. ii. Kai Kaons, 
 p. 456 ; Darmesteter, Zendavesta Iban Yasht, 76—79, Sacred Books of the 
 East, vol. xxiii. p. 72. 
 
Primitivi Traditional History. 535 
 
 by the same name in Persia as in India, who was the leader 
 of Afrasiab's army. This was assigned to Bijen, son of Giv, 
 who received from his father for this combat Shyavarshan's 
 impenetrable armour of the sun-god, a gift showing that his 
 adversary was a year-god. To him also was assigned the 
 second task of getting the crown (taj") of Tajaon, the warrior 
 of the Turanian year-crown, and the third of taking prisoner 
 Ispanui the sun-maiden who accompanied him as his slave. 
 The fourth, the bringing in the head of Tajaon, was assigned 
 to Giv, who had also to perform the fifth task of burning 
 the defences of Kaseh-rud, the enemy's frontier stronghold. 
 The sixth, that of presenting to Afrasiab the declaration 
 of war, was undertaken by Gurgan, the wolf {gurg) hunter- 
 star of the Great Bear, so that at the outset of the campaign 
 Bijen, the coming year-god, Giv the star Arcturus, and 
 Gurgan the Great Bear pointer-star, were proclaimed to be 
 its chief warriors. While this army was fighting Afrasiab 
 Rustum was to send his son Faramorz with a large force 
 to India. 
 
 The Iranian army at first entered the desert and moun- 
 tainous country ruled by Firud, son of Shyavarshan, and 
 Djerireh, the daughter of Piran and half-brother to Khu- 
 srav. Thous the Iranian leader sent Bahram, the god of 
 the sacred fire, to ask Firud to join the Iranians. He con- 
 sented to do this if Thous would visit him on his mountain, 
 that is acknowledge his sovereignty ; but he refused to do 
 this, and sent his two sons, Rivniz, the bearer of the banner 
 of the star-leopard, and Zerasp, bearing the banner of 
 Kaweh, to attack Firud, the renowned archer of heaven, 
 in his Pole Star mountain. Firud slew them both with 
 his arrows. When Thous and Giv armed with Shyavar- 
 shan's impenetrable armour went against him, they both 
 retired discomfited, when he slew their horses, and finally 
 Bijen attacked him mounted on a horse given him by 
 Kustihem, the Great Bear pointer-star, and wearing Shya- 
 varshan's armour, which he had got from his father. Firud 
 slew the liorse,but Bijen attacked him on foot, and remained 
 
536 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 unwounded by his arrows while he drove him into his castle. 
 There he was attacked by the Iranian army, who slew all 
 his soldiers as they came out to fight. Firud, who alone 
 remained alive, was pursued by Bijen and Rehham, son 
 of Gudarz, who bore the banner of the tiger-star Pegasus. 
 They slew his horse, and he retiring into the castle died 
 of a broken heart ', perishing as a Turanian year-god slain 
 by Bijen, who was to become the Iranian year-god of this 
 stage of Khu-srav's reign. 
 
 Thous then marched to the stronghold of Kaseh-rud, and 
 on the march Bijen, wearing Shyavarshan's armour, slew 
 Palashan, who seems to be the god of the Palasha tree of 
 Hindu ritual, and brought back his head, his armour, and 
 his horse. They then reached the castle of Tajaon, the 
 wearer of the year-crown {taj), and guardian of the frontier, 
 by crossing the snowy mountain of Kaseh-rud, the road over 
 which was made passable by a fire lighted by Giv in its 
 forests which burnt for three weeks. Bijen when attacking 
 it wounded Tajaon with his spear and took his crown from 
 his head. Tajaon retreated to his castle pursued by Bijen, 
 but was met on the way by Ispanui the sun-maiden, who 
 begged him to save her from being captured by the Iranians 
 by taking her upon his horse. He did so, and she rode 
 with him till his horse was exhausted, and then he told 
 Ispanui that his only chance of escape from Bijen his pur- 
 suing enemy was, that she, who had no enemies and there- 
 fore nothing to fear, should relieve his horse of her weight. 
 When she got off his horse Bijen captured her, and thus 
 returned to camp after accompHshing the task assigned to 
 him of taking off Tajaon's crown, and taking from him the 
 sun-maiden, whom he delivered to Thous the star Orion. 
 This capture is reproduced in Greek mythological history 
 in that of Ariadne, the star Corona Borealis, by Dionysos, 
 who became by him mother of .(Enopion the wine-drinker, 
 and Staphylus the bunch of grapes; and Bijen was, like 
 
 ' Mohl, Livre des Rois, vol. ii. Kai Khosrou, pp. 445—511. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 537 
 
 Dionysos, a capturer of this star and a form of the ruling 
 sun-god, as will be seen in the story of him and Manijeh, 
 the goddess of this star, whom he wedded. Tajaon escaped 
 when his castle was taken by the Iranians and went to 
 Afrasiab, who collected an army which he sent under the 
 command of Piran, whose subordinates were Tajaon, Bar- 
 man and Nestihem. They surprised the Iranian camp by 
 night, slew large numbers of their soldiers and dispersed 
 their army. 
 
 Khu-srav when he heard the news sent orders to Thous 
 to leave the army, giving up the command to Feriburz, who 
 obtained a month's truce from Piran and re-formed his 
 forces. Giv, bearing the banner of the wolf, commanded 
 the right wing, Ashkesh, with the banner of the tiger, the 
 left, and Feriburz, with Kaweh's banner, the centre. 
 
 The Turanians under Piran first attacked Gudarz and Giv, 
 and were reinforced by Lebhak and Fershidwand, who with 
 Piran, Pil-sam, Human and Kelbad were the six sons of 
 Wiseh or Vi-sakha, the mid-month of the Pleiades year, all 
 of them being born of the Hum or cypress-tree. 
 
 Lebhak and Fershidwand attacked the Iranian centre 
 under Feribiirz and put it to flight, carrying off the 
 banner of Kaweh. Bijen pursued him and recovered it, 
 but the battle ended in the complete defeat of the Ira- 
 nians, only seven members of the family of Giidarz sur- 
 viving. Its final incident was the death of Bahram the 
 Iranian fire-god. He after the battle revisited the field 
 where it was fought to recover his whip, his fire sceptre, 
 and when he had found it his horse first ran away after 
 some mares, but when he recovered it, it refused to move 
 with him on its back ; he then slew it, and he as the fire- 
 god, whose creating power had left him when the Gu-shasp 
 fire was lighted, was attacked by Turanians, who were joined 
 by Tajaon, who slew him. After his death Tajaon, whose 
 crown Bijen had taken, was attacked by Giv, who came 
 too late to save his brother but cut off Tajaon's head, and 
 took both his corpse and that of his brother back to camp 
 
538 Primitwe Traditional History. 
 
 on Tajaon's horse, and thus accomplished the task of be- 
 heading Tajaon assigned to him by Khu-srav. The Iranians 
 then went back to Khii-srav, leaving the Turanian star- 
 gods victors in the contest between the two nations ; but 
 though apparently victorious they had lost Palashan their 
 tree-god, and Tajaon their crowned sun-god ^. 
 
 Khii-srav on the return of his defeated generals fitted out 
 a new army, at the head of which he again placed Thous, 
 Giidarz and Giv, and they were again defeated by the 
 Turanians under Piran, who forced them to fly to the 
 mountains of Himaven, the Himalayas. Then Khii-srav 
 having summoned Rustum sent him and Feribiirz, son of 
 Kaous, who had married Ferengis, Khu-srav's mother, to 
 their aid. Simultaneously with the reinforcements sent to 
 Thous, who was told by Shyavarshan in a dream that he 
 would be delivered, Afrasiab sent the Khakan of China to 
 help Piran and HQman, and their coming was, we are told, 
 announced when the sun entered Cancer. 
 
 Rustum and Feribiirz arrived with the Indian troops while 
 the united armies of the Turanians and Chinese were attack- 
 ing the Iranians. This was the first campaign in which 
 Rustum fought under Khii-srav's new fire of Adhar-giishasp, 
 and after the death of Bahram, the god of the previous 
 national fire, and in it Rustum added to his previous armour 
 the girdle Bebr-i-bayan, the tiger of tigers, which I will 
 describe more fully presently, and used instead of his club 
 the bow of Djaj, the jungle hen, the sun-hen of the original 
 Indian solar mythology ; and it was under the leader thus 
 armed that the Turanians were utterly defeated and the 
 Khakan of China taken prisoner ». 
 
 Rustum led his victorious army into Piran's country of 
 Soghdiana (Samarcand), and finally made Afrasiab and his 
 army retreat in flight 3. The history of this war is followed 
 by the very instructive story of the contest of Rustum with 
 
 • Mohl, Livre des Rots, vol. ii. Kai Khosrou, pp. 512 — S^^. 
 « Ibid., vol. iii. Kai Khosrou, I— loi, 102—169. 3 ibid., pp. 169— «l* 
 
Primitive Traditional History. §39 
 
 the Div Akwan, an ally of Afrasiab, against whom Khu-srav 
 asked his aid, using as his messenger Gurgan, the Great 
 Bear pointer-star. This demon may be mythologically re- 
 lated to the owl {aku), but he is described in the Shah-na- 
 raah as a flying wild ass, with a skin shining like gold, with 
 a head like an elephant, long hair, large teeth like those of 
 a boar, white eyes and black lips ^ ; and he is undoubtedly, 
 as we shall see when we come to the story of Bijen, hung 
 head downwards in the year-pit of this ass-god, the sun-ass 
 dwelling in the constellation Cancer, and thence ruling the 
 southern abyss whence life was born, whom I have described 
 as the ass said in the Rigveda to have drawn the three- 
 wheeled car of the Ashvins. It was the winter star-god 
 who placed the stone of frost which covered the mouth of 
 the pit in which Bijen was buried. He lived in the Turanian 
 country, and there Rustum pursued him on Raksh for three 
 days and three nights without being able to come up with 
 him. Finally, when wearied out, he went to sleep by a foun- 
 tain, binding the Bebr-i-bayan close round him, making 
 Raksh's leopard-skin saddle his pillow and letting Raksh 
 loose to grass. While he slept the flying Akwan came 
 where he lay and took him and the plot of earth on which 
 he was up to the sky, and finally dropped him into the sea. 
 He by swimming reached the land near the fountain whence 
 the Akwan had carried him away and where he still was, 
 but did not again attack Rustum, who after he landed 
 took off the Bebr-i-bayan and his armour and went to 
 sleep. When he awoke he went to look for Raksh and 
 found him among Afrasiab's horses saddled, and mounted 
 him. He then proceeded to drive Afrasiab's horses before 
 him, and was followed by those in charge of them, but he 
 slew many of them and drove the rest off. Afrasiab then 
 came up and pursued him with his escort and four elephants, 
 but Rustum captured the elephants, and with the arrows 
 from his sun-bow of Djaj put Afrasiab and his men to flight. 
 
 ' Mohl, livrtdesRois, vol. iii. Kai Khosrou, pp. 220, 229. 
 
540 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 When he came back to the fountain of the Akwan the 
 latter attacked him, but Rustum caught him in his lasso, 
 killed him and cut off his head, thus vanquishing the 
 Turanian ass-god ruling their year and carrying off their 
 year-horses. 
 
 This elephant-like flying wild ass who dwelt, like Pegasus, 
 by a fountain, is clearly the sun-ass who was first the ele- 
 phantine cloud-bird who, as the ass in the age of the cycle, 
 drew the three-wheeled car of the Ashvins, and was the 
 predecessor of the sun-horse who made fountains spring 
 forth by striking the earth with his hoof And the meaning 
 of the story is further explained when we turn to the story 
 of Odusseus, who was, like Rustum, nearly drowned in the 
 Ocean and saved by the Kredemnon, which was, as I shall 
 now show, a Greek form of the Persian Bebr-i-bayan, the tiger 
 of tigers, the girdle of the tiger stars of the eleven-months 
 year which he wore when he fell into the sea. 
 
 The adventure in which Odusseus was nearly drowned 
 happened after he left Ogygia, the island of Kalypso, the 
 hidden goddess with whom he had lived seven years. He 
 sailed on a raft, and before leaving he was arrayed by 
 Kalypso in an impenetrable coat of mail, a silver-white 
 mantle or veil {apyv^eov <j)dpo<s), the heavens' veil of the 
 year-god worn by Kronos, a golden year-girdle and the 
 double axe (7re\e«v?)i of the Carian Zeus, and the Indian 
 Parasu Rama, gods of the thirteen-months year, that of 
 Alkinoos, to whose land of Scheria he was going. On the 
 eighteenth day of his voyage his raft was wrecked by the 
 storm sent by Poseidon, the year-god of the winter sun, 
 coming back from his southern residence in .Ethiopia. He 
 was saved by I no, called Leukothea, the white goddess, 
 who appeared as a sea-gull and told him to take off his 
 heavy solar garments and to save himself by the Kredemnon 
 or arched ribbon of safety = which she gave him. This 
 supported him for the two days and nights of calm weather 
 
 " Horn., Od., V. 228-236. ' Ibid., 279-376. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 541 
 
 sent by Athene, which elapsed before he reached the 
 Phceacian coast in the twentieth day of his journey, and 
 went to sleep on a bed made of the leaves of the wild olive 
 {tpvXiTj) and the cultured olive (iXaly), after he, like Rustum, 
 had taken off the Kredemnon, which he threw into the sea. 
 He awoke on the morning of the twenty-first day as the 
 god of the new year met by Nausicaa^. This voyage, as 
 I have shown elsewhere, is that of the god of a year of 
 seventeen twenty-one-day months, which will be further 
 described in Chapter VII.2 
 
 Ino, the goddess of the Kredemnon, was the daughter of 
 Kadmus and Harmonia, who were, as we have seen, the 
 earth-ruling creators, dwellers in the world's national tent 
 of which the walls and roof were the sky, the veil or peplos 
 of Harmonia. Ino wedded Athamas Tammuz or Dumu-zi 
 Orion, within this house of the gods, and gave birth to 
 Melicertes the Phoenician sun and year-god, the protector 
 of cities [kaer), and to save this son from dying, like her 
 other son Learchus, as a human sacrifice offered by his 
 father, she leaped with him into the sea, whence she as the 
 dolphin human fish-god brought him to land beneath the 
 sacred pine-tree of Cybele near Corinth, where he became 
 the god in whose honour the Isthmian games were celebrated, 
 at which the victor's prize was a wreath of pine leaves, and 
 they were held at the beginning of January — February, 
 when the Persian sun-god Khii-srav was born 3. 
 
 Ino his mother, who was originally the sun-hen, the star 
 Virgo, became a sea bird, the sea goddess of the Kredemnon 
 and Bebr-i-bayan, who is depicted in her statues at Florence 
 and Naples and in the mediaeval illustrations to the Phaino- 
 
 ' Horn., Od., V. 382—493. 
 
 ' Hewitt, History and Chrtnology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. viii. 
 sect, d, Odusseus and other Greek gods rulers of the seventeen and thirteen- 
 months year ; Appendix C, History as told in the variant forms of Ino, mother 
 of Melicertes or Melkaerth, the Tyrean Heracles, goddess of the Kredemnon 
 or Zodiacal ribbon, pp. 512, 513, 629—631. 
 
 ' Frazer, Pausanias, i., xliv. II, vol. i. p. 68. 
 
542 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 mena of Aratus as riding on a sea dragon with six stars on 
 his tail, which is placed by Aratus in the position of Cetus 
 the Whale constellation near Pisces and Aquarius i. Over 
 her head is the semi-circular Kredemnon, the zodiacal ribbon 
 of the year-goddess, who began her recorded zodiacal year 
 as the mother constellation Pisces, whose son, the sun-ram 
 Aries, began his year as the sun-god of the cycle-year in 
 that constellation at the autumnal equinox. This zodiacal 
 ribbon is represented on a coin of Marcus Aurelius as held 
 as an arch over their heads by the twin stars Gemini, and it 
 is the Bebr-i-bayan of Rustum which saved him and Odusseus 
 from being drowned in the ocean into which he was thrown 
 by the sun-ass of the cycle-year ; and it was this which 
 henceforth measured his year of the circuit of Djaj the 
 sun-hen, whose bow he had substituted for his club. 
 
 The next episode in the life of Rustum which enables us 
 to disentangle even more successfully than that of the Div 
 Akwan the mysteries of the astronomical history of the age 
 of Khu-srav is that of his rescue of his grandson Bijen, son 
 of Giv the wolf-star Arcturus, and of Rustum's daughter 
 Banu-Gu-shasp, the goddess-mother of the Gu-shasp fire of 
 Ku-srav, from the underground prison in which he had been 
 immured by Afrasiab. It tells us of a new phase in the 
 astronomical history of Bijen, who, as we have seen, had 
 obtained possession of the crown of the Turanian year-god 
 Tajaon and of the sun-maiden who accompanied him. 
 
 The story begins with the offer of Bijen to go and free the 
 country of the Irmanians dwelling on the Turanian frontiers 
 from the boars which were destroying their crops. Khii-srav 
 allowed him to undertake the task, and sent Gurgan, the 
 pointer of the Great Bear star, to guide him. Bijen on his 
 black {sheb) sun-horse Sheb-rung killed a number of wild 
 boarSj the beasts of winter slain by so many solar heroes, 
 and after his victory, which destroyed the power of the boar 
 
 " MTIani, Siudi e Materiali di Archaeologia e Numismatica, vol. i. Puntata i. 
 PP- 77—80 : R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., Aratus Pkacnomcna, The Heivenly 
 Display, 388—400, pp. 43, 44, note 4. 
 
Primitive Traditional History, 543 
 
 Pole Star god and the seven Great Bear pigs, Gurgan, as 
 director of the sun's path, proposed that he should attend 
 the New Year's festival held in Turan close to their camp 
 by Manijeh, Afrasiab's daughter. Bijen went thither on his 
 black sun-horse, and when Manijeh saw him she fell in love 
 with him, and sent her nurse to bring him to her palace. 
 When he entered it Manijeh embraced him, took oiif his 
 armour and kept him in the midst of every possible luxury 
 till she took him in her litter, after stupefying him with 
 narcotics mixed with honey, to her father's court. As Bijen 
 when he destroyed the winter boars was the conquering god 
 of summer, it was as the autumn god that he attended 
 Manijeh's festival at the autumnal equinox, and after it that 
 he fell into the power of the goddess-mother of the sun, 
 which, we shall now see, was the star Corona Borealis, who 
 entertains the dying year-god in his winter rest. He was 
 treated by Manijeh as the unsexed Heracles Sandon when 
 changed into a sexless female after his union with Omphale, 
 the navel goddess of the central altar-fire. The chamber- 
 lain found out their union and reported it to Afrasiab, 
 who sent Guersivaz to inquire. He found Bijen in Mani- 
 jeh's apartments, and he who though deprived of his 
 arms still kept his dagger threatened Guersivaz with it. 
 But when he promised him his life he gave up his dagger 
 and allowed himself to be chained and taken before Afrasiab, 
 who ordered that he should be executed, but at Piran's inter- 
 cession his life was spared. It was decreed that he should 
 be carried in chains to the pit of the forest country of China, 
 that of the year-god Arjeng, in whose country Kaous was 
 imprisoned, where Rustum found him in MazanderaU; and 
 into which the year descends as into his tomb every winter 
 solstice. Then Bijen was hung head downwards, and over 
 hira was placed the stone of Akwan, the ass-god, who buried 
 the sun-god in the southern pit till he was released in spring 
 by the upheaval of the stone of frost which bound the earth 
 and the year produce it yielded in the prison of winter. 
 Manijeh was placed near him as his nurse, and she passed 
 
544 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 her days' begging bread with which she Ted him through a 
 hole she made into his prison. 
 
 When Gurgan found that Bijen did not come back from 
 Manijeh's palace, and that he had left his sun-horse Sheb- 
 rung grazing in the forest, he went back to Khu-srav to 
 report his disappearance. Giv met him before he reached 
 the king, and he told him that Bijen had vanished from his 
 sight when he was hunting the Div Akwan. Giv doubting 
 the truth of his story took him before Khu-srav, to whom 
 Gurgan presented the tusks of the boars which he said he 
 and Bijen had slain. Khu-srav ordered him to be put in 
 chains and sent Giv, the shepherd-star Arcturus, to search 
 for his son, and said if he did not find him before the sun- 
 god's midsummer-day of victory on the first of Farvardin 
 (June — July), he would look into his magic mirror-cup, the 
 mirror which was, as we have seen in p. 354, borne by the 
 Mexican leopard-god Tezcatlipoca, and find out where he 
 was. As no trace of Bijen was found before that day the 
 king looked into his magic mirror-cup, divided into seven 
 Karshvares or regions, and not into eight like the Egyptian 
 leopard-map. He found Bijen in a pit in the country of the 
 Kargasers or Vultures {kargas), the Polar land of the vulture 
 Pole Star Vega and the summer home of the North-east 
 sun, and he sent Giv to bring Rustum to free him. 
 
 Rustum came back with Giv, and on his arrival Gurgan 
 sent to him praying him to procure his release, promising 
 that he when free would do all he could to find out and 
 deliver Bijen. Khu-srav released him at Rustum's request, 
 and Rustum then told Khu-srav that he would disguise 
 himself as a salt merchant and take with him seven assis- 
 tants, Gurgan and Gustehem, the two pointer-stars of the 
 Great Bear, Zengueh, son of Sheiiran the Great Bear bow 
 {sheu), Gurazeh the boar {gurdz), Rehham and Ashkish, 
 the bearers of the tiger-star banner, and Ferhad the buffalo, 
 the five bow-stars headed in India by the star Hasta, the 
 hand (p. 162). 
 
 They went in disguise to Khotan, the capital of Piran, 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 545 
 
 who thus appears as the guardian-god of the Polar regions, 
 the home of the world's central fire. There Manijeh visited 
 him, and when she told him where Bijen was he sent to him 
 by her a fowl, the hen-bird of his bow Djaj the sun-hen, and 
 in the bread in which it was wrapped he placed his turquoise 
 signet, which Bijen found and recognised. He sent back 
 Manijeh to Rustum, and she was told by him to tell Bijen 
 that he would release him. She was to collect from the 
 forest a pile of wood, which she was to place at the entrance 
 to his prison and to set fire to it, that Rustum might see 
 where he was and thus to light the fire of the new year. 
 Rustum then went thither with his seven champions, and 
 ordered them to raise the stone of Akwan from the mouth 
 of the pit where Bijen was, but they could not move it, and 
 Rustum raised it himself, but refused to release Bijen unless 
 he forgave Gurgan for betraying him by bad advice. When 
 Bijen consented he drew him from the pit with his lasso and 
 took him, Manijeh, and his seven guardians with him and his 
 army when he went to punish Afrasiab. 
 
 The meaning of the story which I have partly interpreted 
 in telling it is most clearly explained by the ancient belief in 
 the relations subsisting between the Great Bear the sun-god 
 and the star Ariadne Corona Borealis, which I have already 
 spoken of in pp. 300, 301. This star, here called Manijeh, 
 or the female seed {mani), is that lying south of the Great 
 Bear and the Pole Star, into which the sun was believed to 
 retire at the winter solstice. This Iranian sun-god was Bijen, 
 the rider on the black horse of night, who began his eleven- 
 months year at sunset as the successor of the sun-hen of the 
 primitive age, when the year was measured by the setting 
 stars, and the black sun of night of Mexican worship i. He 
 the vanquisher of the Turanian year-gods of the Palasha- 
 tree and of the crowned sun was the emissary of Khu-srav, 
 the divine successor of the original cloud-bird Khu, who, 
 seated on his star-saddle of leopard-skin, circled the heavens 
 
 ' Nuttall, Fundamental Principles of Ola and New World Civilisation, p. n. 
 
 IT ' r J 
 
 "• N n 
 
546 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 on his black horse Bahzad, the striker {bahz), inherited from 
 his father Shyavarshan. He sent Bijen, led by Gurgan the 
 pointer-star of the Great Bear, to kill the star-swine of the 
 age when the Pole Star and Great Bear were worshipped as 
 pigs, and the battle he fought was a variant form of that of 
 the Celtic and Indian sun-gods against the opposing Plots 
 of the age of the Picts of Europe and the primitive moun- 
 taineers of India who offered pigs to Rahu ; and his conquest 
 was a Persian variant of the slaying of Twrch Trwyth and 
 his seven pig sons, the seven stars of the Great Bear, by 
 Kilwch and Arthur in order to get the razor, comb and 
 scissors which he wore on his head, and to introduce the age 
 of the eleven-months year, which, as will be seen in Section 
 H, was that of the ceremonial culture of the hair. 
 
 It was at the end of his year fight with the opposing forces 
 which tried to stop him on the circular journey round the 
 heavens marked out for him by the Great Bear, that he went 
 to see Manijeh, the female seed {mant), in the star palace 
 of his winter rest. And to explain this part of the story, 
 which ends by representing him as bound head downwards 
 in a pit covered by the heavy stone of the year-ass Akwan, 
 we must turn to the mythology of the Roman Mundus, or 
 central pit in the earth covered with the Lapis manalis, or 
 black stone of fate, of which the Greek counterpart is the 
 Melas Lithos, the blackstone in front of the statue of Zeus 
 at Olympia, anointed and consecrated with the olive oil of 
 the tree-mother I Athene, and which is also paralleled by 
 the sacred black stone of the Caaba at Mecca. In this 
 inquiry we must realise the conception of the year measured 
 by the revolutions of the sun round the Pole when the 
 sun-god was believed to be a prisoner bound by one foot 
 to the Great Bear, like the Greek Ixion and the Mexican 
 Tezcatlipoca, the divine ocelot or leopard, shown by the 
 mirror he carried in his hand to be a variant form of Khu- 
 srav, who saw in it the place of Bijen's imprisonment ; and 
 
 ' Frazer, Pausanias, v. xi. lo, vol. i, p. 253. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 547 
 
 this leopard-god was in Mexican mythology the left-handed 
 leopard who went round the Pole in the left-handed course 
 prescribed for the year-god in the ritual of the Pole Star and 
 Lunar-solar epochs ', 
 
 When Bijen, who doubtless in the original story slaught- 
 ered, like Kilwch, the seven imprisoning boars and their 
 Pole Star king, he became, like Kilwch, the god of the 
 new solar era of Khu-srav, the leopard-god with the shining 
 mirror, who rides his black horse on a star-leopard saddle 
 and makes his own way through the stars, following Bijen, 
 the bearer of the banner of the moon on the dark purple 
 sky of night, who points his way through the stars. Bijen 
 the moon-leader of the sun-god is the Persian form of the 
 Greek Theseus the arranger, who to find his way in the 
 Labyrinth of the Minotaur or Bull star in Taurus, measur- 
 ing the year begun when the sun is in that constellation, 
 had to seek the assistance of Ariadne, the star Corona 
 Borealis, and to abide with her as Bijen abode with Manijeh 
 during the time of his winter rest, which was to last till the 
 raising of the Stone of Fate by the ruling god of heaven, 
 the Persian tree and elephant-cloud-god Rustum accom- 
 panied by his Great Bear satellites, allowed the sun-god to 
 set out on his yearly journey. 
 
 The belief here sketched is that of all the races who had 
 like the Akkadians in their historical cosmogony pictured 
 the earth as the mother-mountain plateau rising out of the 
 ocean, beneath which was the hollow birth-cave in which 
 in the Mexican Sia Creation story Sus-sustinnako, the 
 weaving Pleiades, had_ created Now-utset, the buffalo- 
 mother_of night, and Ut-set, the deer and corn-mother of 
 day. Ut-set, after she had slain Now-utset and cut off 
 her head, was driven from this subterranean retreat by the 
 irruption of the ocean, and emerged on the corn-growing 
 surface of the earth by the hole made by the male locust 
 
 ' Nuttall, Fundamental Principles of Old and Nnu World Civilisation 
 
 pp. 10—12, ' 
 
 N n 2 
 
548 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Tsika and Tushi the badger, accompanied by the deer 
 and the buffalo. With them came also the beetle, the 
 Egyptian year-god to whom Utset gave the star-bag, and 
 the American mother-bird the turkey, and in its ascent the 
 beetle lost many of the stars out of the bag and only brought 
 with it the Pleiades, the three stars of Orion's belt and the 
 Seven stars of the Great Bear i. 
 
 Over this terrestrial plateau was the Val-halla or heavens' 
 tent of the gods of the Edda who sat under the mother-ash- 
 tree Yggdrasil of the ash-born sons of the eleven-months 
 year, and it was in a similarly conceived hall that the Greek 
 gods were depicted looking down on the black stone, that 
 which in the Edda covered the abyss of Mimir's Orion foun- 
 tain, into which its midmost central root penetrated ; and 
 this abyss was the Roman Mundus, the underground cave of 
 Akkadian, Mexican, Greek, Roman, and Scandinavian 
 mythology. In the centre of these gods as depicted at 
 Olympia was the golden statue of Zeus, and on the front 
 of the pedestal on which it stood was depicted the crowning 
 of Aphrodite by Persuasion as she rose as the sea-born 
 goddess from the primaeval mother-sea. On her right and 
 left were three pairs of gods ; those on the right being Zeus 
 and Hera, Hephaistos and a Grace, Hermes and Hestia the 
 god of the pillar and the fire-goddess of the national hearth ; 
 on the left Apollo and Artemis, the wolf (Lukos) god, and 
 the Great Bear goddess, twin parents of the yellow race born 
 on the Lycian yellow river Xanthus, Athene and Heracles, 
 Amphitrite the sea-goddess, and Poseidon ; and on the right 
 of these six pairs was the sun-god in his chariot, and on the 
 left the moon riding a mule ; and both these symbolic 
 pictures refer to the eleven-months year, as it was then 
 that Poseidon first harnessed the sun-horses to the sun- 
 cbariot, and that, as we have seen in p. 469, the ruler of 
 the year drove or rode a mule the successor of the sun-ass of 
 the cycle-year 2. 
 
 ' Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. ii. essay ix. pp. 248 — 260. 
 ' Frazer, Pausaiiias, v. xi. 8 — 10, vol. i. p. 252, iii. p. 543. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 549 
 
 The Mundus covered by the black stone on which these 
 gods looked down was the underground home of life described 
 above, and this in Roman and Celtic mythology became the 
 underground temple of Consus the seed-god, where the 
 materials of both animal and plant life born from the 
 mother-plant were stored, and the Celtic temple of Llyr, 
 the sea-god of the Southern Ocean. This became in 
 ecclesiastical architecture the crypt, originally the under- 
 ground chamber of the temple shrine of the god of life, 
 the building evolved from the gnomon stone which became 
 the church tower and spire. 
 
 In astronomical mythology this Mundus was the star 
 Corona Borealis, the burial-place of the sun-god of the old 
 year and the birth-place of his successor, who emerged from 
 it as the rising sun of the new year when the stone of destiny 
 which imprisoned him was removed. And this stone, which 
 was that on which the ancient kings as earthly representatives 
 of the rising sun stood at their Coronation, became the holy 
 national stone of Rome, Greece, and the Arabian pillar 
 worshippers, and was also that on which the Assyrian king 
 Marduk-iddin-akki is represented as standing with his year- 
 bow in his left hand and his sceptre in his right'. The 
 English Coronation stone of Scone in Westminster Abbey, 
 on which the Coronation chair is placed, and the king's stone, 
 on which the kings of Surrey were crowned at Kingston, 
 are surviving relics of this very early creed. 
 
 The pit in the Roman Forum covered by the stone of 
 consecration was a round orifice on the Palatine hill, the 
 central womb or navel of the state into which the fruits of 
 the earth were thrown as seeds to be returned with usury 
 by a plentiful harvest sent by Dis and Proserpine, to whom 
 the pit was sacred. This covering stone was raised three 
 times in the year, on the 24th August at the festival of the 
 Mundus Patet, which occurred between the Consualia of the 
 
 ' Milani, Mundus e Templum Keale Academia del Linda, vol. x. v. May, 
 1902, pp. 18, 19, Fig. Locus Sacer Mundus e Temflum, vol. ix. p. 6. 
 
55° Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 god Consus held in his underground temple on the 2ist 
 August, the Vulcania of the 23rd, when fish were offered to 
 the underground sea deity, and the Ope Consivia of the 2Sth, 
 when the Vestal Virgins and Pontifex Maximus worshipped 
 the national fire in the Regia, the original national birth- 
 house. It was a mid-year festival of a year beginning in 
 February — March, when, as we have seen, the eleven-months 
 year began in one of its forms ". 
 
 The Mundus was also opened on the Sth October, appar- 
 ently in connection with the sacrifice of the new-year-horse 
 on the 1 5th, and its third opening on the Sth November was 
 a part of the festivities of the Ludi Plebeii and the goddess 
 Feronia held on the 13th as commemorating the original 
 November year of the Pleiades. 
 
 When Bijen, the new-born sun-god delivered from the 
 womb of death and birth, went forth on his yearly task, 
 he went northwards as the conquering god of spring, with 
 Rustum, the tree and elephant cloud-god, who freed him. 
 They both sacked the palace of Afrasiab and utterly defeated 
 his armies, and then they all came back to Khu-srav's capital, 
 whence Rustum went home. 
 
 The Turanians again invaded Iran immediately after 
 Bijen's return and his marriage to Manijeh, and in the war 
 that followed Giv, the wolf-star Arcturus, gave Bijen Shya- 
 varshan's horse and armour, and wearing these he slew 
 Human, brother of Piran, god of the Hiim cypress-tree, 
 his valiant [nesth) brother Nestchem, and took the Turanian 
 black flag =. 
 
 Both parties now asked for further reinforcements, and 
 negotiations for peace were begun by Piran, but Gudarz 
 refused his terms, and both Afrasiab and Khii-srav resolved 
 to command their armies in person. But before they came 
 Piran and Gudarz decided to fight the battle between the 
 
 ' W. Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals, Mensis Sexaiis, pp. 206—214; 
 Hewitt, Ilisitry and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vii. sect, e, 
 The Roman gpds of the year of eight-day weeks and the year of Lug, p. 448. 
 
 ' Mohl, Livre des Rois, vol. lii. Kai Khosrou, pp. 376—389. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 55' 
 
 two armies in a contest of eleven warriors on each side, or 
 in other words in a trial of strength between the rulers of 
 the Turanian and Iranian years of eleven months, which was 
 that of Shyavarshan, the uniter of the two countries, and was 
 probably originally, as we have seen when adopted as an 
 agricultural year of 363 days by communities such as the 
 Telis and Kandhs of Orissa, merely a method of reckoning 
 the year which was more nearly correct than the 360- days 
 year of Orion and the Pleiades, and very nearly coincided 
 with the lunar year of thirteen months and 364 days. This 
 was probably the year of the Turanian imigrating farmers, 
 and did not, like the Iranian year, introduce other stellar 
 factors into the reckoning than the stars of the Great Bear 
 which ruled all years of this period. 
 
 The list of the champions chosen on each side was as 
 follows : — 
 
 Iranian. 
 
 1. Giv, son of Gudarz the 
 star Arcturus. 
 
 2. Feriburz, son of Kaous. 
 
 3. Rehham, son of Giidarz, 
 a Great Bear star. 
 
 4. Gurazeh, the wild boar 
 iguras) the Pole Star, and 
 also a Great Bear Star. 
 
 5. Gurgan, son of Milad 
 the youth, a pointer-star of 
 the Great Bear. 
 
 6. Bijen, son of Giv. 
 
 7. Zengueh, son of Sheiiran, 
 god of the bow (sMu), and a 
 Great Bear Star. 
 
 8. Barteh. 
 
 9. Feruhil. 
 
 Turanian. 
 
 Genii Zerah, slayer of 
 Shyavarshan. 
 
 Kelbad, son of Wiseh or 
 Visakha. 
 
 Barman, son of Wiseh or 
 Visakha. 
 
 Siamak. 
 
 Anderiman. 
 
 Riihin, son of Piran, god of 
 the year-path {rah). 
 Aukhast. 
 
 Kehrem. 
 Zengouleh. 
 
552 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Iranian. Turanian. 
 
 10. Hedjir, the warder Sipahram. 
 (hegr), son of Gudarz. 
 
 11. Gudarz, son of Kesh- Piran, son of Wiseh or 
 wand the tortoise {kesho), the Visakha. 
 
 Pole Star Vega. 
 
 In the Iranian h'st we have Rehham, Gurazeh, Gurgan and 
 Zengueh, who are certainly Great Bear stars, and to them 
 may be added Feribiirz, son of Kaous, who bore the Great 
 Bear banner of Kaweh, and perhaps Hedjir, a son of Giidarz, 
 who is the Pole Star Vega while Giv is Arcturus, and I have 
 no doubt the whole number are stars. Feruhil, who, like 
 Gurgan, fought with the Great Bear bow, having killed his 
 opponents with his arrows, is also apparently a star-god. 
 In every battle the Iranian champion was the conqueror, 
 and the most notable combats are those between Giv the 
 wolf-star Arcturus and Gerui Zereh, Bijen and Ruhin, and 
 Gudarz and Piran. In the first Giv took Gerui Zereh pri- 
 soner and delivered him to Khu-srav, who ordered his 
 instant execution as the murderer of Shyavarshan, and the 
 killing of the slayer of the sun-god parallels that of Lugaid, 
 who slew Cu-chulain by Conall Cernach Cu-chulain's foster 
 brother i, the Celtic form of Khii-srav as Cu-chulain was the 
 Celtic form of Shyavarshan. Ruhin, who was slain by Bijen, 
 was the son of Piran, whose name shows him to have been 
 like Bijen a god of the year-path {rilh). 
 
 The final contest of the series between Piran and Gudarz 
 took place in the evening after the vanquished Turanian had 
 fled. The last arms they used were bows and arrows, the 
 weapons of the Great Bear god. Gudarz the Vulture star 
 Vega fatally wounded the year-horse of Piran and forced 
 its rider to fly on foot to the top of the central earth moun- 
 tain, the home of the Pole Star. Gudarz followed him 
 thither, and after Piran had wounded him with his dagger 
 which he threw at him, dealt him his death-stroke with his 
 
 ' Hall, The Cu-ckuUin Saga, pp. 260 — 263 ; Rhys, Hiihert Lectures for 
 1886, lect. V. p. 471. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 553 
 
 javelin, which pierced the only penetrable point of his body, 
 that above his liver, the seat of life of the gods of the age we 
 are now dealing with, when the year-god descended at his 
 annual death into the pit of destiny, and when in Chaldjea 
 and Etruria temples were erected to the liver of the sun 
 Ram who opened the cycle-year at the autumnal equinox ^. 
 
 Lebhak and Farshidwand, brothers of Piran, the fourth and 
 fifth sons of Wiseh or Visakha, the god of the Pleiades year, 
 succeeded to the command of the Turanian armies after the 
 death of their brethren Piran, Hiiman, Barman and Kelbad. 
 They at once retreated to Turan, where they hoped to find 
 in the reinforcements brought by Afrasiab such an addition 
 to their army as would enable them to defeat the victorious 
 Gudarz, and the first Iranian troops brought by Khii-srav. 
 Kustehem, son of Nodar or Neotara the new star, and, as 
 we have seen, one of the^ pointers of the Great Bear, followed 
 them, and was himself fcfUowed by Bijen, and they as star 
 warriors had apparently no human troops with them. Bijen 
 was the year-god travelling the sun-path shown him by 
 Kustehem, and the quarry they hunted were the star-gods 
 of the Pleiades year represented by the sons of Vi-sakha. 
 Kustehem killed Lebhak and Farshidwand, -tlie last of the 
 brotherhood, but was so grievously wounded that after the 
 
 " Mohl, Livrt lies Rois, vol. iii. Kai Khosrou, pp. 464 — 468. For the sig- 
 nificance of the liver of the year-god of the cycle and eleven-months year, see 
 Milani, iPArte U Religione Pre-ellenica Studi le Maieriali de Archaologia It 
 Numismatica, vol. iii. pp. 67, figs. 308, 308a, 309, 309a, where plans are 
 shown of the Chaldssan and Etruscan temples of the liver of the sheep slain 
 as the year-god of the epoch when the sun entered Aries at the autumnal 
 equinox. This was the age of the consecration of the year-pit with the black 
 stone of fate. It was with the fumes of the burnt heart and liver of the creating 
 fish of the Tigris that Raphael in the story of Tobit drove away the stone 
 (ashma) god Asmodeus, or Ashmadeva, when he came to devour Tobias, the 
 sun-god, on the night of his wedding to Sara, the cloud-mother, who had 
 before married seven husbands, the seven stars of the Great Bear, who had 
 been successively devoured by the destroying god of the age when the passage 
 of time was reckoned by the shadows cast by the gnomon stone (ashma). 
 Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vii. sect. 13, 
 The Story of Tobit and Jack the Giant Killer, builder of the altar of the eight 
 and nine-day weeks, p. 412. 
 
554 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 combat Bijen had great difficulty in saving his life and re- 
 leasing him from the year-pit into which he had fallen. 
 
 The story of this campaign conducted by the star leaders 
 of the wolf-race without the intervention of Thous (Orion) 
 or Rustum ends with the solemn burial by Khii-srav of the 
 Turanian champions of the eleven-months year, the execu- 
 tion of Gerui, Shyavarshan's murderer, and the reception by 
 Khu-srav of the recovered Kustehem brought back by Bijen, 
 whose career as an independent sun-god, who had been the 
 leader in all the last campaigns of the wolf-race, was now 
 ended by the defeat and death of Piran and his brethren the 
 champions of the Turanian eleven-months year. 
 
 We have now reached the story of the final defeat and 
 death of Afrasiab the Turanian king, the last act but one 
 in the historical drama of the life and death of the con- 
 quering sun-god Khu-srav, the rider on Bahzad, the black 
 horse of night. In this campaign Khii-srav himself led the 
 Iranian army, and thus appeared as the Charioteer star 
 Capella in Auriga, the constellation called Askar the goat 
 by the Akkadians, and by Aratus mKevir) ai| i, the goat on 
 the arm (mXivrj), of which he bore the mark on his arm by 
 which he was recognised by Giv as the goat-star Capella 
 of the goat on the left wrist which marked the Greek 
 Olenian Poseidon. 
 
 As leader of the Turanian army Afrasiab pitched his tent 
 in the centre of the camp, the place of the Pole Star, and 
 with him were his two sons his chief lieutenants ; Pashang, 
 the eldest of these, was the re-incarnation of Pushan the 
 barley-god, father of Minu-tchir and Afrasiab, also called 
 Shideh, the god of light. His brother was Djehn, the dark- 
 ness, so that the army was ruled by the Pole Star god with 
 his adjutants the gods of day and night, and as it was the 
 army of the year-god of the age when time was reckoned by 
 the apparent movements of the night stars, the soldiers dwelt 
 in leopard-skin tents ». 
 
 ' Aratus, Phainomena, 164. 
 ' Mohl, Livre des Rois, vol. iv. Kai Kbosrou, pp. 16—22. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 555 
 
 The war began when the sun was in the sign of the Ram 
 Aries with a duel between the Turanian Pu-shan or Shideh, 
 the god of day, who had received from his father an impene- 
 trable cuirass and a magic steed, and the Iranian sun-god 
 Khii-srav on his father's black horse Bahzad. They first 
 fought on horseback, but when Shideh's horse was ex- 
 hausted, he proposed to Khii-srav that they should fight on 
 foot, and on Khu-srav's consent they wrestled together, when 
 Khii-srav overthrew him, broke his bones and killed him. 
 
 The preparations for the general action which followed 
 began when the sun was in Taurus and continued till it 
 entered Cancer, and as the fight between Khii-srav and 
 Shideh took place when it was in Aries, the traditional 
 astronomy followed by Firdusi is that of the sunward course 
 of the sun, and not the retrograde zodiac of the eleven-months 
 year I. The year thus measured by the bards of the age 
 of the sun-wise Zodiac as beginning with the sun in Aries 
 and advancing to Cancer, is almost certainly the traditional 
 year of the sun -god Khii-srav, who, as we have seen, crossed 
 the Bridge of the Gods to begin his year's course in January 
 — February. He took the year-castle of the Pole Star when 
 the sun was in Leo in February — March, about 12,500 B.C., 
 and it was then he lighted 'the Adhar-Gushasp fire. During 
 the first period of his career his armies were almost con- 
 stantly defeated, and it was not till Bijen took the sun-crown 
 from Tajaon and captured his sun-maiden, Rustum de- 
 stroyed the power of the Turanian wild-ass-god and rescued 
 Bijen from the pit of destiny in which he was confined by 
 this god's stone of Fate, that the Turanian champions of the 
 eleven-months year were finally defeated and slain. 
 
 The new year when Khu-srav first appeared as the Goat 
 star Capella, the chief Iranian Champion, began when the 
 sun was in Aries with the death of the Turanian day sun, 
 the god of the sun born of night, who in all the earlier solar 
 Mythologies died at the winter solstice to be born again as 
 
 ' Mohl, Lwre des Rois, vol. iv. Kai Khosrou, pp. 24—38, 24, 50, 51. 
 
556 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the sun of the new year. Hence the new year beginning 
 when the sun was in Aries and reaching Cancer at the vernal 
 equinox was one dating from the time when the sun entered 
 Taurus from Aries at the winter solstice, about 10,700 to 
 8,200 B.C., and this was the period succeeding the rule of the 
 Pole Star Vega represented by the Iranian Gudarz and the 
 sons of the wolf and the Turanian sons of Vl-sakha, and 
 began the traditional golden age of sun-worship when the 
 sun was in Hercules, about 10,000 B.C. 
 
 This period in Persian chronological history corresponded 
 with that which began in India with Parsva, the twenty-third 
 Tirtha-kara, born, as we have seen, about 1 1,000 B.C., when 
 the sun was in Libra in Vi-sakha (April — May), about 
 11,000 B.C., and which coincided with the solemn New Year's 
 feast of the Zend fire-worshippers held in Ardibehist (April — 
 May), which reproduced that of the foundation of Si-awush- 
 gard, Shyavarshan's Indian capital, in that month, and which 
 in the Chronological history of Zend ritual succeeded Khu- 
 srav's first fire-festival of Adhar-Giishasp held on the 9th 
 day of February — March, and which became in the later 
 ritual that called Hamash-pat-maedhya, celebrated on the 
 last five days of Spendarmad (February — March). 
 
 The battle inaugurating the new epoch beginning when 
 the sun was in Cancer at the vernal equinox (March — April) 
 began with an encounter between a Turanian division led 
 by Djehn, the darkness, and the Iranians under Karen, the 
 horned moon-god. In this the moon-champions of the light 
 of the lengthening day completed the defeat of the Turanian 
 army of darkness, and Afrasiab was carried off the field by 
 Guersivaz (Keresa-vazda) and Djehn, who would not allow 
 him to fight Khii-srav single-handed. Khii-srav as the 
 conquering sun going northwards crossed the Ji-hun in 
 pursuit of Afrasiab, and Kustehem, the pointer star of the 
 Great Bear, defeated the Turanians on the Galzariun, the 
 Jaxartes or Syr Daria, whence Afrasiab retreated to Gange- 
 Behisht, her northern palace, followed by Rustum. Khu- 
 srav joined Kustehem on the Galzariun and heard of his 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 557 
 
 victory, and their united forces marched to Gange-Behisht. 
 There Khu-srav divided his army into four divisions com- 
 manded by Rustum, Kustehem, Giidarz and himself, each 
 division attacking one side of the city. The first to enter 
 the fortress was Rustum, who planted on the wall the flag 
 of Kaweh, the standard of the Kayanides, sons of the star 
 {kayati). Guersivaz and Djehn were taken prisoners, but 
 Afrasiab escaped, raised an army in Khoten, and appealed 
 to the Chinese for help ^ ; but when he was finally defeated 
 by Khu-srav he became a solitary fugitive, and hid himself 
 in a cave near the temple of Adhar-giishasp, whither Kaous 
 and Khu-srav had gone. Hum, the god of the parent cypress- 
 tree {hum), the Soma or Haoma god ruling the centre of the 
 earth, found him, and first kept him bound in his cave, the 
 year-pit under the root of the mother-tree, but when he 
 allowed him to go free he threw himself into the lake 
 Kandjest, as Hum told Giidarz the vulture-star when he 
 met him on the shores of the Chaechasta lake Urumiah 
 of the Zendavesta at the foot of the mountain where his 
 cave was. It was there that he was searching for Afrasiab 
 when Giidarz met him, and hence he went to report what 
 he had heard to Kaous and Khu-srav at the Adhar-gushasp 
 temple. They went to the lake, taking Guersivaz with them, 
 and when the latter appeared on the edge of the lake below 
 Hum's cave Afrasiab, who as the dying year-god had betaken 
 himself to the constellation of Pisces, rose out of the water 
 and was captured by Hum, to be slain by Khu-srav, who 
 with Kaous ordered the execution of Guersivaz (Keresa- 
 vazda), the trident god 2. 
 
 This death of the Turanian leaders of the trident 
 worshippers and offerers of human sacrifices finishes the 
 chapter of Persian history which tells the national story in 
 the symbolic astronomical imagery of the Kushika wolf-race, 
 called the Kayanides or sons of the stars {kayan), and repre- 
 sented in traditional history as stars. They were the setters 
 
 ■ Mohl, Livre des Rois, vol. iv. Kai Khosrou, pp. 152 ff. 
 » Ibid., pp. 162 — 168. 
 
558 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 up of the ziggarats or astronomical towers of observation 
 for which the Chaldsean lands were famed. They first 
 entered Persia as ruling conquerors in the beginning of the 
 reign of Kaous, when he made Milad the youth, father of 
 Gurg-an the wolf-(^;'^) pointing-star of the Great Bear, the 
 vice-gerent of his kingdom when he went to Mazanderan to 
 free himself from the ancient subordination of the sun-god to 
 the stars of the Milky Way, and to trace out for the year-sun- 
 god a path through the heavens marked by the Nakshatra 
 stars which he was to follow in the retrograde circular course 
 of the Great Bear. 
 
 This wolf-race, which ultimately in one of its many branches 
 became the Guelphs of Europe, is that known in Greek 
 mythological history as the sons of Apollo, the Lycian wolf 
 born on the yellow river Xanthus, with his twin sister 
 Artemis, the Great Bear goddess. Their traditional parent 
 was Deucalion, the god of the wet (Seuo)) time, the flood-god, 
 and Pyrrha, the fire-goddess begotten from the stones they 
 cast, the gnomon-stones, creating by this record of the 
 lapse of time their children. They when born were led by 
 the howling of the wolves to the Lykoreia wolf-grove on 
 Parnassus, that of their mother-trees'. These people were 
 the worshippers first of stone and afterwards of wooden 
 pillars embodying their visible conception of the sun-god 
 who measures time by the shadows he casts, the children 
 of the Egyptian and Asia Minor goddess the sun-hawk, the 
 goddess Hat-hor, the mother of Horus, the kawk-headed 
 sun-god, and the patroness of the mining races who have 
 left behind them at the turquoise mines at Sarabit at 
 Khadem, near Sinai, a series of historical monuments of 
 their worship in the stones and inscribed pillars, the Hebrew 
 Bethels or God-houses surrounding the temple of the goddess, 
 some of which date from an earlier period than that of the 
 first Egyptian Dynasty. Near these pillars were found the 
 ancient cells in which worshippers who sought inspiration 
 
 ' Miiller, Die Dorter, bk. ii. chap. vi. par. 8, pp. 305, 306. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 559 
 
 from the pillar-god in dreams used to sleep, and the temple 
 itself, built as an extension of the cave originally sacred 
 to the mother-goddess of Asia Minor, Cybele, who became 
 Hathor, is not built according to the plan of the Egyptian 
 temples of the same age but according to that of a Mahom- 
 medan Mosque, only instead of having its entrance at the 
 south end, like the Sabaeans and Mahommedans, its shrine 
 is at the north end, the cave shrine was at the east and the 
 door at the west ', and thus it differs from the Phoenician 
 temples in Mashonaland, which have, like the British Druidic 
 temple at Stonehenge, the main entrance to the north-east, 
 through which the rays of the rising sun of the summer 
 solstice fall on the altar, and from the Buddhist temples, all 
 of which have their door to the east, an arrangement repro- 
 ducing that of the Indian Prashina Vamsa, or Eastern hall, 
 which was entered from the Sadas or priest's house to the 
 East ». 
 
 The orientation of this temple with its door to the west 
 proves conclusively that these people did not, like the 
 worshippers of the rising sun who entered the temple with 
 its rays, look on the sun as the god of day, but they wor- 
 shipped the sun-mother, the goddess of night, and it is their 
 orientation which has descended to us and has placed our 
 church doors at the west. 
 
 These worshippers of Apollo as the wolf-god were the 
 successors of the still earlier Pelasgian sun-god Apollo 
 Smintheus, the mouse {afiiv6o<;) god of the worshippers of 
 the god of the birth-cave in which the earlier gods of the 
 age of the worship of the Cretan mud-god Tan were believed 
 to dwell ; and it was from Crete that, according to Greek 
 tradition, Teucer the archer, whose daughter married 
 Dardanus, brought the worship of Apollo Smintheus to 
 
 ' Flinders Petrie, Lecture on the Egyptians in Sinai before the Oxford 
 Architectural and Historical Society, May 24th, 1905. 
 
 ' Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. ii. essay viii. pp. 158, i68 — 
 174 ; Bent, The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland, chap. v. pp. 151, 164, 165, 166 ; 
 Waddell, The Buddhism ot Tibet, pp. 257, 287. 
 
560 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Troyi, of which city he became the first king, and gave 
 the Trojans the name of Teucri. Thus his reign as the 
 Great Bear archer-god is coincident with that of the worship 
 of the mouse-god. 
 
 These mother-wolf worshippers of the pillar-sun-god and 
 his hawk mother, who looked on the Great Bear not as the 
 heavenly archer but as the revolving bed of the sun-god, 
 ruled Persia during the reigns of Kaous and Khu-srav, who 
 was found in hiding among the stars and installed as the 
 new ruling star Capella in the Constellation of Auriga, which 
 succeeded the Great Bear as the directing star of the year. 
 
 The 'memory of the rule of this race who came to Persia 
 from Asia Minor is preserved in the names of the country 
 lying to the south-east of the Caspian Sea, called Gurg-an, 
 the Mazanderan of the earlier Persian geographers, the 
 Hyrcania of the Greeks and Romans. It is watered by the 
 wolf [gurg) river Gurg-an, and its people are called Hyrkanii 
 by Herodotus vii. 62. He describes them as farmers and 
 irrigators who share the water of the river flowing through 
 the country which he calls Akes and is now the Gurg-an. 
 He says they were armed like the Persians, and that they 
 led the Germanioi, whom he calls ploughers {apoTrjpe^), and 
 who gave their name to the Persian province of Kerman, 
 separated from Hyrcania by the Salt Desert. The mother- 
 land of these northern ploughing farmers was that of the 
 sons of the German pine-tree sacred to Cybele. This tree 
 was born, according to Finnic Legend, from the hairs of the 
 wolf, and it was under the mother-tree of the wolf-race that 
 the bear-father was nursed by his maiden mother the Great 
 Bear Constellation, the Greek Artemis 2. 
 
 They were the Bersarker warriors of the Bear {6er) shirt 
 (sark) who led the hosts of the North to victory. Their gods 
 
 ' Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vii. sect, a, 
 The Bull of the Sun-god bom from the Thigh, p. 404 ; Smith, Classical Dic- 
 tionary, Teucer, p. 754. 
 
 = Abercromby, Magic Songs of the Finns, iii. (c) Folk- Lore, vol. i. no. i. 
 March, 1890, pp. 27, 28. 
 
Primitive Traditional. History. 561 
 
 in the Edda were Loki, the fire-wolf, whose sons were Fenrir 
 the wolf and the Mid-gard serpent placed as a girdle round 
 the centre mother-mountain of the earth both in the Edda 
 and in the Kushika creed of the northern god Vasu, brought 
 with the worship of the trident into India (pp. 234 — 240). 
 The wolf-gods were those of the dwarf Iberian races, makers 
 and drinkers of mead. It was from the blood of the she-wolf 
 mother that Sig-mund gained his superhuman strength, and it 
 was as wolves that he and Sinnfiotli, the northern form of the 
 Persian Sohrab, roamed the world. This wolf-inspired god 
 was the father of Sigurd, the rider on the cloud-horse Grani, 
 reproduced in the black sun-horses of the Persian wolf-race. 
 
 The Zend land of these fighting northern ploughing 
 farmers is called in the Zendavesta Vehrkana, watered by 
 the river Khnenta. It is described as the ninth of the six- 
 teen lands created by Ahura Mazda, and its inhabitants are 
 said to be Sodomites who indulged in unnatural crime, a 
 vice of Central Asia ^. The name Vehrkana means, like 
 Gurgan,the land of the wolf, the Sanskrit Vrika, Lithuanian 
 Wilkas, Russian Volk, Icelandic Ylgr. These sons of the 
 wolf came from Hyrcania to India as the leaders of the armies 
 of the Vedic king Su-shrava, the Persian Khu-srav, son of 
 Shyavarshan, the black {shydva) sun-god of night, the 
 Shyava of Rig. i. 117, 24, called Hiranya-hasta with the 
 golden hand {Jiastd). He was the son of the wolf-goddess 
 Vadhri-mati, mother of the sexless {vadhri) son whose sex- 
 less father was Rijr-ashvan, the upright {rijr) horse, the 
 gnomon-stone, and it was as leaders of this wolf-born sun- 
 god that the Ashvins, the stars Gemini, ploughed the barley- 
 sown land with the wolf {vrika) plough, the stars of the Great 
 Bear, and first brought barley from Asia Minor to India ^. 
 
 Kaous died shortly after he and Khu-srav returned from 
 the slaying of the Turanian leaders, and Khu-srav did not 
 long survive his death and his own surrender of the throne, 
 
 ' Darmesteter, Zendavesta Vendidad Fargard, i. 12, Sacred Books of the 
 East, vol. iv. p. 7. 
 " Rig. i. 116, 13, 16, 117, 16, 17, 18, 21, 24. 
 "• O O 
 
562 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 for which he said the time had arrived. He gave the rule 
 of India to Rustum, and declared Lohrasp, whose history 
 will be told in Chapter VI., his successor. He disappeared 
 into the mountains accompanied by Thous, Giv, Feriburz, 
 Bijen and Kustehem, where they all perished in the snow 
 as the dead rulers of the mythology of the fixed star rulers 
 of the age of the lunar solar reckoning of time governed 
 by the guiding stars of the Kushite race, Orion, Arcturus, 
 and the Great Bear ^. 
 
 G. The Horses and Chariot of the Sun. 
 
 In the history of the cycle-year and of this year of eleven- 
 months we have met with two descriptions of the sun-god's 
 annual circuit round the heavens. In the first the year-sun 
 is not a male god but the sun-maiden wedded to the sexless 
 moon-god, who with their ten sons become the gods of the 
 eleven-months year. She is taken round heaven in the three- 
 wheeled car of the Ashvins, who were first day and night, 
 but had become the twin stars in Aries. In the eleven- 
 months year, as framed by the northern horse worshippers, 
 the sun-god rides round the heavens on the black horse of 
 night. But in order to understand clearly the meaning of 
 this imagery we must go back to a much earlier age, when 
 the idea of the moving car of heaven was first introduced 
 into national history. In the primitive age, when the Indian 
 year of two seasons was measured by the monsoons, the 
 advent of each period was heralded by a serried array of 
 clouds which brought the seasonal rains of North-east and 
 South - west monsoon. These clouds were first likened to 
 birds, but when Indra, who was first the eel-god, became 
 the Indian Buffalo-cloud which brought the rains, he is 
 always depicted in the Rigveda as driving two fawn-coloured 
 or tawny stallion horses {hari) in his raining car the cloud, 
 
 " Mohl, Livre des Rots, vol. iv. Kai Khosrou, pp. 168 — 219. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 5^3 
 
 bearing thunder in his arms '. These horses are not only- 
 driven by Indra but also by Vayu, the wind, Tvashtar, the 
 god of the year of two ifvd) seasons, and by Ribhukshan, 
 the Ribhu of the winter season, who also ruled the autumn =. 
 They are made by the Ribhus, the creators of the seasons, 
 who made them when they made the cups of the seasons 
 and created the year-calf out of the skin of the cow of the 
 dead years. They are said to be like the sacrificed sun- 
 horse of the eleven-months year, who is said to have suc- 
 ceeded the ass 4 ; and they have peacocks' tails and pea- 
 cocks' hair s. 
 
 From these pictorial descriptions it is clear that the tawny 
 horses who draw the cloud-chariot are active agents in pro- 
 moting the progress of the year, and that they are the 
 precursors of the storms of its two seasons beginning with 
 the North-east and South-west monsoon and of each step 
 forward made by the ruling god of the year. In the peacock 
 imagery in which they are described we see that they are 
 star-studded like the tail of Hera's peacock, which replaced 
 Argus with the hundred star eyes, slain by Hermes, god 
 of the pillar. Hence it seems certain that they denote 
 the two tawny twilights, that of morning beginning the day 
 and of evening ushering in the night. Matali their driver 
 is in the Hymn to the Dead, Rig. x. 14, 3, said to be the 
 god of the Kavyas, that is of the Kavi Kashiki kings, the 
 worshippers of the divine ape {kapi, kabi), while Yama 
 the twins, the Ashvins, are said to lead the Angiras, the 
 offerers of burnt-animal victims, and they represent day 
 and nightj while Matali's steeds are the dawn and the 
 gloaming. 
 
 With these horses of Indra's chariot the steedless self- 
 moving Pushpaka or flowery {pushpa) car of Rama and of 
 Kuvera, the god of the Souths is intimately connected, for 
 
 ■ Rig. i. 62, 2, i. 177, 3. ' Ibid., iv. 46, 3, vi. 47, 19, X. 93, 8. 
 
 ' Ibid,, i. Ill, I, iii. 60, 4. ■• Ibid., i. 162, 21. 
 
 5 Ibid., viii. i, 25, iii. 45, i. 
 
 002 
 
564 Primitive Traditional History, 
 
 it was on it that after defeating and slaying Ravana from 
 Indra's car, Rama, reunited with Sita, who had become the 
 moon-goddess, began his year's journey as the conquering 
 sun-god, coming from the South at the winter solstice and 
 bringing with him the flowers of spring '. 
 
 This unhorsed car and that drawn by the tawny horses 
 of the morning and evening twilight was followed by the 
 long-eared horse or ass of Indra, which was raised from 
 the ocean by Vasuki, the god Vasu, when he as the Great 
 Bear Naga, the hooded-snake, made Mt. Mandara, the 
 mother-mountain of the Kushika tortoise race, revolve 2. In 
 the Bundahish he is described as three-legged, with six eyes, 
 nine mouths, two ears and a horn, that is as the six-eyed god 
 seeing over the four horizontal quarters and the zenith and 
 nadir of space, who rules the three-years cycle-year with its 
 nine-day weeks, and its horn represented the lunar crescent 
 which ruled this year, during which, as we have seen in 
 pp. 320 — 325, the ass drew the three-wheeled car of the 
 Ashvins. It is also said in the Bundahish to be the most 
 efficient helper of Tishtrya Sirius in raising water from the 
 ocean 3. It is this ass which appears in Greek Mythology as 
 the bearer of Silenus, the goat-legged Satyr who follows the 
 leopard-drawn car of Dionysos, depicting the creed of the 
 age which traced the path of the sun through the stars, 
 the spots of the heavenly leopard skins, and who appears 
 in Virg. Eel. vi. as the teller of past history told in the 
 symbolic forms of the ancient myths. This ass appeared 
 in early stellar astronomy in two stars in Aratus Diosemia 
 160 — 176, the Onoi of the North (Boreas) and of the 
 South 4 ; and these stars are identified by Mr. R. Brown, 
 Junr., with 6 and rj Cancri, e Cancri being the manger 
 
 ' Mahabharata Vana (Draupadl-haratia) Parva, cclxxxix., pp. 854 — 862. 
 
 ^ Mahabharata Adi (Aslika) Parva, xvii., xviii. pp. 78 — 81. 
 
 3 West, Bundahish, xix. I — 12, Sacred Books of the East, vol. v. pp. 67 — 69. 
 
 ■• R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., Primitive Constellations, vol. i. pp. 15, 16, 360, 
 Allat, Lib. Nangarn ; Eggeling, Shat. Brah., vi. 3, 2—8, Sacred Books of the 
 East, vol. xli. p. 205. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 565 
 
 (Gr. ^drvr}) of the two asses, and Cancer is, as we have 
 seen, the constellation of Pushan, whose mate is said to be 
 in the Shatapatha Brahmana the ass travelling through the 
 sky ; and it was from this constellation that the sun-god 
 Rama issued as year-king at the winter solstice in the month 
 of Push (December — January) to begin the cycle-year of the 
 sun-ass. In tradition the ass survives not only in the above 
 instances but also in the ass's ears of Midas the Phrygian 
 king, which are reproduced in the Indian form of the long 
 ears of the horse Ucchaishravas in the Welsh and Irish 
 stories of March ap Meirchion, the horse (march) son of 
 Meirchion, and Labraid Lore with the swift hand on the 
 sword, who both killed every barber who shaved them for fear 
 they should reveal the secret that they had ass's ears, and 
 they both, as I have shown elsewhere, prove that the original 
 sun-ass of the barley-growing and eating Goidels, whose 
 land-tenures I have sketched in p. 429 ff., was succeeded, 
 as we are also told in the Rigveda i. 162, 21, by a Brythonic 
 sun-horse *. Also the succession of the goat, ass and horse 
 in ritualistic time measurement is proved in many places 
 in the Brahmanas, especially in the search for the place 
 where the earth is to be taken for making the bricks for the 
 fire-altar built near the close of the Vedic age, in which 
 symbohcal quest they all assist 2. This sun-ass also appears 
 in the Egyptian Book of the Dead in the first hymn to Ra, 
 the sun-god, rising as " Khepera the creator," the beetle-god 
 of the Egyptian thirteen-months year, whose path (v. 9) 
 has been written down for him by Thoth, the moon-god, 
 and Maat, the Pole Star Vega. He is the successor of the 
 snake-fiend Sebau, whose arms (v. 10) have been bound 
 in chains and his feet hacked off by the god of the summer, 
 
 ' Hewitt, Mstory ana Chronology of the Myth-Making Agi, chap. v. pp. 201 
 —203; Rhys, Celtic Folk-Lore, vol. i. pp. 231—233, ii. pp. 435. 437. 48°. 
 499. 572; Ibid., Arthurian Legend, pp. 356, 357, 378—380; Ibid., Hibbert 
 Lecture: for 1886, lect. v. pp. 460—463, lect. vi. pp. 589, note i, p. 591- 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shut. Brah., vi. 3, 2, 7, 8, 9, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 p. 205. 
 
566 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 whose victory was gained in the sixth month of the twelve 
 year-gods of Sah (Orion), whose year began at the winter 
 solstice, and who defeated the winter fiends at mid-summer. 
 This new sun-god Ra, who is in this hymn starting as the 
 god of the thirteen-months year succeeding that of Sah 
 (Orion), prays that he may smite the ass of winter, the 
 ass which is in Chap. XL. eaten by the original snake- 
 god, there called the eater of the ass, and in Chap. CXXV. 
 12 the year-ass is said to have spoken with the holy cat 
 of the Persea tree in the house of Hapt-re, the enshrouding 
 {hapt) door [re), the year-pit '. 
 
 This ass of the age of the cycle-year was succeeded by the 
 mule of that of eleven months, that which drew the chariot 
 of Duryodhana, the leader of the eleven-months year of the 
 Kauravyas. This mule appears in Tibetan mythology as a 
 chestnut-coloured animal, the offspring of an ass and a winged 
 mare, who carries the goddess Paldan Ihamo, the Hindu 
 goddess Srimati Devi, the time goddess Kali, to whom 
 human sacrifices were offered. She sits on a saddle made 
 of the skin of an ogre, the Ugras of the age of the eleven- 
 months year, and her crupper and bridle are snakes. She 
 carries a string of skulls in her left and a Dorje or triple 
 year-thunderbolt in her right hand. She is the goddess 
 to whom mice are sacred, so that she traces back her origin 
 to the age of the mouse Apollo, who preceded the wolf-god, 
 and she is the goddess of the Tashi-Lamas of the Bombo 
 sect of the thirty-three gods ^. 
 
 The mule she rides, whose mother was the winged mare, 
 was the offspring of the flying black barley mare Yavadiya, 
 the horse of Guga, who in Hindu legend is the chief of the 
 five Pirs worshipped all over northern India, and especially 
 by the Telis, who represent the original five days of the 
 weeks. He is the god of Gugal or aromatic resin yielded 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, Introductory Hymns, i. 2, 9, lo, 14, xvii. 20, 
 xl., Ixiv. 22, 23, CXXV. 12, pp. 3, 4, 54, 91, 114, I97> note 1. 
 
 = Sarat Chundra Das, Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet, pp. 158, 159- 
 3 Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore of North India, p. 134. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 567 
 
 by the eagle-wood tree of the Chams, which was, as we have 
 seen in p. 378 flf., the original sacred incense resin of north- 
 eastern India, the worshippers of which were ruled by the 
 Naga snake-king of Agroha in Rajputana. This was the 
 birth-place of the great commercial caste of the Agurwalas, 
 whose name is apparently derived from the incense resin 
 tree called in Sanskrit Agura. Their birth traditions go 
 back to the very earliest beginnings of national history, for 
 their caste father was especially protected by Lakshmi, the 
 goddess of boundaries {laksh), on condition that he and his 
 descendants should always keep the Dibali festival held at 
 the new moon of Khartik (October — November), when the 
 Pleiades year began. His patron goddess procured for him 
 in marriage two daughters of the Naga Raja with the stipu- 
 lation that the children of one of them should trace their 
 descent to the father, and that those of the other should 
 follow the old matriarchal rule of female descent, so that the 
 caste represents the union of the northern patriarchal and 
 the southern matriarchal races '. 
 
 Guga Pir is a special god of the Agurwalas of the east 
 of the North-west Provinces, who celebrates his festival, at 
 which the black flag of the black horse of night, which was 
 the flag of the Turanians, is carried, on the ninth day of the 
 dark half of Bhadon (August — September) =, thus making 
 it coincide with the Shraddha festival of the barley-eating 
 Fathers Pitaro Barshishadah, described in pp. 406 — 410, 
 which was transferred by these northern barley growers 
 from the original Feast to the Dead held before the be- 
 ginning of the Pleiades year in October — November. 
 
 Like the festivals of so many other parent-gods whose 
 worship survived through successive phases of religious 
 evolution, those in honour of Guga Pir are held at difl'erent 
 times. In the Eastern Punjab he is worshipped in August 
 as a god over whose head two snakes meet, that is as a 
 
 ■ Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, vol. i. Agurwala, pp. 4, S- 
 = Beames, Elliot's Memoirs of the Races of the North- West Provinces of India, 
 vol. i. p. 255. 
 
568 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 trident god like the Persian Zohak (p. 210). He riding on 
 his horse covered with peacocks' feathers, showing him to 
 be a star-god, is carried from house to house as a sun-god 
 allied to Lug, whose year-festival, as we have seen, takes 
 place in that month, the mid-month of the year i. 
 
 In several of the lists of the Five Pirs worshipped in the 
 eastern part of the North-west Provinces Guga's counterpart, 
 Ghazi Miyan, holds the first place. His head carried on a 
 pole is worshipped at a fair held in his honour in Jeth 
 (May — June), when he appears as the mid-summer god 
 bringing up the rains, who was slain at his wedding when 
 his blood was to fertilize the earth 2. This worship of the 
 head of the year-god is an Indian variant of the Latin 
 worship of the double-faced Janus, a form of pillar worship, 
 and of the Welsh worship of the head of Bran, the Raven- 
 god, who was in the mythology of the Brythonic Celts Uthr 
 Ben, the Wonderful Head, the father of Arthur the sun-god 3. 
 In the Veda it is the horse's head Dadhiank or Dadhikra, 
 and not that of the rider, which is the god of the eleven- 
 months year. He is clearly the dawn-god born from the 
 night the precursor of day, who repeats the process in the 
 evening as the precursor of night, like the double-headed Janus 
 of Rome, and he thus leads the two perpetually recurring 
 first stages in the daily and yearly measurement of time. 
 
 His name Miyan, like the peacock feathers of his counter- 
 part Guga, shows that he is the star-god, for the name 
 appears in the Pahlavi list of Nakshatra stars corresponding 
 with that of the Hindus, and it is a Zend importation into 
 India. It is derived from the Pahlavi Mia, Miya, Mya, 
 meaning water, and Miyan means the water-centre 4, and 
 hence this summer god who brings up the rains is the rain-star. 
 He is the nth and 27th of the Zend Nakshatras, and they 
 
 ' Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore in North- West India, p. 134. 
 
 ' Beames, ^EXixot! s Memoirs of the Races of the North-West Provinces of India, 
 vol. i. p. 251 ; Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore in North-West India, 
 p. ISO. 
 
 3 Rhys, Hibhert Lectures for 1886, lect. i. pp. 96, 97. 
 
 * Haug, Oldand New Pahlavi Glossary. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 569 
 
 are in the Hindu lists, Purva Phalguni or Arjuni 8 Leonis, 
 and Uttara Bhashapada 7 Pegasi and a Andromeda, and 
 in the Arabian Lunar Mansions the first of these signs is 
 the root of the tail of Leo, and the second the wing and 
 navel of Pegasus, which is the constellation of the sun-horse 
 of the eleven-months year '. 
 
 The story of the year-horse thus told in the above com- 
 parison of ancient rituals clearly points to the union of the 
 believers in a sun-ass star in Cancer, which was looked on 
 by the Kushikas of Central Asia as the leader of the sun 
 round the Pole in the retrograde course of the Great Bear, 
 with a northern race who worshipped the sun-horse, and 
 whose sun-god was the northern Sigurd riding on the dark 
 grey cloud-horse Grani, and it is to this northern race that 
 the Persian sons of the wolf and their black sun-horses, and 
 the Indian sons of the black Yavadiya barley mare belonged. 
 
 When the cloud-chariot of Indra was reproduced by the 
 Celts, who took from India their Pleiades year, their raven- 
 god Bran and their belief in the primitive Fomori, or men 
 dwelling beneath the sea [muir), its tawny cloud-horses of 
 the dawn and gloaming became the grey of Macha and the 
 black jSainglain, the day and night horses of the Irish sun- 
 god Cu-chulainn, and the Xanthus and Balios, the yellow 
 and spotted horses of the Greek Achilles which flew with the 
 wind 2, and the spotted night-horse Balios is clearly a Greek 
 form of Rustum's spotted star-horse Raksh. These Greek 
 immortal star-horses were born by Podarge, the swift of foot, 
 to Zephyros the west-wind, and they were given to Peleus, 
 the god of the Potter's clay, father of Achilles by Poseidon, 
 who was, as we have seen, the snake-god Erectheus or 
 Erecthonius, owner of three thousand mares (the stars), from 
 whom Boreas the northward begot twelve year-horses 3. 
 
 The sun-chariot of Cu-chulainn and Achilles is in India 
 
 ' West, Bundahish, ii. 3. p. n ; Sachau, Alberuni's Chronology of Ancient 
 Nations, On the Lunar Stations, p. 352. 
 ' Hull, The Cu-chullin Saga, Cu-chulainn's Death, p. 259; Horn. Tl. xvi. 149. 
 3 Horn. //. XX. 218 — 225. 
 
570 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 that of Krishna, the black antelope year-god, on the back 
 of which, as we are told in the Mahabharata, was Tarkshya, 
 the son of Trikshi the sun-ass (p. 476), in the form of the 
 primitive cloud-bird Garuda i. His horses were Shaivya, the 
 son of the three-eyed shepherd-god Shiva, the star Arcturus, 
 riding on the year-bull, and Su-griva the bird-headed ape, 
 the Indian form of the Egyptian bird-headed ape-god Horus, 
 who married Tara, the Pole Star goddess of the ape con- 
 stellation Kepheus (p. 341). They were the horses Arcturus 
 and Kepheus which drew the year-chariot round the two 
 halves of the solstitial year, and then became the stars of 
 the Ashvins' three- wheeled car of Rig. i. 116, 17, 18, drawn 
 by the bull Vrshabha, the constellation Taurus, and the 
 Simshumara, the alligator Draco. 
 
 But to these immortal horses of the cloud and star land of 
 heaven there was added on the chariot of Achilles the mortal 
 horse Pedasus, taken by him from Heetion, the father of 
 Andromache,, wife of Hector the Trojan champion, whence 
 he also got the Phorminx, or oldest form of the lyre made by 
 Hermes the pillar-god, who stretched its seven strings over 
 the concave hollow of the tortoise-shell, thus creating the 
 rythmic music of time moving by the guidance of the seven 
 strings of the Great Bear ruler of the Kushika tortoise year*. 
 These three horses moving in unison with the notes of the 
 seven-stringed lyre and drawing the new chariot of the 
 tortoise of earth, the wheeled car which became the car of 
 the warriors of the Bronze Age, are reproduced in India in 
 the three-horse chariot driven by Daruka, the god of the 
 pine-tree {ddru), furnishing the triangle round the altar fire 
 of the sacrificers of animals. This was given by Krishna 
 to Satyaki, the son of Shini the moon-goddess, who with 
 his ten sons slain by Bhuri-shravus, the bearer of the Yupa 
 banner of the sacrificial stake, represented, like Haman and his 
 ten sons, the eleven months of this year 3. This chariot was 
 
 ' Mahabharata Sabha (Sabha-kriya) Parva, ii. p. 4. 
 
 ' Horn. //. xvi. 153, 154, ix. 186—188. 
 
 3 Mahabharata Bhishma (Bhishma-vadha) Parva, Ixxiv. 20—22, \>. 273. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 571 
 
 given to Satyaki before he fought with Kama, the horned 
 moon-god of the thirteen-months year, and slew the horses 
 and charioteer of his car ^. 
 
 The third horse yoked to it in addition to the original two 
 horses of Krishna is called Megha-pushpa Valahaka, the 
 circling {vala) cloud (megka) flower, a name showing the car 
 to be a variant form of the Pushpaka or flower {pushpa) car 
 of Rama, which moved of itself; and this car drawn by the 
 circling cloud-flower, the Greek Pedasus, the leaping mortal 
 horse of Achilles, is that of this eleven-months year, measured 
 not by solstices and equinoxes but by a circling chain of 
 blossoming months, marking the successive phases of the 
 year by the budding, flowering and fading of the mortal 
 plants of earth. 
 
 This car appears again as that of Uttara, the Pole Star 
 god of the North, son of the king Virata, the god of the 
 revolving phallus (viru), in which he drove Arjuna, who had 
 concealed himself in Virata as a eunuch as the sexless warrior 
 god of the three-years cycle, against the Kauravyas of the 
 eleven-months year, who had stolen the cows of light. This 
 car before Arjuna used it had behind it the banner of the 
 lion, that of the Pole Star god, borne, as we have seen, by 
 Gudarz the Persian Vulture, the Pole Star Vega, but Arjuna 
 or Phalgun substituted for this the banner of the ape with 
 the Hon's tail, and thus marked himself as the god of the 
 Phalguni or Arjuni, eleventh Nakshatra of the lion, the star 
 8 Leonis, called in the Arabian list the star at the root of 
 Leo's tail ; and the Nakshatra is, as we have seen above, 
 associated in Zend astronomy with Miyan the rain-god, 
 the popular hero riding on the black barley mare. In the 
 description of this car in the Mahabharata the third flower- 
 horse Megha-pushpa Valahaka becomes two, thus making 
 the Pole Star god the god of the four directions of space 
 going yearly round the four Loka-pala stars marking them '. 
 
 ' Mahabharata Drona (Jayadratha-badha) Parva, cxhii. 45—64, pp. 461, 462. 
 ' Mahabharata Virata (Go-harani) Parva, xlv., xivi. pp. 107—109. 
 
572 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Thus we see that the traditional year-horses were originally 
 the dawns and evening gloamings marking the days and 
 nights of the year measured by the monsoons, and that 
 these horses of the original legend, when it was disseminated 
 by the various races who inherited it from their Indian 
 ancestors, became among the barley-growing worshippers 
 of the sun-horse the black mare of night, the mother of 
 the sun-god of day and the black horse ridden by the sun- 
 god which became the star-horse Pegasus. Among the tribes 
 in whose mythology the original monsoon cloud-chariot with 
 its two horses survived, these became the horses of day and 
 night, and the third horse added to them by the materialistic 
 framers of the eleven-months year was the mortal horse who 
 marked the advance of time by the flowering prints of his 
 footsteps, and who consequently was symbolised as drawing 
 a real chariot or wheeled car. This seems to have been 
 invented by the northern races, worshippers of the lieavenly 
 smith, after they had come from the North into Asia Minor 
 and Central Asia. It was probably thence that the Brythonic 
 story of the sun-chariot reached the western Celts, who, 
 we are told in the Cu-chulainn Saga, learnt from Alba 
 (Europe) and Babylon the magic spells which taught Calatin 
 and his twenty-seven sons, the twenty-eight days of the 
 month of the thirteen-months year, how to slay Cu-chulainn '. 
 
 The chariot was invented by the nomad Getae, the Gotho- 
 Celtic cattle-breeding tribes who first used wheeled waggons, 
 and its generally distributed use almost certainly coincided 
 with the beginning of the Bronze Age. That its use was 
 very ancient in Assyria is shown by the adoption in the 
 Seven Tablets of Creation of the image of the rushing cloud- 
 chariot of the god of the North drawn by four horses, which 
 appears in the four-horsed chariot of Marduk, the Akkadian 
 Amar-utaki, the light of the sun ; and these four horses 
 become in the Edda, where the gods ride upon the eleven 
 horses of the eleven-months year, the eight-legged Sleepnir, 
 
 ■ Hull, Tht Cu-chulhn Saga, pp. 182 — 186, 236—249. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 573 
 
 Woden's horse, revolving in all directions like the Great Bear 
 waggon drawn by the sun-ass ; and the order of the succes- 
 sive conceptions seems to have been first the two horses of 
 the morning and evening gloaming, secondly, the two horses 
 of day and night, thirdly, the four horses of the Pole Star 
 god, and lastly, the three horses of the chariot of the horse- 
 headed god of the eleven-months year. 
 
 H. The Connection between this year and ceremonial 
 hair-cutting. 
 
 That the custom of ceremonial hair -cutting was first 
 brought to India by the races who, like the early Greek 
 Centaurs and the milk-drinking Getae, abstained from fer- 
 mented liquors, is proved by the instructions in the Shata- 
 patha Brahmana for providing the fermented drink Paris-rut, 
 which was offered at the Vajapeya sacrifice with the pure 
 Soma ^ offered by those who had shaved all their hair except 
 the top-lock. This is ordered to be brought from a long- 
 haired man of the South, thus showing that it was these 
 primitive races who drank rice-beer who did not ceremonially 
 shave themselves like the northern immigrant races who 
 drank pure Soma made of barley, milk, curds and running 
 water. The offering at this sacrifice of thirty-four cups, 
 seventeen of fermented and seventeen of pure Soma, to the 
 thirty-three gods of this eleven-months year, and to Prajapati 
 (Orion), shows that the ceremonial hair -cutting of the 
 drinkers of pure Soma began in the age of the eleven- 
 months year. 
 
 The Indian Mons-Mallis, Mundas, and their Tibetan con- 
 geners the Mossoos, like the Chinese, shave their heads 
 and wear pigtails, and hence hair-cutting was the national 
 custom of the Indian races who were sons of the tiger and 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., v. i, 2, 13, 14, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 p. 9. 
 
574 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 whose kings were consecrated on tiger-skins. The custom 
 arose among the men of the bow, of whom the Bhils were 
 the first Indian immigrants, and they shave the heads of their 
 children when they are three and five years old. This custom 
 is also observed by the Malays, who in India are the MalHs 
 and Mons, the men of Malabar. They cut the hair of their 
 children a week after birth, or a few days after the child 
 is named, and sometimes leave the central lock, the Munda, 
 Mossoo and Chinese top-knot, but generally cut all the hair 
 ofifi. 
 
 The custom of ceremonially cutting the hair is one ob- 
 served by almost all Indian people except the lower and 
 nearly pure aboriginal race. It is also universal in China, 
 and was practised by all the people of South-western Asia, 
 as we learn from Jeremiah xxv. 20 — 23, that the people 
 of Dedan, the islands of the Persian Gulf, had "the corners 
 of their hair polled," and Herodotus iii. 8 tells us that the 
 Arabians used to shave their heads all round, after the 
 fashion of Dionysos, apparently leaving a top lock uncut like 
 the Hindus. 
 
 The custom apparently arose in the North among the sons 
 of the rivers, and was engendered by the belief recorded 
 in the Edda that Ymin the roarer, the creating thunder-cloud 
 god, made grass and trees of his hair. Hence the hair was 
 believed to be, as among the Jewish Nazarites, the crop 
 showing the strength imparted by God to the body on which 
 it grew ; and hence the people of Cambodia look on the hair 
 as a symbol of the creating rice plant, and offer the hair 
 of the deceased as a first-fruits sacrifice at their funerals 2. 
 Also the offerings of hair which it became customary for men 
 and women to make to the river-god were first-fruits offer- 
 ings. Thus Achilles sent a lock of his hair by the hand of 
 his dead friend Patroclus to the river Spercheioss, and 
 
 ' Skeat, Malay Magic, chap. vi. p. 341. 
 
 = Cabaton, Nouvelles Recherchcs sur Us Chants, p. 172, note 2. 
 
 3 Horn. //, xxili. 141 — 146. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 575 
 
 the hair-offering thus originated in this epoch was offered 
 by both sexes at puberty, when the front lock was cut off 
 as in the Celtic tonsure ^. It was, as Homer tells us 2, a dis- 
 tinctive tribal custom of the Abantes of Euboea, whose 
 weapons were the ashen spears of the sons of the northern 
 ash-tree Yggdrasil, which was, according to Hesiod, the 
 parent-tree of the men of the Bronze Age. All Athenians 
 had to make this tonsure offering of the first lock before they 
 could claim at the age of eighteen their share in the village 
 land and admission into the Phratrian, and Pausanias tells 
 us that the women of Troezen used to offer a lock of their 
 hair to Hippolytus the Charioteer constellation Auriga, called 
 by the Sumero- Akkadians Askar the goat, and which, as 
 we have seen, p. 545, was associated with the Great Bear 
 as the ruler of this year, it being the steersman and the 
 Great Bear the sun-chariot. In this constellation, called by 
 Aratus the goat, one goat-star is on the left shoulder, and 
 its two kids, one of which is Capella, are two stars on the left 
 wrist of the Driver or Charioteer 3. This driver is Poseidon, 
 or the Ocean snake-god Erectheus or Erecthonius, king of 
 the realms of the ocean on which the earth floats, who is 
 called Olenios or Taraxippos, the exciter of the horses 4. 
 The epithet of Olenios, also given to the goat-star Capella 
 on his left wrist, is derived from the Greek Olene, the arm, 
 and shows that he bears on his left arm the ensign of the 
 Pole Star goat under whose guidance he moves. Thus this 
 epithet of the goat-armed god, like that of Kriophoros or 
 Ram bearer applied to Hermes born from the cypress-tree, 
 shows that these gods, the pillar {epixa) god and the god 
 Erecthonius of the very fertile {^pi) earth (x^ojv), are year- 
 
 ' Frazer, Pausanias, i. 37, 3, viii. 41, 3, vol. i. pp. 56, 427, vol. iv. pp. 
 
 392, 393- 
 
 = Horn. //. ii. S3S— 544. 
 
 3 R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., The Phenomena or Heavenly Display of Aratus, 
 155, 166, 679—682. 
 
 * Frazer, Pausanias, vi. 208, vol. i. pp. 315, 316. 
 
576 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 gods born from the mother-tree surmounted by the goat Pole 
 Star. 
 
 It was this tree-born snake charioteer god ruling the year 
 of the goat who gave the sun-horses of the year to Peleus, 
 and he is thus directly related to Thor and Pushan, both 
 of whom drove the goat predecessors of the sun-horse in 
 their chariot, and Pushan, as the god of the constellation 
 Cancer, the stable of the sun-ass, was the god who ruled 
 the year beginning about 14,700 B.C., when the sun-ass was 
 in this constellation at the winter solstice. The new driver 
 of the sun-horse succeeding the ass of Cancer was, as 
 Hippolytus Auriga, the son of Theseus, the Organiser who 
 first tracked the path of the sun through the stars of the 
 Labyrinth of the Minotaur by the help of Ariadne, the 
 constellation Corona Borealis, the winter resting-place of 
 the sun whence he started to make his annual retrograde 
 circuit of the heavens in the track of the Great Bear, his 
 revolving bed or waggon. This year-god Hippolytus Auriga 
 was torn to death by his own horses, as all year-gods were 
 slain at the end of their year, but his death was in the 
 legend recording it ascribed to a false accusation that he had 
 attempted to violate Phoedra, the second wife of Theseus, 
 the goddess of the myrtle-tree i, a similar crime to that 
 imputed to the other gods of this year. He was raised 
 from the dead by Asclepios, the sun-physician-god of 
 Trcezen, to whom hair offerings were dedicated ; and thence 
 he went to Aricia in Italy as the god Virbius, the male 
 god of the sacred grove of Diana or Tana, the tree-mother- 
 goddess of the mud {tan) of the under- worid (p. 188), whose 
 high-priest attained his office by conquering and slaying his 
 predecessors 2. 
 
 This constellation of the god who drove the year-chariot 
 of the goat became the guardian constellation of Babylon, 
 the star messenger of the Pole Star god. They called 
 Capella Auriga the little goat on the left wrist of the driver 
 
 ' Frazer, Pausanias, i. 22, I, ii. 27, 4, vol. i. pp. 31, 112, 113. 
 ' Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, p. 34. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 577 
 
 Dil-gan, the god {dil) of the land {gan), and it was by the 
 position of this star in relation to the new moon of the 
 vernal equinox that the Akkadians, according to Dr. Sayce, 
 determined the beginning of their year^. 
 
 This star which was in Egypt dedicated to Ptah the 
 opener {patah), the Egyptian Janus, ruled the beginning of 
 their year, and Sir N. Lockyer tells us of three temples at 
 Karnak, Memphis, and Annu oriented to Capella as a setting 
 star beginning its year at evening at dates varying from 
 5,500 B.C. to 3,050 B.C., as the god of a temple with its door 
 in the West, the place of the door in our churches *. Thus 
 we trace the worship of this star as the driver of the sun- 
 chariot to the early days of the Hor-shesu sons of Horus, 
 whose eleven year-gods were the seven stars of the Great 
 Bear and the four stars of Pegasus, the constellation of the 
 sun-horse. 
 
 Hair offerings which formed part of the ritual of this god 
 were, as we learn from Pausanias, made before marriage by 
 the girls of Megara and Delos, a custom also observed by 
 the Malays ; and in the ceremony to which Mr. Skeat was 
 invited seven locks of hair were cut from the girl's head and 
 burned at the foot of a barren fig-tree in hopes of making 
 it bear fruit 3. Also Pausanias says that the hair of the 
 children of the Dorian city of Corinth was cut in remem- 
 brance of the children of Medea 4, the counsellor and bride 
 of Jason the healer (J,as), in the year voyage of the Argo, 
 the mother-constellation of the South whose worshippers 
 brought to Greece the Dravidian and Dorian customs and 
 ritual of the primitive Indian village. It was the northern 
 disseminators of medical knowledge, the sons of the ash-tree, 
 who brought from Asia Minor to India and Greece the ritual 
 
 " Sayce, Herodotus, p. 402 ; R. Brown, jun,, F.S.A., Primitive Constellations, 
 vol. i. p. 130, ii. pp. 97, 98. 
 
 ' Lockyer, Dawn of Astronomy, chap. xxxi. pp. 316, 318, xxx. p. 312. 
 
 3 Frazer, Pausanias, i. 43, 4, vol. i. p. 66 ; Skeat, Malay Magic, chap. vi. 
 PP- 353— 3SS- 
 
 * Frazer, Pausanias, ii. 3, 6, vol. i. p. 75- 
 II. P p 
 
578 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of hair-cutting which formed part of the worship of the sun- 
 physician in the age of the eleven-months year. 
 
 The ritual of the ceremonial cutting of children's hair 
 which was common both to Greece and India is very fully 
 described in the Indian Grihya Sutra '. It requires that the 
 hair of all children should be cut off in the first or third year, 
 or according to family custom, with a copper razor or one 
 of Udumbara wild fig-tree wood {Ficus glomerata), neither 
 of which could completely shave the head, and therefore the 
 custom of shaving could only before the days of sharpened 
 iron have existed in those countries in contact with the 
 maritime trade of the Greek Archipelago, which dissemi- 
 nated from Melos along the coasts of the Mediterranean the 
 obsidian knives, razors and weapons which they exported 
 in the neolithic age to Crete and to the oldest of six cities 
 superposed ^one above the other on the site of Hissarlik or 
 Troy 2. 
 
 The barbers of Bengal became, like their congeners in 
 Greece and South-western Asia, the barber-surgeons who 
 introduced medicinal oils, balsams and the surgery of the 
 cutting-knife commemorated in the story of the Greek King 
 Akastus of the knife (a/cT?), who cleansed Peleus, the Potter- 
 god of the revolving potter's clay {irrfKos), and father of 
 Achilles, of the death of Eurytion, the god of the Great Bear 
 bow, whom he superseded as god of the Great Bear revolving 
 bed. Akastus sent him forth armed with his wonder-working 
 sun-sword, the three stars of Orion's belt, the seasons of the 
 year, to fight the wild beasts on Mt. Pelion, when he, like 
 the other gods of the eleven-months year, was falsely accused 
 by Hippolyte, the wife of Akastus, of attempting to violate 
 her. This year-sword was found by Cheiron, the healing 
 
 ' Oldenberg, Grihya Sutra Shankayana Grihya Sutra, i. 28, i. 24, Ashva- 
 layana Grihya Sutra, i. 17, i, 19, Parashara Grihya Sutra, ii. I, I — 17, Grihya 
 Sutra of Gobhila, ii. 9, i — 29, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxix, pp. 55 — 57, 
 184 — 186, 301 — 303, XXX. pp. 61—63. - 
 
 ' British School at Athens, Mackenzie, Successive Settlements at Phyiakopi in 
 Milos, pp. 245, 246. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 579 
 
 centaur, in a dung-hill, the symbol of the cycle-year divided 
 into periods of ten lunar months of gestation of the year-cow, 
 when it had been hidden by Akastus after he stole it from 
 Peleus '. The legendary connection thus shown between the 
 year-god of the revolving Great Bear sun-bed, the Creating 
 Potter father of the sun-god, the horse-headed centaur-god 
 of this year, and the development in this year's traditions 
 of medical knowledge of the arts of healing combined with 
 the elevation of the barber-surgeons to the position they 
 occupied in India and elsewhere, of hair tending and marriage 
 priests, show that the movement was one which originated 
 among the northern worshippers of the sun-horse who, as 
 we have seen in this chapter, disseminated their creed over 
 Europe, South-western Asia and India at the close of the 
 Kushika age. 
 
 The Bengal barbers are divided into three castes of Bhan- 
 daris, Hajams and Nupits. Their caste customs, especially 
 that of burning instead of burying their dead first introduced 
 by the worshippers of the sun-horse, prove that they became 
 a national trade-guild at the close of the Kushika age, when 
 they became attached to the village organisation as barber 
 servants of the community, and inherited the worship of the 
 Panch Pirs, the five local gods of the original five-days week. 
 The Bhandaris, the most primitive of the three castes who 
 are barbers of Orissa, do not, like the other two barber 
 castes, burn all their dead, as they bury children and women 
 who die in child-birth. They in some villages are priests of 
 the ancestral fire-gods, and hold land rent free in payment 
 of their services. Hence in Orissa, one of the chief birth- 
 places of Indian ritual, the country of the great temple of 
 Jagah-nath at Puri, where the year-god Vishnu is wor- 
 shipped as a tree trunk, and of the Mahendra mountain 
 sacred to Parasu-Rama, who was, as we have seen, the god 
 of the Double-Axe {parasu) of the thirteen-months year 
 and the cycle era, the institution of the barber-priests dates 
 
 ' Hewitt, RuUns Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay vi. pp. 324—329. 
 
 P p 2 
 
58o Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 back to the age of the five-day weeks of early tree worship, 
 when the Mahto, the superintendents of the king's land of 
 Chapter IV., allotted land to the Bhandari priests and ruled 
 the village, as he still does in Orissa. 
 
 The Bhandaris are also marked as a Kushika caste by 
 their marriage rites, for among them the bride and bride- 
 groom are united not by the Sindurdan ceremony of making 
 a red mark down the parting of the bride's hair, but by tying 
 the hands of the wedded pair together with a bracelet of 
 Kusha-grass '. 
 
 The Hajams, the barber-surgeons of Behar or Magadha, 
 the Chiroo country of the sun-god Rahu, marry by the rite 
 of Sindurdan but worship the five Pirs. They are the uni- 
 versal match-makers, the assistants of the Brahman priests 
 in the marriage of the higher and the marriage priests of the 
 lower castes. They also are, like the Bhandaris, village 
 servants getting a stipulated payment in grain in Behar and 
 an allotment of land in Chutia Nagpur and Manbhum. Their 
 wives act as nurses to women during the last six days of 
 their confinement, succeeding the Chamar or Dhanuk women 
 who tend them during the first six days. 
 
 The Dhanuks who are allied to the Chamars, or workers 
 in leather, are the sons of the bow {dhanu) and the personal 
 servants and watchmen in the higher caste households of the 
 old kingdom of Magadha and of the North-west Provinces. 
 They are connected with the leading agricultural caste of 
 the Kurmis, one of whose seven sub-castes is called Dhanuk. 
 They as a caste are divided into two sections called Naga 
 and Kashyapa, that is to say they are the descendants of 
 the Naga Kushika sons of Kashyapa, the father-god of the 
 sons of the fig-tree, who were originally, as I have shown, 
 sons of the bow (kaus) ^. ' 
 
 In Bengal the barber-surgeon is called Napit, and gets 
 an allotment of land as a village servant. He is the mar- 
 
 ■ Risley, Triies and Castes of Bengal, Bhandari, vol. i. pp. 92 — 94. 
 - Ibid., Hajam Dhanuk, vol. i. pp. 306 — 309, 220. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 581 
 
 riage agent and marriage priest. In the Napit marriage, 
 after the bridegroom has been anointed with mustard oil and 
 turmeric as a member of the yellow race, he and the bride 
 are both dressed in the sacred red tussor Kausiya silk and 
 united by the bride placing her hands palms downward on 
 those of the bridegroom. The Napit barber who officiates 
 as priest dictates the mantras the wedded pair are to repeat, 
 and finishes the ceremony by instructing them in their duties 
 in the words of the Gamvachana, or discourse telling of the 
 wedding of Shiva and Parvati, the mountain-goddess in the 
 form of the Gauri wild-cow or Indian bison, the totem 
 mother of the Gaurian race i. 
 
 As the custom of ceremonial hair-cutting, called Chula- 
 karman or arrangement of the hair, was introduced into 
 India by northern immigrant tribes who brought their ritual 
 with them, it is certain that the ritual followed by the Indian 
 barber-priests was in its main features that used by the same 
 class in the federated tribes of South-western Asia and 
 Europe, "who had adopted hair culture first and hair-cutting 
 afterwards as a common rite binding together otherwise alien 
 tribes, and this ritual as set forth in the Grihya Sutra both 
 confirms the conclusions reached from other sources as to 
 the northern origin of the hair-cutting ceremonies, and also 
 those I have drawn from their caste usages as to the great 
 antiquity of their craft. They prove that the hair was origi- 
 nally clipped as a first-fruits offering of the growing products 
 of the body answering to that of the crops grown from the 
 earth. Both the hair and crops were in primitive creeds 
 born of the rain, and hence arose the Malay rule forbidding 
 the head to be covered K It must like the crops be left open 
 to the life-giving air and rain, and most of the Indian lower 
 castes, including the Oraons who tend their hair, carefully 
 keep their heads bare. It was from the belief in the sancti- 
 fying efficacy of water that each lock of hair was moistened 
 
 ' Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, vol. ii. Napit, pp. 125 — 129. 
 
 = Skeat, Malay Magic, chap. ii. p. 43 ; Frazer, Golden Bough, vol. i. p. 189. 
 
5 82 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 by the barber before he cut it, and this was a repetition ot 
 the bathing of the child before the hair-clipping. This latter 
 was an early form of the baptismal rite common to all the 
 yellow sons of the rivers who worshipped the wolf-sun-god, 
 the Lycian Apollo born on the yellow river Xanthus, in 
 which he was bathed by his mother. In this ceremony the 
 child was believed to be impregnated with the seed of life 
 stored by the rain-god in the parent-river. 
 
 The barber used mixed hot and cold water to moisten the 
 head, and placed next each lock before he cut it a bunch of 
 Kusha-grass which he cut with the hair. He first wetted the 
 head three times sun-wise from right to left with water, fresh 
 butter and curds, but in cutting the hair he first cut three 
 or four locks from the right-hand side, and then from the 
 left-hand side two or three locks, making the whole number 
 cut five or seven, answering to the five and seven-days week. 
 The Gobhila Sutra directs that seven locks are first to be 
 cut from the right-hand side, and after these the barber is 
 ordered to cut seven locks from the back and afterwards 
 from the left side, thus going round the head contrary to the 
 course of the sun. The twenty-one locks thus cut reproduce 
 the twenty-one days of the month of the seventeen-months 
 year of Chapter VII. It is clear that in this last ceremony 
 the cutting leaves three single locks to be arranged, one on 
 each side and one at the back of the head. This answers 
 to the three locks worn by the Dakota or joined Indians, 
 the American representatives of the Indian Khati^. These 
 people, as I show in the Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, 
 have reproduced in America the rites of the self-torturing 
 Churuk or swinging Puja, a relic of this ascetic Hindu age. 
 It is celebrated in Bengal about the beginning of Baisakh 
 (April — May), a month which, as we have seen, began the 
 year of this epoch with the Roman Palilia and its associated 
 festivals. Also they included in this festival the Oraon rites 
 
 ■ Mallory, Picture Writing oj the Atnerican Indians, Publications of the 
 Bureau of Etlinology of the Smithsonian Institution, vol. x. p. 433, Fig. 
 558. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 583 
 
 of cutting down the sacred Kurum or almond-tree and of the 
 buffalo-dance '. The hair cut by the Indian barber is ordered 
 to be placed on Kusha-grass, bull's dung or Shami leaves, 
 and the Shankayana Sutra says it is to be buried in a garden 
 like the hair of the Malays. The Kusha-grass, like that cut 
 with the hair by the barber, shows that the ceremony dates 
 from the Kushika age, and the leaves of the Shami {Prosopis 
 spicigerd), the hundred-branched {shata-valsha) tree, show 
 that the ritual of the Ashvalayana Grihya Sutra, in which 
 they and twenty-one bunches of Kusha-grass are used, be- 
 longed to the later part of the Pandava age, that of the 
 seventeen-months year. It was in the Shami-tree that the 
 Pandavas hid their bows during their seclusion in Virata 
 land in the thirteenth year of their exile from power. Arjuna 
 took his bow from this tree when he went forth with Uttara, 
 the north Pole Star god, as his charioteer to fight the Kaura- 
 vyas under the banner of the ape with the lion's tail, which 
 (p. 571) ruled the eleven-months year. His bow was the 
 Gandiva, the god (diva) of the land {gem), the rainbow of 
 the Great Bear rain-god which had been, as we are told, 
 successively that of Sukra, the wet [sak) god of Soma, the 
 tree-mother god, and of Varuna, the rain-god of the vault of 
 heaven, who himself gave it to Arjuna with the ape-bannered 
 car 2. The barber's fee for this baptismal ceremony was rice 
 barley sesamum seeds and beans or millets, showing that 
 it dated from the age when barley and millets were brought 
 from Asia Minor to India with the sacred oil {sesamum 
 orientate) of the Telis. 
 
 This Indian cutting of the hair leaving three locks uncut 
 is apparently a sequent form of the early Ibero-Celtic hair- 
 offering of one fore-lock, and it seems from Herodotus iii. 8 
 to have arisen among the worshippers in South-western Asia 
 of Dionysos, who was originally, as we have seen in p. 564, 
 
 " Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. ii. essay ix. pp. 291—293. 
 
 ° Mahabharata Virata {Randava-fravesha) Parva v. pp. 12, 13 ; Virata 
 ff. (Go-harana) Parva xli. xlii. pp. 100, loi ; Adi (Khandava-ddha) Parva, 
 ccxxvii. p. 623 ; Zimmer, AU-indisches Leben, chap. iii. pp. 59, 60. 
 
584 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the Sabsean god of the Thracian barley {sabaia) drink whose 
 ass was drawn by the leopard symbols of the starry heavens 
 of the Persian sons of the wolf. This partial form of all-round 
 shearing was succeeded by the complete shaving of the head 
 except the scalp lock, the rite prescribed to all those who 
 offered the sacrifices of the year of three seasons at the later 
 forms of the Vaishva-deva, Varuna-praghasah and Saka- 
 medha festivals, when and at the latest form of the Soma 
 sacraments the hair of all those who joined in them was to 
 be cut with a copper razor '. It was this all-round tonsure 
 or clipping of all hair except the scalp-lock which produced 
 the pigtail of the Mundas, Mossoos, Chinese and high caste 
 Hindus. 
 
 I. The history of the Bronze Age in India. 
 
 The evidence of the early history of ceremonial hair-cutting 
 proves that it originated in the Copper Age, before that of 
 Bronze, which is called in the Rigveda and Brahmanas the 
 epoch of the Fathers of the third-class, the Agnishvattah 
 meaning those who burnt their dead. Their remains are 
 found with bronze metal vessels and spear-points in the 
 circular mound tombs in the Nilgiris, corresponding in form 
 to the European round barrows of the Bronze Age in which 
 the ashes of burnt dead are buried. The clay figures found in 
 these tombs depict those who are buried in them as wearing 
 high hats like those of the Hittites 2. Native tradition says 
 these tombs are those of the Pandyan kings, the Pandavas 
 of the Mahabharata, who ruled the Kurumbas, the mixed 
 race of shepherds and cultivators of whom the Kurmis, the 
 Madras Kadumbis, are leaders. According to Central Indian 
 traditions the Kurmis who burn their dead succeeded the 
 Gonds and still survive in their earliest form as the Kaurs, 
 who, as I have shown in p. 243, still retain the border estates 
 
 ' Eggeling, Skat. Brah., ii. 6, 4, 5—7, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii. 
 p. 450. 
 
 ' Hunter, Gazttteer of India, vol. x. Nilgiri Hills, p. 322. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 585 
 
 given to their ancestors as guardians of the Gond Haihaya 
 kingdom. Their hat connects them with the Chiroo sons 
 of the bird {chir), the ancient kings of Magadha, the Jats 
 of Northern India and the Dard sons of the antelope (p. 294), 
 the Khati or Hittites of North-western India, who wore 
 besides the hat the Hittite shoes with turned-up toes made 
 by the Chamars. 
 
 Offerings are made to these Pitaro Agnishvattah of the 
 Bronze Age at the Pitriyajna of the autumnal equinox, and 
 they are invoked in the Vedic hymn, Rig. x. 15, 11, sum- 
 moning the fathers to this sacrifice. Half of the parched 
 barley offered to the Pitaro-Barishadah sitting on the Kusha- 
 grass sheaves {barhis) is allotted to them, and when ground 
 is made into porridge with the milk of a cow suckling an 
 adopted calf'. 
 
 This is the Karambha or barley porridge offered to Pushan =, 
 the year-god of the Constellation Cancer Pushya, who began 
 the year by wedding the sun-maiden at the winter solstice 3, 
 and became the father of the sun-god of the cycle-year born 
 at the autumnal equinox. 
 
 The stipulation that the porridge should be made of the 
 milk of a cow suckling an adopted calf gives most important 
 historical information, for it tells us of a time when the 
 Indian cow- mother-goddess nursed a foreign calf. That is 
 to say, it tells us that the old worship of the buffalo sacrificed 
 from the earliest days of animal sacrifice in Central and 
 Southern India at the Dasahara on the loth of Ashvina 
 [Assin), September — October, that is on the tenth day after 
 the new moon of the autumnal equinox, was altered by the 
 substitute of a new victim. In this festival the first nine days 
 of the week of the cycle celebrate the victory of Durga or 
 Su-bhadra, the mountain goddess of the North, over the 
 buffalo cow Mahishasur 4. It was this primaeval buffalo of 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., ii. 6, i, 6, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii. 
 p. 421. 
 '' Rig. vi. s, 6, I, iii. 52, 7. 3 Ibid., vi. 58, 4. 
 
 * Monier Williams, Keligious Thought and Life in India, chap. xvi. p. 431. 
 
586 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the Todas and other cattle-worshipping tribes,, who were 
 among the first immigrants from the North, which was 
 ousted to be replaced in the Vedic recital of the Brahmanas 
 and Grihya-SGtras by the bull, ox, cow and calf without any 
 mention of the buffalo. 
 
 But though the Vedic ritual does not sacrifice the buffalo 
 it gives the history of its discarded worship in that of Indra. 
 For he who was originally the eel-god became in the story 
 of his birth the buffalo {mahisd) son of the cow, who had 
 only once calved {gristi) '. His father is called Vyansa, that 
 is Vyasa the son of Satyavati, the mother-eel-goddess, and 
 father of the royal races of India, who was, as we have seen 
 in p. i6i, the Constellation Draco ruling Orion's year. Indra 
 in another hymn is said to have killed him as the Vritra or 
 enclosing snake, the stars circling the pole, after drinking 
 Soma at the six-days Trika-dra-ka festival of the summer 
 solstice ; and he is there called Danu the Pole Star god, the 
 footless and handless god slain by the triple thunderbolt 
 {vaj'ra) denoting the three seasons of the year, also denoted 
 by the three jars of Soma which Indra drank =. 
 
 Hence it was the Pole Star god of Orion's year that Indra 
 slew, and after his death his mother, the mother-tree from 
 whose side he was born 3, warned him that the year-god 
 had forsaken him. He then called to her and Vishnu, the 
 sun-god of the two annual series of thirty-six steps, the 
 seventy-two weeks of the Brahmana year of the six Devayana, 
 followed by the six Pitriyana months each of thirty-six 
 five-day weeks, who became the antelope-god Krishna. 
 Vishnu asked him how he could hope to be trusted when he 
 had killed his father, and Indra replied that he had once 
 eaten dog's entrails, that is accepted the sacrifice of the dog 
 offered at the summer solstice, p. 227, but that he was now 
 converted, and would partake of the Soma brought by the 
 Shyena post-bird at the winter solstice 4, and thus began the 
 year with the Devayana months. 
 
 ■ Rig. iv. 18, 10 ; Grassmann, Worterbuch zum Rigveaa Sugresti. 
 ' Rig. i. 32, 2, 3, 7, 9. 3 Ibid., iv. 18, i, 2. ♦ Ibid., iv. 18, II— 13. 
 
Printitivt Traditional History. 587 
 
 In reference to this incident of the eating of dog's flesh 
 Indra is called in the text of Manu describing it, Vama-deva, 
 the god of the left-hand {^ama) circuit contrary to the course 
 of the sun i, proving conclusively that in Indian tradition 
 Indra had passed through a series of divine forms worshipped 
 inj.different creeds before he became the rain-god of Vedic 
 worship, the god going sun-wise round the heavens. 
 
 The transformation described in his birth-hymn made him 
 the year-buffalo-calf begotten at the winter solstice and born 
 as the sun-god at the autumnal equinox, whose year was to 
 be measured first by the months of Vishnu or Krishna of the 
 cycle-year and then by that of eleven months ; and this birth 
 differs from that of the son of the " majesty of Indra " born 
 in Magh (January — February), p. 257. 
 
 That this buffalo-god born of a buffalo-cow was a year-god 
 is proved by Rig. ix. 113, 1-3, where the sun's daughters 
 are said to have brought him impregnated by Parjanyya the 
 rain-god to Sharya-navan, the ship [ndvd) of the arrow-year 
 of three seasons, when he as Indra drank Soma as the slayer 
 of Vritra. These sun-maidens were the maidens or lunar 
 months of gestation of the cycle-year whose singing makes 
 the Soma flow for Indra and Vishnu in their new alliances 
 as year-gods of the year measured by stellar lunar months =. 
 
 This year-buffalo is the sacred animal of the Malays which 
 in their creed supports the earth as it floats on the ocean. 
 It is the animal always off'ered and eaten at their sacrificial 
 feasts, and is thus the counterpart of the Indian Dasahara 
 buffialo. But this totem buffalo of the tribal ritual is not the 
 sacred buffalo of the guild of the tin miners who trace their 
 origin to the Bronze Age. They sacrifice a white buffalo, 
 which is thus the sun-buffalo, the sun-god Indra born as ruler 
 of the year succeeding the three-years cycle. It is not killed 
 in the mine where, as in the Indian sacrificial ground sacred 
 to the sun-god, no blood may be shed, but portions of every 
 
 ' Biihler, Mann, x. 106, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxv. p. 424. 
 ' Rig. ix. 56, 3, 4. 
 
588 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 part of its carcase are placed in the spirit's audience chamber 
 outside the mine, and they invoke the god they summon to 
 the sacrifice as the White Sheikh king of the virgin jungle. 
 But the flesh of this white bufialo, the Indra allied with 
 Vishnu, who is called in the Brahman Samkalpa meditations^ 
 the White pig, is never eaten 2. This was the white buffalo- 
 calf, the Pitaro Agnishvattah adopted as the son of the 
 mother-cow of the earlier Todas and Gautumas and the 
 predecessor of the later cow-calf of Vedic ritual, which en- 
 tirely superseded the earlier buffalo cult. That this age of 
 the white buffalo and white pig of Vishnu was one in which 
 the heavenly bodies were believed to go round the Pole as 
 stars of night and day and in the combined sunward and re- 
 trograde course of the Mithra zodiac (pp. 176, 177) is proved 
 in the ritual of the Brahmana Pitriyajna worship of the dead. 
 In this the priests make six circuits of the altar, the first 
 three retrograde from right to left contrary to the course 
 of the sun, and the other three sunwise from left to right. 
 During these services the sacrificial cord is worn by the 
 priests on the right shoulder, according to the custom of the 
 dead buffalo-worshipping fathers, and it is only moved to the 
 left shoulder, on which it is worn by all Vedic Brahmans, when 
 they are offering butter offerings, the successor of Sesame, 
 to the gods of the sons of the orthodox Vedic cow who make 
 their circuits sunwise. When cakes and porridge are offered 
 to the fathers the sacrificer with the cord on his right shoulder 
 walks round the altar sprinkling it from right to left 3. 
 
 Thus in the ritual of these ancestral gods the rites of Pole 
 Star moon and sun worship are intermingled, marking the 
 sacrifice as one of the age of transition from the primaeval 
 stellar lunar worship to that of the rising sun of day which 
 succeeded the setting sun of night. 
 
 ■ Beauchamp, Dubois' Hindu Manners and Customs, chap. xiii. The Sam- 
 kalpa or Daily Meditations ordered to be made by all Brahmans, 3, vol. i. 
 p. 147- 
 
 = Skeat, Malay Magic, pp. 56, 189, 190, 268, 269. 
 
 3 Eggeling, Shat. Brah., ii. 4, 2, g, it. 6, I, 12, 3, 4, Sacred Books of the 
 East, vol. -xii. pp. 363, 423, 424, note 2, 428 — 433. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 589 
 
 These sons of the buffalo totem parent of the Malay 
 rice-growing races were joined in India by the northern 
 worshippers of the horse's head, the god Dadhiank, the 
 Atharvan son of the fire-god Atar, who, according to the 
 Brahmanas, brought with them the mystery of honey ' the 
 inspiring mead, and thus developed the theology based on 
 the conception of the world's hive ruled by the bi-sexual 
 male and female bee of the cycle era. The history of this 
 union is given in the ethnology of the castes of miners and 
 workers in metal who formed, according to the custom intro- 
 duced by the Naga Kushikas, hereditary trade guilds united 
 by community not of descent but of function. 
 
 The only mining castes of Bengal and Central India who 
 are smelters of ore are the Asuras and Lobars of Chutia 
 Nagpur. The Asuras are workers in iron, who live in 
 Central India in the midst of magnetite iron ores which 
 are in Lohara, Chuttisgurh and parts of Chutia Nagpur so 
 pure as to be nearly equal to smelted metal, and considering 
 the intense conservatism of Indian castes no one who knows 
 the people, and has seen the hills of iron studding the country 
 they live in, would be surprised to find certain proof that 
 they had worked native iron long before copper was known. 
 They are the survivals of the Vedic Asuras, the successors 
 of the Danava whose father-god was the northern rain-god 
 Kavi Ushana, the rain-ape Kapi connected with the Finns' 
 bird-god Ukko, and hence, like the Egyptian Horus, the 
 bird-headed ape. His daughter was Devayani, goddess- 
 mother of the solar year beginning with the Devayana 
 season of the winter solstice. Her twin sons were Yadu- 
 Turvasu, the parent gods of the tribes who founded the 
 maritime commerce of India which developed into that of 
 the Tursha, Tursena Tyrrhenian confederacy, the precursors 
 of the Phoenicians, the people whose Mediterranean capital 
 and chief seaport was Byblos, the city of the cypress-tree, 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shai. Brah., iv. i, S, i8, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxvi. 
 p. 277. 
 
590 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 parent of the sun-god and of the Akkadian fire-god Bil, who 
 became the Babylonian Bel. 
 
 The Asuras show by their tribal totems that they are of 
 mixed northern and southern descent, for among these are 
 Aind the eel, Baroa the wild-cat, Basriar the bamboo, Beliar 
 the bel-fruit, Kachua the tortoise, Makuar the spider, and 
 Nag the snake. These show that they are allied to the Naga 
 Kushika tortoise, and the bamboo and bel-frqit show their 
 connection with the Bhars or Bharatas, descendants of the 
 bamboo-god Vasu, while the spider marks them as the sons 
 of the spinning Pleiades. The cat also is a northern totem, 
 which they share with the Egyptians. They retain the 
 names of the Angiras priests, as they call themselves 
 Agurias or Angurias, or men of charcoal {aiigiira), and 
 they thus show their connection with the Angura kingdom 
 of Anga, the ore-smelting and volcanic land of South 
 Behar ruled by Kama, the long - eared moon - god of the 
 thirteen - months cycle and eleven - months year. They 
 have a tradition that they were once a great people, 
 makers of iron and clever artisans who lived in the Nepal 
 Himalayas where there were two great lakes. They were 
 for the most part a mining race who settled in Lohar- 
 dugga and worked in iron-made glass and beads. They 
 are said in the Bhagavat Purana (i, 324) to have come to 
 Behar and Chutia Nagpur from the Darjeeling Himalayas. 
 They retain the early educational customs common to the 
 Oraons and other early races dwelling in villages, of 
 having in each village a Dhumkuriya or boys' hall, where 
 all boys live as soon as they can leave their mothers '. 
 These Asura miners of northern descent, sons of the 
 cats which drew the car of Freya the sun-hawk goddess, 
 who was originally deified in Asia Minor =, are allied to 
 the miners of Colchis, the land of the mother - pine - tree, 
 where the European mining industry originated. The Col- 
 chian miners were the sons of Gog and Magog, said in 
 
 ' Driver, on the Asuras, Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal, i. I, 1888. 
 * Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, p, 88. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 591 
 
 Ezekiel xxxviii., xxxix. to dwell in the land of Rosh, the 
 god Ragh, Meshech and Tubal. This was the country of 
 the Moschoi and Tibarenoi, said by Herodotus iii. 94, vii. yS 
 to wear wooden helmets. It is called Meschia by Cedrenus. 
 Gesenius identifies it with Northern Georgia or Iberia, and 
 mentions the wall between the Caspian and Euxine seas, 
 called the wall of the Yayuj and Mayuj, which was built 
 as a defence against northern invaders. Whether the Gog 
 of Biblical tradition is the parent whence the Indian Guja, 
 the god of resin [gugal), got his name or not, it is certain 
 that it was the sons of the resinous pine-tree of Colchis and 
 Asia Minor who came down to India to establish the worship 
 of the god to whom human and animal sacrifices were offered, 
 and whose altar-fires were aided by the triangle of Pitu-daru 
 (Pinus deodara) wood. 
 
 These people, who were cattle herdsmen as well as miners, 
 gave Hermes the name of Moscho-phoros or calf-bearer, the 
 young sun-god born of the divine cow, who is a special object 
 of Phoenician worship, as shown by their coins bearing the 
 image of the mother-cow and calf ^ born of the sun-gnomon- 
 pillar. This was the god of the Sakya Kunti-Bhojas, the 
 Bhojas of the Lance (Kunti) of the race of the Bhoja king 
 Ugrasena, who founded Kiisambi at the junction of the 
 Jumna and Ganges, and called the country round it Vatsa- 
 bhumi or Calf-land, the ancient name of Bundelkund. They 
 belonged to the army of the Iberian Finn miners who came 
 to India from the Gog and Magog country of Colchis, and 
 who, as Herodotus tells us, ii. 36, 104, disseminated thence 
 the custom of circumcision among the Syrians, Egyptians 
 and ^Ethiopians, who were, as we have seen, the Arabian 
 collectors of incense but did not extend it to Greece and 
 India. 
 
 The native land of these Finn workers in metal is called 
 in Ezekiel xxxix. 12, Hamon Gog, the land of Gog, the 
 pillar-god Khamman. They are called in mediaeval tradi- 
 
 ' Berard, Origine des Culta Arcadiens, p. 299. 
 
592 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 tion the sons of Gog, said in the Recueil des Histoires de 
 Trey to be descended from the thirty-three daughters of 
 Diocletian, showing that they were looked on as men of 
 the eleven-months year with its thirty-three day months, 
 and Gog and Magog, whose statues represent the twin 
 door-posts of the Garden of God at the entrance of the 
 London Guild Hall, depict the mining parent gods as the 
 twin-stars in Aries, under whose auspices the three-years 
 cycle-year was founded. 
 
 The Lohar congeners of the Agurias or Asuras were first 
 workers in copper {loha), a name meaning the red {roh), and 
 the change from r to 1 marks them as allied to the Finns, 
 who in Greece changed the name of the Phrugyes, son of 
 fire {fhur), into Phlegyes. Their caste institutions prove 
 them to be a mixed race who were first sons of the mother- 
 mountain, which they worship as Mohan-giri, the Munda 
 Marang Buru, and in Chutia Nagpur their priests are the 
 village Pahan and the provincial Ojha, but the sub-caste 
 of Sad-Lohars from the Hindu {sad) districts employ the 
 village barber as their marriage priest. Their bridegrooms 
 are, as we have seen in p. 246, married to a Mahua tree, 
 from the flowers of which Indian mead or honey drink was 
 made, and hence they are shown to have come to India as 
 a caste guild at the first introduction of the honey-cult and 
 bee-worship. Their connection with the eleven-months year 
 is shown in their custom of performing the shradh or funeral 
 ceremony at which their dead are burnt on the eleventh day 
 after death, or at the end of a week of this year. This 
 custom is also observed by the Kamis, the Nepal branch 
 of the KamarSj the Bengal smiths, and by the Bhandaris or 
 barbers of Orissa. 
 
 They worship the wise snake-goddess Manasa, the female 
 Manu, also worshipped by the Bagdis, whose bridegrooms 
 marry the Mahua tree. She was first the village snake to 
 whom rice, sweet-meats, fruit and flowers are usually offered, 
 but at her special festivals of the rainy season on the fifth 
 and twentieth of the four months from the middle of June to 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 593 
 
 the middle of October, rams and he-goats, the animals 
 offered to the sun-god of the autumnal equinox and the 
 Pole Star, are offered to her. She is the sister of Vasuki, 
 the snake-god of the summer solstice, and hence the mother 
 of Ashtaka, the god of the Square of the eight-rayed sun 
 placed under the Hindu altar, pp. 328, 3291 ; and she is the 
 Hindu counterpart of the snake Erectheus at Athens, fed 
 with monthly honey cakes, in the western end of the 
 Erectheum at Athens z. 
 
 Manasa is also the female form of the snake Fafnir the 
 year-god slain by Sigurd, who guarded the treasures of 
 Andvari the wary dwarf. These dwarf gods were the parents 
 of the dwarf Ugrian Finn races, the first workers in metal, 
 who lived in the country between the Volga and the Ural 
 mountains, where copper has been smelted from time im- 
 memorial, and where gold is also found, and it was thence 
 that they came to Colchis, whence they went to India. 
 They who were gold washers in the Volga country became 
 in Chutia Nagpur the Jharas or gold-washers, who extracted 
 gold from the river sands of the Sona-pet or womb of gold 
 in the Munda country, and took gold from the sands of all 
 the rivers watering the south of the Chutia Nagpur plateau 
 from east to west. Their name for gold is embodied in that 
 of the Sone, meaning the "golden" river. It was on the 
 banks of the Nirangara or Phalgun river, which was once 
 the main stream of the Sone, which has since shifted its 
 course many miles to the north-east, that the Buddha 
 obtained enlightenment when sitting under the Nigrodha 
 or Banyan fig-tree of the Kushika races. The word for gold 
 whence the river name is derived is in Pali Sonnam, spelt 
 with a Dravidian cerebral n substituted for an original r 
 preceding the n. Hence the original name for gold is 
 Sornam, its Tamil name, and that it is of Finnish origin 
 is shown by the Mordvinian Sirni, the Votiak Zarni, Ostiak 
 
 ' Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Lobars, vol. ii. pp. 22, 23, Bhandharis, 
 Kamis, vol. i. pp. 94, 394, Bhagdis, vol. i. p. 41. 
 ' Frazer, Pausanias, Erecthonius Erectheum, vol. ii. pp. 168, 169, 330 ff. 
 II. Q q 
 
594 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Sarni, meaning gold, which became the Persian Zan, the 
 primitive root of the Sanskrit Hiranya, meaning golden i. 
 
 Hence arose the name Sonar, or men of gold, of those 
 who directed this Finn industry in India, the bankers who 
 originally made their wealth as the western trading Saus, 
 sons of Su, the bird who came from Sau-rashtra, the kingdom 
 of the Saus, as the Jains whose course I have already traced 
 from the West to Chutia Nagpur. 
 
 By the help of the Finn miners who accompanied them 
 they obtained large and constant supplies of gold from the 
 sands of the rivers, diamonds from the diamond fields, and 
 opened the copper mines at Baragunda on the northern 
 slopes of Paris-nath, and at Lando in Seraikela, in Singhbhum. 
 They were worked throughout the long period intervening 
 between the opening of the mines and the establishment of 
 Musulman rule in Bengal, and hence the immense supplies 
 of ore contained in these vast deposits have been almost 
 exhausted. But no one who has visited them and inspected 
 the evidence they give of their former productiveness can fail 
 to be impressed with the magnitude of the works and the 
 great engineering ability and trading energy of the races 
 who superintended and worked them. 
 
 They made their capital at Dalmi on the Subon-rikha, 
 or Suvarna-riksha, the channel (riksha) of the Suvarna race, 
 the most eastern of the gold-bearing rivers. The ruins of 
 the city they founded still exist on its banks, and thence 
 they ruled the whole of Bengal and Behar, directing the 
 maritime commerce of the Gangetic valley from Benares 
 southward to their port of Tamra-lipti, the copper (tamra) 
 port, the Sanskrit name of the modern Tumluk at the mouth 
 of the Hughli and Rupnarain. It was according to tradition 
 the capital of the Peacock (Mayura) kings of the Bhars or 
 Bharatas, sons of the peacock, whose name Mayura is repre- 
 sented in the Maura dynasty of Asoka the Great Buddhist 
 
 ' Abercromby, Pfo/a and Prehistoric Finns, chap. v. The Iranian Period, 
 p. 233. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 595 
 
 Emperor of India, and whose descendants still rule the 
 neighbouring^ semi-independent state of Mohar bhunj, the 
 land of the peacock, in the Midnapur district. 
 
 The original Mayura dynasty was succeeded as a maritime 
 trade developed by the Kai-barta or Kewut kinq;s, a caste 
 of fishermen and merchants who make marriages by mingling 
 the blood of the bride and bridegroom in addition to the 
 ordinary Sindurdan ceremony. That the country was 
 originally ruled by races in touch with the Oraons of Chutia 
 Nagpur, sons of the Kurum almond-tree, is proved by the 
 fact that their Kadumba almond-tree is still the sacred 
 tree in the precincts of the ancient Tamluk temple of Kali, 
 dedicated to Vishnu, the year-god of the Peacock race '. 
 
 The name of the seaport shows first that its founders were, 
 like the Oraons, of Dravidian origin, their language being a 
 Dravidian dialect, for the Sanskrit Tamra is a form of the 
 Dravidian Thambiram, copper, and it stamps it as the port 
 of the copper merchants of the Bronze Age, and proves that 
 they must have been great exporters of the metal. This 
 was originally used without alloy, as we learn from the 
 copper razors of the barbers, the copper axes belonging to 
 Colonel Samuells found near Baragunda, and the copper 
 knives found by Dr. Schliemann in the oldest but one of 
 the six super-imposed Troyan cities. But it must have been 
 very soon mixed with alloys of zinc and tin. These metals 
 and also copper are found near together in Udaipur in 
 Rajputana^, and it was there probably under the super- 
 intendence of the Khati of the adjoining country of Khatiawar 
 sacred to the year-god Krishna or Vishnu, whose port 
 Dwarika is on its coasts, that Indian brass and bronze was 
 first made for internal use and foreign export. And the 
 ancestors of the first hereditary braziers, the Kassara or 
 Khasbaras, probably accompanied the Jain Khati kings 
 
 ' Hunter, Gazetteer of India, Tamluk, vol. xiii. pp. 172, I73- 
 ' Ibid., Udaipur, vol. xiii. p. 401. 
 
 ' Beames, Elliott's Memoirs of the Races of the North-Western Provinces 
 of India, y/oi. i. p. 159. 
 
 Q q 3 
 
596 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of the Peacock dynasty to Chutia Nagpur, where they estab- 
 lished the brass trade of Manbhum, the district in which 
 Dalmi is situated. 
 
 These trading kings who fought their way through India 
 from the west founded the great merchant caste of Bengal, 
 the Subarna or Su-varna Baniks, the Bengal Suvama Shu 
 traders. It is to this caste who boast their descent from 
 the Kushika father-gods Kashyapa, Gautuma and Vyasa, 
 and which is celebrated for the beauty of its women, that 
 the great merchant families of the Pals, who gave to Bengal 
 the dynasty of Pal kings^ the Lahas, Des, Chandras Sinhas 
 or Sils belong, and they show equal ability in literature and 
 in commerce ^. Barbers occupy an important position as 
 priests at their weddings. 
 
 It appears to be almost certain that it was under the rule 
 of the barber priests and merchant kings that Tamralipti 
 was made the principal trading port between Bengal and 
 Malacca, the tin yielding country of the Malay Chams of 
 Cambodia, who were, as we have seen, so closely related to 
 the Indian sons of the banyan fig-tree, and who had inherited 
 from India the worship of Shiva, of the mother banyan fig- 
 tree, and the incense cult I have described in pp. 378 — 383. 
 It was thence that tin extracted by the Malay miners, wor- 
 shippers of the white buffalo, was much more easily pro- 
 cured than from Eastern India, for the only tin deposit in 
 Chutia Nagpur is so poor in quality that it has never been 
 worked. It was the exchange of Tamluk copper with 
 Malay tin extracted by the mining brethren of the Indian 
 Mallis which made bronze the metal of India and intro- 
 duced the Bronze Age of the Pandava kings. 
 
 The historical retrospect thus traced from the trade tra- 
 ditions, the evidence of the Indian copper-mines, ritual and 
 customs of the Copper and Bronze Age, coincides exactly 
 with that I have already sketched in pp. 417 — 419, 477, 478, 
 from the Mahabharata and Harivansa, in telling the history 
 
 ' Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Surbama-banik, vol. ii. pp. 261— 266. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 597 
 
 of Shishu-pala, Krishna the Bhoja Ugra king and his son 
 Kansa. It was after the final victory of Krishna that the 
 Jain community of merchant warriors established the rule 
 of the Suvarna in Eastern India, made the Kushika revol- 
 ving mountain Mandara their sacred mountain Paris-nath, 
 the lord {^ath) of the traders {Paris-Panri), and made the 
 sons of Rishabha the bull supreme rulers of the land. It is 
 as a survival of the imperial rule of the sons of Indra the 
 eel-god, who became the bufifalo-bull, that the Rajas of Pachete, 
 once the rulers of Manbhum, the country in which the Jain 
 capital Dalmi was, retain the bull as their cognizance ; and 
 the Rajas of Chutia Nagpur, who were originally Nagbunsi, 
 sons of the Naga snake, wear on the day of their coronation 
 a turban twisted into a peculiar shape to represent the horns 
 of their new bull ancestor, and the maker of their turban 
 holds a village granted to his forefathers free of all payment 
 except the discharge of the duty of making the coronation 
 bull's turban of the Raja. 
 
 It was from this amalgamation of alien and indigenous races 
 that the Bharata confederacy was formed under the rule of 
 the Mayura or Peacock kings, Their leaders were the 
 Licchavis, the sons of the Akkadian dog {Hg), who joined 
 the tiger-born Mallis to form the Vaggian tribes of the sons 
 of the tiger (vyaghra), Pali {vyaggho), who in Buddhist 
 history ruled the country to the east of the Gangetic valley. 
 Their chief clan was that of the warrior Gnatris or Gnatikas, 
 sons of the goddess-mother Gna, to which the last or twenty- 
 foUrth Jain Tlrthakara Mahavira belonged '. She is the 
 female synonym of Agni the fire-god in Rig. iv. 9, I. The 
 Gnas are spoken of in many places in the Rigveda as the 
 divine mothers, and are specially connected with Tvashtar*, 
 the god of the primitive year of two {tvd) seasons, being 
 called in Rig. i. 161, 4, his women. They are thus clearly 
 the raother-tree-goddesses who became fire-mothers as the 
 
 ' Jacobi,/aj»a Sutras, Kalpa Sutra, 89, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxii, 
 p. 248. 
 " Rig. X. 61, 3, vii. 35, 6. 
 
SgS Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 fire socket ignited by the fire-drill and the primitive mother- 
 stars. Their name allied to the Sanskrit Jani, the birth- 
 mother, is the equivalent of the Greek r^vvrj, the Cwen or 
 Queen Mother (A.-S. Cwen Goth kwens) of the Goth-Saxon 
 horse worshippers, who were among the earliest burners of 
 the dead. The mining sons of this divine mother of fire, 
 the wooden fire-socket, were the dwarf Celtic race of miners 
 who in Europe became the Iberian Celts of Auvergne and 
 Central France. In India they were the dwarf Asuras and 
 Lobars, whose average height is only about 163 centi-metres, 
 or 5 ft. 4 in., and the cephalic index 75 i. They introduced 
 into India with the rule of kings the Oraon land tenures 
 giving an area of royal land in each village to the kings, 
 which, as I have shown in p. 429 ff., was very similar to the 
 Goidelic and Brythonic tenures in Wales and the manor 
 tenures of England, and these were founded on the earlier 
 tenures of the Picts, the painted Pitaro Barhishadah, to whom 
 was offered half of the parched barley meal, of which the 
 other half was made into porridge for the Pitaro Agni- 
 shvattah. 
 
 The race of the fathers who burned their dead was allied 
 with the sons of the mother-fire-goddess, called in the 
 Rigveda Matar-i-shvan, the mother of the dog {shvan), who 
 came to India, according to the title of the second Mandala 
 of the Rigveda, as the Median collected race the Saunaka, 
 or sons of the dog-mother, and of Bhrigu the fire-father. 
 They were the yellow Finns who as the race of Hari, the 
 tawny sons of Shari, the cloud or water {shard) mother, 
 furnished two of the twenty- four Jain Tirthakaras *. They 
 who had passed through the stages of national development 
 in which the dead were adandoned to the birds and beasts 
 and afterwards burned them, now burnt them before burial, 
 and became the young {kana) race represented by the Kanva 
 
 ' Risley, Tribes and Casks of Bengal, Anthropo metric Data, vol. i. pp. viii., 
 xxxiv. 
 
 ' Jacobi, Jaina Sutras^ Kalfa Sulras, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxii. 
 p. 218. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 599 
 
 priests, the reputed authors of the eighth Mandala of the 
 Rigveda. Their reputed father Kanva was, as we have seen, 
 the nominal father of Sakuntala, the Bharata mother born 
 on the Malini river of the Malli. 
 
 These Kanvas were priests of the Yadu-Turvasu and of 
 the mountain-god Arbuda, whose shrine is the sacred Jain 
 mountain Arbuda or Abu in Sirohi in Rajputana. This is 
 the god of the Vid-arba, or people of the double {vi) four 
 (arda), the name given in the Mahabharata to the people 
 of Central India. He is apparently a year-god whose year 
 ended at the winter solstice when he was trodden underfoot 
 by Indra, slain by the frost of winter when the seven streams 
 were released by the cutting off his head after he who was, 
 as we shall see, the upper or northern pressing stone of the 
 Soma-mill, was thrown from on high and thrust down to 
 the depths by Indra as the sun-god reaching the south and 
 ending his year at the winter solstice^. He is named five 
 times in the second and eighth Mandalas out of the seven 
 times he is mentioned in the Rigveda. 
 
 On his sacred mountain near the copper mines of Sirohi 
 and the tin and copper mines of Udaipur, of which he is 
 the guardian, are two of the finest existing Jain temples ; 
 one of Adinath or Rishabha, the first Tirthakara, and one 
 of Neminath, the lord of the wheel {nemi), or Aristanemi, 
 the twenty-second Tirthakara ruling, as we have seen, this 
 year 2. 
 
 They are the upper and nether millstones of Jain theology, 
 and it is under this symbol that Jarat-Karna and his counter- 
 part Arbuda are worshipped in Vedic ritual. They are the 
 two pressing or grinding stones which extract the sap of 
 the sacrificial Soma, and in the ritual of the Soma sacrifice 
 they are invoked in four Vedic verses, two to Savitar the 
 sun-bird Su, the root of Savitar, and two to Indra 3. After 
 
 ' Rig. i. 51, 6, viii. 32, 3, 26, x. 67, 12, 14, 4. 
 
 ' Hunter, Imperial Gazetteer of India, Abu, vol. i. ppi 8, 91 
 
 3 Rig, 24, 3, V. 81, I, viii. 81, i, viii. i, i. 
 
6oo Pritnitive Traditional History. 
 
 these are recited fourteen stanzas of the hymn x. 94, ascribed 
 to the Rishi Arbuda. la this hymn (stanzas 6, 7, 8) the 
 pressing stones are invoked as drawn by ten horses furnished 
 with bridles and harnessed to ten poles, the ten sacrificial 
 stakes indicating the ten gestation months of the cycle-year. 
 Before the last stanza of this hymn, Rig. x. 76, ascribed to 
 Jarat-karna, and x. 175, ascribed to Arbuda, are recited, and 
 they are both addressed to the Gravanah or pressing stones 
 pierced with the holes through wliich the bar uniting them is 
 inserted ^. 
 
 In the titles of these hymns Jarat-karna is called Airavata, 
 or the elephant bull, and Arbuda Urddhva-grava, the pressing 
 stone lifted up to heaven, and both are said to belong to the 
 serpent (sarpa) race of Nagur^, Arbuda being the son or 
 counterpart of Kadru, the mother-tree {dru) of the Nagas, 
 the goddess Ka or Who, the invisible and intangible germ 
 soul of life. This ceremony forms part of the ritual of the 
 midday pressing sacred to the meridian sun to which Indra 
 is summoned as chief god. These father and mother-stones, 
 the revolving heaven drill which presses out on the nether 
 mother-stone the life-giving sap of the Soma plants placed 
 between them, are the pair called in the Mahabharata Jarat- 
 karu, they who make old. The male belongs to the sect 
 of the Yaya-vara, the wandering mendicants, the early 
 Jains, whose god was the full-moon-god Yayati, the father 
 of the Yadu-Turvasu. The female was the sister of Vasuki, 
 the snake-god ruling the summer solstice. The male Jarat- 
 karu, as the dying sun-god who has fulfilled his yearly task 
 of begetting his successor, leaves his mate when Ashtaka 
 is begotten as the god of eight [ashta), the sun-god of the 
 true Soma of the next chapter, VI. He is the sun-god of 
 the eight-rayed star of day worshipped by the Akkadians 
 as Dingir and Esh-shu, meaning both god and an ear of 
 
 ■ Rig. X. 94, II. 
 
 = Ludwig, Rigveda, vol. ii. Hymns 785, 786, 787, pp. 412—415 ; Eggelingi 
 Shat. Brah., iv. 3, 31, vol. xxvi. p. 331, note, I, 332. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 60 1 
 
 corn I. His parents are in short the fire-drill and fire sockets 
 of heaven and earth which kindled the year-fires of the New 
 Year of solar worship. 
 
 ' Ball, Akkadian Affinities of Chinese, Transactions of the Ninth Oriental 
 Congress of Orientalists in China, Central Asia, and the Far East, p. 685 ; 
 Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. preface, p. 28. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The fifteen-months year of the sun-god of the 
 eight- rayed star and the eight-days week. 
 
 A. History of the founders of the year. 
 
 WE have seen in the last chapter that the close of the 
 epoch of the eleven-months year of the sons of the 
 black horse's head was marked in India by the rise of a 
 new organisation controlled by a fresh influx of northern 
 invaders of Gotho-Finnic origin, under whose rule the human 
 and animal sacrifices characterising this and the cycle-year 
 were greatly reduced in numbers, and only occupied in 
 Indian ritual a subordinate position to the offerings of liba- 
 tions of honey-drink, milk and melted butter which suc- 
 ceeded the sesame oil of the early immigrants from Asia 
 Minor, when the worship of the mother-cow bull and calf 
 followed that of the buffalo. 
 
 The beginning of this age is marked in the history of land 
 tenure and national organisation by the Pattidari villages 
 of the ruling Jats, which were not, like the original Indian 
 villages, communal associations of cultivators holding the 
 whole area of the village and dividing it by periodical re- 
 divisions among the members of the community, nor those 
 of the Oraon and Gond types, in which shares were given 
 to the king and his provincial representative, but were con- 
 federacies of families each holding their own portion of land 
 within the village area. 
 
 The European prototype of these family unions was the 
 Bauerschaft of North-western Europe divided into Hofs or 
 separate farms. The leading proprietor or ruler is the 
 Hauptman, Headman or Captain, and his house is the 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 603 
 
 Recht-hof or Court of Judgment, the meeting-place of the 
 united farmers analogous to but differing from the Gemeinde 
 Haus of the communal village. This Low German Bauer- 
 schaft corresponds with the Bratsvos, or community of 
 brothers of the Southern Slavs, described by Schrader^. 
 Each Bratsvo owns a landed estate in which a definite 
 and compact portion is allotted to each family. The num- 
 ber of men capable of bearing arms in a Bratsvo range 
 from about thirty to eight hundred, and hence they were 
 both a cultivating and fighting community organised both 
 for defence and offence under a leader chosen by the Brats- 
 venici or brotherhood, and thoroughly equipped for such a 
 campaign as that undertaken by Krishna and the reforming 
 Jains in their conquering march from West to East India. 
 In the Jat organisation these Pattidari village tenures were 
 those of the earlier immigrants, the Hele or Desh-wali Jats, 
 dwellers in the country [desk), who in Mathura, his birth- 
 place, worship the god Ram, called Vala-rama, the circling 
 [vala) Rama, the brother of Krishna, also called Halayudha, 
 he who has the plough {kal) for his weapon (ayudhd) ^, that 
 is to say he is the god of the Great Bear plough. His 
 parent-tree was, as we shall see presently, the date-palm- 
 trees succeeding the earlier fig-trees. These Hele Jats are 
 also called Bhatti, or men of the bards (bhat), and Malwa 
 Jats as settlers among the earlier Malli races. It was their 
 bards who, like those of the ancient Hebrew sons of Shem, 
 the name of god, preserved the national history in the form 
 of a mythic genealogy like that kept by the Hebrews and 
 preserved in various forms in the Adi Parva, the first canto 
 of the Mahabharata, in both of which the names were 
 symbols used to dramatise the national history recorded in 
 India in the Mahabharata Harivansa and the Puranic 
 
 ' Jevons, Schrader's Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryans, part iv. chap, xii, 
 sect. iii. p. 397. 
 
