QJornell Uniuersitij Htbrarg * 4' "f" ►> This Reference Book i? not to be taken from the Reading Room ^ ^ ^ ij. WHEN DONE WITH, RETURN T' THE SHELF CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 189I BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE Cornell University Library D 9.H46 1898 Historical reference book 3 1924 027 788 425 The original of tiiis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924027788425 THE CONCISE KNOWLEDGE LIBRJRT THE HISTORICAL REFERENCE BOOK THE CONCISE KNOWLEDGE LIBRARY THE HISTORICAL REFERENCE BOOK COMPRISING A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY : A CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY; A BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY WITH GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS, TEACHERS AND READERS BY LOUIS HEILPRIN REVISED TO iSgg SIXTH EDITION, WITH A SUPPLEMENT NEW YORK AND LONDON D. APPLETON AND COMPANY .1913 A- CoFTBIOHT, 1884, 1892, 1898, By d. appletoh and company. Printed in the United States of America PEEFAO E. REMARKS GONCERmirQ THE PLAN OF THE WORE. In the Chbonological Table op Univebsai, Histoey the plan adopted has been to deal separately with the events of dif- ferent countries. The events in any one year are not arranged all in chronological order, but each state is introduced indepen- dently. Several countries are, of course, grouped together in one division whenever the connection of events demands. In the history of the Middle Ages, and of modern times down to the American Revolution, the first place, as a rule, is accorded to the British Isles." France follows, and next in order come the countries of central Europe and Italy and Spain, after which the remaining^ states of Europe are introduced. The political history of the whole of the Old World is given before that of the New. From the time of the American Revolution the first place is assigned to the United States, the order other- wise remaining in the main as before. It has been deemed proper to present the history of Europe in the year 1848 in a connected sketch. Events not political are always left to the end. The names in the obituary lines are arranged in chrono- logical order. In the Cheonological DicTioiirAEY or TJnivbesal Histoet the statements are expressed with extreme brevity, this portion of the book being supplemented by Paet I., the method of refer- ence to which is self-evident. Frequently nothing but a mere date will be found appended to the subject title ; as, for exam- ple, in the case of Ostend Manifesto (1854), Sicilian Vbspbes hr PKEFACE (1282), WiLMOT Peoviso (1846), Peeusian Wae (41-40 b. c). The reader who seeks for other than simply chronological infor- mation will turn to the respective dates in Paet I. The infor- mation given under the title-heads which represent the names of the more important countries will in the main be confined to the mention of territorial changes and the ennmeration of dynasties and sovereigns. As a general thing the days and months of dates are not repeated in Paet II. A great deal of matter has been introduced into this chronological dictionary which is not given in Paet I. Great pains have been taken in the selection of titles in the BiOGEAPHioAL DicTioNAET. It is impossible to prepare a table of this kind of limited range so that readers shall not find fault with it on the score of omission, criticism being exercised accord- ing to individual and arbitrary standardH. The names of some men who have been prominent in the eyes of our public in our own day will be found wanting, but the author has deliberately permitted himself these apparent defects of omission so as not to encumber the pages with notices of persons who, historically in- significant and without any substantial claim to distinction, have achieved a fleeting notoriety, GERONOLOGICAL AOCURAGT. A comparison of the dates in this book with those in any ordinary work of reference will reveal a great amount of dis- crepancy. It is little understood to what an extent encyclopedic publications contradict each other in the matter of dates. A vast amount of confusion prevails even with regard to events of ordinary history, although here it is generally possible to avoid error by constant reference to standard authorities and special works embodying the results of the most recent research. Uni- form accuracy is seldom achieved, owing to the amount of labor involved and the readiness to accept dates on the part of com- pilers, who are little apt to be on their guard where no special reason for doubt is present. Very frequently, too, the dates given in standard histories have been superseded through the agency of new investigations, the results of which are sometimes PREFACE. V very slow in making their way into current literature. Even able and conscientious historians will often slip into chrono- logical errors. It will frequently happen that where the con- current statements in several reference-books appear to leave no doubt whatever concerning the date of a particular his- torical event, a grave error will result from relying on the tes- timony. An experience of many years in the editorial department of the " American Cyclopaedia " charged with the verification of historical and biographical dates, has taught the compiler of the present work>the lesson of mistrust and caution. A few exam- ples may serve to give the reader an idea of the singular pitfalls which beset the path of the chronologist, and of the confusion and contradiction which he constantly encounters. The date of the capture of Prague by the forces of France and her allies in the "War of the Austrian Succession is Nov. 26, 1741. In the compendious "Encyclopaedia of Chronol- ogy " of Woodward and Cates (London, 1872), under Prague, we are informed that the event took place Oct. 26, 1742, and we meet with the same date in the article on that city in the fourth edition of "Pierer's XJniversal-Lexikon." * In this latter work, in the article Ostebeeichischee Eebpolge- KBiEG, the event is mentioned in the account of the operations of 1741, but we still find Oct. 26 instead of Nov. 26, and, to remove all doubt from the mind of the perplexed student, there immediately follows the statement that on Oct, 27 the elector of Bavaria entered the captured city.f In William Coxe's standard "History of the House of Austria" (1807) the event is likewise placed a month too early. In "Oesterreich unter Maria Theresia," &c. (Berlin 1882-'4), forming part of Wilhelm Oncken's great historical collection, " AUgemeine Ge- schichte in Einzeldarstellungen," the city . is stated to have fallen in the night of Dec. 5-6. Oncken's own work in the same collection, " Das Zeitalter Friedrich's des Grossen," gives * The correct date is given in the last (sixth) edition, f The dates do not occur in the corresponding article (greatly condensed) in the last edition of the " Universal-Lexikon." vi FBEFACE. the correct date. Under the head of Bbllbisls in the " Ency- clopaedia of Chronology" hoth month and year are correctly stated. In 1800 a conspiracy was formed against the life of Bona> parte by Ceracchi, Ar6na, and others. The First Consul was to be assassinated Oct. 10. The plot was betrayed, and on that day the conspirators were seized, and they were executed Jan. 30, 1801. The " Encyclopffidia of Chronology," under the head of Cbbacchi, gives as the respective dates Oct. 10, 1801, and Feb. 10, 1803. In the voluminous " Dictionnaire en- cyclop^dique de I'histoire de France/' edited by Ije Bas, the article on Ar6na informs us that he engaged in the plot of Oct. 10, 1801, and that he was executed Jan. 30, 1802. Dr. Thomas, in his excellent "Dictionary of Biography," both in the notice of Ceracchi and in that of Ar6na, has likewise slipped into the error of stating that they met their death in 1802. We also find 1802 in the article on Ar^na in the fourth edition of the " TTniversal-Lexikon." * Garibaldi's victory over the Neapolitan forces at Yelletri was achieved May 19, 1849. Instead of May 19 we find March 19 (in each case under the head of Velletbi) in the " Encyolopte>- dia of Chronology," in the twelfth edition of " Brockhaus' Con- versations-Lexikon " (1879), iand in "Beeck's Handlexikon der Geschichte und Biographic " (Berlin, 1881), a chronological man- ual remarkable for accuracy. This case is a curious instance of false concurrent testimony with regard to the date of an event near to our own time. The capture of Jefferson Davis took place on the morning of May 10, 1865. May 11 is the date given in Greeley's "American Conflict," in Lossing's "History of the Civil War," in " Haydn's Dictionary of Dates " (under the head of Ukitbd States), and in "Unsere Zeit" (a supplement to "Brockhaus' Conversations - Lexikon "). In Oscar Jager's supplement to Schlosser's " Weltgeschichte " we have May 13, and we find the same error in the notice of Davis in the thirteenth edition of " Brockhaus' Conversations-Lexikon " (1883). • The error does not occur In the last edition. PREFACE. vij The utmost confusion prevails in books respecting dates in the seventeenth century and the first half of the eighteenth, re- sulting from the circumstance that the Gregorian calendar was adopted at different times by different countries.* It has been customary with historians down to our own time to retain the Old Style in treating the history of a Protestant country in the period before the adoption of the New Style in that country, but there is no uniformity in this respect, the New Style being very frequently used. The dates of events of an international charac- ter (battles, treaties), events belonging at once to the history of a I'rotestant and a Catholic country, are given according to the Old Style by one writer and by another according to the New. In treating of the wars between the English and the French in the seventeenth century and the first half of the eighteenth, the French historians will follow the Gregorian calendar, the English to a great extent the Julian. The samd writer will not unfre- quently use the Old Style in one place and the New in another. The case grows worse when we come to encyclopedic publica- tions, in whose preparation different authorities are consulted at every step. The individual statements in any one work will fre- quently be found to contradict each other. Let us take some of the principal events in the Thirty Years' War, and examine the * The reformation of the calendar institated by Pope Gregory XIII. in 1682 consists in amending the Julian calendar by reducing the number of leap years in 400 years from 100 to 97, the centurial years being made ordinary years except those whose numbers are divisible by 400 (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, etc., being otdinaiy years, and 1600, 2000, 2400, etc., leap years). The reckoning, according to the Julian calendar, or Old Style, thus drops back 3 days in 400 years behind the New Style. Gregory XIH. directed that ten days be dropped out of the year 1S82 (Oct. 6 was made Oct. 15), so as to bring back the vernal equinox to where it had been at the time of the council of Xice (326), it having retrograded to March 11. The difference between Old and New Style remained 10 days down to 1700 (1600 having been retained as a leap year); from 1700 to 1800 it was 11 days ; since 1800 it has been 12 days ; from 1900 to 2100 it will be 13 days. The Gregorian calendar was at once or soon adopted by the Catholic countries, but the Protestant states continued long to adhere to the Julian calendar. In the Prot- estant states of Germany, in Denmark, and in the greater part of Holland, the change from Old to New Style was made in 1700; in Great Britain, in 1762; in Sweden, in 1753. Russia has retained the Old Style to the present day. viii PREFACE. chronological statements in various works. The date of the storming of Magdeburg in the " EncyclopaBdia of Chronology " is given (under the head of Magdeburg) according to the New Style, May 20, 1631; in "Haydn's Dictionary of Dates," ac- cording to the Old, May 10. The battle of Leipsic (under the head of Leipsic) is given in both according to the Old Style, Sept. 7, 1631, and each gives the battle of Ltitzen (under the head of Lutzbn) according to the New, Nov. 16, 1632. In the notice of General Pappenheim the " Encyclopaedia of Chronolo- gy " gives Nov. 6 as the date of the latter battle. In the " En- cyclopsBdia of Chronology " the battle of Wittstock is stated to have been fought Oct. 4, 1636 (the date according to the New Style) under the head of Wittstock, and Sept. 24 under the head of Bautnibe (Ban6r). The writer of the article Attsteia in the last edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica " gives the capture of Magdeburg and the battles of Ltitzen and Wittstock according to the New Style, but the battle of. Leipsic according to the Old. In Weber's universal history we have the Old Style for the battles of Leipsic and Ltitzen, and the New for the battle of Nordlingen (Aug. 27-Sept. 6, 1634) and that of Witt- stock. It will occasionally happen that writers who use the New Style will fall into the ludicrous error of adding 10 (11) days to a date already converted to the New Style. In the article on the Thirty Tears' War in the very valuable " Encyklopadie der neueren Geschichte" (Gotha, 1880-'84) the writer, who uses the New Style, gives March 16, 1629, as the date of publication of the Edict of Restitution, which, however, was dated March G according to the Gregorian calendar, and in like manner he states that the battle of Wittstock was fought Oct. 14, 1636, when in reality the true date is Oct. 4, New Style (Old Style, Sept. 24), which date isv given in the same work in the article Baneb. Another source of perplexity to the chronologist, more espe- cially in dealing with biographical dates, arises from the circum- stance that the time of the beginning of the Christian year has been variously placed at different periods and in different coun- tries, so that it frequently happens that an event described as having taken place in a particular year by a contemporary writer PREFACE. ix actually faUs in a different year according to modern chrono- logical reckoning.* Two cases yrill here be presented in -which there is a bewil- dering confusion in books due to the cause here indicated. The first is the date of the accession of the house of Stuart to the throne of Scotland in the person of Bobert II., who was pro- claimed king Feb. 22, 1371 (according to the old mode of reck- oning, 1370), on the death of David Bruce. Let us first open the " Encyclopaedia of Chronology." Under the head of Soot- i.Ain> and under Bobebt II. we find the date correctly stated. In the notice of David Bruce, however, that monarch is stated to have died Feb. 22, 1370. In Margaret Macarthur's " History of Scotland," which forms part of Freeman's " Historical Series," we likewise find 1370. The same error appears three times in Hermann's " Lezikon der allgemeinen Weltgeschichte " (1882), under Beuce, Schottland, and Stuaet, and twice in " Brock- hans' Conversations-Lexikon " (twelfth edition), in the articles ScHOTTLANS and Stuart. "Pierer's Universal-Lexikon " (last edition) gives 1371 in the article Schottland and 1370 under Stcaet. The second case is the date of the institution of the Or- der of the Golden Fleece by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, on the occasion of his nuptials with Isabella of Portugal. The event took place in the town of Bruges Jan. 10, 1430, or, accord- ing to the old mode of reckoning, 1429, the year having to run on till Easter. We find the wrong year 1429 in Beeck's " Handlexi- kon der Geschichte und Biographie," in " Haydn's Dictionary of Dates," in Hermann's " Lexikon der allgemeinen "Weltgeschichte " (in the notice of Philip the Good), and in the last edition of "Pierer's Universal-Lexikon " (in the article on the Golden Fleece and in that on Philip the Good). The " Encyclopaedia of * In England the year formerly began with the 25th of March. It was not until 17S2 that the first of January was made the beginning of the legal year. In parts of Italy, likewise, the first day of the year was the 26th of March down to the close of the last century, and the Fisan reckoning was a year ahead of the Florentine. In the Venetian Bepublic it was the first day of March. In France during the period of the Capetian aud Yalois dynasties the year began with Easter. The duchy of Burgundy and portions of the Netherlands had the same reckoning. X PBBFAOE. Chronology " gives Jan. 10, 1429 (citing an authority) under the head of Golden Fleece, and in the notice of Philip his mar- riage is stated to have taken place on that day, but under the head of Bruges we are correctly informed that the Order of the Golden Fleece was instituted in 1430. As encyclopedists are continually contradicting each other with regard to historical chronology, where sufficient pains and easy access to standard sources of information ought to make it possible to insure accuracy, it is natural that we should find a vast amount of discrepancy with regard to biographical dates. In the preparation of a great mass of biographical notices in a cyclopsedia the available sources of information must of neces- sity be in a great measure restricted to the articles in other en- cyclopedic publications. In a comparatively small proportion of cases only is it practicable to have recourse to works of author- ity in order to verify statements. The compiler is perplexed at every step, and very frequently it is impossible to arrive at more than an approximation to the truth. Biographical chronology is continually shifting. One has only to take one of the early editions of " Brockhaus' Conversations-Lexikon " and compare a number of biographical dates with the statements contained in the last edition to appreciate this fact. In every new edition of such a publication the chronology has to be amended afresh. Biographical literature is constantly bringing new alterations, and in every country old documents, registers, and memorials are being brought to light which refute more or less of what has hitherto been passing for truth. Readers are little aware of the amount of confusion which prevails respecting the dates of birth and death of eminent personages even of our own age. In a not inconsiderable proportion of cases the year of birth is not actu- ally established until after the individual's death. The bio- graphical notice in a cyclopsedia of a person lately deceased will therefore very frequently be found to give a different date for the birth from that contained in the preceding edition of the work. The date of Buckle's birth is Nov. 24, 1821.* We find the same month and day, but the year 1822 in the last edition * See " The Life and Writings of flenvy Thomas Buclclc," by A. H. Huth. PREFACE. xi of "BrockhauB' Conversations-Lexikon " (1882), in Bommtil- ler's " Schriftsteller-Lexikon der Gegenwart " (1882), in Beeck's " Handlexicon der GescMchte und Biographie," and in the necro- logical list appended to the last edition of " Men of the Time " (1884). The year 1822 (without mention of month or day) is also given in Thomas's " Dictionary of Biography " and in the index to the last edition of " Haydn's Dictionary of Dates." Du Chaillu was bom July 31, 1835. In the twelfth edition of " Brockhaus' Conversations-Lexikon" he is stated to have been born about 1805; in the fourth edition of Vapereau's "Dictionnaire des con- temporains," toward the first years of the century ; in Embacher's " Lexikon der Reisen und Entdeckungen " (1882), at the begin- ning of the century. The error has been eliminated in the last edition of the first two works, and the correct date is also to be found in the " Schriftsteller-Lexikon der Gegenwart," published a few months before Embacher's work. The eminent Belgian sculptor WUlem Geefs, who died in 1883, is frequently stated to have ended his days in 1860. His biography is omitted from the fourth edition of the " Dictionnaire des contemporains " (in which the false entry of his death occurs), but he is resuscitated with a full notice in the last edition (1880). It was a brother of Willem Geefs who died in 1860. Another of the celebrities whose career closed in 1883, Abd-el-Kader, had his death more than once prematurely chronicled. Chronological inaccuracy in books is in no small measure merely the evidence of fa,ulty printing. In the present work the proof-reading has been so carefully done that the author feels assured that this source of error has been completely eliminated. Sumnr, N. J,, September, 1884. PREFATORY NOTE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. The record of the world's history contained in the present volume is brought down to the year 1898. The "Biographical Dictionary " has been revised, and numerous changes have been made in accordance with the data furnished by recent publica- tions. The " Supplement " has been considerably enlarged. Summit, N, J., February, 1898. PAET I. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF TJI^IYERSAL HISTOEY. B. c. 4400 (about; JSmtgrscA).* Foundatioa of the first dynasty in Egypt. 3700 {about; ^rugsch). Erection of the Great Pyramid of Gizeh. 2500 {about; Duncher). Kise of the kingdom of Elam. 2250 {about). Hammurabi establishes the supremacy of Babylon in the region of Babylonia. He promulgates a code of laws for his realm. 2200-1700 {about ; Srugsch). Dominion of the Hyksos in Egypt. 1700 (i600)-l260 {about). Period of the greatest power and splen- dor of the New Empire in Egypt. Aahmes, Thothmes III., Barneses II., Rameses III. 1450^1300 {about ; Duncher). Period of the greatest power of the Hittite realm in Syria. 1300 {<£bout). Beign of ShaJmaneser I. in Assyria. 1260 (fAout; Duncker). The Phoenicians enter upon their career as a great colonizing people. 1100 {about). Dorian migration into the Peloponnesus. 1055 {about, Duncker; about 1095 or 1080, common chronology). \ Establishment of monarchy by the Hebrews ; Saul king. 1033 {about, Duncker; 103S, Oppert). The Philistines overwhelm Saul at Gilboa. David proclaims himself king in Judah. 993 {about, Duncker; 1017, Oppert). Accession of Solomon. 963 {about, Duncker; 977, Oppert). Revolt of the Ten Tribes under Jeroboam from Rehoboam ; Israel and Judah sepa- rate kingdoms. 949 {abtyut, Duncker; 973, Oppert). Sheshonk (Shishak), Mng of Egypt, takes Jerusalem. 929 {about, Duncker; 958, Oppert). Accession of Asa in Judah. 899 {about, Duncker; 931, Oppert). Accession of Omri in Israel. 873 {about, Duncker; 917, Oppert). Accession of Jehoshaphat in Judah. * The views of other authorities will be found stated in Part IL t See Hebbkws in Part II. 2 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 863 {about, Duncker; 900, Oppert.) Abah, king of Israel, is de- feated and slain by the Syrians at Eamoth-GUead. 850 (about). Colonization of Carthage by the Tyrians. Legislation of Lycurgus in Sparta. 843 (about, Duncker; 887, Oppert). Jehu usurps the throne of Israel. • 792 (about, Duncker; 811, Oppert). Accession of Uzziah in Judah. 790 (about, Duncker; 825, Oppert). Accession of Jeroboam II. in Israel. 776. Beginning of the Olympiads. 753 (common chronology). Foundation of Rome. 750 (about). Foundation of Syracuse by the Corinthians. 748 (about, Duncker; 77S, Oppert). End of the dynasty of Jehu in Israel. 743-724 (common chronology). First great war of Sparta against Messenia, -which is reduced to subjection. 734-732 (about). Tiglath-pileser II. of Assyria subjects Syria. 728 (727). Accession of Hezekiah in Judah. 731 (about). Chaldsea becomes subject to Tiglath-pileser II. 722 (721). The Assyrian king Sargon takes Samaria, and puts an end to the kingdom of Israel. 701 (700). Expedition of Sennacherib into Syria. Siege of Jeru- , salem. Sennacherib encounters the forces of Egypt and Ethiopia. His expedition faUs. 697 (698). Accession of Mana^eh in Judah. 650 (about). All Egypt united under Psammetichus. 645-628 (68B-668).* Unsuccessful attempt of the Messenians to free themselves from the Spartan yoke. 640 (about). Media shakes off her dependence on Assyria, and ap- pears as a single united kingdom. 625 (about). Ghreat. irruption of the Scythians into Media, Assyria, and' Syria. 622 (about). Reformation of Josiah in Judah. 609 .(about): Necho, king of Egypt, crushes the power of Judah at Megiddo ; Josiah is slain. 607 (606). t The Medes and Babylonians take Nineveh, and over^ whelm the Assyrian monarchy. 605. Victdry of Nebuchadnezzar over Necho at Carchemish. ip97ljB98). Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem and carries away the principal inhabitants. (See 586.) * See Mbssenia in Part II. t Some authorities place tlie fall of Nineveh in 625. chkonological table of universal history. 3 694. Legislation of Solon in Athens. 686 (587). Nebuchadnezzar takes and destroys Jerusalem, and puts an end to the kingdom of Judah, Babylonish cap- tivity. 670 (about). Nebuchadnezzar attacks Egypt, dethrones Hophra (Apries), and places Amasis on the throne. 560. Pisistratus usurps the government of Athens. 660 (oftoMf).* The Persians, imder the lead of Cyrus, destroy the Median monarchy. 646 (about). Cyrus overthrows Croesus, king of Lydia. 638. Cyrus conquers Babylon. 629. Cambyses succeeds Cyrus as king of Persia. 527. Hippias and Hipparchus succeed their father, Pisistratus, in the government of Athens. 627 (5SS). Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses. 622. Usurpation of Pseudo-Smerdis in Persia. Death of Cam- byses. 521. Darius Hystaspis ascends the throne of Persia. 621-616 (about). Eebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem. 514. Murder of Hipparchus by Harmodius and Aristogiton. 610. Expulsion of Hippias from Athens. Clisthenes heads the democratic party. ^ Destruction of Sybaris by the Crotonians. ^aio (about). The Eomans abolish royalty and establish a republic. Institution of the Consulship. 608-606 (about). Darius engages in a disastrous expedition against the Scythians. The Persians extend their dominion over Thrace, and receive the submission of Macedonia. 601 (Eawlinson, Clinton; SOS, Grote; 500, Hertzberg). Aristagoras excites a revolt of the Ionian cities from Persia. 500 (Bawl.; 499, Clinton, Hertzberg). Expedition of the lonians against Sardis. They enter the city, and then retreat. 49'ljqbout). The Bomans defeat the Latins at Lake Begillus. [^4^ Defeat of the Asiatic Greeks by the Persians in the naval battle of Lade. Fall of MUetus. 494 (Smithes Dictionary, Hertzberg; 492, Bawl.). First secession of the Plebeians from Rome. Institution of the oflBce of Tribunes of the People. 493 (Smithes Diet., Hertzberg; 4^1, Bawl.). The Latins are com- • According to the common chronology 558. An inscription has recently been discovered of the Babylonian king Nabonidus, according to which, if the decipher- ment be correct, the overthrow of the Median king Astyages occurred in 550. 4 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP TrNIVEIlSAL HISTORY. pelled to enter into a league with Eome, which is threatened by the power of the ^qui and Volsci. 492. First Persian expedition against Greece under Mardonius. 49drinvasion of Greece hy the army of Darius. It is vanquished ^ by the Athenians, under Miltiades, at Marathon. 489 {SmiW8 Diet., Hertzberg). MUtiadjes unsuccessfully attacks Paros. He is thrown into prison by the Athenians. 486 iJusti)* Xerxes succeeds his father, Darius Hystaspis. ^0/6' {about). League of the Hemici with Eome. 483 Iciinton, Hertzberg). Ostracism of Aristides. ,,380. Invasion of Greece by Xerxes. Defense of Thermopylae by Leonidas. Naval battle of Artemisium. Burning of Athens. The Greeks, led by Themistocles and Eujybiades, vanquish the Persian ileet at Salamis. Flight of Xerxes. The Carthaginians attempt to conquer the Greek cities of Sicily. Their army is overwhelmed by Gelon, tjrrant of Syracuse, at Himera. lJ/f9. The Persian army under Mardonius is crushed by the Greeks, under the command of Pausanias, in the battle of Platsea. Simultaneous victory of the Greeks, under Leotychides and Xanthippus, over the Persian naval forces at Mycale. U^fl. The hegemony in Greece passes from Sparta to Athens. 471 {probably). Fall of Themistocles. \_47I {Smith's Diet., Hertzberg; 470, Bawl.). Passage of the Publi- Uan Law in Rome ; the right is accorded to the Plebeians of initiating legislation in their assemblies. 468 {about). Triumph of democracy in the cities of Sicily. 466. Victories of Cimon over the Persians at the Eurymedon. 465. Murder of Xerxes by Artabanus. Accession of Artaxerxes Longimanus, his son. 464. Destruction of Sparta by an earthquake. 464-155. Rising of the Messenian helots against the Spartans. 463 {dbout).i The Argives reduce Mycense, and enslave or drive away its inhabitants. 458 {about). Retumof Jews from Babylonia to Jerusalem under Ezra. i^'*^. Battle of Tanagra between the Spartans and Athenians. 456. The Athenians vanquish the Boeotians at CEnophyta, and ob- tain their submission, with that of Phocis and Locris. 456 {about). Completion of the Long Walls connecting Athens with the Piraeus. Athens subdues ^gina. * Some authorities place the death of Davius in 486. t See note in Grote's " History of Greece," vol. v., p. 320 (Amer. edition). CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 6 ^^MO (about). Institution of the Decemvirate in Borne. Publication of the Laws of the Twelve Tables. 448. Sacred War between the Phocians and Delphians. 448 {about). Abolition of the Decemvirate. 447. Defeat of the Athenians at Coronea, by which they lose their hold on Bceotia, Phocis, and Locris. 446 (about). Nehemiah undertakes the rebuilding of the walls of Jerusalem. t-444. Pericles assumes the sole direction of affairs in Athens. .^_>44 (about). Institution of the military tribunes at Epme, who might take the place of the consuls.* 436. Beginning of the dispute between Corinth and Corcyra regard- ing Epidamnus. 435. Naval victory of the Corcyrseans over the Corinthians neai Actium. 432. Athens joins Corcyra against Corinth. Corinth incites Poti' ^^^^ daea to revolt from Athens. ^^^iPSparta espouses the cause of Corinth, and makes war on Athens. ^-"^ Beginning of the Peloponnesian War. 431-425. The Spartans invade Attica five times : 431, 430, 428, 427, 425. U429. The Athenians reduce Potidaea. Pericles dies of the plague. 428. Revolt of Lesbos from the Athenian confederacy. 427. The Athenians reduce Mytilene, and become masters of Les- bos. Platsea, the ally of Athens, surrenders to the Pelopon- nesians. ^ 425. The Athenian commander Cleon takes Sphacteria. Death of Artaxerxes I. Reigns of Xerxes II. and Sogdianus. 424. The Spartan general Brasidas takes Amphipolis. Victory o.f the Boeotians over the Athenians at Delium. Accession of Darius II., Nothus, in Persia, t \_423; Banishment of Thucydides from Athens. 422. Cleon, sent by the Athenians to recover Amphipolis, is de- feated and slain by the army of Brasidas, who also falls in the battle. V.^4W.. Peace of Nicias between Athens and Sparta. 419. Alcibiades leads an Athenian expedition into the Peloponnesus. 415. The Athenians undertake an expedition against Syracuse. * The Consulship, was by no means done away with ; it alternated irregularly with the office of the military tribunes till the passage of the Licinian" Rogations, when it was restored as a permanent annual magistraoy.i See 367. t Some authorities place this event in 425. 6 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 414. The Athenians, under Nicias, invest Syracuse. The Spartan commander Gylippus, with a fleet of Corinthian ships, comes to the aid of the city. 413. The Spartans, at the instance of Alcibiades, take up a fortified position at Decelea, in Attica. The Athenian commander Demosthenes is sent to the assistance of Nicias. Complete ruin of the expedition against Syracuse. 412. Alcibiades undertakes a mission to the Persian satrap Tissa- phemes, and induces him to enter into treaties with Sparta. 411. Eeign of the Four Hundred in Athens (4 months). Alcibiades is reinstated in the Athenian service. 4l0^__^aval victory of Alcibiades over the Spartans at Oyzicus. 40'frThe Spartan admiral Lysander defeats the Athenian fleet at Notium. 406. The Spartan fleet, under Callicratidas, is vanquished by the Athenians off the Arginusae. Dionysius the Elder establishes his power in Syracuse. i05. The Spartans, under Lysander, annihilate the naval power of Athens at .^Egospotami. Artaxerxes II. succeeds Darius 11. in Persia.* 405 (404 f)- Persia loses her dominion over Egypt. (The country resubjected about 340.) ^43sfc^urrender of Athens to Lysander. End of the Peloponnesian War ; Sparta all-powerful in Greece. Establishment of the Thirty Tyrants in Athens. About the close of the year t they are overthrown by Thrasybulus. 403. Thrasybulus restores democracy in Athens. 401. Expedition of the younger Cyrus against his brother, Arta- xerxes II. He is slain in the battle of Cunaxa. 401-400. The Greek auxUiaries of Cyrus, the Ten Thousand, effect their retreat to the sea under the lead of Xenophon. ^§99i Sparta engages in a war with Persia. Condemnation and death of Socrates. 396. The Spartan general Agesilaus enters upon his victorious cam- paigns against the Persians. J96 (^Smith's Diet, Hertzberg; 393, Bawl). The Romans, under Camillus, take Veil. 395. Thebes, Corinth, Argos, and Athens enter into a league against Sparta. The Thebans defeat the Spartans at Haliartus • death of Lysander. ' * This event is placed by Justi in 404. t According to German authorities at the beginning of 403. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 7 394.. The Persian fleet, under the Athenian admiral Conon, over- whelms that of the Spartans, under Pisander, off Cnidus. Victory of the Spartans, under Agesilaus, over the forces of the confederate Greeks at Coronea. 393. The Athenians, under the guidance of Conon, undertake the . restoration of their fortifications. ^(Hertzberg; 387, Rawl.).* The Gauls, under Brennus, vanquish the Romans on the Allia, and bu m Rom e. 387. Sparta, through the mediation of Persia, forces the Greek states to accept the Peace of Antalcidas. 382. Sparta engages in a war against Olynthus. The Spartans seize the citadel of Thebes. 379. The Spartans force the Olynthians into submission. Pelopi- das and his associates deliver Thebes from the Spartans. 378. Athens joins Thebes against Sparta. 376. Naval victory of the Athenians, under Chabrias, over the Spartans off Naxos. ^^^ff\. The Thebans, under Epaminondas, vanquish the Spartans, under Cleombrotus, at Leuctra. Thebes becomes the domi- nant power in Greece. .^Jft^. Foundation of the Arcadian confederacy. 370-369. Epaminondas undertakes his first expedition into the Peloponnesus. He threatens Sparta, which is preserved . by Agesilaus. 369. Foundation of Megalopolis as the centre of the Arcadian con- federacy. Kise of a new Messeniam state under the auspices of Epaminondas. Foundation of the city of Messene. 369 or 368. Pelopidas is sent by- the Thebans on his first expedition against Alexander of Pherse. 3p>rXEmith^sI>ict.,Hertzberg; 364, Rawl.). Adoption of the Licinian Rogations in Rome ; acts for the relief of Plebeian debtors and the limitation of the rights of the Patricians to the pub- lic domain ; restoration of -the Consulship as a permanent annual magistracy, the oflBce of military tribunes with con- sular power being abolished ; one of the two consuls to be henceforth a Plebeian ; institution ofj he-Pwetorship. 364 or 363. Death of Pelopidas in a battle with Alexander of Pherae. 362. Victory of Epaminondas over the Spartans and their allies at Mantinea ; he falls ini the battle. 361 or 359. Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) succeeds Artaxerxes 11. in Persia. * According to the chrpnologioal reckoning formerly followed, the burning of Home occurred in 390. 8 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OT tTNTVERSAL HISTOKT. 358.* Athens becomes involved in the Social War with Cos, ChioS), Rhodes, and Byzantium. Philip of Maeedon takes Amphipolis. 357. Outbreak of the Sacred War excited by Thebes against Phocis. 366. Dion liberates Syracuse from Dionysius the Younger. (See 346.) Burning of the temple ai Diaiita at Ephesijs. 356. End of the Social War. 362 or 351. The progress of Philip of Maeedon evokes the first Philippic of Demosthenes. 347. Philip of Maeedon takes and destroys Olyn&us. 346i The Sacred War is brought to a close lay the oceapaition ctf Phocis by Philip of Maeedon. Dionysius the YoungCT recovers his poww in Syracuse. 343. Timoieon delivers Syracuse from DionysiMs the Younger. 343 (iSmifft's Diet. ; 34O, Rawl.). Eome engages in the first Saan- nite War. 341 (Smith's Diet. ; 338, Bawl.). Close of the first Samnite War. 340-338 {SimtK's Diet. ; 337^36, Bawl.). War of the Eomans s^aiHst the Latins, ending in the subjugation of the latter. i^SfiTPMlip of Maeedon passes Thermopylae, and seizes Elatea. Athens and Thebes form a league to resist him. Philip overwhelms their forces at Chseronea, and establishes the dominion of Maeedon over Greece. Arses succeeds Artaxerxes III. in Persia. ' SafiT Philip of Maeedon is murdered while preparing to in^aido Persia. He is succeeded by his son, Alexander the Great. Darius HI., Codomannus, succeeds Arses in Persia. 336. Thebes rebels against the authority of Maeedon, and is de- stroyed by Alexander. 334. Alexander the Great enters upon the conquest of Persia. He is victorious at the Granicus. 333. Victory of Alexander over Darius at Issus. 332. Alexander reduces Tyre, takes Giaza, and occupies Egsrpt, and (about the close of the year) lays out the city of Alex- andria. 331. Alexander conquers Darius in the battle of Arbela (or of Gaugapiela), and overthrows the Persian empire. 330.t The Spartans, under Agis m., take up arms against Maeedon. * The years 858-355 for the Social War are those giv^i by Grote and Bawlinsan. The chronology of this period is not perfectly settled. + The year 830 for the revolt of Sparta is the date given by Gtrote ; according to Clinton the event occurred in the preceding year. CHBOSrOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 9 They and their allies are defeated by the regent Antipater at Megalopolis. Agis is slain. Mtirder of Darius Oodomannus by Bessus. 330-327. Oonquest of the eastern provinces of the Persian empire by Alexander. 326. Alexander marches into India, and defeats Porus. 326 {Smith's Diet. ; 3SS, Bawl.). Borne enters upon the second Samnite War. 326-32^ Alexander effects his return march from the Indus to Persepolis, while his fleet is conducted to the Euphrates by ^ N«archus. ^JUCiT'DeaJik of Alexander at Babylon. Partition of power among his generals Perdiccas, Antipater, Craterus, Antigonus, Eu- menes, Ptolemy Lagi, Lysimachus, and others. The Greeks attempt to throw off the yoke of Macedou. Their army besieges Antipater in Lamia. 322. Victory of Antipater over the confederate Greeks at Crannon. End of the Lamian War. Demosthenes, pursued by the vengeance of the Macedonians, puts an end to his life. 321. Beginning of the wars between the successors of Alexander ; Perdiccas and Eumenes opposed to Antipater, Cratenxs, Antigonus, and Ptolemy. Perdiccas marches into Egypt , against Ptolemy. Eumenes, in Asia Minor, triumphs over (>ateru8, who is slain. Death of Perdiccas in a mtrtiny. 321 (Smith's Diet. ; 319, Rawl.). Victory of the Samnites over the Romans at the Caudine Forks. 320-319. Antigonus blockades Eumenes in Nora. 319. Antipater dies after appointing Polysperchon to succeed him as regent for Philip Arrhidseus and Alexander ^gus, the half-brother and the son of Alexander the Great. Poly- sperchon succeeds to Antipater's power in Macedonia and Greece. His elevation is followed by a league against him between Antipater's son Cassander, Antigonus, and Ptolemy. Polysperchon is supported by Eumenes. 318-317. Cassander prevails over Polysperchon in the contest for the possession of power in Greece and Macedonia. He places Athens under the rule of Demetrius Phalereus. About the close of 317 Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great, sup- ported by Polysperchon and the Epirotes, seizes Macedonia. 316. Olympias falls into the power of Cassander, who puts her to death. Eumenes is betrayed to Antigonus, and is put to death ;^ the power of Antigonus supreme in Asia. 10 CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL BISTORT. 315. Cassander undertakes the rebuilding of Thebes. 314 (Bawl). Beginning of the great struggle waged against Anti- gonus by Cassander, Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus. 312. Establishment of the realm of the Seleucida? by Seleucus Nica- tor ; its seat in the beginning at Babylon. 310. The Syracusan ruler Agathocles enters upon a brilliant career against Carthage on her Af rica,n territory. 307. Successful expedition of Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Anti- gonus, against Athens. End of the rule of Demetrius Phalereus. 306. Demetrius Poliorcetes annihilates the fleet of Ptolemy at Sa- lamis (Cyprus). Antigonus assumes the title of king of Asia. His example is followed by Ptolemy Lagi, Lysima- chus, and Seleucus, rulers, respectively, of Egypt, of Thrace, and of the portion of Alexander's empire lying east of the Euphrates. Cassander of Macedon is saluted with the royal title by his subjects. 305-304. Siege of Rhodes by Demetrius Poliorcetes. 304 {Smith's Diet. ; SOS, Bawl.). The Eomans bring the second Samnite War to a triumphant close. 300 {SOI .»).* Battle of Ipsus ; the army of Antigonus and his son, Demetrius Poliorcetes, is overwhelmed by Seleucus and Ly- simachus ; Antigonus is slain. The conquerors divide the dominions of Antigonus. Lysimachus appropriates a great part of Asia Minor; Seleucus, Upper Syria, Cappadocia, and other territories. 300 {ahcmf). Seleucus Nicator foimds Antioch as the seat of govern- ment of his kingdom. 298. Rome becomes engaged in the third Samnite War. 295. The Samnites, Etruscans, Gauls, and Umbrians imited in a common effort against Rome. The forces of Q. Fabius Rul- lianus and P. Decius Mus vanquish the Samnites and G-auls at Sentinum. 294. Demetrius Poliorcetes (after restoring his fortunes in Greece) seizes the Macedonian throne. 290. End of the third Samnite War; submission of the Samnites to the Romans. 287. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and Lysimachus wrest Macedonia from Demetrius Poliorcetes. t * The date usually given for the battle of Ipsus is 301. Clinton places it In that year, but Grote asserts that in all probability the event occurred in the year 300. t Pyrrhus was immediately after expelled from Macedonia by Lyslmaohus. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. H 283. Death of Ptolemy Lagi (Ptolemy Soter). He is succeeded by his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus (associated with his father ra the government since 285). 280. Pyirhus espouses the cause of Tarentum against Rome, and makes war on the republic. He defeats Lsbtuius. \JS»0'5j*om*). Rise of the Achaean League. 279. Victory of Pyrrhus over the Romans at Asculum. The Gauls overwhelm Ptolemy Ceraunus, king of Macedonia.* 278 (Bawl., Hertzberg). Invasion of Greece by the Gauls under Brennus. Their army meets with disaster at Delphi. 277 (about). A body of Gauls take possession of northern Phrygia. 275. Total defeat of Pyrrhus by M. Curius Dentatus at Beneven- tum. 272. Death of Pyrrhus in an attack upon Argos. Surrender of Tarentum to the Romans. Lucania and Bruttium submit to them. I_^e6r The Romans take and destroy Volsiaii ; Rome mistress of all Italy. M^TOutbreak of the first war between Rome and Carthage (first •^ Punic War). The Romans enter upon a successful career in Sicily. 263. The Romans force Hiero, king of Syracuse, to abandon the cause of Carthage. 260. Naval victory of Duilius over the Carthaginians at Mylse ; first appearajice of Rome as a naval power. 259. The Romans begin the conquest of Corsica. 266-255. The Romans, imder Regulus, fight Carthage on her Afri- can territory, where they are finally vanquished. 251. Sicyon, restored to freedom by Aratus, joins the Achaean League, which becomes a powerful body. 250. The Romans begin the siege of LUybaeum.f 249. Naval victory of the Carthaginians at Drepanum. 248 {aJbimt). Parthia becomes an independent kingdom undei Arsaces. 247. Ptolemy Philadelphus is succeeded by Ptolemy Euergetes. 243. Corinth is delivered from the sway of Macedon by Aratus , and joins the Achaean League. * The year 279 for the invasion of Macedonia is the date adopted by Eawlinscn and) Hertzberg. According to Clinton and Amdd^e Thierry the event ooourred in 280. t The town was suooesBfiiriy defended by the Carthaginians tai the close of the war. 1;2 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF raiVEKSAL HISTORY. 243-241 {Hertzberg). Attempt of Agis IV. to reform the Spartan y state. MlTThe Eomans, under Lutatius Catulus, vanquish the Cartha- ■^ ginians in a great naval battle off the .Agates. Close of the first Punic War. Carthage relinquishes Sicily to Eome. 240-237 {about). Eevolt of the Carthaginian mercenaries in Africa; suppressed by Hamilcar Barca. 237. Carthage is forced to relinquish Sardinia to Rome. 236 (or SS5)-221. Reign of Cleomenes III. of Sparta, distinguished by his great political reforms, and by his struggle with the Achaean League. 236-220 (about). The Carthaginians, under Hamilcar Barca and his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, conquer a large portion of Spain. f^9. The Romans wage a successful war against the Greek Iring- ' I dom of lUyria, extending their power across the Adriatic. s2es-222. Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul by the Romans. 221. Antigonus Doson, ruler of Macedon, crushes Cleomenes IH. at SeUasia ; the power of Sparta completely broken. 220. The .ffitolian League makes war on the Achaean League -y (Social War). '219. Hannibal begins the second Punic War by laying siege to Saguntum ; fall of the city.* 219-217. Victorious campaigns of Philip V. of Macedon against the .^tolian League. ^f». March of Hannibal into Italy. He defeats the Eomans on the Ticinus and Trebia. 317- Hannibal destroys the army of Flaminius at Lake Thrasy- menus. The Eomans appoint Fabius Maximus dictator to oppose the Carthaginians. 216. Hannibal annihilates the Roman army, under Varro and L. ..ffimilius Paulus, in the battle of Cannae. Capua joins the cause of Hannibal, who makes the city his headquarters. 214. Rome becomes involved in her first conflict with Macedon. Philip v., having allied himself with Hannibal, begins the war. 213. Aratus is poisoned by Philip V. of Macedon. 212. The Eomans, under Marcellus, take Syracuse after a siege of two years. 211. Hannibal threatens Eome. He loses Capua. The ^tolian League and its allies join Eome against Macedon. * The beginning of the second Punio War is often reckoned from 218, the year of Hannibal's invasion of Italy. CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 13 208. Hasdrubal, son of Hamilcar, suspending his operations against Scipio,* in Spain, sets out for Italy to relieve his brother Hannibal. 207. Hasdrubal is overwhelmed and slain on the Metaurus. Philopoemen, the general of the Achaean League (in alliance with Macedon), achieves a signal victory over the Spartans at Mantinea. 206. Scipio completes the destruction of the Carthaginian power in Spain. 205. Peace between Rome and Macedon. 204. Scipio carries the war against Carthage into Africa. 202. Scipio Africanus conquers Hannibal at Zama, and completely breaks the Carthaginian power. 25l. End of the second Punic War. Rome enters upon a war for the resubjugation of the Boii and Insubres of Cisalpine Gatd, set free by the Carthaginian invasion. 200. Outbreak of the second war between Rome and Macedon. 198. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, conquers Coele-Syria and Palestine from Egypt. 197. The Romans, under Flamininus, overwhelm Philip V. of Maoe- V don at CynoscephaJse, and force him to a humiliating peace. 196. Flamininus proclaims the freedom of Greece. 192. Antiochus the Great, in alliance with the .^tolians, takes up arms against Rome. sjSl. Defeat of Antiochus by the Romans, under Acilius Glabrio, at Thermopylae. Rome completes the resubjugation of Cis- alpine Gaul. The Achaean League attains its greatest extension, embracing " "the-whole of the Peloponnesus. 190. The Romans, under Scipio,+ vanquish Antiochus the Great at Magnesia (at the 'oot of Mt. Sipylus), and force him to relinquish the greater part of Asia Minor. (Nearly all of the conquered territory is annexed to the kingdom of Per- gamus.) 183. Philopoemen, having marched against the Messenians, falls into their hands, and is forced to put an end to his life. 171. Perseus, king of Macedon, begins his struggle with Rome. 168. Complete defeat of Perseus by the Romans, under L. jSJmilius Paulus, at Pydna. End of the Macedonian kingdom. 167. Deportation of a thousand of the principal Achaeans by the Romans. * The future Scipio Africanus. t Scipio Asiaticua. 14 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF tTNTVERSAL HISTORY. 167. The Asmoneans take up arms against Antiochus Epiphaaes, king of Syria. 165 (Hitzig, Schiirer, Wellhatisen). Judas Maocabaeus enters Jeru- salem, and purifies the Temple. 160. Judas Maccabseus falls in battle. \J^. Beginning of the third Punic War. 147 (about). The Lusitanian leader Viriathus achieves his first great victory over the Eomans. iL46. Destruction of Carthage by the younger Scipio AMcanus. The Achaean League succumbs to the Eoman arms. Destruc- tion of Corinth by the consul Mummius. End o f Greek independence. 14^ {Schiirer). Simon Maccabaeus conquers the citadel of Jerusa- ^ lem. 140. Simon Maccabaeus is proclaimed hereditary prince of the Jews; the oflEice of high priest to be permanently united with the princely dignity. 140 or 139. The war of Rome against Viriathus is ended by the assassination of the Lusitanian leader. 136. Assassination of Simon Maccabaeus. He is succeeded by his son, John Hyrcanus. 134-133. Siege of Jerusalem by Antiochus Sidetes, king of Syria. 134^132. Servile War in Sicily. 133. Numantia succumbs to the younger Scipio Africanus. Attalus in. of Pergamus bequeaths his kingdom, embracing a great part of Asia Minor, to the Komans. Tiberiiis Gracchus attempts his agrarian reforms in Rome. 125-121. The Eomans conquer the S. E. portion of Transalpine Gaul. 123-121. Political and agrarian agitations of Caius Gracchus. '' 113. The advancing hordes of the Cimbri and Teutones begin to menace the Roman dominions. 111. Beginning of the war of Rome against Jugurtha, king of Numidia. 109. MeteUus takes command of the Roman forces against Jugurtha. 109 (about). John Hyrcanus takes and destroys the city of Samaria. 109-105. The Cimbri and their allies completely overthrow the Ro- man arms in Gaul. 106. Marius successfully terminates the Jugurthine War. 105 (Munk, Schiirer, Wellhausen). John Hyrcanus is succeeded by his son, Aristobulus, who assumes the title of king of Judea. 104. Aristobulus is succeeded by his brother, Alexander Jannaeus. CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 15 102. Marius overwhelms the Teutones and Ambrones at Aquae Sextiae. 102-99. Second Servile War in Sicily. 101. Marius-amiihilates the Gimbri on the Eaudian Fields. 90-88. Marsic or Social War, a struggle of the Italian peoples against Some. 88. Mithridates, king of Fontus, takes up arms against Rome, and overruns Asia Minor. Beginning of the war between Sulla and Maritis. 87. Sulla passes over into Greece to conduct the war against Mi- thridates. Bloody proscriptions by Marius and Cinna. 86. Death of Marius. Sulla takes the revolted city of Athens, and defeats the forces of Mithridates at Chseronea. 85. Successes of the Romans against Mithridates in Asia. 84. Close of the first Mithridatic War. 83. Sulla engages in a war with the Marian party in Italy. Be- ginning of the second Mithridatic War. 82. Sulla crushes the Marian party, and becomes dictator. Close of the second Mithridatic War. 80 (close of 81 ?). The Marian leader Sertorius sets up an inde- pendent state in Spain. 79. Sulla Iajs down his dictatorship. 74. Beginning of the third Mithridatic War ; the Romans give the command of their forces to Lucullus. 73. Rising of the gladiators under Spartacus (third Servile War). 72. Murder of Sertorius. Pompey restores order in Spain. Lucullus drives Mithridates from his dominions. The king takes refuge with Tigranes, king of Armenia. 71. Spartacus is defeated and slain by the forces of Crassus. 69. Victory of Lucullus over Tigranes at Tigranocerta ; fall of that city. 67. Victorious advance of Mithridates. Pompey subdues the pirates of Cilicia. 66. Pompey completely vanquishes Mithridates. 65. Close of the third Mithridatic War. Pompey deposes Antiochus XIII., putting an end to the king- dom of the Seleucidae (kingdom of Syria). 64. Pompey takes possession of Syria. 63. Pompey, having intervened in the contpst between the brothers John Hyrcanus II. and Aristobulus II., and decided in favor of Hyrcanus, besieges Aristobulus in Jerusalem, takes the city, and makes Judea tributary to Rome. 16 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNITERSAL fflSTOKT. iSBf^o 63. Mithridates puts an end to his life. Conspiracy of Catiline; frustrated by Cicero. 62. Defeat and death of Catiline. Tormation of the first Triumvirate by Pompey, Caesar, aad Crass us. 58:^a3sar enters upon his Gallic wars. The Helvetii, having migrated into Gaul, are defeated by him. He defeats the German chief Aidovistus. /bTydeeaar conquers the Belgse. j^/Ss. Caesar invades Britain. 54. Second expedition of Caesar into Britain. 63. Defeat and death of Crassus in the war agadnst Qie PartfaiaJU. 52. Rising of the Gauls under Vercingetorix. He is besieged by Caesar in his stronghold Alesia, which is forced to surrender. V.81. Caesar completes the subjugation of GauL ^_^. Outbreak of the war between Caesar and Pompey. 48. Caesar triumphs over Pompey at Pharsalia. Pompey flees to Egypt, where he is murdered. 48-47. War of Caesar in Egypt (Alexandrine War). 47. Caesar vanquishes Pharnaces, king of Bosporus. [/46. The Pompeians in Africa are overwhelmed by Caesar in the battle of Thapsus. Juba, king of Numidia, and Cato put an end to their lives. ^Pef^«aation of the calendar by Caesar. .^STOaesar crushes the Pompeians in Spain in the battle of Munda. 3Tp '? r^jf^^ (jjptntt'r for life. i4)t Murder of Caesar by Brutus, Cassius, and other eon^irators. Contest for power between Antony and Oetavius. Cicero's eloquence secures the triumph of Oetavius in Borne. 44-43. Antony takes up arms to regain his lost ascendency. He besieges Decimus Brutus in Mutina (Mutinensian War). ^ His forces are overthrown by those of the Senate. ^^^ Oetavius, Antony, and Lepidus form the second Triumvirate. Proscriptions of the Triumvirs ; Cicero put to death. 42. Oetavius and Antony overwhelm Cassius and Brutus in the two battles of Philippi. 41-40. War in Italy between Oetavius and the party of Antony (Perusian War). 40.* Antony and Oetavius proclaim Herod I. (founder of the Idu- msean dynasty) king of Judea. * See Soliarcr, " Lohrbuoh der neutestamentlichen Zeitgesahichte " p. 184 note. Herod was in Rome at the time, and landed in Syria in 89. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. I7 38-36. Naval war between Octavius and Sextus Pompeius, who is completely defeated. 37. Conquest of Jerusalem by Herod; fall of the Asmonean house. 36. Fall of Lepidus. 31. War between Octavius and Antony. Naval victory of Octa- yIus off Actium. He becomes master of the Eoman world. ^/Flight of Antony with Cleopatra to Egypt. ^30. Death of Antony and Cleopatra ; end of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Egypt is annexed to the Eoman dominions. -STr Octavius receives the title of Augustus. 24. Unsuccessful expedition of JElius Gallus into Arabia. J9i^grippa effects the final subjugation of the Cantabri ; Borne mistress of the whole Spanish peninsula. 16. Drusus and Tiberius subdue the Ehsetians and Vindelicians. 12-9. Victorious campaigns of Drusus against the Germans. 9. Tiberius completes the subjugation of Pannonia. vjAr'Ueath of Herod the Great. A. D. 9. Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci, annihilates the army of Quintilius Varus in the Teutoburg Forest. 14. Death of Augustus. He is succeeded by Tiberius. ' 14-16. Germanicus repeatedly invades Germany, and finally tri- umphs over Arminius. 26. Tiberius quits Eome, leaving the conduct of affairs to Sejanus. 29-33. Date of the Crucifixion variously placed by theologians within this period. 31. Fall and execution of Sejanus. 37. Caligula succeeds Tiberius as emperor. 41. Murder of Caligula. Accession of Claudius. 41-44. All Palestine united under Herod Agrippa I. \^yrhe Romans begin the conquest of Britain. 60-61. Caractacus, king of the Silures in Britain, is betrayed to the Romans, and brought a prisoner to Rome. 64. Claudius is poisoned by his wife Agrippina. Accession of her son Nero. 61. Revolt in Britain under Boadicea. She is vanquished by Sue- tonius Paulinus. v_j64rGreat fire in Rome. First persecution of the Christians. 66. Piso's conspiracy against Nero. The emperor orders the death of Seneca and Lucan. 66. Rising of the Jews against the Roman rule. 67-68. Victorious campaigns of Vespasian against the Jews. 3 18 CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL mSTOEY. 68. Vindex, Galba, Otho, and other commanders rebel against Nero. March of Galba upon Eome. Death of Nero. Ac- cession of Galba. 69. Otho puts an end to the reign of Galba, and becomes emperor. He succumbs to the arms of Vitellius, who moimts the throne. Vitellius is overthrown and succeeded by Vespasian. 69-70. Insurrection of the Batavi under Claudius CivUis. 70. Siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. 76-79. Agricola extends the Soman dominion in Britain to the Tyne. 79. Titus succeeds his father Vespasian. Herculaneum and Pompeii are overwhelmed by an eruption of Vesuvius. 80. Titus dedicates the Colosseimi, the work of Vespasian. 80-81. Agricola advances the Roman frontiers in Britain to the Frith of Forth. 81. Titus is succeeded by his brother Domitian. 83-84. Victorious campaigns of Agricola against the Caledonians. 86-90. The Daciaus, under Decebalus, wage a successful war against the Romans. 96. Murder of Domitian. The Roman Senate raises Nerva to the throne. 98. Nerva is succeeded by Trajan. 101-106. Wars of Trajan with Decebalus, ending in the conquest of Dacia. U!S. Trajan, in a war against Parthia, adds Armenia and Mesopota- mia to the Roman dominions. The Roman Empire attains its greatest extension. (See 117.) 117. Hadrian succeeds Trajan. He relinquishes the conquests made by Trajan in the Parthian War. 132-136 or 136. Insurrection of the Jews under Bar Cocheba. (Fol- lowed by the complete dispersion of the people.) 138. Hadrian is succeeded by Antoninus Pius. 161. Death of Antoninus. Accession of Marcus Aurelius, who makes Lucius Verus his associate in the empire. (Death of Verus, about beginning of 169. 161-166. War between Parthia and Rome. 166 (aboutyiBO. War between the Romans and the Germanic tribes of the Marcomanni and Quadi. 177. Persecution of the Christians in Gaul. IJO.'Marcus Aurelius is succeeded by his son Commodus. Begin- ning of the period of Rome's rapid decline. CHRONOLOGICAIi TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 19 192. Murder of Cominodtis. 193. Reign of Pertinax, who is slain by the praetorians. Didius Juliamis purchases the imperial dignity. Albinus, Septi- mius Severus, and Niger are invested with the purple hy their legions. Fall of Didius Julianus and accession of Severus. 194. Severus triumphs in the East over his rival Niger. B3^antium holds out against Severus. 196. Fall of Byzantium. 197. Severus crushes Albinus in Gaul. 198. Victorious advance of Septimius Severus against the Parthians. 208-209. Septimius Severus overruns Caledonia. 211. Death of Septimius Severus. He is succeeded by his sons, Caracalla (Caracallus) and Geta. 212. Murder of Geta by Caracalla. 213. First campaign of the Pomans against the Alemanni. 217. Murder of Caracalla. Macrinus is proclaimed emperor. 218. Elagabalus overthrows Macrinus, and succeeds him. 222. Murder of Elagabalus. Accession of Alexander Severus. 226. Overthrow of the Parthian kingdom by Ardeshir (Artaxerxes), who founds the new Persian kingdom of the Sassanidse. 231-233. "War of Alexander Severus against the Persians. 235. Murder of Alexander Severus. Accession of Maximin. 238. Eebellion against Maximin in the province of Africa; the pro- consul Gk>rdian and his son are raised to the imperial dignity ; they are overthrown. The Senate proclaims Pupienus Maxi- mus and Balbinus joint emperors. Advance of Maximin into Italy. The third Gordian is associated with Pupienus Maximus and Balbinus in the empire. Murder of Maximin before AquUeia. Murder of Pupienus Maximus and Balbi- nus. Gordian becomes ruler of the Eoman world. 241. Victorious advance of the Persian king Sapor I. against the Boman dominions. 242. Gordian defeats the Persians. 244. Murder of Grordian. Accession of Philip the Arabian. 249. Overthrow of Philip. Accession of Decius. 250. Persecution of the Christians by order of Decius. The Goths penetrate into the Eoman dominions as far as Thrace, and take Philippopolis. 251. Defeat and death of Decius in the war against the Goths. Ac cession of Gallus. 263. .lEmilianus assumes the piu^jle. 20 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 254. Murder of Gallus. Valerian marches against ^nuliamis. Death of ^milianus. 254r-268. Eeigns of Valerian and his son Gallienus, marked by the invasions of the Goths, Franks, Alemanni, and the Persian king Sapor, and by numerous rebellions in the empire. (Gallienus associate of his father in the government. Vale- rian prisoner of the Persians from about 260.) 268. Accession of Claudius II. 269. Claudius II. is victorious over the Goths at Naissus, in Moesia. 270. Aurelian succeeds Claudius II. He successfully opposes the Goths in Pannonia. The Alemanni invade Italy. 271. The Alemanni ia Italy are overwhelmed by Aurelian. 272-273. Aurelian vanquishes Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. 275. Assassination of Aurelian. Accession of Tacitus. 276. Death of the emperor Tacitus. Eeign of Florian. 276-282. Reign of Probus ; he defeats the Germans, Sarmatians, and other enemies. 282. Accession of Carus. 283. Victorious campaign of Carus against Persia. Death of Carus ; his sons, Carinus (the associate of his father in the govern- ment) and Numerian, joiat emperors. 284. Murder of Numerian. Diocletian is proclaimed emperor. 285. Murder of Carinus. 286. Diocletian makes Maximian his colleague in the empire. 292. Galerius and Constantius Chlorus are appointed " Caesars " by Diocletian and Maximian (the "Augusti"). Partition of the empire between the four. 303. Persecution of the. Christians by Diocletian. 305. Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. Galerius and Con- stantius Chlorus become " Augusti." Maximin and Severus are appointed " Caesars." 306. Death of Constantius Chlorus. His son, Constantine the Great, becomes ' ' Caesar. " Severus is raised to the rank of ' ' Augus- tus.'' Maxentius, son of Maximian, assumes the purple. Maximian resumes the title of "Augustus." 307. Fall of Severus. LicLnius is made "Augustus." 308. Constantiue and Maximin are proclaimed "Augusti." 310. Maximian suffers death by order of Constantine. 311. Death of Galerius. ^^^larXJonstantine marches into Italy,' vanquishes Maxentius, and becomes sole ruler of the western half of the Roman world. ^3. ConstantLne and Licinius proclaim toleration for the Christian CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 21 religion. Licinius overthrows Maximia and unites the east- em half of the Eoman Empire under his sceptre. (14. First war between Constantine and Licinius. anstantine overwhelms Ldcinius and becomes sole master of the Homan world. 325. Council of Nice, the first general council ; condenmation of Arius by the followers of Athanasius. ^^■•930.' Transfer of the capital of the Eoman Empire by Constantine from Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople). 337. Death of Constantine. Partition of the Roman Empire be- tween his sons, Constantine,' Constans, and Constantius. 340. Constantine U. makes war on Constans, and is slain. Con- stans becomes lord of the priucipal portion of the Eoman Empire, Constantius ruling in the East. 341 (/about). Ulfllas becomes bishop of the Goths. 350. Magnentius proclaims himself emperor, and overthrows Con- stans. 351- Magnentius is defeated by Constantius in the battle of Mursa. 353- Magnentius succumbs to the arms of Constantius, who becomes sole emperor. Constantius convokes the synod of Aries for the condemnation of Athanasius. 355- Council of Milan ; condemnation of Athanasius by the Arians. 356-959. Victorious career of Julian against the Alemanni and Franks. 360' Julian is proclaimed emperor in Gaul. 361. Death of Constantius. 363- Campaign of Julian against Sapor II. of Persia. The emperor is slain. He is succeeded by Jovian, who purchases peace of Sapor by sacrificing the Eoman frontiers. 364. Jovian is succeeded by Valentinian I. , who appoints his brother, Valens, his associate in the empire, assigning to him the East. 374. The Huns advance westward across the Volga and overpower the Alani. Ambrose is elected bishop of Milan. 375. Death of Valentinian I. He is succeeded by his son, Gratian (appointed "Augustus" iu 367), who is forced to acknowl , edge his brother, Valentinian II. (4 or 5 years of age), his associate in the empire. 375-376. The Hims force the Ostrogoths into submission, and oblige the Visigoths to seek shelter in the Eoman dominions south of the Danube. 22 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 378. The Goths overwhelm the army of Valens near Adrianople ; death of the emperor. 379. G-ratian assigns the sovereignty of the East to Theodosius the Great. 381. Council of Constantinople (second general council). 383. Gratian is overthrown hy Maximus. . (Valentinian 11. retains the sovereignty of Italy, Africa, and Western Illyricum.) 387. Maximus expels Valentinian 11. from Italy. 388. Theodosius the Great overthrows Maximus. Valentinian IT. becomes sole ruler of the West. 392. Murder of Valentinian II. by Arbogast, who places Eugenius on the throne of the West. [^9C" Theodosius the Great vanquishes Eugenius and Arbogast, and uni tes the whole Roman Empire Tinder his sway. )eath of Theodosius the Great. He is succeeded by his sons, Arcadius and Honorius, the former as emperor of the East, and the latter of the West; final division of the Soman Em- pire into the Byzantine and Western Empires. Augustine is elected bishop of Hippo. 'B31. Alaric, king of the Visigoths, invades Italy. 402.* Alaric encounters Stilicho, the general of Honorius, at Pol- lentia. The Visigothic king withdraws from Italy. 405. Bhadagaisus, at the head of a host of Ostrogoths, Vandals, Suevi, Burgundians, and other barbarians, invades Italy. He is vanquished by Stilicho. 405 (about). Jerome completes his Latin version of the Bible. 406. The Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and Burgundians cross the Bhine and invade Gaul. 408. Theodosius II. succeeds Arcadius in the Byzantine Empire. Stilicho is put to death by Honorius. 409. The Vandals, Suevi, and Alani enter Spain. 410. The Visigoths, under Alaric, pillage Borne. 412. The Visigoths enter Gaul. 415 iabout)-4l8. The Visigoths lay the foundations of their domin- ion in Spain. 418. The Visigoths obtain possession of a large portion of Aqui- tania. 423. Death of Honorius. Usurpation of Joannes. * Felix Dahn, " Urgosohichte der germanlsohen nnd romanisohen VSlker," 1881. The ohroQOlogy of this period is very obscure. The date commonly assigned for the battle of PoUentia is 403. Hertzberg, in his " GeBohiohto des romigohen Kaiser reichs," agrees with Dahn, CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEESAL HISTOKY. 23 425. Fall of Joannes. Valentinian HI. ascends the throne of the West under the regency of his mother Placidia. 429. The Vandals, under Genseric, invade Africa. 430-431. Bonifacius unsuccessfully opposes the Vandals in-Africa. 431. Council of Ephesus (third general council). 432. Bonifacius perishes in the struggle with his rival Aetius. 439. Genseric becomes master of Carthage. 441. The Huns, under Attila, pass the Danube and invade Elyricum. 449. Landing of the Jutish band of Hengist and Horsa in Britain. Council of Ephesus (" robbers' synod "). 450. Death of Theodosius n. 451. The Romans, under Aetius, and the Visigoths, successfully en- counter Attila on the field of Chalons. Betreat of Attila from Gaul. Council of Chalcedon (fourth general council). 452. Attila ravages Italy ; Rome is saved by its bishop, Leo the Great. 455. Petronius Maximus murders Valentinian III. and usurps the throne of the West. Fall of Maximus. The Vandals, under Genseric, pillage Rome. Avitus is proclaimed emperor of the West. 456. Avitus is deposed by Ricimer. 457. Ricimer places Majorian on the throne of the West. 461. Ricimer deposes Majorian, and makes Libius Severus nominal emperor. 465. Death of Libius Severus. Ricimer continues to wield the su- preme power. 467. Anthemius is made emperor of the West. 468. The Byzantine emperor, Leo I., supported by the Western Empire, makes a great but unsuccessful effort against the Vandals. 472. FaU of Anthemius. Reign of Olybrius. 473-474. Glycerins emperor of the West. 474-475. Julius Nepos emperor of the West. 475. Romulus Augustulus is made emperor of the West. 476. Odoacer, a chief of German mercenaries, dethrones Romulus Augustulus, and puts an end to the Western Empire. Odo- acer assumes the title of king of Italy. 486. Victory of Clovis, king of the Pranks, over Syagrius at Sois- sons, which puts an end to the Roman dominion in Gaul. 489. Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, invades Italy. 490-493. Odoacer is besieged by Theodoric in Ravenna, and forced to surrender. Theodoric king of Italy. Murder of Odoacer. 24 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEKSAL BISTORT, 496. Clovis vanquishes the Alemanni. Baptism of Clovis. 507-608. Clovis defeats the Visigoths near Poitiers, and makes him- self master of nearly all Aquitania. 611. Death of Clovis ; partition of the FranMsh possessions between his sons. 626 (about). Boethius is put to death by order of Theodoric. 526. Death of Theodoric. Destruction of Antioch by an earthquake. 627. Justinian ascends the Byzantine throne. 529. Publication of the Code of Justinian. 530 (about). Foundation of the order of Benedictines. 533. Belisarius, the general of Justinian, destroys the Vandal king- dom in Africa. 634. The Franks overthrow the Burgundian kingdom. 635. Belisarius is sent by Justinian to recover Italy from the Ostro- goths. He conquers Sicily. 536. Belisarius enters Rome. 637-538. Vitiges, king of the Ostrogoths, unsuccessfully besieges Belisarius in Rome. 640 (about beginning of). Belisarius obtains possession of Bavenna, the stronghold of Vitiges. 640. Chosroes I., king of Persia, invades Syria. 641-542. Belisarius successfully opposes Chosroes. 552. Totila, king of the Ostrogoths, is defeated and slain by the forces of Narses, the successor of Belisarius. 553. Narses puts an end to the Ostrogothic power in Italy, which, is annexed to the Byzantine Empire. Council of Constantinople (fifth general council). 664. Italy is overrun by the Alemanni and Franks ; destruction of their forces. 668-561. The Frankish empire reunited under Clotaire I. ; again divided on his death. 665. Justinian is succeeded by Justin II. 666 (about). The Lombards, under Alboin, with the aid of the Avars, destroy the kingdom of the Gepid^ in Pannonia. 668. Establishment of the exarchate of Ravenna by the Byzan- tines. 568-572. Alboin establishes the Lombard kingdom in Italy. 582-602. Reign of the Byzantine emperor Mauritius ; wars with the Persians and Avars. 597. Augustine, dispatched by Pope Gregory the Great, begins the conversion of the Anglo-Saxons. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 25 611-616. Chosroes II., kmg of Persia, conquers Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor from the Byzantines. (See 622, 637.) 613. Clotaire II. reunites the whole Frankish empire. (The realm again divided during his reign.) 622. The Byzantine emperor Heraclius enters upon his victorious career against the Persians. Flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina— the Hegira. 627. The forces of Chosroes 11. are overthrown by those of Heraclius at Nineveh. 628. Fall of Chosroes 11. 629. Mecca submits to Mohammed. He invades Palestine. 631. The Frankish empire is reunited under Dagobert I. (Again divided on his death, 638.) 632. Death of Mohammed. Accession of Abubekr, the first caliph. His forces advance to the conquest of Syria. 634. Death of Abubekr. Accession of Omar. 635. The Saracens break the power of the Persian monarchy in the battle of Cadesia. 636 (about close of). The Saracens complete the conquest of Syria and Palestine. 639-641. Amru, the general of Omar, conquers Egypt from the Byzantines. 642. Victory of the Saracens at Nehavend, which places Persia in their power. (Death of the last king of the Sassanidae, 651.) 64A. Assassination of Omar. Accession of Othman. 656. Assassination of Othman. Accession of Ali. 661. Moawiyah founds the Ommiyade dynasty of caliphs. (Damas- cus made the seat of the caliphate.) 680 (flbout). The Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Moesia.* 680-681. Council of Constantinople (sixth general council). 687. Pepin of Heristal extends his sway over the whole Frankish empire. 697. Establishment of the dogate in Venice. 711. The Saracens, under the lead of Tank, pass into Spain, and overwhelm Eoderic, king of the Visigoths, at Xerez de la Frontera. (The conquest of the peninsula completed within three years.) 719. The Saracens take Narbonne. 726. First edict of the Byzantine emperor Leo the Isaurian respect- ing images. * Modem Bulgaria. 26 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 730. Prohibition of image worship in the Byzantuie dominions. 732. Battle of Poitiers ; Charles Martel overwhelms the Saracens, and saves the Frankish empire. 750. Overthrow of the Ommiyade dynasty of caliphs by the Abbas- 751. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, deposes ChUderic m., the last of the Merovingians, and assmnes the title of king of the Franks, founding the Oarlovingian dynasty. 752. The Lombards, Trader Astolphus, put an end to the exarchate of Ravenna. 755. Pfipin the Short vanquishes Astolphus, and invests Pope Stephen II. with Ravenna, the Pentapolis, and other places wrested from the Lombards ; creation of the Papal States. 756. Foundation of the Ommiyade kingdom (afterward caliphate) of Cordova by Abderrahman. 762 (about). Foundation of Bagdad by Al-Mansour. (The city soon after made the seat of the caliphate.) 768. Pepin the Short is succeeded by his sons, Charles (Charle- magne) and Carloman. 771. Death of Carloman; Charlemagne sole king of the Franks. 772. Charlemagne enters upon his wars against the Saxons. 774. Charlemagne vanquishes Desiderius, and puts an end to the Lombard kingdom. He is crowned king of Italy. 778. Charlemagne invades Spaiu. Disaster of RoncesvaHes. 780. Irene assumes the government of the Byzantuie Empire in the name of her son, Constantine VI. (Constantine dethroned, 797.) 785. WittikLad, the leader of the Saxons, submits to Charlemagne. 786. Accession of the caliph Haroun al-Rashid. 787. Second councU of Nice (seventh general council) ; condemna- tion of the Iconoclasts. 788. Charlemagne brings Bavaria completely under the Frankish sway. 789 (about). First recorded inroad of the Northmen into Eng- land. 791-796. Charlemagne destroys the power of the Avars. 800. Coronation of Charlemagne as emperor of the West by Pope Leom. 813. The Bulgarian khan Krumn menaces Constantiuople. Accession of the caliph Al-Mamoun. 814. Death of Charlemagne ; he is succeeded by his son Louis le D&)onnaire. , CHRONOMGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 27 826 (abouf). Ansgar enters upon his missionary labors among the Northmen. 827. Egbert, king of Wessex, establishes his overlordship over the states of tiie Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. The Saracens begin the conquest of Sicily from tte Byuaatines. 833. Louis le D&tonnaire in the power of his rebellious sons. 840. Death of Louis le Debonnaire; he is succeeded by his sons, Lothaire (emperor), Louis the German, and Charles the Bald. 841. Defeat of Lothaire by his brothers, Louis and Charles, in the battle of Fontenailles (Fontenay). 842. The council of Constantinople gives a final sanction to image worship. 843. Partition of the Frankish empire by the treaty of Verdun be- tween the sons of Louis le D&xmnaire: Italy and a region west of the Ehine and the Alps allotted to Lothaire ; Grer- many, to Louis the Grerman ; France, to Charles the Bald. 846. The Northmen pillage Paris. 846. The Saracens appear before Rome. 851. Victory of Ethelwulf over the Northmen at Ockley. 862. The Varangian chief Rurik lays the foundations of the Rus- sian Empire at Novgorod. 863. Cyril and Methodius tm.dertake the conversion of the Mora- vians. 863 (864 ?). Bogoris, khan of the Bulgarians, embraces Christianity. 865. First naval expedition of the Varangians against Constan- tinople. 866. Accession of Alfonso the Great of Asturias. 867. Photius, patriarch of Constantinople, convenes a synod which excommunicates the pope. Basil I. inaugurates the Mace- donian dynasty in the Byzantine Empire. 869-870. Eighth general council, held at Constantinople. 870-894. Reign of Svatopluk in Moravia. 871. Accession of Alfred the Great. 874. The Northmen settle in Iceland. 878. Victory of Alfred the Great over the Danes at Eding^n ; bap- tism of Guthrum. The Saracens take Syracuse, and become masters of Sicily. 879. Foundation of the kingdom of Cisjurane Burgundy. 884 {about the close o/)-887. Reimion of the empire of C3iarlemagne under Charles the Fat. 886-886. Siege of Paris by the Northmen. 887. Deposition of Charles the Fat. 28 CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 888. Complete and final disruption of the Oarlovingian empire. Foundation of the kingdom of Transjurane Burgundy. 891. Amulf , king of Germany, defeats the Northmen at Louvain. 894 (about). The Magyars (Hungarians) cross the Carpathians, and occupy the basin of the Theiss. 901. Death of Alfred the Great; he is succeeded by his son, Edward the Elder. 909. Establishment of the Fatimite caliphate in Africa. 911. End of the Carlovingian dynasty in Germany. The Germans elect Conrad, duke of Franconia, their king. Charles the Simple, king of France, grants Normandy as a duchy to the Northman Eollo. 912-961. Reign of Abderrahman IH. of Cordova ; the Arab realm in Spain at the height of its splendor. 918. Death of Conrad, king of Germany. 919. Henry the Fowler is elected king of Germany, inaugurating the Saxon dynasty. 925. Athelstan succeeds his father, Edward the Elder, in England. 933. Victory of Henry the Fowler over the Hungarians at Merse- burg. The kingdoms of Cisjurane and, Transjurane Burgimdy are imited into one realm, the kingdom of Aries. 93?. Accession of Otho the Great in Germany and of Louis d'OVf tremer in France. 937. Athelstan defeats the Danes and Scots at Brunanburh. 951. Otho the Great dethrones Berenger 11., king of Italy. 952. Otho I. reinstates Berenger H. as his feudatory. 955. Otho I. vanquishes the Hungarians on the Lech. 961. Final dethronement of Berenger IL by Otho I. ; the crown of Italy passes from the descendants of Charlemagne to the sovereigns of Germany. 962. Coronation of Otho the Great as emperor of the Romans by Pope John XII. ; establishment of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. 963-969. Reign of the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus Phocas, marked by victorious campaigns, conducted by himself and his general John Zimisces, against the Saracens in Asia. John Zimisces murders the emperor, and takes possession of the throne. 966. Miecislas, ruler of Poland, embraces Christianity. 969. Conquest of Egypt by the Fatimites. 973. Otho II. succeeds his father, Otho I., in the German Empire. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 29 978. VictorioTis advance of Otho II. into France. 981-982. "War of Otho 11. against the Saracens and Greeks in South Italy. His army is finally overthrown. 983. Otho n. of Germany is succeeded by his infant son, Otho III. 987. End of the Carlovingian line of kings in France. Hugh Capet inaugurates the Capetian dynasty. 988. Vladimir the Great of Russia embraces Christianity. 991. Ethelred II. of England pays tribute to the Danes. 997. Death of G«jza, the first Christian monarch of Hungary. The doge of Venice assumes the title of duke of Dalmatia. 998. Crescentius, having usurped power in Rome, is overcome and put to d^th by Otho IH. 1000. Meeting between Otho HI. and Boleslas the Valiant, ruler of Poland, at Gnesen. Otho founds the archbishopric of Gnesen. Stephen, ruler of Hungary, receives the royal dignity from Pope Sylvester H. 1001. First invasion of Ilidia by Mahmoud of Ghuzni. 1002. Henry II. succeeds Otho III. in the German Empire. Massacre of the Danes in England. 1013. Sweyn, king of Denmark, becomes master of England. 1014. Death of Sweyn ; restoration of Ethelred II. 1016. Death of Ethelred H. Contest for the possession of England between his son, Edmund Ironside, and Canute, son of Sweyn. Death of Edmund. 1017. Canute becomes king of all England (having succeeded to the throne of Denmark in 1016). 1018. The Byzantine emperor Basil U. completes the destruction of the Bulgarian realm. (See 1186.) 1019-1054. Reign of Yaroslav in Russia. (The country on his death partitioned into various principalities.) 1020. Death of the Persian poet Firdusi. 1024. Death of Henry II., emperor of Germany. Conrad H. in- augurates the Franconian dynasty. 1027. Conrad H. formally cedes Schleswig to the Danes. 1028. Invasion of Norway by Canute. 1031. End of the Ommiyade caliphate of Cordova. 1032. Extinction of the line of Arletan kings. 1033. Sancho the Great, king of Navarre, having acquired Castile (1028), erects it into an independent kingdom. 1033-1034. Conrad H. establishes his dominion over the Arletan territories. 30 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVjEESAL HISTORY. 1035. Death of Canute ; his sons, Harold Harefoot and Hardica- nute, lords of England. Aragon is separated from Navarre and made an independent kingdom. 1036 or 1037. Death, of the Arabian physician and philosopher Avi- cenna. 1037. Harold becomes sole ruler of England. 1037-1050 {about). The Seljuks, under Togrul Beg, establish their dominion in Persia. 1039. Henry HI. succeeds his father, Conrad H., in Germany. Macbeth kills Duncan, and becomes king of the Scots. 1040. Hardicanute becomes king of England. 1041. The Normans conquer most of Apulia from the Byzantines. 1042. Death of Hardicanute ; end of the Danish rule in England. Edward the Confessor succeeds to the throne. 1046. The emperor Henry IH. holds a council at Sutri, puts aside the rival claimants to the pontificate, and himself appoints a new pope, Clement H. 1054. Complete separation of the G-reek and Latin Churches. 1055. Togrul Beg, sultan of the Seljuks, establishes his authority in the dominions of the caliph of Bagdad, who retains the nominal exercise of power. 1056. Henry IV. succeeds his father, Henry HI., in Germany under the regency of his mother, Agnes. 1057. The first of the Comneni ascends the Byzantine throne. 1059. Nicholas H. decrees that the election of the pope be hence- forth vested in the college of cardinals. The pope confirms Eobert Guiscard in the title of duke of Apulia and Calabria. 1061. The Normans, under Eobert Guiscard and his brother Eoger, engage in the conquest of Sicily from the Saracens. 1062., Anno, archbishop of Cologne, seizes the person of the young emperor Henry IV. and the reins of government. 1066. Harold H. succeeds Edward the Confessor. The Norwegians invade England, and are defeated by Harold. William, duke of Normandy, invades England, overthrows Harold in the battle of Hastings, Oct. 14, and conquers the king- dom. ' 1071. The Seljuk sultan, Alp Arslan, defeats and takes prisoner the Byzantin3 emperor, Romanus Diogenes. 1072. Eoger Guiscard takes Palermo froin the Saracens, and estab lishes his power in Sicily. Malek Shah becomes sultan of the Seljuks. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 31 1073. Election of Pope Gregory VII. (Hildetrand). 1074. Gregory VIL holds a council for the prohibition of simony and the marriage of the clergy. 1074^1084 (ofeoMt). The SelJTiks conquer Asia Minor and Syria. Rise of the sultanate of Bourn. 1075. Gregory VII. holds a coimcil which prohibits lay investiture. Beginning of the war between the emperor Henry IV. and the pope respecting investiture. 1076. Henry IV. holds a council at Worms which deposes Gregory Vn. The pope, in union with the German princes, de- poses the emperor. 1077. Henry IV.-humbles himself before Gregory VII. at Canossa, and receives absolution. Election of a rival emperor in Germany, Rudolph of Swabia. 1080. Henry IV. holds a council which deposes Gregory Vll., and elects Guibert (Antipope Clement HI.) in his place. The war between Henry and Rudolph of Swabia is terminated by the death of the latter. 1081. Henry IV. is foiled in an expedition against Rome. Her- mann of Luxemburg is set up as emperor in opposition to Henry. Alexis Comnenus takes Cionstantinople, and places himself on the Byzantine throne. Robert Guiscard makes war on Alexis, and defeats his forces at Durazzo. 1084. Henry IV. besieges Gregory VH. in the castle of Saut' Angelo. Robert Guiscard advances and delivers the pope. 1086. Conquest of Toledo from the Moors by Alfonso the Valiant of Castile and Leon. Death of Gregory VTI. and Robert Guiscard. 1086. Completion of the Domesday Book under WUliam the Con- queror. 1087. William the Conqueror is succeeded by his son William Rufus in England, and by his son Robert in Normandy. 1090-1102. The Almoravides of Morocco conquer most of Moham- medan Spain. 1092. Death of Malek Shah, followed by the complete disruption of the empire of the Seljuks. 1096. Pope Urban H. holds the councils of Piacenza and Clermont. Proclamation of a crusade for the recovery of the holy sepulchre. 1095 {about). Alfonso the Valiant of Castile and Leon erects Por- tugal into a county for Henry of Burgundy. 32 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1096. Peter the Hermit, Walter the Penniless, and others lead hordes of undisciplined crusaders to destruction. Godfrey of Bouillon and his associates conduct their forces toward the Holy Land. 1097. The crusaders take Nicsea. They defeat the sultan of Iconium at Dorylseum. Baldwin of Flandgrs founds the principal- ity of Edessa. 1098. The crusaders take Antioch, where they are unsuccessfully besieged by the Mussulmans. 1099. Bohemond establishes himself as prince of Antioch. Suc- cessful termination of the first crusade. Storming of Jerusalem, July 15. Godfrey of BouUlon is appointed ruler of the conquered city. Victory of the crusaders over the ruler of Egypt at Ascalon. 1100. Henry I. succeeds his brother, WUliam Bufus, in England.- 1101. Robert, duke of Normandy, makes war on his brother, Heniy I., and invades England. 1106. Henry I. overthrows Robert, and secures Normandy. Accession of Henry V. to the throne of Germany. 1108. Louis VI. succeeds his father, Philip L, in France. 1111. Henry V. arrests Pope Paschal H., and extorts his consent to the imperial right of iuvestiture. Coronation of Henry by the pope. 1112. Paschal U. revokes his concessions to Henry V., who is ex- communicated by the council of Vienne. 1115. Death of Matilda, countess of Tuscany. (Her dominions, originally destiued by her for the church, are taken posses- sion of by the emperor of Germany iu 1116.) Foundation of the Cistercian monastery of Clairvaux by St. Bernard. 1118 (about). Foundation of the order of Knights Templars. 1122. Henry V. concludes with Pope Calixtus- H. the Concordat of Worms, which settles the contest respecting investi- ture, the emperor agreeing to the free election of bishops. 1123. First council of the Lateran (ninth general councU). 1125. Death of the emperor Henry V. ; end of the Franconian dynasty. Lothaire H., duke of Saxony, is elected his suc- cessor. Lothaire declares war to the house of Hohen- staufen. 1127. Roger II., count of SicUy, is recognized as duke of Apulia and Calabria, uniting tiie Norman conquests in Italy with Sicily. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 33 1128. Conrad, duke of Franconia, of the house of Hohenstaufen, has himself crowned king of the Lombards in opposition to Lothaire II. 1132-1133. Expedition of Lothaire U. to Eome in support of Pope Innocent II. against the antipope Anacletus II. 1135. Death of Henry I. of England ; he is succeeded by his nephew, Stephen. Lothaire forces the house of Hohenstaufen into submission. 1136-1137. Successful expedition of Lothaire against the Italian cities and Eoger II. of Sicily. Death of the emperor. 1137. Louis Vn. succeeds his father, Louis VI., in France. 1138. David I. of'Scotland, having invaded England, is defeated in the battle of the Standard. Accession of Conrad HI., the first of the Hohenstaufen em- perors of Germany. 1138-1139. "War between Conrad HI. and Henry the Haughty, duke of Bavaria and Saxony, of the house of Guelph. Conrad gives Saxony to Albert the Bear, and Bavaria to Leopold rV. of Austria. Henry, after defeatitig Albert the Bear, dies, and leaves as his heir his son, Henry the Lion, a minor. 1139. Matilda (Maud), daughter of Henry I., and wife of Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou, engages in a war with Stephen for the crown of England. Aff onso (Alfonso) Henriquez of Portugal gains a great victory over the Moors at Ourique. He assumes the royal dignity. Second council of the Lateran (tenth general council) ; con- demnation of Arnold of Brescia. 1140. Guelph (Welf) VI., uncle of Henry the Lion, attempting to secure possession of Bavaria, is defeated by the forces of Conrad HI. at Weinsberg. 1141. King Stephen is taken prisoner by the party of Matilda. 1142. Conrad IH. invests Henry the Lion with the duchy of Saxony. Death of Abelard. 1143-1180. Beign of Manuel Comnenus in the Byzantine Empire ; wars with the Seljuks, Normans, and Hungarians. 1144. The sultan of Aleppo takes Edessa. 1146. Disruption of the Almoravide realm in Spain. 114S ( 17. Marriage of Mary Stuart with Francis, dauphin of France, April 24. Victory of the Spaniards, under Egmont, over the French at Gravelines, July 13. Death of Charles V., Sept. 21. Ivan the Terrible makes war on the Knights Swordbearers. 1559. Passage of a new Act of Supremacy in England; Protestant- ism firmly established. Peace of Cateau-Cambresis between France, Spain, and Eng- land ; by its terms Emanuel PhHibert of Savoy recovers a great portion of the dominions of his house. Francis II. succeeds his father, Henry 11., in France, July 10. //The preachings of Knox excite Iconoclastic outbreaks in Scot- land. The Scottish Reformers take up arms against the queen regent, Mary of Guise. Philip II. appoints his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, regent of the Netherlands ; Granvelle her chief councillor. Death of Pope Paul IV. Election of Pius IV. 1560. The Scottish Reformers conclude a treaty of alliance with Queen Elizabeth at Berwick. They are joined by the Eng- lish forces. Death of the queen regent, Mary of Guise. Mary Stuart and her husband, Francis 11., conclude the treaty of Edinburgh with Elizabeth and the Reformers. The French forces in the service of the Scottish court return home. The Scottish Parliament passes the Statutes of Ref- ormation. Conspiracy" of Amboise, formed by the Huguenots, for the overthrow of the Guises. Arrest of Conde. Charles IX. succeeds his brother, Francis II. ; his mother, Catharine de' Medici, regent. Eric XIV. succeeds his father, Gustavus Vasa, in Sweden. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 65 u4660. Death of Melanchthon. 1661. Queen Mary returns to Scotland. Shane O'Neill heads a rebellion in Ireland. Colloquy of Poissy between the French theolo^ans. The power of the Knights Swordbearers broken ; their last grand-master, Grotthard Ketteler, cedes Livonia to Sigis- mund Augustus of Poland and Lithuania, and becomes his vassal as hereditary duke of Courland. Esthonia submits to Sweden. 1662. Edict of St. Grermain granting partial toleration to the Hu- guenots. Massacre of the Huguenots at Vassy and other cities. Beginning of the Huguenot wars. Defeat of the Huguenots, under Conde and Coligni, at Dreux, Dec. 19. The Huguenots attempt a settlement on the coast of South Carolina. ^1663. Publication of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of Eng^ land. (See 1552.) Assassination of Francis, duke of Guise, Feb. Edict of paci- fication of Amboise. Publication of the Heidelberg Catechism by the Calvinists. Closing of the council of Trent. Philip n. begins the construction of the Escurial. 1664. Maximilian H. succeeds his father, Ferdinand I., in the G«r- man Eknpire, the archduchy of Austria, Hungary, and Bo- hemia. Margaret of Parma is forced to dismiss Qranvelle. St. Philip Neri founds the Congregation of the Oratory. Huguenot settlement on the St. John's Eiver, Florida. V'Death of Michel Angelo and of Calvin. 1666. Marriage of Mary Stuart with Damley. Successful defence of Malta by La Valette against the Turks, led by Mustapha Pasha. The Spaniards, under Menendez de Aviles, kill the Huguenot settlers in Florida, together with the forces under Bibault. Foundation of St. Augustine by the Spaniards. Death of Pope Pius IV. 1666. Murder of Bizzio by Damley. The nobles of the Netherlands, having formed a league among themselves, present a petition of rights to the regent, Mar- garet of Parma. The members of the league assume the name of G-ueux (beggars). Iconoclastic outbreaks in the country. 6 66 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1666. Election of Pope Pius V. Solyman the Magnificent invades Hungary. He dies in the camp before Sziget, which falls after a heroic defence by Nicholas Zrinyi. Accession of Selim H. 1567. Murder of Damley. Mary Stuart marries Bothwell. She is imprisoned, and forced to resign the crown in favor of her son, James VI. ; Murray regent. Defeat and assassination of Shane O'Neill. Renewal of the Huguenot ^wars. Indecisive battle of St Denis, Nov. 10. Arrival of the duke of Alva in the Netherlands as governor with a Spanish army. He organizes the "Council of Blood." Foundation of the Eugby Grammar School. 1668. Defeat of Mary Stuart by Murray at Langside, May 13. She takes refuge in England, and is imprisoned by Elizabeth. Peace of Longjumeau with the Huguenots. The Protestant leaders assemble at La Eochelle. The Huguenot struggle is renewed. Execution of Egmont and Horn at Brussels, June 5. Louis of Nassau and his brother, WUliam of Orange, in arms against the Spaniards. Bisiag of the Moriscos in Spain, Dec. Eric XIV., king of Sweden, is deposed, and succeeded by his brother, John. 1669. Catholic insurrection in. England, beaded by the earls of West- moreland and Northumberland. Defeat of the Huguenots at Jamac, March. 13; Conde cap- tured and shot. Defeat of CoUgni at Moncontour, Oct. 3. The Florentine dominions are erected into the grand-duchy of Tuscany under Cosmo de' Medici (Cosmo the Great). The Diet of Lublin proclaims the union of Poland and Lithu- ania into one commonwealth (to be governed by an elective king). 1670. Assassination of Murray, regent of Scotland. The kingdom is invaded by the English. The earl of Lennox assumes the regency. Peace of St. G«rmain between the Catholics and Hugue- nots. Don John of Austria crushes the insurrection of the Moriscos in Spain. The Turks complete the conquest of Yemen. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 67 1571. Dunbarton, the principal stronghold of the adherents of Mary Stuart, falls into the hands of the earl of Lennox. The re- gent is mortally wounded at Stirling. The earl of Mar suc- ceeds him. Formation of the Holy League against the Turks by Spain, Venice, and the pope. Its fleet, under Don John of Austria, wios a great victory at Lepanto, Oct. 7. The Turks wrest Cyprus from the Venetians. 1572. The duke of Norfolk, having entered into negotiations with Mary Stuart, is executed. The earl of Morton becomes re- gent of Scotland. Jeanne Q'Albret, queen of Navarre, is succeeded by her son, Henry. He marries Margaret of Valois, sister of Charles IX. Massacre of St. Bartholomew, Aug. 24 ; Coligni slaia. Fresh rising of the Huguenots. Great rising of the Dutch against their Spanish oppressors. The patriots recognize the authority of WUliam of Orange. Death of Sigismund Augustus of Poland, the last of the Ja- gellonian dynasty; the crown becomes elective. Pope Gregory XHI. succeeds Pius V. Publication of the " Lusiad " of Camoens. 1573. Successful defence of La Rochelle by the Huguenots. The treaty of La Rochelle grants them toleration. The Spaniards reduce Haarlem, and besiege Leyden; recall of Alva ; Bequesens his successor. 1574. Henry, duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., is crowned king of Poland. He becomes king of France on the death of Charles, as Henry HI., and abandons Poland. The Spaniards are compelled to raise the siege of Leyden. 1 1675. Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania, is elected king of Poland through the influence of Zamojski. Foundation of the University of Leyden. 1676. Henry, duke of Guise, organizes the Catholic League against the Huguenots. Budolph II. succeeds his father, Maximilian U., in the Ger- man Empire, the archduchy of Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia. Pacification of Ghent, an engagement entered into by the revolted provinces of the Netherlands for their deliverance, Nov. 8. Don John of Austria is appointed governor of the Netherlands by his half-brother, PhUip H. \y Plague at Milan. 68 CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. /1576. First voyage of Frobisher in search of a northwest pag- Death of Titian. 1577. Peace of Bergerac between Henry m. and the Huguenots. Fruitless attempt to pacify the Netherlands through the so- called ' ' Perpetual Edict. " » 1578. Treaty of alliance between the Dutch and English. Don John of Austria wins a great victory at Gembloux, Jan. 31. Alessandro Famese, duke of Parma, succeeds as gov- ernor of the Netherlands on the death of Don John. King Sebastian of Portugal invades Morocco, and is over- whelmed and slain at Alcazarquivir. • 1579. Foundation of the Dutch Republic by the Union of Utrecht. The duke of Parma takes Maestricht, June. A Spanish force invades Ireland. Faustus Socinus joins the anti-Trinitarians in Poland. 1580. The revolted Netherlands appoint the duke of Anjou, brother of Henry IH., their stadtholder. Conquest of Portugal by Philip H. , Publication of the Formula of Concord by the German Lutherans. Death of Camoens and of Palladio. 1581. Execution of the earl of Morton, regent of Scotland. Declaration of independence by flie Dutch. The duke of Anjou relieves Cambrai. V' Publication of Tasso's " G^rusalemme liberata." 1581-1582. Conquest of Siberia (the western portion of the region now called by that name) by the Cossacks under Yermak Timofeyeff. ^582. Reformation of the calendar by Pope Gregory XHI. (It is directed that Oct. 5 of this year be made Oct. 15.) 1583. The duke of Anjou renounces the governorship of ttie Nether- lands. Humphrey GUbert takes possession of Newfoundland for Queen Elizabeth. 1584. Assassination of William of Orange, July 10. The duke of Parma lays siege to Antwerp. Treaty of alliance between the Catholic League and Philip II., Dec. The archbishop of Cologne, having embraced Protestantism, is driven from his territories. Fedor 1. succeeds his father, Ivan the Terrible, in Russia. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 69 «OB84. Sir Walter Raleigh's men visit North Carolina. The name Virginia is given to the region by Queen Elizabeth. 1585. The Catholic League in ai-ms against Henry III. Treaty of Nemours between the court and the League. Eenewal of the war against the Huguenots. Fall of Antwerp, Aug. Elizabeth sends an army, under Leicester, to aid the Dutch. )^,,,Expedition of Drake against the Spanish possessions in America. Pope Sixtus V. succeeds Gregory XIH. I A party sent out by Raleigh makes an unsuccessful settle- ment on Roanoke Island. 1585-1587. Expeditions of Davis in search of a northwest passage. 1586. Conspiracy of Babington against Elizabeth. The earl of Leicester at the head of the Dutch. Death of Stephen Bathori, king of Poland. 1587. Execution of Mary, queen of Scots, Feb. 8. Drake destroys the Spanish ships of war at Cadiz. Henry of Navarre defeats the forces of Henry IH. at Cou- tras. End of Leicester's rule in the Netherlands. Sigismund Vasa is elected king of Poland. 1588. The Invincible Armada of Philip 11., under the duke of Medina Sidonia, is dispersed by the English, under Howard and Drake, Aug. Henry of Guise makes his entry into Paris against the prohi- bition of Henry IH. The Parisians take up arms against the king. May 12 ("Day of the Barricades ") ; Henry III. is forced to flee. The king convokes the States General at Blois. The duke of Guise is assassinated by his order, Dec. 23. Assassination of the cardinal of Guise, Dec. 24. Death of Paul Veronese. 1589. Unsuccessful English expedition, under Drake and Norris, for the liberation of Portugal from the yoke of Spain. Death of Catharine de' Medici, Jan. 5. Henry IH. is declared deposed by the Sorbonne and the Parliament of Paris ; his kingdom in arms against him. The duke of Mayenne, head of the Catholic League, enters Paris, and is proclaimed lieutenant general of the kingdom. Henry III. joins Henry of Navarre and the Huguenots, and with them marches against Paris. The king is stabbed by Jacques Clement at St. Cloud, Aug. 1, and dies Aug. 2; end of the Valois 70 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. dynasty. Henry of Navarre (Henry IV. ) inaugurates the Bourbon dynasty. Henry, forced back into Normandy, is victorious over the duke of Mayenne at Arques, Sept., and reappears before Paris. 1590. Victory of Henry IV. over Mayenne at Ivry, March 14. A Spanish army, under the duke gf Parma, assists the League, and raises the siege of Paris. Pope Urban VII. succeeds Sixtus V. He is succeeded by Gregory XIV. Maurice of Nassau, governor of the Netherlands, makes him- self master of Breda. 1591. Pope Innocent X. succeeds Gregory XIV. He dies. 1592. The Parliament of Scotland abolishes Episcopacy, and estab- lishes the Presbyterian government in the church. Sigismund Vasa, king of Poland, succeeds his father, John, as king of Sweden. Election of Pope Clement Vlll. ^vDeath of Montaigne. 1593. Severe enactments against recusants in England. Henry IV. abjures Protestantism. 1594. Henry IV. is crowned at Chartres, Feb. 37. Paris opens its gates to him, March 23. Death of Tintoretto. 1595. Henry IV. declares war against Spain. 1595-1597. First voyage of the Dutch aroim.d the Cape of Good Hope to the East Indies. 1596. Submission of the duke of Mayenne; end of the Catholic League. Capture of Cadiz by Howard and Essex. 1597. Maurice of Nassau, with the aid of English auxiUaries, defeats the Spaniards at Turnhout, Jan. Henry IV. of France intrusts the direction of the finances to Eosny (the future duke of Sully). , i598. Henry IV. issues the Edict of Nantes, granting toleration to ' the Huguenots, AprU 13. Treaty of Vervins between France and Spain. PhUip III. succeeds his father, Philip H., in Spain, Sept. 13. Death of Fedor I. of Russia; end of the line of Eurik. Boris Godunoff succeeds to the throne. J 1599. Elizabeth sends Essex to Ireland to put down the insurrection undvr the earl of Tyrone. He enters into negotiations with the rebel leader. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 71 1699. Sigismund Vasa, having attempted to establish Catholicism in Sweden, loses the crown of that kingdom. Death of Spenser. ^, 1600. The French invade and occupy Savoy. Marriage of Heniy IV. with Maria de' Medici. Maurice of Nassau defeats the archduke Albert of Austria, governor of the Spanish Netherlands, at Nieuport. Burning of Giordano Bruno in Eome. t' The English East India Company is chartered. 1601. Execution of Essex. Lord Mountjoy breaks the power of Ty- rone. (The insurgent leader surrenders to the English about the beginning of 1603.) Peace between France and Savoy. The archduke Albert of Austria begins the siege of Ostend. The Portuguese discover Australia (first discovery ?). Death of lycho Bralie. 1602. Bartholomew Grosnold attempts a settlement on the coast of Massachusetts. ^1:603. Death of Queen Elizabeth, March 24; end of the Tudor dy- nasty. James VI. of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart, ascends the English throne as James I. Sir Walter Baleigh is com- mitted to the Tower on a charge of conspiring to place Lady Arabella Stuart on the throne. 1604. Conferences of Hampton Court between the English prelates and the Puritans. Surrender of Ostend to the Spanish general, Spinola. The emperor Rudolph 11. provokes a rising of the Hungarians under Bocskay. The regent of Sweden, Charles, uncle of the deposed Sigis- mund Vasa, formally ascends the throne as Charles IX. ( 1605. Gunpowder Plot to destroy the English king and Parliament; ^ Guy Fawkes seized, Nov. 5. Death of Boris GodunofF, czar of Russia. His son, Fedor, is dethroned and succeeded by the first Pseudo-Demetrius (an impostor pretending to be Demetrius, a son of Ivan IV. put to death by Boris Grodunoff in 1591), helped on to his enter- prise by Polish nobles. Pope Leo XI. succeeds Clement VIH. Paul V. succeeds Leo XI. Abbas the Great, of Persia, defeats the Turks at Bassorah. Cervantes publishes the first portion of "Don Quixote." Death of Beza. 72 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1606. The archduke Matthias rebels against his brother, Rudolph II. The first Pseudo-Demetrius is dethroned and killed. Shuisld succeeds him as Basil V. James I. grants a patent to the London and Plymouth Com- panies. 1607. The Protestant city of Donauworth is deprived of its liberties. Naval victory of the Dutch over the Spaniards at Gibraltar. Foundation of Jamestown by the London Company. 1608. Formation of the EVangelical Union by the Protestant states of Germany. Rudolph II. is forced to cede the archduchy of Austria, Moravia, and Hungary to Matthias. Marie Jacqueline Angelique Amauld undertakes the reform of Port Royal. Foundation of Quebec by the French. 1609. Beginning of the contest for the possession of Jiilich. For- mation of the Catholic League in Germany. Rudolph n. is compelled to grant the "Majestatsbrief," an edict of tol- eration, to the Bohemians. Truce for twelve years between the Netherlands and Spain. Philip m. expels the Moriscos from Spain. The London Company is reorganized; Lord Delaware gov- ernor. ^ Samuel Champlain discovers Lake Champlain. )/'M.eDry Hudson ascends the Hudson River. 'TToundation of the Bank of Amsterdam. 1609-1610. Another Pseudo-Demetriiis, by means of the Polish arms, conquers the throne of Russia. The usurper is kUled. 1610. Assassination of Henry IV. by RavaLUac, May 14. His son, Louis Xin. , succeeds under the regency of Maria de' Medici. Henry Hudson explores Hudson Bay. y Discovery of the satellites of Jupiter by Galileo (the telescope having been invented a short time previously). 1611. Rudolph n. loses the crown of Bohemia, which is ii-ansferred to his brother, Matthias. Gustavus Adolphus succeeds his father, Charlee IX., on the throne of Sweden. \,Completion of King James's Bible. 1612. Death of Rudolph H. Matthias becomes emperor. The Rxissians, under the lead of Minin. and Pozharski, liberate their country from its Polish invaders. ; 1613. Michael Romanoff becomes czar of Russia, the flist of the Re manofl dynasty. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 73 1614. Last convocation of the States General in France previous to the Revolution. The Dutch erect a fort on Manhattan Island. Napier publishes his invention of logarithms. 1615. Louis XIII. marries Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III. of Spain. I 1616. Death of ShaJiespeare and Cervantes. ^1616 (pbout). Harvey discovers the circulation of the blood. 1617. Murder of Marshal d'Ancre (Concini), the favorite of Maria de' Medici. Maria is exiled to Blois. Peace of Stolbova between Russia and Sweden ; Karelia and Ingria ceded to Sweden. ^1618. Execution of Sir Walter Ealeigh. Beginning of the Thirty Years' War; the Protestants of Bo- hemia rise under Count Thum. Spain lends her support to the emperor Matthias. ^JJnion of the duchy of Prussia with Brandenburg. 1618-1619. Synod of Dort; Anninianism condenmed. 1619. Death of the emperor Matthias, March. His cousin, Ferdi- nand, succeeds him as head of the house of Austria. He is besieged in Vienna by Thurn, but is relieved by Dampierre. He is elected emperor as Ferdinand II., Aug. Gabriel Bethlen, prince of Transylvania, invades Hungary. Fred- erick v., elector palatine, son-in-law of James I. of Eng^ land, is crowned king by the Bohemians. Execution of Bameveldt by Maurice of Nassau. A colonial assembly is convened at Jamestown, the first rep- resentative body of British colonists in America. Negro slavery is introduced into Virginia. Batavia is founded by the Dutch as the seat of government of their East Indian possessions. 1620. The Catholic League, headed by Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, in arms for Ferdinand TL The Protestants are overthrown in the battle of the White Mountain (battle of Prague), Nov. ; flight of Frederick from Bohemia. Massacre of the Protestants in the Valtellina (at this time be- longing to Grisons). The territory is occupied by a Span- ish force. Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers at Plymouth, Dec. 11 (new style, Dec. 21).* * The celebration of " Forefathers' Day " is held on Deo. 22. 74 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1620. Publication of Francis Bacon's "Novum Organum." 1621. Fall of Lord Chancellor Bacon. Dissolution of the Evangelical Union. Mansfeld continues the war for the elector Frederick "V. Philip rV. succeeds his father, Philip III., in Spain; Olivarez his minister. The struggle between Spain and the Nether- lands is renewed. Pope Gregory XV. succeeds Paul V. The Virginia Colony secures a representative government. The cotton culture is introduced in Virginia. 1621-1622. War between Louis XTTI. and the Huguenots, led by Rohan and Soubise. 1621-1629. Victorious career of Gustavus Adolphus against the Poles. 1622. Peace of Nikolsburg between Ferdinand II. and Gabriel Bethlen. Tilly, the general of the Catholic League, defeats the margrave of Baden-Dtirlach at Wimpf en, and Christian of Brunswick at Hochst. Pope Gregory XV. founds the Propaganda. The Dutch West India Company tak:es possession of New Netherland. Indian massacre in Virginia. 1623. MaiTjimilian, duke of Bavaria, receives the dignity of elector, forfeited by the elector palatine Frederick V. Pope Urban VIII. succeeds Gregory XV. Settlement of New Hampshire at Dover. The Dutch buUd Fort Orange (on the present site of Albany). 1624. Richelieu enters the council of Louis XIH. The French expel the Spaniards from the Valtellina. Dissolution of the' London Company; Virginia placed under the crown. 1625. Charles I. succeeds his father, James I., March 27. He mar- ries Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIH. He dissolves his first Parliament. The Huguenots renew their struggle. Christian TV. of Denmark takes up arms for the German Prot- estants. Frederick Henry succeeds his brother, Maurice of Nassau, in the Netherlands. The Spanish general Spinola takes Breda. 1626. Impeachment of Buckingham. Charles I. dissolves his sec- ond Parliament. Peace between Louis XIII. and the Huguenots. Treaty of Mon§on between France and Spain, recognizing the sov- ereignty of Grisons over the ValteUina. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 75 1626. WaUenstein, having raised an army for Ferdinand II., defeats Mansf eld at Dessau, AprU. TUly vanquishes Christian IV. of Denmark at Lutter, Aug. The Dutch purchase Manhattan Island from the Indians. 1627. War is renewed against the Huguenots, who receive English aid. La Rochelle, the Protestant stronghold is hesieged. Unsuccessful expedition of Buckingham to the Isle of Re. WaUenstein invades Denmark. 1628. Charles I. is forced to assent to the Petition of Eight, directed against the ahuse of royal authority, June. AssassLaation of Buckingham. FaU of La^tocheUe, Oct. WaUenstein unsuccessfully besieges Stralsund. War ia Italy for the possession of Mantua and Montferrat. France supports the claim of Charles, duke of Nevers (re- lated to the late reigning house of Gonzaga), and is opposed by Spain and Austria. Settlement of Salem by the Massachusetts Bay Company. 1629. Charles I. dissolves his third Parliament. End of the Huguenot wars. Eichelieu becomes the prime- minister of Louis XTTT. Ferdinand H. publishes the Edict of Restitution, demanding of the Protestants the surrender to the Catholic church of numerous sees in their possession, as well as of secularized property, March. The emperor concludes peace with Den- mark at Lubeck, May. The English take Quebec. 1630. Dismissal of WaUenstein by Ferdinand H. Gustavus Adol- phus of Sweden enters Germany, and wages war for the Protestants. The Imperialists take Mantua. Treaty of Ratisbon between Louis Xm. and Ferdinand 11., who recognizes Charles of Nevers as duke of Mantua. John Winthrop assumes the government of the Massachusetts Bay Company. Foundation of Boston. Death of Kepler. 1631. Imprisonment of Maria de' Medici for intrigues against Eiche- lieu. She escapes from France. Subsidiary treaty between France and Sweden, signed at Bar- walde. Storming of Magdeburg by Tniy and Pappenheim, May 10 (new style, 20). Gustavus Adolphus overwhelms Tilly at Breitenfeld, near Leipsic, Sept. 7 (new style, 17). re CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1631. Advance of Gustavus Adolphiis to the Rhine. Occupation of Prague by the forces of John George, elector of Saxony. William Olaybome makes a settlement on Kent Island, Mary- land. 1632. Gustavus Adolphus forces the passage of the Lech, April ; Tilly mortally wounded. The Swedes enter Munich. Wal- lenstein, placed in command of the Imperial forces, in- trenches himself before Nuremberg, which is held by Gus- tavus Adolphus, who vainly attempts to dislodge him. Victory of the Swedes over Wallenstein at Liitzen, Nov. 6 (new style, 16) ; Gustavus Adolphus killed. His daughter, Christina, succeeds him under the regency of Oxenstiem. Death of the elector palatine Frederick V. Ladislas IV. succeeds Sigismund Vasa in Poland. Cecilius Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, receives a charter for a colony in Maryland. Canada is restored to France by England. 1S33. Laud is made archbishop of Canterbury. Union of Heilbronn between the German Protestant states and the Swedes ; Oxenstiern intrusted with the conduct of the war against the emperor and the Catholic states. Death of Coke. 1634. Writ of Ship-Money issued by Charles I. Assassination of Wallenstein at Eger, Feb. 15 (new style, 25). The army of the German Protestants and Swedes, under Bemhard of Weimar and Horn, is annihilated at Nord- liagen by the forces of Ferdinand, son of the emperor of Germany, and Gallas,Aug. 27 (new style, Sept. 6). Settlement of St. Mary's, Maryland, by Leonard Calvert. 1634-1636. Settlement of Connecticut by the English. 1635. Peace of Prague between Ferdinand II. and Saxony. France, under the guidance of Richelieu, engages in an active contest against the power of Austria and Spain. Foundation of the French Academy. Death of Lope de Vega. 1636. Invasion of France by the Spaniards, Imperialists, and Charles of Lorraine. Victory of the Swedish general Baner over the Imperialists at Wittstock, Sept. 24 (new style, Oct. 4). Roger Williams makes a settlement at Providence. First performance of Corneille's " Cid." 1636-1638. John Hampden resists the payment of Ship-Money; the case is decided against him by the Court of Exchequer. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 77 1637. Burton, Bastwick, and Prynne (Prynne for a second time) are condemned by the Star Chamber. The Scots resist the in- troduction of the English liturgy. Ferdinand n. is succeeded in all his dominions by his son, Ferdinand III., Feb. Subjugation of the Pequots by the New England colonists. 1638. The Scots publish the National Covenant, and declare Epis- copacy abolished. Victory of Bernhard of "Weimar over the Imperialists at Eheinfelden. He reduces Breisach. William Coddington makes a settlement on the island of Aquidneck, (Rhode Island). Foundation of Harvard Col- lege. Establishment of the colony of New Haven. Swedes and Finns settle in Delaware. 1639. The Scots take up arms for the Covenant. Pacification of Berwick. Naval victory of the Dutch, under M. H. Tromp, over the Spaniards in the Downs. The people of Connecticut adopt a constitution. The transit of Venus is first observed by Horrox. 1640. Session of the Short Parliament, ApnI-May. The Scots in- vade England. Meeting of the Long Parliament, Nov. Impeachment of Strafford. Accession of Frederick William, the "great elector," in Brandenburg. Revolt of Catalonia from Spain. Portugal recovers her independence ; John, duke of Bragan9a, is proclaimed king as John IV. Death of Rubens. 1641. Archbishop Laud is sent to the Tower. Execution of Straf- ford, May. Abolition of the Star Chamber and Court of High Commission. Insurrection in Ireland. Publication of Descartes's " Meditationes de Prima Philo- sophia." Death of Vandyke. 1642. War between Charles I. and Parliament. Indecisive battle, of EdgehUl, Oct. 23. Conspiracy of the duke of Orleans, brother of Louis XHI., the duke of Bouillon, Cinq-Mars, and De Thou against Richelieu. Execution of Cinq-Mars and De Thou. The French conquer Roussillon from Spain. Death of Riche- lieu, Dec. 78 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL mSTORY. 1642. Torstenson, the Swedish commander-in-chief, is victorious at Breitenfeld. TJrban VIII. condemns Jansen's work on the doctrine of Augustine. Discovery of Tasmania (Van Diemen's Land) and New Zea- land by the Dutch navigator Tasman. Hobbes publishes his " Elementa Philosophica de Give." Death of Galileo. 1643. The Westminster assembly of divines convenes. Bristol sur- renders to Prince Rupert. First battle of Newbury, Sept. 20. Parliament, to secure the close alliance of the Scots, subscribes to the Solemn League and Covenant, a bond be- tween the English and Scots to uphold Presbyterianism in Scotland, and establish it in place of Episcopacy in Eng- land and Ireland. Louis XrV. succeeds his father, Louis XTTT., May 14; his mother, Anne of Austria, regent; Mazarin prime-minister. Victory of the duke d'Enghien (Conde) over the Spaniards at Eocroy. Defeat of the French by the Imperialists at Tuttlingen. Christian IV. of Denmark makes war on Sweden. The New England colonies establish a confederacy. Invention of the barometer by Torricelli. 1644. The Scottish forces enter England. Battle of Marston Moor, July 2 ; the Parliamentarians and Scots, commanded by Fairfax, the earl of Manchester, and the earl of Leven, de- feat the Royalists, under Prince Rupert. The marquis of Montrose defeats the Covenanters at Tippermuir, Sept. 1. Second battle of Newbury, Oct. 27. Torstenson overruns Denmark. Battle between the French and Germans at Freiburg. Torstenson defeats Gallas at Jiiterbock. Christina assumes the reins of government in Sweden. Pope Innocent X. succeeds Urban VIII. The Mantehoos establish their dynasty in China on the ruins of the Ming dynasty. Roger Williams obtains a patent from Parliament for the united govenmient of the Rhode Island settlements. 1646. Execution of Laud, Jan. 10. Battle of Naseby, June 14; the Royalists defeated by Fairfax, seconded by CromweU and Ireton. Surrender of Bristol to the Parliamentarians. Victoiy of Torstenson at Jankau, Feb. 24 (new style, March CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 79 1646. 6) ; the Imperialist general Hatzfeld taken prisoner. Vic- tory of the duke d'Enghien (Conde) and Turenne near Nordlingen. Peace of Bromsebro between Sweden and Denmark. Alexis succeeds his father, Michael, as czar of Russia. Death of Gfrotius. 1646. Chajrles I. delivers himself up to the Scots, May. Capitula- tion of the marquis of Montrose. 1647. Charles I. is handed over to Parliament by the Scots, Jan. 30. He is imprisoned. Turenne and the Swedish commander Wrangel force Maxi- milian of Bavaria to an armistice. Masaniello's insurrection at Naples. George Fox, founder of the sect of Quakers, begins his preachings. 1648. Eoyalist risings in England. The Scots take up arms for Charles I., and are defeated by Cromwell. Parliament adopts the Westminster Confession of Faith. Cromwell "purges'' the Long Parliament. Spain recognizes the independence of Holland, Jan. The Swedish general Konigsmark occupies a portion of Prague. Close of the Thirty Tears' War; treaties signed at Osnabriick and Miinster ; signing of a general treaty at Miinster, the Peace of Westphalia, Oct. 24 (new style). Holland and Switzerland are declared independent of the German Empire; Alsace is annexed to France, which is confirmed in the possession of Metz, Toul, and Verdun; Sweden receives Hither Pomerania (west of the Oder), Stettin, the island of Etigen, Wismar, the bishoprics of Bremen* and Verden, etc., and is admitted to representa- tion in the German Diet; Brandenburg secures Further Pomerania, Halberstadt, Minden, and Eammin, and the succession to the see of Magdeburg; Lusatia is confirmed to Saxony, and the Upper Palatinate to Bavaria; a new electorate (the eighth) is created for the Ehenish Palatinate (see 1633) ; the equality of the Catholic, Lutheran, and Ee- formed creeds in Germany is established. Begiruung of the war of the Fronde ui France. Insurrection in Paris against prime-minister Mazarin (" day of the bar- ricades ") Aug. 27. * The city of Bremen retained its independence. 80 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1648. John Casimir succeeds his brother, Ladislas IV., in Poland. The Turks begin the blockade of the fortress of Candia. 1649. Execution of Charles I., Jan. 30. His son Charles is pro- claimed king at Edinburgh. England is declared a Com- monwealth. CromweU storms Drogheda and Wexford; Ireland almost completely subdued. Siege of Paris by the forces of the CoiuH; ; an accommoda- tion effected. 1650. Fatal expedition of the marquis of Montrose in support of Charles 11. Charles 11. in Scotland. Victory of Crom- well over the Scots, under Leslie, at Dunbar, Sept. 3. The princes of Conde and Conti and the Duke of Longueville are seized and imprisoned by order of Mazarin. Death of Descartes. 1650 (about). Invention of the air-pump by Otto von Guericke. 1651. Cromwell overwhelms the army of Charles 11. at Worcester, Sept. 3. Charles escapes to the continent. Passage of the Navigation Act. 1652. The Irish rebellion completely suppressed. War between England and Holland. Victory of Maarten Tromp over Blake near the Goodwin Sands, Nov. Campaign of Conde, the principal leader of the Fronde, who is opposed by Turenne. Collapse of the Fronde. Conde passes over to the Spaniards. 1653. Victory of Blake over the Dutch, commanded by Maarten Tromp, off Portland Island, Feb. Elxpulsion of the Bump Parliament by Cromwell. Barebones's Parliament assem- bles. Naval victory of the English over the Dutch off the coast of Holland, July 31 (new style, Aug. 10) ; Maarten Tromp killed. Cromwell is made Protector, Dec. 16. Johan de Witt, head of the anti-Orange party in the Nether- lands, is made grand-pensionary of Holland. 1664. Pea«e between England and Holland. Queen Christina of Sweden abdicates in favor of her cousin, Charles (X.) Gustavus. Chmielnicki, the leader of the Cossacks in their revolt against Poland, places himself under the sovereignty of Russia. War between Russia and Poland. 1655. Conquest of Jamaica from the Spaniards by the English. Charles X. of Sweden overruns Poland. Pope Alexander VII. succeeds Innocent X. Peter Stuyvesant, director general of New Netherland, dis- CHKONOLOGIOAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 81 possesses the Swedish settlers near the mouth of the Dela- ware. 1666. Frederick WUliam, elector of Brandenburg, joins Charles X. against the Poles, to whom the Cossacks resume allegiance. Victories of the Poles imder Czamecki. Overthrow of the Poles in the battle of Warsaw, July 28-30. The Dutch put an end to the Portuguese power in Ceylon. Publication of Pascal's " Lettres provinciales." 1667. Oliver Cromwell declines the title of king. Austria enters into an alliance with Poland against Sweden. Death of the emperor Ferdinand III., April 2. His son Leo- pold succeed in Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia. Denmark makes war on Sweden. The elector of Branden- burg gives up the Swedish alliance and joins Poland, which renounces her suzerainty over the duchy of Prussia in the treaty of Wehlau. 1658. Defeat of the Spaniards by the French and English forces in the battle of the Dunes. Dunkirk is taken from the Spaniards by the French, and secured to England. Death of Oliver Cromwell, Sept. 3. His son Richard is named Protector. Leopold I. is elected emperor of Germany after a year's inter- regnum, July 18. Treaty of Soskilde between Denmark and Sweden. War is renewed between the two kingdoms. Charles X. lays siege to Copenhagen. The Dutch, in alliance with Denmark, de- feat the Swedish fleet. Aurungzebe succeeds his father, Shah Jehan, as Mogul em- peror (Shah Jehan being kept in prison). 1669. Besignation of Richard Cromwell, May 25. Conventions of the Hague between England, France, and the Netherlands. Peace of the Pyrenees between France and Spain; an impor- tant part^of the Spanish Netherlands as well as RoussUlon secured to France; Catalonia to continue a province of Spain. The siege of Copenhagen is abandoned by the Swedes. Fred- erick William of Brandenburg defeats the Swedes in Pom- erania. First performance of Moliere's " Precieuses ridicules." 1666. March of General Monk upon London. End of the Puritan regime. Restoration of the Stuarts; Charles H. is pro- 7 82 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 166a claimed king in London, May 8. Entry of Charles uito London, May 29. Act of Indemnity passed. Marriage of Louis XIV. with Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV. of Spain. Charles XI. (born 1655) succeeds his father, Charles X., in Sweden. Peace of Oliva between Sweden, Poland, Brandenburg, and the emperor of Germany ; Poland cedes Livonia to Sweden, and also relinquishes Esthonia to her. Treaty of Copen- hagen between Sweden and Denmark ; Denmark gives up her possessions in the Swedish portion of the Scandinavian peninsula. Foundation of the Royal Society of London. 1661. Execution of the marquis of ArgyU. Episcopacy is restored in Scotland. Death of Mazarin. Colbert becomes the chief minister of Louis XIV. 1662. The Act of Uniformity is passed by Parliament requiring from all clergymen a strict adhesion to the Episcopal church. Marriage of Charles 11. with Catharine of Bra- ganga (Braganza). Execution of Sir Henry Vane. Ejec- tion of the Nonconformist clergy from their livings. Dun- kirk is sold to France. The Connecticut and New Haven colonies receive a charter from Charles II. 1663. The Turks, under KoprUi, overrun Hungary. Foundation of the French Academy of Inscriptions. 1663-1666. Formation of the colony of Carolina. 1664. The first Conventicle Act (directed against the Dissenters) is passed by Parliament. Victory of Montecuculi, general of Leopold I., over the Turks at St. Grotthard, in Hungary, Aug. 1. Charles 11. grants the region between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers to his brother James, duke of York. The English occupy New Amsterdam, and take possession of New Netherland; the name New York is given to the city and province. A portion of his territory is disposed of by James, to which the name of New Jersey is given. Foundation of the French East India Company. 1666. War between England and Holland. The great plague in London. , Charles II. (bom 1661) succeeds his father, Philip TV. , in Spain. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 83 1665. The union of the Connecticut and New Haven colonies is com- pleted. Death of Poussin. 1666. Naval battle in the Downs between the English and Dutch. The great flre in London. The Scotch Covenanters tate up arms, and are defeated. France declares war against England. Foundation of the French Academy of Sciences. 1667. Invasion of the Spanish Netherlands by Louis XIV. The Dutch admiral De Ruyter enters the estuary of the Thames, and sails up the Medway, burning a number of English ships; he kfterward sails up the Thames. Treaty of Breda between England, Holland, France, and Denmark. Charles n. dismisses his chief adviser, Clarendon, whose impeach- ment follows. Treaty of Andrusovo between Poland and Russia ; the Ukraine east of the Dnieper secured to Bussia. The king of Denmark acquires Oldenburg. Pope Clement IX. succeeds Alexander VH. Publication of Milton's "Paradise Lost." First performance of Bacine's " Andromaque." 1668. Triple aUiance between England, Holland, and Sweden against France. Louis XTV. invades and occupies Franche- Comte. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ; France restores Franche- Comte to Spain, which makes some cessions on the side of the Netherlands. Spain, after a protracted war, recognizes the independence of Portugal in the treaty of Lisbon. Abdication of John Casimir of Poland. The island of Bombay (conveyed to England by Portugal in the dowry of Catharine of Bragan^a) is granted to the Eng- lish East India Company by Charles II. Father Marquette founds the mission of Sault Ste. Marie. 1669. Michael Korybufe Wisniowiecki is elected king of Poland. The Turks conquer the fortress of Candia from the Venetians. Death of Pope Clement IX. Locke draws up the Fundamental Constitution for Carolina. Discovery of phosphorus by Brandt. Death of Rembrandt. 1670. Secret treaty of Dover between Charles II. and Louis XIV. Louis XIV. occupies Lorraine. Election of Pope Clement X. 84 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1670. Incorporation of the Hudson Bay Company. 1671. Tyrannical measures of Leopold I. for the subversion of the liberties of Hungary. Execution of Frangepan, Zrinyi, and Nadasdy. 1672. France and England declare war against Holland. Treaty of Stockholm between France and Sweden. Louis XIV. invades Holland. The Dutch confer the supreme power on "Wmiam (III.) of Orange. Massacre of the brothers De "Witt by the people. Acquisition of Pondicherry by the French East India Com- pany. 1673. Frederick "William of Brandenburg, having marched to the aid of the Dutch (together with Montecuculi, the Austrian general), is compelled to sign a treaty of neutrality with France. The French take Maestricht and Treves. "Will- iam of Orange and Montecuculi take Bonn. The French are baffled in Holland. Spain joins in the struggle against France. Passage by Parliament of the Test Act, excluding Papists and Non-conformists from all offices under the government. (Parliamentary test imposed in 1678.) Rising in Hungary against the Austrians. Death of Michael Korybut "Wisniowiecki, king of Poland. John Sobieski defeats the Turks at Khotin. The Dutch occupy New York and New Jersey. Death of Moliere and of Salvator Bosa. 1674. Peace between England and Holland. The French conquer Franche-Comte from Spain. The German Empire in arms against France. Battle of Senef between Conde and Will- iam of Orange, Aug. 11. Turenne lays waste the Palati- nate, and defeats the Imperialists. Messina rises against the Spaniards. John Sobieski is elected king of Poland. New York and New Jersey are restored to the English. Death of Milton. 1675. The Swedes, having invaded Brandenburg, are vanquished by Frederick "William at Fehrbellin, June 18. Death of Turenne at Sassbach, July 27. Conde is victorious against Montecuculi. Commencement of King Philip's "War. St. Paul's Cathedral is begun by Christopher Wren. Roemer ascertains the velocity of light. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 85 1676. The Frencli, under Duquesne, defeat the Dutch admiral De Euyter off the coast of Sicily, April ; De Euyter mortally wounded. Fedor 11. (Ell.) succeeds his father, Alexis, in Russia. Pope Innocent XI. succeeds Clement X. , End of King Philip's "War. Bacon's reheUion in Virginia against the government of Sir William Berkeley. Flamsteed hegins observations in, the Greenwich Observatory. 1677. Defeat of "William of Orange by the French at Cassel, in Flanders, April. Freiburg is taken by the French. Marriage of "WUliam of Orange with Mary, daughter of the duke of York (James II.). Death of Spinoza. 1678. Titus Gates invents the Popish Plot. France makes peace with Holland and Spain at Nimeguen ; she secures Franche-Comte and a part of Flanders from the latter. Tokolyi leads the Hungarians in their struggle against Aus- tria. 1679. Murder of Sharp, primate of Scotland. The Covenanters take up arms, and are defeated by the duke of Monmouth at Bothwell Bridge, June. Passage of the -Habeas Corpus Act by Parliament. Peace of Nimeguen between France and the German Empire. Treaties of peace between France, Brandenburg, Sweden, and Denmark. 1680. Execution of "Viscount Stafford for participation in the alleged Popish Plot. Death of La Bochefoucauld. 1681. Louis XTV. occupies Strasburg. "WUliam Penn obtains his patent from the crown. Death of Calderon. 1682. Louis XrV. attempts to seize Luxemburg. Declaration of the French clergy, drawn up by Bossuet, setting forth the lib- erties of the Gallican Church. The Turks take up the cause of Tokolyi. Ivan V. and Peter the Great succeed their brother, Fedor II. (in.) in Russia; their sister, Sophia, regent. Bombardment of Algiers by the French. Purchase of East Jersey by "William Penn. He takes posses- sion of New Castle (Delaware) and the surrounding terri- tory. He founds the colony of Pennsylvania. 86 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1682. La Salle descends the Mississippi to its mouth. Death of Murillo and of Claude Lorraine. 1683. Execution of William Eussell, July 21, and of Algernon Sidney, Dec. 7, for alleged complicity in the Eye House Plot. Louis XIV. attacks the Spanish Netherlands. The Turks, under Kara Mustapha, lay siege to Vienna, July. Defense of the city by Starhgmberg. The Turks are utterly defeated before that place by the combined forces of John Sobieski, king of Poland, Charles, duke of Lorraine, and the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, Sept. 12. Death of Colbert. The French again bombard Algiers. 1684. Bombardment of Genoa by the French. Louis XIV. becomes master of Liixemburg. Venice joins in the war against the Turks. Arrival in France of an embassy from Siam. The charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company is declared forfeited. Leibnitz publishes his invention of the differential calculus. (Newton's method of fluxions invented about 1665.) Death of Comeille. 