 ' Beames, Elliott's Memoirs of the Races of the North- Western Provinces 
 cf India, vol. i. pp. 130, 137 ; Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, 
 vol, i, essay v. pp. 480—485. 
 
6o4 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 legends, and these histories were in their original form 
 handed down by word of mouth by the national historio- 
 graphers, and when popularised were transferred from bard 
 to bard. 
 
 It was under the rule of the later Dhe, the Pachade or 
 Western Jats, who were sun -worshippers like the Brythonic 
 Celts, to whom they seem to be allied, that the bards became 
 more especially attached to certain families whose traditions 
 they versified, and in these histories the chief king and 
 founder of the clan, who was not as in former mythologies 
 a sun-bird or sun-deer, a flying sun-ass issuing from his 
 stable in the Constellation Cancer, or a sun-pillar Ra or 
 Ragh, became a god man, the Phoenician fire-god Eshmun, 
 the Hindu Ashtaka, son of the eighth, the offspring of the 
 eight divine parents who were originally the eight quarters 
 of space, but who in the mythology of the era were the seven 
 stars of the Great Bear and the Pole Star. In the Pole Star 
 worship the belief in the original Pole Star ape was revived, 
 and he was depicted as revolving with the revolving heavens, 
 as the leader of the circling stars whose left thigh was the 
 Great Bear, from which, as we shall see, the sun-god of the 
 year was born as the successor of the rider on Pegasus and 
 the Charioteer Auriga of the eleven-months year, whose reins 
 (p. 32) were the stars of the Great Bear. 
 
 The present chief representatives of the Malwa or earlier 
 Jats in the Punjab are the Rajas of Patiala, Nabha and Jind, 
 all of whom trace their descent to the Jat confederacy of 
 Mahraj in the Ferozepore district. Their institutions were 
 originally, like those of the Slavonic Bratsvos, thoroughly 
 republican, for when they came under British protection they 
 were not governed by Rajas but by a Panchayat or council 
 of elders, like the Spartan Ephors chosen by the 6,728 Jat 
 freeholders ^ Confederacies like these were so careful of 
 their independence that the people of Khytul belonging to 
 
 ' Sir G. Campbell, AutoHograJihy, vol. ii, p. 42 ; Hunter, Gazetteer of India, 
 Mahraj, vol. ix. p. 184. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 605 
 
 the Mahraj group would not admit a tax collector into their 
 city, but paid their land revenue over the wall, and they were 
 most particular in isolating themselves from their neighbours. 
 Thus the Jat village of Jagraon in the Ludhiana district was 
 divided into eight Puttis or wards, Jagraon being in the 
 centre, and it and the seven circumjacent Puttis were all 
 carefully fortified against each other. 
 
 These precautions recall the days when similar rivalry and 
 exclusiveness separated the united dwellers on the seven hills 
 of Rome, when, as we have seen, the men of the quarter of 
 the Palatine Via Sacra fought with those of the Suburra for 
 the head of the horse sacrificed as the old year's horse at the 
 Equiria. But these customs, though they are permeated 
 with the spirit of northern isolation, yet show that those who 
 observed them had so far lost their original dread of contact 
 with their neighbours, who were possible foes, the " hostes " 
 who in Latin speech were both enemies and strangers, as to 
 live in walled towns and to have adopted, when they settled 
 in the Dravidian land of Indra, the local village institutions 
 which entrusted the rule of the community to the village 
 elders; and they also, though they protected themselves 
 against their neighbours, were subject to the provincial and 
 royal authorities within whose territories they settled. 
 
 It was among the federated races of India of whom the 
 Western Dhe Jats were the latest comers that the creed of 
 the Phoenician believers in the ape-born man-sun-god, whose 
 left Thigh was the Constellation of the Great Bear, succeeded 
 that of the worshippers of the black horse's head and the 
 chariot-star Auriga. 
 
 B. The birth of the sun-god born of the Thigh. 
 
 The origin of this year is told in the account in the 
 Brahmanas of the kindling on the national altar of the year- 
 fires of this year of the man-sun-god, that of the Avatar 
 
6o6 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of Krishna, as Narayana, the god of the age {ayand) of the 
 son of man (nara), which took place when Krishna got from 
 Varuna the year discus and Arjuna the Gandiva bow and 
 ape-bannered car, and when they both went forth in their 
 expedition to burn the Khandava forest of the old altarless 
 snake-gods I. The ritual distinctly shows that it followed 
 the year of eleven months. The first sacrificial fire kindled 
 in Indian national sacrifice was that on the earthen altar 
 made in the form of a woman, corresponding to that of the 
 earliest Semite altar of burnt-offerings =, and at its ignition 
 eleven Samidheni or kindling stanzas were in the ritual of 
 the eleven-months year recited to the eleven gods ruling it, 
 who were those invoked in the eleven stanzas of the Apri 
 hymns. In the new rule introduced with the adoption of 
 this year, which showed that it was a direct successor of its 
 predecessor, the eleven Samidheni stanzas were to be repeated 
 as in the old ritual, but the first and last were to be repeated 
 thrice to make fifteen, the number of months in the new year. 
 These stanzas, which are expressly said to represent a year 
 of 360 days, were to be in the Gayatri metre sacred to Agni, 
 the god of the altar-fire, with eight syllables in each line, 
 and each of the fifteen contained twenty-four syllables. 
 Hence the Samidheni hymn summoning Agni to sit on the 
 sheaves (barhis) of the altar as the sun-fire-god was an 
 epitomized description of this year of fifteen months, each 
 of twenty-four days and three eight-day weeks 3, Also the 
 introduction of this year of 360 days succeeding that of 
 363 days shows a reversion to the original solar year of 
 360 days of the sun-bird and Orion. Moreover this change 
 shows that when it was introduced the alien invaders of the 
 eleven-months year had at the time of its adoption as the 
 national year 4 been absorbed into the original Dravidian 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi {Khandava-daha) Parva, ccxxvi., ccxxvii. pp. 622—626. 
 = Exodus XX. 24. 
 
 3 Eggeling, Shat. Brah., i. 3, S, 4—9, i. 4. I. 7. Sacred Books of the 
 East, vol. xii. pp. 96, 97, note, 102, note i, 103. 
 < No national ritual was ever universally observed throughout India; each 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 607 
 
 confederacy, and had assented to the new year measurement 
 and national ritual framed at the time of their absorption. 
 
 The divine agents who were believed to have introduced 
 the new year were the Ashvins, who, as we have seen, were 
 active agents in the year of the cycle-year and in the eleven- 
 months year of thirty-three-day months. It was they who in 
 Rig. i. 34, 1 1 brought their thirty-three gods to drink madhu 
 or honey-drink, the intoxicating mead of the early Soma 
 worshippers ; and it was they who changed the Great Bear 
 reins of the year-chariot into the Great Bear Thigh-parent 
 of the sun-god who pursued his own independent retrograde 
 course round the heavens. And he was thus substituted for 
 the stars Pegasus and Auriga who led the eleven-months 
 year. 
 
 To trace the history of this god born of the Thigh we 
 must go to the Mahabharata and the Shatapatha Brahmana. 
 In the Mahabharata Aurva the god born of the Thigh {Uru) 
 is called the son of Chyavana, the son of Bhrigu and of 
 Arushi, the red one, daughter of Manu, the fire kindled in 
 the fire-socket. Chyavana, whose name means " the moving 
 one," is the fire-drill who begot the sun-god born of the 
 Thigh, the revolving Great Bear Stars ^. In another story 
 of his birth he is called the sun born from a woman of the 
 Bhrigu race who fled from the persecuting Kshatrya warriors, 
 the sons of Ugra who introduced the eleven-months year. 
 When they tried to kill her he emerged from her thigh and 
 blinded them by his light. His mother told them that to 
 recover their sight they must pray to the young sun-god, 
 and he made their eyes to see in answer to their prayers, 
 and threw the fire of his wrath on to the ocean as the horse's 
 head of the eleven-months year, called Vadavamukha, he 
 
 tribe and organised section of the community used that peculiar to themselves, 
 but at the same time many of them joined in the festivals of their neighbours 
 and of the ruling authorities of the states in which they lived, but everyone 
 was free to do as they liljcd in these matters except in so far as they were 
 bound by caste rules, the only restraint on individual liberty. 
 • Mahabharata Adi {Sambhava) Parva, Ixvi. p. 191. 
 
6o8 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 who speaks from the left (vdma), and who was the god whom 
 he superseded. But when this fire seemed likely to burn up 
 the ocean and was threatening to destroy all the Rakshasas, 
 the sons of the tree [ruhk), with the sacrifice which was being 
 performed by Parashara, the god of the overhanging cloud, 
 the son of the rain-god Shaktri, Shukra or Sakko, the leader 
 of the thirty-three gods of the Tavatimsa heaven, said to be 
 his father's counterpart and second self, Parashara agreed to 
 extinguish it at the request of Kratu, Pulahu and Pulashya, 
 three stars in the Great Bear '. And then Shaktri or Indra 
 was sent up to heaven as a star, which was, as we shall see, 
 the leading star in the Great Bear. 
 
 In this second form of the story the son of the Thigh is 
 clearly represented as introducing the new age of national 
 peace by casting the horse's head of the eleven-months 
 year into the ocean, and as substituting for it the new year 
 brought in by Parashara, the cloud-god, in the form of the 
 original cloud-bird which measured the year by the rainy 
 seasons. 
 
 A similar history of this change is told in the story telling 
 the part taken by the Ashvins in introducing the new year 
 of the thigh-born son of Chyavana and Arushi. They are 
 said to have brought about the birth of the son bom of 
 their marriage. In the Shatapatha Brahmana Chyavana is 
 described as the almost dead god who was once the sun- 
 gnomon-stone, but who in the age of the eleven-months 
 year had become an object of derision. He was found by 
 Sharyata the Manava, the son of Manu, who was the god 
 of the Great Bear arrow {skarya), and who gave him his 
 daughter, here called Su-konya the sun-maiden, in marriage, 
 and the task of restoring the decrepit husband's youth was 
 undertaken by the Ashvins. They plunged him in the Pool 
 of Regeneration, the southern waters of re-birth, the Cauldron 
 of Dagda, the death and birth-place of the southern sun 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi (Ckaitra-ratka) Parva, clxxx. — clxxxiii. pp. 512 — 519; 
 Sachau, Alberuni's India, vol. i. chap. xlv. Of the Constellation of the Great 
 Bear, p. 390. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 609 
 
 re-born at the winter solstice ; and when he emerged from 
 his bath as the young sun-god the Ashvins, who had hitherto 
 been the twins day and night, the twin lords of generation 
 of the twin stars in Aries, were raised to heaven to drink 
 Soma with the gods as the stars Gemini, which, as we shall 
 see, were those in which the sun-gods of the year began their 
 yearly course. At their reception in heaven the gods were 
 reciting the Bahish-pavamana, which, as we have seen, was 
 recited when the sacrificial horse was being led up to be 
 yoked in the year-chariot which he was to take round the 
 heavens in the yearly circuit he made before he was slain 
 as a dead year-god. Hence the recital of this hymn here 
 recorded when the Ashvins were received among the gods 
 tells us that they as the stars Gemini were to rule the year 
 of the regenerated sun-god, whose name was to be Aurva, 
 the god born of the Thigh, and whom they were starting 
 on his year's course from the constellation allotted to them '. 
 This hymn to the rain-god Pavamana, to whom all the 
 hymns of the ninth Mandala of the Rigveda are addressed, 
 is one of nine lines in the Gayatri metre of eight syllables, 
 and thus contains 72 syllables commemorating the original 
 year of seventy-two five-day weeks measured by the rainy 
 seasons of the cloud-bird, and in the Brihad Aranyika 
 Upanishad we are still further instructed than in the in- 
 stances I have now quoted as to the meaning of its ritualistic 
 use, for we are told that it was by the chanting of this hymn, 
 the Udgitha, that the Divas, the sun-god of the new solar 
 worship, overcame the Ashuras of the eleven-months year, 
 whose services were silent ^. To the Ashvins thus received as 
 year-stars the three-lipped cup representing the three seasons 
 of the year was allotted, and it was filled not with madhu, the 
 intoxicating honey-drink, the secret of which they had learnt 
 from Dadhiank the Atharvan, the god of the horse's head. 
 
 Jing, Shat. Brdh., xiii. 5, I, 16, xiii. 2, 3, I, Sacred Books of the 
 East, vol. xliv. pp. 384, 304. 
 
 ' Max Miiller, Upanishad Brihad Aranyika Upanishad, i. 3, i, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xv. p. 78. 
 
 11. R r 
 
6io Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 but with pure Soma or holy sap pressed out by soma- 
 pressing stones from the sacred mother-plant, and this was 
 offered to these madhu-drinking gods, who were addressed 
 in the words of Rig. i. 22, 3, calling upon them to infuse 
 intoxicating honey into it with their divine rod whence honey 
 dropped. This cup thus made symbolically intoxicating was 
 to be drunk as the tenth of the Soma cups offered at the 
 New Year's sacrifice ', that is to say, it was to be the cup 
 of the tenth month of gestation of the year-god. 
 
 The hymn of invitation recognising these twin-ruling stars 
 as the agents who introduced the new sun-god of eight-day 
 weeks was recited at the Chatvala pit, whence the earth was 
 taken for the Uttara-vedi or northern altar, on which, as we 
 have seen, were roasted the offered portions of the animal 
 victims slain at the sacrificial stakes, which, as well as the 
 Chat-vala, was outside the consecrated ground. The pit was 
 at its north-east corner, so that the sun-god invoked at it was 
 the rising sun of the summer solstice =. 
 
 This pit was especially associated with the ritual which 
 looked on the year as a recurring series of ceremonial ser- 
 vices marking its progress, for it was into it that at the 
 Samishtayajus ceremonies at the end of the annual Soma 
 sacrifice that there were thrown the Udumbara throne 
 {asundi) of the Soma year-king 3, the Udumbara {Fiats 
 glomeratd) wild fig-tree, the supporting pillar of the priest's 
 house {sadas') of the year-gods, and the Drona kalasa or 
 hollowed tree-trunk in which the Soma sap of the year 
 was stored. These were afterwards transferred to the temple 
 pool. Together with these the sacrificer threw into the pit 
 his year-girdle of three strands, signifying the three seasons 
 of the year, and the black deer's horn he wore at the rim 
 of his sacrificial surplice as a reminiscence of the original 
 
 " Eggeling, Shat. Brah., iv. I, S, I — 19, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxvi. 
 pp. 272 — 278. 
 
 = Ibid., iv. 2, 5, 9, iii. 3, i, 76, ibid., vol. xxiii. pp. 309, 116, notes i and 3. 
 3 Ibid., iii. 3, 4, 27, ibid., xxvi. p. 84. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 6ii 
 
 year of the black antelope i. The ceremonies performed 
 at the Chatvala pit recognised the beginning and end of a 
 year opening, like the northern year commemorated at 
 Stonehenge, with the rising sun, and thus differed from 
 the southern year of the setting sun, and it is thus a re- 
 production of the Trika-dru-ka year. Hence the New 
 Year sacrifice deifying the Ashvins as the stars Gemini, 
 the constellation in which the sun was to be born, included 
 this year as well as that of the original cloud and sun-bird. 
 
 To bring the ritualistic historical record down from the 
 original Bahish - pavamana year of the sun - bird to the 
 Gayatri year another chant of eleven verses was added 
 to it. The first of these stanzas is called Shiras, the 
 head, and the second Grivah, the neck, shewing it to be 
 a year-hymn of the eleven-months year of the horse's 
 neck. This hymn is called the head of the sacrifice 
 offered by Dadhiank, the god of the horse's head 2, that 
 is to say, it declared the sacrifice to be one proclaiming 
 the succession of the sun born of the Thigh as year- 
 god of Dadhiank's year. To complete the proof of the 
 correctness of this history of the sun-god born of the Thigh 
 as told in Hindu tradition and ritual, we must turn to the 
 Manvantara period of Manu, the measuring-god, and his 
 counterpart Indra. In the first of the lists of the fourteen 
 gods of time of this calendar of Manu and Indra, the first 
 star is Svayambhava, the self-begotten, the Pole Star, but 
 in the second list recording the twin gods of the age of the 
 rule of the Great Bear, the first star is Ur-ja stambha, the 
 pillar {stambha) of the thigh {uru) born god, and this pillar- 
 god as the first star in the Great Bear is followed, in the 
 second Manvantara, by the eleven children of Vashishtha 3, 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., iv. 4, 5, 2, iii. 2, i— 18, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xxvi. pp. 379, notes 2 and 3, 29, 30. 
 
 ' Ibid,, iv. I, S, 15, xiv. I, 18—24, i^'i'^-) ■^°'' ^^- P- ^^^• "°'^ '' ''''^• 
 PP- 444. 445- 
 
 3 Sachau, Alberuni's India, vol. i. chap. xliv. Of the Manvantaras, xlii. 
 Of the Great Bear, pp. 387, 394. 
 
 R r 2 
 
6i2 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the god of the altar fire whence Aurva, the sun-god of the 
 Thigh, was born as the son of the rejuvenated fire-drill 
 and fire-sockets. The sun-god born from the thigh of the 
 Pole Star ape-god is in Greek mythology Dionysos, son 
 of Semele, daughter of Athamas or Tammuz, Dumu-zi, 
 the star Orion, who was the Phoenician goddess Pen Sam- 
 lath, the face {pen) of the name {shem) of god, the female 
 mother-goddess who had passed through the stages of the 
 tree-mother, and the Phoenician goddess Tanais or Tanit, the 
 female form of the male fish-god Tan of the creating mud 
 of the South, who is called by Strabo the parent goddess 
 of the Persian and Zend creeds, Anahita, the cloud-bird- 
 mother of the springs whence the Euphrates rose '. Her son 
 was born prematurely as his cloud-mother was burnt up 
 by Zeus, who wooed her as the sun-faced storm-god scat- 
 tering the clouds with his rays. Then Zeus, as the heaven- 
 ruling Pole Star ape, took him up to heaven and placed him 
 in his thigh as the parent Great Bear Star of the new sun-god 
 of this age. This god was born as the Sabaean god of barley 
 [sabaid), the sacred mother-plant of the Greeks, Iberians, and 
 the people of northern India, whence was made his barley- 
 beer, which preceded his later wine. 
 
 When born he passed through two stages, first Hermes, 
 the god of the pillar (ep/jia), gave him to Athamas and 
 his wife Ino, the seagull goddess of the Kredemnon or 
 zodiacal ribbon, p. 541, as the sun-maiden who was, as we 
 have seen, wedded in India to Pushan, the god of the con- 
 stellation Cancer, and to Soma, the male moon-god who with 
 his ten sons became the year-god of the eleven-months year. 
 When the epoch called in the Mahabharata that of the mad- 
 ness of Kalmashapada, the god of the star-spotted feet 
 (kalmasha) began, Athamas and Ino were in Greek mytho- 
 logy stricken by Here, the goddess of stella-lunar time, 
 with the madness of the age of the eleven-months year. 
 Then Zeus changed the sun-maiden mother of the gods 
 
 ■ Movers, Die Phonitier, vol. i. pp. 617, 618 ; Strabo, xi. p. 432. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 613 
 
 of the eleven-months year into the sun-ram, and entrusted 
 him to the nymphs of Nysa, whom he placed in the stars 
 as the Hyades, and they brought him up in a cave ^. 
 
 This account tells us that the god Dionysos, who was first 
 the barley-god and became the wine-god, was first the sun- 
 maiden, the cloud and mist daughter of the sun, and was 
 afterwards born as the year-god of the year ruled by the sun- 
 ram, who, as the sun-god, was born in the Hyades, the com- 
 panion stars to the Pleiades, both of which form his groups 
 inside the stars of Taurus. He was the sun-god born in the 
 cave of the South, when the sun was in Taurus at the winter 
 solstice, about 10,700 B.C., at the end of November — Decem- 
 ber, and immediately after his birth the sun-god in December 
 — January entered Gemini, the birth-constellation of the gods 
 of this age. 
 
 The god thus born was Dionysos Nuktelios, the sun of 
 night, whose festival, the Lesser Dionysia of the winter 
 solstice, is said by Hesychius to take place in Poseidon 
 (December — January). It is called by Pausanias the Thyan 
 festival, which is in Virg. M,n. iv. 300 — 303 said to be that 
 at which Dionysos is worshipped at night. Pliny says that 
 on the 5th of January at Andros in Elis the fountain in his 
 temple yielded wine. It was a festival of the death and 
 rebirth of the sun-god accompanied by orgiastic rites, and at 
 it a boy was sacrificed to Dionysos, the Goat-shooter, at 
 Potniae in Boeotia =, that is to Dionysos as the son of the 
 Great Bear Thigh, which in its circuits shot the Pole Star 
 goats, round which it revolved, with the arrow of its pointer 
 stars. 
 
 This festival was held to celebrate the return of Dionysos 
 from the under-world, whither he was supposed to have gone 
 to fetch Semele, after entering it through the bottomless 
 waters of the Alcyonean Lake near Lerna. He was sum- 
 moned thence as the cow-born god by a blast of trumpets 
 
 ' Smith, Classical Dictionary, Dionysos, p. 226. 
 
 ' Frazer, Pausanias, i. 40, Si vi. 36, l, ix. 8, i, vol. i, pp. 61, 323, 324, 
 4S4> vol. ii. pp. 525, 526, vol. iv. p. Io8, v. p. 30. 
 
6i4 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 calling him to return as the bull-god of spring. His return 
 was celebrated at Pellene in Achaia by a festival of torches, 
 like that beginning the Pleiades year. It was held in the 
 temenos of his temple opposite the grove of Artemis Soteira, 
 the Great Bear goddess, and at Cynethee in Arcadia a bull 
 was sacrificed to him ^. 
 
 It was to him as the spring-god that the festival of the 
 Lensea or wine-press was held in Gamelion (January — 
 February), the marriage month of Zeus and Hera. It, as 
 Pausanias tells us, was held at Migonium in Laconia on a 
 mountain' called Larysium, and it, hke the slaying in Magh 
 (January — February) of the wedding-oxen of the Indian 
 marriage of Soma, the moon-god, and Suria, the sun-maiden, 
 was followed by the Dionysiac Anthesteria of the nth of 
 Anthesterion (Februray — March), answering to the consum- 
 mation of the Indian wedding at the new moon of Phalgun 
 (February — March), when the national New Year's festival 
 of the red race called the Hull is held. The two festivals 
 indicate different methods of year reckoning, one beginning 
 the year in January — February and the other in February — 
 March. 
 
 The Greek Festival of Anthesterion, the festival of recal 
 {avaderra-aaOai), was certainly a three days' New Year's 
 festival beginning with the Pithoigia, when the souls of the 
 dead came from the sacred cleft called the Pithoi casks, the 
 Indian Drona or hollowed tree-trunk of the mother-tree in 
 which the Soma or sap of life was pressed out for consum- 
 mation at the New Year's Soma feast. They were greeted 
 on the second day with Choai libations, and on the third 
 day, called the Chytroi, they were feasted with grain and 
 seeds 2. 
 
 This is practically a repetition of the Indian Shraddha, 
 
 ' Frazer, Pausanias, ii. 37, 4, vii. 27, I, viii. 19, I, vol. i. pp. 130, 371, 
 397, vol. iii. pp. 302, 303. 
 
 ^ Harrison, Pandora's Box; Verrall, The Name of Anthesteria, Journal 
 of Hellenic Studies, vol. xx. 1900, pp. 102— no, 116; Harrison, Prolegojnena 
 to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. ii. The Anthesteria, pp. 34 — 47. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 615 
 
 or feast to the dead, when the fathers were feasted with rice, 
 parched barley and porridge before the autumnal equinox ; 
 and this Indian feast is a repetition and reproduction of the 
 original three days' feast to the dead held on the 31st of 
 October and the ist and 2nd of November, the last day of 
 the old and the two first days of the new Pleiades year. 
 
 Also this New Year's festival of Anthesterion (February — 
 March), held from the iith to the 13th of the month, corre- 
 sponds with Indian New Year's Huli festival of the new moon 
 of Phalgun, February — March, which was, as I have shown 
 in p. 283, the New Year's festival of the red race, when red 
 powder was thrown by the partakers in the feast on one 
 another, just as comfits are thrown in the Carnival, the 
 European form of the Indian festival. 
 
 Hence in these successive allied festivals we have a repro- 
 duction of the ancient ritualistic history of the worship of 
 the dead in India, Greece and Western Europe, and also 
 evidence that the spring-god who in Greece died and was 
 re-born as the god of the new year, was the Greek god 
 Dionysos, the god of barley drink and wine made from the 
 parent vine-tree, the latest form of the god of the parent 
 barley-plant who in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, 
 Greece, Italy and Western Europe succeeded the one great 
 rice-mother. But to complete this sketch of the history of 
 Dionysos, the sun-god born of the Thigh, we must turn to 
 another form of his birth-story, in which he was not the god 
 who went down to the under-world of the South at the winter 
 solstice to bring back to earth his mother Semele, and who 
 returned as the newly-risen bull-god of spring, but the bull- 
 god Zagreus, son of Persephone, violated by Zeus, who was 
 another form of Semele as the May goddess returning to the 
 upper-world in May, and her son Zagreus was a variant form 
 of the spring-bull of the Alcyonian lake. To this birth-story 
 in the form developed in the Orphic ;mysteries a number of 
 interesting and instructive details were added. Thus in an 
 Orphic hymn we find Zegreus identified with the Idaean 
 Zeus born on Mt. Ida in Crete. This god, guarded on Ida 
 
6i6 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 by the Kouretes and Korybantes, the dancing-priests who 
 danced like the stars round the sun-god born of the Pole 
 Star, was stolen by the Titans, who lured the child away 
 by gifts of toys, a pine-cone, a rhombus or bull roarer, a 
 sounding wooden whirligig used by the Australian aborigines 
 to imitate the voice of their storm-god at their tribal festival, 
 the golden apples of the Hesperides, the mirror of the year- 
 god (p. 544), a knucklebone and a tuft of wool. They tore 
 the bull-child to pieces and ate him, but Athene saved his 
 head, which she placed in a cask, the Indian Drona or Soma 
 receptacle, whence it was brought back to life as the young 
 year-god. This story tells us that the bull-child lured away 
 by a pine-cone was the son of the pine-tree virgin-mother 
 Cybele or Rhea ; he was called by the voice of the storm- 
 god and enticed by the gift of the apples of perpetually 
 renewed life, and vested with the mirror of the all-seeing god 
 who circled the Polar heavens above the earth as the god 
 born of the rain-sun. But this god must die before his new- 
 birth, and hence he was devoured by the Titans, the men of 
 the under-world, whose name is interpreted by Miss Harrison, 
 after Eustathius, as meaning the men of the white dust 
 {titanos) or clay, with which the Orphic mystics used to daub 
 themselves ; and this simile reproduced in a Greek form the 
 name of the Akkadian supreme god Mul-lil, the lord of the 
 dust [liV), the red clay whence according to Genesis the red 
 sons of Adam were made. This dust was the dried mud 
 of the god Tan raised from the sea to become the island 
 floor of the national Valhalla open-air tent, which was the 
 conception of the tribal home of the ancient world. 
 
 This Titanic feast on the bull-god was represented in the 
 Orphic mysteries by a feast of the celebrants, who at other 
 times abstained from eating living things, on the raw flesh 
 of a sacrificial bull, a variant form of the bull slain by Mithra 
 at the winter solstice '. 
 
 ' Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion^ chap. x. Orphic 
 Mysteries, The Omophagia, pp. 480, 481, 491— 49S; Smith, Dictionary of 
 Antiquities, vol. ii. Orphica, p, 302. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 617 
 
 But this bull-feast was a survival of an early sacrifice both 
 in India and in South-western Asia, and in all Semitic and 
 Phoenician countries of new-born children. This sacrifice is 
 depicted on a vase in which a Thracian tears with his teeth 
 the flesh of a child before Dionysos Zagreus, and according 
 to Porphyry this child became a man who used to be slain 
 and torn to pieces at the Bacchic feasts. This became a 
 goat eaten raw by the Bacchants of Thrace and the bull 
 similarly eaten in Crete, while the history of the sacrifice 
 proving that it was originally a new-born child is given in 
 the ritual at Tenedos, where the animal sacrificed was a new- 
 born calf of a cow which had cothurni or shoes put on her 
 feet, and had previously to delivery been treated like a 
 woman in childbirth i. Most striking proof that the original 
 human offspring of the year-god was a new-born child slain, 
 like the first-born of Jantu the Hindu king, to produce 
 children not only from the dead child's mother but from 
 Jantu's other ninety-nine wives, is given by the recent ex- 
 cavations at Gezer, where the remains of a large number 
 of sacrificed new-born infants have been found buried in 
 earthenware jars. 
 
 Thus we can trace the history of Dionysos as the sun-god 
 born of the Thigh of the Great Bear to the worship of the 
 year-bull who had been originally the year-ape, and the con- 
 ception is one which became dominant in religion among the 
 races who called themselves sons of the cow or bull, the 
 Indian Gautuma, sons of the cow {go'), and who, as we have 
 seen in p. 258, offered at the Ekashtaka festival of Magh 
 (January — February), at the birth of the child of the majesty 
 of Indra, a cow of which the left thigh was offered to the 
 dead ancestors =. It was a development preceded by a 
 gradual alteration of sacrificial customs beginning with the 
 New Year's sacrifice of new-born infants, who were to be the 
 precursors of a largely increased number of births at the end 
 
 ' Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, chap. x. pp. 482 — 490. 
 ' Oldenburgh, Crihya Sutra Paraskara Grihya Sutra, iii. 3, 6, I — 10, Sacred 
 Books of the East, vol. xxix. pp. 341—344. 
 
6i8 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of the ten months of gestation of the cycle-year which they 
 began. 
 
 The sacrifice of the thigh and the distinction between the 
 left and right thigh opens up a most interesting chapter in 
 the history of Thigh-worship and of religious development. 
 The original sacrifice was that of the left thigh offered in 
 Hindu ritual at a feast to the dead in Magh (January — 
 February), the first form of that festival which became the 
 Greek Anthesteria and the Hindu Huli in February-March. 
 That it was an offering made in the age of the eleven- 
 months year is proved by the passage in the Mahabharata 
 telling how Duryodhana, the Kaiiravya god of the eleven- 
 months year, tried to seduce Drupadi, the Pandava goddess 
 of the mother-tree {dru), by showing her his left thigh''. 
 That Duryodhana was a year-god who ruled by the Great 
 Bear thigh and perhaps also by that of the Little Bear, is 
 proved by the account of his death when slain by Bhima, 
 son of Maroti the tree {marom) ape-god, in single combat. 
 Duryodhana challenged all the five Pandava brethren to 
 fight with him, and showed that he was a year-god by 
 saying, " Like the year which gradually meets all the seasons 
 I shall meet all of you in fight "." The Pandavas represented 
 the five seasons of the year, and Bhima, whom they deputed 
 to fight Duryodhana, was god of the summer ending with 
 the summer solstice. It was this conquering god of summer 
 which ended the war between the gods of the eleven-months 
 year and those of the solar years succeeding it, by breaking 
 both Duryodhana's thighs, and thus killing the leader of the 
 age when time was reckoned by the fixed stars. The new 
 solar reckoning of time introduced after the Pandavas victory 
 and Duryodhana's death was that of the circling sun-god 
 Parikshit, which I will describe presently. 
 
 The worship of the year-god of the left thigh belongs 
 to Celtic as well as to Indian religious history. This god 
 Was Cu-chulainn, who was, as I have shown, the slayer of 
 
 • Mahabharata Sabha (Anadyuta) Parva, Ixxi. p. 191. 
 
 = Mahabharata Shalya {Gud Ayudha) Parva, xxxii. 17, p. 127. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 619 
 
 twenty-seven brethren and the conqueror of the gods of 
 the cycle-year. We are told in the story of his death that 
 his strength dwelt in his left thigh, and the accounts of how 
 he lost it and was consequently slain reproduces in a striking 
 form the history of the supersession of the god of the eleven- 
 months year by the god of the year of eight-day weeks. 
 Lugaid his slayer was the son of Fergus Fairge or Fergus, 
 the ocean-god of the southern waste of waters. It was into 
 the lap of Fergus that the brooch with which Maine fastened 
 her cloak fell from the hoofs of the sun-horse, and Maine 
 was, as we shall see presently, the goddess of the eight-days 
 week of the eight Maine, the links of the chain that bound 
 together this year of fifteen months'. Lugaid, the son of 
 the ocean-god who had this year-brooch of the fifteen- 
 months year, is also called the son of the three Curoi hounds 
 or year-dogs said to be Cu-chulainn whom he slew, Conall 
 Cernach, slayer of Lugaid and Curoi, the keeper of the cows 
 of light and husband of Bhathnat, the flower-goddess, who 
 measured the year by the perpetual succession of the blos- 
 soms which mark the stages of annual time, and who as 
 Blodened was wife of the sun-god Lug, whom she forsook 
 for the Crane {garan) god Goronwy Peor =. She is the 
 Celtic form of the Greek Koronis, sister of Ixion the god 
 of the revolving Great Bear, who is also a goddess of the 
 year of blossoming flowers. These Curoi were the three 
 Corr or Cranes from whom Lugaid their son got his name 
 of Corr, the Crane 3. They were the three cranes of Midir, 
 god of the lower world of the southern sun of winter, the 
 three baleful birds answering to the Greek Harpies or Vul- 
 tures who tried in the story of Jason to kill Phineus, the 
 sea eagle, by taking away his food and pecking him when 
 he tried to eat. These birds were driven away by Zetes and 
 Kalais, sons of Boreas and gods of the North-east and North- 
 west winds, to the StrophadSs or Turning Islands marking 
 
 ' Rhys, Hihberi Lectures for 1886, lect. iv. p. 328. 
 
 ' Ibid., lect. iii. pp. 239, 240, v. p. 472, note 2—474, 552. 
 
 3 Ibid., lect. V, pp. 331—334, Additions, pp. 676, 677. 
 
620 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the winter turning-points of the year, and apparently became 
 the three weaving sisters in the constellation of the Pole Star 
 
 Vulture I. 
 
 It was these three crane seasons of the year who in the 
 form of three old women blind of the left eye, the one-eyed 
 Graise whose eye Perseus carried off, met Cu-chulainn and 
 persuaded him to eat the shoulder-blade of the dog, whence 
 he took his name of the hound (cu) of Culain the smith. 
 This was apparently not the sun-dog Sirius but the dog 
 Argus of Greek mythology, the dog of Odusseus, the con- 
 stellation Argo, the parent constellation of southern mythic 
 history. 
 
 They gave him the dog's shoulder with the left hand and 
 he held it in his left hand as he ate it, and he put the bone 
 under his left thigh. Thereupon the strength of his left thigh 
 departed, and he was slain by Lugaid the winter crane. That 
 is to say the sun-god of the left thigh was slain by the winter 
 son of the Three Cranes of the south land of Fergus Fairge, 
 who gave to Lugaid the brooch of the eight-days week of 
 Maine, and his slayer was in his turn killed by Conall, god of 
 the summer solstice, whose horse, the dog-star Sirius, had a 
 dog's head 2. 
 
 Another aspect of the history of the god of the left thigh 
 appears in the story of Odusseus, the god of the way [oho^ 
 of the revolving heavens, the star Orion, who was the son 
 of Laertes, the god of the parent pillar '^lai), and Antikleia 
 the backward key, and hence his path round the heavens was 
 the retrograde track of the Great Bear. He was, as we have 
 seen, the god of the revolving bed of the Great Bear, the 
 waggon of the sun-god of the cycle-year. His mythological 
 history as the year-god Orion, the Hunter of the North, the 
 humanised star-god whose left thigh was the constellation of 
 the Great Bear, goes back to the age of the pig-gods, when 
 the Pole Star sow drove the seven pigs of the Great Bear 
 
 » Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. ii. essay viii. pp, 198, 199. 
 ' Hall, The Cu-chuUin Saga, Cu-chulainn's Death, pp. 254—263. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 62 I 
 
 round the Pole. He as king of the star-pigs owned six 
 hundred star-sows guarded by his Phoenician swineherd 
 Eumceus, and lodged in twelve pigsties, the twelve stations 
 of the sun-god of the age of Orion going round the heavens 
 in twelve months. Besides these he had six hundred boars, 
 who had been reduced to three hundred and sixty, the num- 
 ber of days in the year, by the suitors of Penelope, the 
 claimant of the hand of the Queen of Heaven, the Pleiades 
 weaver of time, who killed them for food. They were 
 guarded by four dogs, the four Lokapala stars of the Hindus, 
 ruling the four quarters of the heavens, which were in the 
 Zend astronomy Sirius, the Great Bear Corvus and Argo ^. 
 
 Odusseus by traditional descent belonged to the wolf-race 
 whose history I have traced, and which was born according 
 to the Greeks in the wolf-grove Lykoreia in Parnassus, from 
 the stones cast by Deu-kalion, the god of the raining (Seww) 
 time of the Deluge. For his mother's father Autolycus 
 {axnoKvKos) was the parent wolf (X,vko?) god, king of Par- 
 nassus, and it was he who named Odusseus when placed 
 upon his knees by Eurykleia, also called Eurynome, his 
 nurse and guardian star the Phoenician Astro Noema, the 
 star Virgo. Autolycus was the son of Hermes, the god 
 of the pillar (epfia), the year-gnomon-stone of the wolf-race. 
 Odusseus when on a visit to Autolycus hunted, like other 
 year-gods, the year-boar of Parnassus, which in the graphic 
 description of the Odyssey started from its lair with bristling 
 mane and fiery eyes when roused by the dogs. It rushed 
 past Odusseus, who was brandishing his spear, and in 
 passing cut open his left thigh above the knee {jyovvos virep), 
 and then Odusseus struck him with his spear on his right 
 shoulder (KaTa Be^iov Wfiov], showing that he must have 
 passed him on his left side =. The dying monarch of the 
 forest when transfixed by the spear fell in the dust with a 
 
 ' Horn. Od., xiv. 5 — 22 ; Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth- 
 Making Age, chap. vii. sect, f, The Year of Odusseus as God of the Thigh, 
 pp. 455ff. 
 
 ' Horn. Od., xix. 394 — 466. 
 
622 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 dying grunt of defiance {eirea-ev ev Kovirjcri /iaKcov), telling 
 his conquering foe that he died fighting to the last. 
 
 This injury to his left thigh inflicted before he left Ithaca 
 on his twenty years of wandering did not, like the withering 
 of Cu-chulainn's thigh, impair his divine power, but the scar 
 remained as a mark of which he was known to all his friends, 
 and in his insistence on this point the poet of the Odyssey 
 practically tells us that he was looked on as the god whose 
 left thigh was scarred, and therefore in mythological parlance 
 withered like the thigh of Cu-chulainn and that of the Hebrew 
 Jacob, who, as we shall see, retained like Odusseus his divine 
 power after his thigh was withered. 
 
 It was by this mark that Odusseus was recognised as she 
 washed his feet by his nurse Eurykleia or Eurynome, the 
 northern star-mother Virgo, who with Thetis, the goddess 
 of the southern mud {thith\ tended Hephaistos when cast 
 down from heaven by Zeus '. By this mark he revealed 
 himself to Eumceus the swineherd and Philoitios the herds- 
 man of the oxen, a Greek form of Aryaman the star Arcturus, 
 the chief star in the oxen constellation Bootes ^, and it was 
 this wound which he showed to his father Laertes when he 
 asked him for a sign that he was his son 3. 
 
 This injury to his thigh did not impair his vigour and skill 
 as the archer-god of the heavenly bow of the Great Bear 
 in his battle with the suitors. Throughout the contest he 
 remained the victorious god armed with the bow of Eurytus 
 the drawer (epuw) the Greek form of the Indian Krishanu, 
 which he received from Iphitus his son when he as a boy 
 saved his star-sheep 4. The conditions of the contest as 
 declared by Penelope were that the victor should bend and 
 string this bow of the Great Bear and shoot an arrow right 
 through the twelve double axes {ireKaicvi) or twenty-four 
 crescent moons of the twelve months of the year of the twelve 
 pigsties. Whoever should perform this feat, requiring the 
 
 ' Horn. Od., xix. 388—393, xx. 5, where she is called Eurynome. 
 ' Ibid., xxi. 216—220. 3 Ibid., xxiv. 327—332. 
 
 ■• Ibid., xxi. 10—41. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 623 
 
 supernatural strength and skill of the supreme god the shooter 
 of the arrow of the Great Bear pointing stars, should become 
 the husband of Penelope the goddess who wove the web of 
 time I. Odusseus alone was able to perform it. 
 
 His victory is the counterpart of that of the Hindu Arjuna, 
 who with the same heavenly bow won the hand of Drupadi, 
 the tree {dru) mother-goddess, by shooting five arrows 
 through the mask of the Pole Star circled by the constella- 
 tion Draco. 
 
 During the slaughter of the suitors following the victory 
 of Odusseus in the shooting contest, Melanthios the goat- 
 herd, the Pole Star goat, was captured when he went to get 
 arms for the suitors from the bed-chamber of Odusseus' 
 revolving heavens' bed. He was caught in the act of robbing 
 the Treasury of heaven bound by Eumceus the swineherd 
 and Philautios the cattle herdsman, thus succumbing to 
 Arcturus the leader of the stars of the new year 2. Melanthios 
 had been cup-bearer to the suitors, the filler of cups of the 
 seasons, and had always derided Odusseus when he returned 
 from his wanderings as the sun-god despised in the age of 
 the eleven-months year of the black sun-horse and disguised 
 as a beggar, who was only recognised by his faithful dog 
 Argus, the constellation Argo of Jason's year, who died as 
 a year-god when the sun-god returned to rule the year. 
 
 Before the shooting of the arrow through the axes and the 
 slaughter of the suitors the doors of the central hall in which 
 they were, were closed by Eurykleia and Philautios, the stars 
 Virgo and Arcturus, and after his victory Odusseus as the 
 sun-god of the right thigh shot with his heavenly arrows all 
 the imprisoned suitors, the false gods of the worshippers of 
 the gods of night slain by the sun of day. At the end of 
 the slaughter Melanthios, the goat god, was brought out, his 
 nose, ears, hands and feet were cut off, and he was emascu- 
 lated and changed from an ape-god of the left thigh into a 
 sexless gnomon-pillar 3. 
 
 ' Horn. Od., xxi. 68—79, 404—423- ' IWd., xxii. 135—193. 
 
 3 Ibid., xvii. 212—216, 300-327, 369 ff., xx. 172—184, 255. 
 
6^4 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 In the Egyptian Book of the Dead we have a full account 
 of the astronomical mythology of the Great Bear as the stars 
 of the Thigh and of the ritualistic symbolism of the offering 
 of the thigh of the sacrificial bull. The Thigh group dwelling 
 in the Great Lake of the northern heaven, which is the Thigh 
 of Nut, the goddess of heaven ^, carries within it the face of 
 the year-god Osiris Nu, who follows Septu (Sirius) ^ in the 
 mighty boat of Khepera the year-beetle led by Thoth the 
 moon-god, who sits upon the thighs of the Great and Little 
 Bear. The god Osiris Nu is the god of the Nun, the ocean- 
 god of the Finn Samoyedes, whom they worship with Jumala, 
 the heaven-god. It became Num or Nun, the god of the 
 Ugro-Finn Akkadians, who dedicated to him or her their 
 south-eastern land, that of Sushan, which they called Mah 
 Num-maki, the land of the lady (mak) Num, and the ideo- 
 gram Nun means the prince of the divine enclosure 3, the 
 Pole Star god. In Egyptian mythology Nun, the primaeval 
 water-god, is called the "supreme god, the self- existent," 
 and in the Book of the Dead the Chancellor or Chief, the 
 Overseer of the palace 4. Nun and Nunet his vulture daughter 
 were the ruling gods of the eight apes rulers of space, called 
 " the soul of the East, the apes who adore Ra the sun-god, 
 the eight Khnum or building architects who sit to the right 
 and left of Amon, the hidden god dwelling in the Pole Star s ; 
 and hence he was the god of the age of the creating eight 
 who became the Hebrew god Nun, the primaeval fish ; and 
 hence this god Nun, originally the fish the first form of life 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, Translation, cxxxvii. 5, p. 220. 
 
 " Ibid., CX2CX. II, 19, 30, 31, 35—37, PP- 209, 211. 
 
 3 Max Miiller, Contribution to the Science of Mythology, vol. i. p. 261 ; 
 R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., Primitive Constellations, vol. ii. chap. xiv. pp. 163 — 
 165 ; Sayce, Assyrian Grammar, Syllabary Signs, 66, 361, 428 ; Hewitt, 
 Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay iii. pp. 250, 292 ; History and 
 Chronology of the Myth- Making Age, chap. vi. sect, h, Story of the Two 
 Thieves who robbed the Treasure-house of Heaven, p. 378. 
 
 * Brugsch, Religion tmd Mythologie der alter jEgypter, pp. 21 — 25, 106; 
 Budge, Book of the Dead, Translation, chap, cxxii. I, p. 185. 
 
 s Brugsch, Religion und Mythologie der alter jEgypter, pp. 156, 159; Hewitt, 
 Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay iii. p. 292. 
 
Primitive Traditional History, 625 
 
 in the Ocean Lake of the South, became in religious evolu- 
 tion the Pole Star god dwelling in the Great Lake of the 
 northern heaven. This year-god Osiris Nu travels in the 
 Khepera boat over the paths of Ra, the sun-godj upon the 
 mighty Thigh '. The beetle year-god of this boat Tern 
 Khepera, the god of the year beginning with the setting sun 
 {tem), brought himself into being from the thigh of his divine 
 mother, and she is Isis, the divine ape who became the cow- 
 mother, and whose Thigh, which was the rudder of his boat 
 Ra, was cut off with the sacrificial knife, the lunar crescent, 
 to bring blood into the Sektet boat of the setting sun ". Also 
 the course of the year-god Osiris Nu ruled by the Thigh is 
 described as that in which he travels with Ra in the form 
 of four apes 3 who sit in the bows of the boat. He turns 
 back the water-flood which bears him over the Thigh of the 
 goddess Nut, the staircase of the god Sebaku, the god of the 
 Thigh (sebeq)^. That is to say he journeys on the northern and 
 southern path of the solstitial sun, turning back on his course 
 from north to south round the Great Bear at the summer 
 solstice. This Khepera boat, on the Thigh of which the god 
 Thoth sits, is that of the thirteen-months year measured by 
 lunar crescents, the year of the seven Arits or mansions of 
 the seven days of the week of Osiris Nu, who celebrates the 
 monthly and half-monthly festivals, those of the crescent 
 moons, and travels under the hand of Thoth and in the boat 
 of Ra ; and at each of these Arits the thigh, head, heart and 
 hoof of a red bull are to be offered s ; and this thigh of the 
 sacrifice, the star-god of the Thigh, is said to be tied to the 
 neck and the head of Amentet, the god of the land of the 
 West, the home of departed spirits ^. 
 
 In Hebrew history and ritual we find an account of the 
 birth of thigh-worship and of the successive ritualistic use in 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, Translation, chap. cxxx. 37, 38, p. 211. 
 ^ Ibid., chap. xxiv. I, xcix. 10, 25, 26, pp. 71, 158, 159. 
 5 Ibid., cxxvi. 2, p. 201. * Ibid., cxxxviA. 4, 5, p. 220. 
 
 5 Ibid., cxliv. 5—7, 27, pp. 241—243. ' Ibid., liiv. 5, p. 117. 
 
 II. S S 
 
626 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 symbolical sacrifices of the left and right thighs of the cattle 
 offered as victims. It arose in the age of Leah, the wild cow 
 {le), the daughter of Laban, the white god of Haran, the god 
 " of the brick foundation of heaven " and of the age of Star 
 worship, who founded the bee-hive palace of the three-years 
 cycle-year (pp. 319, 373). She was the first wife of Jacob, 
 the twin mother-god of the left thigh, who supplanted Esau, 
 the Hebrew form of the goat pillar-god. When Jacob dwelt 
 with Laban in the land of Haran or Kharran (the road), 
 the half-way station on the caravan journey up the Euphrates 
 to the Mediterranean, he was the shepherd-god whose flocks 
 besides white sheep contained speckled and spotted and 
 black sheep, and speckled and spotted goats ^, the star-sheep 
 and goats of the worshippers of the gods of night. After his 
 agreement with Laban he took for his share all the black and 
 black and white sheep and goats and left the white to Laban, 
 for whom he tended them ; but these white sheep, by reason 
 of the poplar, almond and plane-tree rods he set out before 
 the conceiving mothers, bore speckled and streaked sheep, 
 the offspring of the stars of night and the sun of day, those 
 of the year-god Beth-el of the House of God, whom Jacob 
 worshipped so that all Laban's star-flocks fell into the hands 
 of Jacob. It was from this land of star and night worship 
 that Jacob went to the sun-land to the west of Jordan, and 
 his wives, Laban's daughters, took with them the Teraphim 
 images, the wooden Palladia of the tree worshippers repre- 
 senting the humanised mother-tree. In his journey he took 
 with him, as we are expressly told in Genesis xxxii. 22, his 
 four wives, (i) Leah, the wild cow {le) with the tender eyes, 
 the counterpart of the three-eyed Samirus of Babylon and 
 the three-eyed Hindu Shiva, the Hindu wild cow-goddess 
 Gauri. She was the mother of six sons and a daughter, the 
 seven children of the Great Bear mother of the cow-born 
 race. (2) Rachel, the ewe, the mother of Joseph or Asipu, 
 the interpreter, the eleventh son of Jacob, born after the 
 
 ' Gen. XXX. 3'— 43> ^^^- *'• 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 627 
 
 sons of his three other wives as the god of the eleven-months 
 year, and who was to become mother of the sun-ram Benja- 
 min. (3) Billah, the old mother of Dan the Pole Star god- 
 mother of the Danava sons of Danu ; and (4) Zilpah, a form 
 of Zillah or Tsulu, of the race (/«), of the snake (tsir), the 
 wife of Lamech or Lingal. She was the mother of the first 
 sun-god Ashur, who was Assur the supreme god of the 
 Assyrians, the Hindu Ashadha ruling the summer solstice. 
 Besides these four wives, the four seasons of the eleven- 
 months year, he had its eleven months with him in the 
 eleven children spoken of as accompanying him and his 
 wives to contend with the god of the Thigh (Dinah being 
 omitted from the account). 
 
 Before crossing the Jabbok, a tributary of the Jordan, on 
 his way to Bethel, he passed the night at Penuel, the place 
 of the face {pen) of God, the female image, the mother- 
 goddess the Great Bear, who, as we have seen in the Egyp- 
 tian Book of the Dead, carries the face of the year-god Osiris 
 Nu. She appeared to him in a male form, and he wrestled 
 with the god of the Thigh till sun-rise, when she touched the 
 hollow of his left thigh, which the Jews will not eat, and 
 made it wither, though he was victorious in the contest as 
 being about to become the father of a new sun-god. He 
 was thus transformed into the sun-god born from the 
 withered left thigh of the Pole Star ape, the god conceived 
 during the age when the priests who wore the sacrificial 
 cord on the right shoulder bent the left knee to the moon- 
 goddess ruling the year, and not the right knee bent when 
 the cord was worn on the left shoulder i. Henceforth the 
 sinew of his left thigh dried up as life had gone out of it, and 
 the right thigh became the offering given to the priests of 
 the sun-god ^ born of the almond-tree of Aaron, who were 
 first the priests of Benjamin the sun-ram and his offspring. 
 
 Benjamin was the father or ancestor of Saul, called in 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., ii. 4, 2, i, 2, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii. 
 p. 361. 
 ' Leyit. vii. 32, 33. 
 
 S S 2 
 
628 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Genesis xxxvi. 36, 38 Shaul of Reho-both by the river 
 Euphrates, the squares of suburbs of Babylon where Shaul 
 or Shawal was sun-god ^. He was the Saul of Hebrew 
 history consecrated by Samuel, who inaugurated his rule 
 by setting up as his monument the symbol of the hand * 
 of the five-days week of the year of Orion, which was, as 
 we have seen (pp. 194, 195), worshipped as a widely dis- 
 tributed year-god. He was the sun-king appointed by 
 Samuel, the prophet-priest of the name {Shem) of God, 
 the son of the fig-tree Hannah, the Semitic parent fig- 
 tree priest of the worship of the Ephod. 
 
 This was first the Indian Drona or Soma cask, the recep- 
 tacle of the divine birth-sap, the sacred Soma. This god, 
 the inspired birth-essence, became in Zend ritual the holy 
 Chesta or Chest, the sacred shirt of divine knowledge and 
 inspiration worn by the Zend Atharvans, the intinerant 
 prophet-priests of the eleven-months year, whose source of 
 inspiration was the Bangha or narcotic preparation of hemp, 
 the Indian Bang, which was given them by Zarathustra 3. 
 These inspired priests who instituted the prophetic oracle 
 became in Jewish ritual the Kohathite prophet-priests wear- 
 ing the linen ephod, the sacred dress of the ordained ex- 
 pounders of God's will 4, whose first recorded high-priest 
 is Aaron the Chest, appointed to be speaking prophet to 
 Moses s as the wearer of the priestly ephod which revealed 
 the counsels of God. This religion of the Ephod was that 
 instituted by Gideon ^ after he had destroyed the Midianite 
 tower of Penuel, the face of God, the conical towers of 
 Phoenician worship of Arabia, Mashonaland, and Sardinia, 
 where they are called Nuraghs. It was through this ephod 
 
 ■ Sayce, Hibbert Lectures for 1887, lect. e, pp. S4> SS- 
 
 ' I Samuel xv. 12. The word Jadh, translated " monument " in our version, 
 means as noted in the margin "hand." 
 
 3 Darmesteter, Zendavesta Din Yasht, 14 — 17, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xxiii. pp. 267, 268; Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth- Making 
 Age, chap. v. sect, h, p. 262. 
 
 ■* I Samuel xxii. 18. = Exodus vii. i. 
 
 ' Judges viii, 24 — 28, 17, 18. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 629 
 
 kept in the sanctuary of the holy shewbread that David 
 enquired of the Lord », and this same linen ephod was worn 
 by Samuel the prophet when he, as a child, ministered 
 before the Lord at Shiloh^. It was the consecrated dress 
 of the Hebrew and Egyptian priests and also of the Assyrian 
 priests of Ashtaroth, after the goat-skin dresses of the Ak- 
 kadian ritual had been discontinued. Hence Ephod worship 
 arose in the age of the rule of the weavers, of whom as well 
 as the potters Judah and Shelah his son were the fathers 3. 
 The consecration of the sun-god Shaul, who was seeking his 
 father's asses, those of the constellation Cancer, which di- 
 rected his father's year, was held at Ramah the High Place, 
 like the artiiicial hill of Borsippa consecrated to Ram the 
 sun-god. Samuel reserved for him the thigh of the sacri- 
 fice, but which thigh is not mentioned 4 ; but as it was offered 
 to the heir of the sun-god Benjamin, begotten by Jacob when 
 his left thigh was whole, it was probably the left thigh, pre- 
 ceding the right thigh of David, the sun-god of the worship 
 of the ephod, which he consulted 5 and which was offered 
 to the Jewish Kohathite ephod - wearing priests. It was 
 after he ate of the thigh that he was consecrated, and 
 found his father's asses, and he himself became an inspired 
 prophet s. 
 
 It was after the withering of his left thigh that Jacob met 
 his brother Esau, the goat-god of the green pillar of the 
 worshippers of the parent-tree, and he became his colleague 
 as the god of the stone gnomon pillar Bethel and its succes- 
 sors, the wooden Asherah of the Jews, which Gideon de- 
 stroyed with the other objects of Phoenician worship 7. After 
 this meeting Jacob passed over Jordan and came to Succoth, 
 the Place of Booths, where he held the tent-festival of Taber- 
 nacles inaugurating a new year s. 
 
 His passing over Jordan, the Graeco-Phoenician lardanos, 
 to hold his New Year's festival as the god whose left thigh 
 
 ' I Samuel xxx. 7, 8, xxi. 9. = Ibid., ii. 18. 3 i Chron. iv. 21 — 23. 
 
 * I Samuel ix. 23, 24. 5 Ibid., xxi. 1—9. ' Ibid., x. I — 8. 
 
 ' Judges vi. 30, 31. ' Genesis xxxiii. i— 17. 
 
630 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 was withered, is significant, for it tells us that he became 
 the son not of Nahor or Nahr, the Euphrates' channel {nahr) 
 river of the Iberian race, but of the yellow {yareJi) moon- 
 river of Omphale, the navel of the altar and goddess of its 
 central fire, who was daughter of lardanos the moon-king, the 
 sexless male moon-god the Hindu Soma (pp. 324, 325), and 
 the goddess of the Phallic worship of the double-sexed god 
 Herakles Sandon, who wore her garments as the male and 
 female god. The lardanos river, the parent god of the ritual 
 of sacrifices burnt on the central altar-fire, was the river in 
 Crete on which Kydon {itvhwv) was situated. It was the 
 city of the renowned Cydonian archers, the Kushika sons 
 of the bow, who went with Teucer to Troy, whither he 
 brought the worship of Apollo Smintheus, the mouse-god 
 of the Trojans and Jews, and whose daughter married the 
 antelope-god Dardanus, the son of Electra the Pleiades i. 
 The worship of the Idzean Herakles was, according to 
 Pausanias vi. 2, 5, brought by Clymenes from the Cretan 
 Cydonia on the lardanos to Phrixa in Elis, where there was 
 also a temple of the Cydonian Athene, the Cretan tree- 
 mother who was Britomartis, the virgin cypress-tree, and 
 it was to her that Pelops, who was, as we have seen in 
 p. 279, the god of the thirteen-months year sacrificed before 
 he overcame CEnomaus in the year-chariot race * ; so that 
 the cult of the parent river lardanos was that of the Cretan 
 and Syrian pillar-god born of the cypress-tree. In this cult 
 the Idsean Herakles was one of the five Daktuloi, the finger 
 (Sa/cTvXos) guardians of the Ida;an Zeus, the son of Kronos 
 and Rhea. These were according to Pausanias, Herakles, 
 Paeonaeus, Epimedes, lasius and Idas, or according to another 
 list, Herakles, lolaus, his charioteer lasius. Castor and Pollux, 
 the stars Gemini, and they were the gods of the five-days 
 week of the first tree and sun worshippers 3. The name of 
 
 ' Horn. Od., iii. 292 ; Hor. Carm. iv. 9, 17 ; Smith, Classical Dictionary, 
 Cydonia, p. 200, Teucer, p. 754. 
 
 ' Frazer Pausanias, vi. 21, 5, vol. i. p. 31 7. 
 3 Ibid , V. 7, 4, V. 8, I, vol. i. pp. 246, 247. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 631 
 
 the Cydonian river lardanos was brought from Crete to EHs 
 with this creed, and it there became the ancient name of the 
 river on which Phcea, called after the sow Phoea slain by 
 Theseus, stood. Its name meant the shining moon city, and 
 it was taken by Nestor. In the time of Pausanias the name 
 of the river had become Acidas ». 
 
 Thus we see that the religion of the races who made 
 lardanos their parent-river was the worship of the double- 
 sexed god Herakles Sand on of the three-years cycle-year, 
 husband of Omphale, the central navel fire on the altar, and 
 of the pillar-sun-god born of the cypress-tree, the sun-god of 
 Syria. This became the creed of Jacob after his left thigh 
 had been withered, and it was as the pillar-year-god of this 
 creed that he dwelt at Shechem, the capital of the sons of 
 Ephraim, the men of the two ashes {ephra), the united 
 northern and southern races, sons of Joseph the god of the 
 eleven-months year. It was then that the Colchis cult of 
 circumcision was introduced into Syria by the circumcision 
 of the Hivite villagers, the original Rephaim, who first 
 brought thither the Indian communal village customs =. 
 
 From Shechem Jacob went to Luz, the place of the almond- 
 tree (/«*), the nut-tree of the Toda sons of the bull, the 
 parent-tree of Aaron and his prophet Kohathite priests, 
 which replaced the cypress-tree as the national mother-tree- 
 altar, which he called Beth-el, the place of the pillar of 
 God. Jacob, who had become the son of the double-sexed 
 god of phallic generation symbolised in the almond and nut- 
 tree, burnt the teraphim, the wooden idols of the star-night- 
 gods of the sons of the cypress-tree, his earlier worship. 
 From thence, where he buried Deborah the bee-prophetess 
 under the oak of weeping {allon-bacuth) 3, and thus closed the 
 age of bee- worship, he went to Bethlehem, where the sun-god 
 of this pillar-year, Benjamin, the son of the right hand, was 
 born simultaneously with the death of his mother, the ewe 
 
 ' Horn. H. vii. 135 ; Frazer, Pausanias, ii. I, 3, v. 5, S, vol. i. pp. 70, 243. 
 ' Genesis xxxiii., xxxiv. ' Ibid., xxxv. 8 — 22, 
 
632 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 mother of Joseph, the god of the eleven-months year, who 
 wore the star coat of many colours ^. 
 
 The son of the right hand was born as the rising sun-god 
 of the worshippers of the Pole Star, now represented by the 
 Sabasan Mandaites, who in worshipping the Pole turn their 
 faces to the north, and thus have the rising sun of the east, 
 which they worship, on their right hand, and not on their 
 left, like the Haranites, who face southward while worship- 
 ping 2. This last is the position of the Roman augurs whose 
 parent-god was the mother-tree of the South, but who in 
 their omens founded on flights of birds thought that those 
 of good luck came from the left, that is from the east, a prog- 
 nostic coinciding with that of those nations who look to the 
 Pole Star north, and also call the east, which is at their right 
 hand, that from which lucky right-hand omens come 3. The 
 Sabaean Mandaites, in their annual New Year's service at the 
 autumnal equinox, fix the hour by referring to the position 
 of the Great Bear and Pole Star, and mark their connection 
 with the age of the sexless gods of the cycle-year by substi- 
 tuting a wether for the earlier ram offered on their New 
 Year's day 4. 
 
 Bethlehem, the birth-place of the sun-god of the right hand, 
 was also called Ephrath, the place of the ashes {ephra), or 
 shrine of the dead faiths of the past. It was the house of 
 Lehem, that is, as shown by Dr. Sayce, of the twin Akkadian 
 gods Lakhma and Lakamu, the dual form of Lakh s born 
 of Apsu, the southern abyss mother Bau, and whose name 
 is the Akkadian form of the Median and Hindu god Ragh, 
 who was also Ra and Ram, the Egyptian, Assyrian and 
 Syrian god, son of the tamarisk wild cypress-tree. It was 
 
 ' Genesis xxxvii. 3, 4. 
 
 ° Sachau, Alberuni's Chronology of Ancient Nations, chap. xix. Festival 
 of the Moslems, p. 329. 
 
 ^ Jevons Schrader, Prehistoric Antiquities of Aryans, part iv. cliap. ii. p. 253. 
 
 * Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, Sabsean New Year's ritual, 
 vol. ii. essay viii. pp. 159—164. 
 
 s Sayce, Hibbert Lectures for 1887, lect. vi. pp. 384 — 388. 
 
Pnmitive Traditional History. 633 
 
 there that, according to Jerome, Ep. 19, the annual sun-festival 
 of the death and re-birth of Tammuz or Dumu-zi, the year- 
 god Orion, was held, and he was, as we have seen, the year- 
 god born in the Euphratean Delta of the central tree in the 
 village grove of Eridu. In short the whole evidence proves 
 most convincingly that the sun-god born of Jacob, the god 
 of the withered left thigh, was the sun-god of the pillar, the 
 Asherah or wooden pillar of the Jews, which was first that 
 worshipped throughout South-western Asia and Egypt as 
 the cypress-tree pillar supporting the roof of the heavens' 
 king of Byblos, and afterwards became the pillar of the 
 almond-tree Luz. 
 
 It was at this ancient shrine, which had become that of 
 Boar the moving golden sun-pillar, the succession of the 
 green pillar of Esau, the pillar Baal Khamman, that the new 
 sun-god, the son of the eight, was born not as the son of the 
 left or the right thigh, but as the son of the male father and 
 the female mother the Phoenician Eshmun, the fire-god, the 
 Indian male and female Jarat-karu, parents of Ashtaka the 
 eighth, the unseen creator uniting two diverse generating 
 forms called in the genealogy of David Jesu or Ishai, He 
 who is. 
 
 David or Dodo, the beloved, named as the national god 
 on the Moabite stone, was the eighth son of Jesse of the 
 tribe of Judah, and not, like the sun-god Saul, the son of 
 the thigh-born Benjamin. 
 
 Judah, the fourth son of Jacob and Leah, whose name 
 means Praised, was the Hebrew form of the Hindu and Zend 
 altar-fire Nara-shamsa and Nairya Sangha, meaning praised 
 of men, and he is said in the Hebrew historical genealogies 
 to be the father of the weavers and potters ', the artisan races 
 who wove the web of time and kindled the sacred fire which 
 became that of the creating God, the Great Potter. They 
 are also called the sons of Shelah, the god of the creating 
 spear {shelah), the fire-drill, the son of Arpachsad or Arpa- 
 
 ■ I Chron. iv. 21, 23. 
 
634 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 kasad, the Armenian land of the conquerors {kasadi), the 
 birth-place of the fire cult and of the worship of Ra as the 
 fire and sun-god ^. As the father of the sun-god Judah is 
 the husband of Tamar the date-palm-tree, which only bears 
 fruit when the flower of the female tree is impregnated with 
 pollen from the male tree. She bore him the twin sons Zereh, 
 the red twin, and Perez the Cleft, who superseded in his birth 
 his brother, who had first put forth his hand 2. Zereh, the 
 red twin father of the red race, is in i Chron. ii. 6 called 
 the father of Dara the antelope, his fifth son, who with his 
 brethren Homan and Calcol is called the wisest of men, sons 
 of Mahol, interpreted by Gesenius as meaning the Supreme 
 God. Perez the Cleft, the male form of the goddess Tirhatha 
 with the same meaning, was the father of Hezron and Hamal, 
 the Ram, the star a Arietis, the ruling ram-star of the cycle- 
 year, and Hezron was the father of Ram, the pillar sun-god, 
 the parent god of the tribe of Judah 3. Thus the sons of 
 the date-palm-mother were those of the antelope-god and 
 the pillar-god of the perpetually burning altar-fire. 
 
 They as the offspring of a new tree-mother became the 
 water-drinking Banu Hanifa, meaning "they who do what 
 is right," of the Koran and Arabian religious history, and 
 signified their union as a new historical parent tribe by not 
 partaking of the sacramental first-fruits of the sons of the 
 rice or barley or of the sacrificed totem victims, but of a 
 mixture of the palm-date fruit, butter and dried curds which 
 they called Hais their god, and said that they lived by eating 
 him. It was to this tribe that Abraham belonged, according 
 to the Koran 4, and it was they whq instituted, among people 
 
 ' Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. iv. sect, a, 
 The Sons of the Rivers, p. 137 ; Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. 
 essay iii. p. 189. 
 
 " Genesis xxxviii. 28, 30. 3 i Chron. ii. 6 ff. 
 
 4 Palmer, Qur'an, chap. ii. 109, Sacred Books of the East, vol. vi. p. 19. 
 note I ; Sachau, Albervini's Chronology of Ancient Nations, chap. viii. p. 193 ; 
 Burton, Arabian Nights, Story of Gharib and his brother Ajib, vol. v. pp. 215, 
 216 ; Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. viii. 
 sect, e, pp. 523, 524. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 635 
 
 who used previously to make fermented drinks drunk at 
 religious festivals, the rule of abstaining from intoxicating 
 drink which is now universal among all Mahommedans and 
 high-caste Hindus. It was also they who made the worship 
 of the parent date-palm the dominant belief in Babylonia 
 and the Euphratean countries, where on their bas-reliefs their 
 divine priest-kings are represented as impregnating the flower 
 of the female palm-tree with the pollen of the male tree. 
 
 Hence the god of the new palm-tree cult was not the 
 doubled-sexed god of the age of phallic worship, but the 
 parent-god revealed in two forms, those of the male and 
 female tree which superseded the original bi-sexual tree and 
 plant-mother. In Hindu traditional history this date-palm 
 is the parent-tree of the sun-gods who belong to families 
 of eight sons, of which the first seven are stars of the Great 
 Bear, of Bhishma the sexless eighth son of Shantanu and 
 the river Ganga, whose seven Great Bear brethren were slain 
 at their birth, and of Valarama, the circling {vala) Rama, 
 also called Hal-ayudha, he whose weapon is the Great Bear 
 plough {kal), the seventh son of Vasu-deva, whose eighth 
 son was Krishna. The banner of Bhishma was the date- 
 palm-tree surmounted by five stars, the four stars ruling the 
 four quarters of space, and the Pole Star, and that of Vala- 
 rama the palm-tree alone ^. 
 
 This date-palm, which became the parent-tree of the 
 Kshatriya or red warrior races, succeeding the yellow 
 Vaishya, the sons of the fig-tree, appears in the Zend 
 ritual laying down the rules for the preparation of the final 
 Baresma, or rain wand, which, as we have seen in the history 
 of the Indian Prastaras, was first of Kusha and afterwards 
 of sugar-cane grass, and therefore varied with the dominant 
 ritual. The final Zend Baresma consists of a number of 
 thin metal wires bound together with a Kustik or girdle 
 
 ' Mahabharata Bhishma (Bhishma-vadha) Parva, xlvii. p. 165 ; Shalya (Cud- 
 ayudha) Parva, xxxiv. and Ix. pp. 135, 333. 
 
636 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 made of six thread-like ribbons split out of a leaflet of the 
 date-palm-tree and twisted three times round the rods i. 
 
 The date-palm-tree is in Greek historical mythology that 
 grasped by Leto at the second birth of Apollo and Artemis 
 at Delos, the island raised from the sea by the trident of 
 Poseidon, their first birth having taken place on the yellow 
 river Xanthus in Lycia. It was also the parent-tree of the 
 Phcenicians, sons of the date-palm-tree (<poivi,^, the successors 
 of the Tursena, Tursha or Tyrrhenian, who starting, as we 
 have seen, from India and the shores of the Persian Gulf 
 established themselves as leaders of Mediterranean commerce, 
 which they extended to Western Europe, Brittany and the 
 tin-bearing districts of Britain : and these trading races had 
 in the course of national evolution and intermixture with 
 alien stocks become the Semite race who succeeded the 
 Akkado-Sumerians in the Rule of the Euphratean countries. 
 
 They became the Jewish sons of the palm-tree-mother and 
 of their father Judah, the god of the central altar-fire of the 
 federated Semite race, on the national altar which was to be 
 kindled by David on the rock of Jerusalem, and which was 
 to be to the Jews the national navel or mother meeting-point 
 corresponding in Semite belief to the Greek Delphi. David 
 or Dodo, descended from the date-palm-tree Tamar, was also 
 in national history further connected with her by his daughter 
 Tamar, the palm-tree sister of Absalom. His descent can 
 also be traced to the primitive gods of national life the cloud- 
 snake and the Great Bear, for Jesse, the father of Abigail, 
 called David's sister in i Chron. ii. 16, 17, is in 2 Samuel 
 xvii. 25 called Nahash the plough-snake, the god of the 
 constellation of the Great Bear, the Arabic Nagash, the 
 Indian Nahusha, the Gond Nagur. As Nahash he is the 
 father of Zeruiah the Cleft, the goddess Tirhatha, and of 
 Abigail, whose father (ab) is Exaltation, the daughter of the 
 inspired prophet of the gnomon-stone. Jesse is also called 
 
 ' West, Shayast da Shayast, iii. 32, Sacred Books of the East, vol. v. 
 pp. 284, note I, 285. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 637 
 
 Dodo of Bethlehem ', the father of El-hanan, the merciful god, 
 who is in Genesis xxxvi. 38, in the historical genealogy of the 
 kings of Edom, the house of the red race Baal-hanan with the 
 same meaning, and there he is the successor of Shaul or Saul, 
 so that the two Dodos, father and son, were self-begotten 
 gods. In Genesis xxxvi. 38, Baal-hanan is called the son of 
 Achbor the mouse, thus tracing his genealogy back to the 
 mouse-god Apollo Smintheus. 
 
 Also as the slayer of Goliath the giant {rapha), the god 
 of the Rephaim sons of the star Canopus, he is called El- 
 hanan the Bethlehemite, who also slew Goliath's brother 
 Lakhmi, a name reproducing that of Lehem, the god 
 Lakhmu=, to whom Bethlehem was dedicated. They were 
 the giant gods of the year of Orion the hunter. David, 
 who as the sun-god who had not yet become the ruler of 
 time was without a weapon, slew Goliath with five stones 
 out of the brook, the parent river-god, the five-days week 
 which measured the earliest year of the sun-god and cloud- 
 bird the year of giant rule. When David began to contend 
 against Saul he still found himself unarmed, and obtained 
 from Abimelech the priest of the Ephod the sword of Goliath, 
 that of Orion, the three stars in Orion's belt which Abime- 
 lech kept in the sanctuary with the Ephod, showing that it 
 was a religious symbol 3. 
 
 Further evidence as to the history of David as the sun-god 
 of the year of eight-day weeks is given in the story of the 
 foundation of the new national worship he instituted at 
 Jerusalem. The Jews as an incipient nationality seem to 
 have originally settled in the territory afterwards assigned 
 to the tribe of Ephraim, of which Shechem was the capital. 
 It was here that Jacob lived after he crossed Jordan and 
 before he went to Bethel, and it was there that Joshua died. 
 It was also at Shiloh in Ephraim that the national ark was 
 before it was captured by the Philistines. This ark, which 
 
 ' I Chron. xi. 26 ; 2 Sam. xxiii. 24. ' Ibid., xx. 5, ibid. xxi. 19. 
 
 3 I Sam. xxi. I — 9. 
 
638 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 was the Hebrew form of Indian Drona, the hollowed tree 
 trunk containing the Soma sap of life, was in Akkado- 
 Sumerian theology the ship of the gods, the Ma or mother- 
 ship of la, the god of the house of the waters, the original 
 cloud-bird bringing to earth the germ seeds of life which are 
 to generate life in the seed of the mother-tree or plant. This 
 became the star-ship of la, the constellation Argo, and the 
 ship of Merodach or Marduk, described in a Sumerian hymn 
 quoted by Dr. Sayce as being made of cedar-wood with a 
 cedar-wood helm and an awning of the palm-tree, showing 
 that in the rules of its construction it was presented that, 
 as at first, this dwelling-place of the creating-god was to be 
 made of the mother-tree'. This became the Egyptian ship 
 of the year-gods Ra and Osiris. 
 
 The final form assumed in Jewish ritual of the worship 
 of the ark and its contents, the stone- engraved tables of 
 God's law, the symbol of the Word of God revealed as 
 the God teaching men, was evolved at a late stage of 
 Jewish theology, and succeeded the successive worships of 
 the mother-tree and village grove, the stone pillar, the 
 Asherah or wooden pillar, the fire-god kindled by the sacred 
 wood to whom new-born infants were sacrificed as the dying 
 year-gods of the past year, who were to generate increased 
 offspring in the next, the artificial hill or high place, the 
 mother-mountain parent of the parent river, the predecessor 
 of the Phoenician conical tower Penuei, the Face of God. 
 These were followed by the worship of the Ephod, the 
 sacred dress of the consecrated priest inspired by it to 
 declare the Will of God, a form of belief marking the age 
 succeeding that of the bee-worship of the double-sexed god 
 when the priest was inspired by mead and honey-drink. 
 
 It was to this last age of the worship of the Ephod as 
 the dress conveying divine inspiration to its consecrated 
 wearer that the traditional David, who consulted it as other 
 kings consulted the divine oracles of their several countries, 
 
 • Sayce, Hibbert Lectures for 1887, lect. i. pp. 67, 68. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 639 
 
 belonged. And this undoubtedly preceded the last phase 
 of the Jewish worship of the ark of Solomon's temple, in 
 which the inscribed tables of God's law dwelling in the 
 ark were the divine symbols of the loving God who made 
 each of his children who obeyed his teachings living recep- 
 tacles and diffusers of his law and the spirit inspiring it. 
 
 The age preceding Ephod worship was that of the rule 
 of the inspired prophet Samuel of the name (Sheni) of God, 
 the son of Hannah, the fig-tree from which the phalli of 
 Dionysos were made. The god he worshipped was Ra or 
 Ram of the high place of Ramah, where he was born, whence 
 he judged Israel and selected Saul the sun-god to be the ^od 
 whose worship succeeded that of Ra the Asherah pillar-god ; 
 and it was as the prophet whose high place was Ramah that 
 he chose David the eighth son, whose seven elder brethren 
 of the Great Bear he rejected, as Saul's successor. It was 
 thence that he made Bethel, the place of the Luz pillar 
 of the almond-tree, Gilgal and Mizpah his resting-places 
 on his yearly circuits from Ramah, the national sacrificial 
 meeting-place of the people, where he built an altar on 
 which the animal with the consecrated thigh was offered 
 as the year-god i. 
 
 When David, the consulter of the Ephod, succeeded Saul 
 his first capital was Hebron in Judah^, also called Kiriath 
 Arba, the City of Fours, and these four were Shesh-ai, 
 Ahi-man, Tal-mai, and Caleb. The three first were the 
 ruling gods of the Rephaim, whose names are not Hebrew, 
 but which seem to me, for reasons I have stated elsewhere, 
 to represent, like other ancient triad gods, the three seasons 
 of Orion's year, named by these Rephaim worshippers from 
 the theologies of the neighbouring countries, where, as in 
 Syria, the Rephaim were the first cultivators who founded 
 villages on the model of those first organised in India. Thus 
 Shesh-ai, the wet-god, everywhere worshipped in India and 
 
 ■ I Samuel i., ii. II, ix. II— 27, ^vi. 1— 13. 
 = 2 Samuel v. 4, 5. ^ Judges i. 10. 
 
640 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 South-western Asia as Sek, Suk or Shesh-nag, the original 
 cloud-bird, is the spring-god of the Takka trident. Ahi-man 
 is the Egyptian Ahi, a name of Osiris, the Sanskrit form 
 of the Greek Echis, the parent snake of the primitive village. 
 He is the equivalent of the Takka Vasuk Nag, the god of 
 Summer, and Tal-mai, the mother Tal, the female form of 
 the Akkadian Tal-lal, the very wise, is the winter mother, 
 a name of la ^. Caleb, the dog (kalb), said in the Book 
 of Judges to have slain them and taken their city^, was 
 the leader of the tribe of Judah in the conquest of Pales- 
 tine, he conquering the southern and Joshua, the son of 
 Nun, the fish-god of the creating light, the northern part 
 of the country, which became the mother-land of the Jews 
 when their national history reached the stage when Palestine 
 was recognised as the birth-place of the thirteen children 
 of Jacob, the thirteen months of the first Hebrew years. 
 
 In the genealogies of the Book of Chronicles, drawn up 
 from national recited histories prepared like those of the 
 Bhats or genealogical bards of the Hele Jats of India, he 
 appears under various names, Caleb, Chelub, and Chelubai, 
 and as the son of different parents. As the son of Hezron 
 and grandson of Zerah, the red twin son of Judah and 
 Tamar the date-palm-tree, he is the brother of Ram the 
 sun-god, and his uncle is Hamal the Ram, the star a 
 Arietis. His wife was Ephrath, the daughter of the ashes 
 [ephra), the united ancestral tribes, and he founded the city 
 
 ■ Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vi. sect, h, 
 The story of the two thieves who robbed the treasure-house of heaven, pp. 366, 
 367 ; Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay iii. p. 189, note 2. 
 
 " Judges i. I, 10 — 15. 
 
 3 In the original national history Dinah, the child of Leah the wild cow, 
 and Jacob's only daughter, was reckoned. She was the female form of Dan, 
 who married the son of the Hivite king, and Dan the son of Billah, the 
 old mother was the Pole Star god Danu of India and South-western Asia, 
 the Greek Danaus, the god whose banner guarded the north side of the Hebrew 
 camp (Numbers ii. 25). He was, as we have seen, originally the southern god 
 Tan ; Dinah, his female form, is the Hebrew equivalent of Ka-dra, the tree- 
 mother, the thirteenth wife of Kashyapa, and the thirteenth month of his year. 
 
Primitive Traditional History, 641 
 
 at which Hezron died, called Caleb - Ephratah, a name 
 designating him as <:he tribal fire-dog of a union which was 
 apparently that of the worshippers of the sun-god of Orion's 
 year ; for Hur, the son of Caleb and Ephratah, is said to 
 be the father of Bethlehem ^, which was called Ephrata, 
 and was, as we have seen, the birth-place of Benjamin, 
 David, and the sun-gods preceding them. As Bethlehem 
 was the traditional birth-place of the Jewish sun-gods suc- 
 ceeding the god born of the cypress-tree of Byblos, its 
 founder was the star- fire-god Sirius, the dog which, as we 
 have seen in the history of the neighbouring and cognate 
 mythologies which I have analysed, played such an impor- 
 tant part in all religious history. 
 
 As the dog-star slayer of the three seasonal gods of 
 Orion's year he became the god of the year of four sea- 
 sons of the eleven-months year which I have described 
 elsewhere 2, that begun by Sirius as Kak-shi-sa, the door 
 {Jiak) horn {shi) star, which I have equated with the year 
 of Arjuna when he, bearing on his car the banner of the 
 ape with the lion's tail, defeated, under the guidance of 
 Uttara, the god of the north pole, the Kauravyas who 
 stole the cows of light (p. 571). In the Hebrew form 
 of this astronomical myth the lion-star of this year was 
 Masu, the Hebrew Moses, the star Regulus in Leo 3, who 
 from the mountain of Nebo, the god of the sacred artificial 
 hill of Borsippa and the prophet god of Assyria, Babylonia, 
 Palestine and Moab 4, where he, as the last ruler of stellar 
 time died, sent forth the two star champions who were to 
 establish solar worship after taking Jericho, the yellow (jareh) 
 moon-city of the Phoenician goddess Rahab, the alligator 
 constellation worshipped by the Carthaginians as Draco the 
 Indian VyasaS. This was followed by the setting up at 
 
 ■ I Chron ii. 10 — 24, iv. 4 ; Gen. xxxv. 19. 
 
 ' Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth- Making Age, chap. vi. sect, h, 
 
 P- 367- 
 3 Sayce, Hiibert Lectures for 1887, lect. i. p. 49. 
 
 Ibid., lect. ii. pp. 112 — 120. 
 5 Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth- Making Age, chap. vi. sect, h, 
 II. T t 
 
642 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Gilgal the year-circle of the new year marked by the stones 
 taken from the mother-river Jordan and equalling the number 
 of the tribes of Israel. These in Joshua are said to be twelve', 
 but there must have been thirteen to equal the descendants 
 of Jacob's twelve sons, increased to thirteen by the substi- 
 tution of Ephraim and Manasseh for their father Joseph, and 
 these thirteen were probably, according to the custom of the 
 child-sacrificing nations of whom the Jews were one, one 
 of the thirteen-months year arranged as a circle of twelve 
 stones round the central Hir-men-sol, or Great stone of the 
 sun. 
 
 The southern leader of this conquering army who founded 
 his birth-city of Bethlehem came thence to Hebron as the 
 year-god of the year of four seasons, and in this form he is 
 in the genealogies Chelub, the brother of Shuhah, the first 
 wife of Judah, the god of the central altar-fire, the prede- 
 cessor of Tamar the date-palm-tree ; and the Hebrew form 
 of the Indian Urvashi, the Khadira tree-log whence the 
 Indian altar-fire was kindled. As her brother he was the 
 ancestor of the founder of Ir-nahash the Naga City. After 
 the genealogies of Chelub and his descendants the genealogist 
 gives those of Caleb, the son of Jephunnah, the beautiful 
 youth who is in Numbers named as the delegate of the tribe 
 of Judah sent with those of the other tribes to examine the 
 land of Palestine, and who is said later on to be with Joshua 
 the only Israelites of the original stock which left Egypt 
 who lived to settle there =, whither they led the invading 
 army of the children of their first companion emigrants. In 
 his account of Caleb the star Sirius, the son of the beautiful 
 youth, the Hebrew genealogist gives a variant form of the 
 Zendavesta of Tishtrya Sirius. In his earliest manifestation 
 he is said to have been a young man fifteen years old, who 
 became a bull with golden horns, the sun-bull of the age of 
 
 pp. 361 — 368, 376 — 381 ; Ruling Races oj Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay iv. 
 pp. 370—372, iii. p. 226, V. pp. 495—499. 
 
 ■ Joshua iv. 2, 3, 8 — 24. 
 
 " I Chron. iv. 11 — 13 ; Numbers xiii. 6— IS) xxvi. 65. 
 
Primitive Traditional History; 643 
 
 thigh-worship, and lastly the white sun-horse who makes the 
 black cloud-horse give up its rain '. 
 
 It was this ruling god whom David succeeded at Hebron, 
 and thence he moved to Jerusalem, the new capital of the 
 sun-god of the altar of the eight-rayed star. This altar, the 
 first national altar set up by David, was that he built on 
 the threshing-floor of Araunah the Jebusite, which became 
 the site of the later temple. This site is now crowned by an 
 octagonal dome with its entrance-gate at the north-west, the 
 setting-point of the sun at the summer solstice =, and thus 
 it still preserves the memory of the sun-god of the eight-days 
 week who consecrated it. 
 
 According to 2 Samuel xxiv. 10 iif. the altar was built to 
 stay the plague sent as a punishment by God because David 
 had numbered the people, but in an astronomical historical 
 parable prepared to teach Jewish children their national 
 history in a symbolical form and preserved in the Talmud, 
 the final victory of the Holy One, the conquering god, over 
 the plague angel of death was gained when he had conquered 
 all his enemies 3. This parable is, as I have shown, a variant 
 form of The House that Jack, the Akkadian god lakh or 
 la-khan la the fish, built. Of this I have given elsewhere 
 the English, Basque and Talmud versions, and have shown 
 that they represented the house or altar as that of the eight 
 and nine-days week 4. 
 
 According to Biblical history this Hebrew altar of the 
 sun-god, another form of that built in India by Ashtaka the 
 eighth for the sacrifice of all the Naga snakes, was bUilt 
 
 ' Darmesteter, Zendavesta Tir Yasht, vi. 10—24, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xxiii. pp. 96 — 102. 
 ' O'Neill, Night of the Gods, vol. 1. The Number Eight, p. 167, The North, 
 
 p. 443- 
 3 Paterson Smith, The Old Documents and the New Bible, 2nd edition, The 
 
 Talmud and Targum, p. 143. 
 
 " Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vii. sect, b, 
 The Story of Tobit and Jack the Giant Killer, builder of the altar of the eight 
 and nine-day weeks, pp. 413-4=2, Appendix B, Three versions of the House 
 that Jack built, pp. 619 — 626. 
 
 T t 2 
 
644 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 when David became undisputed king of Israel, after over- 
 coming all his enemies, including the rebels of his own 
 household. Among these was Hanan, the merciful, son of 
 Nahash, king of the Ammorites, that is himself as Baal 
 Hanan the son of the Naga god who had caused Uriah 
 the Hittite, whose name means Light is God, to be slain 
 as a deceased year-god. He was the twenty-ninth of his 
 thirty captains, the last day of the month of Orion's year of 
 twelve months of twenty-nine days each. This in the final 
 solar year of twelve months became one measured by months 
 of thirty days. 
 
 After his death he married his widow Bathsheba of the 
 seven {sheba) measures, the seven stars of the Great Bear, 
 as mother of the sun-god, and became the father of Solomon, 
 the Akkadian Sallimanu, the wise fish-god, whose name is 
 diffused over South-western Asia as the supreme ruler of 
 the traditional Golden Age of history, who built the temple 
 of the Jewish year-god. He had also defeated the conspiracy 
 of Joab, son of Zeruiah the Cleft, the daughter of Nahash, 
 the Great Bear god who sought to dethrone him and set up 
 Absalom, the brother of Tamar the date-palm-tree, as king. 
 
 This consecration of the sun-rock at Jerusalem, dedicated 
 to the god of the eight-rayed star and the eight-days week, 
 as the navel of the Semite earth marks an equally decisive 
 period in the Hebrew history of the year as that marked 
 in Hindu history by the snake sacrifice of Ashtaka. 
 
 C. The Hindu year-gods bom as eighth sons and the eight- 
 days week of the Celtic year. 
 
 The first of the Hindu year-gods who ruled time as 
 the eighth son of the Creator was Bhishma, the eighth 
 son of Shantanu the healer, and Ganga the mother- 
 river, who, as we are told in the Mahabharata, was also 
 Dyu, the son of the bright sun {dyu) of day, who stole 
 Nandini, the year-cow of Vashishtha, the god of the 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 64S 
 
 central altar-fire and one of the stars of the Great Bear. 
 He was the brightest of the eight creating Vasus whom 
 Ganga bore, and was created, as his mother said, to live 
 on earth for some time^ as a national year-god. He was 
 the Kauravya leader who, as the traditional sun-god of the 
 royal race of India uniting the northern immigrants and the 
 southern ancient occupants of the country together, is repre- 
 sented in his historical death in the Mahabharata as dying 
 on the 1st of Magh (January — February) on his bed of 
 heaped-up year-arrows which have slain the successive year- 
 gods of his epoch, and this was also the day of his birth as 
 the sun-god born as the child of the winter solstice 2. 
 
 He in his last avatar was, as we have seen, the god whose 
 cognizance was the date-palm-tree, and the seven previously 
 born children of his mother, who were destroyed at their 
 birth both in the Mahabharata and in the Vedic account 
 of his birth in Rig. x. 72 as the Martanda, the dead egg, were 
 the seven stars of the Great Bear. 
 
 But the popular god who survived Bhishma and embodied 
 in the national religion the traditional doctrines of the wor- 
 shippers of the sun-god born of the Thigh ruling the year 
 of eight-day weeks was Krishna, who, as we shall see, brought 
 to life the year-god of this age, Parikshit, the circling sun-god. 
 He was, like Bhishma and David, the youngest of eight, and 
 various dates of his birth are given in popular calendars. 
 In Bombay and Southern India, where the most reliable tra- 
 ditions of national as opposed to local theology are preserved, 
 he is said to have been born on the 8th day of the dark half 
 of Shravana (July — August), a date which was, as I have 
 shown in these days of the new-moon reckoning of time, the 
 8th day of the light half of the month 3. And this month 
 is the mid-month of the year beginning, like that of Arjuna 
 or Phalgun, on the new moon of February — March, when the 
 Huli New Year's festival of the red-race is held. But in the 
 
 " Mahabharata Adi (Sambhava) Parva, xcviii., xcix. pp. 293 — 297. 
 
 ' Mahabharata Anushasana {Svaya-rohanika) Parva, clxvii. pp. 773, 774. 
 
 3 Monier Williams, Religious Thought and Life in India, pp. 430, 431. 
 
646 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 traditions of Mathura his birthday is the 8th of Bhadon 
 or Bhadrapada (August — September), which would be the 
 mid-month of the year beginning at the vernal equinox or 
 Cheit (March — April), and would thus coincide with the year 
 of Parikshit, the circling sun-god of this age, who is the 
 traditional grandson of Su-bhadra Krishna's twin sister, who 
 was born on the same day as himself. 
 
 The father of Krishna was Vasudeva, the creating god, 
 and his mother Devaki, another form of the goddess Devayani, 
 ruling the first six months of the year beginning at the winter 
 solstice I, These divine parents of the sun-god were brought 
 from GoburdhaUj "the cow-shed" on the Jumna, the place 
 sacred to the cattle of Rahu, by Kansa, who was, as we have 
 seen, the goose {hans) king of the eleven-months year, in 
 order to prevent the fulfilment of the prophecy that the eighth 
 son of Vasudeva and Devaki would kill him. He killed 
 successively their first six sons, but to arrest the slaughter 
 of the seventh the embryo from which he was to be born was 
 transferred from the womb of Devaki to that of Jasoda, 
 meaning the superannuated or exhausted goddesSj called also 
 in local legend Rohini, the star Aldebaran, who was the 
 Queen of the Pleiades and, as we have seen, the mother by 
 Prajapati (Orion) of Vastospati, the altar-fire. She was 
 wife of Nanda of Gokul, the Cow-pen, and male god of the 
 Nandgaon hill near Mathura, the companion hill to Bar-sana, 
 of which his wife was the hill goddess, and in this capacity 
 she was called Ra-dha the mother of Ra. She was the 
 daughter of Vrisha-bhanu, the ray {bhand) of rain, locally 
 pronounced Brikh-bhana, showing that he was the fire-god 
 Bhrigu. Her mother was Kirat, a local form of Kirttida, 
 the spinning goddess of the Pudma Purana, the Pleiades. 
 Between Bar-sana, sacred to the goddess sun-mother born 
 of the fire-god, and Pleiades and Nandgaon, the hill of the 
 sun-hill her husband, is the grove of Sanket, the place of 
 assignation, the village grove where the two lovers met'. 
 
 ' Mathura, A Dutrict Memoir, by F. S. Growse, pp. 50 — 62. 
 
 = Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay v. pp. 449—453. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 647 
 
 The seventh son of Vasudeva and Devaki, born from the 
 womb of Rohinl the star-queen of the Pleiades, was Vala- 
 rama, the circling (vald) Rama, who was also, as we have 
 seen, called Hal-ayudha, he whose weapon {ayudhd) is the 
 Great Bear Plough, and whose cognizance was, like that of 
 Bhishma, the date-palm-tree. Hence he was the Great Bear 
 god manifested as the son of the Pleiades. He in the story 
 of the Mahabharata, as the god of the Plough constellation 
 of the Great Bear ruling the eleven-months year and the 
 Pandava year of Krishna succeeding it, stood aloof from the 
 contest between the Kauravyas and Pandavas, and at the 
 final scene of the death of Krishna and all his allied gods 
 which ends the Mahabharata, Vala-rama met his death 
 voluntarily in his original form of the Naga snake of Naga 
 worship, which made its way to the Ocean and disappeared 
 into its waters ^. It was after his Great Bear snake-brother 
 had abdicated the further rule of time that Krishna died as 
 the deer-sun-god shot, like Achilles, in the heel by the hunter 
 Jara, old age with the death-arrow slaying the ruler of time 
 of the age of the Great Bear worship. After his death as 
 the god of earthly time he ascended to heaven as the Supreme 
 God 2. 
 
 This god, who came down from heaven to rule on earth 
 and who ended his earthly mission as the slain deer-god 
 ruling the year, is shown by the story of his fore-runner 
 Vala-rama to be born from the union of the Pleiades and 
 Aldebaran with the stars of the Great Bear. 
 
 When born as the eighth son he was carried by his father, 
 who eluded the guards of Kansa, to Gokul on the east bank 
 of the Jumna, and there consigned to Nanda and Jasoda to 
 be brought up with Vala-rama. From Jasoda Vasudeva took 
 away her new-born daughter, the twin sister of Krishna, and 
 placed her in the bed of Devaki as the mother-goddess of 
 the new age. When the guards of Kansa came to slay this 
 
 • Mahabharata Mausala Parva, iv. 12, 13, p. 10. 
 ' Ibid., 19 — 24, pp. II, 12. 
 
648 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 new-born eighth son she rose up to heaven as the mountain 
 goddess Durga or Su-bhadra, who was to be carried off by 
 Arjuna with Krishna's consent from the Raivataka hill, 
 consecrated to Revati the 27th Nakshatra, the fish-mother- 
 god of the Constellation Pisces i. By this union she was 
 to become mother of Abhimanyu, who was, as we shall see 
 presently, the father by Uttara, the Pole Star goddess, of 
 Parikshit, the circling sun-god of this age. 
 
 She was carried off apparently at the spring festival, as the 
 Mahabharata tells us that her capture took place at the great 
 mountain festival of the Bhojas, Vrishnis and Andhakas. 
 This would be that of the new moon of Phalgun or Arjuna 
 (February — March), the month sacred to Arjuna, and would 
 make the mid-month of their year Shravana July — August, 
 when, as we have seen, Krishna and his twin sister were born 
 in the Chronology of Bombay and Southern India, that most 
 to be relied on in questions of national as opposed to local 
 history. In Adi (Su-bhadra-harana) Parva ccxxiii. p. 608, 
 Arjuna and Su-bhadra are said to have spent the first year 
 of their union at Dwarika, and they were hence, probably as 
 parents of the next year-god Abhimanyu, the father of the 
 year sun-god Parikshit, married on the national New Year's 
 day, their wedding being an Indian form of that of Zeus and 
 Here married in Gamelion (January — February) ; for according 
 to the universal rules of ancient traditional history governing 
 the birth legends of sun-gods ruling the year, the wedding 
 must have taken place on the day when the sun-god was to 
 be conceived, and this month of conception was probably 
 February — March, sacred to his father-god. 
 
 Both Here and Su-bhadra bore the banner of the pea- 
 cock's tail of stars sacred to them, and while Here is a 
 moon-goddess, Su-bhadra is called in Harivansa Iviii. the 
 goddess of the sun and moon. She is described as Kushika, 
 the goddess of the Kushikas, and carries the trident of the 
 year of three seasons and the lance of Kunti, the mother 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi i^Subhadrd-harana) Parva, ccxii. pp. 605 — 607. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 649 
 
 of the Pandavas, that which pierces the rain-clouds and 
 lights the year-fires. Her dress was black with a yellow 
 upper garment, and she wore a collar of pearls round her 
 neck and the pearl earrings of the moon- goddess. Her 
 banner is that of the Bharata Mayura Peacock kings, and 
 her marriage in February — March coincides with the Greek 
 New Year's festival of the Anthesteria held at the beginning 
 of that month in honour of Dionysos, born from his father's 
 thigh. She is called the goddess of the ninth day of the 
 dark and the eleventh day of the light half of the months, 
 that is of the years of nine and eleven-day weeks, and she 
 is in her various forms the goddess Kali, to whom human 
 and animal sacrifices were offered during these epochs. 
 
 The eight-day weeks of the year of the eighth son 
 which appear in the birthdays of Krishna on the 8th 
 of Shravana and Bhadon, also appear in the eight Maini 
 of Celtic mythology. These Maini were the brooch 
 which used to fasten the cloak of Maine Mac Darthacht, 
 the son of Perdition, or Nights It fell into the lap 
 of Mac Darthacht's brother Fergus Fairge, the Ocean god- 
 father of Lugaid, who as the god of the summer solstice 
 slew Cu-chulainn the sun-god after his left thigh had been 
 weakened. Hence the brooch of the eight (stones) belonging 
 to the son of night is the Irish equivalent of the Welsh 
 Wyth-nos, meaning the eight nights binding the year to- 
 gether, and it is thus traced to the year succeeding that 
 of eleven months, which was, as we have seen, that of Cu- 
 chulainn. These Maini, who are also as the seven stars of 
 the Great Bear the Secht or Seven Maini, are called (i) 
 Maini Mathremail M, like her mother, (2) Maini Athre- 
 mail M, like her father. (3) Maini Morgor M, very dutiful 
 (4) Maini Mingor M, little dutiful. (S) Maini mo Epert 
 M, greater than is said. (6) Maini Milscotach M, of honey 
 bloom. (7) Maini Andoe (meaning unknown). (8) Maini 
 cotageibule M, that contains them all 2, 
 
 ' Rhys, Hibbert Lectures for 1S86, lect. ii. p. 142, note 2, iv. p. 328. 
 = Ibid., lect. iv, pp. 364—372- 
 
650 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 They are the eight rings dropped every eighth night by 
 Woden's ring Draupnir. This week of eight days or nights 
 is that of the eight warders of the Court of Arthur, the solar 
 form of the plough-god Airem, who, mounted on his horse 
 Cavall, led in the story of Kil-hwch the attack on the king's 
 boar Twrch Trwyth and his seven Great Bear sons, in which 
 the seven Bear-pigs were slain, and their Pole Star father 
 driven into the sea. This horse was the white horse Epona 
 of the Celtic Britons, the goddess of Stonehenge, depicted 
 on so many hills in the south of England, which succeeded 
 the black horse of the sun of the age of the eleven-months 
 year. The eight warders of this sun-king divided the year 
 between them, the eighth being the white horse of the sun 
 Glew Iwyd Gavel vaur, Brave Grey with the Great Grip. 
 
 D. The year of the birth of the Buddha and Parikshit 
 as stm-gods. 
 
 In former references to the birth of the Buddha we have 
 seen that, according to one of his own accounts of his 
 previous births in the Bhudda Sala Jataka, he was the 
 central Sal-tree {Shorea robusta) supporting the heavens' 
 palace of Brahmadatta, king of Kashi (Benares)'. This is 
 the Indian form of the Cypress-tree of Byblos, the mother- 
 tree whence the sun-god was born, supporting the palace 
 of the god Malkaerth, the Tyronian Herakles. Thus the 
 Buddha as the mother- tree was the earlier form of the 
 sun-god born from it. The traditional epoch of his birth 
 is marked by the chronological series of the Buddhist 
 heavens (deva - loka) beginning with that of the Shatum 
 Maharajika Devaloko, the hundred angels, which desig- 
 nated, as I have shown, the ages before the eleven-months 
 year. This year was that of the second heaven of the Ta- 
 vatimsa, or the thirty-three days of the month, and the 
 
 ' Rouse, The Jataka, book xii. note 465, vol. iv. pp. 96—99. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 651 
 
 thirty-three lords of the ritual order of the Zend fire-wor- 
 shippers ; and this was followed by the Yama deva-loko, 
 or heaven of the twins, the age in which the Buddha was 
 born as the sun-god in the constellation of the stars Gemini. 
 
 The early traditional history of the Buddhas, of whom 
 this Buddha born in the heaven of the twins was the twenty- 
 seventh, dates from the first Buddha Dipankara, meaning 
 the " nascent light," the first of the twenty-seven Nakshatra 
 stars, the sun-god born in Aries, the first Nakshatra, at the 
 autumnal equinox, in the city of Ram-ma, the mother of 
 Rama, the god of the cycle-year, who followed the furrow 
 Sita round the heavens ^. In short the first sun Buddha 
 was the god of the three-years cycle-year born in the Ram 
 constellation of the Ashvins, and his life sketched in the 
 Buddhist birth-stories shows that his parent-tree was the 
 Asattho or Ashvattha, the Ficus Religiose, and that he, 
 like his twenty-eighth successor, who followed the twenty- 
 seventh Buddha, Kassapo or Kashyapa, the father of the 
 Kushikas 2, was the son of Maya and Suddhodana, that is 
 of the Magha mother of the Malli or mountain race and 
 the pure {suddko) rice {dana), the parent plant of the Indian 
 race before the introduction of the northern barley. He 
 attained enlightenment on the banks of the Niranjara river 
 under Aja-pala, the goat-nourishing plant {costus speciosus) 
 called Kiu, whence a native sweet-meat is made 3, and not, 
 like the later Buddha, under the Nigrodha banyan-tree (Ficus 
 indicd). 
 
 The successor of the sun-god born at the autumnal equi- 
 nox was conceived at the summer solstice after ten lunar 
 months of gestation, and it is the story of this conception 
 at the summer solstice which is told in the Nidanakatha 
 as that of the twenty-eighth Buddha. By this number, as 
 well as by his education by Maha-Gotami Pajapati and the 
 
 ' Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, The Nidanakatha, Sumedha and 
 Dipankara, pp. 9— 14, stanzas 70 — 79. 
 ' Ibid., The Nidanakatha, 247, 291, p. 52. 
 3 Clarke, Roxburgh's Flora Indica, p. 20. 
 
652 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 thirteen Theris, divine mothers of the thirteen-months year, 
 he is marked as a god of this year, that of the thirteen wives 
 of Kashyapa, the twenty-seventh Buddha. At his concep- 
 tion his mother Maya was borne in spirit to the great Sal- 
 tree of the Himalayas standing in the Mano-sila-tal, the plain 
 {tal) of the rock (silo) of calculation {mano), the world's 
 central parent-tree. She was brought thither by the four 
 Loka-pala angels, the four stars ruling the four quarters of 
 the heavens. They bathed her in the Anotatta, the "not- 
 heated " lake, the cool pool of pure water, whence the mother 
 rivers rise. They laid her after her bath with her head to the 
 East, and the young sun-god appeared before her as the 
 white elephant cloud-god, the god Ganisha, who came from 
 the North-east as the rising sun of the summer solstice and 
 entered her right side^. 
 
 The sun-god thus conceived was born at the vernal equinox 
 in the Sal-grove Lumbini common to Kapila-vastu, the town 
 of Suddhodana, and Koliya, the town of Maya of the race 
 of the Malli sons of Magha, and this grove Lumbini is the 
 counterpart of Sanket, the grove of assignation, where 
 Radha and Nanda, the parents of the Bharatas, used to 
 meet. He was born under the central Sal-tree of the grove, 
 which his mother grasped during her labour, that is to say 
 he was born as the son of the Sal-tree. This sun-child when 
 born was received by the four Loka-pala angels in the net 
 of the skin of a spotted tiger 2, the star leopard of Persian 
 and Egyptian theology. He thence stepped upon the ante- 
 lope skin of the god Krishna, the black antelope, and took 
 seven strides under the white umbrella held over him by the 
 twins Su-yama, the stars Gemini, and his subsequent births 
 took place under the guardianship of these stars. 
 
 This birth was called the Mahosadha or great medicine 
 (psadhd) birth, that of the sun-physician. He then came 
 into the world with a branch of sandal-wood Chandanasaro, 
 the tree {sard) of the moon (Chanda), in his hand. Hence 
 
 ' Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, The Nidanakatha, pp. 62, 63. 
 
 ' Hardy, A Manual of Buddhism, vii. Legends of Gotama Buddha, p. 148. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 653 
 
 he was the sun-god born of the moon-tree the Vedic Soma 
 god of the eleven-months year, and of Suria the sun-maiden. 
 He told his mother that this branch was medicine,', hence 
 he was called Osadh-darika, Medicine-child. This medicine 
 plant was planted in an earthenware potj his first begging 
 bowl, of which we shall see the meaning presently '. 
 
 This birth, which took place when the sun was in Gemini 
 at the vernal equinox, from about 6700 to 4500 B.C., is 
 evidently, from the statements that the Buddha made his 
 first public appearance as the infant sun-god at the great 
 annual ploughing-festival, one originally dating much earlier. 
 For it is one of the series of traditional sun-births under 
 Gemini which I have traced from the birth of Bhishma on 
 the 1st of Magh (January — February) to the vernal equinox. 
 The ploughing-festival, that of the new year of the Kuru- 
 Panchalas, was held (p. 248) at the beginning of Magh 
 (January — February), and the sun-god born under Gemini 
 who attended it must have been born when the sun was in 
 Gemini at the winter solstice, or from about 12,600 to 
 10,700 B.C., and the sequence of ages marked by the suc- 
 cessive births corresponded with the series from that of 
 Bhishma born in Magh (January — February) to the first 
 of Cheit (March — April), when Parikshit, the circling sun- 
 god, started on his year's course at the vernal equinox. 
 
 The Buddha at this ploughing-festival was seated under 
 the Jambu-tree {Eugenia jamboland), the central parent-tree 
 of the bear-race, sons of the bear-god Jamvavan, ruling 
 Jambu-dwipa or Central India. His shadow is said to have 
 remained stationary as representing the central steadfast 
 point, the earthly embodiment of the Pole Star. This 
 birthday ploughing-festival is clearly one taken eastward 
 from the Central Indian land of the Kuru-Panchalas by the 
 yellow [kapila) race to Kapilavastu, the north-eastern city 
 where the individual Siddharta Gotama, the preacher, leader 
 and founder of the Buddhist's Church as a mendicant 
 
 ' Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, The Nidanakatha, pp. 66—68; 
 Hardy, A Manual of Buddhism, vii. Legends of Gotama Buddha, pp. 147, 148. 
 
654 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 missionary community, was born about 550 B.C. The dis- 
 cipline he introduced was a greatly improved and much 
 better organised system than that imposed by his mendicant 
 predecessors, and the doctrines he and his disciples taught 
 were not those of a brand new religion, but of one evolved 
 from the teachings of the religious and philosophical schools 
 which had been spread over the country during thousands 
 of years by the successive leaders of the movements towards 
 earnest personal religion, who were symbolically represented 
 in Buddhistic history by the twenty-seven first Buddhas. 
 The first stirrings of this spirit have been traced in previous 
 chapters in the teachings of the Jain Tirthakaras and their 
 predecessors, and their doctrines were developed in the 
 Priests' Guilds which corresponded in India to the Jewish 
 Schools of the Prophets or expounders of the Will of God. 
 These became in the Vedic Age the priestly associations 
 which selected for the national religion the hymns chosen 
 by each of their local guilds to represent their distinctive 
 utterances in the Mandala allotted to them in the national 
 religious collection of sacred songs. 
 
 Neither the Buddha nor his predecessors interfered with 
 the local religious festivals and rites, and though the Buddha 
 denied the propitiatory efficiency of sacrifices, yet he strictly 
 insisted on the Vajjian population of the sons of the Tiger 
 among whom he lived retaining unimpaired all their ancient 
 customs and ceremonies. He told them, as stated in his 
 own words, that " they were to enact nothing not already 
 established, abrogate nothing that has been already enacted, 
 and act in accordance with the ancient institutions of the 
 Vajjians as established in former days." They were to honour 
 and esteem, revere and support the Vajjian elders, and hold 
 it a point of duty to hearken to their words, to honour, 
 esteem and revere and support the Vajjian shrines in town 
 and country, and not allow the proper offerings and rites 
 as formerly given and performed to fall into desuetude'. 
 
 " Rhys Davids, Buddhist Suttas Makaparinibana Suita, The Book of the 
 Great Decease, i. 4, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xi. pp. 3, 4. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 655 
 
 But while retaining unimpaired all their ancient ordained 
 rites, ceremonies and customs, they were each individually 
 to devote their chief energies to becoming enthusiastically 
 good men and women, who hated sin and loved righteous- 
 ness, and it was to help them in this task that he undertook 
 the revision of the ethical codes handed down by his pre- 
 decessors. 
 
 The date of the birth of the Buddha in the" middle of the 
 sixth century B.C. as the leader of the new missionary com- 
 munity organised to disseminate the moral instruction given 
 in the teachings of the Buddhistic Church is about the same 
 as that given by the Chinese for the birth of their great moral 
 teacher Confucius, and it was about the same period that 
 produced the greatest Hebrew prophets. 
 
 These men who enthusiastically devoted themselves to the 
 task of awakening the national conscience were the leaders 
 of a wave of religious aspiration which passed over the whole 
 of Southern Asia. The awakening spirit of this new revival 
 was born from discontent with the metaphysical philosophy 
 which had succeeded the formal ritualism in which the early 
 faiths had lost their motive power for good. The first age 
 of the belief in the Chinese Tao or path, the yearly recurring 
 round of the imperishable germ of life, had passed away. 
 The northern sense of individuality and desire for personal 
 success had made men dissatisfied with the belief in the Tao 
 and its continuously pursued task of silently creating life 
 and promoting the physical and moral progress of the nations 
 who remained true to the teachings of its ritual, and their 
 more active and enterprising intellects sought for a more 
 stirring conception of human duty than that taught by 
 somnolent contentment with things as they found them. 
 Hence these reformers no longer looked on the dutiful 
 submission and unquestioning obedience of those trained 
 in the discipline handed down in the village and provincial 
 constitutions of India as the chief national virtues. Conse- 
 quently there arose in those countries where the northern 
 spirit became dominant, the desire for a leader who as a 
 
656 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 divine son of man came down from heaven to show his 
 soldiers an example in thought, word, and deed of the life 
 they were bound to lead in their war against apathy and 
 moral stagnation. This conception and aspiration caused 
 the older belief in the state as a unit bound together by 
 strict routine to retire into the background, and as it faded 
 away the older form of history, based on abstractions clear 
 to the initiated but dark to the multitude, became changed 
 into tales in which the names which had been first symbols 
 of the departed dead became those of living heroes who had 
 lived their lives on earth as men. When the older forms 
 of history were thus distorted and their true meanings for- 
 gotten or disregarded, schools of philosophy arose which 
 tried to substitute answers to the riddles of existence spun 
 from thought for those given by traditional history. It was 
 on the Vedanta and Sankhya systems of philosophy dis- 
 seminated in the teachings of the Indian Upanishads and 
 on similar questonings of Chinese metaphysicians that both 
 Confucius and Siddharta Gotama founded their systems of 
 ethical religion, which taught that man's chief task on earth 
 was "to make his moral being his prime care." According 
 to the teaching of the Indian reformers he was to dismiss 
 from his thoughts all metaphysical speculations as to ultimate 
 causes as unprofitable and useless, and in the system of self 
 education to which he was to devote himself he was no longer 
 to put any faith in the moral benefits to be derived from the 
 offering of living victims which should be excluded from the 
 national ritual. He was to eschew asceticism and valueless 
 mortifications of the flesh, and to follow the eightfold noble 
 path of (i) Right views, (2) High aims, (3) Right spirit, 
 (4) Upright conduct, (5) Harmless livelihood, (6) Persever- 
 ance in well-doing, (7) Intellectual activity, (8) Earnest 
 thought. By this discipline men and women were to try 
 to reach a stage of existence in which sin was impossible, 
 and in which all who had attained to and were strenuously 
 striving to reach perfection became members of the Sanga 
 or Community of the Faithful, the united body who had 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 657 
 
 while attaining the benefits of individual exertion purged 
 themselves of the temptations to which weaker natures were 
 subject. 
 
 It was as the leader in this transition to a society of 
 universally attained individual righteousness by those re- 
 ceived as citizens of the village community of the City of 
 God that their teacher was installed by his disciples as the 
 Buddha or God of Knowledge, and though he was actually 
 born as the son of the Headman of the Sakya Gautama 
 town of Kapila-vastu, who was probably also a Manki or 
 provincial Chief of the Sakya Clan territory, they also in- 
 vested him with the attributes of the previous national gods 
 of time which described their birth, life and death in the 
 historical myths telling of the lives of the year-gods. In 
 doing this they merely, as we have seen in previous chapters 
 of this book, followed the example of their predecessors, who 
 gave the same birth history to each successive manifester 
 of the changing forms of the god who measures time. Con- 
 sequently in the picture of his life handed down to posterity 
 Siddharta Gotama, who was a leader imbued with religious 
 zeal, an ardent desire to discover truth and a rare sympathy 
 with the mental difficulties of others, was born and died 
 as the year-god who passed through the ecliptic path of the 
 stars in his yearly round of birth, growth, extinction, and re- 
 birth. 
 
 It was as the young sun-god that he took the lead 
 in the symbolic New Year's ploughing festival. When 
 once started on his career his first task was to beget 
 a successor. This young sun-god was born as Rahulo, the 
 little Rahu whose mother, unnamed in the Nidanakatha, 
 was Bhadda Kaccani, the eleventh of the thirteen Bud- 
 dhist Theris or year-mothers of whom the first was Maha 
 Gotami Pajapati, the sister of his mother Maya or Magha, 
 who had brought him up when his mother died seven 
 days after his birth. She was the female form of Pra- 
 japati (Orion). 
 
 Rahulo's mother Bhadda Kaccani, the Golden Saint, or 
 
 II. U u 
 
658 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Yaso-dhara, the renowned {yaso) stream [dhdra)^, was the 
 mother-river of the sons of this goddess of the eleven-months 
 year. It was seven days after Rahulo's birth that the 
 Buddha started on his career as the historical sun-god, whose 
 history is told in a story conceived when the myth of the 
 birth and life of the sun-physician was first made the most 
 important chapter in national history telling of the revolution 
 he wrought in popular theology. 
 
 He l^ft his father's capital on his horse Kanthaka, the star- 
 horse Pegasus of the year of eleven months, accompanied by 
 his groom Channo, meaning the concealed one, the counter- 
 part of Lakshman in the story of Rama the star Arcturus, 
 which kept the sun in its right course through the furrow 
 of heaven, and both of his companions were born on the 
 same day as himself *. They took him thirty yojanas 
 through the heavenly circle of the thirty stars to the banks 
 of the river called Anoma the illustrious, consecrated to 
 Anoma-dassin the sixth Buddha, to whom the Arjuna tree 
 (Terminalia belerica) was sacred. This in the story of Nala 
 and Damayanti is shown to be the tree of Calculation which 
 instructed Nala the year-god in the true history of annual 
 time 3. 
 
 It was when he reached the epoch of astronomical calcula- 
 tion that the birth of the sun-god as the sun-physician of the 
 eleven-months year took place. He then began his career 
 as the sun-god of the horse's head of the days of ceremonial 
 hair-cutting by polling his hair. He received from the arch- 
 angel Ghati-Kara, the maker of Ghatis, who measured time 
 by the Dravidian method of dividing the day into sixty 
 Ghatis of twenty-four minutes each, the eight requisites of 
 the beggar sun-god. These were three robes, the leaves, 
 flowers and fruit of the three seasons, spring, summer, 
 
 » Hardy, Manual oj Buddhism, vii. Legends of Gotama Buddha, p. 155. 
 
 = Ibid., p. 149. 
 
 3 Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, The Nidanakatha, pp. 79, 82, 85, 40; 
 Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay ii. pp. 71—82, vol. ii. 
 essay vii. pp. 73, 82, 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 659 
 
 autumn, and the winter earthenware alms-bowl in which 
 the healing plant of the sun-physician was planted as a 
 seedling to grow into the year-tree of the next year. To 
 these four were added (i) the razor, the pruning-knife which 
 gave to the parent-god of the river-born race the first-fruits 
 of the produce grown in the year, symbolised in the clipped 
 and offered hair, (2) the threading-needle which united all 
 the days of the year together, and (3) the girdle of the 
 circling sun which bound days, nights, weeks and seasons 
 in a perfect whole. The eighth requisite commemorating 
 the eighth day of the week was the water-strainer, the clouds 
 which sent to earth the rain, the parent of the life dissemi- 
 nated by the sowing-god, the Latin Semo Sancus ^. 
 
 It was in this mendicant garb that the sun-god of this 
 year of the eight-day weeks proceeded to the scene of his 
 manifestation as the year-god. He began his journey after 
 the death of Kanthaka, the Star-horse Pegasus, who passed 
 into the Tavatimsa heaven of the thirty-three gods of his 
 eleven-months year as a star-angel, the son of God (deva- 
 tutto) 2. He rested on his way under the Pandava rock, 
 the year-rock of the year of Bhishma and of the acquisition 
 by the Pandavas of the year-mother-tree DrupadI, won by 
 Arjuna's victory as the archer-god of their year. 
 
 The final destination of the sun-god about to be born was 
 the land of Uru-vela, that is of extended {uru) time {vela). 
 There the birth-village was that called Senani, the clustered 
 army (send) of the stars ruled by the Headman general 
 Senani, the Pole Star god, whose daughter was Sujata, the 
 sun-mother born {jatd) of the mother-cloud-bird Su or Khu, 
 whose nest is the Pole Star. Her tree-mother was the 
 Nigrodha tree {Ficus indicd), the Banyan fig-tree-mother 
 of the Kushikas and of the Buddha's predecessor Kassapo 
 or Kashyapa, the twenty- seventh Buddha. As an offering 
 to her tree-mother Sujata took on May-day, the full-moon 
 
 ' Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, The Nidanakatha, pp. 86—88. 
 ' ¥sm%ho\\., Jataka, vol. i. p. 85. 
 
 U U 2 
 
66o Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of Vaisakha (April— May), the milk of eight cows selected 
 out of the thousand cows of light which fed as her father's 
 stars \ These eight selected star-cows were the seven stars 
 of the Great Bear and the eighth the sun-god. To heat this 
 milk and make with it rice gruel, the food of the ripened seed 
 of life, the mother-rice- plant of the first founders of villages, 
 a fire was lighted by Sakko, the god leading the thirty-three 
 gods of the Tavatimsa heaven of the eleven-months year. 
 He and the other three Loka-pala star-gods and the Pole 
 Star god Brahma, the five stars crowning the date-palm-tree 
 of Bhishma, infused into this rice gruel the Madhu or honey- 
 sap of life, the seed germs brought to earth from heaven 
 by the rain in quantities suflficient to support all the men 
 and angels of the four continents and two thousand islands 
 of the world 2. In short the food-offering thus prepared was 
 the concentrated essence of the divine creative force which 
 was to be infused into the year-sun-god who partook of it. 
 When this divine food was cooked by the gods ruling time, 
 the bird-mother the May Queen sent her servant Punfla, 
 Completion, to the Nigrodha tree to which it was to be 
 offered, and she saw the Buddha sitting under it as the 
 rising sun born from the tree. She ran back to tell her 
 mistress, who placed the heavenly food, her oblation to the 
 rising sun of the eight-rayed star, in a golden bowl and 
 herself gave it to the Buddha ; it replaced the earthen-bowl 
 of Ghati-kara, which then disappeared. 
 
 I must here turn aside from the narrative of the Buddha's 
 birth as sun-god of the eight-rayed star to call attention to 
 the annexed picture of the Buddha in the act of taking this 
 creating-bowl, which points to a much earlier form of the 
 legend than that which has come down to us in the Nidana- 
 
 • Dr: Rivers says in Times of Sept, 15th, 1903 : — "The Todas select certain 
 buffaloes as sacred, and it is only their milk which is churned in the dairy 
 temples in which there is a daily ritual." See also Thurston, Madras Govern- 
 ment Museum Bulletin, No. 4, 1896, pp. 170—172. 
 
 » Fausboll, Jataka, vol. i. p. 68 ; Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, 
 The Nidanakatha, pp. 90 — 93. 
 
PLATE III. 
 
 To face p. 660. 
 
 From a photograph of the cast given by Mr. A. Maudslay to the South 
 Kensington Museum. 
 
 The Yucatan God of Copan chm-ahau, Lord of the Bowl, depictei 
 AS THE Indian elephant-headed God Gan-isha, Lord of the Land 
 seated on the double Su-astika. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 66 1 
 
 katha. This picture is taken from one of the sculptures 
 in the great Mexican temple at Copan i. It, as shown in 
 the photograph taken on the spot by Mr. Maudsley, a copy 
 of which is here reproduced, depicts the god holding in his 
 hand the smoking bowl of rice, not as the man Siddharta 
 Gotama but as the elephant-headed cloud-god Ganisha, who, 
 as we have seen, entered his mother's womb when the sun- 
 physician was conceived ; and in this portrait his earliest 
 form of divine existence as the cloud-bird is also portrayed 
 in the bird's tail protruding from the back of his head. He 
 is seated on the two united Suastikas, the female Su-astika 
 rp representing the sun going northward at the winter 
 solstice, and the male Su-astika ^ denoting the southern 
 path of the sun after the summer solstice. These are com- 
 bined to form a square, and within this the sun and rain-god 
 is seated with his legs crossed in the form of a St. Andrew's 
 Cross ^ the sign of the solstitial sun. The seed vessel on 
 the breast of the god is also most noteworthy. It answers 
 to the embryo plant-god in the bas-relief of Isilikaia standing 
 between the seed-bearing mother and her son the god with 
 the double axe, answering to the Etruscan god Sethlans 
 (P- 385). The embryo seed-vessel of this illustration repre- 
 sents the young sun to be born from the womb of the elephant 
 cloud-god Ganisha. And that he is the rain-god is proved 
 by his trunk, whence he emits the water he has drawn into 
 it to wash himself. In this illustration the water is spouting 
 from the trunk on to three balls, the three apples of the year 
 of life of the three seasons, thus fertilising them with the 
 heaven-sent rain. This god of the elephant's trunk is also 
 frequently depicted in Mexican manuscripts and in the 
 temple ruins in Central America as the god with a proboscis- 
 like horn, whence water is squirting, and his head is most 
 frequently portrayed on the corners of temple walls, which 
 are always built with reference to the cardinal points. He 
 
 ' Godman and Salvin, Biolegia Central Americana, Maudsley, Archseology, 
 Copan, part i. plate 9. 
 
662 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 is the Maya god Muluc, ruling the ninth day of the month, 
 and this name as well as the Tzental name Molo means 
 what is heaped up or collected, the Quiche name Toh 
 means a shower, and the Zapotic and Nahuatl names Niza 
 and Atl mean water, so that he is clearly the god of the 
 raining cloud. He is constantly associated with the god of 
 the second day of the month called Ik in Maya, and this 
 name as well as its equivalents given in other Mexican 
 dialects denotes wind and the heaven-house from which it 
 and plants are born ^. This god is depicted " with a long 
 proboscis-like pendent nose and a tongue hanging out in 
 front of his mouth." And when he and the elephant-god 
 Muluc appear together the latter is generally depicted as 
 a hand, the original symbol of the god of the five-days week, 
 and the Indian name of the elephant's trunk called " hasta," 
 the hand. Muluc is also associated with the Maya god 
 Chuen, ruling the eleventh day, whose name is interpreted 
 by Mr. Thomas to mean monkey in all the Mexican dialects 
 he quotes. And this god is depicted as the central Pole Star, 
 and his head is also the symbol for the North. In one of 
 the Mexican manuscripts the signs of the cardinal points are 
 depicted between thirteen repetitions of the sign of Chuen, 
 the north god, and thirteen signs of the elephant-god Muluc, 
 denoting the thirteen months of the Mexican sacred year, 
 so that he clearly appears here as the god of the South, the 
 antithesis of the ape-god of the North Pole, and consequently 
 as the god of the southern abyss of waters in the house of 
 the winds, which he rules with his hand ^. The title Ahau, 
 meaning Lord, in the Yucatan name of the elephant-god 
 in the illustration here discussed, is the Maya name of the 
 last or twentieth day of the Mexican month, and its symbols 
 in the calendar show it to be the sun in the East {likin), or 
 
 ' Thomas, Day Symbols of the Maya Year, The Second Day, The Ninth 
 Day, Smithsonian Bureau of Ethnology, vol. xvi. pp. 215, 221, 237, 239. 
 
 ° Paul Schellas, Representation of Deities of the Maya Manuscripts, Gods 
 K, B, C, Peabody Museum of American Archaeology, Harvard University, 
 vol. iv. note i, pp. 32 — 42, 16— 21. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 663 
 
 a god whose image is a Latin Cross '"l^p with the symbol 
 
 X denoting the solstitial sun ^ in the centre of the cross, so 
 that this god, who is here depicted as the lord of the sun- 
 year of the bowl, is the lord of the month of the year of the 
 monkey-god ruling the North, and the elephant-god of the 
 hand or trunk ruling the South, and this symbol, the Mexican 
 form of the Indian elephant-god Ganisha, must have been 
 brought into this country, where no elephant has ever been 
 seen, from India, where elephants are indigenous and sacred 
 as symbols of the rain-god. 
 
 To return to the birth-story of the sun-god, when he had 
 received the sun-bowl of the sap of life he rose from his seat 
 and went sun-wise round the Nigrodha, with the vessel in his 
 hand, to the banks of the river Niranjara. This is the water 
 {niram) of age (jdra), or the Phalgun, the river of February 
 — March, in which he was to begin his year. It was the river 
 of the ecliptic stream of time in which, as is said in the Nidan- 
 akatha, so many thousand previous Buddhas had begun their 
 year's reign as sun-gods. He entered the river at the Supat- 
 titha, or firmly established ferry, the stars Gemini, whence 
 the sun was to issue on his New Year's day. Having bathed, 
 he sat down with his face to the East, whence he was to rise, 
 and divided the food into forty-nine portions, which he ate 
 as that which was to support him, the god who began his 
 Vessantara birth in Gemini in the beginning of February — 
 March, and emerged after eating the meal which was to 
 sustain him for the forty-nine days of his infancy from his 
 rising on the 21st March till he rose on the fiftieth day 
 as the newly-born emancipated sun-god, whose subsequent 
 history is told in the latter portion of the Nidanakatha. 
 These forty-nine food portions answer to the forty- nine 
 oblations offered after the sun-horse of the Ashva-medha 
 
 ' Thomas, Day Symbols of the Maya Year, The Twentieth Day, pp. 362 — 
 264, plate Ixviii. figs. 3 — 12. 
 
664 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 sacrifice, the horse who takes the sun-god round the heavens 
 on his annual course, has been started on his year-race, and 
 after the national history told at this yearly spring festival 
 of the New Year had been recited ^. These days of probation 
 are also reproduced in the forty-five days of the birth-period 
 of the Zend great teacher Zarathustra, which we shall see 
 fell at the same period of the year as the forty-nine days 
 of the Buddha. 
 
 When the rising sun-god had eaten this meal he threw his 
 golden bowl into the river, which bore it to the realm of the 
 Kala Naga Raja, the snake-god of time, and took its place 
 as the lowest of the three previous year-gods of the Buddhist 
 chronological epochs, those of the heavens of the Shatum 
 Maharajaka Devaloka, the Tavatimsa heaven of the thirty- 
 three, and the Yama-devaloko ruled by the stars Gemini, 
 under which the Buddha was born as the sun-physician. 
 
 He now entered on his Vessantara birth in the fourth 
 Tusita heaven of wealth, that of this age enriched by the 
 wide-spread commerce of the Ikshvaku kings of India and 
 their successors, who in the Bronze Age had made India the 
 centre of the world's eastern trade. As the god to be born 
 from the Sal-tree he spent the day in a grove of these trees. 
 He there received from Sotthya, the god of health {sotthi), 
 eight bundles of Kusha-grass. He took these to the 
 Buddhist Bo-tree, the Ashvattha or Pipal (Ficus religiosa) 
 tree, the mother-tree succeeding the Kushika Banyan-tree. 
 This was on a rising-ground sacred to Durga, the mountain- 
 goddess, twin -sister of Krishna, the eighth son of Vasu- 
 deva, a counterpart of the Buddha as the son of the eight 
 bundles of Kusha-grass. He stood under the Bo-tree facing 
 the north as the sun going northward from the south where 
 he stood. Thence he went round to the west, taking the 
 right-hand path of the male Suastika, whence he went to 
 the north looking southward, and came back to the west 
 looking to the east, whence he was to rise at the equinox. He 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., xiii. i, 2, i, viii. 135, xiii. 4, 3, 2, 4, Sacred 
 Books of the East, vol. xliv. pp. 276, 282, notes I, 2, 361, 363. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 665 
 
 then went to the east and scattered the grass there so as to 
 form a seat fourteen cubits long, or the length of the lunar 
 period intervening between him and his rising. 
 
 These eight bundles of Kusha-grass were in the original 
 story the eight rays of the eight-rayed star. In the birth- 
 legend of the caste or guild of the Baidyas or physicians, 
 the men of knowledge (budh), they appear as the bunch 
 of Kusha-grass which Galava placed in the lap of the mother 
 of the race Bir-bhadra, the sainted {bhadva) bir or baer-tree 
 [Zizyphus-ju-juba) , whence the intoxicating Soma of the 
 Sautra-mani festival of the eleven-months year was nsade. 
 From this her son Dhanv-antari, the internal {antari) flow- 
 ing stream {dhanv), the ever-moving river of intellectual 
 thought, was born as the first physician, the counterpart of 
 the Buddha i. His father Galava, meaning in the Rigveda 
 the pure Soma or sap, is in Pali the tree {Symplocus race- 
 Mosa), called Lodh in Bengal. The bark when mixed with 
 that of the Hari-taka {Terminalia chebuld), a myrabolan 
 tree allied to the Arjuna {Terminalia belericd) Al (morinda 
 tinctorid) flowers of the Dhaora tree {Grislea tomentosa) and 
 Munjet {madda), forms the Ahar or red powder ^ thrown by 
 lovers on each other at the Hull festival of the new moon 
 of Phalgun (February — March) ; so that the father of the 
 sun born of the Kusha-grass is the god of the year of the 
 red race beginning in February — March, that began by 
 the Buddha when he left the Nigrodha Banyan-tree. 
 
 When the sun-god had seated himself on his eastern 
 throne of the eight-rayed star he was attacked by Mara, 
 the North Pole star tree {marom) ape, coming against him 
 from the North heralded by the Vyjayanuttara trumpet, 
 that of the double {vi) victory {jaya) of the North (utiara), 
 blown by Sakko, the god of the eleven-months year. Mara 
 wished to make the new sun-god of the ecliptic year-circle 
 the god of the year of eleven months and the three-years 
 
 ' Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Baidya, vol. i. pp. 46, 47. 
 ' Clarke, Roxburgh's Flora Indica, pp. 415, 416. 
 
666 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 cycle-year. He launched at him nine storms of (i) wind, 
 (2) rain, (3) rocks, (4) lightning, (S) charcoal, (6) ashes, (7) 
 sand, (8) mud, (9) darkness, the nine days of the week of 
 the cycle-year. He then threw at him his sceptre javelin 
 with "a barb like a wheel," the spear of the god of the 
 year of the wheel revolving like the fire-drill of the heavenly 
 oil-press of the Chakravarti or wheel-turning kings. This 
 became the flower garland of the goddess-mother of spring, 
 which over-canopied the new-born sun -god as he entered 
 his Vessantara birth in the month of the vernal equinox as 
 the year- god of the Tusita heaven of wealth {tuso), the god 
 of the trading merchant kings whose primitive villages had 
 become ruling cities. This god, after putting to flight the 
 armies of Mara, celebrated his victorious birth by making 
 the blind to see, the deaf to hear, the lame to walk, and 
 by healing all diseases as the sun-physician ^. 
 
 He began this New Year in Cheit (March — April) with 
 the vernal equinox succeeding that when the sun was in 
 Gemini in February — March, and thus became, as we shall 
 see in the account of the birth of Parikshit, the circling 
 sun of the Mahabharata preceding the white sun-horses of 
 Arjuna, which entered Gemini at the vernal equinox about 
 6700 B.C. This was the year sacred to the twin children 
 of the Vessantara god, Jali and Kanha or Krishna Jina, 
 the conquering black {Kanha Krishna) goddess, the goddess 
 Durga and her brother Krishna 2. This year, not measured 
 by the solar solstices and equinoxes, was the eleven-months 
 year which the sun-god spent on the Vankagiri, the crooked 
 mountain, and renounced his wife Maddi, the honey-queen, 
 the sun-maiden Suria, to whom he had been married as Soma 
 the sexless moon-god. 
 
 During the first seven days of his new year as the Ves- 
 santara god he sat under the Pipal-tree, and on the morning 
 
 ■ Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, The Nidanakatha, pp. 96—104. 
 ' She is called Krishna Jina in the form of the Buddhist birth-story given 
 in Hardy's Manual of Buddhism, pp. 180, 181. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 667 
 
 of the eighth day he went to the North-east, whence the sun 
 rises at the summer solstice. He spent seven days standing 
 steadfastly on this spot, and then between this and the 
 Pipal-tree he made the walk running from South-west to 
 North-east, known as the nineteen steps of the Buddha. 
 This is close to the Vajrasan or thunderbolt [vaj'ra) throne 
 of the Buddha at Budhgaya, the place of the holy Pipal- 
 tree. Underneath the Vajrasan there were found a number 
 of relics in gold, silver, and precious stones. There are 
 nineteen gold relics, and seventy-six, or four times nineteen, 
 disks. In a small stupa near the end of the Buddha's walk 
 two small trays of relics were found, among which were nine- 
 teen lapiz-lazuli beads and nineteen other precious stones ^. 
 
 That these nineteen steps and the series of nineteen sacred 
 objects were connected with a year more alike in its forms 
 to the solar year measured by zodiacal stars than the thir- 
 teen- months year seems to me to be proved by the year used 
 by the Babis of Persia and by other evidence which I will 
 now record. The Babis are a new sect which arose in Persia 
 in 1843 A.D., who claim to be recipients of special divine 
 enlightenment and a new revelation. But they are clearly 
 connected with, and are probably a revival of, the mystic 
 schools of the Shia Mahommedans of Persia, whose year is 
 ruled by the twins Husan and Hosein, the stars Gemini 2. 
 The prophet who introduced this new faith called himself 
 first the Bab, the Gate, that is the Gate of the Twin Stars, 
 and afterwards Nukta or fount of inspection, and with him 
 were eighteen disciples. Among the Babis the months are 
 not divided into weeks, but there are in the year nineteen 
 months of nineteen days each and 361 days in all, one day 
 more than the year of 360 days. The Babis cite the Koran 
 as authorising their year, as in the sentence of invocation 
 beginning each chapter, Bismil'lahi'r Rahmani'r Rahim, 
 
 " F. Pincolt, Vajrasan or Thunder-bolt Seat of the Maha-budhi Temple, 
 Transactions of the Ninth Congress of Orientalists, 1892, vol. i. pp. 247, 248. 
 
 ° Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap, vii, 
 sect, d. The year of the Mohammedan Twins, pp. 432, 433. 
 
668 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 there are nineteen letters, counting the r's as one letter, and 
 the total number of chapters is 114, or six times nineteen i. 
 
 The nineteen days of the month of this year are repre- 
 sented in the astronomical temple of the British goddess 
 Epona, the White-horse of the sun at Stonehenge. This 
 is oriented to the North-east rising point of the sun of the 
 summer solstice marked by the gnomon-stone called the 
 Friar's Heel. The shadow thrown by the sun rising behind 
 the stone falls on the line intervening between it and the 
 sun-circle. It is on this line that the sacrificial stone for the 
 sacrifice of animal victims is placed. The sun-circle is 
 formed by thirty lofty Sarsen stones, the produce of local 
 stone deposits left on the Downs during the glacial epochs, 
 which are joined in pairs to represent the thirty days of 
 the month. Inside this, when the original stones of the 
 temple were standing, was an older circle of thirty-six 
 diorite stones brought from Dartmoor, or more probably by 
 the neighbouring river Avon from the diorite rocks of Brit- 
 tany, which apparently represents either the sun-circle of 
 thirty-six stones or the two series of thirty-six weeks each 
 into which the seventy-two weeks of the British Druids' year 
 was divided. To these have been added four Sarsen pillars 
 to increase the number to forty, the forty months of the 
 three-years cycle. To the South-west of the sun-altar of 
 micaceous sandstone from Derbyshire, which is the centre 
 of the circle, is a semi-circle or solar horse-shoe of nineteen 
 diorite stones, and behind them is the outer horse-shoe of 
 fourteen Sarsen stones, each pair united by a lintel stone 
 at the top representing the fourteen days of each lunar phase 
 of the thirteen-months year. These represent the horse- 
 shoes of the White-horse of the sun, drawn on so many of 
 the chalk hills in the neighbourhood, the god worshipped 
 within this circle, where no blood was allowed to be shed, 
 with the bloodless rites of the worship of the sun in the ages 
 preceding the introduction of animal sacrifices. 
 
 ' E. G. Browne, The Babis of Persia, Journal Royal Asiatic Society, 1889, 
 pp. 921—923. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 669 
 
 Thus we have in the stone monuments of Stonehenge the 
 history of a series of years measured by seventy-two five-day 
 weeks or 360 days by the three-years cycle-year, by thirteen 
 twenty-eight-day months, by nineteen months of nineteen 
 days each, and by twelve thirty-day months beginning with 
 the rising of the sun in the North-east at the summer 
 solstice. 
 
 The correctness of this hypothesis as to the meaning of 
 the nineteen diorite stones of Stonehenge is corroborated 
 by the stone circles of Cornwall, the land of diorite, for 
 there near Boscawen there are four hundred circles each of 
 nineteen stones, which must apparently mean the months 
 of the year of nineteen months of nineteen days each ^. 
 
 The third week of the birth of the Buddha as the sun- 
 god, the last of the three seven-day weeks making up the 
 twenty days of the seventeen-months year of the next Chap- 
 ter, was spent in walking up and down the path of the 
 nineteen steps. The fourth week he passed in a house built 
 by the angels of the seven sacred jewels to the north-west 
 of the Bo or Pipal-tree (Ficus religiosd), where he thought 
 out the seven books of the Abidhamma Pitaka, that is to 
 say organised the next year in this series, the year of the 
 seven-days week. 
 
 The fourth week was the end of the month of the lunar 
 year of thirteen months of the thirteen Buddhist Theris, and 
 at its end he left the Bo-tree and went back to the Nigrodha 
 or Banyan-tree, where he spent the fifth week in completing 
 his task of thinking out the fundamental principles of his 
 system of ethical religion. 
 
 He was there tempted by the three daughters of the evil 
 angel Mara, originally the god of the winter season, like 
 the Zend Ahriman. They are called Tanha, Craving or 
 the Empty Void, Arati, Discontent, and Raga, Lust, and 
 are parallel with the creating principles of the Sankhya 
 
 ' Thumam, on Megalithic Circles, Decade IV.; Lubbuck, Prehistoric Times, 
 2nd edition, chap. v. p. 117. 
 
670 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 philosophy Tamas, Darkness or the Void, Rajas, Desire, 
 and Sattwa, Completion '. These creating gods of the meta- 
 physicians were the algebraic forms of stating the proposi- 
 tions on which their system was built, that is to say they 
 believed, like Hegel, that non-existence was stirred into 
 activity by the desire of a change, and that from the union 
 of the two, desire and passiveness, being was evolved. In 
 their opinion thought was the origin and measure of all 
 things, and they ignored as inconceivable the underlying 
 self or germ of the Vedantists, or rather they interpreted 
 this self as aspiration. But to the Vedantists the germ 
 was the sole divine reality marking out the Tao, God-path 
 of the Chinese, the indwelling creating and ruling will, the 
 Nameless Simplicity which does nothing itself but drives 
 round on the ordained path the whole annually recurring 
 succession of natural phenomena ; it is the inherent electric 
 spark which makes life differ from death. In the words 
 of the Chinese poets the Tao or path charged with vital 
 electricity is : — 
 
 Simplicity without a name 
 Is free from all external aim, 
 With no desire, at rest and still 
 All things go right as of their will'. 
 
 This driving germ was brought from heaven to earth by 
 the rain which generated in the Mother-tree and plants 
 the fruit which was to rise to heaven as the sun emanates 
 from the elephant-cloud-bird Gan-isha, and in analysis there 
 seems to be no difference between the Sankhya Desire and 
 the Vedantist Will. 
 
 These metaphysical cobwebs were the temptation offered 
 to the meditative Buddha, and he cast them aside as vain 
 and frivolous, forbade his followers to inquire into the mys- 
 teries of philosophy, and bade them accept the fact that each 
 of them existed and were able by cultivating his moral being 
 
 ' Ballantyre, Sankhya Apliorisms of Kapila, book i. Aphorism 61, p. 71. 
 ' Legge, The Texts of Taoism, Introduction, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xxxix. p. 26. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 671 
 
 to make his life on earth a blessing to all whom he or she 
 influenced directly or indirectly during their lifetime, and 
 to return his life germ to the other world so consecrated 
 as to be incapable in future existence of being defiled by 
 sin. 
 
 At the end of this fifth week of wrestling with philoso- 
 phical tempters, he left the Banyan-tree and went to the 
 first mother-tree of eatable fruit, that preceding the Syrian 
 fig-tree. This was the Mucalinda-tree {Baringtonia Acutan- 
 gula), the Ijel or Indian oak flowering at the beginning of 
 the rainy season, which was the Indian tree corresponding 
 with the sacred oak of the Zends, Greeks, and Cymric 
 Druids, the nut-tree of the Todas and Jews, and the walnut- 
 tree of the European races of Central Europe who dealt in 
 witchcraft. It was under this tree that he spent his sixth 
 week. 
 
 The seventh week, completing the forty-nine days of his 
 sustenance on the creating rice of the eight-rayed star-god 
 and his period of Pentecostal preparation, he passed under 
 a Raja-Yatana-tree {Buclianonia latifolia), the Pyar or Chi- 
 ronji-tree bearing a fruit like small almonds, eaten by all 
 the forest people in Central India. On the forty-ninth 
 day he was fed by Sakko with the fruit of the Haritaka 
 or Myrobolan-tree of Calculation, which was, as we have 
 seen, one of the ingredients of the Huli red powder sacred 
 to the sun-god of the vernal equinox. He also received 
 from Sakko as a tooth-cleaner the thorn of the Najalata 
 or Piper Betel, the Betel Creeper, of which the nut is eaten 
 as a digestive by all rice-eating Hindus. 
 
 When the sun-god had thus gained complete knowledge 
 and mastered the art of the astronomical calculation of time 
 and the underlying principles which make spiritual perfectiori 
 possible and attainable by every human being, he was visited 
 under the Pyar-tree by two travelling merchants from the 
 South, who were going north-west from Tamralipti the 
 copper-port to the middle kingdom Jambudwipa, who 
 brought him rice and a honey-cake. Their names, T^passu 
 
672 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 and Bhalluka, show them to represent the eight parent- 
 gods of the age of solar worship; Tapassu is the heated 
 and heating sun {tap). He is a form of Tapati the burning 
 one, the sun-maiden, the mother of the Kurus, who was 
 given by Vashishtha, the god of the altar-flame, to Samva- 
 rana, father of Kuru and king of the Bharatas, after Vashish- 
 tha has enabled him to overcome the ten Akhshauhinis of the 
 Panchalas ^. 
 
 Bhalluka is a form of the Sanskrit Bhalla, a bear, Hindi 
 Baluk, and represents the seven stars of the Great Bear, 
 and thus the two represent the eight parent gods of the 
 Phoenicians, of which the sun, called by them Eshmun, is 
 the eighth. They are the two caskets called Tapas, penance, 
 and Diksha, consecration, in which, according to the Brah- 
 manas, the Soma or year-sap of this year of eight-day weeks, 
 that of the eight-syllabled Gayatri metre, was brought by 
 the Shyena frost (skya) bird, called Su-parna, the feather 
 [parna) of Su. It was this feather with the generating 
 blood of the cloud-bird which fell to earth when the bird 
 was wounded with the arrow of the Great Bear Archer 
 Krishanu, and which was given to Kadrii, the tree {dru) 
 mother of the Nagas = ; and it was this blood which gene- 
 rated their mother-tree, as described in p. 162 ; and she 
 was the thirteenth wife of Kashyapa, the Buddhist prede- 
 cessor Kassapo, and the thirteenth month of his year. 
 
 These gods of this year of the eight-day weeks consecrated 
 the Buddha sun-god as the ruler and teacher of the united 
 races of Hindus born of Southern and Northern parent 
 stocks, by giving him the cake of the parent-rice of the 
 indigenous races and the honey-cake of the Northern sons 
 of the inspiring bee-parent of the creed of the age of the 
 cycle-year. 
 
 To receive this heavenly food of the rice-mother sun, 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi (Sambhava) Parva, xciv. pp. 280, 281. The story of 
 Samvarana is a variant form of tliat of Kalmasha-pada the mad king told 
 in chap. v. 
 
 = Eggeling, Shat. Brah., iii. 6, 7, 11, Sacred Books of the East, voL xxvi. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 673 
 
 the Munda sun-bird, and the honey-eating bear of the 
 North, the sun-god required a new bowl to replace the 
 earthenware and golden bowl he had thrown away. To 
 make this the Loka-pala angels brought four bowls of 
 sapphire from the blue sky and four bowls of the jet of 
 night, and made them into one bowl, said by Hiouen Tsiang 
 to be of a deep blue colour and translucent ^. From this 
 bowl, the vault of heaven, the sun-god ate his Pentecostal 
 meal of rice and honey on the eve of the fiftieth day after 
 his Vessantara birth at the vernal equinox, or about the loth 
 May, when, as we shall see in Chapter VII., his next year 
 began. 
 
 He now in his last transformation ceased to be the man- 
 god, for he tore off all the hair of his head, his last vestige 
 of male humanity, and became the independent ruling god 
 of heaven and earth whose unceasing will ordained and 
 directed all things. 
 
 But in order to fully understand the history of the in- 
 stallation of sun-worship as told in the birth of Buddha 
 the sun-god, we must turn to that of his duplicate Parikshit, 
 the circling sun of the Mahabharata. His father was Ab- 
 himanyu, the foremost (abhi) mind {manya), son of Arjuna 
 and Subhadra, Krishna's twin sister the mountain-goddess, 
 who was, as we have seen, carried away with Krishna's 
 consent from the hill of Revati, the constellation Pisces, to 
 become the mother of a year-god ^ and hence he was another 
 form of Soma the moon -god married to Suria the sun- 
 maiden. He was slain on the twelfth day of the eighteen 
 days' battle between the Kauravyas and Pandavas by Dus- 
 shasanas. Dus-shasana was a son of Dhrita-rashtra and 
 brother of Duryodhana, the ruling god of the eleven-months 
 year. His name is second in the list of the eleven sons of 
 
 ' Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Storiis, The Nidanakatha, The last Epoch, 
 pp. 105—110; Beale, Buddhist Records of the Western World, The Travels 
 of Hiouen Tsiang, vol. ii. p. 130. 
 
 ' Mahabharata Swerga (Rohanika) Parva, iv. 19, p. 12. 
 
 3 Mahabharata Drona (Abhimanyu-badha) Parva, xlix. 13, 14, p. 147. 
 
 n. X X 
 
674 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Dhrita rashtra, who ruled the months of this year i ; and 
 its four seasons were ruled by Duryodhana, Dus-shasana, 
 Kama and Shakuni, the raven who ruled the hot season 
 of summer, of which the desolating influence is depicted 
 in the story of the Mahabharata, which tells how this de- 
 stroying god was the gambler who won at dice all the 
 wealth of the Pandavas. When the final crash came Dus- 
 shasana, the ill-omened {dus) moon-hare {shasa), the god 
 of the winter season, advised Drupadi, the tree {dru) wife 
 of the Pandavas, to forsake them and take as her husband 
 Duryodhana, who had tried to seduce her by showing her his 
 left thigh 2. 
 
 The wife of Abhimanyu the moon-god was Uttara, the 
 North {uttara) Pole Star goddess, daughter of Virata, king 
 of the Matsya, the sons of the river fish, worshippers of 
 the eel, which was their phallus (viru). She was given as 
 a wife to Arjuna's son Abhimanyu, after Arjuna in the 
 chariot bearing the banner of the ape with the lion's tail 
 in p. 571, and directed by Uttara the North Pole Star, 
 brother of Uttara, had recovered the cows of light stolen 
 by the Kauravyas 3. 
 
 After the final defeat of the Kauravyas and the death 
 of their leader Duryodhana, Ashvatthaman, son of Drona 
 the hollowed tree-trunk, tutor of the Kauravyas and Pan- 
 davas, who succeeded Bhishma the Kauravya leader, entered 
 the camp of the Pandavas at night as the god of the Ash- 
 vattha Pipal-tree {ficus religiosa), under which the Buddha 
 defeated Mara and thought out the fundamental principles 
 of his religion ; and he there slew the five sons borne by 
 Drupadi to the five Pandavas, leaving them without living 
 heirs, as Abhimanyu had also been slain. Ashvatthaman 
 when arrested by the Pandavas prepared a weapon for the 
 final destruction of their last descendant, of whom Uttara 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi {Adivanshava-tarana) Parva, Ixiii. p. 180. 
 
 ° Mahabharata Sabha (Anadyuta) Parva, Ixxvi., Ixxi, pp. 202 — 204, 191. 
 
 3 Mahabharata Virata (Vtvdhika) Parva, Ixxi., Ixxii. pp. 181 — 185. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 675 
 
 was pregnant, in the creating blade of Kusha-grass which 
 he threw into the wombs of all the Pandava women, as 
 Galava threw the Kusha-grass into the lap of Bir-bhadra, 
 the mother of the sun-physician. 
 
 This engendering grass begetting a sun - god liable to 
 yearly death by the withering forces of winter was intended 
 to cause Uttara's child to belong to the class of dying gods, 
 but Krishna frustrated this intention by declaring that he 
 would raise the dying child again to life, and that he would 
 rule the world for a cycle of sixty years as Parikshit, the 
 circling sun. 
 
 The contest between Ashvatthaman, the last year-god 
 of the age of the mother-tree-god of the Bo-tree forsaken 
 by the Buddha when he became the sun of heaven, and 
 the Pandavas ended in his release on condition of resigning 
 to them the gem which made him ruler of heaven and 
 earth '. This gem, the Pole Star parent of light, was placed 
 by Drupadi, the Pandava central mother-tree, on the head 
 of Yudishthira their king. It, as the self-created source 
 of light, gave the divine germ of life the creating force, its 
 emanation, to the year sun-god born from the mother-tree, 
 who became henceforth the undying sun-god who made 
 his way yearly through the heavens in the path of the 
 Zodiacal stars. 
 
 That the birth of the sun-god Parikshit, the child of the 
 moon-god and the Pole Star, was parallel with the Ves- 
 santara birth of the Buddha in the Tusita heaven of wealth 
 (tuso^ is proved by the Mahabharata narrative. 
 
 Before the birth took place the Pandava parent-gods of 
 the coming year-sun went to the South, the realm of Maratta, 
 the ape-tree {marom) god and the home of the sun of the 
 winter solstice, which they found in the constellation Dhruva 
 or Taurus, to which Rohini the star Aldebaran belonged, as 
 we are told by the commentator on the Mahabharata ^ ; and 
 
 ' Mahabharata Sauptika Parva, xiii. 18—22, xv. 27— 35, xvi. I — 16, pp. 
 48-52, 53- 
 ° Mahabharata Ashvamedha {Anugita) Parva, Ixiii, 18, p. l56, note. 
 
 X X 2 
 
6^6 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the date thus fixed by the position of the sun in Taurus at 
 the winter solstice is that of the age from 10,700 to 8200 
 B.C., and corresponds with that of the birth of the Buddha 
 at the ploughing festival of that time. Their camp was 
 lined out with six roads and nine divisions, exactly on the 
 model of the Chinese Central Sun Palace representing the 
 year which the Emperor opens by the Ploughing Festival '. 
 
 N. 
 Tenth Month. Eleventh Month. Twelfth Month. 
 
 Ninth Month. 
 
 
 First Month. 
 
 W. Eighth Month. 
 
 Centre Month. 
 
 Second Month, 
 
 Seventh Month. 
 
 
 Third Month. 
 
 Sixth Month. 
 
 Fifth Month. 
 S. 
 
 Fourth Month. 
 
 In this historical diagram the months run in a retrograde 
 direction from right to left, according to the course of the 
 Great Bear, by which the Chinese measure their year, and 
 the thirteenth central month is the last month of the year 
 ending ^^■ith the winter solstice, like the Buddhist year of 
 the thirteen Theris and the Kushika year of the thirteen 
 wives of Kashyapa, and not the year of the Vedic Chrono- 
 logical Hymn Rig. i. 164, in which the thirteenth month is 
 the centre summer month flanked by the six months of 
 spring and early summer and the six months of autumn and 
 winter. 
 
 On their arrival in the South at the winter solstice the 
 Pandavas lay on beds of Kusha-grass, and offered to Kuvera, 
 god of the South, to Shiva as Rudra, to Mani-bhadra the 
 sainted measurer, the ruling god of the eleven Rudras of 
 the eleven-months year, and to his Ganas or companions, 
 the months and seasons headed by Gan-isha the earliest 
 form of the born Buddha, cooked charu flowers, barley, fried 
 rice, melted butter, and its earlier predecessor sesame oil 
 
 ' Legge, Li-chi, The Yueh Ling, book iv. sect. I, part i. 9, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xxvii. pp. 251, note I, 252. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. Syj 
 
 seeds. After this sacrifice Vyasa, the father of Pandu and 
 their grandfather, who was, as we have seen, the constella- 
 tion Draco, led them to the mines of wealth, the gold-mines 
 of Southern India, which appear to have in this age replaced 
 the earher gold-bearing rivers of Chutia Nagpur and of the 
 Himalayan streams. It was thence that they extracted the 
 vast stores of wealth which formed the treasure of the age 
 of the Tusita heaven of wealth, and returned with these 
 by short marches to the Kauravya city of Hastinapur, the 
 modern Delhi, the city of Hasta, the Pandava ruling constel- 
 lation Corvus, that of the hand {hasta) or of the elephant 
 (kasti), and they arrived there a month after the birth of 
 Parikshit, that is at the end of Phalgun (February — March) 
 at the vernal equinox ^. 
 
 When Parikshit was first born as the child in the cradle 
 of the Twins he was apparently lifeless, but was made to 
 live by Krishna, the god of the year beginning January — 
 February, and began his life in Phalgun (February — March)_ 
 the month of his grandfather Phalguni or Arjuna*, when 
 the Buddha born under the Ashvattha tree divided at the 
 vernal equinox his Pentecostal food, which was to be his 
 sustenance for forty-nine days. 
 
 After the birth of Parikshit and a week before the full 
 moon of Phalgun, according to the Brahmanas, preparations 
 were made for the horse-race of Parikshit, which is said 
 in the Mahabharata to have taken place on the full moon 
 of Cheit (March— April). But in the age with which we are 
 now deaHng new moons must, as I have shown, be substi- 
 tuted for the later full-moon measurement of time, and 
 the race of Parikshit, followed by Arjuna or Phalguni in 
 a chariot drawn by white horses, must be fixed at the new 
 moon of Cheit (March — April), or immediately after the 
 vernal equinox 3. 
 
 'Mahabharata Ashvamedha (Anugita), Parva, Ixiii. — Ixv., Ixx. 13, 14, 
 pp. 164—170, 178. = Ibid., Ixvi.— Ixix. pp. 170—179. 
 
 3 Eggeling, Shat. Brdh., xiii. 4, I, 4, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliv. 
 p. 348. 
 
6/8 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 In the Mahabharata account of the race Parikshit, who 
 was to be sacrificed on his return, is described as having 
 the appearance of a black deer, that is he was the sun-horse 
 who had formerly been the deer-sun-god of Orion's year, 
 and in its course, which was retrograde first to the North- 
 west then South-west, and thence by the East back to 
 Hastinapur, Arjuna, the protector of the horse, had to fight 
 the opposing enemies of the new sun-god at the equinoctial 
 and solstitial stations through which they passed. At the 
 eastern equinoctial station of Manipur the ruler was Vabhru- 
 vahana, the driver (vdhana) of the brown {babhru) horse, 
 the son of Arjuna by Chitrangada, thfe necklace {angada) 
 star Virgo {Chitrd), daughter of Chitro-vahana the driver 
 [vdhana) of Virgo king of Manipur ^. Vabhru-vahana was 
 unwilling to fight his father, but urged by his step-mother 
 Ulupi, the healing snake-plant (Ulupa), daughter of the 
 snake-king, he seized the horse which was defended by 
 Arjuna. In the battle which ensued Arjuna fell down ap- 
 parently dead pierced by the arrows of his son, but was 
 restored to life by the plant of life of the Naga snakes 
 brought by Ulupi 2. This temporary death of Arjuna 
 apparently took place at the eastern equinoctial station of 
 the sun of the vernal equinox, and indicates the death of 
 Arjuna as the year-god whose year ends a month before 
 it. It was from Manipur that Arjuna and Parikshit came 
 back to Hastinapur for the horse sacrifice. 
 
 We thus see that in the history of the births of the Buddha 
 and Parikshit we have a panoramic picture of the succes- 
 sive births of the sun-god under Gemini in January — Feb- 
 ruary, the Buddhist and Chinese ploughing-festival, when 
 the dead Parikshit was born, the Vessantara birth of the 
 Buddha and that of the revived Parikshit in February- 
 March, and the beginning at the vernal equinox of the 
 Buddhist Pentecostal festival and the sun-race of Parikshit. 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi {ArjuHa-vanavasu) Parva, cxvii. pp. 596— S98. 
 
 = Mahabharata Ashvamedha (Anugita) Parva, Ixxix,, Ixxx. pp. 197—204. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 6yc) 
 
 E. Persian history from the death of Kkusrav, god of the 
 eleven-months year, to the final establishment of Zoro- 
 astrianism as the national religion. 
 
 The history of Persia as told in Chapter V. ended with 
 the abdication of Khiisrav, the god of the eleven-months 
 year, and the death in the snow of him and his five com- 
 panions, Thous, Giv, Feriburz, Bijen and Kustehem, the 
 leaders of the theology of the wolf-race, worshippers of the 
 pillar-god, who measured their year by the circuits of Orion 
 and the Great Bear and eleven thirty-three-day months. 
 Khii-srav when he abdicated nominated as his successor 
 Lohr-asp, the father of the sun-god called Gusht-asp in the 
 Shahnamah and Vistaspa in the Zendavesta. 
 
 Lohr-asp is called in the Bundahish the son of Auzav, the 
 goat, and in the Zendavesta Aurvat-aspa, who appears 
 in the Bundahish as the great-grandfather of Zarathustra ^. 
 This name Aurvat-aspa shows him to be the sun-horse {aspa) 
 born of the Thigh {Uru), the Sanskrit Aurva, called Vada- 
 vamukha, he who speaks with the left {vdma) mouth, the 
 son of the star of the Great Bear called Urja, born of the 
 Thigh. That is to say he is the horse born of the Great 
 Bear Thigh going leftwards round the Pole, the father of the 
 sun-god born of the left Thigh ruling the solar year of fifteen 
 months and eight- day weeks. 
 
 He was crowned king on the first of Mihr-jan = (December 
 — January) at the winter solstice, marking him as the sun-god 
 born in Gemini, as the counterpart of Dionysos Nuktelios, 
 who was then born from the thigh of his father Zeus. Also 
 his connection with the goat whose mark Khii-srav bore on 
 his left arm shows him to belong to the age when Auriga, 
 the charioteer constellation of the goat, was the chief guiding 
 star succeeding Arcturus, who was Giv, who died with 
 Khii-srav. 
 
 ' West, Bundahish, xxxi. 28, xxxii. i ; Darmesteter, Zendavesta Aban Yasht, 
 105, Sacred Books of the East, vol. v. pp. 137— 140, xxiii. p. 78. 
 ° Mohl, Livre des Rois, iv. Lohrasp, p. 221. 
 
68o Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 In. this new god, son of the Great Bear as the left Thigh, 
 we find a year-god of a race who had adopted an astro- 
 nomical notation differing from that of their predecessors. 
 The latter had looked on the heavens as a vast dome ruled 
 by the central Pole Star and supported by the four pillar 
 stars of the four quarters of the heaven, which was studded 
 with rising and setting and therefore apparently circling stars, 
 the sun and moon. Within this overarching dome the earth 
 was made to revolve as the ever-turning wheel of the Great 
 Potter driven round by the Great Bear Stars, to which the 
 driver of the axle {akshivan), the Great Ixion, was attached. 
 But in this new age this image was altered into one which 
 depicted the course of the sun round the heavens as that 
 in which he was drawn in the chariot of the Great Bear by 
 the horses of the sun, the days, nights and seasons of the 
 year, and the guider of this chariot was the chariot-star 
 constellation Auriga described in pp. 575, 576, in which the 
 charioteer was the star Capella, the little Goat, called by 
 the Babylonians Dil-gan, the god {dil) of the land {gan), 
 which in their calendar determined the beginning of their 
 year by its position in relation to the new moon at the vernal 
 equinox ^. The year of Lohr-asp thus measured by the star 
 Capella succeeded that of which the measuring factors were 
 the Great Bear and Corona Borealis, the year of the age 
 of Khii-srav and the wolf-race, and we see by his accession 
 on the first of the lunar months that it was measured by new 
 moons. The year-god who thus introduced a new method of 
 year reckoning is said in the Shah-namah to have established 
 a new-year fire, that of Berzin, the Burzln Mitro fire of the 
 Bundahish, the successor of the Giisht-asp fire of Khii-srav ; 
 and he ordered a temple to this fire to be built in the centre 
 of each town, at the points whence the streets radiated North, 
 South, East and West 2. In it the New Year's festival was 
 celebrated every year, a custom exactly coinciding with the 
 
 ' Sayce, Htrodotux, p. 402. 
 
 ' Mohl, Livre des Rois, vol. iv. Lohrasp, p. 224. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 68 1 
 
 Greek and Roman New Years' festivals held in the temples 
 of Hestia and Vesta, built on the same central point of the 
 city to which the streets converged from the four cardinal 
 points. This festival is called in the Shah-namah Sada or 
 blazing fire, that is to say it was the festival of the lighting 
 of the year's fires which took place in the age of Lohrasp 
 on the 1st Mihr-jan (December — January), but which, as we 
 shall see presently in the history of the establishments of the 
 Zoroastrian religion, was, like the corresponding festivals of 
 the Buddha and Parikshit in India, altered to successively 
 changing dates ending in the deification of the sun-god of 
 May. 
 
 In Persia the date of this Sada festival seems from the 
 history of Gusht-asp, Lohr-asp's son, which I will tell pre- 
 sently, to have been fixed more by the rising of Sirius on 
 New Year's day than by the then position of the sun in Virgo 
 and Gemini, for in Gusht-asp's year, as in that of KhU-srav, 
 Sirius was the ferryman in whose boat he sailed on his 
 year's journey. Also Egyptian chronological history dis- 
 closes a similar mode of reckoning the Sed or New Year's 
 festivals. 
 
 The Shrine of the Sed New Year's festival at Denderah 
 was the roof of the temples where " Iris-Sothis consorts with 
 her father at the places of the first feast ; " and this union 
 is further described as that "in which Sirius (Iris-Sothis) 
 joins her rays with those of the sun on the morning of New 
 Year's day, and combines herself with the radiant one, thus 
 giving a clear description of the heliacal rising of Sirius i." 
 It was at the new moon of Epiphi (April— May) that the 
 goddess Iris-Sothis, the Star Sirius, who was to be united 
 with the sun at the latter New Year's day of the summer 
 solstice, embarked on her boat at Denderah on her voyage 
 to join her father at Edfu at the beginning of the inundation 
 and the dog-days of Sirius. This day of embarkation was 
 that of the New Year's spring festival, when the Durra 
 
 ' Nuttall, Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilisaiion, pp. 
 430^ 43 1> 438—442, where the details of the festival are quoted from Brugsch. 
 
682 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 {Eleusine corocand) or millet crops of the sacred fields of 
 Osiris ripened which had been sown immediately after the 
 inundation receded. 
 
 This evidence seems to show that though Lohr-asp began 
 his year at the winter solstice, his new fire-festival was fixed 
 at the vernal equinox, and that it was connected with the 
 worship of Sirius as a year-star of the Akkadian year called 
 after his name, that measured by the stars Sirius, Hydra, 
 Aquila, and Leo, which I have equated with the Mahabha- 
 rata year of Arjuna, when he bore the banner of the ape 
 with the lion's tail. But this year of Sirius was followed 
 by Gusht-asp's second year, ruled, as we shall see, by his 
 prime minister Jamaspa, the tWm. \ jama) horse {aspa), the 
 Stars Gemini. 
 
 The chief temple of Lohr-asp's fire, called Adarabura 
 jamihira or Adar Burzin Mihir, was on Raevant, the shining 
 central {mihr) mountain of the world ', in Khorasan, the 
 central kingdom of the seven united kingdoms of Iran which 
 apparently formed a union at this period in succession to 
 the original sixteen Zend kingdoms of the Vendidad Far- 
 gard, i. which comprised in the Zend empire the territory 
 lying between Airayana Vaejo in the north country of 
 Ararat, watered by the Daitya river Araxes, and the Pun- 
 jab country of the five {panc/i) rivers to the south, and 
 stretching from the Rangha (Tigris) on the west to Soghda 
 (Samarcand) on the east 2. The new division into seven 
 Karshvars or seven provinces, with Khorasan, the Khvaniras 
 of the Bundahish and Hvaniratha of the Zendavesta, in the 
 centre, probably embraced the same extent of country sub- 
 ject to the ruler whose capital was in the district now called 
 Irak-ajami, containing the cities of Teheran and Ispahan. 
 It is called in the Bundahish the land of the Kayanians, 
 who measured their year by stars (Kaya»)3. It seems to 
 
 ' Darmesteter, Zendavesta Sirozah, i. g — 2, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xxiii. p. 8, notes i, 2. 
 
 = Ibid., Zendavesta Vendidad Fargard, i. Sacred Books of the East, vol. iv. 
 pp. I — 10. 
 
 3 West, Bundahish, xi. 6, Sacred Books of the East, vol. v. p. 33. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 683 
 
 be the consecrated province of the dog-star Sirius, for its 
 name transliterated by Justi as Qaniratha, the shining {qaini) 
 chariot ^, is shown by the form Hvaniratha and the Pahlavi 
 form Khvaniras to have originally had a V after the guttural 
 aspirate, changing in Sanskrit into Sh. Hence it would 
 correspond to a Sanskrit Shvan-i-ratha, the chariot of the 
 dog, the world's dog-star Sirius, dwelling in the kennel of 
 Argus, the dog of Odusseus, the dog-star of the year-ship 
 Argo. To the east of the central province were Seistan, 
 Kabul and the Punjab called Auzahi ; to the west, called 
 Savahi, was Shaushan or Elam, the mountainous kingdom 
 of the worshippers of Susi-nag ; on the south were the 
 regions Fradadhafshu and Vedadhafshu, those of Kerman, 
 the province of the snakes =, and Beluchistan, and to the 
 north Vourubaresti and Vourugaresti, the original Ararat 
 land of the fire-worshippers, Ragha, sacred to the sun-pillar, 
 and ploughing-god Ra, and the Parthian wolf-land of Hyr- 
 cania 3. To each of these regions a spiritual chief is assigned, 
 both the god Saoshyant, called Astvat ereta, and Zarathus- 
 tra being named £is chiefs of Khorasan 4. 
 
 The number of these spiritual chiefs and their provinces 
 corresponds with that of the Great Bear Stars, and in this 
 arrangement we probably find a remembrance of the Hittite 
 and Kushika symbol of the world as a six-rayed star ^^ 
 denoting the year measured by the solstitial cross of 
 St. Andrew ^ traversed by the equinoctial 
 line of St. George's Cross with the Pole 
 Star region in the centre. This Iranian 
 kingdom of seven provinces is a counter- I 
 part of the seven-fold division of India into 5 
 six provinces surrounding the central pro- "^--.^ i^^^ 
 
 ' Justi, Handbuck der Zend Sfrache. 
 
 ' Darmesteter, Zendavesta Vendldad Fargard, i. Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. iv. p, 2. 
 
 3 Ibid., Zendavesta Mihir Yasht, 15, vol. xxiii. p. 123, note 5. 
 
 * Ibid., Zendavesta Farvardln Yasht, 128 ; West, Bundahish, xxix. I, 2, 
 Sacred Books of ths East, vol. xxiii. pp. 219, 220, note i, v. p. 115. 
 
 6 
 
684 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 vince of Jambu-dwipa, the land with the Jambu - tree 
 {Eugenia jamholana) in its centre reaching to the Pole 
 Star. 
 
 In the Shah-namah Lohr-asp is said to have had two 
 sons, Gusht-asp and Zairi. Gusht-asp, the Vistaspa of the 
 Zendavesta, was the king sun-god, who with his two coad- 
 jutors Frashaostra, the Sanskrit Pra-shastri, the teaching 
 priest, and Jam-aspa, the twin (Jama) horses, the stars 
 Gemini, ruled the year begun when the sun entered that 
 constellation and made Zoroastrianism the dominant reli- 
 gion of the state '. The second son, Zairi, is called in the 
 Zendavesta Zairivairi, and is named after Vistaspa as the 
 second of the twelve sons of Lohr-asp, called in the Bun- 
 dahish Aurvat-aspa, that is to say the god of the twelve- 
 months year of the thigh-born-god Aurvat-aspa 2. The 
 name Zairi means, as I have shown elsewhere, the "golden 
 green," and is an epithet of Haoma, the Zend Soma. It 
 is historically equated with the Greek Centaur Pholos, who 
 first gave wine to Heracles from the cask of the sap of life 
 which he guarded for PJiolos ; the ^Eolic form of xoKo<s -x^vos, 
 golden green, is an exact translation of Zairi 3. 
 
 Hence Zairi-vairi and his eleven brethren, rulers of Vis- 
 taspa's year, is the god of Soma made from wine the product 
 of the Akkadian Gis-din, the tree of life, that made the 
 sacred drink of the gods, and that used in ritualistic libations 
 of the age of the worship of Dionysos, who was, as we have 
 seen, first the god of barley -beer and the son of the left thigh 
 Constellation of the Great Bear, Zairi, also called Zarir, 
 brought Gusht-asp back to the court of his father, which he 
 had left because he found his father devoted to the tradition 
 of Kaous, that is to the measurement of the year by the 
 revolutions of the Great Bear, whereas he wished to be the 
 
 " Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. ii. essay ix. pp. 300 — 302. 
 
 " Darmesteter, Zendavesta Abon Yasht, 112, 117, Farvardin Yasht, lOl ; 
 West, Buddahish, xxxi. 29, Sacred Books of the East, vol, xxiii. pp. 80, 81, 
 205, note S, 206, vol. V. p. 137. 
 
 3 Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay vi, pp. 549, $$0. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 685 
 
 independent sun-god going round the heavens with path 
 marked out by himself. 
 
 But after his return he again set out mounted on his 
 father's black horse of the age of the eleven-months year 
 and of the worship of the star-gods of night, and went to 
 Rum, the land of the North-west, as the setting sun of the 
 summer solstice going leftward round the Pole*. He was 
 carried without difficulty across the ferry by Heishui, the 
 star Sirius, and was not like Khu-srav refused a passage. 
 But when he entered his new country as the sun-god of 
 the summer solstice he began his year as a wandering beggar 
 asking alms and employment, and he was thus the counter- 
 part of Odusseus, who, when about to become the conquer- 
 ing sun, came to Ithaca as a beggar. This was also the 
 disguise of the Pandavas, when they came to the house of 
 the Potter Pole Star god to win the hand of Drupadi by 
 the five arrows shot by Arjuna through the mark of the 
 Pole Star bird, as Odusseus won that of Penelope by the 
 one arrow shot through the twelve double axes indicating 
 the twenty-four lunar phases of the year ; and this beggar 
 sun-god was the original traditional form of the Buddha 
 mendicant-god whose begging-bowl containing the accu- 
 mulated sustenance of his year became, when he reached 
 his final transformation as the perfect sun-god, the bowls 
 of day and night combined into one bowl of the four Loka- 
 pala angels. 
 
 The services of Gusht-asp were rejected by the keeper of 
 the king's horses and camels, and also by the smith who shod 
 the horses, and he was finally entertained by a holy man who 
 took him into his house. Thence at the suggestion of his 
 host he went, like the Pandavas and Odusseus, to compete 
 for the hand of the king's daughter Kitabun, she of the book 
 {kitdh), who was allowed by her father to choose her husband 
 among the suitors who competed for her hand. She chose 
 Gusht-asp, though he was disguised as a peasant, and her 
 
 ' Mohl, Livre des Rots, vol. iv. Lohr-asp, pp. 224—233. 
 
686 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 father, who allowed the marriage, turned them out of doors 
 without any means of sustenance. They were hospitably 
 received by the Headman or Mayor of the capital, which, 
 as the centre of the world, was ruled by the Pole Star god, 
 and he is thus an exact representative of the Potter host 
 of the Pandavas and their bride Drupadi. Gusht-asp then 
 renewed his friendship with Heishui, the star Sirius, to whom 
 he brought two-thirds of the game he killed as the sun-god 
 bearing the bow of heaven, and gave one-third to the Head- 
 man with whom he and his wife lived. 
 
 But Gusht-asp, though he had married the king's eldest 
 daughter, proclaimed, as we shall see, as the star-queen of 
 the year in the national book (kitaV) records, had still, before 
 he became the ruling sun-god, to secure the marriage of her 
 two sisters, who with Kitab-un were the original three mother- 
 seasons of the year ; and these marriages brought him the 
 sword, the impenetrable armour, the black horse, the bow 
 and arrow, and the lasso 'of the sun-god, together with the 
 tasks which proved him by their accomplishment the invin- 
 cible protector of mankind. A powerful noble named Mirin 
 asked for the hand of the Emperor's second daughter, but 
 he refused to grant his request unless he killed a savage and 
 gigantic wolf which devastated the country. He feared to 
 undertake the task, but on consulting his magic books he 
 found it was decreed that a hero who came from Iran and 
 married the Emperor's eldest daughter should kill two savage 
 animals who slew both man and beast. He at once made 
 up his mind that the hero must be the husband of the princess 
 Kitab-un, and on asking about him he found he was allied 
 with the Headman of the capital and Heishui the ferryman. 
 Heishiii, the dog-star Sirius, introduced him to Gusht-asp, 
 telling him that Mirin belonged to the royal family of Selm, 
 eldest son of Ferengis, also called Sarima, the Scythian 
 parent god-brother of Tiir, the revolving Pole and king of 
 the race who worshipped the sword, which was also the sacri- 
 ficial curved knife, the sword of Orion, and falchion of the 
 lunar crescents with which they measured their year. This 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 687 
 
 sword had descended to Mirin, who could not attain the 
 hand of the Emperor's second daughter till he had killed the 
 horned wolf of the crescent moon of the epoch of the rule 
 of the wolf-race of Gudarz, and he asked Gusht-asp to under- 
 take the task as his substitute. Gusht-asp consented on 
 getting from him the sword of Selm, Mirin's black horse 
 and his impenetrable solar armour. Gusht-asp thus equipped 
 sought and slew the wolf after he had with his horns torn 
 open his horse's belly. He then attacked him on foot and 
 killed him with the sword of Orion. Mirin then told the 
 emperor that he had slain the wolf, brought him to see its 
 corpse, and the princess was married to him. 
 
 A noble called Ahren wished to marry the emperor's third 
 daughter, but was told by her father that he must first kill 
 the dragon of Mount Sekila which slew his subjects. Ahren 
 asked Mirin how he killed the wolf by whose death he won 
 his wife, and Mirin under a promise of secrecy told him that 
 Gusht-asp slew it. Ahren, like Mirin, was introduced to 
 Gusht-asp by Heishui, thus showing that Ahren's year, like 
 that of Mirin, was ruled by Sirius. Gusht-asp agreed to kill 
 the dragon after getting a long sword with a saw-shaped 
 edge and a sharp point dipped in poison, a horse, a club and 
 an Indian garment. He thus, like Perseus the fish-sun god, 
 the Egyptian bird-headed Horus and their counterpart St. 
 George, undertook to slay the dragon Draco, the Vritra or 
 enclosing snake slain by Indra. When he met the dragon 
 he first attacked him with arrows, but when he charged, 
 Gusht-asp, like St. George, thrust his long saw-edged sword 
 down his throat, and when he was dead cut off his head. He 
 received from Ahren in recompense a sword, a black horse, 
 a bow and arrow and a lasso, which with the sword, the 
 lunar falchion and the impenetrable armour he got from 
 Mirin completed his equipment as a sun-god, whose bow, 
 the constellation of the Great Bear, was that of Krishanu, 
 Shiva, Arjuna, Eurytus and Odusseus, which they alone 
 could bend. 
 
 After these marriages and the slaying of the lunar wolf 
 
688 Primitive Traditional History, 
 
 of the wolf-race and of the dragon of drought, Kitab-un, 
 the book (kitdb), recorder of the former victorious campaigns 
 and conquering prowess of previous sun-gods, advised Gusht- 
 asp to assert and prove before the emperor his superiority 
 to the two champions who had married her sisters. He 
 accordingly, like Shyav-arshan and the young Cu-chulainn, 
 appeared at the festival games played before the emperor 
 and challenged all present to play at ball with him, that is 
 to compete with him in driving the ball of time when he 
 introduced a new reckoning of its progress which they could 
 not follow. He in doing this drove the ball out of their sight. 
 He was then summoned before the emperor to receive his 
 congratulations, and was asked whence he came, his name 
 and family. He said he was the emperor's son-in-law, and 
 that he had slain the horned wolf and the dragon, and as 
 a proof of the truth of what he said he asked that Heishui 
 might be ordered to bring their teeth, which he had given 
 him as well as the sword showing by the dents on the edge 
 that he had slain the wolf with it. He thus proved his right 
 to be proclaimed the conquering sun-god by the same evidence 
 as that adduced by Peleus the father of Achilles when he, 
 like Gusht-asp, was sent by Akastus to kill the dragon on 
 Mount Pelicon. He slew them with the lunar sword he stole 
 from Akastus, the sword of Selm given by Mirin to Gusht-asp. 
 The king's courtiers when they found the dead bodies said, 
 like Mirin and Ahren, that they had slain them, but Peleus 
 disproved this falsehood by producing their tongues and the 
 sword of slaughter. Exactly similar evidence has been 
 collected by Mannhardt from many countries, and among 
 other stories is that of Tristram the Celtic Drystan, herder 
 of the king's swine, who obtained the hand of Isot, daughter 
 of the king of Ireland, by slaying a dragon and proving by 
 producing its tongue that he had killed it, and not the king's 
 minister who claimed to be its slayer ». 
 
 ■ Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay vi. pp. 527, 
 565-567. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 689 
 
 The emperor being thus convinced that his son-in-law 
 surpassed all his courtiers in prowess, went to Kitab-un, 
 who told him that her husband had said to her that his 
 name was Farrukh-zad, the fortunate youth. He then 
 brought Kitab-un back to his palace, and made Gusht-asp 
 ruler of his dominions. 
 
 The emperor now feeling confident in his power to conquer 
 the whole world wrote to Ilias, king of the Khazars, the 
 Armenians of the Caucasus, bidding him to submit to his 
 rule and pay him tribute. Ilias refused, and in the battle 
 that took place when the sun was in Sagittarius Gusht-asp 
 slew him and conquered his country. But there is no 
 information as to the time of the year when the sun was 
 in that position which would show the date of the conquest. 
 
 The emperor of the North-west then sent an ambassador 
 to Lohr-asp to demand tribute. Lohr-asp and Zarir, or 
 Zairi-vairi, Gusht-asp's brother, were greatly surprised by 
 this claim, and asked the ambassador why the emperor of 
 Rum had so suddenly conquered the Khazars and threatened 
 to make war on the Iranians, the earth's central rufers. He 
 told them that the valour and military skill of his son-in- 
 law Farrukh-zad had so greatly increased the power of the 
 emperor of Rum that he aspired to conquer all his neigh- 
 bours, and he described the great warrior as exceedingly 
 like Zairi. Lohr-asp and Zairi then concluded that this 
 renowned champion must be Gusht-asp, and Zairi went as 
 ambassador to Riim to learn the real facts, and if they had 
 .guessed rightly to inform Gusht-asp that his father would 
 abdicate in his favour. When he came to Riim and was 
 received in audience by the emperor and Gusht-asp, the 
 former asked Zairi why he saluted him and took no notice 
 of Gusht-asp. He said that he did not pay him honour 
 because he had formerly been a slave in Iran. Zairi then 
 told the emperor that the Iranian army would at once resist 
 his demand for tribute, and the emperor then dismissed him 
 saying he had no fear of the result of the contest. 
 
 When he had gone Gusht-asp told the emperor that he 
 
 II. Y y 
 
690 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 had been, as Zairi said, in the service of Lohr-asp, and that 
 he would go to the court and obtain everything the emperor 
 wished. When he went to the army he was received with 
 acclamations, and his brother crowned him king in presence 
 of the soldiers and their leaders. He then sent a message 
 to the emperor telling him of his new rank, and the latter 
 came at once to the camp and did homage to his son-in-law, 
 who was thus proclaimed king of the whole earth. Gusht- 
 asp and his wife Kitab-un then went to Iran with the army, 
 and Lohr-asp received him as king i. 
 
 Lohr-asp then retired to Balkh on the Ji-hun (Oxus), 
 and Gusht-asp proceeded to make the religion of Zarathus- 
 tra the national creed after Kitab-un, called Nahid, meaning 
 Venus or the maiden, had borne his sons whose names and 
 attributes furnish a clue to their place in traditional history. 
 The eldest, Isfendyar, is called Spen-didad in the Eundahish, 
 and Spento-data, given by the creator of growth {span) or 
 the dog [span), in the Zendavesta^, who was made invul- 
 nerable excepting his eyes by eating a piece of pomegranate. 
 This was the tree sacred to the sun-god which might not, 
 as we have seen, be eaten at the Greek New Year's festival 
 of the Thesmophoria, and it was the tree of the sun-god of 
 Damascus, Hadad Rimmon, meaning the "hastening pome- 
 granate " {rimmon), who was the visible solar form of the god 
 Ram, Ra or Ragh, the sun-pillar, and his death and subse- 
 quent re-birth as the sun-pomegranate was yearly celebrated 
 by the Jews at Megiddo 3. In the Edomite genealogy of the 
 ruling kings of the red race, in which Samleh (Samuel) of 
 Masrekah, the vine-lands, the Phoenician Dionysos, Shaul 
 (Saul), and Baal-hanan (David or Dodo), the son of Achbor 
 the mouse, are his successors, he is the son of Be-dad or 
 Ben-dad, the son of Dad or Dodo, the sun-god, and the 
 successor of Husham the Temanite, whom I have identified 
 
 ' Mohl, Livre dts Rois, Lohr-asp, vol. iv. pp. 233 — 286. 
 ° West, Bundahisk, xxxi. 30 ; Darmesteter, Zendavesta Farvardln Yasht, 
 102, Sacred Books of the East, vol. v. p. 130, xxiii. p. 207, note i. 
 3 Zechariah xii. 11. 
 
Primitive Traditional Histfry. 691 
 
 (p. 525) with Khu-srav or Hushrava *, so that he occupies 
 the position assigned to Lohr-asp in Persian history as Khu- 
 srav's successor. 
 
 In the history of tree worship the pomegranate succeeded 
 the almond-tree of the Jews, the tree worshipped by Jacob at 
 the shrine of the almond-tree (Luz) =, and it held a peculiarly 
 prominent place in Zend ritual as the successor of the 
 cypress-tree, for it was from it, the date-palm of this age, 
 and the tamarind-tree that the twigs of the Baresma or 
 rain-wand might be cuts. It was at the Darun or birth- 
 ceremony that Zarathustra gave the infant Isfendyar the 
 pomegranate which was to make him invulnerable, and 
 Beschouten or Peshyotanu his brother the milk, which made 
 him immortal 4. Hence the sun-god of the pomegranate, 
 the son of the dog {span), was the son of Gusht-asp or 
 Vistaspa, whose guardian star was Sirius the dog-star s. 
 
 The second son of Kitab-un was Beschouten, called in the 
 Zendavesta and Bundahish Peshyotanu, meaning "he who 
 pays with his own body 6," the god who slays himself and 
 rises again at the end of his year, and who was made im- 
 mortal by the milk of heaven given him at his birth, that 
 which, as we shall see, was consecrated in the first month 
 of the Zend ritual year Ardi-behisht (April — May), at the 
 New Year's festival Maidhyo Zaremaya, the milk giver, held 
 from the nth to the 15th of the month, and which, according 
 to Alberuni, was originally held from the nth to the 15th 
 
 ■ Gen. xxxvi. 35, 36; Sayce, Hibierl Lectures for 1887, lect. i. pp. 62—66. 
 
 " Arnobius v. 6 ; Milani, Studie e Materiale de Archaeologia e Numismatica, 
 part ii. p. i68, note l8. 
 
 3 Darmesteter, Zendavesta Vendldad Fargard, xix. 19, vol. iv. pp. 209 — 
 222, note I. 
 
 ♦ West, Pahlam Texts, part v. introduction 42, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xlvii. p. xxiii. 
 
 = Span the dog is the Zend form of the Sanskrit Shvan, hence Isfendyar 
 Spento-data is the son of the dog star Sirius, guardian star of his father, and 
 of his father's central kingdom Hvani-ratha, the Sanskrit Shvan-i ratha, the 
 chariot of the dog. 
 
 * Darmesteter, Zendavesta Vendiddd, Introduction, v. 19, Sacred Books of 
 the East, vol. iv. p. xcvi. 
 
 Y y 2 
 
692 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of Dai-Mah or Khur-Mah (March— April) i.that is to say at 
 the end of March, when Parikshit began his year's race. He 
 is also called Chitro-maino, Chitro-miyan, and was king of 
 India, whose army was led by Khur-shed Chihar, called 
 in the Zendavesta Hvare-Chitra, both names meaning " sun- 
 light." Khur-shed and his brother Aurva-tad-nar, the male 
 god {nar) born from the Thigh (Uru), were sons of Zara- 
 thustra by his wife Aurij-bareda, widow of Mitro-miyan the 
 moon-god =. Peshyotanu, whose army was led by the sun- 
 god and the god born from the Thigh of the Great Bear, 
 is shown by his name Chitro-miyan to be either the eleventh 
 or twenty-seventh of the Zend Nakshatra stars, correspond- 
 ing with those of India, both of which are called Chitro- 
 miyan. Hence he was either the eleventh star 8 Leonis, 
 called in India Parva Phalguni or Arjuni, or the twenty- 
 seventh 7 Pegasi a Andromedae, called Uttara Bhadrapada. 
 As the spring-god of the solar year born in the month of 
 the milk-giving festival (April — May) under Sirius, he was 
 certainly the former star, which was, as we have seen, that 
 of Arjuna bearing the banner of the ape with the lion's tail 
 and ruling the month Phalgun or Arjuni (February — March), 
 rather than the star in Pegasus, which was a guardian star of 
 the eleven-months year. 
 
 As the son of Chitro, the star a Spica Virginis, the stellar 
 name of his mother Kitab-un, he was the son of the corn- 
 mother, and hence he is the Persian equivalent of the twenty- 
 third Jain Tirthakara Parsva, successor of Arishta-nemi, the 
 god of the eleven-months year, who was born and died when 
 the moon at the end of Chitra (CMt) (March— April), the 
 month called Virgo {Chitra), and the beginning of Visakha 
 (April— May), that sacred to Libra, was in conjunction with 
 the sun of the latter months under which he began his year. 
 
 ' Sachau, Alberuni's Chronology of Ancient Nations, Of the Festivals of 
 the months of the Persians, p. 212. 
 
 " Darmesteter, Zendavesta Vlstasp Yasht, 4, Farvardin Yasht, 98 ; West, 
 Bundahish, xxix. 5, xxxi. 29, xxxii. S, Bahman Yasht, 25, Sacred Books of 
 the East, vol, xxiii. pp. 329, 204, note I, v. pp. 117, 137, 142, 143, note I, 224. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 693 
 
 Hence Peshyotanu, the son of the dog-star Sirius and 
 Virgo's month March— April as the star 8 Leonis, who gives 
 up his body at the end of his year to resume it immediately, 
 was the god of the age when the sun was in Leo at the vernal 
 equinox, from 10,700 to 8200 B.C., and corresponds with the 
 Indian god Parikshit, protected by Arjuna, god of February 
 —March, who ran his year's course from the beginning of 
 Cheit (March— April), the month sacred to the star Virgo, 
 Peshyotanu's mother, and who was sacrificed at the end of 
 the month as the god rising from the dead in April— May. 
 This was the month in which Peshyotanu got the milk which 
 made him immortal at the formal installation in it of the 
 New Year's festival of Maidhyo-Zaremaya, which had first 
 been fixed from the nth to the isth of Dai-mah or Khur-mah 
 (March— April). 
 
 Thus the series of years marked in the Chronology were 
 those (i) of the sun-god in Leo in February — March, from 
 10,700 to 8200 B.C., (2) of the god of March— April, the month 
 of Parikshit's race and of the beginning of the Buddha's Pente- 
 costal feast under Gemini after his Vessantara birth from 
 8700 to 6700 B.C., and (3) of the god of April— May, from 
 6700 to 2500 B.C., when the Buddha became the pure sun-god 
 who had lost with his hair all his human attributes ; and this 
 chronology, together with that of the Buddha's births when 
 the sun was in Gemini, is, as we shall now see, repeated in 
 the history of Zarathustra's enlightenment and enthronement 
 as the divinely consecrated and historical expounder of the 
 moral law of God and the founder of the national society, 
 so organised in the Zoroastrian vision of the City of God as 
 to make its precepts binding on all members of the nation, 
 imbued in the inmost core of their hearts with unwavering 
 reverence and love of God's law and hatred of sin. 
 
 These birth-stories and their traditional dates show a close 
 connection between the great religious movements which 
 spread over South-western Asia and India, when the invading 
 sons of the wolf-god and the sun-god riding on the black 
 horse of the eleven-months year conquered the southern 
 
694 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 countries ruled by earlier forms of social government based 
 on the supremacy of the Headman of the cities and villages 
 united in provinces, and by their assistant counsellors forming 
 the original Indian Panchayats of five administrators and 
 advisers. These new comers, who introduced the rule of kings 
 superintending the subordinate administrators, were also 
 the pioneers of a religious reformation based on the funda- 
 mental rule that each man and woman's chief duty was to 
 perfect their moral nature. Under the earlier state organisation 
 duty consisted in strict obedience to all rules of ceremonial 
 ritual and social conduct laid down by the local authorities, 
 but the religious teachers among the new conquerors added 
 the further rule that it was the duty of all human beings to 
 train themselves so as to make deviation from ordained moral 
 precepts utterly abhorrent to them. 
 
 The earlier Jain teachers, the Hindu preaching priests, the 
 Prashastri and the Zend Frashaostra, taught that the asceti- 
 cism of fasting, self-mutilation and self-torture supplied the 
 mental discipline necessary to make human beings instinc- 
 tively obedient to the moral law. This was the doctrine of 
 the Jain disciples of Arishta-nemi, the priest-god of the 
 eleven-months year of Kaous and of the beginning of Khu- 
 srav's reign, when in the battle of the Turanian and Iranian 
 eleven year-gods the latter, whose year was that of the fire 
 of Adhar Giishasp of Adhar (February — March), were 
 victorious. 
 
 It was also the doctrine of the leaders of the age of the 
 Mahosadha birth of the Buddha as sun-physician from about 
 12,500 B.C. to 10,700 B.C., when the sun was in Gemini in 
 January — February, and of the age when Vega the Persian 
 Giidarz, the Vulture, was the Pole Star. 
 
 The systematic assertion of the duty of moral improvement 
 became more generally acknowledged and more widely dif- 
 fused in the age of the Jain Parsva and the second stage of 
 Khu-srav's reign, when he finally defeated the Turanians. 
 It continued to prevail in the age of Lohr-asp, the son of 
 the Thigh, who instituted the new national fire of Adar 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 695 
 
 Burzin Mihar, succeeding that of Adhar Gushasp of February 
 — March. This was lighted at the vernal equinox as the 
 year-fire of the year in which the first form of the New 
 Year's Maidhyo-zare maya festival was held, from the nth 
 to isth of Dai-Mah (March— April) ; and it coincided with 
 the year of the Vessantara birth of the Buddha at the vernal 
 equinox and the age extending from 10,700 to 8200 B.C., 
 when the sun was in Leo at the vernal equinox. 
 
 This new national fire introduced the solar year of the 
 next epoch succeeding that of the Vessantara birth, that 
 from 8200 to 6700 B.C., the age of the rule of the sun-god 
 born, like Parikshit, when the sun was in Gemini in February 
 — March. This was the year of the sun-god born of the 
 Thigh of this chapter, that of fifteen months each of twenty- 
 four days and three eight-day weeks, which began at the 
 vernal equinox in March — April. It was in it that during 
 the reign of Gusht-asp the stage of the national reformation 
 introduced by Zarathustra's teaching began, and that similar 
 progress was made in India during the period of the national 
 awakening caused by the teaching of the Buddha in his 
 Vessantara birth, when he had set forth to redeem mankind 
 on his horse Kanthaka, the star Pegasus of the eleven-months 
 year, whose death marked the beginning of his journey as 
 the mendicant sun-god of this age^. 
 
 It was also to this period that the traditional twenty-fourth 
 Tirthakara of the Jains Mahavira belonged, for he was the 
 contemporary of the Vessantara Buddha. He was born on 
 the 29th of Cheit (March — April), about 8200 B.C., when the 
 sun was in Uttara Phalguna S Leonis, that is at the end of 
 Parikshit's sun-race 2. It was also the age assigned in the 
 history of the Buddha to the beginning of his forty-nine days' 
 Pentecostal fast, and it is also that of the first missionary 
 journey of Zarathustra, which started on the last day of Spen- 
 
 ' Rhys Davids, Buddhist Birth Stories, The Nidanakatha, Death of Kanthaka, 
 p. 87. 
 ' Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, Kalfa Sutra, 96, Sacred Books of the East, vol. 
 
 xxii. p. 251. 
 
696 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 darmad (February— March), that is at the vernal equinox, 
 to go to his first New Year's festival of Maidhyo-Zaremarya, 
 or the milk-giver, beginning on the nth of Ardibihfsht 
 (April— May). 
 
 The whole series of historical religious changes thus began 
 to culminate in the epoch of the rule of the sun-god born 
 as the perfect and immortal Buddha, from about 6700 to 
 4500 B.C., when the sun was in Gemini in March — April. 
 This was in Persian history the period of the rule of the never- 
 dying Peshyotanu and of the Zoroastrian Vohumano God of 
 good conscience, who was in the history of the Shah-namah 
 Bahman, son of Isfendyar and successor of Gusht-asp. 
 
 It was the age of the perfection of the Indian doctrine 
 of the Soma sacrifice, which was originally the national feast 
 of rice and millets, and which in the first stage in which it 
 was celebrated by the northern invaders was mixed with the 
 annual human sacrifice of the eldest son as the dying year- 
 god which was almost universally offered during the cycle- 
 year. The new ritual, while still holding in its teaching to 
 the original rule that Vishnu and Prajapati the year-gods are 
 the sacrifice and that human sacrifice represents the dying 
 year slain to raise from the dead its New Year son', developed 
 itself into the final form of the Soma sacrifice, in which animals 
 were ofi'ered instead of human sacrifices, and these offerings 
 of living victims were put into a subordinate position to the 
 main offering of the Try-ashera three mixings of Indra, which 
 succeeded the Sautra-mani sacrifice of the eleven-months 
 year. There were those of Gavashir, the mixing of milk 
 {gava), Dadhyashir, that of sour milk {dadhi), and Yavashir 
 of barley {Yava) with pure water taken from a running 
 stream 2. In offering these as libation to the five seasons 
 the sacrificer and worshipper offered himself in body, soul, 
 and spirit to God, and became through the continual offering 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., i. I, i, 13, i. i, 2, 13, i. 3, 2, i, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xii. pp. 15, 78. 
 ' Hillebrandt, Vedische Mythologie, pp. 209, R.G.V. 275, viii. 2—7. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 697 
 
 of this mental sacrifice perfect and sinless like God ' ; and 
 during the continuance of the sacrament milk was the only 
 food taken by the sacrificer besides the sacramental offering. 
 This ideal was attained through the three stages of (i) 
 Asceticism and self-mortification, that of the early Jain 
 morality reproduced in the doctrines of the Eastern Dervishes 
 and the early Persian Shias, the Indian Yogas, Mussulman 
 Faquirs in the ritual of the American Indians, who still 
 celebrate the sacrificing festival of self-torture with rites 
 almost identical with those of India, in the penances of 
 Egyptian hermits and eastern and western monks and friars ; 
 (2) Obedience to the laws formed for the guidance of the 
 men of the age of the Vessantara god and the Tusita heaven 
 of wealth (^Mjo),the peaceful period of world-wide commercial 
 intercourse between India and America via China and India, 
 South-western Asia, Africa and Europe, which, as I have 
 elsewhere shown and shall still further prove in the next 
 chapter, preceded the northern invasion of the Gotho-Celts, 
 who broke up its organisation and introduced the ages of 
 international wars. This is the stage marked in Persian 
 history by the consolidation of Zoroastrran doctrines which 
 founded the great trading community of the Parsis. (3) 
 The last stage was that of the complete change in human 
 ideals produced by the aspiration after a new birth in the 
 higher place of serving others instead of devoting one's 
 attention solely to self, an ideal aimed at by the leaders of 
 perfect Buddhism and Zoroastrianism but only fully worked 
 out in Christianity. 
 
 The correctness of this conclusion that the religious systems 
 of the Jains, Buddhists and Parsis were all part of a religious 
 evolution developed in South-western Asia during a long 
 series of ages of gradual progress is corroborated by the 
 history in the Zad-sparam of the beginning of the final 
 mission of Zarathustra, called Spitama the white (spita) 
 
 ' Eggeling, J'Ao/. Brah., iii. I, 2, 1, iii. I, 4, 23, iii. J, 3. '> Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xxvi. pp. 625, 626. 
 
698 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 teacher of the race of northern invaders, who had begun his 
 career as the sun-bird, the sun-hawk Karshipta. 
 
 This great prophet expounder of the divine revelation, who 
 was believed, like the Indian Buddha, to have passed through 
 many previous births, began his last career of conquest on 
 the day when he was thirty years old. This was on Aniran, 
 the last day of Spend-armad (February — March). On this 
 day when the year festival of Hamashpat Maedhya, held on 
 the last days of February — March, was finished and the year 
 ended, the young leader set forth on his journey to the place 
 of the New Year's festival of Maidhyo-Zaremaya, held forty- 
 five days after the year began. This interval of forty-five 
 days between the time when he first started on his mission 
 as the leading year-god to his actual consecration as the 
 divinely inspired prophet; answers to the fifty days which 
 intervened in the life of the Buddha between his Vessantara 
 and his perfect birth. 
 
 On his journey his eyes, like those of Buddha in his sittings 
 under the successive mother-trees, were opened by the vision 
 of spiritual enlightenment, in which he saw Medyomah, son 
 of Arastat, brother of his father Purush-aspa, leading all 
 mankind to hear his testimony. The name of this first 
 disciple is in the Zendavesta Maidhyo-maungha ', meaning 
 he of the month (nidonha) of the Maidyha or centre, the 
 name given to Zarathustra's calendar. And the story of 
 his vision is thus a statement that he foresaw the official 
 establishment of the ritualistic festivals of his Maidhya 
 calendar consecrating his firmly established {arastan) (Zend 
 rud, Sanskrit radh, Pahlavi arastar^) creed. 
 
 He ended his journey to the shrine of his New Year's 
 festival, at which he was to rise as the new and perfect sun- 
 god, at the dawn of the day Dadvo-haran Mitro, the fifteenth 
 day of Ardibehisht (April — May), and the last day of the 
 new Maidhyo Zaremaya festival of the milk-giver celebrating 
 
 ' Darmesteter, Zmdavtsta Farvardin Yasht, 95, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xxiii. p. 203. 
 " Justi, Worlerbuck der Zend Sprache, £, v. Aiastat. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 699 
 
 the creation of heaven, originally constituted as that lasting 
 from the eleventh to the fifteenth of Dai-Mah (March — 
 April). 
 
 The newly-risen and perfect sun-god of the New Year 
 began his career by partaking of the Horn sacrament, the 
 Soma of Hindu ritual. He partook of this sacrament on 
 the banks of the river Daitya, the Araxes, rising in Mount 
 Ararat, where he was originally born as the sun-god child 
 of the mother-tree. He then entered the baptismal bath 
 of the Soma neophyte in the head waters of the mother- 
 mountain, where both the Araxes and the Euphrates, the 
 Zend goddess Ardvi Sura Anabita, rise. After his baptism 
 he was received by Vohumano, the Holy Spirit, the God 
 of good conscience, who led him to the heavenly mansions 
 of the archangels ruling the four quarters of the heavens, 
 the zenith and the nadir, the Zend form of the four arch- 
 angels who gave the Buddha his begging-bowl representing 
 the heavenly vault of night and day. He was then intro- 
 duced to Ahura Mazda the Supreme God. Before him he 
 went through the ordeal of the seven questionings regarding 
 (i) the existence of the Supreme God, (2) of sacrificial life, 
 (3) of the creating heat, (4) of metallic life, (5) of life grown 
 from the nether springs of the south of the Asnavand 
 mountain where Khu-srav established the Gushasp fire^, 
 (6) of life engendered by the seas and the rivers, and (7) 
 of that which is born from plants; thus discussing the 
 secrets of the origin of life in the whole habitable earth 
 and heaven in the six mansions of the world ruled by the 
 Pole Star god. 
 
 Zarathustra then came to earth to undergo the thirty-three 
 enquiries of the priests of Vistasp, called Kuvigs and Karaps, 
 a number referring to the thirty-three lords of the ritual order 
 of Zend theology, the thirty-three days of the month of the 
 eleven- months year. He then began to disseminate the 
 
 ' Darmesteter, Zendavesta Siroiah, g, Sacred Books eif the Eastj voL xxiii. 
 p. 7, note 7, 
 
700 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 doctrines he had learnt from his heavenly instructors, teaching 
 first that the marriage of near kinsfolk, which was customary 
 during the ages of the rule of the merchant princes of the 
 Indian Bharata and of the Arabian Bani Hanifa, the 
 righteous (Hanifa^ sons of the date-palm-tree i, was that 
 best fitted to secure the progress of the race. He then went 
 on to give his orders as to the five dispositions which were 
 to be the test-marks of the priest-teachers of his doctrines 
 and his ten instructions to their disciples. The priests were 
 told that they must be (i) Innocent, that is sinless ; (2) that 
 they must make usefulness permeate every thought, word, 
 and deed; (3) that they must learn and teach with true 
 masterful insistence the doctrines taught them as true by 
 the authorised authorities ; (4) that they must maintain and 
 observe steadfastly the ceremonial worship of the heavenly 
 luminaries, the laws prescribing mental and bodily cleanli- 
 ness, and also; those which safeguard knowledge and property; 
 
 (5) they must pray for and strive earnestly after steadfastness 
 in the strict performance of all their duties. 
 
 Their pupils were called upon (i) to be careful to be of 
 good repute ; (2) to avoid evil repute ; (3) to respect their 
 teachers and not bring scandal on them by false reports 
 of their doctrines ; (4) to teach to others correctly what 
 their teachers have taught them ; (5) to establish laws re- 
 warding the doers of good and punishing those who do evil ; 
 
 (6) to maintain righteousness in their houses; {7) to be 
 friends with those who are good and to repent of their sins ; 
 (8) to banish all malice from their hearts and to be quick to 
 repent ; (9) to do all they could to advance religion and to 
 maintain themselves in the dutiful observance of its teach- 
 ings ; (10) to obey all rulers and priestly authorities =. 
 
 The Zoroastrian Church required that every one of its 
 
 ■ Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. ix. sect, c, 
 Indian history of the epoch following the eighteen-months year as told in the 
 Mahabharata, ppi 581 — S^S- 
 
 » West, Pahlavi Texts, part v. Selections of Zadsparan, chaps, xxi. — xxiv., 
 Sacred Books of the East, vol. xlvii. pp. 154 — 170. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 701 
 
 members should symbolically offer themselves as sacrifices 
 in the rigid observance of its moral and ceremonial laws and 
 the maintenance of the festivals ordained by "the thirty- 
 three lords of the ritual order," who were in the Buddhist 
 code the thirty-three gods of the Tavatimsa heaven of the 
 thirty-three who, with Sakko at their head, breathed life into 
 the bowl of heavenly food which gave enlightenment to the 
 Buddha when sitting under the Nigrodha Banyan-tree wor- 
 shipped by the star-goddess Su-jata. These thirty-three 
 gods, whose worship dates from the eleven-months year, 
 were in Zend ritual the guardians as measurers of time of the 
 Havani or Soma mortar, in which the sap of life was ground 
 out of the mother-plant to nourish and sustain on earth 
 in their severally ordained stages the lives brought into 
 existence each year by the help of the generating rain stored 
 in the vegetable parent of life '. They were the spokes of 
 the wheel of the revolving months which made the creating 
 pestle go round in the mortar. 
 
 In Zend belief the whole adult population, both male and 
 female, who wore the sacred Kilsti or girdle of seventy-two 
 strings denoting the seventy-two five-days weeks of the year, 
 were included in the ritualistic circle of the votaries of these 
 gods, but in the Indian ritual of the Hindu twice-born castes 
 the comprehensive law of the Zends is narrowed to the male 
 wearers of the three stranded cord denoting the three seasons 
 of Orion's year. The later Buddhistic Church, while it in- 
 cluded all classes without distinction of rank or sex, limited 
 its numbers to those who had joined the Sanga or community 
 of male and female mendicant teachers who had forsaken 
 worldly concerns to devote themselves to purely religious 
 duties. In a word, the Buddhist Sanga were the Zend 
 teachers whose pupils were by the Buddhists relegated to 
 a lower grade, while in the Zend ideal state both teachers 
 and those they taught were equal members of the national 
 community. The religious teachings of these two systems 
 
 » Mills, Zmdavssia, part iii. Yashna, i. 10, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xxxi, p. 198. 
 
702 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 were so framed as to lead each member along the path, of fche 
 holy observance of duty sketched in the precepts of Zara- 
 thustra and in the Eightfold Noble Path of the Buddha, 
 he strait and narrow way leading to a never dying life of 
 active right-thinking and doing continued through the suc- 
 cessive existences assigned to purified souls. 
 
 The yearly recurring stages of the Zoroastrian path of 
 Yasna, or sacrifice, was marked by the six Gahanbars, or 
 holy festivals, each lasting for the five days of the week of 
 the primitive wearers of the holy Kusti. They were called 
 (i) Maidhyo-Zaremaya, the milk-giver, the festival of the 
 creation of heaven, the golden green {Zarema) sky and 
 earth, from the nth to the 15th of Ardi-behisht (April- 
 May). (2) Maidhyo-shema, the giver of pasture to the 
 earth (shema), the creator of the parent-grass sown and 
 nourished by the waters of the rainy season from the nth 
 to the iSth of Tir (June — July). (3) Paitishahya, the lord 
 {paiti, Hind. Pati) of corn, the creator of the seed of life, 
 from the 26th to the 30th of Shahrevar (August — Septem- 
 ber). (4) Ayathrima, the breeding or rutting season, the 
 creation of plants, from the 26th to the 30th of Mihr (Sep- 
 tember — October). (5) Maidhyairya, the cold season of the 
 birth of the kine, from the nth to the iSth of Bahman 
 (January — February). (6) Hamash-pat maedhya, the birth 
 of men, the special time for ritual duties, from the 26th to 
 the 30th of Spend-armad (February — March) i. This last 
 festival is said in the Farvardin Yasht to last for ten days, 
 and Darmesteter in a note says that it lasted for the last 
 ten days of the year, from the loth to the 20th of March, 
 and was spent in banquets and ceremonies to the memory of 
 the dead. The last five days were the five complimentary 
 days completing the year of 365 days 2. 
 
 A survey of these festivals shows clearly that the original 
 
 ■ Justi, Worterbuch der Zend Sprache Gahanbar ; Mills, Zendavesta, part iii. 
 Yasna, i. 9, 10, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxxi. pp. 198, 199. 
 
 ° Darmesteter, Zendavesta Farvardin Yasht, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xxiii. p- 192. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 703 
 
 series was one of four festivals held at the solstices and 
 equinoxes beginning with Maidhy-airya, the birth of the 
 kine, after the twelve days' rest of the re-rising sun-god, 
 the deer-sun-god of Orion's year, who after his death at 
 the winter solstice began twelve days after to be the sun- 
 god of the new year at the Ploughing-festival, our Epiphany. 
 (2) Maidhyo-Zaremaya, which was originally, as we have 
 seen, the festival of the vernal equinox, the first stage in 
 the yearly conquests of the re-risen sun-god. (3) Maidhyo- 
 shema, the festival of the summer solstice, that of the con- 
 quering sun-god who then began his decline. It answers 
 to the Rath-jatra, or marriage procession of Krishna and 
 Subhadra in India, and the wedding of Shem-i-ramot and 
 Ninus (Orion) at Babylon, when the sinking Orion is buried 
 on the second day of the five days' festival. (4) Ayathrima, 
 the festival of the autumnal equinox of the sun-god then 
 born as the ram-sun of the cycle-year. 
 
 Of the two other festivals, the Hamashpat-maedhya of 
 February-March was the original New Year's festival of the 
 yellow ploughing-races held at successive dates from the 
 beginning of January — February, when in the Zoroastrian 
 calendar that of Maidhy-airya was held. It was the new- 
 year month of the Indian yellow races, sons of the mother 
 Magha, after whom the month Magh (January — February) 
 was called, and it was in Greece the festival of Gamelion, the 
 marriage-month January — February, when Zeus and Here 
 were married. It was postponed by the red races who in 
 India began their year with the Huli festival of the new 
 moon of Phalgun (February — March), the origin of our car- 
 nival; and this was the month of the Jewish Purim, held 
 on the 13th day of the month Adar^ (February— March), 
 preceding Nisan (March— April), the first month of the 
 Jewish year of the Passover beginning with the vernal 
 equinox. The Jewish Purim was a New Year's festival 
 of the year before the Passover year, beginning with the 
 
 " Esther viii, 12. 
 
704 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 vernal equinox, and commemorated the slaying by the sun- 
 god Marduk of Haman and his ten sons, the gods of the eleven- 
 months year. The mid-year festival of the year beginning 
 in February-March was in India that of the birth of Krishna 
 and Su-bhadra in August — September, and this was in the 
 Zoroastrian calendar the birth-festival of Paiti-shahiya, of 
 the lord {pati) of corn, held from the 26th to the 30th of 
 August — September. 
 
 That the Hamash-pat-maedhya was a later addition to the 
 original Zend ritual is proved by its being that of the present 
 feast of the dead, which was originally held (p. 125, note i) 
 by the fire-worshippers at the summer solstice at the be- 
 ginning of Farvardin (June — July), and it was for this 
 festival that the Farvardin Yasht commemorating all the 
 national historical heroes was composed. And this earlier 
 festival was also a representative of the first of these 
 national commemorations of the dead, held on the last 
 day of the old year, and the first two beginning the Pleiades 
 year of October — November. 
 
 Thus the whole series of Zoroastrian festivals furnishes 
 a bird's-eye view of the history of ages beginning with the 
 first measurement of annual time by five-day weeks and 
 extending its purview over the age of the cycle-year, from 
 about 14,700 to 12,500 B.C., the eleven-months year suc- 
 ceeding it followed by the fifteen-months year of the sun- 
 god born of the Thigh of this Chapter, and thence down 
 to the time when Zarathustra and his successors perfected 
 the system of national instruction and guidance which was 
 the rule of life of the earlier Parsi nation from 6700 to 
 4500 B.C. 
 
 The visible sacrifice offered at the festivals, and especially 
 at the New Year's festival of Zarathustra's year, was tra- 
 ditionally that offered in the Ariyana Va-ejo by the river 
 Daitya, the ancestral home of the first founders of the ritual 
 and brotherhood of the fire-worshippers who traced their 
 descent to this land dominated by Mount Ararat. It is 
 described as the sacrifice of "Haoma and meat, with the 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 705 
 
 baresma, with the wisdom of the tongue, with holy spells, 
 with the speech, with the deeds, with the libations and the 
 rightly spoken words." Like all the sacrifices of primitive 
 ritual its ceremonies told its history and a great part of that 
 of the nation. 
 
 As in the Hindu Soma sacrifice, the first offering was the 
 Haoma or sap of the parent plant pressed out in the Havani 
 or mortar by the pestle. This plant, originally the Indian 
 rice, was succeeded by the later barley. I have not been 
 able to find out certainly which was the original Haoma 
 plant in the ritual of the early fire- worshippers, but the 
 addition of meat offered with it in the official ritual shows 
 that the sacrifice was probably very similar to the Sautra- 
 mani sacrifice of the Indian eleven-months year, when thirty- 
 three libations of gravy obtained from the sacrifice of the 
 Soma animal victims were poured into the Soma liquid made 
 of Kusha-grass, fermented Baer {zizyphus jujube), fruit, spices, 
 parched rice, malted barley, millets and milk. 
 
 The Zoroastrian baresma, the priest's magic rain-wand, 
 differed from the Hindu Prastara first made of Kusha and 
 afterwards of Ashva-vala horse-tail sugar-cane grass {Saccha- 
 rum spontaneum), in being made of twigs of the later parent 
 sun-trees, the pomegranate, the date-palm and tamarind. 
 
 The spells were those used to drive off evil spirits, like 
 those with which Haya-griva, the black horse of the eleven- 
 months year, was driven away in the ritual of the Buddhist 
 Soma sacrifice of millet-beer and pills made of flour, sugar, 
 and butter. 
 
 The wisdom of the tongue, the speech and the rightly- 
 spoken words, refer to the ritualistic invocations and chants 
 prescribed in the rules for the conduct of the sacrifice, and 
 the libations are the cups poured out to the year-lords to 
 whom libations were ordered to be made in the Yasna ritual. 
 These were in India offered to the gods ruling the year- 
 months and began with the cups of the three seasons made 
 by the Ribhus, 
 
 We must now return from this long account of the history 
 
 n. z z 
 
706 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of the rise of the religion claiming to be a revelation made 
 by God to Zarathustra to the narrative in the Shah-namah of 
 the national adopter of this creed. 
 
 Gusht-asp, in celebrating his acceptance of these doctrines 
 as the divine word of God, acknowledged his descent as the 
 son of the tree by planting in front of the fire-temple a 
 cypress-tree, the mother-tree of Zarathustra which came 
 down from heaven ; and as the tree grew he, like the king 
 of the woodland Volsungs in the story of Sigurd, built round 
 it the foundations of a palace of stone overlaid with gold, and 
 in building it neither water nor clay was used, so that, as in 
 Cyclopean architecture, the stones were fitted together with- 
 out mortar i. 
 
 He then acting on Zarathustra's advice refused tribute 
 to Ardjasp, the Arejataspa of the Zendavesta, ruler of the 
 Hvyaonas or Chionitae dwelling near the river Daitya', 
 and the latter name identifies these people with the wor- 
 shippers of the Semitic pillar Chiun. He is called in the 
 Shah-namah king of the Turks and Chinese, and is in the 
 history of Gusht-asp the reproduction of the Turanian Afra- 
 siab of the days of Kaous and Khu-srav. 
 
 Ardjasp threatened to invade Iran when Gusht-asp refused 
 to pay him tribute, and when a second letter of refusal, 
 written at Balkh by Zarir or Zairi and Isfendiyar, Gusht- 
 asp's brother and son, was sent he assembled his invading 
 army. Before the contending forces met in battle Jamaspa, 
 Gusht-asp's Prime-Minister, told him that Zairi would be 
 killed in the first battle by an arrow shot from an ambush 
 by the Turkish archer Bidirefsh, and that Isfendiyar would 
 defeat the Turks. In the battle the first six champions sent 
 forth by Gusht-asp mounted on his black horse Bahzad, the 
 Striker {bahz), with the same name as that of Shyav-arshan 
 and Khu-srav, (i) Ardeshir, his son, (2) Ormuzd, (3) Schi- 
 
 ' Mohl, Livre des Rois, vol. iv. Gusht-asp, pp. 200 — 203. 
 ° Darmesteter, Zendavesta Aban Yasht, 109, Gos Yasht, 29, 31 ; Sacred 
 Books of the East, vol. xxiii. pp. 79, note 4, 117, note 6. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 707 
 
 dash, (4) Gulrami, son of Jamaspa, (5) Nestur, son of Zarir, 
 and (6) Zarir himself, were all slain. Zarir was struck in the 
 back by the poisoned arrow of Bidirefsh as Sigurd was 
 struck by Hagen the winter-god, and Bidirefsh carried off 
 the banner of Kaweh. Gusht-asp when he heard the news 
 wished to take the command of the army mounted not on 
 his black horse Bahzad but on Gul-gun, Lohr-asp's chestnut 
 charger, an incident showing the change from the earlier 
 worship of the star-gods of night to that of the sun-horse 
 of the rising sun of day. But Jamaspa advised Gusht-asp 
 not to fight himself but to proclaim that whoever avenged 
 Zairi's death would be rewarded with the hand of his daugh- 
 ter Homai, the Haoma goddess. The task was undertaken 
 by Isfendiyar, who as the seventh champion, the conquering 
 sun of the Great Bear superseding the six who had been 
 defeated, placed himself with his five brethren in the centre 
 of the army. Gusht-asp gave his black horse Bahzad, his 
 armour and helmet to Nestur, son of Zairi, who was said 
 to have been slain with his father, but now appears as his 
 father's avenger who was to be set aside by Isfendiyar. For 
 when Nestiir attacked Bidirefsh, his father's slayer, who now 
 wore the arms of Zarir as Hector did those of Patroclus 
 in the Iliad, and bore the banner of Kaweh, Isfendiyar 
 intervened in the combat, slew Bidirefsh with his sword, 
 recovered Zarir's armour and the national standard, and 
 put to flight Ardjasp and all the Turks. 
 
 Gusht-asp on his return to Balkh as the victorious sun- 
 god married Isfendiyar to his sister Homai, the goddess of 
 the cypress-tree (Horn) and of the Haoma sacrifice, a name 
 also borne by the wife of Bahman, Isfendiyar's son, and sent 
 Isfendiyar on a travelling mission through the empire to 
 proclaim Zarathustra's doctrines. During his absence 
 Gurezin calumniated him to his father as a traitor, and 
 Gusht-asp sent Jamaspa to summon him to his presence. 
 When he came his father ordered him to be put in chains, 
 and this imprisonment of the sun-god betokened, like that 
 of Bijen, the end of the year he ruled. 
 
 z z 2 
 
7o8 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 It took place we are told when the sun was in the con- 
 stellation of Sagittarius the archer, the same as that in 
 which it was in the year when Gusht-asp conquered for 
 the Emperor of Riim the Khazar kingdom of Ilias, and as 
 Jamaspa brought him to be imprisoned it is one of the 
 years beginning when the sun was in Gemini, Jamaspa's 
 constellation. The year of the conversion of mankind by 
 Zarathustra, whose royal agent was Isfendiyar, and that 
 of the Buddha's birth in the Tusita heaven of wealth {tuso), 
 to undertake the same mission was, as we have seen, that 
 beginning when the sun was in February — March, when 
 the sun was in Gemini from about 8700 to 6700 B.C. ; and 
 the mid month of this year, August — September, which is, 
 as we have seen, treated as a new-year month, was that 
 in which the sun was in Sagittarius, and it was the month 
 consecrated by Zarathustra in the festival of Paitishahiya, 
 held on its last five days immediately before the autumnal 
 equinox. It was in this year apparently that Isfendiyar 
 was thrown into prison and made the dead sun of winter, 
 for we are told in the Shah-namah that when Ardjasp learned 
 that the moon had left the sign of Sagittarius the archer, 
 and when Isfendiyar the ruler of the year was no longer 
 able to oppose him, he again invaded Iran, took Balkh 
 and slew Lohr-asp and Zarathustra. Isfendiyar by his 
 temporary death was thus freed from the bonds of his 
 former year's course, and was free to begin in his successor 
 a new year as the new and perfect Buddha made spiritual 
 ruler of heaven and earth. 
 
 Gusht-asp fled before the armies of the god of the North 
 and took refuge in a fortified mountain, whither he sum- 
 moned Jamaspa, the stars Gemini ruling his destiny, and 
 sent him to release Isfendiyar out of prison. He went 
 thither and told Isfendiyar what had happened, and how 
 his two wives Homai and Beh Afrld, the creating {afrld) 
 mother, had been taken prisoners by the Turks. The 
 new sun-god aroused from the torpor of death by this 
 news, regained his former might, broke the chains which 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 709 
 
 bound him and re-clothed himself in the armour of the sun- 
 god. He issued forth as the leader of the new year, pre- 
 ceded by Jamaspa, the constellation Gemini, in which he 
 rose, and accompanied by his sons Nush-adar *, the sun-god 
 of the water of immortality {nUsh), and Bahman, the Zoro- 
 astrian god of Good Conscience Vohumano, his successor. 
 
 This new sun of a new year rising in Gemini at the vernal 
 equinox, the sun of March — April, made his way through the 
 army of the Turks to the mountain where Gusht-asp was 
 imprisoned. He thence, accompanied by Gusht-asp, en- 
 countered the army of Ardjasp, who had made Kargasur, 
 the vulture {kargas) Pole Star god, his commander-in-chief. 
 He completely routed the enemy, put Ardjasp to flight and 
 captured Kargasur with his lasso. He made him his slave, 
 and took him as his guide through the seven stations he had 
 to traverse before he reached the Castle of Brass, the 
 Turning Castle of the Pole Star god, whither Ardjasp had 
 retreated. 
 
 The march through the seven stations is a variant from 
 that of Rustum and the Mexican twins, and Isfendiyar's 
 guide Kargasur, the vulture, the deposed Pole Star god who 
 had fallen from power when the vulture constellation Lyra 
 was no longer the apex of heaven, is the counterpart of 
 Aulad the gardener of the star-garden of God, who showed 
 Rustum the way to the cave of the White Div. Isfendiyar 
 when departing on his adventurous journey left Peshyotanu 
 his younger brother in command of his army which followed 
 
 ' Nush, besides meaning the water of immortality, means also the sixth day 
 of the month consecrated in Zend ritual to Spenta Armaiti, the consecrating 
 god of the sacrifice (Darraesteter, Zendavesta Vendidad, preface, Sirozah, i. 5, 
 Sacred Books of the East, vol. iv. p. Ixix., xxiii. p. S). This is the Vedic 
 goddess Aramati, who is present at the morning and evening sacrifice with 
 Brihaspati, the Pole Star god, Indra, Mitra, Varuna, &c., and over whom 
 the streams of Soma flow from the pressing-stone, Rig. x. 69, 15, x. 92, 415. 
 She is called a maiden, the sun-maiden of morning and evening sacrifice, the 
 morning and evening star, Rig. vii. I, 6. It was she who in her male form 
 accompanies the new sun-god of righteousness with his successor the god of 
 Good Conscience. 
 
7IO Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 him. He arrayed in his armour and mounted on his black 
 horse began by attacking as the first foes he was destined to 
 slay two horned wolves. He slew them with his arrows, and 
 this story is a variant of the wolf of the East, the god of 
 spring slain by the Mexican twins ^, and of the horned wolf 
 which Gusht-asp slew. His second task was the slaying 
 of two lions, answering to the slaying of the cougar of the 
 North by the Mexican twins '. In his third task he killed 
 the dragon, the second victim of Gusht-asp, and in this 
 contest he mounted the car of the sun-god of the summer 
 solstice armed on all sides with swords, the sun's rays, and 
 drawn by two horses. In this car he made his way through 
 the heavens as the Mexican twins went up the Bridge of the 
 Milky Way to meet the cougar tiger of the North. In 
 Isfendiyar's story he and his chariot were swallowed by the 
 dragon, the constellation Draco which ruled the year of 
 Orion, but when the dragon vomited him out of his mouth 
 he slew him and fell senseless for a time, but recovered at 
 last as the rising sun of the summer solstice fighting his way 
 to the North. 
 
 His fourth task, the slaying the female magician, the witch 
 goddess of the Nadir slain by the Mexican twins, was similar 
 to Rustum's fourth task, but in Isfendiyar's adventure the 
 details of the combat are essentially different from the 
 parallel contests of his two predecessors, and mark the age 
 recording the symbolic life of Isfendiyar as that of the revolt 
 against the Bacchic revels of the bisexual gods. He went 
 to meet his female enemy not armed as a warrior but arrayed 
 in festive garments, like the young Dionysos, with a golden 
 cup in one hand and a lyre in the other, singing love-songs 
 to its accompaniment. She came to him as a lovely young 
 woman, to whom he gave a draught of the wine in his cup, 
 and then threw round her neck a steel chain given him by 
 Zarathustra and forged in heaven, the chain of necessity 
 
 ■ Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehittoric Times, vol. ii. essay ix. p. 267. 
 ' Ibid., p. 268. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. y 1 1 
 
 binding the creating-mother of the South as a slave to the 
 sun-god of righteousness. She when thus chained and wedded 
 to the sun-god became first a lioness and then a grey-haired 
 old woman, like Thetis, the mud {tkith) mother, who when 
 embraced by her sun-husband Peleus became successively 
 a lioness, a dragon, fire and water, former symbols of the 
 creating year-gods of moon, star, fire and water worship'. 
 Isfendiyar slew her in her last form of a hag. 
 
 Another variant form of this story is that of the battle 
 fought by Cu-chulainn, after he became a bearded warrior, 
 with Loch mac Mofebis, a Celtic form of Ardjasp. During 
 their fights at the ford of the sun - god the Morrigu, 
 the southern witch of the sea (muir), came in the form of 
 a heifer, the Hindu red-star-goddess Rohini Aldebaran, to 
 entangle the sun-god in a chain uniting the fifty heifers or 
 star- cows which followed her. He put out her eyes, and 
 thus deprived her of her leading place as Queen of the 
 Pleiades. She then appeared as an eel-god, the constellation 
 Draco, who twisted herself round his legs and thus caused 
 him to be v/ounded by L5ch, and he again wounded 
 him, when the Morrigu became a grey wolf bitch whom 
 he slew. After this victory he killed Loch with his Gai- 
 bolga, the thunderbolt, the Great Bear arrow of the sun- 
 god » In his fifth task Isfendiyar, mounted on the sun-chariot 
 whence he had slain the dragon, attacked the Simurgh or 
 moon (sin) bird [fnurgh), the nurse of Zal Rustum's father, 
 who dwelt on a rock with two young ones. She cut off her 
 wings against the swords round his chariot, and Isfendiyar 
 issuing from it cut her in pieces with his sword. This is 
 a variant form of the slaughter by the Mexican Twins of 
 the eagles and their offspring on the top of the world's 
 tree 3. 
 
 The sixth task was the passing through the snowy descent 
 leading to the water surrounding the Brazen Castle of 
 
 ' Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay vi. p. 530. 
 
 = Hall, The Cu-chullin Saga, pp. 165 — 167. 
 
 3 Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. ii. essay ix. pp. 268 — 270. 
 
712 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Ardjasp. The ford across the water was shown by Kargasur, 
 who was relieved of his chains, but he was afterwards slain 
 by Isfendiyar when angered by the curses he uttered against 
 him. 
 
 Isfendiyar having now reached the Brazen Castle of the 
 Pole Star captured it by a stratagem like that employed 
 by Rustum when he took the castle of the Pole Star god 
 on Mount Sipend. He disguised himself as a merchant and 
 took into the castle, when he was allowed to enter it, one 
 hundred and sixty men hidden, like the Greeks in the wooden 
 horse at Troy, in the wares loaded on his camels. He made 
 his entry at the summer solstice, as we are told in the Shah- 
 namah, and thus announced himself as the victorious sun-god 
 conquering at mid-summer the winter-god whom he had 
 hunted from South to North. He was recognised by his 
 two wives Homai and Beh Afrid, and royally entertained by 
 Ardjasp. He allowed him to light a fire on the terrace, the 
 year-fire of the conquering sun-god, as a signal to Peshyotanii, 
 who brought up his army to assault the castle under the 
 banner of a star-leopard, the black flag of night, and Ardjasp 
 went out to meet him. Isfendiyar inside the castle prepared 
 his hundred and sixty warriors for the battle and put on his 
 armour. He broke down the gates of Ardjasp's stronghold, 
 set free his two sister-wives, and slew Ardjasp. He then 
 pursued his army led by his son Kehrem, defeated it and 
 killed their leader. 
 
 After he had burnt down the castle of the Pole Star god 
 he returned to Gusht-asp and claimed from him the fulfilment 
 of his promise that after Ardjasp had been conquered he 
 would resign to him the empire of the world. Gusht-asp, by 
 Jamaspa's advice, who told him that it was written in the 
 Book of Destiny that Rustum would slay Isfendiyar in 
 Seistan, said he would make him ruler of the world when 
 he brought Rustum before him in chains with his brother 
 Zawareh, the old {Huzvaris) twin, and his son Faramorz. 
 
 He set out for Seistan with his army led by Peshyotanu, 
 and on reaching the banks of the Helmend, ihe Kushika 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 713 
 
 mother-river, he sent his son Bahman, the Zoroastrian god 
 Vohumano, mounted on his black horse, to Rustum to 
 demand his submission and to promise him that if he went 
 with him in chains to Gusht-asp he would sue for his pardon 
 and release. 
 
 Soon after he crossed the Helmend JBahman met Zal, 
 Rustum's father, who gave him a guide to take him where 
 Rustum was hunting with Zawareh and Faramorz. When 
 he came to the spot, a valley under a mountain, he saw 
 Rustum as a tree-god of the age of the sun-ass sitting with 
 a tree trunk in his hand on which a wild ass was spitted. 
 He rolled down a large rock on him, but Rustum caught 
 it with his foot and kicked it away like a football. 
 
 When Bahman came down to meet Rustum the latter 
 asked his name and rank, and when Bahman told him he 
 entertained him with wild-ass meat and wine ; Bahman ate 
 and drank far less than Rustum, who ate a wild ass at every 
 meal. Rustum on hearing the message Bahman brought 
 agreed willingly to go to Gusht-asp's court, but refused to go 
 in chains, and hoped that Isfendiyar would come and pay 
 him a visit before they set out together. He sent Zawareh 
 to Zal and his mother Rudaba, to bid them prepare to receive 
 Isfendiyar, and he himself went unarmed with Bahman to 
 the banks of the Helmend, Rustum remaining on his side of 
 the river while Bahman crossed it to go to his father's camp. 
 Isfendiyar when he heard of Rustum's arrival went on his 
 black horse to meet him. Rustum crossed the river on Raksh, 
 dismounted and saluted Isfendiyar when he came up to him. 
 Isfendiyar also dismounted, and Rustum greeting him as a 
 worthy descendant of Shyavarshan begged him to stay some 
 days with him, but told him that he would not submit to be 
 chained. Isfendiyar said he would not chain him if it were 
 not that by doing so he would disobey Gusht-asp's "orders, 
 and that if Rustum refused to be chained he would be obliged 
 to fight him, and that he could not do this after he had eaten 
 with him. He suggested that he and Rustum should drink 
 together that evening and think over the matter. Rustum 
 
714 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 said that he would come and dine with him when he had 
 taken off his hunting-dress and changed his clothes. 
 
 When Isfendiyar came back to his tent Peshyotanu advised 
 him not to use force to Rustum, but he said he m ust obey his 
 father ; and he then ordered dinner to be served, but did not 
 send to Rustum to ask him to partake of it. Rustum waited 
 for Isfendiyar's messenger in his palace, but when he did not 
 come he mounted Raksh in anger and rode to Isfendiyar's 
 tent to ask for an explanation of his conduct. Isfendiyar 
 came out to meet him, and said the heat was so great he did 
 not wish to expose him to it by sending to ask him to come 
 to dinner, but that he meant to ride over himself after dinner 
 and offer his excuses, but now that Rustum was come he 
 begged him to sit and drink with him for a short time. 
 When Rustum consented, he offered him first a place on his 
 left and then on his right hand, and when Rustum refused 
 them both as not suited to his dignity he gave him a throne 
 opposite his own. Isfendiyar in the conversation that followed 
 apparently tried in every way to increase Rustum's anger. 
 He derided his claims to supremacy and exalted his own ; 
 and both in their several speeches in the Shah-namah spoke 
 like the rival Greek and Trojan warriors in the Iliad, and 
 insisted on their own family and exploits being superior to 
 those of his adversary. The interview ended by Isfendiyar 
 refusing to visit Rustum, and by his challenging him, if he 
 refused submission, to fight the next morning. Rustum 
 accepted his challenge, saying he would come alone. When 
 Rustum went away Peshyotanu, tried to induce Isfendiyar 
 not to fight, and Zawareh also tried to prevent Rustum from 
 accepting the challenge. But Isfendiyar said that he must 
 obey the king's orders, and Rustum said that he was bound 
 to fight but would only lift Isfendiyar from his saddle and 
 carry him off, but would not hurt him. Rustum ordered 
 Zawareh to bring out his arms, his club, his lasso and his 
 impenetrable leopard-skin armour, which he had not worn 
 since he last fought by the side of Khu-srav. He set forth 
 on his star-spotted horse Raksh to meet the invincible 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 715 
 
 Isfendiyar on a black horse, bearing a club, a lasso and a 
 lance like that called Vasavi, the piercer of the clouds, the 
 rain-maker, which Indra gave Kama, the horned moon-god 
 of the thirteen-months year, in exchange for his impenetrable 
 armour and lunar earrings. 
 
 While they were fighting Zawareh crossed the Helmend 
 with his army, contrary to the agreement made by Rustum 
 that no one should fight on his side except himself. Zawareh 
 and Faramorz attacked the Iranians and slew Nush-adar and 
 Mihri-adar, sons of Isfendiyar. Bahman went to his father 
 to complain of this treacherous conduct, and though Rustum 
 declared that Zawareh and Faramorz had disobeyed his 
 orders and that he would bring them to Isfendiyar. to be 
 punished, Isfendiyar began again to attack him with redoubled 
 fury. They now began to fight with bows and arrows, and 
 Isfendiyar's arrows, like Indra's Vasavi lance, which could 
 pierce even the impenetrable armour of the gods, were so 
 powerful that they pierced Rustum's leopard-skin armour 
 and wounded both him and Raksh, while Rustum's arrows 
 shot from the bow of Djaj, the jungle-hen, had no effect on 
 Isfendiyar's invulnerable body. 
 
 At last Rustum dismounted from Raksh and went to the 
 top of the Pole Star mountain, whither Zawareh came to him. 
 He sent him to Zal to get some cure for his wounds, and 
 asked Isfendiyar for an armistice for the night now near at 
 hand, and went back to his palace. He told Zal Zawareh 
 and his mother Rudaba that he was powerless against 
 Isfendiyar, whose body was invulnerable, and whom he could 
 not lift out of his saddle as he had intended to do. They 
 sent for the Simurgh to advise them by burning the feather 
 she had given Zal, the way by which she told him to call her. 
 The moon-bird came and healed Rustum's and Raksh's 
 woundSj and told him that Isfendiyar could only be slain 
 by an arrow made of a Tamarisk tree {Tamarix Indicd), the 
 Indian Jhao or bastard wild cypress growing in the sandy 
 beds of rivers and river deltas near the sea, the Hom-tree 
 whence Zarathustra was born. 
 
7i6 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 The Simurgh sent Rustum mounted on his flying horse 
 Raksh to the sea-shore of the delta of the Indus to find the 
 right Tamarisk- tree, the world's central Horn-tree whose top 
 reached the stars ; and he also told him that Isfendiyar's 
 slayer was doomed to misfortune both in this and the next 
 world. He cut a straight shaft from the tree, which, after 
 steeping it in wine, he was to shoot into Isfendiyar's eyes, 
 his only vulnerable point. He was to take care not to shoot 
 the arrow when angry, for then it would not be fatal. 
 
 On returning to the field of battle he besought Isfendiyar 
 to make peace and not to insist on putting him in chains, 
 but when he found his prayers fruitless he shot the fatal 
 arrow into his eyes and Isfendiyar fell senseless from his 
 horse. He thus became, like the Buddha after he had torn 
 out all his hair, the god without human form or human eyes, 
 the unseen spirit who diffused goodness and religious zeal 
 through the world by his spiritual power, embodied in 
 Bahman, Isfendiyar's successor, who was only a name for 
 the invisible Tao god. 
 
 Bahman and Peshyotanu came to Isfendiyar, and Rustum 
 told them how much his victory grieved him, as it was won 
 not by superiority in .strength or skill in fighting but by the 
 agency of ordained destiny. Isfendiyar in reply told him that 
 it was not he who had killed him but the orders of Gusht-asp, 
 who had wished to put him out of the way as a claimant for 
 the throne, and when dying he asked Rustum to be guardian 
 to and to keep with him his son Bahman, bringing him up 
 as he had formerly educated Shyav-arshan. Rustum con- 
 sented to do as he asked, in spite of Zawareh's opposition, 
 who prophesied the young god would bring ruin to Seistan 
 and his guardians. Peshyotanu leaving Bahman in Seistan 
 brought Isfendiyar's body to Gusht-asp, and openly accused 
 him and Jamaspa of his murder, thus announcing the end 
 of the rule of the stars Gemini and introducing a new era, 
 in which the sun would begin the year in a new constellation, 
 which was to be Taurus. 
 
 The last entry of the sun into the year's circle through 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 717 
 
 the stars Gemini was to be that of the return of Bahman 
 from Seistan, whence he was summoned by Gusht-asp and 
 Jamaspa when he had come to years of discretion and had 
 been thoroughly trained by Rustum. 
 
 It was after Bahman's return to Iran that the death-sentence 
 passed on Rustum as Isfendiyar's slayer was executed. It 
 was carried out by his half-brother Sheg-ad, the son of Zal 
 by another wife than Rudaba. He was the personification 
 of the angel of death called Sej in the Bundahish, who is 
 driven away by the Sag-did, the four-eyed dog with yellow 
 ears, the four stars of the four quarters of the heavens headed 
 by Sirius the dog-star. This is symbolised by the dog which 
 accompanies all Parsi funerals, and by his presence delivers 
 the corpse from being a source of pollution, and enables those 
 who carry it to cleanse themselves by thirty washings '. 
 
 When Sheg-ad was born the astrologers said he was 
 destined to destroy Seistan and to end the rule of the 
 descendants of Sam, the rainbow-god. His father sent him 
 to the son of Mihir, king of Kabul, Rudaba's brother, with 
 whom he conspired when he grew up to destroy Rustum. 
 He proposed to do this by covering a game park which 
 Rustum was to be invited to visit with hidden trenches filled 
 with spears and swords with their points upwards. He then, 
 under the pretence of a quarrel with the king of Kabul, came 
 to Seistan and told Rustum that the king had dismissed him 
 as being] of ignoble birth, and that he declared he owed no 
 allegianee to Rustum. The latter said he would take an 
 army to Kabul to punish the king, but Sheg-ad said Zawareh 
 and a hundred knights would be quite enough. 
 
 While Sheg-ad was with Rustum the king of Kabul had 
 dug the proposed hidden trenches in the hunting-ground to 
 which Rustum was to be invited, and when Rustum came 
 with Zawareh and Sheg-ad he received him with humble 
 
 ' West, Bundahish, xxvrii. 26; Darmesteter, Zendavtsta Vmdiddd, Intro- 
 duction, V. 3 ; Fargard, viii. 16 — 18, 98, Sacred Books of the East, vol. v. 
 p. MO, iv. pp. Ixxxvi., 97, 98, 117. 
 
7i8 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 obeisance, and spoke of the quantity of game in the pre- 
 serves to which he would take him. Rustum was completely 
 deceived, and as Soon as he reached the hunting-ground 
 began to gallop over it, and almost immediately Raksh fell 
 into a trench and was torn to pieces by the swords and 
 spears while Rustum was mortally wounded. He succeeded 
 in crawling out of the trench and denounced Sheg-ad and 
 the king as his murderers. He begged Sheg-ad to give him 
 his bow and his arrows so that he could defend himself 
 against lions if they attacked him. When Sheg-ad gave 
 him the bow Rustum fitted an arrow to the string. Sheg-ad 
 fearing he was going to shoot him hid himself behind a tree, 
 but Rustum's arrow went through the tree into Sheg-ad's 
 body, who fell dead, and thus Rustum, the elephant-cloud-god 
 who measured the year by the circuits of the Great Bear and 
 slew its year-god with its pointed arrows, when his career 
 was ended shot his last arrow, and then he and all his star 
 followers were deposed from power and could no longer find 
 their way through the stars, but had to retire from the rule 
 of the year and give place to the new sun-god. 
 
 Only one of Zawareh's band of the hundred star-knights 
 remained alive to bring the news to Zal, who sent Faramorz 
 to bring back the bodies for burial, and after the funeral he 
 slew the king of Kabul. 
 
 When Rustum died, Gusht-asp, according to the Shah- 
 namah, died also, after resigning the throne to Bahman or 
 Vohiimano and his chief lieutenant Peshyotanu. After 
 ascending the throne Bahman led an army into Seistan to 
 avenge the death of Isfendiyar and his two sons Niish-adar 
 and Nush-zad, and to punish Faramorz for attacking Kabul 
 and slaying the king. Zal in excuse said it was fate and not 
 Rustum and his family which caused Isfendiyar's death, but 
 Bahman put him in chains and attacked Faramorz's army and 
 slew him. He then made Peshyotanu governor of Seistan 
 and India and released Zal, the old king, who first measured 
 the year by months ^. 
 ■ Mohl, Livre des Rois, vol. iv. Gusht-asp, pp. 451 — 488, vol. v. Bahman, i — 11. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 719 
 
 It is here that the myth-making age of Persian history 
 ends with the death of the year-gods of the epoch when 
 national history was told in myths by the authorities en- 
 trusted with the duty, who were obliged by a universally 
 observed custom to make the gods who ruled the year and 
 measured time the heroes of their narratives, and who 
 appeared in their stories as living human beings. These 
 gods were in the part of the Shah-namah history telling 
 the story of Rustum, Rustum himself and the kings who 
 ruled during his supremacy. His history begins with that 
 of his grandfather Sam, the rainbow-god who sent the life- 
 giving rain, the Indian Krishanu, the drawer of the bow 
 of heaven, of his father Zal, the grey-haired year-raaking 
 god nursed by the Sin-murgh or moon {sirl) bird (inurgh), 
 and of his mother Rudaba, daughter of Mihr-ab, the central 
 {mihr) Pole Star god, and Sin-dokht, the daughter {dokkt) 
 of the moon. This mother was, like Sam, an Indian god, 
 the cypress-tree or plant-mother of the sons of the rivers 
 (rud), whose twin sons were Rud-astam, the branch growing 
 upwards from her side as the parent of creating seed, and 
 the root Zawareh or Hiizvaris, the old {Jmzvari) Soma 
 whence the young tree drew its life and became the parent 
 of all living things, including the sun, which also as a branch 
 grew from the heaven -reaching top of the tree. These twin 
 parents of life, the branch and the root, drew their origin 
 from a symbolical source of which the symbols were fre- 
 quently changed in the course of a long series of transforma- 
 tions of the points of view of the narrators of these stories. 
 These caused differences in the official versions of successive 
 epochs and new tribal confederacies, and their original dif- 
 ferences have been still further increased by the very much 
 less careful changes made in the original narratives by the 
 tribal bards and public story-tellers who, like the Greek and 
 Latin Epic poets, the framers of dramas founded on Greek 
 mythology, the authors of the stories of the Arabian Nights 
 and of other similar collections of folk-tales, used the old 
 history as the ground-work of their story, in which they 
 
720 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 altered the incidents and mixed different stories to- 
 gether. 
 
 Thus it is very difficult to track out the right path and 
 to pick out accurately the transition stages between the 
 Shah-namah history of the birth of Rustum and his twin 
 brother and its original form which we find in Rig. x. 17, i. 
 There his mother, called Saranyij, the hurrying [sar] cloud- 
 mother, the ultimate mother of plant life and daughter of 
 Tvashtar, the god of the year of two (tva) seasons of the 
 solstitial sun, is said to have borne to Vi-vasvan the god 
 of two {vi) lights, the morning and evening twilights, the 
 twins Ushasa-Nakta, dawn and night. They were, Rig. x. 
 17, 3, born under the guardianship of Pdshan the constel- 
 lation Cancer, father in the Shah-namah of Minutchir, Afra- 
 siab, and Guersivaz, rulers of Iran and Turan. The day 
 twin of this first birth became, as the Persian Rustum, the 
 son of the mother-tree born of the tree and cloud-mother 
 as the elephant- cloud-god of the luminous cloud, bearing 
 as his thunderbolt the ox-headed club, the constellation 
 Taurus, the home of the star-queen of the Pleiades, Rohini 
 Aldebaran, who was by Praja-pati (Orion) the mother of 
 Vastospati, the lord [pati) of the house, the god of the 
 household fire worshipped especially by the fire-worshipping 
 Persians. 
 
 The cloud-god of the dawn of Persian mythological history 
 became the elephantine Rustum who went round the heavens 
 on his leopard-spotted star-horse Raksh clothed in his im- 
 penetrable leopard-skin armour, that of the stars of heaven 
 through which he made his yearly circuit. He was the 
 director of the annual movements of the sun and stars and 
 the executor of the decrees declaring God's will, who aided 
 the Iranian kings during the reigns of Kaous and Khu-srav, 
 the age of the three-years cycle and the eleven months year. 
 
 His influence declined towards the close of the Celtic 
 period under the new dynasty of Lohr-asp of Aurvat-aspa, 
 the sun-horse born of the Thigh {Urii) of the Great Bear, 
 and of his son Gusht-asp, the sun-god father of Isfendiyar, 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 721 
 
 the invulnerable sun who repeated all Rustum's deeds and, 
 like him, defeated the northern foes of the Iranians, and 
 passed victoriously through the seven adventures in star-land 
 to the Brazen Castle of the Pole Star god, as Rustum by 
 seven similar feats reached the cave of the White Div in 
 Mazenderan, the land of the Milky Way. 
 
 But the new year-god who pursued his course through the 
 sky unconquered except during the period of winter dark- 
 ness, at last reached the fated end of his year's term, and was 
 slain as the sun-god of the South at the winter solstice by 
 the arrow shot into his vulnerable eyes by Rustum, the arrow 
 cut from the Horn-tree of the sap of life, that furnishing the 
 pure sacrament of his successors Vohu-mano, the God of 
 Good Conscience, and Peshyotanu, he who sacrifices his own 
 body and gives himself as an offering to God of the body, 
 soul and spirit of the true sons of righteousness, the new-born 
 race of regenerated man. 
 
 The birth of this new generation was ruled by the im- 
 mortal god who never died but measured time not merely 
 by years reckoned by days, seasons and months, but by a 
 continuous and never-varying circuit of the heavens in cycles 
 measured on earth by the ordained religious festivals held on 
 prescribed dates. Rustum was slain by the new order revo- 
 lutionising the old conceptions of the materialised God of 
 life, the plant nourished by the rain and bearing in its ripened 
 seed the germ of active existence which was to give birth to 
 future generations born as the offspring of God. 
 
 Bahman or Vohumano, the king of the new epoch of re- 
 ligious enlightenment, married his daughter Homai, the 
 Haoma Hom-tree, a re-duplication of his mother Homai, 
 sister and wife of Isfendiyar, and died before the birth of 
 her son, like the year-god of Orion's year, who died after 
 begetting her successor his re-risen self His widow when 
 her son Dar-ab, the supporting tree {dar), the Darius of 
 Persian history, was born, kept his birth secret, and launched 
 him, like Sargon and Kama, previous year-gods of Assyria 
 and India, on the Euphrates in a boat, the basket-cradle of 
 
 n. 3 A 
 
722 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the year-god. In this he was found by a washerwoman, 
 as Kama was found by Radha the month Vi-sakha (April 
 — May), the wife of the year-charioteer. He was brought 
 up by her and her husband, and," like Khii-srav, made him- 
 self an expert archer. He was well instructed in religion 
 and science, and trained in the complete knowledge of the 
 duties of an accomplished cavalry soldier. When he grew 
 up the washerwoman told him how she had found him, 
 and gave him what remained, after paying the expenses 
 of his education, of the money and jewels found in his 
 cradle. He bought his cavalry equipment and a horse and 
 enlisted in the army Homai was sending against Rum under 
 a general named Reshn-awad, the ruler of returning [awad) 
 time {resh), the eighteenth day of the month, and god of the 
 Rashn Yasht, the Rashnu Razishta, the Truest of the True '. 
 
 The real rank of the new recruit was revealed to Reshn- 
 awad when he heard, as he was going his rounds one stormy 
 night, a voice issuing from a vault under an ancient palace 
 in which Darab had taken refuge from the storm. It said 
 three times, " O arch of the vault be wary and careful, for 
 under thee the heir of King Ardeshir (a name of Bahman) 
 is lying." He sent men to see who was lying under the 
 vault, and when they said that Darab was there he ordered 
 him to be awakened and brought out. As he came out and 
 mounted his horse the vault fell in. Reshn-awad then gave 
 Darab a complete suit of armour and a horse and questioned 
 him as to who he was. He told him his history and of the 
 red jewel found on his arm. 
 
 In the campaign Darab was placed in command of the 
 vanguard and entirely defeated the army of the Emperor 
 of RiJm. On the return of the army the washerman and 
 his wife appeared before Reshn-awad bringing the red jewel 
 which had been placed on the infant's arm. He then re- 
 ported everything to Homai, sending the red jewel which she 
 
 ■ Darmesteter, Zendavesta Rashu Yasht, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxiii. 
 pp. 168—175- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 723 
 
 recognised, and she then placed Darab on the throne at the 
 Sadu feast beginning the year '. He is the personification of 
 the Persian dynasty beginning with Darius Hystaspes, and 
 he became in the history of the Shah-namah the father of 
 Iskendar, or Alexander the Great, whose birth was accom- 
 panied by the revival of the former historical legends of the 
 lives of early sun-gods which were told of his supposed 
 ancestor Darius. 
 
 • Mohl, Livrt dts Rois, Bahman Homai, vol. ▼. pp. 1—56. 
 
 3 A 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The year of seventeen months of seven-day weeks. 
 
 A. The seventeen-months year. 
 
 THE fifteen-months year of the last chapter was that of the 
 northern worshippers of the sun-god who was in India 
 the victorious Krishna, the eighth son of Vasudeva. He as 
 charioteer to Arjuna led the Pandavas in the final battle in 
 which they, who were, as we shall see, the ruling gods of the five 
 seasons of the seventeen-months year, conquered and utterly 
 destroyed the Kauravyas, the men of the eleven-months year. 
 The final contest is symbolically described in the Mahab- 
 harata as having lasted for eighteen days, but this period 
 represented, as we have seen in the last two chapters, the 
 national growth of the many centuries during which the 
 eleven and fifteen-months year were the dominant measures 
 of national time. 
 
 The fifteen-months was, according to the Brahmanas, 
 succeeded by a year of seventeen months '. This year of 
 seven-day weeks, called in the Mahabharata the year of 
 Skanda the sun-lizard, was the year of the Pandavas who 
 opposed the eleven Akshauhinis or year-axle {aksha) mili- 
 tary divisions of the Kauravyas of' the eleven-months year 
 with seven Akshauhinis. It was, as we shall see, adopted 
 as the official year of India during the age represented in 
 the Mahabharata as that of the thirteen years' exile of the 
 Pandavas, which continued as that of Jayadratha, the silver 
 boar, the moon-god who attempted to carry off Dru-padi, 
 their common wife, to be the recognised national year, from 
 
 ■ Eggeling, Shat. Brah., i. 3, 5, 10, 11, Sacred Books of the East, vol, xii. 
 Pf- 97. 98. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 725 
 
 the beginning of their exile till the final overthrow of the 
 Kauravyas. It is acknowledged in the ritual of its successive 
 year-sacrifices to be the direct descendant of the eleven- 
 months year, the fifteen-months year intervening between 
 them, and it is measured not like the eleven and fifteen- 
 months year by four seasons but by five, and during it both 
 new and full-moon sacrifices were offered. Hence it is a 
 year in which time began to be reckoned from full-moons 
 as in the later Hindu ritual, and not from new-moons as in 
 the earlier thirteen-months year. In it the ceremonial cutting 
 of the hair introduced in the eleven-months year was pre- 
 served, for it is described in the ritual of the coronation 
 ceremonies of the Indian kings as beginning with the cutting 
 of his hair a year after he had been consecrated, during which 
 he and all his subjects except the Brahmans or priests had 
 been unshorn. The official hair-cutting beginning the first 
 New Year's day of his reign was the seventh of the ceremonies 
 of his coronation, and was directed to take place on the full 
 moon of Jyestha (May — June), about the ist of June, and on 
 that day at sunrise a hymn of twenty stanzas, the number 
 of days in each of the months of the eighteen- months year, 
 was ordered to be recited '. 
 
 Hence this year belonged to the series of time measure- 
 ments which began the national year in a succession of 
 different days after the vernal equinox, ending with the close 
 of the fifty days' Pentecostal period of the Buddha, and 
 among these years is that of the Zend year of Zarathustra 
 beginning forty-five days after the equinox. The successive 
 years thus reckoned, beginning at different dates after the 
 winter solstice and ending with that beginning at Whitsuntide, 
 fifty days after the original Easter festival of the vernal 
 equinox, survive in Europe in chronological history, as told 
 in the Arthurian legend, as those beginning when Arthur, 
 who was originally the ploughing-god, drew the sun-sword 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., v. 5, 3, 2, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 pp. 126, notes I, 2, 127. 
 
726 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 from the stone in which it had been fixed. The origin of 
 this belief in the sun-sword fixed in the stone is to be found 
 in the story of Sigurd, partly told in p. S 17. This tells how at 
 the wedding of Signy, daughter of the king of the Volsungs, 
 to Siggeir, king of the Goths, an aged and bright-eyed man, 
 clothed in a hood blue as the sky and a kirtle of cloudy grey, 
 the humanised form of the original cloud-bird, strode into 
 the hall of the marriage-feast, occupying the ground-story 
 of the Volsung palace, built like that of the Persian Gusht-asp 
 round the trunk of the Volsung mother-tree, whose top over- 
 shadowed its roof. He drew from underneath his cloud-cloak 
 a gleaming sword, the sword of light, and fixed it by one 
 stroke in the trunk of the mother-tree. He said that whoever 
 could draw out and wield this buried sunshine would rule the 
 world as the first of men. Siggeir and his Gothic earls, King 
 Volsung and nine of his ten sons all tried in vain to draw 
 out the sword, and the feat was at last accomplished by the 
 tenth Volsung prince Sig-mund, the conquering {sig) moon- 
 god, the father of Sigurd '. In the Arthurian Legend the 
 mother-tree in which the sword has been fixed has become 
 a great stone like an anvil against the high altar, in which 
 a sword was fixed with its point upwards, and on it was 
 written, "Whoso puUeth out this sword of this stone and 
 anvil is rightwise king born of all England 2." This stone 
 was the northern gnomon-stone, the centre of the year-circle, 
 which had replaced in northern mythology the central mother- 
 tree of the South, the centre tree of the whole world ; and 
 the world-king was in this legend the sun-god who drew 
 from the womb of the mother of life the glittering beams 
 of the life-giving heat stored in it by the heaven-sent rain, 
 which he was to distribute over the earth in his yearly course 
 as the source whence the generating seasons were to draw 
 
 ' Niblunga Saga Morris, Stery of Sigurd the Volsung, Book i. Sigmund, 
 PP- S — 9 ■> Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. ii. essay viii. pp. 
 Ill, 112. 
 
 ' Mallory, Morte d 'Arthur, Book i. chap. iii. Globe Edition, p. 28. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 727 
 
 the germs which changed the death of stagnation into the 
 h"fe of growth and activity. 
 
 The legend is a parallel form of that of the archer and the 
 bow of heaven which he alone could bend, and in which the 
 ruling year-god, shooter of the year-arrow and the wielder 
 of the sword, has to prove his right to be universal king by 
 bending the bow, shooting the arrow through the mark, and 
 wielding the sword as the weapon which opened the way to 
 national growth by the destruction of all the opposing powers 
 who ruled the realms of death. 
 
 Arthur, the son of Uther Ben or Pendragon, the wonderful 
 Head of Bran, the raven-cloud-god, the original cloud-bird i 
 bringing up the storms which ushered in the first nationally 
 reckoned year beginning in October— November with the 
 North-eastern monsoon of the first founders of villages in 
 India (p. loi), proved his right to the title of universal king 
 and the director of the solar year by drawing the sword from 
 the churchyard stone, the pillar-sun-god and sun-dial, at 
 Christmas, Twelfth Night, Candlemas, Easter and Whitsun- 
 tide, when in the successive periods of chronological history 
 dating from the year of the winter solstice flight at sunset 
 of the Indian sun-hen the national New Year had begun. 
 It was at Whitsuntide that he was finally crowned king 2, 
 like the Buddha raised to be perfect sun-god at the end of 
 his fifty days' Pentecostal fast ; and he was also, like the king 
 of the Indian seventeen-months year, crowned at the same 
 date ; and both Arthur and the Indian king trace their kingly 
 rank to the days of ceremonial hair-cutting, of which Arthur, 
 as we have seen in the story of Arthur and Kilhwch, ruled 
 the primitive stages. 
 
 This seventeen-months year began, according to the Sha- 
 tapatha Brahmana, with the recital of seventeen Samidheni 
 
 ' Rhys, Hibbert Lectures, lect. i. p. 97 ; Guest, Mabinogion, ii. Branwen, 
 the Daughter of Llyr, Nutt's Edition, 1902, pp. 39 — 41 ; Mallory, Morte 
 d'' Arthur, Globe Edition, chaps, i. — iii. pp. 25 — 29. 
 
 ° Mallory, Morte d^ Arthur, Globe Edition, book i. chaps, iii., v. pp. 29, 30. 
 
728 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 or kindling verses, which were originally the eleven verses 
 recited at the beginning of the eleven-months year. These, 
 which were also recited at the beginning of the fifteen- 
 months year, were made into fifteen by repeating the first 
 and last verse thrice. In the ritual of the Ishti or completed 
 moon sacrifice beginning this year measured by the new and 
 full moons, the original Samidheni verses were still used, the 
 first and last being repeated thrice ; and to make up the 
 seventeen verses denoting its months there were introduced 
 between the eighth and ninth stanzas or verses the two 
 stanzas 5 and 6 of Rig. iii. 27, declaring that the priest 
 with the butter-filled libation-spoon has brought Agni to 
 consecrate the sacrifice ; also it is said that these seventeen 
 verses may be increased to twenty-one, the number of days 
 or the months of the year i. 
 
 The year thus begun is called the year of the " seventeen- 
 fold Prajapati," and it is directed that the verses recited at 
 its beginning are to be uttered in a low voice, and not 
 chanted like those recited in the later ritual of the final 
 Vedic year of twelve months of thirty days and three ten-day 
 weeks. 
 
 The year of seventeen twenty-one-day months each of 
 three seven-day weeks is one of 357 days, and thus wants 
 one week of the thirteen-months year of 364 days, of which 
 it is only a ritualistic form, which it equalled in length of 
 days and number of weeks when one week at the end of the 
 year given up to a concluding festival was added to it, in the 
 same way as the twelve days of the final festival were added 
 to the original year of Orion of 348 days (p. 153). 
 
 The initial ceremony of this year was that of the making 
 of the Fire-pan ( Ukha) which was to convey the sacred fire 
 to the Garhapatya brick-altar, which was, as we have seen in 
 pp. 268, 269, built of thirteen bricks as the altar of the 
 thirteen-months year. The sacred fire thus brought to this 
 altar was that called Jata-vedas, which knows the secrets of 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., i. 3, 5, 10, II, i. 4, 1, 37, Sacred Books of the 
 East, vol. xii. pp. 97, note 3, 98, 112, note I. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. jzg 
 
 birtli, tlie fire of Agni Soma, the butter-drinking gods to 
 whom Ubations of melted butter were poured out at the 
 new and full-moon sacrifices ', instead of those of boiled 
 milk offered at the earlier morning and evening sacrifices 
 of the thirteen-months year described in p. 402. 
 
 These butter-drinking gods, succeeding the gods of the 
 age of the sanctity of sesame oil, are summoned to the sac- 
 rifice by the " vashat " call for the rain-god {varska), and the 
 formula of this call is one of seventeen syllables, said in the 
 Shatapatha Brahmana to be that summoning the year-god 
 of this year of the seventeen-fold Prajapati. It is divided 
 into five seasons : I. Samidh, the spring, the kindling sea- 
 son ; II. Tanunapat, the self-created, the summer ; III. The 
 Ids, the mother-rains ; IV. The Barhis, the autumn sheaves 
 {barhis) on which the Fathers of the cycle and subsequent 
 years were invited to sit at the yearly sacrifice to the dead 
 held at the autumnal equinox ; and V. the winter season 
 of the Svaha call, when the gods summoned to the sacrifice 
 were Agni and Soma, the purified Soma god of the unintoxi- 
 cating Soma =, and not Rudra the god of the orgiastic Sautra- 
 mani Soma sacrifice of the eleven-months year. It is to 
 these five seasons that the five fore-offerings of butter were 
 made. The butter thus offered was the successor of the 
 early sesame oil, and it introduced the worship of the cow- 
 born gods, the successors of the earlier Asura buffalo of the 
 Sautra-mani sacrifice. 
 
 The opening festival of this year is called in the Brahmana 
 ritual the Vajapeya, the festival of the race (vaja), the chariot 
 race of the victorious sun with which it ended ; but before 
 describing it and the meaning of its ritual it is necessary 
 to show the meaning of the ritual of the making of the Fire- 
 pan {Ukha) in which the special altar-fire of this year was 
 placed. 
 
 ' Eggeling, Skat. Brih., i. 4, 2, 16, 17, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii. 
 pp. 117— 119. 
 
 ' Ibid., i. 5, 2, 16—20, i. S. 3. '—25. *• S. 4, 1—6. iWd., vol. xii. pp. 
 142-153. 
 
7 JO Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 B. The ritual of the making of the Fire-pan (Ukha) 
 and the birth from it of the sun-god. 
 
 The very significant ritual of the making and consecration 
 of this Fire-pan {Ukha) tells us by reproductions of past 
 beliefs a great deal of the history of this year. The pre- 
 parations for making it began with the full moon of Phalgun 
 (February— March), or about the first of March, and the 
 middle of the month beginning with the new-moon Huli 
 festival of the red race, the prototype of the European Car- 
 nival. On this full-moon day, called the first night of the 
 year, a white hornless goat was offered to Prajapati (Orion) 
 as Vayu Niyut-vat, the wind-god of the team {niyut) of 
 year-horses called by the mystic name of Ka Who '. Thus 
 this year of the team of horses was one of those measured 
 by the chariot-driving Akkad-Semite Assyrians and Egyp- 
 tians and by the Greek Acha:ans, who had exchanged the 
 bow for the throwing and thrusting spear, the Indian Pan- 
 davas, who used both the bow and the spear, and the 
 Brythonic Celts, who, as we have seen in Chapter V., pp. 429 
 — 437, organised their kingdoms on the model of the Oraon 
 form of the Goidelic village. These Celts who burnt their 
 dead seem to have been the leading spirits of this epoch, 
 who in mingling their beliefs and customs with those of 
 the nations of Europe and South-western Asia with whom 
 they amalgamated introduced chariot-racing as an initial 
 festival of the new year, and with it such a greater or less 
 proportion as the people with whom they united would 
 receive of the racial religion connected with the worship of 
 the white horse of the sun on whose New Year's festival 
 at Stonehenge chariot-races were run. 
 
 The sacrifice of the white goat with which the Indian New 
 Year begins celebrates the birth of the sun-god of the year, 
 the Indian form of the white sun-horse called Hiranyagarbha, 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., vi. 2, 2, 6, 16—20, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xli. pp. 173, 178, 179. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 731 
 
 he of the golden womb {garbha) '. At the kindling of the 
 fires, at which the pashu-purodasha or animal {pashu) cake 
 of rice water and butter 2 prepared for the sacrifice is to be 
 baked and the omentum and offered portions of the goat are 
 to be roasted, either twenty-one or seventeen kindling verses 
 are to be recited in a low voice, like all the utterances in the 
 Prajapati ritual 3. The sacrifice is clearly one in which the 
 Pole Star goat is offered to the newly-born sun-god who 
 drives round the heavens in his chariot drawn by the sun- 
 horses, the rain-engendering winds, a circuit of which the 
 birth-race of Parikshit, described in Chapter VI., pp. 6yy, 
 678, is a variant form. 
 
 On the eighth day after this full-moon sacrifice, that is at 
 the end of a week of the fifteen-months year, about the 8th 
 of March, the sacrificer began to collect the materials for 
 making the fire-pan which is to be consecrated at the next 
 new moon, that is at the beginning of Cheit (March — April), 
 for the reception of the sacred fire which was to be kept 
 in it for a year, while the brick altar of the year-bird, the 
 last of the Vedic altars, was being built, during which the 
 initiation ceremony was to be daily repeated 4. 
 
 The sacrificer contemplated in this ritual is almost certainly 
 the Priest-king, the Patesi of this epoch who ruled in all 
 Euphratean countries and in Egypt as well as India, and 
 who, like all primitive rulers, was strictly bound in the fetters 
 of ritual and custom, and who in this age of priestly rule was, 
 unless he possessed great force of character, less a free agent 
 than his earlier predecessors, the chiefs of the ruling body 
 of village headmen. 
 
 The first task in the collection of materials for making 
 of the fire-pan was the finding of the lump of clay called the 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brdh., vi. 2, 2, 5, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 pp. 172, 173. 
 
 ' Ibid., i. 2, 2, I — 6, iii., ibid., vol. xii. pp. 42 — 44, xxvi. p. 199. 
 
 3 Ibid., vi. 2, 3—22, ibid., vol. xli. pp. 172 — 175, note i, 176, note i — 180. 
 
 ■* Ibid., vi. 2, 2, 23 — 30, ibid., vol. xli. pp. 180, note, 182, note i. See 
 also p. 247, note i. 
 
732 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 head of Makha the fighter, the fighting sun-horse '. It was 
 to be sought for by the three ruling animals of the sun-years 
 of the circling quadrupeds succeeding the sun-bird, the horse 
 of the eleven-months year, the ass of Pushan of the cycle- 
 year, and the Pole Star goat of Orion's year of the sun-deer. 
 They were before the beginning of the search placed on the 
 south side of the sacrificial area facing the east, showing that 
 they were to seek for what they wanted in the eastward course 
 of the sun beginning the year with the setting sun of the 
 south-west, and moving during the night to the dawning 
 east. The clay was to be dug with a spade made of the 
 hollow female bamboo, the supposed wife of the southern 
 Ahavaniya of libation fire, to the north of which it was to 
 be placed, and it was found on the east side of an ant-hill, 
 symbolising the central mother-mountain of the world mid- 
 way between the Ahavaniya fire and the place whence the 
 clay was taken, and when the clay was found the horse was 
 made to step on it =, The sacrificer then poured on the clay 
 marked by the horse's hoof before he dug it up two libations 
 of melted butter. He then placed on it a lotus leaf, sacred 
 to Indra as the water-parent plant of the sons of the rivers. 
 
 This was placed on the skin of a black antelope, the Indian 
 form of the sun-deer of Orion's year, and addressed in three 
 Gayatri stanzas of seventy-two syllables, the seventy-two 
 five-day weeks of the sun's year, as the fire taken by Atharvan 
 the fire-god from the head of the lotus of heaven, the Pole 
 Star, and kindled by Dadhiank his son, the god of the horse's 
 head of the eleven-months year, and by Pathya the heavens' 
 bull 3, the constellation Taurus, the creating Rohita of p. 504, 
 whence the sun starts on his annual journey on the heavenly 
 road {pathi) through the ecliptic stars 4. These are followed 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brak., vi. S, 2, I, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. p. 233. 
 
 = Ibid., vi. 3, I, 25—30, vi. 3, 2, I— 10, vi. 33, I— 3, ibid., vol. xli. 
 pp. 197 — 200, 203—207. 
 
 3 Rig. vi. 16, 13, 14, 15. 
 
 * Eggeling, Shat. Bra/i. , vi. 4, I, 6—9, vi. 4, 2, i— 10, Sacred Books of 
 the East, vol. xli. pp. 215, 216, 217—220. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 733 
 
 by two Trishtubh stanzas of eleven syllables each, repre- 
 senting,the twenty-two crescent moons of the eleven-months 
 year addressed to the heavenly Hotar or libation pourer 
 sitting in his place in heaven, the Pole Star, and asking him 
 to descend as the rain ^. The recitations close with a Brihati 
 verse =, that of the Brihati goddess of the year of thirty-six 
 syllables or seventy-two five-day weeks, calling on Agni, the 
 sun-fire-god, to descend and increase his might ; and the 
 whole series of recitations is said to be addressed to the 
 year-god. 
 
 The sacrificer after these recitations took up the clay 
 wrapped in the black antelope-skin and addressed the three 
 year-animals, the horse, ass, and goat, and then took it to 
 the fire, holding it over the head of the Pole Star goat. He 
 then moistened the clay with water boiled in the resin of a 
 Palasha-tree (Butea frondosa), the original Soma-tree, after 
 mixing hair with the water, and thus consecrating it to the 
 god of the parent Palasha-tree and the Pole Star goat. As 
 he kneaded it he prayed to the eight Vasus ruling the eight- 
 days week of the fifteen-months year, the eleven Rudras 
 of that of eleven months, to the goddess Sini-vali of the 
 waxing moon, to Aditi the sole creatrix without a second 
 (diti), and to the five seasons of the year 3. 
 
 He dedicated the clay which was to form the bottom of 
 the pan to Makha, the fighter, created by the eight Vasus 
 of the eight directions of space, the eight syllables of the 
 Gayatri metre of the eight-days week especially sacred to 
 Agni, and to the eleven Rudras of the Trishtubh metre of 
 the eleven-months year. 
 
 When the fire-pan was finished the sacrificer poured goats' 
 milk into it, and placed in it, after the fire has been put into 
 it, rice-cake offerings made in eleven dishes to Agni and 
 Vishnu, twelve to Agni Vaishvanara, the central household- 
 
 ' Rig. iii. 29, 8, ii. 9, i. 
 
 ' Ibid., i. 36, 9. 
 
 2 Eggeling, Skat. Brah., vi. 5, i, i — 12, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 
 pp. 229 — 232 
 
734 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 fire, and rice porridge to the Aditya creators. When seven 
 libations of melted butter had been poured out he covered 
 it with a layer of Munja sugar-cane grass, of which the 
 Brahmans' girdles are made, and underneath the grass, as 
 the inner membrane of the womb, was a layer of hemp 
 {Cannabis indica), whence was made the Bhang used as an 
 inspiring drug by the Zend Atharvan priests of the eleven- 
 months year. Both the grass and hemp were crushed to 
 powder before being placed on the fire as seed imbued 
 with divine influence. The pan was then put on the fire 
 lighted with thirteen kindling sticks, the thirteen months 
 of the year, nine of which were of Palasha and two of 
 Udumbara wood sacred to the sons of the fig-tree, one 
 of Krimukha and one of Vikankata {flacourtia sapida) 
 wood ^. 
 
 In the morning after the pan had been hardened on the 
 fire the sacrificer hung round his neck a gold plate with 
 twenty-one knobs on it, the twenty-one days of the month 
 of the seventeen-months year, hanging down to his navel. 
 This was sewn up in a black antelope-skin with black and 
 white threads to denote the nights and days. He then took 
 the pan off the fire and placed it on an Udumbara square 
 throne {asandi) denoting the world of the fig-tree year, which 
 was covered with triple cords of Munja-grass denoting its 
 seasons, like the Brahman girdles made of three cords of 
 the same grass. The fire-pan was placed on this in a year- 
 net, and the whole apparatus, the four feet and five boards 
 of the throne, the net, the sling of the gold plate, the pan, the 
 fire and the gold plate, are expressly said in the Shatapatha 
 Brahmana to denote the thirteen-months year 2. 
 
 The sun Hiranya-garbha of the golden womb, who is born 
 from the fire in this elaborately prepared pan telling in the 
 symbolic forms of its preparation the religious history of ages 
 of national life, is the sun of the year during which it is kept 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brak., vi. 6, i, I — 24, yi. 6, 2, i— 16, vi. 6, 31—17, 
 Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. pp. 246 — 261. 
 ' Ibid., vi. 7, I, I — 28, ibid., vol. xli. pp. 265 — 272. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 735 
 
 on the Udumbara throne. This is the year of seventeen 
 months and fifty-one seven-day weeks inaugurated by the 
 seventeen and twenty-one kindling verses recited at the 
 lighting of the fires of this year ', which by the addition of 
 one week became the thirteen - months year of fifty-two 
 weeks. 
 
 The sun-god thus born is a much later conception of the 
 Deity than the god called Hiranya-hasta of the golden hand, 
 of p. 321. He the god of the year of five-day weeks mea- 
 sured by the sun-gnomon-stone was the son of the wolf- 
 mother and the sexless father Rijrashva, the blind gnomon- 
 pole whose birth was brought about by the Ashvins, the twin 
 stars in Aries, summoned by Puramdhi, the creating mother- 
 goddess, whose name means "the bounteous giver =." 
 
 Hiranya-garbha of the golden womb is the son of Praja- 
 pati (Orion), born of him and Ushas the dawns, as the 
 sun-bird of the national brick altar, and as the child of the 
 fire of this altar, which was to be built in a year and which 
 in its construction produced, as we shall see, a historical 
 epitome of the national chronology as shown in the succes- 
 sive official methods of measuring time. 
 
 In the story of his birth he is said to be Kumara the boy 
 prince, the ninth of the creating forms assumed by his father 
 the year-god. The eighth of these successive forms was 
 Tshana, the son of the god Isha or Gan-isha, who, as we 
 have seen, entered the womb of the mother of the Buddha 
 when he was conceived as the sun-physician, here called 
 Tshana. His predecessor in this list was Mahan Devah, the 
 moon-god, the sexless Soma (p. 325) who wedded the sun- 
 maiden in the eleven-months year, and who appears in the 
 Buddhist genealogy as the thirteen mother Theris of the 
 thirteen-months year, the first of whom was Maha Gotami 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shut. Bhah., vi. 2, 3, 5, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 pp. 172, 173. 
 
 ' Rig. i. 116, 13, 117, 28. 
 
 3 Eggeling, Shat. Brah., vi. i, 2, 16—36, vi. i, 3, 8, Sacred Books of 
 the East, vol. xli. pp. 151 — 157, J58. 
 
71^ Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Pajapati, the female form of Prajapatij the Buddha's mother's 
 sister, who brought up the young sun-god when his mother 
 died seven days after his birth. This moon-god was pre- 
 ceded by Bhava Existence, also called Parjanya the rain- 
 god, so that ultimately the sun-god born of the fire on the 
 altar on which the progress of the year is marked by daily 
 morning and evening and by seasonal sacrifices is the sun 
 of the cloud-bird who infused through the rain the germs 
 of life into the trees from whose wood the fire was kindled. 
 In the Buddhist genealogy he is Rahulo, the little Rahu, the 
 young god born of the sun-pillar Rahu and of his mother the 
 eleventh Theri, called Buddha Kaccana, the Golden Saint, 
 that is the goddess of the golden womb-mother of Hiranya 
 Garbha '^. 
 
 This young sun-god of nine forms is the god 
 of the year of Solomon's seal of nine divisions 
 formed by the union of two triangles in a circle 
 with the ninth division in the centre, the place 
 of the altar-fire. The symbol without the circle 
 is shown by M. Chantre to be a pattern frequently found 
 on articles of the Bronze Age in France and England 2. It 
 is a form of the Kurma-chakra or tortoise circle verbally 
 figured by Varahamihira, the Hindu astronomer, as that of 
 the Nava-khanda or nine divisions in a circle of nine Vargas , 
 into which he divides the country of Bharatavarsha. Each 
 of the Vargas represents a kingdom, and the nine are : i. 
 Panchala the central Varga ; 2. Magadha; 3. Kalinga; 4. 
 Avanti ; 5. Ananta; 6. Sindhu and Sauvira; 7. Harahaura; 
 8. Madura ; 9. KuHnda 3. It was this image of the Indian 
 world of the Bronze Age with its central land of Panchala 
 or Jambu-dwipa, the birth-place of the young sun-god the 
 Buddha (p. 653), which was transferred to Solomon, revered 
 throughout South-western Asia as the wisest of men, who 
 
 ■ Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. ii. essay vii. p. 82. 
 = Boyd Dawkins, Early Man and Britain, chap. x. fig. 146, Designs ol 
 Bronze Age in France and Britain, p. 378 ; M. Cliantre, L'Age du Bronze. 
 3 Sachau, Alberuni's India, vol. i ciiap. xxix. pp. 297, 298. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 737 
 
 ruled by his divine power the controlling Jinn, the spirits 
 of the air. He was originally the Akkadian fish-god Salli- 
 manu, the god of the Assyrian capital Nineveh, the fish-town 
 called after Salli-manu's female prototype, his first divine 
 form, Nina, the fish-mother daughter of Bau, the goddess of 
 the watery deep. Her name means House of the Fish, and 
 she can be traced back as a supreme goddess of the national 
 capital to an age thousands of years earlier than the building 
 of Nineveh, which was founded by Shalmanesar H., a succes- 
 sor of Shalmanesar I., whose annals dating about 740 years 
 back from about 1300 B.C., when he began to reign, and from 
 before about 1840 B.C., when Assyria became independent of 
 Babylon, have recently been found at Assur, the original 
 capital which always remained the chief seat of the national 
 religion ^. The city to which the goddess to whom Nineveh 
 was dedicated first gave her name was Schirpurla or Girsu, 
 the very early city of Gudea dedicated to Bau her mother. 
 It was divided into three wards or united cities, Uruazagga, 
 Ninu and Gisch Galla =. This fish-goddess has been already 
 in previous chapters traced in many different forms as one 
 whose worship extended throughout numerous national re- 
 ligions in South-western Asia and Europe, she being regarded 
 as the first form of animal life born in the waters of Bau the 
 southern abyss. 
 
 Sallimanu, her male form, was called by the Assyrians 
 " the fish, the king of the gods," and Dr. Sayce says he was 
 probably las, the god of the House (/) of the waters {a), 
 clothed in fish-skins, who was, as we have seen, the pilot-god 
 Canopus of the constellation Argo, called Ma by the 
 Akkadians. In his Indian Avatar as the fish-god son of 
 Krishna, the eighth son of Vasudeva, ruling the fifteen- 
 months year, the parallel of the Hebrew David or Dodo, 
 
 ' Sayce, Lecture delivered in the Examination Schools, Oxford, October l8th, 
 1905. 
 
 • Jastrow, Die Religion Babylonians und Assyrians, Kapital iv. Ninu, pp. 
 78, 79> Nin-girdsu, p. 56. 
 
 ' Sayce, Hibbcrt Lectures for 1887, lect. i. p. 58. 
 II. 3 B 
 
738 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the eighth son of Jesse and father of Solomon, he is 
 called Pradyumna, the foremost bright one, apparently an 
 epithet of the Pole Star whose banner in the Mahabharata 
 was the Makara^ or porpoise of the Ganges, the semi-human 
 fish who was originally in Hindu mythology the Mughur 
 or Alligator worshipped as the Fish-priest called Vyasa, the 
 uniter, father of the Kauravyas and Pandavas, the god of the 
 circum-polar constellation Draco. 
 
 This god was the Indian polar fish spoken of by Alberuni, 
 who says that the Indians believe it revolves once a day, 
 and he mentions a tradition that when Mt. Vindhya, the 
 central mountain of India, rose from the ocean after Agastya, 
 the star Canopus, had drunk up all its water, that the Makara, 
 the first created fish, clung to the mountain, and that it and 
 the other water animals scratched holes in its bottom and 
 sides, which became the mines yielding gold and jewels'. 
 In the evolution of stellar astronomy the Pole Star fish, 
 transferred from the South to the North Pole, became the 
 Pole Star, and in the astronomy of the age which reckoned 
 time by the passage of the sun through the zodiacal Nak- 
 shatra stars, the star Capricornus, the ninth of the Zodiacal 
 signs, was looked on as that which combined the attributes 
 of the North Pole star-goat and of the fish of the South Pole, 
 and hence it was depicted as a horned goat with a fish's tail, 
 and was called Makara the porpoise by the Hindus 3. In 
 Akkadian astronomy it was called Muna-kha, the goat-fish, 
 and Magar or Makhara, the same name as that given to it 
 in India, which Mr. Brown interprets as meaning the ship 
 [ma) of the rope, that is of the ocean rope wound round 
 the earth, a name which connects it with Agastya, the star 
 Canopus of the ship {ma) Constellation Argo, the ship of 
 the Southern Ocean in which the Makara was born 4. 
 
 ' Mahabharata Anushasana (AHUshasanika) Parva, xi. 3, p. 21. 
 
 = Sachau, Alberuni's India, vol. ii. chap. vi. p. 82, Ivii. pp. 92, 93. 
 
 3 Ibid., vol. i. chap. xix. pp. 219, 220. 
 
 * R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., Primitive Constellations, vol. ii. chap. xi. pp. 
 
 9}' ?4- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. yi() 
 
 The Hebrew Solomon, the Bronze Age form of the original 
 fish-god Salli-manu, was the son of David or Dodo, the eighth 
 son of Jesse, and the god, as we have seen, of the fifteen- 
 months year, and his mother was Bathsheba, she of the seven 
 (s/ieba) measures, the goddess of a year measured by lunar 
 seven-day weeks. Both in the Bible and in Semitic Arabian 
 tradition he is remembered as the wisest of men, and in the 
 latter as the possessor of a magic year-ring on which was 
 a seal of nine divisions represented by the Hindu god Kumara 
 of this year, the nine divisions marking the historical con- 
 nection of his year of seven-day weeks with the cycle-year 
 of nine-day weeks, which first measured time by the track 
 of the sun through the stars. The story of his loss of this 
 year-ring with the seal of nine divisions which is alluded 
 to in the Koran ', explains clearly his position as ruler of 
 the year. It tells how it was stolen from him by Sakr, the 
 wet {sak) god-king of the white Jinn living in the North and 
 owning the sun-mare, the equivalent of Sigurd's cloud-horse 
 Grani and the barley-mare Yavadiya of Indian mythology. 
 This god of the North and the summer solstice came south- 
 ward to fight the black Jinn of the South, the sun-fish Salli- 
 manu or Solomon, and to slay him in his winter home. He 
 found the sun-god, the young sun born at the winter solstice, 
 absent, and his kingdom was ruled by Aminah the faithful, 
 the moon-nurse of the young sun-god to whom he had en- 
 trusted his year-ring during the time he was making his 
 journey through the thirty stars by which he began his year. 
 Sakr stole the ring and usurped the throne of the sun-god, 
 who, like Odusseus of the seventeen-months year, became 
 a wandering beggar during its continuance, as in it no record 
 of the sun's track through the heavens was kept. He became 
 cook to the king of Ammon, called Nahash or Nahusha in 
 the history of David, and eloped with his daughter Na'uzah, 
 the morning star, which ushered in the days of this year, 
 
 ' Palmer, Qu'ran, chap, xxxviii. 34, SaMed Books of the East, vol. ix. 
 p. 178, note 2. 
 
 3 B 2 
 
74° . Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 and when boiling a fish he found in it his year-ring which 
 Sakr had thrown into the sea when he fled from the throne 
 frightened by Solomon's Vizir Asaf, the son of Barkhya, the 
 lightning-god whose summer storms announced the return 
 to power of the legitimate owner of the year-ring '. 
 
 This year-ring of the two interlocked triangles of the 
 fish-sun-god rising from the constellation Pisces has become 
 the Fisherman's ring of marriage placed on the finger of each 
 Pope at his consecration and broken at his death. The seal 
 of nine divisions attached to it is a form of the magic cap 
 of invisibility said in the Persian tale of Bahram Ghur to 
 be that of Solomon, which was, as we have seen, worn by 
 the early sun-gods = ; it is the top keystone of the dome of 
 the eight-sided temple, the Pantheon of the ruling god of 
 time, the heavens' vault, also symbolized in the begging-bowl 
 made of the union of the skies of night and day (p. 673) 
 given by the four archangels of space to the Buddha when 
 he became immortal and omnipotent as the sun who pursues 
 his course through the heavens without resting or delegating 
 his power to a successor re-born from him each year. It is 
 as the keystone of the vault of the heavenly temple that this 
 symbol of the two interlocked triangles enclosed in a circle 
 has become the Masonic sign of the highest order of Free- 
 masons. 
 
 The worship of the vault of heaven as a divine temple 
 built by God which the history of this ring implies seems 
 from the evidence I have now adduced to date from the 
 epoch of this year consecrated at its commencement by the 
 chariot-races of Greece, India, and the lands into which the 
 Brythonic Celts introduced this symbolic custom, which I 
 will now discuss, of opening with these races the year 
 beginning at the vernal equinox with the new moon of 
 
 ' Burton, Arabian Nights, The Adventures of Balukiya, vol. iv. pp. 263 — 267, 
 The Tale of the Fisherman and the Jinni, vol. i. p. 38 note 6, Aladdin or 
 the Wonderful Lamp, vol. x. p. 29, note 2 ; Hewitt, Ruling Racts of Prehistoric 
 Times, vol. ii. essay ix. pp. 295 ff. 
 