1686. James 11. succeeds his brother, Charles II., Feb. 6. The king celebrates mass. Insurrection of the earl of Argyll and the duke of Monmouth. Execution of Argyll. Defeat of Mon- mouth at Sedgemoor. Execution of Monmouth. "Bloody assizes " of Jeffreys. Eevocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XTV., Oct. 22 (accompanied by terrible persecutions of the Hug^enote, known as dragonnades). The buccaneers pillage the coast of Peru. 1686. James II. proceeds to restore Bomanism in his dominions. He establishes a camp at Hounslow Heath. Louis XIV. and Victor Amadeus II. of Savoy wage a bloody crusade against the Waldenses in Piedmont. Buda is taken from the Turks. Successes of the Venetians in the Morea. Sir Edmund Andros is made governor of New England. 1687. James II. appoints Tyrconnel, a Catholic, lord deputy of Ire- land. The king issues declarations for liberty of conscience. Caraffa's " bloody tribunal " in Hungary. Leopold I. forces the Hungarians to make their kingdom hereditary in the Hapsburg family. CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 87 1687. The duke of Lorraine defeats the Turks at Mohacs. Taking of Athens hy the Venetians. Publication of Newton's "Principia," enunciating the law of gravitation. 1688. James II. issues a fresh Declaration of Indulgence. Arrest of the seven bishops for petitioning against it. The English Revolution. William of Orange, invited by the malcon- tents, lands with an army in England, Nov. 5, and pro- ceeds to make himself master of the government. Flight of Jumes II. to France. liouis XIV. makes war on Germany. The French take Phil- ippsburgC Louis declares war against Holland. Frederick III. succeeds his father, Frederick William, in Brandenburg. 1689. William (III.) and Mary accept the Declaration of Eights, and are proclaimed king and queen of England, Feb. 13. Ireland rises for James II., who lands there. William and Mary are prpclaimed in Scotland, April 11. James II. un- successfully besieges Londonderry. England declares war against France. Passage of the Toleration Act by Par- liament; Catholics not included. Victory of the Scottish Jacobites at Killiecrankie; their leader. Viscount Dundee, killed. Parliament passes the Bill of Rights. The French, at the instance of Louvois, lay waste the Pala- tinate. Formation at Vienna of the Grand Alliance against Louis XTV. Successes of the Germans on the Rhine. Peter the Great baffles a conspiracy of the Strelitzes, excited by his sister, Sophia, and takes the reins of power entirely into his own hands. Pope Alexander Vni. succeeds Innocent XL : Overthrow of Andros in New England. Beginning of King William's War in America (terminated by the treaty of Ryswick in 1697). Jacob Leisler's revolution in New York. 1690. Victor Amadeus 11. of Savoy joins the league against France. Victory of Marshal Luxembourg over the allies at Fleurus. The fleet of William III. is defeated o£P Beachy Head by the French, under Tourville. The Orangemen win the bat- tle of the Boyne, July 1 (new style, 11).* Successful cam- paign of Catinat against Savoy. * The annivereary of this event is celebrated July 12. 88 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1690. Ee-establishment of Presbyterianism as the national church system in Scotland. Destruction of Schenectady by the French and Indians. Un- successful expedition of Sir WLUiani Phips against Canada. Publication of Locke's "Essay on the Human Understanding." 1691. The Jacobites overcome in Scotland, Defeat of the Irish at Aghrim. Surrender of limerick, the last stronghold of James II. in Ireland. Victory of Louis of Baden over the Turks at Salankamen. Pope Innocent Xn. succeeds Alexander VUl. • Execution of Jacob Leisler. 1692. Massacre of the MacDonalds at Glencoe, Feb. 13. The French fleet, under Tourville, is destroyed by the Eng- lish and Dutch off La Hogue, May 19 (new style, 29). Victory of Marshal Luxembourg over William m. at Steenkerk, July 34 (new style, Aug. 3). Erection of the dominions of ttie duke of Brunswick-Lune- burg into the electorate of Hanover (the ninth electorate). Union of the Massachusetts and Plymouth colonies. Witch- craft delusion at Salem. 1693. The French admiral Tourville defeats the English fleet off Cape St. Vincent. Victory of Marshal Luxembourg over William HI. at Neerwinden, July 19 (new style, 29). Cati- nat defeats the army of Savoy at Marsaglia, Oct. 1694. Successes of the duke de NoaiUes in Spain. The English at- tack the French coast. Death of Queen Mary. The censorship of the press in Eng- land ceases. Establishment of the Bank of England. Death of Malpighi. 1695. Campaign of Villeroi against WUliam HI. in the Netherlands. Death of La Fontaine and of Huygens. 1696. Savoy makes peace with Frajice. Death of John Sobieski, king of Poland. Peter the Great takes Aaov from the Turks. 1697. Taking of Barcelona by the French. France makes peace at Byswick with Holland, Spain, and England, Sept. 21 (old style, 11),* and with the Grerman Empire, Oct. 30; the recent French conquests surrendered; Charles IV., duke of Lorraine, placed in possession of his dominions. * The date that has passed into histoiy is Sept. 20 (10). The plenipotentiariet met on that day, hut it was after midnight when the first of the treaties was ragned. CHKONOLOGICAIi TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTOllY. 89 1697. Charles XII. succeeds his father, Charles XI., in Sweden. Frederick Augustus I. of Saxony is elected king of Poland as Augustus II. The forces of Leopold I., under Prince Eugene of Savoy, annihilate the Turkish army at Zenta, Sept. 11. 1698. Treaty between Louis XIV. and William III. for the partition of Spain on the death of Charles II. Eevolt of the Strelitzes in Russia. Eussia and Turkey sign a truce at Carlowitz, Dec. Scottish colony of Darien founded. (Abandoned in 1700.) 1699. Peace of Carlowitz between the Turks and Austria, Poland, and Venife ; Hungary between the Danube and Theiss given up by the Turks ; Transylvania secured to Leopold I. ; a large part of the Ukraine, lost by Poland in 1672, restored to that kingdom ; the Morea ceded to Venice. The French begin the settlement of Louisiana. Death of Eacine. 1700. Second Partition Treaty between Louis XTV. and "William m. Charles 11., the last of the Hapsburg dynasty in Spain, dies, Nov. 1, after appointing as his successor Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XTV., who is proclaimed at Fontaine- bleau and Madrid as Philip V. (Bourbon dynasty in Spain). The throne is claimed by the archduke CJharles of Austria, second son of Leopold I. Eussia, Poland, and Denmark enter into a joint war against Sweden. Charles XTT. attacks Copenhagen, and forces the Danes to the peace of Travendal. He overwhelms the army of Peter the Great at Narva, Nov. 30. Pope Clement XL succeeds Innocent XII. Foundation of the institution afterward named Yale College. Death of Dryden. 1701. Passage of the Act of Settlement in England ; the crown to pass, on the death without issue of William III.'s suc- cessor, Anne (daughter of James II.), to Sophia, grand- daughter of James I., electress dowager of Hanover. Philip V. enters Madrid. Beginning of the War of the Spanish Succession. Brilliant campaign of the Austrian general, Prince Eugene of Savoy, in Italy. He defeats Villeroi at Chiari, Sept. The emperor Leopold I. and William III. of England and Holland form the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV. and Philip V., who are sup- 90 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1701. ported by Savoy, some of the German states, and other allies. Death of James 11. His son, James Edward (the first Pre- tender), is recognized as his successor by Louis XTV. Frederick III., elector of Brandenburg, crowns himself king of Prussia as Frederick I., Jan., 18. Charles XII. defeats the Poles and Saxons. 1702. Death of William III., March 8 (new style, 19); accession of Queen Anne, daughter of James 11. ; the grand-pension- aiy Heinsius conducts the affairs of the Netherlands; the succession to the possessions of the House of Orange dis- puted. Prince Eugene takes Villeroi prisoner at Cremona. He is checked by Vendome. Successful campaign of Churchill (Marlborough) in the Netherlands. Battle of Friedlingen between Villars and Louis of Baden. Naval triumph of the English and Dutch over the Spaniards and French at Vigo. Insurrection of the Camisards, or Protestant inhabitants of the Cevennes. Charles XII. enters Warsaw. He defeats the army of Augus- tus n. at BUiszow. He enters Cracow. Queen Anne's War in America (terminated by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713). The French found a settlement on the Mobile River, Alabama (transferred to the present site of MobHe m 1711). 1703. The Dutch military engineer Coehom reduces Bonn. ViUars crosses the Rhine, and unites with the army of Maximilian Emanuel, elector of Bavaria. The Bavarians invade Tyrol. The French general TaUard is victorious on the Rhine. Victor Amadeus n. in the alliance against France. Francis Rakoczy excites an insurrection in Hungaiy against Leopold I. Charles XH. defeats the army of Augustus H. at Pultusk. Foundation of St. Petersburg by Peter the Great. 1704. The Hungarian insurgent forces advance to the neighborhood of Vienna. Conquest of Gibraltar by the English. Victory of Marlborough and Prince Eugene over the French general Tallard and tiie elector of Bavaria at Hochstadt (battle of Blenheim), Aug. 13 (new style). Villars subdues the Camisards. Charles XII. deprives Augustus H. of the crown of Poland, CHKONOIiOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 91 1704. and brings about the election of Stanislas Leszczynski Peter the Great takes Dorpat and Narva. Massacre at Deer&eld, Massachusetts. Death of Locke. 1704-1705. The French and Spaniards fail in an attempt to recon- quer Gibraltar. 1706. Invasion of Spain by the earl of Peterborough and Sir Clouds- ley Shovel. Battle of Cassano between Prince Eugene and Vendome. Surrender of Barcelona to the English. Joseph I. succeeds his father, Leopold I., in Germany and the Austrian possessions, May S. 1706. Barcelona is unsuccessfully besieged by the French and Span- iards. Victory of Marlborough over the French, under Villeroi, and the Bavarians at Eamillies, May 23 (new style). Madrid is occupied for the archduke Charles, who proclaims himself king there, but is soon forced to with- draw. Victory of Prince Eugene at Turin. He occupies MJ1g.Ti Charles Xn. defeats the forces of Augustus IL at Fraustadt. He occupies Saxony, and dictates the peace of Altran- stadt. 1707. Legislative union of England and Scotland. Victory of the French general Berwick at Almanza, April 25 (old style, 14). Unsuccessful attack on Toulon by the allies. Conquest of the kingdom of Naples by the Impe- rialists. Death of Vauban. 1708. Victory of Marlborough and Prince Eugene at Oudenarde over the dukes of Burgundy and Vendome, July 11 (new style). Sir John Leake takes possession of Sardinia. Gallant de- fense of LUle by Bouflers. Fall of that city. Charles XII. invades Eussia. 1709. Victory of Marlborough and Prince Eugene over VUlars at Malplaquet, Sept. 11 (new style). Peter the Great annihilates the army of Charles XH. at Pol- tava, July 8. Flight of Charles into Turkish territory. Augustus n. recovers Poland. The Danes invade Swe- den. Suppression of the convent of Port Eoyal des Champs. 1710. Fall of Godolphin and the Whig ministry; Harley and Bo- lingbroke come into power. Victory of Starhemberg at Saragossa, Aug. The archduke 92 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1710. Charles enters Madrid. He is forced to abandon the city, which is re-entered by Philip. Battle of Villaviciosa be- tween Vendome and Starhemberg, Dec. 10. Stenbock expels the Danes from Sweden. 1711. Harley (earl of Oxford) is made lord high treasurer of Great Britaia. Marlborough, after further successes in Manders, is removed from, his command. Death of the emperor Joseph I. , April 17 ; his brother, Charles, his successor in the Austrian possessions. Treaty of Szatmar with the Hungarian insurgents. Charles is elected em- peror of Germany (Charles VI.), Oct. 12; his riTal, Philip v., firmly established on the throne of Spain. The Turks, having taken up arms for Charles XH., almost achieve the ruia of Peter the Great, who is hemmed in at the river Pruth. They make peace, and recover Azov and other places. Unsuccessful expedition of the English and New England forces, under Walker, against Canada. Addison publishes the "Spectator" (finally discontinued in 1714). Publication of Pope's "Essay on Criticism." Death of BoUeau. 1712. Armistice between France and England. Campaign of Prince Eugene in French Flanders. War of Toggenburg (second Toggenburg War) between the Catholic and Eef ormed cantons of Switzerland. 1713. The treaty of Utrecht, signed April 11, or, according to old style, March 31 (acceded to by Spain some months later), virtually terminates the War of the Spanish Succession. France, Spain, England, Holland, Prussia, Savoy, and Portugal make peace. (The struggle continued for a time by France against Austria and the German Empire.) Philip V. recognized as king of Spain; the Spanish Netherlands, Naples, the Milanese, and Sardinia awarded to Austria (see 1714) ; Acadia (Nova Scotia, &c.) ceded to England by France (which also restores the Hudson Bay region) ; the sole sovereignty over Newfoundland secured to England ; Gibraltar and Minorca ceded to England by Spain ; Sicaly ceded by Spain to Savoy ; Nexifchatel secured to Prussia. Frederick William I. succeeds his father, Frederick I., in Prussia, Feb. 25. Charles VI. issues the Pragmatic Sanction to secure the suo- CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 93 1713. cession in his hereditary dominions to the female line in default of male issue. The Swedish general Stenbock surrenders at Tonningen to the Danish, Saxon, and Russian forces. Condemnation of Jansenism by Clement XI. The power of the Tuscaroras is broken by the Carolinians. 1714. George I., elector of Hanover, succeeds Queen Anne in Great Britain, Aug. 1. Treaty of Rastadt between Austria and France, March, fol- lowed by the treaty of Baden (in Aargau) between the Ger- man Empire and France; the Spanish Netherlands, Na- ples, the Milanese, and Sardinia secured to Austria, which recovers Freiburg and Breisach; Landau retroceded to France. The French and Spanish forces take Barcelona, which is de- prived of its liberties. Marriage of PhUip Y. with Elizabeth Famese. Charles XII. returns to his kingdom. 1715. Impeachment of Oxford and Bolingbroke. Rebellion in Scotland and the north of England in favor of James Edward Stuart. Formation of the Walpole ministry. Overthrow of the Jacobites. Louis XV. succeeds his great-grandfather, Louis XIV., Sept. 1 ; the duke of Orleans regent. Barrier Treaty between Austria, Holland, and England, giv- ing the Dutch the right to garrison certain places in the Austrian Netherlands. Frederick WUliam I. declares war against Sweden. He takes Stralsund, Dec. The Turks reconquer the Morea from the Venetians. Death of Fenelon. 1716. Passage of the Septennial Act by Parliament, fixingthe limit of the duration of a Parliament at seven years. John Law establishes his bank in Paris. Charles XH. unsuccessfully invades Norway. Austria makes war on Turkey. Victory of Prince Eugene at Peterwardein, Aug. 5. Death of Leibnitz. 1717. Triple alliance between France, Great Britain, and Holland. Dismissal of Walpole. Philip V. of Spain, at the instigation of Alberoni, occupies Sardinia. 94 CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL mSTORT. 1717. Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Belgrade, Aug. 16, and enters that city, Aug. 18. 1718. The Spaniards invade Sicily. Quadruple alliance between Great Britain, France, Austria, and Holland against Spain. Defeat of the Spanish fleet off Cape Passaro. Peace of Passarowitz between Turkey, Austria, and Venice, July 31 ; Turkey cedes the Bauat, part of Servia, with Bel- grade, and parts of Bosnia and WaUachia to Charles VT. ; she retains the Morea. Charles XII. attempts the conquest of Norway, and is killed while besieging Frederikshald, Dec. 11. His sister, Ulrica Eleonora, is declared his successor. French settlement at New Orleans. 1719. The French forces, under Berwick, attack Spain. Philip V. dismisses his minister Alberoni. Execution of the Swedish prime-minister Gortz. Treaty be- tween Sweden and George I. ; the duchies of Bremen and Verden ceded to Hanover (having been already a few years in her possession). 1720. The South Sea Company assumes the discharge of the British national debt. Bursting of the South Sea Bubble. Failure of Law's Mississippi Scheme in France. Victor Amadeus H. of Savoy cedes Sicily to Austria in ex- change for Sardinia. The dominions of Savoy become the kingdom of Sardinia. Treaty of Stockholm between Sweden and Prussia; Sweden cedes a great part of Hither Pomerania. Ulrica Eleonora gives over the government of Sweden to her husband, Frederick of Hesse-Cassel. 1721. Walpole again prime-minister. Financial bankruptcy in France. Treaty of Nystad between Sweden and Russia ; Livonia, Es- thonia, Ingria, and Karelia secured to Bussia. Pope Innocent XIH. succeeds Clement XI. 1722. Discovery of a Jacobite plot against George I. Peter the Great makes war on Persia. Establishment of the Moravian settlement at Hermhut under the auspices of Count Zinzendorf. 1723. Death of the regent Orleans. Peter the Great secures large territories from Persia. 1724. Formal publication of the Pragmatic Sanction by GbSB^ VL CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEUSAL HISTOET. 95 1724. Philip V. resigns the government of Spain in favor of his son, Luis, but resumes it on the latter's death. Pope Benedict XIII. succeeds Innocent XIII. 1725. Signing of a treaty of alliance at Vienna between Austria and Spain. England, France, and Prussia form a counter alliance in the Hanover Treaty. Peter the Great is succeeded by his wife, Catharine I. 1726. Fleury assumes the conduct of affairs iu France. Accession of Eussia to the Vienna alliance. Treaty of Wus- terhausen between Prussia and Austria. 1727. Gibraltar is unsuccessfully besieged by the Spaniards. G«orge n. succeeds his father, George I., June 11 (new style, 22). Death of Catharine I. of Eussia. Accession of Peter II., grandson of Peter the Great. Death of Isaac Newton. 1728. A congress of the Great Powers assembles at Soissons. Behring discovers the strait connectiag the Arctic with the Pacific Ocean. 1729. Treaty of Seville between Spain, Great Britaia, and France. Corsica rebels against Genoa. Carolina is purchased by the crown. (Two royal provinces constituted, North and South Carolina.*) 1730. Peter 11. of Eussia is succeeded by Anne, niece of Peter I. Pope Clement XII. succeeds Benedict XIII. Laying out of Baltimore. 1731. Parma and Piacenza, on the extinction of the male line of the Famese famUy, are conferred upon Don Carlos, son of Philip V. of Spain and Elizabeth Famese. Death of Defoe. 1731-1732. Expulsion of the Protestants from Salzburg. 1732. Oglethorpe embarks from England with a party of colonists to found a settlement in Georgia. 1733. Death of Augustus II., king of Poland and elector of Saxony, Feb. 1. His son, Frederick Augustus II. , succeeds in Saxony. The Poles elect (Sept.) their former king, Stanislas Lesz- czynski, who is supported by his son-in-law, Louis XV. of France, seconded by Spain and Sardinia. A fraction of the Polish nobUity, backed by a Eussian army, and sup- ported also by Austria, elects Frederick Augustus II. of • Under the proprietorship there had been two separate governments for the region. 96 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL BISTORT. 1733. Saxony (as king of Poland Augustus in.), Oct. Stanislas is expelled. Beginning of the so-called War of the Polish Succession. The French occupy Lorraine, and take Kehl. Charles Emanuel III. of Sardinia and the French invade Lomhardy. Occupation of Milan. Oglethorpe founds Savannah. , 1734. Campaign of the Austrians against France and Sardinia in northern Italy. Don Carlos, son of Philip V., undertakes the conquest of the Two Sicilies. He enters Naples, and proclaims himself king. The Austrian army is vanquished at Bitonto, May 25. Fall of Capua, Nov. The French forces, under Berwick, lay siege to PhilippBhuig; Berwick is killed. Fall of that fortress. 1735. Don Carlos completes the conquest of Sicily, and is crowned king of the Two Sicilies as Charles HI. (Bourbon dynasty). Preliminary treaty of Vienna ; Augustus HI. acknowledged king of Poland ; Stanislas Leszczynski to succeed Francis Stephen * in the duchy of Lorraine on the extinction of the Medici line in Tuscany, that grand-duchy to he allotted in exchange to Francis Stephen ; Lorraine to fall to France on the death of Stanislas; Charles HI. to retain the Two Sicilies; Parma and Piacenza to be ceded to Austria. Publication of the " Systema Naturae" of Idnnseus. 1736. The Russians make war on Turkey, and take Azov. End of the Suffavean (Sofi) dynasty in Persia; Nadir Shah (Kuli Khan) placed on the throne. 1737. Stanislas Leszczynski succeeds Francis Stephen in Lorraine. Extinction of the Medici dynasty in Tuscany ; Francis Stephen grand-duke. Charles VI. makes war on Turkey. Opening of the University of Gottingen, founded by Greorge n. 1738. Definitive treaty of Vienna between Charles VT. and France, Nov. (Acceded to by Sardinia and Spain in 1739.) Nadir Shab. conquers Afghanistan. Death of Boerhaave. 1739. England declares war against Spain. Taking of Porto BeUo by Admiral Vernon. Peace of Belgrade between Austria and the Turks, who re- cover Belgrade and adjoining Servian territories, &c. * Afterward emperor of German; as Fiunds I. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 9"} 1739. The Russians, after a victorious advance under Mfinnich, make peace with Turkey. Nadir Shah, the ruler of Persia, overthrows the power of the Great Mogul, and enters Delhi. He replaces the Great Mogul on his throne. Publication of Hume's " Treatise of Human Nature." 1740. Frederick II., the Great, succeeds his father, Frederick WUl- iam I., May 31. Death of Charles VI., Oct. 20. His daughter, Maria Theresa, succeeds in his hereditary dominions. The succession is disputed by Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, and Au- gustus m! of Poland and Saxony. Spain claims a part of the Austrian dominions. Frederick the Great demands the cession of Silesia, and invades that province, Dec. Begin- ning of the War of the Austrian Succession. Death of the empress Anne of Russia. Her grand-nephew, the infant Ivan VI., succeeds under the regency of Biron. Pope Benedict XIV. succeeds Clement XH. Nadir Shah conquers the rulers of Bokhara and Khiva. 1741. Victory of Frederick the Great over the Austrians at Moll- witz, April 10. France takes up arms for the elector Charles Albert. Spain concludes an alliance with him at Nymphenburg, May. Alliance between England and Aus- tria. Charles Albert invades the Austrian dominions. Maria Theresa appeals to the Hungarian Diet at Presburg. Bohemia overrun by the Bavarian, T'rench, and Saxon armies. Fall of Prague, Nov. 26. War between Sweden and Russia. Deposition of the infant czar, Ivan VI. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, is proclaimed his successor. Vernon makes an imsuccessful attack upon Cartagena, New Granada. 1742. Fall of the Walpole ministry, Feb. Formation of the Wil- mingfton ministry. Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, is chosen emperor of Ger- many (Charles VII.), Jan. 24. Invasion of Bavaria by the Austrians. Victory of Frederick the Great over the Aus- trians at Chotusitz, May 17. Treaty of Breslau ; Austria cedes most of Silesia to Prussia. Retreat of the French, under Belleisle, from Prague. Dupleix is made governor of the French possessions in India. 1743. Death of Cardinal Fleury. 8 98 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1743. The Austrians occupy Bavaria. The " Pragmatic army," un- der George II., defeats the French, under Noailles, at Det- tingen, June 27 (old style, 16). The Wilmington ministry is succeeded by that under Pelham. Saxony and Sardinia join the Austrian alliance. Treaty of Abo between Russia and Sweden. 1744. Defeat of the English fleet before Toulon. Successes of the French in the Austrian Netherlands. Charles m. of Naples, after having been forced into neutrality by the English in 1743, again takes up arms against Austria, and is victorious at Velletri. Frederick 11. invades Bohemia (Second Silesian War). Victory of the French and Span- iards over Charles Emanuel III. of Sardinia near ConL Beginning of King George's War in America (terminated by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748). Death of Pope. 1745. Scotland rises for the Young Pretender, Charles Edward. He is victorious at Prestonpans, Sept. 21, and advances into the heart of England, but is forced to retreat. Death of the emperor Charles VU., Jan. 20. His successor in Bavaria, Maximilian Joseph, makes peace with Maria Theresa. Victory of the French, under Marshal Saxe, over the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, xmder the duke of Cumberland, at Fontenoy, May 11 (old style, April 30). Victory of Frederick the Great at Hohenfried- berg, June 4. Francis Stephen, grand-duke of Tuscany, husband of Maria Theresa, is elected emperor of (3«rmany (Francis I.), Sept. 13. The Prussians, under Leopold of Dessau, defeat the Saxons at Kesselsdorf, Dec. 15. Treaty of Dresden between Aiistria, Saxony, and Prussia; end of the Second Silesian War. The Italian possessions of Austria occupied by her enemies. The British colonists of America, under Sir William PeppereU, seconded by a British fleet under Warren, reduce Louis- burg, June 17. (The place restored to France in 1748.) Death of Swift. 1745 {dbaat). Rise of the sect of the Wahabees. 1746. Victory of Charles Edward at Falkirk, Jan. He is over- thrown at Culloden by the diike of Oumberlaaid, April 16 (new style, 27). Successful campaign of the Austrians in Italy. They occupy Genoa, the republic having joined the anti-A\istriaii CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 99 1746. league, but are soon expelled. Marshal Saxe, after reducing the principal towns of the Austrian Netherlands, defeats the allied army, under Charles of Lorraine, in the battle of Raucoux, Oct. 11. Ferdinand VI. succeeds his father, PhUip V., in Spain, July 9. Labourdonnais takes Madras. 1747. Genoa is unsuccessfully invested by the Austrians and Sar- dinians. Naval victory of the English, under Admiral An- son, over the French off Cape Finisterre. Marshal Saxe defeats the duke of Cumberland at Lawfeld, July 2 (new style). The French take Bergen-op-Zoom. Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet off Belle-Isle. The Empress Elizar beth of Russia sets an army on foot for the support of Maria Theresa. Briihl becomes prime minister in Saxony. Death of Le Sage. 1748. Maestricht is taken by Marshal Saxe. The peace of Aix-la- ChapeUe, Oct. 18 (old style, 7), terminates the War of the Austrian Succession ; the basis of settlement being the mutual restitution of conquests, but not in regard to Aus- tria, which, besides confirming SUesia to Frederick the Great, cedes Parma and Piacenza, as well as Guastalla (taken possession of by Austria on the extinction of the ducal line in 1746), to Don PhUip, brother of Ferdinand VI. of Spain. Successful defence of Pondicherry by Duplets against Bos- cawen and Lawrence. Publication of Montesquieu's "Esprit des lois." Death of Thomson. 1749. The Ohio Company receives its grant from George 11. Publication of Fielding's " Tom Jones " and of the first part of BufFon's " Histoire naturelle." 1760. Death of Muratori and of J. S. Bach. 1761. Adolphus Frederick, of the house of Holstein-Eutin, succeeds Frederick in Sweden. Olive takes Arcot, the capital of the Camatic. The publication of the Encyclopidie is begun by Diderot and D'Alembert. 1762. The reform of the calendar goes into effect in Great Britain. The identity of lightning with electricity is fully demon- strated by Franklin, 100 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1753. Kaunitz is appointed chancellor by Maria Theresa. Foundation of the British Museum. Death of Berkeley. 1754. Death of Sir Henry Pelhain, March. Formation of the New- castle ministry. Beguming of the French and Indian War in America. Death of Fielding. 1755. G-reat earthquake at Lisbon, Nov. 1. Unsuccessful British expedition against Fort Duquesne. Brad- dock is overwhelmed on the banks of the Monongahela, July 9. Washington conducts the retreat. Abortive ex- pedition against the French forts of Niagara and Frontenac. Expedition of William Johnson against Crown Point. En- gagement between his forces and those of Dieskau on the shores of Lake George, Sept. 8; repulse of the French. Johnson abandons the attempt to reduce Crown Point. ■;— Dispersion of the French colonists of Acadia. Death of Montesquieu. 1756. Defensive treaty between England and Prussia. — ^The French attack Minorca ; Admiral Byng is defeated off that island, May ; it surrenders, June. — ^Treaty of alliance between France and Austria against Frederick the Great, con- cluded at Versailles, May. Beginning of the Seven Tears' War between Austria, the German Empire, France (joined toward the close of the contest by Spain), Saxony, Bussia, and Sweden, on the one side, and Prussia, England, Han- over, and a few of the smaller German states (also Portu- gal at the close of the contest), on the other. Frederick the Great invades Saxony, Aug. He enters Bohemia, and defeats the Austrians, under Browne, at Lowositz, Oct. 1. Surrender of the Saxon army, Oct. Resignation of the British premier, the duke of Newcastle, Nov. William Pitt is appointed secretary of state, Dec. Surajah Dowlah, the subahdar of Bengal, takes Calcutta, and throws the English prisoners into the Black Hole. The forces of Montcalm take Fort Oswego. Publication of Voltaire's "Essai sur les moeurs et I'esprit des nations." 1757. The German Diet levies an army against Frederick the Great. France and Sweden declare war against Prussia. Fred- erick defeats the Austrians, under Charles of Lorraine and Browne, at Prague, May 6. He besieges that city. His CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. IQl 1757. army is overwhelmed by the Austrians, under Daun, at Kolin, June 18. East Prussia is overrun by a Eussiaa army. "Victory of the French, under D'Estrees, at Hastem- beck, July 26, over the duke of Gumberlajid, who, in Sept., is forced to conclude the convention of Kloster-Zeven. The Eussians, under Apraxin, defeat the Prussian general Lehwald at Grossjagemdorf, Aug. 30. Victory of Fred- erick over the French and Imperialists, under Soubise, at Eossbach, Nov. 5. The Austrians, after occupying Silesia, are defeated at Leuthen, Dec. 5. Eesignation of Pitt, April. Formation of the Newcastle and Pitt ministiy, June ; Pitt at the head of the administra- tion as secretary of state. CHve retakes Calcutta and defeats Surajah Dowlah at Plas- sey, June 23. Montcahn takes Fort William Henry. 1768. Ferdinand of Brunswick expels the French from Hanover, and defeats them at Crefeld, June 23. Frederick the Great defeats the Eussians at Zorndorf, Aug. 23. He is defeated by Daun at Hochkirchen, Oct. 14. Pope Clement XIII. succeeds Benedict XIV. The French, under Lally, take Arcot, and lay siege to Mad- ras. (The siege raised in 1759.) Victory of Montcalm over Abercrombie at Ticonderoga, July 8. Amherst and Boscawen reduce Louisburg ; it is occupied, July 27. The French lose Forts Frontenac and Duquesne. Death of Jonathan Edwards. 1769. Victory of Ferdinand of Brunswick over the French at Min- den, Aug. 1. The Eussians and Austrians, under Soltikofif and Laudon, annihilate the army of Frederick the Great at Kunersdorf, Aug. 12. Naval victory of the English, under Boscawen, over the French in the Bay of Lagos, Aug. Admiral Hawke defeats Conflans in the Bay of Quiberon, Nov. 20. The Prussian general Fink surrenders at Maxen, Nov. 21. Charles HI. succeeds his brother, Ferdinand VI., in Spain. Ferdinand IV., son of Charles III., becomes king of the Two Sicilies. King Joseph of Portugal, under the guidance of his minister Pombal, expels the Jesuits. The English take Guadeloupe from the French. (It is re- stored in 1763.) 102 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1759. The French abandon Ticonderoga and Crown Point. They lose Fort Niagara. Successful invasion of Canada by Wolfe. Battle on the Plains of Abraham, Sept. 13 ; Wolfe and Montcalm fall. Surrender of Quebec. Death of Handel. 1760. Victory of Marshal Broglie at Corbach, July. Frederick the Great defeats Laudon at Liegnitz, Aug. Occupation of Berlin (for a few days) by the Russians and Austrians, Oct. Frederick is victorious over Daun at Torgau, Nov. 3. Greorge III. succeeds his grandfather, George 11., Oct. 25. FaJl of Montreal ; the British masters of Canada. 1761. The English take the island of Belle-Isle. The Family Com- pact, an alliance of the Bourbon crowns, is negotiated by Choiseul, Aug. Frederick the Great confronts the Eus- sians, im.der Buturlin, and the Austrians, under Laudon, in his fortified camp at Bunzelwitz, Aug.-Sept. Storming of Schweidnitz by Laudon, Oct. 1. Surrender of Kolberg to the Russians, Dec. Surrender of Pondicherry to the English, Jan. (The place restored to the French in the peace of 1763.) Pitt resigns the oflS.ce of secretary of state, Oct. The Mahrattas are overwhelmed by the Afghans, under Ahmed Shah, at Paniput, Jan. Death of Richardson. 1762. England declares war against Spain, Jan. Death of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia, Jan. 5. She is succeeded by Peter m., of the house of Holstein-Grottorp, who goes over to the side of Frederick the Great. The English conquer Martinique from the French. (It is restored in 1763.) The Spaniards invade Portugal. Sweden withdraws from the war against Frederick. Peter m. is deposed by his wife, Catharine 11., who usurps the throne, July 9. Peter is strangled, July 17. Victory of Frederick at Burkersdorf, July 21. The English reduce Havana, Aug. Henry, brother of Frederick, is victorious at Freiberg, Oct. Pre- liminaries of peace between England, France, Spain, and Portugal are signed at Fontainebleau, Nov. 3. Newcastle is succeeded by Bute as head of the English min- istry. May. Publication of Rousseau's " Contrat social." 1763. Peace of Paris between England, France, Spain, and Portu- gal, Feb. 10: Canada, together with Prince Edward Island CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 103 1763. and Cape Breton, the region east of the Mississippi hitherto claimed by France, and the islands of Dominica, St. Vin- cent, and Tobago (the last previously neutral territory), ceded by France to England; Florida ceded to England by Spain, which receives Louisiana from France ; Minorca restored to England ; Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Pon- dicherry restored to France, which receives Santa Lucia; the French settlements on the Senegal ceded to England ; Groree restored to France. Peace of Hubertsburg between Prussia, Austria, and Saxony, Feb. 15; Silesia finally confirmed to Frederick the Great; end of the Seven Years' War. The Bute administration is succeeded by that of Grenville. Beginning of the persecutions of John Wilkes by the Gov- ernment. Death of Augustus IIL of Poland and Saxony. Pontiac's War ; the Indians imsuccessfully besiege the Eng- lish fort at Detroit. 1764. Louis XV., under the guidance of Choiseul, suppresses the order of Jesuits in France. Death of Madame de Pompa- dour. Catharine 11. of Bussia secures the election of Stanislas Poniatowski as king of Poland. Publication of Beccaria's "Trattato dei delitti e delle pene." Settlement of St. Louis by the French. Death of Hogarth. 1765. Passage of the Stamp Act by Parliament. The Bockingham ministry succeeds that of Grenville. The first colonial congress is held at New York. Joseph n. succeeds his father, Francis I., as emperor of Ger- many, Aug. 18. The Mogul emperor formally cedes Bengal, Behar, and Orissa to the English East India Company. Death of Edward Young. 1766. Repeal of the Stamp Act. Fall of the Rockingham ministry; Pitt premier. Death of Stanislas Leszczynski ; Lorraine is united with France. Publication of Lessing's " Laocoon" and of Goldsmith's "Vicar of Wakefield." 1767. The British Parliament imposes duties on paper, glass, tea, etc., imported into America. 104 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1767. Charles m. of Spain, with the advice of his minister Aranda, orders the expulsion of the Jesuits. First war hetween the English and Hyder Ali, rajah of Mysore. (Peace made in 1769.) Hargreaves invents the spinning jenny. 1768. Riots on the occasion of the imprisonment of John WUkes. Betirement of Pitt from the British administration ; Graf- -ton at the head of the ministry. The British station a mOitaiy force in Boston. The Polish patriots form the Confederation of Bar to resist the designs of Kussia. Turkey declares war against Russia. Revolt of Ali Bey against the Porte in Egypt. Corsica is made over to France hy Grenoa. Cook saUs on his first voyage around the world. (He returns in 1771.) James Bruce sets out on his travels for the discovery of the sources of the Nile. Death of Sterne and of Winckelmann. 1769. Appearance of the Letters of Junius. Defeat of Paoli and subjection of Corsica hy the French. Victorious advance of the Russians through Moldavia. Pope Clement XTV. succeeds Clement XI IT. Watt obtains his first patent for an improvement in the steam engine. Arkwright patents his spinning frame. Death of Gtellert. 1770. The Grafton ministry is succeeded by that of Lord North, Jan. The Boston massacre, March 5. Successes of the Russians in WaHachia. The Russian fieet, under Orloff and Elphinstone, defeats the Turkish fleet at Scio. Elphinstone bums the Turkish fleet at Tchesme, July. The Russian general Rumiantzeff defeats the Tar- tar khan of the Crimea, the vassal of the Porte, on the Pruth. He defeats the Turks on the Kagul. The Rus- sians, xinder Panin, storm Bender, Sept. Christian YII. of Denmark dismisses his minister Bemstorff. Struensee succeeds to his power. 1771. The Russian general Dolgoruki storms the lines of Perekop, and occupies the Crunea. Gustavus ni. succeeds his father, Adolphus Frederick, in Sweden. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 103 1771. Death of Gray and of Smollett. 1772. First partition of Poland, between Catharine IE., Maria The- resa, and Frederick the Great. Eussia appropriates a con- siderable region on the Diina and the upper Dnieper ; Prus- sia takes Polish or regal Prussia* (Thorn and Dantzic excepted) and adjoining territories; an extensive region bordering on Hungary is annexed to the Austrian domin- ions and constituted into the kingdom of Galicia and Lodo- meria.. Stanislas Poniatowski remains king of the remainder of Poland, including Warsaw. Struensee, after virtually ruling Denmark, dies on the scaffold. Warren Has&igs is appointed president of the supreme coun- cil of Bengal. Death of Swedenborg. 1773. Tea thrown overboard at Boston, Dec. 16. Clement XTV. pronounces the dissolution of the Jesuit order. Advance of the Russians through Bulgaria. They fail before Silistria and Varna. The Cossack Pugatcheff (a pseudo Peter m.) raises a rebellion a«gainst Catharine 11. FaU of Ali Bey. Oldenburg is given over by Denmark to the house of Holstein- Gtottorp. 1774. Parliament passes the Boston Port Bill, closing the port of that city. The first Continental Congress meets at Phila- delphia, Sept. 5. Louis XVI. succeeds his grandfather, Louis XV., May 10; Maurepas his minister of state, Turgot minister of finance. Siege of Shumla by the Russians. They conclude peace with Turkey at Kutchuk-Kainarji; Turkey renounces her suzer- ainty over the Crimea and other Tartar territories. Death of Pope Clement XTV. Warren Hastings becomes the fijst governor-general of India. Discovery of oxygen by Priestley. Death of Goldsmith. 1775. Beginning of the American Revolution. Battle of Lexington, April 19. The second Continental Congress assembles at Philadelphia, May 10. Ethan Allen seizes Ticonderoga, May 10. Occupation of Crown Point, May 12. Mecklen- burg (N. C.) declaration of independence, May. Washing- ton is appointed commander-in-chief of the Continental * Now included in West Prussia and Ermeland, 106 CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1.775. forces, June 15. Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. Wash- ington conducts the siege of Boston. The Americans take Montreal, Nov. Unsuccessful assault on Quebec, Dec. 31 ; Montgomery killed. — Settlement of Kentucky by Daniel Boone and others. Execution of Pugatcheff. Election of Pope Pius VI. 1776. General Howe evacuates Boston, March 17. Colonel Moultrie repulses the British at Charleston, June 28. The Conti- nental Congress adopts the Declaration of Independence July 4. The British, under Howe and Clinton, defeat the Americans, under Putnam and Sullivan, in the battle of Long Island, Aug. 37. The British occupy New York, Sept. 15. The forces of Howe defeat the Americans at White Plains, Oct. 28. The British take Fort Washing- ton, Nov. 16. Washington surprises the Hessians at Tren- ton, Dec. 26. Publication of Adam Smith's "Wealth of Nations" and of the first volume of Gibbon's "Decline and Fall of the Eo- man Empire." Death of Hume. 1777. Victory of Washington at Princeton, Jan. 3. The British general Tryon burns Danbury, April." Burgoyne takes Ticonderoga, July. Victory of Stark at Bennington, Aug. 16. Defeat of Washington by Howe in the battle of Bran- dywine, Sept. 11 ; Lafayette wounded. Battle of Stillwater between Burgoyne and Gates, Sept. 19. The British enter Philadelphia, Sept. 26. Repulse of Washington at German- town, Oct. 4. Battle of Saratoga (second battle of Still- water) between Burgoyne and Gates, Oct. 7. Surrender of Burgoyne at Saratoga, Oct. 17. Congress adopts the Arti- cles of Confederation, Nov. 15. Washington establishes his winter-quarters at Valley Forge, Dec. Louis XVI. appoints Necker minister of finance. Annexation of Bukowina to Austria. Death of Maximilian Joseph, elector of Bavaria, without direct heirs, Dec. 1778. France recognizes the independence of the United States, Jan. She concludes a treaty of amity and commerce with their commissioners, Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Lee, Feb. 6. Death of Pitt, May 11. The British evacuate Philadel- phia, June. Engagement between Washington and Clinton CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 107 1778. at Monmouth, June 28. The French fleet, under D'Estaing, enters Delaware Bay, July. France declares war against England, July 10. Massacre of Wyoming, July. Battle of Rhode Island hetween Sullivan and Pigot, Aug. 29. The British enter Savannah, Dec. 29. BegLnning of the contest known as the War of the Bavarian Succession. Austria attempts to enforce her pretensions to a portion of the Bavarian territories, while upholding the lawful claimant to the throne, Charles Theodore, elector palatine, and is opposed by Prussia. The Hawaiian Islands are rediscovered by Cook. Death of Lfnnasus, of Voltaire, and of Rousseau. 1779. Victory of the British, under Prevost, at Brier Creek, March 3. The Americans, under Wayne, storm Stony Point, July 16. Victory of Paul Jones off Flamborough Head, Sept. 23. The British repulse an assault on Savannah, Oct. 9. Spain declares war against England, June 16. The Spanish and French fleets undertake the blockade of Gibraltar. The treaty of Teschen closes the War of the Bavarian Succes- sion; Charles Theodore recognized as ruler; the Palatinate of the Rhine united with Bavaria. Death of Garrick. 1780. Surrender of Lincoln at Charleston to Clinton, May 13. De- feat of Gates by Comwallis in the first battle of Camden, Aug. 16. Arnold makes an agreement to deliver West Point to the British, Sept. Execution of Major Andre, Oct. 2. Defeat of the British at King's Mountain, Oct. 7. Rodney defeats the Spanish fleet ofl! Cape St. Vincent, Jan. Gordon ("no popery") riots in London, June. England declares war against Holland, Dec. Death of Maria Theresa, Nov. 29. Her son, the emperor Joseph n., succeeds in her hereditary dominions. He un- dertakes a complete reform in his states. Outbreak of a new war between Hyder Ali and the English. 1781. Victory of the Americans, under Morgan, over the British, under Tarleton, at Cowpens, Jan. 17. The ratification of the Articles of Confederation by the states o£ the Union completed, March 1. Defeat of Greene by Cornwallis at Guilford Court House, March 15. Rawdon is victorious over Greene at Hobkirk's Hill (second battle of Camden), April 25. Arnold takes New London and Fort Griswold, and bums New London, Sept. Battle of Eutaw Springs be- 108 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1781., tweeii, Greene and Stuart, Sept. 8. Washington and E6- chamlieau, aided by a fleet under De Grasse, besiege Com- wallis in Yorktown, Oct. Surrender of Oomwallis, Oct. 19. Bombardment of Gibraltar by the Spanish vessels, Apiil- Nov. Naval action between the English and Dutch off Doggerbant, Aug. 5. , Besiguation of Necker, May. Joseph n. issues an edict of toleration. Discovery of Uranus by Herschel. Publication of Kant's "Kritik der reinen Vemunf t " and of the first of Schiller's dramas, "Die Rauber." Death of Lessing. 1782. Fall of the North ministry, March. The second Boddngham administration follows, succeeded, in July, by the Shelbume ministry. Victory of Admiral Rodney over De Grasse in the Antilles, April 12. The British evacuate Savannah, July. Great cannonade of Gibraltar by the French and Spanish batteries, Sept. 13 ; successful resistance of Eliott. John Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Laurens sign a preliminary treaty of peace with Great Britain, Nov. 30. The British evacuate Chaj-leston, Dec. 14. Grattan and his followers secure the independence of the Irish Parliament. Tippoo Saib succeeds his father, Hyder Ali, in Mysore. 1783. End of the Shelbume administration, Feb. Formation of the " Coalition Ministry " of Portland, Fox, and North, April. Peace of Paris between Great Britain and the United States and peace of Versailles between Great Britain, France, and Spain, Sept. 3. Great Britain recognizes the independence of the United States ; she restores Florida and Minorca to Spain, and cedes Tobago to France. Evacuation of New York by the British, Nov. 25. Dismissal of the " CoaUtion Ministry," Dec. The younger Pitt becomes prime minister. Louis XVI. appoints Calonne minister of finance. Incorporation of the Crimea with the Russian Empire. ' Successful introduction of the balloon by the brothers Mont- golfier. Death of Euler and of D'Alembert. 1784. England concludes peace with Holland. Creation of the Board of Control for the affairs of India. Frederick (VI.) becomes regent of Denmark for his father, Christian VH. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 109 1784. Tippoo Saib makes peace with the English. Death of Diderot and of Johnson. 1785. La Perouse sails on his great voyage of exploration to the Pacific. 1786. Outbreak of Shays's rebellion in Massachusetts. Impeachment of Warren Hastings ; the articles of impeach- ment presented by Burke. Frederick "Williain 11. succeeds his uncle, Frederick the Great, Aug. 17. Death of Moses Mendelssohn. 1787. Suppression of Shays's rebellion. Framing of the constitution of the United States by the convention assembled at Phila" delphia. Congress undertakes the government of the North- west Territory. The Assembly of Notables meets at Versailles, Feb. Dismissal of Calonne; Lomenie de Brienne made minister of finance. Dissolution of the Assembly of Notables. Lomenie de Bri- enne is appointed to the office of chief minister. Turkey declares war against Bussia. Joseph 11. begins a war against Turkey by an unsuccessful attempt to seize Bel- grade. The anti-Orange party in Holland is crushed by a Prussian army. Death of Gluck. 1788. The Constitution of the United States ratifl.ed in eleven of the States. (Rhode Island the last to ratify, 1790.)— Founda- tion of Cincinnati. The trial of Warren Hastings begins, Feb. (He is acquitted in 1795.) George III. becomes insane, Nov. (Temporary recovery, 1789.) Dismissal of Lomenie de Brienne by Louis XVI.; Necker chief minister. New Assembly of Notables, Nov.-Dec. Death of Charles HI. of Spain, Dec. 13. He is succeeded by his son, Charles IV. Sweden declares war against Eussia. The Eussians, under Potemkin, storm Otchakov, Dec. The English establish a penal settlement in Australia. Death of BufBon. 1789. Washington is elected president of the United States. The Continental Congress is superseded by the first Congress under the Constitution. Inauguration of Washington in New York, April 30. 110 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEBSAL HISTORY. 1789. Beginning of the French Revolution. Opening session of the States General at Versailles, May 5. The commons (Third Estate), on the motion of Sieyes, constitute themselves the National Assembly (Constituent Assembly) , June 17. Many deputies from the clergy and nobility unite within a few days with the commons. The Assembly, under the lead of Mirabeau, refuses to obey the king's command to withdraw from its position, June 33. On the demand of Louis XVI., the two upper orders join the Third Estate, June 27. The king dismisses Necker, July 11. Formation of the National Guard, July 13. Storming of the Bastille by the populace, July 14, followed by its destruction. Lafayette is appointed commander of the National Guard, July 15. The emigra- tion of the nobles begins. Necker is recalled to office, July 28. The Constituent Assembly abolishes feudal lights and privileges, Aug. 4. Declaration of the Eights of Man adopted, Aug. The Assembly decrees that the legislative power be vested iu a single Chamber of Deputies, Sept! Louis XVI. accepts the decrees of the Assembly, Oct. March of the Parisian populace to Versailles, and tumult there, Oct. 5, 6. The krng and Assembly remove to Paris. The Assembly decrees the transfer of the ecclesiastical property to the state, Nov. 2. Revolt of the Austrian (Belgian) Netherlands. The Austrians and Russians, under the prince of Cobiurg and Suvaroflf, defeat the Turks at Fokshani. The Austrians take Belgrade, the Russians Bender. Alexander Mackenzie discovers and explores the Mackenzie River. 1790. The seat of government of the United States is removed from New York to Philadelphia. (See 1800.) Unsuccessful ex- pedition of Harmar against the Indians of the Northwest Territory. Division of France (including Corsica) into departments, Jan. The Constituent Assembly abolishes the succession by pri- mogeniture, Feb. Suppression of titles of nobility, June. The civil constitution of the clergy is decreed, July 12. Federation Fgte on the Champ de Mars, July 14. Necker is again dismissed, Sept. Suppression of the parliaments, Sept. First issue of assignats, Sept. Joseph 11. revokes his arbitrary enactments respecting Hun- gary. Death of the emperor, Feb. 20. His brother, Lee CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNlVBESAL HlSTORf. HI 1790. pold, succeeds in his hereditary dominions, and is elected emperor of Germany as Leopold II., Sept. 30. The Aus- trians reoccupy Brussels, Dec. ; the Belgian insurgents sub- dued. Gustavus III. of Sweden achieves a great naval victory over the Bussians in the Gull of Finland, July. He concludes peace, Aug. Suvaroff storms Ismail, Dec. 22. War between the English and Tippoo Saib. Fitch introduces steam navigation on the Delaware. (Soon abandoned.) Publication of Goethe's "Faust" (in an incomplete form). Death of Franklin and of Adam Smith. 1791. Admission of Vermont into the Union. Congress charters the Bank of the United States (at Philadelphia). Defeat of St. Clair by the Miamis, Nov. 4. Death of Mirabeau, April 2. The royal family attempt a se- cret flight from France, June 20. They are turned back at Varennes, June 21. Leopold II. and Frederick William II. hold a convention at Pillnitz, and issue a declaration prom- ising support to tlneimigrds agaiost the revolution, Aug. 27. The French Assembly completes the constitution, Sept. 3. Louis XVI. takes the oath to it, Sept. 14. The incorpora- tion of Avignon and Venaissin with France is decreed, Sept. Last session of the Constituent Assembly, Sept. 30. Opening of the Legislative Assembly, Oct. 1. A new sanction is given to the constitutional liberties of Hun- gary by Leopold II. The Protestants secure their rights. Aiistria concludes peace with Turkey at Sistova, Aug. A liberal constitution is promulgated in Poland. Division of Canada into Upper and Lower Canada. Outbreak of the insurrection of the blacks in the French por- tion of Hayti. The mulattoes take up arms against the whites. Galvani publishes his discoveries in animal electricity. Appearance of Thomas Paine's "Eights of Man." Death of Wesley and of Mozart. 1792. Admission of Kentucky into the Union. Establishment of the national mint at Philadelphia. Confiscation of the property of the French 6migr68, Feb. Louis XVI. forms a Girondist ministry, March. Adoption of the guUlotine, March. The king is forced to declare war 112 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1792. against Austria, April 20. Campaign of the French and Austrians in Flanders. Victor Amadeus in. of Sardinia joins the coalition of Austria, Prussia, and other German states against France, July. Famous manifesto issued from the camp of the duke of Brunswick, July 25. The members of the municipal government of Paris establish themselves as the Insurrectionary Commvine, Aug. 10. The Parisian populace attack the TuUeries, and massacre the Swiss guards, Aug. 10. The royal family are imprisoned in the Temple, Aug. 13. Establishment of the first Revolution- ary Tribunal by the Jacobins, Aug. 17. The duke of Brunswick invades France at the head of a combined Prussian and Austrian army, Aug. Royalist rising in the west of France, Aug. The "September massacres" in Paris begin, Sept. 2. The French, imder the elder Kel- lennann, obtain an advantage over the duke of Brunswick at Valmy, Sept. 20. The National Convention takes the place of the Legislative Assembly, and declares France a republic, Sept. 21.* The French occupy Chambery and Nice, Sept. Victorious advance of Custine into Grermdny, Sept. -Oct. Victory of Dumouriez over the Austrians at Jemmapes, Nov. 6, followed by the occupation of Belgium. Annexation of Savoy to France, Nov. Beginning of the trial of Louis XVI., Dec. 11. Death of the emperor Leopold H., March 1. His son, Francis, succeeds in his hereditary dominions, and is elected emperor of Germany as Francis 11., July 5. Peace of Jassy between Russia and Turkey, Jan. ; Russia ac- quires Otchakov, and extends her territory to the Dniester. The opponents of the new constitution in Poland, at the insti- gation of Catharine 11. of Russia, form the Confederation of Targovitza. A Russian army invades the country. Gustavus m. of Sweden is shot by Anckarstroem, night of March 15, 16. He dies March 29, and is succeeded by his son, Gustavus IV. Adolphus. Tippoo Saib is forced to cede a large portion of Mysore to the English. Death of Sir Joshua Reynolds. 1793. Beginning of Washington's second administration, March 4. Execution of Louis XVI., Jan. 21. Grand coalition against * September 22 was made the beginning ot the republican era. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 113 1793. France, formed by England, Austria, Prussia, the German Empire, Holland, Spain, Naples, and other states. Forma- tion of the new Revolutionary Tribunal in France, March. Danton, Marat, and Robespierre inaugurate the Reign of Terror. Outbreak of a great royalist insurrection in the Vendee, March. Dumouriez is defeated by the Austri- ans, under the prince of Coburg, at Neerwinden, March 18, and soon after passes over to the enemy, by whom Belgium is recovered. Institution of the Committee of Public Safety, April 6. The Spanish forces invade Rous- sillon, April. Beginning of the revolt in Corsica against the Convention, May. Fall of the Girondists, June 2. Victory of the Vendeans at Saumur, June 9-10. Cathe- lineau, the Vendean leader, is mortally wounded before Nantes, June 29. Assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday, July 13. Mentz (taken by Custine in Oct., 1792) surrenders to the Prussians, July 23. Toulon is deliv- ered to the English, Aug. 27. The duke of York, the British commander-in-chief in Flanders, is defeated near Dunkirk, Sept. The Convention passes a law against the "suspected," Sept. 17. Introduction of the revolutionary calendar, Oct. 5. (Era reckoned from Sept. 22, 1792.) Great massacres at Lyons by the troops of the Convention, Oct. The German allies force the lines of Weissenburg, Oct. (They are recovered by the French, Dec.) Jourdan defeats the Austrians in the battle of Wattig^ies, Oct. 15, 16. Execution of Marie Antoinette, Oct. 16. La Roche- jaquelein becomes the leader of the Vendeans, Oct. Exe- cution of the Girondists, Oct. 31. Execution of Philippe ^JBgaJite, Nov. 6. The "Worship of Reason " is decreed by the Convention, Nov. 10. Defeat of the Vendeans at Le Mans, Dec. Toulon is retaken from the English, Bonaparte commanding the French artillery, Dec. 19. The Vendeans are overthrown at Savenay. Atrocities of Carrier at Nantes (noyades). Second partition of Poland; Prussia appropriates the western- most portion of the kingdom, also taking possession of Dantzic (made a free city in 1772) ; Russia takes a great part of the Lithuanian territories, half of Volhynia, Podolia, and all of the Ukraine held by Poland. The commissioners of the French Convention proclaim the freedom of the blacks in Hayti. 9 114 CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1794. Whisky Insurrection in Pennsylvania. Wayne breaks the power of the Miamis in a battle at Manmee Bapids, Aug. 20. Jay's treaty with Great Britain. Execution of the Hebertists, March 24. Eh:ecution of Danton and his followers, including Oamille Desmoulins, April 5. Naval victory of the English, under Howe, over the French, June 1. Fite de I'Etre Suprime, June 8. Victory of Jour- dan at Fleurus over the Austrians, under the prince of C!o- burg, June 26, followed by the conquest of Belgium. Fall of Robespierre, July 27 (9th Thermidor) ; end of the Eeign of Terror. Execution of Robespierre and his supporters, July 28. The French take the Spanish town of Fuen- terrabia, Aug. 1. The English complete the liberation of Corsica from the French, Aug. Victorious campaign of Jourdan on the Shine, Sept. -Oct. Pichegru invades Hol- land. Trial of Hardy, Home Tooke, and others for high treason. Kosciuszko heads a great rising of the Polish people, which is met by the combined arms of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. He succumbs to the Russians, under Suvaroff and Fersen, at Maciejowice, Oct. 10, and is made prisoner. Storming of Praga and massacre by the Russians, under Suvaroff, Nov. 4. Capitulation of Warsaw, Nov. 8. Death of Gibbon and of Lavoisier (guillotined). 1796. The French complete the conquest of Holland, Jan. Procla- mation of the Batavian Republic. Insurrection in Paris against the Convention, April 1. Peace of Basel between France and Prussia, April 5 ; the Prussian territories west of the Rhine left to the French. Fresh rising against the Convention in Paris, May 20. A body of imigris land at Quiberon to join the royalist insurgents called Chouans, June. Failure of the expedition, July. Treaty of Basel between France and Spain, negotiated by Godoy, July. Adoption of the constitution of the year HI., Aug. 22. The French armies, under Jourdan and Pichegru, invade Germany, Sept. Annexation of Belgium and other con- quered territories to the French Republic, Oct. 1. Bona- parte successfully defends the Convention against a rising of the royalists, Oct. 5 (13th Vendemiaire). The Austrians, under Clerfayt and Wurmser, force back Jourdan and - ■ Pichegru, Oct. Last session of the Convention, Oct. 26. First session of the CouncU of Ancients and the Council of CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 115 1796. Five Himdred, Oct. 28. Installation of the Directory (executive of five), Nov. 1. The third partition of Poland, between Prussia, Eussia, and Austria, termlaates the existence of that country as an in- dependent kingdom. The capital, Warsaw, becomes the possession of Prussia. Stanislas Poniatowski resigns his crown. Oourland submits to Russia. The English take the Cape of Grood Hope colony. Mungo Park sets out on his first journey to the region of the Niger. Foundation pf the Institute of France. 1796. Admission of Tennessee into the Union. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson are elected president and vice-president of the United States. Bonaparte is placed in command of the "army of Italy." The Vendean leader Charette is made prisoner and shot, March. Victories of Bonaparte over the Austrians and Sardinians at Montenotte, MUlesimo, Dego, and Mondovi, April. He defeats the Austrians at Lodi, May 10. His forces enter Milan, May. Victor Amadeus HI. of Sardinia makes peace, relinquishing Savoy and Nice to the French, May. The armies of the Sambre and Meuse and of the Ehine and MoseUe, respectively under the command of Jourdau and of Moreau, enter upon a campaign against Austria and Grermany. The Grerman states outside of Aus- tria withdraw from the struggle, July-Sept. Bonaparte defeats the forces of Wurmser at Lonato, Aug. 3, and at Castiglione, Aug. 5. General Hoche pacifies the Vendee, Aug. The archduke Charles defeats Jourdan at Wurzburg, Sept. 3. Victory of. Bonaparte over the Austrians at Ro- veredo, Sept. 3, 4. Wurmser is defeated by Bonaparte at Bassano, Sept. 8, and throws himself into Mantua, which is closely invested by the French. Spain declares war against England, Oct. Ferdinand IV. of Naples makes peace with France, Oct. Moreau effects a masterly retreat to the Ehine, Oct. The French dominion is re-established in Corsica, Oct. Bonaparte defeats the Austrians, under Alvinczy, at Arcole, Nov. 15-17. French expedition to Ireland, Dec. Paul succeeds his mother, Catharine II., in Russia, Nov. 17. The English dispossess the Dutch in Ceylon. Jenner shows the efficacy of vaccination as a preventive against small-pox. 116 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1796. Death, of Bums. 1797. Beginning of John Adams's administration. Difficulties be- tween the United States and France. (Settled by a treaty in 1800.) Bonaparte vanquishes the Austrians, under Alvinczy, at Rivoli, Jan. 14. Mantua surrenders to the French, Feb. Bona- parte invades the dominions of Pius VI., Feb. The British admiral Jervis defeats the Spanish fleet oflP Cape St. Vin- cent, Feb. 14. The pope is forced to sign the peace of To- lentino, Feb. 19. Bonaparte invades Austria, March, forces back the archdtike Charles, and compels the signature of the preliminaries of Leoben, April 18. Fall of the Venetian Republic, the French forces occupy Venice, May. The Genoese dominions are constituted into the Lignrian Ee- pubUc, June. Establishment of the Cisalpine Eepublic by Bonaparte, June. The majority of the Directory execute a coup-d'itat against the royalist reaction, Sept. 4 (18th Fructidor). Admiral Duncan defeats the Dutch fleet off Camperdown (Camperduin), Oct. 11. Peace of Campo For- mio between France and Austria, Oct. 17; Austria cedes her former Belgian possessions and Lombardy, and receives most of the territories of the extinguished republic of Ven- ice (including Venetian Istria and Dalmatia) ; the Ionian Islands (held by Venice since the Middle Ages) are secured to the French. Return of Bonaparte to Paris, Dec. Open- ing of the congress of Rastadt. Insurrection in Rome. Frederick "William HE. succeeds his father, Frederick William II., in Prussia, Nov. 16. 1798. Passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws in the United States. The French occupy Rome, and proclaim the Roman Repub- lic, Feb. The French, after revolutionizing Switzerland, proclaim the Helvetic Republic, April. Annexation of Geneva and other portions of Switzerland to France. Bona- parte embarks on his expedition to Egypt, May. He takes possession of Malta, dispossessing the Knights of St. John, June. He enters Alexandria, July. The Mamelukes are vanquished by him in the battle of the Pyramids, July 21. Nelson destroys the French fleet at Aboiikir. (battle of the Nile), Aug. 1, 2. The Porte declares war against France, Sept. Ferdinand IV. of Naples, urged by Queen Caro- line, takes up arms against the French, Nov. Alliance between England and Russia, Dec. Charles Emanuel IV. CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 117 1798. of Sardinia is forced by the French to give up Pied- mont. — Hostilities between France and the United States. (Peace made in 1800.) The Great Eebellion in Ireland. 1799. Death of Washington, Dec. 14. The French enter Naples, and proclaim the Parthenopean Re- public, Jan. The fortress of Corfu surrenders to the Rus- sians and Turks, March. France declares war against Aus- tria, March. Defeat of Jourdan by the archduke Charles at Stockach, March. .Dissolution of the congress of Rastadt, April. Suvaroff, the commander-in-chief of the Russian and Austrian armies in Italy, defeats Moreau at Cassano, April 27. Three members of the Directory are expelled by the CouncUs, and replaced by others, June 18 (30th Prairial). Macdonald, after a contest of three days, June 17-19, is de- feated by Suvaroff on the Trebbia. End of the Partheno- pean Republic, June ; Ferdinand IV. restored to the Nea- politan throne. The Neapolitan forces enter Rome, July. Suvaroff defeats the forces of Joubert and Moreau at Novi, Aug. 15; Joubert kUled. The Dutch fleet is delivered to the English, Aug. Victory of Massena over the Russian general Korsakoff at Ziirich, Sept. 25, 26. Suvaroff, after marching into Switzerland, executes a retreat through that country, Oct. Failure of the Anglo-Russian expedition to the Netherlands, Oct. Bonaparte enters upon his Syrian campaign, Feb. Fall of Gaza, Feb. 25. Storming of Jaffa, March 7. Bonaparte begins the siege of Acre, March. He raises the siege, May 20, after a gallant defense by the Turks and Sir Sidney Smith, and retreats toward Egypt. Victory of Bonaparte over the Turks at Aboukir, July 25. He embarks for France, leaving Kleber in command in Egypt, Aug. 22. Bonaparte undertakes a coup-d'itat against the Directorial government, Nov. 9 (18th Brumaire). The Council of Five Hundred is forcibly dispersed, Nov. 10. Bonaparte, Siey^, and Ducos are appointed provisional consuls, Nov. 11. Proclamation of the Consulate, Dec. 24; Bonaparte, Cam- baceres, and Lebrun consuls for ten years, Bonaparte first- consul. Death of Pius VI., Aug. 29. Storming of Seringapatam by the English, May 4; Tippoo Saib killed. 118 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1799. Invention of the Voltaic pile. 1800. Removal of the seat of government of the United States from Philadelphia to "Washington. Presidential election in the United States. JefEerson and Burr receive the largest number of electoral votes, an equal number being cast for both. Other candidates; John Adams and C C. Pinckney* Final submission of the Chouans. The army of Moreau is victorious over the Austrians at Moskirch and Biberach, May. Bonaparte leads his army over the Great St. Ber- nard, May. Genoa, after a. desperate defense of nearly two months by Massena, surrenders to the Austrians, June. Victory of Bonaparte over the Austrians, under Melas, at Marengo, June 14. The English take Malta, Sept Victory of Moreau over the Austrians, under the archduke John, at Hohenlinden, Dec. 3. Attempt to assassinate Bonaparte by means of the Infernal Machine, Dec. 24. Assassination of Kleber at Cau'o, June 14. Eetrocession of Louisiana to France by Spain. Act for the legislative union of Ireland and Great Britain. (To take effect Jan. 1, 1801.) Election of Pope Pius VQ., March 14. 1801. Jefferson is elected president of the United States by the House of Representatives. Burr becomes vice-president. Outbreak of war between Tripoli and the United States.. Austria and Germany conclude peace with France at Lune- ville, Feb. 9 ; the stipulations of the peace of Campo For- mio are confirmed ; all of Germany west of the Rhine is re- linquished to France ; the hereditary princes of Germany agree to indemnify themselves for their losses by appropri- ating the territories of the ecclesiastical states as well as the free imperial cities. Defeat of the French at Alexandria by Sir Ralph Abercromby, who is mortally wounded, March 21. Treaty of Madrid be- tween France and Spain, March 21, providing for the ces- sion of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla to the French on the death of the reigning duke, Ferdinand, in exchange for which, Tuscany (occupied by Prance in 1799) is trans- ferred as the kingdom of Etruria to the duke's son, Don Luis. (Death of Ferdinand, 1802.) Peace between France * The last election in which the electors did not spetafy which candidate was voted for aa president and which as vioe-president. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. II9 180L and Naples, March. Denmark having entered into an armed neutrality with the northern powers with respect to England, her fleet is attacked at Copenhagen by Nelson, and defeated, April 2. Bonaparte concludes his Concordat with Pius VII., July 15. The French are forced to evacu- ate Egypt. Preliminary treaty of peace between France and England, Oct. Peace between France and Bussia, Oct. Resignation of Pitt, March. The Addington ministry suc- ceeds. Annexation of Grusia (Georgia) to the Russian Empire. Con- spiracy against Czar Paul, who is murdered, night of March 23-34. Accession of his son, Alexander I. Bonaparte dispatches an expedition, under Leclerc, against Toussaint I'Ouverture, the Negro governor of Hayti. Piazzi discovers the first asteroid, Ceres. 1802. The Cisalpine Eepublic is reconstituted as the Italian Republic, with Bonaparte as president, Jan. Peace of Amiens be- tween France, Spain, and the Batavian Eepublic on one side and Great Britain on the other, March 27. Great Britain recognizes the changes made by France in Europe. She agrees to give up the recent conquests with the excep- tion of Ceylon (conquered from the Dutch in 1796) and Trinidad (conquered from the Spaniards in 1797). (The provision respecting the surrender of Malta to the Knights •of St. John not carried out.) Definitive treaty of peace be- tween France and Turkey, June. Bonaparte is declared consul for life, Aug. 2. Eebellion in Switzerland against the established order. Union of Piedmont with France, Sept. The French forces restore order in Switzerland. Charles Emanuel IV. of Sardinia resigns, and is succeeded by Tiis brother, Victor Emanuel I. Operations of Leclerc against the blacks of Hayti. Their leader, Toussaint I'Ouverture, is treacherously seized and conveyed to France. Institution of the French Legion of Honor. Foimdation of the "Edinburgh Review." 1803. Admission of Ohio into the Union. Purchase of Louisiana from France by the United States. Lewis and Clark are appointed to conduct an exploring expedition through the western portion of the territory of the United States. (Advance beyond the Mississippi under- taken in 1804 ; the expedition returns in 1806.) 120 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1803. "Act of Mediation" by which Bonaparte reorganizes the Swiss confederacy, Feb. 19 ; restoration of the former can- tonal system. The imperial delegation (Reichsdeputation) charged with the settlement of the changes in the Grermanic body provided for in the treaty of Luneville publishes its conclusions (Reichsdeputationshauptschluss), Feb. 25. England declares war against France, May. The French occupy Hanover, June. Emmet's attempted rebellion in Ireland. Brilliant achievements of the English under WeUesley, Lake, and others against the Mahrattas. The blacks of Hayti are successful against the French, who are expelled from the island. Death of Klopstock, Alfleri, and Herder. 1804. Duel between Hamilton and Burr, July 11. (Death of Ham- ilton, July 12.)— The United States frigate " Philadelphia," having fallen into the hands of the Tripolitans in 1803, is retaken and burned by Decatur. Commodore Preble makes repeated attacks upon the Tripolitan fleet in front of Trip- oli, Aug. -Sept. — ^Thomas Jefferson is re-elected president; Greorge Clinton is chosen vice-president. Arrest of Moreau, Pichegru, and Cadoudal on a charge of conspiracy, Feb. -March. Publication of the Code Civil des Frangais (afterward called Code NapoUon), March 21. The duke d'Enghien is shot at Vincennes by order of Bonaparte, March 21. The French fleet, assembled at Boulogne for the invasion of England, is unsuccessfully attacked by the British, April (again in October). Napo- leon I. is declared emperor of France, May 18. Execution of Cadoudal and others, June. Coronation of Napoleon and Josephine in Paris by Pius VH., Dec. 2. Spain de- clares war against England, Dec. 12. Fall of the Adding^n ministry. May; Pitt again premier. Francis H. assumes the title of emperor of Austria as Francis I., Aug. 11. Itising of the Servians against Turkish rule. Czemy Greoige (Kara George) becomes their leader. War between the English and the Mahratta ruler Jesewunt Eow Holkar. (The war c6ncluded in Dec., 1805.) DessaJines (at first appointed governor) assumes the title of emperor of Hayti as Jean Jacques I. CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTOBY. 121 1804. Death of Eant. 1806. Beginning of the second administration of Thomas Jefferson. Peace between the United States and Tripoli. Napoleon assumes the title of king of Italy, March. Coalition against France ^between England, Russia, Austria, and Swe- den. (The South German states side with France.) Union of the Ligurian Republic with France, June. Eugene Beau- hamais is appointed viceroy of Italy, June. The Austrian army invades Bavaria, Sept. The French forces cross the Rhine, Sept. Surrender of the Austrian general Mack with his army at Uhn, Oct. 20. Victory of Nelson over the French and Spanish fleet at Trafalgar, Oct. 31 ; death of Nelson. The archduke Charles is successful against Massena at Caldiero, Oct. ; the engagement is followed by the retreat of the Austrians. Murat occupies Vienna, Nov. 13. Vic- tory of Napoleon at Austerlitz over the combined Austrian and Russian armies, commanded by the emperors Francis and Alexander, Dec. 2. Convention between France and Prussia, by which Prussia cedes Anspach, Baireuth, Cleves, and Neuf chatel, Hanover being given up to her in ex-, change, Dec. 15. Peace of Presburg between France and Austria, Dec. 26 ; * Austria cedes her Venetian dominions (including Dalmatia, etc.) to the Italian kingdom, and Tyrol to Bavaria ; Breisgauf and the other old possessions of the house of Austria in Swabia are annexed to Baden, Wiirtemberg, and Bavaria ; Salzburg | is given to Austria; the imperial city of Augsburg is incorporated with Bava- ria; Bavaria and Wiirtemberg are erected into kingdoms. (Proclamation of their new titles by the kings of Bavaria and "Wiirtemberg, Maximilian I. Joseph and Frederick I. , Jan; 1, 1806.) * According to a statement in Mettemioh's correspondence, the treaty was ac- tually signed Dec. 27. + Breisgan had already been separated from Austria in puiauanee of the stipula- tions of the treaty of Lundville, having heen assigned to Erooleof Este, the dispos- HCBScd duke of Modena. This prince died in 1803, and Breisgau passed to his son- in-law, the archduke Ferdinand of Austria, uncle of the emperor Francis. On the downfall of Napoleon, Ferdinand's son, Francis IV. , became reigning duke uf Modena. J In the changes which followed the treaty of LuniSvillo, the archbishopric of Salz- burg had been secularized and given to Ferdinand III., the dispossessed grand-duke of Tuscany (brother of the emperor Francis), who was created an imperial elector. In exchange for Salzburg, Ferdinand received the former see of Wtirzburg. On thf down&ll of Napoleon, he was reinstated in Tuscany. 122 CHKONOL06IOAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 1805. Publication of Scott's " Lay of the Last Minstrel." Death of SchiUer. 1806. Death of Pitt, Jan. 23. Formation of the Grenville ministry, Feb. ; Fox secretary for foreign affairs. The French forces enter Naples, Feb. Murat is created grand-duke of Cleves and Berg, March. Joseph Bonaparte is proclaimed king of Naples and Sicily, March (the island of Sicily, however, continuing under the dominion of Ferdinand IV.). Louis Bonaparte is proclaimed king of Holland, June. For- mation of the Confederation of the Rhine, July. The em- peror Francis II. renounces the German crown, Aug. 6; end of the Holy Eoman Empira Death of Fox, Sept. 13. New coalition against France. Prussia declares war, Oct. Napoleon and Davout overwhelm the Prussians in the battles of Jena and Auerstadt, Oct. 14. Napoleon enters Berlin, Oct. 27. The French storm Liibeck, Nov. 6. Bliicher capitulates at Eatkow, Nov. 7. The French oc- cupy Hamburg, Nov. Napoleon issues nis Berlin Decree, declaring the British Isles in a state of blockade and pro- hibiting all commercial intercourse with them, Nov. 21. The French enter Warsaw, Nov. Treaty between France and Saxony, whose elector, Frederick Augustus HI., as- sumes the title of king as Frederick Augustus I., Dec. Bat- tle of Pultusk between the French and Bussians, Dec. 26. The English retake possession of Cape Colony. Outbreak of war between Bussia and Turkey. Assassination of DessaUnes, emperor of Hayti. Christophe is made president for life. 1807. Act of Congress abolishing the slave-trade (from Jan. 1, 1808). Trial of Aaron Burr for treason. The British man-of-war "Leopard" attacks the frigate "Chesapeake." Congress lays an embargo on shipping destined for foreign ports. Indecisive battle of Eylau between the French and the allied Bussians and Prussians, Feb. 7, 8. The French take Dant- zic. May. Victory of Napoleon over the Bussians at Fried- land, June 14. Conference between Napoleon and Alex- ander I. on a raft on the Niemen, June. France concludes the treaties of Tilsit with Bussia (July 7) and Prussia (July 9) ; Prussia gives up her possessions west of the Elbe and the Polish dominions acquired in 1793 and 1795. Out of the latter Napoleon creates the duchy of Warsaw for Fred- erick Augustus of Saxony, Aug. Out of the former and CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 123 1807. the electorate of Hesse-Cassel, the duchy of Brunswick- Wolf enbiittel, etc., he creates the kingdom of Westphalia for his brother Jerome, Aug. Napoleon conquers the Swe- dish possessions in Germany, Aug. -Sept. Bombardment of Copenhagen by' the British, Sept. 2-5. The French, under Junot, invade Portugal, Nov. The royal family embarks for Brazil. Junot occupies Lisbon. Napoleon takes pos- session of the kingdom of Etruria, Dec. Napoleon's Milan Decree against British commerce. Sir John Duckworth forces the passage of the Dardanelles, Feb. Abolition of the slave-trade in the British Empire. Besignation of the GrenvUle ministry, March. Formation of the Portland ministry, April. Inauguration of great political reforms in Prussia, chiefly under the direction of Stein. Triumph of the Servian insurgents. (See 1813.) Successful introduction of steam navigation ; Fulton's steam ■ boat, the " Clermont," begins her trips on the Hudson. Publication of Hegel's " Phanomenologie des Geistes." 1808. James Madison is elected president of the United States; Gteorge Clinton is re-elected vice-president. The French forces enter Rome, Feb. Charles IV. of Spain is forced by a i)opular rising to abdicate in. favor of his son, Ferdinand VH. , March 19. Murat enters Madrid, March 33. Napoleon annexes a large portion of the Papal States to the kingdom of Italy, ApriL Ferdinand VH. and Charles IV. meet Napoleon at Bayonne, and are forced to renounce the Spanish crown, April-May. Outbreak of the insurrection against the French in Spain, May. Napoleon makes his brother Joseph king of Spain, June 6. Portugal rises against the French, June. Surrender of the French gen- eral Dupont to the Spaniards at Baylen, July. Napo- leon proclaims his brother-in-law Murat king of Naples, Aug. 1. The English, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, be- gin operations against the French in Portugal, Aug. The French are forced to raise the siege of Saragossa, Aug. Victory of Wellesley over Junot at Vimeiro, Aug. 21. Junot signs the convention of Cintra for the evacuation of Portugal by the French, Aug. 30. Conference of Erfurt between Napoleon, Alexander I., and other princes, Sepi- Oet. Surrender of Madrid to Napoleon, Dec. Napoleon forces the king of Prussia to dismiss Stein. 124 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1808. Russia conquers Finland from Sweden. (See 1809.) Frederick VI. succeeds his father, Christian Vll., in Denmark (See 1784.) Accession of Mahmoud 11. in Turkey. 1809. Beginning of James Madison's first administration. Sir John Moore, after retreating before the French to Corunna, is killed La an engagement before that place, Jan. 16. The French storm Saragossa, Jan. Its citadel falls, Feb. The French, under Soult, take Oporto, March. It is recovered by Beresf ord. May. Wellesley gains the battle of Talavera de la Eeina, July 27, 28. Austria renews the struggle against Napoleon. Her armies invade Bavaria and the duchy of Warsaw, April. Andreas Hof er heads an insurrection of the Tyrolese against Bavaria, April. Napoleon defeats the Austrians at Abensberg, Lands- hut, and Eckmiihl, April. Russia declares war against Austria, May 3. Napoleon enters Vienna, May 13. Battle of Aspern and Essling, May 21, 22 ; defeat of Napoleon by the archduke Charles. Eugene Beauharnais defeats the Austrians at Baab, June 14. Napoleon vanquishes the Aus- trians, under the archduke Charles, at Wagram, July 6. Signing of an armistice at Znaim, July 12. Peace of Schon- brunn between France and Austria, Oct. 14. (Ratified in Vienna.) Austria gives up Salzburg, part of the provinces of Upper Austria and Carinthia, Camiola, most of Croatia, the coast-land of the Adriatic, large portions of her Polish territories, etc. Napoleon creates the dominion of the Illy- rian Provinces. Decree of Napoleon annexing the territories of the pope to the French Empire, May. Pius VII. excommunicates Nar poleon, June. Arrest of the pope, July, followed by his removal to France. Disastrous English expedition to the island of Walcheren. Divorce of the empress Josephine, Dec. The Portland ministry is succeeded by that of Perceval, Opt. Grustavus TV. Adolphus of Sweden is forced to abdicate. His uncle, Charles Xm., succeeds. Cession of Finland to Death of Haydn. 18X0. Andreas Hofer is betrayed to the French and executed, Feb. Marriage of Napoleon with Maria Louisa^ daughter of the CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 125 1810. emperor Francis I., April. Annexation of Holland to the French. Empire, July. The French take Ciudad Rodrigo, July. Wellington (Welles- ley) repulses Massena at Busaco, Sept. 37. Wellington re- tires behind the lines of Torres Vedras, Oct. Bremen, Hamburg, Liibeck, and extensive territories in North Germany are united to the French Empire, Dec. Greorge HI. hopelessly insane. Hardenberg is placed at the head of affairs in Prussia. Bernadotte is made crown-prince of Sweden. Campaign of the Russians, under Kamenskoi, in Bulgaria. Fall of Silistria. The Russians fail before Shumla. Sur- render of Rustchuk. The English wrest Mauritius from the French. The Mexican war of independence is begun by Hidalgo. Beginning of the struggle for independence in Venezuela, New Granada, and Buenos Ayres. Insurrection in Quito. Revolutionary movement in Chili. Opening of the University of Berlin. Death of Cavendish. 1811. Battle of Tippecanoe, Nov. 7; General Harrison defeats the Indians, under the Prophet, brother of Tecumseh. Retreat of Massena from Portugal, March. Surrender of Badajoz to the French, March. Wellington repulses Mas- sena at Fuentes de Onoro, May. Beresford defeats Soult at Albuera, May 16. Greorge, Prince of Wales, is appointed regent of Great Britain, Feb. Financial bankruptcy of the Austrian government. Campaign of the Russians, under Kutuzoff , against the Turks on the Danube. ' Massacre of the Mamelukes at Cairo by Mehemet Ali. The English make themselves masters of Java. Hidalgo falls into the hands of the Spaniards, and is executed. Morelos continues the war for Mexican independence. (Made prisoner by the Spaniards, and executed, 1815.) New Granada and Venezuela declare themselves independent of Spain. Revolutionary struggle in Paraguay. Publication of the first volume of Niebuhr's " Romische Ge- schichte." I8).2. Admission of the state of Louisiana into the Union. (The ter- ritory of Louisiana becomes the territory of Missouri.) The 126 CBKONOLOGlCAL TABLE OF tJNIVERSAt aiSTftHY. 1812. United States declare war against Great Britain, June 18. The Americans, imder Greneral Hull, invade Canada, July. Surrender of Hull to Brock at Detroit, Aug. 16. The Ameri- can frigate "Constitution," commanded by Isaac Hull, cap- tures the " Guerriere," Aug. 19. The Americans cross the Niagara, and take Queenstown, which is soon recovered hy the enemy, Oct. The American sloop-of-war "Wasp," Capt. Jones, captures the "Frolic," Oct. 18. Jones is forced to surrender on the same day to the "Poictiers." The American frigate " United States," Capt. Decatur, captures the "Macedonian," Oct. 25. The "Constitution," now commanded hy Captain Bainbridge, takes the "Java," Dec. 29. — James Madison is re-elected president, and El- bridge Gerry is chosen vice-president; defeated candidate for the presidency, De Witt Clinton. Suchet takes Valencia, Jan. Wellington storms Ciudad Eod- rigo, Jan. Promulgation of a liberal constitution by the Spanish Cortes, March 18. Wellington storms Badajoz, April. Victory of Wellington over Marmont near Sala- manca, July 22. The British enter Madrid, Aug. Wel- lington unsuccessfully besieges Burgos, Sept. -Oct. Napoleon declares war against Bussia, June 22. The Grand Army begins the invasion of Bussia, June. The French defeat the Russians at Smolensk, which is burned, Aug. Victory of Napoleon over Kutuzoff at Borodino, on the Moskva, Sept. 7. The French, under Murat, enter Moscow, Sept. 14. Entry of Napoleon into the city, Sept. 15. Mos- cow is set on fire by the Eussiaos, Sept. 15-16. The French army begins its retreat, Oct. Passage of the Berezina by the French, Nov. 26-28. Napoleon arrives in Paris, Dec. Assassination of Perceval, May. Formation of the Liverpool ministry, June. Peace of Bucharest between Eussia and Turkey, May 28 ; the Pruth made the boim.dary between the two empires. Great earthquake at Caracas, March 26. Temporary triumph of the Spanish authority in Venezuela. The patriot leader Miranda is sent a prisoner to Spain. Publication of the first portion of Byron's " Childe Harold." 1813. Victory of the British, under Proctor, over the Americans at Frenchtown, Jan. 22. Capture of the British brig "Pea- cock" by the "Hornet," Capt. Lawrence, Feb. 24. Begin- ning of Madison's second administration. The Americans CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 127 1813. take York (Toronto), April 27; their leader, General Pike, killed. Successful expedition of the Americans against Fort Greorge, May. Repulse of the British at Sackett's Harbor, May. Capture of the "Chesapeake," Capt. Law- rence, by the "Shannon," June 1. The British brig "Boxer" is taken by the "Enterprise," Sept. 5. Victory of the Americans, under Commodore Perry, on Lake Erie, Sept. 10. General Harrison defeats Proctor in the battle of the Thames, Oct. 5 ; death of Tecumseh. — ^War with the Creek Lidians. Rising of the German people against France. Russia and Prussia conclude an alliance at Kalisz, Feb. Bemadotte, at the head of a Swedish army, joins in the campaign against France. Napoleon is -victorious over the Russians and Prussians at Liitzen, May 2. He wins the battle at Bautzen, May 20, 21. Austria declares war against France, Aug. 12^ Oudiuot is defeated by the army of Bemadotte (by Billow's division) at Grossbeeren, Aug. 23. Bliicher defeats Macdonald on the Katzbach, Aug. 26. Napoleon wins the battle of Dresden against Prince Schwarzenberg, Aug. 26, 27. Battle of Culm, Aug. 29, 30 ; the French gen- eral Vandamme is forced to surrender. Bulow defeats Ney at Dennewitz, Sept. 6. Battle of Leipsic, Oct. 16, 18, 19 ; Napoleon overthrown by the forces of Schwarzenberg, commander-in-chief of the allies, Bliicher, Bemadotte, and Bennigsen; the king of Saxony, Napoleon's ally, taken prisoner. Dissolution of the Confederation of the Rhine and of the kingdom of Westphalia. Retreat of Napoleon to the Rhine. Expulsion of the French from Holland. William, son of William V., is placed by the Dutch at the head of the government. Wellington defeats the French at Vitoria June 21. He is victorious over Soult in the Pjn^enees, July. He passes the Bidassoa, Oct., and pursues Soult into France. Re-establishment of Turkish authority in Servia. (See 1815.) Russia compels Persia, in the peace of "Gulistan, to cede Da- ghestan, Shirvan, Baku, and other territories. (The treaty ratiBed at Tiflis in 1814.) Successful advance of Bolivar through New Granada and Venezuela. He enters Caracas, and receives the title of Libertador. Death of Wieland, Lagrange, DeUlle, Komer. 128 CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEKSAJL HISTOBT. 1814. General Jackson breaks the power of the Creeks. The Ameri- can frigate " Essex," Commodore Porter, surrenders to the " Phoebe '' and " Cherub," March 28. Capture of the Brit- ish brig " Epervier " by the " Peacock," April 29. Victory of the Americans at Chippewa, July 5. The Americans, under Scott and Brown, fight the British at Lundy's Lane (Bridgewater), July 23. The forces of General Ems, after dispersing the American militia at Bladensburg, enter Washington, Aug. 24. They retire, Aug. 25. The Ameri- cans, under Commodore McDonough, achieve a great vic- tory on Lake Champlaiu, Sept. 11. The British unsuccess- fully attack Baltimore, Sept. 12, 13. General Jackson seizes Pensacola, Nov. The people of New England hold a con- vention at Hartford to protest against the continuance of the war with Great Britain, Dec. Treaty of Ghent between the United States and Great Britain, Dec. 24. Livasion of France by the allies. Murat deserts Napoleon, and joins the allies, Jan. Denmark is forced to conclude the treaty of Kiel with Sweden and England, Jan. 14 ; she cedes Norway to Sweden, receiv- ing Swedish Pomerania in exchange, and Heligoland to England. (The island held by the British since 1807.) Pius VH. is permitted to leave Fontainebleau, Jan. The Con- gress of Chiitillon between France and the allies opens, Feb. (Closes in March.) Napoleon is victorious over the army of Bliicher at Champaubert, Montmirail, ChS,teau-Thierry, and Vauchamps, and achieves a success against Schwarzenberg at Montereau, Feb. Wellington defeats Soult at Orthez, Feb. 27. Bliicher repulses the French at Laon, March 9. The French evacuate the Papal States, March. Napoleon releases Ferdinand VH., March. Schwarzenberg is vic- torious at Arcis-sur-Aube, March 20, 21. Battle before Paris, the allies storm Montmartre, March 30. Entry of the allies into Paris, March 31. The French Senate, under the lead of Talleyrand, establishes a provisional government, April I. Soult unsuccessfully opposes Wellington at Toulouse, April 10. Abdication of Napoleon at Fontainebleau, April II. Eugene Beauhamais, after opposing the Austrians in Italy, signs a convention with them, April 16. Louis XVHI., brother of Louis XVI., having been placed on the French throne by the Senate and the allies, makes his sol- emn entry into Paris, May 3; First Restoration. Napoleon CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 129 1814. lands at Elba, May 4. Peace of Paris, May 30. Louis XVllI. promulgates the " Charte constitutionelle," June 4. A general congress of the European powers, great and small, is assembled at Vienna for the purpose of reorganizing the political system of the continent ; opening of the congress, Sept. Austria is represented by Mettemich; Prussia, by Hardenberg; Russia, by Nesselrode; England and Han- over, Ijy Castlereagh and Miinster ; France, by Talleyrand. Ferdinand VII., after abrogating the constitution of 1812, en- ters Madrid, May. Pius VII. re-establishes the order of Jesuits, Aug. Defeat of Bolivar and Marino by the Spanish general Boves at La Puerta, Venezuela. Bolivar passes over into New Granada, where he is appointed commander-in-chief. Francia becomes dictator of Paraguay. Introduction of gas for general illumination in London! Death of Fichte and of Count Rumford. 1818. Creneral Jackson repulses the British attack on New Orleans, Jan. 8. Conunodore Decatur imposes terms upon the Dey of Algiers, and exacts reparation from Tunis and Tripoli. Escape of Napoleon from Elba, Feb. 26. He lands in France, March 1. Ney passes over to him with his army, March 13. Louis XVin. quits Paris, March 20 ; Napoleon enters it on the same day; beginning of the "Hundred Days." Re- newal of the alliance of the Great Powers against France, March. Murat takes up arms on the side of Napoleon, March. He is defeated by the Austrians at Tolentiuo, May 2, 3; the kingdom of Naples recovered by Ferdinand rV. Vendean insurrection under the younger La Roche- jacquelin, May-June. Signing of the acts of the Congress of Vienna relating to the reconstitution of the Germanic federation, June 8. Signing of the general acts of the con- gress, June 9. EKOEGANIZATION OP THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OP EUEOPE BY THE C0NQEE8S OF VIENNA. France is permitted to retain the limits existing at the outbreak of the Revolution. Austria is reinstated in the possession of all the territories be- longing to her at the outbreak of the French Revolution, with the exception of Belgium (conquered by the French in 1794) and of fireisgau and other territories annexed to the South German states ; 10 130 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. her dominion being re-established in Lombardy (given up to the French in 1797), in Tyrol (transferred to Bavaria in 1805), and in the territories constituted by Napoleon into the Illyrian Provinces in 1809. Venetia, Venetian Istria, and Dalmatia (all acquired in 1797, and lost in 1805) are restored to her, as is also Salzburg (ac- quired in 1805, and annexed to Bavaria in 1810). West Gralicia (taken in the third partition of Poland, 1795, and united with the duchy of Warsaw after the war of 1809) remains severed from Austria. Prussia resumes possession of the territories west of the Rhine ceded to France in 1795 and of the German territories lost in 1806-'7 (not reckoning Hanover, acquired in 1805), excepting East Friesland and Hildesheim, given to Hanover in exchange for Lau- enburg. Of the Polish territories taken from her to form the duchy of Warsaw (created in 1807), she recovers the western portion, which is constituted the grand-duchy of Posen. Dantzic (held by the French from 1807 to the beginning of 1814) is also reunited with Prussia. Of the territories ceded in exchange for Hanover in 1805, viz., Anspach, Baireuth, Cleves, and NeufchStel, she recovers Cleves and Neufchatel, Bavaria retaining Anspach and Baireuth. She re- ceives as new possessions half of Saxony, most of the former archbish- oprics of Treves and Cologne, the territories of the grand-duchy of Berg and of the duchy of Julich, and also Swedish Pomerania(with Biigen), given to Denmark in compensation for the loss of Norway, and made over by that power to Prussia in exchange for Lauenburg. The bulk of the duchy of Warsaw is erected into the new king- dom of Poland, placed under the sceptre of Russia. The republic of Cracow is created and placed under the protection of the Great Powers. Russia retains Finland (conquered from Sweden in 1808-'9). The king of Sweden is confirmed in the possession of Norway. Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Brunswick, and Oldenburg resume their position as independent states, Hanover being erected into a king- dom. The order of things introduced in Germany after the treaty of Luneville — that is, the incorporation of the ecclesiastical states and free cities with the larger members of the federal body — remains perpetuated. Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck, and Frankfort, alone of all the free cities, reappear as autonomous political units. Of the territory of the Lower Palatinate west of the Rhine (ceded to France in 1801), the greater portion is reunited with Bavaria. Baden re- tains Heidelberg and Mannheim (formerly included in the Palati- nate), acquired in 1803. The former see of Wiirzburg is united with Bavaria. The members of the former German Empire enter into a new union, the German Confederation, CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL fflSTORT. 131 Holland and Belgium are united, and erected into the kingdom of the Netherlands for the house of Orange. Luxemburg (pre- viously part of the Austrian Netherlands) is erected into a grand- duchy for the king of the Netherlands (to be included, as formerly, in the Germanic body). The house of Savoy is reinstated in the possession of the conti- nental dominions of the kingdom of Sardinia (Savoy and Nice, lost in 1792, and Piedmont, lost in 1798), and is invested with the do- minions of the former republic of Genoa. Ferdinand III, (brother of the emperor Francis) is restored to the throne of Tuscany. Francis IV., grandson of Ercole III. of Bste (and cousin of the emperor Francis), is placed on the throne of Modena. Ferdinand IV. of Naples and Sicily is reinstated in his conti- nental possessions (given to Joseph Bonaparte in 1806, and to Murat in 1808). The States of the Church are restored in nearly their former bxt tent. Prance retaining Avignon and Venaisain. Parma is given to the ex-empress Maria Louisa. Lucca is given to the Spanish infanta Maria Louisa (widow of Louis, son of the last duke of Parma, and ex-queen of Etruria) and her son, Charles Louis.* The Austrian dominions in Italy are erected into theLombardo- Venetian Kingdom. Spain is secured to the dispossessed Bourbon dynasty. The Swiss Confederacy is reconstituted with 23 cantons. Of the colonial possessions taken by England from the Dutch and French, she retains Cape Colony, Ceylon, a large portion of the Dutch possessions in Guiana, Mauritius, Tobago, and Santa Lucia, She is secured in the possession of Malta and Heligoland. 1816. Napoleon defeats Bliiclier at Ligny, June 16. Eepulse of Ney at Quatre-Bras, June 16. Napoleon is overwhelmed at Water loo by Wellington and Bliiclier, June 18. Second abdication of Napoleon at Fontaiaebleau, June 22. Entry of the allies into Paris, July 7. Louis XVIII. re-enters the capital, July 8 ; Second Bestoration. Napoleon gives himself up to the captain of the "Bellerophon," July 15. (He lands at St. Helena, Oct. 16.) Formation of the Eichelieu ministry by Louis XVIH., Sept. Formation of the Holy Alliance between the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, Sept. * In a Buhsequent treaty, the reversion of Parma, on the death of the ex-empress Maria Lonisa, was seouied to Charles Louis. 132 CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL mSTOBY. 1815. Expedition of Murat to Calabria for the recovery of the king. dom of Naples, Oct. He is shot by order of court-martial, night of Oct. 13-14. Treaty constituting the Ionian Islands a republic under British protection, Nov. Second peace of Paris, Nov. 20. Execution of Ney, Deo. 7. Milosh Obrenovitch heads a new insurrection of the Servian people. The Spaniards, under Morillo, overrun New Granada. 1816. Congress charters a second Bank of the United States for twenty years. James Monroe is elected president of the United States ; Daniel D. Tompkins, vice-president. Ad- mission of Indiana into the Union. Charles Augustus, grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, grants a representative government to his subjects. Opening of the Diet {Bundestag)* of the German Confederation, Nov. 5. Ferdinand IV. unites the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily into the single kingdom of the Two Sicilies, assuming the title of Ferdinand I., Dec. Death of Maria I. of Portugal. Her son, John VI., pre- viously regent, succeeds as king of Portugal and of Brazil. Bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth, Aug. The congress of Tucuman proclaims the independence of the Plata provinces, July 9. 1817. Beginning of James Monroe's first administration. Admis- sion of Mississippi into the Union. Formation of the United Evangelical Church in Prussia out of a union of the Lutheran and Calvinist churches. Wart- burg Festival of the German Burschenschaft (patriotic association of students), Oct. 18. Milosh Obrenovitch is elected prince of Servia. The Mahrattas engage in a war with the English, who break their power. Bolivar establishes a Supreme Council in Venezuela, and as- sumes the chief power. . Publication of Cuvier's "Eegne animal." 1818. Campaign of Jackson against the Seminoles. He occupies Pensacola. Admission of Illinois into the Union. * Composed of delegates appointed by the sovereigns of the several states. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 133 1818. Congress of the Great Powers at Aix-la-Chapelle. With- drawal of the foreign armies from France. Dismissal of the Richelieu ministry, Dec. ; Louis XVIII. intrusts the administration of afPairs to Decazes. Bernadotte succeeds Charles XIII. in Sweden and Norway as Charles XIV. John, Feh. 5. Ibrahim Pasha, son of Mehemet Ali, takes El-Derayeh, the capital of the Wahabees, and completes their subjugation. Mulhar Row Holkar, the Mahratta ruler of Indore, cedes a large part of his territories to the English, and becomes their Tassal. The English subdue the Pindarees. The Chilians §aui the battle of Maypu, and achieve their lib- eration from Spain. Foundation of the new University of Bonn. 1819. Treaty between the United States and Spain for the cession of Florida to the United States.- (Formal possession given to the United States in 1831.) Admission of Alabama into the Union. Dispersal of a great Radical reform meeting in Manchester, followed by a " massacre," Aug. Assassination of Kotzebue by Karl Sand at Mannheim, March 23. Congress of Carlsbad, held by the menibers of the Grerman Confederation. Adoption of the Carlsbad resolu- tions, directed against the freedom of the universities and the press. First beginnings of the German ZoUverein. Victorious entry of Bolivar into Bogota. Union qf New Granada and Venezuela to form the republic of Colombia, with Bolivar as president, Deo. Publication of Scott's "Ivanhoe." 1820. Maine is detached from Massachusetts, and admitted into the Union. Adoption of the "Missouri Compromise,'' pro- hibiting slavery in the territory acquired from France north of latitude 36° 30', except within the limits of the state of Missouri, about to be admitted into the Union. Re-election of James Monroe and Daniel D. Tompkins. Greorge IV. succeeds his father, George III., Jan. 29. Trial of Queen Caroline. Assassination of the duke of Berry, second son of the future Charles X., Feb. 13. (Death of the duke, Feb. 14.) Dis- missal of Decazes, Feb. ; Richelieu again premier. Biego heads an insurrection in Spain against Ferdinand VII., who is forced to restore the constitution of 1813. 134 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF TINIVERSAL HISTORY. 1.820. Successful rising of the Carbonari (secret revolutionary asso- ciation) against Ferdinand I. of Naples. Insurrection in Sicily. Congress of the Great Powers at Troppau for the support of absolutism. Successful revolution in Portugal. Revolt of Ali Pasha of Janina. Insurrection in Hayti against Christophe, who puts an end to his life. Oersted announces his discoveries in electro-magnetism. 1821. Beginning of Monroe's second administration. Admission of Missouri into the Union. Congress of the Great Powers at Laybach. An Austrian force advances into the Neapolitan dominions, and restores the absolute authority of Ferdinand I. Revolution in Piedmont. Victor Emanuel I. resigns, March! Charles Albert, of the line of Savoy-Carignan, assumes the regency, and proclaims a liberal constitution. Intervention of Austria. Charles Felix, brother of Victor Emanuel, is placed on the Sardinian throne, April. The constitution is annulled. End of the Richelieu ministry, Dec. John VT. returns from Brazil to Portugal, leaving his son, Dom Pedro, regent of Brazil. Outbreak of the Greek Revolution. Alexander Ypsilanti raises the standard of revolt at Jassy, Moldavia, March. He is overthrown by the Turks, Jiine. Heroic death of Gteorgakis and his followers. Suppression of the revolt in the north. Revolt in the Morea, March. Victorious efforts of the Greeks under Germanos, Colocotronis, Mavromichalis, Demetrius TpsHanti, Mavrocordatos, Botzaris, Odysseus, and others; Successful rising in the Archipelago. Storming of Tripo- litza by the patriots, Oct. A new revolution in Mexico, headed by Iturbide, secures the independence of the country. The colonies of Central America declare themselves independ- ent of Spain. Victory of Bolivar and Paez at Carabobo, June 24, which puts an end to Spanish power in Colombia. San Martin enters Lima, and proclaims the independence of Peru. Appearance of Saint-Simon's " Syst^me industriel." Death of Napoleon, May 5. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 135 1822. Appointment of Canning as secretaiy of state for foreign af- fairs in the Liverpool ministry. Vill^le is made president of the new ministry in France (formed Dec, 1821). The struggle between the Constitutionalists and Royalists ia Spain ends in the triumph of the former. The Great Powers, at a congress held at Verona, resolve to put down the Constitutionalists. Proclamation of Greek independence by the national assem- bly at Epidaurus, Jan. Fall of Ali Pasha of Janina, Feb, Massacres on the island of Scio by the Turks. The Greeks force the Acropolis of Athens to surrender, June. Defeat of the patriots at Peta, July. Disastrous campaign of the Turks in the Morea. Naval exploits of Miaulis and Canaris. Iturbide is proclaimed emperor of Mexico, May. Santa Anna and others proclaim the republic, Dec. Brazil proclaims her separation from Portugal. Dom Pedro . is declared constitutional emperor, Oct. 13. The battle of Pichincha, May, secures the liberation of the province of Quito from Spain. Union of the whole island of Hayti under Boyer. Establishment of the colony of Liberia by the American Colo- nization Society. Death of Shelley, Herschel, Canova. 1823. Foundation of the British Anti-Slavery Society by WUber- force and others. A French army, under the duke of AngoulSme, invades Spain to restore the authority of Ferdinand VII. It enters Madrid, May. The Cortes retire to Cadiz, and defend the place. Storming of the Trocadero by the French, Aug. ; the Con- stitutionalists are crushed. The Suliote leader Marco Botzaris attacks the Turkish camp at Karpenisi, and falls, Aug. Pope Leo XII. succeeds Pius VII. Resignation of Iturbide, March. Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Eica constitute themselves the federal republic of Central America. Entry of Bolivar into Lima. The African expedition of Denham and Clappertou reaches Lake Tchad. 136 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1824. Presidential election in the United States. Candidates for the presidency : Andrew Jackson, J. Q. Adams, W. H. Crawford, Henry Clay. None of the candidates receives a majority of the electoral votes. J. C. Calhoun is elected vice-president. Death of Louis XVIII., Sept. 16. , Accession of his brother, Charles X. Death of Byron at Missolonghi, AprO 19. Ibrahim Pasha sails with an Egyptian force to restore the Tui'kish author- ity in Greece, but is baffled by Miaulis. Outbreak of a war between the English and Burmah. The Congress of Mexico constitutes the country a federal republic. Bolivar is made dictator of Peru. General Sucre overwhelms the Spaniards at Ayacucho, Dec. 9 ; the Spanish power in South America completely destroyed. 1826. John Quincy Adams is chosen president of the United States by the House of Representatives, Feb. The French government grants an indemnity of 1,000,000,000 francs to the emigres. Death of Alexander I. of Russia, Dec. 1. Accession of his brother Nicholas I. Unsuccessful military insurrection in St. Petersburg. Louis I. succeeds his father, Maximilian I., in Bavaria. Francis I. succeeds his father, Ferdinand I., in Naples. Portugal recognizes the independence of Brazil. Ibrahim Pasha makes himself master of the Morea. Bolivair resigns his dictatorship in Peru. Creation of the republic of Bolivia. France recognizes the independence of Hayti. Opening of the Erie Canal. Introduction of gas for general illumination in New York. Death of Saint-Simon, Lacepede, Richter (Jean Paul). 1826. Death of John VI. of Portugal. His son, Pedro I. of Brazil, resigns the Portuguese throne to his young daughter Maria da Gloria. Fall of Missolonghi after a desperate defense by the Greeks, April. The Turks occupy Athens, and besiege the Acropo- lis, Aug. The Greek government retires to .^gina. Massacre of the janizaries by Mahmoud II. ; the organization abolished. Treaty of Akerman between Russia and Turkey. Feth Ali, shah of Persia, makes war on^Russia. CHRONOIiOGICAI, TABLE OF DNIVERSAL HISTORY. 137 1826. End of the first Burmese war; the British acquire Aracan, Tenasserim, and Assam. The Spaniards evacuate Callao, their last post in Peru. Foundation of the University of London. (Incorporated as University College in 1836, on the creation of the new Uni- versity of London.) Death of Jefferson (July 4) and of John Adams (July 4). 1827. Canning succeeds the earl of Liverpool as prime-minister, April. Death of Canning, Aug. Goderich is appointed prime-minister. Charles X. dissolves the National Guard and the Chamber of Deputies. Frederick Augustus I. of Saxony is succeeded by his brother, Anthony. The Greek garrison in the Acropolis of Athens is forced to surrender, June. Treaty of London between Great Britain, France, and Russia for the pacification of Greece, July 6. The allied fleets destroy the Turkish-Egyptian fleet at Navarino, Oct. 20. Brilliant campaign of the Russian general Paskevitch against the Persians. He takes Erivan and enters Tabriz. Parry's Arctic expedition reaches lat. 82° 45'. Death of Laplace and of Beethoven. 1828. Andrew Jackson is elected president of the United States ; de- feated candidate, John Quincy Adams. Calhoun is re- elected vice-president. Resignation of Goderich, Jan. Wellington forms a new min- istry. Repeal of the Test Act. The Martignac ministry in France succeeds that of Vill^le, Jan. Dom Miguel, having been appointed regent of Portugal by his brother, Dom Pedro, usurps the throne. Capo d'Istria, having been elected president in 1827, assumes the government of Greece. A French army lands in the Morea, which Ibrahim Pasha is forced to evacuate. Russia begins a war against Turkey, April. The Russian forces, under Wittgenstein, cross the Danube, June. Pas- kevitch takes Kars, July. Fall of Varna, Oct. Peace of Turkmantchai between Russia and Persia, Feb.; Persian Armenia ceded to Russia. Guerrero heads a successful insurrection against the govern ment in Mexico. 138 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL EISTORT. 1828. Uruguay is recognized as an independent republic. 1829. Beginning of Andrew Jackson's first administration. Passage of the Catholic Emancipation Act in England, April O'Connell takes his seat in Parliament. End of the Martignac ministry in France, Aug. Formation of the Pqlignac ministry. End of the Greek Revolution. The Russian general Diebitsch takes Silistria. Paskevitch takes Erzerum. Diebitsch passes the Balkans, and enters Adrianople. Peace of Adiianople, Sept. 14; Turkey relin- quishes to Russia the northeastern coast-land of the Black Sea, and transfers to her the suzerainty over the tribes of the Caucasus ; she also cedes to her the district of Akhal- tzik; she accords to Russia a protectorate over Moldavia and WaUachia, and agrees to recognize the independence of Greece. Death of Pope Leo Xn. ; Feb. Election of Pius VIII. , March. Spain makes a fruitless attempt to recover Mexico. Busta- mante heads a revolt against Guerrero, proclaiming the Plan of Jalapa. Separation of Venezuela from Colombia. Rosas, the leader of the Federalists against the Unitarios, at- tains to the supreme power in the Argentine Republic. The first great cholera epidemic in Europe begins to spread in Russia. Death of Friedrich von Schlegel, Thomas Young, Davy, La- marck. 1830. Famous debate in Congress between Webster and Hayne, Jan. Organization of the church of the Mormons at Man- chester, N. T., by Joseph Smith. The London Protocol of the Great Powers declares Greece an independent kingdom, Feb. The Porte recognizes the Pro- tocol. Death of George IV., June 26. Accession of his brother William IV. The Grey ministry succeeds that of Welling- ton, Nov. The French begin the conquest of Algeria. General Bour- mont takes Algiers, July. Charles X. publisheis his unconstitutional " ordinances,^' July 26 (signed the day previous). Revolution in Paris, July 27-29 ; overthrow of the Bourbon dynasty. Abdication of Charles X., Aug. 2, followed by his flight from France. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 139 1830. Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, is declared king by the chambers, Aug. 7. He is formally installed, Aug. 9. For- mation of the Laffltte ministry. Outbreak of the Belgian insurrection, Aug. 25. A Dutch army, after entering Brussels, is forced to retreat, Sept. Belgium declares her independence, Oct. 4. The revolu- tionists enter Antwerp, Oct. The Dutch garrison in the citadel, under General Chasse, bombards the city. Opening of a national congress, Nov. A conference of the Great Powers in London recognizes the independence of Belgium, Dec. Charles, duke of Brunswick, is expelled by his subjects, Sept. Eevolutionary movements in Saxony and Hesse-Oassel, Sept.-Oct. Outbreak of a revolution in Poland, Nov. 29. The Russian forces, under the grand-duke Constantine, retire from War- saw. The Poles appoint Chlopicki dictator, Dec. Ferdinand II. succeeds his father, Francis I., in Naples. Death of Pope Pius Vm., Nov. 30. Bustamante assumes the executive power in Mexico. End of the presidency of Bolivar in Colombia. Foundation of the republic of Ecuador (previously part of Colombia). Death of Bolivar. Opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway; success- ful inauguration of the modem system of passenger trans- portation on steam railways. The brothers Lander establish the identity of the Quorra and Niger rivers. 1831. William Lloyd Garrison begins the publication of the "Lib- erator " in Boston. Lord John Russell introduces the Reform Bill in Parliament, March 1. Casimir Perier is made prime-minister by Louis Philippe, March. Insurrectionary riote of the silk weavers in Lyons, Nov. Abolition of the hereditary peerage in France. The Belgians elect Leopold of Saxe-Coburg their king, June 4. He ascends the throne, July 21. The Dutch forces defeat the Belgians, Aug., but are arrested by the advance of a French army, under Marshal Gerard. William H., elector of Hesse-Cassel, is forced to grant a new constitution to his subjects. Saxony receives a new consti- tutional government. 140 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1831. Resignation of the Polish dictator Chlopicki, Jan. The na- tional government, under the lead of Adam Czartoryski, declares the independence of Poland, Jan. 25. A Russian army, under Diehitsch, invades the country. Eattles near Warsaw, Feb. -March. The Poles, under Skrzynecki, are unsuccessful at Ostrolenka, May 36. A Polish army, sent to revolutionize Lithuania, is forced to lay down its arms in Prussia, July. Masterly retreat of Dembinski from Lithu- ania. Capitulation of Warsaw, Sept. 8. Complete subjec- tion of Poland. Revolutions in Modena and the Papal States, which are sup- pressed by Austrian intervention. Charles Albert succeeds Charles Felix as king of Sardinia, April. Election of Pope Gregory XVI., Feb. Assassination of Capo d'Istria at Nauplia, Oct. 9. Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, sends an army under Ibrahim Pasha to occupy Syria. Abdication of Pedro I. of Brazil in favor of his son, Pedro II., April. Establishment of a regency. Ravages of the cholera in central Europe. Captain J. C. Ross determines the position of the true mag- netic pole (Boothia Felix). Death of Niebuhr, Monroe (July 4), Hegel. 1832. Black Hawk's War; defeat of the Sacs and Foxes. Nullifica- tion movement in South Carolina; John C. Calhoun the champion of state rights. Andrew Jackson is re-elected president; principal defeated candidate, Henry Clay. Mar- tin Van Buren is elected vice-president. Final passage of the Reform Bill by Parliament, June. Death of Casimir Perier, May. Disturbances in Paris, June. Soult forms a coalition ministry, including Thiers and Guizot, Oct. (Soult president of the council till 1834.) The duchess of Berry, having attempted a revolution in favor of her son, the duke de Bordeaux (afterward count de Chambord), is arrested, Nov. Abd-el-Kader takes the lead in the struggle against the French in Algeria. Marshal Gerard lays siege to the citadel of Antwerp, Nov. Its commander. General Chasse, surrenders, Dec. 23 ; liberation of Belgium. Great German Liberal meeting at Hambacb (Hambach Fe* tival). CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 141 1832. The Austrians occupy Bologna, the French the citadel oi Ancona. (The occupation of both lasts till 1838.) Poland is declared an integral part of the Russian Empire. Dom Pedro, ex-emperor of Brazil, leads an expeditionary force collected by the opponents of the usurper Dom Miguel at the island of Terceira, for the dethronement of his brother. He enters Oporto, July. Separation of Basel into two half-cantons, Basel City and Basel Country. Otho, the second son of Louis I. of Bavaria, is placed on the throne of Greece by the Great Powers. Ibrahim Pa^a storms Acre, May. He defeats the Turks at Horns, July. He wins a great victory at Konieh, Dec. 20. Overthrow of the government of Bustamante. The cholera spreads over western Europe, and ravages Amer- ica. Death of J. F. Champollion, Gtoethe, Cuvier, Bentham, Scott. 1833. Henry Clay's tariff compromise. President Jackson removes the public funds from the Bank of the United States. For- mation of the American Anti-Slavery Society. Act abolishing slavery in the British West Indies, Aug. (To take effect Aug. 1, 1834.) Revolutionary attempt at Frankfort, April, followed by in- creased reactionary measures on the part of the German governments. A liberal constitution is granted in Han- over by the viceroy, the duke of Cambridge. Death of Ferdinand VII. of Spain, Sept. 39. His infant daughter, Isabella H., succeeds under the regency of her mother, Maria Christina. Don Carlos, uncle of Isabella, proclaims himself the lawful sovereign. Outbreak of the Carlist insurrection. The fleet of Dom Pedro, commanded by Sir Charles Napier, vanquishes that of Dom Miguel off Cape St. Vincent, July 5. Dom Pedro enters Lisbon, July, and declares himself regent for his daughter, Dona Maria. Arrival of King Otho in Greece. A Russian force prepares to aid Mahmoud H. against Mehemet Ali, who makes peace, receiving Syria, and other territories from the sultan. Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi between Russia and the Porte. Beginning of the first presidency of Santa Anna in Mexico. 1834. Act of Congress for the formation of an Indian Territory. 142 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNTVEESAL HISTORY. 1834. Lord Melbourne succeeds Grey as premier, July. Fall of the Melbourne ministry, Nov. Peel becomes premier, Dec. Peace between the French and Abd-el-Kader, who is recog- nized as emir of Mascara, Feb. Insurrection in Lyons and riot in Paris, April. Quadruple treaty between England,, France, Spain, and Portu- gal, directed against Dom Miguel and Don Carlos, April. Submission of Dom Miguel, May. Maria da Gloria is de- clared of age, Sept. Death of Dom Pedro, Sept. ^ Death of Feth Ali, shah of Persia. He is succeeded by his grandson, Mohammed Shah. Death of Schleiermacher, Lafayette, Coleridge, Lamb. 1835. Outbreak of the second war with the Seminoles. Reorganization of the Mexican Republic into a centralized state. Revolution in Texas against the Mexican authority. Resignation of Peel, April ; Lord Melbourne again premier. Passage of the Municipal Corporations Act for England. Attempt of Fieschi on the life of Louis Philippe, July 28. The French attack Abd-el-Kader. Clatisel bums Mascara. Ferdinand I. succeeds his father, Francis I., in Austria, March 2. Otho, kiag of Greece, attains his majority. The migration of the Boers from Cape Colony begins. Great Are in New York, Dec. 1836. Admission of Arkansas into the Union. Martin Van Buren is elected president of the United States (R. M. Johnson elected vice-president by the setiate in 1837) ; principal de- feated candidate for the presidency, William H. Harrison. Storming of the Alamo, near San Antonio, by Santa Atitiji^^ March. Houston defeats the Mexicans on the San Jacinto, and captures Santa Anna, April 21. Inauguration of Hous- ton as president of Texas. Formation of a Thiers cabinet in France, Feb. Thiers re- signs, Aug. Mole is appointed premier, Sept. Attempt of Louis Napoleon at Strasburg to excite a revolution in his favor, Oct. The French, under Clausel, take Tlemcen, Jan. Abd-el-Kader achieves a victory near that place, April. Bugeaud defeats him on the Sikkak, July. Unsuccessful expedition of Clau- sel against -Constantine. Revolutionary movement against the queen-regent of Spaia, Maria Christina, at the palace of La Granja, Aug. She CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF tTNIVERSAL HISTORY. 143 1836. swears to the constitution of 1812. Espartero is victorious over the Carlists at Luchana, Dec, and, aided by a British fleet, forces them to raise the siege of Bilbao. Establishment of the new University of London. Appearance of Dickens's "Pickwick Papers." Death of Madison and of A. L. de Jussieu. 1837. Admission of Michigan into the Union. Beginning of Martin Van Buren's administration. Financial panic in the United States. Incorporation of Chicago as a city. Death of William IV., June 20. Accession of his niece, Vic- toria. Separation of Hanover from England in virtue of the SaHc lam. Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, bro- ther of William IV., succeeds in that kingdom. He abro- gates the constitution of 1833, and dismisses seven of the . principal professors at Gottingen on account of their protest. Treaty of the Tafna between the French and Abd-el-Kader, May. The French, under General Valee, storm Constan- tine, Oct. The Carlist forces appear before Madrid. They retreat before Greneral Espartero. The Caucasian chieftain Shamyl defeats the Eussian general Ivelitch. The Persians lay siege to Herat. Insurrections in Canada. Bustamante becomes for a second time president of Mexico. Publication of Carlyle's "French Eevolution." Death of Pushkin. 1838. Victorious campaign of Espartero against the Carlists. The Persians are forced to raise the siege of Herat. The India government declares war against Dost Mohammed, ameer of Cabool. Order restored in Canada. The invention of photography perfected by Daguerre. Inauguration of trans- Atlantic steam navigation. 1839. Formation of the Anti-Com-Law League; agitation of Cob- den and others. The Chartists present a petition to Par- liament, demanding universal suffrage and other reforms. Chartist riot at Newport, in Monmouthshire. Fall of the Mole ministry, March. Soult forms a new cabi- net. May. Renewal of the struggle between Abd-el-Kader and the French. Successes of Abd-el-Kader. 144 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1839. Espartero concludes tlie convention of Vergara with the Carlist general Maroto, Aug. 31 ; the power of Don Carlos completely broken. Holland and Belgium make a final settlement ; Luxemburg and Limburg divided between the two kingdoms. Christian VIII. succeeds Frederick VI. in Denmark. Sultan Mahmoud II. makes war on Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt. The Turkish forces, under Haflz Pasha, are com- pletely defeated by Ibrahim Pasha at Nizib, June 24. Death of Mahmoud II., July 1. Accession of Abdul-Medjid. The Turkish fleet is treacherously surrendered- to the Egyptians, July. Abdul-Medjid, acting under the guidance of Beshid Pasha, begins the constitutional reform of The Turkish Empire by the promulgation of the Hatti-Sherif of Gul- hane, Nov. 3. The Russians, under General Grabbe, make a victorious ad- vance against the Caucasians, and take Akulgo. Hussian expedition, under Perovski, against Khiva. (Ehids in total disaster, 1840.) The British forces traverse the Bolan pass, and invade Afghan- istan. They enter Candahar, April, take Ghuzni, July 32, and occupy Cabool, Aug. Shah Shujah is placed nominally on the throne. Death of the Sikh ruler Runjeet Singh. The British take possession of Aden. Dissolution of the confederacy of Central America. 1840. William H. Harrison is elected president of the United States, and John Tyler vice-president ; defeated candidate for the presidency, Martin Van Buren. Marriage of Queen Victoria with Prince Albert of Saxe- Coburg-Gotha, Feb. 10. Formation of a new Thiers ministry, March. Attempt of Louis Napoleon at Boulogne to raise an insurrection in his favor, Aug. He is arrested and imprisoned. Frederick "William IV. succeeds his father Frederick William III. in Prussia, June 7. End of the Carlist insurrection. Revolutionary movements against Maria Christina. She quits Spain, leaving Espar- tero at the head of afiPairs, Oct. Abdication of William I. of Holland in favor of his son William II., Oct. London Treaty of the Great Powers (Franco not included) CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 145 1840. directed against Mehemet Ali, July 15. British and Aus- trian ^cpedition to Syria. Beyrout is bombarded and taken, Sept. Capture of Acre, Nov. Sir Charles Napier appears before Alexandria, Nov. Mehemet All sues for peace. Resignation of Thiers, Oct. Formation of a ministry under Soult, with Guizot as minister of foreign affairs. The re- mains of Napoleon I. are brought to Paris. The Circassians successfully attack the Russian forts on the Black Sea. Dost Mohammed delivers himself up to the English, Nov. Outbreak of the Opiimi War between England and China. The Mormons found the city of Nauvoo, in Illinois. Introduction of Rowland Hill's cheap postage system in England. 1841. Inauguration of William H. Harrison, March 4. He dies, April 4, and is succeeded by John Tyler. Mehemet Ali makes peace with the sultan. He renounces Syria and other territories, and is recognized as hereditary, though tributary, ruler of Egypt. Treaty between Turkey and the Great Powers ; closing of the Dardanelles against foreign vessels of war. Resignation of the Melbourne ministry, Aug. Peel becomes prime-minister, Sept. Louis FhUippe begins the vast fortifications of Paris. The French take Mascara. Espartero is appointed regent by the Spanish Cortes. Successful insurrection of the Afghan chiefs in Cabool, Nov. ; massacre of Sir Alexander Bumes and others. Assassina- tion of Sir WUliam McNaghten, Dec. The British reduce the Bogue forts, guarding the Canton River, and the forts commanding Canton, and compel the surrender of the city. They take Amoy. Santa Anna becomes virtual dictator of Mexico. Death of Lermontoff. 1842. Final termination of the war with the Seminoles. The United States and Great Britain conclude the Ashburton Treaty for the settlement of the northeastern boundary of the United States. Fremont undertakes the exploration of the Rocky Mountain region. (Explorations continued during several years.) The duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis Philippe, is killed by an accident, July 13. 11 146 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. i842. Successful campaign of the French in Algeria. Unsuccessful campaign of the Russians, under General Grabbe, in the Caucasus. The British army, having agreed to evacuate Afghanistan, begins its fatal retreat from Cabool. It is overwhelmed in the Kurd-Cabool Pass, Jan. Successful defense of Jella- labad by General Sale and of Candahar by General Nott. General Pollock, after forcing the Khyber Pass, relieves General Sale, April. Entry of Pollock into Cabool, Sept. The British withdraw from Afghanistan, and release Dost Mohammed. The British occupy Shanghai, June, take Chinkiang, July, and advance to Nanldng. Treaty of Nanking, Aug. ; the ports of Canton, Amoy, Toochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai to be thrown open to British commerce ; Hong-kong ceded to England. (Treaty ratified in 1843.) The British take possession of the Boer republic in Natal. Completion of the Walhalla. Great flre in Hamburg, May. Death of Sismondi. 1843. O'Connell, the leader in the movement for the repeal of the union of Ireland with Great Britain, organizes a monster meeting on the HUl of Tara, Aug. He is arrested, Oct. Formation of the Free Church of Scotland. A revolution in Spain, headed by Narvaez, puts an end to the regency of Espartero. Isabella H. is declared of age. A bloodless rising in Athens compels Ejng Otho to promise a constitution. (See 1844.) Annexation of Sinde to British India after a brilliant cam- paign under Sir Charles Napier. The Thames tunnel is opened to the public. Death of Southey and of Delavigne. 1844. James K. Polk is elected president of the United States, and George M. Dallas vice-president ; defeated candidate for the presidency, Henry Clay. BemodellLug of the Bank of England by Peel's Bank Charter Act. Defeat of Abd-el-Kader by the French. His ally, Abderrah- man, emperor of Morocco, is overwhelmed by Bugeaud on the river Isly, Aug. 14. Bombardment of Mogadore by the priace de Joinville, Aug. 15. The emperor makes peace. The exhibition of the "holy coat" at Treves attracts vast pil' CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 147 184^ g^rimages. Johann Bonge inaugurates the Grerman Catholic movement. The brothers Bandiera attempt an insurrection in Southern Italy. They are executed. Oscar I. succeeds his father, Charles XTV. John, in Sweden, March. Establishment of constitutional government in Greece. China concludes treaties with the United States and France. Restoration of constitutional government in Mexico. The eastern portion of the islajid of Hayti is formed into the republic of Santo Domingo. Beginning of the dictatorship of CSrlos Antonio Lopez in Paraguay. Successful inauguration of the telegraphic line between Balti- more and Washington constructed by Morse. Death of Thorwaldsen and of E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. Appearance of Eugene Sue's "Wandering Jew." 1845. Admission of Florida into the Union. Beginning of James K. Polk's administration. Texas joins the Union as a state. The French general Pelissier suffocates a multitude of Kabyles in a cave at Dahra. Vorontzoff leads a powerful expedition against the tribes of the Caucasus. England and France make war on Bosas, dictator of the Ar- gentine Bepublic. Outbreak of the first Sikh War. Victories of the British gen- eral Sir Hugh Gtough at Moodkee and Ferozeshah, Dec. Publication of the first portion of Humboldt's " Kosmos.'' Sir John Franklin sails on his last voyage in search of a northwest passa.ge. Death of Sydney Smith, Hood, A. W. Schlegel, Andrew Jackson. 1846. Admission of Iowa into the Union. War between the United States and Mexico. General Taylor defeats the Mexicans at Palo Alto, May 8, and at Besaca de la Pahna, May 9, and forces Monterey to surrender, Sept. 24. Occupation of California and New Mexico by American forces. — Eepre- sentative WUmot introduces his "Proviso" (not adopted by the Senate) for the exclusion of slavery from all terri- tory to be acquired from Mexico. — Treaty between the United States and Great Britain for the settlement of the northwestern boundary of the United States. 148 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEKSAL HISTORY. 1846. A great famine visits Ireland. Eepeal of the English Com Laws by act of June 26. Eesignation of Peel, June 29. Lord John Russell becomes premier, July 6. Escape of Louis Napoleon from Ham, May. Marriage of Isabella II. of Spain with Francisco de Asis, and of her sister, Louisa, with the dyke de Montpensier, young- est son of Louis Philippe. Revolutionary movement in Portugal ; Costa-Cabral driven from power. Unsuccessful rising of the Poles, Feb. Mieroslawski, while preparing to head the insurrection in Posen, is arrested by the Prussians. Massacre of the Polish nobles in Galicia by the peasantry. The republic of Cracow is suppressed, the city and territory being annexed to Austria. Death of Pope Gregory XVI., June 1. Election of Pius IX., June 16. The pope inaugurates great reforms in his states. Sir Hugh Gough defeats the Sikhs at Aliwal, Jan., and at Sobraon, Feb. The Sikhs conclude peace at Lahore, and , cede a great portion of their territory to the East India Company. Discovery of the planet Neptune. Dr. Morton publicly introduces the use of anaesthetics in Bos- ton. Elias Howe patents his sewing machine. 1847. General Taylor defeats Santa Anna at Buena Vista, Feb. 23. General Scott reduces Vera Cruz ; his forces occupy the city, March 29. He is victorious over Santa Anna at Cerro Gfordo, April 18. The Americans take Puebla, May 15. Successes of the Americans at Contreras and Churubusco, Aug. 20. Storming of Molino del Rey by General Worth, Sept. 8. Storming of Chapultepec, Sept. 13. Entry of Scott into the city of Mexico, Sept. 14. The great famine continues in Ireland; vast increase of emi- gration. Resignation of Soult as prime-minister, Sept. Guizot, the vir- tual head of Soult's cabinet, succeeds to his place. Abd-el- Kader gives himself up to General Lamoriciere, Dec. Meeting of the so-called United Landtag in Prussia. Pius IX. continues his liberal reforms. His policy excites the armed opposition of Austria. The Swiss Federal Diet decrees the expulsion of the Jesuits. The resistance of the seven cantons of the . Sonderbund CHBONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 149 1847. (formed in 1843), Lucerne, Uri, Schwytz, Unterwalden, Zug, Fribourg, and Valais, results in civil war. Overthrow of the Sonderbund by the Federal forces, under General Dufour. Eevolutionary outbreaks in the Two Sicilies. Death of O'Connell and of Mendelssohn-Bartholdy. 1848. Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo between the United States and Mexico, Feb. 2. Admission of Wisconsiri into the Union. Act for the organization of Oregon Territory. Migration of the Mormons to the Great Salt Lake. Formation of the Free SoU party. Zachary Taylor is elected president, and Millard Fillmore vice-president ; priacipal defeated candi- date for tfiie presidency, Lewis Cass. Disturbances in Lombardy, Jan. Sicily rises against Ferdi- nand n., Jan. Frederick VII. succeeds his father. Chris- tian VUJ.., in Denmark, Jan. Ferdinand II. of Naples and Charles Albert of Sardinia are forced to accord a represen- tative constitution to their subjects, Jan.-Feb. (Sicily con- tinues in rebellion.) Disturbances in Paris, Feb. 22. Strug- gle in Paris between the troops and the people, Feb. 23. Louis Philippe dismisses Guizot, Feb. 23 ; Thiers is charged with the formation of a new ministry. Triimiph of the revolution in France, Feb. 24 ; abdication of Louis Philippe. Formation of a provisional government, including Dupont de I'Eure, Lamartine, Ledru-Rollin, Etienne Arago, Cre- mieux, Gamier-Pages, and others, Feb. 24. Formal proc- lamation of the republic in France, Feb. 27. Opening of a workingmen's convention in Paris under the superintend- ence of Louis Blanc, March. Outbreak of a revolution in Vienna, March 13 ; fall of Mettemich. Promulgation of a representative constitution by Pius IX., March 14. Revo- lutionary movement in Pesth, March 15. Appointment of an independent Hungarian ministry, the Batthyanyi-Kos- suih ministry, March 17. Outbreak of an insurrection against Austrian rule in MUan, March 18. Rising in Berlin against the government of Frederick WUliam IV. , March 18. The king yields to the demands of the people, March 19. Revolution in Parma, March. Louis I. of Bavaria, in consequence of revolutionary movements, abdicates in favor of his son, Maximilian II., March 20. The people of Venice take up arms against the Austrians, March 22. They estab- lish a republic, with Manin at its head, March 23. Radetzky is forced to withdraw his army from Milan, March 23. The 150 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1848. duke of Modena is forced by revolutionary movements to quit his dominions, March. Charles Albert of Sardinia be- gins a war against Austria for the liberation of Italy, Mareh. Outbreak of the first Schleswig-Holstein War; the people of the duchies rise in insurrection against the king of Denmark, March. Meeting of the German Vorparlament at Frank- fort, March 31. The Prussians take up the cause of Schles- wig-Holstein, and begin a campaign against the Danes, April. G-reat Chartist demonstration in London, Apnl 10. Closing of the last Diet of Presburg, April 11. Un- successful republican insurrection in Baden under Hecker and Struve, April. Bising of the Poles in Posen under Mieroslawski, April. Decree abolishing slavery in the French colonies, April 27. Opening of the Constituent Assembly in France, May 4. Arrest of the Irish revolu- tionist John Mitohel, May. Collapse of the insurrection in Posen, May. Red Eepublican disturbances in Paris, May 15. Bloody conflict at Naples, which is bombarded by Ferdinand II., May 15; re-establishment of absolutism. Movement against the government in Vienna, May 15. Flight of the emperor Ferdinand from Vienna, May 17. Opening of the Frankfort Parliament, May 18. Meeting of the Prussian Constituent Assembly, May 22. Opening of a Pan-Slavic congress in Prague, June 2. Surrender of the pa- pal forces at Vicenza to the Austrians, June 11. Insurrection in Prague, quelled by Windischgratz, June. The people storm the arsenal of Berlin, June 14. Bloody conflict be- tween the Parisian populace and the government, June 24-26 ; General Cavaignac suppresses the insurrection. Cavaignac is appointed chief of the executive power in France, June. The Frankfort Parliament elects the archduke John of Austria vicar of Germany, June 29. Opening of the Hun- garian National Assembly, July 5. Meeting of an Austrian Parliament, July 22. The Austrian forces, under Eadetzky, defeat Charles Albert at Custozza, July 25. O'Brien at- tempts an insurrection in Ireland, July. (He is made pris- oner, Aug. 5.) General Eadetzky re-enters Milan, Aug. 6. Armistice between Charles Albert and the Austrians, Aug. 9. The Hungarian forces are repulsed by Serb insurgents, Aug. Prussia and Denmark conclude the armistice of Malmo for the suspension of the Schleswig-Holstein contest, Aug. 26. The forces of Ferdinand II., under Filangieri, CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEESAL HISTORY. 151 1848. recover Messina, Sept. 7. Jellachich, ban of Croatia, enters upon a campaign against the Hungarians, Sept. Insurrec- tion of the Radicals in Frankfort, Sept. 18. Formation of a Hungarian Committee of Defense, with Kossuth at its head, Sept. Struve fails in a new revolutionary attempt in Baden, Sept. Count Lamberg, having been sent by the emperor Ferdinand to dissolve the Hungarian National As- sembly, is murdered at Buda-Pesth, Sept. 28. Jellachich, after menacing Buda, is defeated by the Hungarians, Sept. 29. Vienna rises in insurrection, Oct. 6. Second flight of the emperor Ferdinand from his capital, Oct. 7. The Hun- garian forces, after advancing almost to the gates of Vienna, are routed, Oct. 30. Storming of Vienna by Windischgratz, Oct. 31. Adoption of a republican constitution in France, Nov. 4. Assassination of Count Bossi, prime-minister of Pius IX., Nov. .15. Rising in Rome against the pope, Nov. 16. Formation of the Schwarzenberg ministry in Austria, Nov. 31. Pius IX. escapes from Rome, Nov. 24, and takes refuge in Gtaeta. Abdication of the emperor Ferdinand of Austria in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph, Dec. 2. The king of Prussia dissolves the Constituent Assembly, and publishes a constitution of his own, Dec. 5. Louis Napo- leon is elected president of France, Dec. 10. The Austrians, under Schlick, enter Kaschau, Dec. Establishment of a provisional government in Rome, Dec. 11. Louis Napoleon enters upon his presidency, Dec. 20. Victories of the Hun- garians, under Bern, over the insurgent Wallachs and Im- perialists in Transylvania, Dec. Retreat of the Hungarian general Gorgey before the forces of Windischgratz, Dec. The Hungarians, under Perczel, are defeated at Moor, Dec. 29. Ibrahim Pasha succeeds Mehemet Ali as viceroy of Egypt. He dies, and is succeeded by Abbas Pasha. Outbreak of the second Sikh War in India. Nasr-ed-Din succeeds Mohammed Shah in Persia. The governor of Cape Colony attacks the Boers, and occupies the Orange River Sovereignty. (See 1854.) A portion of. the Boers migrate beyond the Vaal, where they establish the Trans- Vaal Republic. Discovery of gold in California. Publication of the first portion of Macaulay's " History of England." 153 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1848. Death of John Quincy Adams, Donizetti, Chateauhriand, Berzelius, G«orge Stephenson. 1849. Beginning of Zachary Taylor's administration. Dissolution of the French Constituent Assembly and meeting of the Legislative Assembly, May. Eevolutionary attempts of the Radicals in Paris, June 13. Louis Napoleon ap- points a Bonapartist ministry, Oct. 31. Meeting of the new Prussian chambers, Feb. 26. The Frank- fort Parliament, having framed a constitution for Germany, decrees the imperial crown to Frederick William IV. , March 28. It is declined by the king, April 3. The Danes, having renewed the contest with Schleswig-HolsteLn, make a dis- astrous attempt on Eckemforde, April 5. The Grerman forces sent to aid Schleswig-Holstein storm the lines of Diippel, April 13. The Schleswig-Holstein forces take Kolding, in Jutland, April 20. Frederick William IV. dis- solves the Lower House of the Prussian chambers, April 27. Bepublican rising in the Palatinate, May. Insurrection in Dresden, suppressed by the aid of Prussia, May. Eevolu- tion in Baden, May. Prussia, Hanover, Saxony, and other German states form a confederation (Dreikonigsbund), May 26. The remaining members of the Frankfort Parliament adjourn. May 30, and renew their sessions in Stuttgart (Bump Parliament), June 6. The assembly is dissolved, June 18. The revolutionists in the Palatinate and Baden are overthrown by the Prussian anus, June. A portion of members of the late Frankfort Parliament, the party of Gagem and Dahlmann, hold an assembly at Gotha, June. The Schleswig-Holstein army is repulsed before Fridericia, July 5, 6. Armistice between Prussia and Denmark, July 10. Surrender of the fortress of Rastadt, July 23 ; end of the struggle of the revolutionists in Baden. The Prussian chambers (with a newly elected Lower House) are reopened, Aug. 7. General Schlick disperses the forces of the Hungarian general Meszaros at Kaschau, Jan. 4. The Hungarians abandon Buda-Pesth, Jan. 5. Successes of Klapka against Schlick, Jan. A Russian force enters Transylvania to assist the Austrians, Feb. The forces of GKirgey are victorious over those of Schlick at Mount Branyiszko, Feb. 5. Dembinski, the commander-in-chief of the Hungarians, loses the battle of K&polna, Feb. 26, 27. Francis Joseph issues a constitu- CHBONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVEESAL HISTORY. 153 1849. tion for the Austrian Empire, which abrogates the national autonomy of Hungary, March 4. Victory of the Hungarians at Szolnok, March 5. Bern overcomes the Russians and Im- perialists in Transylvania, March. Gorgey executes a vic- torious advance against the Austrians, April. The Diet at Debreczin proclaims the independence of Hungary, April 14 ; the countiy is declared a republic, with Kossuth as gov- ernor. Grorgey, after a victory at Nagy-Sarlo, relieves Co- mom, April. Storming of Buda by the Hungarians, May 21. The Russian general Paskevitch invades Hungary, June. Grorgey unsuccessfully opposes the Austrians on the Waag, and loses Raab, Jtme. Battle of Szony, July 2. The Aus- trians re-enter Pesth, July 12. Battle of Waitzen between Gorgey and Paskevitch, July 15. Bern is vanquished by the Russians at Schassburg, July 31. Brilliant sortie of Sllapka from Comom, Aug. 3. Victory of the Austrians, under Haynau, at Temesvar, Aug. 9. Kossuth resigns the civil and military power into the hands of Gorgey, Aug. 11. Gorgey surrenders the Hungarian army to the Russian general Riidiger at Vilagos, Aug. 13. Comorn capitulates to the Austrians, Sept. 28. Resubjection of Hungary to the Hapsburgs. Bloody tribunals at Pesth and Arad, Oct. Meeting of a Constituent Assembly in Rome and proclamation of the Roman Republic, Feb. Revolution in Tuscany, Feb. Suspension of the armistice between Sardinia and Austria, March 13. King Charles Albert is overwhelmed by the Austrians, under Radetzky, at Novara, March 23. He re- signs on the same day in favor of his son Victor Emanuel, who concludes an armistice with the Austrians. (The ex- king dies at Oporto, July 28.) Creation of a Roman Tri- umvirate — Mazzuii, SafS, Armellini — ^March. A French expedition, under General Oudinot, sent to restore Pius rX., lands at CivitS, Vecchia, April 25. The forces of Ferdinand H. enter Palermo, May; end of the revolu- tion in Sicily. The Austrians take Bologna, May. The Neapolitan forces sent to assist the papal cause are de- feated by Garibaldi at VeUetri, May 19. The French begin the siege of Rome, June 3. Surrender of Ancona to the Austrians, June. Fall of Rome, July 2. Restora- tion of the temporal power of the pope. Treaty of Milan between Sardinia and Austria, Aug. 6. Venice, after a long siege, is forced to surrender to Radetzky, Aug. 154 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1849. William III. succeeds his father William IE. in Holland. Eepeal of the Navigation Laws in England. Battle between Sir Hugh Gough and the Sikhs at Chillian- waUah, Jan. 13. He is victorious at Gujerat, Feb. 21. Submission of the Sikhs ; annexation of the Punjaub to British India. President Soulouque assimies the title of emperor of Hayti as Faustin I. Discovery of Lake Ngami by Livingstone. Death of Polk, Petofl, Chopin. 1860. The United States and Great Britain conclude the Clayton- Bulwer Treaty, respecting the proposed water communica- tion through Central America. Death of President Taylor, July 9. He is succeeded by Millard Fillmore. Adoption of the "compromise measures" of Henry Clay, providing for : The admission of California into the Union as a free state; the organization of New Mexico and Utah into terri- tories; the settlement of the boundary of Texas; the aboU- tion of the slave-trade in the District of Columbia; and the rendition of fugitive slaves. A British fleet appears before Athens, and forces the Greek government to grant indemnity for losses sustained by British subjects (Don Pacifico claims). Establishment of a Catholic hierarchy in England. Unionsparlament of North Germany at Erfurt, March-April. Prussia concludes a treaty with Denmark, definitively aban- doning the cause of Schleswig-Holstein, July 2. Battle of Idstedt, July 24, 25 ; the Danes defeat the Schleswig-Hol- steiners. Austria and the states allied with her in opposi- tion to Prussia revive the Bundestag or Federal Diet of Germany, which opens its sessions at Frankfort, Sept. 2. The arbitrary measures of Hassenpflug provoke revolu- tionary troubles in Hesse-Cassel, Sept. The Schleswig- HolSteiners are repulsed in an attack on Friedrichstadt, Oct. 4. Conference of the sovereigns of Austria, Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg at Bregenz; Oct. Prussia prepares to resist the restoration of the German Bund, and opposes her forces to those of Austria and Bavaria in Hesse-Cassel, Nov. Prussia, in a conference at Olmiitz, yields to the demands of Austria, Nov. 29. Insurrection in Bosnia. Outbreak of the Taiping Eebellion in China. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 155 1850. Expedition of Richardson, Barth, and Overweg to the country around Lake Tchad. (Death of Eichardson, 1851 ; death of Overweg, 1852; return of Barth, 1855.) Death of Oehlenschlager, Wordsworth, Peel, Balzac. 1851. Fatal expedition of the filibuster Narciso Lopez to Cuba. Arrival of Louis Kossuth in the United States, Dec. Coup cPitat of Louis Napoleon, Dec. 3 ; he dissolves the Leg- islative Assembly, and makes himself master of France. He is elected president for 10 years by a pMnscite, Dec. 20, 21. Austro-Prussian intervention in the affairs of Schleswig-Hol- stein. The people of the duchies lay down their arms, Jan. CJomplete restoration of the Grerman Bund, May. A revolutionary movement in Portugal, headed by Saldan- ha, forces Maria II. to dismiss her minister Costa-Cabral (reinstated in power in 1849) ; Saldanha at the head of affairs. Omer Pasha quells the Bosnian insurrection. Burmah provokes the British to hostilities. World's Fair in the Crystal Palace, at Hyde Park, London. Discovery of great deposits of gold in Australia. Invention of the ophthalmoscope by Helmholtz. Death of Audubon, Oersted, J. F. Cooper, Turner. 1852. Franklin Pierce is elected president of the United States, and WUliam R. King vice-president*; defeated candidate for the presidency, Winfleld Scott. The Russell administration is succeeded by the first Derby ministry, Feb. Lord Derby resigns, and is succeeded by the earl of Aberdeen, Dec. Confiscation of the property of the Orleans famUy, Jan. PM- biscite respecting the establishment of the empire in France, Nov. 21, 22. Louis Napoleon is proclaimed emperor as Na- poleon HI., Dec. 2. Death of the Austrian premier. Prince Schwarzenberg ; Count Buol-Schauenstein is appointed his successor. London Protocol of the Great Powers respecting the succes- sion in Denmark and Schleswig-Holstein, May 8. The Montenegrins take up arms against the Turks. Victorious campaign of the British in Burmah ; they acquire Pegu. (Peace restored in 1853.) * W. E. King, who was president of the Senate under Fillmore, died April, 1853. 156 CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEKSAL HISTORY. 1852. The Argentine dictator Eosas is overthrown by the party of Urquiza. Buenos Ayres secedes from the Argentine con- federation. Death of Moore, Clay, Wellington, Daniel Webster, Gioberti. 1863. Act for the organization of Washington Territory. Begin- ning of Franklin Pierce's administration. Marriage of Napoleon III. with Eugenie de Montijo, Jan. 29. Campaign of Omer Pasha against the Montenegrins. The Turks suspend hostilities, Feb. Russia demands a protect- orate over the Greek Christians in Turkey, March. Eng- land and France prepare to sustain the Sultan against Bus- sia. The English and French fleets anchor in Besika Bay, June. The Russian forces advance into the Danubian Prin- cipalities, July. The English and French fleets pass through the Dar(^nelles, Oct. A Turkish force, under Omer Pasha, crosses the Danube at "Viddin, Oct. Beginning of the East- em War. Repulse of the Russians at Oltenitza, Nov. 4. The Russian admiral Nakhimoff destroys a Turkish squad- ron at Sinope, Nov. 30. Vienna Protocol of the Great Pow- ers, directed against Russia, Dec. Pedro V. succeeds his mother, Maria 11., in Portugal. Nanking and other cities fall into the hands of the Taipings. Occupation of New Caledonia by the French. Expedition of Dr. Eane in search of Sir John Franklin's party. (Return of the expedition, 1855.) Opening of the Crystal Palace in New York. 1864. Repeal of the Missouri Compromise by the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Conclusion of a treaty for commer- cial reciprocity between the United States and Canada. (Abrogated in 1866.) Drawing up of the Ostend Manifesto by Buchanan, Mason, and Soule, recommending the pur- chase of Cuba by the United States. The English and French fleets enter the Black Sea, Jan. The English Baltic fleet sails under Sir Charles Napier, March. The Russian forces, iinder the command of Prince Michael Gortchakoff, pass the Danube, March. France and England declare war against Russia, March. (The Crimean War.) Landing of the French and English forces in Turkey, Mai-ch and April. The French Baltic fleet sails, April. Bombard- ment of Odessa by the allies, April. The Russians, under Paskevitch, lay siege to Silistria, May. They are compelled to abandon the siege, June. Surrender of Bomarsund to CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 157 1854" the allies, Aug. 16. TTie Eussians, on the demand of Aus- tria, evacuate the Danubian Principalities, which are occu- pied by the Austrian forces, Aug. -Sept. The English and French forces, under Raglan and Saint-Amaud, land in the Crimea, Sept. 14. The Eussians, under Menshikoff, are defeated by the allies in the battle of the Alma, Sept. 20. Death of Saint-Amaud, Sept. ; Canrobert his successor. The aUied army lays siege to Sebastopol, Oct. ; Todleben directs the defense. Battle of Balaklava, charge of the "light brigade," Oct. 25. Defeat of the Russians at Inkerman, Nov. 5. O'Donnell eKcites a revolution in Spain, June-July. Ap- pointment of Espaitero as prime-minister and of O'Don- nell as secretary of war. Promulgation of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception. Said Pasha succeeds Abbas Pasha in Egypt. An expedition under Gen. PerovsH forces the khan of Khiva to a treaty highly advantageous .to Russia. Commodore Perry, on the part of the United States, concludes a treaty with Japan. Treaty between Japan and Great Britain. The Japanese government inaugurates a new policy of conmiercial intercourse with the world. The British consent to the establishment of the Orange Eiver Republic. Commander McClure arrives in England, after accomplishing the northwest passage, having entered the Polar seas through Behring Strait in 1850 and been imprisoned in the ice for three years. 1855. A pro-slavery legislature organizes in Kansas. A free-state convention draws up the Topeka Constitution. William Walker, with a force of filibusters, invades Nica- ragua. Victor Emanuel joins in the war against Eussia, Jan. Fall of the Aberdeen ministry, Jan. Palmerston becomes pre- mier, Feb. Death of the emperor Nicholas, March 2.' He is succeeded by his son, Alexander II. Gortchakoff takes cormnand of the Russian forces in the Crimea, March. Prolonged bombardment of Sebastopol, April. Arrival of the Sardinian forces in the Crimea, May. Pelissier suc- ceeds Canrobert in the command of the French army, May. The allies destroy the Russian stores at Kertch, May. Un- successful attempt to storm the Malakhoff, June 18. Death 158 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1865. of Eaglan, June 28. The Russians, advancing to the relief of Sehastopol, are defeated in the battle of the Tchernaya, Aug. 16. The French forces storm the Malakhoff, the Brit- ish attack the Redan, Sept. 8; fall of Sehastopol. Unsuc- cessful assault of Muravieff upon Kars, Sept. 29. The allies take Kinbum, Oct. 17. Surrender of Kars to Muravieff, Nov. 27-28. Concordat between the court of Austria and Pius IX. Final overthrow of Santa Anna in Mexico by the party of Alvarez and Comonf ort. Grovemment of Alvarez. He re- signs in favor of Comonfort. Livingstone discovers the Victoria Falls of the Zambesi. International Exhibition in Paris. Completion of the Niagara railway suspension bridge. Opening of the railway across the Isthmus of Panama. Death of Mickiewicz. 1866. Civil war in Kansas. James Buchanan is elected president of the United States, and John 0. Breckenridge vice-president; defeated candidates for the presidency, John C. Fremont and Millard Fillmore. Arbitrary rule of Walker in Nicaragua. Sultan Abdul-Medjid promulgates a liberal statute, the Hatti- Humayun, Feb. 18. Treaty of Paris, terminating the Crimean War, March 30; neutralization of the Black Sea; cession by Russia of a portion of Bessarabia, which is an- nexed to Moldavia; Russia renounces the protectorate over the Danubian Principalities; institution of an interna- tional Danubian Commission. Insurrections in Madrid and Barcelona. Dictatorial measures of Isabella's ininister O'Donnell. Annexation of Oude to British India. Outbreak of a second war between Qreat Britain and China. British attack upon Canton. The Persians occupy Herat, and become involved in a war with the government of India. Death of Heine, Sir W. Hamilton (the philosopher), Dela- roche. 1857. Beginning of James Buchanan's administration. Victory of the free-state party at the polls in Kansas. A pro-slavery convention draws up the Lecorapton Constitution. — ^Re- bellion of the Mormons in Utah. (Order restored in 1858.) — Financial panic in the United States and Europe. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTOKY. 159 1867. Treaty between Denmark and the Powers for the abolition of the Sound Dues. The British bring the war with Persia to a successful close. Outbreak of the Sepoy Mutiny in British India. The blood- shed begins at Barrackpoor, March. Bising at Meerut, May. The mutineers masters of Delhi, May. Mutiny at Lucknow, May ; at Benares, June. Nana Sahib heads the insurrection in Cawnpore, June. Massacre of Europeans at Cawnpore by his orders, July 15. Havelock drives the mutineers from the city, July. The British recover Delhi, Sept. Havelock, after a brilliant campaign, relieves the garrison aft Lucknow, Sept. Sir Colin Campbell rescues Havelock and Outram at Lucknow, Nov. He is victorious at Cawnpore, Dec. Bombardment and occupation of Canton by the British and French, Dec. Publication of the first portion of Buckle's ' ' History of Civili- zation in England." Death of A. de Musset, Beranger, Sue, Comte, Bauch. 1868. Admission of Minnesota into the Union. The people of Kan- sas reject the Lecompton Constitution. Attempt of Orsini upon the life of Napoleon HI., Jan. 14. End of the first Palmerston administration, Feb. ; formation of the second Derby ministry. Act removing the disabili- ties of the Jews in Great Britain. Interview between Napoleon IH. and Cavour at Plombiferes, July. Prince William of Prussia is appointed regent for his brother, Frederick William IV. Sir Colin Campbell recaptures Lucknow, March. Sir Hugh Bose takes Gwalior, June. Virtual suppression of the Sepoy Mutiny. The government of British India is trans- ferred by act of Parliament from the East India Company to the crown. Capture of the forfs at the mouth of the Peiho by the British and French. China concludes treaties at Tientsin with Great Britain, France, Eussia, and the United States. Ces- sion of the Amoor Country to Russia. France, in co-operation with Spain, engages in a war with Anam. Fall of Comonfort, president of Mexico. Zuloaga is recog- nized as his successor by the clerical and reactionary party. 160 CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1858. Juarez is declared lawful president by the Liberals. Suc- cessful campaign of Miramon, the general of the reactionary party. Momentary establishment of transatlantic telegraphic com- munication. The cable fails after a few messages. Discovery of lakes Tanganyika and Victoria Wjaxaa, by Bur- ton and Speke. 1859. Admission of Oregon iato the Union. Adoption of the Wyan- dotte Constitution, prohibiting slavery, in Kansas. Attempt of John Brown to excite an insurrection of the slaves in the South. He seizes the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, night of Oct. 16-17 ; he is overpowered and captured, Oct. 17 ; he is executed, Dec. 2. The second Derby administration is succeeded by a new Pahnerston ministry, June. "Victor Emanuel of Sardinia, in alliance with France, enters upon a war against Austria, April. The Austrian forces cross the Ticino, April. Victor Emanuel takes charge of the government of Tuscany, May (the grand-duke, Leopold n., having a few days before quitted his territories). Vic- tory of Napoleon HI. and Victor Emanuel over the Aus- trians, under Gyulai, at Magenta, June 4. Parma and Modena emancipate themselves from their reigning houses, Jim.e ; the Romagna throws off the papal rule. The sover- eigns of France and Sardinia overwhelm the Austrian army at Solferino, June 24. Preliminary treaty of Villafranca between France and Austria, July 11. Treaty of Zurich between Austria, France, and Sardinia, Nov. 10 ; Victor Emanuel acquires Lombardy (with the exception of Mantua and Peschiera). Francis H. succeeds his father, Ferdinand H., in Naples, May. Spain undertakes a war against Morocco. Surrender of Shamyl at Ghunib, Sept. 6; the dominion of Bussia over the tribes of the Caucasus virtually secured. Oscar I. of Sweden is succeeded by his son, Charles XV. (regent since 1857), July. Capture of Saigon, in Cochin China, by the French. Difficulties between the Chinese government and Great Britain and France. Miramon assumes the chief power in Mexico. The supporters of Juarez threaten the capital. They are defeated by the forces of Miramon at Tacubaya. CHRONOLOGlCAIi TABLE OF UNIVBRSAL HISTORY. 161 1869. Buenos Ayres is forced to rejoin the Argentine confederation. The sinking of petroleum wells is begun in the United States. The Arctic expedition of McClintock ascertains the fate of Sir John Franklin, the true discoverer (in 18d6) of the north- west passage. Publication of Darwin's " Origin of Species." Death of HaUam, Frescott, De Tocqueville, Humboldt, Met- temich, Bitter, Irving, De Quincey, Macaulay. 1860. Abraham Lincoln is elected president of the United States, and Hannibal Hamlin vice-president, Nov. 6 ; defeated can- didates for, the presidency, Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckenridge, and John Bell. Secession of South Carolina, Dec. 20. Annexation of Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the Bomagna to the dominions of Victor Emanuel, who cedes Savoy and Nice to France, March. Bising in Palermo against Francis n., April. Landing of Garibaldi in Sicily, at Marsala, May. The revolutionists assault Palermo, May, The Neapolitan forces evacuate the city, June. Victory of Garibaldi over the Neapolitans at Milazzo, July 20. Garibaldi, having achieved the liberation of Sicily, invades the Neapolitan mainland, Aug. He enters Naples, and proclaims the reign of Victor Emanuel, Sept. The Sardinian forces advance into the Marches and Umbria, which are in a state of revolt against Pius IX., Sept. Cialdini defeats the papal army, conmianded by Lamoriciere, at Castet&dardo, Sept. 18. La- moriciere, having thrown himself into Ancona, is forced to surrender, Sept. 29. Garibaldi defeats the troops of Francis n. on the Voltumo, Oct. The Sardinian forces advance into the Neapolitan territories, Oct. They lay siege to (raeta, which is defended by Francis H., Nov. Annexation of the Two Sicilies, the Marches, and Umbria to the domin- ions of Victor Emanuel. Napoleon HI. accords increased privileges to the French legis- lature. Attempted reorganization of the Austrian Empire on a f ed- eralistic basis by the Imperial Diploma of Oct. 20. (See 1861.) Massacres of the Maronites by the Druses in the Lebanon. Massacre of Christians at Damascus. Intervention of the Western Powers. A French force occupies Syria. Surrender of Tetuan to the Spaniards. They successfully end 12 162 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVKRSAL HISTOBT. 1860. the war against Morocco. Unsuccessful Carlist insurrec- tion. An English-French expedition marches on Peking, occupies the city, Oct., and forces the Chinese emperor to comply with the terms of the previous treaties. Miramon makes an unsuccessful attempt to take Vera Cruz, the seat of government of Juarez. His forces are overthrown by those of Juarez in the battle of Calpulalpam, Dec. 22. Introduction of spectrum analysis by Kirchhoff and Bunsen. Death of Schopenhauer. 1861. Secession of Mississippi, Jan. 9; of Florida, Jan. 10; of Ala- bama, Jan. 11 ; of Georgia, Jan. 19 ; of Louisiana, Jan. 26. Admission of Kansas into the Union as a free state, Jan. Secession of Texas, Feb. 1. Assembling of a congress of the seceding states at Montgomery, Feb. 4. TheT congress elects Jefferson Davis president of the Confederate States of Amer- ica, Feb. 9. He is inaugurated, Feb. 18. General Twiggs surrenders his forces to the Texans, Feb. 18. Inauguration of President Lincoln, March 4. Adoption of the permanent constitution of the Confederate States, March 11. Bom- bardment of Fort Sumter by the Confederates, April 12, 13. Major Anderson evacuates Fort Sumter, April 14. Procla- mation of Lincoln calling for 75,000 militia, April 15. Se- cession of Virginia, April 17. The Confederates seize the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, April 18. The Massachusetts militia is attacked in Baltimore, April 19. Lincoln pro- claims the blockade of the Southern ports, April. The navy-yard at Gosport, near Norfolk, is abandoned by the Federals, April 21. The Congress of the Confederate States assembles at Montgomery, April 29. Secession of Arkansas, May 6 ; of North Carolina, May 20 ; of Tennessee, Jime 8. Formal secession of western Virginia from Virginia, June. The Confederates are repeatedly defeated in western Virginia by General McClellan's troops, July. Eichmond becomes the seat of the Confederate Congress, July 20. Battle of Bull Eun, July 21 ; the Confederates, under Beauregard, repulse McDowell. Battle of Wilson's Creek, near Springfield (Mo.), Aug. 10 ; death of General Lyon. Capture of forts Hatteras and Clark by the Federals, Aug. 29. The Confederate general Price takes Ijexington (Mo.), Sept. 20. Repulse of the Federals at Ball's Bluff, on the Potomac, Oct 21. McClellan is appointed general-in-chief of the armies of the CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 163 1861. United States (succeeding Winfleld Scott), Nov. 1. The Federals gain possession of the harbor of Port Eoyal, Nov. 7. Mason and Slidell, Confederate commissioners to Eng- land and France, are intercepted on the " Trent," Nov. 8. William I. succeeds his brother, Frederick William IV., in Prussia, Jan. 2. Imperial Patent of Francis Joseph providing for the reorgani- zation of Austria on a constitutional basis and a system of consolidation, Feb. 26. Schmerling directs the new policy. Czar Alexander 11. proclaims the emancipation of the serfs, March 3. Surrender of Gaeta to the forces of Victor Emanuel, Feb. 13. Meeting of the Parliament of Italy, Feb. 18. It confers the title of King of Italy on Victor Emanuel, Feb. 26. He assumes the title, March 17. Death of Cavour, June 6. Louis I. succeeds his brother, Pedro V., in Portugal. Sising in Herzegovina ; the Montenegrins support the insur- gents. Sultan Abdul-Aziz succeeds Abdul-Medjid, June. Appointment of a Christian governor of the Lebanon. Death of Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria, Dec. 14. Alexander John I. (Prince Cuza) proclaims the union of Mol- davia and Wallachia under the name of Principality of Boumania, Dec. Entry of Juarez into the city of Mexico, Jan. ; his authority firmly established. Convention of London between France, England, and Spain for joint action in the enforcement of their Mexican claims. The three powers dispatch fleets to Mexico. A Spanish force takes possession of Vera Cruz, Dec. The government of the republic of Santo Domingo is trans- ferred to Spain by Santana. Death of Scribe and of Schlosser. 186% The British government having demanded the release of Mason and Slidell, they are given up by the United States, Jan. Gteneral Thomas defeats the Confederates at Mill Springs (Ky.), Jan. 19. The Federals, under Commodore Foote, reduce Fort Henry, on the Tennessee River, Feb. 6. Cap- ture of Eoanoke Island by the expedition of General Burn- side and Commodore Goldsborough, Feb. 8. Surrender of Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland River, to General Grant, Feb. 16. Battle of Pea Ridge (Ark.), March 7, 8; victo!:y of the Federals. Engagement between the "Virginia" 164 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1862. ("Merrimac") and the "Monitor" in Hampton Beads, March 9. The army of McClellan begins the siege of Yorktown, April 5. Battle of Shiloh (Tenn.), or of Pitts- burgh Landing, between Grant and the Confederate gen- erals A. S. Johnston and Beauregard, April 6, 7 (Johnston killed April 6). Capture of Island No. Ten, in the Missis- sippi Eiver, by General Pope, April 7. Act of Congress abolishing slavery in the District of Columbia, April 16. The fleet of Captain Tarragut begins the bombardment of forts Jackson and St. Philip, on the Mississippi, April 18. Farragut passes the Mississippi forts, April 24. He appears before New Orleans, April 25. Surrender of the Mississippi forts, April 28. General Butler takes formal possession of New Orleans, May 1. General J. E. Johnston abandons Yorktown, May 4. Battle of Williamsburg (Va.), May 5. Occupation of Norfolk by the Federals, May 10. Engage- ment at Hanover Court-House (Va.), May 27. Evacuation of Corinth (Miss.) by the Confederates, May 29. Battle of Seven Pines and Fair Oaks (Va.) between the forces of McClellan and those of J. E. Johnston, May 31, Jime 1. Battle of Cross Keys (Va.) between Fremont and a detach: ment of Jackson's forces, June 8. Act of Congress abolish- ing slavery in the territories, June 9. ' ' Seven days' battle " between the armies of McClellan and Lee before Eichmond, June 26-July 1 ; McClellan retires from the Chickahominy to a position on the James : Battle of Mechanicsville, or of Beaver Dam Creek, June 26 ; battle of Cold Harbor, or of Gaines's MUl, June 27; battle of Savage's Station, Jime 29; battle of Frazier's Farm, June 30 ; repulse of the Confeder- ates at Malvern HUl, July 1. Halleck is appointed com- mander-in-chief of the armies of the United States, July. Battle of Cedar Mountain (Va.), the Confederates success- ful, Aug. 9. Second battle of Bull Eun, Aug. 29, 30 ; Jack- son and Longstreet, of Lee's army, successful against Pope. Victory of the Confederates, under Eirby Smith, at Eich- mond (Ky.), Aug. 30. Lee invades Maryland, Sept. Battle of South Mountain (Md.), Sept. 14. Surrender of a Union force at Harper's Ferry to Jackson, Sept. 15. Battle of Antietam Creek (Md.) between McClellan and Lee, Sept. 16, 17 ; Lee recrosses the Potomac. Proclamation of President Lincoln decreeing the emancipation on Jan. 1, 1863, of all slaves in the states which should till then continue in a state CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 165 1862. of rebellion, Sept. 22. Attack of the Confederates upoa Cor- inth, Oct. 3, 4 ; they are repulsed by Rosecrans. Battle of Perryville (Ky.) between a portion of Buell's army and the forces of Bragg, Oct. 8. Bumside is appointed commander of the army of the Potomac (superseding McClellan), Nov. 7. Battle of Fredericksburg, Dec. 13; Lee unsuccessfully attacked by Bumside. The forces of Bosecrans engage with those of Bragg at Murfreesboro (Stone River), Dec. 26-31 (severe battle Dec. 31, followed by another, Jan. 2). Bismarck assumes the administration of affairs in Prussia. Garibaldi organizes an expedition in Sicily against Rome. He is defeated and captured by the forces of Victor Emanuel at Aspromonte, Aug. The Montenegrins are vanquished by Omer Pasha, and sub- mit to a disadvantageous peace. Bloody conflict between the Servians and Turks in Belgrade. Revolution in Greece, Oct. ; deposition of King Otho. France declares war against Mexico. The Mexicans having agreed to an accommodation, England and Spain with- draw their forces. Francisco Solano Lopez succeeds Carlos Antonio Lopez in the government of Paraguay. Cession of Lower Cochin China by Anam to France. Discovery of the Victoria NUe by Speke and Grant. International exhibition in London. 1863. Proclamation of President Lincoln definitely abolishing slav- ery in the rebellious states, Jan. 1. Bragg unsuccessfully attacks the forces of Rosecrans at Murfreesboro (Stone River), Jan. 2. The Confederates abandon Murfreesboro, Jan. 3, 4. The Federals reduce Fort Hindman (Ark.), Jan. 11. Hooker is appointed to the command of the army of the Potomac, Jan. 26. The Federals unsuccessfully attack the fortifications in Charleston harbor, April 7. Proclama- tion of President Lincoln declaring West Virginia admitted into the Union, April 20. Battle of Chancellorsville, May 2-4; Lee victorious over Hooker; "Stonewall" Jackson mortally wounded. Grant, having crossed the Mississippi, repels Johnston at Jackson CMiss.), defeats Pemberton on the Black River, and invests Vicksburg, May. Lee occupies Winchester, June 15. He crosses the Potomac, June 24, 25, and enters Pennsylvania. Meade assumes command of the army of the Potomac, June 28. Battle of Gettysburg, July 166 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1863. 1-3 ; defeat of Lee by Meade. Pemberton surrenders Vicks- burg to General Grant, July 4. Sun-ender of Port Hudson (La.) to Banks, July 8. Conscription riots in New York, July. Unsuccessful assault upon Fort Wagner, Cbarleston harbor, July 18. Abandonment of Fort Wagner, Sept. 7. Eosecrans occupies Chattanooga, Sept. 9. Battle of Chicka- mauga, Sept. 19, 20; defeat of Rosecrans by Bragg. Bum- side is besieged by Longstreet in KnoxyUle, Nov. Battle of Chattanooga, Nov. 23-25 ; Bragg is driven from Chattar nooga; the operations of the Federals conducted by- Grant. (Nov. 24, battle of Lookout Mountain; Nov. 25, battle of Missionary Bidge.) First presidential proclamation re- specting reconstruction, Dec. 8. Bising of the Poles against Bussia. The central revolutionary committee at Warsaw summon the people to arms, Jan. Langiewicz takes the principal command among the pa- triots. Fruitless combats with the Bussian forces. The Greeks confer the royal crown on WUliam, son of Prince Christian of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg, March. (He assumes the name of George I.) Great Britain announces her renunciation of the protectorate over the Ionian Islands. Death of Frederick VII. of Denmark, Nov. 15. Prince Chris- tian of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg succeeds him as Christian IX. Holstein refuses allegiance. Occupation of Holstein and Lauenburg by order of the German Diet, Dec. Ismail Pasha succeeds Said Pasha in Egypt. Conquest of Herat by Dost Mohammed. Death of Dost Mohammed. The French forces, under General Forey, besiege and reduce Puebla. They enter the city of Mexico, June 10. An assembly of notables, convened under French auspices, de- clares in favor of an imperial government for Mexico, the crown to be offered to the archduke Maximilian of Austria^ July 10. Juarez, withdrawing northward, continues the struggle with the French. Death of Horace Vemet, Jakob Grimm, Thackeray. 1864. General Banks, assisted by General A. J. Smith and Admiral Porter, enters upon the Bed Eiver expedition, March. Grant is invested with the chief command of the armies of the United States (superseding Halleck), March. Vic- tory of Kirby Smith and Dick Taylor at Sabine Cross CHBONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTOKT. 167 1864. Boads, April 8 ; failure of the Red River expedition. Storm- ing of Fort Pillow, on the Mississippi, by the Confederates, April 13. Sherman begins his march on Atlanta, May 5 ; he is opposed by Johnston. Battle of the Wilderness be- tween Grant and Lee, May 5, 6. Battles at Spottsylvania Court-House, May. Escape of Porter's fleet at Alexandria, on the Red River, May. Sherman repeatedly flanks John- ston, forcLng him to fall back, May-June. Second battle of Cold Harbor, June 1, 3; Lee repulses Grant's assault. Victory of the Federals, under Hunter, at Piedmont (Va.), June 5. Unsuccessful attack upon Petersburg by Grant's army, June 15, 16. The regular siege of Petersburg is be- gun, June 19. Sinking of the Confederate cruiser "Ala- bama," by the " Kearsarge," June 19. General Early makes a raid into Maryland and Pennsylvania, July ; he is vic- torious on the Monocacy, July 9, and threatens Washington ; burning of Chambersburg, July 30. The forces of Grant make an unsuccessful assault upon Cemetery Hill, at Petersburg, July 30. Hood, Johnston's successor in com- mand, after disastrous attacks on Sherman, July 20, 22, 28, is besieged in Atlanta. Farragut passes forts Gaines and Morgan, and destroys or captures the Confederate fleet in Mobile Bay, Aug. 5. Atlanta, evacuated by Hood, is occu- pied by Sherman's army, Sept. 2. Victory of Sheridan over Early on Opequan Creek, near Winchester, Sept. 19. Sheri- dan defeats Early at Fisher's Hill, Sept. 22. Early surprises the Federal forces at Cedar Creek, Oct. 19 ; he is routed by Sheridan. Re-election of Lincoln, Nov. 8 ; defeated candi- date for the presidency, George B. McClellan. Andrew Johnson is elected vice-president. Scliofield beats back Hood at Franklin, Nov. 30. Defeat of Hood before Nash- ville by Thomas, Dec. 15, 16. Sherman occupies Savannah, Dec. 21. — Admission of Nevada into the Union. Second Schleswig^Holstein War. An Austro-Prussian army invades Schleswig, Feb. 1. The Danes abandon the Dan- nevirke, Feb. 5. Occupation of Schleswig and invasion of Jutland. The Prussians storm the lines of Diippel, April 18. The London conference for the settlement of the Schleswig-Holstein question assembles, April. It dissolves after fruitless negotiations, June. The Austrian and Prus- sian forces, after a truce, resume hostilities, June. Pre- liminary peace between Denmark and the allies, Aug. L 168 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 1864. Treaty of Vienna, Oct. 30; Christian IX. of Denmark re- nounces Schleswig-Holsteia and Lauenburg. Complete suppression of the insurrection in Poland. Final conquest of the Circassians by the Eussians. Napoleon III. concludes a convention with Victor Emanuel agreeing to withdraw the French forces from the papal territory ia two years, Sept. 15. Organization of the International Association of workiugmen. The emperor of China recovers Nanking; end of the Taiping Bebellion. Arrival of Maximilian in Mexico. Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, enters upon a war with Brazil Peru becomes involved in difficulties with Spain. Discovery of Lake Albert N'yanza by Baker. Death of Meyerbeer, Hawthorne, Landor. 1865. The Federals take Fort Fisher (N. C), Jan. 15. Occupation of Charleston by Sherman's army, Feb. 18. Act of Con- gress organizing the Freedmen's Bureau, March 3. Lin- coln's second inauguration, March 4. General Johnston makes an unsuccessful effort to check Sherman's advance at Bentonville (N. C), March 19. Lee attacks Grant's forces before Petersburg, March 25 ; he takes and loses Fort Stead- man. Battle of the Five Forks, March 31, April 1; rout of Lee's troops, who are pursued by Sheridan. Capture of Sehna (Ala.) by Wilson, April 2. Occupation of Peters- burg and Bichmond by the Federals, April 3. Surrender of Lee at Appomattox Court-House, April 9. The Federal forces occupy Mobile, April 12. Assassination of Lincoln, April 14 ; death of the president, AprU 15 ; Johnson suc- ceeds him. Occupation of Colimibus (Ga.) by Wilson, April 16. Johnston surrenders his army to Sherman at Durham's Station (N. C), April 26. Surrender of Dick Taylor to Canby, May 4. Capture of Jefferson Davis near IrwinviUe (Ga.), M?iy 10. Surrender of Kirby Smith in Texas, May 26 ; end of the civil war. President Johnson issues a proclamation of amnesty. May 29. (The amnesty made universal, Dec. 25, 1868.) The Thirteenth Amend- ment, abolishing slavery in the United States, becomes a part of the Constitution, Dec. 18. The British authorities take measures to suppress the Fenian movement in Ireland. Death of Palmerston, Oct. 18; Earl Bussell becomes premier for a second time. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEESAL HISTORY. 169 1866. Convention of Gastein between the sovereigns of Prussia and Austria, Aug. Schleswig to be temporarily governed by Prussia, Holstein by Austria; Prussia to possess Lauenburg, Austria receiving an equivalent in money. Transfer of the seat of government of Italy from Turin to Florence, May. Leopold n. succeeds his father, Leopold I. , in Belgium, Dec. 10. Lopez makes war on the Argentine Republic. Alliance be- tween Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uruguay against Paraguay. 1866. Passage of the Civil Rights Bill over President Johnson's veto, April 9. Adoption of the Fourteenth Amendment in Con- gress, June ; the colored natives of the United States de- clared to be citizens thereof and of the iadividual States ; any State withholding the right of suffrage from any por- tion of its citizens to have the basis of representation in Congfress proportionately reduced. (See 1868.) Wholesale arrest of Fenians in Ireland. The Fenians attempt an invasion of Canada,. Resignation of Earl Russell, June ; formation of the third Derby ministry. Prussia and Italy form an alliance against Austria. Mobili- zation of the Prussian army, May. Austria refers the set- tiement of the Schleswig^Holstein question to the German Diet, June 1. Prussia occupies Holstein, June. The Ger- man Diet, at the instance of Austria, orders the mobilization of the Federal forces, June 14. The Prussian troops occupy Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse-Cassel, June. War of Prussia and Italy against Austria and her German allies. Victory of the Austrians, under the archduke Albert, over the Ital- ians under Lamarmora at Custozza, June 24. Capitulation of the Hanoverian army to the Prussians at Langensalza, June 28. Battle of Sadowa (or of Koniggratz), July 3 ; the Prussian forces, under the crown-prince, Frederick William, and Prince Frederick Charles, overwhelm the Austrian army, under Benedek. Austria cedes Venetia to Napoleon ni., July 4, the province to be made over to Italy. The Prussians enter Prague, July 8. Successful campaign of the Prussians in the valley of the Main against the forces of the South German states, July. Occupation of Frankfort by the Prussians, July. Naval victory of the Austrians, under Tegetthoff, over the Italians, under Persano, at Lissa, July 20. Truce between the Italians and Austrians, July 26. 170 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1866. Preliminaries of Nikolsburg between Prussia and Austria, July 26. . Prussia concludes treaties with. Wiirtemberg, Ba- den, and Bavaria, Aug. Peace of Prague between Prussia and Austria, Aug. 33. Dissolution of the German Confed- eration. Annexation of Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort to Prussia. Hesse-Darmstadt cedes Hesse-Hom- burg to Prussia, Sept. Formation of the North German Confederation under the lead of Prussia. Peace of Vienna between Austria and Italy, Oct. 3. Annexation of Venetia to Italy. Beust is appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in Austria (superseding Mensdorff), Oct. 30. Withdrawal of the French troops from the Papal territories, Dec. The Prussian Landtag decrees the incorporation of Schleswig- Holstein with Prussia, Dec. Revolutionary risiogs in Spain. Attempt of Karakozoff upon the life of Alexander H. , April 16. Fall of Alexander John I. (Prince Cuza) of Boumania. Charles of HohenzoUern is elected his successor. Outbreak of the Cretan insurrection. First congress of the Internationals at Geneva; adoption of the rules drawn up by Karl Marx. Juarez is successful against the French invaders in Mexico. Chili having entered into an alliance with Peru against Spain, the Spaniards bombard Valparaiso, March 31. Bombard- ment of Callao. Spain withdraws from the contest. Successful establishment of telegraphic communication be- tween Europe and America. 1867. Act of Congress, passed over President Johnson's veto, con- ferring the suffrage on the colored citizens in the District of Columbia and the territories, Jan. Admission of Ne- braska into the Union, Feb. The Tenure of Office Act and a reconstruction act, providing for a military govern- ment in the Southern States, are passed by Congress over the president's veto, March 2. Purchase of Alaska from Bussia by the United States. Fenian insurrection in Ireland. Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia are constituted the Dominion of Canada. Passage of a new Parliamentary Bef orm Act for England, Aug. (See 1868.) Outbreak of a war between England and Abyssinia. Meeting of the North German Constituent Eeichstag. Adop" tion of the federal constitution. CHRONOLOGIUAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 171 1867. Negotiations of Napoleon III. for the purchase of Luxemburg from the king of Holland. Threatened interference of the North German Confederation. Neutralization of Luxem- burg by the treaty of London, May 11. Ag^ement between the North and South German States for the reorganization of the ZoUverein. Francis Joseph appoints Beust his prime-minister, Feb. 7. Re- construction of the Austrian Empire on the dualistic basis proposed by Francis Deak. Restoration of the Hungarian constitution. Formation of a national Hungarian ministry, with Andrassy at its head. Coronation of Francis Joseph as constitutional king of Hungary, June 8. Garibaldi undertakes an expedition against Rome, Oct. He captures Monte Eotondo, Oct. 26. Landing of a French force at CivitJl Vecchia, Oct. 28. The French and papal forces defeat Garibaldi at Mentana, Nov. 3. Withdrawal of the Turkish garrisons from Servia. "Withdrawal of Bazaine's forces from the territory of Mexico. 1Wg.YiTni1ia.Ti is besieged in Queretaro by the forces of Juarez. He is made prisoner, May 15, an.d executed, together with Miramon and Mejia, June 19. Entry of Juarez into the city of Mexico, July. Extension of French dominion in Cochin China. Abolition of the shogunate in Japan. (The supreme author- ity previously shared by the shogun and the mikado.) International exhibition in Paris. Death of Cousin and of Faraday. 1868. Impeachment and trial of Andrew Johnson, Feb. -May; the impeachment fails. The Fourteenth Amendment is pro- claimed part of the Constitution, July 28. Ulysses S. Grant is elected president of the United States, and Schuyler Col- fax vice-president ; defeated candidate for the presidency, Horatio Seymour. Resignation of Lord Derby, Feb. ; Disraeli forms a new minis- try. Storming of Magdala by the forces of Sir Robert Napier, April 13 ; death of King Theodore ; end of the Abyssinian war. New Reform Act for Scotland and Ireland, July. Resignation of Disraeli, Dec. ; Gladstone prime-minister. Anti-clerical legislation in Austria. The Czech members of the Bohemian and Moravian diets resign their seats, and draw up "declarations" setting forth their demands for na- tional autonomy. 172 CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY; 1868. Revolution in Spain, headed by Prim and Serrano, Sept. Ser- rano vanquishes the forces of Queen Isabella at Alcolea, Sept. 28. Isabella quits Spain, Sept. 30. Entry of Serrano • into Madrid, Oct. 3. Formation of a provisional ministry under the presidency of Serrano, Oct. 8. Outbreak of the Cuban insurrection. » Assassination of Michael Obrenovitch, prince of Servia, June 10. Milan Obrenovitch is elected his successor. Success of the Turkish arms in Crete. Conquest of Samarkand by the Russians. The last shogun of Japan unsuccessfully attempts to regain power by force of arms. The allied arms of Erazil, the Argentine Republic, and Uru- guay successfully assail Lopez, the dictator of Paraguay, who is driven from Asimcion and Humaita. Death of Brougham and of Rossini. 1869. Adoption of the Fifteenth Amendment in Congress, prohibit- ing the States from denying the right to vote to any citizen of the United States on account of race or color, Feb. (See 1870.) Beginning of Grant's first administration. Treaty between President Grant and President Baez for the an- nexation of Santo Domingo to the United States. (The scheme fails 1871.) Act for the disestablishment of the Irish CJhurch, July 26 (to take effect Jan. 1, 1871). Constitutional reforms in France. The Poles of Galicia petition the Austrian government for au- tonomy. Insurrection in the district of Cattaro in Dalmatia. The Constituent Cortes in Spain decide in favor of a mo- narchical government. Serrano is appointed regent of the kingdom, June. Suppression of Republican insulrections. Opening of the Vatican Council (twentieth oecumenical coun- cil), Dec. 8. Completion of the Pacific Railway and of the Suez Canal. Death of Lamartine, Franklin Pierce, Sainte-Beuve.' 1870. The Fifteenth Amendment is proclaimed part of the Constitu- tion, March 30. Completion of reconstruction in the South- em States. Appointment of the Ollivier ministry in France, Jan. 2. Murder of the journalist Victor Noir by Pierre Bonaparte, Jan. 10. Trial of Pierre Bonaparte, March. Napoleon III. submits new fundamental laws to France ; pUbiscite, May 8. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. HS 1870. Appointment of tlie duke de Gramont as minister of foreign afifairs, May 15. The council of ministers ra Spain decide to offer the royal crown to Prince Leopold of HohenzoUem, July 2. Declaration of the duke de Gramont against the candidature in the corps legislatif, July 6. Withdrawal of Prince Leopold, July 12. Benedetti's interview with "Will- iam I. at Ems, resulting in an open rupture hetween Prus- sia and France, July 13. France formally declares war, July 19. Engagement at Saarbriick, Aug. 2. Victory of the Germans at Weissenburg, Aug. 4. Frederick William, crown-prinpe of Prussia, defeats the army of MacMahon at Worth, Aug. 6. Defeat of the French general Frossard at Spichem, Aug. 6. designation of Ollivier, Aug. 9. Palikao forms a new ministry, Aug. 10. First battle before Metz, at Oourcelles, Aug. 14. Battle of Mars-larTour (or of Vion- ville) between the forces of Prince Frederick Charles and those of Bazaine, Aug. 16. The armies of Steinmetz and Prince Frederick Charles, commanded by King William in person, defeat Bazaine at Gravelotte, Aug. 18. Defeat of a part of MacMahon's forces at Beaumont, Aug. 30. Bat- tle of Sedan, Sept. 1; defeat of MacMahon by Frederick William and the crown-prince of Saxony. Surrender of MacMahon's army at Sedan, Sept. 2 ; Napoleon III. a pris- oner. Proclamation of the republic in Paris, formation of a government of national defense, Sept. 4. Paris invested on all sides, Sept. 19. Surrender of Toul, Sept. 23. Sur- render of Strasburg, Sept. 27-28. Sortie of Gen. Vinoy from Paris, Sept. 30. Gambetta escapes from Paris and issues a proclamation from Tours, Oct. 7-9. Victory of Von der Tann at Orleans, occupation of the city, Oct. 11. Fall of Metz, Bazaine surrenders to Frederick Charles, Oct. 27. The defenders of Paris occupy Le Bourget, Oct. 28. They are driven out of it, Oct. 30. Revolutionary rising in Paris, Oct. 31. Battle of Coulmiers near Orleans, Nov. 9 ; Aurelle de Paladines forces Von der Tann to retreat. The French re-enter Orleans, Nov. 10. Repulse of Aurelle de Paladines at Beaune-la-Rolande, Nov. 28. Attempt of Ducrot to break through the German lines before Paris at Brie and Champigny, Nov. 30-Dec. 8. Aurelle de Pala- dines is defeated before Orleans by the grand-duke of Mecklenburg and Prince Frederick Charles, Dec. 2-4. The Germans reoccupy the city, Dec. 4-5. Entry of the Oter- 174 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 1870. mans into Rouen; Dec. 6. Engagements on the Loire be^ tween Chanzy and the grand-duke of Mecklenbtirg, Dec. 7-10. Removal of the members of the government of national defense from Tours to Bordeaux, Dec. 9-10. The North German Diet decrees the restoration of the German Empire (the unification of Germany having been secured by treaties with the South German states, concluded Nov.), Dec. 10. Fall of Pfalzburg, Dec. 12. Defeat of Faidherbe at Pont-Noyelles, Dec. 23. The Germans open a bombard- ment on Mont Avron (Paris), Dec. 27. The advance of Bourbaki forces Von Werder to evacuate Dijon, Dec. 27. The Germans occupy Mont Avron, Dec. 29. Amadeus, duke of Aosta, son of Victor Emanuel, is elected king by the Cortes of Spain, Nov. 16. He accepts the crown, Dec. 4. Assassination of Prim, Dec. 28 (death, Dec. 30). Landing of Amadeus in Spaia, Dec. 30. The Vatican Council adopts the dogma of Papal Infallibility, July 18. Dollinger and his associates reject the decrees of the council. The Italian forces occupy Rome, Sept. 20 (the French forces having left the papal territory in August). Annexation of the Papal States to the kingdom of Italy, Oct. 9. Irish Land Act, Aug. 1. Elementary Education Act for Eng- land and Wales, Aug. 9. Increased difficulties of the Austrian government in its relar tions with the Slavs; the Slavic element almost entirely unrepresented in the Reichsrath. Abrogation of the Con- cordat between Austria and Rome. Russia announces her refusal to be boimd by the terms of the treaty of Paris respectiug the Black Sea, Oct. 31. The Paraguayan war ends with the death of Lopez at Aqui- daban, March. Sir Samuel Baker leads an expedition up the Nile to establish the sway of Egypt in the upper basin of the river. Death of Dickens, Farragut, Lee, A. Dumas. 1871. Treaty of Washington for the settlement of the "Alabama" question, May 8. Faidherbe unsuccessfully attacks the German forces at Ba- paume, Jan. 3. Chanzy's army is completely defeated by Frederick Charles at Le Mans, Jan. 10-12. Bourbaki at- tacks Von Werder at Hericourt before Belfort, and is re- pulsed, Jan. 15-17. William I. is proclaimed emperor of CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVEKSAL HISTORY. 175 1871. Grermany at Versailles, Jan. 18. Sortie from Mont Vale- rien under Trochu, Jan. 19. The army of Faidherbe is crushed by Von Groeben at St. Quentin, Jan. 19. Capitula- tion of Paris, signing of a partial armistice, Jan. 28. The remains of BourbaM's army retire into Switzerland, Feb. 1. Election of a National Assembly in France, Feb. 8. The Assembly meets at Bordeaux, Feb. 12. Capitulation of Belfort, Feb. 16. The Assembly elects Thiers chief of the executive, Feb. 17. Preliminary treaty of Versailles between France and Germany, Feb. 26 (ratified by the As- sembly March 1) ; cession of Alsace, German Lorraine, and Metz. Triumphal entry of the Grermans into Paris, March 1. Outbreak of the war of the Commune, March 18. The National Assembly meets at Versailles, March 20. Elections to the Conunune, March 26. The Com- munists attempt an advance upon Versailles, but are driven back, AprU. 2. They repeat the attempt in great force and are completely routed, April 3. MacMahon is appointed conmaander-in-chief of the f orce^ of the nation- al government, April 3. The army of Versailles begins active offensive operations against Paris, April 6. Fort Issy is occupied, May 9. Signing of a definitive treaty of peace between France and Germany at Frankfort, May 10. The government forces obtain possession of Fort Van- ves. May 14. They secure a foothold in Paris, May 21. Montmartre is taken. May 23. The Couununists set fire to the public buUdings, May 24. Massacre of Archbishop Darboy and other hostages, May 24. The government forces take Pere Lachaise, May 27. End of the struggle,. May 28. The National Assembly revokes the proscription against the Bourbon and Orleans princes, June 8. The Assembly prolongs Thiers's term of office, and confers on him the title of President of the Republic, Aug. 31. Meeting of the London Conference for the settlement of the Black Sea question, Jan. 17. Treaty between the Powers, March 13; the provisions of the treaty of Paris respecting neutralization abrogated. Abolition of the purchase system in the British army. Opening of the first Reichstag of the new German Empire, March 21. First general congress of the Old Catholics at Munich, Sept. The Hohenwart ministry in Cisleithan Austria attempts a 176 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAl HISTORY. 1871. settlement with the Czechs on the basis of Bohemian au- tonomy. Hohenwart fails, and resigns, Oct. 36. Resigna- tion of Beust, Nov. 6. Francis Joseph appoints Andrassy minister of foreign affairs. Prince Adolf Auersperg forms a ministry in Cisleithania, Nov. The Italian Parliament passes the Bill of the Papal Guaran- tees, May. The seat of the Italian government is trans- ferred from Florence to Eome. Act of the Brazilian government providing for the gradual abolition of slavery, Sept. 28. Great conflagration in Chicago, Oct. 8-10. Opening of the Mont Cenis tunnel. Polar expedition of Captain Hall; lat. 82° 16' reached. Successful expedition of Stanley in search of Livingstone. Death of Sir John Herschel, Auber, Grote. 1873. The Geneva Tribunal for the settlement of the "Alabama" question makes an award to the United States, Sept. 14. Settlement of the San Juan boundary question by the de- cision of the emperor WUliam, Oct. 21. Grant is re-elected president, and Henry Wilson is elected vice-president; defeated candidate for the presidency, Horace Greeley. Death of Greeley, Nov. 29. Beginning of the Modoc war. Passage of the Ballot Bill by the English Parliament. The German Reichstag passes a law suppressing the houses of the Jesuits and affiliated orders, June. Open rupture be- tween the German government and the papal court, Dec. Outbreak of the great insurrection in Spain in favor of Don Carlos (Charles VII.). Oscar n. succeeds his brother, Charles XV., in Sweden, Sept. Assassination of the earl of Mayo, viceroy of India, Feb. 8. Death of Juarez, president of Mexico ; he is succeeded by Lerdo de Tejada. Eruption of Vesuvius. Great conflagration in Boston, Nov. 9-11. The Austrian polar expedition under Payer and Weyprecht sails. (Francis Joseph land discovered, 1873; lat. 83* 6' reached, 1874.) Death of Mazzini and of Meade. 1873. Beginning of President Grant's second administration. Sur- render of the Modocs. Death of Napoleon III., Jan. 9. Resignation of Thiers, Mac- Mahon chosen his successor. May 24. The Germans com- CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 177 1871 plete the evacuation of the French territory, Sept. 16. The National Assembly confers the executive power on Mac- Mahon for a term of seven years (Septennat), night of Nov. 19-20. Bazaine is sentenced for treason, Dec. 10. The Prussian government issues the Falk laws against the Catholics, May. Abdication of King Amadeus of Spain, Feb. 11 ; a republican government established. Formation of a ministry under the presidency of Figueras, with Castelar as minister of foreign affairs, Feb. 12. Act abolishing slavery in Porto Rico, March 23. Spain is declared a federal republic by vote of the Constituent Cortes, June 8. Pi y Margall is appointed president of the executive, June 11. Bisings of the Intransigentes and Internationals in the cities of An- dalusia, Murcia, and Valencia, June->July. Bloody excesses of the Internationals in Alcoy, July 10. Formation of a new ministry under Sahneron, July 19. The Carlists take Igualada, July 20. End of the insurrection in Seville, July 29. The Intransigentes of Cartagena bombard Almeria, July 30. The Intransigentes succumb, except in Carta- gena, Aug. Castelar is chosen by the Cortes president of the Executive, Sept. 7. Ineffectual operations of Moriones against the Carlists. The Carlists attempt the reduction of Bilbao. Capture of the steamship " Virginius" by a Spanish man-of- war, Oct. 31. Spain yields to the demands of the United States, Nov. 29. Surrender of the "Virginius," Dec. 16. Bussian expedition under General Eaufmann against Khiva. The city of Khiva is taken, June 10. Treaty of peace, Aug. Outbreak of the Ashantee war. The sultan of Zanzibar submits to the demands of Sir Bartle Frere for the abolition of the slave trade. The Dutch make war on Atcheen; they suffer a severe re- verse. International exposition in Vienna. Financial panic in Austria and in the United States. Death of Bulwer, Livingstone, MUl, Manzoni, Agassiz. 1874. Resignation of Gladstone, Feb. ; Disraeli prime-minister. Resignation of Castelar, Jan. 3. Coup d'itat of General Pavia, Jan. 3. Serrano at the head of the Spanish govern- ment, Jan. 4. Surrender of Cartagena, Jan. 12. General Moriones, attempting to relieve Bilbao, is repulsed by the 13 178 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1874. Carlists at Somorrostro, Feb. 24. Serrano and Concha air tack the Carlist positions before Bilbao, and raise the siege of the city, Apnl 28-May 2. General Concha attacks the Carlist steonghold of Estella, June 25-27; he is repulsed and mortally wounded. The Carlists, iinder Don Alfonso, brother of Don Carlos, take Cuenca, July 15. The Carlists are forced to retreat from before Puycerda and Irun, Aug. and Nov. Alfonso, son of the ex-queen Isabella, is pro- claimed king of Spain by the armies, as Alfonso 331., Dec. 29, 30. Establishment of a ministry of regency under Canovas del CastUlo, Dec. 31. Capture of Koomassie by Sir Garnet Wolseley, Feb. 4. End of the Ashantee war. Annexation of the Feejee Islands to the British possessions. Successful campaign of the Dutch in Atcheen. Death of Fillmore, Sumner, Kaulbach, Guizot. 1876. England purchases the Khedive's share in the Suez canal, Nov. The Assembly in France adopts laws providing for the con- stitution of the national legislature; the legislative power to be vested in a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. Alfonso Xn. lands in Spain, Jan. 9. Submission of the Carlist general Cabrera, March. Surrender of the Carlist fortress of Seo de TJrgel, Aug. General Quesada drives the Carlists from before Pamplona, Nov. Outbreak of an insurrection in Herzegovina, July; in Bosnia, Aug. Ismail Fasha engages in a war of conquest against the Ab3rs- sinians. British polar expedition under Captain Nares. (See 1876.) Cameron completes his journey across the African continent. Death of Lyell, Andrew Johnson, Andersen. 1876. General Ouster's command is annihilated by the Sioux, June 26, 26. Admission of Colorado into the Union. Disputed presidential election in the United States. The EepubUcans claim the election of Rutherford B. Hayes and William A. Wheeler; the Democrats, of Samuel J. Tilden and Thomas , A. Hendricks. Parliament confers on Queen Victoria the title of Empress of India; formal assumption of the title, April 28. The Great Powers address a note (the Audrdssy note), to the Porte, demanding reforms, Jan. 31. Severe fighting between CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UKIVERSAL HISTORY. 179 1876. the Herzegovinians aud Mukhtar Pasha. Fresh rising in Bosnia, April. Rising in Bulgaria, May. Murder of the French and Grermaa consuls at Salonica, May 6. Massacres in Bulgaria, May. Revolution in Constantinople, May 12 ; fall of the grand-vizier Mahmoud Pasha. Gortchakofif , An- drassy, and Bismarck, draw up the Berlin Memorandum, May 14. Deposition of Abdul- Aziz and elevation of Murad v., night of May 29-30. Violent death of Abdul- Aziz, June 4. Servia and Montenegro declare war against the Porte, July 2. Victory of the Montenegrins at Vrbitza, July 28. The Turks»defeat the Servians on the Timok, but are re- pulsed before Alexinatz, Aug. Deposition of Murad V. and elevation of Abdul Hamid 11., Aug. 31. Surrender of Medun to the Montenegrins, Oct. 20. The Turks defeat the Servians at Diunis and Alexinatz, and completely break the strength of the enemy, Oct. Russian ultimatum to the Porte, Oct. 30. Conclusion of a general armistice, Oct. 31. Midhat Pasha is appointed grand-vizier, Dec. 19. Pro- clamation of a constitution for the Turkish Empire, Dec. 23. Opening of the conference of the Great Powers at Constantinople, Dec. 23. Fall of Estella, Feb. 19. Don Carlos retreats into France, Feb. 28. Abolition of the Fueros of the Basque provinces. Annexation of EZhokan to Russia. The Abyssinians overthrow the Egyptian forces at Gura. The Boers of the Transvaal Republic, under President Burgers, engage in a disastrous war with the Caffres. Porfirio Diaz seizes the supreme power in Mexico. Centennial exposition in Philadelphia; Alexander Graham Bell exhibits his articulating telephone. A sledging party of Captain Nares's expedition reaches lat. 83° 20' north of Greenland. Death of Deak, George Sand, Ehrenberg. 1877. Congress passes an act providing for an Electoral Commission to settle the disputed presidential election, Jan. 25, 26 ; Presi- dent Grant approves the act, Jan. 39. Election of the mem- bers of the Commission, Jan. 30. The Commission having rendered a decision in favor of Hayes, Congress declares him elected, March 2. Inauguration of the president, March 5. Great labor strikes in the United States, dis- orders suppressed by the military, July-Aug. The grand council of the Turkish Empire rejects the proposi- 180 CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1877. tions of the Great Powers respecting reforms, Jan. 18. Close of the conference at Constantinople, Jan. 20. Fall of Midhat Pasha, Feb. 5. Peace between Turkey and Ser- via, March 1. Opening of the Turkish Parliament, March 19. London Protocol of the Great Powers, March 31. It is rejected by the Porte, April 9. Convention between Rus- sia and Koumania, April 16. Bussia declares war against the Porte, April 24. The Russian forces enter Boumania and Turkish Armenia, April 24. Rising in the Caucasus, May. Roumania at war with the Porte, May. The Rus- sians storm Ardahan, May 17. Roumania declares her in- dependence, May 21. A portion of the Russian forces cross the Danube at Galatz, June 22. Repulse of Greneral Loris- Melikofl at Zevin, June 25. The Russian main army begins the passage of the Danube at SimLnitza, June 27. Mukhtar Pasha forces the Russians to raise the siege of Kaxs, July 9. General Gurko passes the Balkans, July 13, 14. Fall of Nioopolis, July 16. First victory of Osman Pasha at Plevna, July 20. A portion of the army of the grand-duke Nicholas suffers a great defeat before Plevna, July 30. Suleiman Pasha attacks and defeats General Gurko at Eski Zaghia, July 31, Aug. 1. Suleiman Pasha begins his attacks on the Russian positions in the Shipka Pass, Aug. 21. Successful operations of Mehemet Ali against the Russian crown-prince on the Lorn, Aug. -Sept. The Russians storm Lovtcha (Lovatz), Sept. 3. Surrender of Niksitch to the Montene- grins, Sept. 8. Renewed attacks on Plevna, Sept.; des- perate assault of the Russians and Boumanians, Sept. 11. Complete defeat of Mukhtar Pasha in the battle of Aladja Dagh, Oct. 15; followed by his retreat upon Erzerum. General Gurko storms Gomi Diibnik, Oct. 24. He takes Telish, Oct. 28. The Bussians storm the Turkish positions at Deve-Boyun, and force Mukhtar Pasha to withdraw behind the fortifications of Erzerum, Nov. 4. Storming of Kars, Nov. 18. Mehemet Ali is forced from his positions at Pravetz, Nov. 23. Suleiman Pasha's forces capture Elena, Dec. 4. Osman Pasha attempts to break through the Bussian lines at Plevna, but is forced to surrender, Dec. 10. Defeat of Suleiman Pasha at Metchka, Dec. 12. Servia declares war against the Porte, Dec. 14. Greneral Gurko advances across the Balkans. The British take possession of the Transvaal Bepublic. ; CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 181 1877. Stanley establishes the identity of the Lualaba and Congo rivers. Death of Motley, Thiers, Leverrier. 1878. General Grurko enters Sofia, Jan. 4. General Eartzoff forces the Troyan Pass, Jan. 7. Generals Mirski, Skobeleff, and Badetzky capture the Turkish forces La the Shipka Pass, Jan. 9. Surrender of Nish to the Servians, Jan. 10. The Montenegrins take Antivari, Jan. 10. Fighting near PhU- ippopolis, ending in the ruin of Suleiman's army, Jan. 15- 17. The Bussians occupy Adrianople, Jan. 20. They ad- vance to the neighborhood of Constantinople. Armistice, Jan. 31. Entry of the British fleet into the Sea of Mar- mora, Feb. 13. Treaty of San Stefano, March 3. The Eritish government embarks a force of Sepoys at Bombay for service against the Russians, April. England enters into a convention with Turkey, in which she engages to maintain the integrity of the Turkish dominions in Asia, the Porte permitting her to occupy Cyprus, June 4. Opening of the congress of Berlin, June 13. Treaty of Berlin, July 13. ALilN STIPULATIONS OF THE TEEATT Or BEELQf. Roumonia, Servia, and Montenegro are declared independent principalities ; Russia receives part of Turkish Armenia — includ- ing Ears and Ardahan — as well as Batum, and the portion of Bess- arabia annexed to Moldavia in 1856. The Dobrudja is given to Boumania. Large additions (including Nish) are made to the terri- tory of Servia. Montenegro receives Niksitch, Podgoritza, and Antivari. Bulgaria (with altered boundaries) is created a Christian principality, tributary to the Porte. The province of Eastern Rou- meUa is created, to be ruled by a Christian governor. The fortresses of Shumla, Varna, SiUstria, Rustchuk, and Viddin to be dismantled. Austria undertakes the occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Civil rights are guaranteed to non-Mohamme- dans in the Turkish Empire. The Austrian forces enter Bosnia and Herzegovina, July 29. The Mohammedans offer a desperate, but ineffectual, re- sistance. The subjugation of the provinces completed, Oct. Death of Victor Emanuel, Jan. 9. He is succeeded by his son, Humbert. Death of Pius IX., Feb. 7. Election of Leo XIII., Feb. 20. Attempt of the Nihilist Vera Zasulitch upon the life of Tre- poff, prefect of St. Petersburg, Feb. 5. General Mezentzeff, 182 CHBONOLOGIOAl TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1878. director of the tMrd section of the Russian imperial chan- cellery, is assassinated by Nihilist conspirators, Aug. 16. Attempt of Hodel upon the life of the emperor William, May 4. Nobiliiig wounds the emperor, June 2. The German Beichstag passes the Anti-Socialist Law, Oct. Reception of a Russian embassy, under Stolietoff , by Shir Ali, ameer of Afghanistan, Aug. Lord Lytton, viceroy of India, demands the admission of a British embassy at Cabool, Aug. The British embassy, under Sir Neville Chambeiv lain, is refused a passage by the Afghan commandant at Ali Musjid (at the Khyber Pass), Sept. The viceroy sends an ultimatum to Shir Ali, Nov. 2. The British forces enter Afghanistan, Nov. 21. General Browne attacks Ali Musjid, Nov. 21. He occupies the fort, Nov. 22. Victory of Gen- eral Roberts at the Peiwar Pass, Dec. 2. Withdrawal of the Russian embassy from Cabool, Dec. Flight of Shir Ali from Cabool, Dec. 13 ; his son, Yakub Khan, left in. charge of the government. Browne occupies JellaJabad, Dec. 20. Restoration of order throughout most of Cuba. International exhibition La Paris. Death of Joseph Henry, Bryant, Petermann. 1879. Resumption of specie payment in the United States, Jan. 1. Resignation of President MacMahon, Jules Grevy chosen his successor, Jan. 30. Gambetta is chosen president of the French Chamber of Deputies, Jan. 31. The British, under Biddulph and Stewart, occupy Candahar and Eelat-i-Ghilzai, Jan. Death of Shir Ali in Turkestan, Feb. 21 ; Yakub TChar\ succeeds him. Advance of the Brit- ish from Jellalabad to Gundamuk, April. Yakub Khan re- pairs to Gundamuk, and concludes there a treaty of peace with the British, May 19 (treaty signed. May 26). A British embassy, under Major Cavagnari, enters Cabool, July 24. Massacre of Cavagnari and his suite, Sept. 3. The British undertake a general advance on Cabool, Sept. Yakub Khan repairs to the British camp, Sept. The main army of the British, under General Roberts, traverses the Shutar-Gar- dan Pass, Oct. 1. He repulses the attacks of the Ghilzais, Oct. 2. He defeats the Caboolese near their capital, Oct. 6. Entry of his forces into Cabool, Oct. 12. Abdication of Yakub Khan, Oct. General Roberts, after protracted com- bats with the Afghans, evacuates Cabool, and collects his forces in a fortified position at Shlrpur, Dec. He dislodges CHBONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 183 1879. the Afghans from their positions around Shirpur, Deo. 23. The British reoccupy Cabool. The British make war on the Zulu king Cetywayo, Jan. Dis- aster to the British at Isandula, Jan. 22. Lord Chehnsford repulses the Zulus at Gingolovo, April 2. He relieves Colo- nel Pearson at Ekowe, April 3. Sir Garnet Wolseley is appointed to conduct the war, May. Prince Louis Napo- leon is slain in a reconnoissance, June 1. Lord Chelmsford vanquishes the Zulus at Ulimdi, July 4. Capture of Cety- wayo, Aug. 28. Assassination of KrapotMn, governor of Kharkov, Feb. 21. Attempt upon the life of Drenteln, the successor of Mezen- tzeff, March 25. Attempt of Solovieff upon the life of Alexander II., April 14. Repulse of the Russians, under Lomakin, by the Tekke-Turkomans at Gok-Tepe, Sept. 9. Attempt of the Nihilists to blow up the train carrying the czar to Moscow, Dec. 1. Prince Alexander of Battenberg is elected prince of Bulgaria, April 29. Ismail Pasha, khedive of Egypt, is deposed by the Porte, and his son, Tewfik Pasha, appointed his successor, June. Passage of the Irish University BiU, Aug. Anti-rent agitation in Ireland. Resignation of Andrassy, Oct. ; Baron Haymerle succeeds him. Chili engages in a war with Bolivia and Peru. The Peruvian iron-clads "Huascar" and "Independencia" attack two Chilian men-of-war at Iquique, May 21 ; one of the Chilian vessels is sunk; the "Independencia," while pursuing the other, runs upon a shoal, and is lost. The Chilians cap- ture the " Huascar," Oct. 8. The Chilians occupy Pisagua, Nov. 2. They defeat the Peruvians and Bolivians at Dolores, Nov. 19. They occupy Iquique, Nov. 23. Battle of Tara- paca, Nov. 27. President Prado quits Peru, Dec. Pierola proclaims himself dictator. Destruction of Szegedin by an inundation of the Theiss, March. Nordenskjold accomplishes the northeast passage. Death of Espartero, Garrison, Carey. 1880. Election of James A. Garfield to the presidency of the United States, Nov. 2 ; defeated candidate, W. S. Hancock. Ches- ter A. Arthur is elected vice-president. The United States government concludes a treaty with China relative to the restriction of the immigration of Chinese laborers, Nov. 17. i84 CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTOKT. 1880. Attempt to blow up the Russian imperial family in the Win' ter Palace, Feb. 17. General Loris-Melikoff is appointed president, with almost dictatorial powers, of a supreme com- mission charged with the suppression of Nihilism, Feb. 24. The Russians undertake a new expedition against the Tekke-Turkomans, Skobeleff commanding, July. AboU- tion of the supreme commission, Loris-Melikoff appointed minister of the interior with extensive powers, Aug. 18. Publication of the Ferry Educational Bill in France, March 19. Promulgation of the decrees of the Freycinet cabinet ordering the dissolution of all the Jesuit establishments and compelling all other non-authorized religious orders to sub- mit their statutes to the goyemment, March 30 (decrees dated March 29). Passage of a bill granting amnesty to the Communists, July (decree signed by the president, July 10). Resignation of Freycinet, Jules Ferry becomes head of the ministry, Sept. Resignation of the Beaconsfleld ministry, Gladstone forms a new cabinet, April. Abdurrahman Khan, nephew of Shir Ali, is proclaimed ameer of Cabool under British auspices, July 22. General Burrows's command is overwhelmed at Kushk-i-Nakhud, by Ayub Khan of Herat, July 27. Gen- eral Roberts marches from Cabool to relieve Candahar; Aug. Withdrawal of General Stewart's forces from Ca- bool, Aug. 11. Roberts enters Candahar, Aug. 31. He disperses Ayub Khan's army on the Argand-ab, Sept. 1 ; flight of Ayub toward Herat. The agrarian movement in Ireland develops into a formida- ble system of terrorism. A conference of the Great Powers is convened at Berlin, sup- plementary to the Berlin congress of 1878, June. Naval demonstration of the Powers off the coast of Albania to en- force the decrees of the supplementary conference respect- ing the surrender of Dulcigno by Turkey to Montenegro, Sept. A Turkish force expels the Albanians from Dulcigno, which is taken possession of by the Montenegrins, Nov. A violent agitation against the Jews is set on foot in Germany. The Cortes of Spain pass a law for the gradual abolition of slavery in Cuba (the period being fixed at eight years), Jan. (Promulgation of the law, Feb.) Rising in the Transvaal against British rule, Nov. The Society Islands are annexed to the dominions of Franca CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 185 1880. The Chilians unsuccessfully attack Arica by sea, Feb. 27. TSiey enter Moquegua and storm the heights commandiag it, March 20, 21. The blockade of CaUao is begun, April. The Chilians storm the positions of the Peruvians and Bo- livians at Tacna, May 26. They make themselves masters of Arica, June 7. Manuel Gronzalez succeeds Diaz as president of Mexico. Completion of the cathedral of Cologne. Death of Jules Favre, Cr6mieux, Peirce, George Eliot. 188i Beginning of Grarfield's admioistration, March 4. He is shot by an assassin, July 2. He dies Sept. 19. Chester A. Arthur succeeds him. A detachment of British troops, under Sir George Colley, is annihilated by the Boers, Feb. 27. England agrees to a peace with the Boers on the basis of the autonomy of the Transvaal, March 21. Final passage of the Irish Land Bill, Aug. 16 ; the bill receives the royal assent, Aug. 22. Arrest and imprisonment of Pamell and other Irish agitators, Oct. Manifesto of the Irish Land League against the payment of rent, Oct. 18. The Bussians, under General Skobeleff, take Gok-Tepe, Jan. 24. Treaty between Russia and China respecting Kulja, Feb. Assassination of Alexander II., March 13; he is succeeded by his son, Alexander III. Outbreak of the persecution of the Jews in Russia, April. General Igna- tieff succeeds Loris-Melikoff as minister of the interior, May 16. France dispatches an expedition to Tunis with the ostensible object of chastising the Krumirs, April. Treaty with the bey establishing a French protectorate over Tunis, May 12. Bloody affray between the Italians and French in Mar- seilles, June 19. An insurrection breaks out in Tunis, June. The French take Sfax, July 16. They occupy Kairwan, Oct. 26. The Ferry ministry resigns, and is succeeded by that of Grambetta, Nov. Hamburg consents to her incorporation in the Zollverein on condition of retaining the privilege of having a free port for her general commerce. The Italian Chamber passes an electoral reform bill, June; the bill passes through the Senate, Dec. The Turkish government gives its final consent to the cession to Greece of an extensive territory in Thessaly and Epirus, 186 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1881. May. Sentence of Midhat Pasha and others for the mur der of Abdul- Aziz, June 29. Eoumania assumes the title of kingdom, March 26. Death of Baron Haymerle, Austrian foreign minister, Oct. Kalnoky is appointed his successor, Nov. Outbreak of an insurrection in the district of Qrivoscie in Dalmatia, Nov. Decree of the government of Austria-Hungary subjecting the inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina to military service in the imperial army. Sagasta becomes head of the ministry in Spain (succeeding C&iovas del Castillo), Feb. Evacuation of Gandahar by the British, April. Battle between Ayub Khan and Abdurrahman at Candahar, Sept. 22; Ayub's army broken up. Abdurrahman's forces occupy Herat, Oct. 4. Revolutionary movement of the soldiery in Cairo, headed by Arab! Bey, the chief of the military or "national" pai^;y in Egypt, Sept. ; the khedive appoints Sherif Pasha prime- minister. Meetiog of an assembly of Notables at Cairo, • Dec. — Revolt of the Mahdi, or False Prophet, in the Soudan. The Chilians defeat the Peruvians at Chorillos, Jan. 13, and at Miraflores, Jan. 15. They enter Lima, Jan. 17. Pierola continues the war in the provinces. Establishment of a provisional government in Peru under the presidency of Calderon, March. Seizure of President Calderon by the orders of Admiral Lynch, Nov. Great earthquake at Scio, April. Completion of the St. Gothard tunnel. The construction of the Panama canal is begun. Death of Mariette, Carlyle, Beaconsfield, Littr6, BluntschU. 1882. Sherif Pasha, prime-minister of Egypt, refusing to yield to the demand of the Notables for parliamentary government, is compelled to resign, Feb. ; a ministry is formed, with Arabi Bey, secretary of war, as its actual head. The Anglo- French "control" in the financial administration of Egypt is practically abolished. Arabi Pasha (pasha since March) makes himself virtual dictator, May. Massacre of Euro- peans at Alexandria, June 11. A conference of the Great Powers for the settlement of the Egjrptian question meets at Constantinople, June 23. Admiral SeymoTir bombards the forts at Alexandria, July 11, 12. Withdrawal of Arabi and his forces from the city, massacre of Europeans there, July 12. CHBONOLOGIOAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 187. 1882. The Britisli undertake a campaign for the overthrow of Arabi. He is completely defeated by Sir Garnet "Wolseley at Tel el-Kebir, Sept. 13. He becomes a prisoner of the British, Sept. 14. He is sentenced to death, his sentence is commuted to banishment, Dec. 3. Belease of Pamell and other Irish agitators. May. Lord Cav- endish, the newly appointed secretary for Ireland, and Burke, the under-secretary, are murdered at Dublin, May 6. Parliament passes the Arrears of Rent Bill for Ireland, July-Aug. Formation of the Irish National League, Oct. Gambetta resigns his premiership and is succeeded by Frey- cLQet, Jan.'' The French determine to secure the delta of the Sang-koi River (Red River), ia Tonquin, to their com- merce and arrest the predatory incursions of the Black Flags (a Chinese soldiery, a remnant of the Taiping rebels). Major Riviere makes himself master of the citadel of Ha-noi, April. Anaim encourages the Black Flags ia their resistance to the French, and invokes the aid of China. Resignation of the French prime-minister Freycinet, July; a new cabinet is formed under Duclerc, Aug. Death of Gambetta, Dec. 31. Insurrection in Herzegovina, Jan. The Austrian forces sup- press the insurrection in Dalmatia and Herzegovina, March. Count Tolstoi succeeds Ignatieff as minister of the interior in Russia, June. Bands of Peruvians maintain a desultory warfare against the Chilians. Death of J. H. Draper, Longfellow, Darwin, Emerson, Gari- baldi, Louis Blanc, Anthony Trollope. 1883. The United States Congress passes the Civil Service Bill, Jan. The Duclerc cabinet in France is succeeded by that of Fal- lieres, Jan. The Falli^res cabinet resigns, Feb. ; Jules Ferry becomes (for the second time) head of the ministry. The Anamese unsuccessfully assault Ha-noi, March. A French force, under Riviere, is surprised by the Black Flags and defeated. Riviere being slain. May 19. The French fleet, under Cpurbet, bombards the Anamese forts at the mouth of the river Hue, Aug. 18-20. Anam is com- pelled to accept the French terms of peace, Aug. 25; a French protectorate is established over Anam ; the French are allowed to prosecute their designs with regard to Tonquin, The French take Son-tay (N. W. of Ha-noi), Dec. 16, 17. 188 CUEONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1883. Aggressions of the French in Madagascar. Admiral Pierre bombards Tamatave, June 13. Italy enters into an alliance with the German Empire and Austria-Hungary. Death of the count de Chambord, Aug. 24. Coronation of Alexander III. at Mpscow, May 27. Military revolts in Spain, Aug. Resignation of prime-minis- ter Sagasta, Oct. ; Posada-Herrera succeeds him. The Mahdi annihilates an Egyptian army, under Hicks Pasha, near El-Obeid (the chief town of Kordofan), Nov. 3-5. Eisings of the hUl tribes in the coast region of the Sou- dan, about Suakin. > The Iglesias government in Pera accepts Chili's terms of peace. The Chilian forces evacuate Lima, Oct. Tho German Reichstag passes a law providing for the general insurance of workingmen against illness. Earthquake in the island of Ischia, July 28. Volcanic erup- tion at the island of Krakatoa, in Sunda Strait, Aug. 26, 27. Completion of the East River suspension bridge. Death of Gustave Dore, Richard Wagner, J. R. Green, GortchakofF, Karl Marx, Abd-el-Kader, Sir E. Sabine, Tur< genefl, Mayne Reid, Henri Martin. 1884. Grover Cleveland is elected president of the United States, and Thomas A. Hendricks vice-president, Nov. 4 ; defeated candidate for the presidency, James G. Blaine. The French general Millot takes Bac-ninh (N. E. of Ha-noi), March 12. The Chinese attack a French force at Lang-son (a town of Tonquin, near the Chinese frontier), June 23. Open war between France and China, Aug. Courbet de- ' stroys the arsenal at Foochow, Aug. 23. Descents upon Formosa. — The French continue to wage war in Madagas- car. — Revision of the French constitution, Aug. General Gordon is dispatched by the British to the Soudan, Jan. An Egyptian force, under Baker Pasha, is vanquished by Osman Digna near Tokar (S. E. of Suakin), Feb. 4. General Graham defeats Osman Digna near Tokar, Feb. 29, and at Tamanieb, March 13. Gordon is shut up in . Khartoum by the followers of the Mahdi. Egyptian con- ference at London, June 28- Aug. 2. Expedition xmder Wolseley for the relief of Gordon. Passage of the new Franchise Bill by Parliament, Nov.-Dec. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL mSTORT. 189 1884. Meeting of the emperors of Russia, Germany, and Austria at Skiemiewice (a town S. W. of Warsaw), Sept. 15-17. New ministry in Spain under Canovas del Castillo, Jan. The Tekke-Turkomans of Merv submit to Russia. Porflrio Diaz becomes for a second time president of Mexico, succeeding Manuel Gonzalez. The German Reichstag passes a law providing for the general insurance of workingmeii against accidents. Grermany engages in the work of colonization in Africa. Death of Mignet, Beade, Lepsius, Makart. 1885. Beginning of President Cleveland's administration, March 4. Death of Vice-president Hendriclcs, Nov. 25. Attempts of Irish revolutionists to wreck the Houses of Par- liament and the London Tower, Jan. 34. The Mahdi captui-es Khartoum at the moment when Wolse- ley's advance reaches the vicinity of the place, Jan. 36 ; death of Gordon. The British forces are withdrawn from the Soudan. Death of the Mahdi. The Russian general Eomaroff occupies the Zulflkar Pass, leading to Herat. He attacks the Afghans on the Kushk, March 30. England makes military preparations to meet a Russian advance upon Herat. A settlement is effected, the British government making some concessions to Rus- sia vrith respect to the boundary between Turkestan and Afghanistan. Louis Riel heads an insurrection in Canada. He is defeated and captured. May. (He is executed, Nov. 16.) Resignation of the Gladstone ministry, June ; the Marquis of Salisbury becomes premier. Outbreak of war between England and Burmah, Nov, Entry of General Prendergast's forces into Mandalay, Nov. 38 ; surrender of King Thebaw. The French meet with a reverse in Tonquin, near the Chi- nese frontier, March. Resignation of Jules Ferry's cab- inet, March. Brisson forms a new ministry, April. Peace between France and China, June 9. Attack upon the French at Hue, July. Announcement of peace between France and Madagascar, Dec. ; the government of Mada- gascar forced to recognize the French protectorate. Grevy is re-elected President of France, Dec. 28. Brisson re- signs. Death of Alfonso XH. of Spain, Nov. 35. His widow, Chris- 190 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1885. tiiia, becomes regent of the kingdom. Sagasta is made premier. Meeting of the emperors of Austria and Hussia at Eremsier (in Moravia), Aug. Eevolution in Eastern Boumelia, Sept. 18. Proclamation of the union of the province with the principality of Bulga- ria. The Servians invade Bulgaria, and are completely- defeated, Nov. >• Creation of the Congo Free State, Feb. Destructive earthquakes in Spain, Jan. Death of Hugo, Grant, Monteflore, McClellan, Serrano. Completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. 1886. Extensive labor strikes in the United States. Bloody riots in Chicago, May. The annexation of Burmah to Great Britain proclaimed, Jan. 1. Resignation of the Salisbury ministry, Jan. Gladstone again becomes premier, Feb. He introduces a bill in Par- liament providing for home rule in Ireland, April. He submits a land-purchase scheme for Ireland, April. For- mation of the Liberal Unionist Party. Fall of the Glad- stone ministry, July ; Salisbury again premier. Freycinet becomes head of the ministry in France, Jan. Ex- pulsion of the Orleans and Bonaparte princes from the re- public. Freycinet resigns ; Goblet forms a new cabinet, Dec. Christina, widow of Alfonso XII. of Spain, gives birth to a son, who becomes king as Alfonso XIII., May 17. Measures for the Germanization of Polish districts in Prussia passed by the Landtag, King Louis II. of Bavaria drowns himself, June. He is suc- ceeded by his brother, Otho II. Prince Luitpold, uncle of Otho, governs as regent. Prince Alexander of Bulgaria is recognized as governor of Eastern RoumeHa. Conspiracy against Alexander, excited by the intrigues of Russia and headed by ZankofP, the met- ropolitan Clement, and others. He is kidnapped, Aug. 21. A counter-revolution takes place, the revolutionary gov- ernment is overthrown by Mutkuroff, and the prince, hav- ing been set at liberty, returns to resume the reins of power, Aug. In consequence of the attitude of the Czar, prince Alexander formally abdicates his crown, Sept. 7. Greece threatens an invasion of Turkey. Intervention of the Great Powers. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 191 1886. The city of Charleston (S. C.) is shattered by an earthquake, Aug. Death of Liszt, Beust, Arthur, C. F. Adams. 1887. Congress passes the Interstate Commerce Law. Execution of Anarchists in Chicago, Nov. 11. Gohlet, head of the French cabinet, resigns, May ; Eouvier becomes head of the ministry. Eouvier resigns, Nov. President Grevy abdicates, Dec. 2 (act of abdication dated Dec. 1). Sadi Carnot is elected his successor, Dec. 3. The president accepts the resignation of the Eouvier cabinet. Tirard is entrusted with the formation of a new cabinet. Termination of the Kulturkampf waged by the Prussian government against the Holy See, the former having been gradually compelled to renounce the policy inaugurated in the ecclesiastical laws of 1873. Eenewal of the Triple Alliance between the German Empire, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Prince Ferdinand of Coburg is elected prince of Bulgaria, July. Eussia protests against the election. The Italians suffer a bloody defeat near Massowa at the hands of King John of Abyssinia, Jan. Stanley undertakes an expedition for the relief of Emin Bey, governor of the equatorial provinces of Egypt. Starting from the Congo, he marches through the basin of the Aruwimi, and then traverses the wilderness between that river and the Albert N'yanza, which he reaches. The German government begins the construction of the canal to connect the North Sea with the Baltic. The construction of the Manchester Ship Canal is begun. Death of Beecher, Kraszewski, S. F. Baird, Klrchhoff. 1888. Fisheries Treaty between the United States and Great Britain signed at "Washington, Feb. 15. It is rejected by the United States Senate. Benjamin Harrison is elected president of the United States and Levi P. Morton vice-president, Nov. 6 ; defeated candidate for the presidency, Grover Cleve- land. Death of WiQiam I., emperor of Germany, March 9 ; he is succeeded by his son, Frederick. Death of Frederick, June 15 ; he is succeeded by his son, William II. Boulaugist agitation in France. Boulanger demands a re- vision of the constitution. Eesignation of the Tirard min' istry, March. Floquet forms a cabinet, April. 192 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL DISTOEY. 1880. General Grenfell carries the fortifications of Osman Digna, near Suakin, Dec. 20. Porfirio Diaz is re-elected president of Mexico. The government in Brazil passes an act by which the emaaci- pation of the slaves is completed. (See 1871.) Conflict in Samoa between the .Americans and Germans. The German East African Company becomes involved in a war with the Arab traders of Zanzibar. Meeting of Stanley and Emin Fasha on Lake Albert N'yanza. The Russian Trans-Caspian BaUway is opened as far as Samarkand. Death of Asa Gray, Matthew Arnold, General Sheridan. 1889. Beginning of President Benjamin Harrison's administration. Admission of North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington into the Union. An international American conference assembles in the city of Washington. Resignation of the Floquet cabinet in France. Tirard be- comes for a second time head of the ministry, Feb. Trial and condemnation of Boulanger by the Senate. The German Reichstag passes a law providing for the com- pulsory insurance of workingmen against disability arising from old age or infirmity. King Milan of Servia abdicates in favor of his son, Alex- ander, March. Collision between the British and Portuguese in southeastern Africa. Death of King Louis of Portugal, Oct. 19 ; he is succeeded by his son, Charles. • Military uprising in Brazil, beaded by Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca, Nov. 15 ; the government of Pedro 11. is over- thrown and Brazil proclaimed a republic. Conference at Berlin between the representatives of the Ger- man Empire, theUniLed States, and Great Britain for the settlement of the affairs of Samoa. Establishment of parliamentary government in Japan. King John of Abyssinia is mortally wounded in a battle with the dervishes, March. Menelek of Shoa obtains pos- session of the Abyssinian throne. March of Stanley and Emin Pasha to the Zanzibar coast. Successful expedition of Wissmann against the Arab traders of Zanzibar. International Exposition in Paris. Destruction of Johnstown (Pa.) by the bursting of a dam. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 193 1889. Death of Ericsson, John Bright, Chevreul, Joule, Augier, Jefferson Davis, Browning. 18SC Oklahoma is organized as a territory. Admission of Idaho and Wyoming into the Union. Congress passes the Mc- Kinley Tariff Bill. Messiah craze among the Indians. Killing of the Sioux chief Sitting Bull, Dec. An international conference is held at Berlin under the auspices of William II. for the discussion of questions re- lating to the welfare of the working classes. Bismarck resigns the chancellorship of the German Empire, March ; General Caprivi is appointed his successor. Portugal is foi-ced to yield to the demands of England in the dispute respecting sovereignty in southeastern Africa. Treaty hetweeu the German Empire and Great Britain estab- lishing the boundaries of the spheres of activity of the two powers in Africa, and providing for the cession of the island of Heligoland to Germany. England assumes a protectorate over Zanzibar. Division in the ranks of the Irish Nationalists. The majority of the party recognize Justin McCarthy as leader in oppo- sitioa to Parnell, Dec. The Tirard ministry in France resigns, March ; Freycinet forms a new cabinet. Tisza, the Hungarian premier, after having been at the head of affairs for more than fourteen years, resigns, and is succeeded by Count Szapary. Canovas del Castillo succeeds Sagasta as head of the ministry in Spain, July. Death of William HI. of Holland, Nov. 33. He is succeeded by his daughter, Wilhelmina, Queen Emma being ap- pointed regent. Adolphus, formerly duke of Nassau, suc- ceeds to the throne of the grand-duchy of Luxemburg. Disorders in the Swiss canton of Ticino. The usurpations of the clerical party are checked by a revolutionary outbreak, Sept. Intervention of the Swiss federal government. Convention between Belgium and the Congo Free State pro- viding for the annexation of the latter to the former at the end of ten years. Insun-ection in Buenos Ayres against the government of President Celman, July. He is driven from the city, but regains his power in a few days, after bloody fighting. He resij^is in favor of Pellegrini, Aug. 14 194 CHK0N0L06ICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTOKY. 1890. Completion of the new Croton Aqueduct. Opening of the Forth railway bridge. Death of DoUinger, Andrassy, the 'Chinese diplomatist, Mar- quis Tseng, Fremont, Cardinal Newman, Schliemann. 1891. General Miles pacifies the Indians of the Northwest, Jan. Congress passes the Copyright Bill, March. Lynching of a number of Italians in New Orleans, March. Italy sus- pends diplomatic relations with the United States. Eenewal of the Triple Alliance between the German Empire, AustriarHungary, and Italy. The German Beichstag enacts a code of regulations for the protection of workingmen. Death of Pamell, Oct. Osman Digna is completely defeated by the Egyptians in the neighborhood of Suakin, Feb. A conflict in Chili between President Balmaceda and Con- gress culminates in civil war. The Congressionalists, hav- ing determined to put an end' to the president's arbitrary rSgime by means of a revolution, begin the struggle by in- ducing the principal part of the national fleet to revolt, Jan. After a number of severe encounters, the war termi- nates in favor of the Congressional party, whose forces vanquish those of Balmaceda in the outskirts of Valparaiso, capture that city and enter Santiago, Aug. Balmaceda puts an end to his life, Sept. Difficulties arise with the government of the United States in consequence of a mur- derous assault upon American seamen in Valparaiso, Oct. Jorge Montt is chosen president of Chili, Nov. Promulgation of the constitution of the United States of Brazil, Feb. Marshal Fonseca, hitherto the provisional head of the republic, is elected president, Feb. He at- tempts to usurp dictatorial power, Nov. Eevolt of the province of Eio Grande do Sul, Nov. A revolutionary movement in Eio Janeiro forces President Fonseca to re- sign, Nov. The vice-president, Peixoto, assumes the duties of president. Rising among the Manipuris, in India, March-ApriL The construction of the trans-Siberian railway is begun. Famine in Eussia. Death of Einglake, Bancroft, Meissonier, General Sherman, Prince Napoleon, General J. E. Johnston, Moltke, Lowell, Grevy, Earl Lytton, Pedro IL CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 195 1892. England and the United States agree to submit their differ- ences in the matter of the Behring Sea seal-fisheries to arbi- tration. Italy resumes regular diplomatic relations with the United States. Suspension of the Navigation Laws in the United States by the admission of some British-buUt steamers to American registry. Grover Cleveland is elected president of the United States and Adlai E. Stevenson vice- president, Nov. 8. The Salisbury cabinet in England resigns, Aug. ; Gladstone becomes premier. The Freycinet ministry in France resigns, Feb. ; Loubet be- comes head of the cabinet. Panama Canal revelations. Loubet resigns, Nov. ; Eibot is installed as his successor, Dec. The Hungarian premier Szapary resigns and is succeeded by Wekerle, Nov. The cabinet of Canovas del Castillo in Spain is succeeded by a new Sagasta ministry, Dec. Death of Tewflk Pasha, khedive of Egypt, Jan. 7 ; he is suc- ceeded by his son. Abbas Pasha. War between the French and the king of Dahomey. Porfirio Diaz is re-elected president of Mexico. Luis Saenz Pena is elected president of the Argentine Re- public. Lieutenant Peary crosses the great interior ice cap of Green- land from Inglefield Gulf to Independence Bay. Death of Airy, J. C. Adams, Etienne Arago, Freeman, Walt Whitman, Bodenstedt, G. W. Curtis, Whittier, Eenan, Ten- nyson, E. W. Siemens, Eichard Owen. 1893. Revolution in Hawaii, Jan. ; Queen LUiuokalani is dethroned. President Harrison submits a treaty to the senate providing for the annexation of the islands to the United States, Feb. Beginning of Cleveland's second administration, March 4. He recalls the annexation treaty from the senate. Finan- cial panic in the United States. The government discon- tinues its purchases of silver. Gladstone introduces the Irish Home Rule Bill in Parlia- ment, Feb. 13. The House of Commons passes it Sept. 1. It is rejected by the Lords, Sept. 8. The Tribunal of Arbitration created to settle the dispute be- tween Great Britain and the United States relative to the Behring Sea seal-fisheries renders its finding, adverse to (he United States, Aug. 15. 196 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1893. Sentence of the participants in the Panama Canal practices in France. The Eibot ministry resigns, March; Dupuy forms a new cabinet, April. France wages, war with Siam for the possession of the left, bank of the Mekong. Siam agrees to relinquish her sovereignty, Aug. End of the Du- puy ministry, Nov. ; Casimir-Perier forms a new cabinet. Adoption of universal suffrage (plural vote system) in Bel- gium. The forces of the British East Africa Company attack and defeat Lobengula, king of Matabelelaud. (British au- thority established in 1894.) Revolt of the Brazilian navy under Mello. The insurgents blockade Kio Janeiro. Repeated bombardments of the city. Mello places Saldanha da Gama in charge of the operations in the harbor of Rio. President Peixoto fits out a fleet of war-ships. — Insurrections in various prov- inces of Brazil. Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Death of Taine, Jowett, MacMahon, Gounod, Parkman, Tyn- dall, Merivale. 1894. Great railroad strikes in and about Chicago, in California, etc. Congress passes the Wilson Tariff Bill. Gladstone resigns the premiership, March; he is succeeded by Eosebery. The Casimir-Perier cabinet in France resigns. May ; Dupuy forms a new ministry. Assassination of President Camot, June 24. The National Assembly elects Casimir-Perier his successor, June 37. Caprivi, chancellor of the German Empire, resigns, and is succeeded by Prince Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst, Oct. Death of Czar Alexander III., Nov. 1 ; he is succeeded by his son, Nicholas II. The Hungarian Diet passes the Civil Marriage Bill. Wekerle, the head of the Hungarian ministry, resigns, Dec. Abdul-Aziz succeeds his father, Muley Hassan, as Emperor of Morocco, June. War between China and Japan, growing out of their rela- tions to Corea. Hostilities begin, July. Victory of the Japanese at Ping Yang, Sept. 16. Naval engagement off the mouth of the Yalu, resulting in a great disaster to the Chinese, Sept. 17. The Japanese invade Manchuria. The Japanese attack and capture Port Arthur, Nov. 20-22. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF 0NIVEKSAL HISTOKY. 197 1894. Moraes Barros is elected president of Brazil to succeed Peixoto, March. Saldanha da Grama and his followers are forced to abandon their vfesels in the harbor of Eio, March. Mello gives up the contest, April. Moraes Barros enters upon his office, Nov. 15. Insurrection against the Spaniards in the Philippine Islands. Opening of the Manchester Ship Canal and of the Baltic Ship Canal. Death of Kossuth, Layard, the count de Paris, Helmholtz, Brugsch, Holmes, Froude, Eubinstein. 1896. Eosebery resigns the premiership, June ; he is succeeded by Salisbury. Message of President Cleveland relative to the boundary dis- pute between Great Britain and Venezuela, Dec. 17. The Dupuy cabinet in France resigns, Jan. Resignation of President Casimir-Perier, Jan. 15. Felix Faure is chosen his successor, Jan. 17. Ribot forms a cabinet, Jan. He resigns, Oct. ; formation of the Bourgeois cabinet. Death of Giers, the Russian minister of foreign affairs, Jan. 26. Banfly forms a new cabinet in Hungary, Jan. Count Goluchowski succeeds Kalnoky as minister of foreign affairs in Austria-Hungary, May. Massacres of Armenians by Mohammedans. The Japanese take the forts at Wei-Hai-Wei and destroy or capture the Chinese war vessels, Jan.-Feb. They capture Niuchuang, March. Peace of Shimonoseki, April. China recognizes the independence of Corea and cedes Formosa and the peninsula of Liao-Tung to Japan. The threats of the European powers compel Japan to relinquish Liao- Tung. France wages war against the Hovas of Madagascar to en- force her claim to a protectorate. The French forces take Antananarivo, Sept. Rising against Spanish rule in Cuba. General Martinez Campos conducts the operations against the insurgents. Saenz Pena, president of the Argentine Republic, resigns, and is succeeded by Uribuni, Jan. Nansen, in an attempt to reach the North Pole, attains a lati- tude of 8C° 4'. Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsay announce the discovery of a new constituent of the atmosphere, argon. Discovery of the Rontgen rays. 198 CHKONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1895. Death of Cayley, Sir Henry Bawlinson, J. D. Dana, Hux. ley, Sybel, Pasteur, Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, Dumas (the younger). 1896. Admission of Utah into the Union, Jan. William McKinley is elected president of the United States and Garret A. Hobart vice-president, Nov. 3. Great Britain yields to the demand of .the United States for the arbitration of the Venezuelan boundary dispute, Nov. Dr. Jameson, having undertaken a raid into the Transvaal in behalf of the Uitlanders, is forced to surrender to the forces of President Kriiger, Jan. 3. British expedition against Koomassie. The town is occupied, Jan. The Ashantees accept British suzerainty. General Kitchener conducts a British-Egyptian expedition up the NUe against the Dervishes. Occupation of Don- gola, Sept. The Bourgeois ministry in France resigns, April ; the Mehne cabinet installed. Continued massacres of Armenians. The Christian inhabitants of Crete rise in arms against the Mohammedans. Victory of Menelek, ruler of Abyssinia, over the Italians, under Baratieri, at Adua, March 1. The Italian premier Crispi resigns and a new cabinet is formed with Budini at its head, March. Treaty of Addis Abeba, Oct 26; Italy renounces her claim to a protectorate over Abyssinia. Madagascar is declared a colony of France. Assassination of Nasr-ed-Din, shah of Persia, May 1; he is succeeded by his son, Muza£fer-ed-Din. General Weyler assumes the conduct of the operations against the insurgents in Cuba. Porflrio Diaz is re-elected president of Mexico. Millennial Exposition in Budapest Opening of the canal at the Iron Gates of the Danube. Death of Leighton, Thomas Hughes, Mrs. Stowe, Curtius, Sir W. E. Grove, Millais, William Morris, Du Bois-Eeymond. 1897. Richard Olney, secretary of state of the United States, signs a general arbitration treaty with Great Britain, Jan. In- auguration of President McKinley, March 4. The Anglo- American arbitration treaty is rejected by the United States senate, May. President McKinley submits a treaty to the senate providing for the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands OHBONOLOGICAL TABLE OF UNIVERSAL HISTOBT. 199 1897. to the United States, June. Congress passes the Dingley Tariff Bill ; it goes into effect, July 24. Creation of the enlarged municipality of New York. Fierce conflicts between the Christians and Mohammedans in Crete. Greece, having resolved to annex the island, sends an armed force to take possession of it, Feb. The powers decree autonomy for Crete, call upon Greece to withdraw her troops, and, on her refusal, blockade the island, March. Greece makes war upon Turkey and is disastrously defeated, her forces being driven from Thessaly, April-May. She agrees to pay a war indemnity, and submits to a strategic rectification of her northern frontier in favor of Turkey. Celebration of Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee, June 22. The visit of President Faure to Russia cements the alliance between that empire and the French Republic. Assassination of the Spanish premier Canovas del Castillo, Aug. 8. Sagasta forms a Liberal cabinet, Oct. General Weyler is recalled from Cuba and superseded by General Bamon Blanco. The Sagasta government frames a scheme of autonomy for the island, Nov. Revolt of hill tribes on the Afghan frontier of India. The Germans occupy the Chinese port of Kiao-Chau, Dec. The discovery of rich deposits of gold in the Klondike region attracts large numbers of fortune-seekers. Death of Sylvester, Brahms, Jean Ingelow, Magaret 011- phant. Sir John Gilbert, Henry George, Alphonse Daudet. 1898. Destruction of the battleship "Maine" by an explosion at Havana, Feb. 15. The government of the United States de- mands of Spain the withdrawal of her forces from Cuba, and, on her refusal, makes war upon her, AprU. Cervera sails from the Cape Verde Islands, April 39. Victory of Dewey at Manila, May 1. It is the signal for a great uprising of the Filipinos under Aguinaldo, who lays siege to Manila. Cervera takes his fleet into Santiago harbor, where it is blockaded by Schley, May. The " Oregon," Captain Clark, completes her journey from the Pacific coast to Cuban waters. May. Sampson joins Schley off Santiago and takes command of the united fieet, June 1. Lieutenant Hobson sinks the collier " Merrimao " in the entrance to Santiago harbor, June 3. The forces of Shafter storm the heights of El Caney and San Juan, in front of Santiago, July 1. Con- tinued fighting at Santiago, July 2. ■ Attempt of Cervera to 300 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF DNIVEESAL HISTORY. 1898. escape from Santiago harbor, ending in the destruction of his fleet, July 3. Toral capitulates at Santiago, July 14; formal surrender, July 17. The Americans, under General MUes, invade Porto Rico, July. A protocol, providing for the suspension of hostilities, is signed at Washington, Aug. 12; Spain gives up Cuba and .Porto Rico. Dewey and Merritt take Manila, Aug. 13. The Americans take formal possession of Porto Bico, Oct. 18. Treaty of Paris, Dec. 10 ; Spain resigns her sovereignty in Cuba, Porto Bico, and the Philippines. Annexation of the Hawaiian Islands to the United States, Aug. China consents to the occupation of Port Arthur by Russia and of Wei-Hai-Wei by England, End of the Meline ministry in France, June ; Brisson pre- mier. He is succeeded by Dupuy, Oct Revision of the Dreyfus case instituted. Nicholas II. invites the European powers to a conference to discuss the subject of disarmament, Aug. Kitchener overwhelms the dervishes at Omdurman, and re- conquers Nubia for Egypt, Sept. 3. The occupation of Fa- shoda by French troops leads to diplomatic complications. The powers compel Turkey to withdraw her -forces from Crete, Oct. Prince George of Greece made governor. Campos Salles is elected president of Brazil, and Boca, of the Argentine Republic. The earl of Minto succeeds the earl of Aberdeen as governor- general of Canada. Completion of the great Mexican drainage canal. Death of Bessemer, Gladstone, Bume- Jones, Bismarck, Puvis de Chavannes, Sir John Fowler. 1899. Spain formally renounces her authority in Cuba, Jan. 1. Lord Curzon is inaugurated viceroy of India, Jan. 6. The Filipinos enter upon a struggle against the domination of the United States. Aguinaldo attacks the Americans at Manila and is driven back, Feb. 4, 5. The senate of the United States ratifies the treaty with Spain, Feb. 6. The Americans take Iloilo, Feb. 11. They assume the aggres- sive in Luzon and push victoriously to Malolos, March. Death of Felix Faure, president of France, Feb. 16. The Na- tional Assembly elects Emile Loubet his successor, Feb. 18. Szell succeeds B&nffy as premier in Hungary, Feb. Silvela succeeds Sagasta as premier in Spain, March. PAET II, CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. OHEOJJTOLOGIOAL DIOTIOI^rAET OF TJNIVEESAL HISTOET. Abbasside Caliphs, 750-1258. (See Bagdad.) Abensberg ' — ^The French defeat the Austrians at, 1809. Aberdeen — King's College founded, 1494 ; Marischal College founded, about 1593 ; the two united into the University of Aberdeen, 1860, Abo,' treaty of, between Russia and Sweden, 1743. Aboukir, Bay of '—French fleet destroyed in the, Aug. 1, 2, 1798 (battle of the Nile). Aboukir (village) — Bonaparte defeats the Turks at, July 25, 1799. AbysBinia — Christianity introduced, about 880 ; visited by the Portuguese, about 1490 ; court becomes Catholic, early in the 17th c. ; Catholicism sup- pressed, before 1640 ; war with England, 1867-8 ; disastrous attempt of Ismail Pasha to conquer Abyssinian territory, 1875-'6 ; Menelek puts an end to the aggressions of Italy, 1896. Academy, French — Founded, 1635. Academy of Inscriptions, French — Founded, 1663. Academy of Sciences, French— Founded, 1666. Acadia. See Nova Scotia. Achaean Iieag^ae* — [b. c] — Rise of the, about 280; joined by Sicyon, be- comes powerful, 251 ; succumbs to Rome, 146. Acheen. See Atchesn.. Acre' — Taken by the crusaders, 1104; by SaJadin, 1187; besieged and again taken by the crusaders, 1189-91 ; lost by the Christians, 1291 ; besieged by Bonaparte, 1799 ; stormed by the Egyptians, 1832 ; taken by the Eng- lish, Austrians, and Turks, 1840. Acta Eruditonim (journal)- Founded by Otto Mencke, ,1682. Actium' — Victory of Octavius over Antony off, 31 b. c. • A town of Bavaria, S. W. of Batisbon. ' A town of Finland, on the Gnlf of Bothnia. * Between Alexandria and the Bosetta month of the Nile. * Originally formed by several towns of Achaia, a district of the Feloponnesns, bordering on the Galf of Corinth. ' A seaport of Syria, near Mt. Carmel ; the ancient Ftolemais. * A promontory of Acamania, at the entrance to the Ambracian Gulf. 204 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Aden ' — Taken possession of by the British, 1839. Adrianople — Victory of the Goths over tlie Romans at, a. d. 378 ; con- quered by Amurath I., 1361 ; entered by the Russians, 1829, 1878. Adrianoplfe, peace of, between Russia and Turkey, 1829. iEgates ' — Roman victory over the Carthaginians at the, 241 b. c. iEgospotami • — The Spartans crush the naval power of Athens at, 405 b. c. ^tolian Lea^e* — [b. c] — Organized, latter part of 4th c. ; war with the Achffian League and JMacedon (Social War), 220-217; becomes the ally of Rome against Macedon, 211 ; of Syria against Rome, 192; its existence or power terminates, about 167. Afghanistan — Accession of Dost Mohammed, 1826 ; British invasion, 1839 ; insurrection, British disasters, 1841-'3 ; chastised by the British, 1842 ; British campaigns against Shir Ali, Yakub Khan, and Ayub Khan (of Herat), 1878-80 ; Abdurrahman ameer, 1880. Aghrim" — Victory of the forces of William III. at, 1691. Agincourt * — Victory of Henry V. over the Pi-ench at, Oct. 25, 1415. Ag^adello'' — The French defeat the Venetians at, 1509. Agrigentum.^ — [b. c] — Founded, about 582; reign of Fhalaris, about 570- 555 ; final conquest by the Romans, 210. Air Pump — Invented by Otto von Guericke, about 1650. Aix. See Aqu^ Sexti^. Aix-la-Chapelle — Peace of, between France and Spain, 1668 ; peace ending the War of the Austrian Succession, 1748 ; congress of the Powers at, 1818. Akerman,' treaty of, between Russia and Turkey, 1826. Alabama — The French settle in, 1702 ; admitted into the Union, 1819 ; se- cedes, 1861 ; reconstruction completed, 1868. Alabama (cruiser) — Sunk, June 19, 1864. Alabama Claims Dispute — Settled, 1871-2. Aladja Dagh "—Defeat of Mukhtar Pasha at, Oct., 1877. j&Iamo " — Storming of the, by Santa Anna, 1836. Alani " — Are defeated by the Huns about 374 ; cross the Rhine into Gaul, 406 ; enter the Spanish peninsula, 409 ; their realm there overthrown by the Visigoths, 418. Alarcos (Alarcon) "—Victory of the Moors at, 1195. Alaska — Purchased by the United States, 1867. Albania — Taken possession of by the Turks, 1432 ; it revolts under Scander- beg, 1443 ; death of Scanderbeg, 1468 ; subjugated, 1478. ' A port at the S. W. extremity of Arabia. » A group of islands off the W. extremity of Sicily. • A small stream of the Thracian Chersonesus, emptying into the Hellespont. * .lEto- lia was a district of Greece on the N. shore of the Gulf of Corinth. » A village in county Galway, Ireland. 'Properly Azincourt, a village of Artois, S. B. of Boulogne. ' A village in the S. portion of Lombardy. 8 a. town on the S. W. coast of Sicily ; now Girgentl. • A town of Bessarabia, at the mouth of the Dniester. '• A mountain in Armenia, near Kara. " The Alamo.wae a fort near San Antonio, " The original home of the Alani was the region of the Caucasus, >* A town of New Castile, on the river Jucar. CHKONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 205 Albany — First settlement by the Dutch at the site of, 1614 ; Fort Orange- built, 1623. Albeit N'yaiiza— Discovered by Baker, 1864. Albigenses — Condemned by the Lateran council, 1179 ; crusade proclaimed against them, 1308 ; Raymond VII. of Toulouse subicits to terms fatal to them, 1239. Albuera ' — Victory of Beresford at, 1811. Alcala (AlcalA de Henares),' University of — Founded, beginning of 16tb 0. ; suppressed (transferred to Madrid), 1836. Alcazarquivir' — Sebastian of Portugal vanquished by the Moors at, 1578. Alcolea* — Serrano defeats the forces of Isabella at, Sept. 38, 1868. Alooy' — Bloody riot of the Internationals in, 1873. Alemanni ' — Wars of Rome against the, begun, a. d. 313 ; vanquished by Clovis, 496 ; completely subject to the Franks, 8th c. Alesia'' — Taken by Csssar, 53 b. c. Alexandria — Laid out, about close of 333 b. c. ; Alexandrine War (waged by Caesar), 48-47 b. c. ; taken by Amru, a. d. 641 ; defeat of the French at, 1801 ; forts at, bombarded by the British, July, 1883. Alexandria (La.) — Escape of Porter's Red River fleet at, 1864. Alexandrian Library — Founded, 3d c. b. c. Alexinatz ' — Battles between the Servians and Turks at, 1876. Algeria — Becomes subject to Turkey, 1519; expedition of Charles V. against, 1541 ; ofiBce of Dey (to share the authority with the Turkish pasha) instituted, 1600; the Dey shakes ofl the authority of the sul- tan, 1710; last great expedition of the Spaniards against, 1775; Deca- tur's successful expedition, 1815 ; bombardment of Algiers by Lord Bx- mouth, 1816 ; French conquest begun, 1830 ; surrender of Abd-el-Kader, 1847. Alhambra — Erection of the, completed, early in the 14th c. Alien and Sedition Laws — Passed by Congress, 1798. Aliwal'— Defeat of the Sikhs at, 1846. Allia (Alia) '• — The Gauls vanquish the Romans at the, about 388 B. c. Alma " — Defeat of the Russians at the, Sept. 20, 1854. Ahnanza "—Victory of the duke of Berwick at, 1707. Almohades. See Morocco, Mooes in Spain. Almoravides. See Mobocco. Alsace. See France. Alsace-Lorraine — Conquered by Germany, 1870-'71. ' A town of Spain, in Bstremadora. ' A town near Madrid. ■ A town of Morocco, in a N. W. direction from Fez. ♦ A locality in the outskirts of Cordova. ' A town of Valen- cia, Spain, in the province of Alicante. • A people of southwestern Germany. ' A town of Ganl, in what is now Burgundy. ' A town of Servia, on the Morava. • A village in the Punjaub, on the Sutlej. '" A small stream emptying into the Tiber a short distance above Rome ; now called Aja. " A small river of the Crimea, which falls into the sea between Kupatoria and Sebastopol. " A town of Murcia, Spain. 206 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVEKSAL HISTORY, Altranstadt,' peace of, between Sweden and Saxony, 1708. Amalfi ' — Independent state, 9th-llth o. Amboise,' conspiracy of (directed against the Guises), 1560. Amboise, edict of (granting terms to the Huguenots), 1563. America — Discovery of, by Columbus, 1493 ; discovery of the mainland by John Cabot, 1497. Amiens, peace of, between England on one side and France and her allies on the other, 1802. Amiens, cathedral of— Erected, 13th c. Amoor Country — Ceded by China to Bussia, 1858. Amoy— Taken by the British, 1841 ; thrown open to them, 1843. Amphipolis^ — The Spartans defeat the Athenians at, 423 B. c. Amsterdam, Bank of— Founded, 1609. Anabaptists — Sect makes its appearance, 1521. (See MOnster.) Aneesthetics — Public introduction of, by Br. Morton, in Boston, 1846. Anoonsj— Unsuccessfully defended by the revolutionists against the Aus- trians, 1849 ; surrender of the papal forces, under Lamorici€re, to the Sa^ dinians, 1860. Andrusovo,' treaty of, between Russia and Poland, 1667. Anglo-Saxons. See England. Angora * — Tamerlane vanquishes Bajazet at, 1402. Anjou'— United with the crown of England, 1154 ; wrested from King John by Philip Augustus, 1204 ; united with Provence under Count Charles, brother of Louis IX. of Prance, 1246 ; Charles conquers the throne of the Two Sicilies, 1266 ; separated from Naples and Provence, 1290 ; again united with Provence, 1882; accession of Duke Renfi the Good, 1434; on his death, finally united with the French crown, 1480. Antalcidas, peace of, between Sparta and the confederate Greeks, 387 b. c. Antietam^ — Battle of, between MoCleUan and Lee, Sept. 16, 17, 1862. Antiocb • — Founded, about 300 b. c. ; destroyed by an earthquake, a. d. 526 ; taken by the crusaders, 1098 ; made the seat of a principality by Bohemond, 1099 ; principality overthrown, 1268. Anti-Slavery Societies. See Slavery. Anti-Socialist Law (in Germany) — Passed, 1878. Antwerp — Besieged and taken by the Spaniards, 1584r-'5 ; occupied by the Belgian revolutionists, the Dutch holding the citadel, 1830 ; citadel re- duced by Marshal G&ard, 1882. • A village near UerBebnig, now in Prnssian Saxony. ' A town on the Gull of Salerno, S. E. of Naples. • A town on the Loire, E. of Tours. « A town on the Strymon, a river emptying into the N. portion of the Mgeaa Sea. • A village now belonging to the Rus- sian government of Smolensk. • Angora (Turk. Engurleh) is a town of Asia Minor, about 280 miles E. S. E. of Constantinople ; the ancient Ancyra. ' A district on both sides of the Loire, bordering on Brittany. ° A small stream which crosses Maryland and empties into the Potomac near Harper's Perry. • A city of northern Syria, on the Orontes i now Antakieh. CHBONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 207 Appian Way •—Construction of, begun by Appius Claudius Csbcus, about 310 B. c. Appomattox Court House '—Surrender of Lee at, April 9, 1865. Aquae Sextiee '— Marius vanquishes the Teutones and Ambrones at, 103 b. c. Aquileia*— Destruction of, by Attila, a. d. 453. Aquitania (Aquitaine, Guienne) «— Conquered by the Visigoths, about 418; by CloTis, 507 ; powerful reahn under Eudes, beginning of 8th c. ; a'Car- lovingian kingdom, 778-877; duchy of, united with England, 1154; con- quered by the French, 1451. Arabs. See Saracens. Aragon— Made an independent kingdom, 1035 ; Catalonia united with it, 1151 ; union with Gastile, 1479. (See Navarre, Sardinia, and Sicilies, The Two.) Arbela •-Victory of Alexander the Great over the Persians near, 381 b. c. Arcadian Confederacy— Established, 370 b. c. Arcole ''—Bonaparte defeats the Austrians at, 1796. Ardahan'— Stormed by the Russians, 1877; ceded to Russia, 1878. Argentine Kepublic — Beginning of the revolutionary struggle in the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, 1810; the congress of Tucuman proclaims the independence of the Plata provinces, 1816 ; Rosas attains to the su- preme power, 1839; he is overthrown by the party of Urquiza, 1852; secession of the province of Buenos Ayres, 1853; it is forced to rejoin the confederation, 1859 ; it revolts again, 1861 ; reunion efEected, with Mitrg as president, 1863; war with Paraguay, 1865-'70; Sarmiento becomes president, 1868; Avellaneda, 1874; Rooa, 1880; Celman, 1886; Pelle- grini, 1890; Saenz PeHa, 1893; Uriburu, 1895; Roca, 1898. Arginusse ' — The Athenians defeat the Lacedeemonians off the, 406 b. c. Argos — Leading power in the Peloponnesus, till about 750 B. c. ; annexed to the Roman dominions, 146 B. c. Arians — The doctrines of Arius condemned at the council of Nicaea, 335 ; the Athanasian party condemned at the synod of Aries, 353 ; at the coun- cil of Milan, 355 ; the Kicene creed upheld at the council of Constanti- nople, 381 ; the Visigoths renounce Arianism, 589 ; the Lombards, 7th o, Arkansas — Admitted into the Union, 1836 ; secedes, 1861 ; reconstruction completed, 1868. Aries, kingdom o£ See Buroundt. Aries, synod of — Convened for the condemnation of the opponents of Arianism, 353. ' Leading from Borne to Capna. * A village E. of Lyncbbarg, Ya. * The modem Aiz, N. of Marseilles. * A town situated at the head of the Adriatic. ° Aqnitania was the Boathwestem diviBion of Ganl ; Oaienne, with narrower limits, embraced the region of the Garonne and Dordogne. • A town of Adiabene, a district E. of the Tigris. The battle was fought at Gangamela. ' A village on an affluent of the Adige, near Verona. ° A town of Armenia. ' Small islands near Lesbos. 208 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Armada, Invincible — Sent by Philip II. against England, 1588. Armagnac, bouse of — Buin of the, under Louis XI., 1473. Armenian Massacres, 1895-6. Arminianism — Condemned by the synod of Dort, 1619. Arques '—Victory of Henry IV. at, 1589. Arsacidas. See Paethia. » . Artemisium *— Sea flght off, between the Greeks and Persians, 480 b. c. Aitois ' — United with Burgundy, 1384 ; conquered by Prance, 1640. Ascalon^ — The crusaders defeat the Egyptian forces at, 1099 ; taken by the crusaders, 1153; by Saladin, 1187. Asculum ' — Victory of Pyrrhns over the Romans at, 379 b. c. Ashantees— Wars with the English, l873-'4, 1896. Asbburton Treaty, between the United States and Great Britain, 1842. Asmoneans. See Hebrews. Aspem and Essling ' — Battle between the French and Austrians at, re- sulting in the defeat of the French, May 21, 32, 1809. Aspromonte ' — Garibaldi is defeated and captured at, 1863. Assignats — First issue of the, in France, 1790. Assyria — [b. c] — Reign of Shalmaneser I., about 1300 ; Tiglath-pileser I., about 1100; Assur-nazir-pal, 885-860 ; ^ Shalmaneser II., 860-835 ; Samsi- raman (Samsi-vul), 825-813 ; Raman-nirar (Vul-nirari), 813-783 ; Shal- maneser lir., 783-773; Assur-dan-il, 773-755; Assur-nirar, 755-745; Tiglath-pileser II., 745-737 ; Shalmaneser IV., 727-732 ; Sargon, 732-705 ; Sennacherib, 705-681; Esarhaddon. 681-668; Assur-bani-pal, 668-626; Assyrian monarchy overthrown by the Medes and Babylonians, 607 (606).' Asteroids — Discovery of the first of them, Ceres, 1801. Asturias. See Spain. Atcheen>«— War of the Dutch against, 1873-'9. Athens — [b. c] — Draco's legislation, about 624 ; Solon's, 594 ; first usurpa- tion of Pisistratus, 560 ; expulsion of Hippias, 510 ; battle of Marathon, 490; triumph of Themistocles over Aristides, 488; city burned by the Persians, 480 ; beginning of Athenian hegemony in Greece, 477 ; attains the height of her power under Pericles, about 450 ; crushed by Sparta, 404 ; made subject to Macedon, 338 ; placed under the rule of Demetrius Phalereus, 818 or 317 ; his goverjiment overthrown by Demetrius Polior- oetes, 307 ; passes under the dominion of Rome, 146 ; city taken by Sulla, • A small place near Dieppe. ' A promontory of the island of Enboea. * A district bordering on the Straits of Dover. • A town on the coast of Syria, near Gaza. • A tovra of Apulia, in southern Italy ; now Ascoli di Satriano. • Villages in the outslcirts of Vienna. ' A mountain in Calabria. ' The cuneiform inscriptions of the Assyrian Eponym Canon furnish a complete chronological record extending from the beginning of the ninth centnry nearly down to the destruction of the monarchy. This chronology is not fully in accoid with that of the Bible. See Hebrews. * Some authorities place this event in 6S5, and con- sider the reign of Assur-bani-pal to have terminated about 647. See Duncker, " Allgemelne Creschichte des Alterthums," fifth edition, vol. ii., pp. 47a-479. '» A territory in the N. W portion of Sumatra. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 209 86 ; — [a. d.] — duchy of, founded, beginning of 13th o. ; extinguished by the Turks, 1456 ; city taken by the Venetians, 1687; the Crreeks take the Acropolis, 1822 ; the Turks occupy the city, and besiege the Acropolis, 1826 ; fall of the Acropolis, 1837. Atlanta — Occupied by Sherman, Sept. 3, 1864. Atlantic Cables. See Teleobafh. Auerstfidt '—The French defeat the Prussians at, Oct. 14, 1806. Augsburg — Confession of the Protestants presented at the Diet of, 1530; religious peace of, 1555 ; ceases to be a free city, and is incorporated with Bavaria, 1806. Aulic Council— Established by the emperor Maximilian I., 1501. Auray' — Chandos defeats the French at, 1364. Aussig'— Victory of the Hussites at, 1426. Auaterlitz^ — Napoleon defeats t^e Austrians and Russians at, Dec. 2, 1805. Australia — Discovered by the Portuguese, 1601 (first discovery f); the Eng- lish establish a penal settlement in, 1788 ; discovery of great deposits of gold, 1851. Austria — The Babenbergers become margraves of, about 976 ; erected into a duchy, 1156 ; end of the Babenberg dynasty, 1346 ; acquired by Otto- car (afterward Ottocar II. of Bohemia), 1351 ; given up by him, together with Styria, Carinthia, etc., to Rudolph of Hapsburg, 1376 ; Rudolph's sons invested with the duchies, 1383 (Carinthia relinquished by them) ; Carinthia a permanent possession of the Hapsburgs, 1335 ; Tyrol acquired, 1363 ; duchy of Austria erected into an archduchy, 1453 ; beginning of the continuous rule of the Hapsburgs in Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, and SUesia, 1526 ; the crown of Hungary (previously borne by election) is made hereditary in the house of Hapsburg, 1687; most of Silesia lost, 1742; Oalicia annexed, 1772; Francis I. assumes the title of emperor of Austria, 1804; accession of Ferdinand I. (V.), 1835; revolution, Francis Joseph emperor, 1848 ; connection with Germany severed, 1866 ; transformation of the empire into the dualistic Austro-Htmgarian Monarchy, 1867. See Mtlan, Netherlands (Spanish), Lombabdv, Venice, Bosnia. (Prom 1438 to 1806, with a slight interval, the imperial throne of Germany was occupied by the head of the house of Austria. See Gekhany.) Austrian Succession, War of the, 1740-'48. Avars' — Found their realm on the Danube, 6th c, A. d. ; succumb to the Franks, 796. Avignon •—Removal of the papal court to, 1309 ; sold to the Papal See, 1348 ; given up as the papal residence, 1376; seat of the antipopes Clement VH. and Benedict XIII. ; incorporated with Prance, 1791. ■ A Tillage now included in the Frnssian district of Hersebnrg. ' A town on tbe coast of Brittany, near Vannes. • A town of northern Bohemia, on the Elbe. ♦ A town of Mo- raviB, near BrOnn. ' A people of Turanian origin, probably akin to the Hmu. • A town of Provence, on the BhOne. 