 ' O'Neil, Night of the Gods, The Cone, vol. ii. p. 925. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 741 
 
 Cheit (March — April), when the sun was in Gemini, about 
 6200 B.C. 
 
 C. The Vdjapeya sacrifice of this year. 
 
 The fullest account of the history of this year is that given 
 in the ritual of the Vajapeya sacrifice of the sun-chariot-race 
 [vaja). It is said in the Shatapatha Brahmana to be that 
 offered by the supreme central ruler of a circle of subordi- 
 nate kings, the Chukra-varti king, the turner of the nation's 
 wheel held together by its spokes ^. Hence it is a sacrifice 
 instituted at a late period of national development, when 
 confederacies of small states formed by the union of allied 
 provinces and villages governed by the iron discipline of 
 their hereditary rules and customs were controlled by the 
 supreme lawgiver who maintained peace and regulated trade 
 over large areas, such as those of the nine and seven kingdoms 
 of Bharata-varsha with Jambudwipa in the centre and the 
 seven united kingdoms of Iran. The conception of these 
 united kingdoms as nine seems to go back to the cycle-year 
 and its nine-day weeks, but that of the symbol which depicts 
 them as nine seems to belong to this age, when seven was, 
 as in this year, the time unit. 
 
 According to the account given in the Shatapatha Brah- 
 mana of the installation of the sun-god as the ruler of this 
 year, the central control was retained by Brihaspati, the Pole 
 Star god, who appointed Savitri the sun-god as his working 
 representative, the supreme compeller or driver of this year 
 of Prajapati =. 
 
 The ritual of the festival is in many points like that of the 
 finally revised Soma sacrifice called the Agnishtoma which 
 succeeded that of the Asuras of the Sautramani sacrifices, 
 but as it was a festival intervening between the Sautramani 
 
 ' Eggding, Shat. Brah., v. i, i, 13, 14, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 p. 4. 
 
 ' Ibid., V. I, I, 4—15, 16, ibid., chap. xli. pp. 2, 5. 
 3 Ibid., iv. 2, 4, 12, ibid., vol. xxvi. p. 301. 
 
742 P rim i live Traditional History. 
 
 of the eleven-months year and that finally adopted as the 
 orthodox rite there are many important differences between 
 the two. 
 
 Thus in the summons to the Ashvins as the stars Gemini 
 ruling the year, the Bahish Pavamana Stotra described in 
 Chapter V., p. 491, was recited, but to the nine eight- 
 syllabled Gayatri lines in its three stanzas containing 
 seventy-two syllables, the number of the five-day weeks of 
 the original year, eight additional lines were added to make 
 up seventeen, the months of this year. Similarly two lines 
 to make seventeen are added to the mid-day chant Madh- 
 yandina Pavamana containing fifteen lines, denoting the 
 fifteen months of the solar-year of Chapter VI., and seven- 
 teen was the number of lines in the Arbhava Pavamana, the 
 special chant of this year '. Also in the last chant of the 
 Vajapeya evening sacrifice called the Brihatstotra or the 
 hymn of Brihati, the goddess of the five-days week, the three 
 original verses were increased to seventeen by repetition ». 
 
 The first initial ceremony inaugurating the birth of the 
 imperial year-god of this year was the drawing of five Vaja- 
 peya cups offered to Indra, his steeds, and the rain he brings 
 in this year of five seasons. At it the Arbhava Pavamana of 
 seventeen lines in the five metres Gayatri, Kakubh, Ushnih, 
 Anushtubh, and Jagati, all representing time measurement, 
 are recited 3. Thus in this special hymn of this year it was 
 depicted as uniting the years and time measurements of 
 all previous epochs under Indra, the eel and buffalo-god- 
 parent of the sons of the rivers, and the supreme ruler of 
 the year is said to be Prajapati Orion, the star-god of the first 
 solar-lunar year of three seasons. 
 
 These five Vajapeya cups of the seasons are called in the 
 ritual of the Madhyandina mid-day Soma feast Shukra, 
 
 " Eggeling, Shat. Brah., v. i, 2, 11, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 p. 8, note I. 
 
 ' Ibid., V. I, 2, 19, ibid., vol. xli. p. 11, note I. 
 
 3 Ibid., V. I, 2, 4—9, iv. 2, 5, 20, ibid., vol. xli. pp. 6—8, xxri. pp. 314. 
 315, note. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 743 
 
 Manthin, Agra-yana, Marut-vatiya, and Ukthya, and are 
 specially offered to Indra, who is called to the sacrifice with 
 the cry of Iha Brihat, thereby identifying him with the 
 Brihati five-weeks year. The Shukra cup is called after 
 him as the cup of the rain-god, and it and the Manthin 
 cup are said in the Shatapatha Brahmana to be ofTered to 
 Shanda and Marka ^. These, as I have shown elsewhere, 
 mean the full and crescent new moon sacred to this year 
 of new and full-moon sacrifices 2. The course of the year 
 denoted by these five cups is marked by the third cup 
 Agra-yana ; this is that of the month Agrahan (November 
 — December), that of the first-fruits of the rain-crops offered 
 in northern India at the winter solstice on the last day of the 
 month 3. This is the month of Orion, the deer sun-god, also 
 called Marga-sirsha, the month of the deer's (mriga) head, 
 the last month of the year at the end of which he was slain. 
 Hence the five seasons of the year denoted by these cups are 
 Shukra, the hot season beginning with the full moon of Cheit 
 (March — April), followed by Manthin, the rains, Agra-yana, 
 the autumn, Marut-vatiya, the winter, and Ukthya, the cup 
 of the shining {uktha) sun, the spring. Though the number 
 of the seasons is the same in this and the Pandava year, 
 yet they differ, as the Pandava year begins with Yudishthira, 
 the spring, followed by Bhima, summer, Arjuna, the rains, 
 Sahadeva, the autumn, and Nakula, the winter, the last two 
 being sons of the Ashvins, the stara Gemini, to whom Ashva- 
 yujan (September — October) is sacred. This original Pan- 
 dava year was altered with the introduction of the worship 
 of Parikshit the sun-horse. He began his year- race with the 
 New Year's Day of this year, the full-moon of Cheit (March 
 —April), followed by Arjuna in a chariot drawn by two 
 white horses who had now become the god Phalguni of the 
 month Phalgun (February — March), ending with the vernal 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., v. 2, i, 1—4, vol, xxvi. pp. 278, 279; Hewitt, 
 Ruling Races <>f Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay iii. pp. 243 — 245. 
 ' Buhler, Manu, iv. 26, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxv. pp. 132, 133. 
 3 Ibid., iv. 26, ibid., vol. xxv. pp. 132, 133. 
 
744 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 equinox. The rule of the rainy season was given, as we shall 
 see in the account of the death of the five brethren, to Drii- 
 padi their common wife. Hence the year became, like 
 Zarathustra's Zend year, one of six seasons, in which the 
 original spring season of Yudishthira, beginning in January 
 — February, was divided between him and Arjuna, Bhima 
 taking the summer beginning in April — May, Drupadi the 
 rains of June — July, while the autumn and winter seasons 
 of the twins remained as before ; and these changes show 
 a correspondence between Indian and Zend ritualistic chro- 
 nology similar to that shown in the lives of the Buddha, and 
 Zarathustra. 
 
 The new year's Shukra cup beginning Prajapati's seven- 
 teen-months year celebrates a victory of Indra or Shukra 
 over the Vritra or enclosing snake, called Ahi-shuva or the 
 swelling-cloud-serpent. In this battle his companions were 
 the seven Maruts, called kridinah or sportive, the seven 
 mother-stars of the Great Bear, who danced round him as 
 the god of the cer .al fire of the world's altar dwelling in 
 the Pole Star when the Marut-vatiya winter cup was offered 
 in the services of this year, and it was after his victory that 
 the Ukthya cup of the victorious spring sun, called Mahen- 
 dra or the Great Indra, was offered '. This spring offering 
 shows a change in ritual from that of Prajapati's earlier year, 
 the Chaturmasyani year of three seasons of four {Ckatur) 
 months each^ spring, summer and winter. This in the ritual 
 of the Shatapatha Brahmana begins with the Vaishvadeva 
 sacrifices to the village {visk) gods at the full-moon of 
 Phalgun (February — March), but it originally began, as we 
 have seen, with the Hull village festival of the new moon 
 of this month, and the opening sacrifice of the second and 
 third seasons, the Varunapraghasah of Varuna and the Saka- 
 medha of Indra, were held on the two new moons of 
 Ashadha (June— July) and Khartik (October-November). 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shut. Brah., iv. 3, 3, I— 19, S»cred Books of the East, vol. 
 xxvi. pp. 331—340- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 745 
 
 In this ritual the seven Maruts danced round Indra at the 
 Khartik new moon to celebrate the victory over the Vritra 
 which made him Mahendra or the Great Indra 't. But in 
 this year of five seasons, in which both full and new moons 
 are reckoned and in which each month begins with the full 
 moon, the dance of victory is that of the Shukra season 
 beginning with the full moon of Cheit, celebrating the vic- 
 torious campaign of the Ukthya spring and Marut-vatiya 
 winter seasons, the beginnings of which I have not been able 
 exactly to verify. The only indication as to the date of the 
 beginning of the year given in the ritual of the five-seasons 
 festival is that directing that these two cups should be made 
 of Karshmarya wood (Gmelina arborea). In the ritual of 
 the Ikshvaku or sugar-cane {ikska) kings, in which the wild 
 sugar-cane Prastara of Ashva-vala or horse-tail grass {Sac- 
 charum spontaneum) succeeded the Kushika Prastara of 
 Kusha-grass, the triangle round the fire of the altar on 
 which their animal sacrifices were offered was made of 
 Karshmarya wood succeeding the Kushika Palasha. The 
 fire on this altar was kindled with the Ashvattha (Ficus 
 religiosa) fire-drill called Puru-ravas and the socket Urvashi 
 of Khadira {Acacia catechu) wood, and it was of this wood 
 that the stakes were made to which the animals slain at the 
 lighting of the fires of the New Year's sacrifice were tied 2. 
 Hence the Karshmarya cups of the Marut-vatiya and 
 Ukthya, the winter and spring seasons, are clearly con- 
 nected with the offering of animal sacrifices at the winter 
 solstice, when and at the summer solstice they could, accord- 
 ing to Manu, only be legally offered 3 ; and hence it was at 
 this sacrifice of the winter solstice at the full moon of 
 Agrahan (November — December) that the Marut-vatiya 
 season began, while its successor the Ukthya began at the 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shot. Brah.y ii. 5, I, The Chaturmasyani sacrifices, Introductory 
 Note, ii. 5, 3, 18 — 20, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii. pp. 383, 384, 416,417. 
 
 ' Ibid., iv. 3, 3, 6—17, iii. 4, I16— 21, iv. 6, 2, 12, vol. xxvi. pp. 334—338, 
 89, 90, note 5, 91, 151. 
 
 ' Biihler, Manu, iv. 26, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxv. pp. 133, 134. 
 
74^ Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 full moon of Magh (January— February), eight days after 
 which the victorious spring sun, the sun of the "majesty 
 of Indra," was born, as I have shown in p. 257. This sea- 
 son beginning with the full-moon of January — February 
 closed with the full-moon of Cheit (March — April), beginning 
 the Shukra season. 
 
 It was after the offering of these five cups to the gods of 
 the year's five seasons that the most distinctive parts of the 
 Vajapeya ceremonies began. Two mounds were raised, one 
 at the west and the other at the east end of the Soma cart 
 placed in the centre of the consecrated space, thirty-six steps 
 long from west to east, between the Sadas or priest's house 
 and the Uttara Vedi ^. The Adhvaryu, the ceremonial priest, 
 placed himself looking westward between the cart and the 
 west mound, and the Neshtri priest of Tvashtar and the female 
 mother-goddesses sat down looking eastwards between the 
 cart and the east mound. 
 
 The Neshtri was directed to buy Parisrut, apparently the 
 Munda rice-beer usually drunk by the aboriginal and semi- 
 aboriginal tribes, for a piece of lead from a long-haired man 
 of the primitive races who had not cut his hair according 
 to the orthodox rules of the Soma tonsure requiring all the 
 hair except a pig-tail to be cut. He and the Adhvaryu then 
 each offered together one after the other seventeen cups to 
 Prajapati, those of the Adhvaryu containing the pure Soma 
 Tryashira mixture of Indra made of milk, sour milk, barley 
 and running water, and those of the Neshtri Parisrut called 
 Sura fermented liquor. The Soma cups were offered above 
 and the Sura cups below the cart axle, and the cups after 
 being offered were placed on the east and west mounds. 
 The whole number of thirty-four cups is said to be an offering 
 to the thirty-three gods of the months of the eleven-months 
 year and to Prajapati, god of this year, the thirty-fourth god 
 of the sun-horse ^, whose thirty-four ribs were offered in the 
 
 ■ Eggeling, Shat. Brah., v. I, 2, 15, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 pp. 9, 10, note I. 
 ' Ibid., V. 1, 2, 10 — 18, ibid., vol. xli. pp. 8 — 11. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 747 
 
 Ashvamedha sacrifice of Rig. i. 62, 18, as we have seen 
 in p. 492 ^. 
 
 Thus in the ritual of the Vajapeya sacrifice of the seventeen- 
 months year the year is clearly derived from the previous 
 eleven-months year, and it shows further that its institution 
 was intended to consolidate a reconcilement between the 
 worshippers of the black horse of night of the eleven-months 
 year and the sun-worshippers of that of fifteen months. 
 
 After the offering of the thirty-four cups, the Adhvaryu 
 drew a cup called the Madhugraha or honey-cup in a golden 
 vessel, the golden bowl given to the Buddha by Su-jata, and 
 placed it among the Soma cups. He then offered the Ukthya 
 and Dhruva (Pole Star) cups of the spring {uktha) sun and 
 Pole Star Brihaspati which rule the sacrifice *. These cups 
 in the later Soma sacrifice to the sun-god of the last twelve- 
 months year of the brick altar are the eighth and ninth of 
 the ten cups offered to the gods of generation, of which the 
 last is that offered to the Ashvins, the stars Gemini. They, 
 as we have seen in Chapter VI., p. 609, were first made 
 partakers of Soma at the wedding of Chyavana and Su-konya; 
 and this cup, in which the intoxicating Madhu is only 
 symbolically infused, is in the Soma ritual called the Madhu- 
 graha, of which they got the secret from Dadhiank, the god 
 of the horse's head of the eleven-months years. 
 
 There is a further and very significant ceremony connected 
 with the Ashvins' honey-cup. After the chariot-race of the 
 sun-god following the sacrifice, the Adhvaryu and sacrificer 
 took it from among the cups and gave it to one of the drivers 
 in the race, either a Vaishya or trader or a Rajanya or warrior. 
 Then the Neshtri took from the east mound all the seventeen 
 Sura cups and gave them to the recipient of the gold cup in 
 exchange for it, and he took it back to the Adhvaryu. This 
 ceremony shows the consummation of the union between 
 
 ' Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. viii. sect, b, 
 p. 502. 
 
 ' Eggeling, Skat. £rdh., v. I, 3, 19, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli, 
 p. 21. 
 
 ' Ibid., iv. I, S, 16—18, ibid., vol. xxvi. pp. 276, 277. 
 
748 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the earlier Sura-drinking semi-aboriginal races and the 
 northern worshippers of the white horses of the sun, who had 
 renounced their primitive custom of drinking mead ^. 
 
 In the ritual of the sacrifice the offering of victims followed 
 that of the libation cups. These were a he-goat for Agni, 
 one for Indra-Agni and; one for Indra, and before they were 
 offered the sacrificer's wife was led by the Neshtri into the 
 Sadas or priest's house and made to sit down north of the 
 Udgatri or singing priest, said to be Prajapati. She ex- 
 changed three looks with him, that is to say looked lovingly 
 at him, and uncovered her right thigh three times, pouring 
 pannajani intoxicating {fannd) water over it each time, 
 showing that the sacrifice was one to the god of the right 
 and not the left thigh 2, 
 
 When the seventeen-verse hymn was chanted at night a 
 goat was sacrificed to Sarasvati as the special Vajapeya 
 victim, and after it a spotted barren cow was offered to the 
 victorious Maruts, the seven Great Bear Mothers who had 
 rejoiced over the victory of the newly-installed sun-gods 
 born of Indra. 
 
 Finally seventeen dark-grey hornless he-goats were offered 
 to Prajapati, called the god Ka or Who, the name given to 
 him in nine of the ten stanzas of Rig. x, 121, celebrating the 
 birth of Hiranya-garbha, the young sun-god of the golden 
 womb born to rule this year. The inner meaning of this 
 name Ka given to this god, who was once the deer-sun Orion, 
 testifying to the sense entertained by its users of the reality 
 of the existence of the inexplicably mysterious author of 
 creation, is explained in the Shatapatha Brahmana in a 
 parable telling in mystic language that the key to the inter- 
 pretation of the riddle is given in the Arka or shining {ark) 
 plant {Calatropis gigantea). The teacher explains that in 
 this plant is the hidden soul of life conveyed to it by the 
 
 ' Eggeling, Skat. Brah., v. I, 5, 28, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 p. 29. 
 
 ° Ibid., V. I, 3, I, iv. 2, 17, 18, ibid., vol. xli. p. 12, xxvi. pp. 368, note 2, 
 
 369- 
 3 Ibid., V. I, 3, 2, ibid., vol. xli. pp. 12, 13. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 749 
 
 wind and rain, the Yajus or sacrifice dwelling in the plant- 
 begotten sacrificial food. This is the germ of life which 
 though invisible and intangible is the unknown power which 
 produces the tree-born Agni, the engendering fire which 
 creates by its life-giving heat, plants, animals, and human 
 beings I. This unseen and unidentifiable god is known by 
 the name Ka, meaning Who, and it is to him that the animals 
 slain for Prajapati are offered, the white hornless goat killed 
 at the opening sacrifice of the building of the fire-altar and 
 fire-pan, and these seventeen dark-grey goats now offered ; 
 and the Shatapatha Brahmana also tells us that they are 
 offered to Vayu Niyutvat, the wind driving the team {niyut) 
 of year-horses 2 which brought the divine germs of life to 
 earth in the rain. 
 
 The victims offered were bound to an eight-sided wooden 
 sacrificial post seventeen cubits long, representing a year of 
 seventeen months, for according to the Shatapatha Brahmana 
 the length of the stake should coincide with that of the 
 sacrificer's year ; if his year was one of thirteen months he 
 was to use a thirteen cubit stake, and if fifteen, one of fifteen 
 cubits 3. The post, which was of Khadira wood, was bound 
 with seventeen cloths, and the mortar-shaped wooden cup 
 usually fixed on its top was in this sacrifice made of wheaten 
 dough. Both the sacrificer and his wife, after the Neshtri 
 had clothed the latter with a skirt of Kusha-grass, mounted 
 the post by a ladder, and proclaimed from its top that they 
 had become Prajapati's children by their union with the 
 sacred creating wheat. The sacrificer then received seventeen 
 bags of salt taken from the salt-mother-sea and wrapped in 
 Ashvattha {Ficus religiosd) leaves. Then they came down, 
 and the sacrificer sat during the sacrifice on an Udumbara 
 (Ficus glomerata) throne of the wild fig-tree, on which a 
 black antelope-skin had been spread 4. 
 
 " Eggeling, Shat. Brah., x. 3, 41-5, x. 3, 5, i— 16, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xliii. pp. 333—341. 
 ' Ibid., V. 2, 2, 5, 6, ibid., vol. xli. pp. 172, 173. 
 3 Ibid., iii. 6, 4, 22 — 26, ibid., vol. xxvi. pp. 166, 167. 
 * Ibid., V. 2, 15—25, ibid., vol. xli. pp. 31—36. 
 
750 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 D. The Chariot-races of the Sun-god of this year. 
 
 The chariot-race {vaja) which gives its name to this sacrifice 
 was run at mid-day, after the sacrifice of the morning victims. 
 Three horses were yoked to each chariot ; the right-hand 
 horse was yoked first, and inside it a fourth horse was yoked 
 to the projecting pole as a leader, and the sacrificer at the 
 yoking prepared for Brihaspati, the Pole Star god, seventeen 
 plates of wild rice porridge, showing that the chariot horses 
 were the day and night wind horses of the gloamings originally 
 worshipped in the primitive ritual '. 
 
 In preparing and consecrating the race-course seventeen 
 drums, to be beaten during the race by a Brahman, were 
 placed along the edge of the altar, and a Rajanya archer 
 shot seventeen arrow ranges northward from the northern 
 edge of the Uttara Vedi altar through the space to the 
 north-east of the consecrated ground between the Chatvala 
 pit and the Utkara mound formed by the earth dug out in 
 making it. At the end of the seventeenth range he was to 
 place an Udumbara {Ficus glomeratd) branch as the goal 
 round which the sacrificer's chariot and the sixteen accom- 
 panying him were to turn in the race. Thus the race-course 
 lay to the north-east of the sacrificial ground, so that the 
 rays of the sun of the summer solstice rising in the north-east 
 streamed over it, and its position was exactly the same as 
 that of the race-course at Stonehenge to the north-east of 
 the pillar called the Friar's Heel, over which the midsummer 
 sun rose before its rays traversed the space between the 
 pillar and the temple ^. 
 
 During the race a Brahman stood on a cart-wheel revolving 
 in a sunwise direction to represent the year-wheel of the sun, 
 and chanted a hymn to Brihaspati the Pole Star, and Savitri 
 the sun-god. Thus the race represented the contest between 
 
 ■ Eggeling, Shat. Brah., v. i, 4, i — IJ, Sacred Books of the East, »ol. xli. 
 pp. 17, 21, note, 22. No fourth horse is mentioned in the ritual of the Black 
 Yajus, which probably gives an earlier account of the sacrifice. 
 
 ' Hewitt, Rutins Races of Prehistoric Times, vol . ii. essay viii. p. 147 .j 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 751 
 
 the seventeen chariots denoting the seventeen months of the 
 sun's yearly circuit of the heavens, and in two of the stanzas 
 addressed to the horses running in it, Dadhikra and Dadhik- 
 ravan, two names of Dhadiank, the horse of the eleven-months 
 year, are spoken of as engaged in the contest, thus showing 
 that the seventeen-months year is an offshoot from that of 
 eleven months. 
 
 I must now proceed to consider the question as to the 
 history of the origin of these chariot-races, and as to the race 
 which introduced these New Year races into India and Celtic 
 Britain, as this will help materially in discovering the full 
 meaning of the details disclosed both in the Indian chariot- 
 race and in that instituted by Achilles, the sun-god, at the 
 funeral of Patroclus, of which a full account is given in the 
 Iliad. 
 
 The Indian ritual shows clearly by many indications noted 
 in this and the preceding sections of this chapter that the 
 year begun by this race was an offshoot of the eleven- months 
 year, one most cogent proof being the use of the same fire- 
 kindling hymn at the lighting of the year's fires in both years, 
 the original eleven stanzas being increased to the seventeen 
 of the seventeen-months year by repetitions and additions. 
 The eleven-months year was that first consecrated to the 
 worship of the sun-horse, the successor of the sun-ass, and 
 the Italian equivalent of this Indian year was opened by the 
 Roman Equiria of the 15th of October, at which the horse 
 winning a race run on this New Year's Day was sacrificed, 
 and its head, which was also worshipped in India, was set up 
 as an object of worship. The horse sacrificed at the beginning 
 of the Indian eleven-months year was also the winner of a 
 race I. Horse worship and the races connected with the 
 ritual of the deification of the sun-horse sacrificed at the end 
 of his yearly circuit of the heavens both originated among 
 the horse-worshipping races of North Europe. The adoration 
 and sacrifice of the horse was common both to the Scandi- 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., xiii. i, 6, I, where the horse is called "a racer 
 and a prize-winner," Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliv. p. 287. 
 
752 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 navian Goths, the Ugro-Finns of the Volga, the Scythians 
 and Massagetse of Central Asia. Similarly chariots in which 
 horses consecrated to the sun were driven, as in India, by 
 the Brythonic Celts who worshipped the white horse of the 
 sun at Stonehenge, by the Etruscan Tyrrhenians of Italy, 
 the Greek Achseans who had exchanged the bow for the 
 throwing spear, by the kings of Judah in Syria ', and the 
 early Euphratean and Egyptian kings ; and there can be 
 no doubt that chariots were introduced into India by northern 
 immigrants akin to the Goths and Brythonic Celts, who had 
 in their racial evolution reached a later stage of civilisation 
 than that of the originally nomad Massagetse who used 
 waggons. 
 
 That the custom of chariot driving and chariot-races was 
 associated in Greece with New Year's festivals is shown by 
 the Grecian, Isthmian and Olympian games. The former 
 of these was celebrated every two years at Corinth about the 
 winter solstice 2, to commemorate the birth of Melicertes, the 
 Syrian Malkaerth, who, as we have seen in p. 190, awoke 
 from his yearly death-sleep on the 25th December, and the 
 latter were held every fourth year at the summer solstice; 
 and according to tradition Heracles, by his charioteer lolaus, 
 won the chariot-race at the first games 3. He thus takes 
 in Greek tradition the place assigned to Savitri, the charioteer 
 of Brihaspati, in the Indian year- race. 
 
 I have shown in p. 276 that it was the Thracians who 
 looked on their thirteen -months year as that of thirteen 
 chariots whose drivers were slain by Diomedes and their 
 horses carried off by Odusseus ; and this thirteen-months 
 year was the earlier form of the seventeen-months year 
 of India, both being years of seven-days weeks, and the 
 seventeen-months year of 357 days was one week less than 
 the thirteen-months year of 364 days, the last seven days 
 
 ' 2 Kings xxiii. 11. 
 
 ' Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vii. seel, t, 
 pp. 446, 447 ; Thucydides, viii. 6, 10. 
 
 3 Frazer, Pausanias, v. 8, 3, 4, vol. i. p. 247. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 753 
 
 added to complete the 364 being devoted to the festival 
 celebrating the death of the old and the birth of the new years. 
 I will show presently that this second year with its seventeen 
 twenty-one-day months succeeded the thirteen-months year 
 in Greece as one of the numerous years of Odusseus Orion, 
 the Greek Prajapati. 
 
 The games in the Iliad, of which the chariot-races were 
 the first, were, like their parallels in other countries, held 
 at the new year, for they celebrated both the death of 
 Patroclus, who was, as I have shown elsewhere, a sun-god 
 of the fifteen-months year worshipped as a sun-physician ^, 
 and the victory of Achilles over Hector, slayer of Patroclus. 
 Patroclus was the god who, when the Trojans nearly succeeded 
 in destroying the defences of the Grecian camp, was permitted 
 by Achilles to lead the Greeks as his substitute, Achilles 
 lent him his impenetrable armour, his cap of invisibility 
 [icuve^), that of the dog-star {jcvtav kvvos) Sirius, and his sun- 
 chariot with its two immortal and one mortal steeds ; but he 
 could not wield the mighty ashen spear of the sun-god, and 
 took instead two lighter spears. 
 
 Under his leadership the Greeks put the Trojans, led by 
 Hector, to flight, and Patroclus slew many of their warriors, 
 among others the God-hero Sarpedon, son of Zeus the bull- 
 god, and Europa, the goddess of the west {ereb), to whom as 
 sister of Kadmus, the man of the east {kedem), the arranger 
 (/cafa)), Zeus gave the heavens' veil enshrining the earth- 
 mother, under which she is represented on the coins of 
 Gortyna in Crete as sitting in the central mother-plane-tree, 
 and this veil she gave to Harmonia, Kadmus's wife 2. The 
 children of this father-god, the Cretan Ox, and the sun- 
 maiden of the West were the triad of Minos the measurer, 
 the Phoenician Baal Min ruling the heavens, in which the 
 mother-corn-star was Min Virgo, Rhadamanthus, the judge 
 
 Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Agi, chap. vii. sect, h, 
 Patroclus as a year-god of this year, pp. 490—492. 
 
 ' O'Neill, Night of the Gods, Weaving the Veil, vol. ii. p. 877 ; Lenormant, 
 Origines de V Histoire,\. 568, 573. 
 
 II. 3 C 
 
754 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of the under-world, the god of death, and Sarpedon, whose 
 name in Phoenician means the lord {sar) of the plain, the 
 three being the gods of heaven, the earth, and the under- 
 world '. 
 
 Patroclus followed up his successes by pursuing the foe 
 to the walls of Troy, where he thrice attacked the tower 
 defended by Apollo, the mouse-god Smintheus, and was 
 thrice driven back. When he attacked it for the fourth 
 and last time Apollo warned him that neither he nor Achilles 
 could take Troy. 
 
 Patroclus then attacked Hector, whom Apollo had brought 
 back into the battle from the Skean gate, and descending 
 from his chariot he slew with an immense stone Kebrione, 
 Hector's charioteer, who fell to the ground. Both heroes 
 fought all day over his body, till at last in the afternoon 
 Patroclus gained possession of it and despoiled it of its arms. 
 When he came back to the fight he thrice attacked the 
 Trojans, till Apollo came behind him in a mist, struck him 
 with his open hand between his shoulders and stunned him. 
 His sun-cap with its horse-hair plume fell to the ground as 
 well as his shield ; his spear was broken and Apollo stripped 
 off his impenetrable coat of mail. Euphorbus wounded him 
 in the back between his shoulders, as Hagen smote the dying 
 sun-god Sigurd, and Patroclus staggered away drawing the 
 spear from his wound. He was pursued by Hector, who 
 gave him his death-wound, and was told by the dying Patro- 
 clus that Achilles would slay him ^. We are told in II. 
 xvi. 799, 800 that Hector's death was made certain by 
 his assumption of the cap of the sun-god which had fallen 
 from the head of Patroclus, and which Zeus had given to 
 Hector, thus making him the year-god who must die at his 
 year's end. 
 
 The slaying of Patroclus, whom Apollo had made help- 
 less, by the new year-god Hector, and that of Hector by 
 
 ' Movers, Die Phonitier, vol. i, chap. i. pp. 31, 32. 
 = Horn., //., xvi. 697—854. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 755 
 
 Achilles, is an exact parallel variant of the slaying by 
 Lugaid of Cu - chulainn, when deprived of his strength by 
 the three old women who withered his left thigh (p. 620), 
 and the subsequent death of Lugaid by the hand of Conall- 
 Cernach, Cu-chulainn's foster-brother, who rode a horse with 
 a dog's head, the dog-star Sirius '. Conall was the Irish 
 parallel of the victorious sun-god Achilles, who after his 
 mother Thetis had brought him fresh arms fashioned by 
 Hephaistos 2, slew Hector, who wore his former impenetrable 
 armour of the sun-god taken from Patroclus by Apollo 3, and 
 who before he got his new armour appeared unarmed before 
 the Greeks and Trojans when contending for the body of 
 Patroclus, and so frightened the latter by his three shouts 
 and the glorious brightness of the cloudy solar panoply in 
 which Athene had invested him, that they allowed the Greeks 
 to take away the corpse of Patroclus 4, He after he had 
 slain the usurping year-god who stole his armour and re- 
 covered the body of his slain year - substitute, instituted, 
 to celebrate the beginning of his new year, these new-year 
 games similar to but also different in their arrangements 
 from the later Olympian and other Grecian new-year con- 
 tests. 
 
 The Olympian games are said by Pausanias to trace 
 their origin from the five Daktuloi, the five-finger (Sa«- 
 TuXos), priests of the year of five-day weeks headed by 
 the Idaean Heracles, and in his account of the compe- 
 titions in which those who joined in the games took part 
 he mentions the chariot-race won by lolaus for Heracles, 
 a horse-race won by lasius, the foot-race won by Kastor, 
 the boxing-match by Pollux (Poludeukes), and the wrestling 
 by Heracles, so that there were five victors in the five con- 
 
 ' Rhys, Hibbert Lectures for i886, lect. v. 471—473. 
 " Horn., //., xix. 1—27. 
 
 2 Ibid., xviii. 131, 132. Achilles in slaying Hector could not pierce his 
 armour, but aimed his spear at his unprotected throat. //. xxii. 319—329. 
 * Ibid,, xviii. 202 — 234. 
 
 3 C 2 
 
75^ Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 tests, for the sixth, the pancratium, won by Heracles, was 
 a combination of boxing and wrestling ^. 
 
 There were five contests in the games described by Nestor 
 as instituted by the Epeians of North Elis, who ruled the 
 country before the worship of Heracles was introduced by 
 Iphitus, son of Eurytos, the Centaur archer, the Greek 
 equivalent of the Indian Krishanu, and who gave the bow 
 of heaven to Odusseus^. These were, i. Boxing, 2. 
 Wrestling, 3. Running, 4. Spear- throwing, and 5. Chariot- 
 racing 3. These games, which were the precursors of those 
 at Olympia instituted by Iphitus and the Heracleidae, were 
 held at the funeral of Amarynceus. He was the joint king 
 of Elis with Augeas, who had defiled the land with the dung 
 of his cattle, which was removed by Heracles, that is to say 
 he belonged to the cattle-worshipping pastoral race who 
 measured their three-years cycle-year by four series of ten 
 stellar lunar months of gestation of the mother-cow. All the 
 contests were won by Nestor except the chariot-race, in 
 which he was beaten by the two sons of Aktor. They were 
 the warriors who had most effectually opposed Heracles in 
 his wars with Augeas and Amarynceus, and they as the sons 
 of Aktor the driver (aiyw) represented the two chariot-driving 
 twins, the twin stars in Aries who drove the three-wheeled 
 car of the cycle-year of Augeas and Amarynceus. In the 
 Heracles legend they were slain by Heracles when they had 
 gone to the Isthmian games, that is when they had adopted 
 a new method of year measurement, that of Melecertes or 
 Malkaerth, the Syrian year-god, who began his year at the 
 winter solstice 4. 
 
 In the Achillean games the contests were, i. The chariot- 
 race, 2. Boxing, 3. Wrestling, 4. Foot-race, 5. A duel with 
 spears between Ajax Telamon and Diomedes, 6. A quoit 
 contest, 7. Archery. The long account of each of these 
 
 ' Frazer, Pausanias, v. 7, 4, 8, I, vol. i. pp. 245 — 247. 
 
 * Horn., //., xxiii. 630 — 642. 
 
 3 Frazer, Pausanias, v. 4, 3, p. 241 ; Horn., Od., xxi. lo — 32. 
 
 * Ibid., V. 2, I — 3, vol. i. p. 238. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 757 
 
 given in II. xxiii. is full of historical interest which cul- 
 minates in the Chariot-race, while the number of contests, 
 seven, compared with the significant five contests of the 
 Daktuloi and those of the pre-Heraclean games of Nestor, 
 seems to point to a year of seven-day weeks like that now 
 under discussion, which was a year of Odusseus, one of the 
 victors. 
 
 This year was in India, as we have seen, one of seven-day 
 weeks and five seasons, and these five seasons are reproduced 
 in the Greek chariot-race by the five champions contending 
 for the prize, each of whom strove to be the ruler of the first 
 season of the year, as each of the seventeen contenders in 
 the Indian race strove to be its first month. But the seasons 
 thus represented are not those of Greece but of India, and 
 they show that though the chariot-race in its earliest form 
 was probably introduced into India by the charioteering 
 immigrants from the North, yet the fully-developed year- race 
 of the Vajapeya sacrifice was brought to Greece from India 
 in a similar way as that by which so many Indian forms of 
 ritual, such as those of the worship of snakes and of the mother- 
 tree, were incorporated in that of Greece, the measurement of 
 time by the Pleiades year and many other Indian customs and 
 rites having been brought by earlier immigrant Indian races 
 of mixed descent, who traced their birth partly to Indian 
 matriarchal ancestors ; and this year of the chariot-race seems 
 to have been brought to Greece by the worshippers of the 
 horses consecrated to the sun in Persia and Syria, who were 
 the maritime traders of this epoch who brought these races 
 to Greece, as their predecessors, the maritime Tursena, brought 
 this worship of the Indian and Carian god of the double axe. 
 The five Greek competitors were, I. Eumelus, the son of 
 Admetus, called Hades Admetus (aiSi^s dSfiTjTos), the untamed 
 god of the nether-world whose wife Alkestis, the sun-maiden, 
 went down to the realms of death, and was brought back to 
 earth as the re-rising sun-god by Heracles, the year-god of 
 the age when the Pole Star leaving Lyra the vulture had 
 entered the constellation Hercules. He was the southern 
 
75 8 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 god of winter, who came northward as the conquering 
 sun-god, reaching his northern point at the summer solstice, 
 where he was defeated. II. Diomedes, the counsellor (jti^Sos) 
 of Zeus, son of Tydeus, the hammer (tud) god, the northern 
 smith, the conquering god of Summer, the Indra who slew 
 Vritra at the summer solstice, and who with Odusseus had 
 taken the thirteen chariots and twenty-six horses of the 
 Thracian thirteen-months year. He proclaimed himself in 
 this race as the god driving the sun-horses of the year by 
 driving the two immortal horses he had taken from Aeneas. 
 These were two of the six stallions ^ which Anchises, father 
 of Aeneas and god, as we have seen (p. 278), of the thirteen- 
 months year, stole from Laomedon, substituting for them 
 mares. He thus obtained six stallions, which, with six mares 
 of his own, made up the thirteen months of the year of which 
 he ruled the centre month. He gave two of these stallions to 
 Aeneas, and it was these which Diomedes drove. III. Mene- 
 laus, husband of the immortal Helene, sister of Poludeukes, 
 the much raining twin and the tree-mother {^evhplris) of the 
 Dorians of Rhodes. He drove a pair of steeds belonging 
 to the original twin gods Gemini, one of which was the mare 
 Aethiope owned by Agamemnon his brother, husband to 
 Clytemnestra, sister of Kastor the mortal twin son of Tyn- 
 dareus, the hammer-god. He was the god of the autumn 
 season consecrated in India to the twins in the month 
 Ashva-yujau (September — October) succeeding the rains. 
 
 IV. Antilochus, son of Nestor of Pylos, the city of the Gates 
 (TTwXat) of the Garden of God, the god of Spring, whose 
 horses were born of the Gates of Heaven (■n-uXatYej'eej) ^. 
 
 V. Meriones, born of the Thigh {/Mijpia), the son of Molos 
 (war), half-brother of Idomeneus, leader of the Cretan 
 archers, the winter-god of the bow, who is said by Homer 
 to be equal to Ares, called Enyo, the god of war 3. He in 
 the last contest of the games was matched against Ajax 
 
 ' Horn., //., V. 265 — 269, 323—327, xxiii. 291, 292. 
 ' Ibid., xxiii. 303. ' Ibid., ii. 645 — 652. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 759 
 
 Teucer to shoot the year-bird originally slain by the Indian 
 Krishanu. Teucer was a second birth of the earlier Teucer, 
 who, as I have shown on p. 630, came from Crete to Troy 
 as leader of the Cydonian archers, and there became the 
 parent king of the Trojan Teucri and father-in-law of his 
 successor Dardanus, son of Electra the Pleiades. 
 
 In the archery contest Teucer drew the first lot, but his 
 arrow missed the year-bird tied by a stone to a post and 
 only cut the string. Meriones then took up his bow, praying 
 to Apollo, and aimed his arrow at the released bird flying 
 through the air. He hit it in the breast, and the arrow after 
 wounding the bird fell at his feet. The bird flew to the 
 mast of a ship, where it settled and stretched out its neck 
 while its wings closed to its sides, and it then fell dead. 
 Thus Meriones, the son of the Great Bear thigh (fitjpca), the 
 sun-god of the fifteen-months year, by shooting the bird 
 of winter performed the feat of Krishanu, the Great Bear 
 archer who shot the Shyena Pole Star bird of frost {shya), 
 and he thus closed the year-contest of the instalment of 
 Achilles as the ruling sun-god of the year which ended with 
 the competition of the archers. 
 
 He took away as his prize ten double axes, the symbols 
 of ten lunar months of gestation, while his rival Teucer only 
 received half a double axe, the single axe of the Scythians, 
 called Sagaris, the Weapon of the stone age ^. The games 
 closed by the gift of a spear and a large vase (Xe/3»??) from 
 Achilles to the two foremost spear and dart throwers of the 
 Greeks, Agamemnon and Meriones ; Meriones receiving the 
 spear and Agamemnon the vase, thus proving that special 
 honour was paid to Meriones as the earthly representative 
 of the heavenly archer, the divinely born son of the Thigh. 
 
 The course of the chariot-race was guarded by Phoenix, 
 and his introduction proves that the race was one run by 
 contending year-gods. He was the year-bird of the date- 
 palm {^oivt,^ tree ', the sacramental tree of its sons shown 
 
 " Horn., //., xxiii. 859—894. ' Ibid., 360. 
 
760 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 on p. 636 to be rulers of South-western Asia and India, 
 whence this bird rises yearly from its ashes as the ever-living 
 year-bird i. 
 
 This year-bird of the age of date-palm worship, the Greek 
 or Syrian form of the bird Garuda perched on the chariot 
 of the Indian Krishna, is called a comrade {fnrdwv) of Peleus, 
 god of the Potter's clay, father of Achilles, who knew the 
 laws of the course, for he, as the original sun-bird, was 
 the predecessor of Achilles himself, who steered his own 
 annual course through the heavens without being led, like 
 Rama, by the moon-god Sita, or watched by Lakshman 
 Arcturus, the god of the boundaries {laksh), the successor 
 of Canopus the steerer of the year-ship Argo. The course 
 over which the race was to be run, as described by Nestor 
 in his advice to his son Antilochus 2, was round a withered 
 oak or pine trunk a fathom high, marking the tomb of an 
 ancestral chief. This in races run at Troy to commemorate 
 the Trojan ancestral gods at the new year was almost cer- 
 tainly the tomb and altar dolmen of Ilos marked by the 
 parent wild fig-tree of Troy, described by Homer as standing 
 in the midst of the plain 3. 
 
 This was now withered and became, like the Udumbara 
 wild fig-tree branch, the goal of the national rule course. 
 This sacred decayed tree was the equivalent of the image 
 of the Indian mother-tree-goddess of the tree trunk, the 
 golden Mariamma. It stood between two stones, the two 
 pillars placed in front of all Phoenician temples, the pillars 
 of the solstices, and between these and the goal there was 
 enough space for the chariots to turn as they rounded it. 
 When the lots for the race were drawn that of Antilochus, 
 
 ' Herod., ii. 73, says that it carried its father when dead from Arabia to 
 Hierapolis (Annu), the Egyptian sun-city, in an egg of myrrh which it made 
 hollow, and that his body did not add to the weight of the egg when it was 
 only made of myrrh. But this story is merely a form of the legend calling 
 the Phoenix child of the myrrh-tree, and in its original form it told of the 
 yearly death and resurrection of the sun-bird born from the mother-tree. 
 
 » Horn., //. xxiii. 327—333- 
 
 3 Ibid., xi. 166, 167. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 761 
 
 the driver of the gates of Spring, came out first, showing 
 that the year began in spring under the guidance of the 
 Gate-stars Gemini. Next to him was Eumelus the summer, 
 and after him came Menelaus the autumn, followed by 
 Meriones, the winter-god of the bow. These four represented 
 four seasons of the eleven-months and cycle-year. Last came 
 Diomedes, the god of the fifth new season of the seventeen- 
 months year, the rainy season, who was the final victor. They 
 started in this order, and only the latter part of the race 
 is described by Homer. In this Eumelus was first after the 
 chariots had passed the goal and were racing towards the 
 winning-post, but Diomedes was close behind, and was just 
 about to pass him when Apollo caused him to drop his whip, 
 and thus prevented him from urging on his horses. But 
 when Athene saw that her favoured chief was beginning 
 to drop back she picked up the whip and gave it to him, 
 and also caused the yoke of Eumelus's chariot to break 
 so that the horses could no longer draw it. He was thrown 
 out and the skin of his arms, elbows and face torn off, and 
 when he was thus disabled Diomedes easily won the race. 
 Antilochus came in second, beating Menelaus by getting 
 before his chariot in a narrow part of the course where two 
 chariots could not run abreast, and Meriones, who was be- 
 hind all the others, was fourth. 
 
 The prizes given to those who took part in the race and 
 their allotment were also significant. The first of them was 
 a female slave, the sun-maiden, and a cauldron holding 
 twenty-two measures, the half-months of the eleven-months 
 year. The second prize, which Achilles first adjudged to 
 Eumelus but afterwards gave to Antilochus when he claimed 
 it as his due, was a six-year-old mare with a mule foal, that 
 is to say she was the mother of the eleven-months year-mule 
 horse ; and this mare Antilochus resigned to Menelaus when 
 the latter reproached him with beating him by unfair driving, 
 but Menelaus, when Antilochus confessed his fault, refused 
 to take it and got the third prize, a cauldron holding four 
 measures, the four seasons of the eleven-months year. 
 
762 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Meriones received the fourth prize, two talents of gold ; 
 and the fifth prize, a double cup, was given to Nestor, the 
 ancient warder of the gates when the spring sun in the 
 Gemini constellation of the gate-posts went forth on his 
 yearly course, and it was to his son Antilochus that the 
 mother of the mule of the eleven-months year was given 
 which he entrusted to his companion Noemon, the gnomon 
 stone. 
 
 The prize given by Achilles to Eumelus in place of the 
 mare pregnant with the mule foal was the coat of mail of 
 Asteropaios, leader of the Pseonians, the star {aarrjp) born 
 son of Pelagon, the stream (peleg) god, and grandson of 
 Axius, the central river of Macedonia, who like Patroclus 
 carried as his weapon two spears Scamander, the Trojan 
 parent-river, sent him as his champion to meet Achilles, who 
 slew him i. The Paeonians, or sons of the healing [iraiMv) 
 stars of the race of the sun-physician, though they dwelt 
 in Macedonia, traced their descent to the bow-bearing race 
 of the Teucri, who had come thither from Troy and were 
 noted archers 2. This prize, equally with that of the mule 
 foal, marks Eumelus as the representative of the sons of the 
 sun-horse of the eleven-months year, who deified the star- 
 tailed peacock (irauov) both in India and Greece, and who 
 traced their descent from the archer-race of the sons of the 
 bow, who called the Great Bear the Bow-star. 
 
 The chariot-race has a close analogy with the contest of 
 the Kauravyas and Pandavas. In both the victorious season 
 among the five into which the year was divided was the god 
 of the rainy season beginning at the summer solstice. This 
 god in the Pandava year was Arjuna, whose charioteer was 
 Krishna, the driver of the year-chariot, and whose weapon 
 during the last decisive eighteen days' battle with the Kaura- 
 vyas was the bow Gan-diva, the sun-god (diva) of the land 
 igan, ganh). He was the parallel of the Greek Diomedes, 
 who like Arjuna, to whose chariot the heavenly year-horses 
 
 ' Horn. //. xxi. 13s— 179. ' Herod., v. 13 ; Horn., //. ii. 848—850. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 763 
 
 of Krishna were yoked, drove the year-horses he had taken 
 from ^neas. Also Arjuna was at the end of the war selected 
 as the chief of the national charioteers to attend the sun- 
 horse Parikshit, and hence, as we have seen, his position as a 
 year-god was changed from one in which he began his year 
 with the beginning of the rains at the summer solstice to a 
 god of the year ruled by the stars Gemini, when he took the 
 name of Phalguni, and began his year in the month Phalgun 
 (February — March) ending with the vernal equinox, when 
 he started to follow Parikshit on his course round the 
 heavens beginning with the full moon of Cheit (March — 
 April). Similarly his Greek parallel Diomedes, proved by 
 his success in the national year-race to be the best Grecian 
 charioteer, was the protected favourite of Athene, the national 
 goddess of the thirteen-months year, the counterpart of that 
 of seventeen months, which began, like the last year of 
 Arjuna, in February — March, and reached its mid-month 
 on the iSth of August, the day when Athene received her 
 Peplos or yearly leaf-garment, that closing the original 
 Indian mid-month Shravana (July — August), the lame 
 {Shravana) or centre one-legged month of the Naga 
 snakes, and beginning the month sacred to the dead 
 Fathers Bhadra-pada (August — September). It was Dio- 
 medes, the charioteer of the sun-horses of the thirteen- 
 months year of Anchises, who in the race established Athene 
 as the year-goddess of the year beginning in February — 
 March with the Anthesteria of Dionysos, the vine-god. 
 
 In the succeeding contests Odusseus won the foot-race, 
 beating the Locrian Ajax Oileus, reputed to be the swiftest 
 of the Greeks after Achilles, and Antilochus, the son of 
 Nestor. But the victory of Odusseus, like that of Diomedes 
 in the chariot race, was gained by the aid of Athene, who 
 caused Oileus to stumble and fall on the muddy ground 
 wet with the blood of the victims sacrificed at the Games. 
 The cup won by Odusseus was that of Thoas, the king of 
 the Tauric Chersoneus, who was, as we have seen on p. 156, 
 the Phoenician Tammuz, the Sumero-Akkadian Dumu-zi 
 
764 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Orion, that is to say Odusseus himself in his first form as 
 a year-leader. He won this cup as the ruling year-god of 
 this new sun-year, that of seventeen and thirteen lunar 
 months ^, which position he assumed, as we shall see, among 
 the Phoenicians of the thirteen-months year. 
 
 Odusseus also contended against Ajax Telamon in the 
 wrestling match in which both combatants were considered 
 equal 2, and Diomedes in the spear contest defeated Ajax 
 Telamon, and won as his prize the sword of Asteropaios, 
 whose coat of mail had been given to Eumelus, and this was 
 the sword of the star-god ruling the eleven-months year 3. 
 
 Thus we see that the evidence I have adduced seems 
 to show that the new seventeen-months year of Diomedes 
 opening with the games of Achilles, in which he was the 
 victorious charioteer, was a form of the thirteen-months year 
 of Ares, who, as we have seen (p. 272), was bound together 
 with Aphrodite, his thirteen-months year wife, both of whom 
 had been wounded by Diomedes in his Aristeia or victorious 
 battle described in Horn. II. v. And that this new modi- 
 fication of the year was one, like its parallel form in India, 
 specially dedicated to the revived Orion, Odusseus and 
 Prajapati as the seventeen-months year, is proved by the 
 history of this year in the year-records of Odusseus. 
 
 It was as a god born of the year of thirteen lunar months 
 that Odusseus appeared in Ithaca as the returning pauper 
 sun-god, the mendicant sun-god of India who takes the food 
 that is to sustain jhim in his never-ceasing task of the heat 
 and light-giving ruler from his begging-bowl, the heavens 
 and the earth, and the Greek form of the Persian pauper 
 sun-god Gushtasp or Vistaspa, who made the Zarathustra 
 religion the national form of worship. Odusseus came from 
 the land of the Phoenicians, the dusky ((jsair]) land of night 
 ruled by twelve kings whose thirteenth over-lord was Alkinoos, 
 and it was they who sent him to Ithaca in their year-ship 
 
 ■ Horn., //. xxiii. 739—782. 
 
 = Ibid., 735—737- ' Ibid., 811—825. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 765 
 
 with 52 oarsmen, the fifty-two weeks of this year'. The 
 story of his arrival at Scheria the PhcEnician country clearly 
 proves him to be the ruler of a year who awoke in his new 
 country on the twenty-first day of his voyage, the last day 
 of a month of the seventeen-months year when he was to 
 become a god of the corresponding thirteen-months year 
 of Alkinoos. He came from Ogygia, the island of Kalypso, 
 the hidden (icaXwToa) goddess, where he had remained for 
 eight years 2. He was sent thence to Scheria at the com- 
 mand of Hermes, the god of the sun-Gnomon pillar {epiia), 
 where he was to arrive on the twentieth day 3, and whence 
 he was to be sent to Ithaca. He thus came as the sexless 
 sun-god hidden in the era of the sun of the eight-days week. 
 Poseidon, the snake-god of the three-seasons trident year 
 and owner of the star-horses of the sun, was, on his return 
 in spring from the southern land of the ^Ethiopians, his 
 winter dwelling-place, aware of the coming of the new 
 warrior sun-god armed by Kalypso with the cap of darkness 
 [KcCKimTpri), the golden year-girdle and silver-white {dpyinpeo';) 
 tunic of the conquering sun of the year of the seven-days 
 week measured by the two lunar crescents of the double axe 
 (TreXe/cw?) of the Carian Zeus which he carried. Poseidon 
 fearing the new usurper of the rule of heaven raised a tempest 
 which wrecked the raft of Odusseus, the raft of the transition 
 seventeen-months period of the thirteen-months year of the 
 seven-days week, immediately after he on the eighteenth day 
 of his voyage arrived in sight of Phaeacia 4, He was saved 
 by Ino, the daughter of Kadmus, in the form of a sea-gull. 
 She was the mother of Melicertes the Phoenician Malkaerth, 
 with whom she leaped into the sea, and conveyed him as 
 the dolphin-mother-goddess Tirhatha to the foot of her tree 
 form, the pine-tree from which he was to be born as the son 
 of the virgin-mother-tree. She gave to Odusseus the magic 
 sail the kredemnon, which, as we have seen in the story 
 
 " Horn., Od. viii. 390, 391, 35, 36, 48. " Ibid;, vii. 253—263. 
 
 3 Ibid., V. 34—38. < Ibid., v. 229—236, 277—318. 
 
766 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of Rustum and the Bebr-i-bayan, was the zodiacal ribbon 
 showing the yearly course through the heavens of the inde- 
 pendent sun-god about to be born. This he put on after 
 he had taken off the dress of the warrior-sun-god given him 
 by Kalypso ; and it, after two days tossing in the sea calmed 
 by Athene, brought the naked sun-god Odusseus to the 
 Phoenician coast, where he made himself a bed under the 
 two parent olive-trees of the sun-mother Athene, whose tree, 
 as we have seen (p. 296), made his olive-tree revolving bed 
 in Ithaca. These trees were, the wild olive-tree (^i/Xii;) and 
 the cultivated olive (eXata), and it was under these that he 
 awoke on the twenty-first morning of his first month passed 
 in his voyage from Ogygia as the naked beggar-sun-god 
 of a new year, who was to collect in his begging-bowl the 
 vault of heaven, from the air, rain, and earth the wealth of 
 produce which was to enable him to make all the lands on 
 which he shone rich in corn, wine, and all health and life- 
 giving flowers and seeds and the raw materials extracted 
 from them. Here he was met at his rising by Nausicaa the 
 sun-maiden, who re-robed him and brought him to the palace 
 of her father Alkinoos and her mother Arete. 
 
 In this story we see clearly that the new sun-god of this 
 year, who was made by Athene, goddess of the olive-tree, 
 victor in the chariot and foot-race, was a god re-born to a 
 new phase of divine existence from those in which he 
 appeared in what the Buddha of the Jataka would call his 
 former births. It was not till Odusseus had lost the warlike 
 garments of the sun-god of the year of the seventeen-months 
 year and had been slain by the trident of Poseidon, that he 
 rose from death as the new-born naked sun-god of the new 
 era born of the olive-tree as the immortal ruler of time, who 
 marches unceasingly and unrestingly on his path through the 
 zodiacal stars spreading peace and plenty throughout the 
 world. 
 
Primitiv! Traditional History. y6y 
 
 E. The seventeen-months year in the Mahabharata chronology. 
 
 To obtain further insight into the history of this year we 
 must turn to the Mahabharata. There we find its origin 
 mythically attributed to the fifth year of the Pandavas' exile 
 of thirteen years. It was at the end of the fourth year that 
 they as the year-gods beginning their circuit in the south 
 went northward on their tour of pilgrimage to the sacred 
 shrines described in the Tirtha Yatra sections of the Vana 
 or Forest Canto. They reached the northern point of their 
 year's journey on the seventeenth day of their departure from 
 the south, and remained for seven days, the first week of this 
 year, at the Gandha-madana, the grove of intoxicating odours 
 near Mt. Mainaka, born of Meneka, the moon goddess who 
 measures time. There they were joined by Arjuna, the god 
 of the rainy season beginning at the summer solstice, who 
 came to them from Indra's heaven driven in the car of 
 Mahendra the Great Indra, who was, as we have seen, the 
 conquering god of this year, and with whom Arjuna had 
 dwelt for five years '. 
 
 The traditional history of this year is told in the story of 
 Skanda the sun-lizard, who was, as we have seen in Chapter 
 IV., p. 332, born from the southern cauldron of life, the kettle 
 Kesari-tar, in the age of the three-years cycle-year. In the 
 Mahabharata he is the son of Svaha, the last goddess of the 
 eleven gods summoned by the cry of Svaha Hail to the 
 animal sacrifice at which the Apri hymns of the eleven- 
 months year were recited, and she is called the daughter of 
 Daksha, the god of the showing hand of the five-days week. 
 She disguised herself as the Pleiades mother, the six wives 
 of the seven Rishis, the seven stars of the Great Bear, of 
 whom Agni was enamoured, and whose household-fire 
 Garhapatya he had become, and called herself Shiva, the 
 female Shiva wife of Angira, the offerer of burnt sacrifices 
 of the three-years cycle-year. After assuming successively 
 the forms of all the Pleiades stars, and being unable to 
 
 ' Mahabharata Vana (Yaksha-yuddha) Parva, clvii., clxiv. pp. 467, 468, 491, 
 
768 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 assume that of Arundhati, who was, as we have seen on 
 p. 302, the star Corona Borealis, she bore the male child 
 called Kartikeya, the son of the Pleiades Krittakas, the god 
 Skanda. This account of his first birth shows that he was 
 born after the union of the worshippers of the Pleiades' 
 mothers of the year of five-day weeks with the god of the 
 Garhapatya household-fire consecrated to the thirteen-months 
 year. In other words, it states that the seventeen-months 
 year, which was a year of the second form of Skanda as 
 Vi-sakha the goat god, was a modification of the year of 
 thirteen, and that it was introduced after the worship of 
 the sun-god as the child born in the star Corona Borealis. 
 
 This New Year god was born in the land of Chaitra-ratha, 
 that consecrated to the star Chitra (Virgo), and he carried in 
 one hand a red-crested cock, that is to say he was the god 
 of the rising sun born under the star Virgo, the mother of 
 corn, the ruling goddess of the eleven-months year. He was 
 a god of six faces, looking north, south, east and west, and 
 to the zenith and nadir, the god of the worshippers of the 
 sun-cock sacred to the sun-physician, to whom cocks were 
 offered, and he was nursed by the mother-goddess to whom 
 human sacrifices were offered, the mountain-goddess Durga, 
 the twin sister of Krishna, the eighth son of Vasudeva and 
 god of the fifteen- months year, and by his father Agni with 
 a goat's mouth, that is to say Agni as the Pole Star goat. 
 
 This god, called Guha the concealed one, was attacked 
 by Indra at the head of the gods, and as the divine fire-god 
 of altar-fire he remained unvanquished, but was transformed 
 by Indra's thunderbolt into the god Vi-sakha (April— May), 
 that is to say he became the god of the seventeen-months 
 year, the five - seasons year, of Indra as the god of the 
 summer season Shukra (pp. 743, 744), which in the Brah- 
 mana ritual began at the full-moon of Cheit, but in the 
 Mahabharata history is said to begin with the new moon of 
 Visakha (April — May), according to the earlier custom of 
 measuring time by new moons. This new god was the 
 child (Sisu) of seven mothers, the eighth and ninth of the 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 769 
 
 divine Kumaras, both of whom were goat-gods ; hence this 
 god is the exact parallel of the Prajapati of nine forms of 
 the Brahmanas to whom goats were offered at the Vajapeya 
 sacrifice, and as the god of a year measured by seven -day 
 lunar weeks he married the moon-goddess Devasena, called 
 by eight names, of which two are Kuhu the new moon and 
 SinTvali the waning moon ", and began his year when Abhijit 
 Vega had disappeared, that is had ceased to be the Pole 
 Star, so that the year dates from the age of the Pole Star 
 in Hercules 2. This victorious god finally established his 
 power by the slaying of Mahisha, the buffalo, that is by 
 abolishing the worship of Indra as the buffalo-god, and thus 
 introduced the worship of the cow, the mother Rohini (Alde- 
 baran), who succeeded Abhijit Vega, and was, as we have 
 seen, the mother of Durga or Subhadra, Krishna's twin- 
 sister, together with the ritual of libations of melted butter 
 used in the ritual of Prajapati's year and in all the later 
 Vedic sacrifices prescribed in the Brahmanas. The identity 
 of the god called Kartikeya, the son of the Pleiades (Krit- 
 taka) mother Rohini Aldebaran Skanda, the sun- lizard, and 
 Vi-sakha, the god who began his year in April — May with 
 the ruling god of Prajapati's seventeen-months year of 357 
 days, is most conclusively proved by the fifty-one names 
 given to him as the god of the year of fifty-one weeks, or 
 one week less than the fifty-two weeks of the complete 
 thirteen-months year 3. Also another indication of the place 
 of this year in the national traditional chronology is given by 
 the statement in the Mahabharata that the mountain-goddess 
 who nursed Skanda in his first form was the goddess of the 
 Kadamba almond-tree, the sacred tree of the Kharwars and 
 Oraons, and hence we see the two forms of the god, the god 
 of the thirteen-months year of the Kharwar and Oraon 
 yellow race, and its successor the seventeen-months year 
 
 Ludwig, Der Rigveda, vol. iii. par. 43, p. 189. 
 ° Mahabharata Vana (Markandeya Samasya) Parva, ccxxviii., ccxxix., pp. 
 643—696. 
 
 3 Ibid., ccxxii., ccxxx., pp. 679 — 710. 
 II. 3 D 
 
770 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of the red race who in its ritual united themselves with 
 their predecessors and made the two opponents one united 
 nation ' as the Bharatas of Bharatavarsha. 
 
 This year of Skanda appears also in the accounts of the 
 attempted rape of Drupadi, the Pandavas' wife, by Jayad- 
 ratha, which took place at the end of the eleventh year of 
 the Pandava exile, and after Dur-vasa, the ill-omened emis- 
 sary of Duryodhana, Dusshasana, Kama and Shakuni, the 
 gods of the four seasons of the eleven-months year, had 
 come to the Pandava camp with his disciples to beg a meal 
 from them after they had taken their own, and when he knew 
 that their sun-filled bowl of daily food would be empty. But 
 Drupadi when the company of ascetics arrived prayed to 
 Krishna, who came at once and replenished the bowl, the 
 beggar-bowl of the Buddha; and when Dur-vasa and his 
 company found that the sun-bowl was replenished and that 
 the food- providing power of the Pandavas ruling the year 
 was not exhausted, they fled away from Krishna. This 
 sudden exhaustion and replenishment of the year-bowl be- 
 tokened the change of time reckoning from the thirteen- 
 months to the seventeen-months year introduced by Jayad- 
 ratha, who arrived close to the Pandavas' camp after Dru- 
 padi's bowl had been refilled =. He was king of the moon 
 {sin) kingdom of Sindhu, who drove in his chariot horses 
 of the Saindhava or moon breed, which were in the story 
 of Nala and Damayanti driven by Nala and Ritu-parna, the 
 ruler of the seasons {ritu) when Nala learnt the methods 
 of time calculation under the Vibithaka or Arjuna (Ter- 
 minalia belericd), the tree bearing the tanning Myrobolan 
 fruits. Jayadratha ruled the Sauviras, the sons of the bird 
 Su, and as the god of the thirteen-months year he was over- 
 lord of twelve subordinate princes named Angarika, Kunjara, 
 Guhlaka, Satrunjaya, Srinjaya, Suprabuddha, Probhankara, 
 Bhramara, Ravi, Sura, Pratapa, Kuhana. His banner was 
 
 » Mahabharat^ Vana (Mdrkandeya Samasya) Parva, ccxxix. , p. 698. 
 ' Ibid. (Ghosha-yatra) Parva, cclviii., cclxi. pp. 769, 777—780. 
 3 Ibid. (!^alopakhyana) Parva, Ixxi., Ixxii. pp. 212—217. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 771 
 
 the silver boar^, and his father was Vriddha-kshatra, the 
 old {vriddkd) ruler {kshatra). He had married Dus-shala, 
 the hundred and first child, and the only daughter born 
 with the hundred Kauravyas from the egg laid by Gandhari, 
 the Pole Star Vega, the wife of Dhritarashtra, p. 316 2. She 
 was the Hindu counterpart of the Semitic Dinah, the female 
 form of Dan the Pole Star judge, and the thirteenth child 
 and only daughter of Jacob. 
 
 Jayadratha, the silver boar-moon-god, when he attempted 
 to carry off Drupadi was seeking for a wife to replace the 
 dead Dus-shala, the goddess of the thirteen- months year. 
 He passed the Pandava camp while the five princes were out 
 hunting, having each as gods of the five seasons gone, as we 
 are told in the poem, to a different part of the horizon. 
 
 Yudishthira, the god of spring, the equinoctial sun, was 
 in the east, Bhima, the god of summer, coming from south 
 to north, was in the south. Arjuna, the god of the rainy 
 season, in the west, and the twins Sahadeva and Nakula, 
 the gods of autumn and winter, were in the north, whence 
 they started for their winter home in the south. 
 
 As Jayadratha, who boasted his descent from the seven- 
 teen high clans, the seventeen months of his new year, passed 
 the camp he saw Drupadi, called Krishna or the female 
 Krishna, the goddess whose year-bowl was filled by the sun- 
 god of the fifteen-months year, leaning against a Kadamba 
 almond-tree, the parent-tree of the Oraons and Kharwars, 
 the Jewish prophet priests, the Kohathites and of the thirteen 
 months of the first year of Skanda, and sent an emissary to 
 try and persuade her to elope with him. But before he made 
 any proposition of this kind Drupadi, who met him, told him 
 to invite his master and his followers to rest at her house. 
 Jayadratha then came thither with six followers as the seven 
 days of his week, and when Drupadi offered food he pro- 
 posed that she should mount his chariot and journey with 
 
 ' Mahabharata Drona (Abhimanyu badha) Parva, xliii. 3, p. 134- 
 Ibid., Adi (Sambhava) Parva, cxvii. p. 342. 
 3 D 2 
 
772 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 him. She refused, and called Dhaumya, the Pandava priest, 
 to protect her, but Jayadratha dragged her away from him 
 and placed her in his chariot. 
 
 This was the rape of the goddess of the Kurum almond- 
 tree, whose sacred river was the Kurum-nasa (p. 428), which 
 heralded the fall of the ancient faith in the goddess of the 
 mother-tree and the introduction of the new worship of the 
 rising sun of the east riding the white horse who succeeded 
 the Pole Star Jayadratha's father as the ruler of heaven. 
 
 When the Pandavas returned they pursued Jayadratha, 
 released Driipadi, and when Arjuna caught Jayadratha after 
 his flight by slaying his horses with his arrows they forced 
 him to declare himself the slave of the Pandavas as the god 
 of their year of five seasons. When he escaped from his 
 captor Jayadratha implored Shiva, the three-eyed god, for 
 aid to revenge his defeat, but all Shiva would grant him 
 was the victory over Arjuna's four brethren and immunity 
 from death at the hands of any of the Pandavas except 
 Arjuna, whom he declared in a long panegyric to be the 
 embodied god-man born of the divine water, the primitive 
 home of life, the counterpart of Vishnu, the original village 
 {visit) year-god, and of Krishna. Thus proving that this god 
 who had, as we have seen, recently come from Indra's heaven 
 with Gandiva, the divine bow of the rainy season, was the 
 god introduced into this seventeen-months year as the god 
 of the rainy season added to the four gods of the four seasons 
 of the eleven-months year ^. 
 
 The promise of the short career of victory given to Jayad- 
 ratha by Shiva was fulfilled in the eighteen days' battle 
 between the Kauravyas and Pandavas, when Abhimanyu, 
 the son of Arjuna and Su-bhadra, the father of Parikshit, 
 who became after his death the moon-god, was leading the 
 army of the Pandavas against the Kauravyas and over- 
 throwing all the foes, he met Jayadratha, who checked 
 their career and defeated in single combat Yudishthira 
 and Bhima and wounded the five sons of Driipadi and 
 
 ■ Mahabharata Vana (Drupadi-harana) Parva, cclxii. — cclxxii. pp. 781— 804. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 773 
 
 her brother the Panchala chief Drishtha-dyumna, the 
 seen bright one. It was after this that Abhimanyu's 
 victorious career came to an end like that of Patroclus, 
 for Kama, the Kauravya archer, broke his bow. Krita- 
 varman and Kripa, two of the Kauravya leaders, slew his 
 horses and his two charioteers, the two lunar crescents of 
 the moon-god, and Drona, the Kauravya general, the god 
 of the cask {drona) of the immortal Soma, cut off the hilt 
 of his sword. Abhimanyu, however, contrived to fight with 
 his mace and was slain by the son of Dusshasana, one of the 
 gods of the four seasons of the Kauravya year. But after 
 the death of this rival moon-god Arjuna made a vow that 
 he would slay Jayadratha the next day, as it was owing 
 to his defeat of the four Pandavas that he was surrounded 
 without support by the Kauravyas ; and accordingly on the 
 next the fourteenth day of battle, when Jayadratha was placed 
 at the head of the Kauravya fighting-men, he was slain by 
 Arjuna with the bow Gandiva. The magical arrow bore his 
 head adorned with the lunar ear-rings to the lap of his Pole 
 Star father, Vriddha-kshatra, whence it fell to earth, and 
 as it fell the head of the Pole Star god was broken to pieces, 
 and he ceased to rule the year, being superseded by the new 
 all-powerful sun-god '. Thus the death of Jayadratha, the 
 god of the lunar-year, and the taking off his head is a parallel 
 of those of Eurytion the Centaur and Melanthios the goat- 
 god, whose nose and ears were cut off, for in all these cases 
 the old year-god slain as the competitor of the omnipotent 
 sun-god became a headless trunk, the god of the shadow- 
 casting gnomon-stone. 
 
 F. Th& seventeen and thirteen-months year in Egypt. 
 
 This year is most conspicuously represented in Egyptian 
 mythology in Chapters CXLIV.— CXLIX. of the Book 
 
 • Mahabharata Drona (Abkimanyu-badha) Parva, xlii., xliii. pp. 131 — 135, 
 xlviii,, xlix. pp. 143—149, Drona {Pratijna) Parva, Ixxiii. 20—42, pp. 200, 
 201, T)\on3. [Jayadratha-badha), Parva, Ixxxviii. 11 — 34, pp. 237 — 239, cxlvi. 
 los— 130, pp. 455—457. 
 
774 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of the Dead, which is a historical record telling of the stages 
 of the development of Egyptian religion during the epochs 
 when the ^Great Bear was called first the left and afterwards 
 the right Thigh of Set, the ruling ape-god. This period 
 began with the rule of Horus, the bird-headed ape of the 
 eleven-months year, whose four sons were the four stars 
 of Pegasus, the constellation which was the black horse of 
 the sun-god of the year, and ruled it with the seven stars 
 of the Great Bear, the eleven stars of the two constellations 
 symbolising its eleven months, and hence in the description 
 of the year in the Book of the Dead, these four stars of 
 Pegasus are said to be behind the Thigh in the northern 
 sky I. The story of this age is told in the form of an account 
 of the journey through the nether world of the souls of Ani, 
 who is to become a new god Osiris Ani, and Thuthu his wife. 
 In the course of their journey they pass through the seven 
 Arits or mansions, the fourteen and twenty-one Pylons or 
 gates depicting the seven-day weeks and fourteen-day half 
 months of the year of thirteen months and the twenty-one-day 
 months of that of seventeen. These lead them into the 
 fourteen Aats or divisions of Sekhet Aanru, the goddess 
 of the field (sekhet) of reeds, the cultivated land of the nether 
 world, where the wheat-ears are two cubits and the stalks 
 three cubits long, and the barley-ears three cubits with stalks 
 of four cubits =. 
 
 Sekhet is a goddess depicted with a lion's head, and also 
 as a human-headed scorpion with horns and a disk on her 
 head. As a star she is both the star 7 Draconis, to which 
 her temples as Mat, the mother-goddess, are oriented at 
 Thebes and Antares in Scorpio, and as the latter star she 
 ruled the autumnal equinox 3. It was the seven scorpions 
 sacred to the goddess, the seven stars of the Great Bear, 
 which showed Isis the way to the Papyrus marsh, the place 
 of the reeds of Sekhet near the crocodile city of Pisui, when 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, xvii. 90, 91, p. 53. 
 
 ' Ibid., cxlix., ii. 1—3, p. 264. 
 
 3 Lockyer, Dawn of Astronomy, pp. 289, 290, 308. 
 
Primitivi Traditional History. 775 
 
 she was pregnant of the young Horus, the hawk-headed god 
 begotten, as we have seen in p. 192, when she as a hawk 
 hovered over the reviving Osiris brought from the cypress- 
 tree at Byblos before he was cut into fourteen pieces by Set. 
 
 The Arits and Pylons are in the chapters describing them 
 in the Book of the Dead addressed by three forms of Osiris, 
 Osiris Nu, Osiris Auf-ankh, and Osiris Ani, whose different 
 functions as described in this Egyptian Bible and in their 
 ritual will help us in discovering the inner meaning attached 
 to each of them. 
 
 Osiris Nu addresses the seven Arits in Chapter CXLIV. 
 and the first fourteen Pylons in Chapter CXLVL, the last 
 being invoked by Hera-em-khebit Horus of the South, who 
 calls himself in the last line of six of his last seven addresses 
 "the feeble-bandaged one," that is the god who introduced 
 mummyfication and the bandaging of dead bodies ^. Through 
 these he passed into the fourteen Aats or divisions of Sekhet 
 Aanru, each of which he invokes. 
 
 Osiris Nu is called in Chapter CXVII. Osiris Neb-qet, 
 Osiris the orbit =, or the god who measures his year by the 
 passage of the sun through the ecliptic stars. He is said to 
 celebrate as his yearly festivals those of the month and the 
 half month, that is of the new and full moon under the hand 
 of Thoth the moon-god, and at each of the Arits he invokes 
 the thigh, the head, the heart and the hoof of a red bull then 
 to be offered 3. In Chapter CXLVHI., seven kine, the seven 
 days of the week of the lunar-year, and a bull, upon whose 
 thighs, the stars of the Great Bear, he is to be born, are to 
 be offered to him, and the bull is invoked as the husband 
 of the cows, that is as the bull star-god Taurus, the bull of 
 Mithra, and the Rohita or red bull of Indian mythology, 
 the husband of Rohini the red cow, the star Aldebaran 4, and 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, cxivi. pp. 256—238. 
 ' Ibid., cxvii. p. 182. 
 
 3 Ibid., cxliv. s, 6, Rubric, pp. 241, 243, cxlix., v. p. 266. 
 '■ Ibid., cxlviii. 2—8, cxli. 16—27, where these seven kine and the bull, 
 accompanied by the four rudders of the north, west, east, and south, round 
 
776 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the father of the child of the Majesty of Indra. His course 
 through the fourteen Aats shows him as the god of the 
 primitive faiths when the dead were interred with compressed 
 limbs, as in the Neolithic age, who passes afterwards to the 
 later period of the mummy burial of the second Horus. His 
 earlier course is through the first eight Aats, all of which are 
 painted green as dedicated to the god of vegetation, and the 
 sixth of these is dedicated to the fish-god Ammehet. In the 
 eighth Aat he calls himself the Ennur bird of the seasons 
 (ennu) of the year measured by the seasons, and the god 
 of the north horizon, the sun-hawk of the first form of Horus. 
 Thence he enters upon the yellow Aats of Horus, the Jackal 
 of mummy burial, and in the ninth Aat he goes into and 
 leaves the wicked (ages), city of Aqesi, the crocodile which 
 none can enter and leave except the god born of the egg, 
 the god Osiris Auf-ankh, of the limbs (au/) of the creating 
 egg. Thence he as the new god born of the egg came to 
 the high (ga) city of Qapa of the jackal-god, holding the 
 knife for opening the body in the process of embalming 
 which he got in the eleventh Aat from the god Suti, and 
 in this Aat he sits on the Thigh of the Lake, the Great Bear 
 constellation. In the twelfth Aat he passes to the city of 
 Being (unt), and thence to the land of the thirteenth Aat 
 of water called Uart ent mu, the Thigh of water, the home 
 of the Hippopotamus, whose fore-paw rests on a beetle, the 
 god of the thirteen-months year. The fourteenth Aat, repre- 
 senting the half month of the thirteen-months year, is that 
 of Kher-aba, the battle (dda) of the testicles, when Thoth 
 emasculated Set, healed the right eye of Ra », and made the 
 thirteen-months year that of the sexless god of the Thigh 
 of Kher-aba the jackal 2, the last stage of the year of Osiris 
 Auf-ankh. 
 
 which they revolve, are named as gods to whom Osiris Nu offered, and in 
 the Vignette to this chapter the four sons of Horus bear the banner of the 
 Jackal, that is of the second form of Horus as the mummifying god, pp. 261. 
 262, 231—234. 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, xvii. 68—75, P- 62. 
 
 " Ibid., cxlix. pp. 264—268. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. yj"] 
 
 This god was in his original form the god Nu, of the 
 watery abyss of the sky (««), who is called the father of Ra 
 the sun-god, while his mother is Nut the heavens' vault ^ ; 
 and in another hymn Nu is the mother of Ra, so that he was, 
 like all the oldest gods, without sex ^. He is also called the 
 crocodile and the mighty fish of the black (^qern) city of 
 Qemu, the god who as the sun-hawk travels over Nu, the 
 watery abyss of heaven, in his year's boat. He is thus the 
 god who in his first divine birth was the cloud-bird, the god 
 Num of the Samoyedes, the god of the Akkadian land of 
 Elam called Nun-maki, the lady (mak) Nun, whose name 
 means the heavens, and he is the equivalent of the Baby- 
 lonian god of heaven, Anu, 
 
 He is in Egyptian mythology, with his wife Nunet, the 
 vulture, the Pole Star Vega, the chief of the eight paired 
 apes of the Meh-urt year-cow who sang the praises of Ra 
 and are the servants of Khnum the architect, the great ape- 
 god who was, as we have seen in p. 135, the star Canopusl 
 Thus he is in all his forms the ancestral year-god who was 
 the cloud- bird, the Pole Star tree-ape, the sun-hawk, the 
 polar crocodile and the fish, the Hebrew god Nun the fish, 
 and the polar fish of India (p. 738), the original form of the 
 god SalH-manu and of the cow-god of the ages of cow wor- 
 ship. In short he is the god universally worshipped in India, 
 South-western Asia and Egypt as the ruler of annual time, 
 who had in the course of ages assumed different phases in 
 the rituals of the various races who have successively wor- 
 shipped him. 
 
 As the god of the new and full-moon festivals led by 
 Thoth the moon-god he is god of the year of Khepera the 
 beetle, whose birthday is described in Chapter CXXX. of 
 the Book of the Dead, At dawn on this day he opens the 
 
 ' Budge, Sooi of the Dead, Hymn to Ra when he rises, 5, pp. 5, 10, 11. 
 ' Ibid., 15, XV. Hymn to Ra, 29, p. 38. 
 
 3 R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., Primitive Constellations, vol. ii. chap. xiv. pp. 
 163—165 ; Sayce, Assyrian Grammar, Syllabary Signs, 361, 498. 
 ■• Brugsch, Religion und Mythologie der cLlten Aigypler, pp. 123, 124, 444, 469. 
 
778 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 gate of the horizon with his Urheka, the ram-headed serpent 
 knife of the Ram constellation Aries', and sets forth in 
 his year-boat with his face, like that of Septu Sirius, placed 
 on the god of the Thigh, the Great Bear. On this mighty 
 thigh he makes his year-circuit in the boat of Khepera the 
 beetle, led in his eye by Thoth the moon-god ^. 
 
 This is a clear description of the year-course of the god 
 of the thirteen-months year of the seven Arits, the fourteen 
 Pylons and the fourteen Aats whose birthday was celebrated 
 with Egyptian ritual on the ist of Pharmuthi (January — 
 February), and its events are depicted in the picture and 
 description at Erment telling of his birth as Ra the Kheper. 
 His mother in the pains of labour is supported by the mid- 
 wife Renpit, the year, and Nit Neith the vulture weaving 
 {neitk) star the constellation Vega, the year-goddess of 
 Kheper the beetle. The child when born is given to a 
 waiting-woman Menat, meaning the breast, that is to a 
 wet nurse, who gives it to Khnum-at, the female form of 
 the architect ape-god Khunum. Amen-Ra, the god of the 
 South, and Rechebt, the northern goddess, are witnesses 
 of the birth. The seven Hathors from upper and seven 
 from lower Egypt fly round as birds to protect the place 
 of birth. They were the seven Khu birds, masters of know- 
 ledge [reck), raised from the primaeval waters by the eight 
 gods headed by Nun, the director of the Meh-art cow- 
 goddess {urt) of the flood (_meh). The Khus rose on earth 
 from the pupil of the eye of the rising sun, and, with Thoth 
 the moon-god, ruled the world. They were the seven 
 sparrow sun-hawks, the seven days of the week of the year 
 of Khepera the beetle 3. 
 
 Osiris Auf-ankh, the god who addressed the twenty-one 
 Pylons in Chapter CXLV., is the god of the limbs (««/) 
 
 of the ankh, the Egyptian symbol of life ip the egg of 
 
 ■ Budge, Book of the Dead, chap. i. p. 25. 
 
 = Ibid., cxxx. I — 10, 19, 32, 37, pp. 208 — 211. 
 
 3 Brugsch, Religion und My thologie der alteti ^gypter, pp. 164, 116— 521 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 779 
 
 the mother-bird said in Chapter XIII. of the Book of the 
 Dead, a hymn of the sun-hawl<, to be the son of the lady 
 Shertamsu, the little {sheri) goddess of generation, the little 
 year-sun-bird '. Thus he is a god more directly associated 
 with the solar-year than Nu the god of the creating water. 
 In Chapter XIX. telling of his birth his father is said to 
 be Tem, the god of the setting sun, and he is thus the year- 
 bird said to be triumphant in the southern heavens «, the 
 original Munda sun-hen who began his year at the winter 
 solstice with the conquest in the heavens of the gods of 
 Ablu (Abydos) of the Sebau fiends of Set, by setting in 
 the South-western heavens. This was the day of the Haker 
 festival, when the year's fires were put out and the egg- 
 headed pillar Tet set up in Tattu Mendes, the city sacred 
 to the Pole Star goats. The date of this festival of the 
 victorious birth of the sun-bird is recorded in the hymn 
 celebrating it ordered to be recited on its anniversary, as 
 the last day of the second month of the sowing season Pert, 
 that is on the last day of Mechir (November — December), 
 the sixth month of the Egyptian year. It is then that the 
 eye {utchat) of Ra is said to be full, and he then arose from 
 the dead to show himself in Het benben-et, the temple [het) 
 of the bier {ben-ben), in the presence of twenty-four gods 
 ruling the half-months of the year of twelve months, the 
 final form of the Egyptian year symbolised in the twelve 
 altars on which cakes and one joint of meat were offered. 
 Of these altars four were to Ra Tem, the sunset-god, and 
 four to the eye {utchat) of Ra4. This year was, like the 
 parallel year in India succeeding the year of seventeen 
 months, one of ten-day weeks and three weeks in each 
 month. 
 
 In the vignette to the birthday hymn in Chapter CXL., 
 Anpu, the jackal form of Horus, is depicted as the year- 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, xiii. Rubric, p. 31. 
 
 ' Ibid.,cxlv. 76, p. 252. 
 
 3 Ibid., xix. 1—8, XX. 3, cxlv. S4, clxxxi. 20. 
 
 * Ibid., cxl. pp. 230, note i, 232, cxxv. 19, p. 192. 
 
78o Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 god. The year of the Auf-ankh, the god whose birth is 
 there celebrated, is said to be that of the god for whom 
 Thoth, the moon-god, and Hapi the Nile god open the gates 
 of heaven ; and hence this year begun at the winter solstice 
 is one of the two solstices of which the second half began at 
 midsummer with the Nile floods '. 
 
 In Chapter CXLV., that of the twenty-one Pylons through 
 which he passes, he calls himself Horus, and in the address 
 to the eighth Pylon he says he has washed himself in water 
 in which Anpu, the jackal Horus, had washed himself when 
 he embalmed and bandaged the dead 2. Also in the last 
 eleven Pylons he calls himself, like Heru-em-khebit, Horus of 
 the South, and in the last seven Pylons of Chapter CXLVI., 
 " the feeble bandaged one." In the address to the twenty- 
 first Pylon its rulers are said to be seven chiefs, of which 
 the last is Anpu the jackal and the sixth Beq the olive-tree, 
 thus marking the year of the twenty-one-day months as that 
 of the jackal-god and the mother-olive-tree, which was the 
 mother-tree of the seventeen-months year of Odusseus (p. 
 766), and that of the epoch when the ritualistic use of the 
 earlier Sesame oil was superseded by the melted butter 
 offered in libations by the sons of the Meh-urt cow of Egypt. 
 Also the god of this Pylon is said to be the Amam, the date- 
 palm-tree of Hathor, mother of Horus, which can prevent 
 the growth of the cedar and acacia trees, and is thus the 
 ruler of the year of which the course is marked, as in the 
 Egyptian year, by the stages of the growth of vegetation 3. 
 
 In the conclusion of Chapter CXLV. Osiris Auf-ankh says 
 that he makes the Bennu come forth from his body, and this 
 bird was the Phoenix, the sun of the date-palm-tree age, in 
 which that tree was, as we have seen in pp. 759, 760, the 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, ex. p. 109. 
 
 = Ibid., cxlv., viii. 31, p. 247. 
 
 3 Ibid., cxlv., xi.— xxi. pp. 248—251. The seasons of the Egyptian year 
 are those of I. The inundation; II. Sowing; III. Harvest; Lockyer, Dawn, 
 of Astronomy, chap, xxiii. p. 233 ; Budge, Book of the Dead, Ixviii. 10, Ixxxii. 6, 
 pp. 123—142. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 781 
 
 mother- tree of South-western Asia and India ; and he also 
 says that he has come to the house of the god on his 
 bull, the god Anpu ^, who is thus shown to rule the latter 
 stages of his year. 
 
 It was this god Anpu, the jackal Horus, who appointed 
 the seven Khus to guard the coffin of the year-god Osiris, 
 and four of these, his sons Mestha, Hapi, Tuamautef and 
 Qebbsennuf, the four stars in Pegasus, are said to stand 
 behind the thigh of the Great Bear in the northern sky, 
 where they began their career as the eleven ruling stars 
 of the eleven-months year. This year which they guard 
 is said to be that of the eye [utchat) of Horus born in the 
 watery abyss of heaven {Nu), the home of the Meh-urt cow 
 of the eight Nuns 2. Anpu is called the embalming-god 
 and the giver of the winding-sheets. He is also called on 
 by Osiris Ani, the third of the gods of the Arits and Pylons, 
 to strengthen the two thighs, the two creating constellations 
 of the Great and Little Bear, and is said to be the creator 
 of the seven Arits 4. 
 
 The birth and functions of Osiris Ani, the recording scribe 
 Ani who celebrates, in the Book of the Dead, his promotion 
 from a mortal to be a ruling god, are described in Chapter I. 
 of the Book of the Dead, where he proclaims himself as the 
 god whose homestead as the supreme god was placed in 
 Sekhet Aanru, where he who has passed through his divine 
 transformations is begotten and born as the sun of Nut, the 
 heaven goddess, with Osiris in Tattu, where the birth-pillar 
 Tat is set up at the winter solstice, and has mourned the 
 dead Osiris with the weeping women in the land of Rekht 
 or knowledge {rekh), and has followed after Horus through 
 the south {res) land of Restatet, and has there made himself 
 the god of the sun-year of the two solstices s. He was with 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, cxlv. 77, 79, p. 252. 
 
 » Ibid., xvii. 77— loi, pp. 52, 53. 
 
 3 Ibid., cxlii. 6, 25, clxxii., vii. 39, pp. 240, 319. 
 
 ^ Ibid., xxvi., clxvii., vi. 7, pp. 73, 260. 
 
 5 Ibid., i. 9—16, 22, pp. 20, 23. 
 
782 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Horus at the destruction of the fiends of Sebau at the winter 
 solstice, and on the days of the festival of Osiris, which is 
 said to be that of the divine Ram, the sun-god born in Aries, 
 when the earth was turned up in Tattu when it was wet with 
 the blood of the fiends of Sebau. This was the festival of 
 three gods who preside at the birth Osiris Ani, the latest 
 form of the original Osiris, who are named in the next section, 
 I., as Ra Osiris and Shu, the god of the creating heat, to 
 whom a fourth god is added, the dog-head Bebi, the star 
 Sirius. It is at this festival that the thigh, the head, the 
 heel and the leg of the sacrificed ox signifying Taurus are 
 brought behind the coffin of Osiris guarded by Anpu the 
 jackal-god ^. 
 
 This festival is described as that beginning at the hoeing 
 festival held on the 22nd Choiak (September — October), 
 about the 7th of October, ending with that of the death of 
 Osiris four days after, on the 26th of Choiak, when the dead 
 god was launched in his Sekhet boat of the setting sun as 
 Osiris Sahu (Orion), the son of Ra and Nut, who leads the 
 stars of heaven round the sky and who was the earliest solar 
 form of Osiris Ani. The series of these festivals ends with 
 that of Neheb-ka, the snake-god, on the 4th of Tybi (October 
 — November) 2, and these associated festivals give us an 
 epitome of the history of the reckoning the Egyptian year 
 from the days of the Pleiades year beginning in October — 
 November to that of the birth of the sun in Aries, the Ram 
 constellation beginning the three-years cycle-year at the 
 autumnal equinox. 
 
 Other festivals mentioned as those at which Osiris Ani 
 was the god-priest were, (i) that of the six days' festival of 
 the inundation held at the summer solstice, the gods wor- 
 shipped being Horus Seb the star-god, Isis and Neith. It 
 was originally a five days' festival extended to six days 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, i. 22—37, xviii. G, H, I, pp. 61, 63, 64. 
 
 " Ibid., xviii. G 4, H i, 22, I 18, clxxii. 36, 37, Ixix. 5, pp. 63, 22, 319, 
 
 125; Brugsch, Religion und Mylhologii der alien Mgypter, pp. 303,346. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 783 
 
 every fourth year ', (2) The Tenet festival of the thirteen 
 and seventeen-months year held every seven days, and (3) 
 the daily launching of the Hennu boat drawn at dawn round 
 the sanctuary and called the boat of Seker, the ploughing 
 {seka) god, in which is the Thigh of Nemu, the walking {nem) 
 go3 who is the knife-bearing Headsman of Osiris, the Great 
 Bear executioner of the year-god at the end of his allotted 
 time 2. 
 
 The autobiography of Osiris Ani, with which the Book 
 of the Dead begins, is preceded by a vignette representing 
 the funeral of the jackal-god Anpu, to whom the thigh 
 of an ox is offered and who is the god re-born in the annual 
 resurrection of his successor. 
 
 Thus this analysis of the teachings of the Book of the 
 Dead as to the three gods of the seven Arits, the twenty- 
 one Pylons and the fourteen Aats, and the ritual of their 
 annual birth-festivals and the sacrifices oflfered to them, shew 
 us that they are gods of a year measured, like that of thirteen 
 and seventeen months, by lunar phases, and that the sun-god 
 of their years was believed to make his circuit of the heavens 
 in the retrograde course of the Thigh stars of the Great Bear. 
 Also that the two forms of year reckoning symbolised in the 
 Arits and Pylons are the thirteen and seventeen-months year 
 in which the year-gods are those of the years of the bird- 
 headed Horus, son of the sun-hawk, and Horus with a jackal's 
 head, the son of an egg impregnated by the sacred fire-drill, 
 the pillar on which the ankh egg stands, the obelisk-god of 
 Egypt. These thirteen and seventeen-months years are two 
 of the successive phases of year reckoning recorded in the 
 religious history of Egypt from the days when the stars 
 headed by the Pleiades were led round the sky by Khnum 
 Canopus and the first Osiris, the god Sah Orion, who was 
 born as the pillar-god Ra from the cypress-tree of Byblos 
 (p. 191). 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, i. 24, p. 21, note 4 ; Adams, The Book of the 
 Master, p. 37. 
 ' Ibid., i. 28, 29, xvii. 27, liii. A 5—8, 30—32, pp. 21, 55, 278, 280. 
 
784 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Further evidence as to the religious history of the worship 
 of the jackal-god Anpu, the second phase of Horus worship, 
 that represented in the latter stage of the cult of Osiris Auf- 
 ankh and the ritual of Osiris Ani, is given in Vignette III. 
 of the Papyrus of Ani representing the weighing of Ani's 
 soul I. In this the tongue of the Balance by which the soul 
 is to be weighed and judged is tested by Anpu, the jackal- 
 god, who stands close to it as the thirteenth of the ruling and 
 judging year-gods, while his twelve colleagues depicted in 
 the top of the Vignette sit behind the weighing scales, on the 
 top of which the ape-god is sitting, who in the circular Zodiac 
 of Denderah holds these scales as the constellation Libra ^. 
 Their judgment was to be delivered after they received the 
 report of the weighing given by the I bis -headed Thoth 
 (Dhu-ti), who stands to the left of the scales ready to write 
 it on the scroll in his left hand with the feather-pen of the 
 recording year-bird in his right hand. 
 
 This vignette shows clearly that Anpu the jackal was the 
 ruling god of Egypt before the ritual of the year of twelve 
 thirty-day months each of three ten-day weeks became the 
 official year reckoning of the country, and that this was the 
 form of year measurements used during the worship of Osiris 
 Auf-ankh is indisputably proved by the mention in Chapter 
 CXL. of the last day of Mekhir, the second month of the 
 sowing season of Pert, as that of his birth-festival. This 
 month is also mentioned in vs. 22, 23 of Chapter LXIV. of 
 the Book of the Dead, where it is called the sixth month 
 of the " twelve gods of Osiris Sah Orion at the head of the 
 Abyss," that is the month of November — December ending 
 with the winter solstice, when the sun is in the southern 
 abyss, and its last day is said to be the hour of the defeat 
 of the fiends (of Sebau), when, as we have seen, Osiris died 
 and was reborn in Tattu. In the second form of the chapter, 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, The Scene of the Weighing of the Heart of 
 the Dead, pp. 12, 13. 
 
 " See Frontispiece. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 785 
 
 which is that of Osiris Nu, he calls himself in v. 20 the god 
 of the Inundation, that is of the year beginning at the 
 summer solstice with the Nile inundation, and says his 
 name is Qem-ur-shi, the greatest {ur) black {qem) lake {shi), 
 the god of the lake of the southern sun, who brings the Nile 
 flood when he reaches the north at the summer solstice. In 
 Rubric I. of this chapter it is said to have been found in 
 the shrine of the Hennu boat of the Great Bear by the chief 
 mason in the reign of King Hesepti, the fifth king of the 
 first dynasty, who reigned about 4266 B.C., and in Rubric II. 
 it is said to have been found by Herutataf, son of Khufu, the 
 second king of the fourth dynasty, so that it gives us good 
 reason for believing that the year here described, which is 
 in both versions said to be that of the god who clasped the 
 sycamore fig-tree and which became that of the Jackal-god, 
 was the official year from the time of the first kings recorded 
 in the Egyptian annals i, whose reigns begun, according to 
 the chronology adopted by Dr. Petrie, about 5000 B.C. We 
 know further, from the evidence furnished by Egyptian 
 burials, that the mummy form of burial was in common 
 use during the whole period of kingly rule beginning with 
 the first dynasty, and as the first dynasty came to the throne 
 when the latest Egyptian year of twelve months was that 
 used in the priestly ritual, the scene depicted in Vignette III. 
 of the Papyrus of Ani, in which the soul of a god who was to 
 become Osiris Ani was weighed and judged by thirteen year- 
 gods headed by Anpu the jackal-god of mummy burial, must 
 be the record of an age before 5000 B.C., when the year was 
 measured by thirteen months, the year of the Khepera beetle 
 beginning with the ist of Pharmuthi (January— February), 
 when the early form of the thirteen-months year opening 
 with the annual ploughing festival began (p. 778), and which 
 preceded the year of seventeen months of Osiris Auf-ankh 
 beginning at the winter solstice ; and it was after this lunar 
 
 "Budge, Book of Iht Dead, History of the Book of the Dead, pp. xlvii., 
 xlvui, chap. Ixiv., i. 22, 23, 44, 45, pp. 114, 1,5, chap. Ixiv., ii. 8, 17, Rubrics 
 •■". pp. 117—119. 
 
 II. , E 
 
2S6 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 solar-year that the last year of Osiris Ani, beginning at the 
 summer solstice with the inundation festival, was instituted. 
 The whole evidence as to the history of the composition 
 of the Book of the Dead and of its pictorial illustrations in 
 the Papyrus seems to show that the successive chapters were, 
 like the hymns of the Indian Rigveda, ritualistic records 
 of compositions recited at annual religious festivals, and that 
 the history of the various gods worshipped at these festivals 
 and introduced into the ritual was taken from continuous 
 narratives of national history first preserved before the days 
 of writing in the memories of the various local priests, who 
 received them first from the national Asipu or historical 
 compilers and handed them on to their successors. There 
 appears to be no doubt that in Egypt these verbal histories 
 were at an early period of the time when each local central 
 temple, the head-quarters of a Nome or district, had em- 
 bodied them in continuous narratives illustrated by pictures 
 depicting the scenes verbally described, and these became 
 finally stereotyped in such records as the Papyrus of Ani, 
 which are hence shown to date in their earliest form from 
 a time long before the rule of the kings of the First Dynasty, 
 and of a long series of their predecessors, in whose tombs 
 written records have been found. And these seem to show 
 that the earliest institution of the mummy form of burial 
 which succeeded that of the contracted doubled-up corpses 
 buried in pits, like those of the Neolithic age, was tradi- 
 tionally recorded as dating from the age when the very 
 ancient thirteen-months year was ritualistically altered into 
 that of seventeen months, which as a solar-year was dedi- 
 cated in Egypt to Anpu, the jackal-god of the race who 
 introduced into this year the new form of interment. This 
 innovation apparently dates from a time after the Pole Star 
 left the constellation Hercules, about 7000 B.C., as it was 
 a rite of the ritual of Sekhet, the goddess of the Elysian 
 fields of the fourteen Aats, which as the home of the dead 
 succeeded the first picture of the central under-world birth 
 and death-land over-arched by the firmament, the home of 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 787 
 
 the gods and of their offspring the spirits of the dead, which 
 they left at their re-births in the upper world and to which 
 they returned at their deaths. But this original picture of a 
 home of continual transmigration was altered in the Egyp- 
 tian belief into a new form of eternal village life, in which 
 Osiris Ani and all dead souls lived unchanging lives, in the 
 West, in a land of perfect climate and abundant produce, 
 where death and decay were unknown. Sekhet, the field 
 goddess of this land, was apparently originally the star 7 
 Draconis, indicating a different position of the Pole Star 
 to that in Hercules. The belief in the Jackal constellation 
 of the Little Bear as a second divine thigh seems to be widely 
 distributed in the later form of the thirteen-months year, for 
 it distinctly appears in the year of the Indian thirteen Theris, 
 where the thirteenth is Sigala-mata, the mother of the jackal 
 [sigulo), who here takes the place of Ka-dru, the tree {dru) of 
 Ka, the thirteenth wife of Kashyapa and the thirteenth 
 month of the Naga Kushika year ; and this deification of 
 the jackal again appears in the Greek name for the Little 
 Bear, the Egyptian jackal star called Kunosoura, the dog's 
 tail. Also the adoption of the jackal or wild dog as the god 
 of burial seems to be one of the phases of fire-worship in 
 which the dog was always looked on as the guardian and 
 companion of the dead ; and it may be that it was this holy 
 jackal and not the earlier dog of heaven Sirius who accom- 
 panied at his death, as we shall see, Yudishthira, the eldest 
 Pandava, who had been a god of the thirteen and seventeen- 
 months year, and was changed into a star. 
 
 G. The May perambulation of boundaries dating from this 
 
 year. 
 
 Before I end the history of the seventeen-months year, the 
 solar form of that of thirteen months, I must show by its 
 connection with the annual ceremonial circuit of boundaries 
 how widely the custom originating in the New Year's distri- 
 
 3 E 2 • 
 
788 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 bution over the fields of each village of pieces of the flesh 
 of human and animal victims sacrificed to the deer-sun-god 
 was disseminated over Europe. 
 
 We have learnt from the comparison of the history of 
 Zarathustra with the successive births of the Buddha when 
 the sun was in Gemini, beginning with that in Magh 
 (January — February), the original initial month of the 
 thirteen-months year, and ending with his pentecostal fast 
 of fifty days, beginning with the vernal equinox when the 
 sun was in Gemini, and ending on the gth of May, that the 
 traditional Indian accounts of the changes in year reckoning 
 measured by the entrance of the sun into Gemini were similar 
 to those of the Zend fire-worshippers. Also in the history 
 of the seveenteen-months year of Skanda in India we have 
 seen that this form of the thirteen-months year was one 
 beginning with the new moon of Vi-sakha (April — May), and 
 that it corresponded with Zarathustra's year beginning with 
 the festival of Mardhyo-Zaremaya, held from the i8th to 
 the 15th of Ardibehisht (April — May), and thus the be- 
 ginning of both these years fell within the Pentecostal 
 period of the Buddha's year changes. Also a similar 
 change to a New Year's day of a solar-year not measured by 
 equinoxes and solstices, but beginning between the vernal 
 equinox and the summer solstice, is shown in the New 
 Year's day of one of the seventeen-months years begin- 
 ning with the official hair - cutting at the full moon of 
 Jyestha (May — June) of the king crowned in the previous 
 year. I have also shown that these changes in year reckon- 
 ings find a parallel in the years of the history of the western 
 ploughing'- god Arthur, who began his year by drawing the 
 sun-sword out of the churchyard stone, as they show that the 
 Celtic tribes who worshipped him as the sun-god begun their 
 year successively at Christmas, Twelfth Night, Candlemas, 
 Easter and Whitsuntide, at which last feast he was finally 
 crowned king. 
 
 In considering the history of the years represented by these 
 New Year's days which do not fall on the vernal equinox or 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 789 
 
 winter solstice, we have seen that the Twelfth Night and 
 Candlemas new years are connected with the thirteen-months 
 year beginning with the ploughing-festival of January — 
 February', and with the Indian year beginning with the 
 Hull festival of the new moon of Phalgun (February— March), 
 the origin of our Carnival, the Anthesteria festival of the 
 dead in Greece held in the same month, and the Roman 
 Parentalia feast to the dead beginning on the 13th of 
 February, in the midst of which, on the iSth, was the 
 New Year's race of the Lupercalia", all of which point 
 to a new year beginning with the new moon of Feb- 
 ruary — March, dated in the European folk-lore calendar as 
 St. Valentine's Day, the wedding-day of the birds, on the 
 14th February. 
 
 The Easter New Year's day is connected with the worship 
 of the sun-bird of the new year born from the egg laid in the 
 bird-marriage month of February — March, and beginning its 
 yearly flight not at the winter solstice, as in the original year of 
 the sun-hen, but at the new moon of the vernal equinox. This 
 year's journey was in the original reckoning of the equinoxes 
 in the cycle-year from which it was derived one of the four 
 stages, each of ten lunar stellar months, into which its three 
 years were divided, but in the change from new moon to full 
 moon reckoning it was postponed, like Parikshit's sun, from 
 the new moon to the full moon of Cheit (March — April). 
 It thus came into close connection with Vi-sakha (April — 
 May), the mid-month of the Pleiades year. This was the 
 month sacred to the ploughing-god of Syria, the original 
 rain-god Geourgos, or St. George, who was as ruler of this 
 
 ' I have also in the story of the sun-god born at Twelfth Night from the 
 mother-log taken off the fire at Christmas in Tranche Comte shewn that these 
 twelve days are a repetition at the beginning of the New Year of the twelve 
 days of festivity closing the original year of Orion at the winter solstice. 
 Hewitt, History and Chronohgy of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vii. sect, e, 
 The Roman gods of the year of eight-day weeks and the year of Luz, pp. 452— 
 454- 
 
 = Hewitt, ffistory and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vii. sect, e, 
 The Roman gods of the year of eight-day weeks, pp. 436-440. 
 
790 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 month, the mid-central month of a year beginning in October 
 — November, the conquering god of the form of the thirteen- 
 months year beginning the Indian year of the four Ashtakas, 
 of which the first fell in October — November, the first month 
 of the Pleiades year (p. 259). It was a year measured by 
 the movements of the Ploughing Star, the Great Bear, in 
 addition to the lunar phases which first measured it. Hence 
 this month Vi-sakha, which was, as we have seen, in Persian 
 history (p. 231) the brother of Pashang the constellation 
 Cancer, father of the Iranian sun-god Minu-tchir, of the 
 Turanian irrigator Frangrasyan and his brother Keresavazda 
 of the horned {keres) club or trident, became the month of 
 the birth of the sun-egg laid at Easter in the nest built in 
 February — March. This egg was in the story of the Hindu 
 seventeen-months year that of Vi-sakha, the second form of 
 Skanda, the sun-lizard born in this month as the sun-cock, 
 the offspring of the sun-hen called Kartikeya, the child of 
 the Pleiades. It is the memory of this birth in April — May 
 and of its antecedent births at the new and full moon of 
 the vernal equinox which survives in the widely spread 
 European custom, most conspicuous perhaps in Germany, 
 of painting eggs and making sugar images of the moon-hare 
 at Easter. 
 
 The connection of this month Vi-sakha with the thirteen- 
 months year is conspicuously shown in the genealogy of the 
 thirteen Buddhist Theris, among whom the third and ninth 
 Theris, Paduma-vati and Budda Kundalakesha, the cudy- 
 headed saint, also called Su-bhadda or Su-bhadra, were the 
 daughter and Dhammadinna, the fifth Theri, the wife of 
 Vi-sakha (April — May) ^. Also in the stellar measurements 
 of the Indian year of the Nakshatras introduced in the 
 three-years cycle-year, the star i Libra, called Vi-sakha, 
 indicated thirteen and a half days in the sun's circular journey 
 of three hundred and sixty-four days, and it was in the 
 
 ■ See Lives of the Buddhist Theris, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 
 July and October, 1893, pp. 517—566, 763—798. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 791 
 
 section of time allotted to this star in the month Vi-sakha 
 (April — May) that the Jain Tirthakara Parsva, the successor 
 of Arishta-nemi, the god of the eleven-months year, was born 
 and died. This star and the month April — May which it 
 rules also appear in the retrograde Egyptian Zodiac at 
 Denderah, where the seventh sign is the ape-god holding the 
 Balance, depicting this constellation Libra, thus marking the 
 year which begins in Aries, close to which is drawn the full- 
 eye (tttchat) of Ra, as one in which the New Year's Day is the 
 new moon of October — November beginning the Indian year 
 of the four Ashtakas as well as that of the Pleiades, in which 
 the mid-month was Vi-sakha (April — May). This answers 
 to the year of Osiris measured by the retrograde circuits of 
 the Thigh constellation of the Great Bear, said in the Book 
 of the Dead to begin with the festival of the Divine Ram 
 in Tattu'; and this, as we have seen on pp. 191, 782, 
 was that beginning with the launching of the dead Osiris 
 Sah or Orion in his year-boat. 
 
 This year, in which the sun was in Taurus in November — 
 December, answers to the year of Mithra, in which the sun- 
 bull was slain at the winter solstice at the end of this month, 
 and dates from about 10,700 B.C. 
 
 But though this was most probably the original traditional 
 year measured by the first framers of the Zodiac of the year 
 of Osiris, yet the conception of April — May as the seventh 
 month of this year is not that set forth in Vignette III. of 
 the Papyrus of Ani, depicting the weighing of Ani's heart 
 or soul, which tells of the theology of a much later age than 
 that of Osiris's year as represented in the Zodiac of Denderah. 
 In this Vignette the ceremony of weighing the soul of the 
 new comer who was about to be born as a god is distinctly 
 described as a divine birth, as is shown by the presence 
 at the weighing of Renenet, the midwife nurse-goddess who 
 presided at the birth of children, and who is described as the 
 goddess whose bull, whom she brought to life, is the year- 
 
 ' Budge, Book of the Dead, i. 27, p. 21. 
 
792 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 god of the twelve zodiacal months of Osiris Sahu (Orion) i, 
 called the twelve Sah gods. 
 
 This new god who began his year in April — May in the 
 Balance month of the ape-god was the jackal-god, who tested 
 the scales and introduced into Egypt the year of the god 
 Vi-sakha of the seventeen-months year of the twenty-one 
 Pylons of the jackal-god Anpu. This year was that beginning 
 with the Sed festival, described on p. 68 1, celebrated at 
 Denderah, the temple of the circular Zodiac, on the new- 
 moon day of Epiphi (April — May), when the goddess Isis 
 Sothis, the star Sirius, set forth in her boat to join her father 
 Tem at the beginning of the mid-summer inundation in 
 June — July. 
 
 This was the Sada festival of the Persian king Lohrasp, 
 called Burzin Mitro, the third and final year-fire of the 
 Persian Zend fire- worshippers, which became in the Calendar 
 of Zarathustra the festival of Maidhyo-Zaremaya, held from 
 the loth to the isth of Ardibehisht (April— May). And the 
 year thus begun in Persia in April — May was, like the cor- 
 responding year in Egypt, connected with the worship of 
 the year-star Sirius, who was to begin his year, that finally 
 adopted in Egypt as the official year, with the dog-days 
 of the summer solstice, for it was the year of Lohrasp's 
 son Gushtasp or Vistaspa, who, by the help of Hei-shui 
 Sirius, succeeded in being advanced from the position of a 
 beggar sun-god to that of supreme ruler who vanquished all 
 opponents. 
 
 The year thus begun first at the vernal equinox and then 
 in April — May was consecrated to the sun-bird of the latest 
 form of the Indian brick altar, the bird born from the egg 
 laid by the hen-mother of the sun-cock of the seventeen- 
 months year. And this Easter New Year was succeeded 
 by that of Whitsuntide, when in Buddhist religious history 
 the sun-god installed as the ruler of heaven and earth cast 
 
 ■ Budge, Book of tht Dtad, The Scene of the Weighing of the Heart of the 
 Dead, p. 13, clix. 3, p. 287, Ixiv. 22, p. 114. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 793 
 
 off, by tearing out his hair, all semblance of mortality, and 
 became the purely spiritual embodiment of the Unseen Will 
 of God, the dispenser of light and life, whose laws must be 
 obeyed by the sun, stars, moon, planets and all forms of 
 existence both spiritual and material. It is in the interval 
 between the Easter birth and the ascent to heaven and re- 
 birth at Pentecost that there are held almost everywhere 
 throughout Europe New Year festivals ait which the bound- 
 aries of each parish and village are circumambulated. It is 
 in the Roman ritual that we find most satisfactory evidence 
 of the ritualistic teaching conveyed in these ceremonies, of 
 which there were two held at Rome in the month of May, on 
 the 15th and the 29th. Both of these processions went round 
 the city boundaries following in their course the track of the 
 sun-god who went round his central village, the earth, in his 
 chariot on the solar race-course symbolised by the Zodiacal 
 circuit. The festival of the 15 th of May is called that of the 
 Argei, meaning, as we have seen on p. 397, that of the wolf- 
 gods of the Guelph race whose ruling epoch we have traced 
 in Greece, Persia, and India. It is dedicated in the Fasti to 
 Jupiter and Mercurius of the Circus Maximus, the god of 
 boundaries. The procession of this day is shown by the 
 coincidences of its ritual with that of the procession beginning 
 the official year in March, and by other significant signs, to 
 be one inaugurating a new year. The new year begun in 
 March was the solar-year of fifteen twenty-four-days months, 
 for it was during the first twenty-four days of the month 
 that the year-priests, the Salii, went round the twenty-four 
 boundary Argei shrines, resting at night at each. And the 
 end of this festal period of twenty-four days is shown to be 
 that opening a new year both on the 24th of March and the 
 24th of May by the special meetings on both these days of 
 the Comitia Curiata, the ruling council of the thirty Latin 
 Curiae', which were summoned by the immemorial custom of 
 all village communities to meet at the beginning of the year ; 
 
 ' Fowler, The Jiotimn Festivals, Mensis Martius, pp. 63, 64. 
 
794 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the oldest instances of such meetings being those held at 
 the beginning of October — November to regulate village 
 affairs and elect village councillors in the age of the Pleiades 
 year. 
 
 The twenty-four Argei shrines marking the course of this 
 ascent were divided into twelve Palatine and twelve CoUini 
 sacred to Mars Gradivus, the stepping {gradus) or marching 
 Mars who leads the year, and to Quirinus the revolving 
 god of the oaken spear ( quiris) i, made of the world's central 
 oak, over which the veil of Europe was thrown by Zeus 
 (P- 753) ^• 
 
 This circuit of these twenty-four Argei shrines was almost 
 certainly traversed by the New Year's procession of the i Sth 
 May, and it ended where it had probably begun, at the Pons 
 Sublicius, the ancient bridge over the Tiber in the building 
 of which no mortar was used. It was the national bridge on 
 piles, the name of which included in the title of the priests 
 as makers of the year-bridge {pons) was a symbolism of the 
 heavenly year-bridge of the sun-god, that of the stars Sirlus 
 and Procyon, by which he entered the Milky Way on his 
 yearly journey from South to North and North to South, 
 The procession was led by the male Pontifices or Priests, 
 the female Flaminia Dialis, who was usually dressed as a 
 bride, the sun-maiden, but who on this day of the death of 
 the god of the old year wore mourning, and the Vestal 
 Virgins, the lighters of the year's sacred fires and guardians 
 of the national fire in the central Regia. These last carried 
 a number of rush puppets, said by Dionysius to be thirty 
 and by Ovid two, a number which might perhaps have been 
 that originally carried when the year was measured by two 
 seasons, but which almost certainly in the age with which 
 we are now dealing represented the days of the month, 
 twenty-four in the reckoning of fifteen-months and thirty 
 in that of twelve months to the year. It was those which 
 
 ' Cook, The European Sky-God, Part iii. The Italian Folklore, vol. xvi. 
 no. 3, pp. 281, 282. 
 = Fowler, The Roman Festivals, Mensis Martius, pp. 37 — 42. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 795 
 
 were thrown into the river to represent the dead gods of the 
 old year. 
 
 This ceremony, of which the memory was preserved in the 
 phrase Sexagenarios de ponte, the old men (thrown) from 
 the bridge, certainly was a substitution, as I have shown 
 on p. 397, for a primitive human sacrifice in which the vic- 
 tims were looked on as symbolising dying year-gods of 
 the old national year of the age of the rule of the sons of 
 the wolf. Also the whole ritual shows clearly that we have 
 in this procession and the sacrifices ending it a reproduction 
 of the human and animal sacrifices offered on New Year's 
 Day throughout Asia and Europe, when the village lands 
 were all perambulated and pieces of the flesh of the victims 
 slain thrown on each field to fertilise it for the coming year's 
 crop. 
 
 Many pages might be filled with the accounts of similar 
 Easter and Whitsuntide boundary processions accompanied 
 with ceremonies recalling the former drownings of the human 
 victims offered, such as the perambulation of the fields of 
 Bavarian villages by a procession carrying sometimes a boy 
 sometimes a puppet thrown into the river at its end, and at 
 Halle this victim was a doll called Der Alte, the old man. 
 The observance of this custom, almost universal throughout 
 Germany, was forbidden at Erfurt by a law of 1551 A.D. 
 forbidding the ducking of people at Easter and Whitsun- 
 tide I. 
 
 The second May sacrifice accompanied by a circuit of the 
 boundaries is the Ambarvalia, a solemn perambulation of the 
 village fields at the festival of the great mother-goddess of 
 the Romans called Bona Dea, Dea, Dia, Damia, Maia, and 
 Ceres, the creating goddess of corn, the great maiden-mother 
 of this mid-month of the Pleiades year to whom pigs were 
 offered, and who was the Roman form of the Greek Perse- 
 phone, the goddess presiding over female festivals, especially 
 
 ' Mannhatdt, Baumkultus, pp. 331, 359, 420 ; Fowler, The Roman Festivals, 
 Mensis Martius, pp. iii— 121. 
 
796 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 that of the ist May, whose adoration as the healing goddess 
 of the house-builders is described on p. 209 '. This peram- 
 bulation festival of the great mother of corn was held on the 
 27th, 29th, and 30th, or on the 17th, 19th, and 20th of May, 
 and it was on the 29th that the animals to be sacrificed, 
 a bull or white cow, a sheep and pigs, were drawn three 
 times round the boundaries of each municipality by a crowd 
 crowned with garlands and carrying olive branches in their 
 hands, showing that the procession was one beginning the 
 year of the olive mother-tree. In the offering of the victims 
 two pigs were first offered and then a white cow or bull, and 
 at a separate ceremony a sheep was offered in the sacred 
 grove of the Arval Brethren. The whole sacrifice was called 
 Suovetaurilia, that of pigs, sheep and bulls *. 
 
 An exactly similar ceremony and sacrifice was performed 
 every year at Athens at the Thargelion held on the 6th of 
 May — June, when originally two victims, one for the men 
 and the other for the women of the city, were sacrificed, 
 but subsequently they were driven with fig-tree rods out 
 of the city instead of being slain. The epoch of the sacri- 
 fice is shown by the black and white pigs worn round the 
 necks of the men's and women's victims to be that of the 
 worship of the mother-tree 3. 
 
 I have already shown in many instances recorded in pre- 
 vious pages of this work that it is from an exact description 
 of the ritual of such ceremonial sacrifices as those offered at 
 the annual perambulation of the boundaries that we gain the 
 clearest knowledge of their history and inner meaning, and 
 information of this kind is given in the Eugubine Tables 
 describing the Ambarvalia boundary sacrificial processions 
 at Gubbio, where these Tables were found, shewing that they 
 
 ' Fowler, Ancient Roman Festivals, pp. 71, 74, 75, 95, 98 — 105 ; Hewitt, 
 History and Chronology of the Myth- Making Age, chap. iv. sect, c, p. 163. 
 
 "^ Ibid., Mensis Martius, pp. 124—128 ; Arval Brothers, Encyc. Brit., ninth 
 edition, vol. ii. pp. 671, 672. 
 
 3 Ibid., pp. 124 — 128; Diogenes Laertes, Socrates, chap. 23; Fastel de 
 Coulanges, La Cite Antique, pp. 186, 187 ; Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study 
 of Greek Religion, The Pharmakos, pp. 95 — 100. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 797 
 
 were very sirnilar to those at Rome. Also at Gubbio, the 
 Umbrian capital Iguvium, this ancient festival still survives 
 in an annual ceremonial circuit of the town held every year 
 on the iSth May, the same date as that of the procession 
 round the Servian walls of Rome to the Sublician Bridge. 
 
 The town of Iguvium dominated by the sacred hill Ingino 
 is shown by its name to be a settlement of the ancient wor- 
 shippers of the household-fire and mother-mountain named 
 Ing, Ingino and Ingaevines, called by Tacitus the men 
 nearest the ocean, the most northern Germans', sons of 
 Mannus, the son of Tuisco, the god of heaven {tiv, the 
 Gothic form of dev) =. They are the men of the household- 
 hearth and the inglenook, the worshippers of Her-men-sol, 
 the great pillar of the sun first made of stone, for which the 
 northern worshippers of the mother -tree substituted the 
 wooden pillar made of the parent-tree, both being the 
 symbol of the sun-god to those who looked on the Milky 
 Way as the yearly path of the sun from south to north and 
 north to south, and called it Irmen-straet, the street of the 
 sun-pillar of the god whose revolving bed was the Great Bear 
 called Irmenes-wagen 3. 
 
 The Iguvian annual May procession, as described in Tables 
 VI. and VII. of the Eugubine Tables 4, is said to be held for 
 the purification of the people by a thorough inspection of 
 their territory, that is of the town and the fields cultivated 
 by its citizens. This was led by the chief priest, one of the 
 priestly local guild of twelve Attidian brethren, whose name, 
 meaning sons of Attis, seems to mark them as belonging 
 to the Phrygian worshippers of Attis or Atys, also called 
 Pappos, the grandfather, who was the son of a male and 
 female pine-tree, and the male form of the goddess called 
 Cybele, the cave-mother Rhea or Agdistis, the goddess 
 
 ' Tacitus, Gcrmania, 2. 
 
 ' Stallybrass, Grimm's Teutonic Mythology, vol. i. pp. 344, 345, 193, 194. 
 3 Ibid., vol. i. pp. 115, U9, 3SS, 357, vol. ii. pp. 673—675. 
 * Bower, The Elevation and Procession of the Ceri at Gubbio, Appendix, 
 pp. 132- 140. 
 
7g8 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 whose image was an aerolite. He emasculated himself 
 under the mother pine-tree, into which Cybele transformed 
 him, and thus became a sexless god, and he was the Phrygian 
 form of the Indian and Egyptian Pole Star ape who sat on 
 the top of the world's central tree and turned the stars round 
 the Pole I. 
 
 The chief priest called the Adfertor, and his two assistants, 
 began the service with the inspection of the birds the sacred 
 chickens, and by taking auspices by sacrificing them and 
 looking at their entrails. When the augurs declared the 
 auspices to be favourable the three priests put on the pre- 
 scribed lustral garments with purple stripes, and over these 
 they, like the Indian priests, put on the sacred girdle, which 
 they wore on the right shoulder, like the Pitaro Barhishadah, 
 the fathers of the age when religious circuits were made, like 
 those of the Great Bear, round the Pole contrary to the course 
 of the sun. They then brought fire to the altar, and, as in 
 the Hindu ritual of the sacred fire-pan of the Pitaro-Agnish 
 Vattah who burnt their dead, it was carried by the fire-bearing 
 priest in a vessel borne on his right shoulder. 
 
 The High Priest then asked the "parfa" or parra to be 
 favourable to the Iguvine state. This bird is interpreted 
 by some as the owl, but by others as the green red-headed 
 woodpecker, the Latin Picus. That it was this last bird 
 which was invoked in this festival, which was common both 
 to the Umbrians and the Latins, is made almost certain by 
 the history of the worship of the Latin Picus, which was 
 looked on as the bird of Mars, the god of the central sun- 
 pillar and the father of Faunus the deer-sun-god, and it was 
 called by the Cretans, through whom, as we have seen, the 
 ritual of India tree worship was introduced into Greece and 
 Italy, Zeus Pekos, the woodpecker Zeus 2. That it was the 
 bird invoked at the May festivals answering to our Whit- 
 suntide is proved by its worship by Norwegians, Germans 
 and Esthomans as Gertrude's Whitsun fowl, Gertrude being 
 
 ' liniyc. Britt., ninth edition, Atys, vol. iii. p. 65. 
 
 = Suiila?, TTTiitn: Zavs ; De Guhernatis. dii Thiert, German edition, p. 543. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 799 
 
 the saint representing the goddess Freya, the sun-hawk of 
 the fire and sun worshippers, who is also the spinner, the 
 embodied spinning Pleiades to whom May, the month of 
 the virgin goddess of summer is sacred ^. 
 
 After invoking the woodpecker, the priests wearing the 
 lustral purple stripe expelled all strangers from the city, 
 and then went three times round the boundaries of its 
 lands accompanied by the victims for sacrifice, and at the 
 end of each circuit they prayed silently to Cerfus Martius, 
 Praestita Cerfia of Cerfus Martius, and Tursa Cerfia of Cerfus 
 Martius. 
 
 These three gods exactly answer to the India trio of the 
 original Gond bamboo trident called Pharsi-pen, the female 
 {hen) trident (pharsi), and who were therefore first their mother- 
 goddesses. But in the ritual of the worship instituted by 
 Lingal the Linga god, the leader of the northern immigrants 
 who brought the cultivation of millets and barley from Asia 
 Minor to India, this image became that of the central male 
 god Pharsi-pot and his two tiger wives Manko Rayetal and 
 Jango Rayetal (p. 239). This father-god was in India the 
 bamboo male tree-god set up on the Sakti mountains by 
 Vasu, the northern creating god. 
 
 The Umbrian father-god Cerfus of the Iguvine triad was, 
 according to Brdal and Buchelen, the interpreters of the 
 Eugubine Tables, the Latin Cerrus, whence is derived the 
 name Ceri given to the three wooden pedestals surmounted 
 by images of saints carried by the Ceraioli or pillar-bearers 
 in the Gubbio May procession, and the root of the name 
 is Kri, to create, which appears also in Ceres, the name of 
 the corn mother-goddess. Hence the name clearly denotes 
 the parent-tree from which the pillars and images of Cerfian 
 protecting gods of the city were made, and which were, like 
 the modern Ceri, carried in the procession round the Iguvine 
 boundaries. Therefore this tree must almost certainly be 
 the Quercus Cerrus of Linnaeus, Cerrus being the name of a 
 
 ' Stallybrass, Grimm's Teutonic Mythology, vol. i. pp. 6l, 364, 365. 
 
8oo Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 species of oak said by Pliny, Hist. Nat. xvi. 6, to grow in 
 the Apennines and Piedmont. It was this tree which was 
 the parent oak-tree of Gubbio, and the three Ceri, its guardian 
 gods, were the three parent-oaks sacred to the Roman Jupiter, 
 the revolving god Quirinus of the oaken spear (quiris), the 
 weapon of the Roman Quirites, the sacred tree of the mother 
 grove of Diana the female year-goddess of Aricia, whence 
 yEneas plucked the golden mistletoe which was to bring him 
 back in safety from the nether-world '. This is the sacred 
 oak tree of Dodona in Greece and of the Druids, who dis- 
 seminated its worship over Europe with the Indian year of 
 the Pleiades and the village organisation of the Indian 
 Dravidian sons of the mother-tree. In the ritual of the 
 worship of the three-seasons year of Orion the mother-oak 
 and other parent-trees, whence the symbolic tridents were 
 made, became the three mother-trees, the Tri-kadruka of 
 the Indian Kushika, the Drei-eich or three-oak parent-gods 
 of Thuringia in Germany, and the three cypresses of Min 
 at Coptos in Egypt 2. 
 
 But in tracing these three gods of Iguvium to the three 
 parent-oak trees we have not yet got to the bottom of the 
 Iguvian creed, for these gods are the offspring or out-growth 
 of the god Mars Hodius or Hondus Cerfius, the god of the 
 lower world, called also Mars and Dius Grabovius, the god 
 of the couch or pallet bed {Kpd^aros). He is the god dwel- 
 ling in the over-arching heaven, the veil of the island home 
 of life over which he circles in the revolving year-bed of the 
 Great Bear, making the central mother-tree of which it is, 
 as in the bed of Odusseus, a part, revolve, and this tree grew, 
 as we have seen on pp. 104, 105, from the creating mud of 
 the Southern Ocean 3. It is this god whose protection was 
 invoked in the ritual of the New Year's ceremonies for the 
 
 ' Virg., /En. vi. 201 — 211. 
 
 = Stallybrass, Grimm's Teutonic Mythology, vol. i. p. 75 ; Evans, Mycenaean 
 Tree and Pillar Cult, Fig. 26, p. 45. 
 
 3 Bower, The Elevation and Procession of the Ceri at Gubbio, chap, vii- 
 The Triad of the Iguvine Lustration, pp. 102, note i — 105. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 80 1 
 
 fields, men and fruit of the state of Iguvium. He was as 
 Mars the Akkadian god of the South-west wind Martu, who 
 became as the bearer of the germs of life from the Southern 
 Ocean the Indian Maruts, originally the wind-begotten tree- 
 apes who were, as we have seen, p. xii., deified in later 
 mythology as the Great Bear gods. He was thus the ruling 
 god of the navigators of the South who disseminated the 
 southern creeds of the Indian tree-worshippers and founders 
 of organised villages over all the coasts of Asia and Europe. 
 To the three divine children of Mars of the under-world 
 the following sacrifices were offered with silent prayers during 
 the three circuits of the city : — Three boars, red or black, 
 with spelt meal and offerings of incense to Cerfus Martins, 
 and three sows to Praestita Cerfia with corn and cakes, and 
 sour wine must accompany both offerings. To Praestita 
 Cerfia must also be offered two black and two white vessels 
 to be arranged as follows in the form of a St. Andrew's 
 
 O • Black 
 
 Cross y thus marking her as the original sun-hen, 
 
 # O White 
 
 the goddess of night and day ruling the year of the Indian 
 Mundas, who began her year at sunset in the South-west at 
 the winter solstice, and in this point of view she adds another 
 phase in the history of the evolution of her worship to that 
 which began by worshipping her as the cloud-bird which 
 brought from heaven the germs of life from which the 
 mother-tree was born. It was the substitution of the sun- 
 hen for the storm-cloud which originated the belief in the 
 birth of all life from the egg, which became the sacred ankh, 
 the symbol of the thirteen-months year of the Khepera beetle 
 who rolls the rain infiltrated germ-bearing egg of the all- 
 producing earth-mother. 
 
 These sacrifices were offered in the open air at places 
 prescribed in the ritualistic instructions, but the third series, 
 those to Tursa Cerfia, the goddess of the revolving tower 
 [tur), were offered in a temple before which the three heifer 
 calves to be offered to her were brought. Thence they were 
 driven into the decurional forum, the central point of the 
 
 n. 3 F 
 
802 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 city, where they were caught by the people and there sacri- 
 ficed. This sacrifice was, like those of the pigs, accompanied 
 by offerings of corn-cakes, sour wine, and silent prayers. 
 
 Between the sacrifices to Praestita and Tursa Cerfia a 
 cake pressed into a bowl and sprinkled with spelt meal was 
 offered by a kneeling priest to Fisovius Sancius, the sowing 
 (sancus) god of the Fiscian hill of the cleft {fissus), the local 
 mother - mountain, whence a stream descended the hill 
 Ingino, now sacred to St. Ubaldo, the chief of the three 
 Gubbio Ceri ', which doubtless was looked on in the age 
 of these sacrifices, as it is now, as holding a similar position 
 in the mythology of Gubbio to that held by the Palatine 
 at Rome. It seems from the ritual that this was visited 
 by the procession headed by the priests after the swine 
 sacrifices to the first two gods were offered and before that 
 of the three calves. It is probable that the village grove was 
 situated either at the top or the base of the hill, and that the 
 temple of Tursa was on it, and it was in front of the temple 
 that the cake and grain offering to Fisovius Sancius was 
 offered, and after this offering that the calves to be sacrificed 
 were driven into the forum. 
 
 The ritual of this procession and its accompanying sac- 
 rifices furnish us with most valuable historical evidence. In 
 the first place the three ruling gods and the triple sacrifices 
 to each point to a year of three seasons, that symbolised 
 by the sacred girdle worn by the officiating priests and 
 placed with the fire on the right shoulder. Both the use 
 of the girdle and the wearing of it on the right shoulder 
 show a startling similarity between the ritual of the Um- 
 brians who burnt their dead = and that established in India 
 by the dead-burning Pitaro Agnishvattah, who while wearing 
 their girdle on the right shoulder made their circuits contrary 
 to the course of the sun. These Umbrian priests by adopt- 
 
 » Bower, Elevation and Procession of the Ceri at Gubbio, Conclusion, pp. 
 
 121, 122. 
 
 = Ridgeway, The Early Age of Greece, vol. i. chap, vii., Inhumation, Cre- 
 mation and the Soul, pp. 496, 497. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 803 
 
 ing and wearing the girdle as their sacred symbol of office 
 showed that they, like the Indian Brahmans and the dancing 
 priests of South-western Asia, Greece and Italy, who have 
 become the modern dervishes (p. 159), and of whom the 
 Gubbio Attidians were a guild, traced their descent as a 
 religious order from Orion's year of three seasons symbolised 
 by the three strands of the girdle and the three knots, the 
 three stars of Orion's belt, by which it was tied. 
 
 These Attidian priests also, like the Indian burners of the 
 dead who made the sacred fire-pan, carried the fire in it in 
 a consecrated vessel on their right shoulders before it was 
 placed on the altar (p. 734) ^. Also in both rituals the 
 prayers were said silently according to the ritual of Orion's 
 year. 
 
 The sacrifice of boars to Cerfus Martins and of sows to 
 Praestita Cerfia at Gubbio and that of two pigs at the Roman 
 Ambarvalia trace their origin to the days of pig-worship, 
 when pigs were holy animals offered to Eubouleus, Dea and 
 Persephone, the May Queen at the Greek New Year's 
 festival of the Thesmophoria in October — November ; and 
 this deification of swine was, as we have seen, part of the 
 ritual both of the Arcadian and Druidic sons of the oak- 
 tree = and of the worshippers of the pillar-sun-god Ra or 
 Rahu, to whom pigs were offered in India and Egypt. The 
 sacrifice of the three heifer calves to Tursa Cerfia belongs 
 to the age of the early burners of the dead, who first sub- 
 stituted for the worship of the buffalo in India that of the 
 cows they brought with them from the North, and who in 
 that age when mother-worship was still predominant wor- 
 shipped the cow in preference to the ox of the three-years 
 cycle-year or the later bull. It was they who in India at the 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., vi. 7, I, 6—18, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 pp. 266—269. The fire-pan bearing the sacred fire is here directed to be 
 carried to the altar by the sacrificer, who places it in a net hung round his 
 neck by a triple holy cord, which with the six strings that attach the net to 
 the cord are said to denote the seasons of the year, the whole apparatus 
 symbolising the thirteen-months year, see p. 734. 
 
 ° Frazer, Pausanias, viii. i, 2, vol. i. pp. 373, 374- 
 
 3 F 2 
 
8o4 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 middle Ashtaka in December — January shewed the depend- 
 ence of their year on the revolutions round the Pole of the 
 Great Bear, called the Left Thigh, by ofifering the left thigh 
 of the cow offered to the female ancestors of the sacri- 
 fices I. 
 
 The substitution of heifer calves for the full-grown cow 
 was an innovation dating from the worship of the young 
 sun-god, the ninth kumar of the Indian seventeen -months 
 year, the Rahulo or little Rahu of Buddhism. It was then 
 sacrifices began to be offered in temple shrines instead of the 
 open air sacrificial ground, on which the first earth altars 
 were raised. But the still primitive character of the ritual 
 and its dependence on Great Bear worship is distinctly shown 
 by the retrograde circuits made by the processions proved to 
 have been taken wearing the girdle on the right shoulder, and 
 the correctness of this conclusion is proved by the retrograde 
 direction taken by the priests' procession at the Gubbio pro- 
 cession of the 15th May, when they follow in the direction of 
 their march the example of their Umbrian predecessors. 
 The later sunward course is that followed by the CeraioH 
 bearing the three Ceri or tree-mothers ; but they begin their 
 march by turning each Cero three times round against the 
 course of the sun. 
 
 We also in these sacrifices of the Iguvine Umbrian proces- 
 sions trace the history of sacrificial rites from the earliest 
 offerings of first-fruits made on New Year's day to the village 
 mother-tree. For it is these which survive in the offering of 
 a cake sprinkled with spelt meal to Fisovius Sancius, the 
 sowing-god of the mother-mountain crowned by the mother- 
 tree. These offerings were first succeeded by animal sacri- 
 fices in the sacrifice of the Munda sun-hen which appear 
 at Gubbio in these birds of Indian origin slain for auspicial 
 inspection, and these were succeeded by the pigs offered 
 to Dea and Persephone, to whom originally only first-fruits 
 were offered. 
 
 • Oldenburg, Grihya Sutra Paraskara Grihya Sutra, iii. 3, 8— II, Sacred 
 Books of Ihe East, vol. xxix. p. 349. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 805 
 
 A further indication of the history of the formation of this 
 Iguvian ritual is given by the worship of the red-headed 
 green woodpecker invoked at the beginning of the pro- 
 cessions spoken of in the Eugubine Tables, and the memory 
 of which survives in the red caps of the Ceraioli or bearers 
 of the Ceri. The adoption of this cap derived from the 
 sacred forest- bird marks its worshippers as men of the red 
 race, successors of the yellow Turanians, who believed in the 
 mother-tree and hence were offshoots on the mother's side 
 of the original woodland race who founded the first villages 
 in the Indian forests, and thence by emigration and inter- 
 mixture with other races disseminated their customs and 
 traditions over all Asia and Europe. It was these people 
 who in the Bronze Age became the miners of the ancient 
 world and the pioneers of its progress, and they translated 
 the central island home of the southern races, the sons of the 
 central mother-tree, the dwelling-place of their national gods, 
 where the souls of their ancestors awaited re-birth, into the 
 mother-mountain within which their souls dwelt as the fairies 
 of the folklore of the Celtic dwarf Finn races. Among these 
 the goblin wearing the red cap, the treasure-guarding Lepre- 
 chaun of Ireland, was the humanised form of their mother- 
 bird, the red-headed woodpecker, the bird-parent of the 
 dwarf forest miners whose progress I have traced from the 
 Ural mountains through Europe and Asia. They were all 
 sun-worshippers, and their red-capped parent-bird is believed 
 to be a guardian of mineral wealth in the folklore of all 
 European countries and by the Algonquin Indians of North 
 America '. 
 
 It was they who in India found the Su-astika, the modified 
 form of the St. Andrew's Cross, adopted as a symbol of the 
 revolving sun by the red races who called the eight-rayed 
 star their parent Ashtaka and established the year of eight- 
 day weeks. And it was they who took this symbol to 
 America with the ritual of the worship of the elephant- 
 headed cloud-bird Gan-isha, the primitive form of the sun- 
 ' Leland, Etruscan Roman Remains, pp. 162 — 165. 
 
8o6 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 god the Buddha, and of the Maize Sheaf, the symbol of God 
 universally worshipped by all the Indians of North America ' 
 and by all Mexican races, which was called by the Zuni 
 Sia the Ya-ya. This was the American form of the worship 
 of the rice-sheaf adored as the image of God by all the tree 
 and plant-worshipping races of Southern India, the founders 
 of permanent villages, and also by the dwellers in Eastern 
 Asia. And from this was derived the worship of the barley- 
 god, the parent divinity of South-western Asia and Egypt, 
 before the days of the sons of the date-palm-tree, whence 
 it was disseminated over Europe. With these cults were 
 brought the buffalo dances of the Dakota Indians, founded 
 on the model of the Oraon worship of the Kurum almond- 
 tree and the swinging hook-sacrifice of the ascetics who 
 assisted at these festivals, the snake and antelope dances 
 of the Indian Naga Kushikas, and, as I shall also show pre- 
 sently, the eighteen-months year, the last year of the Pan- 
 davas succeeding this year of seventeen months, and to this 
 list many more Indian ritualistic customs and beliefs might 
 be added, some of which I have noticed in previous pages. 
 
 It was the Su-astika sign of these Indian sun-worshippers 
 of the Bronze Age which was adopted as the symbol of the 
 revolving sun by the American Indian tribes, who in their 
 old tombs in Mississippi and Tennessee buried engraved 
 plaques, one of which is here reproduced, representing the 
 red-headed woodpecker flying as a sun-bird round the central 
 sun, which is here depicted with twelve points 
 denoting a year of twelve months with a Greek 
 cross of St. George in the centre; but in 
 another plaque the eight points of the cight- 
 : rayed star are given to the sun and the centre 
 cross is that of St. Andrew =. It is to be 
 
 ' Abbe Domenech, The Great Deserts of N. America, vol. ii. p. 212. 
 
 ' Wilson on the Suastika Report of the Smithsonian Institution, United 
 States' National Museum, 1896, Figs. 263, 264, 265, pp. 906. 907 i Goblet 
 d'Alviella, The Migration of Symiols, English Edition, Fig. 29, p. 58. The 
 plaque representing the sun-bird as flying round the sun of the eight-rayed 
 star and the St. Andrew's Cross is that shown in Mr. Wilson's Figure 264. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 807 
 
 noticed that the revolution of the bird here depicted is the 
 retrograde circle of the Great Bear. 
 
 We must now return after this digression summarising the 
 teachings of the ritual of the May processions and sacrifices 
 described in Tables VI. and VII. of the Eugubine Series to 
 the description of the other sacrifices of the Ambarvalia at 
 Rome and Gubbio, and of further details of the modern re- 
 production of these ancient ceremonies which have not been 
 yet noticed. In the ritual of the Iguvine circuit processions 
 there is no mention of the sacrifice of a sheep, and we have 
 seen that in the Roman Ambarvalia the sheep sacrificed was 
 not slain during the procession but afterwards in the village 
 grove sacred to the Arval brethren who were the Attidians 
 of Gubbio. Similarly in the Eugubine Tables the ritual of 
 the sheep sacrifice is given in another table from those de- 
 scribing the procession, and it apparently belonged to the 
 series of those offered at the birth and ascension to heaven 
 of the Easter sun-god, the sun of the right thigh, who made 
 his annual circuits sunwise according to the ritual of the last 
 Buddhist recension, the modern doctrine of the users of the 
 solar zodiac and the latest form of Vedic, Greek and Roman 
 ritual, and of that of all Christian Churches. 
 
 The object of the ritual of this sheep sacrifice was the 
 sanctification of the temple-spring, the fountain welling forth 
 from the points of the hoof of the sun-horse. Its president 
 was a priest of the Attidian college, who in performing it 
 turned to the right and not to the left, as in the pig and 
 heifer procession. The priest chose a sheep for the sacrifice 
 which was brought in from the country and was carried in 
 a litter with an upper and lower compartment like those of the 
 Ceri. The sacrifice was offered after the ceremonial entrance 
 of the priest into the temple, apparently that of Tursa, to 
 whom, with Jupiter Pumunus Publicus and other deities, 
 the sacrifice accompanied by corn and wine was offered. 
 The sheep sacrificed is the Easter lamb eaten by the Jews 
 at the Passover, which was first the lamb of the year be- 
 ginning with the feast of Purim in February— March, that 
 
8o8 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 sacrificed by the Bulgarians to St. George on his day, and 
 that eaten on Easter Day in almost every house in Greece. 
 It was the substitute for the sacrifice of the eldest son, the 
 child eaten by the Sabaean Haranites, who pray turning to 
 the South and not to the North, like the Mandaite Sabasans, 
 but who were the followers of the white god Laban in the 
 age of the eleven-months year. In the Mandaite New Year's 
 sacrifice at the autumnal equinox a wether and not a lamb 
 was slain, a sacrifice denoting the worship of a sexless god '. 
 When we turn from the ancient Iguvine ceremonies to 
 those of the modern Gubbio procession on the isth May, 
 the first point to be noticed is the dedication of the three 
 pillar Ceri. The first of these was originally dedicated to 
 St. Francisco, but for him was substituted in 1192 a local 
 saint, St. Ubaldo, by whose prayers eleven cities were con- 
 quered by Gubbio at the close of the eleventh century. His 
 translation to the local hill temple on Ingino where his 
 monastery was founded took place on the nth of September, 
 and his festival was fixed on the i6th May 2. The other two 
 Ceri are called those of St. George and St. Anthony, a dedi- 
 cation marking the festival in which they are the principal 
 actors as one to the gods of the year of three seasons, 
 originally that of Orion, but beginning when it was dedi- 
 cated to St. George, the god of the ploughing-festival of the 
 Great Bear, at the autumnal equinox. This became in Egypt 
 the festival of the 26th Choiak (September — October), that 
 of the death of the year-god Osiris, who was born again as 
 the year-god Horus, the Egyptian form of St. George (pp. 
 462, 463). It was on the 14th of September that his symbol 
 of the year-cross denoting the equinoctial year was found, 
 according to local tradition, in Syria, and it was this god 
 
 ' Bower, Elevation and Procession of the Ceri at Gubbio, pp. II4> "5 > 
 Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. ii. Preface, p. xvi. essay vii. 
 PP- S5> 56, essay viii. p. 164; Chwolsohn, Scibier und der Sabiismm, ii- 
 Excursus to chap. ix. pp. 313, 364; Gamett and Stuart Gleimie, Women of 
 Turkey, chap. xii. pp. 332, 333. 
 
 ' Ibid., chap, ii. St. Ubaldo of Gubbio, pp. 19—27. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 809 
 
 who became in northern countries the god of the Easter sun, 
 whose festival is the 23rd of April. St. Anthony, who carries 
 a fire-ball in his hand ^, is in Italian popular mythology the 
 god of the household-fire and the special protector of pigs ^. 
 
 That this year, inaugurated by the lighting of the house- 
 hold and national fires and the ploughing of the village lands, 
 was also that which culminated in the summer is proved by 
 the story of St. Ubaldo, whose body is believed to be un- 
 perishable, and who is clothed every year before his festival 
 as the never-dying sun-god who after being stripped in 
 winter yearly re-clothes himself in the leaves and flowers 
 of summer. 
 
 The red-capped Ceraioli who carry their saints in the pro- 
 cession belong to three guilds. The bearers of St. Ubaldo 
 are members of the guild of Muratori or Masons. Their 
 leader is the captain or director of the festival, who enter- 
 tains the principal guests at the feast given on the day of 
 the procession, the eve of St. Ubaldo's day. He is yearly 
 elected by lot on the i6th of May from the members of 
 the Masons' Guild, and he must be of noble birth. He 
 holds office for twelve months, and when Gubbio was a 
 republic he was the national President. The Ceraioli of 
 St. George are traders, and those of St. Anthony contadini 
 or peasants. Thus the three orders represented correspond 
 to the Indian Kshatriya or warriors, the Vaishya or tradersj 
 and the Sudra cultivators. 
 
 The day of the procession, as the eve of St. Ubaldo's day, 
 is a fast. Hence the principal dish at the feast held at mid- 
 day is one of boiled peas and cuttle fish, the millets and river 
 fish representing the tribal meal of the sons of the rivers. 
 This is followed by a number of fish courses, the sacramental 
 dishes of the fish-sun-god Sallimanu, who died yearly in the 
 constellation of Pisces the fish, the last Nakshatra Revati, 
 and rose again in the constellation Aries as the sun-ram, the 
 bearer of the seal of Solomon, the mystic marriage-ring of 
 
 ' Bower, Elevation and Procession of the Cert at Gubbio, p. 1 14. 
 ' Leland, Etruscan Roman Remains, pp. 238—240, 252. 
 
8io Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the Pope with its nine divisions, which was to be the topmost 
 stone of the vaulted roof of the heavenly palace of the im- 
 mortal sun-god built by the Masons of the holy craft, who 
 first began the year-palace by arranging the bricks of the 
 days of the week by which time was measured '. It is these 
 builders who rule the Gubbio festival, and who in the widely 
 disseminated society of Free Masons have adopted the seal 
 of the two interlocked triangles enclosed in a circle as the 
 signet of the Royal Arch, their highest grade ^. 
 
 This meal is accompanied by large draughts of wine, which 
 is also consumed during the procession, which, like all the 
 early orgiastic festivals to the seasonal gods of the setting 
 stars and sun, takes place in the evening. 
 
 After the leading Cero of St. Ubaldo is raised before 
 mid-day and all the Ceri are prepared for their independent 
 excursions through the town to the houses where enter- 
 tainments like those of the chief Pranzo, the chief cap- 
 tain, are being given. The captain of St. Ubaldo's Cero 
 leads the procession with a drawn sword accompanied by 
 a man in a red shirt carrying an axe covered with a white 
 cloth. This is the survival of the double axe of Parasu Rama 
 and the Carian Zeus, the holy axe which cut down the 
 mother-trees carried at the earliest procession, which were, 
 like the Kurum almond-tree of Chutia Nagpur, solemnly 
 cut by fasting villagers who went into the forest to seek it. 
 Before starting each Cero is rapidly turned round contrary 
 to the course of the sun, the circle of its bearers moving with 
 it. Then each Cero takes its own course, visiting the houses 
 of important citizens who are to entertain its bearers and 
 other invited guests at the mid-day meal, and also those 
 of others, and at each of these visits the retrograde turning 
 of the Ceri is repeated. These preliminary ceremonies end 
 
 ' See for this building of the altar preparatory to building the heavens' palace, 
 Hewitt, History and Chrtnology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vii. sect, b, 
 The Story of Tobit and Jack the Giant Killer, builder of the altar of the eight 
 and nine-day weeks. 
 ' Bower, Elevation and Procession of the Ceri at Gubbie, pp. 6, 7, 65, 66. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 8ll 
 
 with the deposit of all the Ceri in the Via Savelli della Porta, 
 the old Via delle Fonti leading from the Piazza della Signoria, 
 the market-place, to the southern gate, the Porta Romana. 
 This street was probably that leading to the town fountain 
 called Fontuli in the sixth Eugubine Table, where three 
 boars were sacrificed to Cerfus Martius, and after this the 
 third meal of the day was taken by the bearers. After this 
 the Ceraioli march in bands about the street singing songs ^. 
 After Vespers the final procession begins with the ringing 
 of the great town bell, only rung five times a year, and this 
 is followed by the procession of the ecclesiastics who come 
 from the Cathedral into the Central Piazza Signoria. They are 
 preceded by men in white with black caps walking in pairs, 
 as mourners for the dead year. These are followed by the 
 members of the Society of Santa Croce wearing blue caps, 
 the garments of the risen sun of the new year ; after these 
 come more men in black, then the body of ecclesiastics and 
 the scholars of the Seminary, and then men in brown capes 
 carrying St. Ubaldo's picture. They are followed by the 
 Canons of the Cathedral, and last of all comes the Bishop. 
 After the Bishop has blessed the Palazzo Pretorio, or Town- 
 hall, the procession moves northward, and then turns down- 
 hill to the west, then south, and east round the town till it 
 meets the procession of the Ceri just inside the Porta 
 Romana at the south of the town, thus making the circuit 
 contrary to the course of the sun. 
 
 While the ecclesiastical procession is making this circuit 
 the three Ceri and their bearers remain waiting in the old 
 Via delle Fonti ranged in the order of their procession, that 
 of St. Ubaldo, the summer-god, being in front, followed by 
 St. George, that of the autumn with St. Antonio, the winter 
 and spring, in the rear. They arrange the time of their 
 starting so as to meet the Ecclesiastics at the pre-arranged 
 point close to the the Porta Romana, and they all set forth 
 southward along the Via delle Fonti to make their sunwise 
 
 " Bower, Elevation and Procession of the Ceri at Gubbio, pp. 9 — 11. 
 
8i2 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 circuits of the town. When they meet the priests they are 
 stopped in their full career by the elevation of the Host by 
 the Bishop as the symbol of the rising sun. 
 
 After acknowledging the holy symbol the bearers with the 
 Ceri rush past the clergy and continue their rapid run till 
 they reach the first place in their circuit, where they stop 
 for a draught of wine, at the south-west corner of the city. 
 It is at the Talazzo Ferranti on the banks of the stream 
 running from Mt. Ingino through the town ^. Here the first 
 captain, mounted on horseback and attended by a trumpeter, 
 takes the lead of the procession followed by the second 
 captain and two axe-bearers. They, followed by the Ceri, 
 go north-east and then east to the Great Piazza. There 
 they halt a second time for rest and wine, after the Ceri have 
 gone several times round the Piazza contrary to the course 
 of the sun. They then start north-eastward for their final 
 halting-place at Porta Ingino, and thence they take the Ceri 
 at the hill and carry them three times round the monastery. 
 The ceremonies end with the lighting of the year's fires in 
 the town and all adjacent villages, and, like other New Year 
 festivals, with a two days' fair ^. 
 
 A similar Whitsuntide procession takes place yearly at 
 Echternach in Luxemburg on the river Sauer, one of the 
 holy places of the country of the Eburones or sons of the 
 Boar (ebur), which extended from the Eiffel down to Lake 
 Neuchatel, called by the Romans Lacus Eburodeniensis, the 
 Lake of the fort {dun) of the Eburi, whose name is a reminis- 
 cence of the worship of the Wild Boar Sun. The festival 
 is nominally dedicated to St. Willibrod 3, an English monk 
 who came as a missionary to Trier near Echternach, where 
 
 ' Bower, Elevation and Procession of the Ceri at Gubbio, pp. 14 — 16, note I. 
 
 = Ibid., pp. 15—18. 
 
 3 Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. viii. seel, j, 
 PP- 554 — 559 j Die Spring procession ind der Wallfahre zum grabe des heiligens 
 Willibrod in Echternach, von J. Berne, Krier Religions lehrer in Progymnasium 
 um Echternach, pp. 66ff., 113, 158, 63, 68: Purior, Echternach St. IVilliirtd 
 et la Procession dansanie, p. 13. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 813 
 
 he founded a monastery, and after converting the people of 
 the country, died in 739 A.D. The festival was originally 
 one to the sun-god of the holy well at Echternach, at which 
 crowds assembled from all parts of the surrounding country, 
 some coming even from as far as Prum in the Eiffel, sixty 
 miles off. There at the same time at which the present 
 festival is held they danced for three days and three nights, 
 according to the old heathen customs, and the dances were 
 all danced with a peculiar step of three paces forward and 
 two backwards, which with its special music is still danced 
 by all who take part in the procession. The original dance 
 began, as the procession does now, at the linden tree of 
 St. Willibrod, the parent-tree of all the villages in the Eiffel 
 country, and of almost all those in Belgium. They danced 
 three times round it at starting, then went sun-wise round 
 the town, stopping at the Abbey Church, within which they 
 danced three times round the great central chandelier with 
 its seventy-two lights, commemorating the original year of 
 seventy-two five-day weeks, and thence they went to the 
 Parish Church, where they went round the interior and 
 danced three times round the cross outside it. 
 
 In the Middle Ages the procession was divided into two 
 separate services, the second being reserved for the creeping 
 penitents who made their way slowly round the circuit, 
 beginning their journey by creeping through a hole in a holy 
 stone near St. Willibrod's cross under the Linden-tree, which 
 like a similar holy stone at Anderlecht near Brussels, was 
 supposed to possess healing virtues. Sick persons and Easter 
 lambs used to be passed through the hole in the Anderlecht 
 stone. 
 
 The procession and its services are regarded by all who 
 take part in it as a most solemn religious ceremony. For 
 some days before Whit-Monday pilgrims began to come in, 
 and it is almost more interesting to watch their arrival than 
 to see the procession itself. All those from each village, 
 men, women, boys and girls and little children, come together 
 in one troop accompanied by their village band, and they 
 
8 14 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 spend their time on the journey in reciting the Litanies of 
 St. Willibrod. All those that I met near the town were thus 
 engaged, though whether these recitations had continued 
 during the whole of their long journey on foot I cannot say. 
 
 In the procession which begins with a sermon each village 
 takes its allotted place. The men, women, boys, and girls 
 stand in separate rows for each sex and age, and dance in 
 step with the village band and behind the village flag ; and 
 this arrangement is a surviving likeness of the processions 
 of matriarchal village communities in Chutia Nagpur, each 
 with their own flag and village musicians. It is a complete 
 survival of the old worship of the healing sun-god, the sun- 
 physician, to whom prayers no less fervent than those now 
 uttered in St. Willibrod's Litanies were addressed. 
 
 If accounts were given of all similar Easter and Whitsun- 
 tide festivals to those now noticed the contents would fill 
 volumes, and the only conclusion to be drawn from them 
 is that they were once universal in Europe, and that they 
 were all connected with a series of changes in year reckoning 
 extending over thousands of years, in which the New Year 
 was gradually advanced in accordance with the change in 
 the date when the sun entered Gemini and Libra, and also 
 in some cases Cancer, Leo and Virgo, from the winter solstice 
 to May — June. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE YEARS OF EIGHTEEN AND TWELVE MONTHS AND 
 FIVE AND TEN-DAY WEEKS. 
 
 WE have seen in the last chapter that the seventeen- 
 months year of Skanda, the sun-lizard, ended in India, 
 according to the Mahabharata, with the death of its champion 
 Jayadratha, the silver boar, and consequently its sequent 
 year, that of Parikshit, begun by his sacrifice as the sun- 
 horse, was a new official measurement of annual time. In 
 the ritual of this New Year's sacrifice a new arrangement 
 described in the Mahabharata of the sacrificial stakes denoting 
 by their number the months of the year was ordered to be 
 made. This change in the New Year ritual distinctly showed 
 that it was to be measured by a new arrangement of its 
 months. 
 
 But before going into the question as to the exact meaning 
 of the number of these stakes and their arrangement it is 
 necessary to understand clearly their history in Indian ritual 
 and the rules for erecting them followed in previous reckon- 
 ings. The original stakes were, as we have seen in p. 235, 
 those introduced by the northern artisan Takkas, whose 
 symbol was the trident of the three year-gods Shesh Nag 
 the spring god, Vasuk Nag the summer, and Taksh Nag 
 the winter. Their stakes, to which a victim was tied, were 
 fixed in a pit into which the blood of the victim flowed. The 
 ritual of the sacrifice of the Shulagava or roasted ox, one of 
 the early sacrifices described in the Grihya Siitra, tells us 
 that these stakes were before the age of the eleven-months 
 year arranged in the form of a triangle, and offered not on 
 the sacrifical ground set apart in a later epoch for national 
 
8i6 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 sacrifices, as in the ritual of the eleven-months year, but on 
 one chosen for the special performance of this sacrifice, which 
 was a part of the proceedings of the New Year's first-fruits 
 village festival of Agrayana or Margasirsha (November — 
 December) held at the winter solstice. For it a raised 
 surface, that is a mounded altar in the form of a woman, 
 was prepared in an easterly or northerly direction, that is 
 to the east or north of the village grove, and on it the fire 
 was lighted on which a Sthalipaka or cooked offering of 
 first-fruits for Ishana the bull and Kshethrapati the lord of 
 the field, its calf, was prepared. To the west of this fire 
 three huts were built over three stakes and the pits into 
 which they were to be fixed. The south-west hut was for the 
 lord {isha) bull Ishana, that on the north-west for the beauti- 
 ful [midushi) mother-cow, and between them as the apex of 
 a triangle, that for the calf Kshetra-pati, called Jayanta the 
 conqueror '. The victims in these huts were to be tied with 
 ropes of Kusha-grass round their heads to stakes made of 
 Palasha wood = 
 
 This ritual handed down from the days of Orion's year, 
 when the Palasha was the parent-tree, was altered when the 
 eleven victims of the eleven-months year were substituted 
 for the three victims of the three seasons of Orion's year. 
 In the directions for this sacrifice in the Shatapatha Brahmana 
 the stake {yupd) is dedicated to Vishnu, the village {vish) 
 year-god. It is ordered to be made with eight sides and cut 
 of the lengths in cubits of the number of seasons or months 
 in the sacrificer's ritualistic year, the eleven, twelve, thirteen, 
 fifteen and seventeen-months year being spoken of as 
 thunderbolts {vajra), a metaphor derived from the triple 
 arrow {vajra) of Vishnu denoting in its feathers, shaft and 
 point the three seasons of the year 3. 
 
 ■ Oldenburg, Grihya Sutra of Apastamia, 7, 19, I — 14, 7, 20, I — 19, Sacred 
 Books of the East, vol. xxx. pp. 288 — 291. 
 
 " Ibid., Grihya Sutra Ashvalayana Grihya Sutra, iv. 8, 15, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xxix. p. 256. 
 
 3 Eggeling, Shat. Brdh., iii. 6, 4, I, 22 — 27, iii. 4, 4, 15, 16, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xxvi. pp. 162, 166, 167, 168 note 2. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 817 
 
 The hole in which the first cut stake of eleven was to be 
 fixed was to be dug on the eastern edge of the earth-altar 
 half inside it and half outside, and the stake to be fixed in 
 it was to be laid with its head to the east. Barley was thrown 
 into the hole and the stake sprinkled with pure water from 
 a running stream and then strewn with Kusha-grass {Poa 
 cynosuroides). The stake when planted in the hole was to 
 be bound with a triple Kusha-grass rope of the year with 
 three seasons ^. After this first and middle stake that to the 
 north of it was set up, and next to the souths so that the 
 eleven formed a row from north to south placed to the east, 
 and not as in the triangular bull and calf sacrifice to the west, 
 of the altar and its fire *. 
 
 This arrangement of the victims offered at the New Year's 
 sacrifice of the eleven-months year was completely altered 
 in Parikshit's horse sacrifice of the Pandavas as described in 
 the Mahabharata, when the year of the horse sacrificed was 
 no longer, as in the eleven- months year, that of the black 
 horse of night but of the horse of day protected in his year's 
 course by Arjuna or Phalguni (February — March) in his 
 chariot drawn by two white horses 3. 
 
 The Pandava sacrificing princes erected eighteen instead 
 of eleven stakes. Six of the wood of the Vilva or Bel-tree 
 {^gle marmelos), six of the Khadira-tree {Acacia-catechu), 
 the first a totem-tree of the Bhars or Bharatas, and the second 
 that from which the eleven-months year-stakes were cut. 
 The last six were cut from the Sarvavarnin or Palasha-tree 
 {Butea f rondos a), the original sacramental soma tree to which 
 the Shulagava victims were tied 4. These stakes are ordered 
 to be set up at the horse sacrifice in the Shatapatha Brahmana 
 in two rows, nine in each row s. 
 
 Besides these eighteen stakes, the priests, according to the 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Bhah., iii. 7, I, 2—7, 19, 20, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xxvi. pp. 167 — 169, 172. 
 ' Ibid., iii. 7, 2, 5, ibid. vol. xxvi. p. 177. 
 ' Mahabharata Ashvamedha {Anugita) Parva, Ixxii. 7, p. 184. 
 * Ibid., Parva, Ixxxviii. 27, p. 222. 
 5 Eggeling, Shat. Brah. , xiii. 4, 4, 5, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliv. p. 373. 
 
 "• 3 G 
 
8i8 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Mahabharata, set up three more, two of Devadaru or Pitu- 
 daru {Pinus deodara) wood, and one of Cleshmatika or Rajju- 
 dala (Cordia latifolia) i. The first of these trees was made 
 in India the parent-tree of the introducers of human sacri- 
 fices, who were in Asia Minor sons of the pine-tree of Cybele, 
 and they placed three twigs of this tree as the triangle round 
 the fire of their altar of animal sacrifice (pp. 225, 226) instead 
 of the Palasha twigs placed round the fire on the original 
 earth-altar made in the form of a woman. The Cordia 
 latifolia, or Myxa (Bengali Bohooari, Hindi Lusra), yields the 
 Sepistan drug much valued in the East, and its conjunction 
 in this sacrifice with the Bel-tree, of which the fruit is one 
 of the most valuable digestive medicines in the Indian 
 Pharmacopoeia, and the Khadira tree yielding the catechu 
 drug, is thereby stamped as sacred to the sun-god, the 
 sun-physician. 
 
 The Shatapatha Brahmana directs that these three stakes 
 are to be fixed with that of the Cordia tree in the centre 
 between the two pine stakes, and they are not ordered in the 
 directions given in the text to be placed as a triangle but 
 were certainly fixed in the centre between the two rows of 
 nine stakes. Nor does the text tell us how these stakes 
 stood with reference to the altar. As they were set up in the 
 form of an avenue it would seem that this ran from west 
 to east at right angles to the Uttara Vedi or north altar 
 of animal sacrifice, standing at the east end of the sacrificial 
 ground, and that the three stakes between them, to the 
 centre of which the horse and to the two side stakes a horn- 
 less he-goat and a Go-mriga or Nil-gai cow antelope were 
 bound, were placed in front of the altar =. 
 
 The sacrifice according to the latest form of Vedic ritual 
 subsequent to that with which we are now dealing, when the 
 horse was not sacrificed but allowed to go free as a sacred 
 animal, was held during the last ten days of the year and 
 
 ' Clarke, Roxburgh's Flora Indica, p. 198. 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah,, xiii. 4, 4, 5, xiii. 2, 2, 2, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xliv. pp. 373, 298. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 819 
 
 succeeded by the Soma New Year's sacrifice beginning that 
 which was to follow ^, and it was at the end of the year that 
 this sacrifice also took place. 
 
 That this sacrifice offered on the sacrificial ground in which 
 these eighteen stakes were placed on each side of three in 
 the centre was one indicating a year differing from that of 
 seventeen months preceding it, is shown by the instruction 
 that these stakes were to be twenty-one cubits long and not 
 seventeen cubits, like the stakes of the seventeen-months 
 years, and this length, according to the rule that the number 
 of cubits in the sacrificial stakes and the months in the year 
 were to be the same, would denote a twenty-one-months 
 year. Also there were to be twenty-one victims offered, 
 three at the central and eighteen at the side stakes, and 
 according to both the indications given by the length of the 
 stakes and the number of the victims the year ought to be 
 one of twenty-one months. But the precedent of the eleven 
 stakes of the eleven-months year shows that it was these 
 eighteen stakes placed in rows running eastward from the 
 altar and answering to the row of eleven stakes denoting the 
 months of the eleven-months year that signified the eighteen 
 months of a new year, while the three stakes originally set 
 up as a triangle, denoted, like the three Shulagava stakes, 
 the three seasons measuring Prajapati's (Orion's) year. Hence 
 this year of twenty-one cubit stakes was a year of Prajapati 
 of eighteen months, a successor of the year of three seasons. 
 
 The year of eighteen months each of twenty days and four 
 five-day weeks thus instituted is, like other year reckonings 
 of Hindu ritual recorded in the successive layers in which the 
 last Vedic altar was built, and is commemorated in the first 
 eighteen bricks of its fourth layer. These are said to form 
 the eighteen-fold Prajapati and to be part of his body, while 
 the remaining seventeen bricks form the seventeen-fold Pra- 
 japati of the seventeen-months years. Hence the twcnty- 
 
 " Eggeling, Shat. Brah., xiii. 4, 4, i, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliv. p. 371. 
 ' Ibid., xiii. 4, 4, 5, 11, ibid., pp. 363, 375. 
 
 3 Ibid., viii. 4, i, 8, 28, viii. 4, 3, 20, ibid., vol. xliii. pp. 61, 66, 76. 
 
 3 G 2 
 
820 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 one victims and cubits assigned to the stakes of the eighteen- 
 months year reproduce a number originally made sacred by 
 the twenty-one-day months of the seventeen-months year, 
 and both being years of Prajapati the number was still used 
 in the ritual of the eighteen-months year, though its months 
 only contained twenty days. 
 
 This year also again appears in the ritual of the consecu- 
 tive services of the Vaishvanara household-fire of the national 
 altar, where among the years to which libations are poured 
 out it is called the year "of the age-grades of cattle," in 
 which the months are represented by two sets of eighteen 
 pairs of cattle, one of ten or five pairs, and one of eight or 
 four pairs, in which the first pair is an eighteen-months bull 
 yoked with an eighteen-months cow ^. 
 
 In the Mahabharata account of the horse sacrifice preced- 
 ing this year's commencement a special golden altar is built 
 for this year with four layers of golden bricks, thus contain- 
 ing the four layers of which the fourth was consecrated to 
 it in the national altar, and its length and breadth was eight 
 and ten or eighteen cubits ^. Upon it was placed a golden 
 image of Vishnu's or Krishna's bird Garuda, the original 
 cloud-bird. 
 
 This year began according to the Mahabharata after the 
 Pandavas had become the undisputed rulers of India, and 
 had filled their coffers with the gold brought from southern 
 mines before the birth of Parikshit. Hence it marked the 
 culmination of the prosperity of the Pre-Sanskrit Bharata 
 kings whose traditional history is told in the eighteen books 
 of the Mahabharata, so that the poem is an ideal drama 
 depicting the growth and rise to power of the god-like race 
 who gave to India the inestimable boons of peace, good 
 government, extended trade and great national wealth, en- 
 trusted to a nation trained by wise education based on self- 
 culture and the teaching of Jain and Buddhist ethics to make 
 
 ■ Eggeling, Skat. Brdh., ix. 3, 3, 7, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliii. 
 p. 218, note 2. 
 » Mahabharata Ashva-medha {Anugita) Parva, Ixxxviii. 31, 32, p. 222, 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 821 
 
 the best use of the gifts they had received, and the age was 
 called in Buddhist history that of the Tusita heaven of wealth 
 {tuso). 
 
 The individualism engendered by this new creed, which 
 required everyone to mould his thoughts and conduct on 
 such expositions of moral duty as the Eightfold Noble Path 
 of the Buddhist teachers and the rules of personal morality 
 and improvement enjoined by Zarathustra, seems from its 
 simultaneous appearance in Indian and Persian traditional 
 history to have spread over the whole civilised world as a 
 wave of ethical inspiration. It to a great extent remodelled 
 the teachings of the earlier ages when all were trained to 
 follow the rules of conduct enjoined by the heads of their 
 villages, their tribe, and their family. In this earlier system 
 rigid obedience to very definite rules was required, and all 
 tendency to innovation was so sternly repressed as to almost 
 entirely smother thought. 
 
 To people so bound by the ties of custom the new teach- 
 ing must have been welcomed as a glorious prospect of 
 freedom and a new field in which their mental energies 
 could open out hitherto unperceived avenues of personal and 
 social improvement. Hence this age is clearly marked as 
 one of the epochs during which humanity awoke to higher 
 views of its destinies and duties than those previously enter- 
 tained, though the hopes raised in these early visions and 
 partially fulfilled were ultimately darkened and temporarily 
 obliterated, partly by the rigid rules of monasticism and of 
 ecclesiastical dogmatizers, and chiefly, as we shall see pre- 
 sently, by the enervating influences engendered by the 
 luxurious lives of a people who accumulated wealth almost 
 without eff"ort by commercial exchanges of the abundant 
 produce of tropical and semi-tropical soils. It was hence 
 that their vitality was fatally lowered, and that they were 
 overwhelmed by the destruction wrought by hordes of 
 northern barbarian invaders who so entirely effaced by 
 their excesses all traces of this age of universal peace as 
 to cause its former existence to be all but forgotten by the 
 
822 Primitive Traditiotial History. 
 
 historians of the age of individualist history which succeeded 
 it. Consequently it only survives in the national pictures pre- 
 served in the popular tales of the East and in such literary 
 records as the eastern historical poems and ritual and in the 
 specially historical tales of the Arabian Nights. These ruth- 
 less conquerors, like the later dismemberers of the Roman 
 Empire, substituted for the rule of peaceful commerce an age 
 beginning in anarchy and continued in perpetually recurring 
 international, inter-tribal and inter-urban wars, in which each 
 city and district was always quarrelling with its neighbours. 
 This only ceased in those countries where extensive despotic 
 governments were founded, and these after their first consoli- 
 dation generally expended their forces in extending their 
 frontiers and ended in becoming the prey of new invaders. 
 
 The peaceful age of Bharata rule was that of the supremacy 
 of trade-guilds, during which India and the countries into 
 which they introduced the Indian form of government based 
 on the union of allied provinces supervised by a central ruler 
 were governed by a network of local and tribal councils 
 beginning with those of the village and extending through 
 the councils of provinces and ruling cities to that of the 
 Chakra-varti, or wheel-turning emperor. The goal aimed 
 at by all these bodies was the increase of the prosperity of 
 each district and the whole country by the improvement and 
 extension of agriculture, the development of local arts and 
 manufactures and of local and foreign trade. Hence when 
 the home trade had become a part of a widely extended foreign 
 commerce the latter, like its original inland parent, was 
 managed by emigrant guilds who by interchange of goods 
 remained in constant touch with their old home, which sent 
 them the consignments paid for by their return exports. In 
 this system of international intercourse wars were unneces- 
 sary and pernicious, and hence the merchant kings became 
 the rulers in India and South-western Asia of a society such 
 as is depicted in the Arabian Nights, in which property was 
 protected by the local police and public union and opinion. 
 And it was through their agency and that of the guilds that 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 823 
 
 the Indian forms of government and ritual were distributed 
 through all the countries where the emigrating leaders 
 established agencies. 
 
 It must be remembered that the ancient tribal rule requiring 
 ail members of a confederacy to take with them wherever 
 they settled their religious laws, customs and social rules 
 still continued to be as binding in the epoch of the worship 
 of the rising sun of the east as the successor of the sun of 
 night settling in the west, as it was in the days when the 
 primitive founders of villages disseminated their institutions 
 in all countries where organised agricultural villages were 
 established, and incorporated them in the new codes formed 
 by the amalgamation of these farming races with the alien 
 tribes of the new countries in which they settled. Hence 
 the original rule binding all emigrants from India to other 
 lands and from other lands to India to preserve their tribal 
 identity in all places where they settled for trade or other 
 purposes, made them, like the members of the colonies sent 
 from Greek cities, still citizens of the parent state from which 
 they were severed by their change of residence. 
 
 It is by the results of this rule that we can trace from 
 India to Britany the dissemination of ancient beliefs and 
 year reckonings preserved by the worshippers at the Breton 
 linga altars and by the users of the three sets of calendar 
 stones erected at Kermano, Menec and Kerlescan near 
 Carnac, representing the year reckonings of the three-years 
 cycle-year and that of eleven and thirteen-months (pp. 330, 
 331). And it is to the same agency that we can trace the 
 distribution of the burial cult of chambered tombs originat- 
 ing in those of India and brought with local changes from 
 the Indian trading stations at Bahrein on the Persian Gulf to 
 Egypt, Asia Minor, Greece, Etruria, Britany, North Europe 
 and England. It is also this dissemination of burial customs 
 that introduced with the creed accompanying them the almost 
 universal custom in neolithic burials of the doubling up of 
 the corpse in the form of an embryo in the womb, for the 
 germ idea on which this custom was based is found in the 
 
824 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Indian ritual of the baptism of the partakers of the annual 
 Soma sacrament. In this each neophyte was obliged to sit 
 in the baptismal bath in the contracted attitude of a naked 
 unborn embryo, wearing as the symbol of the womb from 
 which he was born a black antelope skin. 
 
 The trading missionary agencies which spread these and 
 other successive innovations throughout the world had no 
 idea of proselytism, and would have abhorred the idea of 
 converting any of their new neighbours to their creeds. 
 They were only anxious to preserve their own nationality 
 intact by retaining their ancestral customs in an unaltered 
 form, and were no less anxious to keep themselves socially 
 separated from their neighbours than their neighbours were 
 to remain apart from them ; the only bond of union being 
 mutual trade. But in spite of this desire for the preservation 
 of their tribal independence the prosperity and trading 
 exigencies of the Indian Yadu-Tarvasu traders who had 
 settled themselves in the sacred island of Dilmun in the 
 Persian Gulf, called by them Tur-os, the island of the 
 revolving (tur) god, the modern Bahrein, gave them an 
 ever-growing influence in all the lands where they placed 
 their trading stations. They thus gradually became invested 
 with ruling and directing power in all their principal coast 
 settlements, such as Byblos, Bil-gi or Gi-bil, the city of the 
 Akkadian fire-god Bil or Bel, and other trading centres in 
 Crete and Egypt, where they introduced the worship of the 
 cypress-tree, the mother of the sun-god, and the worship of 
 the Akkadian-Indian god Tan or Danu, which also became 
 in Crete and thence in Greece the oldest form of the Greek 
 Zeus or Zan. 
 
 Under these influences amalgamations of neighbouring 
 alien tribes resulting in the formation of new races arose, 
 and these included in their ritual and national creeds the 
 various phases of the changing religious and political beliefs 
 and customs of the merchant races whose numbers and in- 
 fluence were continually recruited from India and Persia. 
 Hence when the Indian and Persian national confederacies 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 825 
 
 were divided into kingdoms formed of federated provinces 
 superintended by an emperor ruling them from the central 
 land of Jambu-dwipa in India and Hvaniratha or Khorasan 
 in Persia, this same idea of a central state round which the 
 confederated nationalities allied with it were grouped per- 
 meated other countries. We have seen in Persian history 
 (pp. 682 — 684) that the organisation of this type of the federal 
 form of Persian government was attributed to Lohr-asp, the 
 father of Gushtasp or Vistaspa, the ruling sun-god who made 
 the religion of Zarathustra, the son of the cypress-tree, the 
 official creed of the country. And Lohr-asp is also said 
 to have introduced the third and most perfect form of fire 
 worship, that of the Biirzin Mitro, which ordained that in 
 every ruling city a fire temple should be built at its centre 
 where the roads intersecting it from the four cardinal points 
 met. This custom was disseminated through Greece and 
 Italy by the erection in their towns of the central temples 
 of Hestia and Vesta, and in Greece the triangular stone 
 image of Apollo Aguieus, the guardian of the roads, was 
 set up I at junction-points where four roads met. This 
 national worship of the central fire-god of a confederacy 
 of allied states found expression in Greece in the foundation 
 of the central shrine of Delphi, the womb sacred to the 
 snake- mother-god Python, who was in India the southern 
 snake-goddess Ahi Budhnya, mother of the depths (Skr. 
 budhna, G. /Sk^o's) ruling the south pole as the goddess of 
 the primaeval abyss of generating water, otherwise called 
 Bau, whence life was born, while Aja-ekapad, the one-footed 
 Pole Star goat, ruled the north. This was the spot hallowed 
 by the perpetual presence of the national oracle, the utter- 
 ances of which supplemented the divine messages as to future 
 events derived from the inspection of the entrails of birds, 
 the observation of natural omens, and the inspired exclama- 
 tions of the Shaman priests. The ruling god of this central 
 
 ' MUller, Die Doritr, book ii. chap. iii. § I, p. 252 ; Aristophanes, Vespat, 
 1317- 
 
826 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 national shrine when the original snake-god was slain by his 
 successor was the god called Apollo Paian, or Apollo the 
 Healer, the sun-physician, and he in an earlier form was, 
 as we have seen, the Pelasgian god Apollo Smintheus, the 
 mouse-god of the Semites, who were gradually transforming 
 themselves from the trading Tursena,'Tursha or Tyrrhenians, 
 sons of the cypress and fig-tree, into the Phoenician sons of 
 the date-palm-tree, which became, as we have seen, the 
 parent-tree of the trading races of south-western Asia and 
 India in succession to the fig-tree. This god was the son 
 of the tree-mother Leto, born in Lycia on the yellow 
 river Xanthus, the mother-river of the yellow race, as 
 Apollo Lyceus, the wolf (\vko^) god, and it was the date- 
 palm-tree which was grasped by his mother Leto in his 
 second birth at Delos under the olive-tree which, as we 
 have seen in the story of the re-birth of Odusseus as the' 
 year-god of a new year saved from the sea in the land of the 
 Phoenicians, was, like the date-palm-tree, a mother-tree of 
 the age of the seventeen-months year. This birth of Apollo 
 as the son of the date-palm and olive-tree was watched by 
 Dione^ daughter of Okeanos, the ocean snake, a form of the 
 plant-mother Dia, the mother-tree growing from the mud of 
 the southern sea, by Rhea the cypress-tree-mother of Zeus, 
 the son of Kronos, Themis the goddess of law and order, 
 the Greek form of the Indian Dharma, and Amphitrite the 
 dolphin goddess, the fish-mother, and was traditionally dated 
 by the nine days' and nine nights' labour of Leto from the 
 age of the three-years cycle-year with its nine-day weeks '. 
 
 This god, the son of the date-palm and olive-tree, who 
 with his year-arrows slew the original snake-god of Delphi, 
 was, according to the local traditions, born on the seventh 
 of Metageitnion (August — September), called at Delphi Bou- 
 katios, or about the 23rd of August, when the Pythian games 
 instituted in honour of his victory were celebrated every 
 eighth year ; and this birth-day is also that of Krishna, the 
 
 ' Muller, Die Doner, book ii. chap. vii. § 2, 3, pp. 3'3> 314' 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 827 
 
 sun-god of the fifteen-months and eight-day-weeks year, born 
 as the eighth son of Vasudeva on the eighth day of the light 
 half of Bhadon or Bhadrapada (August — September) i. But 
 this birth tradition of Apollo Paian, the healing god of the 
 age of date-palm and olive-tree worship, is much later than 
 the story of the Pelasgian Apollo Smintheus, the mouse-god 
 of the Pelasgian cities of Larissa and Troy. This Apollo 
 waSj as Plato tells us in the Cratylus, the god 'Ait\S)s, the 
 Etrurian Aplu, meaning the son, the father of the vine-born 
 sun-god Fufluns, who was also Vertumnus, the god turning 
 {verto) the year, and he became the Greek Dionysos, the 
 Semitic son Abel or Ablu, the parent-god of the shepherd 
 races born, like the mouse, from the mother-earth =. It was 
 this god who in the year-chariot-race at the funeral of Patro- 
 clus favoured the champion of the old gods, Eumelos, son of 
 Admetos, called Hades adametos, the untamed god of the 
 lower world, whose chariot Athene broke in order to get the 
 victory for Diomedes, the sun-god of the seventeen-months 
 year. With this god Admetos the Pelasgian Apollo served 
 for nine years to expiate his sin in slaying the Cyclops, the 
 one-eyed Pole Star god of stellar preceding solar worship. 
 It was to this Apollo Pagasites that the raven grove at 
 Pagasae was dedicated 3, thus equating him with the Celtic 
 raven Bran, the original Indian cloud-bird. 
 
 This sun-god, deified as Aplu the son, was born in Bud- 
 dhist mythology as Avalokitesvara, the Visible {avalokita) 
 Buddha, the offspring of Tara the Pole Star and the central 
 Buddha, who was originally in Indian mythology the ape- 
 father (p. 505) who became in the later evolution of Great 
 Bear worship the father of the sun-god born of the Thigh. 
 It was the five-finger (8<i«Ti/\os) priests of this god, the Greek 
 Zeus, son of Kronos and Rhea, the cypress-tree-mother, who 
 
 ' Frazer, Pausanias, vol. v. pp. 244, 242, 245 ; Monier Williams, Religious 
 Thought and Life in India, Hindu Fasts, Festivals, and Holidays, pp. 430, 431. 
 
 ' Jowett, Plato, Cratylus, vol. ii. p. 228 ; Homer, //. ii. 840, 841 ; Leland, 
 Etrmco-Roman Remains, chap. iv. pp. 65 — 70- 
 
 5 Miiller, Die Dorier, book ii. chap* i. § 2, 3, chap. vii. § 8, p. 323. 
 
828 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 were the dancing priests called Daktuloi and Kouretes, the 
 Roman Salii, the Umbrian Attidii, consecrated by the triple 
 year-girdle bound with three knots, symbolising the three 
 stars of Orion's belt, those ruling the three seasons of his 
 year. These priests danced in circles round the pillar image 
 of the young sun-god surviving as the Maypole in a direction 
 contrary to the course of the sun, wearing in these dances 
 their girdle on their right shoulder, and it was this ritual 
 which ruled the religious ceremonies of the first Pelasgian 
 worshippers and sacrificers of the pig, whose blood cleansed 
 the guilty from the stains of sin, who came from Phrygia to 
 Greece as the buriers of their dead entombed with doubled- 
 up limbs in the cist graves of the pattern adopted by the 
 votaries of the Carian Zeus with the double axe, the Greek 
 form of the Indian Parasu Rama. These are the most 
 ancient form of graves in Caria, Delos, and Attica, and they 
 are copied from the early graves of Assyria, Babylonia, and 
 Chaldaea ^. 
 
 This ritual, which was in India that of the early barley- 
 growing fathers, sons of the Kusha-grass, called the Pitaro 
 Barhishadah, was continued by their successors, the Pitaro 
 Agnishvattah, who, like the Umbrians of Gubbio, buried 
 their dead, and who are traced by Herodotus as the Tursena 
 of Lydia to the valley of the Ister or Danube, whence they 
 came to Italy as the Tyrrhenians 2. The worship of this 
 god, the sun-god born of the tree, was succeeded in India 
 and Greece by the rule of the sons of the date-palm-tree, 
 who founded the confederacies ruled by the central king-god 
 who in Greece was Apollo, the son of Heaven, the product of 
 the creeds of ages of religious evolution and national growth. 
 He was the god of the Pythian games said by Pausanias 
 to have been first instituted by Diomedes, who won the 
 chariot-race in the Iliad, in which the champion of the former 
 Apollo the mouse-god was defeated. In these games the 
 
 ' Ridgeway, Early Ages of Greae, chap. ii. pp. 192, 193, chap. vii. pp. 4841 
 485, 488, 489. 
 ' Herod, i. 94, iv. 49, 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 829 
 
 first contests were only in music, to which were added first 
 athletic competitions like those at Olympia, followed by 
 chariot-races, which, as we have seen, were in India first 
 celebrated as solar pageants representing the yearly victory 
 of the conquering sun-god ^. 
 
 Throughout this retrospect we trace the continually grow- 
 ing influence of the successive tribal combinations whose 
 leaders emigrated as merchants, and who were the people 
 called in the Rigveda the Panris or traders who reappear 
 in Troy as subjects of the king whose son, the slayer of 
 the sun-god Achilles, was called Paris or the Panri trader 
 of India. 
 
 These people, who ruled south Britain as the foreign tin- 
 miners, worshipped the white horse of the sun and built the 
 temple of this god at Stonehenge, where solar chariot-races 
 were celebrated by the burners of the dead whose round 
 graves surround the temple site. 
 
 Thus we can trace in the worship of the Greek sun-god 
 the lyre-playing Apollo, the beautiful youth of the central 
 shrine of Delphi, four stages marking the racial dissemination 
 and growth of his worship. In the first stage, as god of the 
 Pelasgian sons of the oak-tree worshippers of the sun-boar, 
 he is the god to whom on Mt. Lycaeus, where human sac- 
 rifices were offered, a boar was sacrificed, and its thigh bones 
 burnt as offerings to the Great Bear Thigh of heaven and its 
 flesh eaten *. 
 
 These pig worshippers were succeeded by the Tursena 
 of Lydia, worshippers of the bi-sexual god Sandon of the 
 three-years cycle-year, husband of Omphale the altar navel 
 fire, the gods of the cult of the creating king and queen bee 
 of this age in which the year was divided into four years of 
 cow and human gestation, each of ten twenty-seven-day 
 stellar months made up of three nine-day weeks. In this 
 creed was embodied the worship of the sun-calf suckled by 
 the moon-cow, at whose festivals the bulls and goats offered 
 
 • Frazer, Pausanias, ii. 22, 2, x. 7, 2 — 4, vol. i. pp. 121, 508, 509. 
 ' Ibid., viii. 28, 6, vol. i. p. 424. 
 
830 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 to Apollo Smintheus in the Iliad were sacrificed ' ; and this 
 belief was also inculcated in the worship of Hermes, the god 
 of the sun-pillar (ep/ta), not only as Kriophoros the ram- 
 bearer, the symbol of the birth-star Aries of the autumnal 
 equinox beginning the cycle-year, but also as the especially 
 Phoenician sun-god called in Greece Moschophoros, the calf- 
 bearer. In this cult the calf worshipped as the son Aplu 
 became the Egyptian sacred bull, son of the cow Isis, and 
 is represented on Phoenician coins as the calf suckled by the 
 mother-cow 2, the conquering calf of the Indian triangular 
 Shulagava sacrifice described on p. 815. This stage, that of 
 the neolithic burial of the dead, is marked in Apollo's history 
 by the nine days' labour of his mother Leto when he was 
 born at Delos. 
 
 It was followed by the epoch of the eleven-months year, 
 when the dead were burnt, and after this came the fifteen- 
 months year, in which the sun-god was the eighth son of the 
 Great Bear Thigh, the Indian Krishna, eighth son of Vasu- 
 deva, and the Greek Apollo of Delphi, the god of the oracle 
 imported into Greece from the Euphratean countries, who 
 instituted the Pythian musical contests in honour of the god 
 who played on the seven - stringed tortoise - shell lyre of 
 Hermes, the god of the sun-pillar, the musical symbol of 
 the Great Bear leader of the harmony of the spheres, the god 
 who defeated Marsyas the flute-player, of Cybele, goddess 
 of the sons of the pine-tree, who worshipped Pan the goat- 
 god. It was in this and the fifth stage of the worship of the 
 sun-god riding in his year-chariot, the constellation Auriga, 
 the successor of the Great Bear as the sun-waggon, that 
 Delphi became a national centre shrine to which all states 
 included in the Hellenic confederacy looked as their common 
 meeting-place, where their disputes and international diffi- 
 culties were settled by the federal Amphictyonic council. It 
 was to Greece what Kashi was to India, Babylon and the 
 
 ' Horn., //. i. 316. 
 
 = Berard, Origine dts Cultes Arcadiens, Le Dieu^^Fils, pp. 299, 300 ; Frazer, 
 Pausanias, vol. v. p. 88. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 831 
 
 earlier Nipur to the Euphratean countries, Jerusalem to the 
 circumcising Semites, Memphis and Thebes to Egypt, and 
 what Mecca was first to the Arabs of Arabia and afterwards 
 to the Mahommedans. 
 
 It was the prosperity engendered by the growth of the 
 world-wide trade managed by affiliated guilds which finally, 
 in the age of the rule of the sons of the date-palm-tree, 
 produced on the shores of the Indian Ocean a population 
 which had become like that depicted in the vivid description 
 of Oriental life given in the Arabian Nights. There all 
 classes of the community, including the kings and their 
 ministers, are engaged in trade, and when a prince or man 
 of high birth falls into misfortune and finds himself an 
 unacknowledged outcast in a foreign country he becomes 
 a trader, as in the story of King Omar bin al Nu'uman, his 
 son Prince Zan al ^Makan became an assistant to the man 
 who lighted the fires in the public baths at Damascus, and 
 Badr al Din Hasan, son of the Wazir Nan al Din Ali, became 
 a cook and confectioner in the same city ^. There is little 
 or no indication in these stories of settled landowners owning 
 large estates, as the tenure of land was that of the communal 
 village communities, or of a division of ranks based on birth ; 
 and the marriages to the King's daughter of Abdullah the 
 fisherman and Ala-ed-din, the son of a poor widow, when 
 they are enriched by the gifts of Abdullah the Merman, and 
 of the slaves of the wonderful lamp and ring are spoken of 
 as quite consonant with propriety ^. All people seem to be 
 equal in birth and to move up and down in rank according 
 to their good fortune, industry and talents, and they seem 
 to live in the midst of settled communities whose relations 
 were generally peaceable, for war is scarcely spoken of in 
 the whole collection of stories which give vivid pictures of 
 
 ' Burton, Arabian Nights, Tale of King Omar bin al Nu'uman and his Sons, 
 vol. ii. p. 37 ff., Story of Badr al Din Ali and his son Badr al Din Hasan, 
 vol. i. p. 179 ff. 
 
 ' Ibid., Abdullah the Fisherman and Abdullah the Merman, vol. vii. p. 
 237 If., Ala-ed-din and the Wonderful Lamp, vol. x. p. 33 ff. 
 
832 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the characters of the people, their manners and customary 
 modes of life. Many of these tales are histories written 
 according to the rules of the primitive age in which indi- 
 viduals were ignored and when the national heroes were 
 symbolic characters, and these generally reproduce correctly 
 the original historical records, though they are somewhat 
 altered by their transmitters, the story-telling successors 
 of the original national historians from whose collections 
 they were taken. In the whole twelve volumes of Burton's 
 Arabian Nights there are only two stories, those of Omar 
 bin al Nu'uman and his sons, and of Gharib and his brother 
 Ajib, in which the chief actors are soldiers. 
 
 It was only in an age of peace, when the kings and their 
 principal advisers were merchants like Anatha Pindika, the 
 trading Prime Minister of the King of Sravasti in Buddhist 
 history, and the Khewat fisherman kings of Tamralepti in 
 south-west Bengal in the Bronze Age, that the commerce 
 of the Turvasu Yadavas sons of the date-palm-tree with 
 China, the Malacca Peninsula, and the islands of the Malay 
 Archipelago in the east, and with Persia, Egypt, North 
 Africa, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece and Italy in the west, 
 could be maintained. But the ruling chiefs of these trading 
 states in the age of the rule of the sons of the date-palm-tree 
 were by the influx of new blood a race differing from their 
 Turano-Dravidian ancestors of the Kushika era, and were, 
 like the Beni Hanifa, the Arabians of this class in the 
 Arabian Nights, of much purer northern descent. The 
 evidence of their marriage customs given in these tales, in 
 the tenets of Zarathustra and in the Indian customs of this 
 age, proves that under their rule the endogamous marriages 
 of the northern Gothic races superseded among the trading 
 population of Arabia, Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf and 
 Western India the exogamic unions of the Turano- 
 Dravidians. 
 
 That the marriage of near kinsfolk was that best calculated 
 to secure national prosperity was one of the chief tenets 
 taught by Zarathustra (p. 700). Almost all the marriages 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 833 
 
 of the heroes and heroines in the Arabian Nights are endo- 
 gamous, and entirely ignore the exogamic restrictions of 
 Indian caste rules. The marriages most sought after were 
 those with first cousins, and the Persian kings, like Abram 
 of the Beni Hanifa, used, as Isfendiyar did, to marry sisters. 
 In India similar disregard of the earlier laws, which made 
 endogamous marriages of near relations or of members of 
 the same gotra or village unlawful, is shown in some of the 
 Kushika castes whose ancestors on the male side introduced 
 the wheat, barley and Sesame oil of Asia Minor into India, 
 and whose symbol of marriage is the binding of the hands 
 of the bride and bridegroom together with Kusha-grass. 
 
 The Kuch Rajbunsis, who are all children of the Kushika 
 fathers Kashyapa, and are not divided into septs, profess to 
 disallow marriages between relations nearer to one another 
 than seven generations on the father's and three on the 
 mother's side, but they are very lax in the observance of 
 this rule, and prefer to marry the daughter of a neighbour 
 even if nearly related to them than to leave home to seek 
 a wife^. From the Shatapatha Brahmana we learn that 
 in the west of India, among the Yadu-Turvasu races who 
 offered the new and full moon sacrifices of the seventeen- 
 months and five-seasons year, the marriage laws were nearly 
 if not quite as lax as to the marriages of near relations as 
 those described in the Arabian Nights. It says that both 
 husband and wife might among the observers of this ritual 
 be no more distant from one another than the third generation 
 from the common father. And Harisvamin, the commentator 
 on this passage, says that the Kanvas, the priests of the Yadu- 
 Turvasu trading races and the reputed authors of the eighth 
 Mandala of the Rigveda, allowed inter-marriages from the 
 third generation. The Sau-rashtras or trading Saus allowed 
 those from the fourth generation, while the Dakshaniyas, 
 the men of the Malabar coast and of the Telugu country of 
 India, now called the Dekkan, allowed, like the people of 
 
 ' Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, vol. i. Kooch, p, 494. 
 ". 3 H 
 
834 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the Arabian Nights, marriage with first cousins either on the 
 father's or mother's side '. 
 
 B. The eighteen-months year of Mexico. 
 
 The trading rulers of this commercial age of peace who 
 had, through the influence of the universally distributed 
 merchant guilds to which they belonged, become the domi- 
 nating caste in India, South-western Asia, and the maritime 
 countries of Europe, were no less active in Eastern Asia, 
 and continued the commerce between India, Siam and Cochin 
 China, which was, as we have seen, actively carried on in the 
 age of the eleven-months year and of the worship of the 
 banyan fig-tree. This commerce and the emigration accom- 
 panying it extended to China and also to the southern islands 
 of Polynesia and Melanesia, and, as we shall now see, 
 emigrant tribes instructed in its creeds and imbued with 
 traditional Indian beliefs brought to Mexico the eighteen- 
 months year of the Indian Pandavas, the worship of the 
 Indian elephant cloud-god Gan-isha, the ritual of the 
 Antelope worshippers of the corn-god represented in Mexico 
 and North America by the maize sheaf, the reproduction 
 of the rice sheaf of the Malays of Eastern Asia and India, 
 and of the barley-god of India, South-western Asia, and 
 Europe ; also the Naga snake and antelope dances which 
 were introduced into Mexico in forms as ancient as the oldest 
 survivals in India of the popular worship of the antelope-god 
 Krishna and the Naga snakes of the Naga Kushika era, who 
 appear so prominently in Buddhist sculptures and the Jataka 
 birth-stories. The Mexican founders of the state of society 
 in which the eighteen-months year was made the official 
 measure of time were the trading and artisan Toltecs, whose 
 name Toltecatl, originally meaning the dwellers in the land 
 of reeds {tollan), came to mean skilled artisans 2. Among 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., 1. 8, 3, 6, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii- 
 pp. 238, note I, 239. 
 = Tylor, Mexico, Encyc. Brit., Tol. xvi. ninth edition, pp. 208, 209. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 835 
 
 them, as among the Kushikas, each trade had its own guild, 
 to which a special quarter of the city was assigned as in 
 Indian bazaars. Each guild was ruled by its own chief, and 
 like the Indian castes worshipped its own tutelar deities of 
 the festivals held in accordance with the guild ritual. The 
 profession of artisan was looked on as most honourable, and 
 as in the South-western Asia portrayed in the Arabian Nights 
 and in Buddhist India, the merchants held the highest rank 
 in the state. Those who traded in foreign countries travelled 
 in caravans guarded by an armed escort, which was some- 
 times so large as to amount to an army, as in the siege of 
 four years during which they defended Ayotlan and were 
 finally left in undisturbed possession of the town. These 
 traders marked their identity by their own insignia and 
 devices, like those on the banners of the Yadu-Turvasu 
 chiefs in the Mahabharata, and in Tezcuco their Council 
 of Finance controlled the state expenditure. The king 
 called them Uncle, and they held their own civil and criminal 
 courts, and were in short the chief rulers of the land ^. 
 
 The year used by these people, called in Mexican history 
 the Mayas, was the eighteen-months Pandava year, each 
 month divided into twenty days and four^ five-day weeks. 
 This year is also used by four other Mexican tribes, the 
 Tzental, Quiche, Cakchiquil Zapotic and Nahuatl, and they 
 also used the same sacred year of thirteen-months as that 
 of the Ugro Altaic Finns of Turkestan, of the Indian Naga- 
 Kushikas, early Greeks, Egyptians and Semites. Also two 
 of these tribes, the Mayas and Nahuatl, the latter of whom 
 were the human sacrificing Aztecs, brought with them to 
 America the custom of circumcision ", apparently first made 
 a national rite (p. 71) by the mining Colchians, worshippers 
 of the sun-hawk, and practised by the ancient Egyptians and 
 the inland Semites of Syria and Arabia but not by the Philis- 
 tines and Phoenicians. It was and is also a national custom 
 
 ' Prescott, History of Mexico, vol. i. chap. v. pp. 124—126. 
 ' Cheyne, Circumcision, Eucyc. Brit., vol. v. ninth edition, p. 790; Ban- 
 croft, Nativi Races of America, vol. iii. 
 
 3 H 2 
 
836 Pnmitive Traditional History. 
 
 of all the Bantu races of Africa, the cattle-herding pastoral 
 tribes who emigrated to Africa from South-west Asia before 
 the Hottentots and their predecessors the Bushmen, but was 
 never generally adopted in Mesopotamia or India. This 
 rite, which was certainly first imposed as a religious tribal 
 ceremony by the sun-pillar worshippers in South-western 
 Asia, stamps its Mexican users as tracing their descent from 
 this part of the world, and adds additional force to the 
 evidence, showing by their methods of time measurement, 
 their ritual, customs and traditions that the founders of the 
 American Mexican creeds were the descendants of southern 
 Asiatic forefathers of whom the leading tribes imbibed their 
 tribal culture in India. This conclusion is corroborated by 
 the names Maya and Napuatl, which are exceedingly like 
 those of the Indian Maghas, sons of the Buddhist sun-mother 
 Maga and the Nahusha, sons of the Naga snake, as well as 
 by the history disclosed in their social organisation, religion, 
 customs, temples and architectural remains. 
 
 These tribes used hieroglyphic characters, each of which^ 
 like those of the Chinese, Akkadians, Hittites and Egyptians, 
 first denoted a word, and some of them were, like some of 
 the Egyptian hieroglyphics, pictorial, while others were 
 merely patterns formed of boundary lines and circles with 
 dots and crosses to which national usage had attached a 
 phonetic value. These forms certainly show that they were 
 originally a form of picture-writing like that of the American 
 Indians which had gradually been adopted to express definite 
 words, but as this written character has been disused since 
 the Spanish conquest and its meanings are now almost for- 
 gotten, students of Mexican archaeology and early history 
 have not yet been able to decipher their meaning with such 
 certainty as to make them easily read like Egyptian and 
 cuneiform writings. 
 
 In the calendars written in these characters they, like the 
 
 Zend fire-worshippers and the Babylonians who consecrated 
 
 each of the days of their months to a god ', gave a name 
 
 • Darmesteter, Zendavesta Slrozah, i., ii., Sacred Books of the East, 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 837 
 
 to each of the twenty days of these months, and from these 
 and the chronological system based on them and the thirteen- 
 months sacred year much valuable information can be derived. 
 Each of these sacred years formed a part of the cycle of 
 fifty-two or four times thirteen years into which their chrono- 
 logy was divided, and the whole was made up of thirteen 
 successive periods of four years each, called the years of 
 (i.) the rabbit, (ii.) the reed, (iii.) the flint sacrificial knife, 
 and (iv.) the house of heaven, and all of these names appear 
 in the names of the days of the month, the rabbit denoting 
 the eighth day, the reed the thirteenth, the flint knife the 
 eighteenth, and the house of heaven the second day ^. 
 
 The rabbit is in the Mexican cosmogony of the Sia said 
 to lead the year founded by the twins Ma'asewe and 
 Unyanyewe, the two seasons of the solstitial year, with 
 the six rabbit sticks representing the six months of each 
 season given them by their father the sun-god with two bows 
 and arrows. It is clearly the hare, the fourth sign of the 
 Chinese and Mongol retrograde Zodiac, which, as Professor 
 Sir R. Douglas informs me, represents five stars in Scorpio, 
 the fourth sign in their year beginning with the sun in 
 Aquarius, the rat constellation. It is also the Great Hare 
 or Rabbit of the Algonquin, Delaware and Micmac Indians, 
 whose name for hare means "light," and who looked on this 
 ancestral hare as the moon-hare of European and also of 
 Sanskrit chronometry, for in the latter Shesha means both 
 a hare and the moon, and the moon is called Shesha-dhara 
 and Sheshabhrit, the hare-bearer or carrier of the crescent 
 moon-hare 2; and from the very wide-spread designation 
 
 vol. xxiii. pp. 3 — 20; Sayce, Hibbert Lectures for 1887, lect. i. Introduction, 
 pp. 69— 8h 
 
 ' Prescott, History of Mexico, vol. i. chap. iv. Aztic Chronology, pp. 96, 
 note— 98 ; Thomas Day, Symbols of the Maya Year, Smithsonian Institution, 
 Bureau of American Ethnology, vol. xvi. pp. 215, 216, 235, 236, 245, 258, 259. 
 
 • Thomas Day, Symbols of the Maya Year, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau 
 of American Ethnology, vol. xvi. p. 236 ; Leland, The Algonquin Legends 
 of New England, The Amazing Adventures of Master Rabbit, pp. 208 ff. 
 
838 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of the hare or rabbit as a symbol of the moon it is clearly 
 the most appropriate leading sign of the thirteen-months 
 year. The astronomical hare also appears in the Hare 
 constellation, the Latin Lepus, the Greek Lagos, immedi- 
 ately south of Orion and intimately connected with it in 
 the ancient stellar time measurement of Orion's solar-lunar 
 years, for it is represented in Aratus' Phcenomena as chased 
 from Orion's feet by the dog-star Sirius. It is called in 
 Akkadian Ka-edinna, the Face of the Desert, Annabu in 
 Assyrian and Arnob in Arabic. And as the moon-hare 
 its worship survives in every country where witchcraft is 
 practised in the belief that any witch can turn herself into 
 a hare I, and I remember being shown in my boyhood on 
 Slieve Gallion in north Ireland a cottage where an old 
 woman lived who I was told possessed this power. 
 
 We thus see in the history of the Rabbit or Hare as the 
 leader of the thirteen-months year three successive phases 
 of belief First, that in the hare as the symbol of the ancient 
 new moon beginning the months of the thirteen-months year; 
 secondly, in the hare as the constellation Lepus of the age of 
 Orion's year, and thirdly, as the constellation Scorpio under 
 which Horus was born after being begotten by Osiris on Isis 
 as the sun-hawk hovering over him after he had been cut up 
 by Set into fourteen pieces, the fourteen days of the half 
 month of the thirteen-months year. This was the year of 
 Khepera the beetle in Egypt and also in Mexico, as in the 
 Mexican Sia cosmogony it was Ishits the beetle which, as we 
 shall see presently, brought up the stars in a bag to the upper 
 world when Ut-set, the mother of corn, the goddess of the 
 maize sheaf, ascended thither with the deer and buffalo and 
 the mother-turkey, and in her upward journey she let all the 
 stars escape except the Pleiades, the three stars in Orion's 
 belt, and the Great Bear 2. 
 
 ' R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., PHmitive Constellations, vol. i. p. 97i Aratus' 
 Phanomena, 338 — 341. 
 
 ' Stevenson, The Sia, Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of Ethnology, vol. xi. 
 pp. 36. 37- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 839 
 
 The reed is the parent plant of the Toltecs as it was of the 
 Kushilca sons of the rivers in Persia and India, whose first 
 infant king Kavad was found in the reeds of Lake Kashava 
 in Seistan, also of the Indian Vetasu in the Rigveda, the 
 sons of the reed {vetasu), whom I have shown (p. 255) to 
 be with the Tugra the leading votaries of Kutsa the moon- 
 god. This reed myth, which as Max Miiller points out has 
 given to the Sanskrit the word vamsa, meaning race, but 
 originally the name for a reed, still survives among the 
 circumcising Bantu Kaffirs, who call their traditional mother- 
 ancestor Uth-lunga, meaning the reed-wife of Ukulumkulu 
 the first man''. The deification of the parent reed also 
 appears in the reed-boat in which the infant national rulers 
 Sargon and Moses were placed at their birth. 
 
 The historical significance of the sacrificial flint knife, the 
 Ugur of the Ugro-Finns, has been shown in the history of 
 the offering of animal sacrifices, especially those of the 
 buffalo, which was the animal sacred to the Mexican mother- 
 goddess Now'utset, who was slain by Ut-set the corn-mother 
 before she left the nether-earth for the upper world as mother 
 of the worshippers of the sun-deer. It was with this stone- 
 knife that Joshua or Hoshea circumcised the children of Israel 
 and Ziphorah her son, the first-born son of Moses (p. 72) =. 
 
 This was also the sacrificial knife of the Mexican priests 
 with which they cut out the hearts of the human victims 
 offered to Tezcatlipoca, the leopard-god of the Great Bear, 
 who is represented as the ruling god of heaven seated on this 
 star in one of the symbols depicting the sign Hin-Imix 
 representing the first day of the Maya Mexican months, 
 and it, as well as the rabbit and reed-sign, was especially 
 consecrated in the ritual of the worshippers of the moon- 
 god ruling the thirteen-months year. 
 
 ' Max MuUer, Lectures on (he Science of Religion, pp. 61, 62. 
 
 ' Exodus iv. 24—26 ; Joshua v. 2. In Joshua xxiv. 30, the Septuagint says 
 that these flint circumcising knives were buried with him. 
 
 ' Prescott, Historv of Mexico, vol. i. pp. 62, 63 ; Nuttall, The Fundamental 
 Prituifles of Old zxii. New World Civilisation, pp. 8, 26, 35, 44. 
 
840 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 The house of heaven^ the fourth sign denoting the last 
 year of the four year-periods into which the Mexican fifty- 
 two-years cycle is divided is clearly a reproduction of the 
 Caer Sidi or revolving tower of the Celts, the national birth- 
 island in which the world's mother -tree grew from the 
 southern mud, and which in primitive beliefs was, as we 
 have seen (pp. 121 — 123), the space walled in by the veil of 
 the over-arching heaven descending to the horizon bounding 
 the national territory where the living dwellers in the pri- 
 mitive mother-village dwelt under the guardianship of the 
 heavenly gods ruling time and surrounded by the spirits 
 of their dead ancestors. 
 
 This thirteen-months year, which was, as we have seen, 
 first reckoned in India after Orion's twelve-months year, 
 was introduced there by one of the Finn Mongol Tartar 
 tribes who brought with them the knowledge of witchcraft 
 and who still measure time by this year in Turkestan and 
 Kashgar'. In America this Tartar year is that of the 
 Nuktas of British Columbia, a branch of the long-haired 
 Kwatiutl Indians who are physically very like the Indian 
 Dravidians in their flat noses, thick lips and broad features. 
 They tattoo themselves like the Burmese, the Nagas of 
 Assam, and all the Tamil-speaking Dravidian inhabitants 
 of Southern India and Ceylon 2. They also use the bow 
 and are, like the southern Indian Dravidians, great fisher- 
 men and expert mariners, who go to sea in large flat canoes 
 very like in pattern to the large flat boats of Madras. They 
 make fire by twirling a stick of cedar in one of softer wood, 
 and used to offer human sacrifices at their annual New Year's 
 festival lasting from the middle of November to the middle 
 of January, so that their year began with the month of 
 November — December, the Indian Marga-sirsha, the month 
 of the deer's [mriga) head consecrated to Orion. They 
 trace their descent through the mother, but neither she nor 
 
 ' Schuyler, Turkestan, vol. i, chap. viii. p. 334. 
 
 ' Thurston, Note on Tattooing, Madras Government Museum Bulletin, vol. ii. 
 pp. 115—118. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 841 
 
 her husband are, strictly speaking, owners of the family pro- 
 perty but only stewards for their son. The wife lives with 
 her husband in his village, and not he in hers as an Indian 
 matriarchal village, and certain privileges descend in the 
 paternal line, so that in their family relationships they are 
 like the Kandhs of Orissa, who, as we have seen, mix 
 matriarchal and patriarchal descent, and as among the 
 Kandhs, all members of each village trace their descent 
 from a common ancestor ^. 
 
 They like the Indian Dravidian Males place wooden poles 
 in front of their houses, on the top of which the family totem 
 is carved, and, like the sub-castes of Indian tribes, trace their 
 descent to totem-ancestors, but among them, except in the 
 poles themselves, which are reminiscences of the village 
 grove, tree ancestors do not appear as in India. Almost 
 all the totems are animals, birds and fishes, though in one 
 case the sun supported by a bear is the totem of the Sisinlse, 
 perhaps commemorating the son borne by the Great Bear. 
 
 Their thirteen-months year, like that of the Mayas, clearly 
 dates from the chronological age of Orion's year, and both 
 belong to the neolithic stone age of human sacrifices offered 
 by the northern sons of the rivers, a period much earlier than 
 that of the Toltecs of the eighteen-months year, who were 
 neither cannibals nor offerers of human sacrifices ^ like the 
 Nahuatl Aztecs, the warlike race whose ancestors adopted 
 the lunar chronology of the thirteen-months year with its 
 fifty-two-years cycle. The whole of the ritual of this system 
 of time reckoning is founded on the offering of human vic- 
 tims, generally captives, chosen a year before the sacrifice. 
 During the year at the end of which they were killed they, 
 hke the Meriah victims of the Kandhs of Orissa, lived in the 
 greatest luxury and were honoured like kings and worshipped 
 
 ' Ratsel, History of Mankind, Translated by A. J. Butler, vol. ii. pp. 19, 
 9t— lot ; Boaz, The Social Organisaiion and Secret Societies of the Kwatiutl 
 Indians, Smithsonian Institution, United States National Museum, Annual 
 Report, 1895. 
 
 ' Prescott, History of Mexico, vol. i. chap. iii. p. 70. 
 
842 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 as gods. They were offered to Huitzilo-pochtli, meaning the 
 humming-bird of the left, that is with the feathers of the 
 humming-bird on his left foot^ and Tezcatlipoca, the one- 
 footed god of the Great Bear, whose name means the shining 
 obsidian mirror which was his shield reflecting the stars and 
 all things on earth. They were the gods of the two seasons 
 of the year, the summer humming-bird-god who fought left- 
 handed, that is made his annual circuits of the heavens in the 
 left-handed retrograde track of the Great Bear till he met 
 with and overcame the Great Bear leopard-god of the mirror 
 and cast him forth into the southern waters of winter, whence 
 he rose again as the god of the winter solstice, when his 
 annual festival was held, as the god of the under-world 
 whose symbol is the sacrificial flint knife = which performed 
 the annual sacrifice of the dying year-god about to arise as 
 the god of a new year. 
 
 This and the other national festivals were held in the Teo- 
 callis or God's houses, all of which were, like the Babylonian 
 temples and those of the human sacrificing Polynesians, built 
 originally as mounds of earth raised to be artificial hills 
 coated with brick or stone 3. They had square bases whose 
 sides measured sometimes more than one hundred feet, and 
 
 ' Prescott, History of Mexico, vol. i. chap. iii. Mexican Mythology, pp. 48, 
 note, 49. 
 
 = Ibid., vol. i. chap. iii. pp. 62—67, chap. iv. pp. 105, 107 ; Nuttall, Funda- 
 mental Principles of Old and New World Civilisation, p. 103. 
 
 3 Temples of this type, exactly resembling the Babylonian temple of Bel 
 at Borzippa, and called Marais or Haidus, still exist in ruins in Tahiti and 
 the Sandwich Islands. These temples stood in the midst of a large enclosure 
 like the Greek Temenos in which the Priests used to live. Ellis, Polynesian 
 Researches, vol. i. pp. 340, 341 ; Jarvis, History of the Hawaiian Islands, chap, 
 ii. p. 50. These temples were practically built on pyramids which exist in 
 large numbers in Jlexico, the largest being the Great Pyramid at Choliila, 
 the ancient Toltec capital, of which the base is twice as large as the Great 
 Pyramid of Khufu in Egypt. Nuttall, Fundamental Principles of Old and 
 Nro) World Civilisation, pp. 268, 275. We see in these structures the gradual 
 evolution from the worship of the mother-mountain to that of the sacrificial 
 hill crowned with the temple symbolising the god-house of which the walls 
 are the heavenly vault resting on the horizon. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 843 
 
 these crowned with the temple three or four storeys high 
 towered to a still greater height. An outside staircase led 
 up to the top of the temple, passing from the ground at its 
 western side to the several terraces of each of its storeys. 
 On the top of it were one or two towers, the shrines of the 
 gods, and between them was the stone of sacrifice and two 
 altars on which the national and local central fire burnt i. 
 Thus these temples were originally, as they always remained 
 in the smaller towns and villages, the fire temples which were, 
 as we have seen, erected in the centre of the villages of India, 
 South-western Asia and Europe. 
 
 It was in this temple and in the central temples of each 
 provincial district into which the empire was divided that 
 human victims, afterwards eaten, were offered to Huitzilo- 
 pochtli and Tezcatlipoca. The most solemn of these annual 
 sacrifices was that offered to the latter god at the winter 
 solstice ending each cycle-year, thus showing that the year 
 was measured by the solstitial sun, and this was not cele- 
 brated in the national temple but on a mountain near the 
 capital, symbolising the mother-mountain of the sons of the 
 rivers. All fires were then put out and the whole nation was 
 in mourning. On the evening of the last day of the cycle- 
 year the priests, carrying with them the human victims and 
 the two fire-sticks for lighting the New Year's fire, ascended 
 the mountain and paused on the top till the Pleiades was 
 about mid-night near the zenith. They then lit the fire with 
 the fire-sticks on the victim's breast, whence the heart had 
 been already cut out, and with it lit the funeral pyre on 
 which his body was thrown by these people who burnt their 
 dead, to be consumed as that of the dead god of the old year 
 and cycle, and after the sacrifice the first thirteen days of the 
 new year were spent in festivity *. 
 
 The reference in this sacrifice to the Pleiades as the con- 
 
 ' Prescott, History of Mexico, vol. i. chap. iii. Sacerdotal Orders, pp. 60, 
 62, 63, vol. ii chap. ii. pp. 128, 129 ; Nuttall, Fundamental Principles of Old 
 and New World Civilization, pp. 8—10, 12, 82. 
 
 ' Ibid., vol. i. chap. iv. Astronomy, pp. 105, 107. 
 
844 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 stellation ruling Mexican time takes the ritualistic chronology 
 of the country back to the first age of stellar reckoning, when 
 the southern Indian year was measured by the setting of the 
 Pleiades after the sun on the ist November ; and the evidence 
 thus given as to the reminiscence of this year in the national 
 chronology is corroborated by the cosmogony of the Sias, 
 a tribe of artistic potters holding in Mexico a position like 
 that of the sons of the Great Potter in European and Asiatic 
 history. But their traditional creed is more ancient than 
 that of the dead-burning Aztecs, for they bury their dead, 
 whom they believe to live after death in another world, 
 Shepapo, in which, as the dead in the Egyptian Elysian 
 fields depicted in the Papyrus of Ani, they pursue the same 
 occupations as they did in this world. The corpses are like 
 those of the Egyptian mummies extended at full length, 
 so that they, like the Jews and the late mummy-making 
 Egyptians, have not passed through the stage of Neolithic 
 age burial in which the corpse was doubled up, or reached 
 that of the Aztec Mexicans, who burnt their dead " like the 
 Pitaro Agnishvattah of India and the later Greek Achsans. 
 They belonged to the Pre-Achillean sons of the Greek Peleus, 
 the god of the potter's clay, Pelos, and to the Egyptians, 
 sons of Ptah, the potter-god. In their cosmogony, which 
 is shared by the other Mexican tribes, the people of the land 
 were all created by Sus-sistinnako, the shining Spider, the 
 exact counterpart of the Hindu Krittakas, the Spinning 
 Pleiades, the goddess Kirat or Kirtida, the spinner {krit), who 
 in the local legend of Mathura was by Vrisha-bhani, the 
 mother of Ra-dha, the giver or mother of the sun-god Ra^. 
 And this popular legend is again repeated in the Vedic account 
 of the birth of Vastospati, the god of the household-fire, the 
 god kindled into life as on the Mexican mother-mountain 
 by the union of Rohini, the star Aldebaran, Queen of the 
 
 ' Stevenson, The Sia, Mortuary Beliefs and Customs, Smithsonian Institu- 
 tion, Publications of the Bureau of Ethnology, vol. xi. pp. 142 — 146. 
 ' Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay v. pp. 450—452. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 845 
 
 Pleiades, with Prajapati Orion, the god whose year began, 
 like that of Mexico, at sunset at the winter solstice. 
 
 In the Sia legend Sus-sistinnako, the Pleiades, when 
 creating life on earth sat at the point where the first solstitial 
 sun of the sun-bird opened the year beginning at the winter 
 solstice, the south-west quarter of the sun-circle divided 
 into four equal parts by the meal-formed Greek cross of the 
 ploughing sons of St. George, whose son was driven round 
 the heavens by the Great Bear, the Mexican leopard-god 
 Tezcatlipoca who ruled the year. The creating corn-god 
 whose meal formed the cross is the chief god of the Sias, 
 whose image is the I'aniko or Ya'ya, the sheaf of maize, which 
 was the universally worshipped symbol of god worshipped 
 by all the people of Mexico and by all the North-American 
 Indians '. By the Sia it was surrounded by eagle and parrot 
 plumes attached to a stick of willow wood cut with a sacred 
 stone knife, the whole completed being the Ha'chamoni which 
 every dead Sia must at his entrance to the world of Shipapo 
 present to Ut-set, the mother of corn, who then takes him 
 to Sus-sistinnako, the Pleiades god. This sheaf is the exact 
 reproduction of the Malay mother-goddess, the rice-sheaf 
 (p. 112), and the lines of the meal cross drawn on the sun- 
 circle by Sus-sistinnako were placed in the same position 
 as the four sticks used in lighting the year-fires of the Siouan 
 and other American Indians. Each of them pointed to a 
 cardinal point, so that in each fire there were North, West, 
 South and East sticks, the west sticks being laid first 2. Also 
 the reception in the other world by Sus-sistinnako, the 
 Pleiades god of the dead maize growing Sia bearing his 
 Ha'chamoni or corn-sheaf god, is a clearly variant form of 
 the reception by Osiris (Orion), the star-god of the barley 
 growers of the dead Egyptian, who, as shown in the Papyrus 
 
 " Abbe Domenech, The Great Deserts of North America, vol. ii. pp. 212 ff. ; 
 Stevenson, The Sia, Smithsonian Institution, Publications of the Bureau of 
 Ethnology, vol. xi. p. 40, note. 
 
 ' Dorsey, Study of Siouan Cults, Smithsonian Institution, Publications of 
 the Bureau of Ethnology, vol. xi. pp. 381, 523, 525. 
 
846 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of Ani, was believed to pass to the Shipapo of the Egyptian 
 creed, the Elysian fields of the other world, where he was 
 to grow corn as he used to on earth. Neither the Mexican 
 nor Egyptian could enter on their lands in the other world 
 without a passport and an introduction ; the latter office was 
 undertaken in Mexico by Ut-set the corn-mother, and in 
 Egypt by Horus, and as Ut-set introduced the bearer of the 
 holy corn-sheaf as a worthy dweller in the lands of heaven, 
 so in Egypt Horus produced to Osiris the judgments given 
 by Thoth, the ibis-headed moon-god, that the soul of the 
 new comer had been weighed in the scales of the year-god 
 of the thirteen-months year and found to be pure; and in 
 both creeds the ruling year-god was the god of thirteen- 
 months year, which was the holy year of Mexico and also 
 that of Egypt, after Osiris, when cut into fourteen pieces 
 by Set, had begotten Horus on Isis, the sun-hawk, as the 
 ruling god of the Khepera beetle year. Sus-sistinnako from 
 his South-west creating seat sang into life the two seeds he 
 had placed in the north-west and north-east quarters. From 
 these were born the two mothers of national life : i. Now'iitset, 
 the buffalo-mother of the people of the West, who lighted 
 their fires with the west stick of the setting sun, that first lit 
 on the Hindu earth-altar in the form of a woman ', that 
 of the worshippers of the setting sun, the barley growing 
 Kushika fathers, the Pitaro Barhishadah who burned their 
 dead ; 2. Ut-set, the mother of corn and of the race born of 
 the deer-sun rising in the East, who lit their fire with the 
 east stick. 
 
 The land in which these two mothers were created was the 
 nether-world called Ha-arts, the under-world of the Indian 
 Malay and Sumerian cosmogony in which the mother-tree 
 grew, and where they and their first offspring, the sun, moon 
 and stars, dwelt. Ut-set the corn-mother, after they had 
 
 " Eggeling, Shat. Brah., i. 2, 4, 5, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii. p. 91, 
 where it is ordered that the western stick of the Palasha triangle enclosing 
 the sacred fire shall be first touched by the kindling-mother-stick, whence 
 fire is to be elicited by the male father fire-drill. 
 
Primitivi Traditional History. 847 
 
 founded a village peopled with the Katsuna, the first large- 
 headed human people, killed Now'utset, the buffalo- mother, 
 with a flint sacrificial knife and cut out her heart, thus 
 showing that the northern corn-growing races were the first 
 offerers of human and animal sacrifices in which the year- 
 god, the deer buffalo or human sun-god, was slain at the end 
 of his year. It was after this murder and the death of the 
 buffalo-year-mother that Sus-sistinnako caused the mother- 
 reed of the Kushika sons of the river-reed to grow in the 
 centre of the under-world as the mother-tree of the succeeding 
 corn-growing race, and told Ut-set, the corn-mother, to go 
 with all her people by this new tree-mother up to the new 
 land of Tinia, the middle earth, the plain between Hu-waku 
 the heaven, the land of Kopistaia or cloud people, and 
 Ha-arts the nether-earth. On the mountains surrounding 
 this corn-land he planted as the mother-trees of the new 
 race the spruce on the northern and the pine on the western 
 mountain, the parent-trees of the sons of the cave-mother 
 Cybele in Asia Minor and north Europe, the oak, the parent- 
 tree of the Druids and Pelasgians, on that of the south, and 
 the aspen, the parent-tree of the Iberian sons of the rivers 
 of the land of Mt. Ararat, on the eastern mountain i. He 
 also planted the cedar, the Akkadian mother-tree of Telloh 
 or Girsu, on the zenith mountain, and the oak on that of the 
 nadir. 
 
 The path from the top of the reed to the surface of the 
 corn-land was cut by Sika the locust and Tuopi the badger, 
 and through this door the deer-elk and bufTalo-fathers 
 ascended. Ut-set, when the procession started to climb 
 the reed-road, gave the bag of the stars to Ishits the beetle, 
 the Egyptian Khepera god of the thirteen-months year. 
 She allowed the stars to fly out of it, and when she arrived 
 on earth the only stars in the bag were the Pleiades ruling 
 the Pleiades year, the three stars of Orion's belt ruling Orion's 
 year of three seasons, and the seven stars of the Great Bear 
 
 ' Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. ii. essay ix. p. 250, vol. i. 
 Preface, p. xxxi. note 2. 
 
848 Primitive Traditional History, 
 
 which, as we shall see, were in Mexican historical theology 
 the stars of the bow and arrow of Orion's year, just as they 
 were in that of Krishanu in India, Marduk in Assyria, and 
 the Shinto history of Japan. Ut-set put these year-stars in 
 the sky after she and her people had come up through the 
 hole followed by the Mexican mother-bird, the turkey, who 
 placed a rock over it. It was on this land that the people 
 who first lived on grass seeds like the first growers of rice, 
 barley, and wheat, founded villages and sowed the corn of 
 Ut-set I, the sheaf of which became their symbol of God, 
 just as it was that of the Sumero-Akkadians, in whose earliest 
 script at Telloh the sign of the eight-rayed star means Dingir, 
 the creating God, Anu and Esh-shu, meaning both the God 
 of Heaven and an ear of corn *. They also, like the Mexican 
 Sia, believed the corn-growing earth to be the mountain- 
 birth-land of life, like the top of an inverted boats. 
 
 In this analysis we see that there are several successive 
 phases in Mexican traditional and ritualistic history, all of 
 which show striking resemblances to the primitive beliefs 
 of India and South-western Asia. These trace back the 
 foundation of the worship of the corn-god to that of the 
 rice-god of the Indian years of the Pleiades and the sun- 
 hen, which preceded the corn worship of the year of Orion's 
 Belt and the Great Bear arrow, in which Orion led the stars 
 headed by the Pleiades round the Pole, the home of the 
 year-bird in the path marked by the Great Bear, whose 
 arrow, its two pointing stars, slew the year-bird at the end 
 of its j'ear. This first age of the worship both of the rice 
 and barley corn-god was that of the year of the deer-sun 
 of the North, in whose ritual human and animal sacrifices 
 succeeded the early period of first-fruit offerings in Greece 
 
 • Stevenson, The Sia, Smithsonian Institution, Publications of the Bureau of 
 Ethnology, vol. xi. pp. 26 — 39. 
 
 ' Hewitt, Ruling Faces of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. Preface, p. xxviii. ; Ball, 
 Akkadian Affinities of Chinese, Transactions of the Ninth Congress of Orient- 
 alists, China, Central Asia, the Far East, p. 685. 
 
 3 Lenormant, Chaldcean Magic and Sorcery, pp. 150, 151 ; Diodorus Siculus, 
 Lib. ii. sec. 31. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 849 
 
 and India. It was in the age of first-fruits offerings that the 
 first sacramental service for rain was held at the beginning 
 of the Pleiades year, in October — November, which was 
 followed by the solstitial year of the sun-bird and sun-deer 
 beginning at the winter solstice, when the slaying of the 
 year-deer by the Great Bear first inaugurated human and 
 animal ofTerings. 
 
 It was the latter date which became the New Year's day 
 of Orion's year reproduced in the Sia ritual in the New 
 Year's service for rain held at the opening of the new year 
 in December, when the grain is planted, but which, as we 
 shall now see, reproduces in all its details the first bloodless 
 offerings of the Pleiades age ^. 
 
 The primitive character of the service is proved by the 
 fact that neither this nor any of the Sia or Zuni religious 
 ceremonies are held in a permanent temple, but are cele- 
 brated in a temporary shed made for the sacrifice, like those 
 erected in the Hindu Shulagava sacrifice of the bull, the cow 
 and the calf In this the wooden altar is set up and the 
 ground painted with the patterns prescribed for each feast. 
 
 The gods worshipped in the ceremonial are as follows : 
 Three Ya'ya or corn-sheaf gods, the three seasons of Orion's 
 year, are placed in front of the altar on a parallelogram of 
 meal. On the right is the image: of Kochinako, the yellow 
 virgin of the North, mother of the twin gods the stars 
 Gemini, so that she is the equivalent of the star Virgo, the 
 corn-mother Min of the Minyan races. On her right is a 
 red-sandstone wolf, and on her left a black bear and an 
 abalone shell. On the right and left of the altar are two 
 red-sandstone cougars or tigers. In front of the three Ya'ya 
 IS an ancient medicine-bowl, on which a snake and a cougar 
 are painted, and on each side of it are a polished adze and 
 a large stone knife. Two Ya'ya, the twins Ma'asewe and 
 Uyuyewe, stand side by side in front of the bowl, and 
 
 ' Stevenson, The Sia, Smithsonian Institution, Publications of the Bureau 
 of Ethnology, vol. xi. pp. 73 ff. 
 
 11. 3 I 
 
SJO Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 before each is a snake's rattle with twelve buttons. A sixth 
 Ya'ya stands on the tail of a cougar painted on the sand in 
 a square, whence lightning arrows shoot forth to the North 
 and South-west and the North and South-east, the North- 
 east arrow being red and the others white. These form the 
 ends of a St. Andrew's Cross, the symbol of the yearly flight 
 of the sun-bird rising in the North-east at the summer sol- 
 stice. There are also figures of six warriors representing the 
 six directions of space, the warrior of the North bearing a 
 stone axe and having well-defined eyes and nose ; also a 
 necklace of bears' claws is put round both the neck of the 
 warrior and the stone axe. This part of the historical picture 
 depicts the gods of the northern sons of corn born of the 
 ocean shell, whose father totems were the wolf of the East, 
 the Greek sun-god Apollo the wolf, the bear of the Great 
 Bear constellation, and the tiger parent of the Hindu moun- 
 tain races. In front of these figures are three images of 
 Koshairi men, those first created by Ut-set in the under- 
 world Ha'arts after the Kopishtaia or cloud-people. They 
 as the sun-people were created with the Quer-ranna or 
 moon-people, and received from the sun special medicine 
 for bringing up rain, while the moon-people, as worship- 
 pers of the moon ruling the lunar months of gestation, 
 were gifted with the power of making women pregnant ^ 
 In front of them is a shell, and on each side of it is a wand 
 of turkey feathers fixed in balls of clay. In front of the 
 altar at each of its ends is a massive carving in relief of 
 coiled snakes, and on the back of the altar in the centre 
 is a snake standing erect. Five stone knives and a white 
 stone bear are placed in front of the whole picture, and 
 a parrot is placed on the top of the altar centre above the 
 figure of the erect snake ^. 
 
 This pictured story depicts clearly the first ages of Mexi- 
 can traditional history after the founding of the worship of 
 
 ' Stevenson, The Sia, Smithsonian Institution, Publications of the Bureau 
 of Ethnology, vol. xi. pp. 32, 33, 7i. 
 » Ibid., pp. 71—78, Plates xiv., xv., pp. 80, 82. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 851 
 
 the god of the corn-sheaf and the reckoning of the year 
 by three seasons, the three Ya'ya placed in front of the 
 altar. The age was that ruled first by the parent snake 
 of the Naga races, the Mexican Nahuatl, and the year- 
 bird, the bird Gadura of Vishnu or Krishna, perched on 
 the back of his year-chariot and the parrot on the back of 
 the Sia altar. Secondly by the Virgin of the North, the 
 corn star, and her twin sons Ma'asewe, god of the first six 
 months of the solstitial year from the winter to the summer 
 solstice, and Uyuyewe, ruling the six months from sum- 
 mer to winter, who, like the Indian twin Ashvins the sun- 
 physicians, first learnt from animals the secrets of medicine '. 
 Each of them received from their father the sun three rabbit 
 sticks and a bow and arrow, and both together made a year 
 measured by the slaying of the rulers of the six directions of 
 space, of which the wolf, the cougar and the bear are repre- 
 sented in the form of the drama shown at the Sia year-feast ; 
 and the whole series of contests are an earlier variant form 
 of the history of time measurement shown in the seven ad- 
 ventures of the Persian year-gods Rustum and Isfendiyar 
 recorded in the history of the Shah-namah. 
 
 At the winter solstice they slew the stone-clad wolf of the 
 East, the stone pillar-sun-god, not with their arrows but 
 with four of their rabbit sticks, the first being thrown by 
 Ma'asewe without injuring the wolf, the second by Uyu- 
 yewe, which made a rent in his star-armour representing the 
 summer solstice, but this closed up again when the sun 
 turned backwards, so that Ma'asewe's stick of the autumnal 
 equinox had no better success than his first, but the fourth 
 stick thrown by Uyuyewe killed the wolf, the god of the 
 year of four seasons first reckoned in the three-years cycle- 
 year, which was, as we have seen, the year of the three- 
 wheeled car of the Ashvins when the equinoxes were first 
 used as factors in year measurement. It was a year ending, 
 like that of Rama, when the sun was in Cancer in the South 
 
 ' Stevenson, The Sia, Smithsonian Institution, Publications of the Bureau 
 of Ethnology, vol. xi. p. 71. 
 
 312 
 
852 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 at the winter solstice, the resting-place of the year-wolf- 
 father of the sons of the yellow mother of corn who bore 
 the Greek god Apollo, the wolf, the successor of Apollo 
 the mouse- god and his twin sister Artemis, the Great Bear 
 mother of the offerers of human and animal sacrifices. After 
 the death of the wolf, Ma'asewe, the god of the new year 
 beginning with its death at the winter solstice, cut out its 
 heart. 
 
 The twins next attacked the cougar or tiger of the North, 
 guardian of the wood where the shafts for their year-arrows 
 which were not yet made, grew. This cougar of the North 
 was the Great Bear constellation which became, in the 
 Persian mythology of the age of Rustum's first supremacy, 
 his leopard-spotted horse, Raksh, and its rider is in Mexican 
 theogony the ocelot or leopard-riding-god Tezcatlipoca, de- 
 picted in the altar Sia drama as the Ya'ya standing on the 
 tail of the cougar Great Bear constellation, whence arrows 
 are shot forth so as to form in their track the image of the 
 sun-symbol of the St. Andrew's Cross. The cougar showed 
 them the way up to the wood along the narrow path of the 
 Milky Way, which in early solar astronomy led the sun 
 northward and southward in his yearly journeys, and when 
 they arrived at the top they threw the cougar down and 
 killed him, and then got wood for the shafts of their arrows, 
 which were those of the bow of Krishanu in Indian and 
 Marduk in Assyrian astronomy, the Great Bear arrow of 
 which, the pointer stars, killed the year-bird at whatever 
 period of the Great Bear's yearly retrograde circle round 
 the Pole the national year was held to end and to begin. 
 They thus superseded the solar-year measured by the climb- 
 ing of the Milky Way and Orion's year of five-day weeks, 
 the five stone knives of the Sia ritual, beginning at the 
 winter solstice, by that measured by the apparent revolu- 
 tions of the Great Bear round the Pole, the method of year 
 reckoning used in China by the American Micmac and 
 Algonquin Indians, and also, as we now see, by the 
 Mexicans. 
 

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Primitive Traditional History. 853 
 
 The story of the marking of the year by the Great Bear 
 arrow which was to slay the year-bird at the end of its term 
 is also told in Mexico in the Cross at Palenque, shown in the 
 annexed illustration, in which the year-bird is slain by the 
 arrow depicted as the stem of the cross, on the top of which 
 the Mexican turkey is seated. The slain bird appears again 
 on the left arm of the cross, where it is being cut up by the 
 augural priest in order to consult the signs it gives. He, 
 the Mexican form of the Roman and Greek augurs, wears a 
 tall round Persian hat crowned with a sheaf of corn, and a 
 fleur-de-lys, a form of the trident, a pig-tail and a girdle, 
 which was probably, like all the priestly girdles of India and 
 South-western Asia, tied with three knots, representing the 
 three stars on Orion's belt of Sia ritualistic astronomy brought 
 up from the nether-world by Ishits the beetle. It is clear 
 from these symbolisms depicted on the Cross that it repeats 
 in pictorial form the story of Krishanu's arrow shooting the 
 year-bird in the Pole Star. 
 
 The twins after killing the cougar and getting shafts for 
 their arrows went to find for them the eagle feathers guarded 
 by the bear of the West. They found him in the house of 
 heaven, the house-symbol of the thirteen-months year, and 
 when he pursued them Uyuyewe shot him through the 
 heart with his featherless arrow and killed him, after which 
 Ma'asewe cut it out \ The twins thus got eagle feathers for 
 their Great Bear arrows, and the deification of the eagle, the 
 constellation Aquila, marks, as we have seen in the history 
 of Vishva-mitra, the year-god of the thirteen-months year, 
 a new period in time reckoning which was apparently that 
 in which the mid-month of the thirteen-months year (July — 
 August) was consecrated to the mother-goddess of the Naga 
 snake worshippers (p. 333), who is, as we shall see in the 
 next section, still worshipped by the Mexicans at the time 
 at which the Hindus hold their Naga Panchami feast in this 
 
 ■ Stevenson, The Sia, Smithsonian Institution, Publications of the Bureau 
 of Ethnology, vol. xi. pp. 43—47. 
 
856 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 call every one present at the sacrifice sprinkled meal or corn 
 pollen into the water ^. 
 
 When the singing of the seventh stanza began the Yani- 
 siwittani, holding six pebbles in each hand, dropped them 
 successively from his right hand into the medicine-bowl, and 
 from his left into a second cloud-bowl, calling as he dropped 
 each pebble on the rulers of the North, West, South and 
 East to send rain on the earth, and this invocation names 
 the four cardinal points in an order contrary to the course 
 of the sun. The consecration ceremony ended with the 
 sprinkling of the altar by the Yani-siwittani with two 
 water-dripping sacrificial knives, and by the honaite with 
 eagle feathers dropped into the medicine-water. The next 
 ceremony was the making of clouds from the cloud-bowl 
 by the cloud-maker, a member of the Society of Spiders, 
 sons of Sus-sistinnako the spinning Pleiades. This was 
 done by putting a quantity of a root called Tochainitiwa 
 into the cloud-bowl, the water of which he sprinkled with 
 meal, and then he stirred it up with the creating reed till 
 the water became covered with clouds of froth. He then 
 while he danced before the altar threw from the eagle 
 feathers he carried some of the soapsuds to the north, some 
 to the south, and some to the sacred fire and to the ground 
 or nadir. Then facing the east, he threw them to the zenith, 
 next on the women on the north and those on the south 
 of the altar ; he then threw them to the west, and continued 
 throwing them on different people and places till the song 
 ceased. 
 
 After this the women and a young boy danced in front 
 of the altar when the next song began, and when it ended 
 the Yani-siwittani gave everyone a draught of the con- 
 secrated water of the medicine-bowl from an abalone shell, 
 beginning with the women, thus ending the sacramental 
 service 2. 
 
 ' The Cora pollen was sprinkled by the members of the Snake Society. 
 Stevenson, The Sia, Smithsonian Institution, Publications of the Bureau of 
 Ethnology, vol. xi. p. 81. 
 
 " Stevenson, The Sia, Smithsonian Institution, Publications of the Bureau 
 of Ethnology, vol. xi. pp. 78—85. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 857 
 
 This is in all essentials a reproduction of the Indian Soma 
 sacrifice of the three mixings of Indra, milk, sour milk, 
 barley and water from a running stream adapted to Mexico 
 where no cows were kept. This in India was the final form 
 of the sacred beverage after the intoxicating ingredients 
 mixed with Kusha- grass in the Sautramani cup of the 
 eleven - months year had been omitted. The Sia sacra- 
 ment clearly reproduces the original sacramental water cup 
 of the sons of the corn or maize plant mixed with corn 
 meal or pollen, which in Dravidian India was the rice and 
 water offered by the original founders of matriarchal vil- 
 lages ruled by the women in partnership with the men 
 before the intoxicating drink introduced by the Ashvins 
 was known, and before the cow worshippers had added 
 milk to the original water and rice. Also in the Sia sac- 
 rament, in which the water and meal was first given to 
 the women, the village mothers, we find a record of the 
 central idea of the original ritual which looked on the holy 
 rain-water as the distributor of generating seed. 
 
 The whole of this ritual and of the traditional history 
 of the first birth and growth of the Mexican nationality 
 during the age of the years of the Pleiades and solstitial 
 sun down to the retirement of the Twins to heaven as the 
 stars Gemini, tells of a time long before the growth of the 
 subsequent temple worship preceded by the early forms 
 of human sacrifices, one of which was that of children, 
 whom the Semites and Indians offered as symbols of the 
 year-god dying at the end of his year and generating by 
 his creating blood fresh offspring to the nation in the coming 
 year. Similar sacrifices were offered to Tlaloc the rain- 
 god, and it is these sacrifices which are referred to in that 
 part of the Sia history which tells of the great flood which 
 submerged the country after the Twins had left the earth 
 and gone to the other world. It was then that the Tiamoni 
 or vicar-priest caused the waters to recede by drowning in 
 them a youth and a maid dressed in their best blankets i. 
 
 ' Prescott, History of Mexico, chap. iii. Human Sacrifices, vol i. p. 65 ; 
 
858 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 The sacrificing of children to the river Ganges was common 
 in India till our government put a stop to it. 
 
 This and the other form of human sacrifice, in which a 
 selected grown-up victim was killed at the year's end, origi- 
 nated in the age of Orion's year, when the Great Bear was 
 looked on as the Bow star which slew the year-god when his 
 year's course was run with the arrow of his two stars pointing 
 to the Pole, and this heavenly drama was reproduced on 
 earth by the slaying of the deer-sun in the person of his 
 human representative by the arrow shot by the Wild Hunter, 
 the star Orion ruling the year. This period was followed by 
 that in which the Great Bear was worshipped as the seven 
 pigs driven by the Pole Star sow, a form of belief which, as 
 far as I can discover, left no traces in Mexico. The Great 
 Bear then became the waggon or revolving bed of the sun- 
 god, and the form this myth took in Persia and South- 
 western Asia was that of the corn-god, the Persian Rustum, 
 and the Greek Dionysos riding on or drawn in his chariot by 
 the star-leopard horse which was in Mexico that of the god 
 Tezcatlipoca riding the Great Bear leopard. This was fol- 
 lowed in Asia and Europe by the age of the black horse 
 of night ridden by the year-god with the Great Bear as 
 its reins, and by the myth of the Indian parent-tree ape- 
 god, whose left thigh was the Great Bear, riding on the 
 black horse of the sun, the constellation Pegasus, as the 
 god of the eleven-months year, which was succeeded by 
 the substitution of the white horse of the sun for the black 
 horse when the Great Bear became the right thigh of its 
 rider, the sun - god whose year was measured by fifteen 
 twenty-four-day months. 
 
 During these ages of the worship of the Great Bear as 
 the star guiding the sun on his annual journeys round 
 the Pole all ritualistic circuits were made from right to 
 left, contrary to the course of the sun, even during the 
 
 Stevenson, T/u Sia, Smithsonian Institution, Publications of the Bureau of 
 Ethnology, vol. xi. p. 57. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 859 
 
 age of the fifteen-months year, when the Great Bear be- 
 came the right thigh of the sun-rider. During the ages 
 of the left-hand circuits the triple sacrificial cord worn by 
 the priests, denoting the original three seasons of Orion's 
 year, was worn in India and, as we have seen, in Umbria 
 (p. 798) on the right shoulder instead of on the left, on 
 which it has been worn since the age of the last Vedic 
 year of the bird of the brick altar when sunwise circles 
 were introduced. The pre-solar customs of the worship- 
 pers of the gods of night as to ritualistic circuits and the 
 wearing of the sacrificial cord prevailed also in Mexico 
 among the worshippers of the antelope, as we shall see in 
 the next section on the ritual of the antelope dances. The 
 next age was that of the seventeen-months year of the 
 sun-chariot with its two and three white horses, and this 
 terminated in the golden age of peace marking the rule 
 of the Indian Pandavas, who introduced the eighteen-months 
 year, which became that of the Toltecs, and which in its 
 reckoning returned to the original unit of annual time 
 measurement the five-days week. 
 
 C. The Antelope and Snake dances of Mexico. 
 
 These dances are now held simultaneously during the 
 festival month of the eighteen-months year, corresponding 
 with our August. This month, of which all the twenty days 
 are devoted to religious festivities, is clearly the Mexican 
 equivalent of the central month July — August of the Celtic 
 year of Lug, in which this month lasting from the fifteenth 
 of July to the fifteenth of August commemorates the festi- 
 vities of the marriage of the sun-god of this year to Tailltiu, 
 the goddess of flowers and of white clover '^. It is also the 
 centre or seventh month of the thirteen-months year begin- 
 ning in January — February, depicted in the Chronological 
 
 " Rhys, Hubert Lectures far 1886, lect. v. pp. 409—414. 
 
86o Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 hymn of the Rigveda i. 164, 15 as the self-created sexless 
 month of the year as standing in the centre of the six male 
 and six female months begotten by the Rishi, the antelope 
 constellation of the Great Bear, the seven Rishis of which 
 she is the mother. It is on the fifth of this month Shravana 
 (July — August) that the Indian national snake festival Naga- 
 panchami to the five Naga snake mothers is held. The 
 reports of the three village celebrations seen by Mr. Fewkes, 
 the delegate of the American Bureau of Ethnology ^ show 
 that the Mexican Tusayans, who call themselves descendants 
 of the Spider woman =, the Sia Sus-sistinnako, the Pleiades 
 year-mother of India, and who live in villages organised exactly 
 like those of the Indian sons of the mother-tree and the 
 village grove, do not begin their dances in all villages on the 
 same day ; but, like the Indian Ho and Munda Kols, vary 
 them to different days of the festival month, which among the. 
 Kols is Magh (January — February) ; the only strict rule as to 
 dates in Mexico being that the nine ceremonial days of the 
 feast, a reminiscence of the nine-days week of the cycle-year, 
 must fall some time in August, and that the date must be 
 fixed sixteen days before the festival takes place. Twenty 
 days, the number of days in the month, are allotted to it and 
 the preparations for it. The latter are made by the priests 
 of the antelope-god, and take up the first seven of these days. 
 The next nine days, each of which has its special name, are 
 devoted to the secret ceremonies of antelope and snake 
 worship, ending with the dances held either on the last two 
 or last of these days. The remaining four days of the twenty 
 are days of purification or general rejoicing, answering to 
 the Indian orgiastic feasts. The dates when the ceremonial 
 nine days began in the villages in which Mr. Fewkes attended 
 the festival were at Oraibi the nth, Cipaulovi the iSth, and 
 Cunopavi the i6th of August. 
 
 • Fewkes, Tusayatt Snake Ceremonies, Smithsonian Institution, Publications 
 of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1894, 1895, vol. xvi. pp. 273 ff. 
 
 = Snake Dances of Mishangnovi in the Navajo country of Colorado, Nine- 
 teenth Century, March, 1904, pp. 429 — 431. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 86 1 
 
 The ceremonies in each village are directed by the antelope 
 and snake priests chosen from the members of the priestly 
 clan answering to that of the Pahans or priests in the Oraon 
 villages of Chutia Nagpur, who in the evolution of Hinduism 
 from the earlier religions became the Brahmans. The 
 members of the priestly clan belong to families who have 
 handed down to their sons from generation to generation 
 the knowledge of the ritual of the national festivals observed 
 in each township, and also the words and music of the songs 
 sung at them, and who thus maintained in unbroken continuity 
 the form of worship established in each village. 
 
 Among the village gods a prominent place is held by the 
 Mexican antelope-god, a variant form of the antelope gazelle- 
 god Terah of the early Semites, the Akkadian god Dara, 
 and the Hindu Krishna, the black antelope successor of the 
 deer-sun-god. In the Sia cosmogony the antelope-god ruled 
 the zenith from the top of the mountain where he dwelt, and 
 was the last of the gods of the six directions of space killed 
 by the twins Ma'asewe and Uyuyewe, sent by their sun- 
 father with three rabbit sticks each and bows, for which, as 
 we have seen, they afterwards got arrows, to establish the 
 year of the rabbit, the sacred thirteen-months year divided 
 into two seasons, one of spring and summer, and the other 
 of autumn and winter. After they had, in procuring arrows 
 and feathers for them, killed the wolf of the East, the Cougar 
 of the North, and the bear of the West, they set forth to 
 kill the pair of royal eagles ruling the South, who dwelt with 
 their young ones on a high rock. On their way hither they 
 slew a deer, and made themselves like the deer-sun-god by 
 wrapping their bodies in its intestines and skin. When they 
 came near the rock the male eagle seized Ma'asewe and the 
 female Uyuyewe, and dropped them near the nest as food 
 for their young ones, and then flew away. When the young 
 eagles came out Ma'asewe asked when their parents would 
 come back, and they told them that their mother would 
 return first and their father after her, and both would go to 
 the higher nest. Ma'asewe then slew the young eagles and 
 
862 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 stood below the rock on which the mother and father eagles 
 were to alight, and he slew them successively, shooting at 
 them from below as they settled on it. They were helped 
 down from the rock by a squirrel, who planted for them 
 a piflon nut-tree, by which they came down, and it was from 
 two nuts of this tree eaten by a virgin that Poshaiyanne, the 
 sun-god, was afterwards born '^. 
 
 The Twins next slew the old witch ruling the Nadir, whose 
 death is also told in the Seven Adventures of Rustum and 
 Isfendiyar in Persian history. In the Mexican story she was 
 killed by being pushed by them into the oven of the central 
 world-fire of the South, in which she meant to burn them. 
 From her southern house they went down to the nether- 
 world, and there got fresh bows and red lightning arrows, 
 more beautiful and stronger than those furnished by the 
 Great Bear bow and the northern arrow of the year of three 
 seasons. They took these to their mother Kochinako, the 
 yellow mother of corn, and their spider grandmother, the 
 Pleiades mother. They then went after the antelope who 
 ate people as the god of human sacrifices, and lived on the 
 top of a high mountain. When they reached it the mole 
 made them an underground road beneath the place where 
 the antelope stood looking westward. Thence he bored a 
 hole exactly below the antelope's heart, and thence Ma'asewe 
 shot him. He ran to the south-east and north to look for 
 the foe who wounded him, and then came back to the hole 
 whence the arrow came and followed the Twins along the 
 tunnel, but fell dead before he reached them. When the 
 mole had proved to them that the antelope was really dead 
 by going to him and coming back covered with blood, they 
 went to it and Ma'asewe cut out its heart. They cut it in 
 pieces and threw the remains in every direction. 
 
 After this they went to the Oraibi village, where the people 
 (p. 285) were changed into blue jays of the age of blue-jay 
 
 ' Stevenson, The Sia, Smithsonian Institution, Publications of the Bureau 
 of Ethnology, vol. xi. pp. 47, 48, 59. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 863 
 
 worship in India and Greece ', and they closed their career 
 on earth by going up the rainbow bridge to their father the 
 sun. Poshaiyanne, their successor, was the son of two nuts 
 eaten by a virgin, or in other words of the virgin nut-tree, 
 the parent nut or almond-tree of the Oraons of Chutia Nagpur 
 and of the Jews, who believed the nut-tree to be the tree of 
 life of the Garden of Eden, of the Romans, who scattered 
 nuts at weddings, and of the early Italian worshippers of the 
 walnut-tree of Beneventum, from the fruit of which, when 
 given by a peasant suitor to the king's daughter, the sun-god 
 was born, and he himself became her acknowledged husband 
 chosen by her when he came in his peasant's dress among 
 her princely suitors to claim her hand, as the Indian almond - 
 tree-mother Drupadi chose Arjuna and his brethren, and 
 Kitabun, the Persian king Gushtasp or Vistaspa, disguised 
 as a peasant, in a similar competition. Poshaiyanne began 
 his career in the same pauper guise as these sun-gods when 
 he became the servant who lighted the cigarettes of the 
 national Tiamoni or High-priest =. He played with his 
 master seven gambling-matches, in which he won his houses 
 and all his people in the North, West, South and East, the 
 zenith and nadir, and in these Poshaiyanne, if he had lost 
 was to give him his seven bracelets, made of seven different 
 species of precious stones, and which were so beautiful that 
 the Tiamoni was willing to risk all his possessions and the 
 rule of his subjects in order to obtain them. 
 
 The first game of this series is most interesting and 
 instructive, as it tells clearly in symbolic language the 
 history of the contest between the conquering sun-god of 
 the three-years cycle-year and the year ruler of the thirteen- 
 months year whom he supplanted. This game, called 
 Wash-kasi, in which the prize was the house in the North, 
 
 ■ Stevenson, The Sia, Smithsonian Institution, Publications of the Bureau 
 of Ethnology, vol. xi. pp. 48 — 50. 
 
 'Ibid., vol. xi. pp. 59—67; Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, 
 vol. ii. essay ix. pp. 275, 277, 278 ; Leland, Etrusco- Roman Remains, Walnut 
 Witches, pp. 187—194. 
 
864 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 was played on a square flat board symbolising the square 
 Garden of God of the Zendavesta, which in ritualistic history 
 succeeded the circle of the horizon as the symbol of the 
 world in the creed of the primitive village communities, who 
 looked on the habitable earth of each people as the world's 
 central village, in which, as in the Celtic Caer Sidi or re- 
 volving tower, all mankind lived within these respective 
 horizons round the mother-tree growing in its centre. This 
 new square picture of the ideal world represented, as we have 
 seen (pp. 326, 327), the earth as depicted in the imagination 
 of the men of the age of the three-years cycle-year divided 
 into forty lunar-stellar months each of twenty-seven days, 
 which were again subdivided into four series of ten months 
 of gestation, so arranged that the first series of ten months 
 beginning at the winter solstice, as in the year of the Indian 
 Rama, ended at the autumnal] equinox ; the sun-god then 
 born ruled till the summer solstice, and was succeeded by 
 the god whose reign ended at the vernal equinox which 
 began the ten months of the last of the symbolic year rulers 
 ending at the close of the cycle with the winter solstice. 
 This year of nine-day weeks, reproduced in the nine days' 
 festival of the Mexican antelope and snake dances, was that 
 of the believers in the sexless or double-sexed creator, the 
 king and queen bee, who brought everything into life by 
 his will and fixed the periods of the successive births of his 
 human and animal offspring as measured by the ten months 
 of gestation, which ended in the birth of a new-born sun-god 
 begotten by divine will at the beginning of the previous ten 
 months. 
 
 In comparing the story of this year with that of thirteen 
 months I have shown that these two existed side by side 
 at the same period, the thirteen-months year being originally 
 thought to begin with three months in which the infant sun- 
 god was nursed by the moon. These were followed by the 
 ten months' gestation of his successor, who at the end of the 
 thirteen months became the infant sun-god of a new year. 
 This year of the king and queen bee was, as we have seen. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 865 
 
 that instituted by the honey-eating Twins Ma'asewe and 
 Uyuyewe, before they went back to their father sun. And 
 this year of thirteen months, together with the cycle forty- 
 months year, producing the ruling sun-god, are both repre- 
 sented as two contending systems in the symbolical picture 
 of the game of Wash-kasi between the Tiamoni and Poshai- 
 yanne. 
 
 The winner of the game had to anticipate the loser in 
 placing forty pebbles ten in a row round each side of the 
 square board, placing them successively in sun-wise order 
 on the north, east, south and west sides ; and he only secured 
 the right to do this by dropping on the flat stone in the 
 centre of the square four sticks painted black on one side 
 and uncoloured on the other, with all their black sides up. 
 Poshaiyanne, who had the first throw, did this in all his 
 four throws, and thus proclaimed himself as the sun-god 
 who had circled the universe in the forty months of the 
 cycle-year. But the Tiamoni only turned up two painted 
 sides on his first throw, entitling him to put down two 
 pebbles on the west side, on which he began, three on his 
 second throw, two on his third, and four unpainted sides 
 on his fourth throw, entitling him to put down six pebbles, 
 in all thirteen pebbles, making the thirteen months of his 
 year, that which was the sacred year of Mexico and which 
 had to succumb to the forty months of Poshaiyanne's solar 
 year. It was this victorious year which, as we have seen, 
 began the series of lunar-solar and solar years ending in 
 Mexico and India with the eighteen-months year of the 
 Toltecs and Pandavas. 
 
 After the victory of Poshaiyanne his instalment as ruling 
 god was celebrated by a great hunt to which Ma'asewe and 
 Uyuyewe came down from heaven as the stars Gemini. 
 In this constellation the sun - god took, as we have seen in 
 Chapters VI. and VII., his independent path through the 
 Zodiac in the heavens as the god of the left and right 
 thigh. But though the sun-god was in this phase of astro- 
 nomical history looked at as the god ruling the Great Bear 
 
 II. 3 K 
 
866 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 and no longer ruled by it, yet his zodiacal course was in 
 Egypt and China, and consequently also in Mexico, re- 
 garded as retrograde, and left-hand circuits were still used 
 in the popular ritual of these countries, though the sun- 
 wise zodiac had superseded the original retrograde form 
 in Babylon and also in later Vedic ritual in India, where, 
 as we have seen, all later circuits were made sun-wise. 
 
 At this hunt, superintended by the Twin stars, the cradle 
 of the new sun-god, sun-deer and lunar rabbits were slain 
 for the feast preceding Poshaiyanne's marriage to the daugh- 
 ter of a great chief, which closed his career as the sun-god 
 who had finished his allotted task and begotten his successor. 
 He was slain by the former wooers of his wife, who envied 
 him as the sun-god of the ended year. But he came to life 
 again, and they killed him a second time and threw his body 
 into the lake, symbolising the constellation Aquarius, in 
 which the sun begins the Chinese year of their retrograde 
 zodiac and passes into the Hare and Rabbit constellation 
 Scorpio, beginning the Mexican year in the fourth Chinese 
 month after he rose from the pool Aquarius as the eagle of 
 a new year. This year, beginning in China and Mexican 
 tradition in Aquarius, the rat constellation, is a counterpart 
 of the year of the Ten Kings of Babylon, beginning when 
 the sun was in Skat Aquarius ^, the year of the builders of 
 the pyramidal temples of Babylon, which were reproduced in 
 those of Mexico. 
 
 The name Poshai of this sun-god reproduces the Chinese 
 name of the Buddha sun-god Fosho, and that the legend of 
 Poshaiyanne is a Mexican Jataka or birth-story of one of 
 the Buddha's births is made probable by the proof given 
 in the picture on p. 66 1 that the worship of the Buddha 
 in the guise of his elephant-headed predecessor Gan-isha 
 was introduced into Mexico with the Chinese rabbit-year. 
 This depicts the Yucatan god of Copan Cumahau, Lord 
 of the Bowl, as the elephant-headed Gan-isha seated on a 
 
 ' Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vii. sect, b, 
 pp. 414, 41S- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. S67 
 
 double Suastika and receiving the bowl of creating rice given 
 him by the goddess Su-jata, owner of the eight star-cows, the 
 seven stars of the Great Bear, and the Pole Star, in whose 
 milk the rice was boiled by the creating rain-god Sakko or 
 Indra. This rice transformed, as I have shown on pp. 672 > 
 673, the Buddha of Buddhist history into the immortal sun- 
 god. 
 
 We must now return to the Mexican antelope and snake 
 dances which reproduced a ritual much earlier than the 
 worship of the sun - god the Mexican Poshaiyanne, the 
 Indian Parikshit, and takes us back to the days of the 
 antelope - slaying Twins Ma'asewe and Uyuyewe, those 
 of the early human sacrifices offered in the ritual of the 
 antelope-god Krishna. These were held in August, the 
 mid-month of the thirteen-months year, that sacred to the 
 Celtic sun-god Lug, the Greek tree-mother-goddess Athene, 
 to Apollo Paian the sun-physician, both of whose birth- 
 festivals were, as we have seen p. 826, held in August. 
 
 At this Mexican dance both antelope and snake priests 
 have "Kivas," or enclosed circular shrines, erected for the 
 performance of their secret rites during this festival, and 
 marking the feast as originating in an age preceding the 
 erection of permanent national temples. Only the antelope 
 priests use altars, and these are not, like the early Asiatic 
 and European altars, built of earth, but are made of sand 
 strewn on the ground like that scattered in India on the site 
 on which the Garhapatiya or Household-fire altar was to be 
 built. And these sand altars, on which elaborate patterns 
 prescribed by ancient custom are portrayed during the first 
 days of the festival, are, like the Asiatic and European earth 
 altars, the product of the age of barley and corn worship, 
 and were unknown to the ritual of snake worship both in 
 India and Mexico. The antelope Kiva is placed at the east, 
 the quarter of the rising sun, and the snake Kiva at the west, 
 where it sets, and they stand on both sides of the road into 
 the town where the feast is celebrated. 
 
 The oblong sand antelope-altar is adorned with figures 
 3 K 2 
 
868 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 representing homed male and hornless female deer, and 
 with cloud and lightning symbols. At Oraibi two antelope 
 heads are placed at the north-east and north-west corners 
 of the altar, denoting the quarters of the rising and setting 
 sun of the summer solstice. The antelope priest is dis- 
 tinguished from the snake priest by carrying during the 
 ceremony the sheaf-god Ya'ya of the Sias, the virgin mother 
 of corn, called his Tiponi or god-image ; and this is renewed 
 every fourth year at the end of each of the thirteen four- 
 year divisions of the thirteen-months year-cycle of fifty-two 
 years. This image stands during the festival near the north- 
 east corner of the antelope-altar. 
 
 The dances, like those of the primitive age of the worship 
 of the stars and setting sun, all took place at sunset in front 
 of the " kasi " or shrine built of sacred cotton wood, the Vedic 
 Shal-mali tree (Bombyx heptaphylla), of which the car of the 
 Indian Ashvins was made. This " kasi " was placed to the 
 south of the central piazza or market-place, and in its centre, 
 as in Greek, Roman and Persian villages of the age of 
 Lohrasp, was the village Pahoki or fire-shrine. 
 
 The only public ceremony occurring at sunrise during the 
 festival was the snake race, a Mexican variant of the Greek 
 year-race won by Melanion the black (/tteXa?) god rising from 
 his bed of night as the sun of dawn. He beat Atalanta, 
 who, as the nursling of the she-bear Artemis, the Great Bear 
 Goddess, slew with the arrow of her pointer stars the Caly- 
 donian year-boar, who died at the winter solstice when his 
 year was ended '. She |was beaten by her stopping in her 
 race to pick up the three golden apples, the three seasons 
 of the year thrown on her path by Melanion. 
 
 The Mexican snake^form of this race was run the morning 
 after the antelope dance, and on the same day when the 
 snake-priests danced in the evening. All the circuits made 
 during these performances beginning with the four circuits 
 of the Piazza made by the antelope and snake-priests were 
 
 ' Frazer, Pausanias, viii. 45, 2, 6, vol. i. pp. 432. 433. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 86g 
 
 made against the course of the sun. Also the antelope- 
 priests at Oraibi wore, like the Indian and Umbrian priests 
 (pp. 802, 803) who made their circuits against the course 
 of the sun, the sacrificial cord over the right shoulder and 
 a band of wool round the left knee, which was bent by the 
 Indian priests, but no cord was worn by the snake-priest, 
 who belonged to the ritual of the pre-barley period, when 
 the wearing of the cord was first introduced in India. The 
 Tiponi carried by the antelope-priest was carried on his left 
 arm, and he also carried a bow with red horsehair attached 
 to it, and a bow was also carried by the snake-priest, both 
 being reminiscences of the Great Bear bow of the Indian 
 god Krishanu and the Assyrian Marduk. 
 
 In these ceremonies the evening dances, the left-hand 
 circuits, the wearing of the cord on the right shoulder, the 
 binding of the left knee and the carrying of the divine bow 
 are copies and reminiscences of the Hindu ritual of the 
 Naga-kushika barley-eating fathers, sons of the bow {kaus). 
 Also the worship of the corn sheaf is a variant stage of the 
 corn worship of the barley-growing Indian sons of the 
 antelope, who from being sons of the bow (kaus) had become 
 sons of the Kusha-grass eaten by the antelope and repre- 
 senting the wild grass, the earliest form of the developed 
 barley plant; and both the Indian and Mexican forms 
 embody, like the Malay worship of the rice sheaf containing 
 the rice soul, the original doctrine underlying the religions 
 of the worshippers of the mother-tree and food plant as well 
 as the Tao and Shinto faiths of the Chinese and Japanese. 
 They all look on all forms of life as identical in their origin, 
 maintaining that the soul of life in human beings, animals, 
 plants and all organised living beings is an emanation of the 
 all-pervading Will of God, whose creative fiat makes life 
 assume active being, begets and sustains it in all its forms, 
 and enables the faculties given to each species and individual 
 to be developed in their ordained and allotted proportions 
 during the time when the inward spirit and the incorporating 
 body remain united in the form assigned to them in the 
 
870 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 sphere of being in which they are placed. So that all who 
 thus live are children of God. 
 
 The Mexican dances are danced by the men and not by 
 the women of the village, as in Chutia Nagpur, and thus 
 differ from those of the Indian Mundas and other cognate 
 tribes who retain the matriarchal custom of the primitive 
 villages which were ruled by the village mothers in partner- 
 ship with the men of the village, their reputed brethren (pp. 
 93, 94). Hence they date back to the later period of patri- 
 archal rule beginning when individual marriage succeeded 
 that of villages, in which the men of one village were the 
 fathers of the children born in the neighbouring village in 
 which they danced with their mothers. They are also later 
 in origin than the age indicated in the Sia sacrament, of 
 which, though it is administered by men, the women are the 
 first and most numerous partakers. The period to which 
 they belong seems to be that of the dances of the Salil, 
 Dactyli, Kouretes and other associations of dancing-priests 
 of Asia Minor, Greece and Italy, which succeeded the dances 
 of the village women, of whom those who were not married 
 to householding husbands became the Kedesha of the temple 
 and the consecrated maidens of Istar and Cybele, and those 
 who married had in the cults similar to the Mylitta worship 
 of Babylon to pass through a period of temple prostitution 
 before marriage. These priestly dances succeeded those of 
 the matriarchal age, when the family became the national 
 unit instead of the village and tribe, a stage reached by the 
 Mexican villagers who live in long houses large enough to 
 hold several generations of a family, like those of the Fiji 
 islanders and other cognate people in Polynesia and of the 
 Naga villages in Assam. Their ritual seems also to date 
 from the Kushika age when the priests formed guilds which, 
 after passing through the stages indicated by the village 
 clans of Oraon Pahans and the barber-priests of India, 
 developed into the caste of the Brahmans. These patriarchal 
 tribes retained both in Mexico and India a mixed ritual in 
 which the ancient seasonal dance festivals subsisted side by 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 871 
 
 side with the later sacrifices of human and animal victims, 
 and this union is shown in the ritual of the Zend Haoma 
 or Soma sacrament, in which the meat of the slain victims 
 which would pollute the holy altar fire was distribued un- 
 cooked to the partakers of Haoma to be afterwards made 
 ready for food in their own homes. 
 
 The Kushika priest-guilds of northern India who wor- 
 shipped the grain soul and the Naga snake, and who 
 correspond to the Mexican antelope and snake-priest, are 
 called in the Rigveda Varshagiras, or praisers of rain, which 
 infused the soul of life into plants and animals, and Nahasha, 
 or sons of the ploughing-snake Nagur, whose name seems 
 to be reproduced in that of the Mexican Nahuatl. 
 
 D. Indian history of the close of the age of the eighteen- 
 months year as told in the Mahabharata. 
 
 The long period of peace and prosperity which gave birth 
 in Mexico to the rule of the Toltecs who brought with them 
 the eighteen-months year of the Indian Pandavas was in 
 Indian history looked upon, as we have seen, as that of the 
 rule of the five Pandavas, reputed sons of Pandu, the sexless 
 god who was born in India of Ambalika the Great Bear 
 mother-star (p. 161), and whose sons, the five seasons of the 
 seventeen-months year, were the offspring and earthlj'^ em- 
 bodiments of Dharma the ruler of heaven and earth, the 
 ordainer and maintainer of all laws which uphold the universe, 
 of Maroti, the tree {marom) ape parent-god, Indra, the rain 
 and buffalo-cloud-god, and the two Ashvins, the twin stars 
 Gemini (p. i6i). Their chief adviser and prime-minister 
 was Vidura, meaning the wise, their great uncle, the half- 
 brother of their father and the son of their grandfather Vyasa, 
 the uniter, the god of the alligator constellation, the earlier 
 form of the constellation Draco guarding the Pole Star, and 
 of a waiting woman of Ambika, the Pole Star in Cygnus, 
 mother of Dhrita-rashtra (p. 161). He, who like Yudishthira 
 
872 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Is said in the Mahabharata to be the earthly manifestator 
 of Dharma i, marks by his birth the age of his government 
 of India as that in which the foreign merchant Pandava, or 
 fair {Pandu), kings and their cognate northern immigrants 
 into India had become united as one nation with the earliest 
 occupiers of the country symbolised in Vidura's mother. 
 
 This age is described in the Mahabharata as that in which 
 the orgiastic festivals, at which animals were sacrificed and 
 intoxicating liquor drunk by the priests and worshippers, 
 were superseded by the later Vedic sacrifices, in which, as in 
 the earliest first-fruits ritual, no living victims were offered, 
 and the Soma sacramental drink was that made of the three 
 mixings of Indra, fresh and sour milk, barley, and water 
 from a running stream. The horse sacrifice beginning the 
 eighteen -months year was the last of the old New Year 
 sacrifices defiled by the northern effusion of blood, and it was 
 after it that Nakula the mon-goose, the ruling god of winter 
 and the youngest of the Pandavas and of the twin sons of 
 Madri, the intoxicated {mad) prophetess, and the Ashvins, 
 is said in the Mahabharata to have appeared as the reformer 
 of the ritual. 
 
 During the exile of the Pandavas in their thirteenth year, 
 which, as the non-solar year of thirteen months was spent 
 by them as hidden sun-gods in the kingdom of the Matsya 
 Viratas, the fish {matsya) worshipping sons of the Viru or 
 phallus, he was the trainer of the king's horses, the symbolic 
 office of the god of the winter season, who trains the sun- 
 horses for their yearly ascent round heaven ». 
 
 In his discourse or sacrificial reform he is said in the 
 Mahabharata to have declared "that the destruction of 
 living creatures can never be said to be an act of righteous- 
 ness," and that " sacrifices should be offerings of seeds and 
 liquids not of animals," This was one of the cardinal doc- 
 trines of the Jain priests also taught in the earliest sacrifices 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi {Sambhavd) Parva, Ivi. pp. 321 — 323 ; Ashrama Vasika 
 (Ashramavdsa) Parva, i. 4 — 16, xxvi. 26 — 31, pp. I, 2, 58. 
 ' Ibid., Virata (Pandava-pravesha) Parva, xii. pp. 26, 27. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 873 
 
 in the primitive villages where only flowers, fruit and rice 
 were offered. The primitive sacrifice of rice and water 
 offered by the rice growers became, with the substitution 
 in the Kushika age of barley for rice, the orthodox sacri- 
 fice of Indian ritual, and with the barley and water, fresh 
 and sour milk of the divine cow of the northern cow wor- 
 shippers, and also the sap of the Soma plant, the national 
 mother, were mixed. The first Soma tree of the sacrifice 
 on the first earth-altar in the form of a woman was, as we 
 have seen (p. 162), the Palasha {Butea frondosd), called the 
 Shyena-hrita, or tree stolen {hritd) from the Shyena or 
 Pole Star bird wounded with the arrow of Krishanu, the 
 Great Bear archer. This brought to earth one of its 
 feathers, which grew up into this sacred tree. But in the 
 Shatapatha Brahmana several substitutes for this are 
 allowed, one of them being the Kusha-grass {Poa cynosu- 
 roides), the parent grass of the barley-growing races which 
 was, .as we have seen, used in preparing the Soma of the 
 Sautramani sacrifice of the eleven -months year, when fer- 
 mented liquor was mixed with the Soma. Other substi- 
 tutes mentioned are Dub-grass (Poa dacty/on), universally 
 found in north India on dry land near the banks of streams, 
 and which almost always remains green even in the hottest, 
 driest weather. Also the Adura plants and two species of 
 brown and red Phalguni which I cannot identify '. The 
 Soma of the Kshatriya and Vaishya, the warrior and trading 
 castes, was made of milk into which the sap of the Bur- 
 tree (Ficus Indicd), the Banyan parent-tree of the Kushika, 
 was infused % and I have heard of other trees, the general 
 evidence on the subject pointing to the use of the sap of 
 a parent totem-tree as a chief consecrating ingredient in 
 the sacramental Soma drink. This in the final form pre- 
 scribed in the later Vedic ritual represented symbolically 
 the national union of the northern cow-worshipping and 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., iv. S, 10, 1—6, Sacred Books of the East, vol. 
 xxvi. pp. 421, 422. 
 " Katyayana, x. 9, 30 ; Hillebrandt, Vedische Mvthologie, pp. 66, 67. 
 
874 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 barley-growing races with the indigenous sons of the forest 
 mother-tree. In this union the lead was taken by the barley- 
 growing and pastoral cow-herding races. 
 
 At the annual Soma sacrifices held after this last form 
 of Soma was required to be always used in the national 
 ritual, the only drink allowed to those who partook of it 
 was " vrata " or fast-milk, which was their only food during 
 its continuance '. This Soma was also offered in all libations 
 except that to Mitra-Varuna, the gods of the winter and 
 summer solstitial seasons, which was made, like the Vaishya 
 and Kshatrya Soma, only of the sap of the Soma-tree and 
 milk 3. 
 
 This reform in the contents of the sacramental cup was 
 also at the same time introduced into the social customs 
 of the high-caste Brahmin Kshatrya and Vaishya Hindus, 
 who became, like the Arab sons of the date-palm-tree, 
 total abstainers from all strong drink, and since then they 
 have always thought it disgraceful to drink any spirituous 
 liquor, even the date-palm wine, a favourite drink of northern 
 India, being forbidden. They thus completely abandoned 
 the Bharata customs described in the age of the Mahabha- 
 rata, when Krishna, the Pandava and Kauravya brethren 
 and their wives, including Driipadi and Su-bhadra, indulged 
 freely in intoxicating drink. This is recorded in the Maha- 
 bharata as having been so universally consumed at the Horse 
 Sacrifice introducing the eighteen-months year, that the vast 
 space occupied by those present at the same fire was filled 
 " with men drunk with wine and joyful young women 3," all 
 of whom were doubtless, like the Kol men and women at 
 their annual Magh festival, more or less intoxicated. 
 
 It was when this national reform of Nakula was intro- 
 duced that the horse offered at the annual horse sacrifice 
 
 ' Eggeling, Sliat. Brah., iii. i, 2, I, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxvi. 
 
 pp. S. 6. 
 =" Ibid., iv. I, 4, 7, 8, ibid., vol. xxvi. p. 271. 
 
 3 Maliabharata Ashvamedha {Anugita) Parva, Ixxxix. 38 — 41, pp. 226, 227. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 875 
 
 was ordered in the later ritual to be allowed to go free 
 instead of being slain ^. 
 
 The close of the age permitting the use of intoxicating 
 drink and the beginning of the era of temperance reform 
 is described in the Mausala Parva, the seventeenth canto 
 of the Mahabharata. The change is traced to the iron 
 bolt conceived by the bi-sexual Shamba, the spear {shambd) 
 god of the Linga, and Yoni, the two signs of sex. He was 
 the child of Krishna and grandson and heir of Vasu-deva, 
 the god Vasu of the bamboo pole, the parent of the Sham- 
 bara, sons of the spear. The symbol denoted the creating 
 fire-drill and socket of the creating Potter, which was made 
 to revolve with the earth of which it was the centre by the 
 annual revolutions of the Great Bear (pp. 296, 297). These 
 revolutions brought about in the course of years the close 
 of the Bronze Age and the beginning of that of Iron. The 
 beginning of the age of temperance begun in the Iron Age 
 is described in the poem as due to a vow made by the 
 Vrishni, Andhaka and Bhoja followers of Krishna to abstain 
 from intoxicating drinks in order to avert the evil portended 
 by the iron bolt. But this vow did not stop the portentous 
 signs nor prevent the occurrence of the changes brought 
 into the world by epoch-making time ; and that the re- 
 volution in national customs was accompanied by a change 
 in the methods of year reckoning is shown by the statement 
 in the poem that the four sun-horses of Krishna's year-car 
 disappeared. These were the bird-necked {grivd) ape Su- 
 griva, Shaivya, the bull horse of Shiva, Megha-pushpa, the 
 cloud {megka) flower {puskpa), and Vala-hika, the circling 
 [void) horse driven by Daru-ka, the god of the northern 
 pine {ddru), the parent-tree of the offerers of animal sac- 
 rifices, who were no longer to be reckoned as rulers of 
 annual time. With the sun -horses Krishna's standard 
 of the Garuda or sun-cloud-bird and Vala-rama's banner 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shut. Bhah., xiii. 4, 2, 15, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliv. 
 P' 359. 
 
876 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of the date-palm-tree of the eighteen-months year also 
 vanished. 
 
 The doomed heroes of the dying age betook themselves 
 in their despair to Prabhasa the port of Baragyza or Prag- 
 jyotisha, the modern Broach at the mouth of the Nerbudda. 
 There they indulged in one last orgy ending in a mutual 
 fight, in which all the Yadava demigods slew one another, 
 and Krishna himself, taking up a handful of Eraka-grass, 
 slew with it all who came near him, and exterminated the 
 Vrishnis and Andhakas, or in other words made the rulers 
 of the dying era wither away as the grass that has lived 
 its allotted term. 
 
 When they had all been slain Krishna sent Daruka his 
 charioteer to fetch Arjuna as his successor, and he went to 
 Valarama, whom he found under a tree, and watched him as 
 he was transformed in death into a Naga snake. After the 
 disappearance of the god whose weapon was the plough, 
 the Great Bear plough star by which he measured his year, 
 Krishna lay down to die, and was slain by an arrow shot 
 from the bow of Jara, old age, which entered his heel, the 
 only vulnerable part of his body, as it was that of Achilles 
 the Greek sun-god, who was slain in the same way by the 
 arrow of Paris. 
 
 The death of both Krishna and Achilles by the arrow 
 of revolving time marks the death of the Homeric Bronze 
 Age to which both the Pandava myth and that of Achilles 
 belonged, and which was followed by that of Iron. The 
 Pandavas are proved to be men of the Bronze Age by their 
 eighteen-months year, which was adopted as the Mexican 
 national year by the Toltecs. They, as well as their Mexican 
 contemporaries and successors down to the age of the Spanish 
 conquest, lived in the Bronze Age, as they never used iron, 
 though the country abounds in nearly pure iron ore, and 
 always made all their cutting utensils of copper and bronze 
 made of tin and copper ', which they would not have done 
 
 ' Prescott, History of Mexico, voL iii. Appendix, p. 333. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 877 
 
 had their instructors from whom they learnt the eighteen- 
 months year reckoning been a people who had abandoned 
 bronze for iron. 
 
 That the myth of Achilles belonged to the Bronze Age 
 is proved by his distinctive divine weapon which none but 
 he could wield. This was his great spear given him by his 
 father Peleus, the divine Potter, who created men out of 
 potter's clay (tfi^Xo?). He received it from Cheiron the 
 Centaur, the divine physician, as a wedding-gift on his 
 marriage to Thetis, the goddess of the southern mud {thith), 
 in which his creating spear which turned the world's Potter's 
 wheel revolved. This spear, cut by Cheiron the creating 
 god of the age of the sun-horse of the eleven-months year, 
 was the stem of the ash-tree of Mt. Pelion, which was, 
 according to Hesiod, the parent-tree of the men of the 
 Bronze Age. 
 
 The fact that in the Iliad Achilles is represented as giving 
 iron axes and a large mass of natural iron in priies at the 
 games at the funeral of Patroclus ^, and that iron weapons 
 are elsewhere mentioned in the Iliad and Odyssey, only 
 proves that the authors of these poems embodying the epic 
 version of the mythic history of the traditional Trojan war 
 wrote them in the Iron Age. It gives no proof that iron 
 was used in the very early Pre-Mycensean age in which these 
 episodes were first put into mythic historical form. The age 
 of the adoption of these myths as national history was cer- 
 tainly much older than that of the Mycenaean graves in which 
 only bronze swords and spears were found = ; and in the 
 second city of the six superincumbent cities of Hissarlik, 
 supposed to be the burnt city of Troy, and built over the 
 first city belonging to the late Stone Age in which metal 
 is very rare, knives of bronze and copper spear points, daggers, 
 chisels and axes of bronze were found but no iron utensils 
 of any kind, the only iron found being two lumps of the 
 metal 3. 
 
 ■ Horn. //. xxiii. 850, 826 ff. 
 
 ' Ridgeway, Early Age of Greece, vol. i. pp. 303, 305. 
 
 3 Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations, pp. 37, 67, 332. 
 
878 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Arjuna, when he reached Dwaraka after the death of the 
 year-god of the Bronze Age, collected the Vrishni and 
 Andhaka wives who had lost their husbands, and after seeing 
 Krishna's father, Vasu-deva, the creating-god of the bamboo 
 sun-pillar, die, he left Dwaraka, which was swallowed by 
 the sea after his departure. He took the Yadava wives to 
 Indraprastha (Delhi), though many of these were captured 
 by the Abherias, the modern Ahirs or cattle-herdsmen, 
 against whom he could not defend them, as the once inex- 
 haustible quivers whence he got arrows for his heavenly bow 
 Gandiva ceased its supply of weapons. The truth under- 
 lying this story is apparently that the cattle-herdsmen were 
 the new invaders who, as we shall see, are represented in the 
 Vedic account of the rise of the new age of Sanskrit-speaking 
 rulers as coming from the North to conquer the lands of the 
 Bharata merchant-kings, and who intermarried with the 
 women of this new country. 
 
 When Arjuna had escorted the remnant of the Vrishnis, 
 Andhakas, and Bhojas to places of safety, he and his brethren 
 retired from active rule, and he went for advice to his grand- 
 father Vyasa the uniter, called Krishna Dwaipayana, the black 
 antelope island {dwipd) god, the constellation of antelope' 
 stars surrounding and guarding the Pole, answering to our 
 Draco. He told him that he and his brethren had ended 
 their work on earth, and that they must now, like the year- 
 gods of former theologies, retire to the upper world of stars. 
 
 They accordingly all resigned their sovereignty, and 
 Yudishthira appointed as his successor Yuyutsu, meaning 
 the warrior, the son of Dhrita-rashtra, the blind gnomon- 
 pole father of the Kauravyas, by a Vaishya wife of the 
 village {visK) trading races. He in the list of the eleven 
 sons of Dhrita-rashtra ruling months of the eleven-months 
 year ruled its last month 2. Yuyutsu is the traditional 
 
 ' The stars were the antelopes of heaven in Hindu mythology, the Great 
 Bear being the constellation of the seven Rishis or antelopes. 
 
 - Mahabharata Mahaprasthanika Parva, I — 10, Adi (Adivanshava-larna) 
 Parva, Ixiii. p. 180. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 879 
 
 representative king of the northern invading races who 
 worshipped the sun-god of day, and the equivalent in national 
 genealogical history of Rahulo, the little Rahu, son of the 
 Buddhha who was the Kumar or sun-prince of the seventeen- 
 months year, whose mother was Bhadda Kaccani, the golden 
 saint, the eleventh of the thirteen Theris of the Buddhist 
 thirteen-months year. 
 
 The five brothers accompanied by Drupadi were followed 
 in their journey to the other world by Yudishthira's dog, 
 the dog-star Sirius i, who as the Zend year-star Tishtrya 
 ruled the summer solstice and the rainy dog-days of India, 
 and the Persian Gulf following it ; and whose worship I have 
 traced both in Persia and Egypt in the history of the Persian 
 king Lohrasp and his son Gushtasp, the royal introducer 
 of Zarathustra's religion. At the beginning of their journey 
 they were met by Agni, who was not the original national 
 fire-god of the founders of villages, the Greek and Roman 
 goddess Hestia and Vesta, the Indian Agni Vaishvanara, or 
 god of the household-fire, but the later god of the Uttara-vedi 
 or northern altar of Varuna, on which the sacred fire was 
 encircled by a triangle of Pitudaru or pine-tree twigs =, and 
 not with the earlier triangle of those of the Palasha-tree. 
 This change in the ritual marked the altar and the sacrifices 
 offered on it as those of the sons of the northern pine-tree 
 [daru), the tree of Krishna's charioteer Daruka. The votaries 
 of this new fire, the Iravata, the river-born race, sons of Ida 
 or Ira the mountain-mother, called it by the Vedic name 
 Agni Jata vedas 3, that is the fire which knows the secrets 
 of birth, or in other words, that consecrated to the northern 
 
 ' Perhaps this dog was, as I have suggested on p. 787, the jackal dog-god 
 Anpu, the embalming and mummifying Horus, the Little Bear who appears 
 in the year of the thirteen Buddhist Theris as Sigalamati, whose mother is 
 the jackal (sigulo), and who is the thirteeenth Theri. 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shut. Brah., iii. 5, 2, 14, 15, Sacred Books of the East, vol. 
 xxvi. p. 125. 
 
 ' Rig. iii. 29, 4, the verse consecrating the fire Agni Jatavedas as that of 
 Ma, daughter of Manu, the flood-bom mountain-mother placed in the central 
 navel («aW«) of the altar. 
 
88o Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 god of the pastoral races whose three-years cycle-year was 
 measured by the ten lunar-stellar months of gestation, and 
 who offered animal sacrifices replacing the earlier first-fruit 
 offerings and bloodless libations of milk and those of the 
 sacrificial pits of the Takka trident-worshippers. Agni had 
 formerly sent Arjuna and Krishna to burn the forest of 
 Khandava, the abode of Takshika ^, the winter-god of the 
 year of three seasons of the Takka-naga snake-worshippers 
 of the household-fire of the forest villagers, who was pro- 
 tected by Indra, and their victorious conflagration was 
 immediately followed by the first period of Pandava rule. 
 This northern Agni to prepare them for this task got from 
 Varuna, the god of the North = ruling the upper firmament, 
 and gave to Arjuna the bow Gandiva, the {diva) of the land 
 {gati), the Great Bear year-bow borne by so many other 
 year-gods, which could be only bent and used by the god 
 to whom the Supreme God entrusted it ; and with it he gave 
 two inexhaustible quivers of arrows, the two solstitial seasons 
 of the year of the sun-god measured by the arrows of Arjuna, 
 who, as these arrows were like those of his prototype 
 Krishanu the pointer stars of the Great Bear, could pierce 
 the year-god dwelling in the Pole Star at any time when 
 the national year ended and the year-god was to be slain. 
 When this bow was given to Arjuna, Agni, god of the 
 northern year measured by months, gave to Krishna the 
 year-discus, the circle of months limiting the length of 
 the year, and he also gave Arjuna a chariot drawn by two 
 white sun-horses with the banner of the ape of heaven 3 fixed 
 on its back rail. This ape-god was the tree (marom) ape 
 Maroti, who sat on the top of the world's tree and turned 
 the stars round, who, as we have seen (p. 571), became in 
 the mythology of Arjuna and Uttara's victory over the 
 Kauravyas in the eleven-months year the ape with the lion's 
 tail ruling the winter season of the year. Arjuna, the son 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi (IChandava-daha) Parva, ccxxv. p. 617. 
 ° Ibid., Sabha (Lokapala Saihakhydnd) Parva, ix. pp. aSfif. 
 3 Ibid., Adi {Khandava-daha) Parva, ccxxvi.— ccxxx. pp. 622 — 634. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 88 1 
 
 and successor of Indra the buffalo rain-god, when thus 
 caparisoned as the god whose year was ruled by the Great 
 Bear bow, began his victorious career, which ended in his 
 decisive victory over the Kauravyas of the eleven-months 
 year and his introduction of the seventeen-months year of 
 the Pandava contest of eighteen days with the Kauravyas, 
 followed by the eighteen-months year of the sacrifice of 
 Parikshit the circling sun-horse, who was followed in his 
 year's circular journey round the heavens by Arjuna in his 
 chariot drawn by two white sun-horses. 
 