15 310 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF TJNrVERSAL HISTORY. Ayaeucho ' — Victory ot Sucre over the Spaniards at, 1824. Azores — Occupied by the Portuguese, 1433. , Azov — Taken from the Turks by Peter the Great, 1696; restored, 1711; again taken by the Russians, 1736 ; finally confirmed to Russia, 1774. B. Babylonia— [b. c] — Hammurabi establishes the sway of Babylon and issues his code, about 3350 (?); reign of Nabonassar, 747-734'; Tiglath- pileser XL imposes the yoke of Assyria, about 731 ; Merodach-baladan liber- ates the kingdom and mounts the throne, 731 (733) ; resubjugated by the Assyrian king Sargon, 710-709 ; Babylon destroyed by Sennacherib, about 695 ; its restoration undertaken by Esar-haddon, king of Assyria, about 680; unsuccessful revolt from Assyria, about 650-648; Nabopolassar throws off the authority of Assyria, about 630 (f) ; the Medes and Baby- lonians overthrow the Assyrian monarchy, 607 (606) • ; reign of Nebuchad- nezzar, 605-561 (563); Bvil-merodach, 561-559; Neriglissar, 559-555; Nabonidus succeeds ; overthrow of the monarchy by Cyrus, 538 : unsuc- cessful effort to throw off the Persian yoke, about 531-519. Babylonisb. Captivity, 586 (587)-about 536 b. c. Bacon's KebeUion in Vixgrinia, 1676. Bactria^ — [b. c] — Becomes subject to the Persians, about 550; subjected by Alexander, 339 ; forms part of the kingdom of the Seleucidse, from about 805 ; independent Greek kingdom, from about 355 ; Bactrian con- quests in the region of the Indus begun, about 300 ; end of Greek domin- ion north of the Paropamisus, about 140 ; Greek rule in the region of the Indus extinguished, about 90. Badajoz '—Taken by the French, 1811 ; by Wellington, 1813. Baden — The margrave of, created an imperial elector, 1803 ; he assumes the title of grand-duke, 1806 ; revolutionary risings, 1848 ; revolution, 1849. Baden,° treaty of, finally terminating the War of the Spanish Succession, 1714. Bagdad— Founded, about 763 ; soon after made the capital of the Abbas- side caliphate ; end of the caliphate, 1358. Balaklava ' — Battle of, between the Russians and English (charge of the " light brigade "), Oct. 35, 1854. Balloon— Introduced by the brothers Montgolfler, 1783. Ballot Bill— Passed by Parliament, 1873. Ball's Bluff 8— Federal forces repulsed at, Oct. 31, 1861. ' Ayaoncho was the name of a small elevated plain in the Andes, near the town of Gua- manga (since called Ayaoncho), hetween Lima and Cnzco. > Accordmg to the Canon of Ptolemy. » See note 9 to Asbtkia. * A region Included between the river Oxus and the Paropamisus range (the Hindu Knsh and its continuation westward). • A town of western Spain, in Estremadura. • A town N. W. of Zlirich. ' A town on the S. W. coast ot the Crimea. ' On the Virginia shore of the Potomac, between Washington and Harper's Feny, CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 211 Baltimore — Laid out, 1730 ; British attack upon, 1814. Bank of Amsterdam— Founded, 1609. Bank of England— Established, 1694 ; Peel's Bank Charter Act, 1844. Bank of the United States — The first chartered (for 20 years), 1791 ; sec- ond bank chartered (for 20 years), 1816 ; on the extinction of the Fed- eral charter, rechartered by Pennsylvania ; collapses, 1841. Bannockburn ' — Victory of the Scots at, June 24, 1314. Bapaume ' — ^Battle between the Germans and French at, Jan. 3, 1871. Bar,' Confederation of — Formed by the Polish patriots, 1768 ; confedera- tion dissolved, 1773. Barcelona — Becomes powerful under its counts, 11th c. ; united with Ai'a- gon, 1151; revolts from Spain under Philip IV., 1640; recovered, 1653; taken by the French, 1697 ; by the English, 1705 ; vainly besieged by the French and Spaniards, 1706 ; again besieged by them, and taken, 1713-14.' Bamet* — Defeat of the Lancastrians at, 1471. Barometer — Invented by Torricelli, 1643. Barrier Treaty (giving the Dutch the right to keep garrisons in the Aus- trian Netherlands), 1715. Basel (canton) — Admitted into the Swiss confederacy, 1501 ; separated into two half-cantons, 1833. Basel (city) — Council of, 1431-'7 (continued as a schismatic council) ; uni- versity founded, 1459 ; treaties of, between France and Prussia and be- tween France and Spain, 1795. Bassano '-^Victory of the French over the Austrians at, 1796. Bastille— Storming of the, July 14, 1789. Batavi ' — Insurrection of the, under Claudius CivUis, 69-70. Batavia — Founded as the capital of the Dutch Bast Indies, 1619. Batavian Republic, 1795-1806. Batum '—Ceded by Turkey to Russia, 1878. Bautzen " — Battle between the French and the allied Prussians and Rus sians at, 1813. Bavaria — Brought completely under Frankish sway, 788 ; comes into the pos- session of the house of Guelph, 1070 ; passes to the house of Wittelsbaoh, 1180 ; Duke Maximilian I. receives the dignity of elector, 1633 ; — (See Pa- latinate OF THE Rhine.) — the elector Maximilian Joseph assumes the title of king, 1806 ; accession of Louis I., 1835 ; Maximilian II., 1848 ; Louis IL, 1864; Otho, 1886 (Luitpold regent). Bavarian Succession, "War of the, 1778-'9. Baylen ' — Surrender of the French to the Spaniards at, 1808. ' A small place near Stirling. » A town near Arras. • A town of Podolia, a province now belonging to Rnssia. * A town near the northwestern outskirts of London. * A town of Venetia, N. E. of Vicenza. • A Germanic people, who inhabited the Rhine and Maas delta. ' A seaport on the E. coast of the Black Sea. ^ A town of Saxony, near the source of the Spree. " A town situated at the base of the Sierra Morena on the S. side of the range. 212 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Bayonne— Meeting of Napoleon with Charles lY. and Ferdinand VII. of Spain at, 1808. Beacby Head ' — Naval, victory of the French oflE, 1690. Beaumont ' — ^Victory of the Germans at, Aug. 30, 1870. Beaune-Ia-B.olande • — ^Victory of the Germans off, Nov, 38, 1870. Behriiig Strait — Discovered by Dezhneff, 1648 (?) ; by Behring, 1728. Belfort — Besieged and taken by the Ghsrmans, 1870-'71. (Restored to France.) Belgium — (See Netherlands and Netherlands, Spanish.) — Unsuccessful revolt of, from Austria, 1789-'90 ; conquered by the French, 1794 ; an- nexed to the French Republic, 1795; ceded to France by treaty, 1797; united with Holland to form the kingdom of the Netherlands, 1815 ; re- volts from Holland, 1830 ; Leopold I., of Saxe-Coburg, king, 1831 ; fall of Antwerp, the country liberated, 1833 ; final settlement with Holland, 1839; Leopold II., 186S. Belgrade — Successfully defended by the Hungarians and a crusading force against the Turkish sultan Mohammed 11., 1456 ; taken by Solymon II., 1531; conquered by Austria, 1688 ; retaken by the Turks, 1690 ; victory of Prince Eugene at, he takes the city, 1717; ceded to Austria, 1718; treaty of, city recovered by the Turks, 1739 ; taken by the Austrians, 1789 ; re- stored to Turkey, 1791 ; Servia secures the withdrawal of the Turkish gar- rison, 1867. Belle-Isle*— Victory of Admiral Hawke off, 1747; taken by the English, 1761. Bender"— Taken by the Russians, 1770, 1789. Benedictine Order — Founded, about 530. Benevento (Beneventum) ' — Defeat of Pyrrhus at, 375 b. c; victory of Charles of Anjou near, 1366. Benevento, duchy, afterward principality, of— Founded by the Lom- bards, latter part of 6th c. ; transformed into the three principahties of Benevento, Salerno, and' Capua, 9th c. ; the line of princes of Benevento terminates, 1077. Bengal — Formal cession of, to the English, 1765. Benningfton' — Victory of the Americans at, Aug. 16, 1777. Berezina * — Passage of the, by the French, 1818. Bergerao,' peace of, between Henry IIL and the Huguenots, 1577. Berlin, treaty of, for the settlement of the Eastern Question, 1878. Berlin, University of— Opened, 1810. Berlin Decree (issued by Napoleon against British commerce), 1806. ' A headland on the coast of Sussex. » A email place S. B. of Sedan. • A sjoall town N. E. of Orleans. * An island in the Bay of Biscay, off the coast of Brittany. ' A town of Bessarabia. • A town N. B. of Naples. ' A town in the S. W. comer of Ver- mont. ' An affluent of the Bnieper. • A town on the Dordogne, a river which joins ths Garonne. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 213 BessarabiBr— Separated from Moldavia and given to Russia, 1812 ; portion of, retroceded by Russia, 1856 ; restored to her, 1878. B6ziers ' — Massacre of the Albigenses at, 1309. Bible — Septuagint completed, about 285 b. c. ; Jerome's translation, the basis of the Vulgate, about a. d. 405 ; Complutensian Polyglot, 1517 ; Luther's Bible, 1534; King James's, 1611. Bicocca, La' — Defeat of the French at, 1522. Bilbao*— The Carlists attempt the reduction of, 1835, 1836, 1873-'4 Bill of Bights— Passed by Parliament, 1689. Birmah. See Burmah. Bithynia* — Bequeathed to the Romans by Nicomedes TIL, 74 b. o. Bitonto ' — The forces of Don Carlos defeat the Austiians at, 1734. Black Death — Ravages Europe, 1348-'51. Black Hawk's War, 1832. Black Hole (of Calcutta) — English prisoners thrown into the, 1756. Black Sea — Neutralization of the, 1856 ; deneutralization, 1871. Bladensbxirg* — Defeat of the Americans at, 1814. Blenheim' — ^Eugene and Marlborough defeat t£ie French and Bavarians at, Aug. 13, 1704. Boers — Migration from Cape Colony commences, 1835; their republic in Natal taken possession of by the British, 1842 ; attacked by the governor of Cape Colony, who occupies the Orange River Sovereignty, 1848 ; Trans- vaal Republic established, 1848 ; Orange River Republic established, 1854; the British take possession of the Transvaal Republic, 1877 ; insurrection in the Transvaal, autonomy secured, 1880-'81 ; Jameson's raid, 1895-6. Bdhemia— Reign of Ottocar II., 1253-'78 ; extinction of the dynasty of Pre- mysl, 1306 ;— HOUSE OF LUXEMBURG : John, 1310-'46 ; Charles, 1346- '78 ; Wenceslas, 1378-1419 ; Sigismund, 1419-'37 ;— reign of George Podie- brad, 1458-'71 ; Ferdinand I. of Hapsburg elected king, 1526 ; crown made hereditary in the Hapsburg family, 1547 ; Thirty Years' War breaks out in, 1618 ; reign of Frederick of the Palatinate, 1619-20. See Electors (Impbriai.), Hussite Wars, Prague. Bbhmisch-Brod'— Defeat of the Taborites at, 1434. Bolivia — Creation of the republic, 1825 ; with Peru, engages in a war against Chili, 1879 ; her forces utterly defeated by the Chilians, 1879-'80. Bologfna, TTniversity of— Famous as a school of law, soon after 1100. Bomarsund ' — Taken by the English and French, 1854. Bombay, island of— Transferred by Portugal to England, 1662 ; granted to the English East India Company, 1668. ' A town of Langaedoc. ' A village near Milan. » A seaport in the province of Biscay. * A country in the N. W. part of Asia Minor. * A town •near Bari. in southeastern Italy. • A village of Maryland, near Washington. ' A village on the Danube, N W. of Augs- burg. ' A town near the center of Bohemia. ' Bomarsund was a Bussian fortress on the island of Aland, at the entrance to the Gltilf of Bothnia. 214 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Bonn. — Present university founded, 1818. Borodino ' — Napoleon defeats the Russians at, 1812. Bosnia — Kingdom of, conquered by the Turks, 1463 ; insurrections, 1850-'51, 1875-6 ; after a desperate conflict, occupied by Austria, 1878. Bosporus, Greek kingdom of — Pounded, about 500 b. c. ; Caesar van- quishes Pharnaces, 47 b. c. ; kingdom disappears, 3d c. a. d. Boston — Founded, 1630; Boston Massacre, 1770; tea thrown overboard, 1773; Boston Port Bill, 1774; successful siege of, by the Americans, 1775-'6; great fire^ 1873. Bosworth ' — Richard III. is defeated and slain at, 1485. Bothwell Bridge * — Defeat of the Covenanters at, 1679. Boulogne — Taken by the English, 1544; restored to France, 1550; Napoleon I. assembles an army at, for the invasion of England, 1804r-'5 ; revolution- ary attempt of Louis Napoleon at, 1840. " Bounty " — Mutiny on board of the, 1789 ; some of the mutineers land on Pitcairn Island, 1790 ; the colony on Pitcairn Island removed to Norfolk Island, 1856. Bourbons. See Fkancb, Spain, Sicilies (The Two), Parma and Piacenza. Bovines ' — Philip Augustus defeats Otho IV. at, 1314. Bo3m.e ' — ^Victory of the Orangemen on the, 1690. Brabant. See Lorraine, Burgundy. Braganga, dynasty of— Placed on the throne of Portugal, 1640. Brandenburg. See Electors (Imperial), Prussia. Brandywine ' — Defeat of the Americans on the, Sept. 11, 1777. Brazil — Coast of, discovered by V. T. Pinzon, 1500 ; visited by Cabral, who takes possession for Portugal, 1500 ; separation from Portugal, Pedro I. declared emperor, 1823 ; independence recognized, 1835 ; Pedro I. abdi- cates in favor of his son, Pedro II., 1831 ; act for the gradual abolition of slavery, 1871 ; emancipation completed, 1888 ; republic established, 1889, Breda,^ treaty of, between England, Holland, France, and Denmark, 1667. Breisach." — Reduced by Bemhard of Weimar, 1638. Breitenfeld '"—Victory of Gustavus Adolphus at, 1631 ; victory of Torsten- son at, 1642. Bremen (city) — Joins the Hansa, 13th c. ; included in the French Empire, 1810-'13. Bremen, duchy of — Archiepiscopal see of Bremen given to Sweden as a duchy, 1648 ; territory ceded to Hanover, 1719. Breslau, treaty of, between Austria and Prussia, 1743. ' A village in the government of Mobc'ow. ^ The Crimea and adjoining regions. * A town near Leicester. * Near Glasgow. * A village near Lille. • A river emptying into the Irish Sea N. of Dublin. ' A stream of Pennsylvania and Delaware, emptying into Christiana Creek. The battle was fought at the village of Chadd's Ford, Pa. ' A town of the Netherlands, in North Brabant. • Situated on the right bank of the Rhine, near Freiburg. Breisach was formerly a free city and an important fortress of the German Empire, It belongs now to Baden. i° A village in the outskirts of Leipsic. CHKONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTOBY. 315 Bretigny,' treaty of, between England and France, 1360. Bridgewater, battle of. See Lundy's Lane. Brier Creek'— Victory of the British at, 1779. Bristol— Taken by Prince Rupert, 1643 ; by the Parliamentarians, 1645. Britannia Tubidar Bridge > (built by Robert Stephenson}— Completed, 1850. British Museum — Founded, 1753. Brittany— United with France, 1491. Brbmsebro,* peace of, between Sweden and Denmark, 1645. Brooklyn (N. Y.)— Incorporated as a village, 1816; receives city charter, 1834; annexation of Williamsburg, &e„ 1855; Bast River bridge con- structed, 1869-83 ; city merged in Greater New York, 1897-8. Bruges, treaty o:^ between Henry VIII. and Charles V., 1531. Brunudre, 18th, coup-de-^tat of the, Nov. 9, 1799. Brunswick, house of— Ascends the throne of England, 1714 Bruttium ^ — Submits to Rome, 372 b. c. Buccaneers — At the height of their power, about 1685. Bucharest, peace of, between Russia and Turkey, 1813. Budar— Falls into the hands of the Turks, 1536, 1539, 1541 ; held by them, 1541-1686 ; stormed by the Hungarians, 1849. Buena Vista ' — Taylor defeats Santa Anna at, Feb. 33, 1847. Buenos Ayres. See Argentine Republic. Bulgarians,' Bulgaria — Migrations of the Bulgarians to the region of the Danube begun, close of 5th c. a. d. ; kingdom, in modern Bulgaria, estab- lished, about 680; their khan converted to Christianity, 863 (864'?); their realm destroyed by the Byzantines, 1018 ; the Bulgarians revolt against the Byzantine rule under the lead of John Asen and found a new realm, 1186 ; Bulgaria conquered by the Turks, 1888-93 ; insurrection, massa- cres, 1876; created a Christian principality, 1878; Alexander of Batten- berg elected prince, 1879 ; he pi-oclaims the tmion of Eastern Roumelia with Bulgaria, 1885 ; war with Servia, 1885 ; Alexander invested with the governorship of Eastern Roumelia, 1886 ; he abdicates, 1886 ; Ferdinand of Coburg elected prince, 1887. Bull Run^ — Confederate victory at, July 21, 1861 ; second battle of. Con- federates victorious, Aug. 39, 30, 1863. Bunker Hill* — Battle between the Americans and British, June 17, 1775. Burgundy (kingdoms) — The Burgundians '» establish a kingdom in the east- » A village near Chartres. " A stream of Georgia, emptying into the Savannah. ' Acroes Menai Strait. * A place in sonthern Sweden, to the southwest of Calmar. ^ A division of Italy, embracing the peninsula now called Calabria. " A place near Saltillo, Mexico, in the state of Coahnila. ' The Bulgarians were originally a Turanian people, probably akin to the Huns. In the course of ages they became Slavicized. ' A small affluent of the Occo- quan, a river of Virginia, emptying into the Potomac about twenty miles below Washington. • An eminence near Boston. The battle was fought at the neighboring Breed's Hill. "• A Germanic peopxe. 216 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNITERSAL HISTORY. em part of Gaul, early in the 5th c. a. d. ; their realm destroyed by the Franks, 534 ; foundation of a Burgundian kingdom by Boso (kingdom of Aries, or of Provence, or of Cisjurane Burgundy), 879 ; kingdom of Trans- jurane Burgundy ' founded, 888 ; the two united into one realm, the king- dom of Aries, 933 ; end of the native line of Arletan kings, 1033. Burg^undy, duchy of— First ducal house, 877-1361 ; duchy conferred upon Philip the Bold, 1363 ; he acquires Flanders, Artois, and Franehe-Comtfi (county of Burgundy), 1384; John the Fearless, 1404; Philip the Good, 1419 ; Namur annexed, 1439 ; Brabant and Limburg, 1430 ; Countess Jac- queline cedes Hainaut, Holland, and Zealand to Philip, 1433 ; Luxemburg annexed, 1443 ; Charles the Bold, 1467 ; duchy, on the death of Charles, seized by Louis XI., 1477; marriage of Mary and Maximilian of Haps- burg, 1477. (See Netheslands.) Burmali— Wars with British, 1834r-'6, 1851-'3, 1885 (annexed by England). Biuaco* — ^Wellington defeats the French at, 1810. Byzantine Empire (Greek Empire, Eastern Empire) — ^Final division of the Soman Empire, a. d. 395 ; Arcadius emperor of the East, 395-408 ; reign of Theodosius H., 408-450; Leo L, 457-474; Zeno, 474-491; Justin L, 518-527; Justinian, 537-565; Mauritius, 583-603; Heraolius, 610-641 Leo the Isaurian, 717-741; Irene, 780-803; Nicephorus Phocas, 963-'9 John Zimisoes, 969-976; Basil IL, 976-1025; Isaac Comnenus, 1057-9 Alexis Comnenus I., 1081-1118; Manuel Comnenus, 1143-80; the cru- saders partition the Byzantine dominions, and found the Latin Empire of the East, 1204 ; Baldwin I. (of Flanders), 1204r-'5 ; overthrow of the Latin Empire by Michael Palseologus, 1261 ; Andronicus Palseologus I., 1282- 1328 ; John Cantacuzenus, 1341-55 ; John Palseologus I., 1355-'91 ; Ma- nuel PalsBologus, 1391-1425 ; John Palseologus II., 1425-'4S ; capture of Constantinople by the Turks, death of the last emperor, Constantine Palae- ologus, 1453. Byzantium — Founded by the Megarians, about 657 b. c. ; made the capital of the Bonum Empire by Constantine, a. d. 330 — henceforth called Con- stantinople. C. Cables, transatlantic. See Telggbafh. Cabool — Occupied by the British, 1839 ; insurrection, 1841 ; retreat of the British from, 1842 ; occupied by Pollock, 1842 ; Cavagnari killed at, 1879 ; occupied by the British, 1879 ; withdrawal of the British forces, 1880. Cadesia' — The Saracens vanquish the Persians at, 635.* Cadiz — Drake destroys the Spanish ships at, 1587 ; taken by Howard and Essex, 1596 ; the Cortes make a stand at, against the French, 1823. • On both BideB of the Jnra, ' A hamlet near Coimbia, Portugal. • The battleleld of Cadesia waB W. of the Enphrates, not far from the roinB of Babylon. * The date com- monly asBlgned for Uub erent is 636. See " Annals of the Early Caliphate," by Sir W Hair (London, 1888). CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONAEY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 217 Calais— Taken by the English, 1347; lost, 1558. Calciilvis — Newton invents his method of fluxions, about 1665 ; Leibnitz pub- lishes his invention of the dififerential calculus, 1684. Calcutta— English factory established at, 1686 ; taken by Surajah Dowlah, 1756; retaken by Olive, 1757. Caldiero'— Battle between the French and Austrians at, 1805. Caledonia — Campaigns of Agricola against the Caledonians, 83-84; overrun by Septimius Severus, 208-'9. Calendar— Reform of the, by Julius Caesar, 46 b. c. ; by Gregory XIIL, 1583 ; the Gregorian calendar officially introduced in England, 1753; revolu- tionary calendar introduced in France, 1793 (the era reckoned from, Sept. 23, 1792) ; tl»e Gregorian calendar restored, 1806. California — Mission of San Diego founded, 1769 ; region occupied by the United States forces, 1846 ; ceded to the United States, 1848 ; discovery of gold, 1848 ; admitted into the Union, 1850. CaUphs— Abubekr, first caliph, 633-634 ; Omar, 634^644 ; Othman, 644-656 ; Ali, 656-661 ; Ommiyade caliphs (of Damascus), 661-750 ; Abbassides (see Bagdad), 750-1258. (See Patimite Caliphs, Coedova.) Calmar,' Union of (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden to remain under one crown), 1397. Cambrai,' League of, against Venice — ^formed, 1508. Cambrai, peace of, between Francis I. and Charles V., 1529. Cambridge, TTniversity of— Rises into eminence, about 1300 ; designation of university first applied, 1231 ; the oldest of the colleges, St. Peter's Col- lege, founded, 1257. Camden* — Defeat of the Americans at, 1780. (See Hobkirk's Hill.) Camisards — Insurrection of the, 1703-'4. Camperduin (Camperdown) ' — The English defeat the Dutch fleet off, 1797. Campo Formio,' peace of, between France and Austria, 1797. Canada — ^Foundation of Quebec, 1608; the British conquer the country from the French, 1759-'60 ; ceded to England, 1763 ; divided into Upper and Lower Canada, 1791 ; insurrections, 1837 ; order restored, 1888 ; legislative union of the two divisions under a responsible government, 1841 ; the Dominion of Canada constituted, 1867. CandaJxar— Entered by the British, 1839 ; defense of, by Nott, 1842 ; entered by the British, 1879 ; besieged by Ayub Kban, 1880 ; evacuated by the British, 1881. Candia (Crete) — Conquered by the Romans, 68-67 or 66 b. c. ; conquered by the Saracens, city of Candia founded, about 823 ; reconquered by the By- zantines, 961 ; acquired by Venice, 1204 ; blockade of the fortress of Can- • A village near Verona. ' A seaport in the S. E. part of Sweden. • A town of Flan. ders, since 1677 inclnded in France. * A small place in Sonth Carolina, on the Watoiee, * A village of North Holland. ' A village of Venetia, near XTdine. ai8 cheonologicaL dictionary of universal histobt. dia by the Turks begun, 1648 ; siege begun, 1667 ; fortress falls, 1669 ; ris- ings against the Turks, 1866-'8, 1896-'7; Turkish forces withdrawn, 1898, Cannes '—Hannibal defeats the Romans at, 316 b. c. Cantabri. See Spain. Canton — Taken by the British, 1841; thrown open to British commerce, 1843 ; attacked by them, 1856 ; occupied by the British and French, 1857. Cape Breton — Ceded to England, 1763. Cape Colony — The Dutch found Cape Town, about 1652 ; the English con- quer the colony, 1795. (See Boers.) Cape Finisterre, Cape of Good Hope, Cape St. Vincent. See Finis- TEEEE (Cape), &c. Capetian Dynasty, 987-1328. Capua ° — Becomes the headquarters of Hannibal, 216 b. c; he loses it, 211, Capuchins, order of the — Instituted, about 1525. Carabobo ' — "Victory of BoUyar and Paez at, 1821. Caracas — Great earthquake, 1813. Carbonari — Successful insurrection of the, against Ferdinand I. of Naples, 1820 ; the revolution put down by Austrian forces, 1831. Carchemish * — Victory of Nebuchadnezzar over Neeho at, 605 b. c. Carlist Wars. See Spain. Carlovingians — Dynasty of the, in the Frankish empire, succeeds that of the Merovingians, 751 ; partition of their empire, 843 ; its final disrup- tion, 888 ; end of their dynasty in Germany, 911 ; end of their dynasty in France, 987. Carlowitz,'' peace of, between Turkey on one side, and Austria, Poland, and Venice on the other, 1699. Carlsbad, congress of, held by the German powers, 1819. Carmelite Order — Founded, about 1300. Carolina — Proprietary government instituted (Clarendoi} and associates), 1663; Locke draws up his "fundamental" constitution, 1669; formed into two distinct royal provinces. North Carolina and South Carolina, 1739.6 Cartagena (Spain) — Insurrection of the Intransigentes, 1873-'4. Carthage— [b. c.]— Colonized by the Tyrians, 9th c. ; first Punic War, 364r-241 ; second Punic War, 319-301 ; third Punic War, ending in the destruction of the city, 149-146 — [a. d.] — the later Carthage taken by the Vandals, 489 — made the seat of their kingdom ; taken by Belisarius, 533 ; destroyed by the Saracens, close of 7th c. (See Sicily, Sardinia, Spain.) Carthusian Order— Founded by Bruno, 1084. > A town of soatheastem Italy, In Apulia, on the Aufldiis (Ofanto). " A town of Cam- pania. N. of Naples. ^ A small place near Valencia, Venezuela. * Carchemish (Assyr. Gar- gamis) was a town on the Euphrates, where it approaches nearest to the Mediterranean. It is not, as was until recently supposed, the same as the classical Circesium. ' A town of Slavonia, on the Danube, near Feterwardein. ' See note appended to 1739 in Fait I. CHKOiVOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 219 Castelfldardo '—The Sardinians defeat the papal forces at, 1860. Castiglione '—Victory of the French over the Austrians at, 1796. Castile— Connection with Leon severed, 10th c. ; Fernando Gonzalez recog- nized as independent count, 961 ; taken possession of by the king of Na- varre, 1028 ; erected into a kingdom, 1033 ; united with Leon, 1037 ; Al- fonso the Valiant conquers the Moorish kingdom of Toledo (New Cas- tile), 1085 ; Castile and Leon again separate states, 1157 ; finally reunited, 1330 ; union with Arag-on, 1479 ; insurrection of the Castilian cities under Padilla, 1530-'21. Catalan Grand Company— Taken into the Byzantine service, 1803. Catalonia — United with Aragon, 1151. Cateau Cambr&is,' peace of, between France, Spain, and England, 1559. Catholic Emancipation Act— Passed by Parliament, 1839. Catholic League (in France)— Organized, 1576 ; end of the, 1596. Catholic League (in Germany) — Organized, 1609. Catiline's Conspiracy (in Rome), 68 b. c. Caucasus — ^Russia's great war of subjugation begun, 1834; her dominion virtually established, 1859 ; final conquest of the Circassians, 1864 ; insur- rection, 1877. Caudine Forks *^The Samnites vanquish the Romans at the, about 831 b. c. Cawnpore ' — Mutiny in, 1857. Cedar Creek'— Sheridan routs the Confederates at, Oct. 19, 1864. Cedar Mountain ' — Battle of, between the Federals, under Banks, and the Confederates, under Jackson, Aug. 9, 1863. Censors (in Rome) — Office instituted, about 443 b. c. Central America — Colonies of, declare themselves independent of Spain, 1831; federal republic of Central America (Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica) constituted, 1838 ; the confederacy dissolved, 1839. Ceresole * — The French defeat the Imperialists at, 1544. Cerignola ' — The Spaniards defeat the French at, 1503. Cerro Gordo "—Scott defeats Santa Anna at, April 18, 1847. Ceylon — Portuguese settlements begun, early in the 16th c. ; the Dutch put an end to the Portuguese power in, 1656 ; the English dispossess the Dutch, 1796. Chaeronea " — Victory of Philip of Macedon at, 338 b. c. ; Sulla defeats the forces of Mithridates at, 86 b. c. Chalcedon," council of, 451. ■ A town near Ancona. ' A town near the S. extremity of Lake Garda. ' A town near Cambrai. * Passes in the mountains of Samninm. ' A town on the Ganges, not far above the month of the Jnmna. • A stream flowing into the North Forlt of the Shenandoah. ' An eminence in Culpepper Co., Va. ^ Avillageof Piedmont, 8. E.of Turin. •A town of south- eastern Italy, S. E. of Foggia. " A mountain pass on the road from Vera Cruz to Mexico. >■ A town of Boeotia. " Chalcedon was situated on the Bosporus, opposite Constanti- Dople. 220 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Ch&Ions (Catalauni)*— Battle between the Romans and the Huns at, 451, Champagne ' — Constituted a county, 10th c. ; reunited with the crown of France, 1314 (the formal reunion not decreed until some time later). (See Natarrb.) Champ-de-Mars '—Federation Fete on the, July 14, 1790. Champlain, Lake— Discovered by Champlain, 1609 ; naval victory of the Americans on, 1814. Chancellorsville * — Battle of, between Hooker and Lee, ending in the vic- tory of the Confederates, May 3-4, 1863. Chapultepec ' — Storming of, by the Americans, Sept. 13, 1847. Charlestoii — Repulse of the British at, 1776 ; surrender of Lincoln to the British, 1780 ; evacuated by the British, 1782 ; occupied by the Federals, 1865 ; earthquake, 1886. See Sumter (Foet), Wagner (Fort). "Charte Constitutionelle" — Promulgated by Louis XVIII,, 1814. Chartists — Petition Parliament for universal suffrage and other reforms, 1839 ; insurrection in Monmouthshire, 1839 ; prepare a monster petition, 1S41 ; make a great demonstration in London, and present another mon- ster petition to Parliament, 1848. Chartres, cathedral of— Commenced, about 1030 ; dedicated, 1260. Chatillon," congress of, between France and the allied powers, 1814. Chattanooga'' — Battle of, between the Federals and Confederates, result- ing in the victory of the former, Nov. 23-25, 1863. Chelsea Hospital— Founded, 1682. Chevy Chase. See Otterburn. Chicago— Incorporated as a city, 1837; great fire, 1871 ; World's Fair, 1893. ChickaJiominy ' — Campaign of McCleUan on the, 1862. Chickamauga ' — Battle of, defeat of Bosecrans by Bragg, Sept. 19, 20, 1863, Children's Crusade, 1213, ChiU — Beginning of the revolutionary movement, 1810; liberation from Spanish rule achieved by the battle of Maypu, 1818 ; war with Spain, 1865-6 ; war with Peru and Bolivia, 1879-'83 ; rebellion against President Balmaceda, who is overthrown, 1891 ; Montt elected president, 1891, Chillianwallah >" — Battle of, between the British and Sikhs, 1849. China— First Mongol dynasty fully established, 1380; Ming dynasty, 1368; Mantohoo dynasty, 1644; outbreak of the Opium War, 1840; treaty of Nanking, 1843 — ports thrown open to the British ; treaties with the United States and France, 1844 ; Taiping Rebellion, 1850-'64 ; second war with the British, who are joined by the French, 1856-'8 ; the Amoor country » A town on the Marne, about 100 miles B. of Paris. " A region on botli sides of the Mame. ' An open place near the W. border of Paris. * A place W. of Fredericksburg, Va. » A fortress in the outskirts of the city of Mexico. • A town on the Seine, not far from its source. ' A town of Tennessee, on the borders of Georgia, on the S. bank of the Tennessee Hiver. ' An affluent of the James Kiver, running parallel with that Btrcam on the K. side. * A small stream flowing into the Tennessee Biver from the S. a few miles above Chattanooga. >° A village of tbe Fonjaub, near the banks ot the Jhelum. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 231 ceded to Russia, 1858 ; difficulties and war with Great Britain and France, 1859-'60; war with France, 1884-'5; war with Japan, Formosa lost, 1894-'5 ; Kiao-Chau, Port Arthur, and Wei-Hai-Wei pass into the virtual possession respectively of Germany, Russia, and England, 1897-'8. China, Great WaU of— Built about the. close of 3d c. b. c. Chippewa '—Victory of the Americans at, 1814. Chlorine— Discovered by Scheele, 1774. Cholera — First great epidemic in the west begins to spread in Russia, 1839 ; rages in Central Europe, 1831 ; in western Europe and America, 1833. Chotusitz "-Frederick the Great defeats the Austrians at, 1743. Christians — First persecution of the, under Nero, 64 ; persecution under Marcus Aurelius, y7 ; under Deoius, 250 ; under Diocletian, 303 ; formal sanction given to the Christian worship by Constantine and Licinius, 313 ; first general council of the church (that of Nicaea), 325. Churubusco " — Victory of the Americans over the Mexicans at, 1847. Cilician Pirates — Subdued by Pompey, 67 b. c. Cimbri * — Begin to menace the Roman dominions, 113 B. o. ; their forces an- nihilated by Marius, 101 b. c. Cincinnati— Settled, 1788. Cintra,' convention of, between the French and English, 1808. Circassia. See Caucasus. Circulation of the Blood — Discovered by Harvey, about 1616. Circumnavigation of the Globe— First accomplished, 1519-33. Cisalpine Republic,* 1797-1803. Cistercian Order — Founded, close of 11th c. Ciudad Sodrigo'' — Taken by the French, 1810; stormed by Wellington, 1813. Civil Eights Bill— Passed by Congress, 1866. Clairvauz, monastery of' — Founded by St. Bernard, 1115, Clarendon, Constitutions of — ^Enacted, 1164. Clay's Compromise (tariff), 1883. Clay's Compromise (slavery), 1850. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty between England and the United States, 1850. Clermont,' coimoil of, 1095. Cnidus '"—Defeat of the Spartan fleet off, by Conon, 394 b. c. Coal — Mining of, in England, on a large scale, begun, about 1300 ; anthrar cite comes into extensive use in America, about 1830. Cochin China^-The French establish their dominion in, 1859-'67. • A village of Canada, near the Falls of Niagara. ■■■ A small town in the B. part of Bohemia. ' A place a few miles from the city of Mexico. • A Germanic people, whose original seat was on the North Sea. • A snburb of Lisbon, 13 miles N. W. of it. " Embra- cing Lombardy, portions of the Venetian and of the papal territories, Modena, &c. ' A town of Spain, near the Portnguese border, S. W. of Salamanca. ^ This establishment was sitnated in Champagne, on the river Aube. • A town of France, in Aavergne. "■ A Greek town in Caria, in the S. W. comer of Asia Minor. 222 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Code Napoleon— Published, 1804. Code of Justinian — Published, 539. Cold Harbor ' — Battle at, between the Confederates and a; portion of Mo- CleUan's army (battle of Gaines's Mill), June 27, 1862 ; Lee repulses Grant's assault at, June 3, 1864. Coliseum. See Colosseum. Cologne, archbishopric of— Erected, end of 8th c. ; see secularized, 1801-3 ; territories annexed to Prussia, 1814^*15 ; creation of a new archbishopric of Cologne, 1834. See Electors (Imperial). Cologne, cathedral of— Begun, 1348 ; completed, 1880. Colombia — Beginning of the revolutionary movement in New Granada and Venezuela, 1810 ; they declare themselves independent of Spain, 1811 ; republic of Colombia founded, with Bolivar as president, 1819; Span- ish power destroyed, 1821 ; province of Quito liberated from Spain, 1832; Venezuela becomes a separate republic, 1829 ; the two republics of Ecua- dor and New Granada constituted, 1830-31 ; the name of New Granada changed to Colombia, 1861. Colonization Society, American— Establishes the colony of Liberia^ 1833. Colorado — Admitted into the Union, 1876. Colosseum— Dedicated, a. d. 80. Columbia, District o£ See District op Columbli. Columbia College (New York)— Opened as King's College, 1754 Common Prayer, Book of— Adopted in the Church of England, 1549. Commune, war of the, 1871. Comneni— Dynasty of the, in Constantinople, 1057-9, 1081-1185 ; in Tre- bizond, 1204-1461. Comorn »— Siege of, by the Austrians, 1849. Compass, Mariner's— Comes into use in Europe, 12th c. (f) Concordat — Between Francis I. and Leo X., 1516; between Bonaparte and Pius VIL, 1801 ; between Austria and Pius IX., 1855. Confederate States of America— Republic of, established, 1861 ; over- thrown, 1865. Confederation, Articles of— Adopted, 1777 ; ratification completed, 1781. Confession of Augsburg, 1530. Congo Free State— Pounded, 1885. Connecticut— Dutch establish settlement in, 1633 ; settled by English, 1634 -'6 ; colony of New Haven established, 1638 ; constitution adopted in colony of Connecticut, 1639; the two colonies receive a charter, 1662; their union completed, 1665 ; Connecticut one of the thirteen states, 1776. Constance," council of, 1414-'18. Constance, peace of, between Frederick I. and the Lombard League, 1183. ' A locality near the Chlckahominy River, N. E. of Richmond. » A fortress on the Danube, between Presburg and Buda-Pesth. » A town of Germany, on the lake of its name. In the Middle Ages it was a free city. It now belongs to Baden. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 223 Constantine ' — Stormed by the French, 1837. Constantinople— (See Byzantium)— Made the capital of the Eoman Empire, A. D. 330 ; on the division of the Roman Empire, capital of the Byzantine Empire; taken by the Venetians and Crusaders, 1203; again taken by them, and made the seat of the Latin Empire of the Bast, 1204 ; Byzan- tine realm restored, 1261 ; taken by the Turks, 1453 ; conference of the Great Powers at, 1876-7; advance of the Russians to, 1878 ;— general councils held at, 381 (second), 558 (filth), 680-681 (sixth), 869-870 (eighth). Constituent Assembly (in French history)— First, 1789-'91; second, 1848-'9. Consulate (in French history), 1799-1804. ConsulsUp (in Ronte) — Instituted, about 510 b. c. Continental Cong^ress. See United States. Contreras' — The Americans successfully attack the Mexicans at, Aug. 20, 1847. Convention (in French history), 1792-'5. Coomassie. See Koomassie. Copenhagen— Besieged by Charles X. of Sweden, 1658-'9; attacked by Charles XII., 1700 ; victory of Nelson at, 1801 ; bombarded by the Brit- ish, capitulates, 1807. Copenhagen, Tlniversity of— Founded, 1478. Corcyra (Corfu)— Colonized by the Corinthians, 8th c. b. c. ; dispute with Corinth inVegard to Bpidamnus begins, 436 b. c. Cordova — Capital of the Ommiyade realm in Spain (caliphate ' of Cordova), 756-1031 ; conquered from the Moors by St. Ferdinand of Castile, 1236. Corinth — [b. c] — ^Founds the colonies of Syracuse and Corcyra, 8th c. ; reign of Cypselus, about 657-627; reign of Periander, about 627-587; republican government established, about 584 ; joins the Achaean League, 243 ; destruction of the city by Mummius, 146. Corinth (Miss.)* — Evacuated by the Confederates, 1862; Confederate attack upon, 1862. Corinthian War (waged by a confederacy of Greek states against Sparta), 39&-387 B. c. Com Laws — Repeal of the, 1846. Coronea ' — ^Defeat of the Athenians at, 447 b. c. ; victory of AgesUaus at, 394 B. c. Corsica — Rebels against Genoa, 1729 ; made over by her to France, 1768 ; subjected- to France, 1769; revolts, 1793; completely liberated, 1794; French dominion re-established, 1796. ' A town in the E. part of Algeria. • A place in tlie vicinity of the city of Mexico. ' The sovereigns of Cordova previous to Abderrahman m. (912-961) styled themselves aim- ply emir. Abderrahman assumed the title of Commander of the Faithful, by which he designated himself the tme caliph, in opposition to the caliphs of Bagdad. * A village near the border of Tennessee. • A town in Boeotia. 224 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Cortenuova '—Victory of the emperor Frederick II. at, 1337. Corunna (CoruSa) • — Engagement between the French and English at, Jan. 16, 1809. Cotton— Culture of, introduced in Virginia, 1621. Cotton Gin — Invented by Whitney, about 1793. Coulmiers ' — Success of General Aurelle de Paladines at, Nov. 9, 1870. Courland— With SemgalUa, converted into a duchy for the last grand-mas- ter of the Knights Swordbearers, 1561 ; submits to Russia, 1795. Conrtrai*— The Flemings defeat the French at, 1303. Coutras ' — Victory of Henry of Navarre at, 1587. Covenant — The Scots publish their National Covenant, 1638 ; the English Parliament subscribes to the Solemn League and Covenant, 1643. Cowpens' — The Americans defeat the British at, Jan. 17, 1781. Cracow, republic of— Established, 1815 ; extinguished, 1846. Cracow, University of— Projected by Casimir the Great, 1364. (Not fully established until some time after his death.) Crannon ' — Victory of Antipater at, 323 b. c. Cr^cy* — Victory of Edward III. over the French at, 1346. Creek War (waged in Alabama), 1813-'14. Crefeld ' — Ferdinand of Brunswick defeats the French at, 1758. Crema '" — ^Besieged and taken by Frederick Barbarossa, 1159-60. Crespy (Crfipy)," treaty of, between Francis I. and Charles V., 1544. Crete. See Caot)ia. Crimea — (See Bosporus, Greek kingdom op, and Kaffa.) — Under its Tar- tar khans, a dependency of Turkey, 1475-1774 ; annexed to Russia, 1788. Crimean War (Turkey, England, France, and Sardinia against Russia), 1854-'6. Cross Keys " — Battle of, between Fremont and a portion of Jackson's forces, commanded by Swell, June 8, 1862. Croton Aqueduct^-The old aqueduct completed, 1842 ; the new, 1890. Crown Point" — Lost by the French, 1759; occupied by the Americans, 1775. Crusades— First crusade, Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless, God- frey of Bouillon, Baldwin, Robert of Normandy, Hugh of Vermandois, Raymond of Toulouse, Bohemond, Tanered, 1096-'9 ; second, Louis VII. of France, Conrad III. of Germany, 1147-'9; third, Frederick Barba- rossa, Richard Coeur-de-Lion, Philip Augustus, 1189-'92 ; fourth, Bald- » A Tillage of Lombardy, now included in the province of Bergamo. ' A seaport on the N. coast of Spain. » A village in tlie vicinity of Orleans. • A town S. W. of Ghent » A town N. E. of Bordeaux. • A locality in South Carolina, near the border of North Carolina. ' A town of central Thessaly. » A small town of France, N. W. of Amiens. • A town a short distance N. W. of Dflsseldorf . " A town of Lombudy, between Milan and Cremona. ** A town of northern France, near Laon. *■ A place in Virginia, near the junction of the three streams which form the South Fork of the Shenandoah. " A fort In New York, at the S. extremity of Lake Champlain. CHBONOLOGICAI. DICTIONAKT OF UNIVEKSAL HISTOBY. 225 win of Flanders, Boniface of Montferrat, GeoffroydeVillehardouin, Louis of Blois, 1201-4 — ^the crusaders, with .the Venetians, establish the Latin Empire of the Bast ; crusade of Andrew II. of Hungary, William of Hol- land, and John of Brienne, 1217-'81 ; of Frederick II. of Germany, 1328-'9 ; of Thibaud of Champagne and Navarre and Eichard of Corn- wall, 1339-41; of Louis IX., 1348-'50; second crusade of Louis IX., 1370 ; Edward Plantagenet, 1370-'73— end of the crusades ; final loss of Acre by the Christians, 1391, (See Jerusalem.) Crusca, Accademia della (Florence) — Founded, 1583. Crysttd Palace — World's Fair in Crystal Palace, Hyde Park, 1851 ; the palace in Sydenham, opened, 1854 ; that in New York, 1853. Cuba — ^Discovered, 1493 ; the Spaniards masters of, 1511 ; Havana founded, 1519; thecity taken by the English, 1762; restored, 1763; fatal expedition of the filibuster Narciso Lopez, 1851 ; great insurrection, 1868-78 ; act abol- ishing slavery, 1880; fresh insurrection, 1895-'8; the United States put an end to Spanish rule, 1898 ; formally relinquished by Spain, Jan, 1, 1899. CuUoden ' — Defeat of the Young Pretender at, 1746. Culm' — Victory of the allies over the French at, 1813. Cunaza,' battle of, between Artaxerxes II. and Cyrus the Younger and his Grecian auxiliaries, 401 b. c. Curzola^ — Naval victory of the Genoese over the Venetians at, 1398. Custozza' — Victories of the Austrians at, July 35, 1848, June 24, 1866. CTiiosceplialse • — ^The Romans vanquish Philip V. of Macedon at, 197 b. c. Cyprus— [b. c] — Dependency of the Persian Empire, about 525-333 ; ' be- comes subject to Ptolemy Lagi, about 313 ; Boman dominion established, 57; — [a. d.] — conquered by Richard I. of England, 1191; conferred as a kingdom on the house of Lusignan, 1192; Venetian sway established, 1473; sovereignty formally transferred to Venice by Catarina Comaro, 1489 ; conquered by the Turks, 1571 ; occupied by England, 1878. Cyreno' — [b. c] — Founded by the Greeks, about 631 ; submits to Cambyses, about 535 ; to Alexander the Great, 333 ; to Ptolemy Lagi, about 330, Cyzicus'— Alcibiades defeats the Spartan fleet at, 410 b. c. D. Dacia '<> — Wars of Trajan against, ending in the conquest of the country, 101-'6. Dalmatia — The doge of Venice assumes the title of duke of, 997 ; on the ' A locality a few miles from InremeBB. ' A village in northern Bohemia. ■ A small place near the Enphrates, not far above Babylon. * An island on the coast of Dalmatia. ' A village S. W. of Verona. • Hills in southern Thessaly. ' Throughout this period native Greek princes held sway in different parts of the island, the first place among them being occupied by the kings of Salamis. ' A city situated on the portion of the African coast directly opposite Greece. It was distant several miles from the sea. Its dominion extended over a large terri- tory, called Cyrenaica. ' A Greek city on the Asiatic coast of the Fiopontis (Sea of Marmo- ra). >° A region embracing modem Boumania, Transylvania, and part of Hungary proper. 16 226 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. extinction of the Venetian Republic given to Austria, 1797; lost by Aus- tria, 1805 ; recovered, 1814. Damascus — Kingdom of, at the height of its power, 9th c. b. c. ; destruc- tion of the kingdom by the Assyrians, about 732 b. c. ; city becomes the capital of the Ommiyade caliphs, a. d. 661 ; massacre of Christians in, 1860. Bamietta ' — Taken by the crusaders, 1219, 1349. Sanubian Comiuission — Instituted, 1856. Dardanelles — Passage of the, forced by Duckworth, 1807 ; closed by treaty against foreign vessels of war, 1841. Dartmouth College '—Chartered 1769. DaupMny ' — ITnited with the crown of France, 1349. Davis Strait — Entered by Davis, 1585. Decemvirate — Instituted, about 450 b. c. ; abolished, about 448 b. c. Declaration of Independence (United States), 1776. Deerfield Iffassacre/ 1704. Delaware— Swedes and Finns settle in, 1638 ; the Dutch seize the settle- ment, 1655; the Dutch dispossessed by the English, 1664; Fenn takes possession, 1682 ; separated from Pennsylvania, 1702 ; one of the thirteen states, 1776. Delhi — Becomes the seat of an independent Mohammedan realm, beginning of 13th c. ; taken by Baber, founder of the Mogul dynasty, 1526 ; splen- didly embellished by Shah Jehan, and his capital alternately with Agra, 1628-'58 ; under his successors capital of the Mogul Empire ; English authority established, 1803 ; city takes part in the Sepoy Mutiny, 1857. Delium ' — The Boeotians defeat the Athenians at, 434 B. c. Denmark — United into one kingdom, 9th e. ; union of the crowns of Den- mark, Norway, and Sweden (union of Calmar), 1897 ; final liberation of Sweden from Danish rule, 1531-3 ; Lutheranism' established, 1536-'7; cedes Norway to Sweden, 1814 ; Schleswig-Holstein wars, 1848-'51, 1864. KINGS OF DENMAEK ESt MODBHN TIMES. AOOEBSION. AC0E38I0N. Christian I., 1448. Frederick IV., 1699. John, 1481. Christian VI., 1730. Christian II., 1518 Frederick V., 1746. (deposed) Frederick I., 1523 Christian VU., 1766. (dies, 15S8) Christian III., 1634. Frederick VL, 1808. Frederick IL, 1559. Christian VIII., 1889. Christian IV., 1588. Frederick VII., 1848. Frederick III., 1648. Christian IX., 1868. Christian V., 16Y0. ' A town situated on the eastern branch of the Nile, near its mouth. ' At Hanover, New Hampshire. ' A region E. of the Ehfine, between Burgundy and Provence. * Dee^ Held is a place in Massachusetts, on the Connecticut. ' A town on the coast of BoeoUa. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 237 Dennevitz '—The Prussians defeat the French at, 1813. Dessau— Wallenstein defeats Mansfeld at, 1636. Detroit — Surrender of General Hull to the British at, 1813. Dettingen'— George II. defeats the French at, 1743. Directory, French, 1795-'9. District of Columbia— Act of Congress for its creation, 1790; slavery abolished, 1863. Doggerbank'— Naval battle between the English and Dutch off, 1781. Domesday Book— Completed, 1086. Dominican. Order — Founded, 1315. Dominican B«pubUc. See Santo Domingo, republic op. Donauwortb^ — De|»rived of its liberties, 1607. Donelson, Fort '—Surrender of, to the Federals, Feb. 16, 1863. Dorpat,' University of— Founded by Gustavus Adolphus, 1633. Dort,' synod of, 1618-'19. Dorylseum^ — Victory of the crusaders at, 1097. Dover, treaty of, between Louis XIV. and Charles XL, 1670. Downs '—Naval victory, of the Dutch over the Spaniards in the, 1639; bat- tle between the Dutch and English, 1666. Drepanum '»— Naval victory of the Carthaginians at, 349 b. c. Ih«8den — Treaty of, terminating the second Silesian War, 1745 ; victory of Napoleon at, 1813 ; insurrection, 1849. Dreux " — Battle of, between the Catholics and Huguenots, 1563. Druses. See Lebanon. Dublin — Trinity College founded, about 1593 ; Catholic university founded, 1854. Dulciguo — Transferred by Turkey to Montenegro, 1880. Dunbar"— Victory of Cromwell at, Sept. 3, 1650. Dunes "—The Spaniards defeated in the, by the French and English, 1658. Duppel, Lines of '*— Stormed by the Germans, 1849; by the Prussians, 1864 Duquesne, Fort " — Braddock's expedition against, 1755 ; lost by the French, 1758. Durazzo "—Robert Guiscard defeats the Byzantine forces at, 1081. Durham, TTniversity of— Opened, 1833. Durham's Station "—Surrender of J. E. Johnston to Sherman at, April 36, 1865. » A Tillage in the W. part of Brandenburg. ' A village on the Main, near AschafEen- bnrg. • In the North Sea. * A town on the Danube, N. W. of Augsburg. " Situated in northwestern Tennessee, on the Cumberland River. • A town of Livonia. ^ A town near Kotterdam. ' A town of ancient Phrygia. • Ofl the coast of Kent. '" A town in the northwestern part of Sicily ; now Trapani. " A town N. of Chartres. " A town at the mouth of the Frith of Forth. " Near Dunkirk. " On the B. coast of Schleswig, near the town of Sonderburg. " Located where Pittsburg now stands. '" A town on the E. conat ot the Adriatic, now belonging to Albania. "In Orange Co., North Carolina, N. W. of Baleigh. 228 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONABT OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. E. i Eastern Koumelia (province)— Constituted, 1878. (See Buloabu.) Eastern War (Russia against Turkey and her western allies), 1853-'6. East India Company, English. See India. East River Suspension Bridge— Constructed, 1869-83. Eckmiihl' — J^apoleon defeats the Austrian^ at, 1809. Ecuador — Province of Quito liberated from Spain, 1822 ; republic of Ecua- dor established, 1830. (See Colombia.) Edda — Songs composing the elder Bdda collected in Iceland, in the 13th c; the elder Edda brought to light, 1643; published, 1787-1828;— the younger or prose Edda compiled, 18th c; brought to light, 1628; published, 1665. Eddystone Lighthouse'— Smeaton's structure erected, 1756-'9; new struc- ture completed, 1882. Edessa'— Becomes the seat of a Christian principality, 1097; taken by the Mussulmans, 1144 ; after a revolt, terribly chastised by Noureddin, 1146. Edgehill *— First battle between Charles I. and the Parliamentarians fought at, 1642. Edinburgh, University of— Inaugurated, 1584. « Edinburgh Review "—Pounded, 1802. Egypt— [b. c.]— Date of the foundation of the first dynasty according .to the chronological reckoning of Lepsius, about 3900 ; according to Mari- ette, about 5000. Bnigsch, presenting what he regards as a plauslhle approximative reconstruo- tion of the chronology of the first 17 dynasties, gives : Foundation of the first dynasty, about 4400 ; reign of Khuf u (Cheops), the builder of the Great Pyramid of Gizeh, about 3700 ; invasion of the Hyksos or Shepherds, about 2200; subversion of the dominion of the Hylfsos and foundation of the 18th dynasty (New Empire), about 1700. Some Egyptologists reduce the period preceding the invasion of the Hyksos to leas than 1000 years. BawUnson is inclined to assign to the period of the Hyksos no more than 200 yeais. With the foundation of the 18th dynasty the chronological uncertainty ceases in a great measure. Brugsch's date for this event accords with the chronology of Lepsius. Eegmald Siuart Poole and Birch incline to a somewhat later date. Period of the greatest power and splendor of the New Empire, from about 1700 (1600) to about 1250 — principal kings: Aahmes (Amasis), founder of the 18th dynasty, Thothmes III. and Amenhotep III., of the same dynasty, Seti I. and Rameses II. (who reigned about 1350-1880), of the 19th dynasty, and Rameses III., of the 20th dynasty; expedition ol Sheshonk (Shishak) against Judah, about 949 (Duncker ; about 973, Biblical chronology) ; period of Ethiopian and Assyrian overlordship, about 750- ' A village of Bavaria, S. K. of Ratisbon. ' Off the coast of Cornwall. ' A town of Mesopotamia ; now Urfa. * A ridge of Warwickshire. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 229 650; Fsamatik I. (Psammetiohus), king over the whole country, from about 650; reign of Necho, about 610-595; Psamatik II., about 595- 589; Hophra (Aprils), about 589-570; Amasis, about 570-537; under Psam- menitus (Psamatik III.), the country is conquered by the Persian king Cambyses, 537 (535 f); again independent, 405 (404 1); Persian dominion re-established, about 340 ; occupied by Alexander, 333 ; on Alexander's death, 333, assigned to Ptolemy Lagi ; Ptolemy Lagi assumes the title of king, 306 ; end of the Ptolemaic dynasty, kingdom annexed to the Roman dominions, 30 ; — [a. d.] — on the final division of the Roman Empire, 395, forms part of the Byzantine Empire ; the Saracens complete their con- quest, 641 ; conquered by the Patimites, 969 ; taken possession of by Sala- din, 1171 ; the Mamelukes usurp supreme power, 1350 ; Turkish conquest, 1517; revolt of Ali Bey, 1768-'73; Bonaparte's expedition, 1798 ; evacu- ated by the French, 1801 ; massacre of the Mamelukes by the pasha Me- hemet Ali, 1811 ; he conquers Nubia, 1830-'33; conquers Syria, 1831-'3; again at war with the Porte, 1839 ; peace, Syria lost, Mehemet Ali recog- nized as hereditary, though tributary, ruler, 1841 ; Ibrahim Pasha viceroy. 1848; Abbas Pasha, 1848; Said Pasha, 1854; Ismail Pasha, 1863; Ismail named Khedive, 1867;; deposed, succeeded by Tewflk Pasha, 1879 ; rebellion of Arabi Pasha, British intervention, 1883; career of the Mahdi, 1881-5 ; Wolseley's expedition, 1884^'5 ; Abbas II. Khedive, 1893. (See Nubia.) Elba '—Napoleon's place of exile, 1814^'15. Electors, Imperial (of Germany) — The right of choosing the emperor is for the first time assumed exclusively by the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, the duke of Saxony, the margrave of Brandenburg, the count palatine of the Rhine, and the king of Bohemia, 1357 ; the Seven Electors recognized in the Golden Bull, 1356 ; Bavaria created an electorate in place of the Palatinate, 1633 ; an eighth electorate created for the Palati- nate, 1648; creation of a ninth electorate, Hanover, 1693; Bavaria and the Palatinate united, 1779 ; new electors created, 1803. Embargo Act (in American history), 1807. fenigr^s (in French history) — Beginning of the emigration, 1789; their property confiscated, 1792 ; indemnity granted, 1835. Emmett's Bebellion (in Ireland), 1803. " Encyclop^die " — Publication of the, begun, 1751. England ' — Caesar invades Britain, 55, 54, b. c. ; subjugation of the Britons begun by Claudius, a. d. 43 ; Roman dominion extended to the Tyne, 78- 79 ; to the Frith of Forth, 80-81 ; withdrawal of the Roman legions, about 410 ; landing of the Jutish band of Hengist and Horsa, 449 ; the Jutes found the kingdom of Kent, 457 ; the South Saxons establish the king- dom of Sussex, 477-491 ; the West Saxons, that of Wessex,' 495-519 ; the • An island off the coast of Tuscany. ' The dates in the Anglo-Sazon period are mainly those given by Green. Anthorities differ with regard to some of them. • Weseex was the southwestern one of the English kingdoms. 230 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. East Saxons, that of Essex, 6th c' ; the Angles found the kingdoms of Bemicia, Deira," Bast Anglia,' and Mercia,* and out of the first two the kingdom of Northumbria, 547-593 ; Augustin begins the conversion of Kent, 597 ; the English conquest completed in the main, about 607 ; Kor- thumbria the dominant state in the Heptarchy, 607-685 ; the power of Mercia supreme under Offa, 758-796 ; the Danes begin their inroads, about 789 ; Egbert establishes the overlordship of Wessex, 837 ; the Danes con- quer Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia, 867-874 ; reign of Alfred the Great, 871-901 ; Sweyn, king of Denmark, effects the conquest of the country, 1013 ; Canute makes himself king, 1016-'17 ; end of Danish rule, Edward the Confessor king, 1042 ; Harold II., 1066 ; Norman Conquest, "William the Conqueror, 1066; WiUiam Rufus, 1087; Henry I., 1100; Stephen, 1135; PLANTAGENET LINE: Henry II., 1154; conquest of Ireland begun, 1169; Eiohard I., 1189; John, 1199; Henry IIL, 1216; Edward I. (I. of the Norman dynasty), 1272 ; conquest of Wales, 1277-83 ; Edward II., 1307 ; Edward III., 1827 ; Richard II., 1377 ; house of lan- CASTEE : Henry IV., 1399 ; Henry V., 1413 ; Henry VI., 1432 ; begm- ning of the Wars of the Roses, 1455 ; house of york : Edward IV., 1461; LANCASTER: Henry VI. again, 1470; york: Edward IV. again, 1471; Richard III., 1483; TUDOR DYNASTY: Henry VTI., 1485; Henry VIII., 1509; Edward VI.,« 154?; Mary, 1553; Elizabeth, 1558; dynastic union with Scotland under the HOUSE OF STUART, Jame? I., 1608 ; Charles I., 1625 ; outbreak of the war between Parliament and Charles L, 1642; execution of Charles I., England a Commonwealth, 1649 ; Oliver Cromwell Protector, 1653 ; Richard Cromwell, 1658 (resigns, 1659); Restoration, Charles II., 1660; James II., 1685; Revolution, 1688; William of Orange and Mary, 1689 (death of Mary, 1694) ; Anne, daughter of James II., 1702; legislative union of England and Scotland, 1707; HOUSE OP HANOVER: George I., 1714; George II., 1727; George III., 1760; legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland, 1800-1801; George IV., 1820 ; William IV., 1830 ; Victoria, 1837. ADMINISTRATIONS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. ACCBS3I0N. ACOSSSION. Pitt,. W8S. Liverpool, 1812. Addington, 1801. Oonning, 182r. Pitt, 1804. Goderich, im. Grenville and Fox, 1806. Wellington, 1828. Portland, 1807. Grey, 1830. Perceval, 1809. Melbourne, 1834. 1 The origin of the kingdom of Essex is nsnally traced back to about 587. ' Bemicia and Deira embraced a region extending from the dumber to the Frith of Forth, Bemicia in the north and Deira in the soath. ' East Anglia was a district in eastern England, between the Wash on the north and Essex on the south, * Mercia was an inland region bounded W. by Wales. • The elder of the two sons of Edward IV. murdered in the Tower in 1483 was Edward V. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONART OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 231 Peel. 1834. DUraeli, 1868. Melbourne, 1835. Gladstone, 1868. Peel, 1841. Disraeli (Beaconsfield), 1874. EuBsell, 1846. Gladstone, 1880. Derby, 1852. Salisbury, 1885. Aberdeen, 1852. Gladstone, 1886. Palmerston, 1855. Salisbury, 1886. Derby, 1858. Gladstone, 1892. Pahnerston, 1859. Eosebery, 1894. Russell, 1865. Salisbury, 1896. Derby, 1866. England, Church of— Act of Supremacy passed, 1534 ; Henry VIII. as- sumes the title oi Supreme Head of the Church, 1535 ; Statute of the Six Articles, 1539 ; adoption of the Book of Common Prayer, 1549 : of the Forty-two Articles, 1553 ; new Act of Supremacy, Protestantism firmly es- tablished in England, 1559 ; publication of the Thirty-nine Articles, 1563. Ephesus ' — Temple of Diana burned, 356 b. c. ; council of (third general council), A. D. 431 ; council of (" robbers' synod "), 449. Erfurt' — Conference of, between Napoleon, Alexander I., and other princes 1808 ; Unionaparlament assembled at, 1850. Erie Canal — Opened, 1825. Erie, Lake— Victory of Commodore Perry on, Sept. 10, 1813.. Erivan'— Taken by Paskevitch, 1827: ceded to Russia, 1828. Erlangen,* University of— Founded. 1743. Erzerum ^ — Taken by Paskevitch, 1829 ; besieged by the Russians, 1877-'8. Escurial '—Erection of the, begun, 1563. Eski Zaghra' — Suleiman Pasha defeats General Gurko at, 1877. Essling. See Aspekn and Esslino. Este, house of. See Febraea, Modena. Estella^ — ^Bntry of Don Carlos into, 1873 ; unsuccessfully attacked by Gen- eral Concha, 1874 ; taken by the government forces, 1876. Eton College'— Founded, middle of 15th c. Etruria — [b. c] — Destruction of Veil by the Romans, about 392 ; defeats of the Etruscans at the Vadimonian Lake, about 310, about 283 ; destruc- tion of Volsinii, 265 ; last struggle of Palerii against the Roman power, 241. Etruria, kingdom o£ See Tuscany. Eurymedon '» — Victories of Cimon over the Persians at the, 466 b. c. Eutaw Springs " — Battle between Greene and Stuart at, Sept. 8, 1781. ' A Greek cit? of Asia Minor, S. of Smyrna. ^ A town now inclnded in the Pmssian province of Saxony. ' A town of Armenia. • A town of Bavaria, near Nuremberg, for- merly belonging to the margraves of Brandenbnrg-Baireutli. » A town of Tnrkish Armenia. * A palace not far from Madrid. ^ A town on the S. slope of the Balkans, now included in Eastern Boomelia. ' A town of Navarre. ' Situated on the Thames, in Buckingham- Bhiie. >° A stream of Famphylia, in the S. part of Asia Minor. >i A small stream empty- ing into Ibc Santee Biver, in Sonth Carolina. 232 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Evangelical Union (of the Protestant states of Germany)— Formed, 1608; dissolved, 1621. Evesham'— Simon de Montfort defeated and slain at, 1265. Exhibitions, International. See Intebnationai, Exhibitions. Eylau'— Battle of, between the French and the allied Russians and Prus- sians, Feb. 7, 8, 1807. r. Fair Oaks. See Seven Pines and Faie Oaks. Ealk Zaws— Passed by the Prussian Diet, 1873. Family Compact (between the Bourbon courts), 1761. Fatimite Caliphs, 909-1171. Feejee Islands — Annexed to the British possessions, 1874 Fehrbellin'— Defeat of the Swedes by the elector of Brandenburg at, 1675. Fenians. See Ireland. Ferrara — Passes from the house of Bste to the popes, 1598. Ferrara, council of, 1438. Ferry Educational Bill— Passed, 1880. Field of the Cloth of Gold* — Meeting of Henry Vlll. of England and Francis L of France on the, 1520. Fifteenth Amendment — ^Becomes part of the Constitution of the United States, 1870. Filibusteis. See Cuba, Nicabaoua. Finisterre, Cape — ^Victory of the English over the French off, 1747. Finland — Conquered from Sweden by Russia, 1808 ; ceded to Russia, 1809. Fisher, Fort'— Taken by the Federals, 1865. Fisher's Hill •—Sheridan defeats Early at, Sept. 22, 1864 Five Forks '' — ^Battle of, defeat of Lee, March 31, April 1, 1865. Flamborough Head' — ^Victory of Paul Jones off, 1779. Flanders — Erected into a county (fief of France), 9th c. ; united with Bur- gundy, 1384; with Spain, 1516; — (See Netherlands, Spanish, and Ghent.) — ^part of, conquered by France, 1667-78. Fleiirus* — Christian of Brunswick and Mansfeld defeat the Spaniards at, 1622 ; victory of Luxembourg at, 1690 ; victory of Jourdan at, 1794 Flodden Field " — James IV. of Scotland overwhelmed at, Sept. 9, 1513. Florence — Becomes an independent republic, 12th c. ; beginning of the con- tests between Guelphs and Ghibellines, 1215 ; final triumph of the Guelphs, 1267; constitution made purely democratic, 1282 ; influence of the Medici supreme in the republic, from 1434; the Medici expelled, 1494; re- stored, 1512 ; again expelled, 1527 ; finally reinstated, 1530 ; ducal gov- • A town of Worcestershire, on the Avon. ' A town of East Prassia, S. E. of ESnigs- berg. • A town of Brandenburg, N. W. of Berlin. * Near Gnines, a few miles from Calais. ' Near Wilmington, N. C. • Shenandoah Co., Ya. ' A locality in Dinwiddle Co. in south- ern Virginia. ^ On the coast of Yorkshire. * A town of Hainant, Belginm. ** In Uia county of Northumberland. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 233 ermnent established, 1532; the Florentine dominions erected into the grand-duchy of Tuscany, 1569 ; city capital of Italy, 1865-'71 ;— erection of the Duomo (Santa Maria del Piore) begun, 1298 (in pursuance of a de- cree of 1294) ; its dome constructed by Brunellesohi, first half of 15th c. ; fagade completed, 17th c. ; church of Santa Croce begun, 1294; the Cam- panile begun by Giotto, 1334 Florence, coimcil of, 1439. Florida— Ponce de Leon lands in, 1513 ; Huguenot settlement, 1564 ; settlers killed by the Spaniards, St. Augustine founded, 1565 ; ceded by Spain to England, 1763 ; Pensacola taken by the Spaniards, 1781 ; the country ret- roceded to Spain, 1783 ; treaty ceding it to the United States, 1819 ; taken possession of by the United States, 1821 ; admitted into the Union, 1845 ; secedes, 1861 ; reconstmotion completed, 1868. Fokshani ' — The Austrians and Bussians defeat the Turks at, 1789. Fontainebleau * — Preliminaries of peace signed at, between England, Erance, Spain, and Portugal, Nov. 3, 1762. Fontenoy' — ^Victory of Marshal Saxe at, 1745. Formula of Concord— Published, 1580. Fort Soneleon, &c. See Donelson, Fort, &c. Forty-two Articles (of the Church of England)— Adopted, 1552; subse- quently reduced to the Thirty-nine Articles. Fourteenth Amendment — Becomes part of the Constitution of the United States, 1868. France — (See Gattl, Pranks, Aquitania, Noemandt, Anjou, etc".) — Parti- tion of the Prankish dominions between the grandsons of Charlemagne in the treaty of Verdun, 843 ; the monarchy of the western Franks soon converted into an aggregation of autonomous states, ruled by covmts and dukes, vassals of the king ; * the royal crown held by the ducal house of France (Capetians), from 987 ; the western haU of Prance, the indepen- dent state of Brittany not included, united with England, 1154 ; Philip Augustus makes himself master of Vennandois, 1185; he wrests Nor- mandy, Maine, Poitou, Anjou, and Touraine from John of England, 1202-'5 ; county of Toulouse reunited with the crown, 1271 ; Champagne reunited with the crown, 1314 ; beginning of the great wars of conquest waged by the Plantagenet kings of England, 1338 ; Dauphiny acquired by France, 1349 ; duchy of Burgundy reunited with the crown, 1361 ; again separated, 1363 ; the tide of English conquest arrested at Orleans, 1429 ; ' A town sitnated partly in MoldaTia and partly in Wallachia. ' A town 35 miles S. E. of Paris, famons for its ancient royal cli&teaa. ' A town of Hainant, Belgimn. * Among the moTe important of the feadatory states formed ont of the territories occupied by the western Franks were ; The county of Flanders, the county of Vennandois (capital St. Qaentin), the dnchy of France (capital Paris), the county of Champagne, the dnchy of Bur- gundy, the county of Anjou, the duchy of Aquitaine, the county of Toulouse, and the duchy of Normandy. Under the Carlovinglan kings the domain directly subject to the crown was ■t last reduced to the town of Laon, where they held their court. 234 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Normandy reconquered from the English, 1449-'50 ; Guienne wrested from them, 1451 ; Calais alone left to England, 1453 (regained, 1558) ; Burgundy annexed to Prance, 1477; Anjou finally reunited with the crown, 1480 ; Provence annexed, 1481 ; union of Brittany with Prance, 1491 ; Metz, Toul, and Verdun annexed, 1552 ; Beam, 1589 ; Artois and Roussillon conquered and annexed, 1640-'59 ; cession of Alsace by Aus- tria, 1648 ; Prench Planders and Pranehe Comte conquered and annexed, 1667-'78 ; Strasburg annexed, 1681 ; Lorraine becomes part of the king- dom, 1766 ; Corsica ceded by Genoa, 1768 ; division into departments, 1790 ; Avignon and Venaissin annexed, 1791 ; Savoy and Nice acquired, 1860 ; Alsace, German Lorraine, and Metz ceded to Germany, 1871. PRINCIPAL FOREIGN WARS WAGED BY PRANCE IN MODERN TIMES. 1494-1544. Wars of Charles VIII., Louis XII., and Francis L for domin- ion in Italy. 1513-'14, 1522-'5, 1544-'6, 1549-'50. With England. 1551-'9. Germany, Spain. 1595-8. Spain. (England and Prance allies.) 1628-'31. Spain, Austria, Savoy. War of the Mcmtuam, Succession.. 1635-'48. Austria. 1635-'59. Spain. 1667-'8. Spain. 1672-'9. Holland, the German Empire, Spain. 1682-'97. Spain, German Empire, England, Holland, Savoy. War in America. 1701-14. England, Holland, Austria, Prussia, the German Empire, Savoy, Portugal. (Prance, Spain, and Bavaria allies.) War of the Spanish Succession. War in America. 1738-'5. The German Empire, Austria. (France, Spain, and Sardinia allies.) War of the Polish Succession. 1741-8. Austria, England, Holland, Sardinia. (France, Prussia, Spain, and Bavaria allies. Saxony at first opposed to Austria, after- ward her ally.) Wa/r of the Austrian Succession. War in America and India. 1756-'63. Prussia, England. (Prance, Austria, the German Empire, Rus- sia, Sweden, Saxony, and Spain allies.) Seven Yeari War. War in America, French amd Indian War (begun 1754). War in India. 1778-'88. England. (Prance, the United States, Spain, and HoUand allies.) 1793-1802. Wars of the Revolution. 1792-'7, 1799-1801. Austria and the German Empire. 1792-'5. Prussia. CSHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONAET OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 235 1792-'6. Sardinia. 1793-1802. England. 1793-'5. Spain. (A]Iy of France, 1796-1802.) 1793-'5. HoUand. (AUy of France, 1795-1802.) 1793-'6, 1798-1801. Naples. 1798-1801. Turkey. 1798-1800.> Russia. 180a-'14 England. C 1805. Austria. <1805-'7. Kussia. U806-'7. Prussia. 1806. Naples 1808-'14. Portugal, Spain. 1809. Austria. ( 1813-'14. Russia. ( 1813-'14. Prussia, Austria, Sweden, HoUand, Bararia and other Grerman states (England, Spain, Portugal). (Saxony the ally of France.) 1815. England, Prussia, Holland. 1823. Spain. 1830-'47. Algeria. 1854-'6. Russia. (Turkey, England, France, and Sardinia allies.) 1859. Austria. (Sardinia and France allies.) 1863-'7. Mexico. 1870-'71. Germany. DYNASTIES AND POLITICAL KEVOLUTIONS. Cablovihoian Dyitastt. (Theprincet whose names are italicized do not belong to the dynasty.) Louis le D^bounalre, Mng of the Franks, succeeded by his sons, Lothaire, Louis the German, and, CharleB the Bald, 840 ; the kingdom of the western Franks allotted to Charles the Bald, 843 ; he is succeeded hy Louis 11., the Stam- merer, 877 ; Louis m. and Carloman succeed, 879 ; Carloman sole king, 882 ; he is succeeded by Charles the Fat, about close of 884 ; Charles the Fat deposed, 887 ; Eudes ( Odo), count of ParU, elected his successor ; Charles the Simple elected king in opposition to Eudes, 893 ; he becomes sole ruler on the death of Eudes, 898 ; Sobert, duhe of France., elected king in opposition to Charles, 922 ; Charles deposed, Budolph, duke of Bwgundy, Mng, 923 ; he is succeeded hy Louis rV., d'Outremer, 936; Lothaire, 954; Louis V., 986; he dies, 987. Cafbtiah Dtnastt. ACCEBSIOK. ACOKBSIOH. Hugh Capet, 987. Philip L, 1060. Eobert H., 996. Louis VL, 1108. Henry L, 1031. Louis vn.. 1137. ' Peace was not actually conclnded until 1801. 236 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL DISTOEY. ACCESSION. Philip n. (Philip Augustus), 1180. Louis VIII., 1223. Louis IX., 1226. Philip m.. 1270. House of Pfiilip VL, 1328. John; 1350. Charles V., 1364 Charles VI., 1380. Charles VII., 1422. Louis XI., 1461. Charles VUl., 1483. Valois. ACCESSION. Philip rV., 1285. Louis X., 1314. PhiUp v.. 1316.- Chaj-les IV., 1322. Louis XII., 1498. Francis I., 1515. Henry II., 1547. Francis II., 1559. Charles IX., 1560. Henry ni.. 1574. Revolution). Louis XV., 1715. Louis XVL, 1774. Heniy IV., 1589. Louis Xm., 1610. Louis XIV., 1643. Beginning of the Revolution, 1789 ; Constituent Assembly, 1789-'91 ; Legis- lative Assembly, 1791-'2; succeeded by the Convention; France constituted a a republic, 1792; execution of Louis XVI., 1793; end of the Convention, 1795; the Directory, 1795-'9 ; the Consulate, 1799-1804 ; Napoleon emperor, 1804 ; Firet Restoration, accession of Louis XVIIl., brother of Louis XVI., 1814; Hundred Days, Second Restoration, 1815; Charles X., 1824; overthrow of the Bourbons by the July Revolution, 1830 ; Louis-Philippe (House of Orleans), 1830 ; Febra- ruary Revolution, France a Republic, 1848; Louis Napoleon president, 1848; the Coup-cP£tai, 1861 ; the Second Empire, 1852 ; succeeded by the republic, 1870 ; beginning of Thiers's government, 1871 ; the Commune, 1871 ; MacMahon president, 1878; Grivy, 1879; Carnot, 1887; Casimir-Perier, 1894; Faure, 1895. France, Isle de. See Mauritius. Franche-Comt^ (county of Burgundy) • — Annexed to the duchy of Bar- gundy, 1384 ; retained by Mary of Burgundy, after the seizure of the dAichy of Burgundy by Louis XI. in 1477 ; finally conquered from Spain by France, 1674 ; ceded to France, 1678. Franciscan Ordei^-^ounded, 1209. Frankenhausen ' — Milnzer and the German peasants vanquished at, 1535. Frankfort-on-the-Main — Deprived of its position as a free city, and an- nexed to Prussia, 1866. Frankfort, peace of, between France and Germany, 1871. Frankfort Parliament, 1848-'9. Franks — A number of German tribes unite and assume the name of, 3d c. A. D. ; Clovis puts an end to the Roman dominion in Gaul, 486 ; baptism of Clovis, 496 ; Pepin the Short deposes the last of the Merovingians, and ' A district W. of the Jura range. " A town of central Germany, now belonging to ScbwarzbuTg-Badolstadt. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. ^^St founds the Carlovingian dynasty, 751 ; Charlemagne crowned emperor of the West, 800 ; partition of the Frankish empire by the treaty of Verdun, 8^ ; final disruption of the Carlovingian empire, 888. Fratistadt' — The Swedes defeat the forces of Augustus the Strong at, 1706. Fredericksliurg'' — ^Burnside unsuccessfully attacks Lee at, Deo. 13, 1863. FreeOhTircliof Scotland— Founded, 1843. Freedmen's Bureau — Organized, 1865. Freiberg*— Prussians defeat Austrian and Imperial forces at, 1762. Ereiburg*— Battle between the French and Germans at, 1644 Frencli Academy. See Academy, French. French and Indian War — Begins, 1754 ; peace of Paris, 1763. FrenoHtown'— Victory of the British over the Americans at, Jan. 22, 1813. Friedland'— Victory of Napoleon over the Russians at, June 14, 1807. Friends. See Quakebs. Fronde, 1648-'52. Fructidor, 18th, coup-d'6tat of the, Sept. 4, 1797. Fuentes de Onoro' — Wellington defeats Massena at, 1811. Fugitive Slave Iaw— Adopted, 1850. a. Oadsden Purchase — Acquisition of Mexican territory by the United States (now included in Arizona and New Mexico), 1853. Oaeta^ — Besieged and taken by the forces of Victor Emanuel, 1860-'61. Gaines's Hill, battle of. Se^ Cold Harbor. Oalicia — Assigned to Austria in the first partition of Poland, 1772 ; at- tempted insurrection baffled by a peasant rising against the nobles, 1846. Gallican Church— Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII., 1438 ; declaration of the French clergy, drawn up by Bossuet, setting forth the liberties of the church, 1683. Oallipoli '—Seized by the Turks, 1354. Gali'gUano '" — Gonsalvo de Cordova defeats the French at, 1503. Oarter, Order of the — Instituted, about 1344. Gas — Used in the Lyceum Theatre, London, 1803 ; introduced for general illumination in London, 1814 ; in Paris, about 1820 ; in New York, 1835. Gastein," convention of, between Austria and Prussia, 1865. Gaul— [b. c] — Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul by the Bomans, 225-323 ; its re- subjugation, 801-191 ; conquest of the S. B. portion of Transalpine Gaul ' A town now incladed in the Frneeian province of Posen. ' A town of Virginia, on tlie Bappabannock, aboat midway between Kichmond and Wasliington. • A town of Sax- ony, S. W. of Dresden. * A town of the Breisgau, a district on the Bhine, f onneriy belong- ing to Austria, and now inclnded in Baden. ' A small place in Michigan, at the month of the Raisin River. • A town of East Prnssia, S. E. of Konigsberg. ' A town of Spain, close to the frontiers of Portngal, near the parallel of Madrid. * A seaport; 40 miles N. W. of Naples. » A town on the Earopean shore of the Dardanelles. '" A river of Italy, emptying into the Mediterranean near Gaeta. " A watermg place in Salzburg, Aastria. 238 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. by the Romans, 125-131 ; Csesar's wars, Gaul subjugated, 58-51 ; — [a. d.] — end of Roman dominion, 486. (See Aquitania, Peanks.) Gauls — [b. c] — Burn Rome, about 388 ; invade Greece, about 278 ; occupy northern Phrygia, about 277. (See Gaul.) Gaza— Taken by Alexander the Great, 332 b. c. ; by Bonaparte, 1799. Gemblouz ' — Don John of Austria defeats the, Dutch at, 1578. Geneva — Becomes completely independent, 1534 ; Calvin makes his appear- ance in, 1536; annexed to Prance, 1798; again independent, 1814;— uni- versity founded (as an academy), 1559, Geneva Tribunal, 1871-2. Genoa — Engaged in wars with Pisa, from about 1070 ; beginning of her first great struggle with Venice, 1258; destroys the naval power of Pisa, 1284^'90 ; institution of the dogate, 1339 ; delivered from the French by Andrea Doria, 1528 ; cedes Corsica to Prance, 1768 ; the Genoese domin- ions constituted the Ligurian Republic, 1797; unsuccessful defense of the city by Massena against the Austrians and English, 1800 ; the Ligurian Republic united with the French Empire, 1805 ; surrender of the city to the English, 1814 ; city and territory annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia, 1815. George, Lake' — Battle between the forces of William Johnson and Dies- kau at, repulse of the French, 1755. Georgia — Settled, 1733 ; one of the thirteen states, 1776; secedes, 1861 ; re- construction completed, 1870. Georgia (Grusia) — Annexed to Russia, 1801, Gepidse' — Overthrow of their kingdom in Fannonia, about A. n. 566. Germantown^ — Repulse of the Americans at, Oct. 4, 1777. Germany (kingdom, empire, confederation) — Partition of the Prankish do- minions by the treaty of Verdun, 843 ; end of the Carlovingian dynasty, 911 ; the Holy Roman Empire, 962-1806 ; foundation of the Germanic Con- federation, 1815 ; great revolutionary movement, 1848-'9 ; Confederation dissolved. North German Confederation founded, 1866 ; foundation of the new German Empire, 1871. SOVEREIGNS OP GERMANY FKOM THE END OF THE CAELOVINGIAN DYNASTY. Conrad of Pranconia, 911-918; SAXON DYNASTY: Henry the Fowler, 919-936; Otho I., the Great (son), 936-973; Otho II. (son), 973- 983; Otho IIL (son), 983-1002 ;— Henry II. (of Bavaria, a descendant of HenryI.),1002-'24; PRANCONIAN DYNASTY: Conrad H., 1024-'39 ; Henry III. (son), 1039-'56; Henry IV. (son), 1056-1106; Henry V. (son), 1106-'25 ;— Lothaire II., of Saamiy, 1125-'37; HOUSE OF HOHEN- ' A village near Namnr. ' In the B. part of New York, near the border of Vennont " A Germanic people, who originally inhabited the region of the Baltic. * A snbarb of Philadelphia. CHEONOLOGIOAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 239 STAUFEN : Conrad III., 1138-'52 ; Frederick Barbarossa (nephew), 1152- '90; Henry VI. (son), 1190-'97; Philip of Swabia (brother), 1198-1208 (crown disputed by Otho of Bnmsmck) ; — Otho (IV.) of Brunswick recog- nized, 1208 ; — Frederick II., of Hohenstaupbn (son of Henry VI.), after a struggle with Otho IV., recognized, 1315 ; Conrad IV. (son) and William of Holland (elected 1247) rival emperors, 1250-54 ;— William of Holland alone, 1254-'6; double election, Alfonso the Wise of Castile and Richard of Cornwall, 1257; Rudolph I., of Hapsburg, 1273-'91 ; Adolphns of Nas- sau, 1292-'8; Albert I., of Hapsburg, 1398-1308; Henry VII., of Luxem- BUEG, 1308-'13 ; Louis the Bavarian, 1314^*47 (crown contested by Fred- erick of Austria, 1314-'22); Charles IV., of Luxemburg, 1347-78; Wen- ceslas (son), 1378-1400; Rupert of the Palatinate, 1400-1410; Sigismund (last Luxemburg emperor), 1411-'37; HOUSE OP HAPSBURG: Albert H., 1438-'9; Frederick IIL, 1440-'93; Maximilian I. (son), 1493-1519; Charles V. (grandson), 1519-'56; Ferdinand I. (brother), 1556-'64; Maxi- milian IL (son), 1564^76; Rudolph II. (son), 1576-1612; Matthias (broth- er), 1612-'19; Ferdinand II., 1619-'37; Ferdinand III. (son), 1637-'57; Leopold L (son), 1658-1705; Joseph L (son), 1705-'ll; Charles VL (broth- er), 1711-40 ;— Charles VII., of Bavaria, 1742-'5 ; Francis I., of Lorraine, 1745-'65 ; House of Hapsbubq-Lorbainb : Joseph II. (son of Francis I.), 1765-'90; Leopold IL (brother), 1790-'92 ; Francis II. (son), 1792-1806; —William L (house of Hohenzollem), 1871-88 ; Frederick (son), 1888 ; William II. (son), from 1888. Gettysburg ' — Battle of, repulse of Lee by Meade, July 1-3, 1863. Ghent — Jacob van Artevelde exercises supreme power in Flanders, 1338-'45 ; Philip van Artevelde, his son, heads the burghers in their struggle against Count Louis II., 1382 ; city deprived of its liberties by Charles V., 1540. Ghent, Pacification of, 1576. Ghent, treaty of, between England and the United States, Dec. 24, 1814. Ghunib ' — Surrender of Shamyl to the Russians at, 1859. Ghuzni' — Reign of Sultan Mahmoud of Ghuzni, marked by numerous ex- peditions into India, 997-1030 ; city taken by storm by the British, 1839. GibraXtar — Conquest of, by the English, 1704 ; unsuccessful attempt of the French and Spaniards to reconquer it, 1704r-'5 ; ceded to England, 1713 ; besieged by the Spaniards, 1727 ; blockade of, undertaken by the French and Spanish fleets, 1779 ; bombarded, 1781 ; great cannonade, 1782. Gilboa'* — The Philistines vanquish the Israelites at, about 1055 b. c. (BibL chron. ; about 1033, Duncker). Girondists— Pall of the, 1793. Glencoe ' — Massacre of the MacDonalds at, 1693. • A small town of Pennsylvania, 36 miles S. W. of Harrinbnrg. ' A mountain fast- ness in Daghestan. ' A town 80 miles S. W. of Cabool. * A mountain W. of the Jor- dan in the territory of Issachar. * A valley in western Scotland, in the coanty of Aigyle. 240 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Goa — Taken by the Portuguese, 1510. Gok-Tepe '—Repulse of the Russians at, 1879 ; taken by SkobelefE, 1881. Golden Biill of Germany, 1356. Golden BiUl of Hungary, 1232. Golden Fleece, Order of the — Instituted by Philip the Good of Burgundy, 1430. Golden Horde. See Mongols. j Good Hope, Cape of— Discovered by Bias. 1488 (1487!); doubled by Vasco da Gama, 1497. Goodwin Sands ' — Naval victory of the Dutch over the English near, 1652. Gordon Riots, 1780. Goths ' — Advance into the Roman dominions as far as Thrace, 250 ; the Huns force the Ostrogoths into submission, and compel the Visigoths to seek shelter in the Roman dominions, 875-'6. (See Visigoths, Ostbogoths.) Gottingen, University of— Opened, 1737 ; dismissal of the seven profes- sors by Ernest Augustus, 1837. Granada, kingdom of. See Moobs m Spain. Graniciis' — Alexander the Great defeats the Persians on the, 334 b. a Granson " — The Swiss defeat Charles the Bold at, 1476. Gravelines " — The Spaniards defeat the French at, 1558. Gravelotte ' — The Germans defeat the French at, Aug. 18, 1870. Gravitation — Publication of Newton's " Principia," 1687. Great Britain. See England. Great St. Bernard ^ — Passage of the, by Bonaparte, 1800. Greece — [b. c] — Dorian invasion of the Peloponnesus, about 1100 ; legisla- tion of Lycurgus in Sparta, about 850 ; wars of Sparta against Messenia, about 743-724, 645-628 ; legislation of Solon in Athens, 594 ; first Persian invasion, 490 ; invasion of Xerxes, 480 ; the hegemony passes from Sparta to Athens, 477; Peloponnesian War, Sparta becomes dominant, 431-404; beginning of Theban hegemony, 371; Macedon imposes her yoke, 338; rise of the Acheean League, about 280 ; proclamation of freedom by Fla- mininus, 196 ; Roman conquest completed, 146 ; — (See Arqos, Cobhtth, Messenia, JEtolian League, &e.) — [a. d.] — part of the Byzantine Empire, 395; partitioned among the Latin conquerors of Constantinople, 1204; the Turks masters of nearly the whole country, 1460 ; the Morea conquered by Venice, 1685-'7; reconquered by the Turks, 1715 ; Revolution, 1831-9; Otho made king, 1832; constitutional government established, 1844; Otho deposed, 1863 ; election of George, 1863 ; the Ionian Islands annexed, 1863-4; receives territory from Turkey, 1881 ; war with Turkey, 1897. » A place about 200 miles E. of the Caspian Sea, a short distance N. of the 38th parallel of latitude. = Off the coast of Kent. ' A Germanic people, who at the beginning of the Christian era inhabited the region S. of the Baltic. * A small stream of Asia Minor, empty- ing into the Propontis (Sea of Marmora). ' A town on Lake NeufehMel. • A to\TO of Flanders, now belonging to I^nce. ' A Tillage near Metz. ' A mountain pass of the Alps between Valais and Piedmont. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORT. 241 Greek Church — Complete separation of the, from the Latin, 1054 ; moment- arj union effected, 1439. Greenland— Seen by the Northmen, about 870 or 876 ; first trodden by Ice- landers, 983 ; colonized by them, 985. Greenwich Hospital — ^Erection of, begun, 1696. Greenwich Observatory— Flamsteed begins observations in, 1676. Gregorian Calendar. See Calendar. Griswold, Fort >— Taken by Arnold, 1781. GroBsbeeren' — Defeat of Oudinot by Btilow at, 1813. Grossjagemdorf' — The Russians defeat the Prussians at, 1757. Guadalupe-Hidalgo,' treaty of, between Mexico and the United States, 1848. Guadeloupe— Taken by the English, 1759, 1794, 1810. Ghieiuc See Netherlands. Ooienne. See AQTrrrANUL. Guilford Court-House ' — Comwallis defeats Greene at, March 15, 1781, Guillotine — ^Introduction of the, in France, 1793. Guineg^te ' — Maximilian defeats the French at, 1479 ; the English defeat the French at (Battle of the Spurs), 1513. Gujarat^ — Sir Hugh Gough defeats the Sikhs at, 1849. Gundamuk,' treaty of, between the British and Yakub Ehan, 1879. Gunpowder— Comes into extensive use in European warfare, 14th c. ; can- non used by the English at Crecy, 1346. Gunpowder Plot, 1605. H. Haarlem — Taken by the Spaniards, 1573 ; recovered by the Dutch, 1577. Habeas Corpus Act — Passed by Parliament, 1679. Hague, The, conventions o^ between England, France, and Holland, 1659. Halidon Hill »— The English defeat the Scots at, 1333. Halle," University of— Founded, 1694. Hambach Festival," 1833. Hamburg — League with Lubeck (rise of the Hansa), 1241 ; occupied by the French, 1806 ; annexed to the French Empire, 1810 ; tyrannized by Da- vout, 1813-'14; again independent, 1814; great fire, 1843; consents to become a member of the Zollverein, 1881; the union consummated, 1888. Hampton Court," conferences of, between the English prelates and Puri- tans, 1604 Hampton Boads "-Engagement between the Monitor and Virginia (Mei> rimac) in, March 9, 1863. • Near New London, Connecticut. ' A village near Berlin. " A village of East FmBsia, near the Pregel. • A small place in the outskirts of the city of Mexico. • A place in the N. part of North Carolina. • A village not far from Calais. ' A town of the Punjaub, N. of Lahore. « A place in the N. E. part of Afghanistan, near the frontier of India. " Near Berwick. '» A town of Prussia, on the Saale, now included in the province of Saxony. " Hambach is a village of Bavaria, in the Rhenish Palatinate. " A palace on the Thames, a few miles above London. " At the mouth of the James Biver. 17 242 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Hanover— The dominions of the duke of Brunswick-Lftneburg erected into the electorate of, 1693 ; union with England, 1714 ; occupied by the French, 1803 ; given by Napoleon to Prussia, 1805 ; ceded to him by Prussia, 1807; recovered by the English dynasty, 1813; erected into a kingdom, 1814; separated from England, 1837; annexed to Prussia, 1866. Hanover Court-Hotise • — ^Engagement between the Federals and Confed- erates at. May 27, 1862. Hanseatic Lea^e — Bise of the, 1241. Hapsburg, House of. See Austkia, Gbemant, Spain. Harper's Ferry' — Arsenal seized by John Brown, 1859 ; by the Confederates, 1861 ; surrender of a Union force to " Stonewall " Jackson at, Sept. 15, 1863. Harrow School '—Pounded, 1571. Hartford Convention, 1814, Harvard College — Founded, 1638. Hastembeck*— The French defeat the duke of Cumberland at, 1757. Hastings'— Victory of William the Conqueror near, Oct. 14, 1066. Hatteras, Fort «— Captured by the Federals, Aug. 29, 1861. Hatti-Humayun— Published by Abdul-Medjid, 1856. Hatti-Sherif of GuUiane— Published by Abdul-Medjid, 1839. Havana. See Cuba, Hawaiian Islands — Discovered by the Spaniards, first half of 16th c; rediscovered by Cook, 1778 ; annexed to the United States, 1898. Hayti (Hispaniola, Santo Domingo) — Discovered by Columbus, 1493 ; west- ern part occupied by French, 17th c. ; rising of blacks against French begins, 1791 ; their freedom proclaimed by the Convention, 1798 ; Tous- saint I'Ouverture, leader of the blacks, joins the French in their war against the English and Spaniards, 1794 ; Spain cedes her portion of Hayti to France, 1795 ; Bonaparte makes war on Toussaint, governor of the island, who is perfidiously seized, 1802; French expelled, 1803; Des- salines emperor, 1804-'6 ; independence recognized by France, 1825 ; re- public of Santo Domingo constituted, 1844 ; Soulouque proclaimed em- peror of Hayti, 1849 ; revolution, state proclaimed a republic, Dec, ld58. He'brews— [b. c] ACOOBDIHa TO THB. COHMON CHBONOLOOT. Establishment of royalty, Saul made king, about 1095 (1080). Beginning of David's reign, 1055 (1058). Accession of Solomon, 1015 (1017). Revolt of the Ten Tribes, 976 (977). Destruction of the kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians, 733 (721). Destruction of the kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians, 586 (687). » A place in Virginia, N. of Hichmond. ' A village at the junction of the Potomac and Shenandoah rivers, now helonging to West Virginia. • Harrow is a town in the northwest- ern outskirts of London. * A village in the S. part of Hanover. • A town of Sussex, on the English Channel. * On the coast of North Carolina. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 243 The decipherment of the Assyrian cuneiform inscriptions has unsettled the chronology of the early period of authentic Jewish history. According to thb Assyrian Kbcobds.^ Aocordino to thb Biblioai. Chronology. King Ahab fought against the Assy- rians at Earkar in 854. Jehu paid tribute to Assyria in 842. TJmah was still reigning in 742 or 740. Menahem paid tribute to the Assy- rians in 738. Ahab was slain in 900 (897). Jehu died in 859 (856). Uzziah died in 758. Menahem died in 762 (761). The Assyrian records place the capture of Samaria in 722, which agrees with the Biblical chronology. With regard to the extraordinary discrepancy as to the interval between the reign of Menahem and the capture of Samaria, Jules Oppert,' who has devoted much labor to the revindication of the Biblical chro- nology, refuses to admit that the Menahem who figures in the Assyrian inscrip- tions in 738 is the Menahem of the Biblical text, and argues that there was probably a second king of Israel by that name. Duncker,a who has attempted a reconstruction of the Biblical chronology with reference to the data furnished by Assyriologists (aa well as to the information concerning the duration of the I'ule of Omri and Ahab contained in the inscription on the Moabite Stone), gives as the most plausible approximate date for the death of Solomon the ^eor 953. The begiiming of Solomon's reign would then be 993, and the elevation of David in Judah, 1083. The following is a list of the successors of Solomon with the approximate dates of their accession according to Duncker : JUDAH. ISRAEL. jTjnAH. ISRAEL. Behoboam, 953. Jeroboam I., 953. Zachariah, 749. Ab\iah, 932. Shallum, 748. Asa. 929. Menahem, 748. Nadab, 927. Jotham, 740. Baasha, 925. Pekahiah, 738. Elah, 901. Pekah, 736. Omri, 899. Ahaz, 734. Hoshea, 734. Ahab, 875. Eezekiah, 728. Jehoshaphat, , 873. AbftziftTi, 853. Capture of Sa- maria, 722. Joram, 851. Manasseh, 697. Jehoram, 848. Amon, 642. Ahazdah, 844. Josiah, 640. Athaliah, 843. Jehu, 843. Jehoahaz, 609. Joash, 887. Jehoiakim, 609. Jehoahaz, 816. Jehoiachin, 597. Joash, 798. Zedekiah, 697. Amaziah, 797. Destruction of ' Uzziah, 792. Jeroboam 11., , 790. Jerusalem, , 586. « See Schroder, " Keilinschrif ten nnd das alte Testament," second edition, 1882 • " Salomon et sea succesieurs," 1877. • " Geschichte des Alterthums,'' fifth edition, 1878. 244 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY, SuooEssoBS OF SoLOUoiT, with the dates of their accession according to Oppert : JIIDAH. I9BAEI,. JUSAH ISRAEL. Seho'boam, 978. Jeroboam I., 977. Foreign domi- nation, 798-787. Abijah, 960. Jeroboam again,787. Asa* 958. Nadab, Baasha, Elah, 956. 955. 932. Zachariah, 773. Shallum, 772. Henahem 1., 772. Fekahiah, 762. OmriwithTib- Pekah, 759. ni, 931. Jotham, 758. Omri alone, 927. Ahaz, 743. Ahab, 920. Henahem II., 742. Jehoshaphat, 917. Ahamh, 900. Pekah agun, 733. Hoshea, 730. Joram, 899. Hezekiah, 72r. Jehoshaphat Capture of Sa- with Jehoram,895. maria, 721. Jehoram alone ,892. Manasseh, 698. Ahaziah. 888. Amon, 642. Athaliah, Joash, 887. 881. Jehu, 887. Josiah, Jehoabaz, 640. 609. Jehoahaz, 859. Jehoiakim, 608. Joash, 842. Jehoiachin, 698. Amaziah, 840. ZedeMah, 598. Jeroboam II. ,825. Destruction of Uzaah, 811. Jerusalem ,587. Babylonish Captivity, 586 (587)-about 536 ; rebuilding of the Tei9ple, about 531-516 ; migration to Jerusalem under Ezra, about 458 ; Pales- tine becomes subject to Alexander the Q-reat, 332 ; on the disruption of his empire united with Egypt f conquered by Antiochus the Great of Syria, 198; the Asmoneans (Maccabees) take up arms, 167; Judas Macoabseus purifies the Temple, 165 {Schureri Wellhcmsen, Hitzig, Orastz) ; Simon MacoabsBus is proclaimed hereditary prince of the Jews, 140 ; Aristobulus assumes the title of king of Judea, 105; Judea becomes a dependency of Rome, 63; conquest of Jerusalenl by Herod the Great, fall of the Asmonean house, 87; death of Herod the Great, 4; — [a. d.] — Augustus deposes Archelaus (son of Herod), and places Judea under a Roman pro- curator, 6 (Sehurer, WellTw/usen) ; the whole of Palestine under the sway of Herod Agrippa I., 41-44 ;— the people again under Roman procura- tors ; rising against the Romans, 66 ; destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, 70 ; insurrection of Bar Cocheba, 132-135 or 136— followed by the dis- persion of the people ; expulsion of the' Jews from England, 1290 ; from France, 1306, 1394; from Spain, 1492; rights of citizenship accorded to the Jews in Prance, 1791 ; disabilities in Great Britain removed, 1858. CHBONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 245 Eegira, 633. Heidelberg,' TTnivorsity of— Founded, 1386. Heidelberg Catechism — Published, 1563. Heilbronn,' Union of, between the Swedes and German Protestants, 1633. Heligoland '—Ceded by Denmark to England, 1814 ; ceded by England to the German Empire, 1890 ; incorporated with Prussia, 1891. Helvetic Republic See SwirzEELAim. Henry, Fort *— Reduced by Poote, 1863. Heptarchy. See Enolakd. Herat— Unsuccessfully besieged by the Persians, 1837-8 ; taken by them, 1856 ; evacuated, 1857 ; conquered by Dost Mohammed, 1863 ; Ayub Khan, ruler of H;erat, ppposes the English and Abdurrahman, 1880 ; city falls into the hands of Abdurrahman, 1881, HercTilaneum — Overwhelmed by the eruption of Vesuvius, a. d. 79. Herzegovinar— Insurrections against the Turks, 1861-8, 1875-'6 ; occupied by Austria, 1878. Hesse, landgraviate of— Divided into the landgraviates of Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, &c., 1567. Hesse-Cassel — (See Hesse, landgraviate of) — Landgraviate of, erected into an electorate, 1808; forms part of the kingdom of Westphalia, 1807-13 ; annexed to Prussia, 1866. Hesse-Darmstadt — (See Hesse, landgraviate of)— Landgraviate of, erect- ed into a grand-duchy, 1806. Hesse-Homburg^ — Landgraviate of,, founded, 1596; annexed to Hesse- Darmstadt, 1866 ; ceded to Prussia, 1866. Hexham ' — Defeat of the Lancastrians at, 1464. Himera' — The Carthaginians defeated by Gelon of Syracuse at, 480 a. c. Hindman, Fort ' — Reduced by the Federals, 1863. Hindostan. See India. Hobkirk's Hill' — Greene defeated at (second battle of Camden), April 35, 1781. Hochkirchen' — Defeat of Frederick Ilc by the Austrians at, Oct. 14, 1758. Heichst"— Tilly defeats Christian of Brunswick at, 1633. Hochstadt, battle of. See Blenheim. Hohen&iedberg " — Victory of Frederick II. over the Austrians at, 1745. Hohenlinden " — Victory of Moreau over the Austrians at, Dec. 3, 1800. Hohenstaiifen, hoxise of— On the throne of Germany, 1138-1308, 1315-'54 ; • A town on the Neckar, near its jnnction with the Ehine, formerly belonging to the Palatinate, and now included in Baden. ' A town on the Neckar, now belonging to Wiir- temberg. ' An islet in the E. portion of the North Sea. * In northweBtem Tennessee, on the Tennessee Hiver. ' A town of Northumberland, on the Tyne. ' A town on the N. coast of Sicily. ' On the Arkansas Eiver, near its month. » Near Camden, Sonth Caro. lina. • A village in Saxony, near Bautzen. '° A town on the Main, near Frankfort, now belonging to Fmssia. " A small place in Silesia, S. E. of Liegnitz. " A village E. ol Unnich. 246 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. on that of the Two Sicilies, 1194^1366 ; the last of the Hohenstaufen exe- cuted, 1368. (See GERMAirr.) HohenzoUem ' — United with the crown of Prussia, 1850. Hohenzollems — Acquire Brandenburg, 1415 ; mount the imperial throne of Gfermany, 1871. Holland. See Netherlands. Holy Alliance — Formed, 1815. Holy Leag^ue— Against the French, 1511 ; against the Turks, 1571. Holy Roman Empire, 963-1806. Homeric Foems — Supposed to have been composed, about 900 b. c. ; col- lected and edit«d under the auspices of Pisistratus, about 550 b. c. Homildon Hill ' — Victory of the Percys over the Scots At, 1402. Homs ' — Ibrahim Pasha defeats the Turks at, 1833. Honkong— Ceded to England, 1843. Hospitallers. See Ejhohts of St. John. Hoiinslow Heath. * — James II. establishes a camp at, 1686. Hubertsbiirg," peace of, between Austria, Prussia, and Saxony, Feb. 15, 1763. Hudson Bay— Explored by Hudson, 1610. Hudson Bay Company — Incorporated, 1670 ; surrenders its sovereignty over the Hudson Bay Territory, 1869. Hudson Biver — Ascended by Hudson, 1609. Huguenots — Wars between them and the -Catholics, 1562-1689. (See Nantes, Edict of.) Hungary — The Magyars, under the lead of Arp^, descend into, about 894; Gejza, first Christian ruler, 973-997 ; Pope Sylvester II. confers the royal dignity upon Stephen, 1000 ; reign of Ladislas I., 1077-'95 ; Andrew II., 1305-'35 ; BSa IV., 1335-'70 ; end of the ArpSA dynasty, the crown be- comes elective, 1301 ; reign of Charles Robert, 1309-'43 ; Louis the Great, 1342- '83; Sigismund, 1387-1437 ; Matthias Corvinus, 1458-'90 ; the battle of Mohte opens the way to Turkish dominion, 1526 ; Ferdinand I. in- augurates the Hapsburg dynasty (John Zd.poIya rival king), 1536 ; the Turks lose Bnda, 1686 ; crown made hereditary in the Hapsburg family, 1687 ; the Turkish portions ceded to the Hapsburgs, 1699, 1718 ; Revolu- tion, 1848-'9 ; constitutional government restored, 1867. Huns ^ — Pass the Volga, overpower the Alani and Ostrogoths, and press the Visigoths before them, 374-'6 ; under Attila, pass the Danube and invade lUyricum, 441 ; battle of ChSlons, 451 ; ravage Italy, 453. Hussite Wars — Begin, 1419 ; settlement between the Hussites and Sigis- mund, 1486. Hydrogen — Known before 1700 ; nature of, described by Cavendish, 1766. ' A division of Swabia. ' In Northumberland. ' A town of Syria, abont 85 miles N. of Damascus ; the ancient Smesa. * A few miles S. W. of London, ° A castle situated about 35 miles E. of Leipsic. * A Mongolian people. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 247 Iceland— Settled by the Northmen, 874; made subject to Norway, 1262-'4; together with Norway, united with Denmark, 1380. Iconitua (Konieh) — Capital of the sultans of Roum, from 1097. Iconoclasm — First edict of Leo the Isaurian respecting images, 726 ; their use prohibited in the Byzantine dominions, 730 ; final sanction given to image worship, 842. Idaho — Admitted into the Union, 1890, Iglau,' trea,ty of, between the Hussites and Sigismund, 1436. lUad. See Homeric Poehs. Hlinois — Admitted into the Union, 1818. niyria » — ^Wars of Borne with the Greek kingdom of Dlyria, ending in its con- quest, 229, 219, 168 b. c. ; subjugation of the native tribes by the Romans completed, about 34 b. c. ; last great rising of the Dalmatians, A. d. 6-9 Immaculate Conception, dogma of the — Promulgated, 1854. Imperial Chamber (in the German Empire) — Established, 1495. Index Ezpnrgatorius — First publication of the, 1557. India — Invasion of Alexander, 326 b. o. ; first invasion of Mahmoud of Ghuzni,.A. d. 1001 ; reached by Vasco da Gama, 1498 ; Goa taken by the Portuguese, 1510 ; foundation of the Mogul dynasty by Baber, 1526 ; reign of Akbar, 1556-1605 ; English East India Company chartered, 1600 ; ' reign of Aurungzebe, 1658-1707 ; French Bast India Company chartered, 1664 ; capture of Delhi by Nadir Shah, 1739 ; wars between the English and French (Dupleix, Clive), 1745-'63 ; the Mogul emperor makes a formal ces- sion of Bengal and other territories to the English East India Company, 1765 ; outbreak of war bet^ween the English and Hyder Ali of Mysore, 1767; Hastings becomes first governor-general, 1774; creation of the Board of Control, 1784; portion of Mysore ceded by Tippoo Saib to the English, 1792 ; faU of Tippoo, 1799 ; the CamatiC annexed by the Eng- lish, 1801 ; they subdue the Mahrattas, 1803-18 ; Sinde annexed by the English, 1843; first Sikh War, 1845-'6; second Sikh War, the Punjaub acquired by the English, 1849 ; they annex Oude, 1856 ; Sepoy Mutiny, 1857-'8 ; government transferred from the East India Company to the crown, 1858 ; Victoria assumes the title of empress, 1876. (See Afghanistan, Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, Madras, Persia, PONDICHERRT, &0.) Indiana— Admitted into the Union, 1816. Indian Territory — Formed by act of Congress, 1834. Indulgences — Sale of, formally sanctioned by Leo X., 1517. InfaUibiUty, Papal, dogma of— Promulgated, 1870. ' A town of Moravia. ' A region on tlie B. coast of the Adriatic. ' In 1698 a charter was granted to a rival company in England, which was united with the Srst company under a new charter in 1702. * The Camatic was a country on the E. coast of southern Indian ruled by the nabobs of Arcot. 348 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONAET OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Infernal Kachine — Attempt against Bonaparte's life with the, 1800. Ingolstadt,' University of— Founded, 1473; transferred to Landshul^ 1800. (See Munich.) Inkerman'— The English and French defeat the Russians at, 1854. Inoculation for small-pox— Introduced into England by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, about 1720. (See Vaccination.) Inquisition— Formally established, 1315 ; established in Spain, 1480. Institute of France- Founded, 1795. Interim (Augsburg Interim) — Publication of the, 1548. International Association — Organized, 1864 ; first congress, 1866. International Exhibitions — London, 1851 ; Paris, 1855 ; London, 18C3 ; Paris, 1867; Vienna, 1873; Phila., 1876; Paris, 1878, 1889 ; Chicago, 1893. Intransigentes — Eisings of the, in Spain, 1873. Investitures — Contest respecting them, between the popes and German emperors, 1075—1132. Iodine — Discovered by Courtois, 1813. Ionian Islands — On the fall of the Venetian Bepublic become a possession of France, 1797; taken by the Russians and Turks, 1799; restored to France, 1807 ; constituted a republic under British protection, 1815 ; an- nexed to Greece, 1863-'4 Ionian Bevolt* (against Persia)^Oatbreak of the, about 501 b. c; the Greeks succumb, 494 b. c. Iowa — Admitted into the Union, 1846. Ipsus * — Overthrow of Antigonus at, 301 or 300 b. c. Ireland — Christianized by St. Patrick, 5th c. ; beginning of the English conquest, 1169 ; Henry VIII. assumes the title of king of, 1543 ; Shane O'Neill's rebellion, 1561-7; Hugh O'Neill (Tyrone) heads a new insur- rection, about 1594 ; Essex sent against him, 1599 ; the power of the rebels broken by Mountjoy, 1601 ; great revolt, which is suppressed by Crom- well, 1641-53 ; rebellion in favor of James II., 1689-'91 ; independence of the Irish Parliament secured, 1783 ; the Great Rebellion, 1798 ; legislative union with Great Britain consummated, 1801 ; Emmett's rebellion, 1803; Catholic Emancipation, 1839 ; the agitation under O'Connell for the re- peal of the union reaches its climax, 1843; great famine, 1846-'7; the Fenians attempt a revolution, 1865-7; act for the disestablishment of the Irish Church, 1869 (to take effect in 1871) ; Gladstone's first Land Act, 1870 ; new Land Act, 1881 ; Gladstone's Home Rule Bill passed by the House of Commons and rejected by the House of Lords, 1893. Iron-clad Ships — Iron-clad batteries employed by the French in the Cri- mean War, 1855 ; construction of the frigat* " Gloire." 185&-'60. Isandula (Isandlwana) ' — A British force overwhelmed by the Zulus at, 1879. • A town of Bavaria, on the Danube. ' A rnined town in the emirons of Sebastopol. • Ionia was a district on the W. coast of Asia Minor. * A small place in Asia Minor, in Ptaiygia. • A place in Zulu Land, near the border of Natal. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 249 Island No. Ten'— Surrender of, to the Federals, 1862. Isly ' — The French defeat the emperor of Morocco on the, 1844. Ismail'— Stormed by SuvarofE, 1790. IsraeL See Hebrews. Ibsus* — Victory of Alexander the Great over the Persians at, 333 B. c. Italy — ^Rome mistress of the peninsula, 265 b. c. ; fall of the Roman Empire, A. D. 476 ; Ostrogothic kingdom founded, 498 ; the country conquered by the Byzantines, 536-553; the Lombard kingdom established, 568-572; end of the exarchate of Bavenna, 752 ; creation of the Papal States, 755 ; Charlemagne overthrows the Lombard kingdom, and is crowned king of Italy, 774 ; the crown passes from his descendants to the sovereigns of Germany, 961 ; the Byzantine dominions in the South conquered by the Normans, 11th o. ; league of the Lombard cities formed, 1167 ; the Hohen- staufen dynasty established in the Two Sicilies, 1194 ; succeeded by that of Anjou, 1266 ; Genoa breaks the power of Pisa, 1284-'90 ; the authority of the German emperors completely set aside, before 1300 ; creation of the duchy of Milan, 1395 ; Venice reaches the zenith of her power, about 1420 ; the Medici supreme in Florence, from 1434 ; Prance and Spain contend for dominion, the latter triumphing, 1494r-1544 ; Spain cedes Naples and Lombardy to Austria, 1713-'14 ; the dominions of Savoy erected into the kingdom of Sardinia, 1720 ; the Bourbon dynasty established in the Two Sicilies, 1734-'5 ; Bonaparte's conquests inaugurated, 1796 ; Cisalpine Re- public established, 1797 ; it is reconstituted as the Italian Republic, 1802 ; Bonaparte assumes the title of king of Italy, 1805 ; the fallen dynasties restored, the Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom (Austrian) constituted, 1814- '15 ; great revolutionary struggles, 1848-'9 ; Lombardy annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia, 1859 ; foundation of the kingdom of Italy by Victor Emanuel, 1860-'61 ; Prusso-Italian war against Austria, Venetia annexed, 1866 ; annexation of Rome, Italian unity achieved, 1870 ; accession of Humbert, 1878. (See names of the various states and other titles.) Iviy s — ^Henry IV. defeats the forces of the Catholic League at, 1590. J. Jack Cade's Insurrection, 1450. Jackson, Fort • — Bombarded and forced to surrender by Farragut, April, 1862. Jacobins — Club of the, established, 1789 ; downfall of the party, 1794. Jacquerie (insurrection of the French peasantry), 1358. JaflEii '—Taken by Napoleon, 1799. Jagellonian Dynasty. See Poland. > In the Miesifisippi Biver, on the confines of MisBonri, Kentucky, and Tenneeaee. ' A stream on the borders of Morocco and Algeria. ' A town of Bessarabia, on the Kilia arm of the Danube. ' A coast town in the extreme B. part of Cilicia. ' A small place in Nor- mandy, S. E. of £vTeux. * Near the month of the Mississippi. ' A seaport of Syria, 39 miles N. W. of Jemsalem. 250 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL mSTORT. Jalapa,> Plan of, 1829. Jamaica— Discovered by Columbus, 1494; conquered by England, 1655; Negro insurrection under the administration of Gov. Eyre, 1865. Jamestown' — ^Founded by the London Company, 1607; Bacon's rebellion, 1676. Janizaries — Service organized, 14th c. ; massacre of the, by Mahmoud IL, the organization aboUshed, 1826. Jankau ' — ^Victory of the Swedes at, 1645. Jansenists — Jansen's work on the doctrine of Augustine published, 1640 ; the book condemned by Urban VIII., 1643 ; condemnation of the sect by Clement XL, 1713. Japan — Policy of commercial intercourse with the world inaugurated, 1854; embassy to the United States, 1860 ; abolition of the Shogunate, 1867 ; unsuccessful attempt of the last shogun to regain power, 1868 ; parlia- mentary government established, 1889; war with China, 1894-'5. Jamac * — Defeat of the Huguenots at, 1569. Jassy,' peace of, between Russia and Turkey, 1792. Java — The Dutch lay the foundations of their dominion, 17th c. ; held by the English, and administered by T. S. JRafftes, 1811-'16 ; last great war between the Dutch and the natives, 1835-30; slavery abolished, 1859. Jay's Treaty, between England and the United States, 1794. Jellalabad "—Defence of, by Sale, 1843. Jemmapes ' — Dumouriez defeats the Austrians at, 1792. Jena 8 — Victory of Napoleon over the Prussians at, Oct. 14, 1806. Jena, University of— Founded, 1547-58. Jerusalem — fa. c] — Conquered by David, about 1025 (Ihmcker ; ahowt IO4S, common Biblical chronology) ; erection of the Temple begun, about 990 {Dwicher ; about IOI4, Bib. chron.) ; city taken by Sheshonk (Shishak), about 949 (Dimeker ; about 973, Bib. chron.) ; besieged by Sennacherib, 700 (701); destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, 586 (587); rebuildmg of the Temple, about 531-516 ; entry of Judas Maccabseus into the city, the Tem- ple purified, 165 ; taking of the citadel by Simon Maccabseus, 141 (Schurer) ; city taken by Pompey, 68 ; by Herod L, 37 ; — [a. d.] — siege and destruc- tion of, by Titus, 69-70 ; conquered by Omar, about close of 636 ; taken by the Seljuks, 1076 ; stormed by. the crusaders, kingdom of Jerusalem founded, 1099 ; kingdom overthrown by Saladin, 1187 ; city placed in the hands of the Christians, 1239 ; stormed by the Kharesmians, 1244 ; an- nexed to the Turkish Empire, 1516. Jesuits, order of— Pounded by Loyola, 1534; sanctioned by papal buU, 1540 ; expulsion of the Jesuits from Portugal, 1759 ; from France (under ' A town N. W. of Vera Cruz. ' Jamestown was situated on the James Biver, near its month. 3 A small place in southern Bohemia. * A town of western France, on the Cha- rente Elver. ' Formerly the capital of Moldavia. « A town of Afghanistan, B. of Cabool ' A town of Belgium, in Hainaut. 8 a town of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, on the Saale. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 251 Louis XV.), 1764; from Spain (under Charles III.), 1767 ; order dissolved by Clement XIV., 1773; re-established by Pius VII., 1814. Jews. See Hebrews. Johnstown (Pa.)— Destroyed by the bursting of a dam, 1889. Judah. See Hebrews. Jugurthine War, 111-106 b. c. Jiilich, duchy of "—Contest for the succession to the, begins, 1609 ; a final settlement effected, the dominions being divided between the elector of Brandenburg and the count palatine of Neuburg, 1666. Junius, Letters of (by Philip Francis)— Published, 1769-'72. Jupiter, satellites of— Discovered by Galileo, 1610. Justinian, Code ot See Code op Justdsian. Jiiterbock »— Victory of Torstenson at, 1644. I (Caffa)«— Colonized by the Genoese, about 1365 ; falls into the hands of the Turks, 1475. Ealisz^— Russia and Prussia conclude an alliance at, 1813. Kansas— Slavery troubles, 1855-'9 ; admitted into the Union, 1861. Xansas-irebraska Bill, 1854. Kipolna*— Defeat of the Hungarians at, 1849. Kappel •— Defeat of the Swiss Reformers at, 1531. Karpenisi '—Attack by Botzaris upon the Turks at, 1823. Kars 8— Taken by the Russians, 1838, 1855, 1877 ; ceded to Russia, 1878. Katzbaoh'— Bliicher defeats the French on the, 1813. Kent. See Enslaiid. Kentucky— Settled, 1775 ; admitted into the Union, 1793. Khartoum — Siege and capture of, by the Mahdi, 1884-'5 ; occupied by General Kitchener, 1898. Khiva — Disastrous expedition of the Russian general Perovski against, 1839-'40; successful expedition of Perovski, 1854; expedition under Kanfmann, city of Khiva taken, 1873. Khokan, khanate of '°— Annexed to Russia, 1876 (name changed to Fer- ghana). Khotin "—Victory of Sobieski over the Turks at, 1673. Kiel," treaty of, between Denmark, Sweden, and England, 1814. > Kow inclnded in the Prussian Rhine Land. ' A town of Brandenburg, in a S. W. direction from Berlin. ' A town in the E. part of the Crimea, on the Blacl^ Sea, near the site of the ancient Greek town of Theodosia, by whose name (in the Bossian form Feo- dosia) the place is now known. Under the Genoese, Kaffa was a great emporium of the commerce between Europe and Asia. ' A town of Poland, 130 miles S. W. of Warsaw. • A village on a tribntaiy of the Theiss, not far from Brian. • A village in the canton of Zurich. 'A town now Inclnded in the Greek nomarchy of Acamania and ^tolia. *A town of Armenia. * An affluent of the Oder in Silesia. " In sonthem Tnrkestan, on both (ides of the NaiTn. " A town of Bessarabia, on the Dniester. i> A town of Holstein. 252 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Kiev. See Russia. Killieorankie'— Victory of the Scottish Jacobites at, 1689. King George's War, 1744r-'8. King Philip's War, 1675-'6. King's Mountain' — The Americans defeat the British at, 1780. ■R-ing William's War, 1689-'97. Kloster-Zeven ' (Closter Seven), convention of, between the duke of Cum- berland and the French, 1757. Knights of St. John (Knights Hospitallers) — Order instituted, 11th c. (See Rhodes, Malta.) Knights Swordbearers *— Order founded, about 1201 ; united with that of the Teiltonio Knights, 1337 ; again independent, 1521 ; their power broken by the Russians, 1558-'61. Knights Templars — Order founded, about 1118 ; arrest of the, by Philip the Pair, 1307 ; burning of Molay and others, 1314, Kolin' — Defeat of Frederick the G-reat by the Austrians at, 1757. Komom. See Comorn. Konieh •—Ibrahim Pasha defeats the Turks at, 1833, Koniggratz, battle of. See Sadowa. KSnigsberg, University of— Founded, 1544. Koomassie ' — Taken by the English, 1874 ; again occupied by them, 1896. Kosovo ^ — ^Victory of Amurath I. over Lazarus of Servia at, 1389. Kunersdorf ° — ^The Russians and Austrians defeat Frederick II. at, 1759. Kurd-Cabool Pass — The Afghans overwhelm a British army in the, 1843. Kutchiik-Kainaiji,'° peace of, between Russia and Turkey, 1774 L. Lade " — Victory of the Persians over the lonians off, 494 b. c. Iiagos, Bay of " — Victory of the English over the French in the, 1759. La Granja, palace of " — Revolutionary movement in the, 1836. La Hogue '* — French fleet destroyed by the English and Dutch off, 1693. Lamian War " (between the allied Greeks and Macedon), 333-333 b. c. Landshut '* — The French defeat the Austrians at, lS09 ; seat of a university, 1800-1836. liangensalza " — Capitulation of the Hanoverian army to the Prussians at, 1866. • A pass in the Grampian Moantains. ' On the borders of Soath and North Carolina. ' A small place In Hanover, N. E. of Bremen. * Established in Livonia, Coorland, and Esthonia. » A town of Bohemia, in an E. direction from Fxagae. • A town in the S. part of Asia Minor ; the ancient Iconium. '' The capital of Ashantee. ^ A valley in what is now Turkish Servia. ' A village of Brandenbnrg, near Frankfort-on-the-Oder. '" A small place in Bulgaria, near Silistria. " An island near Miletus. " On the S. coast of Portu- gal. " In the town of La Granja, or San Ildefonso, N. W. of Madrid. " A place ncai Cherbourg (sometimes confounded with Cape La Hague, not far distant). " Lamia was a town of Phthiotis, in Thessaly. " A town of Bavaria, on the Isar. " A town of Pmssiai Saxony, N. W. of Erfurt. V CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 253 Langside '—Defeat of Mary Stuart by the earl of Murray at, 1568. Laocoon (group of statuary) — Discovered at Rome, 1506. Laon »— BlQoher repulses the French at, 1814 ; taken by the Germans, 1870. La Boclielle. See Boceellg, La. Lateran,' councils of the, 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215, 1513-'17. Latin Empire of the East, 1204-'61. Latins * — Subjugated by Rome, about 338 b. o. LauenbuTg^-Ceded by Hanover to Prussia, and by Prussia to Denmark, 1815 ; relinquished by Denmark, 1864 ; passes to Prussia, 1865. Lawfeld (Laffeld) '—Marshal Saxe defeats the duke of Cumberland at, 1747. Laybach,' congress o^ held by the Great Powers, 1821. Iieague, the. See^CATHOLic League. Lebanon— Massacres of Maronites, or Christian inhabitants, by the Druses, 1860 ; appointment of a Christian governor, 1861. Lech'— Victory of Otho the Great, over the Hungarians on the, 955; the Swedes force the passage of the, 1632. Lecompton Constitution, 1857. Legion of Honor— Instituted, 1803. Legislative Assembly (in French history)— First, 1791-'3; second, 1849-'51. Legnano >— The forces of the Lombard League defeat Frederick I. at, 1176. Leipsic— Victory of Gustavus Adolphus at (battle of Breitenfeld), 1631 ; Na- poleon's army overwhelmed at, Oct., 1813. Leipsic, University of— Pounded, 1409. Le Mans ' — Defeat of the Vendeans at, 1793 ; of Chanzy's army, 1871. Leoben," preliminaries o^ between France and Austria, 1797. Leon. See Spain, Castile. Lepanto " — ^The Spaniards and Venetians defeat the Turkish fleet at, 1571. Lesbos " — [b. c] — Rule of Pittacns in Mytilene, about 589-579 ; revolt of the island from the Athenian confederacy, 428 ; the Athenians take Mytilene, and become masters of the island, 437. Leuctra " — ^Victory of Epaminondas over the Spartans at, 371 b. o. Leuthen '* — Victory of Frederick the Great over the Austrians at, 1757. Lewes " — ^Victory of Simon de Montfort at, 1264. Lexington (Mass.)" — ^Encounter between the Americans and British at, April 19, 1775. Lexington (Mo.) " — Surrender of, to the Confederates, 1861. • A village near Glasgow. » A town 75 miles N. E. of Paris. ■ A basilica in Rome. * The Latins inhabited a district S. E. of Home. » A village near Aix-la-Chapelle. " Capi- tal of the Austrian province of Camiola. ' An affluent of the Danube, on which Augsburg is situated. « A town N. W. of Milan. • A town 120 miles S. W. of Paris. >» A town of Styria. " A town of Greece on the N. shore of the Gulf of Corinth ; the ancient Nau- pactus. " An island on the W. coast of Asia Minor. " A place in southern Boeotia. " A Tillage near Ercslau. •• A town of Sussex, near Brighton. " A village N. W. of Boston " A town 37 miles E. of Kansas City, on the Missouri Eiver. 254 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Leyden — Besieged by the Spaniards, 1573-'4 Leyden, University of— Founded, 1575. Liberia — Colony established, 1823 ; independence declared, 1847. liicinian Rogations — Adopted, about 367 b. c. Iiiegnitz ' — Victory of the Mongols near (battle on the Wahlstatt), 1841 ; victory ol Frederick II. over the Austrians at, 1760. Iiight, velocity of— Ascertained by Eoemer, 1675. lightning — Identity of, with electricity, fully demonstrated by Franklin, 1753. Lightning-rod — Franklin publishes his invention of the, 1753. Lig^ny ' — Napoleon defeats Blucher at, June 16, 1815. Ligurian Republic. See Genoa. Lille — Conquered from Spain by Louis XTV., 1667 ; defence of, by Bouflers, against Prince Eugene, who finally reduces the place, 1708 ; unsuccess- fully attacked by the Austrians, 1793. Iiilybseum " — Siege of, by the Romans, 350-341 b. c. T-imn. — Foundation of, 1535 ; capture of, by the Chilians, 1881. Iiimerick — Last stronghold of the Jacobites in Ireland, surrenders, 1691. Lisbon — Wrested from the Moors, 1147; great earthquake, 1755; entered by Junot, 1807 ; — aqueduct completed, 1788. Lissa * — Naval victory of the Austrians over the Italians at, July 20, 1866. Lithography — ^Invented by Senefelder, about 1797. liithuania — Grand-principality of, established, 13th c. (See Poland.) Livonia — Subjugation of the Lett-s b^ the Knights Swordbearers and Teu- tonic Knights, 18th c. ; ceded to Lithuania by the grand-master of the Knights Swordbearers, 1561 ; ceded by Poland to Sweden, 1660 ; the Rus- sians masters of the region, 1710 ; formally ceded to Russia, 1731. Locomotive. See Railways. Lodi ' — Victory of Bonaparte over the Austrians at, 1796. Logarithms — ^Napier announces his invention of, 1614. LoUards — Act of Parliament for the burning of, 1401. Lombard League — Formed, 1167; the cities of the league secure their liberties, 1183 ; league renewed, 1336. Lombards, kingdom of the, in Italy. See Italy. Lombardy — (See Italy, Lombabd League, Milan, Mantua.) — Conquered from Austria by Bonaparte, 1796-'7; recovered by Austria, 1814; erec- tion of the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, 1815 ; risings against Austrian rule, 1848-'9 ; annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia, 1859. Lonato «— Victory of Bonaparte over the Austrians at, 1796. London— Plague, 1665 ; great Aire, 1666 ; international exhibitions, 1851, 1863;— St. Paul's built, 1675-1710; the Tower, 11th c; old London » A town of Silesia, N. W. of BreBlan. « A village of Belginm, N. W. of Namnr. » A town at the W. extremity of Sicily. « An island in the Adriatic, belonging to DalmaUa. » A town of Lomhardy, on the Adda. ' A town of Lombardy, near Lake Qarda. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 255 Bridge, 1176-1209; new London Bridge, 1834-'31; Waterloo Bridge, 1811-17; burning of the Parliament Houses, 1834; erection of the new edifice begun, 1840 ; University of London founded, 1836 ; new Univer- sity of London founded, 1836 (the former university incorporated as University CoUege). London Company— Receives its patent, 1606; founds Jamestown, 1607; reorganized, 1609 ; dissolved, 1634. Londonderry — Siege of, by James II., 1689. Long Island— Battle of,' defeat of the Americans, Aug. 37, 1776. Iiongjiuneau,* peace of, between the Catholics and Huguenots, 1568. Long Parliament— Meets, 1640; " Pride's Purge," 1648. (See Rump Pae- LIAMENT.) Lookout Mountain' — Bragg's forces driven from their positions on, Nov. 34, 1863. liOrraine — Establishment of the Carlovingian kingdom of, 855 ; appears as a duchy half a century later; divided into the duchies of Upper and Lower Lorraine, 959; the name of the latter supplanted by that of Duchy of Brabant, 13th e. ; Henry II. of France wrests the bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun from the German Empire, 1553 ; union of the duchy of Lorraine with Prance, 1766 ; German Lorraine and Metz ceded to Germany, 1871. Louisburg* — Reduced by the British colonists, 1745; restored to France, 1748 ; reduced by Amherst and Boscawen, 1758. Louisiana — Settlement of, begun by the French, 1699 ; ceded by France to Spain, 1763 ; retroceded to France, 1800 ; purchased by the United States, 1803 ; admission of the state into the Union, 1813 ; it secedes, 1861 ; re- construction completed, 1868. Louvain' — Victory of Amulf over the Northmen at, 891 ; university founded, about 1436 ; town-hall buUt, 15th c. Louvre — Francis I. undertakes the reconstruction of the, 1539 ; grand col- onnade of the E. front begun, 1666 ; New Louvre buUt, 1853-'7 ; great injury by fire inflicted by the Communists, 1871. Lovtcha'— Stormed by the Russians, 1877. Lowositz' — Victory of Frederick the Great over the Austrians at, 1756. Lubeck — Joins in the establishment of the Hansa, 1341 ; taken by the French, 1806 ; lost, 1813. Lubeck, treaty of, between the German Empire and Denmark, 1639. Lucania ' — Submits to Rome, 273 b. c. Lucca — Rise of the Republic, 12th-13th c. ; rule of Castruocio Castracani, 1316-'38 ; taken possession of by the French, 1797 ; erected into a prin- ' The fightmg took place in the vicinity of New Yorlc Bay. ' A small town in the Bonthem outskirts of Paris. ' Near Cliattanooga. * Formerly a fortress on the island of Cape Breton. • A town N. E. of Brussels. • A town of Bnlgaria, S. of Plevna. ' A town of northern Bohemia. ^ A region in soathem Italy, between the Mediterranean and the Tarentine Golf, and having Brattiom on the S. 256 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. cipality for Elisa Bacciochi, one of the sisters of Napoleon, 1805 ; into a duchy for the Infanta Maria Louisa and her son, Charles Louis, 1815 ; annexed to Tuscany, 1847. Luchana ' — Espartero is victorious over the Carlists at, 1836. Iiucknow '' — Mutiny at, British garrison relieved by Campbell, 1857 ; taken by Campbell, 1858. liundy's Lane " — Battle between the British and the Americans at (battle of Bridgewater), 1814. Iiundville,^ peace of, between France on one side, and Austria and the German Empire on the other, 1801. Lusitani' — [b. c] — Beginning of their great struggle with Borne, about 154; their leader Yiriathus achieves his first signal triumph over the Romans, about 147; death of Yiriathus, end of the war, 140 or 139, Iiutter'— Tilly defeats Christian IV. of Denmark at, 1626. Liitzen'' — Battle between Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus at, 1632; Kapoleon defe^ats the Russians and Prussians at, 1813. Luxemburg — Henry, count of, elected emperor of Germany (Henry VII.), 1308; his son John becomes king of Bohemia, 1310; — (See Germany, Bohemia.) — erected into a duchy, 1354; united with Burgundy, 1443; with Spain, 1516 ; ceded to Austria, 1713 ; conquered by the French, 1795 ; erected into a grand-duchy for the king of the Netherlands, 1815 ; divided between Holland and Belgium, 1839 ; neutralization of the grand- duchy, 1867 ; connection of the grand-duchy with Holland severed, 1890. Lydia' — Attains the height of her power under CrcEsus, about 560 b. c; conquered by Cyrus, about 546. Lyons — ^The thirteenth general council held at, 1245; the fourteenth, 1274; massacres at, by the troops of the Convention, 1793 ; insurrections, 1831, 1834. M. DCaccabees. See Hebrews. Macedon. — [b. c] — Imposes her yoke upon Greece, 338; conquest of the Persian Empire, 334^-327 ; death of Alexander, partition of power among his generals, 323; first war with Rome, 214r-205; second war, 200-197; third war, Macedon subjugated, 171-168. Uaciejowice '—Defeat of the Poles by the Russians at, 1794. Madagascar— Discovered by Portuguese, 1506 ; French protectorate, 1885. Uadeira— Reached by the Portugniese, 1419. Had Parliament, 1258. ' A place near Bilbao. ' The capital of Onde, on the Goomtee, an affluent of the Gan- ges. 8 A locality in Canada, near Niagara Falls. * A town of France, in Lonalne, S. B. of Nancy. ' A people inhabiting the W. portion of the Spanish peninsola, between the Tagns and the Durius (Donro). " A village S. W. of Brunswick. ' A town near Meraeboig, now included in Prussian Saxony. « A district in the W. part of Asia Minor. Crcesm extended the sway of Lydia over a great part of the peninsula. • A small place 42 miles S. B. of Warsaw. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 257 Uadras (Fort St. George) — Made the seat of a presidency, 1653 ; taken by Labourdonnais, 1746 ; restored to the English, 1749 ; besieged by the French, 175a-'9. Madrid — Treaty of, between Charles V. and Francis I., 1626— construction of the royal palace begun, 1737. Magdala ■ — Stormed by the British, 1868. Kagdeburg^-Taken by Maurice of Saxony, 1S51 ; stormed by Tilly and Pappenheim, 1631. Magellan, Straits of— Navigated by Magellan, 1530. Magenta' — The French and Sardinians defeat the Austrians at, 1859. Mag^na Charta — Signed, 1215. Magnesia '—The Remans defeat Antiochus the Great at, 190 b, c. Magyars. See Hunoabt. Mahrattas. See India. Maine — Detached from Massachusetts, and admitted into the Union, 1820. " Maine " — Destroyed by an explosion at Havana, Feb. 16, 1898. Mainz. See Meittz. "Majestatsbrief"— Granted to the Bohemians by Rudolph II., 1609. Malakhoff (at Sebastopol) — Stormed by the French, Sept. 8, 1855. Malplaquet* — Prince Eugene and Marlborough defeat the French at, 1709. Malta — Given to the Knights of St. John, 1530 ; successfully defended by them against the Turks, 1565 ; seized by Bonaparte, 1798 ; the English become masters of, 1800. Malvern Hill' — ^The Confederates repulsed by McClellan at, July 1, 1862. Mamelukes. See Eotft. Manicbaeans — Sect of, originates, 3d c. Manila— Dewey's victory at, May 1, 1898 ; taken by Americans, Aug. 13, 1898 ; Filipinos attack Americans at, and are driven back, Feb. 4, 5, 1899. Mantinea' — ^Victory of Epaminondas over the Spartans at, 362 b. c. ; vic- tory of Fhilopoemen over the Spartans at, 207 b. c. Mantua — Rule of the Gonzaga family established, 1328 ; marquisate of, erect- ed into a duchy, 1530 ; extinction of the house of Gonzaga, the duchy a pos- session of Austria, 1708 ; city besieged and taken by Bonaparte, 1796-'7. Marathon^— Victory of the Athenians over the Persians at, 490 b. c. Marburg," conference of, between followers of Luther and Zwingli, 1529. Marches, the — See Papal States. Marcomanni' — Under Marbod, establish themselves in Bohemia, about 8 B. c. ; g^eat war waged by them, in conjunction with the Quadi, against Rome, about a. d. 166-180. 1 Uagdala was a mountain etronghold in Abyssinia, in a S. E. direction from Oondar. ' A town W. of Milan. > A town of Lydia, at tlie foot of Mt. Sipylns. * A village of French Flanders. ' A locality near tbe James Biver, a sliort distance below Bicbmond. * A town of Arcadia, near tbe borders of Argolis. ' A place on the coast of Attica. ' A town of Hesse, on the river Lahn, now incladed in the Prossian province of Hesse-Nassao. * A Germanic people. 18 258 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Marchfeld' — ^Rudolph of Hapsburg vanquishes Ottocar of Bohemia on thej 1378. Uarengo ' — Victory of Napoleon over the Austrians at, June 14, 1800. Marignano (Melegnano) ' — ^Victory of PraScis I. at, 1515. BCars, satellites of— Discovered by Hall, 1877. BEarsaglia^ — ^Victory of Catinat over the army of Savoy at, 1693. SCarsala ' — Garibaldi lands at. May, 1860. Marsic War. See Social War. Uars-larToux' — ^Battle of (or of VionviUe), bfetween the Grermans and French, Aug. 16, 1870. MarstouMoor' — The Parliamentarians and Scots defeat the Royalists at, 1644. Martinique— Taken by the BngUsh, 1763, 1794, 1809. Maryland — Settlement made on Kent Island, 1631 ; CecUius Calvert's charter, 1633; St. Mary's settled, 1634; made a royal province, 1691; one of the thirteen states, 1776. Mascara ' — Burned by the French, 1835 ; taken by them, 1841. Massachusetts — G-osnold attempts a settlement in, 1603 ; Plymouth settled, 1630; Salem settled by the Massachusetts Bay Company, 1628; Boston founded, 1630 ; union of the Massachusetts and Plymouth colonies, 1692 ; one of the thirteen states, 1776. Massilia (Marseilles) — ^Founded by the Phocaeans, about 600 B. c. ; taken by Ciesar, 49 b. c. Maumee Bapids ' — Wayne defeats the Miamis at, 1794. Mauritius (Isle-de-France) — ^Wrested from the French by the English, 1810. Mausoleum.'" — ^Erected by Artemisia, about 350 b. c. Maypu " — ^Victory of San Martin over the Spaniards on the, 1818. Mechanicsville " — Battle of, between the Federals and Confederates, June 36, 1862. Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence," 1775. Media — [b. c] — United into a single kingdom, about 640 ; accession of Cyaxa- res, 634 (633) ; of Astyages, 584 (593) ; realm destroyed by Cyrus, 560 (558). Medici, house of. See Florence, Tuscant. Megalopolis '*— Founded, 369 b. c. ; victory of Antipater at, 330 (331) b. a Megiddo " — Necho overwhelms Josiah at, about 609 b. o. Melegnano. See Marignano. ' A plain at the junction of the March and Danube, near Vienna. » A small place in Piedmont, on the Bormida. " A town S. E. of Milan. • A village in the S. portion of Kcd- mont. • A town at the W. extremity of Sicily. • A village W. of Metz. ' A few milcB W. of York. ' A town of Algeria, 45 miles S. E. of Oran. » The Maumee Kver flows into Lake Erie at its W. end; the rapids are about 18 miles above its month. " At Halicar- nassus, near the S. W. comer of Asia Minor. " A river of Chili, which empties into the Pacific not far S. of Valparaiso. •' A place a few miles N. E. of Richmond, on the Chicka- hominy Kiver, near where it is joined by Beaver Dam Creek. " Mecklenburg is a S. county of North Carolina. '« In Arcadia. " A valley near Mt. Carmel, with a town of the same name. CHBONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 259 Keloria'— Victory of the Genoese over the Pisans off, 1384. Mentana' — Defeat of Garibaldi by the French and papal forces at, 1867. Mentz (Mainz), archbishopric of— Established about 750 ; the see secular- ized, 1801-3. See Electors (Imperial). Uentz (city)— Conquered by the archbishop of Mentz, and deprived of its liberties, 1462; taken by the Swedes, 1631; by the French, 1644, 1688, 1793, 1797 ; ceded to France, 1801 (held till 1814) ; annexed to Hesse- Darmstadt, 1815. Uercia. See Englaiid. Merovingian Dynasty. See Feanks. "Merrimac." See Hampton Roads and Santlago de Cuba. MersebTire'— HenrJ^ the Fowler defeats the Hungarians at, 933. Messene. See Messenia. Uessenia* — [b. c] — War with Sparta, ending in the subjection of Messenia, 743-724 (common chronology) ; second great struggle with Sparta, the Messenians finally subdued, about 645-628 (685-668) ; » great rising of the Messenian helots, 464-455 ; rise of a new Messenian state, Messene found- ed, 369 ; Roman dominion established, 146. Metaiirus ' — Hasdrubal overwhelmed by the Romans on the, 307 b. c. Methodism — First beginnings of, at Oxford, 1729 ; John Wesley begins the erection of the first Methodist chapel, 1739. Metric System— Adopted in France, 1795. Metz— Seized by France, 1553 ; besieged by Charles V., 1552-'3 ; surrender of Bazaine, Oct. 27, 1870 ; ceded to Germany, 1871. Mexico — First entry of Cortes into the city of Mexico, 1519 ; reduction of the capital and conquest of the country, 1521 ; beginning of the war of independence, 1810 ; independence secured, 1821 ; Iturbide emperor, 1822-'3; constituted a federal republic, 1824; reorganized into a cen- tralized state, 1835; Texas becomes independent, 1835-'6; outbreak of the war with the United States, 1846; entry of Scott into the capital, 1847; treaty of peace, 1848 ; convention of London between France, Eng- land, and Spain, Vera Cruz occupied by the Spaniards, 1861 ; war with France, career of Maximilian, 1862-'7. Michigan— Admitted into the Union, 1837. Milan — City taken by Frederick Barbarossa, 1158 ; besieged and destroyed by him, 1161-'2 ; triumph of the house of Visconti over that of La Torre, 1311 ; erection of the duchy of Milan, 1395 ; end of the Visconti dynasty, 1447; establishment of the ducal house of Sforza, 1450 ; duchy conquered and held by the French, 1499, 1500-1512, 1515-'21, 1524^'5 (partial con- quest, followed by the overthrow of Francis I. at Pavia) ; end of the Sforza ' An island off the coast of Tuscany. > A village N. E. of Borne. > A town of Ger- many, on the Saale, now included in Frnssian Saxony, * A district in the S. W. portion of the Peloponnesns. • The earlier dates, 685-668, are according to the common chronology. Becent anthoiitieB place the war 40 years later. ■ A river of Italy, in Umbria, emptying into the Adriatic ; nowHetaro. 260 CHK0N0L06ICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. dynasty, duchy taken possession of by Charles V., 1535 ; the Milanese con- quered from Spain by Austria, 1706-'7 ; secured to Austria by treaties, 1713-14 ; rising against Austrian rule, 1848. (See Lombabdt.) Ililan, cathedral of— Erection of, begun, about 1386. Hilan, council of, 355. Milan Decree (against British commerce), 1807. Slilazzo '—Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitan forces at, 1860, Miletus' — Becomes a great naval power, 8th c. b. g. ; destroyed by the Per- sians, 494 B. c. (The city was subsequently rebuilt, but did not again at- tain to power.) Military Tribunes (in Rome) — Office instituted, about 444 b. c. Mill Springs' — Thomas defeats the Confederates at, 1862. Minden*— Ferdinand of Brunswick defeats the French at, 1759. Minnesota — Admitted into the Union, 1858. Minorca — Wrested from Spain by the English, 1708 ; ceded to them, 1713 : taken by the French, 1756 ; restored to England, 1763 ; taken by the French and Spaniards, 1783 ; given up to Spain, 1783. Mint, national (at Philadelphia) — Established, 1793. Mishnah.— Systematically arranged by Judah the Holy, about beginning ol 8d c. A. D. Missionary Ridge ' — The Federals carry the Confederate positions on, Nov. 35, 1863. Mississippi — Admitted into the Union, 1817 ; secedes, 1861 ; reconstruction completed, 1870. Mississippi River — Reached by De Soto, 1541 ; descended by La Salle, 1683. Mississippi Scheme — Law's West India Company incorporated, 1717; fail- ure of the scheme, 1730. Missolonghi'— Successfully defended by the Greeks, 1823, 1833; great siege of, begun, 1835 ; faUs, 1836. Missouri — The territory of Louisiana renamed Missouri, 1813; admission of the state into the Union, 1831. Missouri Comprotoise— Adopted, 1830 ; repealed, 1854 Mithridatic Wars, 88-84, 83-83, 74-65 b. c. Moabite Stone — Discovered by Klein, 1868. Mobile — Confederate fleet destroyed or captured in the bay, Aug. 5, 1864; occupied by the Federals, April, 1865. Modena— Kule of the house of Este established, 1388 ; erected into a duchy, 1453 ; conquered by the French, 1796 ; death of the last duke of the house of Bste, 1803; ruled by a Hapsburg dynasty, from 1814; revolutions, 1831, 1848, 1859 ; annexed by Victor Emanuel, 1860. • A town near the N. B. comer of Sicily. ' One of the Ionian cities on the W. coast of Asia Minor, " A locality in southern Kentucky, on the upper Cnmherlond. * A town of Prussia, in Westphalia, on the Weser. • Near Chattanooga. • A town W. of Lepanto, on the Gulf of Fatras. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 261 Modoc ■War,' 1873-'3. Uogadore'— Bombarded by the French, 1844 Uogiil Dynasty in India. See India, Delhi. Moli&C8»— The Turks defeat the Hungarians at, 1526; the duke of Lorraine defeats the Turks at, 1687. Uoldavia — Becomes an independent principality, about beginning of 14th c. ; becomes tributary to Turkey, early in the 16th c. ; ruled by Panariote* hospodars, 1709-1821; united with Wallachia into the principality of Boumania, 1861. Molino del Rey '—Stormed by Worth, 1847. MoUwitz "—Frederick the Great defeats the Austrians at, 1741. Monasteries, dissolution of the, in England — The lesser monasteries suppressed, 1536 ; the greater, 1539. Moncontour '—Defeat of the Huguenots at, 1569. Mongols — Genghis Khan lays the foundations of his empire, 1202-'6 ; t ap- ture of Tenking (Peking) by his forces, 1215 ; he breaks the power of the Kharesmians, 1219-1220 ; Batu Khan, with the Golden Horde, forces the princes of Russia to do homage, 1240 ; the Golden Horde advances into Central Europe, battle of Liegnitz, 1241 ; Asia Minor invaded, 1242 ; Hulaku Khan puts an end to the caliphate of Bagdad, 1258 ; first Mon- gol dynasty in China, 1280-1368 ; Tamerlane begins liis conquests, 1366-'9 ; he vanquishes Sultan Bajazet, 1402. " Monitor." See Hampton Boads. Monmouth ' — ^Battle between the Americans and British at, June 28, 1778. Monocacy *— Victory of Early on the, July 9, 1864. Monongahela "• — ^Braddock's army is overwhelmed on the, July 9, 1755. Montana — Admitted into the Union, 1889. Mont Blanc — Ascent to the summit first accomplished, 1786. Montenegro — Becomes am independent state, 1389 ; recent wars with the Turks, 1852-'3, 1861-2, 1876-'8 ; declared independent by the treaty of Berlin, 1878. Montenotte " — ^Bonaparte defeats the Austrians at, April 12, 1796. Monterey "—Taken by Taylor, 1846. Montgomery — Convention of the seceded states held at, 1861 ; seat of the Confederate Congress, 1861. ' Waged on the northern borders of California. ' A seaport town on the Atlantic coast of Morocco. ' A town of sonthem Hungary, on the Banabe. * The name of Fanariotes was applied to a number of aristocratic Greek families dwelling in the qnarter of Constan- tinople called the Fanar. • Stmctnres at Chapnitepec, close to the city of Mexico. ' A ' Tillage S. E. of Breslaa. ' A village abont 25 miles N. W. of Poitiers. » A village of New Jersey, in a S. E. direction from New Brunswick ; the place is now called Freehold. " A river of Maryland, which empties into the Potomac between Washington and Harper^s Perry. •• A river of West Virginia and Pennsylvania, which joins the Alleghany to form the Ohio. The battle-fleld was near the junction. •• A village in Piedmont, abont 26 miles W. of Genoa. >' A town of Mexico, abont 95 miles from the nearest point on the Bio Grande and donble this distance from the Gulf of Mexico, iJ62 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Jllontreal— Taken by the British, 1760 ; by the Americans, 1775 ; recovered by the British, 1776. Moors in Spain— Conquest of Spain by the Saracens, 711-714 ; caliphate of Cordova (embracing all Mohammedan Spain), 756-1031 ; succeeded by in- dependent Mohammedan kingdoms ; the Almoravides (see Mobocco) con- quer most of Mohammedan Spain, 1090-1J02 ; disruption of their realm, 1145 ; the Almohades (see Morocco) establish their sway, 1146-about 1171 ; their power broken by the Christians, 1312 ; kingdom of Granada found- ed, 1238 ; overthrow of the kingdom, end of Moorish dominion in Spain, beginning of 1493 ; rising in the Alpujarras, 1499-1501 ; insurrection of the Moriscos under Philip II., 1568- '70 ; expulsion of the Moriscos, 1609, Ilorat '—Victory of the Swiss over Charles the Bold at, 1476. Horavia — Cyril and Methodius engage in the work of Christianizing the in- habitants, 863 ; reign of Svatopluk, 870-894 ; the Hungarians destroy the Moravian realm, about 906 ; in the course of the 10th c. the country passes under the dominion of Bohemia ; made a margraviate, fief of the crown of Bohemia, close of 12th o. ; ruled by the Hapsburgs, from 1536. Moravians — Begin settlement at Hermhut, 1732. Ilorea. See Gbegcs. Uorgarten '—Victory of the Swiss over Leopold of Hapsburg at, 1315. HCoriscos. See Moors in Spain. Mormons — Church organized, 1830 ; Nauvoo ' founded, 1840 ; expelled from Nauvoo, 1846 ; migration to the Great Salt Lake, 184S ; rebellion, 1857-8. Morocco — The Almoravides establish their sway, 11th c. ; they found the city of Morocco, 1073 ; conquer most of Mohammedan Spain, 1090-1103 ; succumb to the Almohades, middle of 12th c. ; — (See Moors in Spain.)—, end of the Almohade dynasty, 13th c. ; invasion of Sebastian of Portu- gal, 1578 ; Abderrahman, Abd-el-Kader's ally, vanquished by the French, 1844 ; Sidi Mohammed succeeds Abderrahman, 1859 ; war with Spain, 1859-60 ; accession of Muley Hassan, 1873 ; of Abdul Aziz, 1894. Moscow — Entered by the French, burned by the Russians, 1812. Mbskirch.^ — Victory of the French over the Austrians at, 1800. Miihlberg ' — Defeat of the German Protestants at, 1547. MUhldorf'— -Victory of Louis the Bavarian at, 1322. Munda '' — Caesar defeats the Pompeians at, 45 b. c. Munich — University of Landshut removed to, 1826 ; new royal palace be- gun, 1836 ; the Glyptothek completed, 1830 ; the old Pinakothek com- pleted, 1836 ; Schwanthaler's statue of Bavaria executed, 1844-'50. Miinster— Eeign of the Anabaptists in, 1534r-'5 ; peace of Westphalia signed . at, 1648. ' A town of Switzerland, near Fribourg. " A declivity near Schwytz. ' In Illinoie, on the Mississippi. * A town in the S. part of Baden. » A toivn on the Elbe, now included in Frnssian Sazony. * A town of Bavaria, on the Inn. ' A town situated in what is noif Andalusia. CHEONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 263 BEur&eesboro '—Engagements at (at Stone River), between Bragg and Rose- crans, Dec., 1863-Jaii., 1863. Miirsa (Mursia) '—Victory., of Constantius over Magnentius at, 351. HEutmensian War,' 44-43 b. c. Mycale*— Victory of the Greeks over the Persians at, 479 b. c. MycensB "—Conquered by the Argives, about 463 b. o. Kysore. See India. Mytilene. See Lesbos. N. Nancy— Overthrow of Charles the Bold at, 1477. Nanking— Treaty of, between England and China, 1843; taken by the Taipings, Porcelain Tower destroyed, 1853 ; recovered by the emperor of China, 1864. Nantes — Atrocities of Carrier at, 1793-'4. Nantes, Edict of (granting toleration to the Huguenots) — Issued, 1598 ; revocation of the, 1685 — ^followed by a great migration of the Huguenots from Prance. Naples, duchy of— -Established by the Byzantines, 6th c. ; conquered by the Normans, llth-12th c. Naples, kingdom of. See Sicilies (the Two), Naples, University of— Founded, 1334 Narva •— Victory of Charles XII. over Peter the Great at, 1700. Naseby ' — ^Victory of the ParUamentaiians at, 1645. Nashville— Defeat of Hood before, Dec. 15, 16, 1864 Nassau — Annexed to Prussia, 1866. Natal — The Boers establish themselves in the region, 1837-'8 ; Boer repub- lic taken possession of by the British, 1843. Navarino ' — ^Destruction of the Turkish-Egyptian fleet at, 1837. Navarre — Kingdom of, established, 9th c. ; Aragon separated from it, and erected into an independent kingdom, 1035 ; united with Aragouj 1076- 1134 ; united with Champagne, 1234^1328 (during the last portion of this period ruled by the kings of Prance) ; again united with Aragon, 1458-'79 ; marriage of Queen Catharine de Poix with Jean d'Albret, 1484; con- quest of Spanish Navarre by Perdinand of Aragon, 1512 ; marriage of Jeanne d'Albret with Antoine de Bourbon, 1548 ; Henry of Navarre bfr^ comes king of Prance (Henry TV), 1589. Navaa de Tolosa ' — Victory of the Christians over the Moors at, 1313. Navigation I In the interior of Soutli Africa, just south of the 20th parallel of latitude. ' A town Of Asia Minor, in Bithynia ; now Isnik. ' A town in the S. part of Moravia. 266 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. mkopoli (Nicopolis) "—Victory of Bajazet at, 1396 ; taken by the Russians, 1810 ; they destroy a Turkish fleet near, 1829 ; they storm the Turkish positions at, 1829 ; take the city, 1877. Niksitch— Taken by the Montenegrins, 1877 ; ceded to them, 1878. Nile — Sources of the, determined by the explorations of Speke, Grrant, Baker, Cameron, and Stanley, 1858-'76. Nile, battle of the. See Aboukir (Bat op). Nimeguen' — ^Prance concludes peace at, with Holland and Spain, 1678; with the German Empire, 1679. Nineveli '—Taken and destroyed by the Medes and Babylonians, 607 (606) B. c* Nitrogen — Discovered by Rutherford, 1773. Nizib' — Ibrahim Pasha defeats the Turks at, 1839. Nora"- Bumenes blockaded in, by Antigonus, 320-319 B. c. Nbrdlingen' — Victory of the Imperialists over the Swedes and Grerman Protestants at, 1684. Norfolk— Gosport navy-yard abandoned by the Federals, April, 1861 ; place recovered by the Federals, May, 1862. Normandy— Granted to the Northmen, 911 ; ' Norman conquest of Eng- land, 1066; wrested from England by Philip Augustus, 1202-'4; again subject to England under Henry V. and Henry VI. ; reconquered by the French, 1449-'50. Normans in Italy and Sicily. See Sicilies (the Two). North Carolina — (See Carolina.) — One of the thirteen states, 1776; se- cedes, 1861 ; reconstruction completed, 1868. North Dakota — Admitted into the Union, 1889. Northeast Passage — Accomplished by NordenskjSld, 1879. North German Confederation, 1866-'70. Northmen — Begin their inroads into Britain, about 789 ; into the Prankish territories, about 800 ; pillage Paris, 845, 857, 861 ; the Varangians lay the foundations' of the Russian monarchy, 862 ; first expedition of the Varangians against Constantinople, 865 ; the Northmen settle in Iceland, 874 (Greenland first visited by them about this time); besiege Paris, 885-'6 ; receive Normandy, 911. Northumbria. See England. Northwest Boundary of the United States — Treaty for settlement of, 1846. • A town of Bulgaria, on the Bannbe. ' A town of Holland, in Gelderland, near the hordei of Germany. > Nineveh lay mainly on the E. bank of the Tigris, opposite the site of the present city of Mosul. The remains of its structures at Khorsabad, Nimrud, and Koyunjik were disclosed by Botta and Layard in 1843-'50. * See Assybia. ' A village of northern Syria. (Not to be confounded with the ancient Nisibis,' in Mesopotamia.) " A fortress in Cappadocia (in Asia Minor), at the foot of the Taums. ' One of the old free cities of Swabia, now a town of Bavaria. It is situated a short distance N. of the Danube, near the border of Wiirtemberg. ' The cession of Normandy to the Northmen is frequently placed in the year 913. According to Henri Martin the investiture took place at the close of 911. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONABT OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 267 Northwest Passage— Accomplished by McClure, 1850-'54. (The existence of a passage ascertained by Sir John Franklin in 1846.) Northwest Territory '—Government of the, undertaken by Congress 1787. Norway— United into a kingdom by Harald Harfager, latter part of 9th c; Christianity introduced, 10th c. ; united with Denmark, 1380 ; Union of Calmar, 1397; Lutheranism established, 1537; ceded by Denmark to Sweden, 1814. Notables, Assembly of— Meetings of the, under Louis XVI., 1787, 1788. Notium'— Naval victory of the Spartans over the Athenians oS, 407 b. c. Notre Dame, cathedral of (Paris)— Built about 1163-1312. Novara*— The Swiss defeat the French at, 1513 ; victory of the Austrians over the Sardinians at, 1849. Nova Scotia— Cession of Acadia by France to England, 1713 ; dispersion of the French colonists, 1755; the colony constituted a portion of the Dominion of Canada, 1867. Novgorod. See Bussia. Novi* — ^Victory of SuvarofE over the French at, 1799. Noyon," treal^ o^ between Francis I. and Charles of Eapsburg, 1516, Nubia— Conquered by Mehemet All, 1830-'32 ; the Mahdi puts an end to Egyptian rule, 1885; Egyptian domination re-established by General Kitchener, 1897-'8, Nullification movement, 1832. Numantia ' — Taken and destroyed by the younger Seipio African us, 133 b. c. Numidia ' — [b. c] — Masinissa assists the Carthaginians against the Bomans in Spain, 212-206 ; he assists the Bomans against the Carthaginians in Africa, 204-202 ; Jugurthine War, 111-106 ; Juba L conquered by Csesar, 46 — ^the kingdom a possession of Bome. Nuremberg (Nfirnberg) — Beligious peace of, 1532 ; Wallenstein and Gus- tavus Adolphus confront each other at, 1632 ; deprived of its rank as a free city, and annexed to Bavaria, 1806. Nystad,' treaty of, between Sweden and Bussia, 1721. 0. Odessa— Pounded, 1794 ; bombarded by the English and French, 1854. (Enophyta'- The Athenians defeat the Boeotians at, 456 b. c. Ohio— Admitted into the Union, 1803, Ohio Company — Eeceives its grant, 1749. Old Catholics— Bise of the sect, 1870. Oldenburg — Acquired by the king of Denmark, 1667; made over by Den- mark to the house of Holstein-Gottorp, 1773. • The territory N. of the Ohio. ' A town on the W. coast of Asia Minor, near Ephesus. • A town of Piedmont, near the border of Lombardy. ♦ A town of Piedmont, between Alessandria and Genoa. * A town about 65 miles N. E. of Paris, near the river Oise. ■ A town of Spain, near the source of the Dnrins (Douro). ' Modem Algeria. • A town of Finland, on the GnU of Bothnia. * A town of Boeotia, near the border of Attica. 368 CHHONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Oliva,' peace of, between Sweden, Poland, Brandenburg, and the emperor of Germany, 1660. Olmutz,' conference of, between Austria and Prussia, 1850. Olympiads — Beginning of the, 776 b. c. Olynthus '—War of Sparta against, 382-379 b. c. ; destroyed by Philip of Macedon, 847 b. c. Omdurman (near Khartoum) — Kitchener overwhelms the Dervishes at; Sept. 2, 1898. Ommiyades. See Sabacens, Cobdota. Opera — Originated, close of 16th c. Ophthalmoscope — Invented by Hebnholtz, 1851. Opium War, 1840-'43. Orange, house of — Greatness of the, founded by William, sumamed the Silent, and his son, Maurice of Nassau, leaders of the Dutch in their strug- gle for independence, 1568-1625 ; Holland ruled by stadtholders of the house of Orange till 1795 ; restoration of the house, close of 1813 ; it is invested with the regal dignity, 1815 ; — reign of William III. in England, Scotland, and Ireland, 1689-1702. Orange, principality of' — On the death of FhUibert of ChSlon passes to the house of Nassau, 1580 ; rule of the house of Nassau terminates, 1702 ; awarded to Prance by the treaty of Utrecht, 1713. Orange Kiver Bepuhlic. See Boebs. Oratory, Congregation of the — Founded by St. Philip Neri, 1564 Orebro,' Diet of, 1529. Oregfon — Territory organized, 1848 ; admitted into the Union, 1859. Orleans— Besieged by the English, 1428; relieved by Joan of Arc, 1429; taken by the Germans, Oct., 1870; recovered by Aurelle de Paladines, Nov. ; the Germans defeat him, and reoccupy the city, Dec. Ostend — Besieged and taken by the Spaniards, 1601-4. Ostend manifesto, 1854. Ostrogoths, realm of the, in Italy, 493-553. Ostrolenka '—The Poles unsuccessfully attack the Russians at, 1831. Otranto'— Taken by the Turks, 1480; lost by them, 1481. Otterbum « — Battle of, between the Scots and English (Chevy Chase), 1388. Ottoman Empire. See Tubeby. Oude. See India. Oudenarde '—Eugene and Marlborough defeat the French at, 1708. Ourique '"— "Victory of the Portuguese over the Moors at, 1139. Oxford, Provisions of, 1258. Oxford, Tlniversity of— Rises into eminence, 12th o. ; first styled Uni- * A town near Dantzic. "'' A fortresB of Moravia, on the river Marcli. ' A town in the peninsula of Chalcidice, which projects into the N. W. part of the jEgean Sea. * In Pro- vence, near Avignon. » A town about 100 miles W. of Stoclcholm, on Lake Hjelmar. • A town situated on the river Narew, in a N. E. direction from Warsaw. ' A town at the S. B. extremity of Italy. 8 x place in Northumherland. » A town of Flanders, on the Scheldt >° A town about 90 miles S. 'E. of Lisbon. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF ONIVERSAL BISTORT. 269 versity, 1201; the oldest of the colleges, University College, founded, 1249. Oxygen— Discovered by Priestley, 1774 P. Pacific Ocean — Discovery of the, by Balboa, 1513. Pacific Bailway (first)— Built, 1863-'9. Padua — Conquered by Venice, 1405. Padua, University of— Founded, 13th c. Falseologi — Dynasty of the, in the Byzantine Empire, 1261-1453. Palatinate of the Rhine— Frederick V. stripped of his dominions, 1620-'22 ; the Upper Palatinate • given to Bavaria, 1628 ; Frederick's son recovers the Palatinate of the Rhine, 1648 ; laid waste by the French, 1674, 1689 ; united with Bavaria, 1779 ; rising in the, 1849. See Electors (Imperial). Palermo— Taken by the Saracens, about 832 ; by the Normans, 1072 ; Sicil- ian Vespers, 1282 ; insurrections, 1647, 1820, 1848-'9, 1860. Palestine. See Hebrews, Jeeusaleu. Palmyra ' — Queen Zenobia vanquished by Aurelian, 272-'3 — city partially destroyed at this time. Palo Alto ' — Taylor defeats the Mexicans at, 1846. Panama Canal — Construction of the, begun, 1881. Panama Railway — Opened, 1855. Pandects of Justinian — Published, 533. Panics, financial, in the United States, 1837, 1857, 1873. Paniput* — ^Victory of Baber over Ibrahim Lodi, emperor of Delhi, at, 1526 ; victory of Ahmed Shah over the Mahrattas at, 1761. Pannonia ' — The Romans begin the conquest of, 35 b. c. ; Roman dominion established over the whole country, 9 b. c. ; great rising, the people finally subjugated, a. d. 6-9. Pan-Slavic Congress in Prague, 1848. Pantheon (Rome) — BuUt by Agrippa, 27 b. c. ; rebuilt about a. d. 123. Pantheon (Paris ; church of Ste. Genevieve)— Built, 1764^'90. Papal Guarantees, Bill of the, 1871. Papal States — Creation of a papal realm by Pepin the Short, 755 ; the papal dominion absolutely independent of the authority of the German emper- ors, from close of 12th c. ; Napoleon takes possession of the papal terri- tories, 1808-'9 ; they are evacuated by the French, 1814 ; the Romagna,' the Marches,'' and Umbria ^ annexed to the dominions of Victor Emanuel, I A district between the Dsnnbe and the Fichtelgebiige. ' Falmyra was situated in an oasis of the Syrian desert, in a N. K direction from Damascns. ' A locality near Matamo- i»8, at the S. extremity of Texas. • A town N. W. of Delhi. • The region of the Save and Drave, the adjoining portion of Hungary proper, as far N. and E. as the Danube, and part of Lower Austria. • The Bomagna includes the towns of Bologna, Ferrara, and Ravenna. ^ A district between the Apennines and the Adriatic, the chief town of which is Ancona. ' Umbria was the central division of the Fapal States. 270 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP mnVERSAL HISTORY. 1860 ; Garibaldi's unsuccessful expeditions against, 1862, 1867 ; Eome and the remaining papal territories annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1870. (See Rome, Avignon, Venaissin.) Paraguay — Foundation of Asuncion by the Spaniards, about 1536 ; expul- sion of the Jesuits, 1767 ; revolutionary struggle, 1811 ; dictatorship of Franda, 1814r-'40; of C. A. Lopez, 1844-'68; of F. S. Lopez, 1863-70; war with BraaU, the Argentine Republic, and Vragaaiy, 1864-'70. Paris — In Capsar's time capital of the Parisii (Lutetia Parisiorum); made the capital of the Frankish kingdom, 508 ; pillaged by the Northmen, 845, 857, 861; besieged by them, 885-'6; entry of Henry V. of Eng- land into, 1420; recovered by the French, 1436; Henry IV. of France begins operations against, 1589 ; surrenders to him, 1594 ; entered by the allies, 1814, 1815 ; fortification of, by Louis Philippe, begun, 1841 ; be- sieged and taken by the Germans, 1870-'71 ; the Commune, 1871 ; — (See Feance.)— international exhibitions, 1855, 1867, 1878, 1889. Paris, treaties of— Treaty terminating the Seven Tears' War, 1763 ; be- tween Great Britain and the United States, 1783 ; between France and the coalition, 1814, 1815; treaty terminating the Crimean War, 1856; between the United States and Spain, 1898. Paris, TJniversity of— Becomes famous, 12th c. ; suppressed, 1793. Parliament (of England) — Representation in, granted to the commons by Simon de Montfort, 1265. Parliaments (in France) — Suppressed, 1790. Parma and Piacenza — Erected into duchies for the house of Famese, 1545 ; end of the Famese dynasty, Don Carlos, son of Philip V. of Spain, takes possession, 1731 (Bourbon dynasty) ; ceded to Austria, 1735 ; given to Don Philip, brother of Don Carlos, 1748 ; taken possession of by Bonaparte, 1802 ; given to the empress Maria Louisa, 1814r-'15 ; on her death revert to the former Spanish dynasty, 1847 ; revolutions, 1848, 1859 ; annexed by Victor Emanuel, I860. Parthenon — Erected, about 440 b. o. Parthenopean Republic (Naples), 1799. Parthia — Kingdom of the Arsacidse founded, about 248 b. c. ; overthrown, A. D. 226. Passarowitz,' peace of, between Turkey and Austria, 1718. Passau," peace of, securing the liberties of the German Lutherans, 1552. Pavia — Taken by the Lombards, 572 — made the capital of their kingdom ; taken by Charlemagne, 774 ; by Otho the Great, 951 ; defeat of Francis I. at, 1525. Fazzi, conspiracy of the, against the Medici, 1478. Pea Ridge '—Battle of, victory of the Federals, March 7, 8, 1862. Peasants' War, 1524-'5. > A town of Seivia, S. E. of Belgrade. ' A town at the conflnence of the Inn and Dannbe, now belonging to Bavaria. ' A hamlet near the N. W. comer of Arkansas. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 271 Peerage, hereditary, in France — Finally abolished, 1831. Pei-ho Forts '—Captured by the British and French, 1858, 1860. Peking^Occupied by the British and French, 1860. Peloponnesian War, 431-404 b. c. Peninsular "War, 1808-'14 Pennsylvanifir— Colony founded, 1683 ; one of the thirteen states, 1776. Penny Postage (in Great Britain) — Introduced, 1840. Pequot War, 1637. Pergamus, kingdom of —Established, 8d c. b. o. ; bequeathed to the Ko- mans, 133 b. c. Perry Treaty, between Japan and the United States, 1854. Perryville*— Battle of, between the Federals and Confederates, Oct. 8, 1862. Persia — [b. c] — Cyrus founds the power of, on the ruins of the Median monarchy, about 550 ; he conquers the Lydian realm, about 546 ; he takes Babylon, 538 ; accession of Cambyses, 539 ; he conquers Egypt, 527 (525) : Darius Hystaspis, 531 ; first invasion of Greece, 490 ; Xerxes, 486 ; second iuTasion of Greece, 480 ; Artabanus, 465 ; Artaxerxes I., 465 ; Xerxes II., 425 ; Sogdianus, 425 ; Darius Nothus, 434 (425) ; Artaxerxes IL, 405 (404) ; Artaxerxes III., 359 (361) ; Arses, 338 ; Darius Codomannus, 386 ; empire overthrown by Alexander, 334-331 ; Seleucus Nioator becomes master of the provinces E. of the Euphrates, 312-about 306 ; Parthian conquest, 3d e. — [a. d.] — Persian kingdom of the Sassanidae established, 236 ; overthrown by the Saracens, 643 ; death of the last of the Sassanidae, 651 ; becomes virtually independent of the caliphs, 9th c. ; the Seljuks establish their dominion, about 1037-1050; the Kharesmians put an end to the Sel- jukian rule, 1194; the power of the Kharesmians broken by Genghis Khan, 1230; Tamerlane's conquest, 1387; foundation of the SufEavean (Soft) dynasty, 1503 ; reign of Abbas Shah, 1586-1638 ; war with Peter the Great, 1733-'3 ; end of the Suffavean dynasty, Nadir Shah placed on the throne, 1736 ; the Russians conquer Persian Armenia, 1827 ; war with the India government, 1856-'7. Peru — Conquest of, by Pizarro, 1531-'3 ; San Martin enters Lima and pro- claims independence, 1831 ; entry of Bolivar into Lima, 1833 ; the Span- iards overthrown at Ayacucho, 1824 ; Bolivar dictator, 1824-'5 ; Callao evacuated by the Spaniards, 1826 ; war with Spain, 1866 ; war with Chili, 1879-'83. Perusian War,* 41-40 b. c. Petersburg — Siege and capture of, by the Federals, 1864-'5. Peterwardein ' — Victory of Prince Eugene over the Turks at, 1716. • At the month of the Pei-ho, a river of northeastern China, near whose hanks Peking Is sitnated. ' In Asia Minor. The town of Pergamns was situated in Mysia on the river Caicns. ' A village in central Kentucky, W. of Danville. * Pemsia is the ancient name of Ferngia, a town on the upper Tiber. « A fortress on the right bank of the Danube, not far above the mouth of the Theies. 2t% CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF tTNlVERSAL HiSTORy. Petition of Bight, 1628. Petroleum— Wells first sunk in the United States, 1859. Ffalzburg '—Taken by the Germans, 1870. Fharsalia * — Victory of Csesar over Pompey at, 48 b. c. Fhiladelpliia — Laid out, 1683; first Continental Congress assembles at, 1774 ; second, 177S ; entered by the British, 1777 ; evacuated, 1778 ; Con- stitutional Convention assembles at, 1787 ; seat of government of the United States, 1790-1800 ; Centennial Exposition, 1876. Fhilippi ' — Cassius and Brutus overwhelmed at, 43 b. c. Philippines — Reached by Magellan, 1531 ; settlement by Spaniards begun, 1565: risings against the Spaniards, 1894-'5, 1896-'8; end of Spanish rule, 1898 ; war between natives and Americans, 1899. (See Manila.) Philippopolis * — Suleiman Pasha's army broken up near, Jan., 1878. Philistines '— [b. c] — Conquer Israel west of the Jordan, about beginning of 11th c. ; their yoke shaken off by Saul « ; overwhelm Saul at Gilboa ; chastised by David ; Gath and Ashdod dismantled by Uzziah ; Tiglath- pileser II. of Assyria imposes his sway, about 733 : Ashdod taken by Sar- gon, 711 (DwieJcer) ; the Philistine cities submit to Sennacherib, 701 ; siege and capture of Ashdod by the Egyptian king Psammetichus, second half of 7th c. ; Gaza taken by Alexander the Great, 333. Phoenicians — [b. c] — ^Bnter upon their career as a great colonizing people by establishing settlements in Cyprus, about 1350 (Duncker) ; push their voyages beyond the Straits of Gibraltar, about 1100 (Ihmcker) ; Tyre about this time supplants Sidon as the leading city ; the Phoenician cities pay tribute to Assyria, 9th-7th e. ; soon after the fall of the Assyrian mon- archy they are forced to acknowledge the suzerainty of Babylon; they submit to Persia, latter part of 6th c. (See Tteb.) ' Phonograph — Invented by Edison, 1877. Phosphorus — Discovered by Brandt, 1669. Photography — The daguerreotype, an invention of Niepce (d. 1833) and Daguerre, perfected, 1838 ; the invention announced, 1889 ; Talbot's inde- pendent invention, photography on paper, armounced, 1839. Piacenza,' council of, 1095. Pichincha ° — Defeat of the Spaniards in the battle of, 1833. Piedmont. See Sardinia (kingdom of). Pillnitz,' convention of, between Prussia and Austria, 1791. PiUow, Fort '"—Storming of, by the Confederates, 1864. Pindarees " — Attacked and dispersed by the British, 1817-18. Pinkie "—The English defeat the Scots at, 1547. Pisa — Her naval power destroyed by Genoa, 1384 ; destruction of the harbor, ' A town of German Lorraine. ' The territory of the town of PharealnB, in central Thessaly. ' A town in the B. part of Macedonia, near the iSgean, * A town on the river Maritza, now the capital of Eastern Bonmelia. " Inhabitants of the southern coast land of Palestine. • See Hebrews. ' A town on the Po, about midway between Milan and Parma. ' A volcano near Quito. " A castle near Dresden. "• Located on the Mississippi River, in Tennessee. » A class of freebooters in Central India. " A place near Edinborsh. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 273 1290 ; submits to Florence, 1406 ; independent of Florence, 1494 ; re- gained by the Florentines, 1509 ;— cathedral consecrated, 1118 ; baptistry begun, about 1153 ; leaniug tower begun, about 1174 ; Campo Santo built by Giovanni Pisano, 137&-'83. Bisa, council of, 1409. Fittsburgh Landing '—Battle of (or of Shiloh), between the Federals, under Grant, and the Confederates, under A. S. Johnston and Beauregard, April 6, 7, 1863. piacentia. See Fiacenza. Flantagenet Dynasty, 1154r-1485. (See Englaio).) Plassey*— Victory of Clive at, 1757. Platsea'— Victory of, the Greeks over the Persians at, 479 b. c. Plevna*— Victories of Osman Pasha at, siege and fall, 1877. Plombi^res'- Interyiew of Napoleon III. and Cavour at, 1858. Plymouth— Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers, 1620. Plymouth Colony. See Massachusetts. Poissy," Colloquy o^ between the Catholics and Huguenots, 1561. Poitiers '—Victory of the Franks over the Saracens near, 732 ; victory of the English near, 1356. Poland— Conversion of Miecislas to Christianity, 966; reign of Boleslas Chrobry, 992-1025 ; reign of Casimir the Great, last of the Piast dynasty, 1333-'70 ; JageUon, grand-duke of Lithuania, founds the JageUonian dy- nasty, 1386 * ; union of Poland and Lithuania into one commonwealth, 1569 ; end of the Jagellonian dynasty, 1572 — ^the crown becomes elective ; Saxon kings, 1697-1763 (with intermission) ; first partition, 1772 ; second, 1793; rising under Kosciuszko, 1794; existence of, as an indepejident kingdom, terminated by the third partition, 1795; duchy of Warsaw, 1807-13 ; erection of the new kingdom of Poland, under Russian rule, 1815 ; revolution, 1830-'31 ; kingdom declared an integral part of the Russian Empire, 1833; insurrection, 1863-'4. (See Teutonic Knights, Paussii, Russia, Gaucia, and Ceacow, eepublic of.) SOVEREIGNS OF POLAND intOH THE XHD OP THE FIAST DYITASTT. Louis the Great, 1370-1382. Hedvig, 1384-1386. (Marries JageUon, 1386.) JageUon (Ladislas II.), 1386-1434. Ladislas m., 1434-1444. ' A locality in southwestern Tennessee, on the Tennessee Biver. ' The battle-field of Flasse; was about 85 miles N. of Calcutta. ' A town of Boeotia, near the border of Attica. * A town of Bulgaria, near the river Vid, about 20 miles S. of the Danube, and 25 miles S. W. of Nikopoli. • A watering place in eastern France, in the department of Vosges. • A town on the Seine, 10 miles N. of Versailles. ' A town 60 miles S. W. of Tours, and about 7D miles from the Bay of Biscay. ° It is only at this time that Lithuania became a Chrii* tlan country. 19 Casimir IV., 1447-1492. John Albert, 1492-1501. Alexander, 1601-1506. Si^smund I., 1606-1548. Sigismund II. Augustus, 1548-1672. 274 CHKONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORT. Heniy of ValoiB, 15?3-15W.> AugustuB H., 1697-1704 Stephen B&thoii, 1676-1586. Stanislas Leszczynski, 1704-1709. Sigismund in., 1587-1632. Augustus II. (again), 1709-1733. LadislasIV., 1632-1648. Augustus m., 1733-1763. JohnOasimir, 1648-1668. Stanislas Poniatowski, 1764^1795. Michael Koryhut Wisnio- Frederick Augustus of Sax- ■wieoki, 1669-1673. ony, duke of Warsaw, 1807-1813. John Sobieski, .1674-1696. Polish Succession, Wax of the — Begins, 1733 ; preliminaiy treaty of Vi- enna, 1785; definitive treaty of Vienna, 1738. Pollentia'— Victory of Stilicho over Alaric at, 402 (403 f). Poltava"— Peter the Great defeats Charles XII. at, 1709. Pomerania — Extinction of its line of dukes, 1637 ; divided between Sweden and Brandenburg, 1648 ; a large portion of Swedish Pomerania ceded to Prussia, 1730; the rest of Swedish Pomerania given to Denmark, and transferred by her to Prussia, 1814r-'15. Pompeii — Overwhelmed by Vesuvius, a. d. 79. Pondicheny * — Acquired by the French East India Company, 1672 ; suc- cessfully defended against the English by Dupleix, 1748 ; surrenders t» the English, 1761, 1793, 1803. Pontiac's War, 1763. Pontus • — Wars of the Romans with Mithridates the Great, 88-65 B. c. Popes — NOTED POPES IN THE MIDDLE AGES. Leo the Great, 440- 461. Adrian IV., 1154-1159. Gregory the Great, 590- 604. Alexander m.. 1159-1181. Gregory IL., 715- 731. Innocent m., 1198-1216. Zaohary, 741- 752. Honorius in.. 1216-1227. Stephen m. (H.), 752- 757. Gregory IX., 1227-1241. Adrian I., 772- 795. Gregory X., 1271-1276. Leom., 795- 816. Boijifaoe Vm., 1294-1303. Leo IV., 847- 855. Clement V., 1305-1314. Nicholas I., 858- 867. John xxn.. 1316-1334. John Vm., 872- 882. Clement VI., 1342-1352. John X., 914- 928. Urban VL, 1378-1389. John Xn., 965 (966!)- 963. Boniface IX., 1389-1404. Sylvester n., 999-1003. John XXm., 1410-1415. Nicholas U., 1058-1061. Martin V., 1417-1431. Gregory VIL, 1073-1086. Eugenius IV., 1431-1447. Urban n., 1088-1099. Nicholas v., 1447-1455. Paschal n., 1099-1118. Pius II., 1458-1464. CalixtuB n., 1119-1124. sixtus rv.. 1471-1484. > Henry was elected king in 1573, but did not arrive in Poland nntil 1574. * A town of Ligniia, on the Tanarns (Tanaro), an affluent of the Po. Its site is about 30 miles S. E. of Turin. ' A town of the IHcralne, 450 miles S. W. of Moscow, and about 60 miles N. B. of the Dnieper. « A town on the Coromandel Coast, about 86 miles S. of Madras, belonging to France. • A kingdom on the S. shore of the Black Sea. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 275 POPES IN MODEEN TIMES. DATES OF SLEOTION. DATES OP BLBOTION. Alexander VI., 1492. Innocent X., 1644. Pius in., 1503. Alexander VII., 1655. Julius n.. 1508. Clement IX., 1667. LeoX., 1513. Clement X., 1670. Adrian VI., 1522. Innocent XI., 1676. Clement VTL, 1523. Alexander VIII. , 1689. Paul m.. 1534. Innocent Xn., 1691. Julius m., 1550. Clement XI., mo. Marcellus 11. 1555. Innocent Xm., 1721. Paul IV., 1555. Benedict XIU., 1724. KusIV., 1559. Clement XII., 1730. Pius v.. 1566. Benedict XIV., 1740. Gregory Xm., 1572. Clement XIII., 1758. SixtusV., 1585. Clement XIV., 1769. UAan Vll., 1590. Pius VL, 1775. Gregory XIV., 1590. Pius \n., 1800. Innocent IX., 1591. LeoXn., 1823. Clement Vlil., 1592. Pius vm., 1829. , Leo XI., 1605. Gregory XVL, 1831. Paul v.. 1605. Pius IX., 1846. Giegoiy XV., 1621. Leo XIII., 1878. Urban VllL, 1623. Fopish Plot— Invented by Titus Gates, 1678. Port Hudson ' — Surrenders to Banks, 1863. Portland, lale of'— Victory of Blake over the Dutch off, 1653. Porto BeUo (Puerto Bello) '—Taken by Vernon, 1739. Porto Bico— Discovered, 1493 ; subjugated by Ponce de Leon, 15f0 ; slavery abolished, 1873 ; wrested from Spain by the United States, 1898. Port Boyal des Champs* — Beform of, undertaken by Marie Angelique Amauld, 1608 ; the establishment suppressed, 1709. Portugal — ^Erected into a county by Alfonso the Valiant of Castile and Leon, about 1095 ; becomes a kingdom, 1139 ; Lisbon wrested from the Moors, 1147; Prince Henry the Navigator opens the era of maritime enterprise, early in 15th c. ; conquered by Philip II., 1580 ; throws off the yoke of Spain, 1640 ; independence recognized by Spain, 1668 ; French invasion, 1807 ; rising against the French, 1808 ; liberation secured, 1811 ; usurpation of Dom Miguel, 1828 ; his submission, 1834. ' A place on the E. bank of the Mississippi, a short distance above Baton Bonge. ' A peninsula on the coast of Dorsetshire. ' A town on the N. coast of the Isthmus of Panama. It was the great station of the Spanish silver fleets. * A Cistercian abbey of nuns at Che- vrense, a few miles S. W. of Versailles, founded in the early part of the 13th c. In the 17th c. a number of devout and learned men dwelt as recluses in the vicinity of the abbey, and distinguished themselves as the champions of Jansenism, which was warmly espoused by the nuns. Foremost among the Port Boyalists were Lancelot, Nicole, Antoine Amauld, and Pascal. 276 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. SOVEEEIGNS OF PORTUGAL. BuBotiNBiAM Dynasty. ACCESBION. Henry (count), about 1095. Alfonso I., 1112. (Assumes title of king, 1139.) Sanoho I., 1185. Alfonso n., 1211(1212?). Sancho n., 1223. (Deposed, 1245.) Alfonso m., 1248. Diniz, 1279. Alfonso IV., 1325. Pedro I., 1357. Ferdinand I., (Dies, 1383.) John I., Duarte (Edward), Alfonso v., John n., Emanuel, John Id., Sebastian, Henry I., (Dies, 1580.) Period of Spanish dominion. House of Bbaoanqa. ACOBSBIOV. John IV., Alfonso VI., (Deposed, 1667; dies, '1683.) Pedro II. (regent since the depo 1640. John VI., 1666. Maria da Gloria, Miguel, Maria restored. 1683. Pedro v.. 1706. Louis, 1760. Charles, 1777. ACCESBION, 1367. 1385. 1433. 1438. 1481. 1495. 1521. 1557. 1578. 1580-1640. ACOESSIOH. 1816. 1826. 1828. 1833. 1853. 1881. 1889. reduced by her, 439 b. o. sition of Alfonso VI.), John v., Joseph, Maria I. and Pedro III., (Death of Pedro, 1786.) Potassium — Discovered by Davy, 1807. Potato— Introduced into Europe, 16th c. Potidsea ' — ^Revolts from Athens, 433 b. c. Potosi, mines of— Discovered, 1545. Power-loom— Invented by Cartwright, 1784r-'5. Prsetorship (in Borne) — Instituted, about 367 b. c. Praga' — Stormed by SuvarofE, 1794 Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VX of Germany— Issued, 1713; forin- aUy published, 1724. Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII. of France, asserting the liberties of the Gallican Church, 1438. Prag^ie — Hussite wars break out in, 1419 ; defeat of the Protestants at (bat- tle of the White Mountain), 1620 ; occupied by the Saxons, 1631 ; peace of, between Ferdinand II. and Saxony, 1635 ; entered by the Swedes, 1648 ; falls into the hands of the allied French, Bavarians, and Saxons, 1741 ; occupied by the Prussians, 1744 ; victory of Frederick the Great at, 1757; • A town in Chalcidice, a peninsula projecting into the N. W. portion of the ^gean Sea. ' A suburb of Warsaw, on the opposite side of the Vistula. CHEONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 277 Tinsuceessfully besieged by him, 1757; Pan-Slavic congress held at, in- surrection, 1848; entered by the Prussians, 1866; peace of, between Prussia and Austria, 1866. PTag:ue, University of— Founded, 1348. Prairial, 30th, event of the, June 18, 1799. Presbuig — Peace of, between France and Austria, 1805 ; last Diet at, closed, 1848. Frestonpans ' — ^Victory of the Young Pretender at, 1745. Priestley Biots, 1791. Fiimogeniture, succession by, in France — Abolished, 1790. Princeton* — ^Victory of Washington at, Jan. 3, 1777. Princeton Collegsi (College of New Jersey) — Opened, 1747; not established at Princeton till some years later. Printing — Practiced by Gutenberg, as early as about 1438. Propaganda— Established, 1622. Providence— Settled, 1636. Prussia — ^Albert the Bear assumes the title of Margrave of Brandenburg, middle of 12th c. ; the Hohenzollems acquire Brandenburg, 1415 ; duchy of Prussia (see Teutonic Knishts) united with it, 1618 ; under Frederick William, the Great Elector, Brandenburg receives large accessions in the peace of Westphalia, 1648 ; suzerainty of Poland over the duchy of Prus- sia renounced, 1657 ; the elector of Brandenburg crowns himself king of Prussia, 1701 ; Silesia wrested from Austria, 1740-'42 ; Seven Years' War, 1756-'63; Prussia shares in the partition of Poland, 1772, 1798, 1795; crushed by France, 1806 ; War of Liberation, 1818-'14 ; secures large territories on the Rhine, haU of Saxony, Swedish Pomerania, &c., 1814-'15 ; revolution, 1848 ; war with Austria and her German allies, 1866 ; Han- over, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort annexed, 1866 ; organizes North German Confederation, 1866 ; Schleswig-Holstein incorporated with the kingdom, 1866 ; humbles France, 1870-'71 ; king of, becomes emperor of Germany, 1871. KINGS OF PRUSSIA. AG0EH8I0K. Frederick I. (elector of Bran- denburg from 1688), 1701. Frederick William I., 1T13. Frederick II., the Great, 1740. Frederick Waiiam H., 1786. Prutli •— Peter the Great's army narrowly escapes being overwhelmed by the Turks on the, 1711. Publilian Law — Passed, about 471 b. c. Puebla— Besieged and taken by the French, under Forey, 1863. Frederick "WiUiam IH., 1797. Frederick Wiffiam IV., 1840. WiUiam I., 1861. Frederick HI., 1888. WUliam II., 1888. > A small town a few miles E. of Edinbnigli. » A town of New Jersey, N. E. of Tren- ton. • An affluent of the Danube, now forming most of the bonndaiy between Euesia and Bonmanla. 278 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Pultowa. See Poltava. Funic Wars (between Carthage and Rome). See Carthaqe. Punjaub — Acquired by the British, 1849. Puritans — Receive their designation, 1564; rise of the sect of Brownists (Independents), about 1580; migration to New England begun, 1620; Puritanism dominant in England during the period of the Rebellion and the Commonwealth, 1642-'60 ; the Independents take the government en- tirely into their own hands, 1648; the Puritan ministers ejected from their livings, 1663 ; passage of the Toleration Act, 1689. Fydna ' — Victory of the Romans over Perseus at, 168 b. c. Pyramids of Gizeh. — The date of the erection of the Great Pyramid, the pyramid of Khufu (Cheops), according to the chronology ot Lepsius is about 3100 b. c. According to Brugseh the probable date would be about 3700. Mariette carries back the reign of Khufu to about 4200. Other Egyptologists assign to the monument a lesser antiquity than Lepsius. The other two pyramids of Gizeh are the work of the immedi- ate successors of Khufu. Pyramids, battle of the, victory of Bonaparte over the Mamelukes, 1798. Pyrenees, peace of the, between France and Spain, 1659. O. Quadruple Alliance, against Spain, 1718. Qxiadruple Treaty, directed against Dom Miguel and Don Carlos, 1834 Quakers — George Pox begins his preachings, 1647. Quatre-Bras ' — Repulse of Ney by Wellington at, June 16, 1815. Quebec— Pounded, 1608 ; taken by the English, 1629, 1759 ; unsuccessfully assaulted by the Americans, Dec. 31, 1775. Queen Anne's War, 1703-'13. Quer6taro 2— Besieged and taken by the troops of Juarez, execution of Maximilian, 1867. Quiberon * — ^Landing of indgres at, 1795. Quiberon, Bay of— Victory of the English over the French in the, 1759. It. Railways — The transportation of passengers on, by means of locomotive engines, successfully inaugurated, 1830. (Locomotive engines used for a number of years previously for the carriage of freight.) Bamillies "—Marlborough defeats the French and Bavarians at, 1706. Kastadt^ — Treaty of, between France and Austria, 1714; congress of (Prance and the German Empire), 1797-9 ; last post of the Baden revo- lutionists, 1849. • A town of southern Macedonia. » A locality S. ot Waterloo. ' A town 110 miles N. W. of Mexico. * A peninsula on the S. coast of Brittany. ' A village of South Brabant, in a S. B. direction from Brussels. • A town S. W. of Carlsruhe. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 279 Batisbon (Eegensburg) '—Made the permanent seat of the Diet of the Ger- man Empire, 1663 ; deprived of its position as a free city, 1803 ; incorpo- rated -with Bavaria, 1810. Batkow'— BlUcher capitulates to the French at, 1806. Kaucoux (Eocour)'— Marshal Saxe defeats Charles of Lorraine at, 1746. Saudian Fields *—MariTis overwhelms the Cimbri on the, 101 b. c. Baveima^Odoa<»r besieged in, by Theodoric, and forced to surrender, 490- 493 ; taken by Belisarius, 540; by the Lombards, 728, 752 ; becomes sub- ject to the popes, 755 ; victory of the French over the forces of the Holy League at, 1513. Savenna, exarchate of, 568-752. B6, Isle of'— Expedition of Buckingham against the, 1627. Bed Biver Expedition (conducted by Banks), 1864. Beformation — Beginning of the, 1517. Beform BiU— Introduced in Parliament, 1881 ; passed, 1832 ; new Reform Bill for England, 1867; for Scotland and Ireland, 1868; Gladstone's Franchise Bill passed, 1884. BegiUus, Lake '—The Romans defeat the Latins at, about 497 b. c. Beign of Terror (in French history), 1793-'4 Besaca de la Falma '—Taylor defeats the Mexicans at. May 9, 1846. Bestitutioo, Edict of, 1629. Bhaetians '■ — Subjugated by the Romans, 15 b. c. Bheinfelden. ' — Bemhaxd of Weimar defeats the Imperialists at, 1638. Bbeims, cathedral of— BuUt, 13th c. ; towers completed, about 1430. Bhine, Confederation of the, 1806-'18. Bhode Island — Providence settled, 1636 ; settlement on Aquidneck, 1638 ; patent for the united government of the Rhode Island settlements, 1644 ; one of the thirteen states, 1776 ; Dorr's rebellion, 1842. Bhode Island, battle of, between Sullivan and Pigot, 1778. Bhodes (island) " — Siege of the city of Rhodes by Demetrius Poliorcetes, 305-304 B. c. ; becomes a great naval power, about 300 b. c. ; incorporated with the Roman Empire, first c. a. d. ; conquered by the Knights of St. John, 1309 ; attacked by Mohammed 11., 1480 ; wrested from the Knights of St. John by Solyman IL, 1522. Bhodes, Colossus erf— Erected by Chares, about 292-280 b. c. Bichmond — Made the capital of the Confederate States, 1861 ; occupied by the Federals, April 3, 1865. ' A town on the Danube, 65 miles N. E. of Afnnich. • A vQlage near Lfitieck, belong- ing to Oldenburg. • A village near Li^e. * The best authorities place the Saudian Fields near the junction of the Sesia and the Po, in the E. part of modem Piedmont. • Near La Eochelle. • Abont 10 miles E. or S. E. of Rome. The ezact position is uncertain. ' A locality near the extreme southern point of Texas. ' The home of the Bheetians was Tyrol and eastern Switzerland, with an adjoining portion of Italy. • A town E. of Basel, on the Rhine, now incladed in the canton of Aargan. ><> Off the S. W. coast of Asia Minor. 280 CnUONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. RiToli ' — Bonaparte defeats the Austtians at, 1797. Hoaaoke Island' — Unsuccessful settlement made at, 1585; captured by the Federals, 1863. Bochelle, La • — Successfully defended by the Huguenots, 1573 ; besieged and reduced by the forces of Richelieu, 1627-'8. Booroy* — Victory of the French over the Spaniards at, 1643. Bomagna, the. See Papal States. Romanoff, house of. See Russia. Borne (state) — [b. c] — Reputed to have been founded, 753 ; abolition of royalty,' institution of the Consulship, about 510 ; attack of the Gauls under Brennus, about 388 ; beginning of the Samnite wars, about 343 ; the Latins subjugated, about 338; war with Pyrrhus, 280-275; Rome mistress of all Italy,' 265 ; first war with Carthage, 264-241 ; conquest of Cisalpine Gaul, 225-222 ; second Punic War, 219-201 ; beginning of the wars with Macedon, 214 ; war with Antiochus the Great of Syria, 192-190 ; conquest of Macedon, 168 ; war with the Lusitani, about 154^ 140 ; third Punic War, 149-146 ; Greece made a Roman province, 146 ; kingdom of Pergamus bequeathed to the Romans, 133 ; conquest of the southeastern portion of Transalpine Gaul, 125-121 ; Jugurthine War, 111-106 ; Marius overwhelms the Teutones and Cimbri, 102, 101 ; Social War, 90-88 ; Mithridatic wars, 88-65 ; Syria annexed, 64 ; Judea made tributary, 63 ; conquest of Gaul by Caesar, 58-51 ; first expedition into Britain, 55 ; Caesar's triumph over Pompey, 48 ; Oetavius master of the Roman world, 31 — ^beginning of the Empire ; Egypt annexed, 30 ; Rome mistress of all Spain, 19; Rhaetia and Vindelicia conquered, 15; cam- paigns of Drusus in Germany, 12-9 ; conquest of Pannonia completed, 9 ; — [a. d.] — Arminius arrests the progress of the Roman arms in Ger- many, 9 ; accession of Tiberius, 14 ; Caligula, 37 ; Claudius, 41 ; conquest of Britain begun, 43 ; accession of Nero, 54 ; Galba, 68 ; Otho, 69 ; Vitel- lius, 69 ; Vespasian, 69 ; destruction of Jerusalem, 70 ; accession of Titus, 79 ; Domitian, 81 ; Nerva, 96 ; Trajan, 98 ; conquest of Dacia completed, 106 ; the Roman Empire attains its greatest extension, 115 ; accession of Hadrian, 117 ; Antoninus Pius, 138 ; reign of Marcus AureUus, 161-180 ; Septimius Severus, 193-211 ; Alexander Severus, 222-235 ; Aurelian, 270- 275 ; partition of the empire between Diocletian, Maximian, Galerius, and Constantius Chlorus, 292 ; Constantine the Great master of the whole Ro- man world, 323 ; the empire divided on his death, 337 ; reunited under his son Constantius, 353 ; reign of Julian, 361-3 ; partition of the em- pire between Valentinian I. and Valens, 364 ; Theodosius the Great mas- ter of the whole, 394 ; final division into the Eastern or Byzantine Empire > A Tillage near Verona. ' On the coast of North Carolina. ' A town on the Bay of Biscay, nearly midway between Nantes and Bordeaux. * A frontier town of northern France, in the Forest of Ardennes. ' The kings of Kome are stated to have been : Roma* luB, Nnma Fompilins, Tnllns Hostilins, Ancns Marcins, Tarquinlns Friscns, Servius Tullius, Tarqninlos Snperbns. • The peninsular portion of modem Italy. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 281 and the Western Empire, 395 ; reign of Honorius, 395-423 ; end of the Western Empire, 476.' Borne (city)— [b. c.]— Reputed to have been founded, 753 ; burned by the Gauls, about 388 ; threatened by Hannibal, 211 ;— {a. d.]— great confla- gration under Nero, 64 ; pillaged by the Goths, 410 ; by the Vandals, 455 ; taken by Belisarius, 536 ; Belisarius besieged in, by Vitiges, 537-'8 ; taken by Totila, 546 ; recovered by Belisarius, 547 ; again falls into the hands of Totila, 549 ; taken by Nsfces, 552 ; the emperors of Constantinople cease to exercise authority, the popes becoming the guardians of the city, first half of 8th c ; coronation of Charlemagne in, 800 ; inclosing of the Leo- nine City, 848-852 ; coronation of Otho the Great, 962 ; Henry IV. be- sieges Gregory VII. in the castle of Sant' Angelo, Robert Guiscard deliv- ers the pope, 1084; anti-papal agitation of Arnold of Brescia, about 1145-'55 ; papal see removed to Avignon, 1809 ; Eienzi's revolution, 1347 ; tyranny and fall of Rienzi, 1354 ; again the papal residence, 1377 ; muni- cipal liberties finally suppressed by Boniface IX., close of 14th c. ; taken and plundered by Ladislas, king of Naples, 1413 ; last imperial coronar , tion at, 1452 ; taken and plundered by the troops of the constable de Bourbon, 1527 ; insurrection, 1797 ; the French occupy the city, and pro- claim the Roman Republic, 1798 ; end of the Roman Republic, 1799 ; again occupied by the French, 1808; annexed to the French Empire, 1809 ; papal authority restored, 1814 ; rising against Pius IX., 1848 ; proclamation of the Roman Republic, 1849 ; the French restore Pius IX., 1849 ; annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1870 ; capital of Italy, 1871. Soncesvalles ' — Disaster to the army of Charlemagne at, 778. Boses, Wars of the, 1455-'85. Bosetts Stone — Discovered, 1799. BSskilde ' — Treaty of, between Denmark and Sweden, 1658. Bossbach' — ^Victory of Frederick the Great at, Nov. 5, 1757. Boaen, cathedral of— Mainly the work of the 13th c. Boum, sultanate of. See Seljites. Boumania — Moldavia and Wallachia united into the principality of, under Alexander John (Cuza), 1861 ; accession of Charles of Hohenzollem, 1866 ; the country joins in the war against Turkey, and declares her indepen- dence, 1877 ; becomes a kingdom, 1881. Boveredo ' — Victory of the French over the Austrians at, 1796. Boyal Society of Iiondon — Pounded, 1660 ; incorporated, 1663. Bugby School *— Founded, 1567. Bump Parliament (in English history), 1648-'53. Bump Parliament (in German history), 1849. • The chronology of the reigns of all the Boman emperors has been given in Part I. • A valley in the W. portion of the Pyrenees. ' A town on the island of Seeland. * A Til- lage S. of Halle, now inclnded in PmsBian Saxony. * A town of southern Tyrol. * Bngby is a town of Warwickshire, on the Avon. 282 CHEONOLOGICAL DICTIONART OF UNIVEBSAL HISTORT. nurik Dynasty. See Russia. Russia — The Varangian Burik lays the foundations of the empire at Nov- gorod,' 862 ; other Varangian leaders soon after wrest Kiev from the Ehar zars ; Kiev capital of the united Varangian realm, about 880 1 Vladimir the Great embraces Christianity, 988 ; country partitioned into various principalities, middle of 11th c. — ^the grand-principality of Kiev the domi- nant power ; the grand-principality of Vladimir becomes the chief seat of power, middle of 12th c. ; the Russian princes forced to acknowledge the supremacy of the Mongols, 1240 — Novgorod remaining independent ; large territories (Volhynia, Kiev, &c.) conquered by the Lithuanians, early in 14th c. ; Moscow the chief seat of sovereignty, from 1328 ; republic of Novgorod annexed to the Muscovite realm, 1478 ; emancipation from the Mongol yoke, 1480 ; sway of Moscow extended over all the Russian do- minions, early part of 16th c. ; the grand-prince Ivan IV. assumes the title of Czar, 1547; conquest of the Tartar khanate of Kazan, 1552 ; conquest of Astrakhan, 1554; the western portion of Siberia conquered by Cossacks, 1581-2 ; end of the dynasty of Rurik, 1598 ; empire prostrated by a Po- lish invasion, 1610-'12 ; accession of the Romanoff dynasty, 1613 ; treaty, of Stolbova, Karelia and Ingria ceded to Sweden, 1617 ; treaty of Andru- sovo, the Ukraine as far as the Dnieper, together with Kiev, &o., relin- quished by Poland, 1667 ; conquest of Azov by Peter the Great, 1696 (see (Azov) ; he wrests Karelia, Ingria, Esthonia, and Livonia from Sweden, 1700-1710 (treaty of Nystad, 1721) ; foundation of St. Petersburg, 1703; first partition of Poland, 1772 ; the Crimea incorporated with the Bmpue, 1783 ; frontiers extended to the Dniester, 1792 ; second partition of Poland, 1798; third partition, 1795; Courland annexed, 1795; Georgia, 1801; conquest of Finland, 1808 ; frontiers extended to the Pruth, 1812 ; Na- poleon's invasion, 1812 ; Daghestan, Baku, and Shirvan acquired from Persia, 1813 ; erection of the kingdom of Poland for the house of Roma- noff, 1815 ; conquest of Persian Armenia, 1827 ; subjugation of the tribes of the Caucasus, 1834-'64 ; portion of Bessarabia given up in the treaty of Paris (terminating the Crimean War), 1856; acquisition of the Amoor Country, 1858 ; abolition of serfdom, 1861 ; Alaska sold to the United States, 1867; conquest of Samarkand, 1868; Khokan annexed, 1876 ; Bes- sarabian territory recovered, portion of Turkish Armenia annexed, 1878. SOVEREIGNS OF EUSSIA FEOM 1328. AOOBSSION. A0CBS8I0N. Ivan I., 1328. Dmitri BonsM, 1863. Simeon, 1340. Basil 11., 1389. IvanU., 1353. BasUm., 1^5. , Dmitri (Demetrius) of Vladi- Ivan III., 1482. mir, 1360. Basil IV., 1805. > Novgorod Veliki, Novgorod the Great, near Lake Ilmen, 100 miles S. of St. Petersburg. CHKONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 283 ACCESSIOX. 1605. 1606. ACOEBSION. Ivan IV., the Teirible, 1533. Pseudo-Demetrius, ^e^o' '■> 1584. BasU V. (Shuiski), (Last of the house of Rurik.) (Dethroned by another Pseudo- Boris Godunoff, 1598. Demetrius, 1610.) House ob* Romanoff. M«*ael| 1613. EUzabeth, 174I ■^le™. 1645. Peter m., 1762" Fedor n. (HI.), lere. Catharine n., 1762 Ivan V. and Peter the Great, 1682. Paul, X796* (Peterthe Great alqpe, 1689.) Alexander!, 180l' Catharine I., 1725. Nicholas, I825" PetfirH., 1727. Alexander II., I855.' ■^™e> 1730. Alexander III., I881! Ivan VI., 1740. Nicholas II., I894. Bustcliuk '—Taken by the Russians, 1810. Bye House Plot, 1683. Byswick,' peace of, between France and the allied powers, 1697. S. Sabine Cross Boads '—The Confederates defeat Banks at, April 8, 1864. Sackett's Harbor <— Repulse of the British at, 1813. Sacred War (between the Phocians and Delphians), 448 b. c. Sacred War (waged against Phocis by Thebes and her allies), 857-346 b. c. Sadowa '—Victory of the Prussians at (battle of Koniggratz), July 8, 1866. Sagimtum '—Taken by Hannibal, 219 b. c. Saint Albans '—Victory of the Yorkists at, 1455 ; of the Lancastrians, 1461. Saint Andrews,' University of— Founded, 1411. Saint Augustine •— Founded by the Spaniards, 1565. Saint Bartholomew, massacre of, Aug. 24, 1572. Saint-Denis '"—Battle of, between the Catholics and Huguenots, 1567. Saint-Oermain " — Peace of, between the Catholics and Huguenots, 1570 ; peace of, between France and Brandenburg, 1679. Saint Gothard "—Victory of Montecuculi over the Turks at, 1664. Saint Gothard Tunnel (in the Alps)— Completed, 1881. ' A town of Bulgaria, on the Dannbe, abont 45 miles S. of Bachiirest. * A village near the Hagne. ' A loc^Jity in the N. W. part of Lonisiana. * A place on the E. shore of Lake Ontario. • A Tillage in the N. E. part of Bohemia. • A town on the E. coast of Spain, in the present province of Valencia ; the town of Mnrviedro is on its site. ' A town of Hert- fordshire, 19 miles N. W. of the center of London. ' A town on the E. coast of Scotland, between the friths of Forth and Tay. " A town on the E. coast of Florida; '» A town in the northern outskirts of Paris. •' A town a few miles W. of Paris. " A town on the river Baab, which enters the Danube from the south between Fresburg and Comom. 284 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL BISTORT, Saint Louis— Settied, 1764. Saint Paul's CathedraL See London. Saint Peter's (at Borne) — ^Erection of, begnn, 1506 ; consecrated, 1626. Saint Petersburg— Pounded, 1703. Saint-ftuentin '—Victory of the Spaniards over the French at, 1557 ; de- feat of the army of Faidherbe at, Jan. 19, 1871. Saint Vincent, Cape'— Victory of the French over the English off, 1693 ; victories of the English over the Spaniards off, 1780, 1797 ; defeat of Dom Miguel's fleet off, 1838. Saj6 ^ — ^Victory of the Mongols over the Hungarians on the, 1241, Salamanca* — ^Victory of Wellington over Marmont near, 1812. Salamanca, University of— Founded, about 1200. Salamis (island) ' — The Greeks defeat the fleet of Xerxes at, 480 b. c, Salamis (city)— Demetrius Foliorcetes annihilates the fleet of Ptolemy Lagi at, 306 B. 0. (See Cyprus.) Salankamen ' — Victory of Louis of Baden over the Turks at, 1691. Salem (Mass.)— Settled, 1628 ; witchcraft delusion, 1692. Salerno,'' medical school of— At height of its fame, about 1050-1200. Salzbiirg, archbishopric of— Expulsion of Protestants, 1731-2 ; see secu- larized, 1802-'3 ; territory given by Napoleon to Austria, 1805 ; given up by Austria, annexed to Bavaria, 1809-'10 ; reannexed to Austria, 1815. Samarkand— Conquest of, by Russia, 1868. Samaria^ — [b. c] — Founded by Omri, about 900; taken by the Assyrians, 722 (721) ; by John Hyrcanus, about 109. Samnite Wars "—About 343-841, about 326-304, 298-290 b. c. Sandwich Islands, See Hawaiian Islands. San Francisco — Bises into importance, 1849. San Jacinto " — Battle of, victory of Houston over Santa Anna, 1836, San Juan Boundary Question " — Settled, 1872. San Stefano," treaty of, between Bussia and Turkey, 1878. Santiago de Cuba--Cervera's fleet blockaded at. May, 1898 ; sinking of the " Merrimac," June 3 ; storming of San Juan and El Caney, July 1 > Spanish fleet destroyed, July 3 ; Toral surrenders, July 14-17,' Santo Domingo, island of. See Hayti. Santo Domingo, republic of— Constituted, 1844 ; government transferred • A town of France, 80 miles N. B. of Parie. ' At the S. W. extremity of Portngal. ' A river of northern Hungary, an affluent of the Hem&d, which joins the Theiss below Tokay. • A town 110 miles N. W. of Madrid. » Off the coast of Attica, W. of Athens. • A village on the Danube, opposite'the month of the Theiss. ' A town 30 miles S. E. of Naples, on the Gulf of Salerno. ^ gamaria was situated 40 miles N. of Jerusalem, midway between the Jordan and the Mediterranean. » The country of the Samnites, Samnifti, was an interior district of southern Italy, bordering on Latium and Campania, i" A river of Texas, empty- ing into an arm of Galveston Bay. The battle was fonght near its mouth. " San Juan is an island in the channel between Vancouver Island and the American mainland. The whole of the little archipelago to which it belongs was awarded to the United States. " A small place near Constantinople, on the Sea of Marmora. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONAKY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 285 to Spain by Santana, 1861 ; rising against Spain, 1863 ; independence recognized, 1865 ; Grant's scheme of annexation, 1869-71. Swfacens— The Hegira, 632 ; Mecca submits to Mohammed, 629 ; he invades Palestine, 629 ; accession oi Abubekr, the first caliph, 633 ; accession of Omar, 634 ; conquest of Syria and Palestine, 634r-about close of 636 ; ' victory over the Persians at Cadesia, 635 (Sir W. Mmr) ; conquest of Egypt, 639-641 ; the victory at Nehavend places Persia in their power, 642 ; accession of Othman, 644 ; All, 656 ' ; Moawiyah founds the Ommi- yade dynasty of caliphs (caliphs of Damascus), 661 ; subjugation of north- em Africa completed, 709 ; invasion of Spain, 711 ; vanquished near Poi- tiers, 733 ; the Ommiyades overthrown by the Abbassides, 750 ; Bagdad founded, about 762 ; Haroun al-Bashid, 786-809 ; conquest of Sicily, 837- 878 ; extend their incursions far into the region of the western Alps, first half of 10th c. SaragOBsa — Conquered from the Moors, 1118 ; unsuccessfully besieged by the French, 1808 ; taken by them, 1809. Saratoga — Battle of, between Burgoyne and Gates, Oct. 7, 1777 ; surrender of Burgoyne, Oct. 17. Sardinia — Relinquished by Carthage to Rome, 337 b, o. ; becomes subject to Aragon, a. n. 1336 ; occupied by the English, 1708 ; awarded to Austria, 1713-'14 ; occupied by the Spaniards, 1717 ; given to Savoy, 1730. Sardinia, kingdom of— The dominions of Savoy erected into the, 1730 ; Savoy and Nice annexed to Prance, 1793 ; Piedmont given up to the French, 1798 ; Piedmont, Savoy, and Nice recovered, and Liguria annexed, 1814r-'15 ; revolution, 1831 ; Charles Albert's war against Austria, 1848-'9 ; Victor Emanuel IL takes part in the Crimean War, 1855 ; war of Victor Emanuel and Napoleon III. against Austria, acquisition of Lombardy, 1859 ; Savoy and Nice ceded to Prance, 1860 ; Victor Emanuel master of nearly all Italy, 1860 ; he assumes the title of King of Italy, 1861. KINGS OF SARDINIA. ACCESSION. ACCBSBIOK. Victor Amadeus D. (duke of Savoy from 1675) assumes the title of King of Sardinia, 1720. Charles Emanuel ID. , 1730. Victor Amadeus HI., 1773. Sardis ' — Taken by the lonians, 500 or 499 b. c. Sassanidse. See Persia. Sault Ste. Karie, mission of*— Founded, 1668. Saumur * — Victory of the Vendeans at, 1793. I The year 655 is frequently given for the date of All's accession ; recent anthorities place the event in 656. ' In Lydia. • Sault Ste. Marie was located on the S. side of St. Mary's Strait, which connects Lake Superior with Lake Huron. A town of the same name now occnpies the site. * A town on the Loire, 3. E. of Angers. Charles Emanuel IV., 1796. Victor Emanuel I., 1802. Charles Felix, 1821. Charles Albert, 1881. Victor Emanuel II., 1849. 286 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Savage's Station' — Engagement between the Confederates, under Ma^ gruder, and the Federals, under Sumner, at, June 29, 1863. Savannah. — Founded, 1733 ; entered by the British, 1778 ; the British re- pulse an assault on, Oct. 9, 1779 ; evacuated, 1782 ; occupied by Sherman, Dec. 21, 1864. Savenay ' — Defeat of the Vendeans at, 1793. Savoy — Bise of the house of Savoy, ' 11th o. ; county of, erected into a duchy, 1416 ; Sicily ceded to, 1713 ; Sardinia received in exchange for Sicily, 1720. See Sardinia (kingdom of). Saxony — Charlemagne enters upon his wars against the Saxons, 772 ; sub- mission of their leader Wittikind, 785 ; last great effort of the Saxons to shake off the Prankish yoke, about 793-804 ; creation of the old duchy of the Saxons,* about 850: Henry the Fowler of Saxony becomes king of Germany, 919 (see Germany) ; king Otho the Great confers the duchy upon Herrmann BUKng, about 960 ; Lothaire of Saxony becomes emperor of Germany, 1125 ; Henry the Lion, of the house of Guelph, in- vested with the duchy, 1143 ; fall of Henry the Lion, dissolution of the old Saxon duchy, the title of Duke of Saxony passes to Bemhardof Aska- nien, son of Albert the Bear of Brandenburg, 1180-'81 ; the Saxon posses- sions of the house of Askanien divided into Saxe-Wittenberg and Saxe- Lauenburg, 1260 ; the duke of Saxe-Wittenberg recognized as one of the imperial electors in the Golden Bull, 1856 ; extinction of the dy- nasty of Saxe-Wittenberg, 1423 ; the duchy and the electoral dignity are conferred upon Frederick the Warlike, margrave of Meissen, of the house of Wettin, 1423 ; the Wettin dynasty. divided into the electoral and the ducal house of Saxony (Ernestine and Albertine branches), 1485 ; reign of the elector Frederick the Wise, 1486-1525 ; reign of the elector John the Constant, 1535-'82 ; his successor, John Frederick the Magnanimous, dethroned, a great part of his dominions and the electoral dignity con- ferred upon Duke Maurice, of the Albertine branch, 1547 ' ; Saxon rule in the kingdom of Poland, Augustus II. and Augustus III., 1697-1768 (with intermission) ; the elector Frederick Augustus HI. assumes the title of king as Frederick Augustus I., 1806 ; he is made duke of Warsaw, 1807 ; duchy suppressed, 1813 ; half of Saxony annexed to Prussia, 1815 ; acces- sion of Anthony, 1837 ; revolutionary movement, 1830 ; constitutional government secured, 1831 ; Frederick Augustus II. king, 1886 ; insurrec- > About 10 miles E. of Kchmona. » A town N. W. of Nantes. » The origin of the honse of Savoy is commonly traced back to Humbert, count of Maurienne, prominent among tbe petty lords who held sway in the Arletan territories in the early part of the 11th c. The kingdom of Aries, after the extinction of the native Burgundian dynasty in 1032, became the possession of the emperor Conrad IT., and thus the dominions of the house of Savoy were originally included in the German Empire. • The old Saxon duchy was a very differ- ent region from the Saxony of modern times. It embraced the northwestern portion of the present German Empire. » Out of the possessions retained by the Ernestine house were formed the Saxon duchies of Thuringia. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. SSt tion, 1849 ; John, 1854 ; kingdom becomes part oi the North German Con- federation, 1866 ; of the German Empire, 1871 ; Albert, 1873. Scala, hoiise of. See Verona. Scbfissburg ' — Defeat of the Hungarians at, 1849. Schenectady * — ^Destruction of, by the French and Indians, 1690. Schism, the Great, 1378-1429. Schlesmg^Holstein— First Schleswig-Holstein War, 1848-'51 ; second, end- ing in the liberation of the duchies from Denmark, 1864; Prussia and Aus- tria agree to a mutual occupation, 1865; incorporated with Prussia, 1866. SchSnbrumi,' peace of, between France and Austria, 1809. Scio * — The Kussians defeat the Turkish fleet at, 1770 ; Turkish massacres, 1822 ; great earthquake, 1881. Scotland — (See Caledonia.) — The Picts overrun Britain, 4th-5th c. ; the Scots, from Ireland, found the realm of Dalriada, about 503 ; settlement of the Angles, 6th c. ; conversion of the Picts by Columba, second half of 6th 0. ; the country of the Picts united with the Scottish realm, about 843 ; iavasions of the Northmen, 9th-llth c. ; invasion of WiUiam the Con- queror, 1072 ; William the Lion does homage to England, 1174r-'89 ; arbitration of Edward 1. in regard to the succession, crown awarded to John Balliol, 1291-'3 ; Edward takes possession of the kingdom, 1296 ; career of Wallace, 1297-1305 ; victory of Robert Bruce at Bannockbum, 1314 ; independence of the kingdom recognized by Edward III., 1328 ; Stuart dynasty inaugurated by Robert XL, 1371 ; accession of Robert m., 1390 ; James I., 1406 ; James II., 1437 ; James IH., 1460 ; James rv., 1488 ; James V., 1513 ; Mary, 1542 ; Reformation established, 1560 ; James VI., 1567 ; Presbyterianism established by Parliament, 1592 ; dy- nastic union with England, 1603 ; Episcopacy restored, 1610 ; the Na- tional Covenant subscribed by the people. Episcopacy abolished, 1638 ; the Covenanters appeal to arms, 1689 ; the Scottish army joins the forces of the English Parliament in the war against Charles I., 1644; the country wages war for Charles II., and is conquered by the Eng- lish, 1650-'51 ; the Restoration, 1660 ; Episcopacy re-established, 1661 ; faU of the Stuarts, 1688 ; Presbyterianism finally reestablished, 1690 ; legislative union with England, 1707 ; rebellion in favor of James Ed- ward Stuart, 1715 ; rising for the Young Pretender, 1745-'6. Sebastopol— Siege of, by the English, French, Turks, and Sardinians, 1854-'5 ; falls, Sept. 8, 1855. Sedan '—The Germans defeat Mac Mahon's army at, Sept. 1, 1870 ; surren- der of the army and of Napoleon III., Sept. 2. Sedgemoor ' — Defeat of the duke of Monmouth at, 1685. • A town of Traneylvania, in a N. E. direction from Hennannetadt. ' A town N. W. of Albany, on the Hohawk. • An imperial residence in the soathwestem outskirts of Vienna. * An island ofl the W. coast of Asia Minor ; the ancient Chios. Previons to 1882 the popu- lation was mainly Greek. » A town of France on the Mense, close to the Belgian frontier. • The battle-field of Sedgemoor was near Brldgewater, in Somersetshire. 288 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. SeleucidsB, kingdom of the, 312-65 b. c. (See Stbia.) Seljuks — Under Togrul Beg, establish their dominion in Persia, about 1037- 1050 ; Togrul becomes master in the dominions of the caliph of Bagdad, 1055 ; accession of Alp Arslan, 1063 ; he defeats and captures the Byzan- tine emperor Bomanus Diogenes, 1071 ; accession of Malek Shah, 1072 ; the Seljuks make themselves masters of Asia Minor, where the sultanate of Roum is founded, and of Syria, about l574-'84 ; death of Malek Shah, 1092 — ^followed by the disruption of the Seljuk realm ; beginning of the crusades, 1096 ; the crusaders take Jerusalem, 1099 ; reign of Noureddin in Syria, 1145-'74 ; his general, Saladin (a Kurd), becomes ruler of Egypt, 1171 ; the Kharesmians put an end to the Seljuk power in Persia, 1194; the sultanate of Boum disappears, close of 13th c. Sellasia ' — ^Antigonus Doson vanquishes Cleomenes III. at, 221 B. c. Seminoles* — Campaign of Jackson against the, 1818 ; outbreak of the sec- ond Seminole war, 1835 ; it is finally terminated, 1842. Sempach. ' — ^Victory of the Swiss over the Austrians at, 1386. Senef (SenefEe)* — Battle of, between Conde and William of Orange, 1674. Sentinum' — The Bomans defeat the Samnites and Gauls at, 295 b. g. Sepoy Mutiny, 1857-8. September Massacres, 1792. Septuagint— Begun, probably 3d o. b. o. Serfdom in Russia — Abolished, 1861. Seringapatam' — Stormed by the English, 1799. Servia — Settlement of the Serbs, 7th c. ; independent kingdom, from the 11th c. ; kingdom at the height of its power under Stephen Dushan, 1331- close of 1355; power of the nation broken by the Turks, 1389; incor- porated with the Turkish Empire, 1459 ;— {See Bklgbade.) — Czemy George heads a rising against the Turks, 1804 ; Turkish authority re-established, 1813; rising under MUosh Obrenovitoh, 1815; he is elected prince, 1817; withdrawal of the Turkish garrisons, 1867; wars with Turkey, 1876, 1877-8 ; declared completely independent, 1878 ; Milan Obrenovitoh as- sumes the title of king, 1882 ; war with Bulgaria, 1885. Servile War (rising of gladiators in Italy under Spartacus), 73-71 b. o. Servile Wars in Sicily, 134-132, 102-99 b. o. Settlement, Act of (Hanoverian Succession), 1701. Seven Fines and Fair Oaks'— Battle of, between McClellan's forces and the Confederates, ending in the repulse of the latter. May 31, June 1, 1862. Seven Tears' War, 1756-'63. Sewing Machine— Patented by Howe, 1846. " A town of Laconia, N. of Sparta. » The old home of the Seminoles was Florida. • A small place N. W. of Lucerne. * A town of Hainant, Belgimn. • A town in the N. part of Umbria, on the E. slope of the Apennines. • Formerly the capital of the mleis Of UfBOie^ in southern India. ' Localities a few miles E. of Bichmond. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 289 Shakers — Sect founded by Ann Lee, about 1770. Shays's BebeUion, 1786-'7. Sheemess ' — Burning of British ships at, by the Dutch, 1667. Shiloh, battle o£ See PrcTSBUsoH Lakdino. Shipka Pass'— Successfully defended by the Russians, 1877; surrender of the Turkish army in the, Jan. 9, 1878. Ship Money, "Writ of— Issued by Charles I., 1634 Short Parliament, 1640. Shrewsbury » — Victory of Henry IV. over the Percys at, 1403. Bhumla*— Attempts of the Russians to take the place, 1774, 1810, 1828. Sicilian Vespers, 1282. Sicilies, the Two — The Normans conquer the greater part of Apulia, 1041 ; within a hundred years they establish their dominion over South Italy and Sicily (see Sicily); union of the Norman conquests in Italy ■with Sicily, 1127; Roger II. assumes the title of king of Sicily, 1130; Norman rule succeeded by that of the Hohenstaufen, 1194 ; the Hohen- stauf en dynasty overthrown by Charles of Anjou, 1266 ; Sicily revolts, and places herself under the rule of Aragon, 1282 (the house of Anjou continuing to rule South Italy, the kingdom of Naples) ; Sicily separated from Aragon, 1296 ; finally united with it, 1412 ; Alfonso V. of Aragon establishes his dynasty in Naples, 1442; Naples again an independent kingdom, 1458; it is conquered and lost by Charles Vlll. of France, 1495 ; Louis XTT. and Ferdinand the Catholic conquer it jointly, 1501 ; the Spaniards masters of the whole, 1503 ; Masaniello's insurrection at Naples, 1647 ; conquest of the kingdom of Naples by the Imperialists, 1707; Sicily ceded by Spain to Savoy, 1713; Naples secured to Austria, 1713-'14 ; Sicily reoccupied by the Spaniards, 1718 ; transferred to Aus- tria, 1720 ; conquest of the Two Sicilies by Don Carlos, who inaugurates the Bourbon dynasty, 1734r-'5 ; accession of Ferdinand IV., 1759 ; the French conquer Naples, 1798-'9; establishment of the Parthenopean RepnbUc, 1799 ; the expelled king, Ferdinand TV., recovers his throne, 1799; .Napoleon conquers Naples, and places Joseph upon the throne, 1806 (Ferdinand continuing to reign in Sicily); Murat made king of Naples, 1808 ; Ferdinand restored, 1815 ; Naples and Sicily united into one consolidated realm, Ferdinand IV. assuming the title of Ferdinand I., 1816; revolution, Austrian intervention, 1820-'31; accession of Francis I., 1825 ; Ferdinand IL, 1830 ; Sicily rises against Ferdinand IL, 1848 ; conflict in the streets of Naples, 1848 ; insurrection in Sicily suppressed, 1849 ; accession of Francis IL, 1859 ; insurrection in Sicily, Garibaldi's expedition, annexation of the Two Sicilies by Victor Emanuel, 1860 ; fall of Oaeta, the last stronghold of the Bourbon dynasty, 1861. ' A town at the junction of the Medway and the Thames. * In the Balkans, on the ronte from Timova to Eazanlik. ' The capital of Shropshire (Salop), on the Severn. * A town of eastern Bulgaria, on the northern declivity of the Balkans. 20 290 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. SicUy— [b. c.]— Establishment of the Greek colonies in, about 750-700; dis. astrous attempt of Carthage to conquer the Greek cities, 480 ; she reneira her efforts, 409 ; island relinquished by Carthage to the Eomans, 241 ;— (See Stbacdse.) — [a. d.] — Conquered from the Ostrogoths by Belisarius, 535 ; Saracen conquest, 837-878 ; the Normans establish their sway, 1061- '72; their conquest fully completed, 1090. See Sicilies (the Two). Sidon— Chief city of Phoenicia, till about 1100 b. c. (See Phcenicia.) Sievershausen ' — ^Victory of Maurice of Saxony at, 1553. Sikha. See India. Silesia— Most of it conquered from Austria by Frederick the Great, 1740- '43; second Silesian War, 1744-'5; finally confirmed to Prussia, 1763. Silistria'— Unsuccessfully attacked by the Russians, 1773; taken by them, 1810 ; unsuccessfully besieged by them, 1828 ; again taken by them, 1829 ; successfully defended against them, 1854. Sinde ' — Aimexed to British India, 1843. Singapore *-^ Acquired by the English, 1824. Sistova,' peace of, between Turkey and Austria, 1791. Six Articles, Statute of the, 1539. Slavery, Negro — The African slare-trade inaugurated by the Portuguese, 1444; slavery introduced into Virginia, 1619; slave-trade abolished by the British and the United States, 1807 ; foundation of the British Anti- Slavery Society, 1833 ; act abolishing slavery in the British West Indies, 1833 (to take effect, 1834) ; American Anti-Slavery Society formed, 1838; decree abolishing slavery in the French colonies, 1848 ; abolition in the Dutch Bast Indies, 1859 ; the slaves in the Confederate States proclaimed free by Lincoln, Jan. 1, 1863 ; abolition in the United States, 1865. (See Bbazil, Porto Rico, Cuba.) Sluys'— Naval victory of the English over the French at, 1840. Smaloald (Schmalkalden),' League of— Formed, 1531 ; war of the, 1546-'7. Smolensk 8— Victory of the French over the Russians at, 1813. Society Islands— Admiral Du Petit-Thouars takes possession of Tahiti for France, 1843 ; the French government agrees to pay England, an indem- nity for losses sustained by the Britidi consul Pritchard, 1844; Queen Pomare restored, French protectorate recognized, 1847; islands aimexed to the French dominions, 1880. Social Wars (in Greek history), 358-355, 230-317 b. c. Social War (in Roman history; Marsic War), 90-88 b. c. Soissons'— Victory of Clovis over the Romans at, 486. * A village near Celle, now inclnded in the PruBsian province of Hanover. • A town in the N. B. part of Bulgaria, on the Banabe. ' A region on both sides of the lower Indus. • A town situated on a small island off the S. extremity of the Malay Peninsula. ' A town of Bulgaria, on the Danube, a short distance below Nikopoli. • A town of the Netherlands, in Zealand. ' A town of Thiiringia, now inclnded in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nas- sau. • A town on the Dnieper, about 230 miles S. W. of Moscow. • A town 55 miles N. B. of Paris. . CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 291 Solferino "—French and Sardinians defeat Austrians at, June 34, 1859. Solway Uoss "—Victory of the English over the Scots at, 1542. Sonderbund, War of the, 1847. Soibozme — Founded, about 1353. Sound Dues— Abolition of the, 1857. South Carolina— (See Carolina.)— One of the thirteen states, 1776; NuUi- fication movement, 1832; secedes, 1860 ; reconstruction completed, 1868. South Dakota— Admitted into the Union, 1889. South mountain '—Battle of, between the forces of McClellau and those of Lee, Sept. 14, 1862. South Sea Company— Assumes the discharge of the British national debt, 1720 ; the " bubble " bursts the same year. Spain— [b. c.]— Conquest of the S. and S. E. portions by the Carthaginians, about 236-220 ; the Romans complete the destruction of the Carthaginian power in the peninsula, 206 ; the Cantabri subdued, Rome mistress of the whole peninsula, 19 ;— (a. d.]— invasion of the Vandals, Suevi, and Alani, 409 ;— (See Vamdals, Suevi, Alani.)— the Visigoths lay the foundations of their realm, about 415-418 ; the Saracens invade the country, and over- throw the Visigothic kingdom, 711 ; they become masters of the whole peninsula within three years;— (See Moors in Spain.) — the Christians found the realm of Asturias, about 718 (!) ; Charlemagne conquers the northeastern portion of the peninsula, latter part of 8th c. ; kingdom of Navarre founded, 9th c. ; reign of King Alfonso the Great of Asturias, 866-910 ; soon after the close of his reign the name of Kingdom of Leon Is given to the Asturian dominions; Fernando Gonzalez recognized as independent count of Castile, 961; Castile erected into a kingdom by Sancho the Great of Navarre, 1033 (see Castile) ; Sancho erects Aragon into an independent kingdom, 1035 ; conquest of the Moorish kingdom of Toledo (New Castile) by Alfonso the Valiant of Castile and Leon, 1085 ; Alfonso erects Portugal into a coimty, about 1095 ; Alfonso el Batallador of Aragon wrests Saragossa from the Moors, 1118 ; union of Catalonia and Aragon, 1151 ; Alfonso the Noble of Castile, Alfonso IX. of Leon, and the king of Navarre break the power of the Moors at Navas de Tolosa, 1312 ; James the Conqueror of Aragon makes himself master of the Balearic Islands (held by the Mohammedans since the close of the 8th c.) and of the Moorish kingdom of Valencia, 1329-'45 (the town of Valencia taken, 1238) ; St. Ferdinand of Castile and Leon takes Cordova from the Moors, 1336; the Moors of Murcia submit to him, 1343; he takes Seville from the Moors, 1348 ; reign of Alfonso the Wise of Castile, 1352-'84 ; of Pedro the Cruel of Castile, 1350-'69 ; of Alfonso the Mag- nanimous of Aragon, 1416-'58 ; union of Aragon and Castile under Ferdi- • A village of Lombatdy, S. of Lake Garda. ' A locality in Camberland, adjoining Sol- way Frith. * A ridge of the AUeghaniea in Maryland and Pennsylvania. The battle of Soatfa Uoontain was fonght nearBoonesboroagh, S. E. of Hagerstown. 293 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONAEY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. nand and Isabella, 1479 ; they complete the conquest of the kingdom ol Granada, putting an end to Moorish dominion, beginning of 1492 ; con- quest of Spanish Navarre by Ferdinand, all Spain united, 1513 ; Charles I. inaugurates the Hapsburg dynasty, 1516 ; accession of Philip XL, 1556 ; Philip III., 1598 ; Philip IV., 1631 ; Charles II., 1665 ; the Hapsburg dy- nasty ends with Charles's death, 1700 ; Philip V., first of the Bourbon dynasty, proclaimed king, succession disputed, 1700 ; War of the Spanish Succession begins, 1701 ; Philip firmly established on the throne, 1711 ; recognized by treaties, 1713-14; Louis, 1734; Philip V. again, 1734; Ferdinand VI., 1746 ; Charles III., 1759 ; Charles IV., 1788 ; Napoleon's usurpation, throne given to Joseph, 1808; Peninsular War, 1808-'14; Bourbon dynasty restored, Ferdinand VII., 1814; revolution, 1830; French intervention in favor of Ferdinand VII., 1833 ; Isabella II., 1833— Maria Christina regent ; rising in favor of Don Carlos (Charles V.), 1838 ; end of first Carlist war, 1840 ; revolution, fall of Isabella, 1868 ; Amadeus, 1870 ; rising in favor of Don Carlos (Charles VII.), 1872 ; Amadeus abdi- cates, Spain a republic, 1873; risings of Intransigentes, 1873; Alfonso XII. proclaimed king, 1874 ; end of Carlist war, 1876 ; death of Alfonso XII., 1885; Alfonso XIII., 1886. See Sicilies (the Two), Sardinia, Neth- erlands, Milan, Portugal, Mexico, Cuba, Philippines, &c. Spanish Succession, War of the, 1701-14 Sparta — [b. c] — ^Legislation of Lycurgus, about 850 ; Messenian wars, about 743-734, about 645-638 (685-668) ' ; wrests Cynuria from Argos, about 550 — Sparta at this time recognized as the leading power in Greece ; de- fense of Thermopylae, 480 ; battle of Plataea, 479 ; the hegemony passes to Athens, 477 ; city overthrown by an earthquake, 464 ; insurrection of the Messenian helots, 464r455 ; Peloponnesian War, Athens succumbs, 431-404 ; Thebes puts an end to Sparta's military pre-eminence, 371 ; re- forms of Agis rV., about 348-341 ; reforms of Cleomenes III., about 336 ; passes under the sway of Kome, 146. Spectacles — Invented, about close of 18th c. « Spectator "—Published, 1711-'14. Spectrum Analysis — Science of, introduced by KirchhofE and Bunsen, 1860. Spinning Frame — Patented by Arkwright, 1769. Spinning Jenny — Invented by Hargreaves, 1767. Spire (Speier)," Diet of— The Reformers present their protest at the, 1539. Spottsylvania Couit-House '—Battles at, between Grant and Lee, May, 1864. Spurs, Battle of the. See Guinegatb. Stamp Act— Passed, 1765 ; repealed, 1766. Standard, Battle of the *— Defeat of the Scots in the, 1138. ' See Messenia. ' A town on the left bank of the Rhine, a few miles above the mouth of the Neckar. It was formerly one of the free oil ics of Germany, and now belongs to Bavaria » A village of Virginia, S. W. of BVed^ricksburg. * Fought near Northallerton, in Yorkshire. CHEONOLOGIOAL DICTIONAEY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 293 Star Chamber — Abolished, 1641. States General (of France) — First convoked, 1302; last assembly before the Eevolution, 1614-'15 ; convened by Louis XVI., and soon transformed into the Constituent Assembly, 1789. Steadman, Fort ' — Taken and lost by Lee, March 35, 1865. Steam-Engine — A rude approach to the, suggested by the marquis of Wor- cester, 1663 ; Papin's improvement, about 1690 ; Savery's improvement, 1698; Newcomen's engine patented, 1705 ; automatic movement intro- duced, 1718 ; Watt obtains his first patent, 1769. Steam-XTavigation — Fitch's boat plies on the Delaware, 1790; Fulton's success, 1807; screw-propeller introduced, 1837; transatlantic steam- navigation inaugurated, 1838. Steeukerk » — ^Victory of Luxembourg over William III. at, 1693. Stillwateiv-Battle of, between Burgoyne and Gates, Sept. 19, 1777. (The battle of Saratoga, fought Oct. 7, 1777, is also known as the second battle of Stillwater.) Stirling '—Victory of Wallace at, 1297. Stone Biver, engagements at. See Mubfrgesboro. Stony Point *— Stormed by Wayne, July 16, 1779. Stralsund " — Besieged by Wallenstein, 1638 ; secured to Sweden, 1648 ; taken by Frederick WiUiam, elector of Brandenburg, 1678 ; by Frederick Wil- liam I., 1715 ; by the French, 1807 ; seized by the Prussian officer Schill, and retaken by the French, 1809 ; incorporated with Prussia, 1815. Strasburg — Becomes a free imperial city, 13th c. ; seized by Louis XIV., 1681 ; revolutionary attempt of Louis Napoleon atj 1836 ; taken by the Germans, Sept., 1870 ; — cathedral completed, 1439. Stuart, house of. See Scoilaitd,. Ekqland. Styria. See Austria, Suabia. See Swabia. Suevi ' — Invade Gaul, 406 ; pass into Spain, 409 ; their realm there destroyed by the Visigoths, 585. Suez Canal— Constructed, 1859-'69. Sumter, Fort '—Bombardment of, April 13, 13, 1861 ; evacuated by Major Anderson, April 14. Supremacy, Act of— Passed by Parliament, 1534 ; new act passed, 1559. Swabia — Duchy of, under Hohenstaufen rule, from end of 11th to middle of 13th c. ; Great Swabian League formed, 1488 ; dissolved, 1533. Sweden— Christianity fully established, 13th c. ; Union of Calmar (see Den- mark), 1397 ; successful invasion of Christian II. of Denmark, 1520 ; Gus- tavus Vasa heads a rising against the Danes, 1531 ; he becomes king, I Before Peterebnrg, Va. ' A village of Belgiam, in Hainaat. ' A town on the river Portli. * On the W. bank of the Hadson, a few miles below West Point. ' A town on the coast of Pomeiania ; originally one of the Hanse towns, ' A Germanic people. ' In Charles- ton harbor. 294 CHKONOLOGICAL DICTIOlf AET OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 1533; Lutheranism made the state ohurcih, 1529; career of Gust-avua Adolphus in Germany, 1630-33 ; the kingdom acquires possessions in Germany, 1648 (see Pomerania, Wismae, Verden, and Bremen, duchy of) ; campaigns of Charles XII. against Peter the Great and Augustus the Strong, 1700-1709; receives Norway from Denmark, 1814 (See Livonia,' Finland.) SOVEEEIGNS OF SWEDEN I'BOM 1623. AOOBSSIOH. ACCXSBIOH. GustavuB Vaaa, 1523. Frederick of Hesse-Cassel shares Eric XIV., 1660. her throne. 1720. John m., 1568. Death of the queen, 1741. gigismund, 1592. Adolphus Frederick, rni. Oharlea IX., 1604.1 GuBtavus III., 1771. Guatavus Adolphus, 1611. Gustavus IV. Adolphus, 1792. Christina, 1632. Charles Xin., 1809. Charles X. Gustavus, 1654. Charles XIV. John (Bemadotte), 1818. Charles XI., 1660. Oscar I., 1844. Charles XII., 169r. Charles XV., 1859. Ulrioa Eleonora, 1719. Oscar n.. 1872. Swiss Confederacy — Originates in the league of Uri, Schwytz, and Unter- walden (directed mainly against the house of Hapsburg), 1391 ; victory of the Swiss at Morgarten, 1815 ; victory at Sempach, 1386 ; they vanquish Charles the Bold, 1476-'7 ; defeat Maximilian I., become virtually inde- pendent of the German Empire, 1499 ; battle of Marignano, 1515 ; Per^ petual Peace with Prance, 1516 ; beginning of the Swiss Eeformation, 1518 ; confederacy declared completely independent of the German Em- pire, 1648 ; the French establish the Helvetic Republic, 1798 ; the can- tonal confederacy restored, 1803 ; neutralization of the country, 1815; war of the Sonderbund, 1847. Sybaris ^ — Destruction of, by the Crotonians, 510 b. c. Syracuse— [b. c.]— Pounded by the Corinthians, about 750 ; battle of Hi- mera, 480 ; triumph of democracy, about 468 ; Athenian expedition against, 415-413 ; Dionysius the Elder establishes his power, 406 ; delivered from Dionysius the Younger by Timoleon, 348 ; city taken by the Romans, 313 ; — [a. d.] — by the Saracens, 878. Syria— [b. o.]— Subjected to the sway of Assyria, about 733 ; to that of Babylon, 605 ; on the overthrow of the Babylonian monarchy forms part of the Persian empire ; falls into the hands of Alexander the Great, 383 ; Upper Syria the conquest of Seleueus Nicator, founder of the kingdom of Syria, 301 or 800 " ; Coele-Syria conquered by Antiochus the Great, 198 ; ' Charles IX. had heen virtually king since 1599, Sigismnnd having forfeited his crown. » A Greek city of soathem Italy, near the W. shore of the Tarentine Gulf. • The leahu at the Seleucidoe was founded in 312. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 395 end of the kingdom of the Seleuddse, 65 ; Pompey takes possession of the country, 64;— [a. d.]— conquered by the Saracens, 634-636; by the Sel- juks, about 1075-'84; conquests of the Crusaders begun, 1097; Saladin makes himself master of most of the country, 1174-'83 ;— (See Jerusalem, Aotioch, Acre, Tyre.)— conquered by the Turks, 1516 ; by Mehemet Ali, 1881-'3; given up by him, 1841 ; massacres of the Christians, French occu- pation, 1860-'61. Szegedin— Destruction of, by an inundation of the Theiss, 1879. Sziget ' — ^Defended agamst the Turks, falls, 1566. Taciia»— Victory o£the Chilians at, 1880. Tagliacozzo ' — ^Victory of Charles of Anjou at, 1368. Taiping Sebellion, 1850-64 Talavera de la Reina*— Victory of Wellington over the French at, 1809. Tanagra'— Battle of, between the Spartans and Athenians, 457 b. c. Tanganyika, Lake— Discovered, by Burton and Speke, 1858. Tannenberg ^-JageUon defeats the Teutonic Knights near, 1410. lara, Hill of —Monster meeting of the Repealers on the, 1843. Tarentum' — Pyrrhus espouses the cause of, against Kome, 380 b. c. ; city surrenders to the Romans, 273 b. c. Targovitza,' Confederation of (formed by the Polish nobility), 1793. Tasmania— Discovered by Tasman, 1643. Tchesme '" — Turkish fleet burned by the Russians at, 1770. Tekke-Turkomans " — Russian expeditions against the, 1879, 1880-'81. Telegraph, Electric — Successfully introduced, 1844; transatlantic com- munication momentarily established, 1858 ; successfully established, 1866. Telel-Kebir"— Victory of the English over Arabi Pasha at, Sept. 13, 1883. Telepbone — BeU produces his apparatus for the transmission of speech, 1876. (Gray's resonator invented some years previously.) Telescopes-Invented, about 1608. Templars. See Knights Templars. Tennessee — Admitted into the Union, 1796 ; secedes, 1861 ; readmitted to representation in the Union, 1866. Ten Thousand, retreat of the, 401-400 b. c. * A small place in eonthem Hungary, a few miles N. of the Drave. (Not to be con- fonnded with the town of the same name in northeastern Hungary.) * A town about 175 miles S. E. of Arequipa. ' A town in the Apennines, about 40 miles N. E. of Rome. • A town on the Tagus, 64 piles S. W. of Madrid. • A town of Boeotia, on the Asopns. ' A village about 75 miles S. W. of Eonigsberg. ' In county Meath, in the E. part of Leinster. ' A Greek city in the S. B. part of Italy, on the N. shore of the Tarentine Gulf ; now Taianto. * A small place now included in the Russian government of Kiev. >° A town on the coast of Asia Minor, opposite the island of Scio. " A tribe of southern Turkestan, dwelling along the southwestern margin of the Eara-Emn desert. " A locality about 39 miles W. of lemailia. . . 296 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONABT OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Teniire of Office Act — Passed by Congress, 1867. Test Act — Passed by Parliament, 1673 ; repealed, 1838. Teutoburg Forest ' — Arminius defeats the Romans in the, a. d. 9, Teutones — Vanquished by Marius, 103 b. c. Teutonic Knights — Order of, founded, 1190 ; lay the foundations of theii dominion in the Baltic regions, 1331 ; complete the conquest of the Prus- sians, 1383; — (See IitvoNiA, KmGHTS-SwokDBBABBBS.) — surrender West Prussia' to Poland, 1466 — hold East Prussia' as a fief of Poland; East Prussia converted into the hereditary duchy of Prussia by the grand-mas' ter Albert of Brandenburg, 1535. Tewkesbury* — Defeat of the Lancastrians at, 1471. Texas — Revolution against the govenunent of Mexico, 1835 ; Houston be> comes president, 1836 ; a state of the Union, 1845 ; secedes, 1861 ; recon- struction completed, 1870. Thames ' — Harrison defeats the British in the battle of the, 1813. Thames Tunnel — Opened to the pubUc, 1843. Thapsus ' — Defeat of the Pompeians at, 46 B. c. Thebes (Boeotia)^[B. c] — Citadel of, seized by the Spartans, 383 ; city deliv- ered from the Spartans, 379 ; Theban supremacy in Greece established, 371 ; subjected by Macedon, 338; city destroyed by Alexander, 335;' rebuilding undertaken by Cassander, 315. Thermidor, 9th, event of the, July 37, 1794. Thermometer — Comes into use, 17th c. Thermopyles^ — Defense of, against the Persians by Leonidas, 480 b. c. Thirteenth Amendment — Becomes part of the constitution of the United States, 1865. Thirty-nine Articles — ^Published, 1563. Thirty Tyrants (in Athens) — Rule of the, 404 B. c. Thirty Tears' War, 1618-'48. Thom,> treaty of, between Casimir IV. and the Teutonic Enights, 1466. Thrasymenus, Lake '—Hannibal defeats the Romans at, 317 b. c. Tiberias ">— SaJadin defeats the Christians at, 1187. Ticinus (Ticino) " — Hannibal defeats the Romans on the, 318 B. c. Ticonderoga, Fort "—Constructed by the French, 1765; victory of the ' A motmtain range on the northeastern horders of the present Fmssian province of Westphalia. » A region bordering on the Baltic, and watered by the Vistula. » A region now constituting the easternmost portion of the Fmssian monarchy. * A town situated at the confluence of the Avon and Severn. ' A river of Canada emptying into Lake St. Clair. • A town on the coast of Africa, about 100 miles S. E. of Carthage. ' A pass between Mt. (Eta and a morass on the edge of the Maliac Gulf (now Gulf of Lamia, or of Zeitooni), which formed the only available passage for an army entering central Greece from Thes- saly. ' A town on the Vistula, now included in the Prussian province of West Prussia. • About 85 miles N. of Home ; now called Lago di Perugia. '» A town on the W. shore of the Lake of Gennesaret, or of Tiberias ; now called Tabariyeh. » A river which rises on the elopes of the St. Gothard, flows through Lago Maggiore, and discharges into the Fa " Situated on Lake Champlain at the point where Lake George dischaigea into it. * CHKONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 297 French at, 1758 ; abandoned by the French, 1759 ; seized by Ethan Allen, 1775 ; surrenders to Burgoyne, 1777 ; evacuated by the British, 1777. ■ Tientsin' — China concludes treaties at, with Great Britain, France, Russia, and the Cnited States, 1858. Tigranocerta' — Victory of the Romans over Tigranes at, 69 b. c. Tilsit* — France concludes peace at, with Russia and Prussia, 1807. Tippecanoe* — ^Harrison defeats the Indians on the, 1811. Tippermuir' — ^Defeat of the Covenanters at, 1644. Tlemcen^— Taken by the French, 1836 ; victory of Abd-el-Kader near, 1836. ToggenbuTg "War,' second (between the Swiss cantons), 1713. Toledo — Conquered from the Moors by Alfonso the Valiant, 1085. Tolentino* — Peace gf, between the French and Pope Pius VI., 1797; defeat of Murat by the Austrians at, 1815. Toleration Act (in English history), 1689. Tonquin — The French establish their dominion in, 1883-'5. Topeka Constitution, 1855. Torres Vedras,' lines of— Wellington retires beUnd the, 1810. Toul'"— Taken by the Germans, 1870. Toulon — ^Unsuccessfully attacked by the enemies of Louis XIV., 1707 ; de- feat of the English fleet before, 1744 ; delivered to the English, 1793 ; retaken by the French, 1793. Toulouse— Besieged by Simon de Montf ort, 1317-18 ; Soult unsuccessfully opposes Wellington at, 1814. Toulouse, county of— Established by Charlemagne, 778 ; under hereditary mlers, from middle of 9th o. ; united with the French crown, 1371. Tower of Iiondon. See London. Towton "—Victory of the Yorkists at, 1461. Trafalgar"- Victory of Nelson over the French and Spaniards at, Oct. 31, 1805. Transvaal-Bepublic. See Boebs. TransylTaniar— Occupied by the Hungarians, 10th c. ; immigration of Ger- mans, middle of 13th c. ; the waywode John Zfipolya elected king of Hun- gary, Ferdinand of Hapsburg elected in opposition to him, 1536 ; treaty of Grosswardein between Ferdinand and Z&polya, in which Zdpolya is recognized as sovereign prince of Transylvania, 1538 ; reign of Stephen Bdthori, 1571-'6; Gabriel Bethlen, 1613-'39; George Rttdczy, 1631-'48; • The port of Peking, situated on the Pei-ho, abont 65 miles S. B. of that city. ' Tigra- nocerta was founded by Tigranes as the capital of his Armenian kingdom. It was situated in southern Armenia, not far from the Tigris. • A town of Prussia, on the Niemen, 60 miles N. E. of KSnigsberg. * A river of Indiana, flowing into the Wabash. ' A locality aear Perth. • A town of Algeria, abont 70 miles S. W. of Oran. ' Toggenburg is a dis- trict embracing the upper valley of the river Thur, and included in the canton of St. Gall. ' A town 30 miles 8. W. of Ancona. • A town 25 miles N. W. of Lisbon. •" A town of French Lorraine, W. of Nancy. » A small place S. W. of York. >» A headland of Spahv at tlie western entrance of the Straits of Qibraltar. 298 CnBONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Leopold I. qf Austria takes possession, 1699 ; united with Hungary, 171& Travendal,' peace of, between Sweden and Denmark, 1700. Trebia (Trebbia) ' — Hannibal defeats the Bomans on the, 218 b. c. ; defeat of the French at, 1799. Trebizond, empire of,' 1204-1461. Trent,* council of— Opened, 1545 ; closed, 1563. Trent (steamer) — Mason and Slidell seized on the, 1861. Trenton — Surrender of the Hessians at. Dee. 26, 1776. Treves, archbishopric of — Teiritories of the, conquered by the French, 1794 ; pass to Prussia, 1814^*15. See Electors (Impeeial). Tribunes of the People (in Rome) — Office instituted, about 494 b. c. Triple Alliance — England, Holland, and Sweden against France, 16GS; France, Great Britain, and Holland against Spain, 1717 ; Germany, Aus- tria-Hungary, and Italy against France and Bussia, 1883. Tripoli— "War with the United States, 1801-'5. Tripolitza' — Stormed by the Greeks, 1821. Triumvirate, first (Pompey, Caesar, Crassus) — Formed, 60 b. o. Triumvirate, second (Ootavius, Antony, Lepidus) — Formed, 43 b. o. Trocadero, the (at Cadiz) — Stormed by the French, 1823. Troppau,' congress of, held by the Great Powers, 1820. Troyes,' treaty of, securing to Henry V. of England the succession to the throne of France, 1420. Tiibingen,' University of— Founded, 1477. Tudor Dynasty, 1485-1603. Tuileries— Begun by Catharine de' Medici, 1564; enlarged by Henry IV., Louis XIII., and Louis XIV. ; stormed by the populace, 1792 ; burned, 1871. Tunis — Conquered by the Arabs, who found Kairwan, 7tli c. ; crusade of Louis IX. against, 1270 ; city of Tunis taken by Charles V., 1535 ; French protectorate established, 1881. , Turin — ^Victory of Prince Eugene over the French at, 1706. Turkish Empire— Othman lays the foundation of the Ottoman reahn in Asia, 1288-1326 ; the Turks conquer Nicaea, 1330 ; lay the foundations of their dominion in Europe by the seizure of GallipoU, 1354 ; take Adriano- ple, 1361 ; conquer Bulgaria, 1388-93 ; break the power of Servia, 1389 ; force Wallachia to acknowledge itself tributary, 1391 ; take Constantino- ple, 1453 ; masters of nearly all Greece, 1460 ; conquer Trebizond, 1461 ; Bosnia, 1463 ; Negropont, 1470 ; the Crimea made a vassal state, 1475 ; subjugation of Albania completed, 1478 ; Syria and Palestine conquered, 1516; Egypt, 1517; Algeria becomes a dependency of Turkey, 1519; Bel- grade taken, 1521 ; Rhodes, 1522 ; the Turks overthrow the Hungarians • A place in Holstein. ' An affluent of the Po, rising not far from Genoa, and empty- ing near Piacenza. ' on the S. shore of the Black Sea. * A town in the S. part of Tyrol, on the Adige ; It. Trento, Ger. Trient. » A town of the Morea, capital of the nomarehy of Arcadia. • The capital of Austrian Silesia. ' A town of Champagne, 90 miles S. K. A small place in Persia, about 70 miles S. E. of Tabriz. ' A town in the S. part of Wflrtemberg, on the Danube. * This siege is sometimeB stated to have taken place in the years 698-585. The best recent authorities adopt the later dates. * A town on the Danube, 45 miles S. E. ot Stuttgart. It was a free city of the old German Empire, was united to Bavaria in 1803, and in 1810 was annexed to Wfirtemberg. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF tNlVERgAL WSTORY. 301 ADMISSION OF STATES SINCE THB Adoption or the OoNarmiTioN. Vermont, 1791. Arkansas, 1836. Nevada, 1864. Kentucky, 1792. Michigan, 1837. Nebraska, 1867. Tennessee, 1796. Florida, 1845. Colorado, 1876. OMo, 180S. Texas, 1845. North Dakota, 1889. Louisiana, 1812. Iowa, 1846. South Dakota, 1889. Indiana, 1816. Wisconsin, 1848. Montana, 1889. Mississippi, 1817. California, 1850. Washington, 1889. Illinois, 1818. Minnesota, 1858. Idaho, 1890. Alabama, 1819. Oregon, 1859. Wyoming, 1890. Maine, 1820. Kansas, 1861. Utah, 1896. Missouri, 1821. West Viiginia, 1863. PiSESIDENTS. Washington, 1789. Pierce, 1853. John Adams, 1797. Buchanan, 1857. Jefferson, 1801. Lincoln, 1861. Madison, 1809. Johnson, 1866. Monroe, 1817. Grant, 1869. John Quinoy A.dams, 1825. Hayes, 1877. Jackson, 1829. Garfield, 1881. Van Buren, 1837. Arthur, 1881. William H. Harrison, 1841. Cleveland, 1885. Tyler, 1841. Benjamin Harrison, 1889. Polk, 1845, Cleveland, 1893. Taylor, 1849. MoKinley, 1897. Fillmore, 1850. TTpsal, University of— Founded, 1477. TTraims — Biscovered by Herschel, 1781. TTrogxiay — ^Recognized as an independent republic, 1828. titah— Territory formed, 1850; State admitted into the Union, 1896. TTtreclit, treaty of (War of the Spanish Succession), 1713. TTtrecbt, Union of (Dutch Provinces), 1579. Vaccination— Eflcacy of, shown by Jenner, 1796. (See iNOcnLATiON.) Valley Forge ' — Washington encamped at, 1777-8. Valmy'— ^Battle of, between the French and the forces of the duke ot Brunswick, 1793. Valois Dynasty, 1328-1589. Valparaiso — Bombarded by the Spaniards, 1866. Vandals • — lavade Gaul, 406 ; pass into Spain, 409 ; from thence into ' A locality N. W. of Philadelphia. ' A village of Champagne N. E. of ChiUoiiB. ' A Germanic people. 303 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Africa, 439 ; pillage Rome, 455 ; overthrow of their African kingdom, 533. Van Diemen's Land. See Tasuakia. Varangians. See Noethmen. Varennes '—Plight of Louis XVI. arrested at, 1791. Varna'— Victory of the Turks over the Hungarians at, 1444; taken by the Russians, 1828. Vassy' — Massacre of the Huguenots at, 1563. Vatican— Present edifice mainly the work of the 15th, 16th, and 19th o. Vatican Council, 1869-'70. Vaudois. See Waldbnses. Veil*— Taken by the Romans, about 396 (393) B. o. Velletri'— Victory of Garibaldi over the Neapolitans at, 1849. Venaissin' — Becomes a papal possession, 13th c. ; incorporated with France, 1791. Vendue, La'— Outbreak of the great royalist insurrection, 1793; pacified by Hoohe, 1796 ; rising against Napoleon, 1815. Venetia. See Venice. Venezuela^Outbreak of the struggle against Spanish dominion, 1810 ; in- dependence proclaimed, 1811 ; Bolivar receives the title of Libertador, 1813 ; constituted with New Granada into the republic of Colombia, 1819 ; separation from Colombia, 1829. Venice — City commonly reputed to have been founded, 452 ' ; the dogate established, 697 ; the doge assumes the title of duke of Venice and Dal- matia, 997 ; the republic shares in the partition of the Byzantine domin- ions, 1204 ; outbreak of the great wars with Genoa, 1258 ; Council of Ten originates, 1310 ; city threatened by the Genoese fleet, 1379 ; Corfu permar nently a possession of the republic, from about 1386 ; Vicenza acquired, 1404; Verona and Padua, 1405; Brescia, 1436; Bergamo, 1428; the Turks conquer Negropont, 1470; within the next 70 years they con- quer the Venetian possessions in the Morea and the Archipelago; Ve- netian dominion in Cyprus established, 1473 ; the island lost, 1571 ; the fortress of Candia conquered by the Turks, 1669 ; the Morea conquered by the republic, 1685-7; lost, 1715; fall of the republic, most of her dominions given to Austria, 1797 ; the Venetian territories lost by Aus- tria, 1805; recovered, 1814; erection of the Lombardo- Venetian king- dom, 1815 ; insurrection, republic established, 1848 ; fall of the city, 1849 ; Venetia annexed to Italy, 1866. Venus, transit of— First observed by Horrox, 1639. » A village N. W. of Verdun. ' A town of Bulgaria, on the Black Sea'. • A town of Ctiampagne, about 40 miles S. E. of ChAlons. * An Etcnscan town, 10 miles N. W. of Rome. • A town 80 miles 8. E. of Rome. • A district of Provence, now included in the department of Vaucluse. ' A department of Prance, embracing part of the old province of Poiton, and bordering on the Bay of Biscay. The great war of the VendSe extended over a large pop tion of western France. ' The accounts of its origin are untmstworthr. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONAKY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 303 Vera Cmz— Castle of San Juan de Ultia taken from the Spaniards by the Mexicans, 1825 ; the French take the castle and city, 1838 ; the Americans, 1847 ; the place is occupied by a Spanish force, 1861 ; by the Juarists, 1867. Verden— Bishopric of, given to Sweden, and converted into a duchy, 1648; duchy ceded to Hanover, 1719. Verdun,' treaty of; between the sons of Louis fc Debonnaire, 843. Vergara,* convention of, between Espartero and the Carlists, 1839. Vermont — Admitted into the Union, 1791. Veronar— Eule of the Scala family, about 1360-1387; conquered by Venice, 1405. Verona, amphitheatre of —Constructed about close of first c. A, d. Verona, congress ot, held by the Great Powers, 1^3. Versailles— Treaty of alliance between France and Austria signed at, 1756 ; peace of, between Great Britain, France, and Spain, Sept. 3, 1783; William L proclaimed German emperor at, Jan. 18, 1871 ; preliminary treaty of peace between France and Germany signed at, Feb. 26, 1871. Vervins,' treaty o^ between France and Spain, 1598. Vesuvius — Overwhelms Pompeii and Hercnlaneum, a. d. 79 ; last great emption, 1873. Vicksburg— Surrenders to Grant, July 4, 1863. (Terms arranged July 3.) Victoria Bfyanza, liSke— Discovered by Speke, 1858. Vienna^Besieged by Solyman TL, 1539; Ferdinand H. besieged in, by the Protestants, 1619 ; dty again besieged by the Turks, who suffer a great defeat, 1683 ; occupied by the French, 1805, 1809 ; insurrection, the city stormed by the imperial forces, 1848 ;— treati^ of, between the partici- pants in the War of the Polish Succession, 1735, 1738; peace of (of SchSnbrunn), between Austria and France, 1809; congress of Vienna, 1814-'15; treaty terminating the second Schleswig-Holstein War, 1864; treaty between Austria and Italy, 1866 ; — cathedral of St. Stephen built, 13th-15th c. ; university founded, 1365 ; international exposition, 1873. Vienne*— Fifteenth general council held at, 1311-'18. VilAgos'— Surrender of the Hungarian army at, Aug. 13, 1849. Villafitanca,' treaty ot, between France and Anstria, 1859. ViUaviciosa' — ^Battle of, between Vendome and Starhemberg, 1710. Vimeiro'— Victory of Wellesley over Junot at, 1808. Vindelicians '—Subjugated by the Romans, 15 b. c. Vionville, battle of. See Mars-la-Toue. Virginia — 'Name ot Virginia given to the region visited by Raleigh's men, 1584; Jamestown founded, 1607; first colonial assembly convened at ' A town 135 miles E. of Paris, now included in tlie French department of Hense. * A town of 6nip6zcoa, one of the Basqne provinces. • A town 95 mUes N. E. of Paris. • A town S. of Lyons, on the E. bank of the BhOne. ' A town of sontheastem Hungary, N. E. ofArad. • A town S. W. of Verona. » A town 53 miles N. E. of Madrid. 'AtownN.W. of Lisbon, near the sea. • The country of tlie Vindelicians lay between the AJps and the Oaimbe, W. of the river Inn. They are snppoaed to have been a Celtic people. 304 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. Jamestown, 1619 ; representative government secured, 1621 ; placed under the crown, 1634; Bacon's rebellion, 1676; one of the thirteen states, 1776; secedes, 1861 ; western "Virginia secedes from the state, 1861 ; state of West Virginia admitted into the Union, 1863 ; reconstruction in Virginia com- pleted, 1870. Visconti, house of. See Milan. Visigoths — (See Goths.) — Overwhelm the army of Valens,378 ; invade Italy, 401 ; pillage Kome, 410 ; lay the foundations of their dominion in Spain and Aquitania, about 415-418 ; stripped of most of their Grallic territories, 507-508 ; their kingdom in Spain overthrown, 711. Vitoria ' — Victory of Wellington over the French at, 1813, Volsinii ' — Destruction of, by the Bomans, 865 b. c. Voltaic Pile — Invented, 1799. Voltumo '—Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitan forces on the, 1860. ViUgate. See Bible. W. Wagner, Fort *— Unsuccessfully attacked by the Federals, abandoned by the Confederates, 1863. Wagram '—Victory of Napoleon over the Austrians at, 1809. TVahabees— Rise of the sect, about 1745 ; they take Mecca, 1803 ; their sub- jugation completed by Ibrahim Pasha, 1818. Wahlstatt, battle on the. See Lieonitz. Wakefield »— Defeat of the Yorkists at, 1460. Walcheren ' — British expedition to, 1809. Waldenses — Sect founded, about 1170 ; crusade waged against the Wal- denses in Piedmont by Louis XIV. and Victor Amadeus II., 1686. Wales — Conquest of, by Edward I., 1377-83; beginning of Glendower's rebellion, 1400; EngUsh authority completely re-established, about 1409; incorporated with England, 1536. Walhalla*— Built, 1830-'43. Wallachia — Principality of, established 13th c. ; becomes tributary to Tur- key, 1391 ; fully reduced to the position of a Turkish dependency, 17th c. ; ruled by Panariote hospodars, 1716-1831 ; united with Moldavia into a single realm, the principality of Boumania, 1861. Warsaw — Defeat of the Poles, by the forces of Sweden and Brandenburg, at, 1656 ; entered by Charles XII., 1702 ; taken by SuvarofE, 1794 ; annexed to Prussia, 1795 ; taken from Prussia by the French, 1806 ; capital of the duchy of Warsaw, 1807-13 ; occupied by the Russians, 1813 ; insurrec- tion, 1830 ; falls, 1831. < A town of northem Spain, capital of the Basque province of Alava. ' An Etrnscan town about 60 miles N. W. of Borne. • A river emptying into the Mediterranean 20 miles S. B. of Qaeta. * At Charleston harbor. • A village N. B. of Vienna. • A town S. of Leeds. ' The westernmost of the islands on the coast of the Netherlands. ^ An edifice on the banks of the Danube, near Batisbon. CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF UNIVEBSAL HISTORY. 305 Wartburg Festival,' 1817. Wasliiiigton (city)— Becomes the capital ol the United States, 1800; en- tered by the British, 1814; threatened by the Confederates, 1864;— the original Capitol building begun, 1793 ; burned by the British, 1814; re- erection of the edifice, 1818-'27 ; additions, 1851-67. Washington (state) — ^Admitted into the Union, 1889. Washington, treaty o^ between England and the United Stat«s, 1871. Washington, Tort"— Taken by the British, 1776. Watches— Invented, about close of 15th c. (Wheel and weight clocks had already been in use three or four centuries.) Waterloo*— Defeat of Napoleon at, June 18, 1815. Wat Tyler's Bebellion, 1381. Wehlau,* treaty o^ between Poland and Brandenburg, 1657. Weinsberg"- Victory of Conrad III. over Guelph VI. at, 1140. WeiBsenburg*— The Germans defeat the French at, Aug. 4, 1870. Wessez. See England. Western Empire— Pinal division of the Roman Empire, 395 ; fall of the Western Empire, 476; renewed by Charlemagne, 800. Westminster Assembly of Divines— Convened, 1643 ; Westminster Con- fession of Faith adopted by Parliament, 1648. Westphalia, kingdom of; 1807-'13. , Westphalia, peace of (treaties of OsnabrQck * and Miinster), terminating the Thirty Years' War, 1648. West Point— Arnold's treason, 1780. West Virginia. See Vibginia. Whisky Insurrection, 1794 White mountain, battle of the. See Pkague. White Plains «— Victory of the British at, Oct. 28, 1776. Wilderness •—Battle of the, between Grant and Lee, May 5, 6, 1864 William Henry, Port "—Taken by Montcahn, 1757. Williamsburg "—Capital of Virginia, 1700-1780 ; success achieved by Mc- Clellan's forces at. May 5, 1863. Wilmot Proviso, 1846. Wilson's Creek "—Battle of, between the Federals and Confederates, 1861. Wimpfen "—Tilly defeats the Protestants at, 1622. ' The Wartbnig is a castle near Eisenach, in the N. W. part of the Thoringian forest, in which Lnther fonnd a refage in 1621. ' Near the N. end of Manliattan Island. • A Tillage 8 miles S. of Bmssels. * A town E. of EOnigsberg. ■ A town in the vicinity of Heilbronn, now belonging to Wflrtemberg. • A town of Alsace, 32 miles N. E. of Strasbnrg. ' A town now incladed in the Pmssian province of Hanover, 28 miles N. E. of Hflnster. ' A Tillage of Westchester Co., New York, 7 miles E. of the Hudson Kiver and abont the same distance from Long Island Soand. • A tract in Virginia, on the S. side of the Bapidau Eiver, W. of Fredericksburg. •• At the S. end of Lake George. •' A town abont BO miles 8. E, of Bichmond, between the James and York rivers. " A small tributary of the White Hirer in sonthwestem Missoori. " A town on the Neckar, near Heilbronn, now belonging to the grand-duchy of Hesse. 21 306 CHRONOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OP UNIVERSAL HISTORT. Winchester' — Repulse of the Confederates, under Jackson, near, March 23, 1862 ; occupied by Lee, June 15, 1863 ; the Confederates, under Early, defeated near, Sept. 19, Sept. 22, Oct. 19, 1864 Wisconsin — Admitted into the Union, 1848. Wismar' — Ceded to Sweden in the peace of Westphalia, 1648; she relin- quishes the possession of it, 1803. Wittenberg,' University of — Founded, 1502 ; becomes the cradle of the Reformation, 1517 ; incorporated with the University of Halle, 1817. Wittstock * — ^Victory of the Swedes at, 1636. Worcester — ^Victory of Cromwell at, Sept. 3, 1651. Worms " — Concordat of, between the emperor Henry V. and Calixtus II., 1122 ; Luther appears at the Diet of, 1521. Worth ' — The Grermans defeat MacMahon's army at, Aug. 6, 1870. Wiirtemberg — County of, erected into a duchy, 1495 ; the duke, Frederick ■ n., created an elector, 1803 ; he assumes the title of king as Frederick I., 1806; accession of WillUm I., 1816; Charles I., 1864; William IL, 1891. Wyandotte Constitution — Adopted, 1859. Wyatt's Bebellion, 1554. Wyoming (state) — Admitted into the Union, 1890. Wyoming,' massacre of, 1778. X. Xerez (Jerez) de la Frontera' — Saracens vanquish Visigoths at, 711. T. Yale College— Founded, 1700^ Talu — Naval engagement between Chinese and Japanese at the, 1894. Torktown' — Surrender of Cornwallis at, Oct. 19, 1781; besieged and occu- pied by the Federals, 1862. Z. Zama '" — ^Victory of the Romans over the Carthaginians near, 202 b. c. Zenta (Szenta) " — Victory of Prince Eugene over the Turks at, 1697. Zomdorf " — ^Frederick the Great defeats the Russians at, 1758. Zulus— War of the British with Cetywayo, 1879. Zurich — ^Victory of Massena over Korsakoff at, 1799; treaty of, between Austria, France, and Sardinia, 1859. ' A town of Virginia, 65 miles N. W. of WasUngton. ' A seaport of Mecklenburg. • A town on tlie Elbe, about 50 miles S. W. of Berlin. At the time of the Eef onnation it was the residence of the electors of Saxony. In 1815 it was annexed to Prussia. * A town 60 miles N. W. of Berlin. • A town on the left bank of the Khine, 26 miles S. E. of Mentz. It was one of the free imperial cities of Germany down to the close of the last century, and now belongs to the grand-duchy of Hesse. • A town of Alsace, S5 miles N. of Strasburg. * A valley in the E. part of Pennsylvania, watered by the North Branch of the Susquehanna. ' A town N. E. of Cadia. • A town of Virginia, on the S. shore of the York Eiyer, 60 miles S. E. of Richmond. >" A town of Numidia, on the borders of the Carthaginian territory, about 100 miles S. W. of Carthage. " A town of Hungary, S. of Szegedin, on the Theiss. >■ A village of Brandenburg, 23 miles N. £. of Frankfort-ou-the-Oder. PAET III. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARYc BIOGRAPHICAL DIOTIONAET. A. Aabmes. See Ahasis. Aali Pasha, Turkish statesman. B. 1815. D. 1871. Aasen, Ivar Andieas, Norwegian philologist. B, 1813. Abailard. See Ab£lasd. Abarbanel, Isaac ben Judah, Jewish Biblical commentator, philosophical writer. B. in Portugal 1437. D. 1508. Abascal, Jose Fernando, viceroy of Peru 1804r-'16. B. 1743. D. 1831. Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d', French explorer (Abyssinia, Galla country). B. 1810. Abbadie, Amaud Michel d', French explorer (Abyssinia, GaUa country), B. 1815. Abbas the Great, shah of Persia. B. 1557. Reigned from 1586. D. 1638. Abbas Pasha, viceroy of Egypt. Ruled 1848-'54. Abbe, CSeveland, American meteorologist, astronomer. B. 1838. Abbott, Charles, Lord Tenterden, FngUsh lawyer, writer on maritime law. B. 1763. D. 1833.. Abbott, Jacob, American writer for the yoimg. B. 1803. D. 1879. Abbott, John S. C, American historical writer. B. 1805. D. 1877. Abd-el-Kader, emir of Mascara, leader in the struggle against the French in Algeria. B. about 1807. D. 1883. Abderrahman, leader of the Saracens in their attack upon the Franks in 733. Killed in the battle of Poitiers. Abderrahman L, Saracen prince, founder of the Ommiyade realm of Cor- dova in 756. B. about 730. D. 788. Abderrahman m., caliph of Cordova. Reigned 913-961. Abderrahman, emperor of Morocco. B. 1778. Reigned from 1833. D. 1859. Abdul-Aziz, sultan of Turkey. B. 1830. Reigned from 1861. D. 1876. Abdul-Hamid H., sultan of Turkey. B. Sept. 33, 1842. Began to reign Aug. 31, 1876. Abdul-Uedjid, sultan of Turkey. B. 1833. Reigned from 1839. D. 1861. Abdurrahman, ameer of Afghanistan since 1880. B, about 1830. A Becket, Thomas. See Beceet. 310 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Abegg, Julius Friedrich Heinrich, German jurist. B. 1796. D. 1868. Abel, Niels Henrik, Norwegian mathematician. B. 1803. D. 1839. Ab61ard, Pierre, French scholastic philosopher. B. 1079, D. 1143. Abel de Fvgol, Alexandre Denis, French painter. B. 1785. D. 1861. Aben Ezra, Jewish Biblical commentator. B. in Spain about 1093. D. about 1167. AbercTombie, James, British general in America. 'B. 1706. D. 1781. Abercromby, Sir Balph, British general. B. 1734 (according to some 1738), Killed in Egypt 1801. ) Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, earl of, British premier 1853-'5. B. 1784. D. 1860. Abemetby, John, English surgeon. B. about 1764 D, 1831, Abich,'WilhelmHermann, German-Buss. traveler, naturalist, B. 1806, D. 1886, About, Edmond, French author. B. 1838. D. 1885. Abraham a Sancta Clara (Ulrioh Megerle), Catholic preacher of Yienna, noted for his witty and satirical sermons and writings. B. 1644. D. 1709. Abrantes, duke of. See Junot. Abrantes, Laure Permont, duchess of, writer of political memoirs, wife of Junot. B. 1784. D. 1838. Abravanel. See Ababbanbl. Absalon (Axel), Danish prelate, statesman, soldier, B, 1138, D. 1301, Abt, Franz, German composer. B. 1819. D. 1885. Abubekr, first caUph. B. about 573. Ruled from 633. D. 634. Abul-Casim. See Albuoasis. Abulfaragius (AbuUaraj) Gregorius, known also as Bar-Hebneus, Syriac and Arabic writer. B, 1336, D. 1386. Historian, exegetical writer, grammarian. Abulfeda, Ismail ibn Ali, Arabian historian, geographer. B. about 1373, D. 1331. Abu Temam, Arabian poet. B. about 806. D. about 845. Compiler of the " Hamasa." Achard, Amedee, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1814 D. 1875. Acbenbach, Andreas, German painter. B, 1815. Achenbach, Oswald, German painter. B. 1837. Achilles Tatius, Greek writer. 5th c. A, d. Author of the romance " Leu- cippe and Clitophon," Achmet, See Ahmed. Acosta, Jos6 de, Spanish writer. B. about 1539. D. 1600. " Historia na- tural y moral de las Indias." Acosta, Uriel, a Jew of Portugal, who was brought up as a Catholic, em- braced Judaism in Holland, and was persecuted by his coreligionists there. B. about 1594. Committed suicide 1647. Acton, Sir John Francis Edward, Neapolitan prime-minister. B. 1736, D> 1811. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 311 Adair, Sir Robert, British diplomatist. B. 1763. D. 1855. Adalbert, Saint, bishop of Prague, missionary. Killed, -while engaged in converting the Prussians, 997. Adam of Bremen, ecclesiastical historian. Second half of 11th c. Adam, Adolphe Charles, French composer. B. 1803. D. 1856. Adams, Charles Francis, American lawyer, diplomatist, son of John Quincy Adams. B. 1807. D. 1886. Adams, Henry, writer on American history, son of C.'F. Adams. B. 1838 Adams, John, president of the United States 1797-1801. B. Oct. 19 (old style), 1735. D. July 4, 1826. Adams, John (assumed name of Alexander Smith), " patriarch of Pitcaim Island." B. about 1764. D. 1829. Adams, John Couch, English astronomer. B, 1819. D. 1892. Adams, John Qnincy, president of the United States 1825-'9, son of Presi- dent John Adams. B. July 11, 1767. D. Feb. 23, 1848. Adams, Samuel, American patriot. B. 1722. D. 1803. Adams, William T. (" Oliver Optic"), American writer. B. 1822. D. 1897. Adanson, Michel, French naturalist. B. 1727. D. 1806. Addington, Henry, Viscount Sidmouth, English premier 1801-4. B. 1757. D. 1844 Addison, Joseph, English author. B. May 1, 1672. D. June 17, 1719. Essays in the " Tatler," " Guardian," and " Spectator," 1709-'14. " Cato " (tragedy), 1713. Adel^de, princess of Orleans, sister of Louis PhUippe. B. 1777. D. 1847. Adelaide, Saint, wife of Lothaire II., king of Italy, and afterward of the emperor Otho the Great. B. about 931. D. 999. Adelung, Johann Christoph, German philologist, lexicographer. B. 1782. D. 1806. Dictionary of the German language. Adolphus of Nassau, king of Germany. B. about 1250. Eeigned from 1292. Slain 1298. Adolphus Frederick, king of Sweden. B. 1710. Beigned from 1751. D. 1771. Adrian, Boman emperor. See Hadrian. Adrian I., pope. Elected 772. D. 795. Adrian IV. (Nicholas Breakspear), pope. Elected 1154. D. 1159. Adrian VT, pope. Elected 1522. D. 1528. .ailianus, Claudius, Roman writer (in Greek). 3d c. A. D. " Miscellaneous Narratives " (Latin title, " Varia Historia "). " On the Nature of Animals." .ffimilius Faulus. See Paulus. JEaeaa Sylvius. See Prt7S II. 2E:8cIiines, Athenian orator. B. 389 B. c. D. 314. .3!scliylus, Greek tragic poet. B. 525 b. o. D. 456. ■ ^sop, Greek fabulist. B. about 620 b. c. D. about 564, Aetius, Roman general. B. about 396. Murdered 454. 312 BIOGRAPniOAL DICTIONARY. ASre, Denis Auguste, archbishop of Paris. B. 1793. Killed 1848, A&anius, Lucius, Boman comic writer. About 100 b. c. A&icaaus, Julius, Christian historian. D. about 333. Afzelius, Adam, Swedish botanist. B. 1750. D. 1837. Agaxdh, Karl AdoU, Swedish botanist, scholar, economist. B. 1785. D. 1859. Agasias, Greek sculptor. Supposed to have flourished about the beginning of the Christian era. Agassiz, Alexander, American naturalist. B. 1835. Agassiz, Louis, naturalist. B. in Switzerland 1807. D. 1873. Agathias, Byzantine writer. B. about 536. D. about 583. Agathocles, ruler of Syracuse 317-389 b. c. Agesilaus, king of Sparta, general. B. about 442 b. c. D. about 360. Agis II., king of Sparta. Beigned about 437-398 b. c. Agis III., king of Sparta. Beigned 338-330 (331) b. c. Agis IV., king of Sparta. Beigned about 345-341 b. c. Agnesi, Maria Gaetana, Italian scholar. B. 1718. D. 1799. Agoult, Marie C. S. de Flavigny, countess d' ("Daniel Stem"), French novelist, political writer, moralist. B. 1805. D. 1876. "Histoire de la revolution de 1848." "Esquisses morales." Agricola, Cneius Julius, Boman general in Britain. B. 37. D. 93. Agricola (Bauer), Georg, German mineralogist. B. about 1490. D. 1555. Agricola, Johann, G«rman Beformer. B. 1493, D. 1566. Agricola, BudoU , German humanist. B. 1443. D. 1485. Agrippa, Herodes. See Herod Agbippa. Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius, Boman commander. B. 63 B. c. D. 13 b. c. Agrippa von Nettesheim, Heinrich Cornelius, German scholar. B. 1486, D. 1535. " De Incertitudine et Vanitate Scientiarum " (satire). Agrippina, wife of Claudius, mother of Nero. B. about 15, Put to death 59. Aguesseau, Henri Prangois d', French lawyer, legislator. B. 1668. D, 1751. Aguilar, Grace, English authoress. B. 1816. D. 1847. Ahab, king of Israel. Beigned about 875-853 b. c. {Ihmeker; 9S0-900, Oppert). Ahaz, king of Judah. Beigned 734-738 b. c. {Duneker ; 7JiS-7S7, Oppert), Ahlquist, August Engelbert, Finnish philologist. B. 1836. D. 1889. Ahlwardt, Theodor Wilhelm, German Arabic scholar. B. 1838. Ahmed I., Turkish sultan. Beigned 1603-'17. Ahmed II., Turkish sultan. Beigned 1691-5. Ahmed III., Turkish sultan. Beigned 1703-'30. Ahmed Shah, Afghan conqueror. Beigned from 1747. D. 1773. Ahrens, Heinrich, German juridical philosopher. B. 1808. D.' 1874. Aiguillon, Armand Vignerot Duplessis-Bichelieu, duke d', minister of Louis XV. B, 1730, D, 1783 (according to some later). BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 313 AUdn, John, English author. B. 1747. D. 1832. " Evenings at Home." " General Biography." Aimard, Gustave, French novelist. B. 1818. D. 1883. Aiin6-Martiii, Louis, French author. B. 1781. D. 1847. Ainmiller, Max Emanuel, German painter on glass. B. 1807. D. 1870. Ainsworth, Robert, English lexicographer. B. 1660. D. 1743. Latin dic- tionary. Ainsworth, William Francis, English geologist, traveler, author. B. 1807. " Researches in Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldea." " Travels and Re- searches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea, and Armenia." Ainsworth, William Harrison, English novelist. B. 1805. D. 1883. Airy, George Biddell, English astronomer. B. 1801. D. 1893. Aiton, William, ScottUh botanist. B. 1731. D. 1793. Aitzema, Lieuwe van, Dutch historian. B. 1600. D. 1669. History of Hol- land in the seventeenth century. Akbar, Mogul emperor. B. 1542. Reigned from 1556. D. 1605. Akenside, Mark, English poet. B. 1721. D. 1770. " Pleasures of the Imagination." Akiba ben Joseph, Jewish rabbi. Executed about a. d. 135. Alacoque, Marguerite (Marie), French nun. B. 1647, D. 1690. Alain de Lille (Alanus de Insulis), French monk, scholar, B. 1114. D. about 1303. Alawian, Liicas, Mexican statesman, writer. B. 1855. AiatTntTiiii. See ALBVAmni. Alarcon, Hernando de, Spanish navigator. Explored of the coasts of Cali- fomia 1540-'41. Alarcon (Alarcon y Mendoza), Juan Ruiz de, Spanish dramatist. B. 1639. Alarcon, Pedro Antonio de, Spanish poet, novelist. B. 1833, B. 1891. Alaric, king of the Yisigoths. D. 410. Alasco. See Laski. Alba. See Alta. Albani, Francesco, Italian painter. B, 1578. B, 1660. Albany, Louisa, countess of, wife of the Young Pretender. B. 1753 (or 1752). B. 1824 Albategnius, Arabian astronomer. B, about 929. Albemarle, earl of. See Kepfel, Geoboe Thomas, Albergati-Capacelli, Francesco d', marquis, Italian actor, writer of come- dy. B. 1728, B. 1804 Alberoni, GiuUo, Cardinal, minister of Philip V. of Spain. B. in Italy 1664 B. 1753. Albert L, German emperor 1398-1308, son of Rudolph of Hapsburg. R 1248. Assassinated 1808. Albert C, German emperor (of the house of Austria). Reigned 1438-'9, Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg. B, 1170. 314 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Albert, last grand-master of the Teutonic Knights, first duke of Prussia from 1525. B. 1490. D. 1568. Albert, archduke of Austria, governor of the Spanish Netherlands, general, brother of the emperor Rudolph II. B. 1559. D. 1631. Albert, prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, husband of Queen Victoria. B. 1819. D. 1861. Albert, king of Saxony since 1873. B. 1838. Albert, archduke of Austria, commander, son of the archduke Charles (brother of the emperor Francis). B. 1817. D. 1897. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. B. 1841. Albert!, Leone Battista, Italian architect, sculptor, painter, scholar, philoso- pher. B. 1404. D. 1472. Albertus Magnus, German scholastic philosopher. B. 1193. D. 1280. Albinua, Bemhard Siegfried, German anatomist. B. 1697. D. 1770. Alboin, king of the Lombards, founder of their realm in Italy. Reigned from about 560. D. 578 (or 572). Alboni, Marietta, Italian singer. B. 1823. D. 1894. Albomoz, GU Alvarez Carilla de, Spanish cardinal. D. 1367. Albret, Jeanne d'. See Jbannb d'Albbet. Albucasis, Arabian physician. D. early in the 12th c. Albuquerque, Afflonso de, Portuguese conqueror, viceroy of the Indies. B. 1453. D. 1515. AlcaeuB, Greek lyric poet. Flourished end of 7th c. b. c. Alcamenes, Greek sculptor. D. about 400 b. o. Alcibiades, Athenian general. B. 450 b. c. D, 404. Alcman (Alcmaeon), Spartan poet. 7th c. b. c. Alcock, Sir Rutherford, Brit, diplomatist, writer on Japan. B. 1809. D, 1897. Alcott, Amos Bronson, American philosopher. B. 1799. D. 1888. Alcott, Louisa May, American authoress. B. 1832. D. 1888. Alouin, English scholar. B. about 735. D. 804. Aldobrandini, Giovanni Francesco, papal commander. B. 1546. D. 1601, Aldobrandini, Ippolito. See Clement VIII. Aldobrandini, Pietro, Italian cardinal. B. 1571. D. 1621. Aldobrandini, SaJvestro, Italian jurist. B. 1499. D. 1558. Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, American poet, novelist. B. 1836. Aldridge, Ira, mulatto tragedian. B. about 1810. D. 1867. Aldrovandus (Aldrovandi), Ulysses, Italian naturalist. B. about 1522. D. 1607. Aldus Uanutius. See Makutius. Aleosandresou, Grigoric, Roumanian poet. B. 1812. D. 1886. Alecsandri, Basile, Roumanian poet, dramatist. B. 1821. D. 1890. Aleman, Mateo, Spanish novelist. 16th c. " Guzman de Alfaraohe." Alemanni, Luigi, Florentine poet. B. 1495. D. 1556. Alembert, Jean le Rond d', French savant. B. 1717. D. 1783. "Traitdde dynamique." " Recherches sur diEE&ents points importants du systtoe BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAKT. 315 du monde." " Elements de philosophie." " Opuscules mathematiques." «;fe^ments de musique." Associate of Diderot in the publication of the '' Bnoyclopedie." Alengon, Francois, duke of. See Anjott. Alessandrescu. See Alecsandbesctt. AlessandrL See Ai/Ecsandbi. Alezandei^ samamed the Great, Macedonian conqueror, son of Philip. B. 356 B. 0. Reigned from 336. D. 323. Alexander HI., pope. Elected 1159. D. 1181. Alexander VI. (Borgia), pope. B. 1431. Elected 1492. D. 1503. Alexander VII. (Pabio Chigi), pope. Elected 1655. D. 1667. Alexander VIII., gope. Elected 1689. D. 1691. Alexander L, czar of Eussia. B. Dec. 23, 1777. Succeeded his father, Paul, 1801, D. Dee. 1, 1825. Alexander II., czar of Russia. B. April 29, 1818. Succeeded his father, Nicholas, 1855. Assassinated March 43, 1881. Alexander HL, czar of Russia. B. March 10, 1845. Succeeded his father, Alexander II., March 13, 1881. D. Nov. 1, 1894. Alexander II., king of Scotland. B. 1198. Reigned from 1214. D. 1249. Alexander m., king of Scotland. B. 1241. Reigned from 1249 D. 1286. Alexander of Battenberg, prince of Bulgaria, 1879-'86. B. 1857. D. 1893. Alexander of Hales, English theologian. D. 1245. Alexander, Archibald, American clergyman, author. B. 1772. D. 1851. Alexander, Sir James Edward, Eng. sold., trav., author. B. 1803. D. 1885. Alexander, William, " Lord Stirling," American soldier. B. 1726. D. 1783. Alexander Balas, king of Syria. Reigned 150-146 b. c. Alexander JannEeus, king of Judea. Reigned 104^78 b. c. {Mvnk, Schurer ; 104-79, Wdlhcmsen.) Alexander John (Alexander Cuza), prince of Roumania. B. 1820. Elected prince of Moldavia and Wallachia 1859. Styled prince of Roumania from 1861. Forced to abdicate 1866. D. 1873. Alexander Karageorgevitch, prince of Serria. B. 1806. Elected 1842. Deposed 1858. D. 1885. Alexander Nevski, Russian hero, prince of Novgorod, grand-prince of Vladimir. B. 1219. D. 1263. Alexander Severus, Roman emperor. B. about 205 (208?). Reigned from 223. Murdered 235. Alexis, czar of Russia. B. 1629 or 1630. Reigned from 1645. D. 1676. Alexis, son of Peter the Great. B. 1690. D. 1718. Alexis L, Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 1081-1118. Alexis, Wilibald. See HXeino. Alfarabius, Arabian scholar. D. about 950. Alfleri, Vittorio, count, Italian dramatist. B. Jan. 17, 1749. D. Oct. 8, 180a Alfonso I,, the Catholic, king of Asturias. D, 757. Alfonso IL, the Chaste, king of Asturias, Reigned 791-842. 316 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAEY. Alfonso III., the Great, king of Asturlas. Reigned 866-910. D. 913. Alfonso VI., ihe Valiant, kicg of Leon and Castilo (Alfonso I. of Castile]^ Reigned in Leon from 10G5 ; in Castile, from 1072. D. 1109. Alfonso VII. (VIII.), king of Leon and Castile (II. or III. of Castile) Reigned 1136-'57. Alfonso III. (VIII.), the Noble, king of Castile. Reigned 1158-1314 Alfonso IX., king of Leon. Reigned 1188-1330. Alfonso X., the Wise, king of Castile and Leon. Reigned 1353-'84 Alfonso XL, king of Castile and Leon. Reigned 1313-'50. Alfonso XII., king of Spain, son of Isabella. B. Nov. 28, 1857. Pro- daimed king Dee., 1874. D. Nov. 25, 1885. Alfonso Xm. of Spain, son of Alfonso XII. B. 1886. King from his birth. Alfonso I., el Batallador, king of Aragon and Navarre. Reigned 1104-'34. Alfonso v., the Magnanimous, King of Aragon, Sicily, and Naples. Reigned in Aragon and Sicily from 1416 ; in Naples, from 1443. D. 1458. Alfonso (AfEonso) I., first king of Portugal. Count of Portugal from 1113, King from 1139. D. 1185. Alfonso v., the African, king of Portugal. Reigned 1438-'81. Alford, Henry, English divine, author. B. 1810. D. 1871. " The School of the Heart and other Poems." " A Plea for the Queen's English.'' An- notated Greek Testament. Alfred the Great, king of England. B. 849. Reigned from 871. D. 901. Algardi, Alessandro, Italian sculptor. D. 1654. Algarotti, Francesco, count, Italian author. B. 1713. D. 1764 "Neu- tonianismo per le donne " (on optics). Ali, caliph. Reigned from 656. Assassinated 661. All, pasha of Janina. B. about 1741. Rebelled against the Porte 1820. Executed 1823. Ali Bey, ruler of Egypt. Rebelled against the Porte 1768. Slain 1773. Alighieri. See Dante Aliqhieri. Alison, Sir Archibald, British historian, B. 1793. D. 1867. " History of Europe, from the Commencement of the French Revolution to the Res- toration of the Bourbons " (with a continuation by the author). Allan, Sir William, Scottish painter. B. 1783. D. 1850. Allegri, Gregorio, Italian composer. D. 1653. Allen, Ethan, American soldier. B. 1738. D.*1789. Allen, Grant, English author, exponent of Darwinism, writer of fiction. B. 1848. Allen, William, American scholar, author. B. 1784 D. 1868. " The Ameri- can Biographical Dictionary." Allen, William, English chemist, philanthropist. B. 1770. D. 1843. AUibone, Samuel Austin, American bibliographer. B. 1816. D. 1889 " A Critical Dictionary of English Literature." AUix, Pierre, French Protestant theologian. D. 1717. Allori, Alessandro, Italian painter, B. 1535. D. 1607. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 317 Allori, Cristofano, Italian painter. B. 1577. D. 1631. Allouez, Claude Jean, French missionary, one of the explorers of the North- west. B. 1620. D. 1690. Allston, Washington, American painter. B. 1779. D. 1843. Almagro, Diego de, Spanish adventurer, companion and afterward enemy of Pizarro. B. about 1470. Put to death 1538. Al-Itamotm., caliph. Reigned 813-833. Al-Mansour, caliph. Reigned 754^775. Alma-Tadema, Lourenz, Belgian-English painter. B. 1836. Almeida, Francisco de, Portuguese viceroy of the Indies. Killed 1510. Abneida-Qarrett, Joao Baptista de, Portuguese poet, dramatist. B. 1799. D. 1854 AlmcLuist, Karl Jonas Ludvig, Swedish poet, novelist. B. 1793. D. 1866. Alp Arslan, Seljuk sultan. Reigned 1063-'72. Alpini, Prospero, Italian botanist, physician. B. 1553. D. 1617. Alt, Rudolf, Austrian painter. B. 1812. Altdorfer, Albrecht, German painter, engraver. B. 1488. D. 1538. Alva (Alba), Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, duke of, Spanish general, govemoi of the Netherlands. B. 1508. D. 1583 or 1582. Alvarado, Pedro de, Spanish conqueror in America. D. 1541. Alvarez, Francisco, Portuguese traveler. D. after 1540. Alvinczy, Joseph, baron, Austrian soldier. B. 1735. D. 1810. Alyattes, king of Lydia, father of Croesus. D. about 560 b. c. Amadeus V. (IV.), the Great, count of Savoy. B. 1249. Reigned from 1385. D. 1323. Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy. B. 1383. Reigned from 1391 (at first as count). Proclaimed pope by the schismatic council of Basel, as Felix V., 1439. D. 1451. Amade\isI.,kingof Spain 1870-73, son of Victor Emanuel. B.1845. D.1890. Amalia, duchess of Saxe-Weimar. B. 1739. D. 1807. Amalia, duchess of Saxony, dramatist. B. 1794 D. 1870. Amasis (Amosis, Aahmes), king of Egypt, conqueror ,of the Hyksos. About 1700 (1600) B. 0. Amasis, king of Egypt. Reigned about 570-527 b. c. Amati, family of violin makers of Cremona. 16th-17th c. Amaury of Chartres (Amalric of Bene), French theologian, philosopher. D. about 1305. Amberg^r, Christoph, German painter. D. about 1568. Amboise, George d', cardinal, prime-minister of Louis XII. of Prance. B. 1460. D. 1510. Ambrose, Saint, bishop of Milan. B. about 340. D. 397. Amelot de la Houssaye, Abraham Nicolas, French historian, translator. B. 1634. D. 1706. " Histoire du gouvemement de Venise." Amerlin^, Priedrioh, Austrian painter. B. 1803. D. 1887. Ames, Fisher, American statesman. B. 1758. D. 1808. 318 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Amherst, JefEery, baron, British general in America. B. 1717. D. 1797. Amiot (Amyot), Joseph, French missionary. B. 1718. D. 1794. Amman, Jost, German engrayer, painter. B. 1539. D. 1591. Ammianus IKTarcellinus, Roman historian. D. about a. d. 395. Ammon, Christoph Priedrioh von, Grerman Protestant theologian. B. 1766i D. 1850. Amiuonitis Saccas, Alexandrian philosopher. D. about a. d. 244. Amos, Hebrew prophet. About 800 b. c. Am.p6re, Andre Marie, French physicist. B. 1775. D. 1836. " BecueU des observations electro-dynamiques." Am.pdre, Jean Jacques Antoine, French author. B. 1800. D. 1864 Works on the early literature of France, historical writings, etc. • Amru, Saracen general, conqueror of Egypt. D. 663. Amsdorf, Nikolaus von, associate of Luther. B. 1483. D. 1565. Amsler, Samuel, Grerman engraver. B. 1791. D. 1849. Amurath. (Murad) I., Turkish sultan. Keigned from 1359. Slain 1389. Amxirath II., Turkish sultan. Beigned 1431-'51. Amuratli III., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1574^*95. Amuratt IV., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1623-'40. Amurath. V., Turkish sultan. Reigned May-Aug., 1876. Amyot, Jacques, French bishop, translator of Plutarch. B. 1513. D. 1593. Amyxaut, Moise, French theologian. B. 1596. D. 1664. Anacharsis, Scythian sage. Beginning of 6th c. b. c. Anacletus II., antipope. Elected 1130. D. 1138. Anacreon, Greek lyric poet. B. about 561 b. c. D. about 477. Anaxagoras, Greek philosopher, D. about 438 b. c. Anaxim.ander, Greek philosopher, astronomer. B. about 610 b. c. D, about 545. Anazimenes, Greek philosopher. 6th c. b. c. Ancelot, Jacques ArsSne Frangois Polycarpe, French dramatist. B. 1794 D. 1854 Ancillon, Johann Friedrioh, Prussian statesman, political and philosophical writer. B. about 1767. D. 1837. Anckarstroem, Johan Jakob, assassin of Gustavus IIL of Sweden, B. about 1763. Executed 1793. Ancre, marquis d' (Concino de' Conoini), Italian adventurer, favorite of Maria de' Medici. Assassinated 1617. Ancus Harcius, reputed king of Rome from about 640 to about 616 b. c. Andersen, Hans Christian, Danish novelist, poet, dramatist, writer of fairy tales. B. 1805. D. 1875. " The Improvisatore," " 0. T.," " Only a Fid- dler " (novels). Anderson, Robert, American soldier. B. 1805. D. 1871. Andersson, Karl Johan, Swedish explorer. B. 1837. D. 1867. Author of " Lake Ngami." Andersson, KUs Johan, Swedish botanist. B. 1831. D. 1880. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 319 Andrada, Antonio de, Portuguese Jesuit missionajy, trayeler in Thibet, D. about 1633. Andrada e Sylva, Joze Bonifacio de, Brazilian statesman, B. 1765, D. 1838. Andral, Gabriel, French physician. B. 1797. D. 1876, Andrassy, Gyula, count, Hungarian statesman, minister of foreign aSairs of Austria-Hungary 1871-'9, B, 1828, D. 1890. AndrS, John, British soldier. B, 1751. Executed 1780. Andrea Fisano. See Fisano. Andrea del Saxto. See Sarto. Andreae, Jakob, German Protestant theologian. B, 1628. D. 1590. Andreas, Johann Valentin, German Protestant theologian, satirical writer. B. 1586. D. 1654. Andrew II., king of Hungary. Ileigned 1205-'35. Andrew, John Albion, governor of Massachusetts 1861-5. B. 1818. D, 1867. . Andrews, Lancelot, English prelate. B. 1555. D. 1626. Andronicus, Livius, Latin poet. Second half of 3d c. b. c. Andros, Sir Edmund, English colonial governor. B. 1637. D. 1714. Angeli, Eeinrich von, Austrian painter. B. 1840. Angelico, Fra (Giovanni da Eiesole), Italian painter. B. 1387. D. 1455, Angelus Silesius (Johann Schef^er), German mystical poet, B, 1624. D, 1677. Anghiera, Pietro Martire d' (Peter Martyr), Italian historian. B. 1455. D. 1536. Best known by his writings on the discoveries in the New World. Anglesey, Henry William Paget, marquis of, British general. B. 1768. D. 1854. Angoul4me, Louis Antoine de Bourbon, duke of, eldest son of Charles X. of Prance. B. 1775. D. 1844. Angniisciola, Sofonisba, Italian painter. B. about 1530. D. about 1625. Angus,* Archibald Douglas, earl of (" BeU the Cat "). D, after 1514. Angus, Archibald Douglas, earl of. D. about 1557. Anhalt-Dessan, Leopold of. See Leofou). Anicet-Bourgeois, Auguste, French dramatist. B. 1806. D. 1871. Anjbu, Frangois, duke of (duke of Alengon), son of Henry II. of France. B, 1554 D. 1584. Anjou, Henry, duke of. See Henby HI., of France. Anna Carlovna, Russian grand-duchess. B, 1718, D,^ 1746. Anna Comnena, Byzantine princess, writer. B. 1083. D. 1148. Author of a history of her father, Alexis Comnenus. Anna Ivanovna, empress of Russia, niece of Peter the Great. B, 1693. Reigned from 1730. D. 1740. •Anne, queen of England, daughter of James II. B. 1665. Reigned from .., . __ ^ * ABgns is the old name of the Scottish county of Fotfar. 320 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONABT. 1703. D. 1714. Married to George, brother of Christian V. of Den- mark. Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III. of Spain, queen of Louis XIII. of France. B. about 1601. D. 1666. Anne de Beavg'eu, regent of France during the minority of her brother, Charles VIII. B. about 1462. D. 1522. Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII. B. about 1507. Beheaded 1536. Anne of Brittany, queen of Charles VIII. of France. B. 1476. D. 1514. Anne of Cleves, fourth wife of Henry VIII. D. 1557. Annius of Viterbo, Italian monk, literary impostor. B, about 1432, D, 1503. Anno (Hanno), Saint, archbishop of Cologne. D. 1075. Anquetil, Louis Pierre, French historian. B, 1723. D. 1808. Works on universal and on French history. Anquetil-Duperron, Abraham Hyacinthe, French orientalist. B. 1731. D. 1805. Translation of the Zend-Avesta. Anscharius. See Ansqar. Ansdell, Bichard, English painter. B. 1815. D. 1885. Ansebu, Saint, archbishop of Canterbury. B. about 1033. D. 1109. Ansgar, Saint, " apostle of the North." B. 801. D. 865. Anson, George, Lord, English navigator. B. 1697. D. 1762. Anspacli, Elizabeth, margravine of (Elizabeth Berkeley, Lady Craven). B. in England 1750. D. 1828. Author of " Memoirs of the Margravine of Anspach." Ansted, David Thomas, English geologist. B. 1814. D. 1880. Antalcidas, Spartan ambassador. Peace of Antalcidas 387 b. c. Anthon, Charles, American classical scholar. B. 1797. D, 1867. Anthony, Saint, the Great, Egyptian ecclesiastic, father of monachism, B. about 351. D. about 356. Antigonus, Macedonian general, king in Asia. B. about 383 b. c. Slain 301 or 300. Antigonus, king of Judea. B. about 80 b. c. Hreigned from 40. Put to death 37. Antigonus Boson, king of Macedon. D. 320 b. c. Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedon. B. about 319 b. c. D. about 240. Antiochus Soter, king of Syria. Reigned 380-361 b. c. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria. Reigned 233-187 b. c. Antiochus Epipliaiies, king of Syria. Reigned 175-164 b. o. Antipas, Herod. See Hebod Antipas. Antipater, regent of Macedonia. B. between 400 and 390 b. c. D. 319. Antiphon, Athenian orator. Condemned to death 411 b. c. Antisthenes, Athenian philosopher. Early in 4th c, b. o. Antoine de Bourbon, husband of Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre. B» 1518. D, 1563. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 321 Antommarclii, Francesco, physician to Napoleon. B. about 1780. D. 1838. Antonelli, Giacomo, Italian cardinal. B. 1806. D. 1876. Antonello da Uessina, Italian painter. B. 1414. D. about 1493. Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius. See Maecus Aubglius Antoninus. Antoninus Pius, Roman emperor. B. 86. Beigned from 138. D. 161. Antonio, Nicolas, Spanish bibliographer. B. 1617. D. 1684. Antony, Mark (Marcus Antoniiis), Soman triumvir. B. 83 b. c. D. 30 B.C. Anville, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d', French geographer, cartographer. B.1697. D. 1782. Apelles, Greek painter. Flourished about 330 b. c. Apicius, Marcus Gabius, Boman epicure. Early part of first c a. d. Apollinaris, bishop of Laodicea. D. about 385. Apollinaris, Sidonius. See Sisonius Atollinabis. Apollodoros of CShaxystus, Greek comic poet. Early in 8d c. b. c. Apollonius Fergsens, geometer of Alexandria. About close of 3d c. b. c Apollonius Bhodius, Greek poet. Latter part of 3d c. b. c. Apollonius Tyanseiis, Greek philosopher. B. about 4 b. c. Appian, Greek historian. 2d c. a. d. Appiani, Andrea, Italian painter. B. 1754. D. 1817. Appius Claudius. See Claudius. Aprazin, Pedor, Russian admiral. B. 1671. D. 1728. Apraxin, Stefan, Russian general. D. about 1758. Apuleius, Roman satirist, philosopher. B. about A. d. 130. Aquinas, Thomas, Saint, Italian scholastic philosopher. B. about 1225. D. 1274 Arabella Stuart. See Siuabt. Arabi Fasha, leader of the revolt in Egypt in 1882. Arago, Dominique Frangois, French physicist. B..1786. D. 1853. Arago, Emmanuel, French advocate, politician. B. 1812. D. 1896. Arago, ]^tienne, Fr. journalist, dramatist, poet, politician. B. 1802. D. 1893. Arago, Jacques fitienne Victor, French traveler, writer. B. 1790. D. 1855. AraktcheyefE^ Alexei, count, Russian general, statesman. B. 1769. D. 1834. Aram, Eugene, English scholar. B. 1704 Executed for murder 1759. Aranda, Pedro Abarca y Bolea, count of, Spanish statesman. B. 1718. D. about 1799. Arany, JAaos, Hungarian poet. B. 1817. D. 1882. Author of the epic poem " Toldi." Aratus, Greek poet, astronomer. 3d c. b. o. Aratus, Greek general, head of the Achsean League. B. about 871 b. c. D. 213. Arblay, Madame d'. See D'Abblat. Arbogast (Arbogastes), Frank general in the Roman service. Slew him- self A, D. 394 322 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Arbuthnot, John, Scottish physician, scholar, satirical writer. D. 1785, " History of John Bull " (political allegory). " First Book of the Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus." Work on ancient coins, weights, and measures. Axe, Joan of. See Joas of Arc. Arcadius, Byzantine emperor, son of Theodosius the Great. Keigned 395- 408. Arcesilaus, Greek philosopher. B. about 316 b. c. D. about 241. Archelaus, sumamed Physicus, Greek philosopher. 5th c. b. c. Archenliolz, Johann Wilhelm, baron, German author. B. about 1748. D, 1812. Principal production, "Geschichte des siebenjUmgen Kriegs" (" History of the Seven Years' War "). Archias, Aulus Licinius, Greek poet. First c. b. c. Archilochus of Faros, Ionic poet. About 700 b. c. Archimedes, Syracusan mathematician, mechanician. B. about 287 b. c. Killed 212. Archytas of Tarentum, Greek philosopher. About 400 b. c. Argon, Jean Claude !£il€onore Lemicaud (Lemiceaud 1) d', French military engineer, who constructed the floating batteries employed in the attack on Gibraltar in 1782. B. 1733. D. 1800. Ardeshir (Artaxerxes), king of Persia, first of the Sassanidse. Reigned from 226. D. about 240. Arditi, Luigi, Italian yioUnist, composer. B. 1822. AretsauB, Greek medical writer. First c. a, d. (t). Aretino, Guido (Guido d' Arezzo), Italian monk, improver of musical nota- tion. 11th c. Aretino, Leonardo. See Bruni. Aretino, Pietro, Italian writer, sumamed from his satires the " scourge of princes." B. 1492. D. 1557. Argelander, Friedrich Wilhelm Aug^t, German astronomer. B. 1799. D. 1875. Argens, Jean Baptiste de Boyer, marquis d', French philosophical writer. B.1704. D. 1771. "Histoiredel'esprithumain." Argenson, Marc Antoine B«n6 d', marquis de Paulmy, French diplomatist, scholar, author. B. 1722. D. 1787. Argenson, Marc Pierre, count d', secretary of war under Louis XV., patron of letters. B. 1696. D. 1764. Argenson, Marc Een6 d', French statesman. B. 1652. D. 1721. Argenson, Marc Ren6 de Voyer d', French statesman. B. 1771. D. 1843. Argenson, Rene Louis, marquis d', French minister of foreign affairs 1744-'7, author. B. 1694. D. 1757. Argiielles, Augustin, Spanish statesman. B. 1775. D. 1844 Arg^yll (Argyle), Archibald Campbell, marquis of. B. 1598. Beheaded 1661. Argyll, Archibald Campbell, earl of. Beheaded 1685. Argyll, George John Douglas Campbell, duke of, statesman, author. K 1823. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 323 Argyll, John Campbell, duke of. B. 1678. D. 1743. Argyropulos, Johannes, Greek professor. B. about 1415. D. about 1486. Arias IContanus, Spanish orientalist, Biblical scholar. B. 1527. D. 1598. Ariosto, Ludovioo, Italian poet. B. 1474. D. 1533. " Orlando furioso " (poem of chivalry). Ariovistus, German chief. Waxred against CsBsar 58 b. c. Arista, Mariano, president of Mexico from Jan. 1851 to Jan. 1853. B. 1802, D. 1855. Axistarchus, Alexandrian critic, commentator. 2d c. b. c. Aristarchus, Greek astronomer. First half of 3d c. b. c. Aristides, Athenian statesman. B. about 468 b. c. Aristippus, Greek philosopher. Flourished about 380 b. c. Aristobiiliis I., king of Judea. Reigned 105-104 b. c. Aristobulus H., king of Judea. Usurped the throne 69 b. c. Dethroned 63. D.49. Aristogiton. See Habmodius and Abistogiton. Aristomeiies, Messenian hero, 7th or 8th c. b. c* Aristophaaes, Athenian comic writer. B. about 450 B. c. D. about 380. Aristotle, Greek philosopher. B. 384 b. c. D. 322. Arius, Egyptian ecclesiastic, founder of Arianism. D. 336. Arkwright, Sir Richard, English inventor (spinning frame). B. 1732. D. 1792. Armagnac, counts of, conspicuous in the French troubles of the 15th c. Anuansperg, Joseph Ludwig, count. Bavarian statesman, head of the re- gency in Greece at the beginning of the reign of Otho. B. 1787. D. 1853. Arminius (Hermann), prince of the German tribe of the Cherusci. Van- quished the Romans in the Teutoburg Forest a. d. 9. Arminius, Jacobus, Dutch theologian. B. 1560. D. 1609. Anuitage, Edward, English painter. B. 1817. D. 1896. Armstrong, John, American soldier. B. about 1758. D. 1843. Armstrong, Lord William George, English inventor. B. 1810. Amauld, Angelique, abbess of Port Royal. B. 1624. D. 1684. Amauld, Antoine, French advocate. B. 1560. D. 1619. Amauld, Antoine, French Jansenist theologian. B. 1612. D. 1694. Amauld, Marie Jacqueline Angelique, abbess of Port Royal. B. 1591. D, 1661. Amauld d'Andilly, Robert, French theological writer. B. about 1588. D. 1674. Arnault, Vincent Antoine, French writer of tragedy, &«, B. 1766. D. 1834. ' Amd (Arndt), Johann, German Protestant theologian. B. 1555. D. 1621. " Vom wahren Christenthum " (" True Christianity "). * AristomeneB is generally represented as the leader of the Messenians in their second great strnggle against Sparta, in the 7th centnry (see Mesbenia in Fart n.). Some ancient Mconnts, however, make him the hero of the first Messenian War. See Grote's " Histoiy of Greece," vol. U., p. 423 (Am. edition). 824 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY/ Amdt, Ernst Moritz, German patriot, writer. B. 1769. D. 1860. Authoi of the poem " Was ist des Deutsohen Vaterland ? " Ame, Tliomas Augustine, English composer. B. 1710. D. 1778. Ametb., Alfred von, Austrian historian, archivist. B. 1819. D. 1897. Amim, Elisabeth ('■ Bettina ") von, friend of Goethe. B. 1785. D. 1859. Amim, Harry, count, Prussian diplomatist. B. 1824. D. 1881. Amim (Arnheim), Johann Georg, German general. B. 1581. D. 1641. Amim, Ludwig Aehim von, German poet. B. 1781. D. 1831. Arnold, Benedict, American soldier. B. 1741. D. 1801. Araold, Edwin, English poet, journalist. B. 1833. " Light of Asia." Arnold, Matthew, Eng. poet, critic, writer on higher culture. B.1832. D.ISSS Arnold, Samuel, English composer. B. 1740. D. 1803. Arnold, Thomas, English educator, historian. B. 1795. D. 1843. "His- tory of Rome." Arnold of Brescia, Italian reformer. Put to death 1155. Arnold of Winkelried, Swiss patriot. Slain at Sempach 1386. Amoidd, Sophie, French actress. B. 1744. D. 1803. Arp&d, ruler of the Hungarians about 890-907. Arpino, Gjuseppe Cesari d'. See Cesaei. Arran, James Hamilton, second earl of, regent of Scotland. D. 1575. Arrian, Greek author. First half of 3d c. a. d. " Anabasis " (history of the campaigns of Alexander the Great). " Indica." " Periplus of the Buxine Sea." Works on the philosophy of Epictetus. Arrivabene, Giovanni, count, Italian political economist. B. 1787. D. 1881. Arsinoe, queen of Lysimachus, king of Thrace, and of Ptolemy PhUadel- phus. B. about 318 b. o. Arsinoe, queen of Ptolemy PhUopator. Artaxerzes I., Longimanus, king of Persia. Reigned 465-435 b. c. Artaxerxes II., Mnemon, king of Persia^ Reigned 405 (404)-361 (359) B. c. Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), king of Persia. Reigned 361 (359)-338 b. c. Artemidorus of Ephesus, Greek geographer. About 100 b. c. Artemisia, queen of Halicamassus. First half of 5th c. b. c. Artemisia, queen of Caria. Succeeded Mausolus about 353 b. c. Artevelde, Jacob van, leader of the popular party in Flanders. B. about 1300. Killed 1345. Artevelde, Philip van, leader of the popular party in Flanders, son of Jacob von Artevelde. Slain in battle 1882. Arthur, Chester A., president of the United States from Sept. 19, 1881, to March 4, 1885. B. 1830. D. 1886. Artois, count of. See Charles X., of France. Arundel, Thomas Howard, earl of, English art collector. B. 1586. D. 1646. Arwidsson, Adolf Ivar, Swedish poet, author of a collection of Swedish popular songs. B. 1791. D. 1858. Asa, king of Judah. Reigned about 939-873 b. c. (Duneker; abovi 958- 917, common chr'on.). BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 335 AsbjSmseii, Peter Kristen, Norwegian writer (folk-lore). B. 1813. D. 1885. Asbtiry, Francis, American Methodist bishop. B. 1745. D. 1816. Ascham, Roger, English scholar, writer, instructor of Queen Elizabeth. B. 1515. D. 1568. Principal production, " The Scholemaster " (on the best method of teaching Latin). Asclepiades, Greek physician. About 100 b. o. Asdrubal. See Hasdeubal. Aselli, Gasparo, Italian anatomist. D. 1636. Ashburton, Alexander Baring, Lord, English statesman. B. 1774. D. 1848. Ashmole, BUas, English author, founder of the Ashmolean museum. B. 1617. D. 1693. Askew, Anne, English martyr. B. about 1539. Burned 1546. Asmus. See Claudius, Matthias. Aspasia, consort of Pericles. Second half of 5th c. b. c. Assemani, Joseph Aloysius, ecclesiastical writer, professor of oriental lan- guages at Rome. B. in Syria about 1710. D. 1783. Assemani, Joseph Simon, Syrian orientalist. B. 1687. D. 1768. Assemani, Simon, orientalist, professor at Padua. B. in Syria 1753. D, 1831. Assemani, Stephen Evodius, bibliographer, librarian "at the Vatican. B. in Syria 1707. D. 1783. Asser, English monk. D. about 910. Assing, Ludmilla, German authoress. B. 1837. T>. 1880. Astolphus, king of the Lombards. Reigned 749-756. Astor, John Jacob, American merchant. B. in Germany 1763. D. 1848. Astorga, Emanuele d', Sicilian composer. B. 1681. D. 1736. Astyages, king of Media. Reigned 584 (593)- -550 (558) b. c. Atahuallpa, inca of Peru. Put to death 1583. AtaulphuB, king of the Visigoths. Reigned 410-415. Atha ben Hakem, or Al Hakem ibn Atha (Mokanna), the " veiled prophet of Khorasan." D. about 780. Athaliah, queen of Judah. Reigned about 843-837 b. c. (Dwncker; 887- 881, Oppert). Atha Uelik, Persian historian. B. about 1337. D. 1283. Athanasius, Saint, bishop of Alexandria, opponent of Arius. B. about 396. D. 373. Athelstan, king of England. Reigned 935-940. Athenseus, Greek writer. First half of 3d c. a. d. " DeipnosophistiB " (" Banquet of the Learned "). Athenagoras, Greek Christian philosopher. 3d c. Atkinson, Thomas Witlam, English traveler (Siberia, Amoor region). B. 1799. D. 1861. Attains I,, king of Pergamus. Reigned 341-197 b. o. Attains H., king of Pergamus. Reigned 159-138 B. c. Attains III,, kiag of Pergamus. Reigned 138-133 b, c. 326 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Atterbom, Peter Daniel Amadeus, Swedish poet. B. 1790. D. 18SS. Atterbury, Francis, English bishop. B. 1663. D. 1783. Atticus, Titus Pomponius, Roman scholar. B. 109 b. c. D. 33, Atticus Herodes. See Hebodes Atticus. Attila, king of the Huns. D. 453. Attwood, George, English natural philosopher. B. about 1746. D, 1807. Attwood, Thomas, English composer. B. 1765. D. 1838. Auber, Daniel Prangois Esprit, French composer. B. 1783. D. 1871. Aubign^, J. H. Merle d'. See Merle D'AuBioui. Aubignd, Th&dore Agrippa d', Huguenot soldier, author, B. 1650. D. 1630. Political satires, history of his time, &c. Aubusson, Pierre d', grand-master of the Knights of St, John, B. 1433. D. 1503. Auchmuty, Sir Samuel, British general B. about 1756. D. 1832, Auckland, Greorge Eden, earl of, governor general of India 1835-'43, B, 1784 D. 1849. Auckland, William Eden, boron, Britifih diplomatist. B. about 1744 D. 1814 Audebert, Jean Baptiste, French painter, naturalist. B. 1759. D. 1800. Audiffret-Fasquier, Edme Armand Gaston d', duke, French statesman. B. 1823. Audley, Thomas, Lord, lord chancellor under Henry VIII, B. about 1488. D. 1544. Audouin, Jean Victor, French entomologist. B. 1797. D. 1841. Audran, Claude, French engraTer. B. 1593. D, 1677, Audran, Gerard, French engraver. ^. 1640. D. 1708. Audran, Jean, French engraver. B. 1667. D. 1756. Audubon, John James, American ornithologist, B. between 1773 and 1783, D, 1851, "Birds of America." Auenbrugger von Auenbrug (Avenbrugger), Leopold, Austrian physi- cian, Inventor of percussion, B, 1723. D, 1809. Auerbaoh, Berthold, German novelist. B, 1813. D. 1883. Auersperg, Adolph, prince, Austrian statesman. B. 1821. D, 1885, Auersperg, Anton Alexander, count (" Anastasius Griin "), Austrian poet. B. 1806. D. 1876. " DerletzteRitter" ("The Last Knight "), "Spazier- gilnge eines Wiener Poeten " (" Walks of a Viennese Poet "). " Schutt " ("Ruins"). Auersperg, Carlos, prince, Austrian statesman. B. 1814. D, 1890. Augereau, Pierre Franjois Charles, duke of Castlglione, French general. B. 1757. D. 1816. Augier, :&mile, French dramatist. B. 1830. D, 1889. August "Willielm, brother of Frederick II. B. 1723. D. 1758, Augusti, Johann Christian Wilhelm, German Protestant theologian. & about 1771, D. 1841. Aug^ustine, Saint, " apostte of the Anglo-Saxons." D. about 605. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 337 Augrustine, Saint, Latin father of the church, bishop of Hippo. B. 354. D. 430. Aug^ustttlus, Romulus. See Eomulus Augustulus. Augustus (Octavius, Ootavianus), first Soman emperor. B. 63 b. c. Tri- umvir with Antony and Lepidus from 43. Master of the Boman world 31. Styled Augustus 27. D. a. d. 14. Augustus n., the Strong, elector of Saxony (as such Frederick Augustus I.), king of Poland. B. 1670. Reigned in Saxony 1694r-1738; in Poland 1697-1704, 1709-'33. D. 1733. Augustus III., elector of Saxony (as such Frederick. Augustus II.), king of Poland. B. 1696. Reigned from 1733. D. 1763. Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex, sixth son of G-eorge III. B. 1773. D. 1843. Aumale, Henri Eugene Philippe d'OrlSans, duke d', fourth son of Louis PhiUppe. B. 1823. D. 1897. Author of historical works. AungerTyle, Richard. See Richard de Buey. Aurelian (AureUanus), Roman emperor. Reigned from 270. Assassinated 275. Aurelius, Marcus. See Mabcus Aubelius Antonintts. Aurelle de Faladines, French general. B. 1804. D. 1877, AuiifiEiber (Johann Goldschmied), assistant of Luther. B. about 1519. D. 1575. Aurungzebe, Mogul emperor. B. about 1619. Reigned from 1658. D. 1707. Ausonius, Decimus Magnus, Latin poet. B. about 310. D. about 394. Austen, Jane, English novelist. B. 1775. D. 1817. "Sense and Sensibil- ity." " Pride and Prejudice." "Mansfield Park." Austin, John, English writer on jurisprudence. B. 1790. D. 1859. Austin, Sarah (Taylor), wife of J. Austin, English authoress, translator. B, 1793. D. 1867. Austin, Stephen F., colonizer of Texas. D. 1836. Avalos, Fernando Francesco d'. See Pescaba. Avellaneda, Gertnidis Gomez de, Spanish poetess. B. 1816. D. 1873, Avenbrugger. See Auenbbuoqeb. Avenzoar (Ibn Zohr), Moorish physician. B. about 1072. D. 1162. Averroes, Moorish philosopher. D. 1198. Commentary on Aristotle. Avicebron. See Solomon ben Gabirol. Avicenna, Arabian physician, philosopher. B. about 980. D. 1036 or 1037. Axel. See Absalon. Ayala, Pedro Lopez de, Castilian historian, poet. B. 1332. D. 1407. Ayesha, wife of Mohammed. T>. about 678. Aylmer, John, bishop of London (tutor of Lady Jane Grey). B.1521. D.1594 Ayrer, Jakob, German dramatist. D. 1605. Ayrton, W. E., English electrician. B. 1847. Ayton (Aytoun), Sir Robert, Scottish poet. B. 1570. D. 1638. Aytoun, WUliam Edmondstoune, Scottish poet. B. 1813. D. 1865. 328 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Azais, Pierre Hyaeinthe, French philosopher. B. 1766. D, 1845. Azara, Felix de, Spanish naturalist. B. 1746. D. 1811. AzegUo, Massimo Taparelli, marquis d', Italian statesman, author. B. 1798. D. 1866. "Bttore Pieramosca," " Nioolo de' Lapi" (novels). Autobi- ographical memoirs. B. Baader, Franz Xaver von, German philosopher. B. 1765. D. 1841. Baan, Jan van, Dutch painter. B. 1633. D. 1703. Babbage, Charles, English mathematician, inventor of calculating ma- chinery. B. 1793. D. 1871. Baber, founder of the Mogul empire in India in 1526. B. 1483. D. 1530. Babeuf, Frangois NoSl, French socialist, revolutionary conspirator. B. 1764. Executed 1797. Babinet, Jacques, French physicist. B. 1794. D. 1873. Babington, Anthony, English conspirator. Executed 1586. Babo, Franz Marius von, German dramatist, B. 1756. D. 1833. Baccio della Porta. See Babtolomueo. Bacciochi, Elisa. See Bonapabte, Elisa. Bach, Alexander, baron, Austrian statesman. B. 1813. Bach, Johann Christian, German composer. B. 1735. D. 1783. Bach, Johann Christoph Priedrich, German composer. B. 1733. D. 1795. Bach, Johann Sebastian, German composer. B. March 21, 1685. D. July 38, 1750. Bach, Karl Philipp Emanuel, German composer. B. 1714. D. 1788. Bach, Wilhelm Friedemann, German organist. B. 1710. D. 1784 Bache, Alexander Dallas, American scientist. B. 1806. D. 1867. Bachman, John, American naturalist. B. 1790. D. 1874. Back, Sir George, English Arctic explorer. B. 1796. D. 1878. Backhuysen, Ludolf, Dutch painter. B. 1631. D. 1709. Baclei^'Albe, Louis Albert Ghislain, baron, French painter. B. 1763. D, 1834. Bacon, Francis, Lord Verulam, English philosopher. B. Jan. 23, 1561. D. April 9, 1636. " Essays," first collection 1597. " Novum Organum " (in Latin), 1620. Bacon, John, English sculptor. B. 1740. D. 1799. Bacon, Nathaniel, leader of a rebellion in Virginia in 1676. B. about 16^. D. 1676. Bacon, Sir Nicholas, English statesman. B. about 1510. D. 1579. Bacon, Roger, English monk, famous for his attainments in the sciences. B. 1214. D. about 1394. Baden, Louis, margrave of, See Louis. Badiua, Jodocus (Josse), Flemish printer. B. 1463. D. 1535. Baer, Karl Ernst von, Russian naturalist. B. 1793. D. 1876. BaSaii, William, English navigator. B. 1584. Killed 1623. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 339 Bag^hot, Walter, English economical and political writer. B. 1886. D, 1877. Baggesen, Jens, Danish poet. B. 1764. D. 1826. Bagration, Petr, prince, Russian commander. B. 1765. D. 1812. Bahr, Johann Christian Felix, German classical scholar. B. 1798. D. 1873. " Geschichte der rSmischen Literatur." " Herodot." Bailey, Gamaliel, American journalist, abolitionist. B. 1807. D. 1859. Bailey, Jacob Whitman, American microscopist. B. 1811. D. 1857. Bailey, Philip James, English poet. B. 1816. Baillie, Joanna, Scottish poetess. B. 1762. D. 1851. " Plays on the Pas- sions." Baillot, Pierre Marie Frangois de Sales, French violinist. B. 1771. D. 1843. Bailly, Jean Sylvain, French astronomer, politician. B. 1736. Executed 1793. Baily, Edward Hodges, English sculptor. B. 1788. D. 1867. Bain, Alexander, Scottish philosopher. B. 1818. Bainbridge, William, American naval ofiBoer. B. 1774 D. 1833. Baird, Sir David, British general. B. 1757. D. 1839. Baiid, Spencer Fullerton, American naturalist. B. 1833. D. 1887. Baius, Michael, Flemish theologian. B. 1513. D. 1589. Bajazet L, Turkish sultan. B. 1347. Reigned 1389-1402. D. 1403. B^azet II., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1481-1513. Baker, Sir Samuel White, English African explorer, discoverer of the Albert N'y»nza(1864). B.1821. D.1893. "Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon." « The Albert N'yanza." " The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia." " Ismailia." Baldiuysen. See Bacehutsen. Bakunin, Mikhail, Russian revolutionist. B. 1814. D. 1876. Balbi, Adriano, Italian geographer. B. 1783. D. 1848. Balbo, Cesare, Italian statesman, historian. B. 1789. D, 1853. Balboa, Yasco Nunez de. Span, adventurer. B. 1475. Executed 1517 (1518f). Balbuena, Bernardo de, Spanish poet. B. 1568. D. 1637. Balde, Jakob, German Lati i poet. B. 1603. D. 1668. Baldwin I., king of Jerusalem, brother of Godfrey of Bouillon. Reigned 1100-1118. Baldwin XL, king of Jerusalem. Reigned 1118-'31. Baldwin JJL., king of Jerusalem. Reigned 1143-63. Baldwin IV., king of Jerusalem. Reigned from 1173 to about 1184. Baldwin L (of Flanders), emperor of Constantinople. Reigned 1304-5, Baldwin II., emperor of Constantinople. Reigned 1238-'61 (actual reign began 1337). Baldwin, John Dennison, Amer. journalist, archasologist. B. 1809. D. 1888. Balestra, Antonio, Italian painter. B. 1666. D. about 1740. Balfe, Michael WDliam, Irish composer. B. 1808. D. 1870, Balfour, Arthur James, British statesman, philosophical writer. B. 1848. Balfour, Sir Jas., Scot, judge, noted for his intrigues and treachery, D, 1583. 330 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Ball, Sir Robert Stawell, Irish astronomer. B. 1840. BaUanclie, Pierre Simon, French philosopher. B. 1776. D. 1847. Balliol, Edward, king of Scotland, son of John Balliol. He seized the crown in opposition to David Bruce in 1333, but was able to maintain himself only a few years. D. 1363. Balliol, John, king of Scotland. Reigned 1292-'6. D. 1314. Ballou, Hosea, American Universalist clergyman. B. 1771. D. 1853. Balmes, Jaime Lucio, Spanish philosopher. B. 1810. D. 1848. Balnaves, Henry, Scottish Reformer. D. about 1579. Baltard, Louis Pierre, French architect. B. about 1765. D. 1846. Baltimore, Lord. See Calvert. Baltzer, Eduard, German clergyman, religious and philosophical writer, advocate of vegetarianism. B. 1814. D. 1887. Balue, Jean de la, French prelate, minister of Louis XI. B. about 1433. D. 1491. Balxize, iltienne, French historian. B. 1630. D. 1718. Balzac, Honor6 de, French novelist. B. 1799. D. 1850. Balzac, Jean Louis Gnez, seigneur de, French writer. B. about 1597. D. 1654 or 1655. " Lettres familieres." " Le Socrate Chretien." Bamboccio, II. See Laeb. Bancroft, George, American historian. B. Oct. 3, 1800. D. Jan. 17, 1891, « History of the United States." Bancroft, Hubert Howe, American ethnologist, historian. B. 1833. Bandel, Ernst von, German sculptor. B. 1800. D. 1876. Bandello, Matteo, Italian novelist. B. 1480. D. about 1563. Bandinelli, Baccio, Florentine sculptor. . B. 1488. D. 1660. Bandtke, Jerzy (Georg) Samuel, Polish historian. B. 1768. D. 1835. Ban6r, Johan, Swedish general in the Thirty Tears' War. B. 1595. D. 1641, Banim, John, Irish novelist. B. 1798 (according to some 1800). D. 1848. Banks, Sir Joseph, English naturalist. B. 1744. D. 1830. Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, American soldier, politician. B. 1816. D. 1894. Banks, Thomas, English sculptor. B. 1735. D. 1805. Banner. See Ban:£b. Baraguey d'Hilliers, Achille, French general. B. 1795. D. 1878. Baraguey d'Hilliers, Louis, French general. B. 1764. D. 1813 (1813 »). Barante, Amable Guillaume Prosper, baron de Brugi&e, French statesman, historian. B. 1783. D. 1866. " Histoire des duos de Bourgogne de la maison de Valois." Baratier, Johann Philipp, German prodigy. B. 1731. D. 1740. fiaratynski, Yevgeni, Russian poet. D. 1844. Barbarelli, Giorgio. See Giokqione. Barbaros^sa, Frederick. See Frederick I., emperor of Germany. Barbarossa, Horuk, Greek Mohammedan corsair. Killed 1518. Barbarossa, Khair-ed-Din, Greek Mohammedan.corsair. D. 1546. Barbaroux, Charles Jean, French revolutionist. B. 1767. D. 1794 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 331 fiarbauld, Anna Laetitia, English writer for the young, poetess, sister of John Aikin. B. 1743. D. 1825. Barb^-Karbois, Prangois de, marquis, French statesman. B. 1745. D. 1837. Barber, Francis, American soldier. B. 1751. D* 1788. Barberini, Francesco, Italian cardinal, founder of the Barberini Library. B. 1597. D. 1679. Barberini, MafEeo. [See Ukban VIII.] Barbds, Armand, French revolutionist. B. about 1809. D. 1870. Barbi6 du Socage, Jean Denis, French geographer. B. 1760. D. 1825. Barbier, Antoine Alexandre, French bibliographer. B. 1765. D. 1825. Barbier, H. Auguste, French satirical poet. B. 1805. D. 1882. Barbieri, Giovanni Francesco. See Gubecino. Barbour, John, Scottish poet. B. about 1316 (?). D. about 1395 (t). Author of the national poem " The Bruce." Barclay, Alexander, English poet. D. 1552. " The Ship of Fools." Barclay, John, Latin author. B. 1582. D. 1621. "Argenis" (political allegorical romance). Barclay, Robert, Scottish theologian (sect of Friends). B. 1648. D. 1690. Barclay, William, Scottish-French jurist. B. 1541 or 1546. D. 1608. Barclay de Tolly, Michael, prince, Russian general. B. 1761. D. 1818. Bar Cocheba, leader of the Jews in their rising against the emperor Ha- drian. Slain A. D. 135 or 136. Bardas, Byzantine usurper. Assassinated 866. Bardesanes, Syrian Gnostic. Latter part of 2d c. Barentz, WUlem, Dutch Arctic explorer. D. 1597. Bardre de Vieuzac, Bertrand, French revolutionist. B. 1755. D. 1841. Baretti, Giuseppe, Italian writer, lexicographer. B. 1719. D. 1789. Barham, Richard Harris, English humorist. B. 1788. D. 1845. Bar-Hebreeus. See Abulfabagius. Baring, Sir Francis, English capitalist, financier. D. 1810. Baring, Francis ThomhiU, Lord Northbrook, English statesman. B. 1796. D. 1866. Baring, Thomas George, Lord Northbrook, English statesman, viceroy of India 1872-'6. B. 1826. Baring-Gtould, Sabine, English author. B. 1834 Barlow, Joel, American poet. B. 1754 D. 1813. " The Columbiad." "The Vision of Columbus." Barlow, Peter, English mathematician, physicist. B. 1776. D. 1862. Barnard, Fred. Augustus Porter, Am. educator, scientist. B. 1809. D. 1889. Barnard, Henry, American educator. B. 1811, Bamave, Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie, French revolutionist. B. 1761. Executed 1793. Barnes, Albert, American divine. B. 1798. D. 1870. Bsumeveldt, Jan van Olden, Dutch statesman. B. 1547. Executed 1619. Barney, Joshua, American naval officer, B. 1759. D. 1818. 332 BIOGKAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Baroche, Pierre Jules, French statesman. B. 1803. D. 1870. Baronius (Cesare Baronio), Italian historian. B. 1538. D. 1607. " Annales Ecclesiastici." Barrande, Joachim, French- Austrian palaeontologist. B. 1799. D. 1883. Barras, Paul Pranjois Jean Nicolas de, count, French revolutionist. B. 1755. D. 1839. Barrington, Daines, English jurist, naturalist. B. 1737. D. 1800. Barrington, Sir Jonah, Irish lawyer, author. B. 1760. D. 1834. Barron, James, American naval officer. B. 1768. D. 1851. Barron, Samuel, American naval ofiBcer. B. about 1768. D. 1810. Barros, Joao de, Portuguese historian. B. 1496 (1). D. 1570. Barrot, C. H. Odilon, French advocate, statesman. B. 1791. D. 1873. Barrow, Isaac, English clergyman, mathematician. B. 1630. D. 1677. Barrow, Sir John, English author, promoter of scientific voyages. B. 1764. D. 1848. Barrundia, Jose Francisco, Central American statesman, B. about 1780, D. 1854. Barry, Sir Charles, English architect. B. 1795. D. 1860. Barry, Edward Middleton,^ English architect. B. 1830. D. 1880, Barry, Gerald de. See Giraldus Cambrensis. Barry, James, Irish painter. B. 1741. D. 1806. Barry, Marie Jeanne, countess du, mistress of Louis XV. B. 1746. Exe- cuted 1798. Barry, Martin, English physiologist. B. 1803. D. 1855. Bart (Baert), Jean, French naval officer. B. 1651. D. 1703. Bartas, Guillaume de SaUuste du, French poet. B. 1544 D. 1590. Barth., Heinrich, German African explorer. B. 1831. D. 1865. " Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa." BarthSlemy, Francois, marquis de, French statesman. B. 1747. D. 1830. Barthelemy, Jean Jacques, French author. B. 1716. D. 1795. "Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en GrSce." BarthelemySaint-Hilaire, Jules, Fr. statesman, scholar. B. 1805, D,1896, Translation of Aristotle. Works on oriental religion and philosophy. Barthez (Barthes), Paul Joseph, French physiologist. B. 1734. D. 1806. Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste, Alsatian sculptor. B. 1834. Bartholin, Kaspar, Danish anatomist. B. 1585. D. 1639 or 1680. Bartholin, Thomas, Danish physician, anatomist, scholar. B. 1616. D. 1680. Bartolini, Lorenzo, Italian sculptor. B. about 1777. D. 1850. Bartolommeo, Fra (Baccio della Porta), Florentine painter. B. 1469 or 1475. D. 1517. Bartolozzi, Francesco, Italian engraver. B. about 1787. D. 1813. Barton, Benjamin Smith, American botanist. B. 1766. D. 1815. Barton, Elizabeth, " Nun of Kent." Executed 1534. Barton, William P. C, American botanist. D 1856. Bartram, John, American botanist. B, 1699. D. 1777. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONABY. 333 Bartram, WUliam, American naturalist. B. 1739. D. 1823. Bartsch, Johann Adam Bernhard von, Austrian engraver. B. 1757. D. 1821. Bartsch, Karl Priedrich, German philologist. B. 1832. D. 1888. Editor of medisBval German poems and Provengal writings. Barye, Antoine Louis, French sculptor. B. 1795. D. 1875. Basedow, Johann Bernhard, German educational reformer. B. 1723. D. 1790. Basil (Basilius) I., Byzantine emperor. Reigned 867-886. Basil II., Byzantine emperor. Reigned 976-1025. Basil the Great, Greek father of the church. B. about 329. D. 379. Basil Valentine (Basilius Valentinus), German chemist. Supposed to have lived in the first half of the 15th c. ^ Basnage de Beauval, Jacques, French Protestant clergyman, author. B. 1653. D. 1723. Works on church history and the history of the Jews. Bass, George A., English surgeon, navigator. Discovered Bass Strait 1798. Bassano, II (Francesco da Ponte), Italian painter. D. 1530. Bassano, II (Francesco da Ponte), Italian painter. B. about 1548. D. 1591. Bassano, n (Jacopo, or Giacomo, da Ponte), Italian painter. B. 1510. D. 1592. Bassano, duke of. See Mabet. Basselin, Olivier, French poet. D. about 1418. Bassi, Laura Maria Catarina, Italian scholar. B. 1711. D. about 1778. Bassompierre, Fran5ois de, French courtier, writer of memoirs. B. 1579. D. 1646. Bastian, AdoU, German traveler, ethnologist. B. 1826. Bastian, Henry Charlton, English scientist. B. 1837. Works on the origin of life and the development of the lowest organisms. Bastiat, Frederic, French political economist. B. 1801. D. 1850, Bastide, Jules, French politician, political and historical writer, B. 1800. D. 1879. Bastien-Lepage, Jules, French painter. B. 1848. D, 1884 Bates, Edward, American politician. B. 1793. D. 1869. Bates, Henry Walter, English traveler, naturalist. B. 1825. D. 1893. " The Naturalist on the River Amazonas." Bath, earl of. See Pultenet. B&thory, Sigismund, prince of Transylvania. Reigned 1581-98. (Subse- quently resumed his crown for short intervals.) D. 1613. Bathory, Stephen, prince of Transylvania, king of Poland. Reigned in Transylvania 1571-'6; in Poland, 1575-'86. D. 1586. Bathurst, Allen, earl, English statesman. B. 1684. D. 1775. Bathy&nyL See Batthyanti. Bathyllus of Alexandria, pantomimic actor. Second half of first c. b. c. Batthytoyi, Kazmer, count, Hungarian patriot, statesman. B. 1807. D. 1854. 334 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAKY. Batth.y&tiyi, Lajos (Louis), Hungarian patriot, statesman. B. 1809. Exe- cuted 1849. Batu Khan, Mongol ruler, general. D. about 1356. Batuta, Ibn, Moorish traveler. D. about 1378. Batyushkoff, Constantin, Russian poet. B. 1787. D. 1855. Baudrillart, Henri Joseph Lfion, Fr. political economist. B. 1831. D. 1893. Baudry, Paul Jacques Aimfi, French painter. B. 1838. D. 1886. Bauer, Bruno, German New Testament critic, political writer. B. 1809. D. 1882. Bauemfeld, Bduard von, Viennese writer of comedy. B. 1803. D. 1890. Baiihin, Jean, Swiss botanist, physician. B. 1541. D. 1613. Baum6, Antoine, French chemist. B. 1738. D. 1804. Baumgarten, Alexander Gottlieb, German philosopher, founder of the sci- ence of aesthetics. B. 1714. D. 1763. Bauungarten, Sigmund Jakob, German Protestant theologian. B. 1706, D. 1757. Baiungarteii-Crusiiis, Detley Ekrl Wilhelm, German scholar. B. 1786. D. 1845. Baumgarten-Crusius, Ludwig Friedrich Otto, German Protestant theolo- gian. B. 1788. D. 1843. Baumg^rtner, Karl Heinrich, German physiologist. B. 1798. D. 1886. BauT, Ferdinand Christian, German theologian, critic. B. 1793. D. 1860. Baxter, Andrew, Scottish metaphysician. B. about 1686. D. 1750. " In- quiry into the Nature of the Human Soul." Baxter, Richard, English non-conformist divine. B. 1615. D. 1691. Bayard, Pierre du Terrail, chevalier de, French soldier. B. about 1475, Killed 1534. Bayer, Johann, German astronomer, preacher. B. about 1573. D. 1635. Bayle, Pierre, French philosopher, freethinker. B. 1647. D. 1706. "Dio- tionnaire historique et critique." Bazaine, Francois AchiUe, French general. B. 1811. D. 1888. Bazard, Sainte-Amand, French Carbonaro, socialist, B. 1791. D. 1833, Beaconsfleld, earl of. See Disraeli, Benjamdt. Beaton, David, primate of Scotland. B. about 1494. Assassinated 1546. Beatrice Foitinari, Florentine lady adored by Dante. B. 1366. D. 1390. Beattie, James, Scottish author. B. 1735. D. 1803. "Essay on the Nature and Immutability of Truth." " The Minstrel " (poem). Beaufort, Henry, EngUsh prelate. B. about 1370. D. 1447. Beaufort, Margaret, countess of Richmond and of Derby, mother of Henry VII. B. 1441. D. 1509. Beaiihamais, Alexandre de, viscount, French general, husband of Jose- phine. B. 1760. Executed 1794. Beauharnais, Eugene de, duke of Leuehtenberg, prince of Bichstadt, French general, son of Josephine. B, 1781, D, 1834. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 335 Beauharnais, Hortense, wife of Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, daugh- ter of Josephine. B. 1783. D. 1837. Mother of Napoleon III. Beauharnais, Josephine. See Josephine. Beaumanoir, Philippe de, French jurist. D. 1396. Beaumarcliais, Pierre Augustin Caron de, French dramatist. B. 1733. D. 1799. " Le barbier de Seville." " Le mariage de Figaxo." Beaumont, ^lie de. See I^lie de Beaumont. Beaumont, Francis, English dramatist. B. about 1585. D. 1616. Beaum.ont, Gustave de, French writer, statesman. B. 1803. D. 1866. " The Penitentiary System of the United States" (produced jointly with De Tocqueville). " Marie, or Slavery in the United States " (work of fiction). Work on the state ol Ireland. Beauregard, Pierre Q-ustave Toutant, Confederate general. B. 1818. D. 1893. Beausobre, Isaac de, French Protestant theologian. B, 1659. D. 1738. Beautemps-Beaupre, Charles Franjois, French hydrographer. Bl 1766. D. 1854 Beauvais, Charles Theodore, French general, writer. B. 1773. D. 1830. Bebutoff, Yasili, prince, Bussian general. B. about 1793. D. 1858. Beccafumi, Domenico, ItaJian painter. D. about 1550. Beccaria, Cesare Bonesana, marquis de, Italian jurist, political economist. B. 1735 or 1738. D. 1794 or 1793. "Dei delitti e deUe pene" ("On Crimes and Penalties "), 1764 Beccaria, Giambattista, Italian physicist. B. 1716. D. 1781. " Dell' elet- tricismo naturale ed artiflciale.'' Becerra, Gaspar, Spanish painter, sculptor. B. about 1530. D. 1570. Beck (Beei), David, Dutch painter. B. 1631. D. 1656. Beck, John Brodhead, American physicifl,n. B. 1794 D. 1851. Beck, Karl, Austrian poet. B. 1817. D. 1879. Beck, Lewis C, American naturalist. B. 1798. D. 1853. Beck, Theodoric Eomeyn, American physician. B. 1791. D. 1855. Becker, Georges, French painter. B. about 1845. Becker, Karl, German painter. B. 1830. Becker, Karl Friedrioh, German historian. B. 1777. D. 1806. Best known by his popular universal history. Becker, Rudolf Zaoharias, German author. B. 1753. D. 1832. " Noth- und HiUfsbiichlein." Becket, Thomas k, archbishop of Canterbury. B. about 1117. Murdered 1170. Beckford, William, English author. B. about 1760. D. 1844. « Vathek " (oriental tale, written in French). Beckmann, Johann, German writer on rural economy, the history of inven- tions, &c. B. 1739. D. 1811. Beckx, Pierre Jean, general of the Jesuits. B. in Belgium 1795. D. 1887. Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond, French physicist. B, 1830. D. 1891. 336 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Becquerel, Antoine Cesar, French physicist (electricity, electro-chemical science, magnetism). B. 1788. D. 1878. Beddoes, Thomas, English physician, chemist. B. 1760. D. 1808. Bede (Beda), Saxon ecclesiastical historian. B. about 672. D. about 735. Bedeau, Marie Alphonse, French general. B. 1804. D. 1863. Bedford, John, duke of, uncle of King Henry VI., regent of France, pro- tector of England. B. about 1389. D. 1435. Beecber, Henry Ward, American clergyman. B. 1813. D. 1887. Beecher, Lyman, American clergyman. B. 1775. D. 1863. Beecliey, Frederick William, English Arctic explorer. B. 1796. D. 1856. Beechey, Sir WiUiam, English painter. B. 1753. D. 1839. Beek, David. See Beck. Beethoven, Ludwig van, German composer. B. probably Dec. 16, 1770. D. March 36, 1837. Begas, Karl, German painter. B. 1794. D. 1854. Begas, Oskar, German painter. B. 1838. D. 1883. Begas, Reinhold, German sculptor. B. 1831. Behaim (Behem), Martin, German navigator, geographer. D. 1506. Behm, Ernst, German geographical writer, statistician. B. 1830. D. 1884. Behn, Aphra (bbrn Johnson), English romance writer, poetess, dramatist, B. about 1640. D. 1689. Behring (properly Bering), Vitus, Danish navigator in the Russian service. D. 1741. Beke, Charles Tilstone, English traveler in Abyssinia. B. 1800. D. 1874 Bekker, Imm'anuel, German classical scholar. B. 1785. D. 1871, Belolier, Sir Edward, British Arctic explorer. B. 1799. D. 1877. Belgiojoso, Cristina, princess, Italian patriot, writer. B. 1808. D. 1871. Belisarius, Byzantine general. B. about 505. D. 565. Bell, Alexander Graham, American inventor, B. 1847, First public exhi- bition of his telephone 1876, Bell, Andrew, English educational writer, B. 1753. D. 1833. Bell, Sir Charles, British anatomist, physiologist. B. 1774. D. 1843, Bell, John, Scottish traveler, B. 1691. D. 1780. Bell, John, British surgeon. B. 1768. D. 1830. Bell, John, American statesman. B. 1797, D. 1869. Bell, John, English sculptor, B. 1811. D. 1895. Bell, Thomas, English zoSlogist. B. 1793. D. 1880. Bellamont, earl of. See Bellomont. Bellamy, Mrs. George Ann, English actress. B. about 1731. D. 1788, Bellamy, Joseph, American theologian. B. 1719, D, 1790. Bellarmin (Roberto Bellarmino), Italian Catholic theologian. B. 1542. D, 1621. Bellay, GuUlaume du, seigneur de Langey, French soldier, diplomatist, writer of memoirs. B. 1491. D. 1543. Bellay, Jean du, French cardinal, B, 1493. D, 1560, BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 337 Bellay, Joachim du, French writer ot sonnets, songs, and odes. B. about 1524. D. 1560. Belle-Isle, Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, count (from 1748 duke) de, French general, diplomatist. B. "1684. D. 1761. Belle-Isle, Louis Charles Armand Fouquet, chevalier de, French general. B. 1693. Killed 1747. Bellenden, WUliam, Scottish Latin writer. Beginning of 17th c. Bellingham, Richard, governor of Massachusetts. B. about 1593. D. 1673. Bellini, Gentile, Venetian painter, B. 1431 (according to some 1437). D. 1508 or 1507. Bellini, Giovanni, Venetian painter. B. about 1438. D. 1516. Bellini, Jacopo, Italian painter. D. about 1464, Bellini, Laurentio, Italian anatomist, physician. B. 1643. D. about 1704. Bellini, Vincenzo, Italian composer, B. 1803. D. 1835. Bellman, Karl Mickel, Swedish poet. B. 1740 or 1741. D. 1795. Bellomont, Richard Coote, earl of, governor of New York, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire. B. 1636. D. 1701. Bellows, Henry Whitney, American Unitarian clergyman. B. 1814. D. 1883. Belloy, Pierre Laurent Buirette de, French dramatist. B. 1737. D, 1775, Belluno, duke of. See Victob. Belmontet, Louis, French poet, political writer, partisan of Louis Napoleon. B, 1798. D. 1879. Belon, Pierre, French naturalist. B. about 1517. Assassinated 1564 Belshom, Thomas, English clergyman. B. 1750. D. 1839, Belzoni, Giovanni Battista, Italian traveler, explorer of the monuments of Egypt. B. about 1778. D. 1833. Bern, Jozef, Polish general, who distinguished himself in the Polish revolu- tion of 1830-'31, and commanded a part of the Hungarian forces in 1848-'9. B. 1795. D. 1850. Bembo, Pietro, Italian scholar, writer, cardinal B. 1470. D. 1547. Benalc&zar, Sebastian de, Spanish conqueror in South America. D. 1550. Bendavid, Lazarus, German-Jewish philosopher, mathematician. B, 1763. D. 1833. Bendemann, Eduard, German painter. B. 1811. D. 1889. Benedek, Ludwig von, Austrian general. B. 1804. D. 1881. Benedetti, Vincent, French diplomatist. B. 1817. Benedict, Saint, founder of the order of Benedictines. B. about 480. D, about 543. Benedict of Aniane, saint of the Roman Catholic church. B. in Langue- doc about 750. D. 831. Benedict XII., pope. Elected 1334 D. 1343. Benedict XIII. (Pedro de Luna), antipope. Elected 1894 D. about 1434 Benedict XIII., pope. Elected 1734 D, 1730. Benedict XTV., pope. Elected 1740. D. 1758. Benedict, Sir Julius, German composer. B. 1804 D, 1885. 23 338 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONABY. Benedix, J. Boderich, German writer of comedy. B. 1811. D. 1873. Beneke, Priedrich Bduard, German philosopher. B. 1798. D, 1854 Beufey, Theodor, German Sanskrit scholar. B. 1809. D. 1881. Bengel, Johann Albrecht, German Protestant theologian. B. 1687. D. 1752b Benger, Elizabeth Ogilvy, English authoress. B. 1778. D. 1827. Beniowsky, Moritz August, count, Hungarian adventurer. B. 1741. Killed in Madagascar 1786. Beojaxaiu, Judah Phillips, American politician, secretary of state of the Confederate States, lawyer. B. 1812. D. 1884 Benjamin, of Tudela, Jewish traveler. D. about 1173. Bennett, James Gordon, American journalist. B. 1795. D. 1872. Bennett, John Hughes, English physician. B. 1813. D. 1875. Bennett, Sir William Sterndale, English composer. B. 1816. D. 1875. Bennigsen (Benningsen), Levin August TheophU, count, Kussian general B. 1745. D. 1826. Bennigsen, Kudolf von, German statesman. B. 1824. Benson, Joseph, English Methodist clergyman. B. 1747. D. 1821. Bentham, Jeremy, English jurist, originator of the philosophy of utilita- rianism. B. Feb. 15, 1748. D. June 6, 1832. Bentinck, George Frederick Cavendish, Lord, English statesman. B. 1802. D. 1848. Bentinck, William Charles Cavendish, Lord, English general, governor general of India 1827-'35. B. 1774 D. 1839. Bentinck, William Henry Cavendish, duke of Portland, English prime- minister 1783, 1807-'9. B. 1738. D. 1809. Bentivoglio, Ercole, Italian poet, diplomatist. D. 1573. Bentivoglio, Giovanni (II.), ruler of Bologna 1462-1506. D. 1508. Bentivoglio, Guide, Italian cardinal. B. 1579. D. 1644. Bentley, Richard, English classical scholar. B. 1662. D. 1742. Benton, Thomas Hart, American senator. B. 1782. D. 1858. B6ranger, Pierre Jean de, French lyric poet. B. 1780. D. 1857. Berengarius (Berenger) I., king of Italy. Eeigned from 888. Murdered 924 Berengarius II., king of Italy. Eeigned 950-961. D. 966. Berengarius (Berenger), French ecclesiastic. B. about 998. D. about 1088, Berenice, queen of Ptolemy Soter. Berenice, queen of Ptolemy Buergetes. • Berenice, queen of Egypt, sister of Cleopatra. Put to death 55 b. c. Berenice, Jewish princess beloved by Titus. Beresford, William Carr, viscount, British general in the Peninsular War. B. 1768. D. 1854 Berg, Friedrich, count, Russian general, governor of Poland. B. 1790. D. 1874 Sergerac, Savinien Cyrano de, French dramatist, noted as a duelist, R 1620. D. 1655. Berghaus, Heinrich, German geographer, cartographer, B, 1797. D. 1884 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 339 BeTghem, Nikolaas, Dutch painter. B. 1624. D. 1683. Bergman, Torbern Olof, Swedish physicist, chemist. B. 1735. D. 1784 BergsSe, Wilhelm JSrgen, Danish novelist, poet. B. 1835. B6riot, Charles Auguste de, Belgian violinist. B. 1803. D. 1870. Berkeley, George, Irish philosopher. B. 1685. D. 1753. Berkeley, Sir William, governor of Virginia. D. 1677. Berlichingen, Gotz von, German soldier. B. 1480. D. 1563. Berlinghieri, Andrea Vacca, Italian surgeon. B. 1773. D. 1826. Berlioz, Hector, French composer. B. 1803. D. 1869. Bemadotte, Jean Baptists Jules, French general, king of Sweden and Nor- way as Charles XIV. John. B. 1764. Reigned from 1818. D. 1844. Bernard, Saint, French ecclesiastic. B. 1091. D. 1153. Bernard, Claude, French physiologist. B. 1813. D. 1878. Bernard, Sir Francis, colonial governor of New Jersey and Massachusetts B. about 1711. D. 1779. Bemardin. of Siena, Saint, Italian ecclesiastic. B. 1380. D. 1444. Bemardin de Saint-Pierre. See Saint-Pierre. Bernardo del Carpio, Spanish warrior. 9th c. Bemauer, Agnes, wife of Albert, son of Ernest, duke of Bavaria. Drowned 1435. Bemers, Lady Juliana, reputed author of the " Book of St. Albans " (on hunting, hawking, &c.). D. after 1460. Bemhard, duke of Saxe- Weimar, Protestant general in the Thirty Years' War. B. 1604. D. 1639. Bemhard, Karl (pseudonym of A. N. Saint-Aubin), Danish novelist, B. 1798. D. 1865. Bernhardt, Sarah, French actress. B. 1844. Bemi, Francesco, Italian poet. D. about 1536. Bemier, Frangois, French traveler, historian. D. 1688. Works relating to the history of the Mogul Empire. Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo, Italian sculptor, architect, painter. B. 1598. D. 1680. Bemis, Francois Joachim de Pierre de, minister of Louis XV., cardinal. B. 1715. D. 1794 Bernoulli (Bemouilli), Christophe, Swiss technological writer. B. 1783. D. 1863. Bernoulli, Daniel, Swiss mathematician, physicist, anatomist, botanist, B 1700. D. 1782. Bernoulli, Jacques, Swiss mathematician. B. 1654. D. 1705. Bernoulli, Jacques, Swiss mathematician. B. 1759. D. 1789. Bernoulli, Jean, Swiss mathematician. B. 1667. D. 1748. Bernoulli, Jean, Swiss mathematician. B. 1710. D. 1790. Bernoulli, Jean, Swiss astronomer, writer. B. 1744. D. 1807. Bernoulli, Jerome, Swiss naturalist. B. 1745. D. 1839. Bernoulli, Nicolas, Swiss mathematician. B. 1687. D. 1758. 340 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Bernstein, Aaron, German-Jewish writer. B.1812. D.1884. Popular expound- er of science, political writer, author of works of fiction, Biblical critic. Bemstorff, Johann Hartwig Ernst, count, Danish statesman. B. 1712. D. 1772. Bemstorff, Andreas Peter, count, Danish statesman. B. 1735. D. 1797. Berosns, Babylonian historian. 3d c. b. c. Berry (Berri), Charles Ferdinand, duke of, second son of Charles X. of France. B. 1778. Assassinated 1820. Berry, Caroline, duchess of, wife of the preceding, mother of the count de Chambord. B. 1798. D. 1870. Berry, Mary, English authoress. B. about 1762. D. 1853. Berryer, Antoine Pierre, French lawyer, political leader, orator. B. 1790. D. 1868. Bert, Paul, French physiologist, politician. B. 1833. D. 1886. Berthelot, Pierre Eugene Marcellin, French chemist. B. 1827. Berthier, Louis Alexandre, prince of Wagram, French soldier. B. 1753. D. 1815. Berthold of Katisbon, German preacher. B. about 1215. D. 1272. BerthoUet, Claude Louis, French chemist. B. 1748. D. 1822. Bertin, Louis Frangois, French journalist. B. 1766. D. 1841. Bertrand, Henri Gratien, count, French soldier. B. 1773. D. 1844. Bertrand de Bom, French troubadour. D. about 1209. B6rulle, Pierre de, French cardinal. B. 1575. D. 1629. Berwick, James Fitz-James, duke of, illegitimate son of James 11., English soldier in the French service. B. 1670. Killed 1734. Berzelius, Johan Jakob, Swedish chemist. B. 1779. D. 1848. Berzsenyi, Dfaiel, Hungarian poet. B. 1776. D. 1836. Besant, Walter, English novelist. B. 1838. Bescherelle, Louis Nicolas, Fr. grammarian, lexicographer. B. 1802. D. 1888. Bessarion, John or Basil, Greek scholar, Boman Catholic ecclesiastic. B, about 1395. D. 1472. Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm, German astronomer. B. 1784. D. 1846. Bessemer, Sir Henry, English inventor (new process of steel manufacture. B. 1813. D. 1898. Bessi^res, Jean Baptiste, duke of Istria, French soldier. B, 1768. Killed 1813. Bestuzheff, Alexandert Russian novelist, poet. B. 1795. Killed 1837. BestuzhefF-Biiumin, Alexei, count, grand chancellor of Russia. B. 1693. D. 1766. B^thencourt, Jean, seigneur de, French navigator, conqueror of the Canary Islands. D. 1425. Bethlen, Giibor (Gabriel), prince of Transylvania. B. 1580. Elected 1613. D. 1629. Bethune, George Washington, American clergyman, scholar, poet. B, 180& D. 1863. BIOGEAPHICAL DICTIONART. 341 Betty, William Henry West, English actor. B. 1791. D. 1874 Be\il6, Charles Ernest, French archaeologist, writer on ancient art. B. 1826. D. 1874 Beumonville, Pierre de Kuel, marquis de, French commander, diplomatist. B. 1753. D. 1821. Beust, Friedrich Ferdinand Ton, count, Saxon statesman, chancellor of AustriarHungary 1867-'71. B. 1809. D. 1886. Beveridge, William, English prelate, orientalist. B. about 1637. D. 1708. Beverley, John of, archbishop of York. D. about 721. Bewick, Thomas, English engrayer. B. 1753. D. 1828. Beyle, Marie Henri ("Stendhal"), French author. B. 1783. D. 1843. Works dealing with musio^and the fine arts, descriptions of Italy, novels, &c. Beza (Thfodore de Beze), French Reformer. B. 1519. D. 1605. Version of the New Testament. Bianchini, Francesco, Italian astronomer, antiquary. B. 1662. D, 1739. Biard, Auguste Frangois, French painter. B. 1798. D. 1883. Bias of Priene, one of the seven wise men of the Greeks. 6th c. b. c. Bibbiena, Bernardo, Italian cardinal. B. 1470. D. 1520. Bibra, Ernst von, baron, German naturalist, traveler. B. 1806. Dj 1878. Bichat, Marie Frangois Xavier, French physiologist, anatomist. B. 1771. D. 1802. Bickersteth, Edward, English clergyman. B. 1786. D. 1850. Biddle, James, American naval oflBcer. B. 1783. D. 1848. Biddle, John, founder of TJnitarianism in England. B. 1615. D. 1663. Biddle, Nicholas, American naval officer. B. 1750. D. 1778. Biddle, Nicholas, American financier. B. 1786. D. 1844 Bidloo, Godfried, Dutch anatomist. B. 1649. D. 1713. Biela, Wilhelm von, German astronomer. B. 1783. D. 1856. Bielski, Marcin, Polish historian. D. about 1575. Bienville, Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, sieur de, French governor of Louisianai B. 1680. D. 1768. Bierstadt, Albert, American painter. B. 1830. Bigelow, Jacob, American physician, writen B. 1787. D. 1879. BUderdijk, Willem, Dutch poet. B. 1756. D. 1831. Billaud-Varezme, Jean Nicolas, French revolutionist. B. 1756. D, 1819. BUlings, Josh. See Shaw, Hbnet. Billroth, Theodor, German surgeon. B. 1829. D; 1894 Bingham, Joseph, English ecclesiastical writer. B. 1668. D. 1733. Binney, Amos, American naturalist. B. 1803. D. 1847. Binney, Horace, American lawyer. B. 1780. D. 1875. Binney, Thomas, English clergyman. B. 1798. D. 1874. Bion, Greek poet. Flourished about 380 b. c. Blot, Jean Baptiste, French physicist. B. 1774 D. 1863. Birch, Samuel, English Egyptologist, Assyriologist. B. 1813, D. 1885. Bird, Edwaid, English painter. B. 1772. D. 1819. 342 BIOGBAPHICAL DICTIONAKTt. Bird, Golding, English physician, writer. B. 1814. D. 1854 Birde (Byrd), William, English composer. B. about 1540. D. Bimey, James &., American abolitionist. B. 1792. D. 1857. Biron, Armand de Gontaut, baron, afterward duke, de, French general. R about 1534. Killed 1592. Biron, Armand Louis de Gontaut, duke de (duke de Lauzun), French gen- eral. B. 1747. Executed 1793. Biron, Charles de Gontaut, duke de, French soldier. B. about 1562. Exe- cuted 1603. Biron (Biren), Ernest John, duke of Courland, minister of the empress Anna of Russia. B. 1687. D. 1772. Bischof, Karl Gustav, German geologist, chemist. B. 1792. D. 1870. Bischoff, Theodor Ludwig Wilhelm, German anatomist, physiologist. B. 1807. D. 1882. Bishop, Sir Henry Rowley, English composer. B. about 1786. D. 1855. Bismarck, Otto Eduard Leopold von, prince, Prussian statesman. B. April 1, 1815. D. July 30, 1898. Placed at the head of Prussian affairs 1863. Chancellor of the German Empire 1871-90. Bitzius, Albert {" Jeremias Gotthelf "), Swiss writer of tales. B. 1797. D. 1854. BjSmson, Bjomstjeme, Norwegian novelist. B. 1832. Bjomstjema, Magnus Fredrik Ferdinand, count, Swedish soldier, diploma- tist, author. B. 1779. D. 1847. Black, Adam, Scottish publisher. B. 1784. D. 1874 Black, Joseph, Scottish chemist. B. 1728. B. 1799. Black, William, British novelist. B. 1841. D. 1898. Black Hawk, leader of the Sacs in their war with the United States, 1833, Black Prince. See Edward, prince of Wales. Blackie, John Stuart, Scot. Greek scholar,- poet and prose writer. B.'1809. D. 1895. Blackmore, Sir Richard, English epic poet and prose writer. Dt 1739. Blackmore, Richard Doddridge, English novelist. B. 1825. Blaokstone, Sir William, English jurist. B. 1723. D. 1780. Blackwell, Elizabeth, American physician. B. 1821. Blackwood, William, Scottish publisher. B. 1776. D. 1834 Blaine, James Gillespie, American politician. B. 1830. D. 1893. Blainville, Henri Marie Ducrotay de, French naturalist. B. 1777 or 1778. D. 1850. Blair, Hugh, Scottish clergyman, author. B. 1718. D. 1800. " Lectures on Rhetoric." Blake, Robert, English admiral. B. about 1599. D. 1657. Blake, WUliam, English artist, poet. B. 1757. D. 1827. Blakey, Robert, English philosophical writer. B. 1795. D. 1878. Blanc, Charles, French writer on art. B. 1813. D. 1882. Blanc, Louis, French historian, political writer, socialist. B, 1811. D. 1883. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 343 " L'organisation du travail " (" The Organization of Labor "). " Histoire de dix ans, 183(>-'40," " Histoire de la revolution fransaise." Blanchard, Edward Laman, English dramatist, novelist. B. 1820. D. 1889. Blanchard, Francois, French aeronaut. D. 1809. Blanchard, Thomas, American inventor. B. 1788. D. 1864 Blanche of Bourbon, wife of Pedro the Cruel of Castile. B. about 1338. D. 1361. Blanche of Castile, queen of Prance, mother of Louis IX. B. about 1187. D. 1252. Blandrata, Giorgio, Italian Unitarian. B. about 1515. Murdered in Tran- sylvania about 1590. Blanqxii, Jerome Adolphe, French political economist. B. 1798. D. 1854. " Histoire de I'economie politique en Europe." Blanqiii, Louis Auguste, French socialist, revolutionist. B. 1805. D. 1881, Bleek, Priedrich, German New Testament critic. B. 1793. D. 1859. Bleimerhassett, Harman, associate of Aaron Burr. B. about 1765. D. , 1831. Blessington, Margaret, countess of, British leader of society, authoress. B, 1789. D. 1849. Bligh, William, commander of the British ship " Bounty." B. 1753. D. 1817. Blind, Earl, German political agitator. B. 1820. Bloch, Markus Elieser, German ichthyologist. B. 1723. D. 1799. Bloeniaert, Abraham, Dutch painter. B. about 1564 D. 1647 (1), Bloemaert, Cornells, Dutch engraver. B. 1603. D. 1680. Blomfleld, Charles James, English bishop. B. 1786. D. 1857. Blonunaert, PhiUp, Flemish author. B. 1808. D. 1871. Blondel, French troubadour. End of 12th c. Blood, Thomas, Irish adventurer. D. 1680. Bloomfleld, Robert, English poet. B. 1766. D. 1823. Bloomfleld, Samuel Thomas, English Biblical and Greek scholar, B. 1790. D. 1869. Bliicher, Gebhard Leberecht von, Prussian general. B. Dec. 16, 1742. D. Sept. 13, 1819. Bluhme (Blums), Priedrich, German jurist. B. 1797.' D. 1874 Blum, Robert, German revolutionist, one of the leaders of the people of Vienna in 1848. B. 1807. Shot Nov. 9, 1848. Blumenbach, Johann Priedrich, German naturalist. B. 1752. D. 1840. Blunt, Edmund March, American hydrographer. B. 1770. D. 1862. Bluntschli, Johann Easpar, German jurist, publicist. B. in Switzerland 1808. D. 1881. Boabdil (Abu-Abdillah), last Moorish king of Granada. His throne occu- pied by Ferdinand and Isabella 1492. Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, in Britain, who headed an insurrection against the Romans a, d. 61. 344 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Boardman, George Dana, American missionary. B. 1801. D. 1831, Boccaccio, Giovanni, Italian author. B. 1813. D. 1375. " Decamerone" (tales). Boccage, Manoel Maria Barbosa du, Portuguese poet. B. 1765. D. 1805. Boccage, Marie Anne Le Page du, French poetess. B. 1710. D. 1803. Boccanera, admiral of OastUe. D. about 1373. Boccanera, Simone, first doge of Genoa. Elected for the first time 1339, Poisoned 1363. Boccardo, Girolamo, Italian political economist. B. 1829. Boccone, Paolo, Sicilian naturalist. B. 1633. D. 1704. Bochart, Samuel, French Protestant clergyman, scholar. B. 1599. D. 1667. " Eierozoicon " (account of the animals mentioned in the Bible). " Geo- graphia Sacra." Bock, Franz, German archeeologist. B. 1823. Bock, Karl Ernst, German anatomist, pathologist. B. 1809. D. 1874. BSckh, August, German archaeologist, writer on the public economy and maritime aflairs of Athens, on ancient weights, coins, and measures, && B. 1785. D. 1867. BScklin, Arnold, Swiss painter. B. 1827. Bode, Johann Elert, German astronomer. B. 1747. D. 1826. Bodenstedt, Friedrich, German poet. B. 1819. D. 1892. Best known production, " Lieder des Mirza Schaffy " (songs of the Orient). Bodin, Jean, French writer. B. about 1530. D. 1596. " Six livres de la republique." " La demonomanie." Bodley, Sir Thomas, founder of the Bodleian library. B. 1545. D. 1613. Bodmer, Johann Jakob, Swiss literary critic. B. 1698. D. 1783. Bodoni, Giambattista, Italian printer. B. 1740. D. 1813. Boeckh. See BOckh. JSoehm (Boehme), Jakob, German mystic. B. 1575. D. 1624 Boerhaave, Hermann, Dutch physician. B. 1668. D. 1738. Boethius (Boetius), Anicius Manlius Severinus, Roman philosopher, mathe- matician, statesman. Executed about 526. "De Consolatione Fhiloso- phiee." "DeMusica." Boethius (Boece), Hector, Scottish historian. B. about 1465. D. about 1536. Bogardus, James, American inventor. B. 1800. D. 1874. Bogdanovitch, Ippolit, Russian poet. B. 1743. D. 1803. Boguslawski, Adalbert, Polish dramatist, actor. B. about 1759. D. 1829. Boha-ed-Din, Arabian historian. B. 1145. D. about 1233. Bohemond, Norman crusader, founder of the principality of Antiooh, son of Robert Guiscard. B. about 1060. D. 1111. Bohlen, Peter von, German orientalist. B. 1796. D. 1840. Bohm-Bawerk, Bugen von, Austrian political economist. B. 1851. Bokn, Henry George, English publisher. B. 1796. D. 1884 BShtlingk, Otto, German-Russian Sanskrit scholar. B. 1815. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONABT. 345 Boiardo (Bojardo), Matteo Maria, Italian poet. B. about 1434. D. 1494. " Orlando innamorato." Boieldieu, Frangois Adrien, French composer. B. 1775. D. 1834. Boileau-Despr§auz, Nicolas, French poet, satirist, critic. B. 1636. D. 1711. "Le lutrin" (mock heroic poem). "L'art poStique" (didactic poem). Boisard, Jean Jacques Frangois Marie,* French fabulist. B. 1743. D. 1831. Boissieu, Jean Jacques de, French engrayer. B. 1736. D. 1810. Boissy d'Anglas, Fransois Antoine de, count, French statesman. B. 1756. D. 1826. Boito, Arrigo, Italian composer, poet. B. 1842. Boker, Gleorge Henry, American poet. B. 1823. D. 1890. Boleyn, Anne. See Anne Boletn. Bolingbroke, Henry St. John, viscount, English statesman, freethinker, author. B. 1678. D. 1751. Bolintineanu, Dimitrie, Roumanian poet. B. 1826. D. 1872. Bolivar (Spanish Bolivar), Simon, liberator of Colombia. B. 1783. D. 1830. Bolland, John, Flemish Jesuit writer. B. 1596. D. 1665. "Acta Sanc- torum " (lives of the saints). Bologna, Giovanni da, Flemish-Italian sculptor. B. about 1524. D. 1608. Bolcrwert, Boetius a, Dutch engraver. B. 1580. D. 1634. Bolswert, Scheltius a, Dutch engraver. B. 1586. D. 1659. Bombelli, BaSaello, It^ian mathematician. 16th c. Bomberg, Daniel, Flemish printer in Venice. D. 1549. Bonald, Louis Gabriel Ambroise de, viscount, French political philosopher. B. 1754 (1753 f). D. 1840. Boziald, Louis Jacques Maurice, French prelate. B. 1787. D. 1870. Bonaparte (Buonaparte), Carlo, father of Napoleon I. B. in Corsica 1746. D. 1785. Bonaparte, Caroline, sister of Napoleon I., wife of Murat, king of Naples. B. 1783. D. 1839. Bonaparte, Charles Lucien, prince of Canino and Musignano, son of Lucien Bonaparte. B. 1803. D. 1857. Distinguished as a naturalist. Bonaparte, Elisa (Elisa Bacciochi), sister of Napoleon I., princess of Piom- bino and Lucca, grand-duchess of Tuscany. B. 1777. D. 1820. Bonaparte, J6r6me, brother of Napoleon I., king of Westphalia 1807-13. B. 1784. D. 1860. Bonaparte, Jerome Napoleon, son of JerSme Bonaparte and Elizabeth Pat- terson. B. 1805. D. 1870. Bonaparte, Joseph, brother of Napoleon I., king of Naples 1806-'8, and of Spain 1808-'13. B. 1768 or 1769. D. 1844. Bonaparte, Josephine. See Josephine. Bonaparte, Letizia Eamolino, mother of Napoleon I. B. 1750. D. 1836. * In some works the Christian names are different, the initials being the same. 346 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Bonaparte, Louis, brother of Napoleon I., king of Holland 1806-'10. R 1778. D. 1846. Married to Hortense Beauhamais. Bonaparte, Louis Lucien, son of Luoien Bonaparte, philologist, chemist, B. 1813. D. 1891. Bonaparte, Louis Napoldon (Napoleon III.), emperor of the French. B. April 20, 1808. President of Prance 1848-'52. Emperor 1852-'70. D. Jan. 9, 1873. Married Eugenie de Montijo 1858. Bonaparte, Lucien, prince of Canino, brother of Napoleon I., statesman, archsBologist, author. B. 1775. D. 1840. Bonaparte, Mathilda, Princess DemidofE, daughter of Jerome Bonaparte. B. 1820. Bonaparte, Napoldon (Napoleon I.), emperor of the French. B. Aug. 16, 1769, or Jan. 7, 1768.* First Consul 1799-1802; consul for life 1802-'4; emperor 1804-'14, 1815. . D. May 5, 1881. First wife, Josephine Beau- hamais ; second, Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis, emperor of Austria. Bonaparte, Napoleon (Napoleon IL), duke of Beichstadt, son of Napoleon L and Maria Louisa. B. 1811. D. 1882. Bonaparte, Napoleon Buglne Louis, son of Napoleon III. B. 1856. Killed 1879. Bonaparte, Napoleon Joseph (Prince Napoleon), son of Jerome Bonaparte. B. 1822. D. 1891. Bonaparte, Pauline, sister of Napoleon I., wife of General Leclerc and afterward of Prince Camillo Borghese. B. 1780. D. 1825. Bonaparte, Pierre Napoleon, prince, son of Lucien Bonaparte, B. 1815. D. 1881. Bonaventura, Saint (Giovanni di Fidanza), Italian ec'clesiastic, scholastic theologian. B. 1221. D. 1274. Bond, George Phillips, American astronomer. B. 1825. D. 1865. Bond, William Cranch, American astronomer. B. 1789. D. 1859. Bone, Henry, English enamel painter. B. 1755. D. 1884 Bonheur, Bosalie (Bosa), French painter. B. 1822. Boniface VIII. (Gaetano), pope. Elected 1294 D. 1303. Boniface IX., pope. Elected 1389. D. 1404 Boniface, Saint, " apostle of Germany." B. about 680. Killed about 755, Bonifacius, Boman general. Killed a. d. 482. Bonnat, Leon Joseph Florentin, French painter. B. 1833. Bonner, Edmund, bishop of London. B. about 1495. D. 1569. Bonnet, Charles, Swiss naturalist. B. 1720. D. 1793. Bonneval, Claude Alexandre de, count, French soldier. B. 1675. D. 1747. Bonnivard, Frangois de, Genevese historian. B, 1496. D. about 1571. Bonomi, Joseph, English archseologist. B. 1796. D. 1878. " Nineveh and its Palaces." * Aug. 15, 1769 has been held to be the date of Napoleon's birth, and Jan. 7, 1768, that of the birth of his brother Joseph. A view has been advanced that the dates were interchanged. 8eo the recent work of Jung, " Bonaparte et son temps." BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAKY. 347 Bononcini, Giovanni Battista, Italian composer. B. about 1670. D. after 1752. 3onplaiid, Aime, Frencti botanist, companion of Humboldt in America. B. 1773. D. 1858. Bouvicino, Alessandro (II Moretto), Italian painter. D. about 1560. Boole, George, English mathematician, logician. B. 1815. D. 1864. Boone, Daniel, American pioneer in Kentucky. B. 1734. D. 1830. Booth, Edwin, American actor. B. 1833. D. 1898. Booth, Sir Felix, English patron of Arctic exploration. B. 1775. D. 1850. Booth, John Wilkes, American actor, assassin of President Lincoln. B. 1839. Killed 1865. Booth, Junius Brutus, English actor. B. 1796. D. 1853. Bopp, Pranz, German philologist. B. 1791. D. 1867. Authority in the field of Aryan comparative pUlology. Bora, Katharina von, mfe of Luther. B. 1499. B. 1553. Borda, Jean Charles, French mathematician. B. 1733. B. 1799. Bordeaux, duke of. See Chambobd. Borden, Simeon, American engineer. B. 1798. B. 1856. Bordane, Paride, Italian painter. B. about 1570. Borelli, Giovanni Alfonso, Italian savant. B. 1608. B. 1679. Borghese, Princess. See Bonaparte, Pauline. Borghesi, Bartolommeo, count, Italian numismatist. B. 1781. B. 1860. Borgia, Cesare, Italian soldier, ruler, duke of Komagna, son of Pope Alex- ander VL Killed 1507. Borgia, Saint Francis, general of the Jesuits. B. 1510. B. 1573. Borgia, Luorezia, Italian princess, daughter of Pope Alexander VI. and sister of Cesare Borgia. D. 1519. Borgo, Pozzo di. See Pozzo di Bobgo. Borgognone, H (Jacopo Cortesi, or, in his native French, Jacques Courtois), Italian painter. B. in Franche-Comte 1631. B. 1676. Boris Gk>dunoff. See Godunoff. Bom. See Bbeteand db Boen. B5me, Ludwig, German satirical political writer. B. 1786. B. 1837. Borromeo, Saint Charles (Carlo), Italian cardinal, archbishop of Milan. B. 1538. B. 1584 Borromeo, Federigo, Italian cardinal, archbishop of Milan, founder of the Ambrosian library. B. about 1563. B. 1631. Borrow, George, English author. B. 1803. B. 1881. Authority on the Gypsies. Bory de Saint-Vincent, Jean Baptiste George Marie, French naturalist B. 1780. B. 1846. Bos (Bosch), Hieronymus, Butch painter. B. early in the 16th c. Bosc, Louis Augustin Guillaume, French naturalist. B. 1759. B. 1838, Boscan Almograver, Juan, Spanish poet. B. about 1543. BoBcawen, Edward, British admiral. B. 1711. B. 1761. 348 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Bosch, Hieronymus de, Dutch scholar, Latin poet. B. 1740. D. 1811. Boscovioh, Ruggiero Giuseppe, Italian natural philosopher. B. 1711. D, 1787. Bosio, Prangois Joseph, French sculptor. B. in Italy 1769. D. 1845. Bosquet, Pierre Frangois Joseph, French general. B. 1810. D. 1861. Bossi, Carlo Aurelio, baron de, Italian poet, statesman. B. 1758. D. 1823, Bossi, Giuseppe, Italian painter. B. 1777. ' D. 1815. Bossi, Luigi, count, Italian historian, archaeologist, writer on art. B. 1758. D. 1835. Bossuet, Jacques Benigne, French prelate, bishop of Meaux, pulpit orator, author. B. 1637. D. 1704. Bossut, Charles, French mathematician. B. 1730, D. 1814 BosweU, James, biographer of Samuel Johnson. B. in Scotland 1740. D. 1795. Bosworth, Joseph, English philologist (Teutonic languages, especially Anglo- Saxon). B. about 1790. D. 1876. BotaUi, Leonardo, physician. B. in Piedmont about 1530. Botetourt, Norbome Berkeley, baron, gOTemor of Virginia 1768-'70. D. 1770. Bothwell, James Hepburn, earl of, third husband of Mary, queen of Scots. B. about 1536. D. about 1578. Botta, Carlo Giuseppe Guglielmo, Italian historian. B. 1766. D. 1837. History of the American Revolution. Works on Italian history. Botta, Paul :6niile, French archasologist. B. about 1802. D. 1870. "&ri- ture cuneiforme assyrienne." " Monuments de Ninive." Bottari, Giovanni Gaetano, Italian scholar. B. 1689. D. 1775. BSttcher, Christian, German painter. B. 1818. D. 1889. Botticelli, Sandro, Italian painter. D. 1515. BSttiger, Karl August, German archasologist, writer on art. B. 1760. D. 1835. BBttiger, Karl Vilhelm, Swedish poet. B. 1807. D. 1878. BSttiger, Karl Wilhelm, German historian. B. 1790. D. 1862. Works on universal and German history. Botts, John Minor, American politician. B. 1803. D. 1869, Botzaris (Bozzaris), Marcos, Greek revolutionary leader. B. about 179ft Killed 1833. Boucher, Fran?ois, French painter. B. 1703. D. 1770. Boucher de Perthes, Jacques, French archaeologist. B. 1788. D. 1868. Bouoicault, Dion, British dramatist, actor. B. 1833. D. 1890. Boudinot, Elias, American patriot, author. B. 1740. D. 1821. Bou6, Ami, German-French geologist. B. 1794. D. 1881. Bouflers, Louis Franpois, duke de, French soldier. B. 1644. D. 1711. Bougainville, Louis Antoine de, French navigator. B. 1739. D. 1811, Boughton, George H., Anglo-American painter. B. about 1834. Bouguer, Pierre, French scientist. B. 1698. D. 1758. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 349 Bougtiereau, Adolphe William, French painter. B. 1825. Bouilld, Francois Claude Amour de, marquis, Fr. general. B. 1739. D. 1800. Bouillon, Fr6d&io Maurice de la Tour d'Auvergne, duke de, soldier, brother of Marshal Turenne. B. 1605. D. 1653. Bouillon, Godfrey of. See Godpeey of Bouillon. Bouillon, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, duke de (originally viscount de Turenne), adherent of Henry of Navarre and father of Marshal Turenne. B. 1555. D. 1623. Boulanger, Georges Ernest Jean Marie, French soldier, political agitator. B. 1887. D., by his own hand, 1891. Boulton, Matthew, partner of James Watt. B. 1728. D. 1809. Bourbaki, Charles Denis Sauter, French general. B.1816. D. 1897. Bourbon, Antoine de. See Antoinb de Bourbon. Bourbon, Charles, duke of, constable of France, general, who passed over from the side of Francis I. to that of Charles V. Killed 1527. Bourbon, Louis Henri Joseph, duke de, prince de Conde. B. 1756. D. 1830. Bourdaloiie, Louis, French pulpit orator. B. 1633. D. 1704 Bourdon, Louis Pierre Marie, French mathematician. B. 1799. D. 1854 Bourdon, Sebastien, French painter. B. 1616. D. 1671. Bourgeois, Anicet. See Anicet-Boubgeois. Bourignon, Antoinette, Flemish religious enthusiast. B. 1616. D. 1680. Bourmont, Louis Auguste Victor de Ghaisne, count de, French soldier. B, 1773. D. 1846. Bourrienne, Louis Antoine Fauvelet de, French writer of memoirs. B. 1769. D. 1884 Boussingault, Jean Baptiste Joseph Dieudonne, Fr.chem. B.1803. I).1887. Bouterwek, Friedrieh, German philosopher, author. B. 1766. D. 1828. " Geschichte der neuem Poesie und Beredsamkeit." " Die Aesthetik." Bouvait (Bouvard), Alexis, French astronomer. B. 1767. D. 1843. Bouvet, Joachim, French missionary in China. D. 1733. Bouvier, John, American jurist. B. 1787. D. 1851. Bo-wdich, Thomas Edward, English traveler. B. 1791. D. 1834 Author of " Mission from Cape Coast Castle, to Ashantee." Bowditch, Nathaniel, American mathematician. B. 1773. D. 1838. Bowdoin, James, governor of Massachusetts 1785-7. B. 1727. D. 1790. Bowdoin, James, patron of Bowdoin college. B. 1752. D. 1811. Bowen, Francis, American writer on philosophy, political economy, &c. B. 1811. D. 1890. Bowles, Caroline. See Southey. Bo-wles, William Lisle, English poet. B. 1763. D. 1850. Bowring, Sir John, English statesman, linguist, author. B. 1793. D. 1872. Translations of Slavic and Magyar poetry. "Ancient Poetry and Ro- mances of Spain." " The Kingdom and People of Siara." Bowyer, William, English printer, scholar. B. 1699. D. 1777. Boyce, William, English composer. B. 1710. D. 1779. 350 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Boydell, John, English publisher of engravings. B. 1719. D. 1804. Boyer, Alexis, baron, French surgeon. B. 1757 or 1760. D. 1833. Boyer, Jean Pierre, president of Hayti 1818-'48 (of the whole island from 1823). B. 1776. D. 1850. Boyle, Charles, earl of Orrery, English scholar, soldier, statesman. B. 16761 D. 1731. Boyle, Richard, earl of Cork, English statesman. B. 1566. D. 1643. Boyle, Robert, British scientist, philosopher. B. 1627. D. 1691. Bozzaris. See Botzabis. Brace, Charles Loring, American philanthropist, author, B. 1826. D, 1890. Bracton, Henry de, chief justice of England. D. 1268.* Braddock, Edward, British general in America. Killed 1755. Braddon, Mary Elizabeth (Mrs. Maxwell), English novelist. B. 1837. Bradford, Andrew, American printer. B. about 1686. D. 1742. Bradford, John, English preacher. B. about 1510. Burned 1555. Bradford, William, governor of Plymouth colony. B. about 1590. D. 1667. Bradford, William, American printer. B. 1663. D. 1752. Bradford, William, American painter. B. 1827. D. 1892. Bradley, James, English astronomer. B. 1693. D. 1762. Bradshaw, John, English judge, statesman. D. 1659. Bradstreet, Anne, American poetess. B. about 1612. D. 1672. Bradstreet, Simon, governor of Massachusetts 1679-'86, 1689-'92. B. 1603. D. 1697. Bradwardin, Thomas, English theologian. D. 1349. Brady, James Topham, American lawyer. B. 1815. D. 1869. Bragg, Braxton, Confederate general. B. about 1815. D. 1876. Braham, John, English singer. B. 1774. D. 1856. Brahe, Tycho, Danish astronomer. B. 1546. D. 1601. Brahms, Johannes, German composer. B. 1838. D. 1897. Braidwood, Thomas, British instructor oJE deaf-mutes. D. 1806. Bramah, Joseph, English inventor. B. 1749. D. 1814. Bramante d'tTrbino, Italian architect. B. 1444 D. 1514. Bramhall, John, British prelate. B. about 1593. D. 1663. Brande, William Thomas, English chemist. B. 1788. D. 1866. " Diction- ary of Science, Literature, and Art." Brandes, Georg, Danish writer. B. 1842. Chiefly distinguished as a literary critic. Brandis, Christian August, German author. B. 1790. D. 1867. Brant, Joseph, Mohawk chief. B. about 1742. D. 1807. Brant6me, Pierre de Bourdeilles, seigneur de I'abbaye de, French author. D. 1614. Memoirs and biographical works. Brasidas, Spartan general. Slain 483 b. c. Brasseur de Bourbourg, Charles ifitienne, French archaeologist. B. 1814 ♦ See the "Academy," No. 464, p. 219. BIOGKAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 351 D. 1874 Works on the ancient history and antiquities of Mexico and Central America. Brassey, Thomas, English railway contractor. B. 1805. T>. 1870. Bratiano, Joan, Roumanian statesman. B. 1823. D. 1891. Braun, Maximilian Ulysses. See Browne. Brauwer (Brouwer), Adriaan, Dutch painter. B. about 1605. D. 1638. Bravo, Nicolas, Mexican soldier, statesman. B. about 1790. D. 1854. Bravo-Murillo, Juan, Spanish statesman. B. 1803. D. 1873. Brazza, Pierre de, French African explorer. B. in Italy 1853. Br^al, Michel, French philologist, writer on comparative mythology. B. 1833. Breckeitridge, John Cabell, vice-president of the United States 1857-61, Confederate general. B. 1831. D. 1875. Brederode, Hendrik van, count, one of the leaders of the nobles of the Neth- erlands at the beginning of the struggle against Spain. B. 1531. D. 1568. Bredow, Gabriel Gottfried, German historian. B. 1773. D. 1814. ■ Br€e, Matthaeus Ignazius van, Belgian painter. B. 1773. D. 1839, Brelun, Alfred Edmund, German naturalist. B. 1839. D. 1884. Breislak, Scipione, Italian geologist. B. 1748. D. 1836. Bremer, Predrika, Swedish novelist. B. 1801. D. 1865. Brennus, leader of the Gauls in their expedition against Rome about 388 B. c. Brennus, leader of the Gauls who invaded Greece about 378 b. o. Brentano, Clemens, German novelist, dramatist. B. 1778. D. 1843. Bret Harte. See Haete. Breton, Jules Adolphe, French painter. B. 1837. Breton de los Herreros, Manuel, Spanish dramatist. B. 1800. D. 1873. Bretschneider, Karl Gottlieb, German Protestant theologian. B. 1776. D. 1848. Breughel, Jan, Flemish painter. B. about 1570. D. about 1635, Breughel, Pieter, Flemish painter. D. about 1570. Breughel, Pieter, Flemish painter. B. about 1567. D. 1635. Brewster, Sir David, Scottish physicist, B. 1781. D. 1868, Distinguished as an investigator in the field of optics, Brewster, William, one of the Pilgrim Fathers. B. 1560, D, 1644, Brian Boru, king of Ireland. B. about 937. Slain 1014, Bridgeman, Frederick A., American painter, B. 1847. Bridgewater, Francis Bgerton, duke of. B. 1786. D. 1803. Noted in con- nection with the history of canal construction in Great Britain. Bridgewater, Francis Henry Egerton, earl of. B. 1758. D. 1839. Bridgman, Laura, American blind deaf-mute. B. 1839. D. 1889. Bright, John, English statesman, promoter of free trade, B, 1811. D. 188ft Bright, Richard, English medical writer. B. about 1789. D. 1858. Bril, Paul, Flemish pointer. B. about 1550.' D. 1636, Brillat-Savarin, Anthelme, French author, B, 1755, D. 1826, " Physi- ologic du gout " (work on gastronomy). 352 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Brindley, James, English engineer. B. 1718. D. 1773. Brinvilliers, Marie Madeleine d'Aubray, marchioness de, French criminal Executed 1676. Brissac, count de. See Coss^. Brisson, Mathurin Jacques, French scientist. B. 1733. D. 1806. Brissot, Jean Pierre, French revolutionist. B. 1754 Executed 1793. Britannicus, son of Claudius. B. about a. d. 43. Poisoned by Nero 55. Britton, John, English antiquary. B. 1771. D. 1857. Brooa, Paul, French anthropologist. B. 1834. D. 1880. Brock, Isaac, British general in America. Killed 1813. Brockhaus, Friedrich Arnold, German publisher. B. 1772. D. 1883, Brockhaus, Hermann, German orientalist. B. 1806. D. 1877. Brocklesby, Richard, English physician. B. 1723. D. 1797. Brodie, Sir Benjamin Collins, English surgeon. B. 1783. D. 1862. Brodzinski, Kazimierz, Polish poet. B. 1791. D. 1835. Brofferio, Angelo, Italian author, radical republican leader. B. 1802. D, 1866. Dramas, poems, history of Piedmont from 1814, memoirs. Broglie, Achille Charles L€once Victor, duke de, French statesman. B, 1785. D. 1870. Broglie, J. V. Albert, duke de, French statesman, author. B. 1831, Broglie, Victor Francois, duke de, French general. B. 1718. D. 1804, Brogni, a cardinal, who presided at the council of Constance. B. in Savoy 1843. D. 1436. Brongniart, Adolphe Thfodore, French botanist. B. 1801. D. 1876. Biongniart, Alexandre, French mineralogist. B. 1770, D. 1847, Bronte, Charlotte, English novelist. B. 1816. D. 1855. " Jane Eyre," 1847. Bronte, Emily, Eng. novelist. B. 1818. D. 1848. " Wuthering Heights." Brooke, Sir James, rajah of Sarawak. B. 1803. D. 1868. Brooks, Maria (born Gowen), American poetess. B. about 1795. D. 1845. Brosset, Marie Felicite, French orientalist, authority on Georgia (Grusia}^ B. 1803. D. 1880. Brothers, Richard, English religious monomaniac. D. 1834, Brougham, Henry, Baron Brougham and Vaux, English statesman, scholai^ scientist. B. Sept. 19, 1778, D. May 9, 1868. Brougham, John, Irish actor, playwright. B. 1814. B. 1880. Broughton, Lord. See Hobhouse. Broussais, Prangois Joseph Victor, French physician. B. 1773. D. 183& Brown, Charles Brookden, American novelist. B. 1771, D. 1810. Brown, Ford Madox, English painter. B. in France 1831. D. 1893, Brown, Goold, American grammarian. B. 1791. D. 1857, Brown, Henry Kirke, American sculptor. B. 1814. D, 1886, Brown, J. G., American painter. B. in England 1831, Brown, John, Scottish physician. B. about 1735. D. 1788. Brown, John, American abolitionist, B. 1800. Executed 1859, Brown, Robert, English theologian. B, about 1550, D. about .1630. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 353 Blown, Robert, British botanist. B. 1773. D. 1858. Brown, Thomas, Scottish philosopher. B. 1778. D. 1830. Browne, Charles Farrar (" Artemus Ward "), American humorist. B. 1834 D. 1867. Browne, Maximilian Ulysses, count, Austrian general. B. 1705. D. 1757. Browne, Sir Thomas, English physician, author. B. 1605. D. 1683. " Re- ligio Medici." Browne, William Greorge, English traveler, B. 1768. Murdered 1813. "Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria.'' Brownell, Thomas Church, American clergyman. B. 1779. D.'^1865. Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, English poetess, wife of Robert Browning. B. 1806. D. 1861. Principal production, " Aurora Leigh." Browning, Robert, English poet. B. 1812. D. 1889. Brown-SSquard, Edward, Amer.-French physiologist. B. 1818. D. 1894. Brownson, Orestes Augustus, American clergyman, writer. B. 1803, D. 1876. Bruce, David, king of Scotland. Succeeded his father, Robert, (when only a few years old) 1339. D. 1371. Bruce, James, Scottish traveler. B, 1730. D. 1794. " Travels to discover the Sources of the Nile, in the Years 1768-'73." Bruce, Robert, competitor for the throne of Scotland, rival of John BallioL B. 1210. D. 1395. Bruce, Robert (Robert I.), king of Scotland, grandson of the preceding, B. 1374. Crowned 1306. D. 1339. Briicke, Ernst Wilhelm, German physiologist, B, 1819, D. 1892. Brucker, Jakob, German historian of philosophy, B, 1696. D, 1770. Bnigsch, Heinrich Karl, German Egyptologist, B, 1827, D, 1894. Briihl, Heinrich von, count, prime-minister of Augustus III, of Poland and Saxony. B. 1700. D. 1763. Bruhns, Karl Christian, German astronomer. B, 1830, D. 1881. Bnimmell, George Bryan (" Beau Brummell "), English man of fashion. B.1778. D. 1840. Brun, Priederike, German authoress. B, 1765. D, 1835, Brune, Guillaume Marie Anne, French general, B. 1763. Murdered 1815. Brunehaut (Brunehild), queen of Austrasia, Put to death 613, Brunei, Isambard Kingdom, English engineer, B, 1806. D. 1859, Brunei, Sir Marc Isambard, English engineer, B, in France 1769. D. 1849. Constructed the Thames Tunnel, Brunelleschi, Filippo, Italian architect, B, about 1377. D. about 1446, Brunet, Jacques Charles, French bibliographer. B, 1780, D, 1867. Bruni, Leonardo (Leonardo Aretino), Italian historian, biographer, B, about 1369, D. 1444 Bruno, archbishop of Cologne. B. 925. D. 965, Bruno, Saint, " apostle of the Prussians." B, about 970. Killed 1009. Bruno, Saint, founder of the order of Carthusians. D. 1101. 24 354 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAEY. Bruno, Giordano, Italian philosopher. B. about 1548. Burned 1600. Brunswick, Charles XL, duke of. B. 1804. Reigned from 1815. Expelled 1830. D. 1873. Brunswick, Charles William Ferdinand, duke of, general in the service of Prussia and Austria. B. 1735. Killed 1806. Brunswick, Christian, duke of, Protestant general in the Thirty Years' War. B. 1599. D. 1626. Brunswick, Ernest Augustus, duke of, elector of Hanover. D. 1698. Hus- band of Sophia, grand-daughter of James I. of England, and father of George I. Brunswick, Ferdinand, prince of, general in the service of Prussia and Eng- land in the Seven Years' War. B. 1731. D. 1792. Brusasorci (Domenico Biccio), Italian painter. B. 1494. D. 1567. Brutus, Deoimus Junius, Boman soldier. Put to death 43 b. c. Brutus, Lucius Junius, reputed leader of the Boman people in their rising, against Tarquin the Proud, about 510 b. c. Brutus, Marcus Junius, one of the assassins of Caesar, opponent of An- tony and Ootavius. B. 85 b. c. D. by his own hand 42 B. c. BruySre, Jean de la. See La Beuteeb. Bruys, Pierre de, Fiench heretic. First half of 12th c. Bryan, William Jennings, American politician. B. 1860. Bryant, William CuUen, American poet. B. Nov. 3, 1794. D. June 12, 1878. " Thanatopsis," 1816. " The Ages," 1821. Translation of Homer, 1870-'71. Bryce, James, British author. B. 1888. "The Holy Boman Empire." " The American Commonwealth." Brydges, Sir Samuel Egerton, English poet, bibliographer. B. 1762. D. 1837. Bucer, Martin, German Beformer. B. 1491. D. 1551. Buch, Leopold von, German geologist. B. 1774 D. 1853. Buchan, David, British Arctic explorer. B. 1780. D. about 1837. Buchan, William, Scottish physician. B. 1729. D. 1805. Buchanan, George, Scottish Latin writer. B. 1506. D. 1582. Version of the Psalms, work on government, history of Scotland. Buchanan, James, president of the United States 1857-61. B. April 22, 1791. D. June 1, 1868. Buchanan, Robert, Scottish poet. B. 1841. Buchez, Philippe Joseph Benjamin, French political and social philosopher. , B. 1796. D. 1865. Author, jointly with Eoux-Lavergne, of " Histoire parlementaire de la revolution frangaise." Biichner, Ludwig, German naturalist, philosopher. B. 1824 Best known production, '.' Kraft und StofE " (" Force and Matter "). Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, favorite of James I. and Charles L B. 1592. Assassinated 1628. Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of. B. 1627. D. 1688. Buckingham, or Buckinghamshire, duke of. See Sheffield. Buckingham, James Silk, English traveler. B. 1786. B. 185S. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 355 Buckland, William, English geologist. B. 1784. D. 1856. Buckle, Henry ThomaB, English author. B. Nov. 34, 1831. D. May 39, 1862. " History of Civilization in England," 1857-'61. Buddha (Gautama), founder of Buddhism, native of India, 5th (6th T) c. b. c. Buddeus, Johann Franz, German Protestant theologian. B. 1667. D. 1739. Bud6 (Budaeus), Guillaume, French Hellenist. B. 1467. D. 1540. Buell, Don Carlos, American general. B. 1818. D. 1898. Buffier, Claude, French grammarian, scientific and philosophical writer. B. 1661. D. 1737. Buffon, Georges Louis Leclerc, count de, French naturalist. B, Sept. 7, 1707. D. April 16, 1788. « Histoire naturelle," 1749-'88. Bugeaud de la Ficonnerie, Thomas Robert, duke of Isly, French general, governor general of Algeria. B. 1784. D. 1849. Bugenhagen, Johann (Pomeranus), German Reformer. B. 1485. D. 1558. Bugge, Elseus Sophus, Norwegian philologist, editor of the Edda. B. 1833. Bugge, Thomas, Banish astronomer. B. 1740. D. 1815. Bulg^arin, Thaddeus, Russian author. B. 1789. D. 1859. Humorous and satirical essays, novels, general account of Russia. Bull, Die Bomemann, Norwegian violinist. B. 1810. D. 1880. Bullinger, Heinrich, Swiss Reformer. B. 1504. D. 1575. Billow, Priedrioh Wilhelm von, count, Prussian general. B. 1755. D. 1816. Billow, Hans Guido von, German pianist. B. 1830. D, 1894 Bulwer, Edward George Earle Lytton, Lord Lytton (Bulwer-Lytton), Eng- lish novelist, poet, dramatist, statesman. B. May, 1808. D. Jan. 18, 1873. " Pelham, or the Adventures of a Gentleman," 1838 ; " Eugene Aram," 1833; "The Last Days of Pompeii," 1834; "Rienzi," 1835; "Zanoni," 1843; "The Last of the Barons," 1843; "The Caxtons," 1848-'9; "A Strange Story," 1861 ; " Kenelm Chillingly," 1873. " King Arthur " (epic poem). " The Lady of Lyons," " Richelieu," " Not as Bad as we Seem " (dramas). Bulwer (Bulwer-Lytton), Edward Robert. See Lytton. BiQwer, Henry Lytton Earle, Baron DaUing and Bulwer, English diplomar tist, author. B. 1801. D. 1873. Bulwer, John, English writer on the instruction of deaf-mutes. Middle of 17th c. Bunsen, Christian Karl Josias von, baron, German scholar, diplomatist. B. 1791. D. 1860. " Die Verfassung der Kirche der Zuktmft " (" The Con- stitution of the Church of the Future "). " Aegyptens SteUe in der Welt- geschichte" ("Egypt's Place in the World's History"). "Hippolytus and his Times" (English and German). "Christianity and Mankind" (English). " Zeichen der Zeit " (" Signs of the Times "). " Gott in der Geschichte " (" God in History "). " Bibelwerk fiir die Gemeinde " (" The Bible for the Common People "). Posthumous memoirs. Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm, German chemist. B. 1811. Originator with Eirchhofl of the science of spectrum analysis. 356 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAHT. Bunyan, John, English preacher, author. B. 1628. D. 1688. " Pilgrim's Progress." Buol-Schaueiistein, Karl Ferdinand, count, Austrian diplomatist, minister of foreign affairs. B. 1797. D. 1865. Buonaparte. See BonIfabte. Buonarroti (Buonarotti), PiUppo, Italian revolutionist. B. 1761. D. 1837. Buonarroti, Michel Angelo. See Michael Angelo. Burokhardt, Johann Ludwig, traveler in the service of the African Asso- ciation of London, author. B. in Switzerland 1784. D. 1817. Traveled in Syria, Egypt, Arabia, &c. Burdett, Sir Francis, English politician. B. 1770. D. 1844. Burdett-Coutta, Angela Georgina, baroness (married to Ashmead-Bartlett), English philanthropist. B. 1814. Biirger, Gottfried August, German poet. B. 1747. D. 1794. Best known production, " Lenore." Burgoyne, John, English general in America. D. 1792. Burgoyne, Sir John Fox, English military engineer. B. 1782. D. 1871. Buridan, Jean, French scholastic philosopher. D. about 1358. Burke, Edmund, English statesman, orator, author. B. in Ireland about 1729.* D. 1797. " A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful," 1756. " Keflections on the Eevolu- tion in France," 1790. Burlamaqui, Jean Jacques, Swiss jurist. B. 1694. D. 1748. Burleigh, William Cecil, Lord, English statesman. B. 1520. D. 1598. Burmann, Pieter, Dutch classical scholar. B. 1668. D. 1741. Burmann, Pieter, Dutch classical scholar. B. 1713. D. 1778. Btmneister, Hermann, German naturalist. B. 1807. D. 1892. Bumes, Sir Alexander, British traveler, political resident of the India gov- ernment at Cabool. B. 1805. Murdered 1841. Burnet, Gilbert, British prelate, historian. B. 1643. D. 1715. " History of the Reformation of the Church of England." " Exposition of the Thirty- nine Articles." " History of his Own Time." Burnet, Jamesj See Monboddo. Burnet, John, Scottish engraver, writer on art. B. 1784. D. 1868. Burnet, Thomas, English author. B. about 1635. D. 1715. "Sacred Theory of the Earth " (originally in Latin). Burnett, Frances (Hodgson), American novelist. B. in England 1849. Bumey, Charles, English composer, historian of music. B. 1726. D. 1814 Bumey, Frances. See D'Aeblay. Bumouf, l&mile Louis, French classical and Sanskrit scholar, author. B. 1821. Bumouf, EugSne, French orientalist. B. 1801. D. 1852. * " The best opinion is tliat lie was born at Dublin on tlie 13th of January, 1789 (N. S.)." (John Morley.) BIOGKAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 357 Buxnouf, Jean Louis, French classical scholar. B. 1775. D. 1844. Bums, Robert, Scottish poet. B. Jan. 25, 1759. D. July 31, 1796. Bumside, Ambrose Everett, American general. B. 1824. D. 1881. Burr, Aaron, American politician. B. 1756. D. 1836. Burrhus, Afranius, adviser of Nero. D. about a. d. 62. Burritt, Elihu, American author. B. 1811. D. 1879. Bursian, Konrad, German classical scholar. B. 1830. D. 1883. Burton, John Hill, Scottish historian, jurist. B. 1809. D. 1881. " History of Scotland from Agricola's Invasion to the Revolution of 1688." " His- tory of the Reign of Queen Anne." Burton, Richard Francis, British traveler in India, Arabia, Africa, Pales- tine, &0., author. !§• 1821. D. 1890. Discovered Lake Tanganyika (with Speke) 1858. Burton, Robert, English author. B. 1577, D. 1640. " The Anatomy of Melancholy." Busbecq (Busbequius), Augier Ghislain de, scholar, ambassador of the em- peror Ferdinand I. at the court of Solyman the Magnificent. B. in Flan- ders 1522. D. 1593. Busby, Richard, head-master of Westminster school. B. 1606. D. 1695. Busching, Anton Friedrich, German geographer. B. 1724. D. 1793. Busembaum, Hermann, German Jesuit writer. B. 1600. D. 1668. Bustamante, Anastasio, Mexican general, president of Mexico. B. 1780. Governed 1830-'33, 1837-'41. D. 1853. Bute, John Stuart, earl of, British statesman, prime-minister 1762-'3. B. 1713. D. 1793. Butler, Benjamin Franklin, Am. general, politician, lawyer. B. 1818. D. 189a. Butler, Charles, English jurist, scholar, author. B. 1750. D. 1832. Butler, James, duke of Ormond. See Obmons. Butler, Joseph, English bishop, juridical, ecclesiastical, and historical writer. B. 1692. D. 1752. " Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature." Butler, Samuel, English poet. B. 1613, D. 1680. " Hudibras." Buttmann, Philipp Karl, German Greek scholar. B. 1764. D, 1829. Buturlin, Dmitri, Russian military writer, B. 1790. D. 1849. BuxhSwden, Friedrich Wilhelm von, count, Russian general. B. 1750. D, 1811. Buxton, Jedidiah, English mathematical prodigy. B. 1705. D, about 1775. Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, English philanthropist. B. 1786. D. 1845. Buxtorf, Johann, German Hebrew scholar. B. 1564. D. 1639. Buxtorf, Johann, German Hebrew scholar. B. 1599. D. 1664. Byng, John, English admiral. B. 1704. Executed 1757. Byron, George Gordon, Lord, English poet. B. Jan. 33, 1788. D. April 19, 1824. " Hours of Idleness," 1807. " English Bards and Scotch Review- ers." " Childe Harold," 1812-'18. " Hebrew Melodies." " Prisoner of Chillon." "Manfred." "Cain." " Don Juan." 358 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Byron, Henry James, English playwright. D. 1884. Byron, John, English commander, explprer. B. 1723. D. 1786. Bystrom, Johan Nils,. Swedish sculptor. B. 1783. D. 1848. C. Caballero, Pernan (pseudonym of Cecilia de Arrom, bom Bohl von Paberji Spanish writer of fiction. B. 1797. D. 1877. Cabanel, Alexandre, French painter. B. 1833. D. 1889. Cabanis, Pierre Jean George, French philosopher, physician. B. 1757. D. 1808. Cabarrus, Prangois de, count, financier in Spain. B. in Prance 1753. D. 1810. Cabega de Vaca. See NuSfEz, Alvae. Cabet, ^tienne, French communist, head of the society of Icarians (in the United States). B. 1788. D. 1856. Cable, George W., American writer of fiction. B. 1844. Cabot (Caboto), John, Italian navigator in the service of England. Discov- ered the mainland of America 1497. Cabot, Sebastian, English navigator, son of John Cabot. B. about 1476. D, after 1557. Cabral, Pedro Alvarez de, Portuguese navigator. D. about 1536. Cabrera, Ramon, Carlist leader. B. 1810. D. 1877. Cadalso (Cadahalso), Josd de, Spanish author. B. 1741. D. 1783. Cadamosto, Luigi da, Venetian navigator in the Portuguese service. B. about 1483. Cade, John (Jack), English insurgent. Killed 1450. Cadet de Vaux, Antoine Alexis Frangois, French chemist, economical writer. B. 1743. D. 1828. Cadillac, Antoine de la Mothe, French oflBcer in America. D. about 1720. Cadoudal, Georges, French royalist leader. B. about 1769. Executed 1804 Cadwalader, John, American general. B. 1743. D. 1786. Ceecilius Statins, Latin comic poet. D. about 168 b. c. Csedmon, Anglo-Saxon poet. D. about 680. Csesalpinus (Cesalpino), Andreas, Italian physician, naturalist. B. 1519. D. 1603. Caesar, Caius Julius, Eoman general, dictator. B. July 12, 100 b. c. Assas- sinated March 15, 44. Caffarelli (Gaetano Majorano), Italian singer. B. about 1703. D. 1783. Cagliari, Paolo (Paul Veronese), Italian painter. B. about 1530. D. 1588. Cagliostro, Alessandro di, count, Italian impostor. B. 1748. D. 1795. Cagnol'a, Luigi, marquis, Italian architect. B. 1763. D. 1833. Caille, Nicolas Louis de la. See La Caillb. Caillet, Guillaume (Jacques Bonhomme), French insurgent leader. Exe- cuted 1359. BIOGEAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 359 Cailliaud, Frederic, French traveler in Egypt, Nubia, &c. B. 1787. D. 1869. Cailli6, Rene, French traveler in northwestern Africa, B. 1799. D. 1838. Caimes, John BUiot, British political economist. B. 1833. D. 1875. Cairns, Hugh MacCalmont, earl, British statesman. B. 1819. D. 1885. Cairoli, Benedetto, Italian statesman. B. 1825. D. 1889. Caius, John, English physician. B. 1510. D. 1573. C^jetaii (Cajetanus, Thomas de Vio), Italian cardinal. B. 1469. D, 1534 Calabrese, II. See Pbeti. Calamatta, Luigi, Italian-French engraver. B. 1803. D. 1869. Calame, Alexandre, Swiss painter. B. 1810. D. 1864 Calamis, Greek sculptor. 5th c. b. c. Calcar, Jan van, painter. B. in the duchy of Cleves 1499 or 1500. TX 1546 (?). Caldani, Leopoldo Marco Antonio, Italian anatomist. B. 1735. D. 1813. Caldara, Polidoro. See CABAVAGaio. Calderon de la Barca, Pedro, Spanish dramatist. B. Jan. 17, 1600. D. May 25, 1681. Calepino, Ambrogio, Italian lexicographer. B. 1435. D. 1511. Calhoun, John Caldwell, American statesman. B. March 18, 1783. D. March 81, 1850. Caligula, Caius Caesar, Roman emperor. B. a. d. 12. Reigned from 37, Murdered 41. Calistus H., pope. Elected 1119. D. 1134. Calixtus m., pope. Elected 1455. D. 1458. Calixtus (Georg Callisen), German Protestant theologian. B. 1586. D, 1656. CaUoott, Sir Augustus WaU, English painter. B. 1779. D. 1844 Callicrates, Athenian architect. 5th c. b. c. Callicratidas, Spartan commander. Killed 406 b. c. Callimachus, Greek architect, sculptor. Supposed to have flourished in the latter part of the 5th c. b. c. CaUimachuB, Alexandrian scholar, writer. B. about 240 b. c. Epigrams, hymns, &c. Callinus of Ephesus, Greek poet. About 700 b. c. CaUisthenes, Greek writer. Latter part of 4th c. b. c. Callistratus, Athenian orator, soldier. First half of 4th c. b. c. Callot, Jacques, French engraver. B. about 1593. D. 1635. Calmet, Augustin, French monk, Biblical scholar. B. 1673. D. 1757. Calonne, Charles Alexandre de, French minister of finance 1783-7. B. 1784 D. 1803. Calpumius, Titus (sumamed Siculus), Latin bucolic poet. Supposed by some critics to have lived in the-third c. A. d. and by others placed in the first c. Oalvaert, Denis (II Fiammingo), Flemish painter. B. about 1555. D. 1619. Calvert, Cecil, Lord Baltimore, proprietor of Maryland. D. 1675. 360 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONABY. Calvert, George, Lord Baltimore, projector of the colony of Maryland. R about 1582. D. 1633. Calvert, Leonard, governor of Maryland. B. about 1606. B. 1647. Calvin, John, Protestant Reformer. B. in France July 10, 1509. D, May 37, 1564. Cam, Diogo, Portuguese navigator. Latter part of 15th c. Cambac^rds, Jean Jacques Regis de, French statesman. B. 1753. D. 1824 Cambiaso, Luca, Italian painter. B. 1537. D. 1585. Cambon, Joseph, French revolutionist. B. 1754 D. 1830. Cambridge, Adolphus Frederick, duke of, youngest son of George IIL of England, governor and viceroy of Hanover. B. 1774 D. 1850. Cambridge, George WiUiam Frederick Charles, duke of, son of Adolphus Frederick, duke of Cambridge, commander-in-chief of the British army, B. 1819. Cambronue, Pierre Jacques l^tienne, French general. B. 1770. D. 1843. Cambyses, king of Persia, son of Cyrus. Beigned 539-533 b. c. Camden, Charles Pratt, earl, English statesman. B. about 1713. D. 1794 Camden, William, English antiquary, historian. B. 1551. D. 1633. Prin- cipal production, " Britannia " (Latin), Camerarius, Joachim, German scholar. B. 1500. D. 1574 Cameron, John, Scottish theologian. B. about 1579. D. about 1635, Cameron, Richard, Scottish preacher, Covenanter, D. 1680, Cameron, Simon, American politician. B. 1799. D. 1889. Cameron, Yemey Lovett, English African explorer. B. 1844. D. 1894, CamilluB, Marcus Furius, Roman dictator, commander, D. about 365 b, c, Camoens, Luiz de, Portuguese poet. B. 1534 D. 1580. " Liisiad " (epic poem). Campan, Jeanne Louise Henriette Genest, Madame, French teacher, au- thoress. B. 1753, D. 1833. " M^moires sur la vie privee de Marie An- toinette." Campanella, Tommaso, Italian philosopher. B. 1568. D. 1639. Campbell, Alexander, founder of the sect of Campbellites. B. in Ireland 1788. Emigrated to America 1809. D. 1866. Campbell, Archibald. See Abotll. Campbell, Sir Colin, Lord Clyde, British general in India. B. 1793. D. 1863. Campbell, John, British historical and political writer, B. 1708. D. 1775. Campbell, John, Lord, British jurist, author. B. 1779. D. 1861. "Lives of the Lord Chancellors." " Lives of the Chief Justices." Campbell, Thomas, British poet. B. 1777. D. 1844 " The Pleasures of Hope." " Gertrude of Wyoming." " Ye Mariners of England." Campe, Joachim Heinrich, German author. B. 1746. D. 1818. Descrip- tions of travels and discoveries for the young. " Robinson der JOngere," Cvnpeggio, Lorenzo, Italian cardinal. B. 1474 D. 1539. Camper, Pieter, Dutch physician, anatomist, B, 1733, D. 1789. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 361 Camphausen, Otto, Prass. minister of finance 1869-'78. B. 1812. D. 1896. Camphausen, Wilhelm, German painter. B. 1818. D. 1885. Camphuysen, Dirk Rafaelsz, Dutch painter. B. 1586. D. 1627. Campi, Bernardino, Italian painter. B. 1522. D. about 1590. Campi, Giulio, Italian painter. B. about 1500. D. 1572. Camus, Armand Gaston, French revolutionist. B. 1740. D. 1804. Canaletto (Bernardo Bellotto), Italian painter, engraver. B. 1724. D. 1780. Canaletto (Canale), Antonio, Italian painter. B. 1697. D. 1768. Canaris, Constantine, Greek naval hero, statesman. B. about 1790. D. 1877. - Canby, Edward Bichard Sprigg, American soldier, B. 1819. Killed 1873. Cancrin, Georg, count, Russian minister of finance. B. in Germany 1774. D. 1845. Candido, Pietro (Pieter de Witte), painter, sculptor, B. in Flanders about 1545. D. about 1628. Candolle, Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyramus de, botanist, son of Augustin Pyramus de Candolle. B. 1806. D. 1893. Candolle, Augustin Pyramus de, Fr. botanist. B. in Geneva 1778. D. 1841. Came I. (Can Grande) della Scala, ruler of Verona 1312-'29. Gauge, sieur du. See Du Canoe. Canina, Luigi, Italian writer on ancient architecture, the topography of Rome, &c. B. 1795. D. 1856. Canino, prince of, naturalist. See Bo^apabte, Chaelgs Lucign, Canisius, Petrus, German Jesuit, B. 1521. D. 1597. Canitz, Friedrich Rudolf Ludwig, baron, German poet. B. 1654. D. 1699. Canning, Charles John, viscount (from 1859 earl), British statesman, gov- ernor general of India 1856-'62. B. 1812. B. 1862. Canning, George, British statesman. B. April 11, 1770. Foreign secretary 1807-'9, 1822-'7; prime-minister, 1827. D. Aug. 8, 1827, Canning, Stratford. See Stkatford de Redcliffe. Cano, Alonso, Spanish artist. B. about 1601. D. about 1667, Canova, Antonio, Italian sculptor, B. Nov. 1, 1757. D. Oct. 13, 1822. C&novas del Castillo, Antonio, Spanish statesman, historian, critic. B. 1828. Murdered 1897. Canrobert, Francois Certain, French soldier. B. 1809. D. 1895, Canstein, Karl Hildebrand, German Biblical editor, B, 1667. D. 1719. Cantacuzenus, Johannes, Byzantine emperor, historian. Reigned 1341-'55. D. about 1383 (according to some much later). Cantacuzenus, Serban, waywode of Wallaohia. Ruled 1679-88. Cantacuzenus, Stephen, waywode of Wallachia. Ruled 1714-'16. Cantarini, Simone, Italian painter. B. 1612. D. 1648. CantA, Cesare, Italian historian. B. 1805. D. 1895. Canute (Knut), king of Denmark and England. Successor to his father Sweyn in England 1014. (His authority there not fully established until 1017.) Beigned in Denmark from 1016, D. 1035. 362 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Capefig^e, Jean Baptiste Honore Raymond, French historian. B. 1803. D. 1872. Capello, Bianca, wife of Francesco de' Medici, grand-duke of Tuscany. B. about 1543. D. 1587. Capet, Hugh. See Hugh Capet. Capistranus (Capistrano), Johannes, Italian monk, commander against the Turks. B. about 1386. D. 1456. Capitolinus, Julius, Roman historian. Latter part of 8d c. a. d. Lives of Roman emperors. Capmany, Antonio de, Spanish patriot, writer. B. 1743. D. 1813. Works oh the maritime institutions of the Middle Ages and other archaeological writings. " Pilosofia de la eiocuencia.'' Capo d'Istria, John Anthony, count, diplomatist in the Russian service, president of Greece. B. at Corfu about 1776. Chosen president 1837 (government assumed by him 1838). Assassinated 1831. Capponi, Gino, marquis, Italian statesman, historian, critic. B. 1793. D. 1876. " Storia della republiea di Pirenze " (Florence), Caprivi, Georg Leo von, count, chancellor of the German Empire 1890-'4, B. 1831. D. 1899. Caracalla, Roman emperor, son of Septimius Severus, B. 188. Reigned from 211. Assassinated 217. Caracci. See Cakbacci. Caraccioli, Francesco, Neapolitan admiral. B. about 1748. Hanged 1799. Caractacus, king of the Sihires (in Wales). Betrayed to the Romans and brought a prisoner to Rome 50-51. Carafa, Giovanni Pietro. See Paul' IV., pope. Carafa, Michele, Italian composer. B. 1787. D. 1872. Caravaggio, Michel Angelo Amerighi da, Italian painter. B. 1569. D. 1609. Caravaggio, Polidoro Caldara da, Italian painter. B. about 1495. D. 1543. Cardan, Jerome (Girolamo Cardano, Cardanus), Italian physician, savant, mathematician, astrologer. B. 1501. D. 1576. Cardi, Ludovico (also called Cigoli), Italian painter. B. 1559. D. 1613. Cardigan, Jas. Thomas Brudenell, earl of, British general. B. 1797. D. 1868. Carducci, GiosuS, Italian poet. B. 1836. Cardwell, Edward, viscount, English statesman. B. 1813. D. 1886. Carey, Henry, English poet. D. 1743. Carey, Henry Charles, American political economist. B. 1793. D. 1879. Carey, Mathew, American author. B. in Ireland 1760. D. 1839. Carey, William, English missionary. B. about 1761. D. 1834. Carinus, Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor. Reigned 283-285. Carissimi, Giovanni Giacomo, Italian composer. D. about 1674. Carl^n, Emilia (bom Smith ; first husband, Plygare), Swedish novelist. B. 1807. D. 1892. Carleton, Sir Guy, Lord Dorchester, British general in America. B. 1734. D. 1808. Carleton, William. Irish novelist. B. about 1794. D. 1869. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 363 Carlisle, Sir Anthony, English surgeon. B. 1768. D. 1840. Carlisle, Frederick Howard, earl of, English statesman, poet, dramatist. B. 1748. D. 1835. Carlisle, George William Frederick Howard, earl of (Lord Morpeth), Eng- lish statesman. B. 1803. D. 1864 Carlos, Don, son of Philip II. of Spain. B. 1545. D. 1568. Carlos, Don, son of Philip V. of Spain. See Charles III., king of Spain. Carlos, Don, pretender to the throne of Spain, son of Charles IV. and uncle of Isabella. B. 1788. D. 1855. Carlos, Don, pretender to the throne of Spain, son of the preceding. B. 1818. D. 1861. Carlos, Don, pretender to the throne of Spain, nephew of preceding. B. 1848. Carlson, Fredrik Ferdinand, Swedish historian. B. 1811. D. 1887. Carlstadt, Andreas, German Reformer. B. about 1483. D. 1541. Carlyle, Thomas, British author. B. Deo. 4, 1795. D. Feb. 5, 1881. "Sartor Eesartus," 1833-'4. " The French Revolution," 1837. " Heroes and Hero Worship," 1840. " The Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell," 1845. « History of Frederick IL," 1858-'64. Carmagnola (Francesco Bossone), Italian condottiere. Executed 1433. Carmontelle, French writer, artist. B. 1717. D. 1806. " Proverbes dra- matiques." Cameades, Greek philosopher. B. about 313 b. c. D. about 139. Camicer, Ramon, Spanish composer. B. 1789. D. 1855. Camot, Lazare Nicolas Marguerite, French strategist, mathematician, mem- ber of the Directory. B. 1753. D. 1823. Camot, M. F. Sadi, president of France 1887-'94. B. Aug. 11, 1837. Assas- sinated June 34, 1894. Caro, Ehne Marie, French philosopher. B. 1826. D. 1887. Carolina Uaria, wife of Ferdinand lY. of Naples, daughter of Maria The- resa. B. 1752. D. 1814 Caroline, wife of George IV. of England. B. 1768. D. 1821. Caroline Katilda, wife of Christian VII. of Denmark, sister of George III, of England. B. 1751. D. 1775. Carpaccio, Vittore, Venetian painter. D. after 1519. Carpeaiiz, Jean Baptists, French sculptor. B. 1837. D. 1875. Carpenter, William Benjamin, English physiologist. B. 1813. D. 1885. Carpisi, Giovanni di Piano, Italian monk, who was sent by the pope in 1346 on a mission to the Mongols, and wrote an account of his experience. Carpocrates (Carpocras), Alexandrian Gnostic. 3d c. Carracci, Agostino, Bolognese painter, engraver. B. about 1558. D. about 1603. Carracci, Annibale, Bolognese painter. B. 1560. D. 1609. Carracci, Francesco, Bolognese painter. B. 1595. D. 1622. Carracci, Ludovico, Bolognese painter. B. 1555. D. 1619. Carrel, Nicolas Armand, French journalist. B. 1800. D. 1836. 364 BIOGEAPHICAL DICTIONARY. CarrezLo de Kiranda, Juan, Spanish painter. B. 1614. P. 1685. Carrera, Rafael, president of Guatemala 1847-65. B. 1814. D. 1865. Carrier, Jean Baptiste, French revolutionist. B. 1756. Executed 1794. Carriere, Moritz, German philosophical and aesthetic writer, B. 1817. D. 1895. Carroll (Carroll of Carrollton), Charles, American patriot. B. 1737. D. 1832. Carson, Christopher (Kit), American trapper, guide, negotiator between the United States government and the Indians. B. 1809. D. 1868. Carstairs, William, Scottish theologian. B. 1649. D. 1715. Carstens, Asmus Jakob, German painter. B. 1754. D. 1798. Carter, Elizabeth, English Greek scholar, poetess. B. 1717. D. 1806. Translation of Bpiotetus. Carteret, John. See Granville. Carteret, Philip, English navigator. Voyage to the South Sea 1766-'9. Cartier, Sir George ^fitienne, Canadian statesman. B. 1814. D. 1873. Cartier, Jacques, French navigator, explorer of Canada. B. 1494. D. about 1555. Cartwright, Edmund, inventor of the power loom. B. in England 1743. D. 1823. Cartwright, John, English political reformer. B. 1740. D. 1824 Cartwright, Thomas, English Puritan divine. B. about 1535. D. 1603. Cams, Eoman emperor. Beigned 382-'3. Cams, Julius Victor, German naturalist. B. 1823. Carus, Karl Gustav, German physiologist, psychologist. B. 1789. D. 186^. Carvajal, Tomas Jos6 Gonzales, Spanish scholar, statesman. B. 175^. D. 1834. Author of metrical translations of the poetical books of the Bible. Carver, John, first governor of Plymouth colony. D. 1621. Carver, Jonathan, American explorer. B. 1732. D. 1780. Cary, Alice, American authoress. B. 1820. D. 1871. Cary, Phoebe, American authoress. B. 1824. D. 1871. Cary, Henry Francis, English scholar, literary historian, translator of Danta. B. 1772. D. 1844. Casa, Giovanni della, Italian author. B. 1503. D. 1556. " Galateo, owero de' costumi " (on behavior and manners). Casablanca, Louis (Lucien'i), French naval officer. B. about 1755. Killed in the battle of the Nile 1798. Casanova de Seingalt, Giovanni Jacopo, Italian adventurer. B. ITSB, D. 1798 (according to some 1803). Casas, Las. See Las Casas. Casaubon, Isaac, Greek scholar. B. in Geneva 1559. D. 1614. Casimir III., the Great, king of Poland. Reigned from 1333. D. 1370. Casimir-Ferier, Jean Paul Pierre, president of France 1894-'5. B. 1847. Caspari, Paul, German Biblical scholar. B, 1814. D. 1879. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. . 365 Cass, Lewis, Anlerican statesman. B. 1782. D. 1866. Cassagnac, Granier de. See Granieb. Cassagnac, Paul de, Bonapartist politician, journalist. B. 1843. Cassander, king of Macedon, son of Antipater. B. about 354 b. c. D. 297. Gassin, John, American ornithologist. B. 1813. D. 1869. Cassini (Cassini de Thury), Cesar Frangois, French topographer, astronomer. B. 1714. D. 1784. Cassini, Giovanni Domenico, Italian astronomer. B. 1625. D. 1712. Cassini, Jacques, French astronomer. B. 1677. D. 1756. Cassini, Jacques (according to some Jean) Dominique, French astronomer, topographer. B. 1748. D. 1845. Cassiodorus, Magniis Aurelius, Latin writer, minister of Theodoric the Great, monk. B. about 475. D. about 570. History of the Goths and other works. Cassius (Cassius Longinus), Caius, conspirator against the life of Cajsar, adversary of Antony and Octavius. Killed himself 42 b. c. Cassius, Dion. See Dion Cassius. Castanos, Francisco Xavier de, duke of Baylen, Spanish general B. about 1756. D. 1852. Castelar, Emilio, Spanish statesman, orator. B. 1832. Castelnau, Michel de, French diplomatist. B. about 1520. D. 1592. Casti, Giovanni Battista, Italian poet. B. 1721. D. 1803. Castiglione, Baldassare, Italian author. B. 1478. D. 1529. " II libro del cortegiano " (on court life). Castiglione (Castiglioni), Carlo Ottavio, count, Italian philologist, anti- quary. B. 1784. D. 1849. Castiglione, Giovanni Benedetto (II Grechetto), Italian artist. B. 1616. D. 1670. Castilho, Antonio FeUciano, Portuguese poet. B. 1800. D. 1875. Castilla, Ramon, Peruvian general and president. B. about 1797. D. 1867. Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, viscount, marquis of Londonderry, British statesman. B. 1769. D. 1822. Castr^n, Matthias Alexander, Finnish philologist. B. 1813. D. 1852. Castriota, George. See Scandebbeo. Castro, lues de. See Ines de Castbo. Castro, JoSo de, Portuguese navigator, commander. B. 1500. D. 1548. Castruccio Castracani, ruler of Lucca. D. 1328. Catalani, Angelica, Italian singer. B. about 1782. D. 1849. Catesby, Mark, English naturalist. B. about 1680. D. 1749. Catharine I., empress of Russia, second wife and successor of Peter the Great. Reigned from 1725. D. 1727. Catharine H., empress of Russia, wife and successor of Peter III. B. 1729. Reigned from 1762. D. 1796. Catharine, Saint (of Genoa). B. about 1447. D. 1510. Catharine, Saint (of Siena). B. 1347. D. 1380. 366 BIOGBAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Catharine de' Xedici, queen of Prance, wife of Henry 11, and regent for her son Charles IX. B. 1519. D. 1589. Catharine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella and first wife of Henry VIII. B. about 1485. D. 1536. Married first to Prince Arthur, brother of Henry. Married Henry 1509. Divorced 1533. Catharine of Braganza (Braganga), daughter of John IV. of Portugal, wife of Charles II. of England. B. 1638. D. 1705. Catharine of France (or of Valois), daughter of Charles VI. of Prance, wife of Henry V. of England, mother of Henry VI. B. 1401. D. 1438. (See Henet VII.) Catharine Howard, fifth wife of Henry VIII. Executed 1543. Catharine Parr, sixth wife of Henry VIII. D. about 1548. Cathcart, Sir George, English general, son of Earl Cathcart. B. 1794. Killed 1854. Cathcart, William Shaw, earl, English general, diplomatist. B. 1755. D. 1843. Cathelineau, Jacques, Vendean commander. B. 1759. Killed 1793. Catherine. See Cathaeinb. Catiline (Catilina), Roman conspirator. Slain 63 b. c. Catinat, Nicolas de, French general. B. 1637. D. 1712. Catlin, George, American artist. B. 1796. D. 1872. Cato, Marcus Porcius (the Censor), Roman statesman. B. about 234 b. c. D. 149. Cato, Marcus Porcius (of Utica), Roman statesman, soldier, adversary of Caesar. B. 95 b. c. D. by his own hand 46. Cats, Jakob, Dutch poet, statesman. B. 1577. D. 1660. Cattermole, George, English painter. B. 1800. D. 1868. Catullus, Caius Valerius, Roman lyric poet. Middle of first c. B. c. Catulus, Caius Lutatius, Roman naval commander in the first Punic War. Consul 242 b.'c. Catulus, Quintus Lutatius, Roman general. D. 87 B. c. Catulus, Quintus Lutatius, Roman statesman. D. 60 b. g. Cauchy, Augustin Louis, French mathematician. B. 1789. D. 1857. Caulaincourt, Armand Augustin Louis de, duke of Vicenza, French diplo- matist. B. 1772. D. 1827. Caus (Caulx), Salomon de, French engineer. D. about 1630. Caussin de Perceval, Armand Pierre, French orientalist. B. 1795. D. 1871. Causshi de Perceval, Jean Jacques Antoine, French orientalist. B. 1759. D. 1835. Cavaignao, Godefroy, French republican leader. B. 1801. D. 1845. Cavaignac, Jean Baptiste, French revolutionist, father of the preceduig. B. 1762. D. 1829. Cavaignac, Loxiis Eugene, French soldier, head of the French government in 1848, son of the preceding, B. 1802, D. 1857. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 367 Cavalcamti, Guido, Italian poet, philosopher. D. about 1300. Cavalier, Jean, Camisard leader. B. about 1679. D. 1740. Cavalieri, Bonaventura, Italian mathematician. B. 1598. D. 1647. Cavallo, Tiberio, English physicist. B. in Italy 1749. D. 1809. Cave, William, English ecdesiastieal writer. B. 1637. D. 1713. Cavedone, Giaeomo, Italian painter. B. 1577. D. 1660. Cavelier, Pierre Jules, French sculptor. B. 1814. D. 1894. Cavendish, Henry, English chemist. B. 1731. D. 1810. Cavendish (Candish), Sir Thomas, English naval commander, D. 1593. Cavendish, WiUiam. See Newcastle. Cavour, Camillo Benso di, count, Italian statesman, prime-minister of Victor Emanuel 1853-'61. B. Aug. 10, 1810. D. June 6, 1861. Cazton, "William, Bn^ish printer. B. about 1432 or about 1413. D. about 1491. Cayley, Arthur, English mathematician. B. 1831. D. 1895. Caylus, Anne Claude Philippe de Tubilres, count de, French antiquary. B. 1693. D. 1765. Cazotte, Jacques, French author. B. 1720. Executed 1793. Cean-Bermiidez, Juan Augustin, Spanish historian of art, archaeologist. B. 1749. D. 1839. Cebes, Greek philosopher. About 400 b. c. Cecco d'Ascoli, Italian astrologer, author. B. about 1357. Burned 1337. Cecil, Bobert, earl of Salisbury, English statesman. D. 1613. Cecil, William. See Burleigh. Celakovsky (Czelakorsky), Frantisek Ladislar, Bohemian poet, Slavic scholar. B. 1799. D. 1852. Celestine V., founder of the order of Celestins, pope 1394. Abdicated 1394. D. 1396. Cellamare, Antonio Giudice, prince of, Spanish ambassador to Prance. B, in Italy 1657. D. 1733. Cellarins, Christoph, German scholar. B. 1638. D. 1707. Cellini, Benvenuto, Italian sculptor and worker in gold. B. 1500. D. 1571. Celsius, Anders, Swedish astronomer. B. 1701. D. 1744. Celsus, anti-Christian writer (in Greek). 3d c. Celsus, Anlus Cornelius, Roman writer on medicine. About beginning of 1st c. A. D. (?). Censorinus, Roman author. 3d c. a. d. Ceracehi, Giuseppe, conspirator against Napoleon I. ; native of Corsica. Executed 1801. Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de, Spanish author. B. Oct. 9, 1547. D. April 33, 1616. " Don Quixote." Cesalpino. See C^salpinus. Cesari, Giuseppe, Italian painter. B. about 1570, D, about 1640, Cesarotti, Melchiore, Italian poet. B. 1730. D. 1808. C§spedes, Carlos Manuel de, Cuban revolutionist, B. 1819, Shot 1874. 368 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. C6spedes, Pablo de, Spanish painter. B. 1538. D. 1608. Cetywayo, king of the Zulus. D. 1884. Chabas, Pranjois Joseph, French Egyptologist. B. 1817. D. 1882. Chabot, Francois, French revolutionist. B. 1759. Executed 1794. Chabrias, Athenian general. Slain 358 or 357 b. c. Chalcondyles, Demetrius, Greek scholar. B. about 1423. D. about 151(K Chalcondyles, Laonicus (or Nicolaus), By^ntine historian. 15th c, Chalmers, Alexander, British editor, writer. B. 1759. D. 1834. Chalmers, George, British author. B. 1742. D. 1825. Chalm.ers, Thomas; Scottish preacher, leader in the establishment of the Free Church of Scotland, political economist. B. 1780. D. 1847. Cham (Amedee de Noe), French caricaturist. B. 1819. D. 1879. Chambers, Ephraim, English encyclopaedist. D, 1740. Chambers, Robert, Scottish publisher, author. B. 1802. D. 1871. Chambers, William, Scottish publisher, author. B. 1800. D. 1883. Chambers, Sir William, English architect. B. about 1726. D. 1796. Chambord, Henri, count de, son of the duke of Berry and grandson of Charles X. B. 1820. D. 1883. (Originally styled duke de Bordeaux.) Chamfort, Sebastien Boch Nicolas, French author. B. 1741. D. 1794. Chamisso, Adalbert von, German lyric poet, natumlist, traveler. B. 1781. D. 1838. Author of the story of " Peter Schlemihl." Champagne, Philippe de, French painter. B. 1603. B. 1674. Cham.pagny, Jean Baptiste KompSre, count de, duke of Cadore, French statesman. B. 1756. D. 1834 Champeaux, Gnillaume de, French scholastic philosopher. D, 1121. Champlain, Samuel de, French explorer, governor of Canada. B. 1567. D. 1635. ChampmesI^, Marie Desmares, French actress. B. 1644. D. 1698. Champollion, Jean FranQois, French Egyptologist. B. 1791. D. 1832. Champollion-Figeac, Jacques Joseph, French archaeologist, brother of liie preceding. B. 1778. D. 1867. Chandler, Samuel, English divine, B. 1693. D. 1766. " Critical History of the Life of David." Chandos, Sir John, English soldier. Killed 1369. Changamier, Nicolas Anne Thfodule, French general. B. 1793. D. 1877. Channing, William Ellery, American Unitarian clergyman, abolitionist. B. 1780. D. 1843. Chantal, Jeanne Frangoise Frfimiot, baroness de, French religious devotee. B. 1573. D. 1041. Chantrey, Sir Francis, English sculptor. B. 1781. D. 1841. Chanzy, Antoine Eugene Alfred, French general, diplomatist. B. 1833. D. 1883. Chapelain, Jean, French poet. B. 1595. D. 1674. Chapman, George, English dramatist, translator of the Homeric poems, &c B. about 1559. D. 1634. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONABY. 369 Chapoue, Hester (born Mulso), English authoress. B. 1737. D. 1801, " Letters on the Improvement of the Mind." Chaptal, Jean Antoine, French chemist, statesman. B. 1756. D. 1833. Chardin, Jean, French traveler in the East. B. 1643. D. 1713. Cliarette, Franjois Athanase, Vendean leader. B. 1763. Shot 1796. Charlemagne (Charles the Great), king of the FrankSj emperor of the West (of the Romans), son of Pepin the Short. B. 748. King from 768 (his brother, Carloman, joint king tUl 771). Crowned emperor 800. D. 814. Charles I., king of England and Scotland, son and successor of James I. B. Nov. 19, 1600. Reigned from 1635. Executed Jan. 30, 1649. Married to Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France. Charles IL, king of England and Scotland, son of Charles I. B. May 39, 1630. Keigned from 1660. D. Feb. 6, 1685. Married to Catharine of Braganza. Charles H., the Bald, king of the western _Franks. B. 833. Successor to his father, Louis U Dibonnaire, jointly with his brothers, Lothaire and Louis, 840. France assigned to him in the partition of the Carlovingian empire in the treaty of Verdun 843. D. 877. Charles m., the Simple, king of France. B. 879. Elected in opposition to Eudes 893. Generally recognized 898. Dethroned 933. D. 939. Charles IV., the Fair, king of France, last of the Capetian dynasty. B. about 1394. Reigned from 1333. D. 1338. Charles V., the Wise, king of France, son and successor of John the Good. B. 1337. Reigned from 1364 D. 1380. Charles VI., the Mad, king of France, son of Charles V. B. 1368. Reigned from 1380. D. 1433. Charles VII., the Victorious, king of France, son of Charles VI. , B. 1403. Reigned from 1433. D. 1461. Charles VHX, king of France, son and successor of Louis XI. B. 1470. Reigned from 1483. D. 1498.^ Married to Anne of Brittany. Charles TX., king of France, son of Henry II. and Catharine de' Medici. B. 1550. Keigned from 1560. D. 1574. Charles Z., king of Prance, brother of Louis XVI. and Louis XVIII. B. 1757. Reigned 1894^'30. D. 1836. (Previous to his accession styled count of Artois.) Charles the Great, king of the Franks. See Chablgmaqne. Charles HI., the Fat, emperor of the Romans, son of Louis the German. King of part of Germany from 876. King of Italy from 879. King of all Germany from 883. Made king of the western Franks (France) about close of 884. Deposed 887. D. 888. Charles IV. (of Luxemburg), emperor of Germany, son of John, king of Bohemia. B. 1316. King of Bohemia from 1346. Reigned in Germany from 1347 (authority disputed until 1349). D. 1378. Charles V., emperor of Germany, king of Spain (as Charles I.), son of Philip the Handsome and Joan the Mad, respectively son and daughter of 25 370 BIOGBAPHICAL nCTIONAKY. Maximilian of Austria and Mary of Burgundy and of Ferdinand and Isabella. B. in Ghent Feb. 34, 1500. Sovereign of, the Netherlands 1506-'55. King of Spain 1516-'56. Emperor of Germany 1519-'36. D. Sept. 21, 1558. Charles VI., emperor of Germany, sovereign of Austria, brother and suc- cessor of Joseph I. B. 1685. Reigned from 1711. D. 1740. Charles VII. (Charles Albert of Bavaria), emperor of Germany. B. 1697. Reigned from 1743. D. 1745. Charles I. of Spain. See Charles Y., emperor of Germany. Charles II., king of Spain, son and successor of Philip IV. B. 1661. Reigned from 1665. D. 1700. Charles III., king of Spain, son of Philip V. and brother and successor of Ferdinand VI. B. 1716. Conquered the Two Sicilies 1734-'5. Reigned there till 1759. Reigned in Spain from 1759. D. 1788. Charles IV., king of Spain, son of Charles III. B. 1748. Reigned 1788- 1808. D. 1819. Charles IX., king of Sweden, son of Gustavus Vasa. B. 1550. Declared king 1604 (for some years previously administrator of the kingdom). D. 1611. Charles X. Gustavus, king of Sweden, cousin and successor of Christina, B. 1623. Reigned from 1654. D. 1660. Charles XI., king of Sweden, son of Charles X. B. 1655. Reigned from 1660. D. 1697. Charles XII., king of Sweden, son of Charles XI. B. June 37, 1683. Reigned from 1697. Killed Dec. 11, 1718. Charles Xin., king of Sweden and Norway. B. 1748. Reigned in Sweden from 1809 ; in Norway, from 1814. D. 1818. Charles XIV. John, king of Sweden and Norway. See Bebnadotte. Charles XV., king of Sweden and Norway, son and successor of Oscar I. B. 1836. Reigned from 1859. D. 1872. Charles (Charles V. Leopold), titular duke of Lorraine, general in the service of the emperor Leopold L B. 1643. D. 1690. ■ Charles, archduke of Austria, brother of the emperor Francis, general B, 1771. D. 1847. Charles I., king of Portugal since 1889, son of Louis I. B. 1863. Charles I, (of Hohenzollem), king of Roumania. B. 1839. Elected prince 1866. Proclaimed king 1881. Charles, count of Anjou and Provence, king of Naples and Sicily, brother of Louis IX. of France. B. about 1330. Reigned in Naples and Sicily from 1366. Sicily revoltbd 1383. D. 1385. Charles of Blois, claimant of the duchy of Brittany. Slain 1364. Charles the Bad, king of Navarre. Reigned 1349^'87. Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, sovereign of the Netherlands^ B. 1433. Reigned from 1467. Killed 1477. Charles Albert, king of Sardinia. B. 1798. Reigned from 1831. Abdi- cated in favor of his son, Victor Emanuel. 1849. D. 1849. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 371 Charles Aug^ustus, duke (afterward grand-duke) of Saxe-Weimar. B. 1757. Declared reigning duke 1775. D. 1828. Charles Edward Stuart, son of James Edward Stuart and grandson of James II., pretender to the throne of England (the Young Pretender). B. 1730. D. 1788. Charles Emanuel I., the Great, duke of Savoy. B. 1562. Beigned from 1580. D. 1630. Charles Hartel, ruler of the Fran'ks^ B. about 690. D. 741. Charles Robert, king of Hungary, of the house of Anjou. Reigned 1309-'42. Charles, Jacques Alexandre Cesar, French physicist. B. 1746. D. 1823. Charlet, Nicolas Toussaint, French artist. B. 1792. D. 1845. Charlevoix, Pierre Prangois Xavier de,' French Jesuit, historian. B. 1682. D. 1761. " Histoire de la Nouvelle France." Charlotte, princess, daughter of George IV. B. 1796. D. 1817. Charras, Jean Baptiste Adolphe, French soldier, military writer. B. 1810. D. 1865. ChairiSre, Isabelle Agnete de Saint-Hyacinthe de, French authoress. B. about 1740. D. 1805. Charron, Pierre, French preacher, philosopher. B. 1541. D. 1603. Chartier, Alain, French poet. B. about 1385. D. about 1455. Chartres, Robert, duke de, son of the duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis Philippe. B. 1840. Chase, Salmon Portland, American statesman, secretary of the United States treasury 1861-4, subsequently chief justice of the United States. B. 1808. D. 1873. Chase, Samuel, American judge. B. 1741. D. 1811. Chasles, Michel, French mathematician. B. 1793. D. 1880. Chasles, V. E. Philarete, French literary critic. B. 1798. D. 1873. Chass6, David Hendrik, baron, Dutch soldier. B. 1765. D. 1849. Chasseloup-Laubat, Frangois de, marquis, French military engineer, B. 1754 D. 1833. Chassepot, Antoine Alphonse, French inventor. B. 1833. Chastelain, Georges, Flemish chronicler (wrote in French). B. about 1404 D. about 1474 Chasteler, Jean Gabriel de, marquis, Austrian general. B. 1763. D. 1825. Chastelluz, FranQois Jean de, marquis, French soldier, author. B. 1734. D. 1788. Chateaubriand, Francois Auguste de, viscount, French author, statesman. B. 1768. D. 1848. "Le g&ie du Christianisme." "Les martyrs." " Memoires d'outre-tombe." Chitelet, marchioness du. See Du ChItelet. Chatham, earl of. See Pitt. Chattertonj Thomas, English poet, literary impostor. B. 1752. D. 1770. 372 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Chaucer, Geoffrey, English poet. B. about 1328 or 1340. D. 1400. "Can- terbury Tales." Chaudet, Antoine Denis, French sculptor, B. 1763. D. 1810. Chatiliac, Gui de, French surgeon. 