 Agni now, when he met Arjuna and his brethren on their 
 last journey as year-gods, told Arjuna that he must restore 
 to Varuna the bow Gandiva and his two inexhaustible 
 quivers of arrows, and in obedience to this command he 
 threw them into the sea, and thus ended the years ruled 
 by the retrograde circuits of the Great Bear and introduced 
 the year of the sun-god who went sun-wise round his zodiacal 
 path ; and it was this new track which was now followed by 
 the dying year-gods of the expiring year. 
 
 After parting with the bow and arrows they began their 
 journey as the year-gods going to the South-west at the 
 summer solstice, and thence they turned with the sun west- 
 ward and made the circuit of heaven as the gods of the new 
 era. 
 
 As they marched on in their allotted course the god of 
 each season died as his season ended, Drupadi, as the 
 goddess of the rainy season, being the first. Her name, 
 meaning the foot (pada) of the tree {dru), marks her as 
 the tree and corn-goddess of the ploughing and barley- 
 growing Kuru-Panchalas, called Srinjaya, or men of the 
 sickle (srini). The first god of the rainy season in the 
 Pandava year measurement was Arjuna, appointed to this 
 office when he received the bow Gandiva and became god 
 of the summer solstice introducing the rains, in succession 
 to his father Indra, but when he became the year -god 
 Phalguni, who in the month of Phalgun (February — 
 March) followed the sun-horse Parikshit in his course 
 
 II. 3 L 
 
882 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 round the heavens beginning in Cheit (March — April), 
 Drupadi, the bride of all the five Pandava seasons of the 
 year, succeeded him as the year-mother-goddess of the 
 almond-tree of the seventeen-months year, a position 
 which was, as we have seen, given to her in that year 
 when (p. 771) Jayadratha tried to carry her off. She is 
 the goddess answering in the Mahabharata theology to the 
 Mexican goddess Ut-set, the corn-sheaf and corn-mother, 
 who became in the year of the sun-god Poshaiyanne, the 
 Mexican Buddha, his virgin mother made pregnant by 
 eating the two nuts of the pinon nut-tree, and this year 
 ultimately became the eighteen-months year of the Mexican 
 Sia and Maya and of the dying Pandavas. It was as the 
 almond nut-tree-goddess seized by Jayadratha under the 
 Kadamba almond-tree that she became the tree-mother of 
 the barley-growing Kharwars and Oraons, who celebrated 
 her festival as the goddess of the Kurum almond-tree in 
 July — August, the centre month of the thirteen and eighteen- 
 months year of Mexico, and also the centre month of the 
 Indian thirteen-months year beginning in Magh (January — 
 February). She was also the equivalent of the Greek tree- 
 goddess Athene, who received at Athens the Peplos or 
 garment symbolising the leaves and flowers of the clothed 
 mother-tree on the iSth August. Sahadeva, fire-god of the 
 autumn, died next, and he was followed by Nakula the 
 winter-god. After him Arjuna the spring-god, the follower 
 of Parikshit the sun-horse in his year-circle, died, and the 
 last of the five seasonal gods to die was Bhima the sum- 
 mer-god. 
 
 Yudishthira, the eldest Pandava, who had originally been 
 born as the leader of the Pandava year on the 5th day of 
 the light or first fortnight of Khartik (October— November) ', 
 was, in the original thirteen-months year reckoning of the 
 Pandavas, the god then born as the infant sun-god who 
 spent the first three months of his year, those of the Indian 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi (Sambhava) Parva, cxxiii. p. 359. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 883 
 
 Ashtakas (p. 260), under the charge of the moon-goddess, 
 and emerged as the full-grown ruler of the new year in 
 Magh (January — February) as the spring-god of the thirteen- 
 months year (p. 645), succeeding Bhishma, who died at the 
 new month of Magh. This position as the ruler of the 
 spring he afterwards assigned to Arjuna, and he then be- 
 came the year ruler standing apart from the seasons, like 
 the Persian sun-god Gusht-asp, who directed its course first 
 under the guidance of Sirius and afterwards (pp. 707 — 709) 
 under that of Jamaspa, his prime-minister, the stars Gemini. 
 In the Pandava history of this episode Yudishthira appears 
 as guided by the spring dog-star Sirius of the Sad fire- 
 festival of Lohrasp in Persia and of Isis-Sothis in Egypt 
 (p. 681). As the leader of the five seasonal gods of the 
 year and the embodied manifestation of Dharma, the hidden 
 ruling god, he, after the death of his brethren, went on alone 
 and was taken up to heaven in the car of Shukra or Indra, 
 the rain-god. But at first his dog was not allowed to accom- 
 pany him, Indra saying that he was regarded by the Krodha- 
 vashas, or worshippers of the angry (krodha) god, who 
 loathed moral impurity, as an animal who defiled all sac- 
 rifices, that is to say he was hateful to the Semite moon- 
 worshippers of the thirteen-months year, of the wives of 
 Kashyapa and daughters of Daksha, the god of the showing 
 hand of the five-days week, among whom the seventh mid- 
 month is Krodha ^. But the dog was finally received and 
 transformed, like Yudishthira, into the god Dharma 2. 
 Yudishthira when he arrived in heaven found all those 
 whom he had known as rulers on earth changed into stars 
 or directing powers of nature, as Vyasa had previously told 
 him. 
 
 These closing scenes add further proof of the correctness 
 of the conclusion conveyed by every part of the poem, of 
 which a great deal has necessarily been omitted in my 
 
 Mahabharata Adi (Sambhava) Parva, Ixv. p. 185. 
 ' Ibid., Mahaprashthanika Parva, iii. I — 17, pp- 6—8. 
 3 L 2 
 
884 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 abstract of its contents, that it is an allegorical history of 
 India during the ages between the first entry into the 
 country in the Neolithic Age of the northern races who 
 brought with them the sesame oil, flax, millet and corn 
 crops of Asia Minor, and the final disruption at the close 
 of the Bronze Age of the empire of the peaceful trading 
 classes formed by the union of the northern and indigenous 
 tribes. 
 
 The history of this period, which was comprised in the 
 original narrative forming the nucleus of the poem, has been 
 translated into Sanskrit from the original Dravidian language 
 of the national symbolic histories from which its contents 
 were derived, and edited and re-edited by many generations 
 of Sanskrit-speaking bardic poets who succeeded the national 
 historiographers. It began with the account of the age of 
 the three-years cycle-year of Rama followed by that of the 
 era of thirteen, eleven, fifteen, seventeen, and eighteen- 
 months years. The object aimed at by the original author 
 of the final form of the poem, who grouped together the 
 picture of the events which made the history of these ages 
 of progress vitally important to the nation, was apparently 
 to paint in his panoramic narrative a vivid consecutive dra- 
 matic story. The successive acts of the drama were repre- 
 sented as following one another in an ideal year of eighteen 
 months or cantos, and culminating in the rule of a new and 
 righteous race which had been moulded into a nation in 
 India, whose ideal form of government was that established 
 by the Pandavas under Yudishthira, when they were elected 
 kings by the celebration of the national Rajasuya sacrifice. 
 This was overthrown in the epoch of the eleven-months year 
 by the irruption and revolt of the warlike Kauravyas, sons 
 of the black horse of the North. It was then that the rule 
 of India fell into the hands of a mixed race, the Khati or 
 Hittites of Indian history, who, adopting the moral teaching 
 of the first Jain leaders, substituted a system of education 
 based on individual self-improvement for the communal 
 ethics of the earlier ages. The votaries of the various forms 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 885 
 
 of this new creed and the artisans practising the various 
 trades which grew up as wealth and industry increased, 
 grouped themselves into new associations, separating them- 
 selves in a greater or less degree from the castes or com- 
 munal village unions founded on supposed identity of descent 
 and from the first trading castes which were groups united 
 by community of function. It was these extra caste associa- 
 tions which promoted the extraordinarily active religious 
 movements following the introduction of the worship of the 
 sun of day, who took the place of the setting sun and stars 
 and the lunar year-gods of the earlier faiths, which produced 
 the first forms of the Buddhist and Zoroastrian reformations. 
 These movements originated, like that of the Jains, in the 
 entry of these votaries into new castes or religious associa- 
 tions, among which those of the Vishnuvites and Saivates 
 represented the historical Hindu forms of belief and ritual 
 and left certain of the old associations outside of their 
 organisation, such as those of the Kabir-pUnti Kurmis, 
 Koiris and leading agricultural class who were unitarian 
 believers in the divinity of Kabir, the Pole Star ape-god 
 whose image was on Arjuna's banner and whose creed 
 has expanded into that of the Sikh worshippers of one 
 invisible god. 
 
 The individualism engendered by the new creeds pro- 
 duced a state of society which differed greatly from that 
 existing in the days when all were trained to follow the 
 rules of conduct and the teachings inculcated by the Leaders 
 of their village, their tribe, and their family. When men 
 began to think for themselves, to listen to others who opened 
 out new views, to make experiments and thus invent and 
 learn new trades, leading to the accumulation of wealth, the 
 dawn of a new age began in which the leading section of 
 society was divided into trade guilds, which still maintained 
 over their members a system of disciplinary rule learnt from 
 the earlier village institutions, but who, though they retained 
 the bulk of the trade profits in the coffers of the guild, yet 
 encouraged their members to think, scheme, and emulate 
 
886 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 one another in promoting the advantage of the corporate 
 body to which they belonged, while all the guilds worked 
 together with the view of making their commercial policy 
 benefit all engaged in it, and of discouraging methods of 
 working which made different trades competing rivals and 
 not partners, seeking as their principal object the common 
 good. Under this system war was regarded as an evil, and 
 the united efforts of all the ruling powers to promote active 
 and remunerative trade without the disturbances of military 
 quarrels produced an age of universal peace and prosperity, 
 which is represented in Indian history by the eighteen- 
 months year of the Pandavas ; and in considering the causes 
 which culminated in this result it must not be forgotten that 
 Indian society in its initial agricultural stages was essentially 
 peaceful, and that neighbouring villages did not quarrel, but 
 that each cultivated its own fields and arranged its own 
 affairs without interfering with those adjoining them, and 
 that the strict attention paid to the ascertainment and record 
 of village boundaries preserved by the Gond votaries and 
 Gorait priests of the boundary snake-god Goraya removed 
 the principal cause of agricultural quarrels. It was the 
 Takkas and Kauravyas, who formed the bulk of the warrior 
 invaders from the North, who first introduced by appropria- 
 tions of land the elements of strife into the country, and 
 it was when these were overcome under the new government 
 instituted by the Pandavas that the people gladly resumed 
 the former peaceful course of existence which had been 
 disturbed by the northern intruders. 
 
 It was this peaceful society of traders which was broken 
 up by the northern Celto-Gothic Sanskrit-speaking invaders, 
 who in the beginning of the Iron Age conquered the country 
 and introduced the Vedic Sanskrit rule which succeeded that 
 of the Dravidian Bharata. These latter included among 
 their ancestors the Gond-speaking races who originally in- 
 troduced millets, barley and wheat into India from Asia 
 Minor, and ruled all northern India as the Naga Kushikas. 
 Their name as members of the Gondian or Gaudian race, 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 887 
 
 sons of Gauri the wild-cow bison, still survives in the name 
 of the Gonda district in Oude and in the Gond colonies, such 
 as that of the Gonds of Chumparun, and they are also said 
 in tradition to be the first inhabitants of Bundelkhand i. 
 Their national historical poem, the Song of Lingal, which 
 still survives in its original tongue and which I have so often 
 quoted, tells us of their birth in the mountain cave at the 
 sources of the Jumna, whence they came down and distributed 
 themselves all over northern India as the Kushika sons of 
 the tortoise, the first growers of Asia Minor millets in India 
 and the founders of built towns. As the Haihaya Naga 
 races they ruled all Central India till they were conquered 
 by the Mahrathas, and tradition speaks of them as universal 
 rulers whose dominion was first disturbed by the Kaurs 
 or Kurmis, who still, as I have shown in pp. 426, 427, hold 
 possession of the frontier provinces of the old Haihaya king- 
 dom ; and that the Haihaya rule extended to northern India 
 is proved by their traditional defeat and destruction by Parasu 
 Rama at Thanesur in Kuru-kshetra, between the Sarasvati 
 and Drishadvati, which then got its new name meaning the 
 field (kshetra) of the Kurus. The whole evidence shows with 
 a very near approach to certainty that the only Bharata 
 speech of northern India was some dialectical form of Dra- 
 vidian Gondi, such as the Dravidian Brahui spoken in 
 Baluchistan, and that this speech was that of the Turanian 
 ploughing and gardening races of Central Asia, who figure 
 in the Persian and Zend history as the subjects of Fran- 
 grasiyan the great irrigating king and his brother Keresa- 
 vazda, of the horned {kerasa) ilab {vazda), the trident-god 
 of the Hindu Takka Nagas. And this conclusion is cor- 
 roborated by the constant use in Sanskrit of the Dravidian 
 cerebral letters C th d dh and 1, which are absent from all 
 other Indo-European languages except Sanskrit, Bactrian, 
 and Zend, in which the Zendavesta was written, and Pushtu, 
 
 ■ Hunter, Imperial Gazetteer, vol. v. Bundelkhand, p. IS7. Chumparun, 
 P- 338. 
 
888 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the speech of the Afghans. These letters were introduced 
 into the Vedic Sanskrit dialects and languages derived from 
 it by the children of Dravidian - speaking mothers whose 
 fathers belonged to the conquering Sanskrit race. 
 
 It was owing to this amalgamation of the Bharata people 
 with the Sanskrit-speaking invaders that we find the ancient 
 traditions, ritual and customs of pre-Sanskrit India pre- 
 served in the Rigveda Mahabharata Harivansa, the Puranas 
 Ramayana, and the Jataka or Birth-stories forming one of 
 the Buddhist canonical books. And these last include those 
 telling the traditional history of the successive births 
 assigned to Siddharta Gautuma, whose learning, preaching 
 and organising abilities amalgamated into one belief the new 
 religious views framed during thousands of years by the 
 reforming teachers, and of which the Bhagavat Gita of the 
 Mahabharata, one of the most impressive religious poems of 
 the world, is a conspicuous example. And it was from the 
 materials supplied by the national storehouses of earliest 
 thought and remembered history that the great Buddhist 
 teacher, Siddharta Gautuma, and his trained disciples framed 
 the authoritative theology of the Buddhist Tripitaka which 
 was so widely disseminated by its enthusiastic missionary 
 preachers as to lead to the installation by Asoka, about 
 250 B.C., of Buddhism as the creed of the Indian empire, 
 from whence it made its way to Ceylon, Burma, China and 
 Japan, and became the dominant religion of Eastern Asia. 
 
 E. The Story of the. Conquest of the Bharata Merchant- 
 kings by the Sanskrit-speaking sun-worshippers as 
 told in the Rigveda. 
 
 Having in the previous section told the story of the over- 
 throw of Bharata rule by the Celto-Gothic sun-worshippers 
 as sketched in the narrative of the vanquished, I must now 
 turn to the other side of the picture as depicted in the battle- 
 hymns of the Rigveda written in the Vedic Sanskrit tongue 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 889 
 
 of the conquerors, who established as a new reckoning of 
 time a year of twelve months each of thirty days divided 
 into three ten-day weeks, in supersession of the eighteen- 
 months year of the Pandavas. They also, like previous 
 conquerors, took over with the government of the country 
 the ritual handed down by the many dynasties who preceded 
 them and made numerous changes, to be noted in the sequel, 
 which were all based on the worship of the new rising sun- 
 bird of the East, which was their symbol of the sun-god and 
 to whom they built the great brick Vedic altar, of which 
 every brick was laid, as we shall see, in accordance with 
 exact instructions prepared with the object of setting forth 
 symbolically the sequence of year reckonings which had 
 built up the finally accepted ritual. This they established 
 as that prescribed for national use after their conquest was 
 completed, and when they, like the conquerors who had ruled 
 before them, had amalgamated with their subjects and intro- 
 duced a new phase of Indian history founded on the teach- 
 ings of the new Vedic ritual and of the priests who ad- 
 ministered it, which subsisted as the religion of the land 
 till it was superseded for some hundreds of years by the 
 changing faiths introduced by the Indian philosophic 
 founders of the schools of thought whose teachings are 
 set forth in the Upanishads and the Sankhya Vedanta 
 and aUied philosophies. These were embodied in the 
 ethical creeds of the Buddhists and later Jains, who, accord- 
 ing to the instructions given by the Buddha to the Vajjian 
 sons of the tiger, the Malli and Licchavi rulers of North-east 
 India I, quoted in p. 654, while maintaining for reasons of 
 state the traditional rites and sacrifices performed at their 
 national shrines, told their disciples that sacrifices and obla- 
 tions were of no value to individuals whose sole duty was 
 to strive to perfect their moral nature so as to become as 
 sinless as God. And it was the last creed which was estab- 
 lished as the national religion of Asoka. 
 
 ' Rhys Davids, Buddhist Sulfas Mahd-parinibhana Sutta, chap. i. 4, 5, 
 Sacred Books of the East, vol. xi. pp. 3, 4. 
 
890 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 The period at which this long series of momentous changes 
 began with the conquest of the Bharatas was, as we have 
 seen in the history of the Buddha in Chapter VI., probably 
 that when the Buddha reached his final transformation as 
 the completely spiritualised and entirely immaterialised sun- 
 god, who pursued his zodiacal course through the heaven in 
 the sun-wise Padakkhino or right-handed circuit which in 
 Buddhist and later Vedic ritual superseded the old left-hand 
 zodiacal and ritualistic circuits. This final transformation 
 was inaugurated by the change of the earthen and golden 
 bowls of the previous semi-humanised sun-gods into that 
 which made him the ruler of the heavenly vault, whose as- 
 sumption of power was symbolically announced by the gifts 
 of the rice-cake mother of life and the honey cake given 
 by Tapassu, the original flying cloud who had become the 
 sun-bird, and the honey-eating Great Bear constellation 
 of the north (p. 672). His accession to the throne as the 
 son of the sun-cloud-bird and the Great Bear constellation 
 ruling solar time took place, according to the Buddhist 
 narrative, fifty days after his Vessantara birth in the Tusita 
 heaven of wealth at the vernal equinox, which, like his 
 previous birth as the sun -physician in the Yama devaloka 
 heaven of the Twins, took place under the auspices of the 
 twin stars Su-yama, the stars Gemini, or in other words 
 when the sun was in Gemini at the vernal equinox about 
 6700 B.C., when the Pole Star was in Hercules. This period 
 coincided, as we have seen in the history of Zarasthustra, 
 with that in which he began his career as an active pro- 
 pagandist of his scheme of religious reform. The success 
 of the Buddhist and Zoroastrian system of national regenera- 
 tion coincided with the establishment and prosperity of the 
 Bharata mercantile government which was overthrown at the 
 beginning of the next epoch, when the sun entered Taurus 
 at the vernal equinox about 4500 B.C., and when the Iron 
 Age was introduced by the disruption of the government 
 of the peace-loving merchant-kings of the age of Sallimanu 
 or Solomon the first god. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 891 
 
 The invasion of the northern conquerors ended in the 
 dislocation of the allied confederacy of the trade guilds 
 and the breaking of the united links of the chain of alliance 
 which bound the merchant states together by changing 
 neighbouring friendly states into alien kingdoms, each of 
 which looked on those adjoining it not as friends but as foes 
 meditating projects of conquest. 
 
 The history of this war, which made the Sanskrit-speaking 
 races who called themselves the Arya or noble people the 
 rulers of India, is told somewhat cursorily in the national 
 chronicles and in the Rigveda ; but the latter narrative, 
 though short, is marked by the thrilling energy of the great 
 battle-song of the conquering Tritsus in Rig. vii. 18, written 
 as a ballad story very shortly after their conclusive victory. 
 
 But these people, though they only established themselves 
 as the dominant race by the conquest of the Bharatas, had 
 settled in India long before their final rise to power, as they 
 appear in the history of the war between the Kauravyas and 
 Pandavas as the Sarasvatas, allies of the Kurus, who were 
 led by Uliika, the owl son of Shakuni the raven (p. 469), who 
 was brother of Gandhari the Pole Star Vega and mother 
 of the Kauravyas. They formed the last remnant of the 
 Kauravya army destroyed on the eighteenth and final day 
 of the battle by Sahadeva the fire and Nakula the mongoose, 
 the two Pandava twins '. Their name shows that they be- 
 longed to the inner circle of the Kuru race who dwell in 
 Kuru-kshetra, between the Sarasvati and Drishadvati, the 
 sons of the Sarasvati mother-river, which took its name from 
 the Harah-vaiti on which Herat stands, where they dwelt 
 before they entered India, and of the Kusha-grass, whose 
 national New Year's sacrifice was the Sautramani festival 
 of the eleven months which is expressly said in the Shata- 
 patha Brahmana to have been instituted by the Ashvins and 
 Sarasvati in order to heal Indra and to make him enter the 
 
 ' Mahabharata Udyoga (ya»a-ja«t^/S«) Parva, Ivi. p. 202 ; Shalya (Shalya- 
 badka) Parva, xxviii. pp. 106, 107. 
 
892 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 cattle I that is to become the special god of the cattle- 
 herding pastoral people whose year was led by the black 
 horse of the sun, the god Dadhiank of the horse's head and 
 the Soma cup made of milk curds {dadhi). 
 
 These people appear in the Rigveda as the Arya or noble 
 foes of the Dashyu or men of the land, and in one passage* 
 they are spoken of as the race comprising the Arna or men 
 of the flood, the sons of the rivers, and the Chitra-ratha, or 
 those whose star-mother chariot was Virgo (Chitra), the mother 
 of corn, or in other words as the corn-growing sons of the 
 rivers whom Indra slew on the banks of the Sarayu (Sutlej) ; 
 and as in the preceding verse he is said to have brought the 
 Yadu-Tarvasu, the trading merchant races over the river, 
 it is clear that if both verses refer to the same events they 
 tell of a defeat of the fire-worshipping conquerors by the 
 trading Yadu-Turvasu the Bharata. 
 
 Their great king is Divodasa, he of the ten {dashan) months 
 of gestation, to whom, as Bharadvaja the sun-lark, the 
 Ashvinss are said to have come in their three-wheeled car, 
 that of the three-years cycle-year drawn by the star-steeds 
 Vri-sabha the bull, the constellation Taurus, and Simshu- 
 mara the alligator, the constellation of fourteen circumpolar 
 stars in the tail of which were those of the Great Bear. This 
 sun-god Divodasa is said to be the son of Vadhri-ashva the 
 sexless horse, the sexless sun-god of the fifteen-months year, 
 and of the mother-river Sarasvati, through whose help he 
 overcame the Brisaya, the sons of the sorceress mother, 
 the workers of witchcraft 4. His most renowned son, Su-das, 
 the giver of Su the root of Soma, that is the life-giving god 
 the descendant of the river-mother of the sons of the Kusha- 
 grass, is called king of the Tritsu, or the people who make 
 fire by rubbing {tri), the sons of the fire-drill whom with their 
 allies he led against the Bharata, who were finally defeated 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shot. Brah., iii. 8, 3, 1, 2, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliv. 
 pp. 248, 249. 
 
 = Rig. iT. 30, 17, 18. 3 Ibid., i. 116, 18. 
 
 * Ibid., vi. 61, I — 3. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 893 
 
 in the great battle of the ten kings. The high-priest of 
 Su-das was Vashishtha, who, as we have seen, was the god 
 of the perpetually burning sacrificial fire on the altar and the 
 grandfather (p. 472) of the sun-god Aurva, born of the Thigh 
 [iiru) stars of the Great Bear. 
 
 The Bharatas on the other hand were the followers of 
 Vishvamitra, the god of lunar time, who, as we have seen 
 (p. 332), was the father of Sakuntala the bird-mother of 
 Bharata, the tribal father of the Bharata, who bore him after 
 the three years' pregnancy of the three-years cycle-year. 
 
 Hence the two armies which were to contend together for 
 the rule of India were those of the fire and sun-worshippers 
 of the sun as the God of the Thigh, and those of the lunar- 
 solar race of the Bharatas and Kushika, Khati or Hittites, 
 in both of which the dominant elements were those brought 
 in by immigrants from the North, and who had both grown 
 up together in India and intermixed with the indigenous 
 tribes during the epochs of the year of Orion, of the three- 
 years cycle-year, and those of the eleven, fifteen, seventeen 
 and eighteen months, during which time the trading Bharata 
 and Khati, the Yadu-Tarvasu and Ikshvaku races, had 
 gradually become the rulers of their sun-worshipping rivals, 
 who had now formed fresh alliances and received such strong 
 reinforcements furnished by a fresh immigration of their 
 northern kinsmen, that they rose in rebellion and determined 
 to oust their masters from power. 
 
 The list of the tribes on each side is given in the graphic 
 account of the decisive action of the war told in the battle- 
 hymn Rig. vii. 18, attributed to Vashishtha. There the lead- 
 ing tribe of the sun-worshippers is called Tritsu, but in Rig. 
 ™' 33> 1-6, and vii. 83, i, the conquerors of the ten kings of 
 the Bharata arc called Pritha-Parshu. This name shows them 
 to belong to a mixed tribe formed from the union of the 
 Parthians with the Persians or Parsis, the fire-worshippers. 
 These Pritha were the sons of Pritha the Pandava begetting 
 {pent) mother, also called Kunti the lance ; and throughout 
 the Mahabharata the Pandavas, and especially Arjuna, are 
 
894 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 called Partha^ or the Parthians, a name which shows them 
 to be speakers of Pahlavi, which is the Persian form of 
 Parthava '. They, the sons of the begetting {peni) mother, 
 born like the sons of Pritha the virgin made pregnant by 
 the gods without the intervention of a human father, were 
 originally the sons of the mother-tree whence both the Indian 
 Buddha and the Persian Zarathustra were born. The name 
 of Parthava the Parthian is given in the Rigveda to Abhya- 
 vartin Caya-mana, who as leader of the Srin-jayas or 
 Panchalas conquered the Vrishivans or Yadavas and the 
 Tur-vasu at Hariyupiya, the sacrificial stakes iyupa) of Hari 
 or Shari, that is Mathura ^. 
 
 In the Rigveda Parshu is used as the name of a tribe in 
 the passage where Tirindira, the giver of Yadava gifts, is 
 called the Parshu 3, and in the feminine form Parshu, meaning 
 the ribs or a crescent-shaped lunar knife, is said to be, with 
 Manavi the daughter of Manu, the measurer of time, the 
 mother of twenty sons 4, who certainly appear to be the 
 twenty days of the month of the eighteen-months year. 
 These Parthians and Persians are clearly the men of Central 
 Asia, also called Scythians or Sakyas, the name of the clan 
 in which Siddharta Gautuma, the real living Buddha, was 
 born, but which name may, as I have shown in p. 107, mean 
 that he was the son of the Sal-tree (sakd). They were the 
 fire-worshippers of the Zoroastrian hill-land of Ragha or 
 Media, who had invaded India, and who had settled on the 
 Sarasvati as Sanskrit-speaking immigrants into the country 
 of the Turano-Dravidians. 
 
 The allies of the Tritsu named in Rig. vii. 18 are, (i) The 
 Paktha, (2) Alinas, (3) Bhalanas, (4) Vishanin, and (5) Shiva 5. 
 
 " Noldeke, Pahlavi, Encyc. Brit, ninth edition, vol. xviii. p. 135. 
 
 ' Rig. vi. 27, 5, 7, 8. 3 Ibid., viii. 6, 46. 
 
 ■• Ibid., X. 86, 23. This hymn is in the form of a dialogue between Indra 
 and Indrani his later wife and his first ape wife, Vrisha-kapi the rain-ape, and 
 the birth of the twenty sons of Parshu and Manavi is spoken of in the last verse 
 as apparently representing the final form of the evolution of the worship of 
 Indra the rain-god who was first symbolised as the tree (manm) ape-god Maroti. 
 
 5 Rig. vii. 18, 7. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 895 
 
 The Paktha are clearly the people called by Herodotus 
 Paktues, who he says wore goat -skin tunics and were armed 
 with bows and daggers. He describes them as Bactrians, 
 whose native home was near Armenia and the Euxine or 
 Black Sea, but who had settled in India and taken possession 
 of Kaspaturos, that is Multan, the place {tan) of the Malli, 
 which they called the city {iur) of Kashyapa ; and they are 
 said by Hecataeus to belong to the Gandhara, the native 
 tribes of Kandahar, that is to the same stock as the Kauravya 
 sons of the Indian Gandhari, wife of Dhrita-rashtra. They 
 are in short the Afghan Pathans or mountaineers who speak 
 Pushtu, that is the Pakhtian or Pushtian language '. These 
 Afghans with the Parthians and Persians were the leaders 
 of the invading armies of Su-das, who brought into India the 
 iron bolt which destroyed the trading confederacy of the 
 Yadavas, Andhakas and Bhojas, and dethroned and slew 
 their year-god Krishna. This invasion is depicted in the 
 Bhavishya Purana as that in which Shamba the lance, the 
 son of Krishna, the god of the iron bolt, brought Magian 
 priests from Saka-dwipa, the Scythian land, to officiate in 
 the temple of the Sun at Multan *. This Shamba, the 
 parent-god of the Shambara, the men of the throwing 
 spear or javelin of the Sakyas and Homeric heroes, was 
 the tribal symbol carried in front of their armies by the 
 American Indians of the wide-spread and very numerous 
 tribes of the Dakota Or joined race who are, like the Mexicans, 
 sons of the maize corn-mother. This spear shaft they keep 
 in the consecrated tribal temple tent oriented to the rising 
 sun when the tribe is stationary, and to the direction in which 
 they are going when on the march. This pole is among the 
 Omahas and Ponkas, two representative tribes, made, like 
 the Indian fire-drill, of two pieces taken from the stems of 
 their mother-trees, the ash, the parent-tree of the European 
 
 ' Herod, iii, 93, 102, vii. 67; A. Weber, India and the West in Old Days, 
 ?■ 6 ; Hewitt, Early History of Northern India, part ii. Journal of the Royal 
 Asiatic Society, 1889, p. 224. 
 
 ° A. Weber, India and the JVest in Old Days, p. 20. 
 
896 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 races of the Bronze Age, and the cotton, the sacred tree of 
 the Mexican sons of the antelope and the Indian Ashvins'. 
 And it is this pole of the fire-drill and sockets, the national 
 spear-stem, which is symbolically represented in the bi-sexual 
 Shamba of the Mahabharata, who brought forth the iron 
 bolt which destroyed the empire of the Vishnuite merchant- 
 kings of the Western Indian seaboard. 
 
 The whole story, when translated from allegorical language 
 to a plain statement of facts, tells how the worship of Krishna, 
 the antelope sun-god, and of the circling sun-horse of the 
 Bharatas, was overthrown by the fire-worshippers from Saka- 
 dwipa, the land of the Sakyas, the nomad warlike tribes of 
 Scythian warriors, the early Persian races who were taught 
 to ride, shoot with the bow, and speak the truth, and of 
 whose language the Vedic-Sanskrit, Zend and Pushtu are 
 dialectic forms, the first being a tongue more especially used 
 and polished by the priests, the writers of Vedic hymns and 
 of manuals of Vedic ritual. 
 
 These northern invaders as they settled in the country 
 found allies in the Alinas, Bhalanas, Vishanin and Shiva. 
 The two first I am unable to identify, but the Vishanin seem 
 to disclose their identity by their name. It is interpreted by 
 Grassmann to mean the bearers of the slaying or sacrificial 
 knife {vishdna), and thus it equates them with the Ugra 
 or Ugrasena, the Ugro-Altaic races of the eleven-months 
 year, who were sons of the Ugur or curved sacrificial knife 
 which played, as we have seen, so important a part in the 
 historical mythology of this epoch, as this curved crescent- 
 shaped knife, originally of stone, was the tribal symbol of 
 the worshippers of the crescent moon to whom the Vishanin, 
 as men of the eleven-months year, who began it with the 
 new moon, belonged, and hence Sayana's interpretation of 
 the name as meaning " the wearers of horns" (yishana) which 
 
 ' D'Orsay, A Study of Siouan Cults, Smithsonian Institution, Publications 
 of the Bureau of Ethnology, vol. xi. pp. 361, 390, 403, 413; Hewitt, Ruling 
 Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. iv. essay ix. pp. 236, 237. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 897 
 
 are curved like the crescent moon corroborates the conclu- 
 sion derived from that of Grassmann. 
 
 The Shiva are undoubtedly the shepherds and cattle- 
 herdsmen whose god was the white (sveta) Shiva, the three- 
 eyed bearer of the trident and the Pinaka bow, the husband 
 of the weaving-goddess Uma (j^ax). He was the son of 
 Ushinara, the man (nara) of the East, the creating man-god 
 of the attributors of creative power and of the creation of life 
 to the bi-sexual god of the phallus and yoni, whose offspring 
 begotten by his will are born in the ordained months of ges- 
 tation. He was the father both of Shiva and Ucinari, who 
 became (p. 471) by Dirgha-tamas the blind creating god 
 of the long {dirgha) darkness (tamas) of the ages when the 
 gods of night were worshipped, the mother of Kakshivat, 
 the god of the girdle (kakshia) ', and his ten brethren, the 
 eleven months of the eleven-months year, so that the Shiva 
 represent the sons of the trident-god of the sun-worshippers 
 who preceded the men of the eleven-months year, whose god 
 was the black horse-headed god Dadhiank. Hence the 
 Shiva as sons of the trident were the Takkas, whose year- 
 gods symbolised by its prongs were Shesh Nag, god of 
 spring, Vasuk Nag, god of summer, and Taksh-nag, god 
 of winter. They were also as the offerers of the year-victims 
 tied to sacrificial posts in pits arranged in the form of a 
 triangle, as in the Shulagava sacrifice (p. 813), the Tri- 
 gartas, the men of the three {tri) pits {garias), or Tugras, 
 who were on the Kauravya side in their war with the Pan- 
 davas as the men of the Yupa or trident sacrificial stake 
 which they bore on their banners, and who were led by 
 Vahlika, the man of Balkh, brother of Shan-tanu father of 
 the royal race of Indian kings, and by Bhuri-shravas the 
 standard-bearer, his grandson 2. And it was these Tri- 
 
 ' Mahabharata i.di (Sambhava) Parva, civ. p. 316 ; Sabha {Jarasandha 
 iadha) Parva, xxi. p. 63, 
 
 ' Ibid., Udyoga (Amva pakyana) Parva, cxcvii. p. 558 ; Bhishma (Bhishma- 
 vadha) Parva, Ixxiv. pp. 272—274 ; Drona (Jayadrathabadha) Parva, cxlii.— 
 cxiiv. pp. 428—441. 
 
 «• 3 M 
 
898 Primitivt Traditional History. 
 
 gartas who joined with the Kauravyas in invading the land 
 of the Matsya king Virata, the god of the phallus {viru), and 
 carrying off their cattle, which were recovered by Arjuna, 
 who was then as a sexless god in exile with his Pandava 
 brethren, and whose victorious chariot bearing the banner 
 of the ape with the lion's tail was driven by Uttara, the god 
 of the north pole (p. S71) '. The Shiva Ushinara are said 
 in the Aitareya Brahmana, s. 14, to live in Mid-India with 
 the Kuru-Panchala, and their chief settlements were cer- 
 tainly in North-west India, near and in the Punjab land 
 of the five rivers. In the Indian campaign of Alexander 
 the Great they are called Seboi, and Strabo places them 
 near Multan, between the Indus and Acesines (Chinab), 
 They are thus clearly identified with the early worshippers 
 of the household-fire Agni Vaishvanara, the fire of all living 
 {vaishvd) men [nara), the artisan trident worshippers whose 
 march into India with the shepherds and cattle-herdsmen 
 has been traced in Chapter III., Section H. 
 
 The invading Aryan forces whose high-priest was Vashish- 
 tha therefore included the Parthians, Persians, and Pathan 
 hill-tribes led by the Sakyas or Scythians from Media and 
 north Persia, who had allied themselves in India with the 
 cattle-herdsmen and corn-growers of the northern Punjab 
 and the upper course of the Jumna and Ganges, the descen- 
 dants of the worshippers of the horse-sun-god of the eleven- 
 months year and the earlier votaries of Shiva, the white 
 shepherd-god of the trident. 
 
 Their opponents were the Bharata, followers of Vishva- 
 mitra the lunar priest. They are called in Rig. vii. 18, 18, 
 19 the Bheda, the sons of the cleft {bheda), the female symbol, 
 the yoni of the linga. Hence they were the Linga wor- 
 shippers of the bi-sexual parent-gods whose goddess-mother 
 in Syria was Tirhatha, the cleft. The ten tribes led by their 
 ten kings, the ten lunar months of gestation, were (i) the 
 Turvasu, whose leader is called Puro-dasha the Yakshu 
 
 ' Mahabharata Virata [Go-harana) Parva, xxx.— Ixvi. pp. 74—169. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 899 
 
 ■(yakshus)^, and is described in Rig. vii. 18, 6 as leading 
 his own tribe the Turvasu Yakshu and the Bhrigu and 
 Druhyu to battle. His name Puro-dasha is symbolical, as 
 it is that of the sacred cake of rice and water oiTered at 
 the new-moon sacrifices with the Sannayya libations of 
 sweet and sour milk to Indra-Agni, and at the full moon 
 to Agni Soma', and it is in Rig. iii. 28 described as an 
 offering to Agni Jatavedas, the central fire on the altar of 
 the gods of generation to whom animal sacrifices were 
 offered. This sacred rice cake is the centre of the five 
 offerings of the Panchti mid-day sacrifice, in which it is 
 offered to Indra together with parched rice grains to his 
 two sun-horses, barley porridge to Pushan, sour curds (dadhi) 
 to Sarasvati, and clotted curds to Mitra-Varuna, and it is 
 introduced with a chant of seventeen verses in all the five 
 sacred metres 3, so that it is a sacrifice introducing the seven- 
 teen-months year in which new and full moon sacrifices were 
 offered. Thus this leader is represented as the embodiment 
 of the leading sacrifice beginning the seventeen-months year 
 of the sun-chariot-races of the Vajapeya sacrifice. 
 
 The remaining tribes of the Bharata army marching as the 
 champions of the age of the seventeen-months year were 
 
 (2) the Matsya sons of the eel-fish {matsyd), born of Adrika 
 the sun-hawk in the river Tamas, the darkness (p. 186), and 
 the subjects of King Virata, the god of the phallus {yiru) ; 
 
 (3) The Bhrigu, the original fire-worshippers who also adored 
 the linga ; (4) The Druhyu sorcerers, sons of the Vedic 
 goddess Druh, the Druj of the Zendavesta ; (5) The Vi- 
 Karna or two-horned people, whose country Vi-Karnika is 
 identified by Hema Chandra with Kashmir, and they are 
 thus equated with the Krivi, who are in Rig. viii. 20, 24, 25 
 spoken of as dwelling near the Tur-vasu in the land of the 
 Sindhu, the Indus and the Asikni, the Chinab, which is 
 
 ' Rig. vii. 18, 6. 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., i. 6, 2, 5, 6, i. 6, 4, 9, i. 2, 22 — 4, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xii. pp. 162, note 3, 178, 42, 43. 
 ' Ibid., iv. 2, S, 20—22, ibid., vol. xxvi. pp. 314, 315, note 5, 316. 
 
 3 M 2 
 
900 Primitive Traditional History, 
 
 the river flowing through Kashmir, They thus belong to 
 the Naga races of Kashmir who came down south as the 
 Kuru-Panchala rulers of northern India, whose king Drupada 
 was father of Drupadl, and who were the special allies of the 
 Pandava Bharatas, called Krivi in the Shatapatha Brahmana 
 xiii. 5, 4, 7 1. They as the horned people are a race of moon- 
 worshippers allied to the horned god of the thirteen-months 
 year Kama, the one bowman who besides Arjuna could bend 
 Drupada's bow. In Rig. vii. i8, li twenty-one of the Vi- 
 karna are said to have been cut down like mown grass by 
 Sudas, their bodies being carried down by the flooded 
 Purushni or Ravi, in the bed of which river the battle was 
 fought. But the number of twenty-one victims here men- 
 tioned seems, like the name Puro-dasha, the sacrificial cake 
 given to the Tur-vasu leader, to show that the poem is not 
 only an original historical ballad but one which also tells the 
 history of the contest from the point of view of ritualistic 
 history. Kraivya the king of the Vi-karna, called Krivi 
 in Shatapatha Brahmana xiii. v. 4, 7, is there said to have 
 offered his horse-sacrifice not with the ritual of the later 
 Vajapeya sacrifice of the chariot-race, but with the earlier 
 ceremonies of the Aptoryama Atiratra, which were incor- 
 porated with those of the Vajapeya. These ceremonies were 
 those of a night sacrifice of the early orgiastic type at which 
 much intoxicating Soma was drunk. Four victims were 
 offered, a goat to Agni and one to Indra - Agni, a ram to 
 Indra and a goat to Sarasvati, the mother-goddess of the 
 Kurus, which last was the special victim of the Aptoryama. 
 At it, besides other specially prescribed chants, the Shodasin 
 stotra of Indra of twenty-one verses 2, the distinctive song 
 of the twenty-one days of the seventeen- months year, was 
 recited. Thus the national year of the Krivi Vl-karna is 
 shown to be an earlier measurement of national time, pro- 
 
 • Eggeling, Shal. Brah., xiii. 5, 4, 7, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliv. 
 
 P- 397- 
 
 ' Ibid., iv. 2, S, 14, iv. S, 3, I— II, ibid., vol. jcxvi. pp. 312, 313, oo'« 2, 
 397, note I, 398 — 401, note 3, vol. xli. preface, pp. xvii., xviii., xx. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 901 
 
 bably that of the thirteen-months year which was incorpo- 
 rated with the later ritual of the seventeen -months year, 
 and it was this year of those who made it their national 
 measure of time which was obliterated from the national 
 calendar when Sudas slew the gods ruling these months. 
 This story of the slaughter of the Vi-karna is followed in 
 the poem by the account of the battle with (6) the Anu, 
 who with their leader Kavasha Ailusha and the Druhyu 
 were drowned and slain by Indra's thunderbolts, and the 
 victorious god also dispossessed them of their seven castles, 
 the seven days of the week of the thirteen and seventeen- 
 months year, which he gave to the Tritsu. Their leader 
 Kavasha Ailusha appears again in the Rigveda as the re- 
 puted author of two hymns, Rig. x. 32, 33, and he there 
 calls himself (x. 33, 4) the follower of Kuru-shravana, the 
 glory of the Kurus, the grandson of Trasadasyu, the king 
 who makes the Dasyu, the indigenous people of India, to 
 tremble, who is said in Rig. vii. 19, 3 to be the son of the 
 daughter of Puru-kutsa, Kutsa the Puru, who was, as we 
 have seen in p. 255, the Finnic moon-god Ku. 
 
 As allies of these Anu and Druhyu who were subdued by 
 Indra, the (7) Puru, who like them descended from Shar- 
 mishtha, the banyan fig-tree-mother, the first wife of Yayati, 
 son of Nahusha, are also mentioned as the speakers in a 
 foreign tongue {mridrka vac), that of the Bharata, who did 
 not speak Sanskrit i, and to them are added the (8) Aja, 
 (9) Shigru, and (10) Yakshu, who after the battle brought 
 a tribute of horses' heads. The Aja are sons of the goat, 
 and the Shigru I cannot identify, but the Yakshu were, as 
 I have shown above, united with the Turvasu, and they are 
 therefore the Yadava their twin tribe, who are always men- 
 tioned with them and must certainly appear in all lists of 
 the united brethren in which the Turvasu, Anu, Druhyu and 
 Piiru are enumerated as belonging to the ten allied tribes 
 of the Bharata. The name Yakshu only occurs in this hymn, 
 
 » Rig. vii. 18, 13. 
 
902 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 and ft means the hastening ( Yaksk), rushing people, and also 
 apparently the men of the stars Yaksha-drish, an epithet 
 of the Maruts in Rig. vii. 56. It is translated by Grassmann 
 in his Vedic Worterbuch as "shining like shooting stars;" 
 also in Rig. i. 190, 4, the horse of Brihaspati, the Pole Star 
 god, is called Yaksha-bhrit, star-bearing. Kuvera, the god 
 of the South, is called the King of the Yakshas, and he is 
 said in the Mahabharata to be the son of Pulastya, a star in 
 the Great Bear \ The Pali Yakkho is the same word as the 
 Sanskrit Yaksha, and Vessavana, the Pali name of Kuvera, 
 is said to be the lord of the Yakkhos, and among the Yakkhos 
 is the moon, which is called Yakkha in the Jataka story 
 Jayaddisa Jataka, 5 1 3 2 so that it is clear that the Yakkhos 
 or Yakshas mean the moon and stars of night. The palace 
 of this god, called Vishravana, the god of the double [vi) 
 glory, is described as the abode not only of the Yakshas, 
 his special attendants, but also of the Rakshasas, the sons 
 of the tree {rukh), and the Gandharvas, who are certainly, 
 as we have seen (pp. vi., vii.), the seven stars of the 
 Great Bear, the bow and arrow of Krishanu, the seven 
 guardians of Soma, united in the Gandharva Vishva-vasu, 
 the creator of living beings, who is said to have laid the 
 triangle of Palasha twigs indicating the three seasons of 
 the year round the central fire on the national altars. 
 And he in Rig. x. 139, 4, is said to watch the circuits of 
 the sun. It is also the residence of the three-eyed god 
 Shiva, who was the shepherd-star Sib-zi-ana Arcturus, 
 p. 228, and while in the other palaces of the gods of space 
 described in the Mahabharata that of Indra ruling the East, 
 Yama the West, Varuna the North, and the Pole Star 
 god, Gandharvas are mentioned as dweUing, it is only that 
 of Kuvera and the Pole Star which are the abode of Rak- 
 
 ■ Mahabharata Abi {Sambhavd) Parva, Ixv. p. 185 ; Sachiu, Alberuni's India, 
 vol. i. chap. xlv. p. 390 ; Mahabharata Sabha (Lokapala Sabhakhyana) Parva, 
 X. pp. 30 — 33, describing the Palace of Kuvera, the god of the South. 
 
 ' Francis, Tht Jataka, vol. v. book xvi. 513, p. l8. 
 
 3 Eggeling, Shat. Brak., iii. 3, 3, 11, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxvi. 
 p. 72. 
 
Primitive Traditional History, 903 
 
 shasas and Yakshas. Also in the picture of heaven given 
 at the close of the Mahabharata the Pandavas and their 
 contemporary rulers which have become stars are said to 
 walk with Gandharvas and Yakshas ', that is with tlie 
 northern and southern stars. Thus Kuvera's palace peopled 
 with the Rakshasa sons of the tree^ the departed spirits of 
 the dead, the Gandharva the north and the Yaksha the south 
 stars, and the three-eyed ruling god Shiva, the star Arc- 
 turus, is a picture of the southern home of life, the island 
 of the blest in the centre of which the mother-tree grows, 
 and which is peopled with the souls of those who have died 
 on earth and their ruling gods the stars and moon. In this 
 Indian reproduction of the Celtic Caer Sidi or Revolving 
 Tower of life the ground story is Kuvera's palace built on 
 the southern island whence earthly life was born. It is built 
 like the similar palace of the Volsungs, or men of the wood, 
 in the story of Sigurd, and like the palace of Gushtasp 
 in the Shahnamah round the central mother-tree growing 
 from the ocean mud, and it is surrounded in the Indian 
 description of the dwelling-places of the Lokapala gods 
 with the aerial palace of Indra, the god of the East, and 
 Yama the god of the West, while above it as its roof are the 
 northern stars, and it is above these last that the mother-tree 
 of the heaven vault of Varuna, the home of the northern 
 Rakshasa sons of the tree who dwelt in its branches rears 
 its summit till it reaches the highest heaven, the home of 
 Pole Star god. It was to this southern heaven, the land of 
 Kuvera, lord of the Yakshas and of Shiva, that the Pandavas 
 went before the birth of Parikshit, the sun-god, to get the 
 wealth buried by Maroti, the tree {maront) ape-god, the 
 parent-god of the Rakshasa sons of the tree*. It is the 
 authors of star lore learnt by the early star gazers of the 
 South who framed this historical picture for the instruction 
 of their descendants, who were the original Yakshas or Yadus, 
 the people who first in India and afterwards in Chaldea 
 
 ' Mahabharata Swarga-rohanika Farva, iv. 22, p. 12. 
 
 ' Mahabharata Ashra-tnedha (Anugita) Parva, Ixv. pp. 168— 170. 
 
904 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 observed the stars of the south with Canopus as their central 
 chief, and framed the year measured by the Pleiades led 
 round the sky during the year beginning in November by 
 Canopus, called in India Agastya ; and it was these people 
 who continued their stellar studies in Chaldea, studded the 
 countrj' with Ziggurats or tower observatories, whence they 
 mapped the zodiacal paths of the sun ruled by the Great 
 Bear through the stars and disseminated their astronomical 
 teaching through Egypt, Greece, and all parts of the world 
 in which their descendants settled in the course of the gradual 
 evolution of trade and changing forms of government and 
 time reckoning which have been traced in the previous pages 
 of this book. It is these Yakshus of Indian historical 
 mythology who survive in the ritual of the worship of the 
 Greek barley-god Dionysos, the god whose car is drawn by 
 the Indian star-leopards, and in whose festival at Eleusis 
 near Athens, held on the 20th Boedromion (September- 
 October), the culminating ceremony is the birth of the young 
 corn-god of the new year, the god lacchus, whose name 
 reproduces that of the Indian Yakshu, and who was then 
 brought from Athens to Eleusis his birthplace '. 
 
 This analysis shows that the ten tribes of the Bharata, 
 whose astronomers were the Yakshu, were the votaries of 
 the older stellar lunar religions which preceded the worship 
 of the sun as the horse and chariot-god. They were de- 
 scendants of the five sons of Yayati, son of Nahusha, the 
 snake-god of the Naga worshippers of the Great Bear plough 
 {Nagur), the Anu, Druhyu and Puru, sons of Sharmishtha, 
 the banyan fig-tree-mother whose god was Kutsa, the moon 
 (ku) god, and the Turvasu or Bhojas, the Yadavas or Yakshus, 
 sons of Devayana, the goddess-mother of the year beginning 
 at the winter solstice with the Devayana season. With these 
 five tribes were joined the Matsya, the fish-born sons of 
 the fish parent of life, the god la-khan or la, the fish of 
 Chaldean history, the dolphin and porpoise-mother-fish of 
 
 » Harrison, Protegemmaftr the Study of Greik Religicn, chapi x. p. 543. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 905 
 
 the mythology of the Mediteranean races and of the dwellers 
 on the coasts of the Indian Ocean in South-western Asia 
 and India, the first-born of the sons of the goddess Bau, the 
 mother of life in the Southern Ocean void, where the fish 
 was born before the earth was raised from the ocean. This 
 primitive fish had in the historical genealogy of the Matsya 
 become the eel parent of the sons of the rivers who dwelt 
 in the land of the Virata, that of the phallic god Viru, 
 and the remaining members of the confederacy were the 
 Bhrigu, the first worshippers of the household-fire, who were 
 also phallic worshippers ; the Vl-karna or horned worshippers 
 of the horned lunar crescent and of the Naga trident, called 
 in the Zendavesta Keresa-vazda of the horned club, the 
 distinctive sceptre of the shepherd-god Shiva ; the Aja, sons 
 of the Pole Star goat, and the Shigru. These lunar and 
 phallic races who offered human and animal sacrifices and 
 included witchcraft in their ritual had all become united 
 in the fifteen and seventeen-months year as worshippers 
 of the Bharata black antelope-god Krishna, the descendant 
 of the deer-sun-god of Orion's year, which had become in 
 the Euphratean countries Dara the antelope, the metamor- 
 phosis of la-khan the fish-god, and who as the national 
 antelope-god of the Kushika sons of the bow {kaus) became 
 the Indian god of the Naga Kushikas, whose parent plant 
 was the Kusha-grass on which the antelope-god fed. 
 
 The invading conquerors of these Bharata worshippers 
 of the stars, moon and setting sun of night were the wor- 
 shippers of the sun-god of day and the god of the perpetual 
 sacrificial fire burning on the altar, with whom were united 
 the earlier Kauravyas of the eleven-months year and the 
 Shiva, whose god was the sun-god of Orion's year of the 
 weaving artisans, and not the horned god Kama, the god 
 of the votaries of the lunar crescent. This war, in which 
 the Bharata are represented in the Rigveda as the attacking 
 party, was one waged by the mercantile rulers of the country 
 who held possession of the rivers and the coasts, and who 
 were allied with the artisans and the indigenous corn-grow- 
 
9o6 Primitive Tradi/ional History. 
 
 ing farmers the Srinjaya Panchalas, or men of the sickle, 
 and the shepherd pastoral races, against the rude northern 
 nomads of Central Asia, supported in India by the Kaura- 
 vya descendants of the Ugro Finns and the pastoral cattle- 
 herding races who worshipped the mother-cow. 
 
 The most graphic account of what was traditionally the 
 decisive battle of the war is that given in the war-song of 
 the Vashishtha fire and sun-worshippers, Rig. vii. i8, a poem 
 which re-echoes the battle-pseans telling the victorious sun- 
 worshippers how their ancestors completely overthrew and 
 subdued the earlier rulers of the land. It with the other 
 two Vashishtha war-poems, Rig. vii. 33 and 83, and the 
 Vishvamitra hymn, Rig. iii. 33, sums up in the history of 
 one attacking Bharata expedition ending in one battle in 
 which Sudas defeated and conquered their ten kings, the 
 story of what was doubtless a contest prolonged for many 
 years. The Bharata kings, the paramount rulers of India, 
 led the army they had collected to expel the Sanskrit- 
 speaking intruders and their Indian allies from their land 
 of Kuru-kshetra on the Sarasvati, whence they, if they 
 succeeded in establishing themselves in this strategic point 
 of vantage, could command the navigation of the Yamuna 
 or Jumna, menace the Sutlej and all the other rivers of the 
 Punjab, and paralyse the trade both of the Jumna and 
 Ganges by seizing Kausambi at the junction of the two rivers 
 which became, after the victory of Sudas, the capital of the 
 Sakya kings ^. The importance attached to the Jumna by 
 both parties is proved in Stanza 19 of Rig. vii. 18, where 
 Indra is said to have been helped by the Yamuna and 
 Tritsu. 
 
 It was to oust the invaders from the land between the 
 Sarasvati and Drishadvati, whence they commanded the very 
 important strategic post of Indraprastha or Delhi on the 
 Jumna, a chief stronghold of the Bharatas, that the latter 
 attacked the Tritsu from the north-west and collected their 
 
 ' Cunningham, Ancient Getgraphy »f India, pp. 391 ff> 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 907 
 
 forces in the country assigned by Arian to the Khati or 
 Hittites ^ between the Purushni or Ravi and Chinab. The 
 Tritsu and their allies were assembled south of the Bias or 
 Vipash, and the Sutlej or Shatadru, and it is of these two 
 rivers that Vishva-mitra in Rig. iii. 33 begs an easy passage 
 for the Bharata forces. But the Tritsu would not await the 
 attack of their antagonists, and determined to be themselves 
 the attacking party. Hence they marched through the 
 country of their allies the Tri-gartas or Shivas lying between 
 the Bias and Sutlej, the modern districts of Julundhar and 
 Hoshiarpur, and found the Bharata encamped on the north 
 bank of the Purushni or Ravi. They were surprised and 
 confused at the appearance of these enemies, and rashly 
 determined to cross the river and destroy them. But in 
 their hurry they failed to find a practicable ford, and rushed, 
 as the bard tells us, like fools and heedless cattle, into the 
 rapidly flowing river, but the lord of the earth, Prithivi, 
 seized them in his might, and herds and herdsmen were 
 destroyed by Sudas 2. Here the narrative ceases to be the 
 dramatic tale of an eye-witness and becomes the historical 
 story of the conquest of the Bharatas by Indra, the god 
 introducing another epoch and a new method of reckoning 
 time. Hence the seven cities of the Anu which Indra de- 
 stroyed were the seven-days week of the seventeen and 
 thirteen-months year, which was to be replaced by the ten- 
 days week of the new year, just as the twenty-one Vi-karna 
 champions slain by Sudas are the twenty-one days of the 
 month of the seventeen-months year, and the Bharata leader 
 of the Turvasu is called the Puro-dasha, or sacrificial cake. 
 
 But in order to understand more clearly the history of 
 this momentous war we must look to another account of 
 the introduction of the new age of sun-worship given in the 
 Mahabharata, where the Vedic Sudas, the year-god de- 
 scended from the Sarasvati and Vadhri-ashva the sexless 
 
 ' Cunningham, Ancient Gttgraphy ef India t pp. 215 ff. 
 ' Rig. Tii. 18, 8—10. 
 
9o8 Pninitive Traditional History. 
 
 sun-god of the fifteen-months year, is called Samvarana. 
 This name means the Place of Sacrifice, the ground con- 
 secrated as the site of the national altar of the year, said 
 in the Brahmanas to represent the whole earth i. Sam- 
 varana is mentioned once in the Rigveda v. 33, 10, where 
 he is called " the Rishi or antelope-god who gathers wealth 
 by his might in the stalls of the cows of light," that is to 
 say, he was the antelope-sun-god. This will appear still 
 more clearly when we examine his genealogy, the tradi- 
 tional history of his reign and his marriage to Tapati. In 
 the Mahabharata he appears as the ruler who was summoned 
 by Vashishtha to reign as the supreme king of the Bharatas 
 and as the father of Koru, after whom the holy land enclosed 
 by the Sarasvati and Drishadvati was called Kuru-kshetra, 
 the field of the Kurus. But to understand the meaning of 
 this history we must look to the ancestry and the details of 
 the story of Samvarana. 
 
 He is directly descended from Bharata, son of Dushmanta 
 and Sakuntala, who was, as we have seen p. 332, born as 
 the sun-god produced by the three-years cycle-year, that 
 is as the god of the eleven-months year. Hence his reign 
 according to the genealogist was a time of confusion. He 
 begat nine sons, the nine days of the week of the cycle-year, 
 but slew them and then remained childless till by the help 
 of Bharadvaja, the sun-lark, the father of the Kauravya 
 Drona, the holy Soma tree-trunk, he became the father of 
 Bhumanyu, the son of the soil {bhum), who ruled in the 
 epoch of the eleven-months year the united races of the 
 Kurus and the previous dwellers in the land. Bhumanyu's 
 son Su-hotra, the pourer of Su, a name equivalent to that of 
 Su-das, the giver of Su or Soma, is described as a great 
 king, and his son was Aja-midha, the warring {midha) goat 
 {aj'd), who is said in Rig. i. 67, 5 to sustain the earth ; and 
 this goat creator [txj'd) is also said in Rig. x. 82, 5, 6, to have 
 
 • Eggeling, Shat. Brah., iii. 7, 2, I, Sacred Books of the East, vol. ixvj. 
 p. «7S- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 909 
 
 taken the germ of life from the water where all the gods 
 were born, where he dwelt alone, the navel of undeveloped 
 life in which all future worlds lie hid. In other words, this 
 creating father-goat is the unseen germ of life, the creating 
 spirit of the Chinese Tao or path of the gods dwelling in the 
 Pole Star surrounded by the mists of the mother- waters. 
 This Pole Star creating god married DhuminJ, the daughter 
 of smoke {Dhumo), the sacrificial flame on the southern altar 
 of burnt-offering which disseminated life-giving heat through 
 the world. From her was born Riksha, called in Rig. i. 24 
 —10 the constellation of the Great Bear, who, as we have 
 seen, begot as the Thigh of the ape-god united with the 
 Pole Star goat the sexless sun-god of the year of fifteen- 
 months, the god of the sons of the date-palm-tree. This was 
 the god Samvarana, who was in his first avatar the sexless 
 sun-god of the fifteen-months year. He then according to 
 the genealogists was attacked by the Panchalas with ten 
 Akshauinis of troops, that is to say, he was overcome by the 
 Pandavas and their Panchala allies of the age of the seven- 
 teen and eighteen-months year and driven to the banks of 
 the Sindhu or Indus. There he remained in exile for a 
 thousand years, during the rule of the mercantile Bharata 
 kings, till he was brought forth by Vashishtha, who set him 
 on the throne as the sun-god of a new era ^. 
 
 His return to power as the conquering sun-god who was to 
 unite the new sun-worshippers with the Bharata is told in the 
 story of his marriage to Tapati, the heating {tap) mother. 
 She was the daughter of Vivasvan, the god of the two twi- 
 lights called Surya the sun, and the younger sister of Savitri 
 the sun-maiden. She was the mother-goddess of the South, 
 the home of the southern sun of winter, whence it brings 
 heat to the earth. Samvarana, who as the rising sun of 
 the coming era awaited his hour of enthronement in the 
 forests of the South, died for love of this goddess, and was 
 insensible for twelve days, the twelve days' death of the 
 
 " Mahabharata Adi {Samihava) Parva, xciv. pp. 279— 281. 
 
910 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 year-god of Orion's year, till he was recalled to life by 
 Vashishtha, as the Ribhus, the maker of the seasons of 
 Orion's year, were awoke by the dog sent by the Pole Star 
 goat after sleeping twelve days in the house of Agoya the 
 Pole Star ». Vashishtha united the reborn sun-god to Tapati, 
 the sun-goddess of the winter solstice, and this made him 
 a year-sun-god, who reproduced the year of Orion in which 
 the sun-god slept for the last twelve days of his year*, and 
 who was as the God of the Place of Sacrifice of the new year 
 to reproduce a new altar, the brick altar of the year of 
 the newly-born sun-bird. 
 
 F. The twelve-months year of the Sanskrit-speaking 
 sun-worshippers. 
 
 The year of this sun-god of the new ritual and the new 
 altar was, like that of Orion, one of twelve months and three 
 hundred and sixty days, but it was not like Orion's year 
 divided into twenty-nine-day but into thirty-day months, 
 and it was not measured by seventy-two five-day weeks but 
 by thirty-six weeks of ten days, the decades of the Egyptians 
 and Athenians. These were the weeks of the two creating 
 hands exhibiting the completeness of the power of the new 
 independent sun-god and his superiority to the original god 
 of the one creating hand, Daksha. This new week was the 
 Afijalika weapon of the joined hands with their palms placed 
 together, with which Arjuna slew the year-god Kama after 
 he had overturned his car with the iron arrow, the thunder- 
 bolt of this year which destroyed all the old year-gods 3. 
 The year thus measured was one easily manipulated by the 
 priests, who had learnt its exact length and could always 
 add an intercalary month of thirty days every sixth year 
 to maintain the average length of 365 days for the year, 
 
 ' Rig. i. 161, 13. 
 
 * M«habliarata Adi (Chaitra-ratha) Parva, clxxlii. — cbcxv. pp. 492—500. 
 
 3 Ibid., Kama Parva, xc. 80—84, xc. 39—49, pp. 359, 365, 366. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. g 1 1 
 
 and the error still left uncorrected by this process was 
 repaired in a system of cycles like the cycle of sixty years 
 decreed by Krishna as the duration of the reign of the revived 
 sun-god Parikshit, the 1,460 years of the Egyptian Sothaic 
 cycle of Isis, Sothis or Sirius ', and the fifty-two years lunar- 
 cycle of Mexico, in which the intercalary days necessary to 
 make the calendar exactly* correct were added. We shall 
 see in the sequel that in the instructions for building the 
 year-altar the Hindu priests, according to the Brahmanas, 
 added thirty-five or thirty-six intercalary days every sixth 
 year, ten of which form a sixty -years cycle. It was a year in 
 which constant astronomical observations were unnecessary, 
 and was therefore well suited to the unastronomical warriors 
 of the North. 
 
 The year ruled by the sun-god of this year begun, as we 
 have seen in discussing the fifty days reckoned for his resur- 
 rection interval, in April — May and May— June, was that 
 succeeding the year initiated by the entrance of the sun 
 into Gemini at the vernal equinox, and the new period 
 apparently began when the sun entered Taurus at that time ; 
 and it is from this time, about 4500 B.C., that modern zodiacal 
 reckonings have been held to date. Dr. Sayce has shown 
 that the first sign of the earliest known zodiacal Akkadian 
 year of twelve thirty-day months was the directing bull, 
 otherwise called Te, the foundation, or Alap-ur, the bull 
 {alap) of the foundation (nr), and it was in this sign that 
 the sun began the year at the vernal equinox 2. The Zodiac 
 in which the sun's path is thus measured marks its move- 
 ments in a sunwise and not in a retrograde direction, as in 
 the Chinese and Egyptian zodiacs, so that we find in the 
 history of the Akkadian astronomical year very good grounds 
 
 ■ Mahabharata Saptika Parva, xvi. 17, p. S3; Adams, The Book of the 
 l^'tter Festivals of the Sun and Moon, p. 31. 
 
 ' Sayce, Hibbirt Ltcturis for 1887, lect. vi. Cosmogonies and Astro The- 
 ology, p. 297; R. Brown, jun., F.S.A., Names of the Signs of the Zodiac, 
 Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archeology, March, 1891, ii. Sign Ti-ti, 
 P'5. 
 
912 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 for believing that it was when the sun entered Taurus at the 
 vernal equinox that the solar worship established in India 
 by the Sanskrit-speaking conquerors was first made the 
 national religion by building the altar of the sun-bird, who 
 then first started on his year's flight round the heavens. 
 And this beginning of the solar year, when the sun was in 
 Taurus, was also preserved in Roman astronomical tradition, 
 for Virgil, Georg. i. 217, 218, speaks of the white bull which 
 opens the year with its gilded horns : — 
 
 " Candidus auratis aperit cum cornibus annum 
 Taurus." 
 
 This change in the year reckoning accompanying the 
 victory of the sun-worshippers of the rising sun of day and 
 the total discomfiture of the votaries of the moon-god and 
 those who began their year with the setting sun and stars 
 seems to furnish an explanation of the Bible story of the 
 disruption of society following the fall of the Tower of 
 Babel '. The story of the Gate {bab) of God (el) is a meta- 
 phorical record of those successive measurements of annual 
 time which were ruled by the stars Gemini, which were, as 
 we have seen p. 326, the Greek Dokana, the guardians of the 
 gate of the divine garden, the field of heaven circuited by 
 the sun in its annual journeys through the zodiacal stars 
 which bounded it as the region ruled by the boundary {laksfi) 
 star Lakshman Arcturus, the Vedic and Zend star-god Arya- 
 man. We have seen that in the reckonings of the zodiacal 
 year from the epoch of the year of fifteen months annual 
 time was measured by the entry of the sun into Gemini, 
 a mode of reckoning beginning when the sun entered Gemini 
 at the winter solstice from about 12,500 to 10,700 B.C. 
 There was also long before this a persistent deification of 
 the Ashvin twin stars, for in the Hindu alligator constellation 
 of Shimshu-mara, of which the fourteen stars surrounded the 
 Pole and drove the other stars round the heavens, the twin 
 stars Gemini were its hands and the divine physicians. 
 
 ' Genesis xi. i — 9. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 913 
 
 It was the new deification of the sun-god as a god inde- 
 pendent of the Pole Star governing the revolving tower of 
 the Garden of God which overthrew the star-symbol of the 
 ruling power used in the imaginative pictures of the earliest 
 astronomical theorists, overturned the trading governments 
 of their merchant-kings, uniting all maritime nations in a 
 confederacy of allied states, and substituted for the age of 
 national brotherhood and friendly trade rivalry one of inter- 
 national suspicion and jealousy, in which every state feared 
 its neighbours as possible robbers who were scheming to 
 appropriate their lands. Hence every national tribe used 
 only its own language, and the knowledge of the common 
 language of commercial intercourse disappeared from the 
 earth. This revolution which introduced the worship of the 
 flying bull of heaven apparently dates from the time when 
 the sun entered Taurus at the vernal equinox. It was then 
 that the Kerubi or flying bulls of Assyria, the stars of 
 Taurus, the Hebrew Cherubim, replaced the twin stars 
 Gemini, the giants Gog and Magog, as guardians of the 
 Gate of God and as warders of the doors of the temples. 
 
 It was as a consequence of this revolution and the dis- 
 ruption of society it caused that it was followed by the 
 expulsion of Adam the red man, who had been beguiled 
 by the serpent, ruler of the Garden of Eden or the plain 
 country which had once been the garden-land of the three 
 rivers of Northern India, the Indus, Jumna, and Ganges, 
 and had been since transferred to the Sumerian land of 
 Shinar, the Euphratean countries, with the trade of the 
 Turvasu-Yadu, the first dwellers in the island Turos of the 
 Persian Gulf, now Bahrein. He was now by the northern 
 conquerors and destroyers sent forth from his peaceful settle- 
 ments of the trading age to till the waste earth, which was 
 thenceforth to be disturbed by the wars of conquest and 
 spoliation waged by the united sun-worshippers against the 
 money-making progeny of the Naga-snake. After his 
 departure from the land of the mother-tree, the tree of life, 
 whose two stars were the pillar-guardians of the national 
 
 ". 3 N 
 
914 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 temple gates looking to the south, like those of the Garden 
 of God of the Zendavesta (p. 327), the Mahommedan 
 mosques and the Templa of the Roman augurs, the entrance 
 to his former home was transferred to the East, whence the 
 Buddhist temples are entered, and its gates were guarded 
 by the two cherubims or flying bulls of the new era '. In 
 this story the triumph of the sons of the sun-god and the 
 enmity between the old and new beliefs is told in the 
 sentence of punishment passed on the serpent. 
 
 G. History as told in the Ritual of tJie building of the brick 
 altar of the Sun-bird of the twelve-months year. 
 
 It was the founders of the new form of the worship of the 
 sun-god as the bird who rose from the East to introduce 
 Orion's year of twelve thirty-day months who built in India 
 the new brick Ahavaniya altar of libations as the culminating 
 embodiment of the theology of the Brahmanas. It was 
 devoted to the celebration of a ritual in which the parts 
 of living victims hitherto consumed on the northern Uttara- 
 vedi altar thatched with the branches of the plaksha-tree 
 {Ficus infectorid) were no longer to be offered on their 
 national altar. And on it the sacrifices were to be restricted 
 to libations of milk, sour milk, barley, running water and 
 the sap of the Soma plant poured on the altar and consumed 
 by the worshippers as sacramental food which incorporated 
 into their frames the spirit of the living God. 
 
 This altar was not a brand new creation of a revolutionary 
 sect whose object was to entirely obliterate the old faiths, 
 but of religious reformers who sought to retain the recol- 
 lection of and reverence for the ancient creeds while they 
 substituted for their errors improvements learnt from in- 
 creased knowledge and experience. The object they sought 
 to obtain was the union as one nation of the new comers 
 
 ■ Gen. iii. 22 — 24. 
 
Primitive Traditional History, 915 
 
 with the ancient population of the farming sons of the 
 mother-tree and of the cow-goddess Rohini, the star Alde- 
 baran in Taurus, whose offerings were the first-fruits of their 
 crops and libations of milk ; and this intention is manifest 
 in every stage of the ritual of the building ceremonies which 
 also commemorate the successive changes in the year 
 reckoning beginning with the primitive solstitial year of 
 the sun-hen, which started on its yearly course round the 
 heavens at sunset in the winter solstice, and thus include 
 in their record symbolic reminiscences of the annual sacri- 
 fices of former theologies. The first stage in this ritualistic 
 history is that of the consecration of the foundation of the 
 altar. The land on which it was to be built was ploughed 
 with the sacred plough made of the Udumbara wild fig-tree 
 [Ficus glomerata). To this the oxen were yoked with traces 
 of the Munja sugar-grass {Saccharum Munjd), of which the 
 Brahmans' year-girdles of three strands, symbolising the three 
 seasons of the year, were made. In yoking the oxen at the 
 north-west corner of the plot to be consecrated, a Gayatri, 
 or eight-syllabled, and a Trishtubh, or eleven - syllabled 
 verse were recited, so that they were dedicated to the gods 
 of the years of eleven and eight-day weeks and eleven and 
 fifteen months. The Trishtubh verse was the stanzas three 
 and four of Rig. x. loi, calling for the yoking of the plough, 
 the casting of the seed into the ready womb of the earth 
 furrowed by it, for a plentiful yield of the crop sown which 
 when ripe will be cut by the sickle i. And this shows that 
 the altar to be built on the plot consecrated by the sacred 
 fig-tree plough was that of the corn-growing races who were 
 the first ploughers of the barley land with the wolf-plough 
 brought to India by the Ashvins^, who, as we have seen, 
 drove the three-wheeled car of the three-years cycle-year. 
 In the ploughing, as I have said in Chapter IV., pp. 328, 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., vii. 2, 2, 4, 5, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 PP- 326, 327. 
 ' Rig. i. 117, 21. 
 
 3 N 2 
 
9i6 Pritnittve Traditional History, 
 
 329, the first furrow was ploughed from the south-west to the 
 south-east, according to the diagram there drawn ; the second 
 from the south-west corner to the north-west, and then 
 from north-west to north-east and north-east to south-east, 
 forming a square like that of the Garden of God, representing 
 the annual course of the sun-bird beginning the year at sunset 
 in the south-west at the winter solstice and going round the 
 four quarters of the heavens to return to the south-west at 
 the next winter solstice. The south-west corner from which 
 the sun starts is called in the Brahmanas a Nlrriti, or un- 
 orthodox quarter of the black rice husks ', that is the quarter 
 sacred in the primitive ritual of the rice-growers but made 
 unorthodox when this ritual was superseded by that of the 
 sun-bird rising in the East. 
 
 After finishing the year-square the cross lines are ploughed 
 to form the eight-rayed star of the fifteen-months year en- 
 closed in it. The first is the north and south line joining 
 the middle of the south-west, south-east line to that of the 
 north-west and north-east. This is the line of the Pole Star 
 and of the year measured by the circuit round it of the stars 
 led first by the Pleiades and Canopus and afterwards by the 
 Pleiades and Orion, when the year was changed from the 
 two-seasons year of the Pleiades to Orion's year of three 
 seasons. After this a line was drawn from the south-west 
 to the north-east indicating the flight of the sun-bird starting 
 from the south-west to go round the square. Then the line 
 from west to east, denoting the year measured by the 
 equinoxes as well as by the solstices beginning with the 
 cycle-year of three years opening at the autumnal equinox 
 when the sun was in Aries, at the beginning of the age when 
 the zodiacal path of the moon and sun was first traced by 
 the authors of the Hindu Nakshatra or Nagkshetra list of 
 stars in the heavens' field {kshetra) of the snake {nag) stars 
 of the Naga-Kushika race. The last line from north-west 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shot. Bvah., vii. 2, i, 7, 8, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 p. 320- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 917 
 
 to south-east, called the sunwise furrow, was that of the 
 white sun-horse of the healing fountains and wells succeeding 
 the black horse of the eleven-months year, the white bull 
 of the year of fifteen months and the eight-days week who 
 began his year at sunset at the summer solstice. In doing 
 this the plougher is directed to plough twelve furrows, that 
 is four round the sides of the square and eight along each 
 of the rays of the eight-rayed star formed by the cross 
 furrows ; and these furrows are said to be those of the twelve 
 months of Agni's year, and are ordered to be ploughed 
 silently, thus showing that the ritual was a relic of the early 
 silent worship of Orion's year of those prior to the Vedic 
 year of twelve months, when chants and recitals of sacred 
 hymns form part of the service ^. 
 
 The next process is the consecration of the altar site on 
 which the sacred sign of the eight-rayed star in the sun 
 square has been ploughed. First a bunch of Kusha-grass {Poa 
 cynosuroides) was placed in the centre of the star, and five 
 libations of Ghi or clarified butter were poured on it as offer- 
 ings to the gods of the five seasons of the seventeen-months 
 year, and then the priest consecrated the ground to the year- 
 god by thirteen sentences indicating, as we are told, the 
 thirteen months of the year. These as explained in the text 
 set forth the meaning of the five layers of bricks of which the 
 altar was to be built, and declare that it was built to the 
 year-god of a year measured by half months, that is by the 
 two lunar phases in each month and the rising sun bringing 
 forth the cows of light, and that it was to be the national 
 symbol of the union of the trading races who measured time 
 by the seventeen lunar-solar and the thirteen-months lunar- 
 year beginning with the setting sun with the worshippers 
 of the rising sun of the East. It is said to be the altar of the 
 year of the Ashvins, the stars Gemini, and of the dappled 
 sun-horse of the star worshippers of Agrti Vaishvanara, the 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat, Brih., vii. 3, 21, 2, 16, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xU. 
 tP' 325-330. 
 
91 8 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 household-fire, and the mother-mountain Ida, mother of the 
 cows of light and of the creating god invoked at the New 
 Year's sacrifice by the cry of Sva-ha Hail, the god Rudra, 
 who was, as we have seen (p. 457), the god invoked in the 
 eleventh verse of the Apri hymns of the eleven-months 
 year i. 
 
 These twelve jars of water, denoting the twelve months 
 of the year which was to be henceforth the national year, 
 were poured over the ploughed ground, and three additional 
 jars over the whole site of the consecrated area, making 
 fifteen jars poured over the whole area, indicating the twelve 
 months and three seasons of Orion's year, the model of that 
 now instituted. Then seeds of corn and healing herbs were 
 sown over the consecrated area from a jar of Udumbara wild 
 fig-tree wood {Ficus glomerata). While sowing this seed 
 fifteen Gayatri stanzas were recited of Rig. x. 97, the hymn 
 of the healing, strength-yielding plants of which (v. 19) 
 Soma is the chief; its reputed author was Bhishak Athar. 
 vana, that is the healer {bhisaj), the sun-priest, who called 
 it Osadhi-stuti, the praise of medicine, so that it is a hymn 
 of the Buddha sun-god in his first birth as the sun-physician, 
 when he was called Osadhadaraka, Medicine-child. Twelve 
 of these stanzas were recited during the sowing of the 
 ploughed area and three during the sowing of that un- 
 ploughed. This hymn of the sun-physician traces the heal- 
 ing virtues of the plants it calls the mothers of life (v. 2) 
 to the Ashvattha or Pipal {Ficus religiosd), and the Parna 
 or Palasha {Butea frondosa), the two Soma trees (v. 5), and 
 attributes their growth to Brihaspati (v. 19), the Pole Star 
 god. The fifteen stanzas show that the seed when sown was 
 dedicated to the god of the fifteen-months year. In the 
 thirteenth of these stanzas Yakshman, the fever, is called 
 to fly forth with the blue jay [kiki), which was the sacred 
 bird in the age when Kiki the blue jay was king of Kashi, 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shot. Brah,, vii. 2, 31— 9, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 PP- 332. 335- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. gig 
 
 in whose palace the third of the thirteen Buddhist Theris, 
 first called Padumavati the lotus born, was born as one of 
 the seven sisters, the seven stars of the Great Bear, and 
 called Uppalavanno, she of the colour of the blue lotus. It 
 is this age of the blue jay which I have traced in the myth- 
 ology of India, Thrace, Troy and Greece in pp. 285, 286, and 
 have proved to belong to the period of the thirteen-months 
 year, and it is assigned in Mexican religious history (p. 862) 
 to the period when the twin gods, measurers of time, went 
 back to their father the sun after turning the Oraibi into 
 stone, the stone gnomon pillars, and sending them up to 
 heaven as blue jays. After the sowing, fifteen jars full of 
 water were poured out over the ground ^. A lotus-leaf, the 
 mother-plant of the sons of the rivers who measured time 
 by the thirteen-months year, was then placed in the centre 
 of the site of the Ahavanlya altar, but before it was laid 
 down sand was scattered over the site and the whole area 
 measuring about forty feet each side. As this sand was 
 scattered six verses of the hymn Rig. x. 170 were recited. 
 This is a hymn said in the Brahmanas to be addressed to 
 Agni-Vaishvanara, the god of the household-fire, and in v. 3 
 of the hymn he is called Jatavedas, the god who knows the 
 secrets of birth, that is the god of the year of ten lunar 
 months of gestation, the three-years cycle-year. The sand 
 scattered while this hymn was being sung is said to be 
 thrown by all the seven metres, that is by the number of 
 syllables contained in the stanzas written in each of them 
 called the Gayatri of twenty-four syllables, the Ushnih of 
 twenty-eight, the Anushtubh of thirty-two, the Brihati of 
 thirty-six, the Panchti of forty, the Trishtubh of forty-four, 
 Jagati of forty-eight, or 252 syllables, but the calculation, as 
 Professor Eggeling points out, is wrong, for the stanzas of 
 the hymn only contain 244 syllables. But the meaning of 
 the citation and invocation of the metres is clear, as each of 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat, Btah,, vii. 2, 4, I— 30, Sacred Books of the East, toI. xli. 
 PP- 33S-34J- 
 
920 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 them is specially devoted by the rules of the Hindu sacred 
 Hymnology to some special form of time reckoning. Thus 
 we have seen (pp. 124, 125) that the thirty-six syllables of the 
 Brihati metre denoted the thirty-six five-day weeks of the 
 half-year measured by the Pleiades, the Gayatri metre with 
 three lines of eight syllables denoted the twenty-four-day 
 months of the fifteen-months year (p. 606), and the Trishtubh 
 metre of eleven syllables was that dedicated to the eleven- 
 months year (p. 456), the four lines of the stanza of forty-four 
 syllables denoting the four seasons. Hence the scattering of 
 sand meant a year of time measured by all the metres and 
 symbolised its successive phrases shown in the changes of year 
 reckoning. And this conclusion is confirmed by the state- 
 ment that the sand denoted the seventy hundred and twenty 
 days and nights of the year of 360 days ; and to still further 
 mark the measurement of time in designing the site for the 
 altar, a clod of earth denoting the four seasons of the year 
 was put at each end of the arms of the cross intersecting the 
 middle of each side of the altar site '. 
 
 The next ceremony is that of the Pravargya or offering 
 of the large pot and the Upasads or season offerings". The 
 Pravargya ritual is somewhat complicated, but it may shortly 
 be described as representing the birth of the twelve-months 
 year of the altar-fire from the thirteen-months year and other 
 year reckonings. The earth for the Pravargya pot was dug 
 with an Udumbara wild fig-tree wood spade, and is made of 
 five materials, the days of the five-days week : (i) potter's 
 clay, (2) clay from ant-hills, (3) clay from earth torn up by 
 the year-boar, (4) Adari or Soma plant, and (s) goats' milk, 
 all these being placed on a black antelope-skin. Three pots, 
 two milking-bowls and two platters consecrated to Rohini 
 the red cow, the star Aldebaran, were made and goats' milk 
 poured on these seven vessels denoting the seven-days weekj 
 and they with the other vessels are placed on Kusha-grass, 
 
 " Eggeling, Shat. Brah., vii. 3, 1, 1—47, Sacred Books of the East, vol. »li. 
 pp. 342—345, note I— 353i note i— 3SS- 
 ' Ibid., vii. 3, 2, I, ibid., vol. xli. pp. 355 ff. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 92 1 
 
 of which the tops are turned to the east before the Garha- 
 patya altar representing in its thirteen stones the thirteen- 
 months year. When the materials are ready the great pot 
 Mahavira is put on the fire surrounded with thirteen pieces 
 of Vikankata {Flacourtia sapida) wood, denoting the thirteen 
 months of the year, and a gold plate is placed over it. The 
 milk it heats is that of the star-cow Rohini, to whom two 
 Rauhinia cakes are offered, and who is accompanied by her 
 calf, the young sun-god. She is milked into the pot, goats' 
 milk being poured in afterwards. Twelve verses are then 
 recited to the gods of the twelve months of the year born 
 from the pot, the two last being Brihaspati, the Pole Star 
 god, and Yama, the twin parents night and day. Brah- 
 manaspati and Sunrita, the joyful goddess of the flower 
 [sUnd) of spring, are called to appear. On the fire three 
 bundles of fire faggots are successively burnt. When throw- 
 ing the first two bundles on the fire and while they are 
 burning the unsexed Agnldhra fire-priest stands up, and 
 sits down to represent a woman bearing a child while he 
 throws on the last bundle and while it is burning. The 
 three faggots denote the three seasons of Orion's year ruled 
 by the Pole Star goat, from the last of which the sun-god of 
 the pot was born. The whole ceremony of the Pravargya 
 is said to be the year closed with the thirteen libations 
 offered to the thirteen gods of the year-months of Praja- 
 pati's (Orion's) year, among whom Surya the sun-god is 
 placed seventh in the central place, the navel or birth-month 
 being the thirteenth. These are ofifered after those who had 
 taken part in the sacrifice had drunk the heated milk '. The 
 Pravargya sacrifice is followed by that to the Upasads or 
 three seasons of Orion's year, both being ofifered on the same 
 day. It is offered to the three seasons of Vishnu's arrow, 
 called the thunderbolt, which slew the year-god at the end 
 of his term, the shooter being Krishanu, the drawer {karsh) 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., xiv. i, i, I, xiv. 3, 2, I— 31, Sacred Books of 
 the East, vol. xliv. pp. 441 — 510. 
 
92 2 PrUmtive Traditional History. 
 
 of the year-bow of the Great Bear^, controlling the year 
 slain by the arrow points, the two pointing stars of the 
 constellation Su-hasta and Krishanu. 
 
 The Pravargya and Upasads sacrifice cover in their ritual 
 the whole history of Prajapati's (Orion's) solar lunar year 
 of three seasons and of the thirteen-months year, and shew 
 that the founders of the new twelve-months year of the sun- 
 bird meant it to be an evolution from their predecessors, 
 and this is especially shown in the sacrifice of the Upasads 
 offered in the latest Vedic ritual to the six seasons of the 
 new year instead of to the three of Orion's year. After these 
 ceremonies a red ox-skin was laid with its neck to the east 
 before the Garhapatya fire-altar and sprinkled with Ghi or 
 clarified butter by stalks of Kusha-grass : this is a repetition 
 of the red bull-skin laid to the west of the household-fire in 
 the bridegroom's house, and on which he and his bride sit 
 when they enter it =. Verses are then recited to Agni, one 
 of which prays that the year-god may be led by Vatsa the 
 sun-calf born of Rohini the red cow 3. At sunset a white 
 horse is led to the altar from the north and taken round it 
 sunwise, going first to the east 4, the priests and attendants 
 carrying the bricks for the altar marching behind it. 
 
 In laying down the first layer of bricks a lotus leaf is first 
 placed next the Kusha-grass in the centre of the altar site 
 on which the eight- rayed star has been drawn by the plough 
 furrows, and on it was placed a gold plate studded with 
 twenty-one knots, the days of the months of the seventeen- 
 months year. On this plate was laid the gold image of a 
 man lying on his back with his head to the east, who was 
 called in the words of Rig. x. I2i, I Hiranyagarbha, the son 
 of the golden womb, the first living soul born as the lord 
 
 ' Ending, Shat. Brah., iii. 4, 4, 15—17, Sacred Books of the East, Tol. 
 
 xxvi. p. 108. 
 
 » Oldenberg, Grihya Sutra Grihya SHra cf Hiranya ktslun, i. 7, 22, 8, 9, 
 Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxx. pp. 193, 194. 
 
 » Rig. viii. 11,7- 
 
 * Eggeling, '^hat. Brah., 3, 2, i— 19, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xli. 
 
 PP- 355-362- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 923 
 
 of being and who ruled the seventeen-months year. When 
 formulas had been recited to drive away the snakes Agni 
 was called on in the first five verses of Rig. iv. 9 to expel 
 the wicked fiends. Two offering-spoons were placed beside 
 the man, one of Karshmarya (Gmelina arbored) wood, fur- 
 nishing the three twigs placed round the fire on the altar 
 in the form of a woman when used for the fire of the Soma 
 sacrifice of the animal sacrificing sons of the Khadira-tree 
 [Acacia catechu) ', which replaced the earlier Palasha-tree 
 (fiutea frondosa) from which the first fire-encircling triangle 
 was made on the altar then used for libations to the seasons. 
 The other spoon was made of Udumbara wild fig-tree wood '. 
 Then a Svayamatrinna, or self-perforated brick with a hole 
 in it, was placed on the man, and three of these, one over 
 the other, were placed in the centre of the first, third and 
 fifth altar-layers so as to leave an open passage through it 
 from the bottom to the top. This aperture in the altar which 
 was once the mother-mountain is called in the Zendavesta 
 the golden tube of the life-mountain Saokanta, through 
 which the water, generated in the creating lotus growing 
 beneath it, goes up to its top, whence it descends on the 
 earth in rain, mist and dew 3. 
 
 The self-pierced brick is called Diirva, that born of the 
 distant {diir), and of Dhruva the Pole Star, and on it was 
 laid a plant of Durva or Dub grass {panicum dactylon), the 
 creeping grass growing near the banks of rivers and water- 
 courses, which is always green during the hottest summer. 
 
 Next to this central brick on its east side a brick called 
 the Dvi-yajus or double-worship was placed, and then five 
 bricks, two Rehta-sik or seed-shedding bricks, a Vishva- 
 jyotis or starlight scintillating, and two Ritavya or seasonal 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shot. Brdh,, iii. 4, I, 16, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxvi. 
 p. 89. 
 
 ' Ibid., viii. 4, i, i — 45, ibid., vol. xli. pp. 362 — 376. 
 
 2 Ibid., vii. 4, 2, I — 9, viii. I, l, i, ibid., vol. xli. pp. 377 — 379, xliii. 
 pp. 1, note I, 2 ; Darmesteter, Zendavesta Khorsed Nyayis, Sacred Books of 
 the Esst, vol. xxiii. pp. 352, note 3 ; Hevfitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric 
 Times, vol. i, essay iii. p. 144. 
 
924 Primitive Traditional History, 
 
 bricks, denoting the spring season, were laid in the eastern 
 direction to represent the generating Agni, and the line 
 ended in the most important brick of all, the eighth brick 
 from the central Pole Star brick. This is the Ashadha brick 
 sacred to the month of that name (June — July), which begins 
 the year opening with the rains of the summer solstice. This 
 brick, symbolising " Speech," is that of the beak of the altar- 
 bird of the year in which chanted hymns succeeded the 
 earlier silent worship of the age of Prajapati (Orion) '. South 
 of this Ashadha brick of the beak of the year-bird rising 
 in the north-east at the summer solstice, and in the east 
 at the vernal equinox, the live tortoise of Kashyapa, the 
 Kushika father-god, was buried with its head to the west and 
 anointed with curds, honey and ghi. It was placed between 
 two rows, one above and one below it, of Avaka {Blyxa 
 octandrid) plants growing like the lotus on marshy land. 
 
 To the north of the centrally perforated brick and a cubit 
 from it, the length of two Rehtasik seed-shedding bricks, 
 there was placed a mortar and pestle made of Udumbara 
 wood, used for pounding and extracting the life-giving sap 
 of the holy Soma and called the Shishna or phallus. It was 
 an emblem of the generating Vishnu, the bisexual year-god 
 who as an embryo was a span long, the generator of ever- 
 increasing time starting from its fundamental unit, the week 
 of five days, the span of the five-fingered hand. As the 
 mortar was being fixed the priest recited Rig. i. 22, 19 : 
 " See ye the deeds of Vishnu shown in his works ; " and 
 he consecrated it with the Suda-dohas or right-milking 
 (dohas) verse. Rig. viii. 69 (58), 3, invoking the dappled 
 milking-stars, generators of Soma, presiding over his birth, 
 as they did over that of the Buddha when the eight divine 
 cow-stars, the seven stars of the Great Bear and the Pole 
 Star, yielded the milk in which the creating rice was boiled 
 by Su-jata and the rain-god Sakko, which fed the developing 
 
 ' Eggeling, Skat. Brah,, vii. 4, 2, 10— 4, Sacred Books of the East, »ol. xli. 
 See also the plan of the first layer of bricks, Eggeling, Skat. Brah., vol. xliii. 
 pp. I7> 379-389- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 925 
 
 sun-god during the pentecostal fifty-days period of his 
 transformation from the star-god of the Banyan fig-tree to 
 that of the independent sun-god, who had been released 
 from his bondage to the Great Bear, and pursued his 
 self-directed sunwise course through heaven. On the top 
 of this mortar effigy of the generating revolutions of the 
 Pole Star god was placed the fire-pan, the making of which 
 I have described in Chapter VII., Section B, and it, which 
 supplied the heat which begot life in the sons of the 
 rivers and the cow, was filled with sand and milk, said to 
 represent the seed conceiving in the engendering fire-mother's 
 womb '. 
 
 Five victims were slain at this consecration ceremony : (i) 
 a man who was only slain in effigy or in substitute, probably 
 an ape, (2) a horse, (3) a ram, (4) a bull, (5) a he-goat, and 
 their heads were put in the fire-pan, the human head being 
 placed in the centre on the sanded milk as that of the Pole 
 Star ape-god, those of the horse and ram on the left (north) 
 side, and the bull and he-goat on the right (south) side, after 
 putting chips of gold in their nostrils, eyes and ears. 
 
 The next stage in the building of the altar was that of the 
 laying down fifteen Apasiyah or water-bricks, reminiscences 
 of the mother-sea round the mother-mountain, and five 
 Chandasyah or metre-bricks to the Gayatri, Trishtubh, 
 Jagati, Anushtubh and Panchti metres, representing, as we 
 are told, the five seasons of the seventeen-months year, the 
 Gayatri the spring, Trishtubh the summer, Jagati the rainy 
 season, Anushtubh the autumn, and Panchti the winter. The 
 fifteen Apasiyah bricks are laid in fives to the east, north, 
 and west of the fire-pan, and the five Chandasyah south to 
 it. As they are being laid a hymn in sixteen stanzas, repre- 
 senting two weeks of the fifteen-months solar year, is recited, 
 declaring that they were placed by the five metres in the 
 home of the waters whence life was born \ 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., vii. 5, I, i — 40, vii. I, I, 40—44, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xli. pp. 389 — 4CX), 360, 31J. 
 ' Ibid., vii. 5, 2, 1—62, vii. 4, i, 3—7, ibid., vol. xli. pp. 401—427, 91. 
 
926 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Thus we see that the history of the solar year and its 
 successive historical phases, including the age of human 
 sacrifices, is wrapped up in the rules for laying the spring 
 layer, the first of the five layers of bricks forming the altar. 
 I shall not state the details of the other layers with the same 
 minuteness that I have those of the first, but a reference 
 to and examination of the rules given in the Shatapatha 
 Brahmana will show that each layer illustrates a separate 
 section of the successive sequence of year measurements 
 described in the previous chapters of this book. 
 
 The whole altar represents in the symbol of a year the 
 consummation of the nation's predestined union as an amal- 
 gamation of all the different races domiciled. in India, each 
 of whom had incorporated into the history of the national 
 growth the tenets of the dominant creed and the social 
 organisation of the land, parts of their own recorded 
 historical stories, ritual, laws and customs. The first 
 layer was that of the spring, the second of the summer, 
 the third of the rainy season, the fourth the autumn, 
 and the fifth the winter, so that the year in its arrange- 
 ment of the seasons reproduces the seventeen-months year 
 of the five Pandavas (p. 743). The second layer of summer 
 above that of the spring growth from the generating 
 waters is dedicated to the Ashvins, whom we have traced 
 from their first birth as twin gods of measured time ruling 
 the night and day to their deification in stellar mythology 
 as the twin stars Gemini, guarding the gate of the year- 
 garden of God, who became the drivers of the three-wheeled 
 sun-chariot of the cycle-year and the stars of the constella- 
 tion in which the sun successively began the year from about 
 12,550 to 10,700 B.C., when the sun was in Gemini at the 
 winter solstice, till about the year 4500 B.C., when it entered 
 Taurus at the vernal equinox. This year was begun by lay- 
 ing down five Ashvini bricks to the five seasons of the year, 
 and the ritual of this ceremony closes with an invocation in 
 fifteen stanzas to the gods of the fifteen-months year begin- 
 ning with the he-goat and ending with the four-year-old 
 
Primitive Traditional History, 927 
 
 bull, which was named in the eleventh stanza as the eighteen- 
 months old calf, that is the young sun-calf of the eighteen- 
 months year ». 
 
 The third layer of the rainy season is by the first eleven 
 bricks laid down dedicated to the eleven-months year pre- 
 ceding that of fifteen months, and is said to represent the 
 atmosphere and the body of Agni 2. 
 
 In the fourth layer of the autumn the first eighteen bricks 
 are those of the eighteen-months year of the eighteen-fold 
 Prajapati (Orion), and the seventeen other bricks of the 
 layer are the seventeen months of the year of the seventeen- 
 fold Prajapati, and these are laid with a hymn of praise to 
 the thirty-three gods of the year of eleven thirty-three-day 
 months 3. 
 
 The fifth top layer represents the vault of heaven en- 
 circling and overarching the altar. It is supported on the 
 outside by twenty-nine Stoma-bhaga bricks, those of the 
 hymn of praise (stoma) called Naka-sud, or bricks of the 
 firmament, representing the twenty-nine days of the months 
 of Orion's year of the Karanas4. Inside this fifth layer a 
 new Garhapatya or fire-hearth is inserted, but it is built not 
 like the first fire-hearth of Chap. IV., pp. 268, 269 of thirteen 
 bricks representing the thirteen-months year, but of eighteen, 
 showing that it is the fire-hearth of the Pandavas' eighteen- 
 months year. There are two rows, each of eight bricks, the 
 first called Chiti, the funeral-pile on which the Phoenix sun- 
 bird of the sons of the date-palm-tree is yearly burnt, and 
 the second Punaschiti, the second or perfectly purifying 
 burning, and on these are placed two Retaviya or seasonal 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., viii. 2, i, i, 9, 16, viii. 2, 4, I— 15, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xliii. pp. 22 — 27, 29, 37 — 39. 
 
 ' Ibid., >iii. 3, 4, 11, ibid., vol. xliii. p, 57. 
 
 'Ibid,, viii. 4, 18, 27, 28, viii. 2, 4, i— 20, ibid., vol. xliii. pp. 60, 66, 
 71, note I — 77. 
 
 * Ibid., viii. 5, 3, 1—8, where it is said that some lay down thirty bricks, 
 the number of days of the month of the last Vedic year of twelve months, 
 thus showing that the original twenty-nine bricks meant the days of the month 
 of the former twelve-months year, that of Orion, viii. 6, I, 1,2, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xliii. pp. 92—94, 97, note 1 , 98. 
 
928 Primitive Traditional History, 
 
 bricks, the whole arrangement representing the eighteen- 
 months year as that of the two solstitial sun-births. On 
 the top are placed two Visvagyotis or scintillating star- 
 bricks, to make up the twenty days of the months of the 
 year ^ 
 
 We are told in the Shatapatha Brahmana that the altar 
 when built was an image of the year Prajapati and of Soma 
 the moon-god, in which "there are seven hundred and twenty 
 days and nights," of which the light days, three hundred and 
 sixty, are his lights, and there are " three hundred and sixty 
 enclosing stones and three hundred and sixty bricks with 
 special formulas = ". The three hundred and sixty stones 
 representing the nights were distributed as follows : twenty- 
 six round the Garhapatya hearth, seventy-eight round the 
 eight Dhishnya hearths assigned to the priests incorporated 
 into the national priesthood from the successively amalga- 
 mated creeds, and two hundred and sixty-one round the 
 Ahavaniya altars. The days were represented by the three 
 hundred and sixty Yajush-mati bricks laid down with the 
 formular recitations prescribed in the Vedic solar ritual of 
 this age of the worship of the god of day, and which were 
 not used in the earlier silent worship of the night sun of 
 sunsets, the stars and the moon. 
 
 The hours are represented by the ten thousand eight 
 hundred Lokamprini or space-filling bricks, denoting the 
 Mohurtas of forty-eight minutes each, of which there are 
 thirty in a day and ten thousand eight hundred in a year 
 of three hundred and sixty days 4. Also each of these 
 Mohurtas represents two Ghatis of twenty -four minutes 
 each in the Dravidian system of time reckoning used, as 
 we have seen, by the Buddha (p. 658), which was that fol- 
 
 • Eggeling, Shot. Brah., viii. 6, 3, i, viii. 7, I, 29, Sacred Books of the 
 East, vol. xliii. pp. 117 — 131. 
 
 • Ibid., X. 4, 2, I, ibid., vol. xliii. pp. 349, 350. 
 3 Ibid., X. 4, 2, 2, ibid., vol. xliii. pp. 349, 350. 
 
 • Ibid., X. 4, 2, 1—27, X. 4, 3, 8—21, ix. 4, 3, 9, ibid., vol. xliii. pp. 349— 
 354, note 2, 357—360, 244, 24s, note i. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 929 
 
 lowed in the Vedic year, showing clearly that it was a year 
 which dates back in its first origin to the days of the 
 primitive Dravidian worship of the night-gods, and it still 
 survives in universal popular use. In the verbal instructions 
 for laying the bricks in each layer three hundred and 
 ninety-five are ordered to be laid ". The extra thirty- 
 five, with an additional day added for the earth, represent 
 thirty-six days intercalated every six years to make the 
 year reckonings correspond with actual time. But this 
 addition would make the year with the intercalary month 
 added too long. It would seem therefore that thirty-six 
 appears in the calculation as a reminiscence of the thirty-six 
 stones which, as we have seen on p. 153, formed the sun- 
 circle of the Neolithic Age, and at any rate it was not 
 ofScially adopted, as is shown by the official explanation 
 of the intercalary month given in the commentary in the 
 Brahmana on the sixty-six stanzas of the Shata-rudriya 
 hymn of a hundred [shata) Rudras, the hundred gods of 
 the oldest Buddhist heaven of the Shatum Maharajika 
 Devaloko recited on the Mahavrata day when the altar 
 was consecrated. The hymn contains, according to the 
 Brahmanas, three hundred and sixty invocations represent- 
 ing the three hundred and sixty days of the year, thirty 
 representing the thirty days of each of its twelve months, 
 and thirty-five for the days of the intercalary month added 
 at the end of every six years ». 
 
 The Dhishnya or priests' hearths are built with Lokam- 
 prini bricks laid without formulas, thus showing them to 
 belong to the ritual of the age before the building of the 
 altar of the rising sun-bird, and the rules for their construc- 
 tion, like those for building the bird-altar, reproduce national 
 records of the history of time measurement. Thus the 
 Hotar's hearth of twenty-one bricks recalls the twenty-one 
 days of the month of the seventeen-months year. The hearth 
 
 ■ Eggeling, Shot. Brah., x. 4, 3, 14—19, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliii. 
 PP- 358. 359- 
 ' Ibid., ix. I, 1, 43, 44, ibid., vol. xliii. pp. 167, 168, 150— ISS. 
 
 II. 3 O 
 
930 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of the Brahmana-chamsin the reciting priest of Indra as the 
 buffalo bull-god ^ with its eleven bricks tells of the eleven- 
 day weeks and eleven months of the eleven-months year 
 of Indra, the god of the South and of the South-west wind, 
 who became Mahendra, the Great Indra bringing up the 
 rains at the summer solstice with the help of the seven 
 Maruts, the seven stars of the Great Bear. The Margaliya 
 altar of the antelope [Mriga) is built of six bricks, the six 
 days of the week of the year beginning with the Trikadruka 
 six-days festival. The other five altars are each built of 
 eight bricks, the number sacred to Agni, the god of burnt- 
 offerings, the eight-days week of the fifteen-months year=. 
 
 This reproduction of the ancient time measurement is also 
 shown in the association of the ten-days week of the new 
 year of the sun-bird with the ancient five-days week, as it 
 is said to be the week of the double hands, that is of two 
 of the old five-days week of Daksha, the god of the single 
 hand, and in its religious meaning it embodies the doctrine 
 of the latest Vedic school, which rejected the earlier human 
 sacrifices but maintained that it was the whole man with his 
 two hands and ten fingers which was sacrificed in the yearly 
 Soma sacrifice, whence each partaker emerged as a newly- 
 born and purified child of the divine antelope, in whose skin 
 he was wrapped when he sat in the Soma bath in the atti- 
 tude of an embryo infanta born from the dead sinful soul 
 left behind in the generating water. The doctrine as to this 
 ten-days week is said in the Shatapatha Brahmana to be 
 wrapped up in the anushtubh metre, that of the song of 
 praise (stubh) of thirty-one syllables which symbolises the 
 whole man with ten fingers contemplated in the ritual of 
 the thirty-days month, the extra number representing the 
 woman-goddess Vach, Speech, who came into the ritual from 
 
 ■ Eggeling, Shat. Brah.y iv. 6, 6, 4, J, v. 4, S, 22, ix. 4, 3, 9, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xxvi. 433, 434, xli. p. 119, xliii. p. 245, note i. 
 
 ' Ibid., ix. 3, 9, ibid., vol. xliii. p. 245, note I. 
 
 3 Ibid., iii. i, 4, 23, iii. 2, i, i — 23, iii. 5, 3, I, ibid., vol. xxvi. pp. 25 — 31, 
 126. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 931 
 
 the Ashuras of barbarian speech with the anushtubh verse, 
 and it is she who adds to the ritual of the new-born son of 
 Soma the chants and spoken invocations of the year of the 
 thirty-days month which distinguish it from the silent wor- 
 ship of the- old gods. In the Soma ritual the anushtubh 
 verse is spoken over the fifth of the five libations to the gods 
 of the five-days week which begin the service, and this liba- 
 tion is poured out in the juhii spoon made of Palasha wood, 
 the parent-tree of the earlier gods'. The anushtubh metre 
 is said in Rig. x. 130, 4 to be that of Soma worshipped with 
 song («^/>4fl), and in Rig. x. 124, i — 9 Indra is said to have 
 taken it, that is the double week it represents, from the 
 Ashvins. 
 
 The traditional hereditary connection of this new year of 
 the double five-days week with its original parent five-days 
 week of Brihati, beginning the history of thousands of years 
 told in the arrangement and numbers of the bricks forming 
 the new altar, is also shown by the recitation at its consecra- 
 tion of the Brihat Saman described in Chapter II., p. 124. 
 This was the ancient prayer for rain to be brought from 
 heaven by the cloud-bird which was to infuse the seed of 
 life into the mother-tree. It was sacred to the rain-bringing 
 goddess Brihati of the thirty-six syllabled metre, who is said 
 to make the year 2 ; and the original year she made was that 
 of the Pleiades and Solstices divided into seventy-two five- 
 day weeks and two seasonal periods each of thirty-six weeks, 
 symbolised in the thirty-six syllables of the metre. The 
 hymn to the first season ending with the summer solstice 
 was chanted at the consecration of the altar at the north- 
 east corner of the altar, where the sun-bird rises at the 
 summer solstice, and its companion hymn to the second 
 season, the Rathantara, in the same metre, was sung at 
 
 ' Eggding, Shat. Brah., iii. i, 4, 16, 21, 23, iii. 2, I, 23, 24, Sacred Books 
 of the East, vol. xxvi. pp. 23—25, 31, 32; Tait, Sam., 3, 5, 7. 2 ; Zimmer, 
 AUindisches Leben, p. 59. 
 
 ' Ibid.,.xii. 2, 3, I, ibid., vol. xliv. pp. 155, 156. 
 
 302 
 
932 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 the south-east corner, where the sun rises at the winter 
 solstice ^. 
 
 The week of two five or ten days substituted for the 
 Brihati five-days week in the year of this new altar is called 
 in the Rigveda the Dashagva or coming ten. It with its 
 prototype the Navagva, or nine-days week of the cycle-year 
 of three years is said to represent the nine Aftgira priests 
 who offered animal burnt {afiga) sacrifices in the age of the 
 year of nine-day weeks ^, and hence their later counterpart, 
 the Dashagva, represent a later week. These Dashagva as 
 ministers of India make the sun move forwards 3, and they 
 with the Navagva and Angiras who had gone very near the 
 cows of light, help Indra to find the sun when it is dusk, that 
 is at the dawn 4. These decades were therefore the weeks 
 of the rising and not of the setting sun, the course of which 
 had been measured by five-day weeks. 
 
 This record of national history told in the ritual and rules 
 for building the brick altar of the sun-bird is the crowning 
 achievement of the Indian tellers of history, who drew 
 pictures of the past in symbols the meaning of which was 
 thoroughly understood by the educated people of the age 
 in which they lived. These had all been instructed in the 
 national schools in the rules laid down for their interpreta- 
 tion by the priests and expounders of local theological 
 stories and ritual. 
 
 H. Compilation of the Rigveda and history as told in 
 hymns of the Ninth Mandala addressed to Soma 
 Pavamana. 
 
 In this age the priests and teachers of the people were 
 distributed over India as members of the local schools of 
 Brahmanical learning, which included a thorough knowledge 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah,, ix. I, 2, 36, 37, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xliii. 
 p. 179. 
 
 ' Rig. X. 62, 6. 3 Ibid., viii. 12, 2. < Ibid., iii. S9i 5- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 933 
 
 of the history and ritual handed down by their predecessors 
 who spoke dialects of Dravidian origin. These Sanskrit- 
 speaking Brahmans wrote as ritualistic hymns the poems 
 of the Rigveda, telling in their history and numerous allu- 
 sions to old historical legends ancient methods of year 
 reckoning and primitive ritual of the rise and close of 
 successive epochs marked by changing methods of measur- 
 ing annual time. 
 
 These poems are divided into Mandalas or sections, each 
 of which contains the selected poems of the guild named 
 in its title. Thus the hymns of the second Mandala are 
 those of the Bhargavas or sons of Bhrigu, who brought from 
 Asia Minor to India the worship of the household-fire, and 
 who were also the parent clan of the Zend fire-worshippers. 
 The hymns of the third Mandala are those of the Kushika 
 Bharata, followers of Vishvamitra ; those of the fourth were 
 composed by the Gautumas, of the fifth by the Atreyas or 
 sons of the sun-god Atri, the god of the year of three seasons 
 of the astronomers called Atreya, who traced the course of 
 the sun through the heavens, and who are said Rig. v. 40, 
 6, 9 to have freed the eclipsed sun and to have found it 
 when eclipsed, that is to have predicted its occurrence. 
 They were the Atharva priests of the fire-god Athar, Zend 
 Atar, the Atharva father of Dadhiank ^ the god of the black 
 horse's head of the eleven-months year, whose priests were 
 the Atharvans of the Rigveda and the Athravans of the 
 Zendavesta, in which the ritual is based on the eleven 
 months with its thirty-three-day months, called " the thirty- 
 three lords of the ritual order who are round about the 
 Havani*," the Soma mortar symbolising the sky with its 
 revolving pestle extracting the Soma sap whence life is 
 born. The sixth Mandala gives the hymns of the Bharad- 
 vajas, or sons of the sun-lark, the seventh, those of the 
 
 ' Rig. vi. 16, 14. 
 
 ' Mills, Zendavesta, part iii. Yashna, i. 10, Sacred Books of the East, vol. 
 XXX. p. 19S, 
 
934 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 Vashishthas priests of the most creating (vasu) god of the 
 perpetual fire on the altar, whose father is Vashishtha, a 
 star in the Great Bear wedded to Arundhati, the star Corona 
 Borealis, south of the Great Bear, in which the young sun- 
 god is born at the winter solstice, and whence he starts on 
 his retrograde course through the heavens following the 
 Great Bear round the Pole. The hymns of the eighth Man- 
 dala are those of the Kanva or new priests of the Yadu 
 Turvasu. 
 
 The first and tenth Mandalas are made up of grouped 
 contributions from separate schools, the hymns of each being 
 placed in its own section and among the most remarkable 
 of them may be mentioned the hymns Rig. i. 94-115 ascribed 
 to Kutsa, whom I have shown on p. 255 to be the moon-god 
 of the Vetasu, sons of the reed {vetasu) measuring the year 
 before Indra worship was introduced, and who is called, 
 Rig. i. 106, 6, a yoke-fellow of Indra, who called him to help 
 in driving the chariot of the year. Also the twenty-five 
 hymns, Rig. i. 140-164, attributed to the blind Dirgha-tamas, 
 son of Brihaspati the Pole Star, the god of the shadow-casting 
 gnomon-stone of the age of long {dirgha) darkness {tamas), 
 the father of Kakshivat, the girdle {kakshia) god of the 
 eleven-months year. Among these hymns are Rig. i. 163 
 in praise of the sun-horse who is said in v. 2 to be born 
 of Sura, the intoxicating Soma of the orgiastic festivals of 
 early ritual, and to be driven by the reins of the Gandharva, 
 the seven stars of the Great Bear, whom the poet in v. 6 says 
 he saw in heaven, and these stars were looked on as the 
 reins of the sun-horse; who is said in v. 3 to run the course 
 of the Soma year. The hymn i. 162 describes the ritual of 
 the sacrifice of the sun-horse at that epoch which differs from 
 that prescribed in the Brahmanas, and Rig. i. 164 is the most 
 elaborate chronological poem in the Rigveda, giving a series 
 of historical pictures of time measurement, among which are 
 depicted the ten lunar months of gestation of the year-calf 
 born of the year-cow, the thirteen-months year , and in v. 48 
 the year of Orion, described as that of the one-wheeled year- 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 935 
 
 car with the twelve spokes, the twelve months and three 
 navels, its three seasons. 
 
 The ninth Mandala is the most uniform in its teachings 
 of all the books of the Rigveda, as all the hymns belong to 
 the ritual of the priests of the god Soma Pavamana Soma, 
 the Purifier, to whom all the hymns are addressed. This 
 god Soma is said in ix. 82, 3 to be the flying winged buffalo 
 {parninas mahisasyd), son of Parjanya the rain-god, that 
 is to say Indra the rain-buffalo called in ix. 82, 11 the 
 Su-parna bird flying through heaven. This bird of the 
 feather {parna), whence the Palasha-tree, also called in 
 Rig. X. 68, 10 Parna, was born, brought to Kadru the 
 thirteenth month of the year, the thirteenth wife of Kashyapa, 
 the heavenly Soma of this rain-god in two golden cups 
 which, like those of the Ribhus, represented the seasons of the 
 solar year guarded by the seven Gandharva, the Soma wardens, 
 the seven stars of the Great Bear, These cups were: (i) 
 Diksha, Consecration, the baptismal consecration of the 
 year-sun-god first born at the winter solstice and hallowed, 
 like the infant Buddha, when born as the sun-physician with 
 a shower of Soma rain. It was in this generating rain that 
 the feather and blood of the mother Su-parna bird wounded 
 with the arrow of Krishanu fell to earth and grew into the 
 mother Palasha-tree {Butea frondosa) ; (2) Tapas, heat, the 
 cup of the summer solstice when the rains begin, which is 
 said to be the cup of the Upasads or Seasons ^. This Soma 
 of the solstitial year of the seasons was given to Agni, the 
 god of the growing spring beginning with the lighting of the 
 year's fires at the winter solstice, and to Indra, the god of the 
 rains of the summer solstice, as the Soma of the Khadira- 
 tree [Acacia catechu) providing the stakes to which sacrificial 
 animals were tied. Thus it was the Soma of the buffalo 
 rain-god of the age of animal sacrifices which succeeded 
 that of the earlier Palasha-tree, and introduced the years of 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shai. Br&h., iii. 6, 2, 7—13, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxvi* 
 pp. '5°. 'SI- 
 
936 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 thirteen and eleven months, in the latter of which eleven 
 victims were slain at the New Year's Soma sacrifice, when 
 the eleven-versed Apri hymns were sung ; and the god of 
 this new year of the Khadira-tree succeeding to the Palasha- 
 tree was the god Indra, the flying buflfalo of this Mandala, 
 who, as we have seen (p. 744), slew Ahi-shuva, the swelling 
 snake of primitive snake worship, at the summer solstice and 
 inaugurated this new year. 
 
 The buffalo bird-god of this year is said in ix. 90, 2 to 
 dwell in wood, as Varuna dwells in the waters, that is to say 
 he as the creating tree sap brought from heaven by the rain 
 Soma has in this Mandala become, like the sun-god born 
 from the tree, the similarly born moon-god who in ix. 27, 5 
 moves through heaven with the sun. He is the male moon- 
 god Soma who in Rig. x. 85 is married to the sun-maiden 
 brought to the wedding (v. 14) by the Ashvins in their three- 
 wheeled car of the three-years cycle-year ; and he, as I have 
 shown in p. 325, is the sexless father-god clothed in his wife's 
 garments (v. 30) of ten sons, who ruled with him the eleven- 
 months year. 
 
 The purifying moon-god Soma Pavamana is depicted in 
 the ninth Mandala as the ruling year-god driven and drawn 
 in his year-car by the ten sisters born in the womb of Adit! ', 
 the first month of the thirteen-months year of the thirteen 
 wives of Kashyapa ^. She as wife of Daksha, the god of the 
 showing hand of the five-days week, bore the ten sisters who 
 were wives of Dharma, the creating spirit-god ruling and 
 ordaining by his will the orderly succession of natural phe- 
 nomena, and as they, like all the children of Daksha, were 
 employed in indicating time, they were the ten lunar months 
 of gestation. They are throughout the Mandala represented 
 as accompanied by the seven sisters, the name given to the 
 Great Bear by the Chamars and Rautia Kaurs. In Rig. i. 
 164, 3 they are said to stand on the seven-wheeled car of the 
 
 ' Rig. ix. IS, 8, 26, 1, 61, 7, 71, 5- 
 
 ' Mahabharata Adi {SambAava) Parva, Ixv,, Ixvi. pp. 185, 189. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 937 
 
 year of the seven-days week drawn by seven horses and seven 
 cows. These sitters on the car were called in ix. lo, 7 the 
 seven Hotars or pourers {hu) of libations, the regulators of 
 the rains; and in ix. 15, 8 they are the seven singers accom- 
 panying the ten car drawers who are in ix. 62, 17 the seven 
 Rishis, the seven stars of the Great Bear, sitting on the three 
 seats of the triple three-wheeled car of the cycle-year driven 
 by the Ashvins. These seven sister stars, called the Vipra 
 or the wise, are said in ix. 66, 8 to drive the year-car with 
 songs in the,battle of Vivasvan, the god of the two morning 
 and evening twilights beginning the days of the year. In 
 ix. 92, 2 they as the Rishis, the seven Vipra, accompany 
 Soma Pavamana, the moon-god, to his cleansing sieve, which 
 is said in ix. 103, 8 to be the sheep's wool Soma strainer, 
 where the seven Rishis sang to him. 
 
 It is to this sheep-skin, the Soma cleanser of heaven, that 
 Soma, the newly-born moon-god of the crescent new moon, 
 is driven by his ten mother-months of gestation, guarded 
 in his passage through the sky '^ by the seven singing stars 
 of the Great Bear. 
 
 To explain this simile we must turn to the Soma ritual. 
 The Soma strainer symbolising what is described in the 
 quoted passages of the ninth Mandala as a heavenly resting- 
 place of the moon, is in the Soma ritual a sheep-skin placed 
 over the mouth of the Drona or Soma cask, through which 
 the Soma issuing from the mill flows into this cask, whence 
 the Soma or creating tree sap pressed or ground out by the 
 revolving mill-stones is drawn to fill the sacramental Soma 
 cups after it has been purified by passing through the sheep- 
 skin. In the Soma ritual of the Great Pressing ten of these 
 cups signifying ten months of gestation are drawn. Of these 
 the first, called the Up-amsu cup, that near {upa) the stem 
 of the Soma-tree (amsu), is that which is filled without the 
 intervention of the strainer with the Soma taken directly 
 from the tree twigs pounded in a mortar, as in the Zend 
 ritual of the worship of the Havani or mortar. This primitive 
 Hindu rite is described in Rig. i. 28, 2, 3, 4, where a woman 
 
938 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 is said to pound the Soma in a mortar {ulukhula), as the 
 Kol women of Chutia Nagpur still pound the rice from 
 which they make rice-beer, the first Soma drink i. The 
 Soma made for this cup reproduces the mortar-made Soma 
 used before the Soma mill was introduced into the ritual, 
 and it was poured into the cup through six sprigs of Kusha- 
 grass, and in the instructions as to this Kushika method of 
 purification we are told that the stalks may be one, three, 
 or twenty-one, the last number being perfection. This 
 diversity of practice shows that the custom was that used 
 in the ritual of the years of Soma plant-worship, that of 
 the year of three seasons and of thirteen and seventeen 
 months with their seven-day weeks and the twenty-one-days 
 week of the seventeen-months year. It is only the first cup 
 that is thus drawn ; the remaining cups, making up the ten 
 months of gestation, are filled with Soma that has passed 
 into the Drona through the sheep-skin 2. The tenth of these 
 cups is that to the Ashvinss, and before it is drunk the 
 Dhurya hymn of the fifteen-months year, called the Ajya- 
 stotra, or Hymn of the Goat, is sung. This is a hymn of 
 three Gayatri stanzas ^ach of three eight-syllabled lines, 
 making twenty-four syllables, denoting the twenty-four days 
 of the month and the eight-day weeks of the fifteen-months 
 year, and the whole hymn in its seventy-two syllables denotes 
 the seventy-two five-day weeks of the original year. These 
 three stanzas are chanted in five repetitions, so as to make 
 up the fifteen stanzas denoting the fifteen months of the year 4. 
 This chanting of Gayatri triplets made by repetitions into 
 fifteen is another instance of the similar device adopted in the 
 treatments of the New Year's fire-kindling Samidheni hymn, 
 when the eleven Samidheni kindling triplets of the ritual 
 
 » Hewitt, Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, vol. i. essay iii. pp. 204, note I, 
 
 20S) note I. 
 
 = Eggeling, Shot. Brah., iv. I, i, 3, 4, iii. I, 3, 18—22, Sacred Books of 
 the East, vol. xxvi. pp. 248, 249, 16, 17. 
 
 3 Ibid., iv. I, S, 16, ibid., voh xxvi. p. 276. 
 
 « Ibid», iv. 2, S, 8, iv. 3, ti, ibid., vol. xxvi. pp. 308, note 2, 325, note 2. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 939 
 
 of the eleven-months year were made into fifteen by repeating 
 the first and eleventh verse twice, thus changing it from an 
 eleven-months New Year's hymn into one introducing the 
 fifteen-months year which followed it ^. After the chanting 
 of these fifteen verses the Ashvin chant, called the Bahish- 
 pava-mana, of three Gayatri triplets containing seventy-two 
 syllables, the number of five-day weeks in the year, is recited^, 
 and after its recitation the Ashvin cup is drunk, admitting 
 them, the earlier mead drinkers of the Rigveda who had 
 previously been gods of the Kushika intoxicating Soma, 
 to drink of the pure unintoxicating Soma passed through 
 the sheep-skin. Immediately after this the goats offered 
 to Agni, Indra-Agni, Indra and Sarasvati at the Vajapeya 
 sacrifice of the seventeen-months year were sacrificed. 
 
 In this ritual the Soma passed through the sheep-skin 
 is that giving generating power to ten cups, the ten months 
 of gestation, the ten sisters drawing the year-car of Soma 
 Pavamana ; and the meaning intended to be conveyed in 
 these ceremonial rites of the Soma festival celebrating the 
 birth of the new year-god of the pure Soma of the three 
 mixings of Indra, milk curds, barley and running water, 
 is shown in Rig. ix. 12, 4; for there the god entering the 
 sheep-skin and about to be born is called Vishaksana, the 
 wide shining sun who in ix. 75, i mounts on the car of 
 Surya the sun-god, son of Brihati, goddess of the five-day 
 weeks {brihatas suriasyd). This god issuing from the sheep- 
 skin is said in ix. 98, 2, 6, 7 to be clothed in sheep-skin 
 armour and to be cleansed in it by the ten sisters. He is 
 called in ix. 107, 2, 6, 8, 10, 1 1, 17, 22 the moon-god Pava- 
 mana, who in v. 15 flows according to the ordained laws 
 of Mitra Varuna, rulers of the two seasons of the solstitial 
 solar year, and he in v. 7 makes the sun move through 
 heaven. The simile of the sheep-skin birth of Soma is used 
 directly in twenty-nine of the 114 hymns of the ninth Man- 
 
 ■ Eggeling, Shat, Brah., i. 3, S, S, 6, 7, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii. 
 PP- 96, 97- 
 ' Ibid., iv. 2, 5, 10, ibid., yoL xxvi. pp. 310, 311. 
 
940 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 dala I, and by implication in very many more passages in 
 almost every hymn, and from these it is clear that the sheep- 
 skin which in the later ritual took the place of Kusha-grass 
 as the purifier of the Solar Soma symbolises in the ninth 
 Mandala some stage in the annual progress of the sun 
 through the heavens. This stage is marked by the state- 
 ment in ix. 91, I that the Soma year-car is drawn by the 
 ten sisters on to the back of the sheep, and by those in 
 ix. 92, 4 and loi, 16, saying in the first that ten of the 
 thirty-three gods, ten of the eleven thirty-three-day months 
 of the eleven-months year, cleanse Soma Pavamana on the 
 sheep's back, and in the second that Soma passes through 
 the sheep's wool on to the skin of the ox. These expressions 
 seem to prove almost indubitably that both the sheep and 
 the ox must refer to two of the constellations through which 
 the sun and the moon Soma Pavamana passes in his yearly 
 course Mesha the ram Aries, and Rishabha the bull Taurus, 
 two signs of the Hindu Zodiac. As it enters the first con- 
 stellation at the end of ten months of gestation the sun-god 
 of the year denoted by the simile must begin his year when 
 the sun entered Aries, where he was born. But this conclu- 
 sion would throw back the date of the worship of the pure 
 Soma entering the sheep's back to that of the cycle-year 
 of three years beginning when the sun conceived at the 
 winter solstice entered Aries at the autumnal equinox, 
 from about 14,200 to 12,600 B.C. But as the epoch then 
 begun was one of Kusha-grass worship and of the drink- 
 ing of intoxicating Soma, it is clear that this date cannot 
 be that of the introduction of pure Soma for which we 
 are searching. 
 
 To find our way out of the difficulty we must turn to the 
 
 history of the worship of the Ashvins, who were, as we have 
 
 seen, year-gods first of the worshippers of intoxicating Soma 
 
 • ix. 8, 5; 12, 4; 16, 3; 20, I ; 49, 4; 50, 4; 52, 2; 61, 17; 68, 7J 
 
 69.2.3.9; 70,8; 75,4; 78,1; 82,1; 83,2; 85.5; 86,3,8,11,13.25, 
 
 31. 34. 47 ; 91. I ; 92. 4 ; 96, 13 ; 97. 3. 4. 16, 19, 31, 40; 98, 2, 3, 7, 8; 
 loi, 16; 103, 2, 3 ; 106, 10 ; 107, 6, 8, 10, 11, 17, 22, 28 ; 108, 5 ; 109, 7, 16; 
 no, 10. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 94 1 
 
 and afterwards of those whose Soma was pure. In it we 
 find that they were first admitted to drink pure Soma at the 
 commencement of the age of the fifteen-months year be- 
 ginning when the sun entered Gemini, their special constel- 
 lation, at the winter solstice about 10,700, B.C. But though 
 they then became the gods of this twin constellation, that 
 in which the sun began its year, yet this was not their first 
 stellar recognition as gods of time, for they were in the 
 Indian constellation of Simshumara, the fourteen alligator 
 stars round the pole, the two hands the stars Gemini, those 
 of the divine physician the star Arcturus, the western foot 
 of the alligator ' ; and this star represented, as we have seen, 
 the Indian god Shiva (p. 228). Hence their symbol in this 
 remote age was that of the gods with the hands indicating 
 time standing at the gate by which the year-sun entered the 
 Gate of the Garden of God, and their recognition in this 
 capacity is marked by their being called in Greek mythology 
 the Dokana or door-posts of the heavenly garden, which 
 is shown, by the description of it in the Zendavesta, to date 
 back to the cycle-year of three years, during which the sun- 
 god in his four series of ten months' flights went round the 
 whole square in his forty allotted months (pp. 326, 327). In 
 the Hindu list of Nakshatra stars dating back to that era, the 
 first stars in which the sun and moon began their year were 
 the Ashvin stars in the constellation Aries. Hence we see 
 that they as the gods of the drinkers of intoxicating Soma 
 were stars in Aries, who passed into Gemini as year-stars 
 when pure Soma was made the orthodox drink =. But 
 before going further into the history of this transformation 
 it is necessarj' to understand clearly the history of the year 
 of Soma Pavamana, to whom the ninth Mandala is dedi- 
 
 ' Sachau, Albenini's India, vol. i. chap. xxii. p. 243. 
 
 ' From this deduction it would seem that though the people of the age of 
 the fifteen-months year did not abstain from intoxicating drink in their ordinary 
 life, yet that in their Soma sacrifice, as in that of the seventeen-months year, 
 pure Soma was offered, and that the sacrifice of Sura and Soma of the seven- 
 teen-months year was a union of the Sura sacrifice of the eleven-months year 
 with the pure Soma of that of fifteen months. 
 
942 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 cated The name Soma, meaning sap, and derived in 
 Sanskrit from su, to beget, and meaning also, as I have 
 suggested, the cloud-bird Khu Zu Shu Su, shows that the 
 year of this god is that of the annual growrth of the creating 
 mother-tree in which it is the generating agent. 
 
 The finding of this sap is described in Rig. x. 144, a 
 hymn to Indra the year-god. It is there called the im- 
 mortal drop [indu) which is to the creating rain-god a 
 fitting horse entering all living things. It is called in v, 2 
 the drink of the Urddhva Krishana, the lofty stars i. 
 
 In V. 3 the Shyena bird of frost {sky&), that is of the 
 winter solstice, is said to have seen the creating star-drop 
 Indu, the Pole Star guarded by the bull Ahi-shuva, the 
 swelling snake of the stars round the Pole, with his wives. 
 Here the ritual describes the stars as wives of the Pole 
 Star god, but, like other references to the ruling god of 
 the snake -worshipping age, it almost certainly thought of 
 the centre god and his wives as the god of the Gond 
 trident of Pharsipen, depicting the central snake and his 
 two tiger wives (p. 239) who ruled the three seasons of 
 Orion's year. In spite of their vigilance the cloud-bird is 
 said in v. 5 to have taken the wonder-working sap which he 
 brought to Indra. 
 
 In the story of the bringing of the creating rain to Indra 
 there is no mention of the overthrow of Ahishuva and his 
 death, which belongs to a later stage. It recognises Ahi- 
 shuva and his wives as the legitimate rulers of heaven from 
 whom the rain was stolen by the Shyena bird, as Prometheus 
 
 ' Both Grassmann and Ludwig translate Krishana as drops, but the word 
 
 which occurs besides this passage twice in the Rigveda i. 35, 4i and x. 68, 11, 
 
 seems in both these places to mean stars. The first passage describes the car 
 
 with gleaming lights mounted by Savitar the sun-god, a high car of varied 
 
 hues overlaid with Krishana, and it thus clearly depicts the rising sun travelling 
 
 on the car of the Great Bear, the solar vehicle in the mythology of that 
 
 age, which was studded with stars. The next passage, x. 68, II, says that 
 
 the Fathers had adorned the heavens with stars like a black horse with 
 
 Krishana, that is with shining lights, the stars of the sun-horse. In neither 
 
 of these passages would the meaning drops give any intelligible sense, and 
 
 it is equally unmeaning in that quoted in the text. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 943 
 
 in the Greek myth stole fire from Zeus in the Narthex or 
 reed. The other story of the bringing of Soma, the heavenly 
 rain which became the creating tree sap of the Shyena bird, 
 is that of Krishanu, which I have already frequently quoted, 
 in which we are told that Krishanu, the footless Great Bear 
 archer of Rig. iv. 27, wounded the Shyena Pole Star cloud- 
 bird flying through the sky, and that from her blood and the 
 feather she let fall the Palasha-tree [Butea frondosa) grew 
 up to be the Soma-tree of the worshippers of the creating 
 sap, who placed three twigs of the tree round the central 
 fire of their altar, made in the form of a woman, to symbolise 
 the three seasons of the year. 
 
 These two stories both belong to the same phase of re- 
 ligious belief beginning with that of the age when the 
 solstitial year was that of the primitive cloud-bird which 
 started on its yearly flight northward at the winter solstice, 
 when the Palasha-tree was brought down from heaven and 
 returned back to its southern home at the summer solstice, 
 bringing with it the year's rain it had stolen from the ruling 
 snake-god and which were given to the new rain-god Indra. 
 Both stories are historical pictures of the solstitial year which 
 in the ritual of the worshippers of the creating fire living 
 latent in the mother-tree became the year of Agni, the god 
 of the creating year's fires lighted at the winter solstice, and 
 Indra, who ruled the second half of the year beginning with 
 the rains. 
 
 It was this creed which ended in the dominance of Indra 
 as the god of the summer solstice, who was made ruler of the 
 year in place of the winter Agni, and it is this changed belief 
 and ritual which is related in the third story of the bringing 
 of Soma to earth by the bird called Shyena and Su-parna 
 in Rig. X. 144, and which is in the story of the two golden 
 cups the Su-parna bird. These cups, as we have seen, meant 
 the two solstitial seasons I have just described, and they 
 were brought by the bird not to Indra but to Kadru, the 
 goddess of the thirteen-months year, who gave them to 
 Indra with a stick of the Khadira-tree {Acacia catechu), 
 
944 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 whence the sacrificial stakes were taken and the sacred fire 
 extracted, and which superseded the Palasha-tree in the 
 ritual of the new creed of the men of the thirteen-months 
 year who offered him annual sacrifices. 
 
 This was the creed of the worshippers of Varuna, the 
 barley-god, to whom the ram was sacred, and whose sol- 
 stitial year was, like that of Agni-Indra, one in which he was 
 partner with Mitra, the god of the winter, while he, Varuna, 
 was the god of the summer solstice. He was the god of the 
 over-arching heaven, the Greek Ouranos, the guardian god 
 of the North. It was for his worship that the Uttara- 
 vedi or northern altar was erected, on which animal 
 offerings were roasted '. He was the central and ruling 
 god of the Chaturmasiyani year of three seasonal sacrifices 
 held every fourth month. These were in the later ritual, 
 (i) The festivals of the Vaishvadeva or village {vish) gods, 
 the mother - tree and the household fire held in Phalgun, 
 February — March. (2) The Varuna Pragbasah, or festival 
 of Varuna, that of the god of the overarching firmament 
 consecrated to the ram-sun-god in Aries. It was held at 
 the summer solstice, in Ashadha (June — July). (3) The 
 Saka-medha festival of Indra held in Khartik (October — 
 November). Now this year was utterly anomalous and 
 composite, not agreeing with any of the successive official 
 years. Its Saka-medha festival in Khartik (October — 
 November), connects it with the Pleiades year beginning 
 at the same time. The midsummer festival is that of the 
 year of the solstitial sun-bird, while its spring festival in 
 Phalgun (February — March) connects it with the red race 
 of Arjuna Phalgun, beginning with the Hull festival held 
 at the new moon of February — March, whereas the festi- 
 vals of the Chaturmasiyani year were those of the later 
 age, when the yearly festivals were held at full instead of 
 at new moons 2. 
 
 » Hewitt, History and Chronology of the Myth-Making Age, chap. vii. sect, a, 
 P- 393- 
 
 = Eggeling, Shat. Brah., The Chaturmasiyani, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xii. pp. 383, 384 
 
Primitive Traditional History, 945 
 
 But the year, though of much later date than that we are 
 in search of to explain the mythology of the earliest Soma 
 year as described in the Rigveda, is nevertheless very in- 
 structive. To begin with, the Saka-medha festival, which we 
 shall see presently is the most important of the three, is very 
 much mixed up in the Brahmana ritual with the ploughing 
 festival Sunasiriya. This is in the Shatapatha Brahmana ' 
 permitted to be held in Khartik (October — November) with 
 the Sakamedha festival of Indra, or with the Vaishvadeva 
 festival in Phalgun (February — March). But we have seen 
 in p. 264 that the New Year's festival of the Kuru-Panchalas 
 and Mundas and Oraons and other cognate tribes of the 
 yellow-race took place at the new moon of Magh (January — 
 February), which was the universal date of the national 
 ploughing-festival not only in India but, as we have seen, 
 aJso in China and Europe, where our Plough Monday is 
 the first Monday after the Epiphany. And we shall see 
 presently that this Magh festival helps materially in our 
 search. 
 
 The original years upon which this composite year was 
 founded were those of the original Vaishvadeva, or village 
 {vish) god, the village household-fire Agni-Vaishvanara lighted 
 at the winter solstice, when the Dravidian Pungol festival 
 and the Santal Sohrai is held, and the Khartik Pleiades year 
 of the sons of the village tree ; and the composite year framed 
 from these two was made a solstitial year beginning with 
 the winter solstice, and beginning its second season at the 
 summer solstice, after which was interposed a third festival 
 corresponding to the New Year's festival of the Pleiades 
 Year. The whole process is completely explained in the 
 Vedic accounts of the battle of Indra with Ahi-shuva, the 
 snake ruling heaven, from whom in the earliest Soma story 
 in Rig. X. 149 he got Soma through the Shyena cloud-bird. 
 It is not till the introduction of the epoch of animal sacrifices 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., ii. 6, 3, 10, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii. 
 P-447- 
 
 II. 3 p 
 
94^ Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 and of the worship of the Khadira-tree as the tree whence 
 the sacrificial stakes and the fire-socket Urvashi, the birth- 
 place of Agni, was taken ', that Indra appeared as the enemy 
 and slayer of Ahi-shuva, and that this victory took place at 
 the summer solstice is proved by the account of the battle 
 in Rig. ii. 15, 17, 18. There Ahi-shuva is called Aurnavabha, 
 the son of the weaver of wool {urna), the sheep-skin filter 
 of the ninth Mandala, and Danu, the son of the Sumero- 
 Akkadian god Danu, father of the Indian Turanian Danava, 
 the Phoenician Greek god Tan, the ruling fish-god of the 
 creating mind of the southern mother-sea. The battle is 
 said to have been won on the day of the Tri-kadru-ka festival, 
 on which day Indra is said in Rig. ii. 22, i to have eaten 
 barley with Vishnu, hence it was the installation festival 
 of the barley-god. The Tri-kadru-ka festival was, as we 
 have seen (p. 224), the six days' festival held at the summer 
 solstice to the three trees {dru) of Ka, the Kadru mother 
 of the Naga-Kushikas *, who had, as we have seen, received 
 the Soma of the age of Khadira-tree worship, and whose 
 three trees, like the three cypress-trees of Min in Crete, 
 denoted the three seasons of the year of the sons of the star 
 Virgo {Min) and of Varuna the barley-god of the Varuna- 
 praghasah festival of the same date as the Tri-kadru-ka, at 
 which curds and barley porridge were offered to the Maruts, 
 called Indra's people, who sing songs to him 3. In this 
 battle, which made Indra the ruler of the year beginning 
 with the summer solstice, he is said in the Rigveda to have 
 been helped by Vishnu 4. Hence this year of the establish- 
 ment of the rule of the barley growers was a solstitial year, 
 in which the first six months were ruled by Vishnu, the 
 village {vish) god of the household-fire of Agni-Vaishvanara, 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shut. Brah., iii. 4, i, 20—23, Sacred Books of the East, vol. 
 xxvi. p.'go, note 591. 
 
 " Mahabharata Adi {Asiika) Parva, xvi., xxii. pp. 76, 77, 86. 
 
 3 Eggeling, Shat. Brah., ii. 5, 2, 10, 18, 21, 26—28, Sacred Books of the 
 East, vol. xii. pp. 394, 396, 397, 399. 
 
 * Rig. viii. 66, 10, ii. 22, I. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 947 
 
 and the last by Indra, in short a year of Agni and Indra. 
 It was, as we shall now see, this year which was the parent 
 of the year of Soma Pavamana of the ninth Mandala of the 
 Rigveda. The partnership of Indra and Vishnu in the 
 possession of this year's Soma rain is recognised in Rig. ix. 
 56,3,4, where Indu, the creating drop, received from Ahi- 
 shuva the snake form of Vishnu, said to be that for which 
 the ten mothers of the months of gestation have sung, is 
 called to flow for Indra and Vishnu, and this Soma is said 
 in V. r to flow according to the divine law into the cleansing 
 strainer to the confusion of the Rakshasa sons of the tree 
 [nikh], whose Soma comes direct from the tree without passing 
 through the cleansing Ram constellation of the sheep-skin. 
 In ix. 33, 3, 34, 2, and 65, 20, this Soma is said to flow to 
 Indra, Vayu the wind-god who brings up the rains at the 
 summer solstice with the south-west monsoon, to Varuna, 
 the Maruts and Vishnu, and in ix. 90, S Soma Indu is called 
 to flow for Indra, the Maruts, and for Mahendra the Great 
 Indra, who got this name from his victory 'over Ahi-shuva 
 at the summer solstice. In ix. 85, 5, 6; 97, 42, 49; 100, 5, 
 6 ; 108, 14, Mitra- Varuna are named as year-gods for whom 
 Soma flows, and to them, in ix. 85, 6, are added, besides the 
 gods already] mentioned, Brihaspati, the Pole Star god. In 
 ix. 97, 42 Heaven and Earth appear as year-gods with Vayu, 
 Mitra-Varuna, and the Maruts, and in 108, 14 Aryaman, the 
 star Arcturus, and Bhaga the tree with the edible fruit are 
 joined with Indra, the Maruts, and Mitra-Varuna. In ix. 
 107, 15-17 Soma Pavamana is said to flow according to the 
 decrees of Mitra-Varuna, obeying the law of Brihati, the 
 goddess of the five-day weeks, and to pass through the 
 sheep-skin to cleanse Indra of his drunkenness as god of 
 the intoxicating Soma, and also his Marut companions, stars 
 of the Great Bear. Also in ix. 108, 8-10 the Pavamana ox 
 of the thousand streams born as king and god of the law 
 of Brihati is said to bring the rains from heaven. 
 
 Many further proofs might be added, but enough has been 
 adduced to prove conclusively that in the story of the barley- 
 
 3 p 2 
 
948 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 growing races who measured the year as that of the solstitial 
 sun ruled by Mitra and Vishnu, Varuna and Indra, and who 
 were called the sons of the tree-bearing edible fruit, Soma 
 Pavamana.the purifying moon-god of the ninth Mandala.began 
 his year at the summer solstice, and that he and the sun-god 
 continued their course together through the stars, following 
 the path marked for them by the seven Great Bear Maruts 
 till they reached the Aries constellation of the sheep-skin at 
 the autumn equinox, when, according to the tradition handed 
 down from the age of the three-years cycle-year, the sun 
 entered it. 
 
 It is at this time, in September — October, called Ashva- 
 yujau, the month of the Ashvins, while they were stars in 
 Aries and before they entered Gemini, that the cleansing 
 rains which begin to fall at the summer solstice begin to 
 diminish in intensity and almost to cease in northern India, 
 and it was in the next month Khartik (October — November) 
 that the conquering Indra, who had brought the rains which 
 purified the land he ruled, celebrated his Saka-medha festival, 
 when he was worshipped by the seven Maruts, the seven 
 sisters of the ninth Mandala, dancing round him as Mahendra 
 the Great Indra '^. This was, as I have shown on pp. 479, 
 480, the period of the Sautramani New Year's sacrifice of 
 the eleven-months year held at the new moon of Khartik, 
 when the intoxicating Soma of the Kauravya invaders from 
 the north was drunk and the sun -horse sacrificed. 
 
 It is also the festival of the Dithwan or first-fruits of the 
 sugar-cane, still celebrated all over northern India, and held 
 from the 2nd to the nth of Khartik (October — November) », 
 when Vishnu, the partner of Indra, awakes from his four 
 months' sleep during the rains and becomes the god of the 
 new year of the Ikshvaku or sugar-cane race. 
 
 In Rig. x, 60, 1-6 Indra the incomparable, the king dis- 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., ii. 5, 3, 20, ii. 5, 4, 9, Sacred Books of the East, 
 vol. xii. pp. 416, 419. 
 
 = Elliot, Memoirs of Ihe Races of the North- Western Provinces of India, edited 
 by Beames, vol. i. pp. 245, 246. 
 
Primitivt Traditional History. 949 
 
 tributing cars, is said to be the servant, that is the god, of 
 the Ikshvaku king. He is called on to maintain his mastery 
 over the seats {prosthd) of the year-chariot and to drive his 
 two red horses, the morning and evening twilights, for the 
 sisters of Agastya (Canopus), the Maruts, the seven stars 
 of the Great Bear '. Hence the victory of Indra over the 
 Cobra Naga snake of the Kushikas and his two wives the 
 god Ahi-shuva tells of the conquests by the new invaders 
 from the north, the Ikshvaku, sons of the sugar-cane [ikshd), 
 who instituted the Soma festival of the Indra fire kindled by 
 the log of the Khadira-tree {Acacia catechu) and substituted 
 at it the Prastara or rain-wand of Ashvavala (Saccharum 
 spontaneum), the horse-tail or sugar-cane grass of Indra's 
 horses, for the Kushika Prastara of Kusha-grass. It was 
 in this ritual that the New Year's festival reviving that of 
 the Pleiades year was reconstituted as the Deothan or setting 
 up of the new god Vishnu to rule the first six months of his 
 year, till he gave up his power to Indra, the god who prepared 
 the rains and brought them from the South-west to fructify 
 the national fields, and who was originally the parent-fish, 
 the first form of animal life born in the southern waters of 
 the creating goddess Bau, who became to the sons of the 
 rivers the river eel which was, as we have seen, the parent 
 Aind or Indu of the royal Chiroo races of India, the phallic- 
 worshipping Matsya, sons of the fish. It was after this 
 festival that Soma Pavamana, the new-born cleansed and 
 awakened god, made the son of the new year of the ninth 
 Mandala to shine = ; and in ix. 37, 4 this god was the god 
 borne on the back of Trita, the god of the three seasons, 
 who made the sun and the seven sisters, the seven stars of 
 the Great Bear, bright. 
 
 The course of the year as depicted by the authors of the 
 hymns of the ninth Mandala seems by this analysis to be 
 as follows :— The year-god Soma Pavamana the Purifier is 
 the god born at the summer solstice in the year-car driven 
 by the ten mother-months of gestation ruled by the seven stars 
 
 ' Rig. i. 170, 3. = Ibid., ix. 23, 2, 28, 5, 42, I- 
 
950 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of the Great Bear and begotten at the autumnal equinox. 
 He at the summer solstice, according to ix. 97, 41, brought 
 himself into being as the buffalo son of the waters, and this 
 buffalo-god Indra was, according to Rig. iv. 18, 10-13, the 
 son of the mother-buffalo who has once calved [gristi), from 
 whose side he was born as the son of the mother-tree, and 
 his father is called Vyansa or Vritra, the enclosing snake, 
 and in Rig. i. 32, g Danu, or the son of the god Danu, who 
 was the male equivalent of Bau, the goddess of the southern 
 abyss or mud. Also at his birth he called Vishnu to his aid, 
 and thus estabished his year as the solstitial year of Vishnu- 
 Indra, which we have already seen to be that of the ninth 
 Mandala. This god born to rule the year beginning at the 
 summer solstice as the buffalo son of the waters was the 
 transformed form of the original Indu, the eel parents of the 
 sons of the rivers, and when born as the rain-cloud, the flying 
 buffalo of ix. 82, 3, he begat Indu the water-drop. It was 
 this god, begotten at the autumnal equinox, and born as the 
 cloud-buffalo-god of the summer solstice, who in ix. 69, 3 
 married Aditi's daughter, the equivalent of the sun-maiden 
 of Rig. X. 85, married to the moon-god Soma of the eleven- 
 months year, who began his year like the buffalo Indra at 
 the new moon of Khartik (October — November) ; and this 
 buffalo bride Aditi's daughter is said to have gone towards 
 the sheep-skin constellation Aries of the autumnal equinox 
 with her husband. 
 
 This god, whose year was directed by the ordinances of 
 Mitra-Varuna, the gods of the solstitial year, and whose 
 course through heaven was marked for him by the retrograde 
 course of his attendant Maruts, the stars of the Great Bear, 
 had exhausted the water of the rain-cloud after he emerged 
 from the sheep-skin constellation Aries, and he then became 
 a new-born god of a new manifestation, that of the sugar-cane 
 race of the Ikshvaku kings, whose year began with the first- 
 fruits festival of the birth of the sugar-cane {ikska). 
 
 In this new birth he was the son of the Khadira-tree 
 {Acacia catechu), the tree of burnt animal sacrifice, and the 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 951 
 
 god of the race who had conquered the snake-worshipping 
 Naga Kushikas, whose god was Ahi-shuva the cobra snake, 
 and his course from this new birth at the new moon of 
 Khartik is marked by the ritual of the Ashtaka sacrifices, 
 which introduce a new year differing from the solstitial year 
 of Mitra-Varuna and Vishnu Indra and of the other star and 
 season gods shewn by me on p. 947 as those invoked in the 
 ninth Mandala as the measurers of annual time. These 
 sacrifices were begun, as I have shewn in pp. 256, 257, by the 
 Kautsas, sons of Kutsa the moon-god Ku of the Finn immi- 
 grant races, who is called in the Rigveda the yoke-fellow 
 of Indra, being united with him as one god, Indra-Kutsa, 
 both travelling in the same year-chariot '. This was appar- 
 ently the year of the Ikshvaku Kutsas which now began its 
 course at the new moon of Khartik (October — November). 
 
 This year was that in which the year-god was for three 
 months under the guardianship of the moon, and during 
 these months, Khartik (October — November), Margasirsha 
 (November — December), Push (December — January), new- 
 moon sacrifices were offered for the new god who was to 
 be born at the new moon of Magh (January — February) 
 as the son of the Majesty of Indra, begotten by Rohita 
 Taurus on Rohini Aldebaran (p. 504). A cow was offered 
 by the Kautsas at the first and all the following Ashtakas, 
 but in the ritual of the later sacrifices this was only offered 
 at the middle Ashtaka of Push (December — January), which, 
 like the others, was originally held at the new moon, but was 
 afterwards, with the other sacrifices, postponed to eight days 
 after the full moon. On the day following each sacrifice the 
 left ribs and left thigh of the cow were offered to the 
 Fathers =, so that each of the year-gods born at an Ashtaka, 
 beginning with the Ikshvaku Vishnu god born at the new 
 moon of Khartik (October— November), was born as the son 
 
 ' Rig. V. 31, 9. 
 
 ' Oldenberg, Grihya Sutra Paraskara Grihya Sutra, iii. 8, lo, Gobhila Sutra, 
 iii. 10, s, 6, 18, iv. i, Si Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxix. p. 344, xxx. 
 PP- 97, 981 loi. 
 
952 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of the left thigh of the Pole Star ape, the Great Bear. This 
 child born at the Khartik new moon ended at the new moon 
 of Magh (January — February) the three months during which 
 he was protected by the moon-goddess, the aunt and nurse 
 of the Buddha, Maha GotamI Prajapati, the female born of 
 Prajapati (Orion) and the first of the thirteen months of the 
 year of the thirteen Buddhist Theris, and he then ruled for 
 the remaining ten lunar months of gestation of his thirteen- 
 months year ending at the new moon of Khartik (October- 
 November). 
 
 This god, son of the left thigh, was originally in the theo- 
 logy of the eleven-months year the god riding on the black 
 star-horse Pegasus, who began the year in October — Novem- 
 ber, but in the hymn of his marriage as Soma the moon-god 
 to the sun-maiden Rig. x. 85, 18, we find that this marriage 
 introduced a new ritual, in which the god who started on his 
 three months' ride through the thirty stars on Pegasus began 
 a new year with his re-birth and marriage at the new moon 
 of Magh, when we are told in the marriage-hymn that the 
 wedding oxen were slain ; and this was followed by a further 
 change in year measurement when the consummation of the 
 marriage was postponed to the new moon of Phalgun (Feb- 
 ruary — March). This was the year of the Vessantara birth 
 of the Buddha in the Tusita heaven of wealth, following that 
 of the age of the Yama Devaloko, the twin gods Gemini, 
 when he was born in that constellation at the winter solstice 
 as the sun-physician, about 12,600 to 10,700 B.C. This 
 Phalgun birth initiated the conquering rule in India of the 
 red race who substituted for the Magh (January — February) 
 festival of the yellow race, who worshipped the Kurum 
 almond-tree, the Huli festival of the new moon of Phalgun, 
 in which red powder was thrown by the participants on one 
 another, and which was the original form of the European 
 carnival. It was in Greece the year began by the Anthes- 
 teria festival of Dionysos held on the eleventh of Anthesteria 
 (February— March) with a three days' New Year's feast to the 
 dead. Thus the special history told in this Mandala is that 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 953 
 
 of the year-god conceived at the autumnal equinox in the 
 Ram sign of Aries, who conquered the Naga Kushikas and 
 their three-headed snake-god Ahishuva and his two wives, 
 forming the divine trident at the summer solstice, and who 
 then as the ruler of the Ikshvakus instituted, like the Zend 
 conquerors of Azi-dahaka, the three-headed snake, a feast 
 to the dead held in June — July, the month Farvardin of the 
 Zend ritual in which the Farvardin Yasht giving the text of 
 the ritual still survives. This conquering god, who was the 
 Indra Mahendra or the Great Indra, passed again through 
 the Ram constellation when he had discharged the year's 
 rain, and then began the new year of the Ikshvaku con- 
 querors opening with the new moon of October — November, 
 when a thirteen-months year began, of which the beginning 
 was again postponed to that opening at the new moon of 
 Magh (January — February), which again under the rule of 
 the red race became the year beginning in Phalgun (Feb- 
 ruary — March). In the hymns to the especial god of the 
 year of this Mandala, Soma Pavamana, who, as the lunar 
 god, has superseded Indra and Vishnu, we find references 
 to all the successive year reckonings of the Pleiades and 
 early solstitial years, the year of Orion, the cycle-year of 
 three years and those of eleven, fifteen and seventeen 
 months, but all the years recognised are looked upon as 
 those in which the sun and moon together pursued their 
 year-course through the stars according to the retrograde 
 track of the Great Bear, and they are thus essentially dif- 
 ferent from the later Vedic year of the independent sun- 
 bird who flew round the heavens in a sunwise course. But 
 the Soma worshipped in the ritual here spoken of is not the 
 intoxicating Soma of the earlier ritual especially consecrated 
 in the Sautramani New Year's sacrifice of the eleven-months 
 year, but the pure Soma of the three mixings of Indra, and 
 hence must be that of the period when pure Soma was 
 substituted for intoxicating Sura, and thus the age of the 
 theology of these Soma hymns is apparently that of the 
 Vajapeya New Year's sacrifice of the seventeen-months 
 
954 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 year, at which, as we have seen, both pure and intoxicating 
 Soma was drunk. The seventeen and thirteen-months years 
 were, as we have seen, closely associated, both being 
 measured by seven-day weeks, and the seventeen-months 
 year was a solar-lunar form of that of thirteen months, 
 and hence its theology was similar to that of the ninth 
 Mandala, in which the ruling year-god Soma Pavamana 
 is accompanied by his sun-wife, the daughter of Aditi. As 
 the Soma-tree sap invoked is always the pure unintoxicat- 
 ing Soma, its theology must be later than that of thirteen 
 and eleven-months year of the mead-drinking Ashvins and 
 of the intoxicating Sura of the Sautramani sacrifice, which 
 in the Vajapeya ritual of the New Year's sacrifice of the 
 seventeen-months year was prepared by the Neshtri priests 
 of Tvashtar, god of the Pleiades, and solstitial years of two 
 {tva) seasons, and of the mother-goddesses who preceded the 
 father-god. It is to this earlier theology of the thirteen- 
 months year that the thirteen year-gods invoked in ix. 85, 
 4, 5 belong. They are, (i) Pushan Pavamana, the god of 
 the year beginning, like that of Bama and the modern 
 year of Indra, when the sun of the month Piish was in 
 Pushya (Cancer) at the winter solstice, the year of the sun- 
 ass of the Ashvins whose stable was in Cancer (p. 322), (2) 
 Mitra-Varuna, the paired gods of the solstitial year, (3) 
 Brihaspati, the Pole Star god, (4) The Maruts, goddesses 
 of the Great Bear, (5) Vayu the monsoon-wind, (6) The 
 Ashvins, (7) Tvashtar, (8) Savitar the sun-god, (9) Sarasvati 
 the river-mother, (10) Aryaman Arcturus, (11) Aditi the 
 unseen mother in heaven, (12) Vidhatar the Creator, the 
 law-giving father-god, and (13) Bhaga the tree bearing 
 edible fruit, which thus takes the place of Kadrii, the tree 
 {dru) of Ka, the thirteenth of Kashyapa's wives, who was 
 the mother of the Nagas and the thirteenth month of the 
 year. She, under the name of Sarpa-rajni, is called in its 
 title the author of the hymn Rig. x. 189' addressed to the 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shot, Brah., ii. i, 4, 29, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xii. 
 p. 301, note; Ludwig, Rigvtda, vol. i. hymn i6o. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 955 
 
 heavenly bull and the thirty stars traversed by Soma Pava- 
 mana, the purifying moon-goddess who for three months 
 nursed the young sun-god of the thirteen-months year, re- 
 born at the nevf moon of Khartik as the god of the Kautsa 
 licshvakus, who was to be developed in his full glory at the 
 new moon of Magh (January — February) as the sun-god 
 Surya, the Ekastaka son of the Majesty of Indra, whose 
 mother was Rohini the red cow, the star Aldebaran, the 
 Queen of the Pleiades, whose year began at the new moon 
 of Khartik, and his father Rohita, the red bull constellation 
 Taurus (p. 504) ^. 
 
 This Soma, the sap of the parent tree or plant containing 
 and distributing the creating germ of life brought to it from 
 heaven with the rain, is in the ninth Mandala, which evolves 
 the belief in the guardianship of the heavenly seed by the 
 moon-god Soma Pavamana during the ten lunar months of 
 gestation, the supreme ruling god of Vedic theology. This 
 generating parent of life is the hidden god of the Path of 
 Time, who ordains and maintains the continuous sequence 
 of the years, and who shows to all who study him in his 
 works the true road which all created beings must follow 
 in the order and under the rules he has laid down. This 
 is the path of the Chinese Tao, the Japanese Shinto, the 
 Greek Odos or way of the Gods trodden by their pioneer 
 god Odusseus, the star Orion wedded to Penelope, the 
 weaving-goddess of the Pleiades, some of whose years have 
 been traced in previous chapters. It is this god who in 
 the Shinto-creating myth is hidden in the stem of the 
 world's tree supporting the earth-temple roofed and walled 
 by the vault of heaven, who in the same story places on 
 earth as his visible representative the pillar-god Kunado-na- 
 kami, meaning No thoroughfare, who stands at the centre 
 meeting-place of the eight roads of space as the god of the 
 national conscience educated by generations of ancestral 
 
 ' Atharva veda, v. 3, 10, 3, $, 8 — 12 ; Ludwig, Rigveda, yol. iii. pp. 189, 
 190; Atharva veda, x. 18, 21—26, 32 — 34, 43 — 45 ; Bloomfield, Hymns of 
 the Atharva vtda, Sacred Books of the East, vol. xlii. pp. 210, 211, 212. 
 
956 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 teaching, who warns all the children of the divine creating 
 germ against the taking of wrong paths through over- 
 eagerness, obstinate indolence, or other mis-leading incen- 
 tives'. It is this god who imparts to all who reverently 
 seek" instruction from his teachings material and spiritual 
 knowledge increasing and expanding in the soil of living 
 thought and endeavour, and making supremely wise and 
 good those who by their unwearied aspiration after self- 
 education and self-control attain incorporation with the 
 divine spirit speaking to them. It is this god who is in- 
 voked in his various forms in the i,oo8 hymns of the Rigveda 
 as the creator and ruler made manifest in the recurring 
 advance to completion and the perpetual return in the 
 ordained round of the years which as they pass in nights, 
 days, seasons and months proclaim the unvarying wisdom 
 and invincible power of the god whose commands they 
 obey. It is in his successive manifestations as ruler of the 
 year that he is invoked in all the hymns of the Rigveda. 
 
 Of these hymns six hundred and eighty are invocations 
 to the three chief gods of the Soma sacrifice. Soma, Indra, 
 and Agni, Soma, the creating and sustaining germ im- 
 parting by its self-contained and generating will life to all 
 living things, is invoked in 124 hymns, including the 114 
 hymns of the ninth Mandala, in which the moon-god as 
 measurer of time is looked on as the ruling god in whom 
 the divine essence is so conspicuously embodied as to make 
 it the most god-like revealed manifestation of creating power. 
 This god is, in addition to the epithets I have elsewhere 
 quoted, called in ix. 87, 3 the father and begetter of the 
 gods, in ix. 99, 6 the lord of thought (manasas pati) and 
 of speech {vacas pati), in ix. 26, 4; loi, 6 the author of 
 all material and spiritual life whether divine or human. 
 
 There are three hundred and fifty-four hymns to Indra, 
 who as the rain-god is the manifestation on the earth of 
 the creator of life distributed over it, the especial parent 
 
 ' Astor, Shinto, The Way of Ike Gods, The Mythical Narrative, p. 1 10. 
 
Primitive Traditional History, 957 
 
 of the sons of the rivers and of the Bharata kings, sons 
 of the river-eel, and who is also the god of the latter half 
 of the year beginning with the fall of the rains at the sum- 
 mer solstice. 
 
 There are two hundred and four hymns to Agni, who as 
 Vaishvanara was god of the primitive worshippers of the 
 household-fire, and as Jatavedas, knowing the secrets of 
 the birth -god of the altar -fire of heated sacrifices first 
 lighted as the heater of libations on the altar of the phallic 
 worshippers, symbolising the earth and made in the form 
 of a woman. This god was the symbol of the creating 
 terrestrial heat of the South which, together with the rain, 
 formed the dual of Indra Agni, who were the gods of the 
 two seasons of the solstitial year. He was first the god of 
 the sons of the Palasha-tree, who offered no animal sacri- 
 fices, and afterwards, when these were introduced by the 
 sons of the Khadira-tree, who made their fire from a log 
 of this tree, he became the god of the new ritual of the 
 sacrifices ofTered on the northern altar of Varuna the barley- 
 god and his sons, who made the barley their parent plant 
 instead of the earlier rice. His ritual in both his forms is an 
 offshoot from the adoration of the mother-tree worshipped 
 both by the early votaries of the household-fire and by those 
 who invoked the altar-fire. 
 
 A radical change took place in the creed of the worship- 
 pers of the rain-god during the epoch of the rule of northern 
 races who traced their descent immediately from animal 
 parents, for though to them the ultimate source of life 
 was the rain which watered the earth and filled the rivers, 
 yet their more immediate symbol of the parent-god was 
 the blood of their offered totem victims, which was poured 
 out at the place of sacrifice and distributed over the fields 
 in pieces of the flesh of the slain victims. At first no part 
 of the slain human or animal sacrifices was burnt, but in 
 the evolution of the creed of the believers in burnt-offerings 
 parts of the victims were burnt, and among races who were 
 addicted to cannibalism the bodies of the human victims 
 
958 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 were entirely cooked. But these phases of beh'ef were 
 always opposed by the original adorers of the pure mother- 
 fire to whom the contamination of the fire by bringing dead 
 flesh in contact with it was regarded as a loathsome crime, 
 and they who were the originators of the Zend ritual re- 
 fused to follow the northern offerers of burnt-sacrifices in 
 burning the bodies of the dead. This however became in 
 Vedic ritual the orthodox method of burial. But human 
 sacrifices, except in the form of the monkey slain as a man 
 at the consecration of the latest Vedic altar of the flying- 
 bird, had no part in Vedic ritual, and Indra the rain-god 
 became to Vedic writers a god of blood only in the animal 
 victims off"ered to him, and these were subsidiary to the grain 
 offerings which in the Panchti sacrifice introducing his year 
 of five seasons in the ritual of the seventeen-months year 
 consist of a Purodasa rice-cake offered to Indra, parched 
 barley given to the steeds of his chariot, barley porridge 
 {karumbhd) to Pushan, sour curds to Sarasvati {dadhi), and 
 clotted curds {payasya) to Mitra-Varuna. Thus he and the 
 other gods associated with him, who are also, as we have 
 seen, year-gods of the ritual of the ninth Mandala, remained 
 essentially gods of the offerers of vegetable sacrifices and 
 libations of milk i. 
 
 There are also thirty-five hymns to the Maruts, the wind- 
 bringing goddesses, the female form of the Gond ape-god 
 Maroti, who became in Indian ritual the seven stars of the 
 Great Bear, sixty-five to the Ashvins, who were originally 
 the gods of Night and Day, but who as the twin stars in 
 Aries and Gemini play most important parts in ritualistic 
 history as the door-posts of the year-gate of the Garden 
 of God in the age of the three-years cycle-year, during 
 which they drove in its three-wheeled year-car, and as the 
 stars of the constellation Gemini they dwelt in the birth- 
 place of the successive sun-gods who ruled time from the 
 age when the year-sun was born in it at the winter solstice, 
 
 ' Eggeling, Shat. Brah., iv. 2, J, 17 — 22, Sacred Books of the East, vol. 
 xxvi. pp. 3I4j 3'Si notes I, S, 316. 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 959 
 
 from about 12,600 to 10,700 B.C., to that when his birth took 
 place in the same constellation at the vernal equinox from 
 about 6,700 to 4,550 B.C. There are also eleven hymns to 
 the Ribhus, the gods of the years measured by seasons from 
 the two seasons Pleiades and solstitial years of Tvashtar to 
 the four seasons of the solstitial and equinoctial year of the 
 three-years cycle-year. Their father was Su-dhanvan, the 
 god of the heavenly bow {dhanvan) of the Great Bear, and 
 they three in number were the especial gods of the three 
 seasons of the year of Orion, the deer-sun-god slain at his 
 year's end by the Great Bear arrow. 
 
 In short the whole ritual of the Indian Church as ex- 
 pounded in the Rigveda and the Brahmana ritualistic 
 manuals was that of the worship of the gods who measure 
 time, and it was the successive phases assumed by the 
 forms of worship altered with the changing computations 
 of the year which distinguished the epochs of the national 
 chronology ; and these changes were, as we have seen, all 
 connected with the advent of new immigrant races who 
 became in course of time united in one composite nationality 
 with those who had preceded them. 
 
 Records similar to those orally preserved in India by the 
 priestly guilds were handed down from generation to genera- 
 tion by the Schools of Prophets among the colleges or 
 Leagues of dervishes or Ceremonial priests of Asia Minor, 
 South-western Asia and Egypt ; and similar guilds framed 
 and ruled the national rituals in Greece, Italy, and all other 
 countries in which organised tribes established themselves 
 as separate nationalities, and in which the trading merchants 
 of the Indian Ocean established themselves as controllers of 
 government. 
 
 But the system of organisation began to decay rapidly 
 during and after the wars preceding the conquest of the 
 Gotho-Celtic Aryans, who brought in a new spirit of in- 
 dividualism which was essentially antagonistic to the com- 
 munalism which had formed and dominated the civilisation 
 of the trading and agricultural races of southern Asia and 
 
960 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 of the countries in the Mediterranean basin. But after the 
 new comers had established their power, and when they 
 began to organise a government founded on peace and not 
 on war, they, like the German races who overthrew the 
 empire of Rome, found that this could only be done by 
 enlisting the services of those who were trained in states- 
 manship under the previous governments. Hence in India 
 the Brahmans and trading and artisan classes gradually 
 begin to recover their former influence, and in the organi- 
 sation of the Vedic ritual and theology the new system was, 
 as we have seen, firmly based on the earlier creeds and em- 
 bodied their old traditions. 
 
 The most radical of the changes brought in by new 
 governments was that in the methods of recording national 
 history and keeping up the traditionally descended know- 
 ledge of past ages. This had hitherto always been done 
 by the appointed national and local historians of the teaching 
 guilds, who were likewise the guardians of ritual and the 
 chief counsellors of the king, who was as the national law- 
 giver the religious head of each country and the chief of the 
 dual government which, as I have shown in Chapter IV., 
 p. 426, was vested in the supreme king and his chief coadjutor, 
 the Senapati or commander in chief of the executive national 
 forces. This system, as I have shown, still survives in the 
 kingdom of Chutia Nagpur, and it was the form of govern- 
 ment which survived till the Roman conquest in Sparta 
 and of which distinct traces are to be found in all ancient 
 monarchies, especially in those of the Patesi or priest-kings 
 of Assyria and those of Egypt, who were also national high- 
 priests. One of the most historically interesting of these forms 
 of double kingship is that preserved in the exceedingly con- 
 servative Roman traditions. These retained the memory of 
 the ages when two kings ruled the state, one of whom was the 
 Rex Sacrorum, the priest of Janus, the year-god beginning 
 the year in January, the Latin equivalent of the Indian Pushan 
 of the same month Push. He was the two-headed god of 
 the doors (Janua) of time ruling the solstitial year of the 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 961 
 
 winter and summer solstice. This priest, the Rex Sacrorum, 
 the Pontifex Maximus, resided and ruled in the Regia or 
 central royal Palace sacred to Janus and Vesta, the fire- 
 goddess, whose 'sacred fire was annually lighted, maintained 
 and guarded by the Vestal Virgins, who were traditionally 
 the daughters of the Pontifex Maximus and represented the 
 daughters of the original Headman of the village, the first 
 of human kings '. With this ritualistic chief who ruled the 
 country as the nation's homestead was associated the king, 
 the Rex, whose name is certainly derived from the same 
 wide-spread root as Ragh, the name of the pillar-sun-god, 
 who was also in Italy the god of the pillar, for he was the 
 god of the oak-tree, the parent-tree, as Mr. Frazer has 
 completely proved. He was the man-god crowned, like his 
 divine symbol the Capitoline Jupiter, with the oaken crown 
 worn by every general to whom a triumph was granted on 
 his procession to the Capitol. He was also called Quirinus, 
 the god of the oak-tree, whose people were the Quirites its 
 sons. He was the double form of Janus, the god associated 
 with Vesta, the national fire-goddess who ruled the first 
 half of the solstitial year, and he ruled the second begin- 
 ning with June, the month of Juno, the oak-tree god- 
 dess of the summer solstice, otherwise called Diana, to 
 whom he was wedded in that month as Zeus was wedded 
 to Hera in Gamelion (January — February) in Greece the 
 month following the winter solstice. Hence Janus the 
 national god, the kindler of the nation's fires, wedded to 
 Diana, and Jupiter the king law-giver wedded to Juno, were 
 the two gods of the solstitial solar-year, each ruling one of 
 its halves, the Italian winter parts of Agni and Indra, in 
 India \ The priest of the god-king was the Flamen Dialis 
 representing Jupiter himself, and his wife, the Flaminia 
 Dialis, was the sun-goddess of the year. For she, as we 
 have seen in the accounts of the festival of the Argei, 
 appeared in this solemn sacrificial procession bearing the 
 
 I Fowler, The Roman Festivals, pp. 213, 282, 287, 288. 
 
 ■ Frazer, Lectures on the Earlv History ef the Kingship, lect. vii. pp. 197—215. 
 
 II. 3 Q 
 
962 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 year-god to his death in mourning, and hence it was she 
 who as Juno was wedded to him when he re-rose as the 
 sun-god of a new year. This original government of the 
 two kings was reproduced by the conservative Romans in 
 their two Consuls, and it was this conservative people who 
 preserved the records of their early traditional history in the 
 Sibylline books, which have been unfortunately completely 
 lost. But we know that they were written in Greek Hexa- 
 meter verse, and their authorship was ascribed to the 
 Cumasan Sibyl, who was consulted by .(Eneas before he went 
 down to Hades as god of the parent oak-tree, whence he 
 took the mistletoe which kept him alive in the underground- 
 world of death. These poems were therefore evidently the 
 first rough drafts in verse of the Greek legends of Southern 
 Italy, a great part of which were afterwards incorporated 
 in the ./Eneid ; and they told the story of the early fortunes 
 of the united Greek and Latin race whose god .^neas was 
 the king of the oak-grove, who was said to have ascended 
 to heaven as Jupiter Indages, that is the god who left the 
 traces {indago) of his rule in the ritual laws and customs 
 he handed down to his earth-born descendants, It was 
 under the ancient governments of this type that the tradi- 
 tional history recited by the Celts, Semites, Indians and all 
 other nations who, like these and the Greeks and Romans, 
 kept national records in the form of stories, was preserved 
 by the priests appointed to retain the old history in their 
 memory and to add to it new chapters summarising the 
 events of their time. But under the new governments these 
 national functionaries became recorders of annals or diarists, 
 and the duty of embodying these events in a national sum- 
 mary was transferred to the tribal bards who in India 
 among the Jats and among the later Celts made their tribal 
 chiefs and their ancestors the heroes of these stories. They 
 in India and all other countries used the ancient histories 
 as the ground-work of these annalistic poetical biographies 
 making the old gods ancestors of the modern chiefs, and 
 at first, as we see in the Rigveda and the Indian historical 
 
Primitive Traditional History, 963 
 
 poemS of the Mahabharata and Harivansa, they altered the 
 heroes of the old histories so slightly as to make it in most 
 cases easy to discern the original meaning given to these 
 historical abstractions. But as time elapsed the memory 
 of the past died out and was only preserved in the ritual 
 of which the inner meaning was kept by the priests secret 
 from the public, and only imparted to select pupils in guild 
 schools of India, [Persia, and the Semitic countries, and in 
 Greek mysteries. Hence all real acquaintance with national 
 history expired, and the most learned searchers after know- 
 ledge, such as the Greek philosophers, regarded the national 
 mythology which embodied the old creeds in symbolic 
 stories as indecent tales which Plato and Socrates wanted 
 to banish from the national schools '. They thereby showed 
 that they had never been taught the inner meaning of these 
 stories, and that all the ancient lore of their forefathers had 
 become to the men of their times unmeaning and useless. 
 It was this period of philosophic inquiry founded on anatomic 
 researches into the meaning, inner mechanism, and actual 
 processes of natural and mental phenomena which dealt the 
 most fatal blow to the old faiths, for under this new regime 
 it was thought that truth could be discovered only by indi- 
 vidual research, and ethical morality came to be looked at 
 as that only proved to be the highest aspiration to which 
 individuals could attain when set forth in the teachings of 
 those who had made their hearers believe that they and those 
 whom they cited as their instructors were the wisest and best 
 of men, who had solved all the riddles hiding the secret 
 haunts of truth. But throughout the whole system indi- 
 vidualism predominated, research must be individualistic, 
 and the results that it recorded were valuable only for the 
 instruction and education of individuals. The state had 
 ceased in the eyes of the philosophers to be the combined 
 family of national father and mother and their children, and 
 had become a collection of individuals each occupied with 
 
 ' Jowett, Plalo, The Republic, book ii. vol. iii. pp. 249—257. 
 3 Q 2 
 
964 Primitive Traditional History. 
 
 its own prospects and spending its energies in individual 
 advancement to prosperity and happiness. 
 
 But among the sciences to be studied in this system of 
 research founded on the discoveries and conclusions of suc- 
 cessive teachers who have each advanced the science to 
 which they devoted their energies to a greater 'ox less degree, 
 anthropology, ethnology and theology must always occupy 
 a very conspicuous place as guides to statesmanship and 
 national government, and these can never be mastered 
 without a knowledge of the past history recorded in the 
 traditions, ritual and customs of those races who have suc- 
 cessively in point of time been leaders of human progress 
 in different ages and countries. And this knowledge, of 
 which the ancient manuals and records only now survive 
 in fragments, can only be fully acquired by those who have 
 learnt the ancient methods of telling history, the difference 
 between the trends of thought in the men of the old com- 
 munistic world and of those of its individualistic succession, 
 and who can thus reproduce the meanings of our ancestral 
 teachers. In acquiring this knowledge and correct inter- 
 pretation of the past, a careful study of ancient ritual and 
 of the different methods of time measurement is, as I have 
 tried to show in the previous pages, most necessary. The 
 facts and arguments I have collected and set forth give only 
 a feeble outline of the final picture that later students will 
 be able to produce when they have discovered and used other 
 sources of information still lying hidden in unused manu- 
 scripts, in fresh interpretations founded on deeper study of 
 those already accessible, in different rituals and customs, in 
 the studies of the contents of ancient ruins either now ex- 
 cavated or still to be excavated in the future. These will 
 render a complete reconstruction of the past possible to 
 those who study these subjects, not from a mere local point 
 of view but from that which sees everywhere lines of inter- 
 connection marked by the transportation to all points of 
 the compass and to all continents and the lands they con- 
 tain of the groups of tribal traditions, ritual, custom, and 
 
Primitive Traditional History. 965 
 
 systems of time measurement taken by each inhabiting 
 race from the centre where the racial union was formed 
 to every place whither any groups of their descendants 
 migrated, and which were from these centres still further 
 disseminated by disintegration and the inter-mixture, in the 
 customs and codes of new tribes formed from the amalga- 
 mation of those previously existing, of the national root 
 tenets of each tribe incorporated in the new union. 
 
APPENDIX A. 
 
 List of the Hindu Nakshatra Stars by Brahma 
 
 Gupta. 
 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 4- 
 5- 
 
 6. 
 7- 
 8. 
 
 9- 
 
 10. 
 
 II. 
 
 12. 
 
 13- 
 
 14. 
 
 IS. 
 16. 
 
 17- 
 18. 
 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 
 23- 
 
 24. 
 
 25- 
 26. 
 
 Ashvini or Ashvayujau. 
 
 Bharani or Apa Bharani. 
 
 Krittaka or Krittakas. 
 
 Rohini (Aldebaran). 
 
 Mrigasirsha, Andhaka, Aryika, 
 Invika or Ilvala. 
 
 Ardra or Bahu. 
 
 Punarvasu. 
 
 Pushya, Tishya, or Sidhya. 
 
 Ashlesha, Asresha, or Ashleshas. 
 
 Magha or Maghas. 
 
 Purva, Phalguni or Arjuni. 
 
 Uttara Phalguni. 
 
 Hasta. 
 
 Chitra. 
 
 Svati or Nishtya. 
 
 Visakha or Visakhi. 
 
 Anuradha. 
 
 Jyeshtha. 
 
 Mula or Vichritau. 
 
 Purva, Ashadha or Apya. 
 
 Uttara, Ashadha or Vaishoa. 
 
 Abhijit, meaning now {abhi) con- 
 quered {pt). This sign was 
 omitted after Vega ceased to 
 be the ruling Pole Star, that 
 is, after 8000 B.C. 
 
 Shravana, Shrona, or Ashvattha. 
 
 Shravishtha or Dhanistha. 
 
 Sata bhisaj. 
 
 PurvaBhadrapada,Proshthapada 
 or Pratishana. 
 
 /3 Arietis. 
 
 o Muscas. 
 
 23 Tauri (Pleiades). 
 
 a Tauri. 
 
 A Orionis. 
 
 Orionis (?). 
 
 /3 Geminorum. 
 5 Cancri. 
 e Hydrse. 
 Regulus a Leonis. 
 S Leonis. 
 i3 Leonis Alsarfa. 
 7 or 5 Corvi. 
 Spica a Virginis. 
 Arcturus. 
 
 1 Librae. 
 
 5 Scorpionis. 
 Antares a Scorpionis. 
 A Scorpionis. 
 S Sagittarii. 
 ' Sagittarii. 
 
 Vega a Lyra Al nasr alwaqi. 
 a Aquite, Al nasr altair. 
 /3 Delphini.; 
 A Aquarii. 
 
 o Pegasi. 
 
968 
 
 Appendix A. 
 
 Tj. Uttara Bhadrapada. 
 
 28 '. Revati (this after the elision of 
 Vega Abhijit) was the 27th 
 Nakshatra, and probably was 
 the original 27th star before 
 Vega became the Pole Star 
 when it was first included in 
 the list as the ruler of the 
 stars. 
 
 7 Pegasi or a Andromedae. 
 
 f Piscium. 
 
 ' J. Burgess, C.I.E., ' Hindu hiixonotay^' J.R.A.S., Oct., 1893, P- 756. 
 
APPENDIX B. 
 
 THE THRACIAN CARNIVAL, by R. M. Dawkins. 
 
 Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. XX VI., Fart II., Nov., igo6, 
 
 pp. 193 ff. 
 
 The History therein told. 
 
 THE evidence given in this description of the Thracian 
 Carnival as to the actors, plots and characteristic inci- 
 dents of the drama celebrated at this festival throughout the 
 Thracian country from the shores of the Black Sea to the 
 ^gean Island of Skyros, vs^hose present inhabitants are of 
 Thracian origin, proves clearly that it vi^as a historical play 
 giving the outlines of the traditional history for some thousands 
 of years of the worship of the barley corn-god who became 
 the Greek god Dionysos. 
 
 The proofs of the truth of this conclusion are furnished (i) 
 by the actors in the drama, their garb and accessories showing 
 the parts they were intended to represent ; (2) the plot of 
 the Carnival play, and (3) the history to be deduced from it. 
 
 The actors are : I. The two Kalogeroi, who must both be 
 married (p. 196) men, one of whom carries a bow and arrow 
 and the other a phallus emblem in the form of a club. They 
 are disguised in goat-skins covering their heads and necks, 
 holes being cut in them for their eyes and nose, and wear 
 fawn-skins on their shoulders. Three or four sheep-bells 
 are tied round their waist, showing that they represent the 
 pastoral shepherd-race who in India girt with bells frightening 
 the evil spirits, the phallic central god, the Gond Pharsi-pen, 
 the female {pen) trident, who was worshipped with libations 
 of daru (fermented spirit), answering to the Thracian barley- 
 beer drunk at his festivals by the priests of the barley-god 
 and his votaries. 
 
970 Appendix B. 
 
 Their shoulders are padded with hay to protect them 
 from blows, and their hands are blackened to show that they 
 are the worshippers of the night gods of stellar theology. 
 Also goat-skins cover their legs, and these and the goat-skins 
 over their heads show them to be sons of the Pole Star 
 goat-god. 
 
 II. With these are two boys dressed as girls, called Koritsia 
 or vv^et, brides, who wear a white skirt and apron, a peasant 
 woman's bodice open in front, and kerchiefs round their 
 chin and brow. A third kerchief with finely plaited hair 
 hangs ,'down behind, and they carry knotted handkerchiefs 
 weighted with bullets. The two Kalogeroi followed by the 
 Koritsia, with whom they dance a little at each house they 
 visit, head the procession through the towns on Carnival 
 Cheese Monday [Tvpivr/ Bevrepa), and knock at all the doors 
 with the bow and phallus begging for gifts. In this pro- 
 cession the Koritsia try to carry off babies, and sometimes 
 capture a man with their handkerchiefs, and these must be 
 redeemed by presents. 
 
 III. A third female character of the dramatis persona is 
 the Babo, an old woman in rags, called Koyfro/idva, the foster- 
 mother, carrying a wooden cradle child Liknites, the child 
 of the Liknon or Bacchic grain-winnowing fan, in which the 
 seed-grain which was to become the god was carried at 
 the Eleusinian mysteries. It is called the seven-months 
 {ewTa/j,t]viTiKo) bastard child of an unknown father, an allusion, 
 as we shall see, to the story of the birth of Dionysos from 
 Semele and the Thigh of Zeus. 
 
 IV. The two KaTai^ekot,, Katsiveloi or gipsy smiths, a 
 man and woman dressed, like the Babo, in rags. They carry 
 sapplings ten or twelve feet long, and their hands and faces 
 are blackened like the hands of the Kalogeroi. In places 
 where the Babo does not appear the female Katsivela carries 
 the wooden corn-baby. 
 
 V. The last characters are two or three policemen carrying 
 swords and whips" with embroidered kerchiefs round their 
 fezzes, and with them is a man playing a bagpipe. After the 
 
Appendix B. 971 
 
 procession through the town is over, the drama acted in front 
 of the church, the village market-place, begins in those 
 villages where the old custom of acting it survives. 
 
 The first act is the making by the smith Katsiveloi of the 
 ploughshare for the baby-child of the seed-basket, who was 
 thought to be becoming too large to be carried in it. In the 
 making of the plough the woman symbolically blew the 
 bellows, and the big baby asked for a wife. His marriage 
 is symbolised by the capture of one of the Koritsia by the 
 phallus-bearing Kalogeros, who then marries her and she 
 is crowned as a bride. The Kalogeros of the bow and arrow 
 acts as best men. 
 
 After the marriage the bridegroom saunters about carrying 
 his phallus and finally sits on it. He is then shot by the 
 arrow of his bow-bearing companion who stalks him. The 
 victim falls on his face as if dead, and his slayer begins to 
 flay his body with a wooden knife. The Koritsia wife of 
 this dead year-god then comes and throws herself on his 
 corpse, and the dead man then rises again to represent, as 
 we shall see presently, the sun-god of a new year. 
 
 During the second act the Katsiveloi, who during the 
 procession act the obscene pantomime of the courting of the 
 year-god and his bride, hammer at a real ploughshare, and 
 when it is finished the two Koritsia are yoked to it and drag 
 it twice round the village contrary to the course of the sun, 
 showing that the plot of the drama descended from the age 
 when the sun and moon were thought to go round the 
 heavens on the retrograde course of the Great Bear plough 
 of heaven, that of the Egyptian and Chinese zodiacs, and not 
 of the sunward track of the sun in our modern astronomy. 
 One of the Kalogeroi guides the plough in front and the 
 other walks behind it as the ploughman. The ploughing 
 procession is preceded by the Katsiveloi, of whom the man 
 in some villages rides the sun-ass of the Indian Ashvins 
 (pp. 321, 322), and behind the plough a man scatters seed 
 from a basket, the birth Liknon. In a third circuit made 
 after the first two the Katsiveloi draw the plough. This 
 
972 Appendix B. 
 
 drama of the sowing of the seed whence the barley child 
 is to be born, her birth, marriage, death and resurrection as 
 the year-god born of the grain sown from the winnowing- 
 basket in the track of the Great Bear plough made by the 
 gipsy-smiths, take us back to the days of the Pole Star 
 one-footed goat, the Aja-Ekapad of the Rigveda, and the 
 goat-legged god Pan. 
 
 The two Kalogeroi disguised in goat and fawn skins, who 
 bear the bow and arrow and the phallic sceptre-staflf of 
 the Egyptian barley-god Osiris Sah, the star Orion, who 
 hunted the stars led by the Pleiades round the Pole, and 
 thus measured the year of three seasons, are the heroes of 
 the earliest year-drama of Orion's year, which I have traced 
 from Scandinavia to India (pp. 154-158). In this the deer- 
 sun-god and the year-doe he courts are in Indian mythogical 
 ritual Prajapati the deer-star Orion and his doe wife Rohini, 
 the star Aldebaran. They are represented in the Thracian 
 drama by the phallus-bearing Kalogeros and the Koritsia 
 to whom he is wedded. They in the year-drama of the 
 north dance together on their wedding-night, when the last 
 day of the solstitial year closing with the winter solstice ends. 
 At the end of the dance he as the dying god of the vanishing 
 year violates her and is shot in the act by the arrow of the 
 Wild Hunter ; and this deadly arrow, which is in the 
 Thracian drama that shot from the bow of the second 
 Kalogeros, is, as I have shown in Chapter III., pp. 155-163, 
 the two pointer-stars of the Great Bear. The year-god who 
 thus dies at his year's end slain by the arrow of the Great 
 Bear rises again in Hindu mythology as the newly -begotten 
 baby- god, the corn-baby of the Thracian drama, the God 
 Vastospati of the household-fire extinguished at the year's 
 end and then relit to depict the birth of the new year-god. 
 This re-risen god is in the Thracian drama the phallus-bearing 
 Kalogeros. 
 
 He in the second act is the grown corn-baby whose bow 
 and arrow constellation the Great Bear had become his 
 father-star, the Great Bear seed-plough twice dragged by 
 
Appendix B. 973 
 
 the two Koritsia in the retrograde circuit of the plough 
 constellation round the village in which the drama was 
 acted. The plough-drawing Koritsia represent a new form 
 of the creating twins succeeding that of the god of the 
 phallus and the bow and arrow. 
 
 These female twins are in Hindu mythology the two first 
 parents of life on earth, called Ushasa Nakta, Day and Night, 
 the offspring of Saranyu, the daughter of Tvashtar, ruling 
 the solstitial year of two seasons, and Vivasvan, the god 
 of the two twilights of morning and evening, who are repre- 
 sented in several places in the Rigveda as female goddesses 
 (Chapter IV., Sect. D., p. 312), the original mothers of time. 
 These twin goddesses were the divine mothers of the southern 
 races who measured time by the annual and semi-annual 
 circuits of the sun and stars round the Pole, and who did 
 not make the gestation months of the mother a factor in 
 time reckoning. They became in the theology of the 
 northern founders of the three-years cycle-year divided into 
 four periods each of ten stellar months of gestation, the 
 male and female twins Yama and Yami of the Rigveda, and 
 were placed in heaven as star leaders of the progress of time. 
 They became first the stars a and /3 Arietis of the Indian 
 Ashvins, sons of the rain-god, and afterwards the stars 
 Gemini, who were originally in the earliest Indian astro- 
 nomy the hands of the central alligator constellation, and 
 were thus conceived as sexless. But when the circular 
 heaven and earth of the primitive mythology became the 
 square Garden of God of the Zendavesta and the founders 
 of the cycle-year (Chapter IV., Sect. E., pp. 326-328), these 
 twin stars became the door-posts of the southern gate of the 
 garden, the Akkadian twins Masu Mahru the western and 
 Masu Arku the eastern' twin, the Dokana of the Greeks. 
 And these two guardians of the year-gate of time were in 
 the theology of the cycle-year measured by periods of 
 gestation, the male and female twins, the Mithuna of the 
 Indian zodiac. But in the later theology, which ignored 
 the mother and looked on the father as the sole generator 
 
974 Appendix B. 
 
 of life, this brother and sister became the two male twins 
 of Greece, Castor, the sexless supporter {star) of the house, 
 the mortal son of Tyndareus, the northern father smith-god 
 of the hammer {tund, tud), and the immortal Poludeukes, 
 the much-wetting or rain-god, the original cloud-bird whose 
 father was Zeus. And these were the Greek counterparts 
 of the Indian Ashvins, the heavenly horsemen, the Great 
 Twin Brothers of Italy. 
 
 These two male twins appear in this drama as the two 
 Kalogeroi, the bearer of the phallic house-pole, the equiva- 
 lent of the Greek Castor, and the bearer of the rain-bringing 
 bow and arrow which slays the year-god at the end of his 
 term equating the Greek Poludeukes or cloud-bird. Their 
 companion Koritsia reproduce the Vedic twin mother-god- 
 desses Day and Night and the Greek Clytemnestra, the 
 mortal sister of Castor, as well as the immortal Helene 
 Dcndritis, the tree-goddess sister of Poludeukes. 
 
 The primitive historical pictures thus painted in the cha- 
 racters of the Kalogeroi and Koritsia are succeeded by that 
 which depicts the history of the age beginning with the 
 three-years cycle-year, when the Great Bear had ceased to 
 be the bow and arrow of heaven and had become the bed 
 of the revolving year-god (Chap. IV., Section C, p. 291) or 
 the heavenly plough. This introduces us to the northern 
 mythology of the divine smith, the Wieland or Volundr of 
 the North, the brother of Egel the archer, who made the 
 shoes of the horses of the sun ', and to Kaweh or Kabi the 
 Persian smith-general of Feridun, king of the age of the 
 cycle-year, whose apron was the skin of the Great Bear 
 of heaven (Chap. IV., Section G., pp. 345, 346), the god 
 of the Persian monarchy and of its As.syrian predecessors, 
 whose archer standard was the only image depicting their 
 Great Bear god Assur. This divine smith was the Govan- 
 non and Gavida of the Celts of Wales and Ireland who 
 
 » Hans von Volzogen, The Edda, The Wieland Saga, pp. 210 fT. ; Hewitt; 
 Ruling Races ff Prehistoric Times, vol. ii. essay viii. pp. 97 — lOO. 
 
Appendix B. 975 
 
 brought up the young sun-god Lug, and he was in Greece 
 the lame one-legged god Hephaistos, who wedded the 
 mother-goddess Aphrodite Apatouria (Chap. IV., Section 
 B., pp. 270 — 272), as the phallus-bearing Kalogeros married 
 the Thracian Koritsia. It is this pair of creating smiths 
 which appear in the Thracian drama as the plough-making 
 Katsiveloi who succeed the Koritsia as the drawers of the 
 Great Bear plough in the third of the retrograde circuits 
 it makes round the village area to denote the third year of 
 the three-year cycle. 
 
 It is in this phase of the drama that the year-babe born 
 of the seed in the grain-winnowing basket appears as the 
 offspring of the seed sown in the track of the plough which 
 at the close of its year meets with the fate of all its pre- 
 decessors, and is slain by the Great Bear arrow before he 
 reappears from the underground realms of death as the 
 growing grain. 
 
 Also the ass-riding Katsivelos reproduces the sun-ass of 
 India (pp. 321, 322), whose manger and stable are in the 
 constellation Cancer, and who drew the three-wheeled-car 
 of the Ashvins through the year circuits of the three-years 
 cycle. He preceded the star-horse Pegasus of the age of 
 the eleven-months year, when the reins of the horse were 
 the stars of the Great Bear and the succeeding epochs, when 
 the year was measured (I.) by the entry of the sun into 
 Gemini at the winter solstice, a year represented in Bacchic 
 history by the birth-festival of Dionysos born in the Taurus 
 constellation of the Hyades as the son of Semele, the 
 daughter of Athamas or Tammuz (Orion), from whose 
 womb he was taken into the thigh of Zeus, thus becoming 
 the son of the Great Bear as the Thigh of the rider of the 
 sun-horse, a change referred to in the Thracian drama when 
 the corn-baby is called a bastard seven-months child. It 
 was then that the lesser Dionysia of Poseidon (December — 
 January) were celebrated. 
 
 II. This was followed by the year when the sun was in 
 Gemini in January— February, which began with the plough- 
 
976 Appendix B. 
 
 ing-festival of the Indian Kuru Panchalas, that of the In- 
 fant Buddha and of the Chinese New Year's day, when 
 the two ploughing strips of the sun going from south to 
 north and returning from north to south are ploughed. This 
 is the month Gamelion of the Lenaea of Dionysos, of the 
 wedding of Zeus and Hera, and the Magh (January — Feb- 
 ruary) wedding of Soma the moon-god to the sun-maiden, 
 the consummation of which was postponed till Phalgun 
 (February — March). 
 
 III. The third of these Gemini years was that when the 
 sun was in Gemini in February — March, which begins in 
 India with the New Year's festival of the red race, the 
 Huli held at the new moon of Phalgun (February — March), 
 when those who take part in it throw red powder on each 
 other, and this is the eastern form of our carnival in the 
 same month, when coloured comfits are thrown. This is 
 the postponed marriage festival of Soma the moon-god to 
 the sun-maiden originally celebrated in January — February. 
 It is the Semitic festival of Purim celebrating the victory 
 of Esther and Mordecai, Istar and Marduk, over Haman 
 Baal Khamman and his tea sons ruling the eleven-months 
 year. Also in Greece it is the New Year's festival of the 
 Anthesteria of Dionysos held on the eleventh of Anthes- 
 terion (February — March), when the national dead were 
 worshipped, and which is still held, as we have now seen, 
 in Thrace as the carnival festival of the barley-god Dionysos. 
 
 Another form of this festival is the carnival of the Roman 
 Republic and Empire, when an old man called Mamurius 
 Veturius or Vertumnus, the turner (verto) of the year, was 
 beaten out of the city, and this beating of the year-god is 
 commemorated in Thrace by stuffing the shoulders of the 
 Kalogeroi with ha}'. 
 
 The transformation of the god born of the seed-grain, the 
 corn-parent of life, into Dionysos, god of wine, is depicted 
 in another form of the Thracian carnival festival held at 
 Kosti near the Black Sea. There the goat-skin wearing 
 Kalogeros is an old man called Khokhostos or Koukeros 
 
Appendix B. 977 
 
 who is accompanied in his rounds through the town by a 
 boy who carries a wine-bottle, from which the old man 
 gives wine to each householder. Boys dressed as girls 
 accompany them, and at the end of his rounds he mounts 
 a two-wheeled car, in which he is drawn to the church. 
 There he is met by two bands of men and women who try 
 to make him throw on them the seed he carries, which he 
 finally casts on the ground as the man following the plough 
 did. He is then thrown into the river and stripped of his 
 disguiseSj and emerges thence as a newly-born year-god 
 (pp. 201, 202). 
 
 II. 3 R 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Aaron, the holy ark of the law, the 
 chest or breast of God. See Chista, 
 37, 79, 422, 627, 631 
 
 Aats, Egyptian divisions of the under- 
 world, 774, 775, 776, 783 
 
 Abantes, their tonsure, 575 
 
 Abhimanyu, son of Arjuna and Su- 
 bhadra, 648, 673, 674, 772, 773 
 
 Abigail, 696 
 
 Ab-ram, the father (ab) Ram, the 
 Indian god Rama, the Assyrian 
 Ram-anu, the Zend Rama Hvastra, 
 the Ram or Rimmon of Syria, 30, 
 
 370. 373. 374, 634. 833 
 
 Absalom, 636 
 
 Abyssinia, the land of Kush, 339 
 
 Achbor, Jewish mouse-god. See Apollo 
 Smintheus, 637, 690 
 
 Achilles, the little snake (ex'0> son of 
 Thetis, the mud (thitli) mother of 
 the South, and Peleus, the North 
 Pole Potter of the potter's clay 
 (iTTjAis), 18, 107, 136, 202, 235, 263, 
 273. 293, 316, 401, 443, 454, 473, 
 520, 521, 569, 570, 571, 578,647, 
 751. 753. 755. 759. 760, 762, 764, 
 829, 876, 877 
 
 Achilpa, Australian wild-cat tribe, 75, 
 78, 79, So 
 
 Adam, father of the red race, 364, 616, 
 
 913 
 
 Aditi, she who has no (a) second i^diti), 
 _ the primaeval mother sister of Dak- 
 sha(w;,4/i:;4 jsf), daughter of Uttana- 
 pada with the outstretched legs 
 \mhich see), the canopy of heaven, 
 xi., 160, 259, 260, 292, 733, 936, 
 950 
 
 Aditya, the six days of the creating- 
 week of the age of belief in pair- 
 gods, 321, 374 
 
 Admetos, 757, 827 
 
 Adonis, the Phoenician Adon, the 
 Master, son of the cypress-tree, who 
 is the Hebrew Tammuz, the Ak- 
 kadian Dumu-zi, the son (dumu) of 
 life (zi), the star Orion, 156, 306 
 
 Adrikd, the rock (adrika) mother, the 
 sun-hawk, mother of the eel-parent 
 
 gods of the Hindu royal races, 71, 
 186 
 
 Mneas, 278, 475, 758, 962 
 
 yEsculapius Asklepios, the sun-physi- 
 cian, marked as an Indian god by 
 the snakes and cocks sacred to him, 
 209, 229, 377, 401, 755 
 
 Ethiopians, collectors of incense (at- 
 J«l>), 371 
 
 Afrasiah, Turanian king, son of 
 Pashang, the constellation Cancer. 
 5f^ Frangrasyan, 42, 359, 512, 519, 
 521, 522, 523, 525, 526, 527, 528, 
 529. 533. 537. 538. 539, 542, 543, 
 550, 553. 554, 556, 557, 7o6 
 
 Agame7nnon, 758, 759 
 
 Agasiya, the singer (trU), leader of the 
 music of the spheres, the raven and 
 ape-star Canopus in Argo, 103, 104, 
 125, 164, 171, 255, 256, 442, 444, 
 738, 904, 949 
 
 Agathodcemon ^^, 122, 305, 313, 
 
 398 
 Agdistis, name of Rhea or Cybele, 797 
 Agni, the Lettic-god Ogun, the house- 
 hold and altar-fire of Indian ritual. 
 The partner in the rule of the year 
 of Indra and Mitra, viii., 274, 275, 
 402, 403, 419, 450, 456, 458, 748, 
 749, 767, 768, 956, 957. 961 
 Agnidhra, the unsexed priest of Agni, 
 
 383, 921 
 
 Agni-hotra, sacrifice of boiled milk 
 libations, 402 
 
 Agni Jatdvedas, who knows {vedi) the 
 secrets of birth (jdt), central fire on 
 the Vedi altar of knowledge, in the 
 form of a woman, 410, 414, 415, 
 525, 57°, 571, 578, 647, 728, 729. 
 
 879,899,919 ^ , c c ■, 
 Agni-kulas, men of the fire-family, 
 Saisa-nagas, sons (sisu) of the Nagas, 
 
 251 
 
 Agnishtoma, Soma sacrifice, 741 
 Agnishviittah, Fathers of the Bronze 
 
 Age who burnt their dead, 285, 585, 
 
 588 
 A9ni Vaishvanara, the household fire 
 
 3 R 2 
 
98o 
 
 Index. 
 
 of the yellow Vaishya men (nara\ of 
 the village (visli). See Vastospati, 
 14. 237, 488, 493, 506, 733, 879, 
 898, 917, 919, 945 
 
 Agni Vadhriashva, the sexless (vadhrt) 
 horse (ashva), 415 
 
 Agohya, he who cannot be hid, the 
 Pole Star, 12, 157, 910 
 
 Agraeratha, he of the foremost chariot 
 (rutka), the star Canopus, 35 1 
 
 Agrahayani Agrahan, November — De- 
 cember. See Margasirsha, 157, 503, 
 743. 816 
 
 Agunvalas, 567 
 
 Ahalya, the smi-hen-wife of Gautuma 
 and Indra, 298, 378, 473 
 
 AMvan'iya, square altar of libations, 
 402, 403, 408, 732, 914, 919, 928 
 
 Ahi-hudhnya, snake of the depths of 
 
 the South Pole, the Greek Python 
 
 (which see), 104, 180, 220, 221, 282, 
 
 825 
 Ahi-kshctra, land of the Ahis snakes, 
 
 306 
 Ahishuva, swelling-cloud-snake, 744, 
 
 936, 942, 945. 946, 947 
 Ahura or Asura Mazda, the breath 
 
 (asu) of knowledge, Zend supreme 
 
 god, 182, 560, 699 
 Aind Ainduar, the parent-eel. See 
 
 Indra, 35, 55, 185,949 
 Ainos, 141, 142, 149, 393 
 Aja-eka-pad, the one-footed goat (aja), 
 
 the Pole Star god, 180, 220, 825, 
 
 972 
 Ajax, 273, 758 ; Teitcer, 630 ; Oileiis, 
 
 763 ; Telamon, 769 
 Ajya-stotra, hymn of the goat, 938 
 Akastos, 520, 578, 579, 688 
 Akhwan, flying ass demon of the black 
 
 stone, slain by Rustum, 43, 67, 539, 
 
 541, 542, 543, 544, 545 
 Akkadians, loi, 104, 129, 138 
 Akkhadi or Akhtuj, Gond and North 
 
 Indian ploughing-festival of the axle 
 
 {aksha), 115 
 Akra, sacred dancing-place under the 
 
 shade of the Munda - Dravidian 
 
 Sarna, or central village grove, 93, 
 
 421, 423 
 Akrisius, grandfather of Perseus, 38, 
 
 336, 337 
 Aksfiauhinis, historical star axles of 
 the heavens, the divisions of the 
 star armies of the Kauravyas and 
 Pandavas, representing the eleven, 
 thirteen and seventeen-months year, 
 672, 742 
 
 Alcheringa, Australian name for the 
 first aborigines of the country, 65, 
 82 
 
 Aldebaraii, the Indian mother -star 
 RohinT, Queen of the Pleiades, iv., 
 5, 82, 104, 158, 282, 319, 410, 504, 
 646, 647, 675, 769, 775, 844, 920, 
 972 
 
 Alkestis, 757 
 
 ^ttmwXjkingofPhceacia, 272, 273,540, 
 764, 765, 766 
 
 Allat Alilat, Akkadian and Arabian 
 goddess of the nether-world of the 
 South, 133, 222 
 
 All Souls' Bay, ist November, begin- 
 ning the Pleiades year, m, 136 
 
 Almond-tree, parent-tree of the Jews of 
 the Kohathite priesthood, 37, 80, 81, 
 422, 627, 631, 691,863 
 
 Altai, Tartars, 253 
 
 Altar, the earliest altar, the sacrificial- 
 pit of Indian, Linga and Greek Kabi- 
 rian worship, 227, 337. This was 
 followed by the altar in the form of 
 a woman of the Pitaro Barhishadah 
 sons of the barley and Kusha-grass, 
 called the Vedi or altar of knoW' 
 ledge, ix., 162, 402, 404, 408, 409, 
 410, 816. See Ahavaniya, Dak 
 shina, Garhapatya, and Linga altars 
 
 Altar, Mexican sand, 867 
 
 Am, the mother mango - tree. See 
 Mango, 246 
 
 Ai7iar-utuki, light of the sun, Ak- 
 kadian name of Marduk, the sun- 
 god, n, 163, i8i 
 
 Amazons, in Greece, 216 
 
 Ambd, Indian star-mother, a chief 
 star in the Pleiades, II, 159, 160 
 
 Ambalika, sister of Amba, the Great 
 Bear, 11, 159, 160, 161, 871 
 
 Ambarvalia, Latin boundary proces- 
 sions, 397, 400, 796, 803, 807 
 
 Ambikd, Pole Star in Cygnus, sister of 
 Amba, 161, 871 
 
 Amen Ra, the hidden Ra, the pillar- 
 god, 73, 305, 341, 443, 624, 778 
 
 Amnion Anion, the supporter, pillar- 
 god, 374 
 
 Aninor, North mother -land of the 
 Todas, 140 
 
 Amphitrite, dolphin goddess, 826 
 
 Amrita, the mother - water of con- 
 tinuous life, the heaven-sent rain, 
 vi., XV. 
 
 Amshu, mother (am) stem of the Soma 
 plant, 226 
 
 Andhita, Ardvi Surd Andhitd, the pure, 
 
Index. 
 
 981 
 
 undeflled mother, Gr. Anaitis, the 
 river Euphrates, 182, 534, 699 
 
 Anchises, husband of Aphrodite, who 
 stole the sun-horses of the year, 278, 
 280, 758, 763 
 
 Andromeda, Phanician Adamaih, the 
 red mother-earth, 166 
 
 Andvari, the wary dwarf guardian of 
 Fafnir's treasures, 263, 593 
 
 Anga, the volcanic land of the Angiras, 
 51, 263, 265, 267, 290, 419, 429, 
 590 
 
 Angira, husband of the female Shiva, 
 the priest of Shiva worship, 767 
 
 Angiras, priests of the burnt-offerings 
 of animal victims, successors of the 
 Bhrigus, who ate their offerings raw, 
 256, 319. 362, 443, 4S3> 472, 563, 
 590. 932 . 
 
 Angra Mainyu, Zend winter god, 20 
 
 Ani, the Egyptian guide to the realm 
 of the dead, where he became Osiris 
 Ani {which see). He is the reputed 
 recorder of the Ani Papyrus, 134 
 
 Anjalika, Arjuna's weapon, 267, 272, 
 273, 910 
 
 Annamcse, 115 
 
 Anpu Anubis, the jackal form of 
 Horus, who introduced mummyfica- 
 tion into Egypt, 463, 779, 780, 781, 
 783, 784, 78s, 786, 792 
 
 Antelope god of the Kushikas, de- 
 scendant of the deer-sun of northern 
 Europe, father-god of the Indian 
 Brahmans, also a god of Mexico, 
 worshipped by annual antelope 
 dances. See Krishna, Deer-sun-god, 
 xiii., 52, 181, 294, 860, S61, 862, 
 864, 867, 868, 869 
 
 Antheste>-ia, Greek New Year's festival 
 of the Recall of the Dead, held in 
 February — March. See Parentalia, 
 Feast to the Dead, 614, 615, 618, 
 649, 743. 952, 976 
 
 Antikleia, the backward or retrograde 
 key mother of Odusseus, 273, 620 
 
 Antilochus, 758, 760, 761, 762 
 
 Anu, Akkadian god of the Zenith, 
 
 129, I95> 329. 460, 777 
 Anu, son of Sharmishtha, the Kushika 
 
 mother Banyan-tree, 254, 362, 901, 
 
 907 
 Anushtuih metre, 930 
 Anyatah Plaksha, lake of the Plaksha- 
 
 tree (which see), 225 
 Aoife^.n& Cu-chulainn, 519 
 Afaturia festival, 211, 432 
 Afe, female and male parent-god, 6, 7, 
 
 18, 103, 193, 204, 784 
 
 Aphrodite, and her various forms, 98, 
 
 200, 211, 270, 272, 278, 311, 548, 
 
 764 
 Apollo Aguieus, 170, 825 
 Apollo Aplu, or Abel, the son, 171, 
 
 827 
 Apollo Lycaius, the wolf {lukos') god 
 
 of the yellow race, 20, 41, 272,277, 
 
 284, 387, 396, 400, 511, 513, 548, 
 
 558, 582, 826, 850, 852 
 Apollo Pagasites, the Raven-god, Celtic 
 
 Bran, 827 
 Apollo Paian, the sun-physician, 826, 
 
 827, 867 
 Apollo Pythian, 221, 282, S29, 830 
 Apollo Smynthetis, the Mouse-god of 
 
 Troy, 41, 559, 566, 630, 637, 754, 
 
 755.759. 761,852 
 Apple of Life, and of the Hesperides, 
 
 38, 39. 13s. 300 
 Apri hymns of the Rigveda ritual of 
 
 the eleven-months year, 145, 456, 
 
 458. 493, 918, 936 
 Apsara, star-water (af) goddesses, the 
 
 Pleiades, xiv., 332, 488 
 Apsu, Akkadian goddess of the abyss, 
 
 632 
 Arcturus, 293, 530, 562, 622, 623, 679, 
 
 947 
 Ardibehist, Persian month, April — 
 
 May, 483, 525, 556, 691 
 Ares, god of the thirteen-months year, 
 270, 272, 273, 279, 280, 287, 288, 
 289 
 Argus, slain by Hermes, 280, 563 
 Argus, dog of Odusseus, 623, 683 
 Aries, Constellation of the Ram, in 
 which the sun began the three-years 
 cycle-year at the autumnal equinox, 
 between 14,000 and 12,000 B.C., 21, 
 28, 30, 31,40, 168, 169, 176, 282, 
 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 320, 347, 
 393. 417, 542, 555, 556, 651, 948, 
 
 950. 973 
 Ariltha, ceremony of sub-mcision, 75 
 Aristanemi, god of the unbroken 
 {arista) wheel {nemi) of the eleven- 
 months year, 31, 476, 477, 478, 483, 
 
 485.599,694 , , 
 
 Arits, seven in Egyptian theology, in- 
 troduced by Anpir, the jackal, 625, 
 
 775, 778, 781, 783^ ^ ^_ , 
 Arjuna, third of the five Pandava 
 brethren, son and counterpart of 
 Indra, the rain-god, ruling first the 
 rainy season and afterwards Feb- 
 ruary—March, called after him 
 Arjuni or Phalgun. He then fol- 
 lowed the sun-horse Parikshit, begin. 
 
982 
 
 Index. 
 
 ning his yearly circuit of the heavens 
 in Cheit, March — April, xix., 203, 
 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 344, 365, 
 490, 526, 571, 583, 606, 623, 648, 
 659, 674, 677, 678, 682, 68s, 692. 
 693, 724, 743, 762, 763, 817, 878, 
 880, 881, 882, 88s, 910 
 
 Arjuni, February — March. See Phal- 
 gun, 282, 64s, 648, 772, 773 
 
 Arka, sun-plant, 748 
 
 Annaiti Skr Aramali, Persian and 
 Sanskrit sun-maiden, the morning 
 and evening star, 709 
 
 Ariia, Aryan tribe, 892 
 
 A^paclisad, Armenia^ land (arpa) of 
 the conquerors (kasidi), 79, 132, 623 
 
 Arrow marking the course of the year 
 ruled by the Archer-god of the Great 
 Bear Bow, iii., iv., x., xi., xviii., 
 xix., 2, 10, n, 13, 44, 155—176, 
 452, 608, 858 
 
 Artemis Arktos, goddess of the Great 
 Bear, 26, 41, 76, 137, 155, 163, 171, 
 212, 282, 289, 318, 319, 337, 548, 
 852, 868 
 
 Artemis Diciynna, goddess of the net, 
 
 67. 195 
 
 Artemis Issora, the cypress-tree, Brito- 
 martis, 195 
 
 Artemis Orthia, goddess of the tree- 
 trunk, 137 
 
 Arthur Airem, the ploughing year-god, 
 207> 293> S'7, 568, 650, 725, 726, 
 727 
 
 Armia, the fire-drill, 22 
 
 Arundhati, star wife of Vashishtha 
 Corona BoreaUs, 301, 333, 768, 934 
 
 Arunla, Australian tribe, 61, 69, 71, 
 72, 74, 81 
 
 Arval brethren, 807 
 
 Arvalia, 796 
 
 Artoan, first-fruits of the badey har- 
 vest, 364 
 
 Aryaman, the ploughing star Arcturus 
 in Bootes, 21, 121, 125, 226, 228, 
 23s. 325. 350, 419. 622, 912, 947 
 
 Aryans, Celto-Goths, conquerors of 
 the Bharatas, 49 
 
 Ask, sacred mother-tree of the Edda, 
 the Celts and the Greek Centaurs 
 of the Bronze Age, 39, 40, 79, 189, 
 292, 401, 518, 89s 
 
 Ashadha, meaning the Unconquerable, 
 the year -god of the summer solstice, 
 the month Ashadha (June — July). 
 See Assur, 125, 224, 295, 944 
 
 Ashddhd, brick, 924 
 
 Asherah, wooden tree-trunks, Jewish 
 pillar- gods, 81, 629, 633, 639 
 
 Ashtaka, spring festivals, 257, 258, 
 259. 260, 261, 503, 791, 803, 951 
 
 Ashtaka Astika, the sun-god of the 
 eight (ashia) rayed star, 329, 604, 
 643 
 
 Ashva, the horse or ass-river, 269 
 
 Ashva - medha, the horse sacrifice 
 (medha), 488, 489, 491, 492, 747 
 
 AshvattJia, the mother fig-tree {Eictis 
 religiosa), successor to the Nigrodha 
 or Banyan fig-tree, 225, 333, 420, 
 480, 651, 677, 745, 749,918 
 
 Ashvatthaman, god of the Ashvattha- 
 tree, son of Drona, the Soma cask, 
 a hollow tree-trunk. lie slew the 
 offspring of the Pandavas, 674, 675 
 
 Ashva-vala, Prastara or rain wand of 
 horse (ashva) tail gi-ass of the Iksh- 
 vaka or sugar-cane (Iksha) race suc- 
 ceeding the Kushika sons of the 
 Kusha-grass, 449, 705, 745, 949 
 
 Ashva-yujau, September — October, 
 month of the Ashvin twins, 28, 259, 
 323- 343. 344. 416, 476, 585, 948 
 
 Ashvins, the twin horse {flshvd) men, 
 first Ushasa-Nakta, Day and Night, 
 next the twin stars a and & Arietis 
 ruling the three-years cycle-year, and 
 afterwards the stars Gemini, the 
 Nakshatra Punar - vasu, the new 
 (punar) creators. Their car was 
 drawn by the sun-ass, whose stall 
 was the constellation Cancer, vi., 
 20, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 
 39. 42, 78, 185, 261, 303, 309, 
 311, 312, 313, 317, 321-325, 326, 
 347. 349, 415, 417, 421, 449, 45i. 
 454. 455. 471. 479. 480, 481, 486, 
 506. 524, 540, 560, 562, 563, 564, 
 570, 607, 608, 609, 611, 735, 742. 
 747, 851, 868, 872, 896, 912, 915, 
 917, 926, 936, 937, 938, 939, 948, 
 
 958, 971. 973 
 
 Astpu, the interpreter, the god Joseph- 
 el, 464, 520, 626 
 
 Asklepios. See ^sculapius 
 
 Asolia, 888, 889 
 
 Ass, the sun-ass which drew the Great 
 Bear car of the year-god round the 
 heavens, 2, 18, 19, 20, 23, 26, 27, 
 51, 303, 321, 564, 565, 566, 576, 
 732, 972. 975 
 
 Assarrakos Asarraku, god of the year- 
 bed (asurra), father of Anchises 
 (which see), 278, 295, 484 
 
 Assur, the Assyrian archer-god whose 
 image was the Great Bear. See 
 Ashadha, 29S, 627 
 
Index. 
 
 983 
 
 Assur, capital of Assyria. Astarte 
 and her linen-wearing priests, 242 
 
 Asteropaios, 762, 764 
 
 Astro-noema, Phoenician Pole Star, 
 108, 112 
 
 Amra, Ashura, successors of the 
 Danava sons of Danu, the Pole Star 
 god, workers of metal in the Bronze 
 Age, xvii., 362, 459, 589, 59°. S92. 
 729, 741. 931 
 
 Atalanta, 868 
 
 Atar Atri, the fire-god, 204, 455, 552, 
 589. 933 
 
 Atart-pdtakan, land of Baku, early 
 home of the fire-worshippers, 524, 
 S32 
 
 Athamas =TxmrD.uz Dumu-zi (-which 
 see), 30, 44, 285, 355, S4I, 612 
 
 Atharvans, Athravans, Vedic and 
 Zend fire-priests of the god Atar, 
 4S3. 454. S32, 628, 734, 933 
 
 Athene, Boeotian Itonian Tan or Tanu 
 of the southern mud (tan), 34, 188, 
 212 
 
 Athene of the olive-oil-tree, which was 
 first the sacred oil plant Sesame and 
 afterwards the mother-tree of the 
 Ionian race. It was from this tree 
 that the revolving year-bed of 
 Odusseus was made, 242, 273, 296, 
 541. 546, 755, 761, 763, 766, 827, 
 867, 882 
 
 Athene Alea, goddess of Tegea, 288 
 
 Athetie-Cydonian = Brito martis the 
 virgin {martis), cypress-tree, 630 
 
 Athene Pallas, goddess of the Palla- 
 dium, the national image made of the 
 parent-tree originally the goddess 
 Pales or Palea of the protecting 
 grass-husk, 286 
 
 Atlas, Atel, Darkness, 193, 280 
 
 Attidian priests of Attis, 792, 803, 
 807, 828 
 
 Attis, male form of Cybele, emasculated 
 ape-god of the Phrygian sons of the 
 pine-tree, 281, 797 
 
 Augurs, 327, 378, 632 
 
 Auriga, leading constellation of the 
 eleven-months year of Poseidon and 
 Hippolytus, 13, 40, 311, 520, 529, 
 554. 560, 576, 604, 605, 607, 680, 
 830 
 
 Aurnavatha, son of the weaver of wool 
 (uma), name of Ahishuva, 940 
 
 Aurva, son of the Great Bear Thigh 
 (uru), 44, 472, 607, 679, 684 
 
 Australian native tribes and their 
 
 legends, 5, 54 
 AutUykos, 6, 21 
 
 Avalokitesvara, the visible (avalohita) 
 
 sun-god, 505, 827 
 Ayu, son of life, 224, 253, 314, 525 
 Ayuthrima, the breeding fourth season 
 
 of the Zoroastrian year, 702, 703 
 Azaf, son of Barkhya, the lightning 
 
 Vizier to Solomon or Sallimanu, 133, 
 
 740 
 Azi Dahaka, the biting-snake king 
 
 Zohak of Persia, the Zend god of 
 
 the year of three seasons, 15, 209, 
 
 210, 237, 345, 348, 953 
 Aztecs, 76, 835, 841, 844 
 
 Ba, Bau, Baau, Bahu, the southern 
 mother of life, the abyss or empty 
 void of the South Antarctic Pole, 
 35. 104, 133, 182, 188, 232, 354, 
 632, 737. 905. 950 
 
 Baal Hanan, the merciful son of 
 Achbor the mouse, a name of David, 
 637. 644 
 
 Baal Khamman, god of the pillar 
 (khiun), Solomon's Jachin and 
 Haman (which see), 221, 465 
 
 Baal Rafhon, god of healing =Belle- 
 rophon, 465, 471, 520 
 
 Baal Tsephon, god of the north, 193 
 
 Bab-el, Gate (bab) of God, 912 
 
 Babhuns, the caste to which most of 
 the ruling families of Behar belong, 
 427, 428, 435, 440 
 
 Babis, Persian sect, 667 
 
 Ba-Duc-Chua, Five Annamite god- 
 desses, 115 
 
 Bagdis, 246, 592 
 
 Bahishpavamdna, hymn of seventy-two 
 syllables to the Ashvins recalling the 
 year of seventy-two five-day weeks, 
 491, 609, 611 
 
 Bahman or Vohumano, God of Good 
 Conscience, son of Isfendiyar, Persian 
 king succeeding Gusht-asp, 696, 709, 
 713, 716, 717, 718 
 
 Bahram, son of Gudarz, the Pole Star 
 Vega god of the Persian national 
 fire of Ba or Bahu, goddess of the 
 southern abyss, and the pillar sun- 
 god Ram or Ra, 512, 513, 522, 528, 
 
 532. 537. 538 
 
 Bahrein, 370, 824 
 
 Bahzad, the striker (bahz), the Persian 
 Pegasus (which see), the black sun- 
 horse of Shyavarshan, his son Khii- 
 srav and Gusht-asp, 529, 530, 554, 
 
 555. 707 
 Baigas, Indian forest tribe, 51 
 ^<2zVoM = Vi-sakha, April— May, 150 
 
984 
 
 Index. 
 
 Baldur, sun-god of the Edda killed in 
 
 Cancer, 27, 39, 234, 400, 474 
 Balor, God of the hazel-tree and of 
 
 the Fir Bolg and Fomori, 37, 38, 
 
 336, 337 
 Barbers, priests and surgeons of the 
 
 Bronze Age, 578, 579, 580, 581, 582, 
 
 583. 595. 596 
 
 Baresma, magic rain- wand of the Zend 
 fire-worshippers, 64, 140, 409, 705 
 
 Bar/lis, sacred sheaves of Kusha-grass 
 of Indian Kushika ritual. See Pitaro 
 Barhis-hadah, 258, 457, 729 
 
 Barley, the plant of life and symbol of 
 God succeeding the mother-rice. It 
 was infused into the Indian Soma 
 cup and that of the Eleusinian mys- 
 teries. The plant of and the offering 
 to Varuna the barley-god of the 
 summer solstice, which was sacred to 
 the Egyptian god Osiris Sah Orion. 
 It was the food of the Pitaro Barlii- 
 shadah and Gnishvattah of the 
 Neoliihic and Bronze Ages, and was 
 sacred to the Greek god Dionysos, 
 born from the barley Liknon or 
 winnowing cradle, 29, 40, 137, 138, 
 212, 213, 224, 231, 245, 249, 258, 
 284, 306, 355, 369, 381, 406, 407, 
 410, 416, 421, 423, 445, 479, 561, 
 565, 567, 569, 572, 573, 586, 598, 
 613, 615, 676, 684, 705, 817, 848, 
 
 87J, 947 
 Barman, Turanian general, 521, 537, 
 
 553 
 
 Baiiikh Barkhya, Barkhuseya, the 
 lightning-god, 133, 740 
 
 Basques, Iberian corn-growing emi- 
 grants from the Ararat country of 
 Asia Minor to Europe, 16, 143, 179, 
 180, 377 
 
 Bath-sheba, she of the seven {shebd) 
 measures {bath), mother of Solomon 
 or Salli-manu, the fish-god, 644 
 
 Bauris, 246 
 
 Bear mother and her sons, who made 
 the Bear their totem and painted it 
 on their foreheads, 141, 142, 841, 
 
 849, 853 
 Bear, the Great Bear parent constel- 
 lation of the northern races. First 
 worshipped by the sons of the bow, 
 the archer-races whose sculls were of 
 the Neanderthal type. This constel- 
 lation in its apparently retrograde 
 annual circuits round the Pole suc- 
 ceeded Canopus as the measurer of 
 the year of the corn-growing races 
 and was worshipped in successive 
 
 epochs as the creating year-star ( I ) as 
 the bow and arrow of the storm-god 
 which slew the year-deer at the end 
 of its annual course ; (2) as the seven 
 pigs, children of the Pole Star sow 
 or boar ; (3) the revolving bed and 
 waggon of the year-god ; (4) the 
 reins of the black sun-horse of the 
 eleven-months year ; (5) the left 
 Thigh of the ape-rider on the sun- 
 horse, and (6) his right Thigh, iii., 
 iv., vi., ix., X., xi., xii., xv., xvii., 
 xix., XX., I, 2, 10, II, 13, 14, 17, 
 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 32, 33, 
 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 70, 72, 76, 77, 
 84, 85, 86, 108, 114, 137, 142, 152, 
 161, 162, 163, 164, 169, 173, 174, 
 175> 177. 178, 179. 181, 183, 184, 
 
 185, 192, 193, 198, 208, 212, 214, 
 218, 221, 224, 228, 229, 233, 234, 
 238, 240, 243, 244, 252, 253, 264, 
 268, 269, 273, 275, 276, 278, 288, 
 291, 293, 294, 296, 297, 298, 300, 
 301, 302, 309, 311, 314, 322, 324, 
 
 325, 339. 340. 341, 342. 349, 352. 
 354. 355. 357. 361. 3^5. 372. 373, 
 381, 390, 409, 415, 418, 488, 489, 
 490. 505. 509. 513. 518, 536. 540, 
 547. 551. 553. 556, 558, 561. 562, 
 570, 575, 576, 579, 604, 60s, 607. 
 608, 612, 613, 617, 620, 623, 625, 
 626, 635, 636, 645, 647, 672, 680, 
 683, 684, 692, 720, 759, 762, 767, 
 790. 791. 800, 803, 808, 829, 830, 
 841, 842, 845, 847, 848, 849, 850, 
 852, 858, 860, 865, 881, 890, 922, 
 936. 937. 947. 948, 949. 95o. 954. 
 959. 971. 972, 976 
 
 Bee, the world's beehive creed of the 
 age of the three years cycle-year, that 
 of the Mordvinian Ugro-Finns, the 
 bee prophetesses and priests of this 
 annual age. See Deborah Melissai, 
 25, 26, 317, 318, 319, 320, 363, 626 
 
 Beer, made of rice and Murwa (Eleusine 
 corocana), sacramental drink of the 
 Dravido Mundas, and of the Tibetan 
 Buddhists, also the barley-beer of 
 the worshippers of Dionysos. See 
 Sabaia, 40, 355, 573, 684, 705 
 
 Beetle, symbol of the creating full-moon- 
 god of the two united crescents ruling 
 the thirteen-months year. See Khe- 
 pera, 192, 375, 565, 625, 838, 847 
 
 Behr-i-hayan, zodiacal girdle of Rus- 
 tum. See Kredemnon, 356, 538, 
 
 539, 540, 541. 766 . „ , 
 
 Bellerophon, the sun - physician Baal 
 
 Raphon of the eleven-months year 
 
Index. 
 
 985 
 
 riding the constellation Pegasus 
 
 [which see), 43, 465, 471, 520 
 Belt of Orion, its three stars symbolising 
 
 the three seasons ol the year, 158, 
 
 183, 838 
 Beltaine, Celtic fires of, on the ist May, 
 
 33. 39. 136 
 
 Benjamin, son of the right hand, 627, 
 629, 633, 641 
 
 Beij, Egyptian olive-tree, 780 
 
 Berbers, 359, 360 
 
 Bersarkars, bear warriors, 560 
 
 Bes, Egyptian god, 299 
 
 Besla, the thom-tree mother of Odin, 
 292, 293 
 
 Bethel, Bcetulos, the house [lieth) of 
 god [el), the divine gnomon-stone, 
 73. 81, 193. 220, 627, 629, 637, 639 
 
 Bethlehem, the house [beth) of Lehem 
 or Lakhmu, birth-place of the sun- 
 god, 631, 632, 641, 642 
 
 Bhadra-pada (August — September), 
 306, 406, 646, 763 
 
 Bliaga-JBhagavati, the parent-tree or 
 plant with edible fruit, 226, 241, 325, 
 366, 419, 468, 947 
 
 Bhaga-datta, king of the Yavanas or 
 barley [ycwa) growers, son of Bhaga 
 the barley-mother, 364, 365 
 
 Bhanddris, caste of barbers, 249, 579, 
 580, 592 
 ^ Bhang, intoxicating hemp [Cannabis 
 Indica), used by Zend Athravan 
 priests, 734 
 
 Bharadvaja, the lark, 123, 524, 892 
 
 Bharadvajas, sons of the lark, 933 
 
 Bharata, son of Kaikaia the Gond 
 mother and Ra or Raghu, king of 
 the Kushikas, and of Dushmanta and 
 Sakuntala the little bird born of the 
 Malli or mountaineers, 237, 332, 339, 
 343. 360. 381. 414. 466, 908 
 
 Bhatatas, sons of Bharata, 88, 243, 
 332, 416, 493, 590, 594, 599, 649, 
 822, 889, 890, 892, 893, 896, 898, 
 899, 900, 904, 905, 906, 907, 908, 
 
 957 
 Bharata-varsha, the land of the Bha- 
 
 ratas, name of India in the Maha- 
 
 bharata, the history of the Great 
 
 (maha) Bharatas, 88, 736 
 Bharati or Mahi, one of the three 
 
 mother-goddesses of the Apri hymns 
 
 of the eleven-months year, 457 
 Bhars, mother tribe of the Bharatas, 
 
 260, 332, 493 
 Bhils, men of the bow (billa). See 
 
 Dhanuk, 144, 145, 151, 238 
 
 Bhiina, son of Maroti the tree (maront) 
 ape, second of the five Pandava 
 brethren. He ruled the summer, 
 259, 262, 618, 883 
 
 Bliishma, called in Rig. x. 72, Mart- 
 anda tlie dead egg, the sexless eighth 
 son of Gunga, the river, or Aditi, 
 whose first seven sons were the stars 
 of the Great Bear. He was the first 
 leader of the Kauravyas against the 
 Pandavas. His cognizance was the 
 dale-palm-tree, xi., 160, 161, 271, 
 635, 644, 645, 653, 659, 674 
 
 Bhojas, 254, 262, 477, 591, 597, 648, 
 875. 895. 904 
 
 Bkrigu, the fire-god father of the 
 Indian Bhrigus descended from the 
 Thracian Bruges, the first priests 
 before the Angiras, 151, 267, 269, 
 362, 383, 456, 465, 607, 646, 899, 
 
 933 
 
 Bhuiya, 51, 94, 255, 425 
 
 Bhunhiars, Oraon tenure - holders, 
 answering to Goidelic Uclielwyr, 
 4. 27. 430. 431, 433, 435. 438, 439 
 
 Bhuri-shravas, 570, S97 
 
 Bijen, son of Giv, the star Arcturus, 
 42. 533. 534. 536, 537. 542, 543, 
 544, 545, 546, 547, 55°, 55i. 552, 
 554- 555, 562, 679 
 
 Bil or Bel, the fire-god of the Akka- 
 dians, 190 
 
 Bile, the parent ash-tree of the Irish 
 Milesians, 40 
 
 Bil-gi or Gi-bil, Akkadian fire-god of 
 Byblos, 171, 190, 824 
 
 Billah, old wife of Jacob, motlier of 
 Dan, the Pole Star god, 627 
 
 Bilva {y^gle marmelos), parent-tree of 
 Bhars or Bharatas, 493 
 
 Bindo-bird, cloud-bird of the Song of 
 Lingal, bringer of the monsoon rains, 
 238 
 
 Binjhias, 246 
 
 Bird-mother, See Adrika, cloud-bird 
 Khu, Hu, Su, Zu, Kirke, Rukh 
 
 Birhors, 78, 498 
 
 Black-aerolite, sacred stone of the 
 Phoenicians, Arabs of Mecca, wor- 
 shippers of Cybele of the Persians, 
 Greeks and Italians, 67, 546, 549 
 
 Blood, generative efficacy of, in the 
 theology of the worshippers of 
 animal parent-gods, and of rain the . 
 blood of God, v., XX., 76, 77, 155, 
 
 245, 389, 394, 395 
 Blood-bath, washing away guilt, rn 
 
 Phrygian theology, 30, 199 
 Blue-jay, worship of, in India, Greece, 
 
986 
 
 Index. 
 
 Thrace and Mexico, 285, 286, 287, 
 862, 918, 919 
 
 Boar sun-god ruling the year of the 
 Pole Star and its seven boar pigs, 
 and Boar sacrifices, 15, 16, 200, 203, 
 204, 206, 207, 208, 214, 215, 234, 
 621, 803, 811, 829 
 
 Boaz, the golden-pillar-god of the two 
 pillars before all Phoenician and 
 Egyptian temples, 222, 633 
 
 Bombo, the Black Hats, the oldest 
 section of Tibetan Buddhists, 120, 
 SOI, £02, 566 
 
 Bo'ng, the parent-fish of Annamite 
 theology, Ii6 
 
 Bootes, 228, 229, 622 
 
 Booths, Feast of, beginning the year of 
 the sons of the mother-tree in South- 
 western Asia and Greece. See 
 Succoth, 131, 222, 629 
 
 Boreas, God of the North, 202, 466, 
 619 
 
 Borsippa, artificial hill or High Place 
 near Babylon, 194, 226, 629 
 
 Bo^o, History of the Bow of the Indian 
 Bhils, of the Bantu races of Africa, 
 the Indian Mundas, the Pinaka of 
 Shiva, the bow and arrow of the 
 Great Bear, that of Krishanu the 
 footless archer which killed the year- 
 deer at the end of his annual circuit 
 of the heavens, the bow of the invin- 
 cible warriors, successors of Kris- 
 hanu, Eurytos, Rama, Arjuna and 
 Odusseus, which they alone could 
 bend, and whence they shot the 
 arrow which never missed its mark, 
 this being first the rain-cloud-bird in 
 the Pole Star, iii. , xii. , xix. , xx. ,2, 10, 
 II, IS, 28, 144, 145, 146, 147, 149, 
 ISO, 157, 162, 163, 167, 173, 179, 
 i8i, 183, 210, 227, 231, 266, 277, 
 490, 506, 7s8, 762, 8si, 869, 880, 
 922, 972 
 
 Brahviana-chamsin, reciting priest of 
 Indra, 930 
 
 Brahmans, sons of the black antelope 
 parent-god, the white pig Vishnu, 
 reciters of national history, 52 
 
 Brahui, Dravidian language of Balu- 
 chistan, 887 
 
 Bran, the raven Celtic cloud-god head 
 of the year, 135, 568, 569 
 
 Brativo Bauerschaft, 603, 605 
 
 Bridge of Heaven, the Milky Way, 
 
 136, S30, 710 
 Brihasfati Brahmanaspati, the Pole 
 Star-god, vii., 121, 123, 362, 419, 
 741. 75°. 752. 918, 921, 934. 947 
 
 Brihati, Sanskrit equivalent of the 
 Celtic Brigit or Bride, goddess of 
 the thirty-six five-day weeks, half of 
 the whole year of seventy-two weeks 
 of the Pleiades and Solstitial year's 
 end of two seasons, 97, 124, 125, 
 
 274, 403. 733. 919. 931, 939. 947 
 Brisaya, sons of the witch, 892 
 Britang- Breton, 330, 331, 371, 376, 
 
 38s. 823 
 
 Brito-martis, the virgin (martis) cy- 
 press-tree-mother of the sun-god, 
 34. 67, 189, 193, 19s, 212, 630 
 
 Bronze Age, 32, 59, 79, 270, 330, 401, 
 466, 477. S72. S7S. 584. S96. 604 
 
 Bruden, Celtic public hostel, Greek 
 Prytaneum, 98, 99 
 
 Bruges of Thrace, ancestors of the 
 Phrygians and Indian Bhrigu, isi 
 
 Brythonic Celts, 430, 432, 433, 436, 
 473, 598, 604, 730, 740, 752 
 
 Buddha, his history in his successive 
 births, first as the national year-god of 
 the sons of the Sal-tree, the parent- 
 tree of the Munda races, then as the 
 year-god of the successive epochs of 
 traditional history commemorated in 
 their chronology of the four heavens, 
 his final birth as the independent 
 sun-god, the traditional parent of 
 the inspired teacher who appeared 
 on earth as a living man, Siddhartha 
 Gautuma, who was invested by his 
 disciples with the attributes and tradi- 
 tional birth histories recorded in their 
 ritualistic chronicles, 4s, 47, 68, 85, 
 106, 120, 159, 171, 248, 264, SOS. 
 6so, 6si, 6S2, 653, 654, 6ss, 6s8, 
 6S9, 664, 667, 669, 670, 672, 673, 
 675, 676, 677, 678, 684, 693, 694, 
 695, 696, 698, 72s, 727. 866, 867, 
 879, 889, 890, 924 
 
 Buffalo cow, calf and bull, as rulers of 
 the year, v., vi., xi., xiii., xiv., xviii., 
 29, 140, 176, 178, 224, 249, 2SS. 280, 
 391. 392, 393. 396, 585. 586, 587. 
 588, S89, 596 
 
 Bull slain by Mithra, and bull sacrifice, 
 176, 282, 616, 796, 803, 816, 849 
 
 Bull-begotten sons of barley-growers, 
 
 444. 445. 480. 481, S97 
 Bull-roarer, Australian and Polynesian, 
 
 its meaning, 62, 63 
 Burials of Neolithic Age, position 
 
 of bodies, 216, 217, 218, 230, 
 
 786, 823, 824, 828 
 Burzin Mitro, third of the Persian 
 
 national fires, that of Lohrasp, 513, 
 
 792 
 
Index. 
 
 987 
 
 Bushmen of Stuth Africa, 145, 146 
 Butter or Ghi, succeeding Sesame oil 
 
 as the sacred unguest, 242, 316, 390, 
 
 415, 416, 450, 488, 676, 729, 731, 
 
 917, 922 
 Byblos, its history as an Akkadian 
 
 Phrenician city, 76, 171, 189, 190, 
 
 191, 192, 194, 462, 589, 633, 641, 
 
 650, 783, 824 
 Byga, primeval provincial priests of 
 
 India, 441 
 
 Cacus, 178, 179, 197, 264 
 
 Caduceus, 15, 514 
 
 Caer Gwydion, the Milky Way, 41, 
 206, 301 
 
 Caer Sidi, world's revolving Tower of 
 the Celts, the Pole Star Castle, 35, 
 13s, 206. 370. 475. 864, 903 
 
 Caleb, his history as the dog (kalb), the 
 dog-star Sirius, 639, 640, 641, 642, 
 840 
 
 Cancer, its history as the Zodiacal Crab 
 constellation ruling the year, xiv., 6,15, 
 27, 31, 232, 233, 234, 305, 306, 307, 
 308, 312, 322, 324, 339, 343, 347, 
 382, 400, 417, 419, 535, 538, 539, 
 555. 556, 564. 365. 569. 576. 604, 
 6i2, 790, 851, 975 
 
 Canghellor, Cymric Chancellor, 430, 
 432, 436, 439 
 
 Canopus, star in Argo, ruling the 
 Pleiades year, I, 5, 6, 9, 10, 36, 56, 
 84, 103, 104, 108, 125, 129, 135, 136, 
 137, 152, 164, 168, 171, 190, 193, 
 208, 220, 221, 242, 255, 256, 257, 
 296, 351. 637, 760, 777. 916 
 
 Capella, star of the little Goat in 
 Auriga, 311, 529, 554, 555, 560, 
 575. 577. 680 
 
 Capricornus, star of the Goat with a 
 fish's tail, 738 
 
 Carians, worshippers of the moon-god 
 symbolised by the double axe, 287, 
 377. 378, 498, 810, 828 
 
 Carnac, in Brittany, 376, 823 
 
 Carnival and feasts corresponding to it 
 in India and Greece, 283, 615, 730, 
 789, 969, 970 
 
 Caroline Islands, 94 
 
 Castes formed from the union of 
 members of the village communities 
 of the Matriarchal Age. Trade 
 Guilds forming Castes of traders added 
 by the Naga Kushikas, 240 — 250 
 
 Castor, unsexed heavenly twin-god of 
 the twin stars Gemini, 21, 86, 974 
 
 Cat, 78, 219, S90 
 
 Cauldron of Dagda and Bran, the 
 raven-god of the South, 136, 207, 
 332, 608, 767 
 
 Cecrops, father of Erectheus, the snake- 
 god of Athens, to whom bloodless 
 sacrifices were offered, 201, 213 
 
 Celtic races, and their year, 32, 34, 53, 
 
 451 
 
 Centaur, Centaurs, 39, 40, 401, 465, 
 499. 573. 684 
 
 Ceres, 795 
 
 Cerfia Tursa, 799, 801 
 
 Cerfius Martius, 799, 801, 803 
 
 Ceri, the three pedestal-gods carried 
 in the May circumambulations at 
 Gubbio, 799, 8qo, 802, 804, 805, 
 808, 810, 811,812 
 
 Cenmnnos, horned deer-sun-god of the 
 Celts, 154 
 
 Ceylon or Lanka, 340, 341, 343 
 
 Chaitra-ratha, 372, 768 
 
 Chaitya, Linga shrines, 271 
 
 Chakra-varti, wheel-turning kings, 297, 
 444, 509, 741, 822 
 
 C/ia/i/«a«j,astronomicalrulersof South- 
 western Asia, 130, 155 
 
 C/ifl/fc'a festival, 17, 34, 70, 213, 270 
 
 Chamars, Hindu workers in leatiier, 
 vii., 244, 286, 580, 585, 936 
 
 Champa, 263, 264 
 
 Chains of Cambodia, whose language 
 has been proved by P. W. Schmidt, 
 Die Mon Volker, to belong to the 
 Mon. Khmer family of languages, 
 (Grierson, J.R.A.S., Jany. 1907, 
 p. 189). Their Indian Creed, 112, 
 
 "4. 133. 379. 380, 381, 421. 509, 
 
 510,511, 567 
 Chandra, or Moon Year, 224, 332 
 Chandra-Kushika, 471 
 Chariot of the year-god and ritual of 
 
 the chariot - worshipping races, x. , 
 
 37, 488, 569, 570, 571, 572, 730, 731, 
 
 750. 751. 752. 756. 757. 859 
 Chasas, cultivating caste of Orissa, 
 
 249 
 Chatur-mdsiya, year of three seasons 
 
 of four months each, 744, 944 
 Chat-vala, pit of Indian ritual, 610, 
 
 611, 750 
 Chedi, land of the birds, 417 
 Cheiron, the Centaur physician, 39, 
 
 401, 465, 466, 467, 473, 499, 877 
 Cheit, March — April, Hindu month, 
 
 249, 413, 487, 490, 653, 666, 677, 
 
 692, 693, 695, 731, 741. 743. 745. 
 
 746, 768, 789,882 
 Cherubim, the flying-bulls, 913 
 Chickens, Indian chickens sacred birds 
 
988 
 
 Index. 
 
 of Roman and Greek Augurs, 327, 
 798 
 
 Chimara, symbol of the three-years 
 cycle-year, slain by Bellerophon 
 (Baal Raphon), the sun-physician, 
 465 
 
 China, Chinese, 8, 9, 13, 23, ill, 120, 
 126, 17s, 230, 269, 505, 573, 584, 676 
 
 Chiroos, sons of the bird (chir), 72, 74, 
 78, 104, 142, 255, 285, 294, 316, 412, 
 417, 428, 434, 442, 445, 451, 453, 
 469, 481, 949 
 
 Chista, in Zend theology the Chest of 
 the Law of God, the Ephod which 
 inspired the Jewish priests. See 
 Aaron, Ephod, 628 
 
 Chitra, the star Virgo, 485, 678 
 
 Chitra-ratha, sons of Chitra's Virgo's 
 chariot (ratha), 892 
 
 Ckiun, the pillar-god, 220, 706 
 
 Chkai, the creating Potter, the Mord- 
 vinian king-bee-god, 25, 317, 318 
 
 Chnum, Khnemtt, Khmilis, Khnum, 
 the Egyptian potter-ape-god Cano- 
 pus, 79, 135 
 
 Choiak, September — October, Egyp- 
 tian-month, 191, 782 
 
 Cholas, Kols, Kolarians, 255, 442 
 
 Chumpa-tree, 468 
 
 Chtmdar-bunsi, 363 
 
 Churinga, Australian birth-symbols, 
 60, 61, 62, 66 
 
 Churuk, Puja, Indian swinging sacri- 
 fice, 582 
 
 Chutia Nagfur, themother {CAui) land 
 of the Nagas, 17, 50, 56, 184, 216, 
 248, 251, 410, 412, 421, 426 
 
 Chuttis-gurh, 50, 51, 242, 410, 426, 
 434. 43S. 440, 441 
 
 Chyavana, the moving god, 44, 607, 
 608, 757 
 
 Cinderella, Annamite version of, 116, 
 117, 484 
 
 Cinnamon, brought by Phoenicians 
 from Ceylon, 368 
 
 Circles of stones of the Neolithic Age, 
 I S3 
 
 Circuits of the altars and national 
 boundaries. Left-hand circuits pre- 
 scribed in the ritual of the years 
 ruled by the Great Bear. Solar 
 right-hand circuits introduced when 
 the sun entered Taurus at the vernal 
 equinox, 13, 14, 120, 502, 588, 791, 
 798, 802, 803, 804, 866, 868, 890 
 
 Circumcision, its history in South- 
 western Asia, Africa, India, Poly- 
 nesia, Australia and Mexico, 71, 72, 
 73, 87, 631, 839 
 
 Cities of the Dead of the Akkadians and 
 Mundas of Chutia Nagpur, 216 
 
 Cloud-bird, see Khu, Hu, Su, Zu, 
 Raven, v., vii., xviii., loi, 801 
 
 Club, weapon of the early gods, 270, 
 271, 346, 347. 720 
 
 Clytemnestra, twin sister of Kastor, 
 
 758 
 Cocks and hens in ritual of India, 
 
 South-western Asia and Europe, 
 
 209, 298, 768 
 Colchis, Cokhians, 71, 73, 280, 590, 
 
 591 
 
 Conchobar, 334, 335, 523 
 
 Census, Roman god whose temple was 
 underground, and his festival the 
 Consualia, 549, 560 
 
 Cord, The Sacrificial, or girdle first 
 worn on the right shoulder in India, 
 Umbria and Mexico. Originally the 
 year-girdle of the early gods and 
 priests worn round the waist. Lastly 
 in the age of solar right-hand ritual- 
 istic circuits worn on the left shoulder, 
 144, 158, 159, 217, 376, 406, 588, 
 627, 734, 798, 802, 803, S04, 859, 
 869 
 
 Corinth, 210, 279, 280, 541, 577, 752 
 
 Corn-baby, 112 
 
 Corona Bortalis, birth-place of the 
 sun-god, 40, 41, 42, 301, 302, 334, 
 355. 533. 536. 543. 545. 547. 576, 
 768, 934 
 
 Common meals of the early matriarchal 
 races in Asia and Europe, 210 
 
 Corvus, the Indian Hasta or hand con- 
 stellation, 461, 466, 621, 677 
 
 Cotton, 368 
 
 Cotton trees, sacred in the ritual of 
 human sacrifices, 79, 324, 390, 868, 
 896 
 
 Cougar, Tiger of the North slain by 
 the Mexican Twins, 851, 852, 853 
 
 Couvade, historical meaning of, 1 79 
 
 Cradle of the sun and corn-god. See 
 Liknon, 112, 300 
 
 Crete, Cretans, 15, 26, 41, 186, 188, 
 193. 195. 197. 201, 210, 289, 498, 
 559, 578, 617, 630, 631, 753, 79S, 
 829 
 
 Cro-Magnon, men of, I40, 142, 143, 
 147, 148 
 
 Crom Croich, Celtic god of the thir- 
 teen-months year, 284, 493 
 
 Cross, first the solstitial cross of St. 
 Andrew /\^, 1^''^ the equilateral 
 upright cross -4— of St. George, 
 that of the age of the cycle-year be- 
 
Index. 
 
 989 
 
 ginning with the sun in Aries at the 
 autumnal equinox. The union of 
 the two crosses found in the eight- 
 rayed star [which see), 119, 327, 328, 
 330, 354, 685, 801, 805, 850, 852 
 
 Crucifixion of Haman Baal Kham- 
 man and his ten sons as gods of the 
 eleven-months year (see Purim), 465 
 
 Cryft, origin of, 549 
 
 Cu-chulainn, the hound of Culain, 
 Celtic sun-god, 518, 519, 523, 552, 
 569, 572, 618, 619, 620, 622, 688, 
 711 
 
 Cups of the seasons made by the Indian 
 Ribhus (which see), 157, 746 
 
 Cybele, the Phrygian cave (Cybele) 
 mother of the sons of the pine-tree, 
 66, 67, 98, 141, 198, 216, 221, 226, 
 281, 312, 314, 383, 451, S41, 560, 
 798, 830 
 
 Cyclopean architecture, 706 
 
 Cyclops, one-eyed Pole Star-god, 827 
 
 Cy^nus, Pole Star in, 161, 447, 469 
 
 Cymri, nation formed from the union 
 of the Goidelic and Brythonic Celts, 
 
 430. 431. 433. 435 
 
 Cyfress-tree mother of the sun-god of 
 the Phrygian fire-worshippers, Phoe- 
 nicians, Persians, Cretans, Greeks 
 and Egyptians, 15, 105, 151, 176, 
 i86, 189, 191, 194, 19s, 242, 289, 
 296. 552. SS7, 630, 631, 650, 783, 
 826, 827 
 
 Cyprus, 200, 211 
 
 Cyrus, rn, 497, 499 
 
 Dadhiank, god of milk {dadhi) curds 
 with a horse's head ruling the eleven- 
 months year, 40, 265, 451, 452, 454, 
 473. 479. 562, 568, 611, 732, 892, 
 897. 933 
 Dagda Dago devos, the Celtic Daksha, 
 god of the Cauldron (which see), 
 father of Brigit, 332, 608 
 Dahak-wajas, Gond drum-beaters, 238 
 Dahdak, blind Arabian god, 133 
 Daitya, mother-river of the fire-wor- 
 shippers of the Zendavesta, the 
 Araxes or Kur (which see), 105, 151, 
 
 179. 349. 497. ^99. 7o6 
 
 Daityas, Indian Asuras, 478 
 
 Dakota, the joined races of America 
 who there reproduced the Indian 
 swinging sacrifice Churuk Puja 
 (which see), 79, 80, 582, 8o5 
 
 Daksha, god of the showing -hand 
 ruling the year of five-day weeks, 
 xi., 22, 160, 194, 226, 256, 263, 292, 
 332, 403. 404, 910, 930, 936 
 
 Ddkshamya, 833 
 
 Ddkshayana, sacrifice to Daksha of the 
 barley -growing Kurus and Sringayas, 
 sons of the sickle (srini), 403 
 
 Dakshina, Indian South-western semi- 
 circular altar of the primitive Hindu 
 fathers Pitarah Somavantah, sons of 
 the Soma rice plants, 403, 404, 407, 
 408, 409, 410, 415 ,. 
 
 Daktuloi, the finger (5£i)tTu\os) dancinf; 
 priests of the god of the five-days 
 week, 159, 319, 630, 755, 828, 870 
 
 Dali-ka Tdri, land assigned to the 
 Pole Star goddess Tari (which see) 
 in the Pahnai or Priests' land of the 
 Oraons' villages, 422 
 
 Damayanti. See Nala 
 
 Dame, the house-building sons of the 
 tortoise, 238 
 
 Damia, Italian building-goddess. Ma- 
 ter Matuta, 26, 209 
 
 Dan Danu, male, Ddnu Don, fe- 
 male forms of the Pole Star 
 god, parcel of the Indian Dii- 
 nava, the Zend sons of Danu, the 
 Greek Danaoi, the Hebrew sons of 
 Dan. SeeTwi, 33, 35, 41, 139, 160, 
 255, 262, 285, 525, 627, 771, 946, 
 950 
 
 Danae, female form of Dan, mother of 
 Perseus, the sun-god, bom to the 
 tower of the three-years cycle-year, 
 
 336,337 
 
 Ddnava, Danaoi, sons of Danu in 
 India and Greece, 33, 139, 362, 627, 
 946 
 
 Dances held at the seasonal festivals 
 in the Akra or Indian village danc- 
 ing-ground and in other countries in 
 the Temenoi or consecrated enclo- 
 sures of the temples of South- 
 western Asia, Europe and America, 
 their origin, and the reason of their 
 institution, 46, 93, 98, 102, 133, 196, 
 371, 870 
 
 Dara Darda, the antelope-father-god 
 of the Akkadians and Dards, 294, 
 
 634 
 Dardb Darius, 721, 722, 723 
 
 Dardanii, sons of Dara Dardanus, 294, 
 295.313. 559.630,759 
 
 Dards of Dardistan, 291, 316, 453, 
 585 
 
 Ddrttka, the charioteer of Krishna, the 
 pine-tree (ddrti) god, 570, 875, 876, 
 879 
 
 Ddsahard, Indian festival of the autum- 
 nal equinox at which a buffalo is 
 
990 
 
 Index. 
 
 sacrificed, 344, 382, 391, 392, 397, 
 400, 585, 587 
 
 Dasaraiha, he of the ten chariots 
 {ratha), ten lunar months of ges- 
 tation, name of Raghu or Ba, father 
 of Rama, 471 
 
 Dashagva, gods of the ten {^dashan) 
 days of the week of the last Vedic 
 Egyptian and Athenian year, 932 
 
 Dashyu, dwellers in the land (desk), 
 sons of Agastya {Canopus), 255 
 
 Date-palm-tree, mother-tree of the sons 
 of the sexless sun-god of the fifteen- 
 months year of Bhishma and Vala- 
 rama in India, of the sons of Tamar, 
 the date - palm - tree, and Judah 
 among the Jews, and of the Bani 
 Hanifa among the Arabians, 52, 87, 
 634. 635, 636, 640, 642, 644, 647, 
 691, 700, 780, 826, 828, 874, 876 
 
 David, Dodo, the beloved sun-god of 
 the Semites of the year of the eight- 
 rayed star and the eight-days week, 
 629, 633, 636, 637, 639, 643, 644, 
 645. 690, 737, 739 
 
 Deborah, the bee Hebrew prophetess 
 of the age of bee-worship, 319 
 
 Dechtere, Daegter, the day (daeg) 
 mother of the sun-god Lug, 334 
 
 Dedan, islands in the Persian Gulf, 
 
 131, 374 
 
 Deer-sun-god, the Reindeer-god of the 
 North, 137, 138, 152, 154, 155, 158 
 
 Delos, 289, 577, 828, 830, 849 
 
 Delphi, the womb (delphiis) of the 
 Greek race, 20, 67, 85, 221, 319, 
 636, 825, 826, 829, 830 
 
 Demeter Deo, mother of barley (deal) 
 and of life (di, Greek form of Ak- 
 kadian zi), ruling with Persephone 
 the May Queen the Pleiades year of 
 two seasons beginning in November, 
 I97> 198, 200, 202, 210, 211, 213, 
 288, 296, 297, 312, 313, 319, 804 
 
 Demodokos, his historical lay in the 
 Odyssey, 272 
 
 Derketo. See Tirhatha 
 
 Dervishes, dancing-priests of the Pole 
 Star-god consecrated by the Kam- 
 berjah or three-knotted cord girdle 
 {see Cord Girdle) of the three stars in 
 Orion's belt, the three seasons of 
 the year, 159 
 
 Desauli, Deswali, Santal and Munda 
 village-god, 422, 423 
 
 Deshast Brahmans of the Dekhan, 
 246, 247 
 
 Deucalion, the flood-god, father of the 
 wolf-race, 41, 66, 558, 621 
 
 Deva-ddru, Pitu-daru {Piaus deodara), 
 the divine pine - tree {daru), its 
 ritualistic use and meaning, 225, 
 450. 493> 818 
 
 Devaki, mother of Krishna, 646, 647 
 
 Devasena, 769 
 
 Devaydni, Devayana, goddess-mother 
 of the first six months' season of the 
 solstitial year beginning at the winter 
 solstice, daughter of Ushana the 
 rain-god, wifeof Yayati, the full-moon 
 god, mother of the twins Yadu and 
 Turvasu, 118, 363, 366, 372, 471, 
 586, 589, 904 
 
 Dhanuk, men of the bow (dhanuk), 
 the archer-caste, 580. See Bow 
 
 Dhanv-antari, the internal {antari) 
 flowing-stream {dhanva) of thought, 
 665 
 
 Dharma, the god of law and orderly 
 succession of natural changes, the 
 Pole Star, i6l, 262, 320, 826, 936 
 
 Dharti Dhara, goddess-mother of 
 streams {dhara), 255, 469 
 
 Dhaumya, the son of smoke {dhumo), 
 incense-offering priest of the Pan- 
 davas, 372 
 
 Dhimals, Himalayan tribe, 102 
 
 Dhishnya, the eight priests' hearths in 
 the Soma consecrated area, 928, 929 
 
 Dkrita-rashtra, he who holds together 
 the kingdom {rashti-d), the blind god 
 of the wooden gnomon, the trunk of 
 the world's central tree, son of Vyasa, 
 the alligator constellation Draco, and 
 Ambika, the Pole Star in Cygnus. 
 Husband of Gan-dhari, the Pole Star 
 Vega, mother of the Kauravya and 
 ruling king of India in the age of the 
 history told in the Mahabharata, 161, 
 469, 470, 471, 473, 771, 878, 89s 
 
 Dhruva, the firm {dhruva) Pole Star 
 and its altar-spoon, 124, 162, 253, 
 41S, 416,417 
 
 Dhuti {Thoth), the bird {dhu) of life 
 (/;■), the Egyptian moon-god, recorder 
 of time, 192 
 
 Dian Cecht, Celtic divine physician 
 with one hand, 32 
 
 Diana, the Etruscan Tana, the female 
 Janus, goddess-mother of groves, 
 576, 800, 961 
 
 Diidli, Difdvali, Dewali, feast of 
 lamps held in India to celebrate the 
 beginning of the Pleiades year, 108, 
 III, 476 
 
 Dieri, Australian tribe, 57 
 
 Dllisha, Dikshdnviya, baptism of 
 
Index. 
 
 991 
 
 Indian partakers of the Soma sacra- 
 ment, 217, 9SS 
 
 Dil-gan, Ddbat, the star Capella, god 
 (dii) of the land, 314, 680 
 
 Bil-mun, land of God (dil), Bahrein, 
 128, 370, 824 
 
 Dinah, female form of Dan, 285, 627, 
 771 
 
 Bingir, Dingira, Akkadian creating 
 ear of corn, the eight-rayed star, 
 183, 600 
 
 Diomedes, winner of the sun chariot- 
 race, son of Tydeus, the northern 
 hammer (ttia) smith, his mythological 
 history, 273, 275, 276, 752, 758, 761, 
 762, 763, 764, 827, 828 
 
 Dionysia, 45, 613 
 
 Dionysos, the barley and vine-god, son 
 of Semele, the Phcenician goddess 
 Pen Samlath, bom of the Thigh of 
 the Great Bear, 19, 40, 43, 44, 177, 
 285, 29s, 301, 3SS, 385, 475, 500, 
 536, 564. 583. 612, 613, 615, 617, 
 639. 649, 679, 684, 858, 904, 969. 
 976 
 
 Bioskouroi, twin children of heaven, 
 the stars Gemini, 86, 385 
 
 Bipankara, the nascent light, 65 1 
 
 Blrgha-iamas, the blind god of the 
 long (dirgha), darkness of the three- 
 years cycle-year, father of Kakshivat, 
 god of the eleven-months year, 290, 
 
 29i> 470. 471, 476. 897. 934 
 Disaules, god of ploughing two (dis) 
 
 year furrows or seasons, 197 
 Dithwan, Deoihan, festival of the 
 
 awakening of Krishna, 416, 475, 479, 
 
 948, 949 
 Biti, second, 260 
 Bivo-ddsa, 415, 524, 525, 892 
 Bfij, the jungle hen, name of Rustum's 
 
 bow, 356, 538, 539, 545 
 Bjehn, darkness, son of Afrasiab, 554, 
 
 556 
 Dadona, 200, 850 
 Boe, the mother-star-goddess. See 
 
 Aldebaran RohinI, 156, 158 
 Bog of the Fire-worshippers and Bhils, 
 
 145. 151 
 Bog-star, 226, 227, 318, 641, 787 
 Bogs, sacrifice of, 226, 227, 287, 620 
 Bokana, the stars Gemini, door-posts 
 
 of heaven, 326, 912, 973 
 Boliko-kephalic races, 139 
 Bolphin mother-goddess. See Fish- 
 mother Amphitrite, 35, 826 
 Boms, early building race-rulers of 
 
 Ayodhya (Oude), 243, 427 
 Bon. See Danu 
 
 Dorians, Maryan, sons of the Spea 
 
 (ilor), 375. 377. 577. 75^ 
 Dorje or Vajra, the double-thunderbolt 
 
 /K^ of the two solstitial seasons, 14, 
 
 566 
 
 Dosadhs, priests of Ra-hu in Behar, 
 
 433. 485 
 
 Draco, constellation of the Indian 
 Vyasa father of royal races of the 
 Kauravyas and Pandavas, 161, 186, 
 570, 581, 641, 677, 687, 738 
 
 Draupnir, year-ring of Odin, 400, 650 
 
 Dravidians, Dravida, men of the yellow 
 race of the Dravida (Curcuma 
 Zodoarid), wild Turmeric, the sacred 
 plant of the mixed Malayan races, 5, 
 51. 65, 94. 96, 127, 132, 303, 367, 
 374, 377, 406, 411. 424, 577, 800, 
 840 
 
 Dravido Mundas, 55 
 
 Drolma, 103, 506 
 
 Drona, the parent tree-trunk containing 
 the Soma or sap of life, the hollowed 
 Soma receptacle. In the Maha- 
 bharata a Kauravya leader, father of 
 Ashvatthaman, son of the Ashvattha- 
 Uee [tvhich' see) 116, 261, 306, 610, 
 614, 616, 628, 638, 674, 908, 937, 
 938 
 
 Druhyu, the race of sorcerers (druh), 
 254, 899, 901, 904 
 
 Druids, Celtic priests of the oak-tree, 
 16, 98, 123, 200, 211, 800 
 
 Drum, magic drum of Finns and 
 Lapps, 138 
 
 Drupada, the foot of the tree (dru), 
 the tree-pillar-god of the Panchalas, 
 the sacrificial post, 226, 237, 265, 
 900 
 
 Drupadi, daughter of Drupada, tree- 
 mother-goddess of the Kadamba 
 almond-tree ruling the rainy season, 
 wife of the five Pandava season gods, 
 265, 618, 623, 674, 675, 685, 686, 
 771, 772, 874, 879, 881, 900 
 
 Drystan = Tris\.r3.ra., 688 
 
 Dughda, the daughter mother of Zara- 
 thustra, the sun-hawk, 106 
 
 Dumu-zi, the son (dmnu) of life (zi), 
 Akkadian god bom of the mother- 
 tree of Eridu, the star Orion, 30, 39, 
 129, 156, 190, 274, 285, 352, 355, 
 541,612, 633 
 
 Duodecimal Dravidian method of time 
 measurement, 303, 658, 928 
 
 Durgd, mother-mountain-goddess = 
 Su-bhadra (which see), 29, 30, 343, 
 664, 666, 769 
 
992 
 
 Index. 
 
 Durva, Pole Star brick and Durva- 
 grass of Dhruva the Pole Star, 923 
 
 Durvasa^ 770 
 
 Duryodhana, leader of the Kauravyas, 
 ruling god of the left thigh, the first 
 of the eleven gods of the eleven- 
 months year, 227, 347, 469, 618, 
 
 673. 674 
 Dushmania, father of Bharata, 334, 
 
 454, 514, 908 
 Dus-shasana, the ill-omened hare 
 
 {shdsd) god of the eleven-months 
 
 year, 673, 674, 773 
 Dus-shata, 316, 77' 
 Dwarika, the Yadava port in Khatia- 
 
 war, 365, 417, 477= M. 878 
 
 Eagle of the South, slain by Mexican 
 
 Twins, 853, 854, 861 
 Easter, 517, 725, 727, 788, 789, 790, 
 
 793. 795 
 
 Easier Eggs, 790 
 
 Easter Island, 150 
 
 Eber, Iberian father of the Hebrews, 
 132 
 
 Eburones, rulers of the country of the 
 Ardennes, 812 
 
 Echternach, Whitsuntide Procession at, 
 812 
 
 Eden, Garden of, 38, 913 
 
 Edom, land of the red men, 69 
 
 Educational system of the early founders 
 of villages, 94, 95, 96, 97, 424 
 
 Eel-god of the Iberian sons of the 
 rivers. See'lis., Indra, 182, 183, 184, 
 186, 187, 189 
 
 Egg, Birth-egg of Naga, Zend and 
 Druid mythology, from which all 
 life was born, which became the 
 Ankh egg of Egypt and the Easter 
 egg of Europe, 315, 316, 778, 779, 
 789, 790, 801 
 
 Egyptians, 187 
 
 Eight-rayed star, symbol of the sun- 
 god of com of the fifteen-months 
 year of the sons of the Udumbara 
 wild fig-tree. Formed from the 
 union of the solstitial cross of St. 
 
 Andrew y^ with the equilateral 
 
 cross of St. George — 1— that of the 
 
 equinoctial year of the three-years 
 cycle, 328, vol. I. Illustration V., 
 pp. 329, 600, 643, 915, 916, 977 
 
 Eilltion, a class of Cymric tenants, 
 rights of, 431, 433, 442 
 
 Ek-ashtaka, the child of the Majesty 
 of Indra, 259, 260, 504 
 
 Elam, land of the mountaineer Ak- 
 kadians, worshippers of Susi Nag, 
 683 
 
 Electra, the Pleiades, 630, 759 
 
 Eleusinian Mysteries, 199 
 
 Eleven-months year of the head of the 
 sun-horse, 451,454. 455 
 
 Elim, the gazelle, a name of la, 163 
 
 Eli-un, Ellas, Eli-jah, the Phoenician 
 rain-god, called El-khudr= St.George 
 (which see), 183, 189, 463 
 
 Elm, parent-tree of the Ainos, 141 
 
 Emain, the home of the apple of life 
 of the raven-god Bran, 155 
 
 Emasculation, a ritualistic rite, 383 
 
 En-te-na-masluv, constellation Hydra, 
 the divine (en) foundation (te) of the 
 prince (na) of the black (luv) ante- 
 lope (mas), 361 
 
 Ephialtes, twin brother of Otus, son 
 of Poseidon, 272 
 
 Ephesus, 26, 156, 319 
 
 Ephod, the Chista of the Zendavesta, 
 the inspiring garment of the priest, 
 its ritualistic history, 81, 628, 629, 
 
 639 
 
 Ephors of Sparta, 604 
 
 Ephraim, son of the god Joseph-el, 
 Tribe of the two ashes (ephra), unit- 
 ing the sun-worshippers with the 
 devotees of star and moon worship, 
 631,637,642 
 
 Epiphi, April — May, Egyptian month, 
 681, 792 
 
 Epona, British white horse sun-god- 
 dess, 650, 658 
 
 Equiria, October horse - sacrifice at 
 Rome, 475, 488, 605, 751 
 
 Erech, first recorded city in the Eu- 
 phratean Delta, 129 
 
 Erechtheus, Ericthonios, the holy snake 
 of the Erectheum at Athens, the 
 equivalent of Poseidon, 15,201,270, 
 278, 289, 466, 569, 575, 593 
 
 Encyna, Erigone, the Phoenician Erck- 
 hayim, the healer, the star Virgo, 
 worshipped at Rome on the 23rd of 
 April, St. George's Day, 229, 485 
 
 Eridu, Eriduga, the holy (duga) city, 
 port of Erech, 39, 128, 190, 274, 
 633 
 
 Erina-vach, the Iranian speaker (vach), 
 mother of Iraj, the sun-god, 231, 
 232 
 
 Esau, Usov, Uzava, the goat and green- 
 pillar-god, the tree-pillar, 629 
 
 Eshmiin, for Heb. Esh fire, the Phoeni- 
 cian and Akkadian eighth god called 
 
Index. 
 
 993 
 
 Paian, the healer offspring of the 
 
 seven Thigh stars of the Great Bear, 
 
 229, 604 
 Esh-shu, means in Akkadian god and 
 
 an ear of corn, 690, 848 
 Esquimaux, 149 
 Essenes, king bees, priests of Ephesus, 
 
 26,317.319 
 Esther, Istar, destroyer of Haman and 
 
 the gods of the eleven-months year, 
 
 464,465 , , , 
 
 Ethnea, Celtic mother of the sun-god 
 
 Lug, 88, 336, 337 
 Etruscans, Etruna, 355, 385, 553, 
 
 752 
 Euboulms, pig-god of the Greek Thes- 
 mophoria, 34, 197, 200, 214, 288, 
 
 313 
 
 EuguUne Tables, 376, 796, 797, 799 
 
 Etmums, swineherd of Odusseus, 621, 
 622, 623 
 
 Eumelus, son of Hades Admetus, the 
 overthrown god of the sun-chariot- 
 race of Achilles, 757, 761, 762 
 
 Euphrates, river of the channel Nahr 
 or Nahor, mother-river of the Gaur- 
 ian race, and of the fire-worshipping 
 sons of the antelope, i., 16, 182, 
 373, 612, 626, 630, 699 
 
 Europa, goddess of the West (ereb), 
 sister of Kadmus, god of the East 
 (Kedem), 753 
 
 Eurynome, Eurykleia, Ereih - noema, 
 the Pole Star, nurse of Odusseus, 
 212, 213, 621, 622 
 
 Eurytion, Eurytos, the Centaur god of 
 the Great Bear iiow, xix., 467, 523, 
 578, 622, 756 
 
 Fafnir, ruling snake-god, slain by the 
 sun-god Sigurd, 263, 358, 454, 593 
 
 Fakhr Taj, the crown {taj) of glory, 
 mother of Murad (the neck), the 
 horse-necked sun-god, 520, 526, 527 
 
 Faraviurz, son of Rustum, 513 
 
 Farvardin, June — July, Persian first 
 month of the year, beginning at the 
 summer solstice, 21, 125, 227, 348, 
 704. 953 
 
 Father gods, first worshipped by the 
 sons of the eel and antelope, 183, 
 186 
 
 Faunus, Italian deer-sun-god, 798 
 
 Feast to the Dead began the years 
 dealt with in this book, the dates 
 varying according to the National 
 New Year's Day, 102, 125, 405, 406, 
 6'S, 704. 789 
 II. 3 S 
 
 Fenrir, wolf of the Edda, 561 
 Feralia Latina, first festival of the 
 
 Latin year, held 24th April, 485 
 Ferengis, mother of Khushrav, 524, 
 
 526, 527, 529, 530, 532, 533, 538 
 Feriburz, son of Kaous, 528, 530, 531, 
 
 532,533. 538 
 Eeridun, of the Shah-namah, Thrae- 
 taona of the Zendavesta, king of 
 Persia in the age of the three-years 
 cycle-year, who conquered Azida- 
 haka, the biting snake (which see). 
 His armies were led by Kaweh or 
 Kabi, the archer-god, whose apron 
 was the Great Bear, His son was 
 Iraj, the sun-god, born in Cancer, 
 
 13. 231, 307, 344. 347. 349. 444 
 
 Fifty Pentecostal days passed by Bud- 
 dha, the sun-god, in reaching his 
 perfect development. A ritualistic 
 epitome of successive year-reckon- 
 ings, 663—673 
 
 Fig -sycamore, parent-tree of Egypt, 
 296 
 
 Fig-tree, parent-tree of the Syrians, 
 Phrygians, Egyptians, Greeks, Ro- 
 mans, the Indian Kushika, the 
 Chams of Cambodia. 6>«Ashvatthn, 
 Banyan, Udumbara, 16, 295, 296, 
 302, 796 
 
 Fiji, Fijians, 150 
 
 Finns, 89, 103, 138, 139, 149, 150, 
 152, 182, 187, 203, 363, 424, 518, 
 594. 595. 598, 80s 
 
 Fir Bolg, Men of the Bag or Womb, a 
 Celtic race who traced their descent 
 by the periods of ten months of 
 gestation into which the three-years 
 cycle-year was divided, 336 
 
 i^z>^, sanctity of. &f Agni, 138 
 
 Fire-drill and socket, creating gods of 
 the fire-dog the son of time, Ayu, 
 the dog-star Sirius, 224, 225, 253, 
 314 
 
 Fire-mother, mother-goddess of the 
 Median race, called in the Rigveda 
 Saunaka, sons of the dog, who called 
 thewooden fire-socket Matar-i-shvan, 
 mother of the dog (shvan), (which 
 see), 151 
 
 Fires, kindling of year-fires on the 
 national New Year's Day in Asia^ 
 Europe and America, 17, 34, 70, 214. 
 215,270,843 
 
 Fire-stick, circumcision with, m Aus 
 tralia, 70 
 
 First-fruits, the original bloodless sac 
 rificc of the village races, 34, 102 
 III, 196, 201, 849 
 
994 
 
 Index. 
 
 '^'"r"''. 535. 536 
 
 Fish-god, the mother-fish, first offspring 
 of animal life, born of Bau, the god- 
 dess of the southern bird. It be- 
 came the half-human dolphin and 
 the river-eel-mother of the sons of 
 the rivers. She became the fish- 
 father-god, Num or Nun of the 
 Samoyedes, Akkadians, Egyptians 
 and Hebrews, who was finally 
 Salli - manu or Solomon, ruler of 
 the year. &^ Eel, la, Pisces, Tan, 
 33. 35. "6, 119. 223, 309, 344, 478, 
 624, 737, 738, 739. 740. 777. 809 
 
 Five, sanctified as the five-days of the 
 week of the early years, the five 
 fingers of the hand of the ape-god 
 recording the lapse of time which in 
 various symbolic forms lies at the 
 base of all forms of year-reckoning 
 by months and days, 22, 101, 103, 
 112, 115, 194, 226, 256 
 
 Flaminia Dialis, 397, 398, 794, 961 
 
 Flax, the mother-plant of the weaving 
 immigrants into India from Asia 
 Minor, who revered Uma, Flax 
 as the wife of Shiva. See Sesame- 
 Uma, 242, 243 
 
 Flint or stone knives, the earliest 
 ritualistic implements used Dy cir- 
 cumcisers and the offerers of blood 
 offerings of men and animals. See 
 Circumcision, 71, 72, 77, 837, 839, 
 
 847 
 
 Fo-mori, men beneath the sea \muir), 
 a Celtic race who remembered the 
 birth of their ancestors in the lands 
 south of the Equator, 38, 40 
 
 Fordicidia, Roman festival of the 15th 
 April, 482 
 
 Forty made sacred as the number of 
 months in the three-years cycle-year, 
 
 304, 305, 471 
 
 Four ages of Buddhist chronology, 455, 
 
 650, 651, 664, 677 
 Four periods of the cycle-year, each of 
 
 ten stellar months of gestation, 304, 
 
 305. 320 
 
 Four seasons of the year ruled by Sirius, 
 Hydra, Aquila and Leo, 361 
 
 Frangrasyan, irrigating Turanian king 
 of the Fryano or sons of the Viru or 
 phallus, called in Shah-namah Afra- 
 siab {which see), 231, 235, 307, 350, 
 524, 887 
 
 Frashaoslra, the Zend teaching-priest, 
 the Indian Prashastri. 694 
 
 Frev, the deer and boar sun-god of the 
 North, 154, 204, 219, 234 
 
 Freya, twin-sister and consort of Frey, 
 who was first the doe-goddess and 
 afterwards the sun-hawk, 77, 219, 
 
 399 
 Frigga Freyr, Odin's wife, whose distaff 
 
 was the three stars in Orion's belt, 
 
 24 
 Fufluns, Etrurian Apollo, 827 
 
 Gadura, Garuda, the egg-born bird of 
 light, who sat on the year-chariot of 
 Krishna the antelope-god. The sun- 
 bird born of the egg laid by Kadru, 
 the mother of the Nagas and thir- 
 teenth wife of Kashyapa the Kushika 
 Naga father, 109, 246, 271, 448, 570, ' ' 
 760, 820, 851, 87s 
 
 Gahanbars, Zoroastrian seasonal 
 festivals, 702 
 
 Gai-bolg, spear {gai) of Cu-chulainn 
 the Celtic sun-god, 519 
 
 Galahad, x. 
 
 Gdlava, the pure Soma, 665, 675 
 
 C«?«, the curved star, Akkadian name 
 of the constellation Aries, 28, 33 
 
 Gamelion, January — February, Greek 
 month of the marriage (gamos) of 
 Zeus and Here, 260, 422, 614, 648, 
 703. 976 
 
 Gandhara, land of streams (d/iara), the 
 river land of Seistan, 316, 367, 895 
 
 Gan-dhdrl, the river {dhdri), mother of 
 the land (gan), the Vulture Pole 
 Star "Vega, bird-mother of the 
 Kauravya, 161, 316, 367, 469, 771, 
 891, 895 
 
 Gandharva, gods of the atmospheric 
 vault, dwellers in the land (gan) of 
 the Pole Star (dhruva) whose leaders 
 were the seven Gandharva, the 
 seven stars of the Great Bear, iii., 
 iv., vi., vii., X., xi., xiv., xv., xviii., 
 32, 162, 167, .177, 247, 269, 340, 
 372, 470, 486, 504, 506, 902, 903, 
 
 934. 935 
 
 Gan-diva, the divine (diva) bow of 
 the land (gan) of Aijuna the rain- 
 god, 606, 672, 772, 880, 881 
 
 Ganga, Ganges, 403, 404, 644, 645 
 
 Gangpur, primitive very ancient 
 Indian kingdom, its constitution, 
 425, 426 
 
 Gan-isha, lord (isha) of the land (gan), 
 the elephant-headed cloud-bird, the 
 first impersonator of the Buddha. 
 See Cloud-bird, v., 106, 113, 114, 
 347. 349, 509, 652, 676, 735, 805, 
 834 
 
Index. 
 
 995 
 
 Ganymede, female and male-god, filler 
 of the cups of the seasons, 278, 295, 
 297. 298, 312 
 
 Gdo-kerma, Go-kard, the White Hom 
 cypress-tree, 105 
 
 Garden of God, the square womb of 
 life guarded by the stars Gemini, 
 326, 327. 330. 332, 337. 345. 357. 
 373. 375. 386. 396, 913. 914. 916, 
 958 
 
 Garha-patya, mistress of the house 
 [gar/i) fire-altar of the thirteen- 
 montlis year, ix., 268, 276, 324, 402, 
 407, 728, 921, 922, 927, 928 
 
 Garuda, bird of Krishna. See Gadura 
 
 Gauls, 227, 395, 473 
 
 Gauri, the wild cow (gaur^, Indian 
 goddess mother of the Gaurian race, 
 203, 248, 366, 419, 581, 626 
 
 Gaur Tugas, 251 
 
 Gautuma, Gotama, father of the 
 Gautuma sons of the bull [gut) and 
 cow {go), 237, 243, 298, 317, 444, 
 471, 588, 617 
 
 Gavida, Govannon, Celtic smith-god, 
 
 314. 509 
 
 Gdyatri, the eight -syllabled metre of 
 song {gdyd) consecrated to the fire- 
 god of the eight-days week of the 
 fifteen-months year, vi,, 606, 609, 
 732, 733. 742. 915. 918, 919, 938, 
 939 
 
 Gasha of Japan, 42, 216 
 
 Gemini, the twin stars, guardians of 
 the gate of the Garden of God 
 through which the sun entered at 
 the yearly beginning of his course 
 round the heavens, 40, 43, 45, 46, 47, 
 85, i6l, 185, 228, 238, 261, 263, 
 297. 3". 320, 321, 324, 342, 375, 
 561, 609, 651, 652, 653, 663, 666, 
 678, 696, 708, 709, 747, 758, 761, 
 763, 788, 814, 849, 857, 871, 890, 
 911, 912, 926, 941, 952, 958, 976 
 
 Gertrude, &. = goddess Freya, 798 
 
 Geta, milk drinking race. See Goths, 
 499. 572, 573 
 
 Gharib, the poor {gharib) sun-god, 
 166, 516, 520, 526, 527 
 
 Ghati-kara, the maker of Ghatis, 
 Dravidian measurer of time, 658 
 
 Gideon, introducer of Ephod worship, 
 81, 628, 629 
 
 Gilgames, Akkadian year-god, 12, 156, 
 293, 416 
 
 Girdle, symbolical circular year-waist- 
 band of the age of Pole Star wor- 
 ship, preceding the sacrificial cord 
 worn on the right and left shoulders I 
 
 3 S 
 
 of the worshippers of the Zodiacal 
 sun-god. See Cord, 144, 158, 159, 
 659. 734. 765, 798, 802, 803, 804, 
 915 
 
 Girsu, Akkadian city of Gudia, 130, 
 203, 369, 737 
 
 Giv, the speaker, the star Arcturus, 
 son of Giidarz, the Pole Star Vega, 
 a Persian leader of the Wolf race in 
 the age of the reigns of Kaous and 
 Khu-shrav, rulers of the three years 
 cycle-year, and of that of eleven 
 months, 42, 43, 338, 352, 358, $12, 
 513, 515, 520, 528, 529, 530, 531, 
 532, 533. 535. 536. 537. 538. 542, 
 544. 55°. 551. 552, 562, 679. 
 
 Gitatikas, Jain sons of the goddess 
 Gria, the Greek ymij, 597, 598 
 
 Gnomon-stone, measurer of Time. See 
 Hermes, 272, 279, 443, 549 
 
 Goat Pole Star god, 180, 183,270,282, 
 
 295. 423. 731. 732 
 
 Goat-skin dresses of Akkadian priests 
 and Hindu Vaishya, 242, 629 
 
 Goats, sacrifice of to the gods of the 
 Pole Star age before that of the sun- 
 ram and wether, 423, 480, 593, 769, 
 900, 939 
 
 Gog-Magog, 590, 591, 592, 913 
 
 Goidelic Celts, 135, 411, 429, 430, 436, 
 442, 565, 598, 730, 731 
 
 Goleudyd, Light of Day, mother of 
 Kilhwch, the sty-born pig-god, 207, 
 
 293 
 
 Goliath, dyj 
 
 Gonds, a mixed race bom of southern 
 and northern stocks, who were at 
 a very early age rulers of Northern 
 and Central India, called Gaudia or 
 Gondwana, 51, 93, 114, 133, 165, 
 237. 238, 239, 426, 427, 436, 584, 
 886, 887 
 
 Goraits, boundary warders, priests of 
 Goraya, 184, 433, 886 
 
 Goraya, Gond boundary snake-god, 
 423, 428, 433, 886 
 
 Gorgon, of the protruding tongue, 299 
 
 Gorsedd, Welsh circle of sun-stones, 
 
 335 
 Gotami Maha Paja-pati, first of the 
 
 thirteen Buddhist Theris ruling the 
 
 thirteen-months year, 286, 651, 657, 
 
 735. 952 
 Goths, Gotho- Celts, 49, 451, 478, 517, 
 
 518, 697, 726, 832, 959 
 Grail, the Holy, xx. 
 Grdni, grey cloud-horse of Sigurd, 
 
 517. 569 
 
996 
 
 Index. 
 
 Grffves, sacred, their origin and ritual- 
 istic history, 93, 98 
 
 Gubbio, anciently Jguvium, capital of 
 the Umbrian races, 376, 79^1 797> 
 799, 802, 803, 804, 808, 809, 810, 
 828 
 
 Gudarz, the Pole Star Vega, com- 
 mander of the Persian armies, 42, 
 
 512, 513, 515, 528, 531, 532, 533, 
 536, 538. 550, 551. 552> 553. 557. 
 571 
 
 Gud-Ia, the bull {gud) la, 359, 444, 
 
 737 
 Gudua, Akkadian city of the Dead, 180 
 Guelph or Wolf race. See Wolf, 337, 
 
 338, 558, 793 
 
 Guersivaz, the brother of Afrasiab, the 
 name in the Shah-namah of Keresa- 
 vazda {which see), 519, 521, 522, 523, 
 525. 526, 527. 543. 557, 720 
 
 Guga, Ghazi Miyan, and the Five Pirs, 
 566, 567, 568, 591 
 
 Guilds of traders in Asia, Europe and 
 Mexico, 240, 241, 809, 870, 871, 
 885, 886 
 
 CM/fl = Istar, 129 
 
 Gur-azeh, Persian boar -god of the 
 Wolf race of the age of Kaous and 
 Khu-srav, 513, 515, 528, 533, 534, 
 
 544, 55" 
 Gurg-an, the Wolf (gurg) pointer-star 
 of the Great Bear General of Kings 
 Kaous and Khu-shrav, 42, 338, 352, 
 
 513, 528, 532, 534, 535, 543, 544, 
 
 546, 551. 560 
 
 GUsh-asp, sacred fire of Khri-srav. See 
 Adhar Gush-asp, 524, 530, 532, 537, 
 542, 699 
 
 Gusht-asf, Persian king, called Vis- 
 tas a in the Zendavesta, 684, 686, 
 687, 688, 689, 690, 691, 706, 707, 
 708,709, 710, 712, 713, 716, 717, 
 718, 720, 764, 792, 879 
 
 Gutium, land of the bull (gut), early 
 name of Assyria, 177 
 
 Gwalch-mai, the Hawk of May (Ca- 
 wain), 515 
 
 Gwydion, star-god of the Milky Way, 
 
 41, 301. 337, 338 
 Gwyn, Celtic winter-god, 208 
 Gmythur, son of Greid, Celtic summer- 
 god, 208 
 
 Ha^chamoni, the maize-sheaf, brought 
 to the lower world by the Dead Sea 
 Mexicans, 845 
 
 Hadad Rimmon, the pomegranate sun- 
 god, 370, 690 
 
 Haetumant, Helmend, mother-river of 
 the Kushika in Seistan, 138, 230, 
 
 359, 712, 713 
 
 Hai, Egyptian ape-god, 299 
 
 Haihayas, Haio-bunsi, sons of Hai, 
 the ape, Indian ruling race destroyed 
 by Parasu-Rama, who governed all 
 Northern India before the Gonds and 
 Kushika Kaurs, 268, 365, 426, 453, 
 887 
 
 Hair, ceremonial culture of, by tribes 
 of northern descent and their barber- 
 priests in the age of the eleven- 
 months year, 573, 574, 575, 576, 577, 
 578, 581, 582, 583, 584, 725, 727, 
 788 
 
 Hairy races, 139, 150 
 
 Hajams, barber marriage-priests and 
 surgeons, 579,58° 
 
 Haman or Bacfl Khamman, his cruci- 
 fixion, 465, 570 
 
 Hamashfath Maedhya, sixth seasonal 
 festival of the year of Zarathustra, 
 125, 656, 698, 702, 704 
 
 Hdma-varan, the land of rain {hamd), 
 
 348, 358, 359, 360 
 
 Hand, the deified open hand of the 
 year-god of the year of five-day 
 weeks, 194, 195 
 
 Hantfa Bani, sons of the Righteous 
 (hanifa), the sons of the date-palm- 
 tree, S32, 833 
 
 Hannah, the fig-tree, 639 
 
 Hanuman, the striker (hanu), year- 
 ape-god, son of Pavana, the wind, 
 
 341 
 Haoma, the Zend Soma, 17, 105, 455, 
 
 507, 557, 684, 704, 705, 707, 870, 
 
 871 
 Hapi, Egyptian ape-god, the Nile, 192, 
 
 780 
 Hapto-iriHgas, the seven bulls, Zend 
 
 name for the Great Bear, 209, 229, 
 
 297, 345 . ^ „ 
 
 Harah-vaiti, river on which Herat 
 
 stands, the original Sarasvati, 230, 
 
 891 
 Haran or Kharran, the road, city oi 
 
 Laban, the white god {which see), 
 
 373, 374, 375, 626 
 Haranites, ritual of their worship, 632, 
 
 808 
 Hare, a lunar symbol, 674, 837, 838 
 Hart, name of Krishna, 418, 894 
 Harmonia, Kharmano, Kharman, the 
 
 snake-wife of Kadmus, 122, 187, 
 
 313, 753 , ., ^ ,r 
 
 Harpe, crescent-shaped knife of Kro- 
 
 nos, 310 
 
hide. 
 
 '■X. 
 
 997 
 
 Harpies, the three devouring seasons 
 of the year, 466 
 
 Hasta, the hand, the constellation Cor- 
 vus, guardian star of the Pandavas, 
 also the fifth star in the Great Bear, 
 162, 466, 544 
 
 Hat-hor, the house {/lat) of Hor, the 
 master, mother of Horus, born as 
 the hawk-headed ape ruling the year, 
 220, 296, 353, 354, 55S, 700 
 
 Havani, Zend Soma mortar, 455, 507, 
 
 705. 937 
 Haya-griva, the horse (haya) necked 
 (griva) or headed god of Buddhist 
 and Vedic mythology, 265, 478, 506, 
 
 70s 
 
 Hebe, female form of Ganymede, wife 
 of Herakles, 297, 298 
 
 Hector, 570, 707, 754, 755 
 
 Heidrun, Pole Star goat of the Edda, 
 26 
 
 Hii-shui, the ferryman of Gusht-asp, 
 the star Sirius, 686, 687, 688 
 
 Hekate, Greek mother-goddess of the 
 hundred {fxarov) children, Greek 
 equivalent of the Indian Gandhari, 
 the Zend Shata-vaesa, 315, 316 
 
 Hekatombaion, Greek month, July — 
 August, 283 
 
 Helene, immortal tree-mother-goddess, 
 sister of Poludeukes, the much- 
 raining god, 758 
 
 Hephaistos, Sanskrit Yavishtha, the 
 most binding (yu), the lame one- 
 legged Pole Star god, the fire-drill 
 of the revolving heaven, 34, 108, 
 212, 270, 272, 273, 297, 311, 548, 
 622 
 
 Herakles, the Phoenician Archal (which 
 see), 137, 297, 298, 300, 302, 499, 
 630, 650, 684, 752, 755, 756, 757 
 
 Hercules, Latin god of fenced (%picos) 
 boundaries, 178, 197 
 
 Hercules, Zodiacal constellation, 890 
 
 Here, Hera, mistress of heaven, the 
 moon-goddess, wedded to Zeus in 
 Gamelion (January — February), 260, 
 289, 614, 648 
 
 Hermaphrodite, bi-sexual gods of the 
 three-years-cycle, 298 
 
 Hermes, god of the shadow-casting 
 gnomon-pillar (ep;uo) and of the 
 Caduceus. The ram and calf- 
 bearer, Kriophoros and Mosco- 
 phoros, 33, 186, 220, 270, 272, 280, 
 292, 30S, 416, 457, 548, 570, 592, 
 612, 830 
 
 Heme the hunter, form of the deer- 
 god Cernunnos, 214 
 
 Hestia, Greek goddess of the hearth, 
 the Latin Vesta, 70, 151, 548, 680, 
 879 
 
 Hetairai in Greece, 216 
 
 Hi^h Places in plain countries, artifi- 
 cial hills of Shem-i-ramot, 223, 224, 
 629 
 
 Himyarites, black Dravido Sabaean 
 race of South Arabia, 130, 133, 139, 
 525, 548 
 
 Hippodameia, 279, 467 
 
 Hippolytus, son of Theseus, charioteer 
 of the year-star Auriga, 520, 575, 
 576 
 
 Hiranya-garbha, sun-god, son of the 
 Golden Womb {garbha), 734, 735, 
 736, 922 
 
 Hiranya-hasta, sun-god of the Golden 
 Hand, 31, 32, 43, 321, 338, 358, 
 561, 735 
 
 Hir-men-sol, the great ifiir) stone 
 (men) of the sun, 133, 153, 220, 284 
 
 Hittites, Khati, the joined northern 
 and southern races of India, Assyria, 
 and South-western Asia, the Indian 
 rulers of Khatiawar, sons of the goat 
 and antelope. See Khati, 355, 384, 
 385. 497, 584. 585, 683, 836 
 
 Hobal, Arabian stone-god who bears 
 seven arrows in his hand, leader of 
 360 year-gods, 221 
 
 Ho-Kols, 98 
 
 Horn or Hum, wild cypress-tree of the 
 Zend fire-worshippers, 105, 106, 151, 
 182, 349, 557, 715- 721 
 
 Honey, holy food of the age of bee 
 worship, 25, 26, 39, 201, 316, 320, 
 593, 610, 638 
 
 Horse-god, the black horse of night, 
 whose head ruled the eleven-months 
 year. The white horse of the northern 
 races, worshippers of the rising sun 
 of day, also horses sacred to the sun. 
 See Epona Pegasus, xx., 2, 31, 32, 
 40, 44, 202, 265, 276, 277, 278, 352, 
 451, 452, 453, 474, 475, 486, 487, 
 489, 490, 491, 492, 494, 499, 529, 
 732, 733, 750, 751, 752 
 
 Horus, first, the hawk-headed ape-god, 
 son of Hat-hor the Pole Star, after- 
 wards son of Isis of the Sekhet con- 
 stellation Scorpio, born at the 
 autumnal equinox, who became the 
 Jackal Anpu (which see) the em- 
 balmer of the dead, 43, 76, 77, 192, 
 220, 296, 306, 341, 353, 354, 462, 
 463, 464, 558, 589, 744, 774, 775. 
 776, 779, 780, 781, 782, 783, 808, 
 838, 846 
 
998 
 
 Index. 
 
 Hor-shesu, sons of Horus ruling Egypt 
 before the First Dynasty, 577 
 
 Hoshea, the Yah of the Hus who with 
 Caleb, the dog-star Sirius, took 
 Jericho, the moon city. See Caleb, 
 483. 839 
 
 Hotm-, Hotri, priest who pours (/»() 
 libations and utters invocations to 
 the gods, the speaking-priest, 362, 
 457. 481, 732, 929. 937 
 
 Huilzilopochtli, the humming-bird of 
 the left Mexican god, 842, 843 
 
 Hull, spring festival of the Indian red 
 race, successors of the yellow sons of 
 the almond-tree, 283, 487, 614, 615, 
 618, 645, 789, 944, 952 
 
 Hainan sacrifices, introduced by the 
 northern races, who killed the deer- 
 sun-god at the end of his year's 
 circuit, viii., 28, 29, 30, 31, 73, 154, 
 15s, 221, 225, 227, 287, 315, 387, 
 389. 390- 391- 394. 395. 396, 397. 
 398, 399, 400, 401, 418, 443, 444, 
 453. 472. 477. 478, 486, 508, 541, 
 557. 617, 638, 649, 795, 808, 839, 
 840, 841, 842, 843, 848 
 
 Husham, Hebrew form of the Zend 
 Khii-slirav or Hu-shrava, the Sans- 
 krit Su-shrava, king of the Temanites 
 of South Arabia, 525, 690 
 
 Hu-shrava = YDcm-^x2M, the glory of 
 the Hus sons of the bird Khu, 524, 
 691 
 
 Hyades constellation, 44, 177, 613 
 
 Hyakinthia, festival of Hyakinthos, 
 283, 284 
 
 Hydra constellation, 361, 362 
 
 Hyrcania, Hyrcanii, the wolf land and 
 wolf people, 560, 561 
 
 la, la-khan, the fish-son of the house 
 (/) of the waters {a), Akkadian fish- 
 god, son of the mother Bau, born 
 from the constellation Ma Argo. 
 See Fish-god, xi., 8, 128, 181, 460, 
 638, 643, 904, 905 
 
 lacckus, Greek form of Indian Yakshu 
 (which see) 904 
 
 Iberians, the Basque Ibai-erri, people 
 (erri) of the rivers [ibai), 22, 35, 179, 
 206, 210, 218, 598 
 
 Icarius constellation Bootes, father of 
 Penelope, wife of Odusseus, 229, 
 
 275 
 Ida, lid, Ira, mother-goddess of the 
 sons of Manu the measurer, who was, 
 first, the little fish, the eel ; secondly, 
 the dolphin ; thirdly, the sheep- 
 
 mother of the sun-sheep {eda) ; lastly' 
 the mountain-mother of the sons o[ 
 the cow, the goddess of the centra 
 navel of the national altar. Her sons 
 were the Iravati, sons of the rivers, 
 186, 193, 294, 404, 410, 457, S79 
 
 Idah, goddess-mothers of the rainy 
 season in the Apri hymns, 457, 729 
 
 Id-khu, constellation Aquila, 361,447 
 
 Iguvium. See Gubbio, 797, 798, 800, 
 804, 805, 807, 808 
 
 Ikshvaku, sons of the sugar-cane {iJtshd), 
 Indian dynasty, succeeding the sons 
 of the barley Pitaro Barhishadah, 
 332, 416, 417, 449, 745, 893, 948, 
 
 949. 955 
 
 Ila-putra, the snake-son of the eel- 
 mother, Ila or Ida, 235 
 
 Ilithyia, goddess of parturition, 281, 
 289 
 
 Il-ja, the eel, Finnish name for God, 
 182, 183 
 
 Ilos, Ilu, Assyrian god, first king of 
 the Trojan Dardanians, 295, 296, 
 297 
 
 Indra, the eel-god [Indu Aind) of 
 the Indian sons of the rivers, who 
 became in the Rigveda the buffalO" 
 rain-god, son of Vyansa or Vyasa, 
 the uniter, the alligator constellation 
 Draco and the mother-tree from 
 whose side he was born. He whose 
 first wife was Vrishakapi, the rain- 
 ape, succeeded Gautuma, father of 
 the bull race, as husband of Ahalya, 
 the sun-hen. He was the yoke- 
 fellow of Kutsa the moon (ku) god 
 of the Piirus, and was his charioteer, 
 who took him round the heavens. 
 He was the god of the sons of the 
 sun-dog, the dog-star Sirius, ruling 
 Orion's year of six-day weeks. He 
 beguiled Kama, the horned-god of 
 the thirteen-months year of his golden 
 impenetrable armour, the panoply 
 of the sun-gods Perseus, Sigurd and 
 Achilles ; and found the head of 
 Dadhiank, the black sun-horse ruling 
 the eleven months year, in Sharya- 
 navan, the ship of the arrow {sliarya), 
 constellation of the Great Bear. He 
 slew Vritra the circling-snake ruling 
 the year beginning with the winter 
 solstice when the sun was at the 
 summer solstice in the southern 
 depths of Ahi-budhnya, the snake of 
 the south or Ahi-shuva, the swelling 
 rain-snake. He was helped in killing 
 Ahi-shuva by the seven Maruts, the 
 
Index. 
 
 999 
 
 seven stars of the Great Bear. Fin- 
 ally, as the god ruling the year 
 beginning with the summer rains, he 
 substituted the pure Soma unmixed 
 with intoxicating drink in the national 
 sacramental beverage called the Try- 
 ashira or three mixings of Indra, v, , 
 vi., xi., xviii., 35, 103, 184, 198, 224, 
 226, 227, 25s, 260, 262, 266, 267, 
 274, 290. 342, 344> 4i9. 453- 470, 
 471. 479, 480, 481. 492, 504. 500, 
 564, 586, 5S7, 599, 617, 742, 743, 
 744. 745. 746, 748. 772. 776, 857, 
 871, 872, 881, 891, 894, 899, 900, 
 902, 907, 930, 934, 936, 947, 948, 
 949. 95°, 951. 953. 95^, 958, 961 
 
 Indragni, Indra, Agni, the god of the 
 year of Agni of the winter solstice, 
 and of Indra the rain-god of summer, 
 viii., 450 
 
 Indra-jk, god of the third year of the 
 three years cycle-year of Ravana, 
 slain by Rama and Lakshman, 342 
 
 Indra-prastha, Delhi, 906 
 
 Indu-Induan, Aind, the eel root of 
 Indra, 184, 949, 950 
 
 Ingino, Ing, higisvones, sons of the 
 household-fire, and their sacred bull 
 at Gubbio, 797, 808, 812 
 
 Ino, bird and dolphin-mother of the 
 sun-god Melicertes or Melkaerth. 
 She possessed the zodiacal ribbon, 
 the Kredemnon. See Fish-god, 540, 
 541, 612, 765 
 
 Intichiuma, rain-making ceremonies of 
 the Australians, 63, 64, 69 
 
 lolaus, charioteer of Herakles, 752, 
 
 755 
 
 Iphittis, holder of the bow of Eurytus 
 (which see) which he gave to 
 Odusseus, 622, 756 
 
 Iraj, meaning the sun. Persian sun- 
 god born in Cancer, 627, 231, 233, 
 307, 347 
 
 Irdfi, Iranians, land and sons of Erina- 
 vach (which see) mother of Iraj, the 
 sun-god, 231, 232, 405, 513, 523, 
 526, 535. 551. 689, 721, 741 
 
 Irdvata, Irdvati, sons of Ida or Ira, 
 and of rivers consecrated to her, 237, 
 404, 879 
 
 Isaac, god of the laughing grain, 310, 
 319, 
 
 Isfendiyar, Persian sun-god, son of 
 Gushtasp, made immortal by eating 
 a pomegranate, see Hadad Rimmon, 
 356, 357. 690, 696, 706, 707, 708, 
 709, 710. 711, 713. 714. 715. 716, 
 717. 718. 833. 851 
 
 I-shara, the house (/) of grass (shar), 
 the grass-mother. See Kusha-giass, 
 460 
 
 Ishits, Mexican beetle-god, 838, 847 
 
 Isis, ape-mother of Horus, 190, 191, 
 192, 220, 381, 625 
 
 Istar, 129, 464, 465 
 
 Isthmian Games, 754 
 
 Itanos, Zeus as the god Tan, the mud 
 of whom he and the Itonian Athene 
 are duplicate forms, 188 
 
 Ixion, Greek form of Sanskrit Akshi- 
 van, god of the axle (aksha) , the stars 
 of the Great Bear to which he was 
 bound, and which by its revolutions 
 measured the year, 229, 322, 468, 
 546, 680 
 
 Iza-nagi, Iza-nami, Japanese creating- 
 twins, 171, 172 
 
 Jachin, Hlphil form of Chiun, the 
 pillar, 220 
 
 Jacob, the supplanter-god of the stone- 
 pillar Bethel, twin brother of Esau 
 or Usof, the goat-god, of the green 
 wooden pillar the Asherah, 81, 87, 
 319, 464, 626, 627, 629, 631, 633, 
 637, 642 
 
 Jagati, metre of the rainy season, 925 
 
 Jains, the Hittite (khati), commercial 
 and religious confederacy of Khatia- 
 war, 52, 240, 413, 414, 415,418, 476, 
 477. 483. 509. 594. 597. 598, 599, 
 600, 603, 604, 697, 884, 885 
 
 Jama-d-agni, god of the twin (jama) 
 fires, son of Richika the fire-spark 
 and the two mother-trees, the Ban- 
 yan (Ficzis Indica) and the Pipal 
 (Ficiis religiosa), 267, 268 
 
 Jamaspa, the twin-horsemen (aspa), 
 the stars Gemini, prime minister ot 
 Gusht-asp, 680, 706, 707, 709, 712, 
 716 
 
 Jambu-dwipa, Central Indian land of 
 the sons of Jamvavan, the bear father 
 of the sons of the Jambu tree who 
 painted the bear Tiloka or totem 
 mark on their foreheads, 142, 825 
 
 Jambu-tree (Eugenia Jambolana), the 
 sacred tree of Jambu-dwipa and the 
 infant Buddha, 142, 264, 341 
 
 Jantu, eldest son of King Soraaka, 
 offered in sacrifice, 29, 315, 617 
 
 Janus, Latin god of the doors (janua) 
 of time, 568, 960, 961 
 
 Jara-sandha, the union (sandhi) by 
 old age or lapse of time, the god- 
 king of Magadha bom from the two 
 halves of a mango, mother of the 
 
lOOO 
 
 Index. 
 
 Kurm: agricultural caste {which see), 
 who was slain by Bhima aided by 
 Kjishna, the antelope-god, his suc- 
 cessor, 259, 418 
 Jarat-karu, Jarat-kcrna, makers of 
 time (jara), parents of Ashtaka, sun- 
 god of the eight-rayed star, 329, 600, 
 
 633 
 
 Jasoda= Rohini, the star Aldebaran, 
 mother of Vala-rama, whose weapon 
 was the plough, the Great Bear, 646, 
 647 
 
 fason, the healer {ias), pilot of the 
 year-ship Argo, 466, 623 
 
 Jats, Indian Getje (which see) who 
 superseded the matriarchal form of 
 communal property by allotting it to 
 families. See Chirus, 18, 316, 602, 
 603, 604, 605, 640 
 
 Jay, the blue Jay, worship of, in 
 India, Thrace, Troy, Greece, and 
 Mexico, 285, 286, 287, 854, 862 
 
 Jaya-d-ratha, the silver boar-god ruling 
 the eleven-months year, 770, 771, 
 772, 773, 882 
 
 Jericho, the yellow [yareK) moon city, 
 
 531 
 
 Jesse, he who is the supreme god, father 
 of Dodo or David, the year-god of 
 the fifteen-months year of the eight- 
 rayed star, 633, 637 
 
 Jhoras, gold-washers of Chutia Nag- 
 pur, 412, 413, S93 
 
 Jo-bab, gate (bab) of God, 457 
 
 Joktan or Jokshan, brother of Peleg, 
 the stream, son of Eber the Hebrew 
 father. He was father of thirteen 
 sons, the thirteen months of the 
 year, who gave their names to the 
 provinces of the land they ruled on 
 the coasts of South-western Asia 
 from Arabia to India, the land of the 
 Mountain of the East, 130, 132, 374, 
 520 
 
 Jordan, lardanus, the yellow (yareh) 
 moon-river of the Minyans, the 
 successor as parent-river of the 
 Euphrates, 626, 629, 630, 631, 637 
 
 Joseph, the interpreter (asipu) god, 
 eleventh son of Jacob and god of the 
 eleven-months year, 464 , 520 
 
 Joshua. See Hoshea, 531, 637, 839 
 
 Juangs, wild tribes of Chutia Nagpur, 
 
 94 
 Judah, meaning " the praised " fourth 
 son of Jacob and Leah the wild cow 
 {le), father of the twin sons of Tamar, 
 the date-palm mother-tree, 633, 634, 
 640 
 
 Jugah-iiath, lord (natK) of space of the 
 temple at Piiri where the god wor- 
 shipped is the stem of the mother- 
 tree, the log of wood called Vishnu, 
 the village (z'zj'/^) year-god, 121 
 
 Juhu, libation spoon for pouring melted 
 butter made of Palasha wood, 415 
 
 Jnmna or Yamuna, river of the twins 
 {yama), 1S6, 225, 237, 238, 366, 
 647, 898, 901 
 
 Juno, 961 
 
 Jupiter, 961, 962 
 
 Ka Who, mystic name of the year-god 
 Prajapati (Orion), 224, 730, 748, 
 749, 946 
 
 Kabi or Kaweh, Persian smith and 
 archer-god whose apron was the 
 Great Bear,xix., 231, 275, 345, 346, 
 35°. S09. 512, S17, Si8> 528, 531. 
 532, 533, 707, 935 
 
 Kabir, the wise ape (kapi) god of the 
 Greek Kabiri, Indian Kabir-puntis 
 and Sikhs, 52, 74, 122, 243, 244, 
 885 
 
 Kabiri, believers in Kabir and in 
 creation by pairs, whose creed was 
 universally distributed over India, 
 South-western Asia and Europe, 
 18, 297, 311, 312, 315, 375 
 
 Kabir-puntis, 51, 243, 244, 885 
 
 Kabul, country of Rustum's mother, 
 daughter of King Mihrab the centre 
 (mihr) of the world, 513, 683, 717 
 
 Kadamba, the mother-almond-tree, a 
 form of the tree-mother Drupadi, 
 
 59, 769, 771 
 Kadmus, creating-god of the Boeotian 
 sons of the ploughing-oxen of the 
 east (kedem), brother of Europa the 
 west (ereb) mother, and husband of 
 Harmonia (which see), 121, 187, 288, 
 
 313, 341, 753, 765 
 
 Kadru, the tree (dru) of Ka, thirteenth 
 wife of Kashyapa, the Kushika father ^ 
 and mother of the Nagas, 224, 244, 
 252, 281, 672, 787, 935, 943, 946 
 
 Kahtan, Belli, sons of Joktan (which 
 see), 520 
 
 Kaikeya, Kaikaiyi, mountain - mother 
 of Bharata, vrife of Dasa-ratha or 
 Raghu the sun-god, 339, 381 
 
 Kak-shi-sha, Akkadian name for Sirius, 
 227, 361 
 
 Kakshivan, Kakshivat, son of Dlrgha- 
 tamas, the long (dirgha) darkness of 
 the three years cycle-year, and ol 
 Ushinari, sister of Shiva, ruling 
 
Index. 
 
 lOOI 
 
 god of the eleven-months year, 471, 
 
 897.934 . , 
 
 Kalda, Chaldffian astronomical race, 
 
 130 
 Kali, form of the goddess Durga of the 
 
 eleven-months year, 477, 478, 566, 
 
 595. 649 
 Kalians, Hindu circumcismg caste 
 Kallisto, female Great Bear goddess, 
 
 name of Artemis, 213 
 Kalmasha-pada, Pole Star god with 
 
 the feet spotted (kalmdsha) with 
 
 stars, 477, 612 
 Kalypso, the hidden {KaXxt-nra) goddess, 
 
 540. 765, 766 
 Kamars, Bengal metal smiths, 592 
 Kamberiah, Dei-vishes' three-knotted 
 
 girdle, 159 
 Kandhs, Khonds, sons of the sword 
 
 {kandh), the Ugur or lunar falchion 
 
 of the Ugro-Finn races, 270, 324, 
 
 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 404, 458, 
 
 SSI, 841 
 , Kang-desh, Kangra in the Punjab, 522, 
 
 523 , , 
 
 Kama, the goose-moon, kmg of the 
 
 Ugro-Finns, 477, 478, 646, 647 
 Kanthaka, the thorny or rayed horse 
 of the Buddha which died at the end 
 of its journey of thirty yojanas 
 through the thirty stars and was 
 raised to heaven as the horse constel- 
 lation Pegasus, 658, 659, 695 
 Kanva, the new (kanv) priests of the 
 Yadu-Turvasu, the parent-priests of 
 the Bharatas, sons of Sakuntala, 
 daughter of Vishvamitra and Menaka, 
 the moon-goddess, 333, 598, 599, 
 
 , 934 
 
 Kaous, Kushika Persian king of the 
 age of the three-years cycle-year, 
 and of that of eleven-months, 42, 
 
 338, 348, 353, 356. 357, 358, 359. 
 360, 361, 371, 372, 514, 515, 520, 
 521, 522, 528, 530, 532, 533, 558, 
 560, 561, 684, 694, 706, 728 
 Kaf, Kaph, the open hand symbol and 
 name of the Ape-god Kapi of South- 
 western Asia. See Zeus Kappotas, 
 
 194, 195 
 Kaphtorim, Philistines, sons of the ape 
 
 (kapi), 194, 19s 
 Kapi, Dravidian wise ape-god who 
 
 became the Pole Star constellation 
 
 Kepheus, 6, 168, 193, 314, 363, 589 
 Kapila, the father-god of the yellow 
 
 (kapila) race, 22, 107, 380 
 Kapila, ■ vastu, birth-place of the 
 
 Buddha, 107, 652, 653, 654, 657 
 
 Karambha, barley-offering to Piishan, 
 
 251, 585 
 Karanas, Hindu year of, 153, 917 
 Kama, the horned year-god of the 
 thirteen-months year, begotten by 
 the sun-god from the navel of his 
 mother Kunti, the lance, the fire- 
 drill of the altar-fire. He was 
 beguiled of his sun-armour before 
 he became one of the Kauravya 
 leaders of the eleven-months year, 
 and was rejected by Drupadi the 
 bride of the Pandavas, though he 
 strung the bow from which the arrow 
 that won her was to be shot, 19, 68, 
 84, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 
 267, 268, 288, 290, 674, 721, 770, 
 
 773- 900, 905, 910 
 
 Karshipta, the hawk form of Zarathus- 
 tra, 16, 71, 105 
 
 Karshmarya (gmelina arborea), sacri- 
 ficial-tree, 416, 450, 451, 746, 923 
 
 Kashava, mother-lake of the Kushika, 
 the sea Zareh in Seistan, into 
 which the Helmend flows, 131, 230, 
 
 839 
 
 Kashi (Benares), 159, 160, 171, 236, 
 362, 419, 429, 650, 830 
 
 Kashyapa, father of the Kushika 
 Kushites, 243, 250, 252, 259, 281, 
 286, 297, 366, 379, 413, 504,651, 
 659, 672, 935, 936 
 
 Kastor, the un-sexed beaver of the 
 twin stars Gemini, 326, 375, 755, 
 758 
 
 Kauravya, the Kaurs or Kurus of the 
 Mahabharata, the hundred egg-bom 
 sons of Gandharl, the vulture Pole 
 Star Vega, who ruled India during 
 the epoch of the eleven-months year, 
 51, 160, 237, 243, 252, 261, 265, 
 266, 267, 270, 306, 365, 367, 368, 
 412, 566, 583, 641, 645, 647, 674, 
 677. 724. 725, 771. 772, 773, 874, 
 884, 891, 90s, 906, 948 
 
 Kaurs, 253, 286, 368, 412, 421, 427, 
 
 428, 469, 584 
 Kavad Kai Kobad, father of Kaous and 
 the Kavi Kush Kushika kings, 131, 
 
 230, 351, 563, 839 
 
 Kavi Kush, 131 
 
 Kayanides, Kayanians, sons of the 
 stars, titles of the Persian kings 
 who ruled the world as heavenly 
 luminaries, xix., 13, 351, 513, 557, 
 682 
 
 Kayasths, 245, 367 
 
 Kejiemt, Egyptian Phoenician ape-gods, 
 194 
 
1002 
 
 Index. 
 
 Kenana, sacred Australian sacrificial 
 
 pole, 78, 80 
 Kepheus, constellation of the Pole Star 
 
 ape Kapi from 21,000 to 19,000 B.C., 
 
 6, 7> 193 
 Keresavazda, he of the horned {kensa) 
 
 club (vazda) the trident, the Guer- 
 
 sivaz of the Shahnamah [which see) , 
 
 brother of Frangrasiyan, otherwise 
 
 called Afrasiab, 230, 235, 519, 524, 
 
 532, 790, 887, 905 
 Kerubi, Heb, Cherubim, the flying bulls 
 
 of Assyrian theology, the twins in 
 
 Taurus, 913 
 Kesari-tar, daughter {tar) of the kettle 
 
 Cauldron of Life [which see), mother 
 
 after three years' pregnancy of the 
 
 sun-lizard, 332, 767 
 Kelurah, Eastern wife of Abram, the 
 
 enclosing incense [katar) mother, 
 
 374 
 
 Kewut, Kaibarta, the fisher merchant 
 kings of Tamralepti, 595, 832 
 
 Kewuts, 24s 
 
 Khadira - tree {Acacia Catechu), tree- 
 mother of the altar-fire of the Hindu 
 ritual of animal sacrifices. From it 
 were made both the Soma fire-socket 
 and the eleven stakes to which the 
 victims offered to the gods of the 
 eleven-months-year were tied, 132, 
 225, 416, 456, 458, 495, 642, 749, 
 817, 818, 923, 935, 936, 944, 946, 
 
 949. 95°, 957 
 
 Khar-sak-kurra, mother-mountain of 
 the East in Akkadian and Kushika 
 mythology, 130, 138 
 
 Khartik, October — November, sacred 
 to the Krittakas or Pleiades, the first 
 month of the Pleiades year, 29, 30, 
 102, 108, 114, 145, 166, 259, 392, 
 416, 476, 478, 479, 567, 744, 944, 
 
 945. 948. 950. 951. 952, 955 
 Kharwars, parent-tribe of the Chirus 
 
 or Chiroos, 37, 51, 80, 184, 245, 
 
 246, 412, 421, 426, 427, 434, 481, 
 
 769, 771 
 Khati, the Hittites {which see) of India, 
 
 365, 366, 367, 413, 429, 585, 595, 
 
 884, 893, 907 
 KhaHawdr, Indian land of the Khati. 
 
 j'^i' Jains, 236, 365, 429, 595 
 Khattris, trading Khati, 244, 257, 367 
 KKepera, the Egyptian divine beetle, 
 
 year of, 191, 375. SH. 565, 62S. 778, 
 
 78s, 838, 846, 847 
 Khiium, Khnubis, the Egyptian ape 
 
 architect-god, who became the star 
 
 Canopus, 18, 135, 296, 305, 316, 
 375, 624, 777, 778. 783 
 Khorasan, Khvaniras, 682, 825 
 Khu, sacred mother-cloud and sun- 
 bird of the Akkadians and Egyp- 
 tians, and in dialectic forms of all 
 the primitive races of Southern Asia 
 and maritime Em-ope, v., 219, 462, 
 524. 659, 778, 781, 942 
 Khu-srav, Ku-shrav, Ku-shrava, Hu- 
 shrava, Su-shrava. See Husham, 
 Persian king of the Wolf race, suc- 
 cessor of Kaous, who reigned in the 
 age of the eleven-months year, 42, 
 
 338. 352, 356, 516. 524. 525. 526, 
 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 
 
 534. 535. 538, 541, 542, 544. 546, 
 547, 550, 552, 554. 555. 556, 557, 
 560, 561, 679, 680, 68i, 685, 694, 
 699, 706, 720 
 
 Kichaka, sons of the hill-bamboo, 186 
 
 Kilhwch, son of the pig-sty Welsh 
 year-god, 18, 207, 293, 546, 547, 
 650, 727 
 
 Kingu, head of the eleven guardians of 
 the eleven-months year of Tiamut, 
 slain by Marduk, 459, 460, 461,464, 
 489 
 
 Kirke (Circe), hawk-mother-goddess 
 {xlpKos), 219 
 
 Kilabun, she of the book (kitdb), the 
 planet Venus, wife of Gusht-asp, 
 mother of Isfendiyar and Peshyo- 
 tanu, 685, 686, 688, 689, 690, 691 
 
 Kochinaki, yellow virgin mother of the 
 Mexican twins, 21, 86, 849, 862 
 
 Kohathites, prophet-priests of the Jews, 
 wearers of the ephod symbolising in 
 the name Aaron the Chest or Breast, 
 the Will of God revealed by the in- 
 spired priesthood, 37, 45, 629,631, 
 771 
 
 Koi-kopal, the cow-keepers, the ruling 
 tribe of the eight tribes of Gonds, 
 28, 238, 271, 324 
 
 Kolamis, a tribe of Gonds, 238, 245 
 
 Koliya, Kol parent village of Maya or 
 Magha, the Malli mother of the 
 Buddha, 652 
 
 Kols, Kolarians, Cholas. See Munda, 
 Malli, 104, 938 
 
 Kore= Persephone, 208, 209, 210, 313, 
 48s 
 
 Korktts {Mundas), a Gond tribe, 238 
 
 Koronis, the raven or flower-mother of 
 ^sculapius, sister of Ixion, 209, 468, 
 619 
 
 Korwas, 51, 54, 55, 56, 93, 184, 412, 
 426 
 
Index. 
 
 1003 
 
 Kosda, land of the Kushika, 413, 419, 
 429 
 
 Kototyal, sons of a log of wood, name 
 of the Marya-tree (marom) Gonds 
 (which see), 238 
 
 Kouretes, Curetes, dancing-priests of the 
 Pole Star god, 159, 319, 828, 870 
 
 Kredannon, zodiacal ribbon of Ino. 
 See Bebr-i-bayan, 540, 541, 542, 612 
 
 Krishdnu, Keresani the footless drawer 
 (karsh) of the bow of heaven, the 
 killing star of the Great Bear pointers, 
 slayers of the year-god, iv., v.,xviii., 
 2, 10, 159, l6l, 162, 163, 164, 175, 
 233. 234, 275, 366, 420, 467. 471. 
 478, 523, 622, 687, 719, 756, 759, 
 848, 869, 873, 880, 902^ 921, 935. 943 
 
 Krishna, name of Drxipadi, female 
 form of Krishna, 771 
 
 Krishna, meaning the black antelope, 
 also called Vishnu, the ruling village 
 (vish) year-god, who came as a wor- 
 shipped god in various successive 
 forms, as the fish, the tortoise, the 
 boar, the Man-lion or Man-god and 
 others. He drove the year-chariot 
 of the sun culminating as a god of 
 the fifteen-months year, the eighth 
 son of Vasu-deva and Devaki, 29, 
 52, 163, 175, 181, 205, 250, 251, 
 259, 262, 286, 291, 317, 321, 343, 
 344. 361. 365. 366, 416. 417. 418, 
 419. 475. 477. 479. 496. 570, 571, 
 586, 587, 597, 603, 606, 64s, 646, 
 647, 648, 649, 652, 673, 67s, 703, 
 724. 737. 762, 768, 769, 770, 772, 
 826, 830, 851, 876, 880, 89s, 896, 
 
 905.911 
 KriUakas, Krittida, the Spinners, the 
 
 Pleiades, 268, 646, 768, 769, 844 
 Krivi, 900 
 Kronos, Greek god of the lunar-sickle, 
 
 280, 281, 283, 289, 310, 319, 344, 
 
 414, 540, 630, 826, 827 
 Kshatriya, the warrior masters (ksha), 
 
 Indian race of Finno-Bactrian origin, 
 
 144, 217, 256, 473, 873 
 Ku, Kuhu, moon in Finnish root of 
 
 Kutsa {whick see), 173, 255 
 Kuch, Rajbunsis, 833, 852, 853 
 Kumara, the boy, ninth of the forms 
 
 of the Supreme God Prajapali 
 
 (Orion), called Hiranya-garbha, god 
 
 of the golden womb (garbha) born 
 
 from the consecrated fire-pan of the 
 
 Hindu Garhapatya altar, 735, 739, 
 
 769, 879 
 Kumbha-karna, maker of the year 
 
 water-jars (kmitbha), king of the 
 second year of Ravana's three-years 
 cycle-year, 342 
 
 Kumhars, Indian potters, 150, 241 
 
 Kunti, the lance or fire-drill, mother of 
 Kama and the Pandavas, also called 
 Prithi {which see), 262, 364, 893 
 
 Kur. See Araxes 
 
 K2tr, land of, Babylonian and Akkadian 
 name of India, 368, 369 
 
 Kurmis, Kurumbas, the most skilled 
 agricultural caste in India, 51, 186, 
 243, 246, 368, 885, 887 
 
 Kuru-ksheira, land [kshetrd) of the 
 Kurus or Kaurs, 237, 268, 453, 490, 
 887, 891, 908 
 
 Kuru-Fanchalas, Ktitus, rulers of 
 Northern and Central India, 248, 
 264, 403, 404. 420, 447. 480, 887, 
 891, 898, 900, 901, 908, 945 
 
 Kunim (Nmtclea parvifolia), the wild 
 almond mother-tree of Oraons, 
 Chirus and Kharwars and its annual 
 festival, 80, 421, 428, 429, 434, 442, 
 772, 882 
 
 Kurum-nasa, the destruction (nasa) ai 
 the Kurum almond-tree, history of 
 the name, 428, 772 
 
 Kusambi, mother city of the Kushikas, 
 591, 906 
 
 Kusha-grass [poa cynosuroides), parent- 
 grass of the Kushika sons of the 
 antelope, 29, 57, 144, 163, 225, 249, 
 250, 258, 376, 407, 408, 416, 420, 
 427. 449. 451. 459. 480, 484, 490, 
 582, 583, 635, 661, 665, 675, 676, 
 705. 745. 749. 817. 818, 833, 869, 
 873. 891, 905, 917, 920, 922, 93b, 
 
 940. 949 
 
 Kush-aloya, house {aloya) of the 
 Kushika, name of their mother, whose 
 son was Rama, and whose husband 
 was the northern sun-god Ral or 
 Raghu, 239 
 
 Kushite kings of Abyssinia and Egypt, 
 
 371.441 
 
 Kushika, Kiishikas, Kushites, sons of 
 Kaus, the bow, afterwards of the 
 Kusha-grass of the antelope and then 
 of the tortoise Kush. Their conquest 
 of and rule in India, 10, 16, 22, 57, 
 144, 175, 185, 236, 333, 362, 363, 
 370, 371, 380. 407. 457. 460, 519. 
 529. 557. 565. 580, 596. 630, 648, 
 65i„676, 833,846, 847, 905, 938, 949 
 
 Kushika-Nagas, 130, 163, 205, 225, 
 239. 243. 250, 258, 303, 310, 319, 
 343. 360, 361. 362, 364. 380, 381. 
 399. 406, 407. 411. 412, 443. 444. 
 
I004 
 
 Index. 
 
 510, sn, 580, 589, 806, 83s, 869, 
 
 886, 916, 9S3 
 Kustchem. See Gurg-an, son of Neotara, 
 
 the new star, one of the Great Bear 
 
 pointer stars, 534, 535, 554, 562, 
 
 679 
 ICusHk, Zend sacred girdle, 125, 635, 
 
 701 
 Kutsa, the moon (ku) god of the 
 
 Nahusha or Naga Purus, 254, 256, 
 
 257, 258, 259, 471, 524, 839, 901, 
 
 932.934, 95 1| 
 Kuvcra, god of the South, 342, 563, 
 676, 902, 903, 90s 
 
 Laban, the white god of Assyria, 
 
 builder "of the brick foundations 
 
 of heaven," the moon-god of Haran, 
 
 373, 626, 808 
 iMbr aid Lore, 19, 565 
 Laertes, the Lar or Lath, father of 
 
 Odusseus, 273, 620, 622 
 iMkhmu, Lakhamu, Akkadian creat- 
 
 ing-pair, 632, 637 
 Lakshman, son of Rai or Raghu, the 
 
 star Arcturus, the boundary (laksh) 
 
 watcher of the star-track of his 
 
 brother Rama, the sun-god, 228, 
 
 340, 341, 342, 343, 350, 415, 461, 
 
 912 
 Lamb, sacrifice of as a substitute for 
 
 the eldest son, 807, 808 
 Langa-vira, Linga worshippers, one of 
 
 the Yaudhya tribes, 364 
 Lapitha, 466, 467 
 Larissa, Pelasgian capital, 202 
 Lat, Indian sacred wooden pillar, 271 
 Lata, Arabian goddess, 221 
 Latinus, 271 
 Latona, Leto, goddess of the tree, 
 
 337, 826, 830 
 Leah, the wild cow {Le), wife of Jacob, 
 
 daughter of Laban, the moon-god, 
 
 626 
 Leda, incense - mother of the twins 
 
 Gemini, 86, 375 
 Lenaa, festival of Dionysos, held in 
 
 Gamelion, January — February, 614, 
 
 976 
 Leo, constellation of, 361, 555, 569, 
 
 571, 641, 682, 692, 693, 69s 
 Leopard, symbol in Egypt, Persia, 
 
 Greece, and Mexico of the starry 
 
 heavens and the Great Bear, 77 > 
 
 242. 353. 354. 355. 37'. 385. 444. 
 
 534. 546, 547. 904 
 Leprechaun, Irish red-capped dwarf 
 
 fairies, 805 
 
 Libra, constellation called in India Vi- 
 sakha (which see),t\i'^, 556, 692, 790, 
 791 
 
 Licchavi, sons of the Akkadian dog 
 (Lig), one of the tribes of the Vajjian 
 tiger race, 419, 465, 496, 597, 889 
 
 Ligurians, 16 
 
 Likbarra, Akkadian constellation of 
 the striped dog (Lig), the tiger con- 
 stellation Pegasus, 465 
 
 Liknon, the sacred seed-basket for the 
 cradle of the barley-god Dionysos or 
 lacchus, 961 
 
 Linen, history of, 242, 243 
 
 Linga, worship and altars of in India 
 and Britany, viii., 23, 24, 260, 350, 
 
 331. 375. 3S0. 381, 383, 384, 385. 
 875. 898 
 Lingal, father-god of the Gonds, 98, 
 118, 154, 165, 219, 238, 239, 627, 
 
 799 
 
 Liver, worship of and temples to, 553 
 
 Lohar, originally copper now iron- 
 smiths in India, 592, 598 
 
 Lohrasp, son of Aurvat-aspa, horse 
 {aspd) of the son of the Thigh king 
 of Persia, 679, 680, 681, 684, 689, 
 6go, 691, 707, 708, 792, 825, 868, 
 879 
 
 Loka-palas, the four wardens of space 
 (loka), 461, 488, 621, 652, 660, 673, 
 
 903 
 
 Lokamprini, bricks denoting the Mo- 
 hurtas, or Indian hours of the year, 
 928, 929 
 
 Loki, fire-god of the Edda, 337, 561 
 
 Lot, Hebrew god of incense, 373, 374 
 
 Lug, Celtic god of light of the wolf 
 race, son of the wolf's head, born 
 in the tower of the three -years 
 cycle-year. See Mackinealy, 37, 38, 
 41, 80, 136, 283, 284, 314, 335, 336, 
 337. 338. 343. 344. S18. 859. 867 
 
 Lugaid, Celtic god of light, year-god 
 of the fifteen-months year, as son of 
 the eight Maine, its eight-day weeks. 
 Slayer of Cu-chulainn, god of the 
 left thigh of the eleven-months year, 
 518, 519, 619, 620, 649, 755 
 
 Lumasi, seven historical stars of Ak- 
 kadian astronomy, 72, 227 
 
 Lupercalia, 789 
 
 Luz, the almond - tree (which see), 
 Hebrew parent-tree, called Beth-el, 
 the house of God, Si, 631, 639 
 
 Ma, Akkadian mother-star-ship Argo, 
 8, 103, 128, 181,638 
 
Index. 
 
 1005 
 
 Ma'asewe, Mexican creating-twin, 21, 
 837. 849, 851. 8S3. 861, 862, 865, 
 867 
 
 Ma'at, Egyptian vulture-goddess of 
 justice, the Pole Star Vega, 565 
 
 Mabon, the year-babe (mabyn), 207 
 
 Mocha, Cu-chulainn's grey horse, 569 
 
 Mackinealy, son of the wolfs head, 
 father of Lug, 38, 336, 337 
 
 Madhu, mead honey-drink made in 
 India of the flowers of the Mahua- 
 tree, 246, 317, 321, 369, 747 
 
 MadJiu-graha, the Madhu-cup given to 
 the Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, at the 
 Vajapeya sacrifice, 747 
 
 Madri, intoxicated {^mad) mother-god- 
 dess, wife of Pandu, also Madrikas, 
 261, 263, 872 
 
 Maer or Mayor, Cymric equivalent of 
 the Indian Mahto, 430, 431, 433, 
 
 436, 439 
 
 Magana, Al Makah, a bi-sexual god, 
 Akkadian and Arabic names of 
 Sinai, 254 
 
 Magh, January — February, the month 
 sacred to Magha, the alligator- 
 mother, beginning the year of the 
 Mundas, Oraons, Santals, Bhishma, 
 Lug, the Chinese, and that of the 
 Mahosadha birth of Buddha, the 
 sun-physician, 259, 260, 261, 264, 
 282, 291, 381, 414, 421, 429, 487, 
 504, 506, 617, 618, 645, 653, 703, 
 788, 860, 874, 882, 945, 952, 953 
 
 Magha-Mayd, reputed mother of the 
 Buddha, a goddess of the Mallis or 
 Mundas, 498 
 
 Maghada, land of the Maghas or 
 Mughs, sons of the alligator Mughar, 
 51, 290, 410, 417, 418, 428, 505, 580, 
 
 736 
 Mahavira, last Jain Tirthakara, 597, 
 
 69s 
 Mah-osadha, birth as the sun-physician 
 
 of the Buddha, son of Magha, 652, 
 
 694 
 
 Mahto, village manager and ac- 
 countant, 430, 431.432. 433 
 
 Mahua-tree (Bassia lalifolia), yielding 
 the madhu or honey drink of Indian 
 ritual. The marriage-tree of nume- 
 rous castes, 39, 246, 317, 592 
 
 Maidhyairya, fifth seasonal festival of 
 Zarathustra's year, 702, 703 
 
 Maidhyo, Zaremaya, April — May, first 
 of the six seasons of Zarathustra's 
 year, 4, 83, 525, 691, 693, 695, 696, 
 698, 702, 703, 788; 
 
 Maidhyoshema, second season of Zara- 
 thustra's year, 702, 703 
 
 Maimaktes, the boisterous god, 214 
 
 Maine, the seven and eight Celtic time 
 goddesses, the seven stars of the 
 Great Bear, and the eight-days of 
 the week of the fifteen-months year, 
 619, 620, 649 
 
 Maitra - Varuna, priest of Mitra- 
 Varuna, 481 
 
 Makara, Tamil, Makaram, Akkadian 
 Makkhar, the porpoise or dolphin- 
 god, successor of Maga or Muggar 
 the alligator. The fish of the tail of 
 Capricornus with the goat's head, 
 738 
 
 Malay, the mountain .{mal) race of 
 Southern India, Malacca, and the 
 India Archipelago, 9, 112, n8, 128, 
 234, 247, 378, 379, 422, 574, 577, 
 583. 589. 596 
 
 Males, Mal Pahariah, of Anga, South 
 Behar, the Finn-Dravidian mountain- 
 race, 69, 451, 841, 845 
 
 Mallis, mountain (mal) races of India, 
 14, 107, 118, 239, 247, 248, 333, 
 419, 465, 496, 505, 574, 596, 597, 
 889 
 
 ^a»2«;-zW = Vertumnus, the turner of 
 the year, 396, 397, 440, 442 
 
 Manasa, the female Mauu, a snake 
 goddess, 592, 593 
 
 Manavi, daughter of Manu, 894 
 
 Mandaite Sabceans, 632, 808 
 
 Mandara, the revolving [mand) moun- 
 tain of the Kushikas, the hill Paris- 
 nath, lord of the traders (Paris, 
 Panris) on the Barrakur in Chutia 
 Nagpur, 19, 239, 252, 265, 266, 342, 
 41S, 564, 597 , ^^ 
 
 Mango, molher-tree of the Kaurs and 
 Kurmis, preceding the date-palm of 
 Bhishma, the parent-tree of Jara- 
 sandha (which see], 246 
 
 Manijeh, soul of life, daughter of 
 Afrasiab goddess of the constellation 
 Corona Borealis, 42, 43, 543, 545, 
 
 546, 550 
 Manjhus, royal share of land allotted 
 to the king in all Oraon villages, 
 
 411. 431. 435, 437, 438, 440 
 Manki, chief of a Munda Parha or 
 
 province, 128, 425, 43S, 439, 657 
 Manthin, cup, 743 
 Manu, measurer of the Minyan race, 
 
 408, 592, 608, 611 
 Mara, meaning of a Buddhist theology, 
 
 665, 666, 669 
 Marathas, 246, 439, 440, 887 
 
ioo6 
 
 Index. 
 
 March ab Meirchion, Brythonic hotse 
 {march) god with asses ears, 565 
 
 Marduk, Assyrian god called in Akka- 
 dian Amar-utuki, the light of the sun, 
 xix., 2, II, 14, 28, 33, 163, 181, 
 205, 280, 307, 309, 310, 380, 460, 
 464, 465. 523. 572. 638, 848, 852, 
 869 
 
 Marga-sirsha, November — December, 
 month of the deer's (mriga) head. 
 See Agrahayani, 214, 226, 258, 259, 
 743. 816, 840 
 
 Margaliya, altar of the antelope 
 {mriga), 930 
 
 Mari-avima, the tree {marom) mother- 
 goddess of thai Dravidians, whose 
 image is always made of wood, 120, 
 121, 760 
 
 Maruhi, the fire-spark, one of the stars 
 in the Great Bear, xiii., 250, 297, 
 340 
 
 Maroti, tree ape-god of the Gonds, 
 parent of the Maruts. See Mars, 
 Maruts, xii., 103, 161, 165, 247, 
 259, 263, 270, 320, 333, 347, 871, 
 880, 894, 903, 958 
 
 Marriage customs in India, 245, 246, 
 247, 249, 250, 367, 421 
 
 Mars, Martis, Etruscan maso, Latin 
 form of the Indian maroti, Akkadian 
 martu, 271, 798, 801 
 
 Mars Hodius or Grabovitis, god of the 
 southern under-world. See Cerfius 
 Martius, 800 
 
 Marsyas, 830 
 
 Martu, Akkadian wind of the south- 
 west monsoon, 200, 204, 271, 801 
 
 Maruts, the tree wind-goddesses of the 
 Rigveda, who became the seven stars 
 of the Great Bear, xi.,xii., 320, 450, 
 489, 492, 506, 744, 748, 949, 950, 
 954. 958 
 
 Marut-vatlya, the winter cup of the 
 year of five seasons, 743, 744 
 
 Marya or tree (marom) Gonds, 93, 94 
 
 Masai, 87 
 
 Masons, Freemasons, 740, 809, 810 
 
 Massageta, the Greater Getse. See 
 Jats, 317, 405, 498 
 
 Matali, charioteer of Indra's sun-horses, 
 342, 563 
 
 Matar-i-shvan, the fire-mother of the 
 dog (shvan), 151, 598 
 
 Math, Welsh turning (math) god of 
 the fire-drill, 262, 363, 646, 844, 
 894 
 
 Matriarchal, primitive village com- 
 munities and their customs, 89-99 
 
 Matsya, sons of the eel-fish {matsya) 
 
 god, ancestors of the Hindu royal 
 
 races, 186, 872, 899, 905, 949 
 May festival to the Dead of the 
 
 Pleiades year, and May processions, 
 
 IIS, 136, 793. 795. 796 
 May-day and its antiquity as a national 
 
 feast-day, 5, 33, 39, 398 
 May-pole dating from the Pleiades 
 
 year, 133 
 Maya, Mexican circumcising tribe using 
 
 the eighteen-months year, 73, 76, 
 
 106, 835, 836, 839, 841, 882 
 Mayura, peacock totem of the Bharatas, ^ 
 
 594, 595. 597. 649 
 Mdzanderan, land of the Milky Way, 
 
 352, 353. 358, 558. 721 
 
 Mead, sacred honey drink of the North 
 consecrated in the age of bee-worship 
 and the three-years cycle-year to the 
 dwarf-gods of the Finn races in 
 Europe, Asia, and America. See 
 Madliu, 26 
 
 Meh-urt cow, the vulture - weaving- 
 goddess, the Pole Star Vega, mid- 
 wife of Khepera the beetle, 781 
 
 Mekhir, November — December, 
 Egyptian month, 779, "}%/[ 
 
 Melanthius, goat-herd-god of the Odys- 
 sey, 623, 773 
 
 Meleager, 215 
 
 Melicertes, Melkaerth, the master 
 {malik) of cities {Tcaer), Celto- 
 Phoenician god of the city (Jiaer"), 
 son of Ino {which see), also Archal, 
 
 190. 399, 765 
 
 Melissai, the bee-priestesses of the age , 
 of bee-worship and mead-drinking, 
 26, 318, 319 
 
 Mendh Ishwara, the Ram-god of 
 boundaries {mendh), the god Daksha, 
 332 
 
 Meneka, time - measuring goddess- 
 motlier of Sakuntala, 332, 333, 767 
 
 Menelaus, a year -god of the year of 
 four seasons, 761 
 
 Mercury, 294 
 
 Merioncs, god of the Thigh (fi^piov) as 
 archer year-god of the year of five 
 seasons 758, 759, 761, 762 
 
 Metageitnion Greek month (August — 
 September), 396 
 
 Metres of the Vedic hymns, reminis- 
 cences and memorial records of the 
 successive year-reckonings of theo- 
 logical history. See Gayatri Trish- 
 tubh, 742, 919, 920 
 
 Midas, generic name of the kings of 
 Phrygia in the age of the worship of 
 the sun-ass, 19 
 
Index. 
 
 1007 
 
 Midgard, serpent of the Edda, 19, 240 
 Mihr-jan, December-January, Persian 
 
 month sacred to Mithra [mihir), 232, 
 
 679, 681 
 Milesians, sons of Mile or Bile, a 
 
 mother-tree shadowing a holy well. 
 
 See Bile, 465 
 Milk, national drink of the Massagetie, 
 
 the material of the .first libations 
 
 offered on Indian altars, 26, 402, 
 
 403, 404, 405, 49S , , , 
 
 Milky Way, ancient year-path of the 
 
 sun-god, 7, 41. 136, 171. 206, 301, 
 
 302, 338, 352, 356, 357, 446, 447, 
 
 551, 721, 852 
 Min, mother-goddess of the Minyan 
 
 race, the star Virgo, 191, 195, 485, 
 
 753. 849. 946 
 Minerva, 485 
 Minos, Minyan king of Crete, 191, 
 
 377. 378. 547, 753 „ . 
 
 Minotaur, bull of Mmos, constellation 
 Taurus, 301, 576 
 
 Minu-tchir, son of Iraj, the sun-god 
 bom in Cancer, Persian king and 
 sun-god ruling the year, 28, 231, 
 232, 233, 307, 347, 348, 349, 350, 
 444, 522, 720, 790 
 
 Minyans, Dorian sons of Min, the star 
 Virgo, mother of corn, 191, 228, 377. 
 378 
 
 Mithuna, male and female twins of the 
 Indian zodiac, 21, 973 
 
 Mitra or Mithra, year-god slayer at the 
 winter solstice of the year-bull, the 
 constellation Taurus, 176, 177, 178, 
 194, 200, 226, 227, 301, 306, 308, 
 366, 400, 775, 791 
 
 Mitra- Varuna, gods ruling the solstitial 
 year beginning with the winter and 
 spring season of Mitra or Mithra, 
 followed by the summer and autumn 
 of Varuna, beginning at the summer 
 solstice, 125, 226, 228, 274, 320, 
 334. 404. 405. 418, 420, 492, 874, 
 899. 939. 944. 947> 948. 954, 958 
 
 Moab, father {ab) of waters \mo), one of 
 the sons of Lot, the Hebrew incense- 
 god, 375. 376 
 
 Mohurtas, hours of the Indian duo- 
 decimal system of time reckoning, 
 
 1, month and year-measurer, its 
 worship as a female and male god, 
 and teachings of new and full moon 
 sacrifices, 173, 258, 259, 404 — 406, 
 480, 725.. 944, 951 
 Morrigu, witch of the sea (muir), 711 
 Moses, Masu, 628, 641, 711, 839 
 
 Mossoos, Chinese and Tibetan Mons, 
 501, 502, 508, S73. 584 
 
 Mule, god of the age of the eleven- 
 months year, intermediate between 
 the sun-ass and the sun-horse, 566 
 
 Mullil, Lord of the Dust Akkadian- 
 god, loi, 180, 616 
 
 Multan, Malli-tana, city of the Mallis, 
 366,395,898 
 
 Munda, headman of a village, 100, 
 128, 430, 433 
 
 Mundas, Mons, ruling mountain-races 
 of India and Burmah, 17, 51, 56, 93, 
 100, 102, 106, 107, 128, 175, 184, 
 216, 239, 240, 248, 291, 317, 378, 
 404, 412, 424, 425, 481, 573, 584, 
 
 673. 945 
 Mundus Patet, Latin festival. Its 
 
 meaning, 548, 549, 550 
 Munja, sugar-cane grass, parent-grass 
 
 of the Brahmans, 158, 159, 217, 328, 
 
 915 
 
 Murad, meaning the neck, the horse- 
 necked or horse-headed sun-god, son 
 of Gharib, 516, 520, 526, 527 
 
 Murwa (Eleusine Corocand), sacra- 
 mental beer made from it, 507 
 
 Myliita, Babylonian goddess, 134, 870 
 
 Mythic history in 7nyths, the earliest 
 form of reliable national history, 89 
 —92, 96-99 
 
 Ndhhd-nedishtha, the nearest to the 
 navel (nabha), the central fire on the 
 Vedic altar, 158, 319, 400 
 
 Ndgas, Nagbunsi, sons of the rain- 
 snake [nag) and plough-god Nagur, 
 94,251,252,253,371 
 
 Ndg-Panchami, mid-year festival of the 
 five (panch) Nag-mothers held in 
 Shravana (July— August), 251, 343, 
 476, 853, 860 
 
 Nahr, Nahor, the channel of the 
 Euphrates, parent-river of the Se- 
 mites, 182, 373, 630 
 
 Nahuatl, Mexican Nagas, a circum- 
 cising snake-race, the Aztecs, 76, 78, 
 835, 836, 841, 851, 871 
 
 Nahusha, the Naga race, 27, 29, 253, 
 254, 274, 835 
 
 Nairs of Southern India, a matriarchal 
 race, 94 
 
 Nakshatra, Nd^ - kshetra, the field 
 (kshetkra) of the Nags, the zodiacal 
 stars through which the sun and 
 moon passed in their circuit of 
 heaven, 21, 27, 198, 303, 305, 307, 
 
ioo8 
 
 Index. 
 
 308, 309, 311, 325. 339. 362. 382, 
 413, Sii. 9«6. 941 
 
 Nakula, the mongoose, the fifth Pan- 
 
 dava, the winter-god, 872, 882 
 Nala, the channel of the course of 
 
 time, and Damayanti, the earth it 
 
 tames, 341, 469, 770 
 Na-muchi, the antelope-god of drought 
 
 who does not {no) release (muchi) 
 
 the rain. Slain by Indra, xi., 226 
 Nanda, the bull-husband (Taurus) of 
 
 Jasoda Rohini (Aldebarati), 646, 652 
 Nanja, Australian birth-tree or totem, 
 
 60, 62, 78, 82, 84 
 Napit, a caste of priest-barbers, 579, 
 
 580 
 Nara-shamsa, praised of men (nara), 
 
 central fire on the Vedic altar, 121, 
 
 457. 633 
 
 Narayana, name of Krishna as God- 
 Man (nara), 606 
 
 Nats, thirty-seven of Burmah and Cam- 
 bodia, 508, 511 
 
 Navagva, priests of the nine (nava) 
 days week of the three-years cycle- 
 year, 319, 454, 932 
 
 Nava-ratra, nine-nights festival of the 
 three-years cycle-year of nine-day 
 weeks, held at the autumnal equinox 
 in Ashva-yujau, September-Octo- 
 ber, 28, 29, 323 
 
 Navel, ancient belief in birth from the 
 navel, and in the national altar-fire 
 as the central navel of the world, 
 XX., 67, 68, 69, 84, 85, 104, 183 
 
 Navigation, primitive in the Indian 
 Ocean, 127, 128 
 
 Neanderthal, race of palieolithic pot- 
 ters, 10, 139, 141, 142, 143, 147, 
 149 
 
 Neolithic Age, 22, 28, 138, 330, 401 
 
 Ner, Ner-gal, the great bright one, 
 Akkadian Pole Star god, :8o 
 
 Neshtri, women's-priest of Tvashtar, 
 god of two (tva) seasons of the years 
 of the Matriarchal Age, 746, 747, 
 748, 749, 954 
 
 Nigrodha (Ficus Indica). See Banyan, 
 659, 660, 665, 669 
 
 Nine, its sanctity as an historical 
 number recording the nine-days week 
 of the three years cycle-year, 28, 29, 
 
 304. 30s 
 
 Nineteen, its historical and chrono- 
 logical meaning, 667, 668 
 
 Nineveh, Fish town, 737 
 
 Ninus or Nimrod, the hunter-star 
 Orion, 284, 703 
 
 Names, Egyptian provinces, 129, 786 
 
 Nooktas, Nuktds of British Coltimbia, 
 
 840 
 Ncmi'utset, mexican bufialo goddess 
 
 of the West, 839, 846, 847 
 Nuada of the Silver Hand, Nodens 
 
 Nud, 32, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38 
 Num, Nun, Na, the fish-god of the 
 
 eight creators of the fifteen-months 
 
 year of Samoyede, Akkadian, 
 
 Egyptian and Hebrew theology. 
 
 .See Fish, 624, 777, 778,- 779 
 Nunet, Vulture wife of Nun, 624, 
 
 777 
 Nurtunja, Australian tribal sceptre 
 
 staff, 65, 78 
 Nush-adar, sun-god of the water of 
 
 immortality (niish), son of Isfendiyar, 
 
 709, 715 
 Nut-tree, parent-tree of the Todau, 
 
 Jews and Mexicans preceding the 
 
 almond-tree. See Pinon nut-tree, 
 
 37. 863 
 
 Oak, parent -tree of the Pelasgian wor- 
 shippers of the pig-god and of the 
 mother-tree with edible fruit, parent- 
 tree of the Druids, Arcadians, Greeks, 
 and Italians succeeding the cypress- 
 tree, 16, 19, 32, 33, 34, 38, 200, 202, 
 221, 2S0, 799, 800, 829, 847, 961, 
 962 
 
 Odin, Woden, god of knowledge, 18, 
 291,400, 401, 451 
 
 Odusseus, the Greek Orendel (which 
 see), the star Orion, god of the road 
 (o5os) or path of the year, the equi- 
 valent of Tao Shinto, Pathya the 
 Chinese, Japanese and Vedic gods of 
 the creating path. He is the shooter 
 of the year-slaying-arrow shot from 
 the unerring Great Bear Bow, xix., 
 17, 265, 273, 274, 275, 276, 279, 
 467, 523. 540. 620. 621, 622, 623, 
 685. 687, 739, 752, 753, 756, 757, 
 763, 764, 765, 766, 780, 800, 955 
 
 Ohona-mochi, Japanese Orion, 166, 
 167, 170, 173 
 
 Oil, holy oil of the sacred Sesame 
 (Sesamum Orientate), the ritualistic 
 unguent preceding butter. See Butter, 
 242, 467 
 
 Oil-press, or revolving year-bed, 297 
 
 Ojhas, men of knowledge, provincial 
 priests in Chutia Nagpur, 424, 433 
 
 Olenios, epithet of Poseidon as wearing 
 on his left wrist the star Capella, 
 
 554. 575 
 Olwen, goddess ot white clover, wife 
 
Index, 
 
 1009 
 
 of Kilhwch, the sun-god born m a 
 pig-sty, 293 
 
 Olive-tree ai Athene, tree form of the 
 sacred Sesame, 17 
 
 Omphale, Omphalos, the central fire or 
 the altar-wife of Herakles Sandon. 
 See Navel, Nabha-nedishtha Ida, 67, 
 85,221, 297, 298, 630, 631, 829 
 
 Onga, Onka, the heated Itonian Athene, 
 goddess of the South, 180 
 
 Ophir, son of Joktan, the gold land of 
 India, 374 
 
 Oraon, sons of the Malay Orang, 
 meaning man, the Dravido-Turanian 
 ruling race of Chutia Nagpur, who 
 introduced wheat and barley, worship 
 the ass and the Kurum almond- tree, 
 17. 37. 80, 81, 248, 259,411,412, 
 421, 422, 424, 426, 427, 428, 430, 
 431. 432, 433. 434, 435. 436, 437, 
 438, 481, 581, 595, 769, 771, 806, 
 870, 945 
 
 Orendel, Orwendel, Scandinavian 
 wandering god Orion, whose toe was 
 the star Rigel in that constellation. 
 He became in Greece Odusseus, 17, 
 274 
 
 Orestes, 195 
 
 Orion, deer star of the Northern hunt- 
 ing races, sons of the deer. He 
 succeeded Canopus as leader of the 
 stars headed by the Pleiades, when 
 the worshippers of the Pleiades and 
 Canopus as leading year stars had as 
 immigrants reached thenorthernlands 
 of the hunting tribes of Asia minor 
 where Canopus was no longer visible. 
 Here Orion became the year-star 
 of Orion's year in Asia, Egypt, and 
 Europe. See Praja-pati, Osiris Sah, 
 v., xii., xviii., xx., 3, 10, 12, 14, 17, 
 27, 78, 84, 129, 137, 152, 154, 155, 
 •56, 157, 158, 159. 163, 168, 169, 
 173' 181, 183, 190, 192, 194, 219, 
 220, 222, 223, 226, 248, 273, 274, 
 275, 282, 284, 294, 304, 313, 325, 
 327, 329. 340, 348. 423, 466, 480, 
 482, 494, 521, 533, 548, 562, 578, 
 606, 612, 620, 621, 637, 753, 838, 
 840, 841, 847, 852, 853, 916, 917, 
 918, 972 
 
 Ortygia, island of the quails, 156, 163 
 
 Oscaphoria, grape harvest -home in 
 Greece, 475 
 K Osiris, as Osiris Sah, the Egyptian 
 barley-god Orion, 114, 135, 190, 191, 
 192, 194, 219, 270, 287, 306, 462, 
 781, 782, 783, 784, 791, 838, 845, 
 S46, 972 
 
 Osiris Ani, Tjn, 775, 781, 782, 783, 
 
 784, 785. 786, 787 
 Osiris Auf-ankh, god of the ankh S 
 
 symbol of life, 775, 776, 778, 780, 
 
 784, 7S5 
 Osiris Nu, god of the Nun-fish and 
 
 of the thirteen-months year of the 
 
 Khepera-beetle, 624, 625, 627, 775, 
 
 776, 777. 785 
 Osk, Oski, god of the Wish, primitive 
 
 form of Odin, iv., 18, 291, 292 
 Otus and Ephialtes, and their thirteen- 
 months year, 270, 272 
 Ouranos, 280, 310, 319 
 Owl, Indian god Uluka of the Saras- 
 
 vatis, mother-bird of Athene and 
 
 Minerva, 891 
 Oxus or Ji-hun, the river of life (ji ), 
 
 516, 522, 526, 690 
 
 Padum-uttara, the Northern [utiara) 
 lotus (paduma), the thirteenth Bud- 
 dha, who introduced into India the 
 thirteen-months year of the thirteen 
 Buddhist Theris, 286 
 
 Pahan, village or parish priest of the 
 Oraons, and his glebe land, 422, 423, 
 433, 870 
 
 Paitishahya, the lord {pati) of corn, 
 third festival of the Zoroastrian year 
 (August — September), 702, 704 
 
 Pajdpati, Maha Goiami, Buddhist fe- 
 male form of the male god Prajapati 
 {Orion), leader and goddess of the 
 first month of the year of the thirteen 
 Buddhist Theris, 248, 657 
 
 Paktha, the Pathans, 366, 367, 894, 
 
 895 
 Pal kings of Bengal, 596 
 Paleolithic Age, 50, 127, 139 — 149 
 Palasha-tree [Butea frondosa), a sacred 
 tree of the Mundas. The first most 
 holy ritualistic tree, the germ-bed 
 from which the creating Soma, the 
 sap of the rain-bird Su, was extracted 
 as the divine seed growing into life 
 in spring. It was from it that the 
 typical triangle of three twigs was 
 taken, the Paridhis encircling the 
 central navel fire of the earliest 
 Indian altar in the form of a woman. 
 It was also from it that the car of 
 the Ashvins, the twin stars in Aries, 
 ruling the three-years cycle-year, 
 was made, v., vi., ix., 11, 162, 177, 
 225, 247, 269, 324, 330, 409, 415, 
 420, 480, 534, 734, 745, 816, 817, 
 
 II. 
 
 3 T 
 
lOIO 
 
 Index, 
 
 8i8, 873, 879, 918, 923, 931, 935, 
 
 943. 957 
 
 Palashan, Turanian champion of the 
 Palasha-tree, 534 
 
 Pales, Paha, year-god of the grain 
 husk {paled), 484 
 
 Palici, Italian twin creating gods, the 
 the cotyledon or husk leaves of the 
 growing plant, 484 
 
 Palilia, Parilia, festival of Pales held 
 on the 2ist of April, answering to 
 23rd April, day of St. George the 
 Ploughing-god, 482, 484, 485, 499, 
 525, 582 
 
 Pallas, goddess of the wooden Palla- 
 dium, the guardian image made of 
 the mother-tree of the land, the 
 mother-tree goddess of the seed husk. 
 See Cinderella, 475, 484 
 
 Pan, goat-god of the hairy Satyrs, 33, 
 295, 830 
 
 Panathenia, a mid-year festival of 
 Athene on August 15th as the tree- 
 mother-goddess of the Peplos, 502 
 
 Panchalas, men of the five (panch) 
 claws (ala), the five days of the 
 week, rulers of Northern India before 
 the Kuru Srinjayas, the Kuru Pan- 
 chalas, xix. , 252, 265, 306, 404, 
 909 
 
 Panchayats, village and state councils 
 of five (panch), 694 
 
 Pandava year of five seasons, 743 
 
 Pdndavas, five god-begotten sons of 
 Pandu and grandsons of Ambalika, 
 the Great Bear mother who wrested 
 India from the Kauravyas, ruled the 
 five seasons of their year of seventeen- 
 months and established the eighteen- 
 months year, xix., 35, 52, 160, 161, 
 184, 261, 262, 265, 266, 290, 332, 
 364, 372, 417, 429, 469, 470, 596, 
 618, 659, 674- 675, 676, 677, 685, 
 686, 724, 767, 770, 771, 772, 817, 
 820, 834, 835, 859, 865, 871, 872, 
 874, 876, 880, 88i, 882, 883, 884, 
 885, 891, 903, 909 
 
 Pandu, the fair [pandu) and sexless 
 year-god, son of the Great Bear 
 mother Ambalika and Vyasa, the 
 constellation Draco, 262, 469, 677, 
 871 
 
 Pandyas, the fair (pandu) race of the 
 corn-growing sons of the North, 
 whose father was Agastya Canopus, 
 and who succeeded the Chirus sons 
 of the bird (chir) as rulers of India, 
 25s. 444, 449 
 
 Panis, Pafiris, the traders of the Rig- 
 veda, 334, 597, 829 
 
 Papil-sak, Akkadian constellation Leo, 
 361 
 
 Pard-shara, the overhanging-cloud, 
 161, 186, 472, 608 
 
 Parasu-Rdma of the double axe 
 (iarasu), destroyer of the Haihayas 
 (which see), son of Jama-d-agni, the 
 twin (jama) fires of the Pepal and 
 Banyan fig-trees, and Renuka the 
 flower pollen, 267, 268, 269, 355, 
 
 377. 384. 453. 498. 579. 8z8 
 Parentalia, Roman New Year's festival 
 to the Dead on the 13th February, 
 corresponding with Greek Anthes- 
 teria (which see), 789 
 Parha, province of the matriarchal 
 
 Munda state, 93, 128, 411 
 Paridhis, sacred triangles of twigs of 
 the mother-tree placed round the 
 central altar-fire in India, first of 
 Palasha (which see), afterwards of 
 Deva or Pilu-daru pine and Karsh- 
 marya wood (lohich see), 409 
 Parikshit, the circling sun of the sun- 
 horse, son of Uttara, the Pole Star 
 mother, and Abhimanyu, son of 
 Arjuna and Su-bhadra, twin sister of 
 Krishna, who after his death on 
 earth went to heaven as the moon- 
 god, 14, 236, 487, 648, 666, 673, 
 67s. 677. 678, 681, 692, 693, 69s, 
 745, 763. 772. 817, 820, 867, 903, 
 911 
 Paris-nath, lord of the Paris (faHris) 
 traders, sacred Jain mountain on the 
 Burrakur in Chutia Nagpur, the 
 ancient Kushika Mount Mandara 
 (7uhich see), 265, 594, 597 
 Parisrut, sacramental rice beer, 746 
 Parjanya, the rain-god, 587, 736, 935 
 Parsva, twenty-third Jain Tirthakara, 
 whose birth-day coincides with that 
 of St. George, 483, 692, 694, 791 
 Pdrthava, Pdrthas, or Pritha Pariha, 
 the Parthians, name of the Pandavas, 
 sons of Prithi Prithu, 262, 266, 290, 
 
 310. 444 
 
 Pashang. See Piish, Piishan 
 
 Pashu purodasha, sacrificial rice and 
 butter-cakes offered at animal sacri- 
 fices ; also the name of a Tur-vasu 
 leader, 480, 731, 898, 899, 900, 907, 
 958 
 
 Pdtala, ancient port on the Indus of 
 the Ikshvaku and Su-varna kings, 109 
 
 Patesi, Akkadian priest-kings like those 
 of India, Egypt and Persia, and the 
 
Index. 
 
 ion 
 
 Rex Sacrorum of Rome, 444, 479, 
 731, 960, 961 
 Palhyd, Vedic goddess of the. star-path 
 of the sun and moon round the sky, 
 counterpart of the Chinese Tao, the 
 Japanese Shinto and the Greek 
 Odusseus, gods of the Path, xix., 
 
 274. 27s, 732 
 
 Patriatchal age succeeding the Matri- 
 archal instituted by Iberian Basques 
 of Asia Minor, and accompanied by 
 the introduction of the Couvade, 179, 
 180 
 
 Patroklus, a form of the sun-physician, 
 273. 279. 401. 574, 707, 753. 7S4> 
 
 755 
 Paushya, the constellation Cancer. See 
 
 Push, Pushan 
 Pavamana, the Purifier, a name of 
 
 Soma, the moon-god, vii., 50, 173, 
 
 935. 936, 939. 940, 942 
 Peach-tree, mother-tree of China, no 
 Peacock totem of the Bharatas, sacred 
 
 bird of the Greek Here, 374, 563, 
 
 594. 597, 649 
 
 Pegasus, the four-starred constellation 
 of the sun-horse ruUng with the seven 
 stars of the Great Bear, the eleven- 
 months year. The star-horse of the 
 sun - god, the sun - physician. See 
 Bellerophon, Lik-barra, Kanthaka, 
 2, 40, 43, 44, 465, 468, 471, 472, 
 494. 505. 512, 529, 536, 569, 572, 
 577. 659. 695, 784, 858 
 
 Pelasgians, sons of Peleg, the stream, 
 Gr. Pelagos. In Greek tradition, 
 descendants of Pelasgos, sons of the 
 oak-tree, and worshippers of pigs, 
 16, 202 
 
 Peleus, god of the Potter's clay (tttjAcSs), 
 father of Achilles, to whom Poseidon 
 gave the first sun-horses, 18, 39, loS, 
 136, 316, 401, 473, 520, 569, 576, 
 578,688,711, 790,844, 877 
 
 Pelops, winner of the chariot-race of 
 the thirteen-months year, 279, 467 
 
 Pen, Pen Samlath, the Brythonic Lady 
 {fen, the Hebrew Face) Samlath or 
 Semele, mother of Dionysos, 44 
 
 Penelope, daughter of Icarius, the con- 
 stellation Bootes, and wife of Odus- 
 seus Orion. The weaver of the web 
 (.r^^n) of time, the mother Pleiades, 
 called in India the Spinners, xix., 
 18, 275, 68s 
 
 Pentecost, fifty-days fast of the sun-god 
 and the May perambulation of boun- 
 daries, 46, 663, 664, 671, 695, 725, 
 727, 793 
 
 Pen-u-el, tower of the face (pm) of God, 
 a conical triangular pillar symbol of 
 the divinity preceding the worship of 
 the Ephod {which see), 627, 628, 
 638 
 
 Peplos, the creating Veil, 122 
 
 Perez, the cleft, male form of Tirhatha, 
 twin son of Tamar, the date-palm- 
 tree, 87,- 634 
 
 Persephone, Proserpine — Kore {itihich 
 see), the May Queen of the Pleiades 
 year, 34, 197, 208, 288, 312, 313, 
 319, 398, 485, 549, 615, 795, 804 
 
 Perseus, Assyrian sun-god, acording to 
 yElian a fish, a form of la. Bom of 
 Danae, the Pole Star {Danu) mother, 
 in the tower of the three-years cycle- 
 year, 166, 218, 336, 337, 454, 466, 
 687 
 
 Persians, sons of the star-leopard (pars). 
 See Leopard, 353 
 
 Peshyotami, he who pays with his own 
 body the Godson of Gusht-asp, 
 made immortal by the milk of heaven, 
 691, 692, 693, 696, 712, 714, 716, 
 718, 721 
 
 Phalgun, February — March, Indian 
 month, 282, 429, 487, 488, 490, 
 504, 506, 531, 571, 614, 615, 645, 
 663, 665, 703, 743, 744. 763, 789. 
 817, 881, 952, 953 
 
 Pharsi-pen, the female (pm) trident 
 (pharsi) with two tiger wives, the 
 trident-god of the Gonds, 14, 239, 
 
 419, 799, 942, 969 
 Philistines, called Kaphtorim, sons of 
 the hand {kaph) of the five-fingered 
 ape {kapi). See Kap, Kaph, 194, 
 
 195 
 
 Philoitios, herdsman of star-oxen ot 
 
 Odusseus, the star Arcturus, 623 
 Phineus, the sea-eagle, 466, 619 
 Phcenicians, sons of the date-palm-tree 
 
 {•polviQ, 52, 73, 87, 220, 221, 368, 
 
 370, 396, 589 
 Phanix, date-palm-tree warden of the 
 
 chariot-race course of the sun at 
 
 Troy, 759 
 Phcenix constellation, 120 
 Photos, the Centaur Soma guardian, 
 
 499. 684 
 
 Phrixus, the roasted (</>pi7w) barley, son 
 of Athamas or Dumu-zi, Orion, 30 
 
 Picls, the painted races who ate parched 
 barley, painted their tribal totems on 
 their foreheads, and traced descent 
 in the female line, 214, 335, 336, 
 410,411,546,598 
 
 Pints, the red-headed wood-pecker, the 
 
 3 T 2 
 
10 1 2 
 
 Index. 
 
 sun-bird of the forest races of Greece, 
 Italy, and America, 708, 805, 806 
 Pig, sacred animal of the Pelasgian 
 sons of the oak-tree, the Phrygians, 
 Greeks, Latins, Celts, and the nu- 
 merous tribes of Asia and Europe 
 who traced their descent to the oak, 
 worshipped the Great Bear as the 
 Seven Pigs, and offered their eldest 
 sons as sacrifices. See Great Bear, 
 XX., 13, 14, IS, i6, 17, 30, 32, 34, 
 36, 174, 178, 183, 192, 198, 199, 
 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 
 207, 208, 209, 214, 218, 221, 230, 
 318, 801, 803, 804, 828, 829 
 P«]^to7 tonsure of the Mossoos, Chinese, 
 Mundas, Mexican priests and all 
 high-caste Hindoos, 573, 584 
 Pillar worship of the god of the stone 
 and wooden pillar, the sun-god Ra, 
 206, 220, 221, 222, 223, 558 
 Pilsam, brother of Piran {which see), 
 
 522, 528, 537 
 Pindka, Finga, the musical bow of 
 Shiva and the Munda races, 146, Jii 
 Pine-tree, parent-tree of the Bear race, 
 sons of Cybele. See Deva-daru, 
 Pitii-daru, 141, 221, 226 
 Piilon-nut-tree, parent-tree of the Mexi- 
 can sun-god Poshai-y'anne, 862, 863 
 Pipal-tree [Ficus religiosa), the sacred 
 fire-drill. See Ashvattha, 132, 140, 
 267, 416, 495, 667, 669 
 Pirdn, son of Wiseh or Vi-sakha, 
 April — May [which see), brother of 
 Pushang or Piishan, the constellation 
 Cancer, Ruler of Khoken and chief- 
 general of Afrasiab, the Turanian 
 King, 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 
 529. S3S- S37. 538. 542, 544, 550, 
 SSi> 552, 553 
 Pirithous, 467 
 
 Pirs, Panch, the Five Pirs, sons of the 
 
 barley-mare, worshipped by the Telis 
 
 and Hindu races, whose priests are 
 
 barber-surgeons, 468, 568, 579, 580 
 
 Pisacha, Cannibal races of India, 78, 
 
 453 
 Pisces, constellation. See Revati, 103, 
 
 274, 308, 309. 344. 354> 478, 542, 
 557, 648, 809 
 
 Pitarah Somavaniah, the rice-eating 
 and rice-born fathers of the Palseo- 
 litliic forest races, founders of vil- 
 lage communities, 258, 407 
 
 Pitaro Barhishadah, fathers of the 
 Neolithic Age, the Kushika ancestors, 
 soas of corn, who, like the Picts and 
 American Indians painted their 
 
 totems on their foreheads, ate parched 
 barley, called themselves sons of the 
 Kusha-grass, and buried their dead 
 unburnt, 258, 376, 377, 407, 410, 
 452, 473, 585, 598, 798, 790, 828, 
 846 
 
 Pitaro Cnishvdttdh, fathers of the 
 Bronze Age, eaters of porridge, of 
 parched barley and milk, who burnt 
 their dead, 407, 473, 588, 598, 802, 
 828, 844 
 
 Pitri-yajna sacrifice to the Fathers, 
 406, 585, 588 
 
 Pitri-ydna, six months from the summer 
 to the winter solstice consecrated to 
 the Fathers, 8, 372, 586 
 
 PitU-ddru. See Deva-daru 
 
 Plaksha or Pakur-iree (Ficus infectoria), 
 parent-tree of the offerers of animal 
 sacrifices, 225, 238 
 
 Pleiades, leaders of the stars round the 
 Pole in the earliest year of the Matri- 
 archal Age measured by revolving 
 stars, X., xiv., xviii., 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 
 12, 34, 35. 36, 56. 77. 79, 84, 86, 
 
 102, 
 
 158. 
 191, 
 223, 
 266, 
 335. 
 476, 
 569, 
 845. 
 
 949: 
 
 104, 
 130, 
 159, 
 197, 
 224, 
 268, 
 
 336, 
 482, 
 
 164, 
 199, 
 231, 
 270, 
 
 83, 
 222, 
 
 259, 
 309. 
 
 106, 108, III, 114, 115, 
 
 131, 132, 133, 134, 136, 
 
 166, 169, 173, 
 
 208, 211, 213, 
 
 233, 248, 249, 
 
 275, 289, 308 
 
 367, 396, 398, 405, 455 
 
 483, 485, 486, 488, 548, 
 
 615. 759, 768, 790, 799, 843. 
 
 848, 849, 857, 862, 916, 945, 
 
 959 
 
 Plough, rules for the construction and 
 
 ceremonial use of the Indian sacred 
 
 plough made of the Udumbara wild 
 
 fig-tree, 327, 328, 329 
 
 Ploughing festival he^mmig the year, 
 
 178, 264, 653, 676, 703, 945 
 Po Ganvor Motri, Cham-dancing Shiva, 
 
 380, 510 
 Fd Klon Garai, Cham-Linga god, 379, 
 
 380, 510 
 Po Nbgar Bard, Cham Pole Star 
 
 goddess, 114 
 Po Rome, Cham equivalent of Indian 
 
 Rama, 380, 381, 510 
 Po Sah /no, Cham sugar-cane goddess, 
 
 510 
 Po Yan In'd Nogar Taha, supreme 
 Cham goddess rice and banyan-tree- 
 mother, 114, 379, 510 
 Pole Star, navel of the sky, house of 
 
 the parent-god and goddess, xvi. 
 Pole Star god with one leg and one 
 eye. See Cyclops, 77, 84 
 
Index. 
 
 1013 
 
 'lux Poludeukes, the raining Twin- 
 rod, 21, 86, 326, 376, 755. 758. 974 
 megranate (Heb. Kimmon) sacred to 
 Hadad Rimmon, the pomegranate- 
 rod of Damascus. See Isfendiyar, 
 
 [97. 370, 691, 705 
 
 ngol, Dravidian festival of the winter 
 iolstice, 945 
 
 nlifex, builder of the bridge (pons) 
 jf ritualistic time, the Roman priests, 
 794. Maximus, 961 
 seidon, originally the snake - god 
 Erictheus, holder of the creating- 
 ;rident and parent-god of the horses 
 Df the sun, 15, 202, 210, 270, 272, 
 273, 279, 280, 529, 554, 575 
 seidon, Greek month December — 
 January, 613, 675 
 
 shai-ydnne, Mexican sun-god born 
 of a nut-tree, 863, 865, 866, 867, 
 882 
 
 •t-raj, Dravidian Dasahara festival 
 of the autumnal equinox, 392, 393 
 iters, sons of Shelah the spear, and 
 the Great Potter the Creator, 25, 40, 
 296, 297, 314, 315, 316, 320, 401 
 ittery, history of the origin of in the 
 Palaeolithic age, and the distribution 
 of the manufacture from the North, 
 148, 149, 150, 213 
 
 'a-hasta, the foremost hand (hasta), 
 first year of the three-years cycle- 
 year of Bavana, 342 
 mja-fati, lord (fati) oi cultivators 
 [praja], the creating-deer star Orion, 
 vi., X., 13, 108, 157, 158, 224, 252, 
 266, 325, 370, 394, 403, 450, 488, 
 492, 720, 728, 730, 731, 735, 736, 
 
 740, 742. 744. 748. 749. 753. 769. 
 819, 820, 845, 924, 927, 928, 972 
 mstara, Indian magic rain-wand, 
 first made of Kusha afterwards of 
 Ashva-vala horse-tail grass, 64, 409, 
 416, 449, 635, 745 
 
 'avargya, ceremony representing the 
 birth of the twelve-months year from 
 that of thirteen-months, 920, 921, 
 922 
 
 nshni, the spotted goddess, the starry 
 heaven, xi., xii, xiii., 185 
 ntha, Parsha, sun-worshipping tribes, 
 their relation to the Pandavas, 
 Parthians and Persians, 893, 894, 
 89S 
 
 Hthi, Prithu, conceiving mother o 
 the Parthian Pandavas, 364, 419 
 rocyon, 136, 229, 362, 794 
 roperty, communal among the Dravi- 
 dian matriarchal founders of villages 
 
 who transmitted it in the female line ; 
 tribal property and that appropriated 
 to families with descent to sons origi- 
 nated among the early patriarchal 
 neolithic races such as the Iberian 
 Basques, and tended to become 
 individual among the Gotho-Celts, 
 93—95. 602—605 
 Pryderi, son of Pwyll, king of Dyvid, 
 
 335. 336 
 
 Prytaneum, Celtic Bruden public 
 village guest-house, 98 
 
 Ptah, Egyptian dwarf-ape-god, the 
 opener (patha) of the year, and the 
 weilder of the hammer (pattisk), 
 subsequently the Great Potter, 18, 
 166, 295, 296, 299, 316, 377, 844 
 
 Puanepsion, Greek month October — 
 November, 17, 34, 196, 2H, 475 
 
 Purim, New Year's festival of the Jews 
 commemorating the slaying of Haman 
 and his ten sons, gods of the eleven- 
 months year, its connection with the 
 Hindu Hull festival and the European 
 carnival, 703, 976 
 
 Pur-majeh, full (^pur) moon (maj), cow- 
 nurse of Feridun or Thraetaona, 345, 
 
 349 
 
 Puro-dasha. See Pasha-purodasha 
 
 Purujit, king of Pandra, conqueror of 
 Purus brother of Kurite, mother of 
 the Pandavas, also called Bhaga- 
 datta (w/iich see), 290 
 
 Puru-ravas, 745 
 
 Purus, Pau-ravas, sons of Yayati and 
 Sharmishtha the Banyan fig-tree, 
 whose high priest was Kutsa the 
 moon (&() god, 254, 256, 314, 334, 
 901 
 
 Purush-aspa, father of Zarathustra, 
 106, 108, 698 
 
 Puryag, junction of the Jumna and 
 Ganges, place of union between the 
 Naga Kushikas and the earlier popu- 
 lation of India, 238 
 
 Push, Pushya, December — January, 
 first month of the Hindu year dating 
 from the days when the sun was in 
 Piishya Cancer at the winter solstice 
 from about 14,700 to 12,500 B.C., 6, 
 27, 233, 236, 257, 259, 305, 322, 
 472, 473. 565. 960 
 
 Pushan, Pashang, from Push, to grow, 
 the bariey-eating-god who married 
 the sun's daughter in Piishya Cancer 
 at the winter solstice, and whose car 
 was drawn by the Pole Star goats, 
 15. 231. 305. 312, 322, 323. 350. 
 
IOI4 
 
 Index. 
 
 492, 506, 522, 534. 565. 576, 585. 
 612, 720, 732, 790, 899, 958, 960 
 Pushpa-ka {flower push-pa), car of 
 Rama and Kuvera, god of the South, 
 
 343. 563. S7I 
 Pushtu, Afghan language, 366, 895, 
 
 896 
 Pwyll, Prince of Dyvid, 335 
 Pylons, fourteen of Egyptian theology, 
 
 775. 778. 780, 781, 792 
 Pythian Games, 826, 828, 830 
 Pytho, Python, the prophetic snake of 
 
 the depths (Siiflos) at Delphi, the 
 
 Vedic Ahi Budhhya {risihich see), 
 
 Apollo Pythian, 825 
 
 Quirinus, the oak tree {quiris), god of 
 
 the Sabines, 794, 800, 961 
 Quiriles, sons of the oak tree {quiris 
 
 quercus), 16, 800, 961 
 
 Ra, Rai, Ragh, Raghic, pillar sun-god 
 of the North, whose worship was 
 thence brought by the worshippers 
 of the household fire to India and 
 Egypt, 171, 191, 219, 220, 222,224, 
 305. 339. 37Q. 414, 604, 632, 639, 
 776, 777, 791, 803 
 
 Rabbit, year of China and Mexico 
 Rabbit constellation Scorpio, 837, 
 838, 861, 866 
 
 Rachel, the ewe wife of Jacob, mother 
 of Joseph, god of the eleven-months 
 year and of the sun-god Benjamin, 
 626 
 
 Radha, giver of Ra, wife of Nanda the 
 bull, the star RohinI Aldebaran. 
 The finder of Kama, the month 
 Vi-sakha (April — May) {which see), 
 264 
 
 Ragha, south of the Caspian Sea, the 
 land of Ra, kingdom of the fire- 
 worshippers, 219, 222, 230, 683 
 
 Rahab, Rahabu, alligator-god of the Ak- 
 kadians, Phoenicians, Carthaginians, 
 and Jews, 641 
 
 Rahu, Raghu, sun-god Ra, worshipped 
 by the Dosadhis in Behar, 237, 243, 
 433. 485. 546. 580 
 
 Rdhulo, the little Ra-hu, son of the 
 Buddha, 657, 658, 804, 879 
 
 Rai-Das, parent-god of the Chamars, 
 
 244 
 
 Raja-Suya, Hindu coronation cere- 
 mony, 417, 418 
 
 Raj-Gonds, sons of Ra or Rai, 252, 
 253, 287, 28S 
 
 Raka, the full-moon, 173 
 
 Rakhshasa, sons of the tree {rukh), 
 261, 340, 342, 608 
 
 Raksh, spotted star-horse of Rustum, 
 43. 3SI. 539. 713. 714. 715. 716, 
 718, 720 
 
 Ram, the Supreme God, 370, 374 
 
 Ram-sun and sacrifice of a ram to the 
 year-god, 280, 400, 423, 433, 480 
 
 Rama, son of Raghu, plougher of the 
 sun's year-furrow through the zodia- 
 cal stars, xix., 23, 27, 28, 162, 249, 
 265. 339. 340, 341. 342, 343. 372, 
 374, 381, 382, 414, 415, 461, 563, 
 564, 565, 651, 658 
 
 Ram-anu, the god Ram and Rama 
 Hvastra, 370 
 
 Rapha, Repha, the giant-star Canopus, 
 136, 152, 168, 190 
 
 Rat, the constellation Aquarius, 167, 
 168, 169, 866 
 
 Rath-jatra, summer marriage, chariot- 
 procession of Krishna and Su-bhadra 
 beginning the year initiated by the 
 setting of Orion, 223 
 
 Rathantara or Ratha-tur Saman, song 
 of the turning {tur) of the sun- 
 chariot {ratha) in the last six months 
 of the solstitial year, 124, 932 
 
 Rautias, a clan of the Kaurs, 245, 434 
 
 Ravana, ten-headed giant of the three- 
 years cycle-year, conquered and slain 
 by Rama and Lakshman, 23, 340, 
 341, 342, 467, 469, 564 
 
 Raven mother-bird. See Bran, 294. 
 
 Ravi, river of the Punjab, also called 
 Purushni, 74, 237, 261, 907 
 
 Recaranus, the re-creator of the Cacus 
 legend, 178 
 
 Reed-mother of the sons of the river 
 and the mexican Toltecs, 236, 255, 
 
 839 
 Reindeer sun- god, chief domestic animal 
 
 of the Glacial Epoch, 137, 139 
 Renuka, flower pollen, mother of 
 
 Parasa Rama, 384 
 Rephaivi, sons of the giant Repha, 
 
 early settlers in Syria, 136, 639 
 Reshnawdd, finder of Darius, 722 
 Revati, constellation Pisces {which see), 
 
 274. 308, 344, 478, 648, 673, 809 
 Rex Sacrorum, chief priest of the 
 
 Roman Regia, home of the national 
 
 fire, 960, 961 
 Rhea, Hittite goddess, equivalent of 
 
 Cybele, 280, 281, 616, 797 
 Rhianon, the lady wife of Pwyll, 
 
 mother of Pryderi, 335 
 Ribhus, the seizers (rabh), sons of 5u- 
 
Index. 
 
 1015 
 
 dhanvan, the bow (dhanvan) of Su 
 
 the creator, the Great Bear bow, 
 
 makers of the cups of the seasons. 
 
 See Harpies, 26, 27, 157, 260, 323, 
 
 327, 458, 563, 959 
 Ribhu-ksha, the third, the master (ksha) 
 
 of the Ribhus, the Ribhu of Indra, 
 
 157. 323. 358. 492. 563 
 Rijr-ashva, the blind upright (rijr) 
 
 horse, the pillar-god, 321, 358, 561, 
 
 735 
 
 Rishahha, the bull, son of Maru-devi, 
 the mountain-goddess, the altar-iire, 
 firet Jain Tirtha-kara, 27, 413, 414. 
 
 Rishis, the singers and Rishya the 
 antelope stars of time, the seven 
 Rishis, the stars of the Great Bear. 
 &« Great Bear, iv., vi., vii., ix., x., 
 xi., xii., xvi., xvii , 161, 489, 767, 
 860 
 
 Rohinl, the doe and red cow-mother, 
 the star Aldebaran (which see), iv., 
 166, 504, 646, 647, 972 
 
 Rohita, Taurus, 504 
 
 Romulus and Remus, twin parent -gods 
 of the wolf race (which see), 398 
 
 Ridaba, the river (rud) goddess 
 cypress - tree, mother of Rustum, 
 348, 71S. 719 
 
 Rudra, the red (rud) storm-god ruling 
 the year, father of the Maruts (which 
 see), and head of the eleven Rudras 
 of the eleven-months-year, iii., 11, 
 159, 161, 169, I7S, 320, 32s, 456, 
 451, 464, 465. 487, 676, 720, 733, 
 918 
 
 Rudra Tri ■ ambika, festival of the 
 winter solstice to Rudra's arrow and 
 his three wives, 159, i6o, 174 
 
 Rukh, Roc bird of the breath (ruakh) 
 of God, 105 
 
 Rustum, called in the Zendavesta Rud- 
 astam, branch (astam) of the river 
 (rud) tree, the son of Riidaba, the 
 river (rud) cypress-tree, the Horn or 
 Hum, Haoma or Soma-tree of the 
 Zendavesta, the Tamarisk river 
 cypress-tree (which see), the parent- 
 tree of the fire-worshippers of the 
 fire land of Baku, Ragha, Persia, 
 Syria, Egypt and Greece. His father 
 was Zal, the grey-haired god of time, 
 who was nursed by the Simurgh, the 
 moon (sin) bird (murgh). He was 
 ruler of Seistan and India, and rode 
 on the spotted star-horse Raksh. He 
 bore the banner of Kaweh, the Great 
 Bear archer, and wore invulnerable 
 star armour of leopard-skin. He 
 
 was born from his mother's side as a 
 branch of the mother-tree, and he 
 and his tvirin brother Zuwareh or 
 Iluzvaris the old, were the twin 
 gods of Persian history, the counter- 
 parts of the Indian Ashvins, the 
 stars a and ;8 Arietis. He as the 
 chief twin was the champion of the 
 Iranians against the Turanians during 
 the reigns of Kaous and Khu-srav, 
 gods of the epochs of the three-years 
 cycle-year and that of eleven months, 
 when he as the embodiment of the 
 Great Bear archer - god was the 
 moving spirit of the age which 
 measured time by the retrograde 
 annual circuits of the Great Bear 
 round the Pole, that which succeeded 
 the earlier period represented by his 
 brother the old twin. During the 
 rule of Lohr-asp and Gusht-asp his 
 place as active leader was taken by 
 Gusht - asp, whose Prime Minister 
 was Jamaspa, the stars Gemini, and 
 his twin sons Isfendiyar and Peshyo- 
 tanu, who ruled the years begin- 
 ning with the Mahosadha birth ot 
 the Buddha, when the sun began 
 the year by entering Gemini at the 
 beginning of January and February, 
 and during which annual time was 
 measured by that constellation 
 (which see). After the death of 
 Isfendiyar, whom he slew, he was 
 treacherously slain by Shegad, 42, 
 43. 348, 350. 351. 3S2> 353. 354. 
 356, 357. 358, 359. 360, 385. 5'2, 
 513. 514. 515. 516, 530. 531. 532, 
 538. 539, 540. 542, 544. 550, 556. 
 557, 712, 713. 714. 715. 716, 717. 
 718, 719, 720, 721, 766. 
 
 Sabcean Mandaites, 130, 326, 632, 808 
 Sabceans of Southern Arabia, 130; of 
 
 Haran, 632, 808 
 Sacrifices, originally first-fruit offerings 
 of and sacramental meals on the sap 
 and seed of the year-mother-tree and 
 plant mixed with pure water, to 
 which were added in the age of cow- 
 worship libations of milk. These 
 bloodless sacrifices became in north- 
 ern ritual offerings of and sacramental 
 meals on the flesh and blood of the 
 human and animal parent totems 
 slain to generate, by their blood con- 
 sumed by their sacrificing children 
 or poured out on the earth, the birth 
 
ioi6 
 
 Index. 
 
 of a new year -god, the re-risen 
 duplicate of his slain predecessor ; 
 also to renew fresh life in the children 
 who consumed their parent god at 
 the annual New Year's sacrament. 
 These offerings were accompanied by 
 the drinking of intoxicating Soma 
 made of fermented materials, which 
 supplemented the pure water and 
 milk originally consumed, viii., 28, 
 29. 3°> 31. 102, 196, 201, 225, 227, 
 287, 315, 320, 394, 395, 396, 397, 
 398, 399, 400, 416, 456, 857, 858, 
 859 
 
 Sada, New Year's festival of Persia, 
 the Sed festival of Egypt, the date 
 of its celebration, 681, 682, 792 
 
 Sodas, holy house of the Hindu priests 
 supported by a pillar of Udumbara 
 wood, 746 
 
 Sagittarius, 708 
 
 Sahadeva, the mighty god of fire. The 
 fourth Pandava ruling the autumn, 
 261, 771, 882 
 
 Saka, festival of Booths at Babylon, 222 
 
 Saka-dwipa, Brahmans, 433, 434 
 
 Saka-medha, autumn sacrifice to the 
 god Sak or Suk, the Sek Nag of the 
 Gonds. The third festival of the 
 Chatur Masiyani Year, 944, 945 
 
 Sakaki, parent-tree of Japanese Shinto 
 worshippers, no, 165 
 
 Sakh, the Arabian Sakhr, the Pali 
 Sakho, the Vedic Shukra, the shining 
 one, the Gond Sek Nag, the Akka- 
 dian wet ^sak"), the rain-god of the 
 summer solstice, to whom the Shukra 
 cup of Indra is offered in the Soma 
 ritual, 134, 185, 190, 191, 263, 472, 
 660, 671, 739, 740, 742, 743, 744, 
 
 745 
 &to' mountains, 185, 191, 262, 362 
 Sakuntald, the little bird, the Malli 
 
 mother of the Bharatas, 332, 333, 
 
 334, 4S4, 466, 599 
 Sakut (Heb. Succoth), the booths at 
 
 the Saka annual New Year's summer 
 
 festival. The place of Jacob's Booth 
 
 Festival, 629 
 Sakya, sons of the sal-tree {saka), 107 
 Sal-tree (Shorea robustd), parent-tree of 
 
 the Buddha, 107, 160, 171, 184, 652, 
 
 894 
 
 Salai (Beswellia thurifera), Indian 
 
 incense-tree, 373, 378 
 Salii, dancing-priests of Mars, 319, 793, 
 
 828 
 Salli-manu, Solomon, Akkadian fish 
 
 god ruling the year, 134, 190, 737, 
 739- 809 
 
 Sam, Persian rainbow-god, King of 
 India, 347, 349, 719 
 
 Samhain, Irish New Year's festival of 
 the 1st of November, 34, 136 
 
 Samidheni, fire-kindling hymn of eleven 
 stanzas recited at the opening of the 
 eleven-months year ; of fifteen and 
 seventeen stanzas recited as the New 
 Year's hymn of the fifteen and seven- 
 teen - months year, 459, 606, 727, 
 728 
 
 Samidhs, the kindling-sticks of the 
 gods of spring, the first gods of the 
 eleven-months year invoked in the 
 first stanzas of the Apri hymns, 456, 
 729 
 
 Samirus, Shem-i-ramot, Semiranns, bi- 
 sexual-goddess of the Phoenician Saka 
 festival, 203 
 
 Samoyedes, 624 
 
 Samuel, son of Hannah the fig-tree, 
 628, 629, 639 
 
 Sam-varana, the place of sacrifice, his 
 Avatars, 672, 908, 909 
 
 Santals, 102, 248, 252, 259, 288, 481 
 
 Saranyu, mother of the Ashvins, 720, 
 
 973 
 Sarasvati, goddess-mother and river, 
 
 230, 237, 457, 480, 481, 525, 748, 
 
 887, 892, 899, 900, 958 
 Sargon, 721 
 Sarna, sacred grove of the primitive 
 
 villages, 93 
 Sarpedon, Lord of the plain, 754 
 Sat-nam, the true (sat) god of the 
 
 Chamars, 244 
 Saturn, 204, 205 
 Satyavati, goddess of truth, eel-mother 
 
 of the Hindu royal races, 161 
 Satyrs, hairy race, 147, 180, 564 
 Sau-rashtra, kingdom of the Saus. 
 
 Gujerat, loi, 366, 883 
 Sautra-mani, New Year's saciifice of 
 
 the eleven-months year, 458, 471, 
 
 479. 480, 499, 500, 507, 70s, 729, 
 
 741, 857, 891, 948 
 Savangha-vdch, the eastern (savangAa) 
 
 speaker, 209, 705 
 Savitar, Savitri, sun-god and sun- 
 maiden, xiv., 173, 325, 599, 741, 
 
 752 
 Scorpion constellation, called in Mexico 
 
 Citlalcototl, that of the Great Bear, 
 
 76 
 Seboi, 228 
 Seistan, mother-land of the Kushikas, 
 
 230, 367, 683 
 
Index. 
 
 1017 
 
 Sek Nag, Gond-god, worshipped as the 
 
 wooden tree - mother - snake. See 
 
 Shesh Nag, 240, 252 
 Sekhet, lion-headed and scorpion Egyp- 
 tian goddess, 774, 786, 787 
 SemeU, Samlatk, Samlali, of Masieliah, 
 
 the vine-land, mother of Dionysos, 
 
 612, 613, 615, 690, 975 
 SemoSancus, Sabine parent-god of the 
 
 growing-grass, 178 
 Septevi-triones. See Haptoiringas, xii., 
 
 20s, 345 
 Sesame {Sesamum orienlale), the sacred 
 
 oil-plant, viii., 242, 247, 390, 467, 
 
 583, 719, 780, 833, 884 
 Set, Suti, Sutekh, Egyptian ape and 
 
 pig-god, 191, 192, 381, 463, 776, 
 
 779 
 
 Setklans, Etruscan smith-god of the 
 double axe, 3S5, 661 
 
 Seventeen-months year of seven - day 
 weeks, 724, 728 
 
 Seventy-two five - day weeks of the 
 Pleiades solstitial and Orion's years, 
 103, 125, 701 
 
 Shaivya, Shiva's horse of Krishna's 
 sun-chariot, 570 
 
 Shakuna, Shakuni, Raven Pole-star in 
 Cygnus, brother to Gandhari, the 
 star Vega, 103, 469, 770, 891 
 
 Shishu, the son, the Easter son of 
 Skanda, the sun-lizard-god of the 
 seventeen-months year and of the 
 seven stars of the Great Bear. See 
 Kumara, 768 
 
 $hishu-na^, king of Magadha, 418 
 
 Shushan, land of the Shus, 262, 683 
 
 Shyav-arshan, the black (shyava) man 
 {arshan), Siawush, son of Kaous and 
 a daughter of Guersivaz (Kere-sa- 
 vazda), god of the eleven-months 
 year, and father of Khu-srav, 43, 
 519, 520, 521, 522, 523, 525, 526, 
 527. 528, 533, 552, 554, 561, 688, 
 713 
 
 Shyena, the frost (shya) bird of winter, 
 the Polar cloud-bird, whose blood, 
 the rain, came to earth as the creating 
 Soma, 162, 227, 672, 942, 943 
 
 Sia, Mexican race, 844, 845, 849—857 
 
 Sib-zi-ana, the shepherd (iib) of life {zi) 
 of the god [an) prince (no), Akkadian 
 star Arcturus, 228, 460 
 Sig-mund, the conquering {sig) moon 
 (mund) father of the sun-god Sigurd, 
 S«7. 518. 561, 726 
 Sig-urd, the pillar (urdr) of victory 
 («;g), the conquering sun-god of the 
 
 North, 263, 296, 454, 499, 517, 518, 
 561, 569. 593. 706, 707, 726, 739 
 754. 903 
 Sikhs, followers of Kabir, 244 
 Silik-mulu-khi, Akkadian fire-god, 181 
 Simul, the red cotton-tree, sacred to 
 the Ashvins and the offerers of human 
 sacrifices, 368 
 Simurgh, Sm-murgh, the moon (sin) 
 
 bird, 347, 348, 349.7". 7I9 
 Sindur-dan, red mark of marriage on 
 the parting of the hair of Hindu 
 brides, indicating - fusion of blood, 
 245. 388 
 Sini-vali, the new moon, 173, 733, 769 
 Sirgoojya, 51, 426, 427 
 Sirius, the dog-star, 136, 206, 222, 227, 
 302, 304, 454, 530, 624, 641, 642, 
 681, 683, 685, 686, 687, 755, 778, 
 782, 787, 792, 794, 879, 883 
 Sita, the star furrow marking the annual 
 path of Rama the sun-god, 6, 28, 
 162, 339, 340, 341, 343, 381, 651 
 Skanda, the lizard-god of the seven- 
 teen-months year, 724, 769, 770, 
 771, 788, 81S 
 Sleitmir, eight-legged horse of Odin, 
 
 18, 474 
 Snake, the sacred, the ring of tilled 
 land round the Sarna or sacred 
 central village grove, 93 
 Snake-race and dance of the Mexican 
 
 Sia, 868, 869 
 Sohrab, the watcher {sohi-) sun-god, 
 son of Rustum, 513, 514, 515, 516, 
 518 
 Soma, from Su, to create or engender, 
 the sap of the mother-tree imbibed 
 at the sacred annual sacramental 
 meal, eaten at the New Year's sacri- 
 fice by all Indian sons of the parent- 
 tree who had been consecrated by 
 the Diksha baptismal ceremony. It 
 was pressed out of the Soma twigs 
 into the Drona or hollowed tree- 
 trunk symbolising the tree or plant 
 stem of the tree whence it had been 
 taken, and into which the engender- 
 ing rain sent from heaven by the 
 Khu cloud-bird had been infused by 
 the rising sap of spring. The first 
 holy Soma plant was the rice of the 
 earliest first-fruits oifering, and the 
 first ritualistic Soma tree was the 
 Palasha-tree (which see). At a later 
 period Soma in the creed of the 
 northern patriarchal races became 
 the male moon-god of the eleven- 
 months year, the sexless god who 
 
ioi8 
 
 Index. 
 
 sent the rain, xv., xvii., xviii,, 28, 
 43. I4S. 162. 173. 227, 320, 323, 
 324, 45S. 456, 458, 479, 499, S07, 
 599, 600, 609, 610, 612, 614, 653, 
 673. 705, 729. 741. 746, 747, 857, 
 872* 873, 874, 930, 931, 935, 936, 
 937, 938, 939, 940, 941. 942, 943, 
 945, 946, 947, 948, 949, 95°, 952, 
 953. 954. 955, 976 
 
 Soma Pavamana. See Pavamana, 50 
 
 Sona-peth, womb of gold, 412, 593 
 
 Sonar, Sau dealers in gold, 594 
 
 Sone, river of gold, 593 
 
 Spy Onoz, cave and skeletons, 147 
 
 Srinjaya, men of the sickle {sriui), 
 name of Panchalas, rulers of Northern 
 India, 262, 307, 881 
 
 Bihan-eshvara, Sthanu, the gnomon- 
 pillar-god [eshwar), leader of the 
 eleven Rudras, the months of the 
 eleven-months year, 268, 325, 453, 
 487 
 
 Stone Calendars of Britany, 330, 331, 
 823 
 
 Stonehenge, 611, 650, 668, 666, 750, 
 829 
 
 Su or Shu, the creating cloud-bird 
 Khu, loi, 119 
 
 Su-astika, Su-ashtaka, ancient widely 
 distributed symbol of the circling 
 sun, 119, 120, 145, 176, 222, 329, 
 330, 501, 661, 805, 806 
 
 Su-barna or Su-varna Baniks, 596 
 
 Su-bhadra, the blessed (bhadra) Su- 
 bird, twin sister of Krishna, 223, 648, 
 673, 769. 772, 790 
 
 Stibon-rikha, the Su-varna-riksha river 
 of the Su-varna sons of Su, 412, 594 
 
 Suda-beh, the black {suda) wife of 
 Kaous, 359, 521, 528 
 
 Sudds, giver of Su, son of Divodasa, 
 and grandson of Vadhri-ashva, the 
 gelt horse, 892, 895, 901, 907 
 
 Suddho-dana, the pure (suddho) rice 
 {dana) father of the Buddha, 651 
 
 Su-dhanvan, the bow (dhanvan), of Su, 
 father of the Ribhus, 157, 959 
 
 Su-griva, ape with the neck {griva) 
 of Su, the cloud-bird, the bird- 
 headed Pole Star ape who married 
 Tara the Pole Star after the death of 
 Vali the circler (vri), the ape who 
 turned the stars round the Pole with 
 his hand. He was one of the horses 
 of Krishna's year-chariot, 6, 193, 
 
 341. 363. 455. 570 
 Su-jata, and the Buddha god of the 
 
 eight-rayed star, 659, 701, 867 
 Su - koniya, daughter of Su, Suria, 
 
 Suriya, the sun-bird-bride of the 
 
 moon-god Soma who was wedded 
 in Magh (January — February), the 
 marriage being consummated in 
 Phalgun (February — March), 173, 
 608, 653, 673 
 
 Sumerians, Indian settlers in the 
 Euphratean Delta, 4, loi, 129, 130, 
 137. 138 
 
 Su-parna, the cloud-bird with the 
 feather (parnd) of Su, xiv. , 672, 935, 
 
 943 
 
 Sitra, intoxicating fermented drink 
 originally drunk at animal sacrifices 
 and infused into the Soma of the 
 Sautramani sacrifice of the eleven- 
 months year, prepared with the pure 
 Soma in the Vajapeya sacrifice of the 
 seventeen-months year 32, 458, 471, 
 479,481,482, 746, 747.748 
 
 Susa-na-wo, Japanese god of the path 
 of heaven, xix., 164, 165, 166, 167, 
 168, 172, 173 
 
 Susi-nag, the snake-god of the Shus 
 of Shushan whose image was painted 
 on the Parthian banners, 262, 290 
 
 Su-shrava, glory of the Shus, Sanskrit 
 form of the Zend Hu-shrava, the 
 Persian Khu-srav {which see), 524, 
 
 525. 561 
 
 Sus-sisiinnaJio, creating spider of the 
 Sia of Mexico, the Spinning 
 Pleiades, 845, 846, 847, 856, 860 
 
 Su-ydvia, the twins {ydmd) of Su the 
 twin stars Gemini in which the 
 Buddha sun-god was born, 652, 890 
 
 Takhma Urupa, Zend fire-god, 20 
 
 Takka-sila, Taxila, the rocli (sild) city 
 of the Takkas, 235, 236 
 
 Takkas, Tugras, Irigartas, worship- 
 pers of the Yiipa.the trident sacrificial 
 stake, and sacrificers of animal victims 
 in their three (Jri) pits (gartas) bound 
 to these fixed stakes (drupadas), 1, 4, 
 69. 235, 236, 239, 251, 252, 257, 
 261, 418, 815, 880, 886 
 
 Taksh-nug Takshaka, winter-god, third 
 prong of the Takka trident of the 
 three seasons, 15, 236, 815, 880 
 
 Tamar, the date-palm-tree-raother of 
 Semite Phcenicians, sons of the 
 date-palm ((poim^), 635, 636, 640, 
 642 
 
 Tamluk, Tamra-lipti, copper port of 
 Bengal, 595, 596 
 
 Tammuz, Hebrew form of Dumu-zi, 
 (which see) 
 
 7 an, Tana, the mud (tan) goddess and 
 god, author of life, the Southern 
 
Index. 
 
 1019 
 
 goddess Bau {which sce\ 139, iS9, 
 
 188, 189, 193, 201, 20s, 280, 376, 
 
 559. 616 
 Tanais, Tanit, the Phoenician and 
 
 Carthaginian goddess, the female 
 
 Tan, 612 
 Tanu-nafat, the self-produced god of 
 
 summer, 456 
 Too, Chinese god of the Path of Time. 
 
 See Odusseus, Pathya, Shinto, xix., 9, 
 
 18, no, 119, 402, 444. 655. 670, 
 
 909. 955 ^ . , 
 
 Tapassu, Tapas, Tapati, 672, 909, 
 910 
 
 Tara, Pole Star goddess, 6, 193, 341, 
 422, 827 
 
 Tan Pennu, female (pen) Tara goddess 
 of the Kandhs of Orissa and the 
 Indian Tur-vasu, 387 
 
 Tarkshya, the sun -horse, sonofTrikshi 
 the sun-ass, 31 
 
 Taurus constellation, 5, 14, 45, 176, 
 177. 304. 308, 416, 67s, 676, 913 
 
 Tavaiimsa heaven, second historical 
 heaven of Buddhist chronology ruled 
 by the god Sakko, that of the thirty- 
 three gods ruling the thirty-three- 
 days month of the eleven-months 
 year, 367, 455, 509, 650, 659, 664, 
 701 
 
 Telis, caste-guild of the makers of 
 Sesame oil, 241, 467, 468, 496, 551, 
 566, 583 
 
 Tcm, Egyptian sun-god of the setting 
 sun, 779 
 
 Temenos, sacred enclosure round Gre- 
 cian temples answering to the land 
 consecrated to the snake round the 
 central grove of an Indian village, 
 98 
 
 Templum, consecrated field of the 
 Roman Augurs, the Greek Temenos, 
 
 98. 327 
 
 Ten kings of Babylon, 169, 304. 
 
 Ten months of gestation of the three- 
 years cycle-year, 304, 386. Cup of 
 the tenth month consecrated to 
 the Ashvins, 610 
 
 Teucer, 559, 560, 650, 759 
 
 Tetcatlipoca, meaning Lord of the 
 Shining Mirror, Mexican Leopard 
 god of the Great Bear, 354, 385, 
 390, 544. 546, 839, 842, 843, 845, 
 852 
 
 Theseus, the organiser, 41, 547, 576, 
 650 
 
 Thesmophoria, Greek festival answer- 
 ing to the Southern Feast of First- 
 fruits at the beginning of the 
 
 Pleiades year, 17, 34, 196, 197, 209, 
 210, 211, 214, 288, 476, 690 
 
 Thetis, the mud (thith) goddess-mother 
 of Achilles the sun-god, 212, 213, 
 711,877 
 
 Thigh constellation of the Great Bear, 
 parent of the sun-god, 604, 605, 607, 
 679, 680 
 
 Thigh sacrifice, (i) of the left thigh, 
 617,618,951. (2) ofthe right thigh, 
 626. (3) Thigh-worship and sacrifice 
 in Egypt, 624, 625 
 
 Thigh year, the fifteen-months-year, 
 beginning when the sun was in 
 Gemini in January — February, 608, 
 609, 611, 613 
 
 Thigh, the wounded and withered left 
 thigh of the year-god of the eleven - 
 months year, Cu-chulainn, Jacob and 
 Odusseus, 619, 620, 621, 622, 626 
 
 Thirteen (i) Buddhist Theris ; (2) 
 thirteen wives of Kashyapa ; (3) 
 thirteen Thracian chariot-drivers of 
 the snow-white horses of the sun ; 
 
 (4) the thirteen horses of Anchises ; 
 
 (5) thirteen children of Kronos ; (6) 
 the thirteen pillars of Crom Croich 
 ruling the thirteen-nionths year, 244, 
 252, 256, 259, 264, 273, 275, 276, 
 277, 278, 279, 280, 284, 286, 652, 
 676, 735 
 
 Thirty Stars, beginning with Skat 
 Aquarius, traversed by the sun-god 
 during the months October — Nov- 
 ember, November — December and 
 December — January, 503, 504 
 
 Thirty-three days of the months of the 
 eleven-months year, 453, 455 
 
 Thirty-six weeks of the half-year of 
 the year of seventy-two five-day 
 weeks, the thirty-six steps of Vishnu 
 the year-god. See BrihatI, 102, 118, 
 
 125 
 Thorayya Turayya, Arabian Pleiades, 
 
 131 
 Thoth, Taut, Tut, forms of Dhu-ti, 
 
 Egyptian bird {dhu) of life (ti), 
 
 the moon-god, 77, 192, 565, 778, 
 
 780 
 Thous Tauz, forms of Dumu-zi (which 
 
 see) 
 Thous ='D\imix-z\ Orion, Commander 
 
 of the armies of Kaous and Khii- 
 
 srav, 351, 360, 513, 533, 536, 562, 
 
 679 
 Thraetaona, Zendavesta name of 
 
 Feridun, god of the three-years 
 
 cycle-year in the Shah-namah, 210, 
 
 307 
 
I020 
 
 Index. 
 
 Three months passed by the sun-god in 
 traversing the Thirty stars under the 
 guardianship of the moon, 260 
 
 Thurah, (Heb. Thorah), the law, name 
 of Harmonia (which see), 122 
 
 Tia-mut, mother (mut) of living things, 
 (tia) goddess of the Pole Star age, 
 mother of eleven-fold offspring, ruled 
 by Kingu, the months of the eleven- 
 months year. See Kingu, 14, 459, 
 460, 461, 463, 464 
 
 Tiger constellation, Pegasus. See 
 Likbarra, 503 
 
 Tiger wives of the trident of Pharsi- 
 pot, mothers of the sons of the tiger, 
 
 239 
 
 Tirhatha, fish goddess of the Cleft or 
 rock-poot, also called Derceto Ater- 
 gates, 223, 634, 765 
 
 Tir-mah, Zend month of the autumnal 
 equinox, September — October, 252 
 
 Tishtrya Tishka, Sirius, 151, 153, 205, 
 460, 461, 564 
 
 Tisri, Jewish month, September — • 
 October, 306, 307 
 
 Titans, sons of dust {titanos), 616 
 
 Tit his, Hindu lunar days, measure- 
 ment of time by, 303 
 
 Tobias, 553 
 
 Tobit, 553 
 
 Todas, 140, 671 
 
 Toltecs of Mexico, &n, 839, 841, 871, 
 876 
 
 Trayastrimsa, hymn of thirty-three 
 verses, 489 
 
 Tree-mother, central-tree of the southern 
 island, birth-place of life, and of the 
 central village-grove, 104, I20, 12I, 
 122, 123 
 
 Tri-ambika festival of Rudra, the red 
 (rud) storm-god with the three wives, 
 held at the winter solstice, 11, 159, 
 160, 174, 257 
 
 Triangle, depicting the gods of the 
 three seasons of the year. See Parid- 
 his, 400 
 
 Trident, Trisula, of the Gond Takkas, 
 the male god ruling the three seasons 
 of the year, that of Shiva, Poseidon, 
 the Japanese twin-creators, and the 
 three roots of the world's central-tree 
 "i ggdrasil, 171, 204, 210, 239 
 
 Tri~/iadru-ka, New Year's festival of 
 the summer solstice to the three tree 
 (dru) mothers of the year of six-day 
 weeks, 15, 224, 227, 611, 946 
 
 Triksha, ass-god preceding his son 
 Tarkshya, god of the horse's head 
 ruling the eleven-months year, 31 
 
 Triopas, the three-eyed Zeus, 202, 203 
 
 Triptolemus, 198 
 
 Tri-sankhya, god of the three numbers 
 [sankyci), the stars in Lyra with 
 Vega at their apex, 332 
 
 Tristubh, metre of eleven syllables, 
 symbolising the eleven-months year 
 and the summer season of the year 
 of five seasons of the five metres, 
 viii., 456, 733,915.919,925 
 
 Tritsu, sun-worshippers, 366, 892, 893 
 
 Try-dshira, Tri-dshira, India's Soma 
 of three mixings, 479, 696, 746 
 
 Tuan, tale of, 35 
 
 Tuatha De Danann, Celtic sons of 
 Danu, the Pole Star, 33 
 
 Tugras, Trigartas. See Takkas 
 
 Turmeric, sacred plant [dravida) of 
 the yellow races. See Dravidians, 
 247, 387, 390,421,468 
 
 Turos [Dilmun, Bahrein), island-home 
 of the Phoenicians and Indian Tur- 
 vasu in the Persian Gulf, 370, 913 
 
 Tursa, Cerfia, the tower [tiir) goddess 
 of the Iguvine triad, to whom heifers 
 and sheep were offered, 801, 802, 
 807 
 
 Tur-vasu, Tursena, Tursha, Turano- 
 Dravidian Semites, parents of the 
 Phcenician trading races, who first 
 from India established maritime 
 trade in the Indian Ocean and 
 Mediterranean, 363, 364, 367, 373, 
 376, 636, 757, 898, 913 
 
 Turun-bulun, Australian one-footed, 
 one-eyed Pole Star god, 77, 84, 212 
 
 Tusita, fourth Buddhist heaven of 
 wealth (tusd), that of the Vessantara 
 birth of the Buddha, 45, 666, 675, 
 677, 708, 890 
 
 Tvashtar, god of the year of two [tva) 
 seasons, 151,455, 457,458,491,597. 
 746 
 
 Twelve days' rest of the sun-god at the 
 end of Orion's year of twelve twenty- 
 nine-day months and 348 days, 155, 
 >56, 157, 158, 789 
 
 Twenty-seven days of the months of the 
 three-years cycle-year, 6, 304, 332 
 
 Twin-gods of time of the Kabiri, 
 Greeks, Romans, Persians, Indians, 
 and Mexicans. See Ashvins, 311, 
 312, 313, 348. 349. 690, 691, 720, 
 849 
 
 Twrch Twryih, the boar-god and his 
 seven pig-sons, the seven stars of the 
 Great Bear, 15, 206, 546, 650 
 
 Tyndareus, Tydtus, hammer [fud) gods 
 
Index. 
 
 I02I 
 
 of the Kabiri, fathers of Kastor and 
 Diomedes, 375, 376, 758, 974 
 Typhoon, Gr. Tuphon, storm-wind 
 of Baal Tsephon, god of the North, 
 33. 34, 194 
 
 Ucchai-shravas, the ass of Indra with 
 
 long ears, 240, 565 
 Uchdviyr, Cymric equivalents of the 
 
 Oraon Bhunhiars, 430, 431, 432, 433, 
 
 435. 436. 438 
 
 Ud-gudua, Akkadian constellation 
 Virgo, star of Gudua, the national 
 burial city, 228 
 
 Udumiara (Ficus glomerata), the wild 
 fig-tree, sacred tree of the Indian 
 ritual of the sons of the fig-tree, ix. , 
 217, 328, 419, 420, 481, 578, 610, 
 
 734, 735, 750. 915, 924 
 Ugras or Ogres, cannibal race of the 
 Ugur or sacrificial lunar falchion, 
 and sons of Kansa, the mongoose, 
 477 
 Ugro-Einn races, 25, 138, 253, 317, 
 
 452 
 Ugrosena, Ugradeva, father of the 
 
 Ugras and Kansa, 477 
 Ukko, Finn rain and storm-bird, third 
 god of the national Triad who dwells 
 in the navel of heaven, the Pole Star, 
 182, 183, 363, 589 
 Ukthya, spring-cup of the Vajapeya 
 
 sacrifice, 743, 745, 747 
 Uluka, owl of the age of incense-wor- 
 ship, son of Shakuni the raven, 89 
 Uma, Flax wife of Shiva, 113, 149, 
 
 219, 242, 243 
 Upasads, Soma sacrifices to the three 
 
 seasons, 920, 921, 922, 935 
 Urabunna, Australian tribe, 56, 57, 58, 
 
 60, 61, 62, 64, 66, 69, 70, 71 
 Uriah the Hitiite, 644 
 Urja Stambha, the Great Bear star of 
 
 ofthe Thigh (wni!), 611 
 Urvashi, female fire-socket of Khadira 
 wood, wife of Puru-ravas, 253, 314, 
 745. 946 
 Ushana, rain-god called Shukra, father 
 
 of Devayani, 262, 263, 5S9 
 Vsh&sd Nakta, Day ind Night, first 
 heavenly twins, parents of Time, 
 20, 85, 171, 312, 720, 973 
 Ushmara, man of the East [ush], 
 father of Shiva ; his daughter, Ushi- 
 narl, mother of Kakshivat, god of 
 the eleven-months year, 897 
 Utanka, the weaver {fit) of time, 472, 
 
 Uther Bran of the wonderful head, the 
 pillar-god, father of Arthur or Airem 
 the ploughing-god, 568, 727 
 
 Ut'set, Sia mother of corn, 547, 548, 
 839, 846, 847, 848, 882 
 
 Uttanapad, mother with outstretched 
 itittdna) legs, the two productive 
 thighs, and rider of the triangle of 
 the firmament whose children are 
 Aditi and Daksha, 124, 292 
 
 Uttara, son of king Virata, the North 
 Great Bear constellation, charioteer 
 of Arjuna, 266, 571, 641, 674 
 
 Uttara, Pole Star mother of the sun- 
 god Parikshit, daughter of Virata,, 
 god of the Viru. See Virata, 648, 
 
 674, 675 
 Uttara-vedt, north altar to Varuna, on 
 which animal sacrifices were roasted, 
 402, 449, 450, 451, 456, 488, 746, 
 
 750, 879, 914 
 Uyuyewe, Mexican twin, 21, 8si, SC'J, 
 
 861, 86s 
 Uz-Uzava, Uzmakh Usof, the goat, 
 
 180, 230, 465 
 Uzza, Arabian god, 221 
 
 Vadavd-mukha, he who speaks with 
 the left [vdvia), the left thigh-god 
 of the retrograde Great Bear circuits, 
 44, 607 
 
 Vadhri Ashva, the gelt horse, the sex- 
 less sun-god of the fifteen-months 
 year,_ father of Divodasa, the father 
 of Sudas, 415, 416, 907 
 
 Va:ind inoinen, senior god of the Finn 
 triad, bnrn from a tree, 182, 183 
 
 Vaishvadeva, gods of the village (vish) 
 and the spring festival, 157, 584, 
 744, 944, 945 
 
 Vaishya, Vaishnava, men of the vil- 
 lage {vish), the yellow race, 367, 
 387, 420, 63s 
 
 Vaja, god of spring, first of the three 
 Ribhus, xii., 157 
 
 Vajapeya, New Year's sacrifice of the 
 seventeen-months year and of the 
 chariot-race (vdja), 573, 729, 741, 
 742, 746, 747, 757, 769, 900, 954 
 
 Vajjians, sons of the tiger (viag/ira), 
 their eighteen tribes, 419, 427, 496, 
 659, 889 
 
 Vajra, thunderbolt of Indra. See 
 Dorje, 14 
 
 Vajra, Vardhi, son of the thunderbolt 
 Tibetan goddess, 204, 506 
 
 Vajrd-sun, thunderbolt throne of the 
 Buddha, 667 
 
I022 
 
 Index. 
 
 Vala-rama, the turning (wn) Rama 
 called Hal-ayudha, he who has the 
 plough (Jial), the Great Bear, for his 
 weapon, son of Rohini Aldebaran, 
 Queen of the Pleiades, and whose 
 father was Nanda the Bull constel- 
 lation Taurus, the Naga Great Bear, 
 ruler of the eleven-months year pre- 
 ceding Krishna, ruler of the fifteen- 
 months year, 477, 647, 876 
 
 Vali, the turning (vri) Pole Star god, 
 husband of Tara the Pole Star mother, 
 6, 7. 341 
 
 Vdma-deva, Varna, god of the left' hand 
 retrograde solar circuits, 343, 483, 587 
 
 Vanant, CorvusZend, star of the West, 
 461 
 
 Vanas-pati, lord {pati) of the wood 
 (vanam), the central mother-tree of 
 the village grove, tenth god invoked 
 in the Apri h)rmns, 457 
 
 Vanga, Bengal and Orissa, 290, 429 
 
 Varsha-giras, praisers of rain, name of 
 the Nahusha, 255 
 
 Varutta, covering (var) god of the 
 firmament, the Lokapala or warder 
 of the North god of summer and of 
 barley to whom rams and sheep were 
 offered. Ste Mitra-Varuna, xiv., 157, 
 226, 228, 256, 274, 320, 400, 449, 
 456, 470, 480, 606, 646, 647, 724, 
 737, 768, 830, 880, 902, 936, 946, 
 948 
 
 Varuna Praghasah, mid-summer feast 
 to Varana in the Chatur-masiyani 
 year, 450, 584, 744, 944, 946 
 
 Vashishtha, god of the most creating 
 {vasti) fire burning perpetually on 
 the altar, a star in the Great Bear, 
 124, 301, 302, 333, 343, 472, 611, 
 645> 893, 906, 908, 909, 910, 934 
 
 Vasios-pati, lord (pati) of the house or 
 city {vastos), household and national 
 fire-god, son of Prajapati Orion and 
 Rohini Aldebaran, 158, 282, 394, 
 646, 844, 972 
 
 Vasii, the creator-god of the immigrant 
 northern Chiroos, sons of the bird 
 (chir), 184, 185, 186, 191, 198, 239, 
 266, 270, 290, 417, 418, 420 
 
 Vdsudeva, the god Vasu, father of 
 Krishna the black antelope-god, 262, 
 290 
 
 Vasuk, Vasuki, god Vasu, the central 
 summer-god of the Takka trident, 
 the Great Bear god who made Mt. 
 Mandara (which see), revolve, 15, 19, 
 239, 240, 252, 266, 290, 829, 342, 
 564. 593. 600. 640, 815, 897 
 
 Vatsa-bhumi, calf-land, ancient name 
 of Bundelkand, 591 
 
 Vayu, the wind, the first creating form 
 of Indra, xvi., 20, 470, 491, 563, 
 749. 954 
 
 Vega in Lyra, Pole Star from 12,000 
 to 10,000 B;C., the Egyptian goddess 
 Ma'at, 352, 367, 414, 446, 455, 469, 
 470. 483. 484. 512, 565, 694, 769, 
 777. 778 
 
 Vena, the creating Wish or Will, 
 Venus, iv., v., vi., xiii., xviii., 98, 
 132. 133, 134; 
 
 Verethragna, Zend wind-god, 200 
 
 Vertumnus, the turner {verlo) mid-god 
 of the year, 396, 827, 976 
 
 Vessantara, birth of the Buddha in the 
 fourth Tusita heaven of wealth when 
 the sun was in Gemini in February — 
 March, following his Mahasodha 
 birth in the third Yama devaloka, 
 heaven of the stars Gemini when the 
 sun was in Gemini in January — 
 February from about 12, 600 to 
 10,700 B.C., 45, 663, 666, 673, 678, 
 693. 695. 697, 698, 699, 890, 952 
 
 Vesta, Roman goddess of the house- 
 hold fire, the Greek Hestia, 70, 475, 
 681, 825, 879, 961 
 
 Vestal Virgins, consecrated to the 
 service of Vesta the central fire- 
 goddess in every village. They are 
 survivals of the age when the priest- 
 esses and guardians of the household 
 and national fires were the wife and 
 daughters of the master of the house, 
 and in villages the Headman of the vil- 
 lage dwelling in the central Gemein- 
 de Haus of the village (pp. 98, 99). 
 This became in Rome the Regia, the 
 home of the fire of Vesta ruled by the 
 Rex Sacrorum, the Pontifex Maxi- 
 mus, surviver of the village Headman, 
 whose daughters were the first Vestal 
 Virgins, 17, 418, 475, 482, 794, 961 
 
 Vetasu, sons of the reed {vetasa), wor- 
 shippers of Kutsa the moon (liu) god, 
 236, 839 
 
 Vi-bhisha7ia, brother of Ravana, and 
 an ally of Rama, 341, 342 
 
 Vi-chitra Virya, the father (viru) of 
 the two colours (chitra), reputed 
 father of the Kauravyas and Pan- 
 davas, whose place was taken on his 
 death without heirs by his half- 
 brother Vyasa the constellation 
 Draco, 160 
 
 Vid-arba, the double (vid) four (arba). 
 
Index. 
 
 1023 
 
 name of Central India, the land of 
 the eight tribes of Gonds, 365, 599 
 
 Vidiira, 8? I 
 
 Vikaniata (Flacourtia Supida), sacred 
 thornti-ee of Indian ritual of which 
 the Dhruva Pole Star spoon was 
 made. Sa Besla Yspydaden, 415, 
 416, 734, 921 
 
 Vi-karnika, Vi-karna or Krivi, Naga- 
 race of Kashmir, worshippers of 
 Kama the homed moon-god, 899, 
 900, 901, 905 
 
 Vinalia of the 23rd of April, St. 
 George's Day [see Palilia), 485 
 
 Vinata, tenth wife of Kashyapa and 
 tenth mother of the year of thirteen 
 months, 22 
 
 Virata, sons of the Viru, the phallic 
 symbol of male generation, also 
 called Matsya, sons of the eel, 86, 
 237. 266, 571, 5S3, 674, 898, 899,905 
 
 Virbius, form of Hippolytus, the star 
 Auriga (which see), male form of 
 Diana or Tana, goddess of the sacred 
 groves, 576 
 
 Virgo, star-mother of Com (see Min), 
 191, 228, 289, 361, 460, 485, 533, 
 623, 678, 692, 693, 768 
 
 Viru, phallic father-god, 230 
 
 Vt-sakha Vaisakh, Eaisakh, April — 
 May, mid month of the Pleiades 
 year, called Visak in the Bundahish, 
 brother of Pashang or Piishan the 
 constellation Cancer. In p. 483, 
 shown to be historically connected 
 with Libra, in which the sun was 
 in April — May about 11,000 B.C., 
 IIS, 248, 264, 350, 351, 483, 487, 
 523, 556, 722, 769, 788, 789, 790, 
 791, 792 
 
 Vishanin, sons of the sacrificial knife 
 (vishanu), 896 
 
 Vishnu, year-god of the village (vish), 
 whose image is a log of wood, the 
 parent-tree measuring time by its 
 spring leaves, summer flowers and 
 fruit and its winter nakedness, 108, 
 109, 124, 181, 217, 274, 320, 354, 
 36s, 488, 579, 586, 587, 816, 921, 
 924, 946, 947, 948 
 
 Vishva-Karman, the Creator, vii., 
 viii., ix., xi., xv., xvi., xviii, xix. 
 
 Vishva-mitra, god of the Vulture star 
 o. Aquilae, the friend (mitra) of 
 living men, father of Sakuntala, the 
 little bird-mother of the Bharatas, 
 whose priest-god he was, 332, 333, 
 360, 361, 466, 472, 853, 906, 907, 
 933 
 
 Vishva-vasu, the Creating Gandharva, 
 the Great Bear, iii., iv., xv., xviii., 
 184, 269, 325, 340, 372, 409, 415, 
 486, 902 
 
 Vistaspa, Zendavesta name of Gusht- 
 asp the sun -god, 684, 764, 825 
 
 Vi-vasvan, Vi-vasvat, Vivanghat, the 
 two twilights morning and evening, 
 20, 85, 312, 326, 909, 973 
 
 Vohumano, God of Good Conscience, 
 Zendavesta name of Bahman, suc- 
 cessor of Gusht-asp, 696, 709, 72 1 
 
 Volsungs, sons of the wood, 706, 726 
 
 Vriddha-kshatra, the old (vriddha) 
 ruler (kshathrd), the Pole Star god, 
 771 
 
 Vrishabha, Bull constellation Taurus, 
 570 
 
 Vrisha-kapi, the rain (vrisha) ape 
 (capi), first wife of Indra, 103 
 
 Vrisha-parva, god of the rain (vrisha) 
 quarter (paiva) father of Shar- 
 mishtha, 254 
 
 Vritra, the circling (pri) snake of the 
 year's circuit, guardian snake of 
 village matriarchal theology slain by 
 Indra, 160, 452 
 
 Vulture Star a Aquilce, 340, 360 
 
 Vyasa Vyansa, the alligator constel- 
 lation, Draco, son of Satyavati, the 
 eel-mother goddess of the sons of the 
 rivers, grandfather of the Kauravyas 
 and Pandavas, i6o, i6i, 186, 243, 
 586, 641, 677, 871, 878, 883, 950 
 
 Weiland Volundr, the northern black- 
 smith god, who made shoes for the 
 white horses of the sun, 509, 974 
 
 Wiseh, Shahnamah name of the 
 Pahlavi Visak, the Indian Vi-sakh 
 (which see), the brother of Pashang 
 or Pushan the constellation Cancer, 
 350. 
 
 Wolf goddess of light of the northern 
 fire-worshippers and her offspring, 
 the yellow Wolf-race dominating the 
 early civilisation of the wolf-born 
 ploughers of land and sowers of 
 barley in Europe, Asia Minor, Persia 
 and India. See Apollo Lycteus, 
 Lug Rijrashva, 38, 337, 338, 352, 
 398, 511. S13, 517, 518, 519, 528, 
 537. 542, 554, 558, 559, S6o, 561 
 
 Woodpecker, red-headed sun-bird of the 
 forest races, sons of the deer sun-god. 
 Its worship in Europe and America! 
 798, 799, 806 
 
1024 
 
 Index. 
 
 Xanikus, the yellow river, where 
 Apollo the wolf sun-god, and Arte- 
 mis the Great Bear mother, were 
 born, 41, 548, 582, 826 
 Xisuthros, the Babylonian Noah, 168 
 Xonecuilli, the lame star, the Great 
 Bear in Mexico, 76, 77 
 
 Yadavas, Yaudhyas, sons of Yadu, 
 
 363. 364. 365. 366, 876, 894, 901 
 Yadu Tuivasu, sons of the twin 
 
 brethren, Yadu and Turvasu, whose 
 mother was Devayani (which see), 
 also Turvasu, 52, 254, 334, 362, 363, 
 387. 589. 599. 600, 824, 893, 913 
 
 Yajush-mati, the 360 bricks of the 
 brick altar symbolising the year, laid 
 with ritualistic formulas, 928 
 
 Yakshus, their history as Yadavas, 901, 
 902, 903, 904 
 
 Yama, Yami, twin children of Saranya, 
 312, 326, 973 
 
 Yama Devaloka, third of the Buddhist 
 historical heavens, that of the twins 
 Yama, the Su-yama of Buddhist 
 history, the stars Gemini, in which 
 Buddha, the sun-god, was born in 
 his Mahosadha birth as the sun- 
 physician, 45, 664, 932 
 
 Yamuna, the Jumna river of the Twins 
 (yama), 186, 237, 403, go6 
 
 Yatudhana, Yatus, wizard flesh-eating 
 Finns of Seistan, 138, 139, i85 
 
 Yava-diya, the barley (vava) sun-mare, 
 mother of the horse of Guga, one of 
 the Five Pirs, $66, 569 
 
 Ydvanas, sons of the barley (yava), 290, 
 
 364, 366 
 
 Yav-yavaii, river of the barley (yava), 
 the Jumna, 262 
 • Ya'ya, the Mexican maize-sheaf-god, 
 reproducing the rice-sheaf-god of 
 India and the Malays, and the 
 European god of the barley-sheaf, 
 the corn-baby of folk-lore, the god 
 Dionysos lacchus, born at the 
 Eleusinian Mysteries from the sacred 
 Liknon cradle, the basket of divine 
 barley seed, 845, 849, 850, 851, 868 
 
 Yayati, the full-moon god (ya), son of 
 Nahushtra, 253, 254, 329, 362, 600 
 
 Ygg-drasil, the divine ash-tree of the 
 Edda, parent-god of the men of the 
 Bronze Age. See Ash-tree, 39, 189, 
 
 575 
 Yima, Zend twin and shepherd-god, 
 brother of Takhma Urupa, the fire- 
 god, 209, 326, 332, 344, 388 
 
 Yoni, socket of the Linga-god, 24, 381, 
 
 383 
 
 Yspydaden, the hawthorn-giant, father 
 of Olwen, the white clover, 18, 206, 
 207, 208, 293, 416 
 
 Yudishthira, eldest Pandava, the ruler 
 of the Bharata empire of India, 
 whose father was Dharma, the god 
 ruling the world of life with its re- 
 gular series of natural phenomena, 
 262, 266, 67s, 743, 744, 771, 772, 
 871, 882, 883, 884 f? 
 
 Yupa, three-pronged sacrificial stake ' 
 of the Takkas, 24, 897 
 
 Yuyutsu, Vaishya king succeeding the 
 Pandavas, 878 
 
 Zagreus, bull-son of Persephone, 615, 
 617 
 
 Zairi, Zairi-vairi, Zarir, the green 
 (zairi), is in Zend ritual Zairi-vairi, 
 the golden green, Haoma or Soma. 
 Zairi is brother of Gusht-asp, tlve 
 sun-god (which see), 499, 684, 689, 
 690, 706, 707 
 
 Zal, grey-haired god of Time, father of 
 Rustum, 347, J48, 349, 713, 715, 719 
 
 Zarathustra, ZitnA inspired prophet, 
 born like his Indian counterpart, the 
 Buddha, from a tree. His life 
 history as compared with the Bud- 
 dha, XX., 45, 71, 105, 106, 219, 
 664, 690, 697, 698, 699, 704, 706, 
 707, 708, 725, 744, 788, 825, 832, 
 894 
 
 Zavareh, twin brother of Rustum 
 (which see), 348, 712, 713, 714, 715, 
 716, 718, 719 
 
 Zerah, red twin of Tamar, the date- 
 palm-tree-mother, 87, 640 
 
 Zms, originally the god Tan or Danu, 
 son of the cypress-tree, afterwards 
 god of the oak-tree, 44, 86, 108, 202, 
 280, 281, 283, 292, 548, 612, 615, 
 622, 754, 765, 827, 828, 975, 976 
 
 Zeus Lykaios and Laphystios, to whom 
 human sacrifices were offered, 284, 
 396, 400 
 
 Zeus Meilichios, to whom pigs were 
 offered at Athens, a snake-god, as 
 was Zeus Sosipolis ai Elis, 201 
 
 Zi-kum, Akkadian tree-mother of life 
 (zi), 129 
 
 Zohak. See Azi dahaka 
 
 Zipporah, the little bird, the circum- 
 cising-mother, 72 
 
 Zii, Akkadian storm-bird, fonn of 
 Khu, v., loi