14th o. Chaulieu, Guillaume Amfrye de, French poet. B. 1639. D. 1720. Chaumette, Pierre Gaspard, French revolutionist. B. 1763. Executed 1794. Ohaimcey, Isaac, American naval commander. B. 1772. D. 1840. Chaussard, Pierre Jean Baptiste, French author. B. 1766. D. 1823. Chauveau-Lagarde, Claude Francois, French advocate. B. about 1756. D. 1841. Cheke, Sir John, English Greek scholar. B. 1514. D. 1557. Chelmsford, Frederick Thesiger, baron, English lawyer, lord chancellor. B. 1794. D. 1878. Chemnitz, Martin, German Protestant divine. B. 1522. D. 1586. Chemnitzer (EChemnitzer), Ivan, Russian fabulist. B. 1744. D. 1784 Chenavard, Paul Joseph, French painter. B. 1808. D. 1895. Cheneviz, Richard, Irish author. D. 1830. Ch6nier, Andre de, French poet. B. 1762. Executed 1794. Chillier, Louis de, French historian. B. 1723. D. 1796. Works on Moor- ish and Turkish history. Ch^nier, Marie Joseph de, French poet. B. 1764. D. 1811. Cherbuliez, Antoine filisee, Swiss political economist, publicist. B. 1797. D. 1869. Cherbuliez, Victor, French novelist. B. in Geneva about 1829. Cherubini, Maria Luigi Carlo Zenobio Salvatore, Italian composer, B. 1760. D. 1842, Chesne, Andre du. See Duchesne, Chesney, Charles Comwallis, British military writer, B. 1829. D, 1876. Chesuey, Francis Rawdon, British officer, military writer, B. 1789. D, 1872, Chesterfield, Philip Dormer Stanhope, earl of, English statesman, writer. B. 1694. D. 1773. Author of a famous series of letters addressed to his son. Chevalier, Michel, French economist. B. 1806. D. 1879. Chevreul, Michel Eugene, French chemist. B. 1786. D. 1889, Chevreuse, Marie de Rohan, duchess de, French lady, B, 1600. D. 1679. Cheyne, George, British physician. B. about 1671, D. about 1743. Ch6zy, Antoine Leonard de, French orientalist. B. 1773. D. 1832. Chigi, Fabio. See Alexandeb VIL, pope. Child, Sir Josiah, English merchant, political economist. B. 1630. D. 1699. Child, Lydia Maria (Francis), American authoress, abolitionist, B, 1802, D. 1880, ChUdebert I,, king over a portion of the Franks, son of Clovis. Reigned 511-558. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 373 Ohillingworth, ■William, English divine. B. 1602. D. 1644. Ohimay, Jeanne Marie Ignace Thergse de Cabarrus, princess de, wife of TaUien. B. in Spain about 1775. D. 1835. Chladni, Ernst Florens Friedrich, German physicist. B. 1756. D. 1837. Chlopicki, J6zef, Polish soldier, dictator for a short time in the revolu- tionary rising of 1830-'31. B. 1773. D. 1854. duuielnicki, Bogdan, Cossack chief. D. 1657. Choate, Rufus, American lawyer. B. 1799. D. 1859. Ghodo'wiecki, Daniel Nikolaus, German artist. B. 1736. D. 1801. Chodzko, Alexander Boreyko, Polish orientalist, poet, Slavic scholar, B. 1804. D. 1891. Chodzko, Jacques Leonard, Polish historian. B. 1800. D. 1871. Choiseul, iltienne Frangois de, duke, chief minister of Louis XV. 1758-70. B. 1719. D. 1785. Choiseul-Gotiffler, Marie Gabriel Florent Auguste de, count, French trav- eler, writer, B. 1753. D. 1817. " Voyage pittoresque en Grece." Chopin, Frederic Frangois, pianist, composer. B. in Poland 1810 (1809 ?). D. 1849. Chorley, Henry Fothergill, English musical critic, author. B. 1808, D. 1873. Chosroes L, king of Persia. Reigned 531-579. Chosroes II., king of Persia. Reigned 590-638. Chretien de Troyes, French poet. D. about 1300. CQiTistian II., king of Denmark, Norway, and Sv?eden. B. 1481. Reigned in Denmark and Norway 1513-'33 ; in Sweden 1530-'33 (the kingdom in rebellion from 1531). D. 1559. Christian IV., king of Denmark and Norway. B. 1577. Reigned from 1588. D, 1648. Christian VH., king of Denmark and Norway. B, 1749. Reigned from 1766. D. 1808. Christian Vm., king of Denmark. B. 1786. Reigned from 1839. D. 1848. Christian IX., king of Denmark since 1863. B. 1818. Christian of Brunswick. See Bbunswice. Christina, queen of Sweden, daughter" of Gustavus Adolphus. B. 1630. Reigned 1633-'54. D. 1689. Christina (Maria Christina), regent of Spain for her son Alfonso XIII. B. 1858. Christison, Sir Robert, Scottish physician, toxicologist. B. 1797. D. 1883. Christophe, Henri, negro general, president and king of Hayti. Elected president 1806. Royal title assumed 1811. D. 1830. (Only a portion of the island was under his sway.) Christopher, duke of Wiirtemberg. Reigned 1550-'68. Christopulos, Athanasios, Greek poet. B. 1773. D. 1847. Chrysippws, Greek philosopher. D. about 207 b. c. Chrysoloras, Manuel, Greek scholar. D, 1415. 374 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Chrysostom, John, patriarch of Constantinople. B. 347. D. 407. Chrzanowski, Adalbert, Polish general. B. about 1788. D. 1861. ClLurcli, Frederick Edwin, American painter. B. 1826. Church, Sir Richard, English general in the service of Greece. B. about 1785. D. 1873. Churchill, Charles, English poet, satirist. B. 1731. D. 1764. Churchill, John. See Mablboroubh. Cialdini, Enrico, Italian general, diplomatist. B. 1811. D. 1893. Cibber, CoUey, English dramatic writer. B. 1671. D. 1757. Cibber, Susannah Maria, English actress. B. 1714. D. 1766. Cibrario, Luigi, Italian statesman, historian. B. 1802. D. 1870. Cicero, Marcus TuUius, Roman orator, philosopher. B. 106 b. c. Killed 48 B.C. "DeOratore" and other works on oratory. " De Republica." "De Legibus " (on laws). " De Pinibus Bonorum et Malorum " (inquiry con- cerning the supreme good). " De Natura Deorum " (on the nature of the gods). " De Divinatione." " De OflBciis " (on duties). " De Senectute " (on old age). " De Amicitia " (on friendship). Among the most famous of Cicero's orations are those against Verres and Catiline, those in favor of Archias, Milo, and MarceUus (the authenticity of the one for Mareellus has been questioned), the one in favor of the Manilian law (investing Pompey with the command of the forces against Mithridates), and the orations called " Philippics," directed against Antony. Cid, the (Ruy Diaz de Bivar), Spanish hero. B. about 1040. D. 1099. Cienfuegos, Kicasio Alvarez de, Spanish poet. B. 1764 D. 1809. Ciguani, Carlo, Italian painter. B. 1638. D. 1719. Cigoli. See Cabdi. Cimabue, Griovanni, Italian painter. B. 1240. D. about 1303, Cimarosa, Domenico, Italian composer. B. 1749. D. 1801. Cimon, Athenian commander, son of Miltiades. D. 449 b. c. Cincinnatus, Lucius Quinctius, Roman dictator, commander. Middle of 5th c. B. c. Cineaa, minister of Pyrrhus and his envoy to Rome. Early in 3d c. b. c. Cinna, Lucius Cornelius, Roman party leader (on the side of Marius). Slain 84 B. c. Cino da Pistoja, Italian poet. B. 1370. D. 1336. Cinq-SIars, Henri Coiffler de Ruz€, marquis de, conspirator against Riche- lieu. B. 1620. Executed 1642. Cirillo, Domenico, Italian physician, naturalist. B. 1734. Executed 1799. Ciasey, Ernest Louis Octave Courtot de, French general, minister of war. B. about 1810. D. 1882. Civiale, Jean, French surgeon. B. 1793. D. 1867. Civilis, Claudius, Batavian insurgent leader. Defeated a. d. 70. Clairaut, Alexis Claude, French mathematician. B. 1713. D. 1765. Clairfait. See Cleefayt. Clairon, Mademoiselle, French actress. B. 1733. D. 1803. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 375 Caajus (Clai), Johannes, German poet, grammarian. B. about 1533. D. 1593. Clajus, Johannes, German poet. B. 1616. D. 1656. Clapperton, Hugh, British African explorer. B. 1788. D. 1827. Clarendon, Edward Hyde, earl of, English statesman, historian. B. 1609. D. 1674. " History of the Eebellion." Clarendon, George William Frederick Villiers, earl of, English statesman. B. 1800. D.1870. Claretie, Jules, French novelist, political writer, dramatist. B. 1840. Clark, Sir James, British physician. B. 1788. D. 1870. Clark, Latimer, English electrician. B. 1833. Clark, "William, American explorer. B. 1770. D. 1838. Clarke, Adam, British Biblical scholar. B. 1763. D. 1833. Clarke, Edward Daniel, English traveler. B. 1769. D. 1833. Clarke, Henri Jacques Guillaume, duke de Feltre, French general. B. 1765 D. 1818. Clarke, Jas. Freeman, Amer. Unitarian clergyman, author. B. 1810. D. 1888. Clarke, Mary Victoria Cowden (born Novello), English Shakespearean scholar, authoress. B. 1800. D. 1898. Clarke, Samuel, English divine, philosopher. B. 1675. D. 1739. Cl^rkson, Thomas, English abolitionist. B. 1760. D. 1846. Claude, Jean, French Protestant clergyman. B. 1619. D. 1687. Claude Lorraine * (Claude Gelee), painter. B. in Lorraine 1600. Lived in Italy. D. 1683. Claudian (Claudius Claudianus), Latin poet. B. about A. d. 365. Claudius I., Roman emperor. B. 10 b. c. Reigned from a. d. 41. D. 54. Claudius H., Roman emperor. B. 314. Reigned from 368. D. 370. Claudius, Matthias ("Asmus"), German author. B.1740. D.1815. Author of the periodical " Der Wandsbeoker Bote." Claudius Csecus, Appius, Roman statesman, general, writer, D, after 380 B. c. Claudius Civilis. See Civilis. Claudius Crassus, Appius, Roman decemvir about 450-448 b. c, Claudius Nero, Roman general. Consul 307 b. c. Claudius Nero, Tiberius, father of the emperor Tiberius. Clausel, Bertrand, count, French general. B. 1773. D. 1843. Clausewitz, Karl von, Prussian soldier, military writer. B. 1780. D. 1831. Clausius, Rudolf Julius Emanuel, German physicist. B. 1823. D. 1888. Clauzel. See Clausel. ClaTerhouse. See Dundee. Clavi6re, !6tienne, Swiss financier, minister of finance in Prance. B. 1735. D. 1793. * Properly Claude Lorrsin. 376 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAUT. Clavigero, Francisco Saverio, Mexican historian. B. about 1730. D. about 1787. " Storia antica del Messioo " (Italian). Clay, Henry, American statesman, orator. B. April 13, 1777. D. June 39, 1853. Clayton, John Middleton, American statesman. B. 1796. D. 1856. Cleanthes, Greek philosopher. B. about 300 b. c. D. about 330. Cleaveland, Parker, American mineralogists B. 1780. D. 1858. Clebsch, Rudolf Friedrich Alfred, German mathematician. B. 1838. D. 1873. Cleef, Jan van, Flemish painter. B. 1646. D. 1716. Cleef, Joost van, Flemish painter. B. about 1480. D. about 1530. Cldmenceau, Eugene, French politician. B. 1841. Clemens, Samuel Langhorne (" Mark Twain "), American humorist. B. 1835. Clement V., pope. Elected 1305. D. 1314 Clement VI., pope. Elected 1842. D. 1353. Clement VII., antipope. Elected 1378. D. 1894. Clement VII. (Giulio de' Medici), pope. Elected 1533. D. 1534 Clement VIII. (Ippolito Aldobrandini), pope. Elected 1593. D. 1605. Clement IX., pope. Elected 1667. D. 1669. Clement X., pope. Elected 1670. D. 1676. Clement XI., pope. Elected 1700. D. 1731. Clement XII., pope. Elected 1730. D. 1740. Clement XIII., pope. Elected 1758. D. 1769. Clement XIV. (Ganganelli), pope. Elected 1769. D. 1774 Clement of Alexandria, Greek father of the church. D. about 315. dementi, Muzio, Italian musician. B. 1758. D. 1833. Cleomenes III., king of Sparta. Beigned from 336 (or 335). D. 331 b. c. Cleon, Athenian demagogue. Slain 433 b. c. Cleopatra, queen of Egypt. B. 69 b. c. D. 30 b. c. Clerfayt (Clairfait), P. S. C. J. de Croix, count de, Austrian generaL B. 1733. D. 1798. Cleveland, Grover, president of the United States 1885-'9 and 1893-'7. B, . March 18, 1837. Clifford, William Kingdon, English philosopher. B. 1845. D. 1879. Clinton, De Witt, Am. statesman, governor of New York. B. 1769. D. 1838. Clinton, George, American statesman. B. 1789. D. 1813. Clinton, Sir Henry, English general in America. B. 1738. D. 1795. Clinton, Henry Fynes, English ohronologist. B. 1781. D. 1852. "Fasti Hellenici." " Fasti Eomani." Clinton, James, American soldier. B. 1736. D. 1813. Clisthenes, Athenian statesman. End of 6th c. b. c. Clitus, favorite of Alexander the Great. Slain by Alexander 338 b. c. Clive, Robert, Lord, English general in India. B. 1735. D. 1774 Clodiiu Fnlcher, Publius, Roman demagogue. Killed 53 b. c. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 377 Clootz, Jean Baptiste, baron (Anacharsis Clootz), French revolutionist. B, in Germany 1755. Executed 1794. Clotaire L, Icing of the Franks. Successor to his father, Clovis, jointly with his brothers 511. Ruler of the reunited Frankish realm from 558. D. 561. Clotaire H., king of the Franks. King of Neustria from the year of his birth, 584 — his mother Fredegonda regent. Ruler of the reunited Frank- ish realm from 613 (the kingdom again divided during his reign). D, 628. Clotilda, wife of Clovis. D. 545. Clovis, king of the Franks. Reigned from 481. D. 511. Clowes, William, English printer. B. 1779. D. 1847. duver (Cluverius), Philipp, German geographer, antiquary. B. 1580. D. 1623. Clyde, Lord. See Campbell, Sib Colin. Cobbe, Frances Power, English authoress. B. 1833. Writings on social, moral, and religious subjects. Cobbett, William, English political writer, agitator for reform. B. 1763. D. 1835. Cobden, Richard, English statesman, chief leader in the movement for the repeal of the Com Laws. B. June 3, 1804 D. April 2, 1865. Cobham. See Oldcastle. Coburg, Friedrich Josias, prince of, Austrian general. B. 1737. D. 1815. Coccejus (Cock), Johannes, Dutch theologian. B. in Germany 1603. D. 1669. Cochin, Charles Nicolas, French engraver. B. 1715. D. 1790. Cochrane. See Dundonald. Cockbum, Sir Alexander James Edmund, English jurist. B. 1803; D, 1880. Cockbum, Sir George, English admiral. B. 1773. D. 1853. Cookerill, John, Anglo-Belgian machinist. B. 1790. D. 1840. Coddington, William, one of the founders of Rhode Island. B. 1601. D, 1878. Codrington, Sir Edward, English admiral. B. 1770. D. 1851. Coehoom, Menno van, baron, Dutch military engineer. B. 1641. D. 1704. Coello, Claudio, Spanish painter. B. 1631. D. 1693, Coeiir, Jacques, French financier. D. 1456. Cogalniceanu, Mihai, Roumanian historian, statesman. B. 1817, D, 1891. Cogniet, Leon, French painter. B. 1794. D. 1880. Cohn, Ferdinand, German botanist. B. 1838. Distinguished for his re- searches regarding the development of the lowest vegetable organisms. Coke, Sir Edward, English jurist. B. 1552. D. 1634. Coke, Thomas, English Methodist. B. 1747. D. 1814. Coke, Thomas William, earl of Leicester of Holkham, English agriculturist. B,1753. D. 1843. 378 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Colbert, Jean Baptiste, minister of Louis XIV. B. 1619. D. 1683. Colbum, Zerah, American arithmetical prodigy. B. 1804 D. 1840. Colby, Thomas, English engineer. B. 1784. D. 1853. Cole, Thomas, American painter. B. in England 1801. D. 1848. Colebrooke, Henry Thomas, English Sanskrit scholar, writer on Hindoo subjects. B. 1765. D. 1837. Colenso, John WiUiam, English divine, Biblical critic, bishop of Natal. B. 1814. D. 1883. Coleridge, Hartley, English poet, son of S. T. Coleridge. B. 1796. D. 1849. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, English poet, philosopher, critic. B. Oct. 21, 1772. D. July 35, 1834. " Cristabel." " The Eime of the Ancient Mariner." Coleridge, Sara, English authoress, daughter of S. T. Coleridge. B. 1802. D. 1853. Coligni (Coligny), Graspard de, French Huguenot leader. B. 1517. Mur- dered 1573. Colletta, Pietro, Neapolitan patriot, historian. B. 1775. D. 1831. Collier, Jeremy, English clergyman, writer. B. 1650. D. 1736. Collier, John Payne, English author, critic. B. 1789. D. 1883. CoUingwood, Cuthbert, Lord, English admiral. B. 1750. D. 1810. Collins, Anthony, English theological and philosophical writer. B. 1676. D. 1739. Collins, William, English poet (odes, &o.). B. 1731. D. 1759. Collins, WiUiam Wilkie, English novelist. B. 1834 D. 1889. Colloredo, Rudolph von, count of Wallsee, Austrian general. B. 1585. D. 1657. Colloredo-lCansfeld, Hieronymus, count of, Austrian general, B. 1775. D. 1833. CoUoredo-Mels and Wallsee, Joseph Maria, count of, Austrian general, B. 1785. D. 1818. CoUot d'Herbois, Jean Marie, French revolutionist. B. about 1750. D.' 1796. Colman, George, English playwright. B. about 1733. D. 1794 "The Jealous Wife." Translation of Terence. Colman, George, English playwright. B. 1763. D. 1836. " John Bull." " The Iron Chest." " The Poor Gentleman." " The Heir at Law." Colman, Samuel, American painter. B. 1833, Coloootronis, Theodores, Greek patriot, B. 1770. D. 1848. Colonna, Pabio, Italian botanist. B. 1567. D. 1650. Colonna, Prospero, Italian general. D. 1533. Colonna, Vittoria, Italian poetess, wife of the marquis of Pescara, B. about 1490. D. 1547, Columba, Saint, " apostle of Caledonia," D, 597. Oolumbanus, Saint, Irish monk and missionary, who labored in various parts of continental Europe. D. 615. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 379 Columbus (It. Colombo ; Sp. Colon), Bartholomew, brother of Christopher Columbus. D. about 1515. Columbus, Christopher, discoverer of America. B. probably in Genoa about 1447 (possibly as early as 1435). D. May 20, 1506. Columbus, Diego, son of Christopher Columbus, governor of Hispaniola (Hayti). D. 1526. Columna, Fabius. See Colonna, Fabio. Columella, Lucius Junius Moderatus, Roman writer on husbandry. Flour- ished about A. D. 40. Combe, George, Scottish phrenologist. B. 1788. D. 1858. Comenius (Komensky), John Amos, educational reformer. B. in Moravia 1592. D. 1671. Comines, Philippe de,* French historian, statesman. B. 1445. D. 1509. Commodus, Roman emperor, son of Marcus Aurelius. B. 161. Reigned from 180. Murdered 192. Comnena, Anna. See Anna Comnena. Comonfort, "Tgnacio, president of Mexico from close of 1855 to beginning of 1858. B. 1812. Murdered 1863. Comte, Auguste, French philosopher, mathematician. B. Jan., 1798. D. Sept. 5, 1857. " Cours de philosopMe positive." " Systeme de politique positive." ConchA, Jose de la, Spanish soldier, statesman. B. 1809. Concha, Manuel de la, Spanish general B. 1808. Killed 1874. Concinl See Ancbe. Coudamine, Charles Marie de la, French savant. B. 1701. D. 1774. CondS, Henri L de Bourbon, prince de, Huguenot leader. B. 1552. D. 1588. Cond6, Henri II. de Bourbon, prince de. B. 1588. D. 1646. Conde, Jose Antonio, Spanish historian. B. about 1765. D. 1820. " His- • toria de la dominacion de los Arabes en EspaHa." Condd, Louis I. de Bourbon, prince de, Huguenot leader. B. 1530. Shot 1569. Cond6, Louis 11. de Bourbon, prince de (known as the Great Conde), French general. B. 1621. D. 1686. Cond6, Louis Henri Joseph de Bourbon, prince de. See Bourbon. Condd, Louis Joseph de Bourbon, prince de, French royalist commander. B. 1736. D. 1818. Condillac, feienne Bonnot de, French philosopher. B. 1715. D. 1780. Condorcet, Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, marquis de, French mathe- matician, philosopher, president of the Legislative Assembly, Girondist. B. 1743. D. 1794. Confucius, Chinese philosopher. About 500 b. c. Congreve, William, English dramatist. B. 1670. D. 1729. Congreve, Sir William, English inventor. B. 1772. D. 1828. Conou, Athenian commander. D. after 392 B. c. 380 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Conrad I;, king of Germany. Reigned, from 911. D. 918. Conrad II., emperor of Grermany. Reigned from 1034 D. 1039. Conrad III. (of Hohenstauf en), emperor of Germany. Reigned from 1138. D. 1152. Conrad IV., emperor of Germany, son of Frederick II. Reigned from 1350, D. 1354. (Also king of Sicily.) Conrad, Karl Immanuel, German painter. B. 1810. D. 1873. Conradin, son of the emperor Conrad IV. B. about 1253. Executed in Naples 1268. Conring, Hermann, German scholar, author. B. 1606. D. 1681. Consalvi, Ercole, cardinal, Italian statesman. B. 1757. D. 1834. Conscience, Hendrik, Flemish novelist. B. 1813. D, 1888. Consid6rant, Victor, French socialist. B. 1808. D. 1898. Constable, Archibald, Scottish publisher. B. 1774 D. 1827. Constans, Roman emperor, son of Constantine the Great. Reigned over a portion of the Roman Empire 337-350. Constant, Benjamin (Henri Benjamin Constant de Rebecque), French ora- tor, political writer. B. 1767. D. 1830. Constantine (Constantinus) the Great, Roman emperor, son of Constan- tius Chlorus. B. 274 (272 f). Ruled over a small portion of the Roman world from 306. Master of the western half of the empire 312, Reigned over the whole from 323. D. 337. Constantine II. , Roman emperor, son of Constantine the Great. Reigned over part of the Roman Empire 337-840. Constantine V., Copronymus, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 741-775. Constantine VII., Porphyrogenitus, Byzantine emperor, author. B. 905, Reigned from 911. D. 959. (Romanus Lecapenus his colleague in the empire 919-944.) Constantine XIII. (Constantine Palseologus), last Byzantine emperor. Reigned 1448-'53. Constantine, brother of the Russian emperors Alexander I, and Nicholas, viceroy of Poland. B. 1779. D. 1831. Constantine, brother of Alexander II. of Russia. B. 1837. B. 1892. Constantius I. (Constantius Chlorus), Roman emperor jointly with Galeri- us 305-'6. (Constantius shared in the government of the Roman Em- pire as " Cffisar " from 292.) Constantius II., Roman emperfir, son of Constantine the Great. B. 317, Reigned over the eastern portion of the Roman Empire from 337 ; undis- puted master of the whole from 358. D. 361. Contarini, Andrea, doge of Venice. Ruled 1867-82. Contarini, Domenico II., doge of Venice. Ruled 1659-74. Conti, Armand de Bourbon, prince de, brother of the Great Condfi. B. 1629. D. 1666. Conti, FranQois Louis de Bourbon, prince de, general. B. 1664. D. 1709, Conybeare, William Daniel, English geologist, B, 1787, D. 1857, BIOGKAPHIOAL DICTIONARr. 381 Cook, Eliza, English poetess. B. about 1818. D. 1889. Cook, James, English navigator. B. 1728. Killed 1779. Cooke, George Frederick, English actor. B. 1756. D. 1811. Coomans, Pierre Olivier Joseph, Belgian painter. B. 1816. D. 1889. Cooper, Anthony Ashley. See Shaftesbury. Cooper, Sir Astley, English surgeon. B. 1768. D. 1841. Cooper, James Penimore, American novelist. B. Sept. 15, 1789. D. Sept. 14, 1851. Best known productions in the order of their publication: "The Spy," 1821 (preceded by "Precaution," 1819); "The Pioneers"; " The Pilot " ; " The Last of the Mohicans," 1836 ; " The Prairie " ; " The Red Rover"; "The Bravo"; "The Headsman"; "The Pathfinder"; " The Deerslayer," 1841. Cooper, Peter, American philanthropist. B. 1791. D. 1883. Cooper, Thomas Sidney, English painter. B. 1803. Cope, Charles West, English painter. B. 1811. D. 1890. Cope, Edward Drinker, American naturalist. B. 1840. D. 1897. Copernicus, Nicholas, astronomer. B. at Thorn (on the Vistula) 1473. D, 1543. Copley, John Singleton, American painter. B. 1737. D. 1815. Coquelin, Benoit Constant, French actor. B. 1841. Coquerel, Athanase Laurent Charles, French Protestant clergyman. B. 1795. D. 1868. Corday, Charlotte, assassin of Marat. B. 1768. Executed 1793. C6rdova, Francisco Fernandez de, Spanish navigator. D. 1518. Cdrdova, Gonsalvo de. See Gonsalvo de C6rdova. Coriolaniis, hero of Roman legend. First half of 6th c. b. c. Cork, earl of. See Boyle, Richard. Cormenin, Louis Marie de la Hale, viscount de, French political writer, jurist. B. 1788. D. 1868. Comaro, Caterina, queen of Cyprus. B. 1454. D. 1510. ' ComeiUe, Pierre, French dramatist. B. June 6, 1606. D. Oct. 1, 1684. " Le Cid," 1636. " Horace " (" Les Horaces "). " Cinna." " Polyeuote." Comeille, Thomas, French dramatist. B. 1625. D. 1709. Cornelia, mother of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus. Comelis, Cornelius, Dutch painter. B. 1563. D. 1638. Cornelius, Peter von, German painter. B. 1783. D. 1867. Cornelius Nepos. See Kepos. Comiani, Giovanni Battista, count, Italian author. B. 1742. D. 1813, History of Italian literature. Cornwall, Barry. See PRoc>rER. Comwallis, Charles, Lord, English general, governor general of India 1786-'93 (again 1805), lord lieutenant of Ireland 1798-1801. B. 1738. D. 1805. Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, Spanish explorer. Set out on his expedi- tion to explore the region afterward called New Mexico 1540, 382 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Corot, Jean Baptiste Camille, French painter. B. 1796. D. 1875. Correggio, Antonio Allegri da, Italian painter. B. 1494. D. 1534. Cortes (Cortez), Hernan, conqueror of Mexico. B. in Spain 1485. D. 1547. Cortona, Pietro Berrettini da, Italian painter, architect. B. 1596. D, 166ft Corvinus, Matthias. See Matthias Corvinus. Corwin, Thomas, American statesman, oratQr. B. 1794. D. 1865. Cosmo de' MedicL See Medici. Cossa, Pietro, Italian dramatist. B. about 1834. D. 1881. Coss6, Charles de, count de Brissac, French general. B. about 1505. D, 1563. Costa, Sir Michael, musical director, composer. B. in Italy 1810. D. 1884. Costa-Cabral, Antonio Bernardo da, duke of Thomar, Portuguese states- man. B. 1803. D. 1889. Costello, Louisa Stuart, English authoress. B. 1799. D. 1870. Coster (Koster), Laurens Janszoon, one of the reputed inventors of printing. B. in the Netherlands about 1370. D. about 1440. Cotes, Boger, English mathematician. B. 1682. D. 1716. Cotta, Bemhard von, German geologist. B. 1808. D. 1879. Cotta, Johann Friedrioh von, baron, German publisher. B. 1764 D. 1832i Cottenham, Charles Christopher Pepys, earl of, lord chancellor of England. B. 1781. D. 1851. Cottin, Madame Sophie, French novelist. B. 1773. D. 1807. Cotton, Sir Robert Bruce, English antiquary. B. 1571. D. 1631. Coucy, Enguerrand, French soldier. D. 1397. Coucy, Renaud, castellan of, French troubadour. Close of 13th c. Coulomb, Charles Augustin de, French physicist. B. 1736. D. 1806. Courbet, Gustave, French painter. Communist. B. 1819. D. 1877. Cotuier, Paul Louis, French classical scholar, political writer. B. about 1773. Murdered 1825. Court de Gobelin, Antoine, French author. B. 1725. D. 1784> Courtois, Jacques. See Bokgoqnoke, II. Cousin, Jean, French painter, sculptor. B. about 1500. D. about 1589. Cousin, Victor, French philosopher. B. 1792. D. 1867. Cousin-IIontauban. See Palikao. Coustou, Guillaume, French sculptor. B. about 1677. D. 1746. Coustou, Guillaume, French sculptor. B. 1716. D. 1777. Coustou, Nicolas, French sculptor. B. 1658. D. 1733. Couthon, Georges, French revolutionist. B. 1756. Executed 1794. Couture, Thomas, French painter. B. 1815. D. 1879. Coverdale, Miles, English translator of the Bible. B. 1488. D. 1568. Cowley, Abraham, English poet. B. 1618. D. 1667. Cowper, William, earl, lord chancellor of England. B. 1664. D. 1723. Cowper, William, English anatomist. B. 1666. D. 1710. Cowper, William, English poet. B. 1731. D.1800. "The Task." ''John Gilpin." Translation of Homer. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 383 Cox, Sir George William, English author. B. 1837. Works on mytholo- gy, Grecian history, &o. Coxcie (Coxis), Michiel van, Flemish painter. B. about 1499. D. 1593. Coze, William, English historian, writer of travels, biographer. B. 1747. Dl 1828. " History of the House of Austria." Coypel, Antoine, French painter. B. 1661. D. 1723. Coypel, Noel, French painter. B. 1628. D. 1707. Coysevox, Antoine, French sculptor. B. 1640. D. 1720. Crabb, George, English author, scholar. B. 1778. D. 1851. "English Synonyms." Crabbe, George, English poet. B. 1754 D. 1832. " The Library." " The Village." "The Parish Register." "The Borough." "Tales of the Hall." Crabeth., Dirk, Dutch painter on glass. D. about 1601. Crabeth, Wouter, Dutch painter on glass. D. about 1580. Craik, Dinah Maria. See Muloce. Cramer, Johann Andreas, German preacher, poet. B. 1733. D. 1788. Cramer, John Baptist, German-English pianist, composer. B. 1771. D. 1858. Cranacli (Kranaoh), Lucas, German painter, engraver. B. 1473. D. 1553. Cranbrook, Lord. See Hardy, Gathobne. Cranch, William, American judge. B. 1769. D. 1855. Cranmer, Thomas, English Reformer, archbishop of Canterbury. B. 1489. Burned 1556. Ciassus, Lucius Licinius, Roman orator. B. 140 b. c. D. 91, Crassus, Marcus Licinius, Roman triumvir. B. about 114 b. c. Slain 53. Craterus, Macedonian general. Slain 321 b. c. Crates, Greek comic poet. Flourished about 450 b. c. Crates, Greek Cynic philosopher. D. about 300 b. o. Crates, Greek grammarian. 3d c. b. c. Cratiniis, Greek comic poet. B. about 519 b. c. D. about 423. Cratippus, Greek philosopher. B. about 75 b. c. Craven, Elizabeth. See Anspach. Crawford, P. Marion, American novelist. B. 1854. Crawford, Thomas, American sculptor. B. 1814. D. 1857. Crawford, William Hanis, American statesman. B. 1772. D. 1834. Crayer, Gaspar de, Flemish painter. B. 1582. D. 1669. Creasy, Sir Edward Shepherd, English historian. B. 1812. D. 1878. " Fif- teen Decisive Battles of the World." Works on the British constitution, the history of the Turks, &c. Cr6billon, Prosper Jolyot de, French writer of tragedy. B. 1674. D. 1763. Cr6mieux, Isaac Adolphe, French statesman. B. 1796. D. 1880, Creuzer, Georg Prledrich, German philologist, antiquary. B. 1771. D. 1858. Crdvecoeur, Philippe de, French general. D. 1494. 384 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Crichton, James, Scottish genius. B. about 1560. Murdered about 1583. Crillon, Louis des Balbes de Berton de, French military hero. B. 1541. D. 1615. Crispi, Francesco, Italian statesman. B. 1819. Critias, Athenian orator, poet, one of the Thirty Tyrants. Slain 404 or 403 b. o. Crittenden, John Jordan, American statesman. B. 1787. D. 1863. Croesus, king of Lydia. Reigned about 560-546 b. c. Croker, John Wilson, British author, politician. B. 1780. D. 1857. Croly, George, Brit, author. B. about 1780. D. 1860. " The Angel of the World, an Arabian Tale." " Salathiel." " Personal History of George IV." Cromwell, Oliver, Puritan general, lord protector of England 1653-'8. B. April 35, 1599. D. Sept. 3, 1658. Cromwell, Kichard, lord protector of England 1658-'9, son of Oliver Crom- well. B. 1626. D. 1712. Cromwell, Thomas, earl of Essex, English statesman. Executed 1540. Cropsey, Jasper Frank, American painter. B. 1823. Crosse, Andrew, English electrician. B. 1784 D. 1855. Crowe, Joseph Archer, English historian of art. B. 1835. Cruden, Alexander, author of a concordance to the Bible. B. in Scotland 1701. D. 1770. Cruikshank, George, English caricaturist. B. 1792. D. 1878. Crusenstolpe, Magnus Jacob, Swedish political writer, novelist. B. 1795. D. 1865. Crusius, Christian August, German philosopher, theologian. B. 1715. D. 1775. Csokonay, Vitfiz Mih41y, Hungarian poet. B. 1773. B. 1805. Csoma de K5ros, Sdndor, Hungarian traveler in central Asia, Thibetan scholar. B. 1798. D. 1842. Ctesias, Greek historian. Flourished 400 b. c. Histories of Persia and India. Ctesibiiis, Alexandrian mechanician. 3d c.b. c. (1). Ctesiphon, Athenian orator. Second half of 4th c. b. c. Cudworth, Ralph, English philosopher, divine. B. 1617. D. 1688. "The True Intellectual System of the Universe." Cueva, Juan de la, Spanish poet. B. about 1550. D. about 1608. Cujas, Jacques, French jurist. B. about 1522. D. 1590. CuUen, Paul, Irish cardinal. B. 1803. D. 1878. Cullen, William, Scottish physician. B. 1710. D. 1790. Culpeper, John, leader of an insurrection in Caroliua in 1678. Culpeper, Thomas, Lord, governor of Virginia. Administered the colony 1680, 1683-'3. Cumberland, Richard, English moral philosopher. B. 1631. D. 1718. Cumberland, Richard, English dramatist. B. 1732. D. 1811. Cumberland, William Augustus, duke of, son of George II., English generaL B. 1721. D. 1765. BIOGEAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 385 Cumberland, duke of, son of George III. See Eenest Augustus. Gumming, John, British clergyman. B. 1807. D. 1881. Gumming, B. G-. Gordon, Scottish sportsman in South Africa, author. B. 1820. D. 1866. Cummins, Maria S., American novelist. B. 1827. D. 1866. Cunningham, Allan, Scottish poet, novelist, writer on art, literary critic. B. 1784. D. 1843. Curio, Caius Scribonius, Roman general. D. 53 b. c. Curio, Caius Scribonius, adherent of Cssar, Killed 49 B. C. CuriuB Dentatus. See Dentatus. Curran, John Philpot, Irish orator. B. 1750. D. 1817. Gursor, Papirius. See Papibius Cursor. Curtis, George Tioknor.Amer. jurist. B.1812. D.1894. "History of the Ori- gin, Formation, and Adoption of the Constitution of the United States." Curtis, George William, American author, journalist. B. 1824. D. 1892, Sketches of travel. " The Potiphar Papers." CuitiuB, Ernst, Ger. hist., archsBologist. B. 1814. D. 1896. " Peloponnesos." " Griechische Geschichte." " Die lonier vor der ionischen Wanderung." Curtius, Quintus, Roman historian. Commonly supposed to have lived in the first c. a. d., but by some placed as late as the 3d or 4th c. History of Alexander the Great. Gushing, Caleb, American politician, lawyer, writer. B. 1800. D. 1879. Gushing, Luther Steams, American writer on parliamentary law, &c. B. 1803. D. 1856. Cushman, Charlotte Saunders, American actress. B. 1816. D. 1876. Custer, George Armstrong, American general. B. 1839. Killed 1876. Custine, Adam Philippe de, count, Fr. general. B. 1740. Executed 1793. Cuthbert, Saint, English monk. D. 687. Cuvier, Frederic, Fr. naturalist, brother of the following. B. 1773. D. 1838. Cuvier, Georges Leopold Chretien Frederic Dagobert, French naturalist, founder of the science of comparative anatomy. B. Aug. 23, 1769. D. May 13, 1832. "Le rSgne animal." " Les ossemens fossiles." Guyp, Albert, Dutch painter. B. about 1605. D. about 1691. Guza. See Alexander John I. Cyazares, king of Media. D. 584 (593) b. o. Cyprian, Saint, bishop of Carthage. Put to death 258. Gypselus, tyrant of Corinth. Reigned about 657-627 b. c. Cyrano de Bergerac, Savinien, French humorous and satirical writer, dramatist, noted as a duelist. B. 1619. D. 1655. Cyril, Saint, bishop of Jerusalem. D. 386. Cyril, Saint, bishop of Alexandria. D. 444. CyrU, Saint, " apostle of the Slavs." D. 869 (f). Cyrus, king of Persia. Put an end to the kingdom of Media, and made Persia a great monarchy, about 550 b. c. D. 529. Cyrus, brother of Artaxerxes II. of Persia. Slain 401 b. c. 26 386 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAKT. Czajkowski, Miohal, Polish novelist. B. 1808. D. 1886. Czameoki, Stefan, Polish general. B. 1599. D. 1665. Czartoryski, Adam, prince, Polish noble. B. about 1734. D. 1833. Czartoiyski, Adam, prince, head of the revolutionary government in Poland in the rising of 1830-'31. B. 1770. D. 1861. Czelakowsky. See Cblakovskt. , Czermak, Johann Nepomuk, Bohemian physiologist. B. 1838. D. 1873. Czemy George (Kara Q-eorge), leader in a rising of the Servian people against the Turks. B. about 1766. Put to death 1817. Czuczor, Gergely, Hungarian poet, scholar. B. 1800. D. 1866.. Sacier, AndrS, French classical scholar, translator. B. 1651. D. 1733. Sacier, Anne (Tanneguy-LefSvre), French classical scholar, translator. R probably 1654 D. 1720. Sagobert I., king of the Franks. Made king of Austrasia in the lifetime of his father, Clotaire II., 632. Succeeded Clotaire in Neustria and Bur- gundy 628. Kuler of the whole Frankish realm from 631. D. 638. Dagiierre, Louis Jacques Maude, one of the inventors of photography. B. in France 1789. D. 1851. Dahl, Johann Kristen Clausen, Norwegian painter. B. 1788. D. 1857, DaM, Mikael, Swedish painter. B. 1656. D. 1743. Sakl, Vladimir (" Eosak Lugansk! "), Russian novelist, scholar. B. about 1802. D. 1872. Sahlbom, Anders Gustaf, Swedish entomologist. B. 1806. D. 1859. Sahlgren, John Adolf, American naval officer. B. 1809. D. 1870. DaUgren, Karl Fredrik, Swedish poet, novelist. B. 1791. D. 1844 SaklmaiLa, Priedrich Christoph, German historian. B. 1785. D. 1860. Works on German, Danish, English, and French history. Dahn, Felix, G«rman historian, jurist, novelist, poet. B. 1834 Authority on the early history of the Germanic and Romanic peoples. Balberg, Karl Theodor Anton Maria von, German prelate, prince, author, B. 1744. D. 1817. Dalby, Isaac, English mathematician. B. 1744. D. 1834. B'Alembert. See Aleubert. Dalgamo, George, inventor of a deaf-mute alphabet. B. in Scotland about 1627. D. 1687. Dalhousie, James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, marquis of, British statesman, governor general of India 1848-'56. B. 1812. D. 1860. Dallas, Alexander James, American statesman. B. 1759. D. 1817. Dallas, 'George Mifflin, American statesman. B. 1793. D. 1864. Dalling and Bulwer, baron. See Bulwee, Henry Lytton Bable. Dall' Ongaro, Francesco, Italian patriot, poet, romance writer. B. 1808 D. 1873. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. SSt Dalrymple, Sir David, Lord Hailes, Scottish judge, antiquary. B. 1736. D. 1793. Dalrymple, James, Viscount Stair, Scottisii jurist, statesman. B. 1619. D. 1695. Dalrymple, John, earl of Stair, secretary of state for Scotland, who was regarded as the author of the massacre of Glencoe. D. 1707. Dalrymple, John, earl of Stair, British general. B. 1673. D. 1747. Dalton, John, English chemist, author of the atomic theory. B. 1766. D, 1844 Dalton, John Call, American physiologist. B. 1835. D. 1889. Damascene, John, theologian of Damascus. 8th c. Damascius, Neo-Platonic philosopher. First half of 6th c. A. d. Damiani, Fietro, Italian prelate. D. 1073. Damiens, Robert Frangois, Frenchman who attempted to assassinate Louis XV. B. about 1715. Put to death 1757. Dampier, William, English navigator. B. 1658. D. 1715. Dampierre, Auguste Henri Marie Picot, marquis de, French general. B, 1756. Killed 1793. Dana, Pianeis, American statesman, jurist. B. 1743. D. 1811. Dana, James Dwight, American geologist, mineralogist. B. 1813. D. 1895. Dana, Richard Henry, American poet. B. 1787. D. 1879. Dana, Richard Henry, jr., American author, lawyer. B. 1815. D. 1883. " Two Years Before the Mast." Danby, Francis, British painter. B. 1793. D. 1861. Dancouit, Florent Carton, French writer of comedy. B. 1661. D. 1725. Dandolo, Enrico, doge of Venice, principal leader of the expedition of Ve- netians and crusaders which established the Latin Empire of the East, B. about 1109. Made doge 1193. D. 1305. Danican, Frangois Andre (" Philidor "), French chess-player, composer. R 1726. D. 1795. Daniel, Hermann Adalbert, German geographer. B. 1812. D. 1872. Daniel, Samuel, English poet. B. 1563. D. 1619. Daniell, John Frederick, English physicist. B. 1790. D. 1845. Daniell, William, English artist. B. 1769. D. 1837. Dannecker, Johann Heinrich von, German sculptor. B. 1758. D. 1841. Dante Alighieri, Florentine poet, diplomatist. B. May or June, 1365. D. Sept., 1331. " La divina commedia " (" Inferno," " Purgatorio," " Para- diso "). Prose writings : " La vita nuova," " II convito," " De Vulgari Eloquio," " De Monarchia " (last two in Latin). Danton, Georges Jacques, French revolutionist. B. 1759. Executed 1794. D'Arblay, Madame. (Prances Bumey), English novelist. B. 1752. D. 1840. "Evelina." "Cecilia." Darboy, Georges, archbishop of Paris. B. 1813. Shot 1871. Darcet, Jean, French chemist. B. about 1737. D. 1801. Dariiis L, Hystaspis, king of Persia. Reigned 531-486 b. c. 388 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONART. Darius II., Xothus, king of Persia. Beigned from 434 or 435 to 405 or 404 B. c. Darius III., Codomannus, king of Persia. Beigned 336-330 b. c. Darley, Felix 0. C, American artist. B. 1833. D. 1888. Damley, Henry Stuart, Lord, second husband of Mary Stuart. B. 1541 or 1546. Killed 1567. Daru, Pierre Antoine Noel Bruno, count, French statesman, historian. B. 1767. D. 1889. " Histoire de la republique de Venise." Darwin, Charles Eobert, English naturalist. B. Feb. 13, 1809. D. Apnl 19, 1883. " The Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection," 1859. "The Descent of Man," 1871. Darwin, Frasmns, English physiologist, naturalist, didactic poet, grand- father of Charles Darwin. B. 1731. D. 1803. Darwin, Francis, English vegetable physiologist. B. 184S. Darwin, George Howard, English physiographer. B. 1845. Dash, countess (pseudonym of the viscountess de Saint-Mars), French au- thoress. B. 1804 D. 1873. Dashkoff, Yekaterina Bomanovna, Russian princess, accomplice of Catha- rine II. in the conspiracy against Peter III., authoress. B. 1748. D. 1810. Daubenton, Louis Jean Marie, French naturalist. B. 1716. D. Dec. 81, 1799, or Jan. 1, 1800. Daubeny, Charles Giles Bridle, English chemist, geologist. B. 1795. D. 1867. Daubign^. See Merle d'Aubign^. Daubigny, Charles Franjois, French painter. B. 1817. D. 1878. Daudet, Alphonse, French novelist. B. 1840. D. 1897. Daudet, Ernest, French novelist, political writer. B. 1837. Daudin, Franpois Marie, French naturalist. B. 1774. D. 1804 Daun, Leopold Joseph Maria von, count, Austrian general. B. 1705. D. 1766. Daiinou, Pierre Claude Frangois, French statesman, historian, B. 1761. D. 1840. Davenant, Sir William, English dramatist, epic poet. B. 1606. D. 1668. Davenport, John, Puritan minister at New Haven. B. about 1598. D. 1670. David, king of the Hebrews. Reigned about 1083-993 b, c. (Drmcker; 10B8- 1017, bpperf). David Bruce. See Beuce. David, Felicien C^sar, French composer. B. 1810. D. 1876. David, Jacques Louis, French painter. B. 1748. D. 1835. David (David d' Angers), Pierre Jean, French sculptor. B. 1789. D. 1856. Davidson, Samuel, British Biblical scholar. B. 1807. Davies, Sir John, English poet. B. 1569. D. 1636. Davila, Enrico Caterino, Italian historian. B. 1576. Murdered 1631. His- tory of the civil wars in Prance in the 16th century. Davis, Charles Henry, American naval officer, scientist. B. 1807. D. 1877, BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 389 Davis, Jefferson, president of the Confederate States. B. June 3, 1808. D. Dec. 6, 1889. Davis, John, English navigator. Killed 1605. Davis, Sir John Francis, English writer on China. B. 1795. D. 1890. Davout (Davoust), Louis Nicolas, duke of AuerstSdt and prince of Eckmiihl, French general. B. 1770. D. 1833. Davy, Sir Humphry, English chemist. B. 1778. D. 1839. Dawison, Bogumil, actor. B. in Poland 1818. D. 1872. Dawkins, W. Boyd, Eng. geologist, palaeontologist, anthropologist. B. 1888, Dawson, John William, Canadian geologist, naturalist. B. 1830. Day, Thomas, English author. B. 1748. D. 1789. " Sandford and Merton." De&k, Perencz, Hungarian statesman. B. Oct. 17, 1803. D. night of Jan. 28-39, 1876. De Amicis, Edmondo, Italian author. B. 1846. Sketches of travel, tales, poems, &c. Deane, Silas, American diplomatist. B. 1737. D. 1789. Dearborn, Henry, American general. B, 1751. D. 1839. Decamps, Alexandre Gabriel, French painter. B. 1803. D. 1860. De Candolle. See Candolle. Decatur, Stephen, American naval oflBcer. B. 1751. D. 1808. Decatur, Stephen, jr., American naval officer. B. 1779. D. 1830. Decazes, ^lie, duke, French statesman. B. 1780. D. 1860. Decazes, Louis Charles felie Amanieu, duke, Fr. statesman. B. 1819. D. 1886. Deceba]us, king of the Dacians. D. a. d. 106. Deciiis, Roman emperor. Reigned 349-351. Decius JULas, Publius, Roman consul, general. Slain about 340 b. c. Decius THaa, Publius, Roman consul, general. Slain 395 b. c. Decken, Karl Klaus von der, Ger. African explorer. B. 1833. Killed 1865. Dee, John, English astrologer. B. 1537. D. 1608. Deffand, Marie, marchioness du, French lady. B. about 1697. D. 1780. Defoe, Daniel, English author. B. 1661(f). D.1731. " Robinson Crusoe." Defiregger, Franz, Austrian painter. B. 1835. De G^rando. See G£bando. De Grasse. See Gsasse. D6jazet, Pauline Virginie, French actress. B. 1798. D. 1875. Dejean, Pierre Frangois Aime Auguste, French entomologist. B. 1780. D. 1845. De Kalb, John, baron, general in the American service. B. in Alsace 1721 KiUed 1780. De Kay, James E., American naturalist. B. 1793. D. 1851. Dekker (Decker), Thomas, English dramatist. D. after 1637. De la Beohe, Sir Henry Thomas, English geologist. B. 1796. D. 1855. Delacroix, Ferdinand Victor Eugene, French painter. B. 1799. D. 1863. Delambre, Jean Baptiste Joseph, French astronomer, B. 1749. D. 1833. De la Bamd, Louisa (" Ouida "), English novelist. B. about 1840. 390 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. De la Rive. See La Bive. . Delaroche, Paul, French painter. B. 1797. D. 1856. De La Bue, Warren, English astronomer, physicist. B. 1815. D, 1889, "Researches on Solar Physics." Delaunay, Charles Eugene, French astronomer. B. 1816. D. 1873. Delavigne, J. F. Casimir, French poet, dramatist. B. 1793. D. 1843. " Les Messeniennes " (patriotic elegies). " Les vepres sieUiennes," " Le Pajia," " Marino Faliero," " Louis XL " (tragedies). " L' eoole des vieiUards " (comedy). " La Parisienne " (patriotic hymn). Delaware (Delawarr), Thomas West, Lord, governor of Virginia. D. 1618. Delbriick, Rudolph, German statesman. B. 1817. Delescluze, Louis Charles, French Communist. B. 1809. Killed 1871. Delille, Jacques, French didactic poet. B. 1788. D. 1813. " Les jardins." " La pitifi." Translations of Virgil's " Georgics " and ".^Ineid." Delisle. See Lisle. Delitzsch, Franz, German Biblical scholar, Hebraist. B. 1818. D. 1890. Delitzsch, Friedrich, German Assyriologist; B. 1850. Delolme, Jean Louis, Swiss author. B. 1740. D. 1806. " Constitution de I'Angleterre." Delord, Taxile, French journalist, historian. B. 1815. D. 1877. " Histoire du second empire." Deluo, Jean Andre, Swiss scientist. B. 1737. D. 1817. Demades, Athenian demagogue. Put to death 319 b. c. Dembinski, Henryk, Polish commander, who bore a distinguished part in the revolution of 1880-'81, and was a general of the Hungarians in 1849. B. 1791. D. 1864. Demetrius (Dmitri), pretender to the throne of Russia. Crowned czar 1605. Killed 1606. Demetrius, pretender to the throne of Russia. Killed 1610. Dem.etrius Phalereus, ruler of Athens, orator, philosopher. Governed Athens from 318 or 317 to 807 b. c. D. about 383. Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, commander, king of Macedonia 294r-387 B. c. B. about 338. D. 383. Demetrius Soter, king of Syria. Reigned from 162 to 151 or 150 b. c. Demetrius Nicator, king of Syria. Reigned 146-138 s.c. (Clinton; 146- IJfl BawUnson) and again 139-135 {Clinton ; 1S9-1S6 Rami.). Demidoflf, Anatoli, prince, Russian noble. B. about 1813. D. 1870. DemidofF, Nikolai, count, Russian noble. B. about 1773. D. 1838. Democedes, Greek physician. Latter part of 6th c. b. c. Democritus, Greek philosopher. B. about 460 b. c. D. about 360. Dem.oivre. See Moivre. De Morgan, Augustus, English mathematician. B. 1806. D. 1871. Demosthenes, Athenian general. Put to death 413 b. c. Demosthenes, Athenian orator. B. about 384 b. c. D. 333. Denham, Dixon, English African explorer. B. 1786. D. 1828. BIOGRAPmOAL DICTIONARY. 39I ]}eiihain, Sir John, English poet. B. 1615. D. 1669. Denina, Carlo, Italian historian. B. 1731. D. 1813. " Istoria delle rivo- luzioni d'ltalia." Denis, Saint, patron saint of Paris. Put to death 273. Senman, Thomas, Lord, English judge. B. 1779. D. 1854. Denner, Balthasar, German painter. B. 1685. D. 1747. Dennis, John, English writer, critic. B. 1657. D. 1734. Denon, Dominique Vivant, baron, French artist, writer on Egypt and on art. B. 1747. D. 1825. Dentatus, M. Curius, Koman general. D. about 270 b. c. D'^on, chevalier. See fioN de Beaumont. Depping, Georges Bernard, French author. B. 1784. D. 1853. Depretis, Agostind, Italian statesman. B. 1813. D. 1887. De ftuinoey, Thomas, English author. B. 1785. D. 1859. " Confessions of an English Opium Eater." Derby, Edward Geoffrey Smith-Stanley, earl of, British premier 1852, 1858-'9, 1866-'8. B. 1799. D. 1869. Derby, Edward Henry Smith-Stanley, earl of, British statesman, son of the preceding. B. 1836. D. 1893. Derwentwater, James BadcUfle, earl of, English Jacobite leader. B. 1689, Executed 1716. Derzbavin, GavriU, Russian lyric poet. B. 1743. D. 1816. Desaiz, Louis Charles Antoine, French general. B. 1768. Killed 1800. Desault, Pierre Joseph, French surgeon. B. 1744. D. 1795. Descartes, Kene, French philosopher, mathematician. B. March 31, 1696. D. Feb. 11, 1650. Desfontaines, Rene Louiche, French botanist. B. about 1753. D. 1833. Deshoulidres, Antoinette, French poetess. B. about 1634. D. 1694. Desiderius, king of the Lombards. Reigned from about the close of 756 to 774. Desmoulins, Benoit CamUle, French revolutionist, B. about 1760, Exe- cuted 1794. Desnoyers, Auguste Gaspard Louis Boucher, baron, French engraver. B. 1779. D. 1857. Desor, Edward, Swiss geologist, naturalist, archaeologist. B. in Germany 1811. D. 1883. De Soto, Fernando, Spanish explorer, discoverer of the Mississippi. B, about 1501. D. 1542. Dessalines, Jean Jacques, Negro emperor of Hayti. Reigned 1804-'6. DessoUes, Jean Joseph Paul Augustin, marquis, French general. B. 1767. D. 1838. D'Estaing. See Esume. Destouches, Philippe Nericault, French dramatist. B. 1680. D. 1754, Bestutt de Tracy, Antoine Louis Claude, count de Tracy, French philoso- fher, 3,1754, D,1836, 392 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Betaille, £douard Jean Baptiste, French painter, B, 1848. Se Tocqueville. See Tocqueyille. Beutsch, Emanuel, Jewish orientalist, Biblical and Talmudical scholar. B, in Germany 1839. Lived in England from 1855. D. 1873. Deville, Sainte-Claire. See Sainte-Claike Deville. BevonBhire, duke of. See Habtington. Devrient, Eduard, German actor, writer. B. 1801. D. 1877. "Geschiohte der deutschen Sohauspielkunst" ("History of German HistrionicArt"). Devrient, Emil, German actor. B. 1803. D. 1872. Devrient, Ludwig, German actor. B. 1784. D. 1832. De Wette,Wilhelm Martin Leberecht,Ger. Biblical critic. B.1780. D.1849. De Witt, Johan, Dutch statesman. B. about 1623.* Murdered 1673. Diana of Foitiera, duchess of Yalentinois, mistress of Henry II. of France, B. 1499. D. 1566. Dias (Diaz), A. Qongalvez. See Goncalvez Dias. Dias, Bartholomeu, Portuguese nayigator, discoverer of the Cape of Good Hope. D. 1500. Diaz del Castillo, Bemal, one of the companions of Cortes, historian. " Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva EspaSa." Diaz, Porflrio, Mexican general in the war against Maximilian and presi- dent of Mexico. Took possession of the government close of 1876 ; actual president from 1877. Term ended 1880. Again president since 1884 Diaz de la Pena, Narcisse, French painter. B. 1807. D. 1876. Diaz de Solis. See Sous. Dibdin, Charles, English song-writer, dramatist. B. 1745. D. 1814. Dibdin, Thomas Frognall, English bibliographer. B. 1776. D. 1847, Dickens, Charles, English novelist. B. Feb. 7, 1813. D. June 9, 1870. "The Pickwick Papers," 1836-'7. " Oliver Twist," 1837-'8. " Nicholas Niokle- by," 1838-'9. "Martin Chuzzlewit," 1843-'4. "Dombey and Son," 184e-'8. "David Copperfield," 1849-'50. "Our Mutual Friend," the author's last novel (except one not completed), 1864-'5. Dickinson, John, American statesman. B. 1732. D. 1808. Diderot, Denis, French author, free-thinker, principal editor of the " Bnoy- clopedie." B. 1713. D. 1784. " Pensfes pliilosophiques." "Lettressur les aveugles & I'usage de ceux qui voient " (" Letters on the Blind for the use of Those who See "). Didius Julianus, Roman emperor A. d. 193. Didot, Ambroise Firmin, French publisher. B. 1790. D. 1876, Didot, Firmin, French publisher. B. 1764 D. 1836. Didot, FranQois Ambroise, French publisher. B. 1730. D. 1804 Didot, Hyacinthe Firmin, French publisher. B. 1794 D. 1880. * According to hiB own entrj in the inscription roll of the University of Leyden, the date of J. De Witt's birth is 1623 ; according to his contemporary Balen he waa bom in 1625. (Oeddea.) BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 393 Didymtis, writer of Alexandria. First c. b. c. Diebitsch, Hans Karl Friedrioh Anton, count, Russian general. B. in Prus- sia 1785. D. 1831. Siefenbach, Lorenz, German philologist, ethnologist, novelist. B. 1806. D. 1883. Sieskau, Ludwig August, German oflScer in the French service. B. 1701. D. 1767. Diesterweg, Friedrich AdoU Wilhelm, German educational writer. B. 1790. D. 1866. Dietz, Feodor, German painter. B. 1813. D. 1870. Siez, Friedrich Christian, German philologist. B. 1794. D. 1876. " Gram- matik der romanischen Spraohen." " Btymologisches Worterbuch der romanischen Sprachen." Digby, Sir Kenelm, English philosopher. B. 1603. D. 1665. Digges, Leonard, English mathematician. D. about 1574. Dilke, Sir Charles Wentworth, English author, politician. B. 1843. " Gj^ater Britain, a Becord oi Travel in English-speaking Countries." Sillenius, Johann Jakob, German botanist. B. 1687. D. 1747. Dillmajm, August, German orientalist, theologian. B. 1823. D, 1894 Authority on the language and literature of Ethiopia. Dindorf, Wilhelm, German classical scholar. B. 1802. D. 1883, Dingelstedt, Franz, German poet, novelist, theatrical director. B. 1814 D. 1881. Biniz (Dionysius), king of Portugal. Beigned 1379-1335. Bin-vriddie, Robert, governor of Virginia 1753-'8. B. about 1690. D. 1770. Diocletian, Roman emperor 384-305. B. 345. D. 313. Diodorus Siculiis, Greek historian. Latter part of first c. b. c. Diogenes, Greek Cynic philosopher. B. about 413 b. c. D. 333. Diogenes of Apollonia, Greek philosopher. Latter part of 5th c. b. g. Diogenes Laertius, Greek author. About a. d. 300. Work on the Greek philosophers. Dion, liberator of Syracuse from Dionysius the Younger 356 b, c. Assassi- nated 353. Dion Cassius, historian. B. in Bithynia about a. d. 155. History of Rome (in Greek). Dion Chrysostomus, Greek rhetorician. D. about a. d. 117. Dionysius the Elder, tyrant of Syracuse. Rided 406-367 b. c. Dionysius the Tounger, tyrant of Syracuse. Ruled 367-356, 346-343 b. c. Dionysius, king of Portugal. See Diuiz. Dionysius, Saint, bishop of Alexandria. D. 365. Dionysius of HaUcamassus, Greek historian. Latter part of first c. b. c. Writer on early Roman history. Dioscorides, Greek writer on materia medica. First or second c. a. n. Disraeli, Benjamin, earl of Beaconsfield, EngUsh statesman, novelist, K 394 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. probably Deo. 31, 1804.* Premier 1868, 1874r-'80. D. April 19, 1881, Best known productions in the order of their publication : " Vivian Grey," 1836-'7; "Oontarini Fleming"; "Alroy"; "Coningsby"; "Sy- bil " ; ." Tancred " ; " Lothair," 1870. Disraeli, Isaac, English author. B. 1766. D. 1848. " Curiosities ol Litera- ture." " Amenities of Literature." Dix, John Adams, American general, statesman. B. 1798. D. 1879. Dixon, William Hepworth, English author. B. 1821. D. 1879. "New America." " Spiritual Wives." " Free Russia." Dmitri. See Demetrius. Dobell, Sydney Thompson, English poet. B. 1824. D. 1874 Dobrentei, G4bor, Hungarian scholar, author. B. 1786. D. 1851. Dobrovsky, Jozef, Slavic scholar. B. in Hungary 1753. D. 1829. Dobson, WiUiam, English painter, B. 1610. D. 1646 (1647 1). Dodd, William, English clergyman, author. B. 1729. Executed 1777. Doddridge, Philip, English clergyman. B. 1702. D. 1751. Dodington, George Bubb, Lord Melcombe, English poUtioian. B. 1||1. D. 1762. Dodsley, Bflbert, English bookseller, author. B. 1703. D. 1764. Dodwell, Henry, ohronologist, theological vreiter. B. in Ireland about 1641. D. 1711. Doloi (Dolce), Carlo, Italian painter. B. 1616. D. 1686. Dolgoroki, Ivan, prince, Russian noble. Executed 1739. Dolgoruki, Ivan, Russian poet. B. 1764. D. 1823. Dolgoruki, Peter, prince, Russian writer. B. 1807. D. 1868. Dollinger, Johann Joseph Ignaz von, German theologian, leader in the Old Catholic movement. B. 1799. D. 1890. Dollond, John, English optician. B. 1706. D. 1761. Dolomieu, D. G. S. T. de Gratet de, French geologist, mineralogist. B. 1750. D. 1801. Domat, Jean, French jurist. B. 1625. D. about 1696. Dombrowski, Jan Henryk, Polish general. B. 1755. D. 1818. Domenicliino (Domenico Zampieri), Italian painter. B. 1581. D. 1641. Dominic, Saint (Domingo de Guzman), founder of the Dominican order. B, in Spain 1170. D. 1221. Domiuis, Marc' Antonio de, theologian, natural philosopher. B. in Dalmatia 1566. D. 1624. Domitian, Roman emperor, brother of Titus. Reigned a. d. 81-96. Donatello, Italian sculptor. B. about 1386. D. 1466. Donati, Giovanni Battista, Italian astronomer. B. 1826. D. 1873. Donatus, the name of two African ecclesiastics of the first half of the 4th ft, who originated the sect of Donatists. Donders, Frans Comelis, Dutch oculist. B. 1818. D. 1889. * Disraeli lumself gives 1805 aa the year of his biitli. BIOGRAPHICAIi DICTIONARY. 395 Donizetti, Gaetano, Italian composer, B. 1797 (1798 ?). D. 1848. Donndorf, Adolf, German sculptor. B. 1835. Donne, John, English poet. B. 1573. D. 1631. Donovan, Edward, English naturalist. D. 1837. Doo, George Thomas, English engraver. B. 1800. D, 1886. Dora d'Istria (pseudonym of Princess Helen KoltzofE-Massalski, born Ghika), Wallaehian writer (in French). B. 1838. D. 1888. Dor6, Gustave, French artist. B. 1833. D. 1883. Doria, Andrea, Genoese admiral, statesman. B. 1468 (1466 ?). D. 1560. Dost lEohammed, ameer of Cabool. B. about 1770. Eeigned from 1836 (J. Talboys Whsder). Dethroned by the British in the latter part of 1839 ; restored 3 years later. D. 1863. Dostoyevski, Pedor, Russian novelist. B. 1831. D. 1881. Douglas, Archibald, fourth earl of, Scottish noble. Slain 1434. Douglas, Archibald, earl of Angus. See Angus. Douglas, Gawin, Scottish poet. B. about 1474 D. about 1533. "The Palace of Honor." Translation of the " ^neid." Douglas, Sir James (the Good Sir James), companion in arms of Robert Bruce. Slain about 1331. Douglas, James, second earl of. Slain 1388. Douglas, James, ninth earl of. D. about 1488. Douglas, Stephen Arnold, American politician. B. 1813. D. 1861. Douglas, Sir William, Knight of Liddisdale, Scottish soldier. Killed about 1353. Douglas, William, first earl of. D. 1384. Douglas, William, sixth earl of. Executed 1440. Douglas, William, eighth earl of. Murdered 1453. Douw (Dow), Grerard, Dutch painter. B. 1613 (1607 f). D. 1675 (1680 1). Do7e, Heinrich Wilhehn, German meteorologist, physicist. B. 1803. D. 1879. Dowden, Edward, BngUsh Shakespearean scholar. B. 1843. Dozy, Reinhart, Dutch Arabic scholar, authority on the history and litera- ture of the Mohammedans of Spain. B. 1830. D. 1883. Draco, Athenian legislator. Drew up his code about 634 b. c. Drake, Sir Francis, English naval commander. B. about 1540 (about 1545f). D. Jan., 1596.* Drake, Friedrich, German sculptor. B. 1805. D. 1883. Drake, Joseph Rodman, American poet, B. 1795. D. 1830. " The Culprit Fay." " The American Flag." Draper, Henry, American physiologist, chemist, astronomer, son of J. W. Draper. B. 1837. D. 1883. Draper, John William, American chemist, physiologist, writer. B. 1811. D. 1883. " History of the Intellectual Development of Europe." " His- * Drake is \>j some incorrectly stated to have died in Jan., 1596. 396 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. tory of the American Civil War." " History of the Conflict between Re- ligion and Science." Drayton, Michael, English poet. B. 1563. D. 1631. " Polyolbion " (de- scriptive poem on Britain). Dreliucourt, Charles, French Protestant divine. B. 1595. D. 1669. Dreyschock, Alexander, German pianist. B. 1818. D. 1869. Dreyse, Johann Nikolaus von, German in'^entor (needle-gun). B. 1787. D. 1867. Drouet, Jean Baptiste, French revolutionist. B. 1763. D. 1824 Drouet d'Erlon, Jean Baptiste, count, French general. B. 1765. D. 1844. Drouyn de Lhuys, i&douard, French statesman. B. 1805. D. 1881. Broysen, Johann Gustav, German historian. B. 1808. D. 1884 "Ge- schiehte der preussischen Politik." Droz, FranQois Xavier Joseph, French author. B. 1773. D. 1850. " De la philosophic morale, on des differents systemes sur la science de la vie." " Histoire du rfigne de Louis XVI." Droz, Gustave, French novelist. B. 1832. D. 1895. Droz, Henri Louis Jacquet, Swiss maker of automatons. B. 1753. D. 1791. Droz, Pierre Jacquet, Swiss maker of clocks and automatons. B. 1731. D. 1790. Drumiaond, Thomas, inventor of the Drummond light. B. in Scotland 1797. D. 1840. Drummond, William, Scottish poet. B. 1585. D. 1649. " Notes of Ben Jonson's Conversations with William Drummond of Hawthomden." Drusus, Nero Claudius, Roman general, brother of Tiberius. B. 38 b. o. D. 9 B. c. Drusiis Caesar, son of Tiberius. Poisoned a. d. 33. Dryden, John, English poet, satirist. B. Aug. 9, 1631. D. May 1, 1700. " Absalom and Achitophel." " The Hind and the Panther." " Ode on St. Cecilia's Day " (" Alexander's Feast "). Translation of the « .^Eneid." Du Barry. See Barry. Dubois, Antoine, baron, French surgeon. B. 1756. D. 1837. Dubois, Guillaume, cardinal, French statesman. B. 1656. D. 1733. Dubois, Jean Antoine, French missionary, author, B. 1765. D. 1848. Dubois, Paul, French .sculptor. B. 1839. Du Bois-Kejrmond, Bmil, German physiologist. B. 1818. D. 1896. Dubs, Jakob, Swiss statesman. B. 1833. D. 1879. Duoamp, Maxime, French author. B. 1832. D. 1894. Du Cang^, Charles Dufresne, sieur, French scholar. B. 1610. D. 1688. Glossaries of mediaeval Latin and Greek. Historical writings. Ducas, Michael, Byzantine historian. 15th c. Duccio di Buoninsegna, Italian painter. Beginning of 14th c. Du Chaillu, Paul Belloni, traveler in Africa, author. B. in France 1835. Du Ch^tel^t, Gabrielle ifemilie, marchioness, French authoress, friend of Voltaire. H. 1706. D. 1749. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 397 Duchesne,' Andre, French historian. B. 1584. D. 1640. Duels, Jean Frangois, French dramatic poet. B. 1733. D. 1816. Duclos, Charles Pineau, French author. B. 1704. D. 1773. " Considera- tions sur les moeurs de ce siScle." " Memoires secrets des rggnesde Louis XIV. et de Louis XV." Ducrot, Auguste Alexandre, French general. B. 1817. D. 1882. Du Deffand. See Deffand. Dudevant, Aurore (bom Dupin) (" George Sand "), French novelist. B. 1804. D. 1876. Dudley, Ambrose, earl of Warwick. B. about 1530. D. 1589. Dudley, Lord Guildford, husband of Lady Jane Grey. B. about 1536. Exe- cuted 1554. Dudley, John, duke of Northumberland. See Northumbeeland, Dudley, Robert, earl of Leicester. See Leicester. Duer, John, American jurist. B. 1783. D. 1858. Dufaure, Jules Armand Stanislas, French statesman. B. 1798. D. 1881. Dufferin, Frederick Temple Hamilton Blackwood, marquis of, statesman, gov.-general of Canada 1873-'8, viceroy of India 1884-'8, author. B. 1826. Dufour, GniUaume Henri, Swiss general, military writer, cartographer. B. 1787. D. 1875. Dufir^noy, Pierre Armand, French geologist, mineralogist. B. 1793. D. 1857. Dufresne, Charles. See Du Cange. Dufresny, Charles Riviere, French dramatist. B. 1648. D. 1724. Dugdale, Sir William, English antiquary. B. 1605. D. 1686. Duguay-Trouin, Rene, French admiral. B. 1673. D. 1736. Du Ghiesclin, Bertrand, French soldier. B. about 1314.-' D. 1380. Duhamel, Jean Marie Constant, French mathematician. B. 1797. D. 1872. Duhamel du Monceau, Henri Louis, French vegetable physiologist, agri- culturist. B. 1700. D. 1783. Diihring, Eugen Karl, German philosophical and economical writer. B. 1833. Duilius, Gains, Roman naval commander. Consul 260 b. c. Dujardin, Karel, Dutch painter. D. 1678. Dulong, Pierre Louis, French chemist, physicist. B. 1785. D. 1838. Bumas, Alexandre, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1803. D. 1870. Dumas, Alexandre, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1824. D. 1895. Dumas, Jean Baptiste, French chemist. B. 1800. D. 1884 Dumas, Matthieu, count, French general. B. 1758. D. 1837. DumMl, Andr^ Marie Constant, French naturalist. B. 1774. D. 1860, " L'erpetologie generale " (prepared jointly with Bibron). Dumichen, Johannes, German Egyptologist. B. 1833. D. 1894. Dumont, Pierre fitienne Louis, Swiss writer on law, &c. B. 1759. Di 1829. 398 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONART. Dumont d'Urville, Jules Sebastien Cesar, French navigator, naturalist B. 1790. D. 1843. Dumouiiez, Charles Pranjois, French general. B. 1739. D. 1823. Dunbar, William, Scottish poet. B. about 1460. D. about 1535. Duncan, Adam, viscount, British admiral. B. 1731. D. 1804. Dunoker, Max, German historian. B. 1811. D. 1886. "Geschiohte des Alterthums " (" History of Antiquity "). * Dundas, Henry, Viscount Melville, British statesman. B. about 1743. D. 1811. Dundas, Robert, Viscount Melville, British statesman. B. 1771. D. 1851. Dundee, Lord John Graham of Claverhouse, viscount, Scottish soldier, Jacobite leader. B. about 1650. Killed 1689. Dundonald, Thomas Cochrane, earl of, English admiral. B. 1775. D. 1860. Dung'lison, Robley, American physician. B. 1798. D. 1869. Dunning, John, Lord Ashburton, English lawyer. B. 1731. D. 1783. Dunois, Jean, count de, French soldier. B. 1403. D. 1468. Duns Scotus, John, British scholastic philosopher. B. about 1270. D. 1308. Dunstan, Saint, archbishop of Canterbury. B. 935. D. 988. Dunton, John, English author. B. 1659. D. 1733. Dupanloup, Felix Antoine Philippe, bishop of Orleans. B. 1802. D. 1878. Duperron, Jacques Davy, French cardinal. B. 1556. D. 1618. Du Petit-Thouara, Abel Aubert, French naval offtcer. B. 1793. D. 1864. Dupin, AndrS Marie Jean Jacques, French lawyer, statesman. B. 1783, D. 1865. Dupin, Pierre Charles Frangois, baron, French politician, economist. B, 1784. D. 1873. Dupin, Louis Ellies, French writer on ecclesiastical literature. B. 1657. D. 1719. Dupleiz, Joseph FraiiQois, governor of the French East Indies. B. about 1697. D. 1764 or 1763. Duplessis-SIornay. See Mobnay. Dupont (Dupont de I'Eure), Jacques Charles, French statesman. B. 1767. D. 1855. Du Font, Samuel Francis, American naval officer. B. 1803. D. 1865. Dupont de I'^tang, Pierre, count, French general. B. 1765. B. 1838. Du Pont de Nemours, Pierre Samuel, French political economist, states- man. B. 1739. D. 1817. Duprat, Antoine, French statesman. B. 1463. D. 1535. Dupr6, Giovanni, Italian sculptor. B. 1817. D. 1882. Dupr6, Jules, French painter. B. 1812. D. 1889. Dupuis, Charles Frangois, French author. B. 1742. D. 1809. " L'origine de tous les cultes, ou la religion universelle." Dupuytren, Guillaume, baron, French surgeon. B, 1777. D. 1836. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAET. 399 Duquesne, Abraham, French naval commander. B. 1610. D. 1688. Duran, Carolus, French painter. B. 1837. Durand, Alice (" Henry Greville "), French novelist. B. 1842. Durante, Francesco, Italian composer. B. 1684. D. 1755. Durer, Albrecht, German painter, engraver. B. 1471. D. 1538. D'TTrfey, Thomas, English dramatist, poet. B. about 1650. D. 1733. Durham, John George Lambton, earl of, BngUsh statesman. B. 1793. D. 1840. Diiiingsfeld, Ida von, German authoress. B. 1815. D. 1876. Duroc, Michel, duke of Friuli, French general. B. 1773. Killed 1818. Duruy, Victor, French historian. B. 1811. D. 1894. Histories of Rome, Greece, and France. Dussek, John Louis, composer, pianist. B. in Bohemia 1761. D. 1813. Duvergier de Hauranne, Prosper, French statesman. B. 1798. D. 1881. Duvemoy, Georges Louis, French naturalist. B. 1777. D. 1855. Duveyrier, Henri, French African explorer. B. 1840. D. 1893. Duyckinck, Fvert Augustas, American essayist, scholar. B. 1816. D. 1878. " Cyclopaedia of American Literature." Dvorak, Antonin, Bohemian composer. B. 1841. Dwight, Timothy, American divine. B. 1753. D. 1817. Dyce, Alexander, English scholar. B. 1798. D. 1869. Editor of the works of Shakespeare and other dramatists. Dyce, WiUiam, English painter. B. about 1806. D. 1864. Dymond, Jonathan, English moralist. B. 1796. D. 1838. Eadmer, English monk, historian. D. about 1134 Eads, James Buchanan, American engineer. B. 1830. D. 1887. Early, Jubal A., Confederate general. B. 1816. D. 1894. Eastlake, Sir Charles Lock, English painter. B. 1793. D. 1865. Eaton, Amos, American naturalist. B. 1776. D. 1842. Eaton, WilUam, American soldier. B. 1764. D. 1811. Eberhard, Johann August, German philosopher. B. 1739. D. 1809. Ebers, Georg, German Egyptologist, novelist. B. 1837. D. 1898. Ebert, AdoU, German literary historian. B. 1820. D. 1890. Eck, Johann Mayr von, German theologian. B. 1486. D. 1543. Eckardt, Julius, Livonian writer. B. 1836. Works dealing with the social and political condition of Russia. Eokermann, Johann Peter, German author. B. 1793. D. 1854. " Ge- sprache mit Goethe." Eckhart, " Meister," German mystic. D. about 1338. Edgar, king of England. Reigned 958-975. Edgar Atheling, grandson of Edmund Ironside. D. early in the 13th c. 400 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Edge-worth, Maria, English authoress. B. 1767. D. 1849. Novels, moral tales, &c. Edgeworth., Richard Lovell, English author, engineer, mechanician. B. 1744. D. 1817. Edison, Thomas Alva, American inventor. B. 1847. Edmund I., king of England. Eeigned 940-946. Edmund II. (Ironside), king of England. B. 989. Succeeded his father, Ethelred II., 1016. D. 1016. Edmund, Saint. See High. Edred, king of England. Reigned 946-955. Edrisi, Arabian geographer. B. about 1099. D. about 1180. Edward the Elder, king of England, son and successor of AUred the Great, Reigned 901-925. Edward the Martyr, king of England. B. about 963. Reigned from 975. Murdered 979. Edward the Confessor, king of England. B. about 1004 Reigned from 1043. D. 1066. Edward I., kinjg of England, son of Henry III. B. 1339. Reigned from 1373. D. 1307. Edward II., king of England, son of Edward I. B. 1284. Reigned from 1807. Murdered 1337. Edward III., king of England, son of Edward II. B. 1313. Reigned from 1337. D. 1377. Edward IV., king of England, son of Richard, duke of York. B. 1441 or 1443. Reigned 1461-'70, 1471-'83. D. 1488. Edward V., king of England. B. 1470. Successor to his father, Edward IV., 1483. Murdered by his uncle, the duke of Gloucester (Richard III.), 1843. Edward VI., king of England, son of Henry VHI. and Jane Seymour. B. 1537. Reigned from 1547. D. 1553. Edward, prince of Wales (the Black Prince), son of Edward III., general. B. 1330. D. 1376. Edwards, Amelia B., English novelist, writer of travels, Egyptologist. B. 1831. D. 1893. Edwards, George, English naturalist. B. about 1693. D. 1773. Edwards, Jonathan, American theologian, metaphysician. B. 1703. D. 1758. Edwards, Milne. See Milne-Edwards. Edwin, king of Northumbria. Reigned from about 616. D. 633. Edwy, king of England. B. about 938. Reigned from 955. D. 958. Eeokhout, Gerbrant van den, Dutch painter. B. 1631. D. 1674. Egbert, king of England. Became king of Wessex about 800 ; overlord of England 837. D. 837 or 836. Egede, Hans, " apostle of Greenland." B. 1686. D. 1758. Egerton, Francis. See Beidqewatbr and Ellesmere. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 401 Egerton, Francis Henry. See Bridbewateb. Egerton, Thomas, Lord Bllesmere, lord chancellor of England. B. 154a D. 1617. Bgmhard, biographer of Charlemagne. B. about 770. D. about 844. Egmont, Lamoral, count of, soldier and patriot of the Netherlands. B. 1522. Executed 1568. Ehrenberg, Christian Gottfried, German naturalist (infusoria). B. 1795. D. 1876. BichondorflF, Joseph von, baron, German poet, novelist. B. 1788. D. 1857. Bichhom, Johann Gottfried, Ger. Biblical critic, author. B. 1752. D. 1837. Eichwald, E., Russian naturalist. B. 1795. D. 1876. Ei£Fel, Gustave, French engineer. B. 1832. Elagabalus (HeliogaWalus), Roman emperor. B. about 205. Reigned from 218. Murdered 222. Eldon, John Scott, earl of, lord chancellor of England. B. 1751. D. 1838. Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of Henry II. of England. B. about 1122. D. about 1204. Eleonora of Este, sister of Duke Alfonso II. of Perrara and friend of Tasso. B. 1537. D. 1581. Elgin, James Bruce, earl of, British statesman, diplomatist, viceroy of India 1862-'8. B. 1811. D. 1863. Elgin, Thomas Bruce, earl of, British diplomatist, collector of the El^ marbles. B. 1766. D. 1841. Elias I«vita, Italian Hebrew scholar, grammarian, lexicographer. B. about 1470. D. 1549. £lie de Beaumont, Jean Baptiste Armand Louis Leonce, French geologist. B. 1798. D. 1874. El^ah, Hebrew prophet, contemporary of Ahab. Eliot, George. See Lewes, Mabian Evans. Eliot, John, missionary to the Indians of New England. B. in England 1604 D. 1690. Eliott, George Augustus, Lord Heathfield, British soldier, defender of Gibraltar against the French and Spaniards. B. about 1717. D. 1790. ]6li8abeth, Madame, sister of Louis XVI. B. 1764. Executed 1794. Elisha, Hebrew prophet, disciple of Elijah. Elizabeth, queen of England, daughter of Henry YIII. and Anne Boleyn. B. Sept. 7, 1533. Reigned from Nov. 17, 1558. D. March 24, 1603. Elizabetli, empress of Russia, daughter of Peter the Great. B. 1709L Reigned from 1741. D. 1762. Elizabeth of Valois, queen of Philip II. of Spain. B. 1545. D. 1568. Elizabeth, queen of Philip IV. of Spain, daughter of Henry IV. of France. B. 1603. D. 1644. Elizabeth, Madame. See I^Ilisabeth. Elizabeth (of Hungary), Saint, landgravine of Thuringia. B. 1307. D. 1231. 27 402 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Elizabeth. Chaxlotte, duchess of Orleans, sister-in-law of Louis XIY. B, 1652. D. 1722. Author of memoir and letters. Elizabeth. Christina, queen of Frederick the Great. B. 1715. D. 1797. Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James I., wife of Frederick V., elector pala- tine and king of Bohemia. B. 1596. D. 1662. Ellenborough, Edward Law, Lord, English lawyer, lord chief justice. B. 1750. D. 1818. Ellenborough, Edward Law, earl of, statesman, governor-general of India 1843-'4. B. 1790. D. 1871. Ellery, William, American patriot. B. 1727. D. 1820. Ellesmere, Francis Egerton, earl of (Francis Leveson-Gower), English states- man, author. B. 1800. D. 1857. Elliott, George Augustus. See Eliott. Elliott, Bbenezer, English poet, known as the Com Law Hhymer, B. 1781. D. 1849. Elliston, Eobert William, English actor. B. 1774. D. 1831. Ellsworth, Oliver, chief justice of the United States. B. 1745. D. 1807. Ellwood, Thomas, English author, friend of Milton. B. 1639. D. 1714. Ehnacin (Almakin, Elmacinus), George, Arabian (Christian) historian. B. 1223. D. 1278. Elmes, Harvey Lonsdale, English architect. B. about 1814. D. 1847. Blmsley, Peter, English Greek scholar. B. 1773. D. 1825. Elphinstone, George Eeith, Viscount Keith, British naval commander. B. 1746. D. 1823. Elphinstone, Mountstuart, East Indian statesman, historian. B. 1779. D. 1859. « History of India." Elssler, Fanny, Viennese dancer. B. 1810. D. 1884. Elzevir, the name of a Dutch fafnily of printers in the 16th and the 17th c. Emanuel, king of Portugal. B. 1469. Eeigned from 1495. P. 1521. Emanuel Fhilibert, duke of Savoy, general in the service of Charles V. and PhUipIL B.1528. Reigned from 1559 (titular duke from 1553). D.1580. Emerson, Balph Waldo, American philosophical. writer, poet. B. May 25, 1803. . D. April 27, 1882. " Nature," 1836. " Essays." " Essays on Rep- resentative Men." " English traits." " The Conduct of Lite." " Society and Solitude," 1870. Emin Pasha (Eduard Schnitzer), German-Jewish African explorer, gov- ernor of the Equatorial Provinces of Egypt. B. 1840. Murdered 1892. Emmet, Robert, Irish revolutionist. B. about 1778. Hanged 1803. Empedocles, Greek philosopher. Middle of 5th c. b. g. Encke, Johann Franz, Gerinan astronomer. B. 1791. D. 1865. Endicott, JohUj goverhdr Of Massaehusettsucolony. B. 1589. D. 1665, ■- Endlicher, Stephan Ladislaus, German-Hungarian botanist, scholar. B. 1804. D. 1849. . : Enfantin, Barthaemy Prosper, Freilob socialist. ,B. 1796. D. 1864 Enfield, William, EngUsh author. B. 1741. D. 1797. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 403 Knghien, Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, duke d'. B, 1772. Shot 1804. Ennius, Quintus, Latin poet. B. about 339 b. c. D. 169. Enriquez Oomez, Antonio, Spanish author. 17th c. " El siglo pita- gorico." Enzio, illegitimate son of the emperor Frederick II. B. about 1234. D. 1272. ^n de Beaumont, chevalier d', French diplomatist, who disguised himself in female attire. B. 1728. D. 1810. E5tv5s, J6zsef, baron, Hungarian statesman, novelist, political philosopher. B. 1813. D. 1871. " The Carthusian." " The Village Notary." Epami&ondas, Theban general, statesman. B. about 418 b. c. Slain 363. '&p6e, Charles Michel de 1', abbe, French instructor of deaf-mutes. B. 1712. D. 1789. £penion, Jean Louis de Nogaret de la Valette, duke d', French courtier, soldier. B. 1554. D. 1642. Ephraem the Syrian, theologian, sacred poet. D. about 378. Epictetiis, philosopher, native of Phrygia. Close of first o. a. d. Epicurus, Greek philosopher. B. about 343 b. c. D. 270. Epimenides, Cretan bard and seer. D. after 600 b. c. £pina7, Louise Florence Petronille de la Live, Madame d', French authoress. B. about 1725. D. 1783. Epiphanius, Saint, bishop of Constantia (Salamis in Cyprus). B. about 310. D. 402 or 403. Episcopius, Simon, Dutch theologian. B. 1583. D. 1643. £rard, Sebastien, French manufacturer of pianos. B. 1752. D. 1831. Erasistratus, G-reek physician, anatomist. Beginning of 3d c. B. c. Erasmus, Desiderius, Dutch classical scholar, theological polemic, satirist. B. about 1467. D. July 12, 1536. " CoUoquia," 1533. Edition of the Greek New Testament, 1516. " Encomium Morise " (" Praise of Folly "), 1510. Eratosthenes, Greek mathematician, astronomer, grammarian. B. about 276 B. c. D. about 195. Ercilla y Ztlniga, Alonso de, Spanish poet. B. 1533. D. about 1595. " La Arauoana " (epic poem). Erckmann-Chatrian (Emile Erckmann, Alexandre Chatrian), French writers of Action. Erckmann, b. 1823 ; d. 1899. Chatrian, b. 1826 ; d. 1890. Erdmann, Johann Eduard, German philosopher. B. 1805. D. 1893. Erdmann, Otto Linne, German chemist. B. 1804. D. 1869. Eric XIV., king of Sweden, son of Gustavus Vasa. B. 1533. Reigned 1560-'68. D. 1577. Ericsson, John, Swedish-American mechanical engineer. B. 1803. D. 1889. Erigena, John Seotus, philosopher, theologian, native of Ireland. Flour- ished middle of 9th c. Erman, Adolf, German scientist, traveler. B. 1806. D. 1877. Noted for his investigations in the field of terrestrial magnetism. 404 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover. See Beunswick, Eenest Augustus, DUKE OF. Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, king of Hanover, son of George III. B. 1771. Reigned from 1837. D. 1851. Emesti, Johann August, German classical scholar, Biblical critic. B. 1707. D. 1781. Erostratus (Herostratus). Burned the temple of Diana at Ephesus 356 b. c, Erpenius (Van Erpen), Thomas, Dutch Arabic scholar. B. 1584. D. 1624, Ersch, Johann Samuel, German encyclopasdist. B. 1766. D. 1838. Erskine, Ebenezer, founder of the Secession Church of Scotland. B. 1680, D. 1754. Erskine, Thomas, baron, lord chancellor of England. B. 1750. D. 1823. Esar-haddou, king of Assyria, son of Sennacherib. Reigned 681-668 B, c. Eschenbach, WoUram von. See Wolfram von Bschenbach. Eschenmayer, Karl Adolf von, German philosopher. B. about 1770. D. 1853. Escobar y Mendoza, Antonio, Spanish casuist. B. 1589. D. 1669. Esmarch, Friedrich, German surgeon. B. 1833. Espartero, Baldomero, duke de la Yitoria, Spanish general, statesman. B, 1793. D. Jan. 9, 1879. Espinel, Vicente, Spanish poet. D. about 1634 Espronceda, Jos6 de, Spanish poet. B. 1810. D. 1842. Espy, James P., American meteorologist. B. 1785. D. 1860. Esqxiirol, Jean i^tienne Dominique, French writer on insanity. B. 1772. D. 1840. Essen, Hans Henrik, count, Swedish general. B. 1755. D. 1834. Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of, commander, favorite of Elizabeth. B. 1567. Executed 1601. Essex, Robert Devereux, earl of. B. about 1591. D. 1646. Essex, Walter Devereux, earl of. B. about 1540. D. 1576. Estaing, Charles Hector d', count, French admiral. B. 1729. Executed 1794. Esterh&zy (Eszterhdzy), Nicholas, prince, Hungarian magnate, patron of art. B. 1765. D. 1833. Esterh&zy, Paul, prince, palatine of Hungary, general. B. 1635. D. about 1713. Esterh^Lzy, Paul Anthony, prince, Hungarian magnate, Austrian diploma- tist. B. 1786. D. 1866. Estienne. See Stephens. Estr6es, Gabrielle d', mistress of Henry IV. of Prance. B. about 1571. D. 1599. £tex, Antoine, French sculptor. B. 1808. D. 1888. Ethelbald, king of Wessex, son of Ethelwnlf . Began to reign about 856 (during the lifetime of his father). D. 860. Ethelbert, king of Kent. Reigned from about 565. D. 616. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONART. 405 EChelbert, king of England. Succeeded his father, Bthelwulf, in a portion of his dominions 858. Keigned in Wessex from 860. D. 866. Ethelred I., king of England, son of Ethelwnli Reigned 866-871. Ethelred IL, the Unready, king of England. Keigned 979-1013, 1014-'16. Bthelwulf king of England, son of Egbert. Keigned from 837 or 836. D.858. Stherege (Etheridge), Sir George, English dramatist. B. about 1636. D. about 1690. £tieniie. See Stephens. Ettiick Shepherd. See Hooe. Etty, William, English painter. B. 1787. D. 1840. Bn, Louis Philippe Marie Ferdinand Gaston d'Orleans, count d', grandson of Louis Philippe, general in the Brazilian service. B. 1843. Eaclid (Enclides), Greek geometer. Flourished 300 B. c. Euclid of Megara, Greek philosopher. B. about 440 B. c. Eudes, duke of Aquitaine. D. 73d. Endocia, wife of Theodosius IL, emperor of the East B. about 394. D. about 461. Eudocia, Byzantine empress, wife of Constantine Ducas and Komanus Dioge- nes. D. about 1100. Eudoxia, Roman empress, wife qt Yalentinian IIL and Maximus. D. about 463. Eudozos of Cnidns, Greek astronomer. D. about 356 b. c. Eng^ie of Savoy, prince, Austrian general £. 1663. D. 1736. Eog^nie (de Montijo), wife of Napoleon IIL B. in Spain 1826. Engenins ITL, pope. Elected 1145. D. 1153. Eugenius IV., pope. Elected 1431. D. 1447. Enler, Leonhard, Swiss mathematician. B. 1707. D. 1783. Emnenes, general and one of the successors of Alexander the Great. Put to death 316 b. c. EnnapiTis, Greek sophist, author. B. about 347. D. about 420. Enpolis, Greek comic poet. B. about 446 b. c. D. about 411. Euripides, Greek tragic poet. B. about 480 b. c. D. 406. Ensebius, bishop of Caesarea, theologian, ecclesiastical historian. B. about 265. D. about 340. Ensebins, bishop of Emesa. D. about 360. Eusebins, bishop of Nicomedia and Constantinople. D. about 342. Eiistachi (Eustachius), Bartolommeo, Italian anatomist. D. 1574 Eutrqpius, Flavins, Roman historian. D. about a. d. 370. Eutyches, founder of the sect of Monophysites. D. about 454 Evagoras, king of Salamis (in Cyprus). Assassinated about 374 B. c Evald (Ewald), Johannes, Danish poet. B. 1743. D. 1781. Evans, Augusta J. (Mrs. Wilson), American novelist. B. about 1835. Evans, Sir De Lacy, British general. B. 1787. D. 1870. Evans, Marian. See Lewes, Mabian Evans. 400 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONABT. £vans, Oliver, American inventor. B. 1755. D. 1819. Evelyn, John, English author. B. 1620. D. 1706. " Sylva, py a Discourse on Forest Trees." " Diary." Everdingen, Aldert van, Dutch painter, engraver, B. 1631. D. 1675. Everett, Alexander Hill, American diplomatist, author. B, 1793. D, 1847. Everett, Edward, American statesman, orator, author. B. 1794 D. 1865. Ewald, Heinrich, German Biblical critic. B. 1803. D. 1875. " Gesohicht« des Volkes Israel." Ewald, Johannes. See Bvald. Ewell, Richard Stoddard, Confederate general. B. 1817. D. 1873. Exelmans (Exoelmans), Eemy Joseph Isidore, count, French general B. 1775. D. 1853. Exmouth, Edward Pellew, viscount, English admiral. B. 1757. D. 1833. Eyck, Hubert van, Flemish painter. B. 1366. D. 1436. Eyck, Jan van, Flemish painter. D. 1440. Ezekiel, Hebrew prophet. Beginning of 6th c. b. c. Ezra, Hebrew scribe and priest. Middle of 5th c. b. c. Ezzelino (Eccelino) da Komano, Ghibelline leader. B. 1194 D. 1259. Faber, George Stanley, English theological writer. B. 1773. D. 1854 Fabius DEazimus RuUianus, Quintus, Roman general in the second and third Samnite wars. Consul fifth time 395 b. o. Fabius Mazimus Verrucosus, Quintus (sum&med Cunctator), Roman general in the second Punic War. D. 303 b. c. Fabius Fictor, Quintus, Roman historian. End of 3d c. B. c. Fabre, Ferdinand, French novelist. B. 1830. D. 1898. Fabre d'£glautine, Philippe Francois ITazaire, French poet, revolutionist. B. 1755. Executed 1794 Fabriano, Gentile da, Italian painter. B. about 1370. D. about 1450. Fabricius (Caius Fabricius Luscinus), Roman consul, commander. D. after 375 B. c. Fabricius, Johann Albert, German bibliographer. B. 1668. D. 1736. Fabricius, Johann Christian, entomologist. B. in Schleswig 1743. D. 1808 (1807?). Fabricius (Fabrizio) ab Aquapendente, Eieronymus, Italian anatomist B. 1537. D. 1619. Facciolati, Jacopo, Italian philologist, lexicographer. B. 1683. D. 1769. Faed, John, Scottish painter. B. 1830. Faed, Thomas, Scottish painter. B. 1836. Fablcrantz, Karl Johan, Swedish painter. B. 1774. D. 1861. Fahrenbeit, Gabriel Daniel, German physicist. B. about 1690. D. 1736. Faidberbe, Louis Leon Cesar, French general. B. 1818. D. 1889. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONART. 407 Failly, Pierre Louis Charles Achille de, French general, B. 1810. D. 1892. Fair&z, Edward, English poet. D. about 1635. Translation of Tasso'3 " Jerusalem Delivered." Fairfax, Thomas, Lord, English Parliamentary general, B. 1612. D. 1671. PairfiEuc, Thomas, Lord, British nobleman settled in Virginia. B. about 1692. D. 1782. 'Falconet, iitienne Maurice, French sculptor. B. 1716. D. 1791. Falgui^re, Jean Alexandre Joseph, French scvilptor, painter. B. 1831. Falieri, Marino, doge of Venice. B. about 1275. Elected 1854 Beheaded 1355. Falk, Adalbert, Prussian statesman. B. 1827. Falkland, Lucius Cary, viscount, English statesman, soldier. B. about 1610. Killed while flgBting for the royalist cause 1643. Fallinerayer,Philipp Jakob, German Mstorian, traveler.- B. 1790. D. 1861. " Fragmente aus dem Orient." ■ Works on the. history of Trebizond and the Morea. Falloppio (Fallopius), Gabriello, Italian anatomist. B. about 1528. D. 1562. FaUoux, Alfred Pierre, count de, Fr. politician, author. B. 1811. D. 1886. Faraday, Michael, English physicist. B. 1791. D. 1867. Farol, Guillaume, French Reformer. B. 1489. D. 1565. Faria y Sonsa, Manoel de, Spanish-Portuguese historian, poet. B. in Por- tugal 1590. D. 1649. Farinelli, Carlo, Italian singer. B. 1705. D. 1782. Famese, Alessandro, pope. See Paul III. Famese, Alessandro, duke of Parma and Piacenza, son of Margaret of Parma, general of Philip II. in the Netherlands. B. about 1546. Died of a wound 1592. Famese, Ottavio, duke of Parma and Piacenza. D. 1586. Married to Margaret, half-sister of Philip IL of Spain. Famese, Pietro Luigi, duke of Parma and Piacenza, son of Pope Paul III. Assassinated 1547. Farquhar, George, British dramatist. B. 1678. D. 1707. Farragut, David Glascoe, American admiral. B. 1801. D. 1870. Farrar, Frederick William, English clergyman, author. B. 1831. Faucher, Lfion, French statesman, economist. B. 1808. D. 1854 Faure, Felix, president of France 1895--9. B. Jan. 30, 1841., D. Feb. 16, 1899. Fauriel, Claude Charles, French philologist, historian. B. 1772. D. 1844 Faust (Fust), Johann, Ger. printer, partner of Gutenberg. D. about 1466. Faust, Dr. Johann, German magician, reputed to have lived at the begin- ning of the 16th c. Faustin I. See Soulouqitk. Favart, Charles Simon, French writer of comedies and comic operas, B. 1710. D. 1793. Favart, Madame (Duronceray), French actress, writer of comedy. B. 1727. D. 1778. 408 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Favre, Jviles, French advocate, statesman. B. 1809. D. 1880. Favre, Pierre. See Lbp4vee. Fawcett, Henry, English statesman, political economist. B. 1833. D. 1884 Fawkes, Guy, English conspirator (Gunpowder Plot). Executed 1606. Ffty, Andrds, Hungarian author. B. 1786. D. 1864 Fazy, James, Swiss statesman. B. 1796. D. 1878. Fechner, GustavTheodor,Ger.physioLst,philosoph. writer. B.1801. D.1887. Fedor (Feodor) I., czar of Russia, son of Ivan IV. Beigned 1584-'98. Fedor II. (Ill), czar of Russia, son of Alexis. Reigned 1676-'8a. Feith, Rhijnvis, Dutch poet. B. 1758. D. 1824 Fellenberg, Philipp Emanuel von, Swiss educationist. B. 1771. D. 1844 Feltre, duke de. See Clarke, Henri Jacques Guillahme. F6neloii, Prangois de Salignac de la Mothe, French prelate, author. B. 1651. D, 1715. ." Maximes des saints." " Les aventures de Telemaque." Fenton, Elijah, English poet. B. 1683. D. 1730. Feodor. See Fedor. Ferdinand I., the Great, king of Castile and Leon. King of Castile from 1083 ; of Leon from 1087. D. 1065. Ferdinand HI., the Saint, king of Castile and Leon. King of Castile (as such properly Ferdinand II.) from 1217; of Leon, from 1230. D. 1252. Ferdinand V., the Catholic, king of Spain. B. 1452. King of Castile (con- sort of Isabella) from 1474; of Aragon, from 1479. D. Jan. 23, 1516. Ferdinand VI., king of Spain, son of Philip V. B. 1712 or 1713. Iteigned from 1746. D. 1759. Ferdinand VII., king of Spain, son of Charles IV. B. 1784 Reigned 1808 (March-May), 1814-'33. D. 1833. Ferdinand I., sovereign of Austria, king of Bohemia and Himgary, emperor of Germany, brother of Charles V. B. 1S03. Reigned in the Austrian dominions from 1519 (at first jointly with Charles); in Bohemia and part of Hungary, from 1526. Emperor from 1556. D. 1564. Ferdinand II., emperor of Germany, sovereign of Austria, king of Bohemia and Hungary, grandson of Ferdinand I. B. 1578. Successor to his father, Charles, in Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola 1590. Successor to his cousin, Matthias, in the arch-duchy of Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia 1619 (the crown of Bohemia held for a year, 1619-'20, by the elector palatine Fred- erick v.). Elected emperor 1619. D. 1637. Ferdinand IH., emperor of Germany, sovereign of Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary, son of Ferdinand II. B. 1608. Reigned from 1637. D. 1657. Ferdinand, emperor of Austria, son of Francis. B. 1793. Reigned 1835-'48. D. 1875. Ferdinand I., king of Naples, illegitimate son of Alfonso V. of Aragon. Reigned from 1458. D. 1494 Ferdinand IV., king of Naples and Sicily (from 1816 styled Ferdinand I. as king of the consolidated realm of the Two Sicilies). B. 1751. Reigned in Sicily 1759-1825; in Naples 1759-1806, 1815-'25. D. 1885. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIOXAET. 409 Ferdinand II., king of the Two Sicilies. B. 1810. Reigned from 1830. D. 1859. Ferdinand HI., gtand-duke of Tuscany, brother of Francis II., emperor of Gtermany (Francis I. of Austria). B. 1769. Reigned 1790-'99, 1814-'34. D. 1834. Ferdinand IV., son of Leopold II. of Tuscany. B. 1835. D. 1891. Ferdinand of Brunswick. See Brunswick. Ferdinand of Coburg, prince of Bulgaria since 1887. B. 1861. Ferguson, Adam, Scottish author, philosopher. B. 1723. D. 1816. " Essay on the History of Civil Society." "Institutes of Moral Philosophy." " Principles of Moral and Political Science." " History of the Progress and Termination of the Roman Republic." Ferguson, James, Scottish astronomer, mechanician. B. 1710. D. 1776. Fergusson, James, British writer on architecture. B. 1808. D. 1886. Ferishtah, Mohammed Easim, Persian historian. D. probably about 1611. Fermat, Pierre de, French mathematician. D. 1665. Fern, Fanny. See Parton, Sara Payson Willis. Femkom, Anton Dominik, German sculptor. B. 1813. D. 1878. Ferrari, Gaudenzio, Italian painter. B. 1484. D. 1550 or 1549. Ferrari, Giuseppe, Italian writer on the philosophy of history, &c., states- man. B. about 1812. D. 1876. Ferreira, Antonio, Portuguese poet. B. 1528. D. 1569. Ferry, Jules, French statesman. B. 1832. D. 1893. Head of the cabinet from Sept., 1880, to Nov., 1881, and from Feb., 1888, to March, 1885. Fersen, Axel, count, Swedish officer. B. about 1750. Murdered 1810. Ferstel, Heinrich von, baron, Austrian architect. B. 1828. D. 1883. Pesch, Joseph, French cardinal. B. 1763. D. 1839. Fessenden, William Pitt, American statesman. B. 1806. D. 1869. Fessler, Ignaz Aurelius, ecclesiastic, author. B. in Hungary 1756. D. 1839. " Geschichte der Ungem." Feth Ali (Futteh Ali), shah of Persia. Reigned 1797-1834. F^tis, Fran5ois Joseph, Belgian writer on music and musicians, composer. B. 1784. D. 1871. Feuerbacli, Ludwlg Andreas, German philosopher. B. 1804. D. 1872. Feuerbach, Paul Johann Anselm von, German jurist. B. 1775. B. 1883. Feuillet, Octave, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1831. D. 1890. F6val, Paul, French novelist. B. 1817. D. 1887. Feydeau, Ernest, French novelist. B. 1831. D. 1873. FibonaccL See Leonardo da Pisa. Fichte, Immanuel Hermann von, German philosopher, son of Johann Gottlieb Fichte. B. 1797. D. 1879. Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, German philosopher. B. May 19, 1763. D. Jan 37, 1814 Ficino, Marsilio, Italian Platonic philosopher. B. 1433. D. 1499. Fick, Adolf, German physiologist. B. 1839. 4lO BIOGRAPHICAL' DICTIONARY. ^ck, August, German philologist. B. 1833. Distinguished in the field of the comparative study of the Indo-European languages. Field, Cyrus West, American promoter of telegraphy. B. 1819. D. 1892. Field, David Dudley, American jurist. B. 1805. D. 1894. Field, John, British pianist. B. 1782. D. 1837. Fielding, Copley Vandyke, English painter. B. about 1787. D. 1855. Fielding, Henry, English novelist, writer of comedy. B. 1707. D. 1754, Principal novels : " Tom Jones," " Amelia." Fieschi, Joseph Marie, conspirator against the life of Loiiis Philippe in 1835. B. in Corsica 1790. Executed 1836. Fiesco, Giovanni Luigi, Genoese conspirator. B. a'bout 1524. Drowned 1547. Fiesole, Giovanni da. See Angelico, Pea. Figueras, Estanislao, Spanish statesman. B. 1819. D. 1882. Fig^ueroa, Cristoval Suarez de, Spanish author. B. about 1586. D. about 1650. Figueroa, Francisco de, Spanish poet. B. about 1540. D. about 1620. Filangieri, Gaetano, Italian publicist. B. 1752. D. 1788. "La Scienza della legislazione." Filicaja, Vincenzo da, Italian poet. B. 1642. D. 1707. Fillmore, Millard, president of the United States from July 9, 1850 to 1853. B. Feb. 7, 1800. D. March 8, 1874. Finlay, George, English historian. B. 1799. D. 1875. Works on the ancient, mediaeval, and modem history of Greece and the history of the Byzantine Empire. Firdusi, Persian poet. D. 1020. " Shah Nameh " (" Book of Kmgs," his- torical poem). Fischart, Johann, German satirist. D. 1589. Fischer, Kuno, German philosopher. B. 1824. " Geschichte der neuem Philosophie." Fisher, John, BngUsh prelate. B. 1459. Executed 1535. Fitch, John, American inventor, who contrived a steamboat which plied successfully on the Delaware in 1790. B. 1743. D. 1798. Fitzgerald, Edward, Lord, Irish revolutionist. B. 1763. D. 1798. Fitzroy, Robert, British naval officer, meteorologist. B. 1805. D. 1865. Fitzwilliam, WUliam Wentworth, earl, English statesman. B. 1748. D. 1838. Flaccus, C. Valerius. See Valebius Flaccus. Flacius niyricus, Matthias, German Protestant theologian. B. about 1530. D. 1575. Flamininus, Titus Quintius, Boman general. D. about 175 b. o; Flaminius, Caius, Roman general. Slain 217 b. c. Flammarion, Camille, French astronomer. B. 1842. Flamsteed, John, English astronomer. B. 1646. D. 1719. Flandin, Bug§ne Napolfon, French artist, archaeologist. B. 1809. D. 187& BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 411 Flandrin; Jean Hippolyte, French painter. B. 1809. D. 1864. Flaubert, Gustave, French novelist. B. 1831. D. 1880. Flaxman, John, English sculptor. B. 1755. D. 1826. K6cliier, Esprit, French pulpit orator. B. 1633. D. 1710. Fleetwood, Charles, follower of Cromwell. Fleetwood, William, English preacher. B. 1656. D. 1733. Fleischer, Heinrich Leberecht, Grerman Arabic scholar. B. 1801. D. 1888. Fleming, John, Scottish naturalist. B. 1785. D. 1857. Fleming (Flemming), Paul, German poet. B. 1609. D. 1640. Fletcher, Andrew, Scottish parliamentary orator, political thinker. B. 1655. D. 1716. Fletcher, Giles, English poet. B. about 1580. D. 1633. " Christ's Victory and Triumph." Fletcher, John, English dramatist. B. 1579.* D. 1625. Fletcher, Phineas, English poet. B. about 1582. D. about 1650 (about 16601). " The Purple Island, or the Isle of Man " (allegorical description of the human body and mind). Xleury, Andre Hereule de, cardinal, prime-minister of France. B. 1653. Placed at the head of affairs 1726. D. 1743. Fleury, Claude, abbe, French ecclesiastical historian. B. 1640. D. 1733. Fliedner, Theodor, founder of the Protestant house of deaconesses at Kai- serswerth. B. 1800. D. 1864. Flinders, Matthew, English navigator, explorer of the coasts of Australia, B. 1774 D. 1814. Flint, Austin, American physician, medical writer. B. 1812. D. 1886. Flint, Austin, jr., American physician, physiologist. B. 1836. Florian, Jean Pierre Claris de, French author. B. 1755. D. 1794 Bo- mances, fables, dramas. Floris, Frans, Flemish painter. B. about 1530. D. 1570. Florus, Roman historian. Early in 3d c. a. d. Flotow, Friedrich von, German composer. B. 1813. D. 1883. Flourens, Gustave, member of the Paris Commune. B. 1838. Killed 1871. Flourens, Marie Jean Pierre, French physiologist. B. 1794. D. 1867. Floyd, John Buchanan, secretary of war of the United States, Confederate general. B. 1805. D. 1863. Fliigel, Gnstav Lebrecht, German Arabic scholar. B. 1803. D. 1870. Foerster, Wilhelm, German astronomer. B. 1832. Foiz, Gaston de. See Gaston de Foes. Foley, John Henry, British sculptor. B. 1818. D. 1874 Fonblanque, Albany W., English journalist, B. 1793. D. 1872. Fonblanque, John de Grenier, English lawyer. B. 1759. D. 1837, * The year 1579 is the date given in the article on Beaumont and Fletcher in the ninth edition of the "Encyclopaedia Britannica," the anthor of which has followed the memoix pi«flzed by Alexander Dyce to his edition of the works of those dramatists. 412 BIOGBAPHICAL DICTIONAET. Fonblanque, John Samuel Martin, English lawyer. B. 1787. D. 1865. Fontana, Carlo, Italian architect. B. 1634. D. 1714. Fontana, Domenico, Italian architect. B. 1543. D. 1607. Fontana, Prospero, Italian painter. B. 1513. D. 1597. Fontanes, Louis de, marquis, French author, statesman. B. 1757. D. 1821, Fontenelle, Bernard le Bovier de, French author. B. 1657. D. 1757. " Dialogues des morts " (" Dialogues ofthe Dead "). " Bntretiens sur ia plurality des mondes " (" Talks on the Plurality of Worlds "). ^loges on the members of the Academy of Sciences. Foote, Andrew Hull, American naval oflcer. B. 1806. D. 1863. Foote, Samuel, English dramatist, actor. B. 1720. D. 1777. Forbes, Duncan, Scottish judge. B. 1685. D. 1747. Forbes, Edward, English naturalist. B. 1815. D. 1854. Forbes, James David, Scottish scientist. B. 1809. D. 1868. Forcelliri, Bgidio, Italian Latin scholar, lexicographer. B. 1688. D. 1768. Forchhaminer, Peter Wilhelm, German writer on Greek antiquities. B. 1801. D. 1894. Ford, John, English dramatist. B. ^bout 1586. D. about 1640. Fordyce, David, Scottish moral philosopher. B. 1711. D. 1751. Forester, Prank. See Herbert, Henry William. Forey, ]&lie Frederic, French general. B. 1804. D. 1873. Forrest, Edwin, American actor. B. 1806. D. 1873. FSrster, Ernst Joachim, German writer on art. B. 1800. D. 1885. Forster, Friedrich, German historian. B. 1791. D. 1868. Works on Frederick the Great, Wallenstein, Columbus, the Wars of Liberation, &c. Forster, Johann Georg, German traveler, naturalist. B. 1754 D. 1794. Forster, Johann Beinhold, German traveler, naturalist. B. 1729. D, 1798. Forster, John, English biographer. B. 1813. D. 1876. Forster, William Edward, English statesman, B. 1818. D. 1886. Forsyth, John, American statesman.. B. about 1780. D. 1841. Fortescue, Sir John, English jurist. D. about 1485. Fortime, Bobert, British traveler in China and Japan, botanist. B. 1813. D. 1880. Fortimy, Mariano, Spanish painter. B. 1838. D. 1874. Fosoari, Francesco, doge of Venice. Elected 1433. D. 1457. Foscolo, Ugo, Italian author. B. 1778. D. 1837. "Le ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis" (political romance). "I sepolcri" (lyric poem). Trage- dies. Foster, John, English essayist. B. 1770. D. 1843. Foucault, Lion, French physicist. B. 1819. D. 1868. FoucbS, Joseph, duke of Otranto, French minister of police under Napo- leon. B. 1763. D. 1830. Fould, Achille, French financier. B. 1800. D. 1867. Fouq.u6, Friedrich Heinrioh Karl de la Motte, baron, German poet, romance writer. B. 1777. D. 1843. Most celebrated work, "Undine" (tale). BIOGRiPHICAL DICTIONART. 413 Touquet, Nicolas, French minister of finance. B. 1615. D. 1680. Fouquier-Tinville, Antoine Quentin, French revolutionist. B. 1747. Executed 1795. Poiiroroy, Antoine Frangoise de, French chemist. B. 1755. D. 1809. Fourier, Charles, founder of the social system of Fourierism. B. in France 1772. D. 1837. Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, baron, French mathematician, scientist, B, 1768. D. 1830. Fowler, Sir John, English engineer. B. 1817. D. 1808. Fox, Chai'les James, English statesman. B. Jan. 34, 1749. D. Sept. 18, 1800. Fox, Geojge, founder of the Society of Friends. B. in England 1624. D. 1691. Fox, John, English 'martyrologist. B. 1516. D. 1587. Foy, Maximilien Sebastien, French general. B. 1775. D. 1825. Franoia, Francesco (Francesco Raibolini), Italian painter. D. about 1517. Francia, Jose Gaspar Rodriguez, dictator of Paraguay 1814-'40. B. about 1757. D. 1840. Francis I., king of France. B. 1494. Reigned from 1515. D. 1547. Francis H., king of Prance, son of Henry II. and Catharine de' Medici. B. 1544. Reigned from 1559. D. 1560. First husband of Mary Stuart. Francis I., emperor of Germany, husband of Maria Theresa. B. 1708. Duke of Lorraine 1739-'37. Grandduke of Tuscany 1737-65. Elected emperor 1745. D. 1765. Francis H., emperor of Germany and of Austria (Francis I. of Austria), son of Leopold H. B. 1768. Reigned in Germany 1792-1806; in the Austrian dominions, 1792-1835 (as emperor from 1804). D. 1835. Francis I., king of the Two Sicilies. B.1777. Reigned from 1835. D. 1830. Francis II., king of the Two Sicilies. B. 1886. Reigned 1859-'60. D. 1894. Francis Joseph, emperor of Austria since Dec. 2, 1848, nephew of the em- peror Ferdinand. B. Aug. 18, 1830. Francis, Sir Philip, British statesman, author of the " Letters of Junius." B. 1740. D. 1818. Francis of Assisi, Saint, founder of the order of Franciscans. B. 1183. D. 1226. Francis of Paula, Saint, founder of the order of Minims. B. in Calabria 1416. D. 1507. Francis de Sales, Saint, bishop of Geneva. B. 1567. D. 1633. Francke, August Hermann, German philanthropist. B. 1663. D. 1737. Frankel, Zacharias, German Talmudical scholar. B. 1801. D. 1875. Frankl, Ludwig August, Austrian-Jewish poet. B. 1810. D. 1894. Franklin, Benjamin, American philosopher, statesman. B. Jan. 17, 1706. D. April 17, 1790. Franklin, Lady Jane, second wife of Sir John Franklin. B. about 1793. D. 1875. Franklin, Sir John, English Arctic explorer. B. 1786. D. 1847. 414 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Franklin, William Buel, American general. B. 1823. Franz, Robert, German composer. B. 1815. D. 1893. Franzos, Karl Emil, Austrian-Jewish novelist. B. 1848. Fraser, Simon. See Lovat. Frannhofer, Joseph von, German optician. B. 1787. D. 18S8. Fredegonda, queen of Ifeustria. B. about 545. D. 597. Frederick I., Barbarossa, emperor of Germany, of the house of Hohen- staufen. B. about 1131. Keigned from 1152. D. 1190. Frederick II., emperor of Germany, king of Sicily, grandson of Frederick Barbarossa. B. 1194. Recognized as emperor 1215. D. 1250. Frederick the Handsome, duke of Austria, king of Germany in opposi- tion to Louis the Bavarian. B. 1386. D. 1330. Frederick III. (IV.), emperor of Germany, of the house of Austria. B, 1415. Reigned from 1440. D. 1493. Frederick I., king of Prussia, son of Frederick William of Brandenburg. B. 1657. Reigned as elector of Brandenburg from 1688 ; as king, from 1701. D. 1713. Frederick II., the Great, king of Prussia, son of Frederick William I. B. Jan. 24, 1712. Reigned from 1740. D. Aug. 17, 1786. Frederick IIL (Frederick William), king of Prussia, emperor of Germany, sonofWiUiamL B. Oct. 18, 1831. Reigned from March 9, 1888. D.Jime 15, 1888. Frederick V., elector palatine 1610-'32, king of Bohemia 1619-20. B. 1596. D. 1632. Husband of Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England. Frederick m., king of Denmark and Norway. B. 1609. Reigned from 1648. D. 1670. Frederick IV., king of Denmark and Korway. B. 1671. Reigned from 1699. D. 1730. Frederick V., king of Denmark and Korway. B. 1723. Reigned from 1746. D. 1766. Frederick VI., king of Denmark and Norway. B, 1768. Reigned from 1808 (Norway ceded to Sweden 1814). D. 1839. Frederick VII., king of Denmark. B.1808. Reigned from 1848. D.1863. Frederick I., king of Wiirtemberg. B. 1754. Reigned as duke from 1797 ; as elector, from 1803 ; as king, from 1806. D. 1816. Frederick I.,-grandduke of Baden. B. 1836. Began to rule as regent 1852 ; grandduke from 1856. Frederick the Warlike, margrave of Meissen (Misnia), elector of Saxony. B. 1369. Elector from 1433. D. 1428. Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony. B. 1463. Reigned from 1486. D. 1525. Frederick Augustus I., king of Saxony. B. 1750. Reigned as elector of Saxony (as such, Frederick Augustas III.) from 1763 ; as king, from 1806. Duke of Warsaw 1807-'13. D. 1827. ]Prederick Augustus H., king of Saxony. B. 1797. Reigned from 183& D. 1854. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 415 Frederick Charles, pj-inoe of Prussia, nephew of the emperor Williani, general. B. 1828. P. 1885. Frederic t Francis II., granddnke of Mecklenburg-Schwerm, general. B. 1823, Reigned from 1842. D. 1883. Frederick Henry, brother of Frederick the Great. See Heney., Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg, styled the Great Elector. B. 1620. Reigned from 1640. D. 1688. Frederick "William I., king of Prussia, father of Frederick the Great. B. 1688. Reigned from 1713. D. 1740. Frederick William II., king of Prussia, nephew of Frederick the Great. B. 1744. Reigned from 1786. D. 1797. Frederick William III., king of Prussia, son of Frederick William II. B. 1770. Reigned from 1797. D. 1840. Frederick William IV., king of Prussia, son of Frederick William III. B. 1795. Reigned from 1840. D. 1861. Frederick William, crown prince of Prussia .and of the German empire, son of William I., general. See Frederick III. (king of Prussia). Freeman, Edward Augustus, English historian. B. 1823. B. 1892^ " His- tory of the Norman Conquest." " History and Conquests of the Saracens." " Growth of the English Constitution." " Historical Geography of Europe.'" ""History of Sicily." Other historical works. Writings on architecture. Freiligrath, Ferdinand, German poet. B. 1810. D. 1876. Fremont, John Charles, American explorer, general. B. 1813. D. 1890. Frere, Sir Bartle, Eng. administrator (India, Cape Colony). B. 1815. D. 1884 Frfere, C. Theodore, French painter. B. 1815. D. 1888. Frere, P. Edouard, French painter. B. 1819. D. 1886. Frdre-Orban, Hubert Joseph Walther, Belg. statesman. B. 1812. D. 1896. Fr^ret, Nicolas, French historical critic. B. 1688. D. 1749. Fr^ron, Louis Stanislas, French journalist, revolutionist. D. 1802. Fresenius, Karl Remigius, Geyman chemist; B. 1818. D. 1897. Fresnel, Augustin Jean, French physicist, noted for his discoveries in optics. B. 1788. D. 1827. Freund, Wilhelm, German Latin scholar, lexicographer. B. 1806. D. 1894. Freycinet, Charles Louis de Saulces de, French statesman. B.- Nov, 14, 1828. Head of the cabinet from Dec, 1879, to Sept., 1880 ; from Jan. to July, 1882; from Jan. to Dec, 1886; from March, 1890, to Feb., 1892. Freycinet, Louis Claude Desanlses de, French navigator, scientist. B. .-■ -1779. /D. .1842, ;: Freytag, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, German Arabic scholar, lexicographer, B. 1788. .'D. 1861. . Freytag, Gustav, German novelist,. dramatist. B. 1816. D, 1895. FrieSjElias Magnus, Swedish botanist. B. 1794. D. 1878. . Fries, Jakob Friedrich, German, philosopher. B. 1773. D. 1848. Frith, WiUiain Powell, Englisji pointer. . B. 1819. FrSbeL See Froebel. 416 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Frobisher, Sir Martin, English navigator. D. 1594 Froebel, Priedrich, originator of the Kindergarten. B. in Germanv 1788, D. 1853. Froissart, Jean, French chronicler. B. about 1337. D. about 1410. Fromentin, Eugene, French painter. B. 1820. D. 1876. Frontenac, Louis de Buade, count de, governor of Canada, B. about 1620, D. 1698. Froude, James Anthony, English historian. B. 1818. D. 1894. Principal production, " History of England from the Pall of Wolsey to the Defeat ' of the Spanish Armada." Fry, Elizabeth (born Gumey), English Quakeress, philanthropist. B. 1780, D. 1845. Fryxell, Anders, Swedish historian. B. 1795. D. 1881. Works on Swedish history, Fuad Fasha, grand vizier of Turkey. B. 1814. D. 1869. Fuchs, Leonhard von, German botanist. B. 1501. D. 1566. Fugger, the name of a family of Augsburg, noted for its wealth. It was especially prominent in the 16th c. Fiihricli, Joseph von, German painter. B. 1800. D. 1876. Fuller, Andrew, English Baptist theologian. B. 1754. D. 1815. Fuller, Margaret, Marchioness Ossoli, American authoress. B. 1810, D. 1850. Fuller, Thomas, English clergyman, author. B. 1608. D. 1661. " CJhurch History of Britain." " History of the Worthies of England." Fulton, Robert, American inventor. B. 1765. D. 1815. Successfully in- troduced steam navigation 1807. Fiirst, Julius, German Hebraist. B. 1805. D. 1873. Hebrew and Chaldee dictionary. Concordance to the Old Testament. Works on Jewish topics. Fuseli (Pilssli), Henry, Swiss-British painter. B. 1741, D, 1825. Gabelentz, Hans Conon von der, German philologist. B. 1807, D, 1874. Gaboriau, :6mile, French novelist, B. 1835. D. 1873. Oabrielli, Catarina, Italian singer. B. 1730. D. 1796. Gaddi, Angelo, Italian painter. D. about 1395. Gaddi, Gaddo, Italian artist, especially noted for his mosaics. D. early in the 14th c. Gaddi, Taddeo, Italian painter. B. about 1300. D. about 1366. Gade, Niels Wilhelm, Danish composer. B. 1817. D. 1890. Gagarin, Alexander, prince, Russian military oflcer. Assassinated 1857. Gagarin, Pavel, prince, Russian statesman. D. 1872. Gage, Thomas, British commander, last royal governor of Massachusetts, D. 1787. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 4I7 Gagrem, Heinrioh von, baron, German statesman, president of the Frank- fort Parliament. B. 1799. D. 1880. Gaillard, Gabriel Henri, French historian. B. 1736. D. 1806. Oainsborougli, Thomas, English painter. B. 1727. D. 1788. Qaius (Caius), Soman jurist. 3d c. a. d. Oalba, Eoman emperor. B. about 3 b. c. Succeeded Nero a. d. 68.. Mur- dered 69. Oale, Theophilus, English divine, author. B. 1638. D. 1678. Oalen (Claudius Galenus), Greek medical writer. B. about 130. D. about 200. Oalen, Christoph Bemhard von, prince-bishop of Miinster, soldier. D. 1678. Oaleriiis, Boman emperor, fieigned over a portion of the Roman Empire 805-311. Oalileo (Galileo Galilei), Italian natural philosopher, astronomer. B. Feb., 1564. D. Jan. 8, 1642. Gkilitzin. See Golitztn. Gall, Franz Joseph, founder of phrenology. B, in Germany 1758. D. 1828. Oallait, Louis, Belgian painter. B. 1810. D. 1887. ' Galland, Antoine, French orientalist. B. 1646. B. 1716. Gallas, Matthias von, Austrian general in the Thirty Years' War. B. 1589. D. 1647. Cktllatin, Albert, American statesman. B. in Switzerland 1761. B. 1849. GaUaudet, Thomas Hopkins, American instructor of deaf-mutes. B. 1787. B. 1851. Galle, Johann Gottfried, German astronomer. B. 1812. GaUieniis, Boman emperor. Beigned from about 260. (Associated with his father, Valerian, in the empire from 254.) Killed 268. Gallitzin (GoUtzyn), Bemetrius Augustine, Catholic missionary in America, son of the Russian diplomatist Bimitri Golitzyn. B. 1770. B. 1840. Gait, John, Scottish novelist, humorist, biographer. B. 1779. B. 1839. " Ayrshire Legatees." " Annals of the Parish." " Lawrie Todd." Galton, Francis, English traveler, author. B. 1822. "Notes of an Ex- plorer in Tropical South Africa." " Hereditary Genius." Galluppi (Galuppi), Fasquale, Italian philosopher. B. 1770. B. 1846. Oaluppi, Baldassare, Italian composer. B. 1703. B. 1785. Galvani, Aloisio (Lnigi), Italian physiologist. B. 1737. B. 1798. Oama, Vasoo da, Portuguese navigator. B. 1524. Boubled the Cape of Good Hope 1497. Gamaliel (the Elder), president of the Sanhedrim of Jerusalem. First half of first c. a. d. Gambetta, Ldon, French statesman. B. 1838. B. Bee. 31, 1882. Qambier, James, baron, British admiral. B. 1756. B. 1833. Oans, Bduard, German jurist. B. 1798. B. 1839. Qarat, Bominique Joseph, French statesman, author. B. 1749. B. 1833. Garay, Jdnos, Hungarian poet. B. 1812. B. 1853. 28 418 BIOGRAPHroAL DICTIONARY. Oatbift, Maffael, tnlisical instructor, writer on singing and the physiology of the human voice. B. in Spain 1805. Garcia, Manuel de Populo Vicente, Spanish singer, composer. B. 1773. D. 1832. Garcilaso de la Vega, Spanish poet. B. 1503. D. 1536. Sonnets, elegies, pastorals, &c. Garcilaso de la Vega, Spanish historian. D. about 1620. History of the Incas of Peru. Gardiner, Samuel Kawson, English historian. B. 1829. Best known by his works on the first two Stuart kings of England and the Puritan reTO- liitioa. Gardiner, Stephen, bishop of Winchester, l6rd chancellor of England. B, about 1483. B. 1555. Garfield, James Abram, president of the United States. B. Nov. 19, 1881. President from March 4, 1881. Shot July 2, 1881 ; died Sept. 19. Garibaldi, Giuseppe, Italian patriot, general. B. July, 1807. D. June 3, 1882. Gamier, Charles, architect of tlie Qrand OpetSi in Paris. B. 1825. D. 1898. Gamier-Pagfes, Louis Alitoine, French politician. B. 1803. B. 1878. Garrick, Bavid, English actor. B. 1717. B. 1779. Garrison, William Lloyd, American abolitionist. B. 1805. B. 1879, Ggxtner, Joseph, Oerman botanist. B. 1732. B. 1791. Garve, Christian, Oerman philosopher. B. 1742. D. 1798. Gaskell, Elizabeth Cleghorn (bom Stevenson), English novelist, B. 1810. B. 1865. GasBendi, Pierre, flench rhetaphysiciaUi natural philosopher. B. 1592. D. 1655. Gasser, Joseph, Viennese sculptor. B. 1816. Gaston de Foiz, duke of Nemours, French general. B. 1489. Oled 1512. Gates, Hotatto, American general. B. 1728. B. 1806. Gatling, Richard Jordan, American inventor. B. 1818. Gauden, John, English clergyman. B. 1605. B. 1662. Beputed author of "EikonBasUike." Gauss, Karl Friedrioh, Gerinan mathematician. B. 1777. B. 1855. Gautier, ThSophile, French dramatic and art critic, novelist, poet, writer of travels. B. 1-811. B. 1872. Gavarni (pseudonym of S. P. Chevalier), French caricaturist. B. 1801. B. 1866. Gavazzi, Alessandro, Italian preacher, agitator against the papal hierarchy. B. 1809. B. 1889. Gay, Belphine. See Girardin. Gay, John, English poet, dramatist, fabulist. B. 1685. B. 1732. Most ftoted dramatic production, " The Beggar's Opera." Gay, Sophie, French novelist. B. 1776. B. 1852. BIOGBAl'HIOAL DICTIONARY. 419 Qtsfto-goa, Pascual de, Spanish scholar. B. 1809. D. 1897. Oay-Liissac, Joseph Louis, French chemist, physicist. B. 1778. D. 1850. Oaza, Theodore, Greek scholar. B. about 1400. D. 1478. Q6belin, Court de. See Court de GiBELiN. Geber, Arabian chemist. Flourished about 800. Oeddes, Alexander, British Biblical scholar, author. B. 1737. D. 1802. Oee£s, Willem, Belgian sculptor. B. 1806. D. 1883. Gtoibel, Emanuel, Gwman poet. B. 1815. D. 1884. Oeiger, Alanhsm, 6«naaa rabbi, reformer, critic. B. 1810. D. 1874. Oeiger, Lazarus, German philologist, writer on the ori^ of language. B. 1829. D. 18T0. CWjer, Eric Gustaf, "Swedish historian, poet. B. 1783. D. 1847. "History of the Swedish People." Oeikie, Sir ArchifaaJd, Scottish geologist. B. 1835. Oell, Sir Williatt, BngUsh antiquary. B. 1777. D. 1836. Works on the topography of the Troad and of Oreeoe. Aoooimt of Pompeii. d^ert, Christian FiitchtegoU;, G«rman poet. B. 1715. D. 1769. Best known by his fables. GMliua, Aulas, Latin author. 2d c. a. d. " Noctes Atticse." Gelan, tyrant of Syracuse. D. about 478 b. c. OemistuB, Geoige, Byzantine philosopher. 15th c. Oenelli, Johann Bonaventura, Crerman artist. B. 1800. D. 1868. Oenest (Genet), Edmond Charies, French diplomatist. B. 1765. D. 1834. Genevieve, patron saint i^ Paris. B. about 4^. D. about 512. Genghis IKkcm, Mongol conqueror. D. 1227. fittiUs, St^haraie Felicite Ducrest de Saint-Aubin, countess de, French authoress. B. 1746. D. 1830. Genovesi, Antonio, Italian philosopher, political economist. B. 1712. D. 1769. GemBeric, kMg of the Vandals, conqueror. Led the Vandals from Spaan toto Africa 429. D. 477. Qtnaoaa^, ArsMad, French leTcdutionist. B. 1758. Executed 1793. Gentz, Friedrich Ton, German publicist, statesman. B. 1764. D. 1832. Geof&«7 of Moninoath, English historian. D. about 1154 Geoffiin, Madame Marie Th^rese, French leader of society, patroness of learning. B. 1699. D. 1777. Geoffiroy Saint-Eilaire, l^tienne, French natut<st. B. 1773. D. 1844. Geoffiroy SaSnt-Hil&ire, Isidore, French naiburalist. B. 1895. D. 1861. George L, king of England, son of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover, and of S(^h]a, gfaraddaughter of James I. B. Mai'eh 28, 1660. Elector of Hanover from 1698. Kagned in England from 1714. D. J^one 11, 1727. George EL, king of England, son of George I. B. Oct. 30, 1683. Reigned frtMnl727. D. Oct. 25, 1760. Georg« m., king of England, grandson of George II. B. June 4, 1738. JSeigned from 1760. D. Jan. 29, 1820. 420 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Oeorge IV. , king of England, son of George III. B. Aug. 12, 1763. Reigned from 1820 (regent from 1811). D. June 26, 1830. George I., king of Greece since 1863, son of Christian IX. of Denmark. B. 1845. George V., king of Hanover, son of Ernest Augustus. B. 1819, Reigned 1851-'66. D. 1878. George, prince of Denmark, husband of Queen Anne. B. 1653. D. 1708. George of Xrebizond, scholar. B. 1896. D. about 1486. George, Henry, American political economist. B. 1839. D, 1897. George Fodiebrad. See Podiebrad. Georges, Marguerite, French actress. B. about 1786. D. 1867. G6rando, Joseph Marie de, French philosophical writer. B. 1772. D. 1842. G6rard, Iltienne Maurice, count, French general. B. 1773. D. 1852. Gerard, FranQois Pascal, baron, French painter. B. 1770. D. 1837. Gerhard, Eduard, German archaeologist. B. 1795. D. 1867. Gerhardt, Paul, German writer of hymns. B. about 1607. D. 1676. G^ricault, Jean Louis Theodore Andre, French painter. B. 1791. D. 1834. Gerlach, Franz Dorotheus, German classical scholar. B. 1793. D. 1876. Germanicus Caesar, Roman general, nephew of Tiberius. B. 15 b. c. D. A. D. 19. Germanus, Saint, bishop of Auxerre. B. about 380. D. about 448. G6r6ine, Jean Leon, French painter. B. 1824 Gerry, Blbridge, American statesman. B. 1744. D. 1814 Gerson, Jean Charlier de, French theologian. B. -1363, D. 1429. Gerson ben Judah, French rabbi. B. about 960. D. about 1030. Gerstiicker, Friedrich, G«rman writer of travels, novelist. B. 1816. D.' 1872. Gerster, Etelka, Hungarian singer. B. 1857. Gervais, Paul, French naturalist. B. 1816. D. 1879. Gervimis, Georg Gottfried, G«rman historian, critic. B. 1805. D. 1871. "Geschichte des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts " ("History of the Nine- teenth Century"). "Geschichte der poetischen NationaUitteratur der Deutschen." " Shakespeare." Gesenixis, Friedrich Heinrich Wilhehn, German orientalist. B. 1786. D. 1842. Hebrew lexicon, grammar, "Thesaurus." "Phoeniciae Monu- menta." Gesner (Gessner), Konrad von, Swiss naturalist. B. 1516. D. 1565. Gessner, Salomon, Swiss idyllic poet, painter. B. 1730. D. 1788. GfrSrer, August Friedrich, German historian. B. 1803. D. 1861. Works on the history of the church, and on that of the Carlovingians, of Gregory YII. and his age, of the Byzantine Empire, &c. Gherardesca, TJgolino della, partisan leader of Pisa. D. 1289. Ghiberti, Lorenzo, Florentine sculptor. B. about 1880. D. about 1455. Ghirlandaio, II (Domenico Bigordi), Florentine painter. B. 1449. D, about 1494 BIOGBAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 421 Gibbon, Edward, English historian. B. April 27, 1737. D. Jan. 16, 1794 "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." (First volume 1776.) ■ Oibbons, Orlando, English composer. B. 1583. D. 1625. Oibbi^, Wolcott, American chemist. B. 1822. Gibson, John, English sculptor. B. 1790 (1791 1). D. 1866. Giddings, Joshua Reed, American abolitionist. B. 1795. D. 1864. Giebel, Christoph, German naturalist, palseontologist. B. 1820. D. 1881. Giers, Nikolai de, Russian minister of foreign affairs. B. 1820. D. 1895. Giesebrecbt, "Wilhelm von, German historian. B. 1814. D. 1889. " Ge- schichte der deutschen Kaiserzeit." Gieseler^ Johann Karl Ludwig, German historian. B. 1792. D. 1854. "Lehrbueh der Kirchengeschiehte." Gifford, Robert Swain, American painter. B. 1840. OifEbrd, Sandford Robinson, American painter. B. 1828. D. 1880. Gifford, William, English author. B. 1757. D. 1826. Poetical satires, literary criticisms, etc. Gil "Vicente, Portuguese dramatist. B. about 1470. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, Bug. navigator. B. about 1539. Lost at sea 1588. Gilbert, Sir John, English painter. B. 1817. D. 1897. Giles, Ernest, Eng. explorer of Australia. First journey undertaken 1872. Giles, WiUiam Branch, American statesman. B. 1762. D. 1830. Gilflllan, George, Scottish author. B. 1818. D. 1878. Gillespie, William Mitchell, American writer on civil engineering. B. 1816. D. 1868. Gillies, John, Scottish historian. B. 1747. D. 1836. Works on ancient history. Gillmore, Quincy Adams, American general, engineer. B. 1825. D. 1888. Gillott, Joseph, English manufacturer of pens. B. 1800. D. 1872. Gillray, James, English caricaturist. B. about 1757. D. 1815. Gindely, Anton, German historian. B. 1829. D. 1892. History of the Thirty Years' War. • Ginguene, Pierre Louis, French literary historian. B. 1748. D. 1816. " Histoire litteraire d'ltalie." Gioberti, Vincenzo, Piedmontese philosopher, patriot, statesman. B. 1801. D. 1852. Giocondo, Fra Giovanni, Italian architect. B. about 1440. D. about 1525. . Gioja, Flavio, Italian navigator. 14th c. Gioja, Melehiorre, Italian political economist. B. 1767. D. 1829. Giordano, Luca, Neapolitan painter. B. 1632. D. 1705. ' Oiorgione, Giorgio Barbarelli, Venetian painter. B. about 1477. D. 1511. Giotto, Florentine painter, architect. B. about 1276. D. 1387. Giovaomi da Bologna. See Bologna. Giovio, Paolo, Italian historian. B. 1488. D. 1552. History of his own ■-- time (in Latin). Giraldus Cambrensis (Gerald de Barry), British historian. D. about 122(X 422 BIOGRAPHICAL DIOTIONABT. Oirard, Stephen, American philanthropist. B. 175(k D. 1831. Oiraxdin, Delphine Gay de, wife of ]&mile de Qirardin, French poetess novelist, dramatist, writer of "Letters" on Parisian society. B, 1804. D. 1855. Girardin, fimile de, French journalist. R 1806. D. 1881. Grirardin, Saint-Marc. See Saint-Maec Gtibabdin. Oirardon, Frangois, French sculptor. B. 1630. D. 1715. Oirodet-Trioson, Anne Louis, French painter. B. 1767. D. 1824. Giulio Romano, Italian painter, architect. D. 1546. Giusti, Giuseppe, Italian poet. B. 1809. D. 1850. Giustiniani, Agostino Pantaleone^ Italian philologist B. 1470. D. 1536. Gladstone, William Ewart, English statesman. B. Dec. 29, 1809. D. May 19, 1898. Premier 1868-'74, 1880-'85, 1886, 1892-'4. Author of " Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age," " Juventus Mundi : the Qods and Men of the Heroic Age," &o. Glaixe, Jean Baptiste, French orientalist, theological writer. B. 1798. D. 1879. Glais-Bizoin, Alexandre, French politician. B. 1800. D. 1877. Glaisher, James, British meteorologist, aeronaut. B. 18091 Glanvill, Joseph, BngUsh philosopher. B. 1636. D. 1680. Glanville, Ranulf de, English lawyer. D. 1190. Glauber, Johann KudoU, German chemist. B. 1604. D. 1668. Gleim, Johann Wilhelm Ludwig, German poet. B. 1719. D. 1803. Glendower, Owen, Welsh insurgent leader. B. about 1349. D. about 1416. Glinka, Fedor, Russian military writer, poet. B. 1788. D. 1880l Glinka, MikhaU, Russian composer. B. 1804. D. 1857. Glinka, Sergei, Russian author. B. 1774 D. 1847. Gloucester, duke of. See Richard III. Gluck, Christoph WUibald von, German composer. & July 3, 1714. D. Nov. 15, 1787. Gmelin, Johann Friedrich, German naturalist. B. 1748. D. 1804. Gmelin, Johann Georg, German traveler, naturaUst B. 1709. D, 1795, " Reisen durch Sibirien." " Flora Sibirioa." Gneisenau, August, Prussian general. B, 1760. D, 1831. Gneist, Rudolf, German jurist, politician. B. 1816. D. 1895. lispecially distinguished in the field of administrative law. Goderich, Frederick John Robinson, viscount (afterward earl of Ripen), English statesman, prime-minister 18a7-'8. B. 1783. D. 1859. Godfrey, Thomas, American mathematician. D, 1749. Godfrey of Bouillon, one of the leaders of the first crusade. B, 1061. D, 1100. Godkin, Edwin Lawrence, American journalist. B. in Ireland 1831. Godman, John D., American naturalist. B. 1794. D. 1830. Oodolphin, Sidney, earl of, English prime-minister under Queen Anne. B, about 1635. D. 1713. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAEY. 423 Godoy, Manuel de, duke of Alcudia, Spanish prime-minister under Charles IV. B. 1767. D, 1851, Oodnnoflf, Boris, czar of Russia, iteigned 1598-1605. Godwin, earl of the West Saxons, father of Harold II. D. 1053. > Godwin, Mary WoUstonecraft, wife of William Godnrin, English authoress. B. 1759. D. 1797. " Vindication of the Rights of Woman." Godwin, Parke, American author, journalist. B. 1816. Godwin, William, English author. B, 1756. P. 1836. " Inquiry coneeming Political Justice, and its Influence on General Virtue and Happiness." " Caleb WiUiams," « St. LeoA," « Mandeville " (npvels). '' History of the Commonwealth." Goes, Hugo Tan der, Flemish painter, D. about 1483. Goethe, Johann Wolfl^ang von, German poet. B. Aug. 28, 1749. D. March 22, 1832. "Gtitz von Berlichingen " (1773). "Die Leiden des jungen Werther," "Iphigenie auf Tauris," "Torquato Tasso." "Egmont." " Faust." " WUhelm Meister's Lehrjahre." " Hermann und Dorothea." " Wahlverwandtschaften." " Dichtung und Wahrheit." " WestOstlioher Divan." " Italienisohe Beise." " Wilhelm Meister's Wanderjahre," " Faust," second part (completed shortly before the author's death). — " Die Metaniorphose der Pflanzen " (" The Metumorphosis of Plants ''), " Die Farbenlehre " (» The Theory of Colors "), Goffe, WUliami English Parliamentary commander, B. about 1605. Dk 1679. Gogol, Nikolai, Russian author, B. 1809. IX 1852. Sketches of Russian bfe. " The Inspector " (satirical comedy). " Dead Souls " (novel), God, John Mason, Knglish writeron medical science, poet. B. 1764. D. 1827. Goodall, Edward, English engraver. B. 1795. D. 1870. GoodaU, Frederick, English painter. B. 1822. Goodrich, Chauncey Allen, American philologist B. 1790. D. 1860. Goodrich, Samuel Griswold ("Peter Parley"), American writer for the young. B. 1793. D. 1860. Goodyear, Charles, American inventor (vulcanization of rubber). B. 1800. D. 1860. GSppeit, Heinrich Robert, German botanist. B. 1800. D. 1884, Gordian (Gordianus), Roman emperor. Reigned 338-244. Gordon, Charles George (Gordon Pasha), English officer in the Chinese and the Egyptian service. B. 1833. Killed 1885. Gordon, George, Lord, English agitator. B. 1751. D. 1793. Gordon, Sir John Watson, Scottish painter. B. about 1788. D. 1864 Gore, Catharine Grace, English novelist. B. 1799. D. 1861. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, lord proprietary of Maine. D. 1647. GSrgey, Arthur, Hungarian general. B. 1818. Gorgias> Greek rhetorician, sophist. Flourished in latter part of 5th c B. C. (He is said to have died about 380 b. c, aged more than 100 years.) GSrres, Jakob Joseph von, German political writer. B. 1776. D. 1848. Gortchakof^ Alexander, prince, Russian general. B. 1764. D. 1825. GortchakofT, Alexander, prince, chancellor of the Russian Empire. B. 1798. D. 1883. Gortchakof^ Mikhail, prince, Russian general, commander-in-chief of the ' forces in the Crimea m 1855. B. 1795. D. 1861. Gortchakoff, Peter, prince, Russian general B. about 1790. D. 1868. Gortz, Georg Heinrich, baron, prime minister of Sweden. Executed ITlft Goschen, George Joachim, English statesman. B. 1831. Gosnold, Bartholomew, English navigator. D. 1607. Gossart, Jan. See Mabuse. Gosse, Edmund William, English literary critic. B. 1849. Gosse, Philip Henry, English zoSlogist. B. 1810. D. 1888. Gotthelf, Jeremias. See Bitzius. Gottschalk, Louis Moreau, American pianist. B. 1839. D. 1869. Gottschall, Rudolph, German writer. B. 1833. Gottsohed, Johann Christoph, German critic. B. 1700. D. 1766. Gfitz von Berlichingen. See BERLicHmoEN. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONART. 425 Oough, Sir Hugh, British general in China and India. B. 1779. D. 1869. Ooiijon, Jean, French sculptor. B. about 1515. D. about 1566 (f). Oould, Augustus Addison, American naturalist. B. 1805. D. 1866. Qould, Benjamin Apthorp, American astronomer. B. 1824 D. 1896. Gould, John, English ornithologist. B. 1804. D. 1881. Ooxild (Baring-Gould), Sabine. See Barino-Gohld. Oounod, Charles Prangois, French composer. B. 1818. D. 1893. Oourgaud, Gaspard, baron, French general. B. 1783. D. 1853. Ooiirgues, Dominique de, French soldier. B. about 1530. D. about 1593, Oouvion Saint-Oyr, Laurent, French general. B. 1764. D. 1830. Gower, John, English poet. B. about 1325. D. 1408. Gozzi, Carlo, count, Italian dramatist. B. 1722. D. 1806. Gozzi, Gasparo, count, Italian author. B. 1713. D. 1786. Gozzoli, Benozzo, Florentine painter. D. close of 15th c. Oraaf, Kegnier de, Dutch physiologist. B. 1641. D. 1673. Gracchus, Cains, Boman tribune. Slain 121 b. c. Gracchus, Tiberius, Boman tribune, brother of Caius Gracchus. Slain 133 B. c. Graetz, Heinrich, German-Jewish historian. B. 1817. D. 1891. "Ge- schichte der Juden." Critical works on the Old .Testament. Grsevius, J. G., Dutch classical scholar. B. in Germany 1632. D. 1703. Grafe, Albrecht von, German oculist. B. 1828. D. 1870. Grafe, Alfred, German oculist. B. 1830. Gr&fe, Karl Ferdinand von, German surgeon, oculist. B. 1787. D. 1840. Graham, John (Lord Graham of Claverhouse). See Dundee. Graham, Sylvester, American writer on hygiene. B. 1794. D. 1851, Graham, Thomas, Scottish chemist. B. 1805. D. 1869. Grahame, James, Scottish poet. B. 1765. D. 1811. Grahame, James, Scottish historian. B. 1790. D. 1843. " History of the United States." Oramont, Philibert de, count, French general, courtier. B. 1631. D. 1707. Gramont, Antoine Agenor Alfred de, duke, French diplomatist, minister of foreign affairs 1870. B. 1819. D. 1880. Granby, John Manners, marquis of, English general. B. 1731. D. 1770. Grandville (Gerard), Jean Ignace Isidore, French caricaturist. B. 1803, D. 1847. Granier (Granier de Cassagnao), Adolphe, French journalist, politician, sup- porter of Napoleon IIL B. about 1808. D. 1880. Grant, Anne, Scottish authoress. B. 17S5. D. 1838. Grant, Sir Francis, Scottish painter. B. 1803. D. 1878. Grant, James, Scottish novelist. B. 1823. D. 1887. Grant, James Augustus, British African explorer. B. 1837. D. 1893. Grant, Sir James Hope, British general. B. 1808. D. 1875. Grant, Ulysses S., general, president of the United States 1869-'77. R April 27, 1833, D. July 23, 1885. 436 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Granvelle (Granvella), Antoine Perrenot, cardinal de, minister of Charles v. and Philip II., chief adviser of Margaret of Parma in the Netherlands. B. 1517. D. 1586. Oranville, George, Lord Lansdowne, English statesman, dramatist. B. 1667. D. 1735. Granville, Granville George Leveson-Gower, earl, English statesman. B. 1815. D. 1891. Granville, John Carteret, earl, English statesman. B, 1690. D. 1763. Grasse, Frangois Joseph Paul de, count, French admicaL B. 1723. D, 1788. Grassmann, Hermann Gttnther, German mathematician. B. 1809. D, 1877. Gratian, Boman emperor. Reigned over a portion of the Roman Empire 375-383 (associate of his father, Valentinian 1., from 367). Gratry, Augusts Joseph Alphojise, abbe, French theologian. B. 1805. D. 1872. Grattan, Henry, Irish statesman, orator. B. 1746. D, 182(X Gratz. See Gbaetz. Graun, Karl Heinrich, German composer. B. 17Q1. D. 1759. Gravesande, Willem Jakob van % Dutch natural phjlosopher. B. 1688. D. 1743. Gravina, Giovanni Vincenzo, Italian jurist. B. 1664. D, 1718. Gray, Asa, American botanist. B. 1810. D. 1888. Gray, George Robert, English ornithologist, entomolc^ist. B. 1808. D. 1873. Gray, John Edward, English naturalist. B. 1800. D. 1875. Gray, Thomas, English poet. B. 1716. D. 1771. "Elegy written in a Country Churchyard." Greatrakes, Valentine, Irish medical celebrity. B. 1638. Greaves, John, English mathematician, orientalist, antiquary. B. 1603. D. 1653. Greeley, Horace, American journalist, author. B. 1811. D. Nov. 2ft, 1872. " The American Conflict." Green, John Richard, English historian. B. 1837. D. 1883. "History of the English People." Green, Samuel, American printer. B. 1615. D. 1703. Greene, Nathanael, American general B. 1742. D. 1786. Greene, Robert, English dramatist. B. about 1560. D. 1592. Greenleaf, Simon, American jurist. B. 1783. D. 1853. Greenough., Horatio, American sculptor. B. 1805. D. 1852. GrSgoire, Henri, French ecclesiastic, revolutionist. B. 1750. D. 1831. Gregorovius, Ferdinand, German historian. B. 1831. D. 1801. » Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter." " Wanderjahre in Italien." Gregory I., the Great, pope. Elected 590. D. 604. Gregory II., pope. Elected 715. D. 731. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 427 Oregoxy VII. (Hfldebrand)> pope. Elected 1073. D. 1085. Gregory VIH., pope. Elected 1187. D. 1187. Gregory IX., pope. Elected 1227. D. 1241. Gregory X., pope. Elected 1271. D. 1276. Gregwy XI., pope. Elected 1370. D. 1378. Gregory XII., pope. Elected 1406. Deposed 1409. D. 1417. Gregory XIII., pope. Elected 1572. D. 1585. Eeformer of the calendar. Gregory XV., pope. Elected 1621. D. 1623. Gregory XVI., pope. Elected 1831. D. 1846, Gregory the Illiimuiator, Saiat, " apostle of the Armenians." D. about 332. Gregory Naziaazen, Saint, Greek father of the church. B. about 328. D. about 389. Gregory of Nyssa, Saint, Greek father of the church. B. about 331. D. about 400. Gregory Thaumaturgus, Saint, bishop of Neo-Csesarea. D. about 270. Gregory of Tours, Saint, Erankish historian. B. about 540. B. about 595. Gregory, David, Scottish mathematician, astronomer. B. 1661. D. about 1708. Gregory, James, Scottish mathematician, who suggested the plan of the reflecting telescope. B. about 1638. D. 1675. Gregory, Olinthus Gilbert, English mathematician, author. B, 1774. D. 1841. Grenville, Q«orge, English statesman. B. 1712. D. 1770i Gren^ille (Granville, Greenville), Sir Eichard, English naval officer. B. about 1540. Killed 1591. Grenville, William Wyndham, Lord, English statesman, prime-minister 1806-'7. B. 1759. D. 1834. Gresbam, Sir Thomas, English merchant. B. 1519, D. 1579. Gresset, Jean Baptiste Louis, French poet. B. 1709. D. 1777. "Vert- vert " (comic poem). " fipitre k ma sceur sur ma convalescence." " Le m€chant " (comedy). Gr6try, Andre Ernest l&odeste, French composer. B. 1741. D. 1813, Oreuze, Jean Baptiste, French painter. B. 1725. D. 1805. GrdvUle, Henry, See Duband, Alice. Gr6vy, Jales, president of Prance 1879-'87. B. 1807 (not 1813). D. Sept. 9, 1891. Grey, Charles, earl, English statesman. B.1764. Premier 1830-'34. D.1845. Grey, Sir George, Brit, traveler, colonial governor, author. B. 1812. D. 1898. Grey, Henry George, earl, English statesman. B. 1802. D. 1894. Grey, Lady Jane, great-granddaughter of Henry Vll. B. about 1537. Pro- daimed queen of England 1553. Executed 1554. Married to Lord Guildford Dudley. Gribeauval, Jean Baptiste Vaquette de, French artillerist. B. 1715, D, 1789. 428 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Griesbach, Johann Jakob, German Biblical critic. B. 1745. D. 1813. Grijalva, Juan de, Spanish navigator. D. 1527. Grillparzer, Franz, German dramatic poet. B. 1791. D. 1872. Grimaldi, Antonio, Genoese admiral. Middle of 14th e. Grimm, Friedrich Melchior, baron, French critic. B. in Germany 1723. D, 1807. Grimm, Herman, German author, son of W. Grimm. B. 1828. Life of Michael Angelo, essays on art, studies on Goethe, works of fiction, &c. Grimm, Jakob, German philologist, antiquary. B. 1785. D. 1863. " Deutsche Grammatik." " Geschichte der deutsehen Sprache." " Deutsche Mytho- logie." " Kinder- und Hausmarchen " (fairy tales, produced jointly with W. Grimm). " Deutsche Eechtsalterthfimer " (" German Law Antiqui- ties "). An exhaustive dictionary of the German language, undertaken jointly with W. Grimm ; only a small portion completed at the time of the author's death. Grimm, WUhelm, Germanist, brother of J. Grimm. B. 1786. D. 1859. Grindal, Edmund, English prelate. B. about 1519. D. 1583. Grisi, Giulia, Italian singer. B. 1811. D. 1869. Griswold, Rulus Wilmot, American literary critic, biographer. B. 1815. D. 1857. Gronoviiis, Jacobus, Dutch classical scholar. B. 1645. D. 1716. Gronovius, J. P., German classical scholar, professor at Leyden. B. 16ll. D. 1671. Gronovius, J. P., Dutch botanist. B. 1690. D. 1760. Gronovius, Laurentius Theodoras, Dutch naturalist. B. 1730. D. 1778. Groot, Gerhard, founder of the Congregation of the Brethren and Clerks of the Common Life. B. in Holland 1340. D. 1884. Gros, Antoine Jean, baron, French painter. B. 1771. D. 1835. Grose, Francis, English antiquary. B. 1731. D. 1791. Gross, Samuel D., American surgeon. B. 1805. D. 1884 Grosseteste (Lat. Capito), Robert, English prelate, writer. B. about 1175. D. 1253. Grossi, Tomaso, Italian poet, novelist. B. 1791 (1790 1). D. 1853. Grote, George, English historian. B. 1794. D. 1871. " History of Greece." Grotefend, Georg Friedrich, German philologist, antiquary, pioneer in the decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions. B. 1775. D.1853. Grotius (De Groot), Hugo, Dutch publicist, theologian. B. April 10, 1583. D. Au-g. 38, 1645. " De Jure Belli et Pacis." Grouchy, Emmanuel de, marquis, French general. B. 1766. D. 1847. Grove, Sir George, English engineer, scholar, journalist, editor of a "Dic- tionary of Music and Musicians." B. 1830. -' Grove, Sir William Robert, English physicist. B. 1811. Announced in 1842 his theory of the correlation of forces. D. 1896. Gruber, Johann Gottfried, German encyclopaedist. B. 1774. D. 1851. Griin, Anastasius. See Auebsperg, Anton Alexander. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 429 Orundtvig, Nioolai Frederik Severin, Danish author. B. 1783, D. 1872. Grundy, Felix, American statesman. B. 1777. D. 1840. Gtenner, Wilhelm Heinrich Ludwig, German engraver. B. 1801. D. 1883. Oryphius, Andreas, German poet, dramatist. B. 1616. D. 1664. Guarini, Giovanni Battista, Italian poet. B. 1537. D. 1613. " II pastor fido " (pastoral drama). Guameri, Andrea, Italian violin-maker. Second half of 17th o. Guameri, Giuseppe Antonio, Italian violin-maker. B. 1683. D. 1745. Guatemozin, last Aztec emperor of Mexico. Put to death 1535. Gubitz, Friedrich Wilhelm, German author. B. 1786. D. 1870. Gude, Hans Frederik, Norwegian painter. B. 1835. Gudin, Theodore, French painter. B. 1803. D. 1880. GuerazzL See Guebbazzi. Guercino (Giovanni Francesco Barbieri), Italian painter. B. 1590. D. 1666. Guericke, Otto von, German natural philosopher, inventor of the air-pump. * B. 1603. D. 1686. GuSrin, Jean Baptiste Paulin, French painter. B. 1783. D. 1855. Guerrazzi, Francesco Domenico, Italian novelist, revolutionist. B. 1804. D. 1873. Guerrero, Vicente, one of the leaders in the Mexican struggle for independ- ence, president of Mexico 1839-'30. Executed 1881. Guesclin. See Du Guesclin. Chiess, George (Sequoyah), Cherokee half-breed, inventor of a Cherokee alphabet. B. about 1770. D. 1843. Guicciardini, Francesco, Italian historian. B. 1483. D. 1540. History of Italy during his own time. G^liccioli, Teresa, countess, friend of Byron. B. 1801, D. 1873. Gxuchard. See Guischabd. Ouido Aretino. See Abetino. Ouido Keni, Italian painter. B. 1575. D. 1643. Guignes, Joseph de, French orientalist. B. 1721. D. 1800. "Histoire generale des Huns, des Turcs, des Mogols et des autres Tartars oociden- taux." ^ Ouillaume, Claude Jean Baptiste Engine, French sculptor, P. 1822, Gxdllotin, Joseph Ignace, French physician. B, 1738, D. 1814. Guiscard, Robert. See Bobebt Guiscabd. GKuscard, fioger. See Bogeb I. Guischard, Karl Gottlieb (" Quintus Icilius "), Prussian soldier, writer. B. 1724. D. 1775. Works on the military affairs of the Greeks and Romans. Guise, Charles de Lorraine, duke of (cardinal de Lorraine), French states- man, son of Claude de Lorraine, duke of Guise. B, 1525, D, 1574, Guise, Charles de Lorraine, duke of, B, 1571, D. 1640. Guise, Claude de Lorraine, duke of. B. 1496. D. 1550. Guise, Frangois de Lorraine, duke of, statesman, soldier, brother of Cardinal Charles de Lorraine. B, .1519, Murdered 1563, 430 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Guise, Henri I. de Lorraine, duke of, son of the preceding, head of fts Catholic League. B. 1550. Assassinated 1588. Guise, Henri II. de Lorraine, duke of. B. 1614. D. 1664 Guise, Louis II. de Lorraine, cardinal de, son of Pranjois, duke of Guise. B. 1555. Assassinated 1588. Guise, Louis III. de Lorraine, cardinal de. D. 1631. Guise, Mary of. See Mary of Lorbaini;. Guizot, Pranpois Pierre Guillaume, French statesman, hi^tian. B. VtSt. Minister of foreign affairs under Louis Philippe 18W-'48 ; during the last few months of this period prime-minister. D. 1874. " Histoin de la civilisation en Prance." "Histoire de la civilisation «n Bhirope." " Histoire de la revolution d'Angleterre " (ftrst leroluKon) and other works on English history. " Cours d'histoire moderne." " IiKmoires pour servir Jk I'histoire de mon temps." " Vie, correspoD^iBiioe et ecrits de Washington." " Histoire de Prance, racontee h mes petiteen&nts." "OoN neUle et son temps." " Meditations sur la religion chretienne." Gunter, Edmund, English mathematician. B. about 1581. D. 1636. Qumey, Sir Goldswordiy, English inventor. B. 1793. D. 1875. Gurowski, Adam, count, Polish author. B. 1805. D. 1866. "Writer on Russian, Polish, and American affairs. Oustavus Vasa, king of Sweden. B. 1496. Reigned from 1833. D. ISSO. Gustavus II. Adolphus, king of Sweden, son of Charies IX. B. 1591 Reigned from 1611. Killed 1632. Gustavus HI., king of Sweden. B. 1746. Reigned from 1V71. Assassi- nated 1793. Gustavus rv. Adolphus, king of Sweden. B. 1776. R^bed I'TSS-lSdg. D. 1837. Gutenberg, Johann, reputed inventor of printing. B. tfi G«rmaiiy abort 1397. D. 1468 (1467 1). Guthrie, Thomas, Scottish clergyman. B. 1803. D. 1873. Gutzkow, Karl, German novelist, dramatist. B. 1811. D. 1878. Giitzlaff, Karl, German missionaiy, author. B. 1803. D. 1851. Guy of Lus^nan, king of Jerusalem, founder of the Lusignan dymtiffty in Cyprus. D. 1194. Guy, Thomas, Euglish philanthropist. B. about 1643. D. 1184. Guyon, Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte, Prench religious writer. R 1648. D. 1717. Guyot, Arnold Henry, American scientist. B. in Switzerland 1807. B. 1884. Guyton de Uorveau, Louis Bernard, Prench chemst. B. 1737. R 161& Gwyun, Eleanor, mistress of Charles II. B. 1687. H. Habakkuk, Hebrew prophet. About 600 b. c. HilckeL See Haeckel. Hackert, Philipp, German painter. B. 1737. D. 1807. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 43I Hackett, Horatio Balch, American Biblical scholar. B. 1808. D. 1875. Hackett, James Henry, American actor. B. 1800. D. 1871. Hacklander, Friedrich Wilhelm von, German author. B. 1816. D. 1877. Novels, pictures of soldier life, sketches of the Orient, comedies, &c. Hadji Khalfia, Turkish historian, bibliographer. D. 1658. Hadley, James, American philologist. B. 1821. D. 1873. Hadley, John, English astronomer. D. 1744. Hadrian, Roman emperor. B. 76. Reigned from 117. D. 138. Haeokel, Ernst, German naturalist. B. 1834. " Generelle Morphologie der Organismen." " Natiirliche SchSpf ungsgeschichte (« Natural History of Creation "). « Cber die Bntstehung und den Stammbaum des Menschen- geschlechts"("Oniithe Origin and Genealogy of the Human Species"). " Die KalksohwSmme " (« Calcareous Sponges "). " Anthropogenic, Ent- wickelungsgeschiohte des Menschen" (" AnthropogMiy, the History of the Evolution of Man "). HaBz, Persian poet. D. about 1390. Hagedom, Friedrioh von, German poet. B. 1708. D. 1754. Hagenbach, Karl Rudolf, German ecclesiastical historian. B. 1801. D. 1874. Haggai, Hebrew prophet. About 520 b. c. Hahnel, Ernst Julius, German sculptor. B. 1811. D. 1891. Hahnemann, Samuel Christian Friedrich, origuiator of homOBopathy. B, in Germany 1755. D. 1843. Hahn-Hahn, Ida von, countess, German authoress. B. 1805. D. 1880. Hailes, Lord. See Dalbtmplb, Sir David. Hakluyt, Richard, English writer on voyages. B. about 1553. D. 1616. Halbig, Johann, German sculptor. B. 1814. D. 1883. Haldeman, S. Stehman, American naturalist, philologist. B. 1818. D. 1880. Hale, Edward Everett, American author. B. 1823. "The Man without a Country." Hale, Sir Matthew, English jurist. B. 1609. D. 1676. Hale, Nathan, American soldier. B. 1755. Hanged as a spy 1776. Hale, Sarah Josepha (bom Buell), Amer. authoress. B. about 1790. D. 1879. Hales, Alexander of. See Alexander of Hales. Hales, Stephen, English scientist. B. 1677. D. 1761. " Vegetable Staticks." Hal^vy, Jacques Fromental, French composer. B. 1799. D. 1863.. Halevy, Joseph, French orientalist, traveler in Arabia. B. 1837. Hal6vy, L^on, French writer on literature, translator, dramatist. B. 1803. D. 1883. HaI6vy, Ludovio, French writer of comedy and fiction, literary associate of Meilhac. B. 1834 Halford, Sir Henry, English physician. B. 1766. D. 1844. Haliburton, Thomas Chandler (" Sam Slick "), British American humoristi B. 1796. D. 1865. 432 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Halifax, earl of. See Montague, Charles. Halifax, marquis of. See Sayilg. Hall, Anna Maria (born Fielding), wife of S. C. Hall, British authoress. K 1800. D. 1881. Novels, dramas, studies of Irish character. Hall, Basil, British seaman, writer of travels. B. 1788. D. 1844 Hall, Charles Francis, American Arctic explorer. B. 1821, D. 1871. Hall, James, American author. B. 1793. D. 1868. "Legends of the West." "Sketches of the West." "Tales of the Border." "History of the Indian Tribes " (written in conjunction with McKenney). Hall, James, American geologist. B. 1811. Hall, Joseph, English bishop, author. B. 1574. D. 1656. Hall, Marshall, English physician. B. 1790. D. 1857. Hall, Newman, English clergyman. B. 1816. HaU, Robert, English preacher. B. 1764. D. 1831. Hall, Samuel Carter, English editor, B. 1800. D. 1889, HaUam, Henry, English historian. B. 1777. D. Jan. 21, 1859. "View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages." " The Constitutional His- tory of England." "Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the 15th, 16th, and 17th Centuries." Hallect, Fitz-Greene, American poet. B. 1790. D. 1867. Halleck, Henry Wager, American general. B. 1815. B. 1872. Haller, Albrecht von, Swiss physiologist. B. 1708. D. 1777. Hallevi, Judah. See Judah Hallevi. Halley, Edmund, English astronomer. B. 1656. D. 1742. HaUiwell-Fhillipps, James Orchard, EngUsh Shakespearean scholar. B. 1830. D. 1889. Hals, Franciscus, Dutch painter. B. about 1584. D. 1666. Hamann, Johann Georg, German philosophical writer. B. 1780. D. 1788. Hamerling, Robert, German poet. B. 1880. D. 1889. Hamerton, Philip Gilbert, English writer on art. B. 1834 D. 1894 Hamilcar Barca, Carthaginian general. Slain 229 b. c. Hamilton, Alexander, American statesman, secretary of the treasury under Washington 1789-'95. B. Jan. 11, 1757. D. July 12, 1804 Hamilton, Anthony, count, writer. B. in Ireland about 1646. D. 1720. " Les memoires du comte de Gramont." Hamilton, Elizabeth, British authoress. B. 1758. D. 1816. Philosophical writings. " Memoirs of Modern Philosophers." " The Cottagers of Glen- burnie " (tale). Hamilton, Lady Emma, wife of the diplomatist Sir William Hamilton, no- torious through her connection with Queen Caroline of Naples and Ad- miral Nelson. B. about 1760. D. 1815. Hamilton, Robert, Scottish writer on finance, &c. B. about 1743. D. 1829. Hamilton, Sir William, British diplomatist, antiquary. B. 1730. D. 1803. Hamilton, Sir William, Scottish philosopher. B. 1788. D. 1856. Hamilton, William Gerard, English statesman. B. 1729. D. 1796. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 433 Hamilton, Sir William Rowan, Irish astronomer, mathematician. B. 1805. D. 1865. H a mlJTi, Hannibal, vice-pres't of United States 1861-'65. B. 1809. D. 1891. Hammer-Purgstall, Joseph von, (Jerman orientalist, historian. B. 1774 D. 1856. " Geschichte des osmanischen Keiohs." " Geschiohte der Golde- nen Horde." Works on Arabian, Turkish, and Persian literature. Hamon, Jean Louis, French painter. B. 1831. D. 1874 Hampden, John, English Puritan statesman. B. 1594 Killed 1643. Hampden, Benn Dickson, English divine, philosophical writer. B. 1793. D. 1868. Hampton, Wade, Confederate soldier, governor of South Carolina, senator of the United States. B. 1818. Hancock, John, American statesman. B. 1737. D. 1793. Hancock, Winfleld Scott, American general. B. 1824 D. 1886. Handel (ffer. HSndel), Georg Friedrich, German composer. B. Feb. 23, 1685. D. April 13, 1759. Hanka, Venceslav, Bohemian scholar. B. 1791. D. 1861. Hannibal, Carthaginian general, son of Hamilcar Barca. B. 247 b, c. D. about 183. Hanno, Carthaginian navigator. About 500 b. c. Hanno (the Great), Carthaginian general, party leader. Second half of 3d c. B. c. Hansen, Peter Andreas, German astronomer. B. 1795. D. 1874 Hansen, Theofilus, Austrian architect. B. in Denmark 1813. D. 1891. Hansteen, Christopher, Norwegian astronomer, physicist. B. 1784. D. 1873. Harald Har&ger, king of Norway. D. 933. Harcourt, Sir W. G. G. Vernon, English lawyer, statesman, writer. B. 1827. Hardee, William J., American tactician, Confederate general. B. 1815. D. 1873. Hardenberg, Friedrich von, baron ("Novalis"), German poet and prose writer. B. 1772. D. 1801. " Heinrich von Ofterdingen " (novel). Hardenberg, Karl August von, prince, Prussian statesman. B. 1750. D. 1822. Hardicanute, king of Denmark and England, son of Canute. Beigned in Denmark from 1035. Shared the possession of England with his half- brother, Harold Harefoot, 1035-7. Sole king of England from 1040. D. 1042. Hardinge, Henry, viscount, English general, governor general of India 1844-'8. B. 1785. D. 1856. Hardoiiin, Jean, French Jesuit, chronologist, numismatist, classical scholar, B. 1646. D. 1739. " Conciliomm coUectio." Hardwicke, Philip Yorke, first eari of, English jurist, B. 1690, D, 1764 Hardy, Gathorne, Lord Cranbrook, English statesman. B. 1814 29 434 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Hardy, Thomas, English novelist. B. 1840. Hare, Julius Charles, English clergyman. B. 1795. D. 1855. =* Guesses at Truth " (written in conjunction with his brother, Augustas William). Hare, Kobert, American chemist. B. 1781. D. 1858. Harg^aves, Edmund Hammond, discorerer of the gold fields of Australia in 1851. Haring, Wilhelm (" Wilibald Alexis "), German novelist. B. 1797. D. 1871. " Der neue Pitaval " (collection of famous trials). Hariri (Al-Hariri), Arabian poet. B. about 1050. D. about 1123. "Maka- mat." Harizi (Al-Harizi), Hebrew poet, translator and imitator of Hariri, native of Spain. D. before 1335. Harlay, AchiUe de, president of the Parliament of Paris. B. 1536. D. 1616. Harley, Robert, earl of Oxford, British prime-minister 1711-14. B. 1661. D. 1724. Harmodius and Aristogiton. Conspired to free Athens from Hippias and Hipparchus 514 b. c. Harold I., Harefoot, king of England, son of Canute. Beigned from 1035. D. 1040. Harold H., last Anglo-Saxon king of England. Ascended the throne 1066. Slain 1066. Harold Harfiager. See Habau) Eabfaggb. Haroun al-Bashid, caliph of Bagdad. Beigned 786-809. Harper, Robert Goodloe, American lawyer, statesman. B. 1765. D. 1835. Harpocration, Valerius, Greek grammarian of Alexandria. Lived between the 3d and 4th c. a. d. Harrington, James, English political philosopher. B. 1611. D. 1677. "Oceana" (plan of an ideal republic). Harriot, Thomas, English mathematician, astronomer. B. 1660. D. 1621. Harris, James, English philologist, critic. B. 1709. D. 1780. " Hermes, or a Philosophical Inquiry concerning Universal Grammar." Harris, Thaddeus William, American entomologist. B. 1795. D. 1856. Harris, Thomas Lake, American spiritualistic teacher, founder of the Brotherhood of the New Life. B. 1823. Harrison, Benjamin, president of the United States 1S89^'93. Grandson of William Henry Harrison. B, Aug. 30, 1833. Harrison, William Henry, general, president of the United States. B. Feb. 9, 1773. Inaugurated 1841. D. April 4, 1841. Hart, James McDongal, American painter. B. 1828. Hart, Solomon Alexander, English painter. B. 1806. D. 1881. Hart, William, American painter. B. 1823. D. 1894. Harte, Francis Bret, American writer of fiction, poet. B. 1839. Hartington, Spencer Compton Cavendish, marquis of, from 1891 duke of Devonshire, English statesman. B. 1833. BrOGRAPHlCAL DICTIONARY. 435 Hartley, David, English philosopher. B. 1705. D. 1757. " Observations on Man, his Frame, his Duty, and his Expectations." Hartmann, Eduard von, German philosopher. B. 1842. " Die PhUosophie des Unbewussten " (" The Philosophy of the Unconscious "). Hartmann, Moritz, German poet. B. 1821. D. 1872. Author of patriotic poems, novels, &c. Eartsoeker, Nicolaas, Dutch physicist, optician. B. 1656. D. 1735. Hartzenbusch, J. Eugenic, Spanish dramatist, writer of tales. B. 1806. D. 1880. Harvard, John, founder of Harvard College. B. 1607. D. 1638. Harvey, Sir George, Scottish painter. B. 1806. D. 1876. Harvey, William, English physiologist, discoverer of the circulation of the blood. B. 1578. D. 1657. Harwood, Edward, English Biblical and classical scholar. B. 1739. D. 1794 Hasdrubal, Carthaginian general, son-in-law of Hamilcar Barea. Murdered 321 B. c. Hasdrubal, Carthaginian general, brother of Hannibal. Slain 307 b. c. Hasdrubal, Carthaginian general, son of Gisco. D. about 302 b. c. Hasdrubal, Carthaginian commander in the third Punic War. Hase, Karl August, German theologian. B. 1800. D. 1890. " Das Leben Jesn." " Kirchengeschichte." Hasenclever, Johann Peter, German painter. B. 1810. D. 1853. Hasse, Johann Adolf, German compospr. B. 1699. D. 1783. Hasselquist, Fredrik, Swedish naturalist. B. 1722. D. 1752. Hasting, Northman, viking. B. about 812. D. about 900. Hastings, Francis Bawdon Hastings, marquis of (earl of Moira), English general, governor general of India from 1813 to the beginning of 1823. B. 1754. D, 1826. Hastings, Warren, governor general of India 1774-'85. B. 1732. D. 1818. Eauch, Johannes Carsten von, Danish poet. B. 1790. D. 1872. Eauer, Franz von, Austrian geologist, palseontologist. B. 1822. D. 1899. EaufC, Wilhelm, German writer of fiction. B. 1802. D. 1827. Haug, Martin, German orientalist. B. 1837. D. 1876. Hauksbee (Hawksbee), Francis, English physicist. D. after 1731, Haupt, Moritz, German philologist. B. 1808. D. 1874. Haupt, Paul, German-American Assyriologist, B. 1853. Hauptmann, Moritz, German composer, writer on music. B. 1793. D. 1868. E£u8ser, Ludwig, German historian. B. 1818. D. 1867. Eausemann, Georges Engine, baron, French politician, prefect of the Seine under Napoleon III. B. 1809. D. 1891. Eauy, Kene Just, French mineralogist. B. 1743. D. 1822. Hauy, "Valentin, French instructor of the blind. B. 1745. D. 1832. Havelock, Sir Henry, English commander in the East. B. 1795. D.. 1857. 436 BIOGBAPHICAL DICTIONA»Y. Hawke, Edward, baron, English admiiaL D. 1781. Hawkesworth, John, English author. B. about 1715. D. 1773. Essays in the " Adventurer." Hawkins, Benjamin Waterhouse, English naturalist, artist. B.1807. D.1889. Hawkins, Sir John, English naval commander. B. about 1530. D. 1595. Hawks, Francis Lister, American clergyman, author. B. 1798. D. 1866. Hawkskaw, Sir John, English civil engineer. B. 1811. D. 1891. Hawkwood, Sir John, English eondoUiere in Italy. D. 1394. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, American novelist. B. July 4, 1804 D. May 19, 1864. " The Scarlet Letter." " The House of the Seven Gables." " The Blithedale Romance." " The Marble Faun "(" Transformation "). "Twice- told Tales." " Mosses from an old Manse." " Our Old Home" (English sketches). Books for the young and other works. Haxthausen, August von, baron, German author. B. 1792. D. Dec. 31, 1866 (Jan. 1, 1867 1). Works on the agrarian institutions of East and West Prussia, on the social condition and agrarian institutions of Rus- sia, &c. Hayden, Ferdinand Vandeveer, American geologist. B. 1829. D. 1887. Haydn, Joseph, German composer. B. March 31, 1732. D. May 31, 1809. Haydn, Michael, German composer. B. 1737. D. 1806. Haydon, Benjamin Robert, English painter. B. 1786. D. 1846. Hayes, Augustus Allen, American chemist. B. 1806. D. 1882. Hayes, Isaac Israel, American Arctic explorer. B. 1832. D. 1881. Hayes, Rutherford Birohard, president of the United States 1877-'81. B. Oct. 4, 1822. D. Jan. 17, 1893. Haymerle, Heinrioh Karl von, baron, Austrian foreign minister 1879-'8L B. 1828. D. 1881. Haynau, Julius Jakob von, Austrian general. B. 1786. D. 1853. Hayne, Isaac, American soldier. B. 1745. Hanged 1781. Hayne, Robert Young, American statesman. B. 1791. D. 1840. Haynes, John, governor of the Massachusetts and Connecticut colonies. D. 1654. Hazlitt, Wmiam, English author, critic. B. 1778. D. 1830. "Characters of Shakespeare's Plays." " Original Essays." " The Spirit of the Age." " Political Essays." " Table Talk." " Life of Napoleon." Hazlitt, William, English scholar, translator of French historical works. B. 1811. D. 1893. Hazlitt, William Carew, English scholar, historian. ■ B. 1834 " History of the Venetian Republic."' " Old English Jest Books." " Remains of the Early Popular Poetry of England." " English Proverbs and Proverbial Phrases." Head, Sir Francis Bond, English author, lieutenant governor of Upper Canada 1835-'8. B. 1793. D. 1875. "Bubbles from the Brunnen of Nassau." " A Fagot of French Sticks." " Stokers and Pokers." " Th» Defenceless State of Great Britain." BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIOXART. ; 437 , Heaidley, Joel Tyler, American author. B. 1813. D. 1897. Healy, George Peter Alexander, American painter. B. about 1808. D. 1894. . Heame, Samuel, English explorer (Hudson Bay Territory). B. 1745. D. 1792. Heatbfield, Lord. See Eliott, Oeoboe Auoustcs. Hebbel, Friedrioh, German dramatist. B. 1813. D. 1868. Hebel, Johann Peter, German poet. B. 1760. D. 1826. Best known by his " AUemannische Gedichte " (written in the Swabian dialect). Heber, Reginald, English poet, clergyman, bishop of Calcutta. B. 1783. D. 1836. "Palestine." "Hymns." " Karrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India, from Calcutta to Bombay." Heber, Richard, English bibliomaniac. B. 1773. D. 1833. Hubert, Jacques Red6, French revolutionist. B. 1755. Executed 1794 HecatsBus, Greek historian, geographer. D. about 476 b. c. Hecker, Friedrich, German revolutionist. B. 1811. D. 1881. Hedge, Frederick Henry, American clergyman, author. B. 1805. D. 1890. Heemskerk. See Hemseebe. Heer, Oswald, Swiss naturalist. B. 1809. D. 1883. Heeren, Arnold Hermann Ludwig, German historian. B. 1760. D. 1842. Works on the governments and economic affairs of the ancient nations. History of antiquity. General history of Europe. Hefele, Karl Joseph von, German ecclesiastical historian, bishop of Rotten- burg. B. 1809. D. 1893. " ConcUiengeschichte." Hegel, Georg WUhelm Friedrich, German philosopher. B. Aug. 27, 1770. D. Nov. 14, 1831. Heiberg, Johann Ludwig, Danish dramatist. B. 1791. D. 1860. Heim, Frangois Joseph, French painter. B. 1787. D. 1865. Heine, Heinrich, Ger. poet. B. 1797 (1799 1). D. Feb. 17, 1856. " Das Buch der Lieder " (" The Book of Songs "). " Reisebilder " (" Pictures of Trav- el "), prose sketches, remarkable for wit and sarcasm. Heineccius, Johann Gottlieb, German jurist. B. 1681. D. 1741. Heinecken, Christian Heinrich, German intellectual prodigy. B. 1721. D. 1725. Heinicke, Samuel, German instructor of deaf-mutes. B. 1727. D. 1790. Heisse, Johann Jakob Wilhelm, German romance writer. B. 1749. D. 1803. Heinsiue, Antonius, grand pensionary of Holland. B. 1641. D. 1720. Heinsius, Daniel, Dutch classical scholar. B. 1580. D. 1655. Heinsiiis, Nicolaas, Dutch classical scholar. Latin poet. B. 1620. D. 1681. Helena, Saint, mother of Constantine the Great. B. 247. D. about 328. Heliodorus, Greek romance writer. About 300 A. d. (?) " ^thiopica." Heliogabalus. See Elagabalus. Hell, Maximilian, Austrian astronomer. B. 1720. D. 1792. Heller, Stephen, pianist, composer. B. in Hungary 1814. D. 1888. Helmholtz, Hermann, German scientist. B. 1821. D. 1894. Especially distinguished in the field of physiological optics and in that of acoustics; 438 BIOGKAPHICAL DICTIONARY. inventor of the ophthalmoscope (1851) and discoverer of the physiological facts connected with the perception of harmony. Helmont, Jan Baptista van, Flemish physician, chemist, phUqsopher. B, 1577. D. 1644. H^loi'se, French abbess, friend of Abelard. B. about 1101. D. about 1164, Helps, Sir Arthur, English author. B. 1813. D'. 1875. " Friends in Coun- cil." " Conversations on War and general Culture." " The Spanish Con- quest in America." Heist, Bartholomeus van der, Dutch painter. D. 1670. Helv^tius, Claude Adrien, French philosopher. B. 1715. D. 1771. H61yot, Pierre, French monk, historian. B. 1660. D. 1716. History of the religious orders. Hemans, Felicia Dorothea, English poetess. B. 1793. D. 1835, Hemling. See Memlino. Hemskerk, Martin van, Dutch painter. B. 1498. D. 1574 Hemsterkuys, Frans, Dutch philosopher. B. about 1720. D. 1790. Hemsterhuys, Tiberius, Dutch classical scholar. B. 1685. D. 1766. Hendricks, Thomas Andrews, American politician. B. 1819. D. 1885. Hengist and Horsa, leaders of the Jutes who landed in Britain m 449, and began the English conquest. Hengstenberg, Ernst Wilhelm, German Biblical critic. B. 1802. D. 1869. Henle, Friedrich Grustav Jakob, German physiologist, anatomist. B. 1809. D. 1885. Henley, John, English clergyman, lecturer, author. B. 1692. D. 1756. Hennepin, Louis, missionary, explorer of the Mississippi River. B. in the Spanish Netherlands about 1640. D. after 1701. Henrietta Anna, daughter of Charles I. of England, duchess of Orleans. B. 1644. D. 1670. Henrietta DCaria, queen of Charles I. of England, daughter of Henry IV, of France. B. 1609. D. 1669. Henriquel-Dupont, Louis Pierre, French engraver. B. 1797. D. 1893. Henry I., king of England, son of William the Conqueror and brother of William Rufus. B. about 1068. Reigned from 1100. D. 1185. Henry II. (Henry Plantagenet), king of England, son of Matilda, daughter of Henry I., and of Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou. B. 1133. Reigned from 1154. D. 1189. Henry III., king of England, son of John. B. 1307. Reigned from 1216. D. 1372. Henry IV., king of England, son of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, son of Edward III. B. 1366 or 1367. Reigned from 1399. D. 1413. Henry V., king of England, son of Henry IV. B. 1388 or 1387. Reigned from 1413. D. 1422. Henry VI., king of England, son of Henry V. B. 1421. Reigned 1422-'61, 1470-'71. D. 1471. Henry VII,, king of England, grandson of Owen Tudor and Catharine of BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 439 Valois, widow of Henry V. B. 1457. Keigned from 1485. D. 1509. (Previous to his accession styled earl of Bichmond.) Henry VIII., king of England, son of Henry VII. B. 1491. Beigned from 1509. D. 1547. Henry I., king of France. Reigned from 1031. D. 1060. Henry H., king of France, son of Francis I. B. 1519. Reigned from 1547. Accidentally kUled 1559. Husband to Catharine de' Medici. Henry m., king of France, son of Henry II. and Catharine de' Medici. B. ■1551. King of Poland 1573-'4. Reigned in France from 1574 Assas- sinated 1589. (Previous to his accession styled duke of Anjou.) Henry IV., king of France, founder of the Bourbon dynasty, son of Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, and of Antoine de Bourbon. B. Dec. 1553. King of Navarre' from 1572. King of France from 1589. Assassinated May 14, 1610. Henry I., the Fowler, king of Germany, first of the Saxon dynasty. Reigned from 919. D. 936. Henry II., emperor of Germany, great-grandson of Henry I. B. 972. Reigned from 1002. D. 1024. Henry m., emperor of Germany, son of Conrad II. (the founder of the Franoonian dynasty). B. 1017. Reigned from 1039. D. 1066. Henry IV., emperor of Germany, son of Henry III. B. 1050. Reigned from 1056. D. 1106. Henry V., emperor of Germany, son of Henry IV. B. 1081. Reigned from 1106. D. 1125. Henry VI., emperor of Germany, king of Sicily, son of Frederick Barba- rossa. B. 1165. Reigned in Germany from 1190 ; in the Two Sicilies, from 1194 D. 1197. Henry VH., emperor of Germany, first of the house of Luxemburg. B. 1263. Reigned from 1308. D. 1313. Henry, king of Navarre. See Henbt IV., king of France. Henry, prince, brother of Frederick the Great, general. B. 1726. D. 1802. Henry the Hermit (Henry of Lausanne), founder of the sect of flenricians. D. about 1149. Henry the JAon, duke of Saxony and Bavaria. B. 1129. D. 1195. Henry of Trastamare, king of Castile, brother of Pedro the Cmel. Reigned 1366-'7, 1369-'79. Henry the Navigator, son of John I. of Portugal. B. 1394 D. 1460. Henry, Joseph, American physicist. B. 1797. D. 1878. Distinguished by his researches in the field of electro-magnetism. Henry, Matthew, English Biblical scholar. B. 1662. D. 1714. Henry, Patrick, American patriot, orator. B. 1736. D. 1799. Henryson, Robert, Scottish poet. Second haU of 15th c. Henselt, Adolf, German pianist. B. 1814 D. 1889. Hentz, Caroline Lee (born Whiting), American writer of fiction. B. 180ft D. 1856. 440 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Hepheestion, favorite of Alexander the Great. B. 335 or 334 b. a Heraclitiis, Greek philosopher. About close of 6th e. b. c. Heraclius, Byzantine emperor. Beigned 610-641. H^raiilt de S^chelles, Marie Jean, French revolutionist. B. 1760. Exe- cuted 1794. Herbort, Johann Friedrioh, German philosopher. B. 1776. D. 1841. Eerbelot, Barthelemy d', French orientalist. B. 1625. D. 1695. " Biblio- thSque orientale " (enoyclopffidic work on the peoples of the East). Herbert, Edward, Lord, Eng. phUosopher. B. about 1581. D.164a "Trac- tatus de Veritate." " History of the Life and Eeign of Henry VIII." Herbert, George, English poet. B. 1593. D. 1633. Herbert, Henry "William (" Frank Forester "), American author. B. 1807. D. 1858. Herbert, Sidney, English secretary of war. B. 1810. D. 1861. Herbert, William, earl of Pembroke, English poef. B. 1580. D. 1630. Herciiluio de Carvallio e Araujo, Alexandro, Portuguese poet, novelist, historian. B. 1810. D. 1877. Herder, Johann Gottfried von, German philosophical writer, poet, critic. B. 1744 D. 1803. "Geist der EbrSisohen Poesie" ("Spirit of Hebrew Poetry"). "Ideen zur Philosophic der Geschichte der Menschheit" ("Outlines of a Philosophy of the History of Man"). "Volkslieder" (translations from the poetry of various nations). Translation of the ro- mances of the Oid. Herkomer, Hubert, English painter. B. in Crermany 1849. Hermann. See AsHiNins. Hermann, Gottfried, German classical scholar. B. 1773. D. 1848. Hermes, Georg, German Catholic theologian, philosopher. B. 1775. D, 1831. Hermogenes, Greek rhetorician. Flourished at Bome in the reign of Mar- cus Aurelius. Hemdon, William Lewis, American explorer of the valley of the Amazon, &c. B. 1813. D. 1857. Hero. See Hebon. Herod the Oreat, king of Judea. Appointed king 40 b. c. Master of the realm 37. D. 4 b. c. Herod Agrippa I., king of Judea, grandson of Herod the Great, Beigned A. D. 37-44 (over the whole of Palestine from 41). Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee, son of Herod the Great. Beigned from 4 B. c. Deposed a. d. 40.* Herodes Atticus, Athenian rhetorician, famous for his munificence. D, about A. D. 177. Herodian, Greek writer on Roman history, early part of 3d'C a. d. * See an article by Prof. Sattler in tlie supplement to the "Allgemeine Zeitiuig"of Uarcli 13, 1883. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 441 Herodotus, Greek historian. B. about 484 b. c. Harold, Louis Joseph Ferdinand, French composer. B. 1791. D. 1833. Heron (Hero), mathematician and natural philosopher of Alexandria. About loo B. c. (t). perhaps as late as the first c. a. d. HerophiluB, anatomist of Alexandria. About 300 b. c. Herostratus. See Frostbatus. Herrera (Herrera y Tordesillas), Antonio de, Spanish historian. B. 1549. D. 1635. History of the deeds of the Spanish discoverers and conquerors , in the New World. Herrera, Fernando de, Spanish poet. B. about 1534. D. 1597. Herrera, Francisco de, Spanish painter. B. 1576. D. 1656. Herrera, Francisco de, Spanish painter, architect. B. 1633. D. 1685. Herreros, Breton detos. See Breton de los Hereeros. Herrick, Eobert, English lyric poet. B. 1591. D. 1674. Herschel, Caroline Lucretia, English astronomer, sister of Sir William Her- soheL B. in Hanover 1760. D. 1848. Herschel, Sir John, English astronomer, son of Sir William Herschel. B. 1793. D. 1871. Herschel, Sir William, English astronomer. B. in Hanover 1738. D. 1833. Hertz, Henrik, Danish poet, dramatist, writer of fiction. B. 1798. D. 1870. Masterpiece, "King Rene's Daughter" (lyrical drama). Hertzberg, Gustav, Grerman historian. B. 1836. Works on Greek, Roman, and Byzantine history. Hertzen (Herzen), Alexander, Russian author, political agitator. B. 1813. D. 1870. HerrS (Florimond Ronger), French composer. B. 1835. D. 1893. Hervey, James, English clergyman, author. B. 1713 or 1714. D. 1758. "Meditations and Contemplations." Herwegh, Georg, German poet. B. 1817. D. 1875. Herz, Henriette, German-Jewish lady. B. 1764. D. 1847. Herzen. See Hertzen. Herzog, Johann Jakob, German Protestant ecclesiastical encyclopaedist. B. 1805. D. 1882. Hesiod, Greek poet. Flourished probably about 800 b. o. " Theogony." " Works and Days." Hess, Heinrich von, German painter. B. 1798. D. 1863. Hess, Karl Adolf Heinrich, German painter. B. 1769. D. 1849. Hess, Karl Ernst Christoph, German engraver. B. 1755. D. 1838. Hess, Peter, German painter. B. 1793. D. 1871. Hesse, J. B. Alexandre, French painter. B. 1806. D. 1879. Hesse, Nicolas Augnste, French painter. B. 1795. D. 1869. Hesycliius, Greek lexicographer of Alexandria. 4th c. A. d. Hesychius of Miletus, historian. Early part of 6th c. a. d. Heuglin, Theodor von, baron, German traveler in northeastern Africa, natu- ralist. B. 1824. D. 1876. 442 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Hevelius (Hevel), Johannes, astronomer of Dantzic. B. 1611. D, 1681 (1688 f). Heyden, Jan van der, Dutch painter. B. about 1637. D. 1713. Heyne, Christian Gottlob, German classical scholar, B. 1739. D. 1812. Heyse, Paid, German poet, novelist. B. 1830. Heywood, John, English author. D. about 1565. Interludes, epigrams, proverbs, &c. Heywood, Thomas, BngUsh dramatist, D. about 1650. Hezekiah, king of Judah. Reigned 738-697 b. c. {Dvncker; 727-698, Hickes, George, English clergyman, scholar, author. B, 1643, D, 1715, Worlss on the old Teutonic languages, Hickok, Laurens Perseus, American philosopher, B, 1798, D. 1888, Hicks, Elias, American Quaker preacher, B, 1748. D. 1830, Hidalgo (Hidalgo y Costilla), Miguel, Mexican revolutionist. Shot 1811, Hiero (Hieron), tyrant of Syracuse. Reigned from about 478 B. c. D, 467. Hiero, king of Syracuse. Reigned from 370 b. c. D. 316. Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, American author. B. 1833. Hilarion, Saint, founder of Monachism in Palestine. B. about 391, D, about 371. Hilary (Hilarius), Saint, bishop of Poitiers, D, about 367, Hildebrand, See Gbbqoet VII. Hildebrandt, Theodor, German painter, B. 1804 D, 1874, Hildegard, Saint, German nun, B. about 1098, D. about 1179, Hildreth, Richard, American author, B, 1807. D. 1865. "History of the United States." Hill, Ambrose Powell, Confederate general. B. about 1835. Killed 1865. Hill, Rowland, English preacher. B. 1744. D. 1833. Hill, Rowland, viscount, English general. B. 1772. D. 1843. Hill, Sir Rowland, author of the cheap postage system in Great Britain, B. 1795. D. 1879. Hillard, George Stillman, American author. B. 1808. D. 1879. Hillel, Jewish rabbi, president of the Sanhedrim, Second half of first c. B. c, Hillel, Jewish rabbi, who perfected the Jewish calendar. 4th c, a, d. Hiller, Ferdinand, German composer, B, 1811, D, 1885, Hilton, "William, English painter. B. 1786, D, 1839, Hincmar, archbishop of Rheims, B, about 806. D. 883. Hind, John Russell, English astronomer. B. 1833. D. 1895. Hipparchus, ruler of Athens. Succeeded his father, Pisistratus, Jointly with his brother, HippiaS, 537 b. o. Slain 514. Hipparchus, Greek astronomer, native of Bithynia. 3d c. b. c. Hippias, ruler of Athens. Succeeded his father, Pisistratus, jointly with his brother, Hipparchus, 537 b. c. (see Hipparchus). Expelled 510. Hippocrates, Greek physician. B. about 460 b. c, B, iibout 360. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 443 Eippolytus, Saint, ecclesiastical writer (in Greek). First part of 3d c. Hipponax, Greelc poet. 6th o. b. c. Hirtius, Aulus, Roman consul, general. Slain 43 b. c. Hitchcock, Edward, American geologist. B. 1793. D. 1864. Hittorfif, Jacques Ignaoe, French architect. B. 1793. D. 1867. Hitzig, Ferdinand, German Biblical critic. B. 1807. D. 1875. Hitzig, Georg Heinrioh Priedrioh, German architect. B. 1811. D. 1881. Hoadley, Benjamin, English divine. B. 1676. D. 1761. Hobbema, Minderhout, Dutch painter. D. 1709. Hobbes, Thomas, English philosopher. B. 1588. D. 1679. " Leviathan, or the Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and CivU." Eobhouse, John Cam, Lord Broughton, English statesman, author. B. 1786. D. 1869. " Journey through Albania and other Provinces of Tur- key with Lord Byron." Hoche, Lazare, French general. B. 1768. D. 1797. Hochstetter, Ferd. von, Austrian geologist, mineralogist. B. 1829. D. 1884 Hodge, Charles, American theologian. B. 1797. D. 1878. Hoeven, Jan van der, Dutch naturalist. B. 1801. D. 1868. Hofer, Andreas, Tyrolese patriot. B. 1767. Shot 1810. HSfer, Edmund, German novelist. B. 1819. D. 1883. HofiOnan, Charles Fenno, American author. B. 1806. D. 1884. HofEhian, David, American lawyer, writer on law. B. 1784. D. 1854. HofftnftTiTi, Ernst Theodor Amadeus, German writer. B. 1776. D. 1833. Author of humorous and fantastic tales. Hoffinann, Friediich, German physician. B. 1660. D. 1743. Hofi&nann von Fallersleben, August Eeinrich, German poet, critic, liter- ary historian. B. 1798. D. 1874. Hofland, Barbara, English authoress. B. 1770. D. 1844, Novels and moral tales. Hfifler, Konstantin, German historian. B. 1811. Works on German his- tory. Hofiuann, August Wilhelm, German chemist. B. 1818. D. 1893. Hofmann, Heinrich Johann Ferdinand Michael, German painter. B. 1884. Hogarth, William, English artist. B. 1697. D. 1764. Hogg, James (the "Ettrick Shepherd"), Scottish poet. B. 1770 or 1773. D. 1835. Hohenlohe, Friedrich Ludwig, prince, Prussian general. B. 1746. D. 1818. Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst, Chlodwig, prince, German statesman, diplo-, matist, chancellor of the German Empire since 1894. B. 1819. Holbach, Paul Henri Thyry d', baron, French philosopher. B. 1723. D. 1789. " Le Christianisme devoile " (" Christianity unveiled "). " Le sys- t^me de la nature, ou des lois du monde physique et moral." Holbein, Hans, German painter. B. about 1497. D. 1543. Holberg, Ludvig, baron, Danish author. B. 1684. D. 1754. Comedies, 444 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAKT. Comic poems. " The Subterranean Travels of Nicholas Elim " (satirical story, written in Latin). Histoiy of Denmark. Holbrook, John Edwards, American naturalist. B. 1795. D. 1871. Holcroft, Thomas, English dramatist. B. 1745. D. 1809. ^Holinshed (Holingshed), Baphael, English writer of annals. D, about 1580. Holland, Sir Henry, English physician. B. 1788. D. 1873. Holland, Henry Richard Yassall Fox, Lord, English statesman. B. 1773. D. 1840. Author of " Memoirs of the Whig Party." Holland, Josiah Gilbert (" Tiniothy Titcomb "), American author. B. 18191 D. 1881. Hollar, Wenzel, Bohemian-English engraver. B. 1607. D. 1677. Holmes, Oliver Wendell, American humorous writer (prose and poetry), physician. B. 1809. D. 1894. " The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table." " The Professor at the Breakfast Table." " The Poet at the Breakfast Table." " Elsie Venner, a Romance of Destiny." " Over the Teacups." Hoist, Hans Peder, Danish poet, novelist. B. 1811. D. 1893. Hoist, Hermann von, German historian. B. 1841. " Verfassungsgeschiehte der Vereinigten Staaten " (" Constitutional History of the United States "). Holt, Sir John, chief justice of England. B. 1643. D. 1710. Holtei, Karl von, German poet, dramatist. B. 1798. D. 1880. HSlty, Ludwig Heinrich Christoph, German poet. B. 1748. D. 1776. Holtzendorff, Franz von, German jurist. B. 1829. D. 1889. Holub, Emil, Bohemian traveler in South Africa, naturalist. B. 1847. Home, Daniel Dunglas, British spiritualist. B. 1838. D. 1886. Home, Sir Everard, Scottish surgeon, anatomist. B. 1756. D. 1832. Home, Henry, Lord Kames. See Kames. Home (Hume), John, Scottish dramatist. B. 1732. D. 1808. Homer, Greek poet. Flourished about 900 b. c. (1). Hone, William, English author. B. about 1779. D. 1842. "ThePoUtical House that Jack built" (satire). "Every-day Book." "Table BooL" " Year Book." Honorius, emperor of the West, son of Theodosius. Reigned 395-483, Honorius I., pope. Elected about 635. D. 638. Honorius II., pope. Elected 1124. D. 1130. Honorius m., pope. Elected 1216. D. 1227. Honorius IV., pope. Elected 1285. D. 1387. Hontheim, Johann Nikolaus von, German ecclesiastic, famous for his writ- ings attacking the papal power. B. 1701. D. 1790. Hood, Alexander (Viscount Bridport), British naval commander. D. 1814 Hood, John B., Confederate general. B. 1881. D, 1879. Hood, Samuel, viscount, British admiral. B. 1724. D. 1816. Hood, Thomas, English poet, humorist. B. 1799. D. 1845. " The Dream of Eugene Aram." "The Song of the Shirt." " The Bridge of Sighs." « The Plea of the Midsummer Fairies." BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 445 Hooft, Fieter CSomeliszoon, Dutch historian (history of the Ketherlands]y poet. B. 1581. D. 1647. Hooghe (Hooch), Pieter de, Butch painter. Second hall of 17th c. Hook, Theodore Edward, English author. B. 1788. D. 1841. Humorous novels, dramas. Hook, Walter Farquhar, English clergyman, author. B. 1798. D. 1875, " Church Dictionary.'' " Ecclesiastical Biogfraphy." " Lives of the Arch- bishops of Canterbury." Hooke, Robert, English scientist, B. 1635. D. 1703. Hooker, Joseph, American general. 6. 1814. D. 1879. Hooker, Sir Joseph Dalton, English botanist, son of Sir W. J. Hooker. B. 1817. Hooker, Richard, English divine. B. about 1553. D. 1600. "The Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity." Hooker, Thomas, clergyman, one of the founders of Connecticut. B. 1586. ' D. 1647. Hooker, Sir William Jackson, English botanist. B. 1785. D. 1865. Hooker, Worthington, American physician, author. B. 1806. D. 1867. "Child's Book of Nature." Hooper, John, English bishop. B. about 1495. Burned 1555. Hoom, Philip, count of See Horn. Hope (Beresford-Hope), Alexander James, English politician, author. B. 1830. D. 1887. Hope, Thomas, English author. B. about 1770. D. 1831. Hopkins, Edward, governor of Connecticut B. 1600. D. 1657. Hopkins, Samuel, American theologian. B. 1721. D. 1803. Hopkinson, Francis, American patriot, humorous political writer. B. 1737. D. 1791. Best remembered production, " The Battle of the Kegs." Hopkinson, Joseph, American lawyer, author of "HaQ Columbia." B. 1770. D. 1843. Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus), Latin poet. B. 65 b. c. D. 8 b. c. Odes, satires, epistles (including " De Arte Poetica "). Hormayr, Joseph, baron, German historian. B. 1781. D. 1848. Horn, Gustaf, Swedish general in the Thirty Years' War. B. 1593. D. 1657. Horn (Hoom, Hoome), Philip, count of, noble and patriot of the Nether- lands. B. 1533. Executed 1568. Home, George, English Biblical scholar. B. 1730. D. 1793. Home, Richard Hengist (Henry), Eng. poet, dramatist. B. 1803. D. 1884 Home, Thomas Hartwel^ English Biblical scholar, author. B. 1780. D. 1862. Home Tooke. See Tooke. Homer, Francis. British statesman. B. 1778. D. 1817. Horrocks (Horrox), Jeremiah, English astronomer. B. about 1619. D. 1641. Horsley, John Calleott, English painter. B. 1817. 446 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Horsley, Samuel, English bishop, scholar. B. 1733. D. 1806. Hortense, queen of Holland. See Beauharnais. Hortensiua, Quintus, Roman orator. B. 114 b. c. D. 50. Horvath, Mih^Jy, Hungarian historian. B. 1809. D. 1878. History ol Hungary. Hosack, David, American physician. B. 1769. D. 1835. Eosea, Hebrew prophet. 8th c. b. c. Hotho, Heinrioh Grustav, German writer on art. B. 1803. D. 1873. Hottinger, Johann Heinrioh, Swiss Biblical scholar, orientalist. B. 1620. D. 1667. Houdetot, :6lisabeth Prangoise Sophie d', countess, French lady. B, about 1730. D. 1813. Houdin, Robert, French juggler, mechanician. B. 1805. D. 1871. Houdon, Jean Antoine, French sculptor. B. 1741 (1740 f). D. 1828. Houghton, Richard Monckton Milnes, Lord, English statesman, poet, essayist. B. 1809. D. 1885. Houston, Sam, American soldier, president and governor of Texas. B. 1793. D. 1868. Hovedon, Roger de, English chronicler. End of 12th c. Howard, Charles, Lord Howard of Effingham, earl of Nottinghaim, English admiral. B. 1536. D. 1624. Howard, Frederick. See Carlisle, earl op. Howard, George William Frederick. See Carlisle, earl op. Howard, Henry, earl of Surrey. See Surrey. Howard, John, English philanthropist (prison reform). B. 1726. D. 1790. Howard, John Eager, American soldier. B. 1752. D. 1827. Howard, Oliver Otis, American general. B. 1830. Howard, Thomas. See Norfolk and Arundel. Howe, Blias, American inventor (sewing-machine). B. 1819. D. 1867. Howe, John, English clergyman, author. B. 1680. D. 1705. Howe, Julia Ward, American authoress, advocate of woman's rights, wife of S. G. Howe. B. 1819. Howe, Richard, earl, British admiral. B. 1726. D. 1799. Howe, Samuel Gridley, American philanthropist. B. 1801. D. 1876. Howe, Sir WUliam, British general. B. 1729. D. 1814. Howell, James, English author. B. about 1596. D. 1666. Howells, William Dean, American novelist, dramatist. B. 1837. Howitt, Mary (Botham), English authoress, wife of William Howitt. R about 1804 D. 1888. Howitt, William, English author. B. 1792. D. 1879. Hoyle, Edmund, English writer on whist, &c. B. 1672. D. 1769. Hrabanus IXaurus. See Rabanus Maurus. Huber, PranQois, Swiss naturalist. B. 1750. D. 1831. Noted for his in- vestigations in the natural history of the bee. Huber, Jean Rodolphe, Swiss painter. B. 1668. D. 1748. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 447 HUbner, Julius, German painter. B. 1806. D. 1883. Hug, :6variste Regis, French traveler in Tartary, Thibet, and China. B. 1813. D. 1860. Hudson, Henry, English navigator. D. about 1611. Huet, Pierre Daniel, French scholar, philosophical and reUgious writer. B. 1630. D. 1721. Hufeland, Christoph Wilhelm, German physician. B. 1763. D. 1886. " Makrobiotik, oder die Kunst das menschliche Leben zu verlfingem" (on the art of prolonging life). Hiigel, Karl Alexander Anselm von, baron, German traveler. B. 1796. D. 1870. " Kaschmir und das Reich der Sikhs." " Das Becken von Kabul." Huggins, William, English spectroscopist. B. 1824. Hugh Capet, king of France. Reigned from 987. D. 996. Hughes, John, archbishop of New York. B. 1797. D. 1864. Hughes, Thomas, English author. B; 1828. D. 1896. "Tom Brown's School Days." " Tom Brown at Oxford." Hugo, Gustav, Grerman jurist. B. 1764. D. 1844. Hugo, Victor, French poet, dramatist, novelist, politician. B. Feb. 26, 1802. D. May 32, 1885. "Marion Delorme," "Hemani," "Le roi s'amuse," "Ruy Bias" (dramas), 1839-'88. "Notre Dame de Paris" (novel), 1831. " Les feuilles d'automne " (poems), 1831. " Les chfitiments " (poetical sat- ires against Napoleon III.), 1853. " Les contemplations " (poems), 1856. "Les miserables," "Les travailleurs de la mer," "L'homme qui rit," "Quatre-vingt-treize" (novels), 1862-'74. Hull, Isaac, American naval ofBcer. B. about 1773. D. 1843. Hull, William, American general. B. 1753. D. 1825. HuUah, John, Eng. teacher of vocal music, writer on music. B. 1812. D. 1884 Humbert, king of Italy since 1878, son of Victor Emanuel. B, March 14, 1844. Humboldt, Alexander von, baron, German traveler, naturalist. B. Sept. 14, 1769. D. May 6, 1859. "Voyage aux regions equinoxiales du nouveau continent, fait en 1799-1804 " (the work of several scientists, dealing with physical geography, geology, zoology, botany, trigonometrical operations and barometrical measurements, antiquities, &c.). "Ansichten der Na- tur " (" Views of Nature "). " Des lignes isothermes et de la distribution de la chaleur sur le globe." " Examen critique de I'histoire de la geogra- phic du nouveau continent." " Asie centrale, recherches sur les chaines de montagnes et la climatologie comparee." "Kosmos" (Humboldt's principal work, embracing the whole range of natural science), 1845-'58. Humboldt, Wilhelm von, baron, German statesman, philologist, brother of Alexander von Humboldt. B. 1767. D. 1835. Hume, David, Scottish philosopher, historian. B. April 26, 1711. D. Aug. 25, 1776. "Treatise of Human Nature," 1739-1740. "Essays, Moral, Political, and Literary," first collection 1741. " Inquiry concerning the Human Understanding " (" Philosophical Essays"), 1748, " Inquiry con- 448 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. cerning the Principles of Morals," 1751. " Political Discourses," 1752. " History of England," 1754-'61. " Natural History of ReUgion," 1757. " Dialogues concerning Natural Religion," 1779. Hume, Joseph, British statesman. B. 1777. D. 1855. Hummel, Johann Nepomuk, German pianist, composer. B. 1778. D. 1837, Hunfalvy, P41, Hungarian philologist. B. 1810. D. 1891. Huimiades. See Huntadt. Hunt, Henry, English radical politician. B. 1773. D. 1835. Hunt, James Henry Leigh, English author. B. 1784. D. 1859. Poems, essays, literary criticisms. " Recollections of Lord Byron and some of his Contemporaries." " Autobiography." Hunt, Thomas Sterry, American chemist, geologist. B. 1836. D. 1892. Hunt, William, English painter. B. 1790. D. 1864. Hunt, WiUiam Holman, English painter. B. 1827. Hunt, William Morris, American painter. B. 1824. D. 1879. Hunter, John, British anatomist, surgeon. B. 1728. D. 1793. Hunter, William, British anatomist, physician, brother of John Hunter. B. 1718. D. 1783. Hunter, William Wilson, English statistician, philologist, author. B. 1840. " Annals of Rural Bengal." " Comparative Dictionary of the Non- Aryan Languages of India and High Asia." " Imperial Gazetteer of India." Huntingdon, Selina, countess of, patron of Calvinistic Methodism. B. 1707. D. 1791. Huntington, Daniel, American painter. B. 1816. Huntington, Samuel, American patriot. D. 1796. Hunyady (Hunyad, Hunniades), Jdnos (John), Hungarian general, regent of Hungary. D. 1456. Hurd, Richard, English prelate, writer. B. 1730. D. 1808. Huskisson, William, English statesman. B. 1770. D. 1830. Huss, John, Bohemian religious reformer. B. 1369. Burned 1415. Hutoheson, Francis, Scottish philosopher. B. 1694. D. about 1747. "In- quiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue." " System of Moral Philosophy." Hutchinson, Anne, religious enthusiast. B. in England about 1591. Emi- grated to Boston 1634; banished from there 1637. Murdered by the Indians (burned ?) 1643. Hutchinson, John, English Puritan officer. B. 1616. D. 1664. Hutchinson, John, English natural philosopher (opponent of Newton's theory of gravitation), theologian, writer. B. 1674 D. 1737. Hutchinson, Thomas, governor of Massachusetts 1769-'74 B. 1711. D. 1780. Hutten, TJlrich von, German writer, one of the first promoters of tha Reformation. B. 1488. D. 1523. Hutton, Charles, English mathematician. B. 1737. D. 1833. Hutton, James, Scottish geologist. B. 1736. D. 1797. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAKT. 449 Huxley, Thomas Henry, Bng. naturalist. B.May 4, 1825. D. June 29, 1895. Huygens, Christian, Dutch physicist, mathematician. B. 1629. D. 1695. Hyacinthe, Pere. See Lotson. Hyde, Edward. See Claeendon. Hyde, Thomas, English orientalist. B. 1636. D. 1703. Hyder AZi, sultan of Mysore. B. about 1718. D. 1782. Hypatia, female Keo-Platonic philosopher of Alexandria. Murdered A. s. 415. Hyperides, Athenian orator. Put to death 322 b. c. Hyrcanus I. (John Hyrcanus), ruler and high priest of the Jews, son of Simon MaceabiBUS. Ruled from 135 b. c. D, 105. Hyrcantis IX., ruler and high priest of the Jews, son of Alexander Jannseus. Put to death 30 b. o. Hyrtl, Joseph, Austrian anatomist. B. 1810. D. 1894. lambliclius, Neo-Platonic philosopher. Flourished in Syria early in the 4th c A. D. Iberville, Pierre le Moyne, sieur d', French commander, who founded a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi, which he afterward transferred to the site of Mobile. B. in Canada 1661. D. 1706. Ibn Batuta. See Batuta. Ibrahiia Fasha, Egyptian general, son of Mehemet Ali. B. 1789. D. 1848. Ibsen, Henrik, Norwegian dramatist. B. 1828: Ibycus, Greek poet. 6th c. B. o. Ictinus, Greek architect. Second half of 5th c. b. c. Iffland, August Wilhelm, German dramatist. B. 1759. D. 1814. Ignatiefi^ Nikolai, Russian diplomatist. B. 1832. ^natiiis. Saint, patriarch of Constantinople. D. 878. Ignatius, Saint (Ignatius Loyola). See Loyola. ImmermaJin, Karl, German novelist, dramatist. B. 1796. D. 1840. Imola, Innocenzio da, Italian painter. D. about 1550. Inchbald, Elizabeth (bom Simpson), English dramatist, novelist. B. 1753. D. 1821. Ines de Castro, wife of Pedro, son of Alfonso IV. of Portugal. Assassi- nated 1355. Ingelow, Jean, English poetess, writer of fiction. B. about 1830. D. 1897. Ingemann, Bembard Severin, Danish poet. B. 1789. D. 1862. Inghirami, Francesco, Italian antiquary. B. 1772. D. 1846. "Monumenti etruschi." Inghirami, Tommaso, Italian scholar, poet, orator (Latin writings and orations). B. 1470. D. 1516. Ingres, Jean Dominique Auguste, French painter. B. 1781. D. 1867. SO 450 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Ingulphus, English monk. B. about 1030. D. 1109. Inness, George, American painter. B. 1835. D. 1894 Innocent I., Saint, bishop of Rome. Elected 403. D. 417. Innocent II., pope. Elected 1130. D. 1143. Innocent IH., pope. Elected 1198. D. 1316. Innocent XI., popa Elected 1676. D. 1689. Iphicrates, Athenian commander. First half of 4th o. B. c. Ireland, William Henry, English literary impostor. B. 1777. D, 1835. Irenseus, Saint, Greek father of the chvirch. B. about 203. Irene, empress of the East. B. about 753. Regent for her son, Constantine VI., and afterward his associate in the empire 780-797. Empress alone 797-803. D. 803. Ireton, Henry, English Parliamentary general. B. about 1611. D. 1651. Iriarte. See Ybiabte. Irving, Edward, Scottish preacher. B. 1793. D. 1834 Irving, John Henry Brodribb, English actor. B. 1838. Irving, Washington, American author. B. April 3, 1783. D. Nov. 28, 1859. Principal works in the order of their production : " History of New York by Diedrich Knickerbocker " 1809 ; " Sketch Book " ; " Brace-, bridge Hall " ; " Tales of a Traveler " ; " History of Christopher Colum- bus " ; " Conquest of Granada " ; " The Companions of Columbus " ; " The Alhambra " ; " Oliver Goldsmith " ; " Mahomet and his Succes- sors " ; " Life of George Washington " 1855-'9. Isaac Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 1057-9. D. 1061. Isaac Angelus, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 1185-'95, 1203-'4 Put to death 1204 Isabella, wife of Edward 11. B. about 1292. D. 1358. Isabella, queen of Castile. B. 1451. Married to Ferdinand, prince of Ara- gon, 1469. Ascended the throne of Castile 1474 D. 1504 Isabella II., queen of Spain, daughter of Ferdinand VII. and Maria Chris- tma. B. 1830. Reigned from 1833. Dethroned 1868. Mother of Al- fonso XII. Isabey, Eugene Louis Gabriel, French painter. B. 1804. D. 1886. Isabey, Jean Baptiste, French miniature painter. B. 1767. D. 1855. Isseus, Athenian orator. First half of 4th c. b. c. Isaiah, Hebrew prophet. Latter part of 8th o. b. c. Isidorus, Saint, bishop of Seville, scholar. D. 636. Isla, Jos6 Francisco de, Spanish author. D. 1781 (1783 1). "Historia del famoso predicador Pray Gerundio de Campazas" (satire on the clergy). Ismail Pasha, khedive of Egypt. B. 1830. Reigned 1863-'79. D. 1895. laocrates, Athenian orator. B. 436 b. c. D. 338. Isturiz, Francisco Xavier de, Spanish statesman. B. 1790. D. 1871. Iturbide, Augustin de, emperor of Mexico. B. 1783. Reigned 182a-'3l Shot 1834 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 451 Ivan m., the Great, ruler of Russia. Reigned from 1463. D. 1505. Ivan rV., the Terrible, czar of Russia. B. 1530 (1529 ?). Reigned from 1533. D. 1584. Ivan v., czar of Russia. Reigned jointly with his half-brother, Peter the Great, 1682-'9. D. 1696. Ivan VI., czar of Russia, son of Anna Ivanovna. B. 1740. Czar 1740-'41. Put to death 1764. Ivory, James, British mathematician, B. 1765. D. 1842. Jackson, Andrew, general, president of the United States 1829-'37. B. March 15, 1767. D. June 8, 1845. Jackson, Charles Thomas, one of the inventors of etherization. B. in Massa^ chusetts 1805. D. 1880. Jackson, Thomas Jonathan (" Stonewall " Jackson), Confederate general. B. 1834 Died of a wound 1868. Jacobi, Priedrieh Heinrich, German philosopher. B. 1743. D. 1819. Jacobi, Johann Georg, German poet. B. 1740. D. 1814. Jacobi, Karl Gustav Jakob, German mathematician. B. 1804. D. 1851. Jacobi, Moritz Hermann, German physicist. B. 1801. D. 1874. One of the inventors of the electric telegraph and of electrotyping. Jacobs, Christian Friedrich Wilhelm, German author, Greek scholar. B. 1764. D. 1847. Jacoby, Johann, Prussian statesman. B. 1805. D. 1877. Jacquard, Joseph Maiie, lYench inventor (Jacquard loom). B. 1752. D. 1834. Jacqueline of Bavaria, countess of Hainaut and Holland. B. 1400. D. 1436. Jacquemart, Jules, French engraver. B. 1837. D. 1880. Jacqnin, N. J., Austrian botanist. B. in Holland 1727. D. 1817. Jagellon (Jagiello), grand-prince of Lithuania, king of Poland (as such Ladislas II.). Reigned in Poland from 1386. D. 1434" Jager, Gustav, German naturalist. B. 1832. Jahn, Friedrich Ludwig, German patriot, who organized gymnasia for the physical training of the German youth. B. 1778. D. 1852. Jabn, Otto, German classical scholar, writer on anqient art, &c. B. 1813. D. 1869. Jakob, Ludwig Heinrich von, German philosopher, political writer, econo- mist. B. 1759. D. 1827. Jalabert, Charles Prangois, French painter. B. 1819. James L (James Stuart), king of Scotland. B. about 1394. Reigned from 1406 (prisoner of the English till 1424). Assassinated 1437. James H., king of Scotland, son of James I. B. 1430. Reigned from 1437, Kille(', by an accident 1460. 432 BIOGRAPHICAL DIOTIOKAEY. James III., king of Scotland, son of James U. B. about 1451. Reigned from 1460. Murdered 1488. James IV., king of Scotland, son of James III. B. 1473. Beigned from 1488. Slain 1513. James V., king of Scotland, son of James IV. and Margaret Tudor, daugh- ter of Henry VII. B. 1512. Reigned from 1513. D. 1542. James, king of Scotland (James VI.) and of England (James I.), son of Mary Stuart and Damley. B. June, 1566. King of Scotland from 1567 ; of England from 1603. D. March, 1625. James II., king of England and Scotland, brother of Charles II. B. Oct., 1633. Reigned 1685-'8. D. Sept., 1701. (Previous to his accession styled duke of York.) Jam.es the Conqueror, king of Aragon. Reigned 1213-'76. James, George Payne Rainsford, English novelist, historian. B. 1801. D. 1860. James, Henry, American religious and philosophical writer. B. 1811, Di, 1882. Jam.es, Henry, jr., American novelist. B. 1843. James, John Angell, English clergyman, author. B. 1785. D. 1859. James Edward Stuart, pretender to the throne of England, son of James II. B. 1688. D. 1766. Jameson, Anna (bom Murphy), British authoress. B. 1794. D. 1860. Works on woman and female celebrities, on art, &c. Jameson, Robert, Scottish mineralogist, geologist. B. 1774. D. 1854 Jam.esone, George, Scottish painter. B. about 1586. D. 1644. Jami, Persian poet. B. 1414. D. 1492. Jamieson, John, Scottish divine, scholar. B. 1759. D. 1838. " Etymo- logical Dictionary of the Scottish Language." Janet, Paul, French philosophioal writer. B. 1823. Janin, Jules, French literary and dramatic critic, novelist. B. 1804 D. 1874 Jansen (Jansenius), Cornelius, theologian. B. in Holland 1585. D. 1638. Janson, Kristoffer, Norwegian novelist, poet. B. 1841. Janssen, Pierre Jules Cesar, French natural philosopher, astronomer, espe- cially distinguished in the field of solar physics. B. 1824 Janssens, Abraham, Flemish painter. D. about 1631. Januarius, Saint, bishop of Benevento. Put to death 305. Jaroslav. See Yaroslav. Jasmin, Jacques, Provengal poet. B. 1798. D. 1864. Jasper, William, American soldier. B. about 1750. Killed 1779. Jay, John, American statesman. B. 1745. D. 1829. Jay, William, American philanthropist, abolitionist, son of John Jay. B. 1789. D. 1858. Jean Paul. See Richtbr. Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre. Reigned 1555-72. Wife of Antoine de Bourbon and mother of Henry IV. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 453 Jeanne d'Arc. See Joan of Arc. Jefferson, Joseph, American actor. B. 1839. Jefferson, Thomas, president of the United States 1801-'9. B. April 2 (old style), 1743. D. July 4, 1826. Jeffrey, Francis, Scottish critic. B. 1773. D. 1850. Jeff^ys, George, English judge. B. 1648. D. 1689. Jehoshaphat, king of Judah. Reigned about 873-848 b. c. {Ihmeker; about 917-S9S, common chron.). Jehu, king of Israel. JKeigned about 848-815 b. c. {Ihmeker; 887-859, Oppert). Jelal-ed-Din er-Ruml, Persian religious poet. D. 1273. Jellachich, Joseph, ban of Croatia. B. 1801. D. 1859. Jengis Ehan. See 'Genghis Khan. Jenkins, Edward, English author. B. 1838. " Ginx's Baby." Jenner, Edward, Eng. physician, originator of vaccination. B. 1749. D. 1823. Jenner, Sir William, English physician. B. 1815. D. 1898. Jenyns, Soame, English author. B. 1704. D. 1787. " A Free Inquiry into the Nature aad Origin of EviL" "A View of the Internal Evidence of the Christian Religion." Jeremiah., Hebrew prophet. 600 b. c. Jeroboam L, king of Israel. Reigned about 953-927 b. c. (Duneker; about 977-936, common chron.). Jeroboam XL, king of Israel. Reigned about 790-749 B. c. (Duncker; 8S5-798 and again 787-773, Oppert). Jerome, king of Westphalia. See Bonaparte, J£r6me. Jerome, Saint, Latin father of the church, translator of the Bible. B. about 840. D. 420. Jerome of Prague, Hussite preacher. Burned 1416. Jerrold, Douglas William, English writer of comedy, humorist. B. 1803. - D. 1857. Jerusalem, Johann Priedrich Wilhelm, German divine, pulpit orator. B. 1709. D. 1789. Jervis, Sir John, earl of St. Vincent, English admiral. B. 1735. D. 1823. Jevons, William Stanley, English economist, philosophical writer. B. 1885. D. 1883. Jewel (Jewell), John, English bishop. B. 1533. D. 1571. Jhering, Rudolf von, German jurist. B. 1818. D. 1892. Joachim, Joseph, German violinist. B. 1881. Joan of Arc, French heroine. B. about 1411. Burned 1431. Joan the llad, queen of Castile, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. B. 1479. D. 1555. Wife of Philip, son of Maximilian I., and mother of Charles V. Joanna I., queen of Naples. B. about 1337. Reigned from 1343. Put to death 1883. Joanna IL, queen of Naples. B. about 1371. Reigned from 1414 D. 1435. 454 BIOGKAPHICAL DICTIONAEY. Jogues, Isaac, French missionary in America. B. 1607. Put to death 1646 Johannes Secundus (Jan Everard), Dutch Latin poet. B. 1511. D. 1536i John the Baptist. Preached about a. d. 28. John the Evangelist. D. about 100 (?). John I., pope. Elected 533. D. 526. John VIII., pope. Elected 872. KiUed 882. John X., pope. Elected 914. Put to death 928. John XII., pope. Assumed the papacy end ol 955 (beginning of 9561). Deposed 963. D. 964. John XXII., pope. Elected 1316. D. 1334. John XXIII., pope. Elected 1410. Deposed 1415. D. 1419. John, king of England, brother of Richard Coeur-de-IJion. B. 1166. Reigned from 1199. D. 1216. John the Good, king of France, son of Philip VI. B. about 1319. Reigned from 1350. D. 1364. John of Luxemburg (the Blind), king of Bohemia, son of the emperoi Henry VII. Reigned from 1310. Slain 1346. John I., the Great, king of Portugal. Reigned from 1385. D. 1433. John II., king of Portugal. Reigned from 1481. D. 1495. John III., king of Portugal. Reigned from 1521. D. 1557. John IV., king of Portugal, first of the house of Braganga. Reigned frou. 1640. D. 1656. John v., king of Portugal. Reigned from 1706. D. 1750. John VI., king of Portugal. Reigned as regent for his mother, Maria, from 1792 ; king from 1816. D. 1826. John, king of Saxony. B. 1801. Reigned from 1854. D. 1873. John III., king of Sweden. Reigned from 1568. D. 1592. John, archduke of Austria, general, sou of Leopold II. B. 1782. D. 1859. John of Austria, Don, Spanish commander, half-brother of Philip II. B. about 1546. D. 1578. John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, son of Edward III. B. about 1340. D. 1399. John of Swabia, nephew and murderer of the emperor Albert I. B. 1289. John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy. B. about 1370. Reigned from 1404. Murdered 1419. John the Constant, elector of Saxony. Reigned from 1525. D. 1532. John of Leyden, Anabaptist leader. B. about 1510. Put to death 1586. John of Salisbury, English ecclesiastic, writer. ^ D. about 1180. John, Eugenie (" E. Marlitt "), German novelist. B. 1825. D. 1887. John Cantacuzenus. See Cantacuzenus, Johannes. John Casimir, king of Poland. Reigned from 1648. Abdicated 1668. D. 1673. John Frederick the Magnanimous, elector of Saxony. Reigned from 1533. Dethroned 1547. D. 1554. John George I., elector of Saxony. Reigned from 1611. D. 1656. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 455 7olm Hyrcanus. See Hyecanus. John Palseologus II., Byzantine emperor. Keigned from 1425. D. 1448. John Scotus. See Ebigena. John Sobieski. See Sobiesei. John Zimisces, Byzantine general and emperor. Reigned from 969. D. 976. Johnson, Alexander Bryan, American author. B. 1786. D. 1867. " Phi- losophy of Human Knowledge, or a Treatise on Language." "Treatise on Language, or the Relation which Words bear to Things." Johnson, Andrew, president of the United States from April 15, 1865, to March 4, 1869. B. Dec. 29, 1808. D. July 31, 1875. Johnson, Eastman, American painter. B. 1824. Johnson, Reverdy, American statesman. B. 1796. D. 1876. Johnson, Richard Mentor, vice-president of the United States 1837-'4]. B. 1780. D. 1850. Johnson, Samuel, English author. B. Sept. 18, 1709. D. Deo. 13, 1784 " The Vanity of Human Wishes " (poem). Essays in the " Rambler," "Adventurer," and "Idler." "Dictionaiy of the English Language." "Rasselas, Prince of Abyssinia," 1759. "Lives of the English Poets," 1779-'81. Johnson, Sir William, British commander in America. B. 1715. D. 1774. Johnston, Albert Sidney, Confederate general. B. 1803. Killed 1862. Johnston, Alexander Keith, British geographer. B. 1804. D. 1871. Johnston, George, Scottish naturalist. B. 1797. D. 1855. Johnston, James P. W., Scottish agricultural chemist. B. about 1796. D. 1855. Johnston, Joseph Eccleston, Confederate general. B. 1807. D. 1891. Joinville, Francois d'Orleans, prince de, son of Louis Philippe. B. 1818. Joinville, Jean, sire de, French chronicler. B. about 1224. D. about 1319. J^kai, Mor, Hungarian novelist. B. 1825. Jolliet (Joliet), Louis, Canadian explorer. B. 1645. D. 1700. Expedition down the Mississippi with Marquette, 1673. Jomard, Edme Frangois, French scholar, writer on Egypt. B. 1777. D. 1862. Jomelli, Niccold, Italian composer. B. 1714. D. 1774. Jomini, Henri, baron, French military writer. B. 1779. D. 1869. Jonas, Justus, German Reformer. B. 1493. D. 1555. Jones, Inigo, English architect. B. about 1572. D. 1652 (according to some 1651). Jones, Jacob, American naval officer. B. 1770. D. 1850. Jones, John Paul, American naval officer. B. 1747. D. 1792. Jones, Owen, English architect. B. 1809. D. 1874. Jones, Thomas Rymer, English comparative anatomist, physiologist. B, about 1810. D. 1880. Jones, Sir William, English orientalist. B. 1746. D. 1794. 456 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Jonson, Ben, English dramatist. B. 1673 or 1574. D. 1637. Jordaens, Jacob, PlemisJi painter. B. 1594. D. 1678. Jordan, Camille, French politician. B. 1771. D. 1821. Jordan, Dorothea, Irish actress. B. about 1763. D. probably 1816. Jordan, Rudolf, German painter. B. 1810. D. 1887. Jordan, Wilhelm, German poet. B. 1819. Jordanes (Jornandes), Gothic historian. Middle of 6th c. a. d. Jorgenson, Jorgen, Danish adventurer. B. 1779. D. about 1830. Jornandes. See Jordanes. Joseph. I., emperor of Germany, sovereign of Austria, son of Leopold I. E 1678. Reigned from 1705. D. 1711. Joseph II., emperor of Germany, sovereign of Austria, son of Francis L and Maria Theresa. B. 1741. Reigned in Germany from 1765 ; in Aus- tria, from 1780. D. 1790. Joseph, king of Kaples and of Spain. See Bonafabte, Joseph. Joseph, Father, French friar, confidant of Richelieu. B. 1577. D. 1638. Josephine, wife of Napoleon I. B. 1763. D. 1814 Bom Tascher de la Pagerie. Married first to the viscount de Beauharnais. Married to Ka- poleon 1796. Divorced 1809. Josephus, Flavius, Jewish historian. B. about a. d. 37. D. about 100. " History of the Jewish War " (written originally in Hebrew and trans- lated by the author into Greek). " Jewish Antiquities " (a general history of the Jews, in Greek). "' Against Apion" (a treatise on the antiquity of the Jewish nation, in Greek). Josh Billings. See Shaw, Henbt W. Josiah, king of Judah. Reigned about 640-609 B. c, JSsika, Miklos, baron, Hungarian novelist. B. 1794 (1796 1). D. 1865. Josquin des Pr6s, French composer. B. about 1440. Jost, Isaak Marcus, Jewish historian, B. in Germany 1793. D. 1860, Works on Jewish history. Joubert, Barthelemy Catherine, French general. B. 1769. Killed 1799. Jouffroy, Thfeodore Simon, French philosopher. B. 1796. D. 1842. Joule, James Prescott, English physicist. B. 1818. D. 1889. Jourdan, Jean Baptiste, French general B. 1762. D. 1833. Jou7enet, Jean, French painter. B. about 1644. D. 1717. Jouy, Victor Joseph :6tienne de, French author. B. 1764. D. 1846. Trage- dies. Texts for operas. " L'hermite de la chauss€e d'Antin " (series of Jovellanos, Gaspar Melchior de, Spanish patriot, poet, scholar. B. 1744. D. 1811. Jovian (Jovianus), Roman emperor. Reigned 363-'4. Jovius, Paulus. See Giovio. Jowett, Benjamin, English scholar, translator of Plato and Thucydides. B. 1817. D. 1893. Juan, Don. See JoHir of Austria, BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 457 Juan y Santacilla Pon Jorge Juan), Spanish explorer, scientist. B. 1712. D. 1774. Juana of Castile. See Joan the Mad. Juarez, Benito, Indian, president of Mexico. B. about 1806. D. 1872. Juba I., king of Numidia. D. 46 b. c. Judah the Holy, principal redactor of the Mishnah. Flourished about A. D. 200. Judah HaUevi (Abul Hassan), Jewish philosophico-religious writer, poet. D. about 1140. Judas Maccabaeus, leader of the Jews in their rising against the Syrians. Balled 160 b. c. Judd, John W., English geologist. B. 1840. Judd, Sylvester, American author. B. 1813. D. 1853. Best known by his romance " Margaret." Judson, Adoniram, American missionary. B. 1788. D. 1850. Juel, Niels, Danish admiral B. 1629. D. 1697. Jugurtha, king of Numidia. Carried a prisoner to Eome 106 b. c. D. 104. Julian (Julianus), Roman emperor. Reigned from 361. D. 368. Julien, Stanislas Aignan, French Chinese scholar. B. 1799. D. 1873. Julius H. (Giuliano della Rovere), pope. Elected 1503. D. 1513. Julius m., pope. Elected 1550. D. 1555. Jung, Joachim, German philosopher, botanist. B. 1587. D. 1657. Junghuhn, Franz Wilhelm, German naturalist, explorer of Java and Su- matra. B. 1812. D. 1864 Jung-Stilling (Johann Heinrich Jung), German author. B. 1740. D. 1817. Autobiographical writings, tales, books on spirits, various mystical pro- ductions. Junius, Franciscus (Fransois du Jon), Protestant theologian. B. in France 1545. D. 1602. Junius, Franciscus, German-English philologist. B. 1589. D. 1677. Junot, Andoche, duke of Abrantes, French general. B. 1771. D. 1813. Jussieu, Adrien de, French botanist. B. 1797. D. 1853. Jussieu, Antoine de, French botanist. B. 1686. D. 1758. Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de, French botanist. B. April 12, 1748. D. Sept. 17, 1836. Jussieu, Bernard de, French botanist. B. 1699. D. 1777. Jussieu, Laurent Pierre de, French author. B. 1792. D. 1866. Best known work. " Simon de Nantua " (a book for the people). Jiistin I. (Justinus), Byzantine emperor. Reigned 518-527. Justin IL, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 565-578. Justin, Latin historian. Placed by some in the latter part of the 3d c. a. d., by others supposed to have lived in the 3d or 4th c. Justin Kartyr, father of the church, philosopher (writings in Greek). Put to death about 165. 458 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAKT. Justinian I. (Justinianus), Byzantine emperor. Beigned from 537. IX 565. Juvenal, Koman satirical poet. Close of first c. a. d. Ealakaua, king of the Sandwich Islands 1874r-'91. B. 1836. D. 1891t Ealerg^s, Demetrius, Greek soldier, statesman. B. about 1803. D. 1867. Ealidasa, Sanskrit poet. Recent criticism assigns Kalidasa to the 6th c, A. D. Some scholars have supposed him to have lived much later. By the Hindoos he is beUered to have lived about the beginning of the Chris- tian era. Most famous production, " Sakuntala" (drama). Ealkbrenner, Friedrich, German pianist, composer. B. 1784 (1788!). D. 1849. S&lnoky, Gustav Siegmund, count, minister of foreign affairs of Austria- Hungary 1881-'95. B. 1832. D. 1898. Kames, Henry Home, Lord, Scottish jurist, author. B. 1696. D, 1782. " Elements of Criticism." Eauaris. See Canabis. Kane, Blisha Kent, American Arctic explorer. B. 1820. D. 1857. Eant, Immanuel, German philosopher. B. April 22, 1724. D. Feb. 12, 1804. Eapnist, Vasili, Russian poet. B. 1756. D. 1828. Kara George. See Czebny Geobos. Kara Kustapha, commander of the Turkish army which besieged Vienna in 1683. Put to death at the close of 1683. Karajitch, Vuk Stefanovitch, Servian scholar. B. 1787. D. 1864. Karamzin, Kikolai, Russian historian. B. 1765. D. 1826. History of Russia. Karlstadt. See Cablstadt. Karpinski, Franciszek, Polish poet. B. 1741. D. 1825. Karr, Alphonse, French novelist, satirical writer. B. 1808. D 1890. Karach, Anna Luise, G«rman poetess. B. 1722. D. 1791. Karsten, Karl Johann Bemhard, German mineralogist. B. 1782. D. 1853. Kastner, Abraham Gotthelf, German mathematician, poet. B. 1719. P. 1800. Katkoff, Mikhail, Russian journalist. B. about 1818. D. 1887. KaufEtaiaim, Angelica, Swiss painter. B. 1741. D. 1807. Kaufmann, Constantin, Russian general. B. 1818. D. 1882. Katdbaoh, Wilhelm von, German painter. B. Oct. 15, 1805. D. April 7, 1874. Kaunitz, Wenzel Anton, prince, Austrian diplomatist, statesman, chief minister of Maria Theresa. B. 1711. D. 1794. Kavanagh, Julia, British novelist, writer of works on eminent women, && B. 1824. D. 1877. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAKT, 459 Kasdnczy, Ferencz, Hungarian author. B. 1759. D. 1831. Eean, Charles John, English actor. B. 1811. D. 1868. Kean, Edmund, English actor. B. 1787. D. 1833. Keane, John, Lord, British general. B. 1781. D. 1844. Kearny, Philip, American general. B. 1815. KiUed 1862. Kearny, Stephen Watts, American general. B. 1794 D. 1848. Keats, John, English poet. B. 1795. D. 1821. Keble, John, English poet. B. 1792. D. 1866. Keightley, Thomas, British historian, critic. B. 1789. D. 1872. Keill, John, British mathematician. B. 1671. D. 1721. Keim, Theodor, German Protestant theologian. B. 1825. D. 1878. Keith, viscount. See Elphinstone, George Keith. Keith, James, ScottiA soldier in the service of Russia and Prussia. B. 1696. KiUedl758. Kellemuum, Frangois Christophe, duke of Valmy, French general. B. 1735. D. 1820. Kellermaim, Frangois l&tienne, French general. B. 1770. D. 1835. Kellogg, Clara Louisa, American singer. B. 1843. Kelvin, Lord. See Thomson, Wiluah. Kemble, Charles, English actor. B. 1775. D. 1854. Kemble, Frances Anne (Mrs. Butler), Eng. actress, authoress. B.1809. D,1893. Kemble, George Stephen, English actor. B. 1758. B. 1822. Eemble, John Mitchell, English Anglo-Saxon scholar, historian. B. 1807. D. 1857. Kemble, John Philip, English actor. B. 1757. D. 1823. Kemtoy, Zsigmond, baron, Hungarian author. B. 1816. D. 1875. Kempelen, Wolfgang, baron. Hung, inventor of automata. B. 1734. D. 1804. Kempis, Thomas h, German monk, reputed author of "De Imitatione ChristL" B. 1380. D. 1471. Kendall, Amos, American politician. B. 1789. D. 1869. Kendiick, Asahal Clark, American New Testament critic, author. B. 1809, D. 1895. Kennicott, Benjamin, English Biblical scholar. B. 1718. D. 1783. Eensett, John Frederick, American painter. B. 1818. D. 1872. Kent, Edward Augustus, duke of, son of George III. and father of Queen Victoria. B. 1767. D. 1820. Kent, James, American jurist. B. 1763. D. 1847. Kent, William, English landscape architect. B. about 1685. D. 1748. Kenyon, Lloyd, Lord, English lawyer. B. 1732. D. 1802. Kepler, Johann, German astronomer. B. Dec. 27, 1571. D. Nov. 15, 1630. Keppel, Augustus, viscount, English admiral. B. 1725. D. 1786. Keppel, George Thomas, earl of Albemarle, English author. B. 1799. D. 1891. Works of travel, memoirs, &o. Kergu61en-Tr6marec, Yves Joseph de, French navigator. B. 1745. D. 1797. ■ 460 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Korner, Andreas Justinus, Grerman poet, author of works dealing with am- mal magnetism, somnambulism, &e. B. 1786. D. 1863. Best known production, " Die Seherin von Prevorst " (" The Seeress of Prevorst "). Eetteler, Wilhelm Emanuel von, bishop of Mentz, Ultramontane leader. B. 1811. D. 1877. Key, Francis Scott, American poet. B. 1780. D. 1843. '• The Star-Span- gled Banner." Khemnitzer. See Chemnitzbr. Kheraskoff, Mikhail, Russian poet. B. 1733. D. 1807. Eidd, William, seaman, native of Scotland. Executed 1701. Eiepert, Heinrioh, German geographer, cartographer. B. 1818. Kixahi (Kimchi), David, Hebraist ajid Biblioal critic of Narbonne. Flour- ished early part of 13th c. King, Peter, Lord, lord chancellor of England. B. 1669. D. 1734 King, Rufus, American statesman. B. 1755. D. 1827. King, William Rufus, American statesman. B. 1786. D. 1853. Kinglake, Alexander William, English author. B. 1809. D.1891. "BOthen" (descriptive of travels in the East). " The Invasion of the Crimea." Kiugsley, Charles, English clergyman, novelist, poet, noted for his efforts in behalf of the improvement of the working classes. B. 1819. D. 1875. " Village Sermons." " Alton Locke, Tailor and Poet," " Yeast," " Hypa- tia," " Westward Ho ! " (works of fiction). " Andromeda " (poem). Kingston, Elizabeth Chudleigh, duchess of. B. 1720. D. 1788. Kinkel, Gottfried, Ger. revolutionist, poet, writer on art, &c. B. 1815. D.1882. Kipling, Rudyard, British writer of fiction, poet. B. in India 1865. Kirby, William, EngHsh entomologist. B. 1759. D. 1850. Kiroher, Athanasius, German scholar. B. about 1602. D. 1680. Kirchhoff, Adolf, German philologist, antiquary. B. 1826. KirchhoflF, Gustav Robert, German physicist. B. 1824. D. 1887. Origi- nator with Bunsen of the science of spectrum analysis. ■ Kirk, John Poster, American author. B. 1824. " History of Charles th« Bold." Kirkland, Caroline Matilda (bom Stansbury), American authoress. B. 1801. D. 1864. Kirkwood, Daniel, American astronomer. B. 1814. D. 1895. Kirwan, Richard, Irish chemist. D. 1813. Kisfaludy, K4roly, Hungarian dramatist. B. 1788. D. 1830. Kisfaludy, SAndor, Hungarian poet. B. 1773. D. 1844. Kiss, August, German sculptor. B. 1803. D. 1865. Kitto, John, English Biblical scholar. B. 1804. D. 1854. Klapka, GySrgy, Hungarian general. B. 1830. D. 1893. Klaproth, Heinrich Julius von, German traveler, Asiatic scholar. B. 1783. D. 1835. Klaproth, Martin Heinrich, German chemist. B. 1743i D. 1817. K16ber, Jean Baptiste, French general. B. 1753 (1754?). Assassinated ISOtt BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 461 Kleist, Ewald Christian von, German poet. B. 1715. D. 1759. "Dei Priihling " (" Spring "). Kleist, Heinrich von, German poet. B. 1777. D. 1811i Klemm, Gustav, German author. B. 1802. D. 1867. " Allgemeine Kultur- geschiohte der Menschheit." Kleaze, Leo von, German architect. B. 1784. D. 1864. Kliefoth, Theodor, German Protestant theologian. B. 1810. D. 1895. Klinger, Friedrich Maximilian von, German dramatist, writer of fiction. B. 1752 (1733 «). D. 1831. Author of the drama "Sturm und Drang" (" Storm and Pressure "). Elopstock, Friedrich Gottlieb, German poet. B. 1724. I>. 1803. " Mes- sias " (epic). Knaus, Ludwig, German painter. B. 1829. Kneller, Sir Godfrey, English painter. B. in Germany 1648 (1646 f). D. 1723 C1726 f). KTiia?miTi, Franeiszek Dyonizy, Polish poet. B. 1750. D. 1807. Xnight, Charles, English publisher, author. B. 1791. D. 1873. "The Penny Cyclopedia." " Popular History of England." Enight, Richard Payne, Eng. antiquary, author. B. about 1750. D. 1824. Enipperdolling, Bernhard, German Anabaptist. Executed 1536. Knobel, August, German Biblical critic. B. 1807. D. 1863. Knobelsdorff, Hans Georg Weniieslaus von, baron, Prussian architect. B. 1697. D. 1753. Knowles, James Sheridan, British dramatist. B. 1784. D. 1862. Xnas, Henry, American general. B. 1750. U. 1806. Knox, John, Scottish Reformer. B. 1505. D. Nov. 24, 1572. Knyphausen, baron, Hessian commander is the British service in the war against the American colonies. B. about 1725. D. 1789. Koch, Kari, German botanist. B. 1809. D. 1879. Koch, Robert, German physician, bacteriologist. B. 1843. Kochanowski,. Jan, Polish poet. B. 1532. D. 1584. Kock, Paul de, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1794. D. 1871. Koekkoek, Barend Comelis, Dutch painter. B. 1803. D. 1862. Koenig, Heinrich Joseph, Gterman novelist. B. 1790. D. 1869. Kohl, Johann Georg, German writer of travels. B. 1808. D. 1878. Kohlrausch, Heinrich Friedrich Theodor, German pedagogue, author. B, 1780. D. 1867. " Die deutsche Geschichte." Kolb, Georg Friedrich, German statistician. B. 1808. D. 1884 Kolbe, Hermann, German chemist. B. 1818. D. 1884. Kolbe, Karl Wilhelm, German painter. B. 1781. D. 1853. Kolcsey, Ferencz, Hungarian poet, critic, orator. B. 1790. D. 1888. Kollar, Jan, Slavic scholar, writer. B. in Hungary 1793. D. 1852. Kolliker, Albert, German anatomist. B. 1817. KSnigsmark, Maria Aurora, countess of, mistress of Augustus the Strong of Saxony ajid Poland. B. 1670 (or some years earlier). D. 1728. 462 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAKY, Kopitar, BartholomSlus, Slavic philologist. B. in Camiola 1780. D. 1844 KSppen, Priedrioh, German philosopher. B. 1775. D. 1858. Koppen, Peter von, Russian author. B. 1793. D. 1864. Antiquarian, geographical, ethnological, and statistical works relating to Russia. Komer, Theodor, German poet, dramatist. B. 1791. Killed 1813. Chiefly distinguished as a writer of patriotic war songs, published under the title of " Leier und Schwert " (" Lyre and Sword "). Principal dramatic pro- ductions, " Zriny " and " Rosamunde " (tragedies). Korosi, Jozsef, Hungarian statistician. B. 1844. Korosi Csoma. See Csoma de Kobos. Kosciuszko, Tadeusz, Polish patriot, general, leader in the rising of his people in 1794. B. 1746. D. 1817. Kosegarten, Johann Gottfried Ludwig, German orientalist. B. 1792. D. 1860. Kossuth, Lajos (Louis), Hungarian statesman, orator, revolutionary leader, governor of Hungary 1849. B. 1802. D. March 30, 1894. Koster. See Coster. ESstlin, Julius, German theologian, biographer of Luther. B. 1826. Eotzebue, August Priedrich Ferdinand von, German dramatist. B. 1761. Assassinated 1819. Eotzebue, Otto von, Russian navigator, son of the preceding. B. 1787. D. 1846. Kranach. See Cranace. Krasicki, Ignacy, Polish author. B. 1734. D. 1801. Krasinski, Waleryan, count, Polish author. B. about 1780. D. 1855. Erasinski, Zygmunt Napoleon, count, Polish poet. B. 1812. D. 1859. Kraszewski, J6zef Ignacy, Polish novelist, poet, miscellaneous writer. B. 1812. D. 1887. Erause, Karl Christian Friedrich, G«rman philosopher. Free Mason. B. 1781. D. 1833. Ereutzer, Konradin, German composer. B. 1780. D. 1849. Ereutzer, Rodolphe, French composer. B. 1766. D. 1831. Eriloff. See Kbtloff. Krildener, Juliane von, baroness, Russian religious enthusiast. B, 1764 (1766?). D. 1824 Enig, Wilhelm Traugott, German philosopher. B. 1770. D. 1842. Erummaclier, Friedrich Adolf, German Protestant divine, writer. B. 1768. D. 1845. Author of parables (in verse), religious poems for chil- dren, works on Christianity, &c. Enimmaclier, Friedrich Wilhelm, German Protestant divine, pulpit orator. B. 1796. D. 1868. Erupp, Alfred, Ger. manufacturer (iron and steel works). B. 1810. D. 1887. Kmsenstem, Adam Johann von, Russian navigator. B. 1770. D. 1846. Kryloff, Ivan, Russian fabulist. B. 1768. I>. 1844. Kublai Khan, founder of the Mongol dynasty in China. D. 1394 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 463 Kuenen, Abraham, Dutch Biblical critic. B. 1828. D. 1891. " The Re- ligion of Israel." " Prophets and Prophecy in Israel." Kugler, Franz Theodor, German writer on art. B. 1808. D. 1858. Euhn, Adalbert, German comparative philologist. B. 1813. D. 1881. Noted also for his researches in the comparative mythology of the Aryan races. Kiilme, Gustav, German author. B. 1806. D. 1888. KiUmer, Raphael, German philologist. B. 1802. D. 1878. Greek and Latin text-books. Kung, prince, Chinese statesman. B. 1833. D. 1898. Kunth, Karl Sigismnnd, German botanist. B. 1788. D. 1850. Kurz, Heinrich, G«nnan author. B. 1805. D. 1873. Kutuzoff, Mikhail, Russian general. B. 1745. D. 1813. Kiitzing, Friedrieh Traugott, German botanist. B. 1807. D. 1893. Euyp. See Cutp. li. Laar. See Lagb. Labadie, Jean de, French preacher, founder of the sect of Labadists. B. 1610. D. 1674. Labedoygre, Charles Angelique Huchet de, count, French soldier. B. 1786. Shot 1815. Labiche, EugSne, French writer of comedy. B. 1815. D. 1888. Labienus, Titus, Roman general. Killed 45 b. c. Lablaohe, Luigi, singer, actor. B. in Italy 1794. D. 1858. Laborde, Alexandre Louis Joseph de, count, French author. B. 1773. D, 1842. Descriptive works on Spain and other countries. Laborde, Leon Emmanuel Simon Joseph de, marquis, French traveler in the East, archaeologist. B. 1807. D. 1869. Labouchere, Henry, Boron Taunton, English statesman. B. 1798. D. 1869. Laboulaye, i^douard Rene Lefebvre de, French author, statesman. B. 1811. D. 1883. Historical works on various points of jurisprudence. Works on the United States and other political writings. Laboordonnais, Bertrand FranQois Mah6 de, French naval commander. B. 1699. D. about 1755. La Bruydre, Jean de, French author. B. 1645. D. 1696. " Les caraoteres de Theophraste." La Caille, Nicolas Louis de, French astronomer. B. 1713. D. 1762. Iiac^pMe, Sernard Germain ^tienne de la Ville, count de, French natural- ist. B. 1756. D. 1825. La Chaise, Frangois d'Aix de, Jesuit, confessor of Louis XIV. B. 1624. D 1709. Lachioaiui, Karl, German critic, philologist. B. 1793. D. 1851. Lachner, Franz, German composer. B, 1804. D. 1890. 464 SlOGftAMICAL DICTIONARY. Laclos, Pierre Ambroise Pranjois Choderlos de, French soldier, reTolution- ist, author. B. 1741. D. 1803. La Condamine. See Condamine. Lacordaire, Jean Baptiste Henri, French Catholic divine,, pulpit orator. B. 1803. D. 1861. Lacretelle, Jean Charles Dominique de, French historian. B. 1766. D. 1855. Works on French history. Lacretelle, Pierre Louis, French jurist, author. B. 1751. D. 1824 Lacroix, Paul, French historical writer, novelist. B. 1806. D. 1884. Lacroiz, Sylvestre Frangois, French mathematician. B. 1765. D. 1843. Lactantius, Firmianus, Latin father of the church. D. about 325. Ladislas II. of Poland. See Jaqellon. Ladislas III., king of Poland and of Hungary (Uladislas I. of Hungary). Reigned in Poland from 1434 ; in Hungary, from 1440. Killed 1444. Ladislas IV., king of Poland. Reigned 1682-'48. Lselius, Caius, Roman commander in the second Punic War. LeeliuB (Lselius Sapiens), Caius, Roman general, statesman, orator, friend of the younger Scipio Africanus. Consul 140 b. c. Laennec, Rene Theodore Hyacinthe, French physician, inventor of the stethoscope. B. 1781. D. 1826. Laer (Laar), Pieter van (II Bamboccio), Dutch painter. 17th c. Lafarge, Marie (bom CappeUe), French woman sentenced as a poisoner. B. 1816. D. 1853. Lafayette, Marie Jean Paul Roch Yves Gilbert Motier, marquis de, French soldier, statesman. B. Sept. 6, 1757. D. May 30, 1834. Lafayette, Marie Madeleine Pioche de Lavergne, countess de, French novelist, leader of society. B. about 1633. D. 1693. Laffltte, Jacques, French financier, statesman. B. 1787. D. 1844. Lafltaii, Joseph Frangois, French missionary. B. 1670. D. 1746. Lafltte, Jean, pirate. B. in France about 1780. D. 1817 or 1826. La Fontaine, Jean de, French fabulist. B. 1621. D. 1695. La Fuente, Modesto, Spanish historian. B. 1806. D. 1866. "Histoiia general de Espaila." La Fuente y Alc&ntara, Miguel, Spanish historian. B. 1817. D. 1850. Lagrange, Joseph Louis de, count, mathematician. B. in Piedmont 1736. D. 1813. La Harpe, Frederic Cesar, Swiss statesman, instructor of Alexander I. of Russia. B. 1754. D. 1838. La Harpe, Jean Frangois de, French critic. B. 1739. D. 1803. "Lyoee, ou Cours de littSrature ancienne et modeme." Lainez. See Latnez. Laing, Ales. Gordon, British African explorer. B. about 1794. Killed 1886. Laing, Malcolm, Scottish historian. B. 1762. D. 1818. "History of Scot- land, from the Union of the Crowns to the Union of the Kingdoms." Lais, Greek hetcera. 5th c. b. c. BIOGRAPHICAL DIOTIONART. 465 Lais, Greek hetcera. 4th c. b. o. Iiake, Grerard, viscount, English commander in Ireland and India. B. 1744. D. 1808. Lalande, Joseph Jerome Le Frangais de, French astronomer. B. 1733. D. 1807. Iially, Thomas Arthur de, count, baron de Tollendal, French general in India. Executed 1766. Lally-Tollendal, Trophime Gerard de, marquis, French politician. B. 1751. D. 1830. Iiamarck, Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet de, French naturalist. B. 1744 D. 1839. Lomarmora, Alfonso Ferrero di, marquis, Italian general, statesman. B. 1804. D. 1878. Lamarque, Masimilien, count, French general, politician. B. 1770. D, 1833. Lamartine, Alphonse de, French poet, historian, politician, orator. B. Oct. 31,1790. D. March 1, 1869. " Meditations poetiques," 1830. "Nouvelles meditations poetiques." " Voyage en Orient." " Jocelyn " (poem). " His- toire des Girondins," 1847, and various other historical works. Biographi- cal sketches, autobiographical writings, &c. Lamb, Charles, English author. B. 1775. D. 1834. "Essays of EUa." "Tales from Shakespeare." "Specimens of English Dramatic Poets." " The Old Familiar Faces," and other poems. Lamballe, Marie Ther&e Louise de Savoie-Carignan, princess of, friend of Marie Antoinette. B. in Turin 1749. Murdered 1793. Lambert, Johann Heinrich, German natural philosopher, mathematician. B. 1738. D. 1777. Lambert, John, English Parliamentary general. D. about 1693. Lambruschini, Luigi, Italian cardinal. B. 1776. D. 1854. Lamennais, Hugues Felicite Robert de, French religions and political writer. B. 1783. D. 1854. "Paroles d'un croyant" ("Words of a Be- liever "). La Mettrie, Julien Offray de, French philosopher. B. 1709. D. 1751. "L'homme machine.'' Lamoricidre, Christophe Louis L^on Juchault de, French general in Alge- ria, commander of the papal forces in 1860. B. 1806. D. 1865. La Uotte-Fouqud. See Pouqui6. Lamotte-Valois, Jeanne de, countess, noted in connection with the affair of the diamond necklace. B. 1756. D. 1791. Lancaster, Sir James, English navigator. D. about 1630. Lancaster, John, duke of. See John of Gaunt. Lancaster, Joseph, English educationist. B. 1778 (1771 f). D. 1838. Lance, George, English painter. B. 1803. D. 1864. Lancelot, Claude, French giummarian. B. about 1615. D. 1695. Landen, John, English mathematician. B. 1719. D. 1790. 466 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Lander, Richard, English African explorer. B. 1804 D. 1834 Landon, Letitia Elizabeth (Mrs. Maclean), English poetess. B. 1802. B. 1838. Landor, Walter Savage, English author. B. 1775. D. 1864 " Imaginary Conversations at Literary Men and Statesmen." "Gebir" (epic poem). " IdyUia Heroica " (Latin poems). " Hellenics." " Heroic Idyls." " Peri- cles and Aspasia." " Count Julian " (tragedy). Landseer, Sir Edwin, English painter. B. 1802. D. 1873. Landseer, John, English engraver. B. 1769. D. 1852. Landseer, Thomas, English engraver. B. about 1795, D. 1880. Lane, Edward William, English orientalist. B. 1801. D. 1876. Transla- tion of the "Arabian Mghts." "Manners and Customs of the Modem Egyptians." Arabic dictionary. Lane-Foole, Stanley, English orientalist, numismatist. B. 1854 Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury. B. about 1005. D. 1089. Lanfranco, Giovanni, Italian painter. B. 1581. B. 1647. Lanfrey, Pierre, French historian. B. 1828. D. 1877. " Histoire de Nar poison I." Lang, Andrew, English poet and prose writer. B. 1844 Langdon, John, American statesman. B. 1739. D. 1819. Lange, Albert, (Jerman philosophical writer. B. 1828. D. 1875. "Ge- schichte des Materialismus." Lange, Johann Peter, German theologian, Biblical scholar. B. 1803. D. 1884. Lange, Ludwig, Ger. antiquary. B. 1825. D. 1885. " Romisohe AlterthUmer." Langenbeck, Bemhard von, German surgeon. B. 1810. D. 1887. Langeubeck, Konrad Johann Martin, German surgeon, anatomist. B, 1776. D. 1851. Langland (Longland), William, reputed author of the "Vision of Piers Ploughman," a poem written about 1362, directed against the vices and abuses of the day. liang^on, Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury. D. 1228. Lanjuinais, Jean Denis, count, French statesman. B. 1753. D. 1827. Lankester, Edwin Ray, English naturalist. B. 1847. Iiannes, Jean, duke of Montebello, French general. B. 1769. Killed 1809. La IToue, Frangois de, French Huguenot soldier. B. 1531. Killed 1591. Author of " Discours politiques et militaires." Lansdowne, Henry Charles Keith Fitzmaurice, marquis of, governor-gen- eral of Canada 1883-'8, viceroy of India 1888-'98. B. 1845. Lansdowne, Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, marquis of, English statesman, B. 1780. D. 1868. Lansdowne, William Petty, marquis ot. See Shblburne. Lanza, Giovanni, Italian statesman. B. 1815. D. 1882. Lanzi, Luigi, Italian author, antiquary. B. 1732. D. 1810. Best known by his history of painting in Italy. La P^rouse, Jean Frangois de Qalaup, count de, French navigator. B. 1741. D. about 1788. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 467 Xiaplace, Pierre Simon de, marquis, French astronomer. B. March, 1749. D. March 5, 1837. Lappenberg, Johann Martin, German historian. B. 1794. D. 1865. Best known by his work on English history. Lardner, Dionysius, British author. B. 1793. D. 1859. Works on physi- cal science. La Rive, Auguste de, Swiss physicist. B. 1801. D. 1873. La Bive, Charles Gaspard de, Swiss chemist, physicist. B. 1770. D. 1834. La Kochefoucauld, Fran5ois de, duke, French author. B. 1613. D. 1680. " Reflexions, ou Sentences et maximes morales." Memoirs. La Bochefoucauld (La Rochefoucauld-Liancourt), FranQois Alexandre Frederic de, duke, l^rench philanthropist. B. 1747. D. 1837. La Bochejaquelein, Henri du Verger (Vergier f), count de, Vendean leader. B. 1772. Kmedl794. La Sochejaquelein, Louis du Verger, marquis de, Vendean leader. B. 1777. Killed 1815. La Bochejaquelein, Marie Louise Victoire de Donnissan, marchioness de, wife of the preceding, writer of memoirs. B. 1773. D. 1857. Laromigui6re, Pierre, French philosopher. B. 1756. D. 1837. Larrey, Dominique Jean, baron, French surgeon. B. 1766. D. 1843. La Salle, Robert Cavelier, sieur de, French explorer. B. 1643. Killed 1687. Descended the Mississippi to its mouth 1683. Lascaris, Andreas Joannes, Greek scholar. B. about 1445. D. 1535. Lascaris, Constantine, Greek grammarian. Second half of 15th c. Las Casas, Bartolome de, Spanish priest, author. B. 1474. D. 1566. " His- toria general de las Indias." Las Cases, Emmanuel Augustin Dieudonne de, count, companion of Napo- leon at St, Helena. B. 1766. D. 1843. Author of " Memorial de Sainte- Helene." Lasker, Eduard, Prussian statesman. B. 1839. D. 1884. Laski, Jan (John k Lasco), Polish Reformer. B. 1499. D. 1560. Lassalle, Ferdinand, German socialist. B. 1835. Killed 1864. Lassell, William, English astronomer. B. 1799. D. 1880. Lassen, Christian, German orientalist. B. in Norway 1800. D. 1876. Dis- tinguished as a Sanskrit scholar, authority on Hindoo antiquities, and decipherer of Persian cuneiform inscriptions. Lasso, Orlando di, composer. B. in Hainaut about 1530. D. 1594. Latham, John, English ornithologist. B. 1740. D. 1837. Latham, Robert Gordon, English ethnologist. B. 1813. D. 1888. Latimer, Hugh, English Reformer. B. about 1490. Burned 1555. Latini, Brunette, Italian scholar. D. 1394. Latour d'Auvergne, Theophile de, French soldier. B. 1743. Killed ISOtt LatreiUe, Pierre Andr^, French entomologist. B. 1763. D. 1833. Latude, Henri Masers de, prisoner in the Bastile. B. 1725. D. 1805. Laube, Heinrich, German dramatist, novelist. B. 1806. D. 1884. 468 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAKY. Laud, William, archbishop of Canterbury. B. 1573. Executed 1645. liauder, William, Scottish literary impostor. D. about 1771. Iiaudon (Loudon), Grideon Ernst von, baron, Austrian generaL B. 1716 {lint). D. 1790. Laura (Laure de Noves), a lady of Avignon beloved by Petrarch. B. about 1307. D. 1348. Laurens, Henry, American statesman. B. 1724. D. 1793. Laurens, John, American soldier. B. about 1758. Killed 1783. Laurent, Pranjois, Belg. historical writer, publicist, jurist. B. 1810. D. 1887. 'Lauriston, Jacques Alexandre Bernard Law, marquis de, French generaL B. 1768. D. 1828. Lautrec (Odet de Foix), French general. D. 1528. Lauzun, Antonin Nompar de Caumont, duke de, French courtier, general. B. about 1633. D. 1723. La Valette, Antoine Marie Chamans, count de, postmaster general under Napoleon I. B. 1769. D. 1830. La Valette, Jean Parisotde. See Valette. La Valli^re, Louise Franpoise de, duchess, mistress of Louis XIV. B. 1644 D. 1710. Laval-Hontmorency, Frangois Xavier de, bishop of Quebec B. 1623. D. 1708. Lavater, Johann Kaspar, Swiss mystic, physiognomist. B. 1741. D. 1801. Laveleye, ^femile de, Belgian economist, political writer. B. 1822. D. 1893. Iiavoisier, Antoine Laurent, French chemist. B. 1743. Executed 1794. Law, Edward, Lord Ellenborough. See Ellenbokough. Law, John, Scottish financier, who assumed the management of the French finances at the beginning of the reign of Louis XV. B. 1671. D. 1729. La-w, William, English mystic. B. 1686. D. 1761. « Serious Call to a De- vout and Holy Life." Lawes, Henry, English composer. B. about 1595. D. 1663. Lawrence, Abbott, American philanthropist. B. 1792. D. 1855. Lawrence, Amos, American philanthropist. B. 1786. D. 1852. Lawrence, Sir Henry Montgomery, officer in the service of the English East India Company. B. 1806. KiUed 1857. Lawrence, James, American naval commander. B. 1781. Killed 1813. Lawrence, Sir John Laird Mair, afterward Lord Lawrence, viceroy of India 1864-'9. B. 1811. D. 1879. Lawrence, Sir Thomas, English painter. B. 1769. D. 1830. Lawrence, Sir William, English surgeon, anatomist, medical writer. B. 1783. D. 1867. Lawrence, William Beach, American jurist. B. 1800. D. 1881. Layard, Sir Austen Henry, English archaeologist, diplomatist. B. 1817. D. 1894. " Nineveh and its Remains." " Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon." Laynez (Lainez), general of the Jesuits. B. in Spain 1512. D. 1565. BIOGRAPniCAL DICTIONARY. 469 Lea, Henry Charles, American writer, author of a history of the Inquisition, and other works on ecclesiastical history. B. 1825. Lea, Isaac, American naturalist. B. 1793. D. 1886. Leach, William Elford, English naturalist. B. 1790. D. 1836. Leake, Sir John, English admiral. B. 1656. D. 1720. Leake, William Martin, Eng. author. B. 1777. D. 1860. Works on Greece. Leboeuf, Edmond, French general. B. 1809. D. 1888. Lebrun, Charles, French painter. B. 1619. D. 1690. Lebrun, Charles Frangois, duke of Piaoenza, French statesman, author. B. 1739. D. 1824. Lebrun, Marie Louise Elisabeth (bom Vigee),Pr. painter. B. 1755. D. 1842. Lebrun, Pierre Antoine, French poet. B. 1785. D. 1878. Lebrun, Ponce Denisrificouchard, French poet. B. 1729. D. 1807. Lechevalier, Jean Baptiste, French archajologist. B. 1752. D. 1836. " Voyage de la Troade." Lecky, William Edward Hartpole, British author. B. 1838. " History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne." " History of England in the Eighteenth Century." " Democracy and Liberty." Le Caere, Jean, theologian, scholar. B. in Switzerland 1657. D. 1736. Leolero, Victor Emmanuel, French general. B. 1772. D. 1802. Le Conte, John Lawrence, American entomologist. B. 1835. D. 1883. lie Conte, Joseph, American geologist. B. 1828. Lecoq, Henri, French naturalist. B. 1802. D. 1871. "fitudes de la geographie botanique de I'Europe." Lecouvreur, Adrienne, French actress. B. about 1693. D. 1780. Ledebour, Karl Friedrich von, German botanist. B. 1785. D. 1851. Authority on the flora of northeastern Europe and northern Asia. Ledru-Bollin, Alexandre Auguste, French politician, one of the leaders in the establishment of the republic in 1848. B. 1807. D. 1874 Ledyard, John, American traveler. B. 1751. D. 1789. Lee, Ann, founder of the sect of Shakers. B. in England 1736. D. 1784 Lee, Arthur, American diplomatist, statesman. B. 1740. D. 1792. Lee, Charles, American soldier. B. 1731. D. 1782. Lee, Francis Lightfoot, American patriot. B. 1734 D. 1797. Lee, Harriet, English writer of fiction. B. 1756. D. 1851. Best known by the " Canterbury Tales," written in conjunction with her sister, So- phia. Lee, Henry, American soldier. B. 1756. D. 1818. Lee, Richard Henry, American statesman. B. 1732. D. 1794. Lee, Robert Edward, Confederate general. B. 1807. D. 1870. Lee, Sophia, English writer of Action, dramatist. B. 1750. D. 1834 Asso- ciate of her sister, Harriet, in the authorship of the " Canterbuiy Tales." " A Chapter of Accidents " (drama). Leeuwenhoek, Antonius van, Dutch naturalist, microscopist. B. 1638, D, 1723. Discoverer of infusoria. 470 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Lefebvre, Franjois Joseph, duke of Dantzio, Pr. general. B. 1755. D. 1820, Lefebvre, Jules Joseph, French painter. B. 1836. Lefebvre-Desnouettes, Charles, count, French general. B. 1773. D. 1882. Leftvre, Pierre, Jesuit. B. in Savoy 1506. D. 1546. Le Fid, Adolphe Emmanuel Charles, French general, diplomatist B. 1804 D. 1887. Lefort, Frangois, minister of Peter the Great. B. in Switzerland 1656. D. 1699. Lefuel, Hector Martin, French architect. B. 1810. D. 1881. Legax§, Hugh Swinton, American statesman. B. 1789. D. 1843. Legendre, Adrien Marie, French mathematician. B. 1753. D. 1833. Legouv6, Ernest Wilfrid, French dramatist, novelist. B. 1807. Legouvfi, Gabriel Marie Jean Baptiste, French poet. B. 1764. D. 1812. Lebmann, Heinrich, German painter. B. 1814. D. 1883. liBibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm, German philosopher, mathematician. B. 1646. D. Nov. 14, 1716. Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl of, favorite of Elizabeth, commander of the English forces sent to aid the Dutch against Spain. B. about 1533. D. 1588. licicester of Holkham, earl of. See Coke, Thohas William. Leichbardt, Ludwig, German Australian explorer. B. 1813. Disappeared 1848. Xeidy, Joseph, American naturalist. B. 1833. D. 1891. Leigbton, Sir Frederick, English painter. B. 1830. D. 1896. Leigbton, Robert, Scottish prelate. B. 1611. D. 1684. Leisler, Jacob, usurper of the government of New York in 1689. Executed 1691. Leland, Charles Godfrey, American author. B. 1834. " Hans Breitmann's Ballads." " The English Gipsies and their Language." Iielewel, Joachim, Polish historian, patriot. B. 1786. D. 1861. Lely, Sir Peter, English painter. B. in Westphalia about 1618. D. 1680. Ii^mery, Nicolas, French chemist. B. 1645. D. 1715. Lemoinne, John ifemile, French journalist. B. 1815. D. 1893. Lemon, Mark, English humorist. B. 1809. D. 1870. IjempriSre, John, English classical scholar. D. 1834. Lenau, Nikolaus (Niembsch von Strehlenau), German poet. B. 1802. D, 1850. lienbach, Franz, German painter. B. 1836. L'Enclos, Ninon de, French beauty. B. probably 1616. D. about 1706. Lennep, Jacobus van, Dutch novelist, poet, dramatist. B. 1803. D. 1868. Lenormand, Marie Anne, French fortune-teller. B. 1772. D. 1843. Lenormant, Charles, French writer on art and archaeology. B. 1803. D. 1859. lienonuant, Pran5ois, French archaeologist. B. 1837. D. 1883. " Manuel d'histoire ancienne de TOrient," "Lettres assyriologiques et 6pigra- BIOGBAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 471 phiques." " fitudes accadiennes." " Les sciences occultes en Asie." " Les origines de I'histoire d'apres la Bible." Iienz, Jacob Michael Keinhold, German dramatist. B. 1750. D. 1792, Lenz, Oskar, German traveler in Africa. B. 1848. Leo the Great, bishop of Rome. Elected 440. D. 461. Leo m., pope. Elected 795. D. 816. Leo IV., pope. Elected 847. D. 855. Leo X. (Giovanni de' Medici), pope. B. 1475. Elected 1513. D. 1531. Leo XIL, pope. Elected 1833. D. 1839. Leo Xm. (Gioaohino Peoci), pope. B. 1810. Elected 1878. Iieo L, the Thracian, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 457-474. Leo HI., the Isaurian, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 717-741. Leo v., the Armenian, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 813-820. Leo VL, the Philosopher, Byzantine emperor. Reigned 886-911. Leo, Heinrich, German historian. B. 1799. D. 1878. Works on mediasval and universal history, history of the Italian states, &c. Leo Africanus (Al-Hassan ibn Mohammed), Moorish geographer. First half of 16th c. Leochares, Athenian sculptor. About 350 b. c. Leon, Ponce de. See Ponce de Leon. Leonardo Aretino. See Bbuni. Leonardo da Fisa (Leonardo Bonacci or Fibonacci), Italian mathematician. B. about 1170. Leonardo da VincL See Vinci. "Leonhard, Karl Casar von, German geologist, mineralogist. B. 1779. D. 1863. Leonidas, king of Sparta. Reigned from 491 b. c. Slain 480. Leopardi, Giacomo, count, Italian poet. B. 1798. D. 1837. Leopold L, sovereign of Austria, emperor of Germany, son of Ferdinand ni. B. 1640. Reigned in Austria from 1657; emperor of Germany from 1658. D. 1705. Leopold II., sovereign of Austria, emperor of Germany, brother of Joseph II. B. 1747. Grand-duke of Tuscany 1765-'90. Reigned in the Austrian dominions and Germany from 1790. D. 1793. Leopold L (of Saze-Coburg), king of Belgium. B, 1790. Reigned from 1831. D. 1865. Leopold IL, king of Belgium since 1865, sovereign of the Congo Free State, son of Leopold I. B. 1835. Leopold IL, grand-duke of Tuscany. B. 1797. Reigned 1834-'59. D. 1870. Leopold I., prince of Anhalt-Bessau, general in the Prussian service. B. 1676. D. 1747. Leosthenes, Athenian general. Commander in the Lamian war 333 b. c. Lepage, Bastien. See Bastien-Lepaoe. Lepage, Marie Anne. See Boccage. vip6e, abbe de. See £f]£e. 472 BIOGKAPmCAL DICTIONARY. Lepidus, M, JSmilius, triumvir with Antony and Octaviiis 43-36 b, c, D. 13 B. c. Iiepsius, Richard, German Egyptologist. B. 1810. D. 1884 Iierdo de Tejada, Sebastian, president of Mexico 1872-'6. B. 1835. D. Lermontoff, Mikhail, Russian poet. B. 1814. Killed 1841. Leroux, Pierre, French social philosopher, socialist. B. 1798. D. 1871. Leroy de Saint-Amaud. See Saint-Aenaud. Zieroy Beaulieu, Pierre Paul, French political economist. B. 1843. lie Sage, Alain Itene, French author. B. 1668. J>. 1747. " Uil Bias." Lescot, Pierre, French architect. D. 1578 (about 1570 1). Iiesley, John, Scottish prekte. B. 1S37. D. 1596. Lesley, John Peter, American geologist. B. 1819. Leslie, Charles Robert, English painter. B. 1794. D. 1859. Leslie, Henry David, English composer. B. 1822. D. 1896. Leslie, Sir John, Scottish physicist, mathematician. B. 1766. D. 1832. Lesseps, Ferdinand de, viscount, constructor of the Suez canal. B. in Prance, 1805. D. 1894. Iiessing, Gotthold Ephraim, German author, critic. B. Jan. 23, 1729. D. Feb. 15, 1781. " Laokoon, oder iiber die Grenzen der 'Malerei und Poesie " (" Laocoon, or the Limits of Painting and Poetry "), 1766. '• Minna von Bamhelm" (comedy). "Dramaturgic." "EmUia Galotti" (tragedy). " Nathan der Weise " (philosophical drama), 1779. Lessing, Karl Friedrich, German painter. B. 1808. D. 1880. Lestocq, Johann Hermann, count, favorite of the empress Elizabeth of Russia, a native of Germany. D. 1767. L'Estrange, Sir Roger, partisan of the Stuarts, writer, translator. B. 1616. D. 1704. Le Sueur, EiCstache, French painter. B. 1617. D. 1655. Le Sueur, Jean Francois, French composer. B. 1760. D. 1837. Iieszczynski, Stanislas. See Stanislas Leszczynski. Letronne, Jean Antoine, French antiquary. B. 1787. D. 1848. lieucliteiiberg, duke of. See Beauhabnais, Euq&ke de. Iieucippus, Greek philosopher. About 500 b. c. Leuckart, Rudolf, German naturalist, authority on entozoa. B. 1833. Leutze, Emanuel, American painter. B. in Germany 1816. D. 1868. Le Vaillant, Frangois, French traveler in South Africa. B. 1753. D, 1824. Lever, Charles James, Irish novelist. B. 1806. D. 1872. Leverett, Sir John, governor of Massachusetts. B. 1616. D. 1679. Leverrier, Urbain Jean Joseph, French astronomer. B. 1811. D. 1877. Levita, Elias. See Elias Lgvita. Lewald, August, German author. B. 1792. D. 1871. Lewald, Fanny (wife of Adolf Stahr), German authoress. B. 1811. D. 1889. Works of fiction, sketches of travel, &o. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 473 X^wes, George Henry, English philosopher, author. B. 1817. D. 1878. "Biographical History of Philosophy." "Life of Goethe." "Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences." " Problems of Life and Mind." " Physi- ology of Common Life." " The Spanish Drama." X«ves, Marian Evans ("George Eliot"), English novelist, wife of George Lewes. B. 1819. D. 1880. "Adam Bede," 1859. "The MiU on the Floss." "Romola." " Felix Holt, the Badioal." " Middlemarch." "Dan- iel Deronda." — " The Spanish Gypsy " (poetical romance). Iiewis, Sir George Comwalle, English statesman, antiquary, political writer. B. 1806. D. 1863. Lewis, John Frederick, English painter. B. 1805. D. 1876. Lewis, Matthew Gregory, English novelist, dramatist. B. 1775. D. 1818. I Liverpool, Robert Banks Jenkinson, earl of, British premier 1812-'27. R 1770. D. 1828. Llvia Drusilla, wife of Augustus. B. about 56 b. c. D. a. d. 29. Livingston, Edward, American jurist, statesman. B. 1764. D. 1836. Livingston, Robert R., American statesman. B. 1746. D. 1813. Livingstone, David, Scottish African explorer. B. 1813, D, 1873. Iiivius Androniciis, See Andbonicus, Livius, BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 475 Livy (Titus Livius), Roman historian. B. 59 b. c. D, a. d. 17. History of Rome. Ijunggren, Gustaf, Swedish writer on aesthetics, literary critic. B. 1823. lAorente, Juan Antonio, Spanish ecclesiastic, historian. B. 1756. D. 1833. " History of the Spanish Inquisition " (published in Spanish and French). Uoyd, Henry, soldier, military writer, b. in Wales. D. 1783. IiObeira, Vasco de, Portuguese writer. D. 1408. Reputed author of the romance of " Amadis of Gaul." Lobo, Jeronimo, Portuguese missionary. B. about 1595. D. 1678. Locke, John, English philosopher. B. Aug. 29, 1632. D. Oct. 28, 1704. " Essay concerning Human Understanding," 1690. Lockhart, John Gibson, Scottish author. B. 1794. D. 1854. Life of Scott and other biographies. Works of fiction. Translations of ancient Span- ish ballads. Lockyer, Norman, English astronomer. B. 1836. Loftus, William Eennett, English archaeologist. B. about 1820. D. 1858. " Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana." Logan, Indian chief. B. about 1725. Killed 1780. Logan, Sir William Edmond, Canadian geologist. B. 1798. D. 1875. Lola Montez. See Montez. Lombard, Peter (Petrus Lombardus), Italian theologian. D. about 1160. Lom^nie, Louis Leonard de, French author. B. 1815. D. 1878. " Galerie des contemporains." " Beaumarehais et son temps." Lomfinio de Brienne, !]&tienne Charles de, French prelate, comptroller of finances under Louis XVI. 1787-'8. B. 1727. D. 1794. .LomonosoflF, Mikhail, Russian poet. B. 1712 (1711 f). D. 1765. Londonderry, Charles William Stewart Vane, marquis of. See Stewakt. Londonderry, Robert Stewart, marquis of. See Castlereagh. Long, George, English author. B. 1800. D. 1879. Historical and geo- graphical works. Long, Stephen Harriman, American engineer, explorer. B. 1784. D. 1864. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, American poet. B. Feb. 27, 1807. D. March 34, 1882. " Hyperion " (prose romance), 1839. " Voices of the Night," 1839. " Poets and Poetry of Europe," 1845. " Evangeline," 1847. " The Golden Legend," 1851. "The Song of Hiawatha," 1855. "The Courtship of Miles Standish," 1858. Translation of Dante's "Divina Commedia," 1867-'70. Longhi, Giuseppe, Italian engraver. B. 1766. D. 1831. Longinufl, Greek philosopher, critic, counselor of Zenobia, queen of Pal- myra. Put to death a. d. 273. Longland, William. See Langland. Longman, Thomas Norton, English publisher. B. 1771. D. 1842. Longstreet, James, Confederate general. B. 1821. LongueviUe, Anne Genevieve de Bourbon, duchess de, one of the leaders of the Fronde, sister of the Great Conde. B. 1019. D. 1679. 476 BIOGBAPHICAL DICTIONARY. LSnnrot, Elias, Finnish scholar, editor of the popular epic of the Finns, the " Kalevala," of Finnish proverbs, &c. B. 1802. D. 1884. Iioomis, Elias, Amer. physicist, astronomer, mathematician. B.1811. D.1889. lope de Vega, Felix, Spanish dramatist. B. 1563. D. 1635. Iiopez, Carlos Antonio, dictator (nominally president) of Paraguay 1844-'6a. B. about 1790. D. 1863. Iiopez, Francisco Solano, dictator (nominally president) of Paraguay 1863-'70, son of the preceding. B. about 1837. Killed 1870. Iiopez, Narciso, Cuban revolutionist. B. about 1799. Executed 1851, Lorenzo de MedicL See Medicl Loris-Melikoff, Mikhail, Russian general, statesman. B. 1836. D. 1888. Lorraine, Charles de (cardinal de Lorraine). See GtUISE. Lorraine, Claude. See Claude Lobbaine. Los Herreros. See Breton de los Hebbebos. Lossing, Benson John, American historical and biographical writer. B 1813. D. 1891. Lothaire L, Frankish ruler, emperor of the Romans. B. about 796. Suc- ceeded to the dominions of his father, Louis le Debonnaire, jointly with his brothers, Louis the German and Charles the Bald, 840. Italy, an ex- tensive region west of the Rhine, and the country between the Rhone and the Alps allotted to him 843. D. 855. Lothaire IL (III), the Saxon, German emperor. Reigned from 1135. D.1137. Lotze, Rudolf Hermann, German philosopher. B. 1817. D. 1881. Loubet, ]^mile, president of France since Feb. 18, 1899. B. Dec. 31, 1838. Loudon, Gideon Ernst von. See Laudon. Loudon, John Claudius, British writer on agriculture, botany, Ac. B. 1783, D. 1843. Lough, John Graham, English sculptor. B. about 1804. D. 1876. Louis L, le Debormaire, king of the Franks, emperor of the Romans, son of Charlemagne. B. 778. Reigned from 814. D. 840. Louis IL, emperor of the Romans. Succeeded his father, Lothaire I., in Italy 855. D. 875. Iiouis the Oerman, king of Germany. Succeeded his father, Louis le Debonnaire, jointly with his brothers, Lothaire and Charles the Bald, 840. Germany assigned to him in the partition of the Carlovingian empire in the treaty of Verdun 843. D. 876. Louis the Child, king of Germany. Reigned 900-911. Louis rv., the Bavarian, emperor of Germany. Elected 1314. D. 1347. liOuis IL, the Stammerer, king of France. Reigned 877-'9. Louis in., king of France. Reigned jointly with his brother, Carloman, 879-882. Louis IV., d'Outremer, king of France. Reigned 936-954. Louis v., king of France. Reigned 986-'7. Louis VI., the Fat, king of France. B. about 1078. Reigned from 110& D. 1137, BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 477 Louis VH., king of France. B. about 1130. Reigned from 1137. D. 11801 Louis VIII., king of France. B. 1187. Reigned from 1333. D. 1226. Louis IX., Saint, king of France. B. 1215. Reigned from 1326. D. 1270. Louis X., king of France. B. 1389. Reigned from 1314. D. 1316. Louis XI., king of France, son of Charles VII. B. 1423. Reigned from 1461. D. 1483. Louis Xn., king of France. B. 1462. Reigned from 1498. D. Jan. 1, 1515. Louis Xm., king of France, son of Henry IV. and Maria de' Medici. B. 1601. Reigned from 1610. D. May 14, 1643. Husband of Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip III. of Spain. Louis XrV., the Great, king of France, son of Louis XIII. and Anne of Austria. B. Sept.,*1638. Reigned from 1643. D. Sept. 1, 1715. Mar- ried to Maria Theresa, daughter of Pliilip IV. of Spain ; after her death, to Madame de Maintenon. Louis XV., king of France, great-grandson of Louis XIV. B. Feb. 15, 1710. Reigned from 1715. D. May 10, 1774. Husband of Maria Lesz-, czynska, daughter of Stanislas Leszczynski. Louis XVI., king of France, grandson of Louis XV. B. Aug. 23, 1754 Reigned from 1774. Deposed 1792. Executed Jan. 21, 1793. Husband of Marie Antoinette, daughter of Maria Theresa. Louis XVIL, dauphin, son of Louis XVL B. 1785. D. 1795. Louis XVm., king of France, brother of Louis XVI. B. Nov. 17, 1755. Reigned from April, 1814, to March, 1815, and from June, 1815, to Sept. 16, 1834 (date of his death). (Previous to his accession styled count of Provence.) Louis I., the Great, king of Hungary and Poland. B. 1336. Reigned in Hungary from 1343 ; in Poland, from 1370. D. 1383. Louis n., long of Hungary and Bohemia. Reigned 1516-'36. Louis L, king of Bavaria. B. 1786. Reigned 1825-'48. D. 1868. Louis II., king of Bavaria. B. 1845. Reigned from 1864. D. 1886. Louis, king of Holland. See Bonaparte, Louis. Louis, king of Portugal. B. 1838. Reigned from 1861. D. 1889. Louis, margrave of Baden, general. B. 1655. D. 1707. Louis Ifapoleon. See Bonaparte. Louis, Pierre Charles Alexandre, French physician. B. 1787. D. 1872. Louis Philippe, king of France, son of Philippe ^galiti, duke of Orleans. B. Oct. 6, 1773. Reigned from Aug. 7, 1830, to Feb. 24, 1848. D. Aug.. 36, 1850. Louisa, wife of Frederick "William IIL of Pnissia. B. 1776. D. 1810. Louisa Ulrica, wife of Adolphus Frederick of Sweden, sister of Frederick the Great. B. 1730. D. 1783. L'Ouverture, Toussaint. See Toxjssaint l'Ouvebture. Louvet de Couvray, Jean Baptiste, French revolutionist, author. B. 176ft D. 1797. i'Td BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Louvois, Frangois Michel Letellier, marquis de, minister of war midei Louis XIV. B. 1641 or 1639. D. 1691. Iiovat, Simon Fraser, Lord, Scottish soldier, intriguer. B. about 1670. Executed 1747. Lovelace, Richard, English poet. B. 1618. D. 1658. Xiover, Samuel, Irish author. B. 1797. D. 1868. " Legends and Stories of Ireland." "Metrical Tales and other Poems." "Handy Andy" and other humorous works of Action. Lowe, Sir Hudson, British soldier, governor of St. Helena during Napoleon's confinement. B. 1769. D. 1844 Lowe, Robert, Viscount Sherbrook, English statesman. B. 1811. D. 1892. Lowell, James Russell, American author. B.1819. D.1891. "TheBiglow Papers " (humorous satires). Literary essays. Poems. Lower, Richard, English physiologist. B. about 1631. D. 1691. Lowth, Robert, English bishop, Biblical scholar. B. 1710. D.1787. "Prs- lectiones de Sacra Poesi HebraBorum." Loyola, Ignatius de. Saint, founder of the order of Jesuits. B. in Spain 1491. D. 1556. Loyson, Charles (Pere Hyacinthe), French preacher. B. 1827. Lubbock, Sir John, English archaeologist, naturalist, son of Sir J. W. Lub- bock. B. 1834. "Prehistoric Times." " The Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition of Man." " On ,the Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects." " Ants, Bees, and Wasps." " The Pleasures of Life." Lubbock, Sir John William, English astronomer. B. 1803. D. 1865. Liibke, Wilhelm, German writer on art. B. 1826. D. 1893. Luca Giordano. See Giobdano. Lucan (Marcus Annaeus Lucanus), Latin poet. B. a. d. 39. D. 65. " Phar- salia" (epic). Lucan, George Charles Bingham, earl of, British general. B. 1800. D. 1888. Lucas van Leyden. See Leyden. Lu£ca, Pauline, German singer. B. about 1842. Lucian, Greek author. B. about 120. D. about 200. " Dialogues " (hu- morous and satirical writings directed against the superstitions and vices of his time and the follies of the philosophers). Lucilius, Caius, Latin poet. B. 148 b. c. D. 103. Liicke, Gottfried Christian Friedrich, German Protestant theologian. R 1792. D. 1855. Luckner, Nicholas, German general in the service of France. B. 1722. Executed 1794. Lu"retius, Latin didactic poet. D. about 52 b. c. "De Rerum Natura" (" On the Nature of Things "). Lucullus, Lucius Licinius, Roman general, commander against Mitbridates and Tigranes. D. about 57 b. c. Luden, Heinrich, German historian. B. 1780. D. 1847. Liiders, Alexander, count, Russian general. B. 1790. D. 1874. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 479 Ludolphus, Hiob, German philologist. B. 1624. D. 1704. Ludwig, Karl, G-erman physiologist. B. 1816. D. 1895. Luganski, Kosak. See Dahl, Vladimir. Iiuini, Bernardino, Italian painter. D. after 1530. Luitpold, regent for Otho of Bavaria. B. 1821. Luitprand (Liutprand), king of Lombardy. Eeigned 712-744. Luitprand, Lombard historian. B. about 920. D. about 970. LuUy, Jean Baptiste, French composer. B. 1,633. D. 1687. ^ully, Raymond (Raimundo Lullo), Spanish logician, missionary. B. about 1235. D. 1315. Luna, Pedro de. See Benedict XUL, antipope. Ltindy, Benjamin, American abolitionist. B. 1789. D. 1839. Lushington, Stephen, English lawyer. B. 1782. D. 1873. Lusignan, Guy of. See Gut op Lusignan. Luther, Martin, German Reformer. B. Not. 10, 1483. D. Feb. 18, 1546. Liitke, Fedor, Russian navigator. B. 1797. D. 1882. Liitzo-w, Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von, baron, Pruss. gen'l. B. 1782. D. 1834. Lux, Adam, German revolutionary enthusiast. B. 1766. Executed in Paris 1793. Luxembourg, Pranfois Henri de Montmorency-BoutevUle, duke de, French general. B. 1628. D. 1695. Luynes (Luines), Charles d' Albert, duke de, favorite of Louis XIII. of Prance. B. 1578. D. 1621. Luynes, Honore Theodoric Paul Joseph d' Albert, duke de, French archsB- ologist. B. 1802. D. 1867. Lycon, Greek philosopher. D. about 226 b. c. Lycophron, Greek tragic poet, grammarian. 3d c. B. c. Lycui^us, Spartan legislator. Supposed to have lived in the 9th c. b. c. Lycurgus, Athenian orator. D. about 323 b. c. Lydg^ate, John, English poet. B. about 1375. D. about 1461. Lyell, Sir Charles, British geologist. B. 1797. D. 1875. Lyly, John. See Lilly. LyndhuTSft, John Singleton Copley, baron, British statesman. B. 1772. D. 1863. Lyon, Kathaniel, American general. B. 1819. Killed 1861. Lysander, Spartan commander. Slain 395 b. c. Lysias, Athenian orator. D. 378 b. c. Lysimach.us, one of Alexander's generals, king of Thrace. B. about 360 B. c. Slain 281. Lysippus, Greek sculptor. 4th c. b. c. Lyttelton, George, Lord, English author. B. 1709. D. 1773. " Dialogues of the Dead." '1 History of Henry II." Poems. Lytton, Edward Robert Bulwer-Lytton, Lord, English diplomatist, viceroy of India 1876-'80, poet ("Owen Meredith "), son of the novelist Bulwer. B. 1831. D. 1891. 480 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAEY. UabiUon, Jean, French scholar, writer (in Latin). B. 1632. D. 1707. Mably, Gabriel Bonnot de, French publicist. B. 1709. D. 1785. KCabxise, Jan van (Jan Gossart), Flemish painter. D. 1533 (according to some 1562). Kacadam, John Loudon, Scottish road-maSer. B. 1756. D. 1836. MoArthur, Duncan, American pioneer, soldier, governor of Ohio. B. 1773, D. 1839. Macartney, George, earl, British diplomatist. B. 1737. D. 1806. Macaulay, Catharine (bom Sawbridge), English historian. B. 1733. D. 1791. ICacaiilay, Thomas Babington, Lord, English historian, essayist, poet, statesman. B. Oct. 25, 1800. D. Dec. 28, 1859. " History of England " (reigns of James II. and William III). " Lays of Ancient Rome." Ilacbeth, king of Scotland. Reigned from about 1040. Slain about 1057. McCartliy, Justin, Irish novelist, historian, political leader. B. 1830. " History of our own Times." Macchiavelli. See Machiavelli. UcCleUan, George Brinton, American general. B. 1826. D. 1885. ICcCUntock, Sir Francis Leopold, British Arctic explorer. B. 1819. HcClintock, John, American theological writer. B, 1814. D. 1870. HcClure, Sir Robert John Le Mesurier, British Arctic explorer. B. 1807. D. 1873. KcCosli, James, Scottish metaphysician, divine, president of the College of New Jersey 1868-'88. B. 1811. D. 1894. U'CuUoch, John Ramsay, Scottish political economist, statistician, B. 1789. D. 1864. Uacdonald, Etienne Jacques Joseph Alexandre, duke of Taranto, French general. B. 1765. D. 1840. Uacdonald, George, British poet, novelist. B. 1824, Ilacdonald, Sir John Alexander, Canadian statesman. B. 1815. D. 1891, McDonougb, Thomas, American naval officer. B. 1783. D. 1835. DIcDoweU, Irvin, American general. B. 1818. D. 1885. McDuffie, George, American politician. B. about 1788. D. 1851. Macedo, Joaquim Manoel de, Brazilian author. B. 1830. Hacfarren, George Alexander, English composer. B. 1813. D. 1887. McGiUivray, William, Scottish naturalist. B. 1796. D. 1852. Macgregor, John, British statistician, economist. B. 1797. D. 1857. Machiavelli, Niccolo, Florentine statesman, writer. B. 1469. D. 1527. " Istorie florentine." " II principe " (" The Prince "). " Arte della guer- ra"("Artof War"). Mack, Karl von, baron, Austrian general. B. 1752. D. 1828. Mackay, Charles, British author. B. 1814. D. 1889. Xiackean, Thomas, American patriot, B, 1734, D. 1817. BIOGEAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 481 Uackenzie, Sir Alexander, Scottish explorer of British America. D. 1820. Mackenzie, Alexander Slidell,Amer. naval ofiacer, author. B.1803. D. 1848. Mackenzie, Henry, Scottish author. B. 1745. D. 1831. Novels, essays, dramas, &c. Mackenzie, Robert Shelton, author, joumalist. B. in Ireland 1809. Lived in the United States from 1853. D. 1881. Mackenzie, William Lyon, Canadian politician. B. 1795. D. 1861. McKinley, William, president of the United States. B. Jan. 39, 1843. Mackintosh, Sir James, British author, statesman. B. 1765. D. 1883. " Vindiciffl GallicsB, or Defense of the French Revolution." " Discourse on the Law of Nature and Nations." " Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy." " History of England." Macklin, Charles, Irish actor, dramatist. B. about 1695. D. 1797. Macknigrht, James, Scottish divine. B. 1731. D. 1800. Maclaurin, Colin, Scottish mathematician. B. 1698. D. 1746. Macleod, Norman, Scottish clergyman, author. B. 1813. D. 1873. Maclise, Daniel, British painter. B. 1806 or 1811. D. 1870. Maclure, William, American geologist. B. in Scotland 1763. D. 1840. MacMahon, Marie Edme Patrice Maurice de, duke of Magenta, general, president of France 1873-'9. B. 1808. D. 1893. Macomb, Alexander, American general. B. 1783. D. 1841. Macpherson, James, Scottish author. B. 1736. D. 1796. " The Poems of Ossian." Macready, William Charles, English actor. B. 1793. D. 1873. Macrinus, Roman emperor. Reigned 317-318. Macrobius, Latin grammarian, writer. 5th c. a. d. Madden, Sir Frederick, English antiquary. B. 1801. D. 1873. Madden, Richard Robert, Irish author. B. 1798. D. 1886. Madison, James, president of the United States 1809-17. B. March 16, 1751. D. June 38, 1836. MSdler, Johann Heinrich, German astronomer. B. 1794. D. 1874. Madoz, Pascual, Spanish statesman, author. B. 1806. D. 1870. Editor of the " Diccionario geogrdflco estadistioo y hist6rico de EspaKa." Madrazo, Federico, Spanish painter. B. 1815. D. 1894. Madrazo, Jose, Spanish painter. B. 1781. D. 1859. Madvig, Johann Nikolai, Danish Latin scholar, writer on the constitution and administration of the Roman state. B. 1804. D. 1886. Maecenas, Caius Cilnius, friend of the emperor Augustus, patron of letters. B. about 70 b. c. D. 8 b. c. Maerlant, Jakob van, Dutch poet. D. about 1300. Maffei, Francesco Scipione, Italian scholar, author. B. 1675. D. 1755. " Verona illustrata," " GaUise Antiquitates." " Merope " (tragedy). MagalhSes, Domingos Joz6 Gongalves de, Brazilian poet. B. 1811. D. 1883. Magellan (Fem3o de MagalhSes), Portuguese navigator in the service of Spain. B. about 1470. Killed 1531. 482 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Magendie, Frangois, French physiologist. B. 1783. D. 1855. Maginn, William, Irish author. B. 1793. D. 1842. Magliabecchi, Antonio, Italian scholar. B. 1633. D. 1714. Magnentius, emperor of the West, 350-353. Magnus, H. Gustav, German chemist, physicist. B. 1803. D. 1870. Mag^iisen (Magnusson), Finn, antiquary. B. in Iceland 1781. D. 1847. Noted in the field of Norse mythology, literature, and antiquities. Magyar, Lfezl6, Hungarian traveler in Africa. B. 1817. D. 1864. Mahafiy, John Peytland, Irish Hellenist. B. 1839. Mah.di, the (Mohammed Ahmed), leader in a revolt against Egyptian rule in the Soudan. B. about 1844 D. 1885. Mahmoud II., Turkish sultan. B. 1785. Reigned from 1808. D. 1839. Mahmoud, sultan of Grhuzni, Mohammedan conqueror. B. about 971. Assumed power 997. D. 1030. Mahomet. See Mohammed. Msihon, Lord. See Stanhope, Philip Henbt. Mai, Angelo, cardinal, Italian classical scholar, noted as the discoverer of numerous fragments of ancient writers, preserved in palimpsest manu- scripts. B. 1782. D. 1854 Maild,tli, Jtoos Nepomuk, count, Hungarian historian. B. 1786. D. 1855. Maimbourg, Louis, French ecclesiastical historian. B. 1630. D. 1686. Maimonides (Moses ben Maimon), Jewish theologian, philosopher. B. in Spain 1135. D. 1204. Maine, Sir Henry James Sumner, English jurist. B. 1833. D. 1888. Noted as a writer on law in its connection with the history of primitive society. Maine de Biraa, Marie, Frangois Pierre Gonthier, French metaphysician. B. 1766. D. 1834. Maintenon, Frangoise d'AubignS, marchioness de, second wife of Louis XIV. B. 1635. I). 1719. Maistre, Joseph de, count, Sardinian minister, political and philosophical writer, noted as a champion of the papal authority. B. in Savoy 1754 D.1831. Maistre, Xavier de, count, writer. B. in Savoy 1763 or 1764 D. 1858. " Voyage autour de ma chambre " (" Journey round my Room "). Maitland, Sir Richard, Scottish poet. B. 1496. D. 1586. Maitland, Samuel Roffey, English essayist, historical writer. B. 1793. D. 1866. Maitland, William, Scottish statesman, son of Sir Richard Maitland. D. 1573. Majorano, Gaetano. See Caffarelu. Makart, Hans, Austrian painter. B. 1840. D. 1884 Malacbi, Hebrew prophet. About latter part of 5th c. b. c. Malcolm, Sir John, officer in the service of the English East India Company. author of works on Persian and Indian history, &c. B. 1769. D, 1833. BIOGEAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 483 Halczewski, Antoni, Polish poet. B. about 1793. D. 1836. "Marja" (metrical romance). Malebranche, Nicolas, French metaphysician. B. 1638. D. 1715. Malesherbes, Chretien Guillaume de Lamoignon de, French statesman. B. 1731. Executed 1794. Malet, Claude Franjois de, conspirator against the government of Napoleon. B. 1754. Shot 1813. Malherbe, Prangois de, French poet. B. 1555. D. 1638. Malibran, Maria Felicita, singer, daughter of Manuel Garcia. B. in France 1808. D. 1836. Mallet, David, Scottish poet, dramatist. B. about 1700. D. 1765. Mallet, Robert, British engineer, distinguished by his investigations regard- ing earthquakes. B. 1810. D. 1881. Mallock, William Hurrell, English author. B. 1849. " The New Kepublic." " Is Life worth Living 1 " Malmesbury, James Harris, earl of, Eng. diplomatist. B. 1746. D. 1880. Malmesbury, James Howard Harris, earl of, Eng.statesm. B.1807. D.1889. Malmesbury, William of, English historian. B. about 1095. D. about 1143. Malory, Sir Thomas, author (compiler) of a prose romance, " Morte Arthure," completed about .1470. Malpighi, Marcdlo, Italian anatomist, physiologist. B. 1628. D. 1694. Malte-Brun, Danish-French geographer. B. 1775. D. 1836. Malthiis, Thomas Robert, English political economist. B. 1766. D. 1834. Best known by his " Essay on the Principle of Population." Maltitz, ApoUonius von, baron, German poet, dramatist. B. 1795. D. 1870. Maltitz, Franz Friedrich von, baron, German poet, dramatist. B. 1794. D. 1857. Maltzan, Heinrich von, baron, German traveler in the Barbary states, Arabia, Egypt, &c., author of works on the countries visited by him. B. 1836. D. 1874. Malus, l&tienne Louis, French physicist. B. 1775. D. 1813. Noted for his discoveries in optics. Malvoisine (Mawmoisine), William de, Scottish prelate. D. 1338. Mamiani, Terenzio della Rovere, count, Italian statesman, philosopher. B. 1800. D. 1885. Manasseh, king of Judah. Reigned about 698-643 b. o. Manco Capac, inca of Peru. Killed 1544. Mandeville, Bernard, Dutch-English writer. D. 1783. "Fable of the Bees, or Private Vices Public Benefits." Manes, founder of the sect of ManichaBans, a Persian. 3d c. a. d. Maneth.0, Egyptian historian. First half of 3d c. b. c. Manfred, king of Sicily, son of the emperor Frederick II. B. 1231. Re- gent of the Two Sicilies for his nephew, Conradin, from 1254. Crowned king 1258. Slain 1266. 484 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Manin, Daniele, Italian patriot, head of the revolutionary government of Venice 1848-'9. B. 1804. D. 1857. Mauley, Mary, English authoress. B. about 1673. D. 1734. Manlius Capitolinus, Marcus, Roman patrician. Said to have saved the Capitol from the attack of the Gauls about 387 b. c. Subsequently espoused the cause of the plebeian debtor^, Dlann, Horace, American educationist. B. 1798. D. 1859. Manners, John. See Granby. Manning, Henry Edward, English cardinal. B. 1808. D. 1893. Mansart (Mansard), Prangois, French architect. B. 1598. D. 1666. Mansart, Jules Hardouin, French architect. B. 1645. D. 1708. Mansel, Henry LongueviUe, English metaphysician. B. 1830. D. 1871. Mansfeld, Ernst, count of, German Protestant soldier in the Thirty Years' War. B. 1580. D. 1626. Mansfield, William Murray, earl of, British jurist. B. 1705. D. 1793. Mantegna, Andrea, Italian painter. B. 1431. D. 1506. Mantell, Gideon Algernon, English geologist. B. about 1790. D. 1852. Manteuffel, Edwin von, baron, Prussian general. B. 1809. D. 1885. Manteuffel, Otto Theodor von, baron, Prussian stat«sman. B. 1805. D, 1882. Manuel Comnenus, Byzantine emperor. Reigned from 1143. D. 1180. Manuel PalEeologus, Byzantine emperor. Reigned from 1391. D. 1425. Manutius (Manuzio), Aldus, Italian printer, classical scholar. B. 1449. D. 1515. Manutius, Aldus, Italian printer, classical scholar. B. 1547. D. 1597. Manutius, Paulus, Italian printer, classical scholar. B. 1511. D. 1574. Manzoni, Alessandro, count, Italian novelist, poet, dramatist. B. 1785. D, 1873. Best-known production, "I promessi sposi" ("The Betrothed Lovers," novel). Mapes, Walter, English Latin poet, romance writer. D. about 1210. Maquet, Auguste, French novelist. B. 1813. D. 1888. Mar, John Erskine, earl of, organizer of the rising in Scotland in favor of James Edward Stuart in 1715. B. 1675. D. 1733. Marat, Jean Paul, French revolutionist. B. 1744. Assassinated 1793. Maratti, Carlo, Italian painter. B. 1635. D. 1713. Marbeck, John, English composer. D. about 1585. Marbois, Barbe. See Barb^-Mabbois. Marc' Antonio. See RAiM0in)i. Marceau, Pranjois Severin-Desgraviers, French general. B. 1769. Killed 1796. Marcello, Benedetto, Italian composer. B. 1686. D. 1739. Marcellus, Marcus Claudius, Roman general in the second Punic Wan Slain 308 b. c. March, earl of. See Moktimeb. March, Francis Andrew, American philologist. B. 1835. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 485 Uarchesi, Pompeo, Italian sculptor. B. about 1790. D. 1858. Marco Folo. See Polo. lEarcus Aurelius Antoninus, Roman emperor, philosopher. B. 121. Reignefl from 161. D. 180. Marcy, William Learned, American statesman. B. 1786. D. 1857. Mardonius, Persian general in Greece. Slain 479 b. c. Marenzio, Luca, Italian composer. B. about 1550. D. 1599. Maret, Hugues Bernard, duke of Bassano, French general, statesman. B. 1763. D. 1839. Margaret, queen and patron saint of Scotland. B. 1046. D. about 1098. Margaret, queen of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, daughter of "Walde- mar III. B. about 1353. D. 1413. Margaret, half-sister of Philip II. of Spain, duchess of Parma, regent of the Netherlands 1559-'67. B. 1532. D. 1586. Margaret of Anjou, wife of Henry VI. of England. B. 1430. D. 1483 (1481 f). Margaret of Austria, regent of the Netherlands, daughter of Maximilian I. B. 1480. D.1530. Margaret of Valois, sister of Francis I. of France, wife of Henri d'Albret, king of Navarre, reputed author of the'Heptameron (in the style of Boc- caccio's Decameron). B. 1493. D. 1549. Marg^aret of Valois, first wife of Henry IV. of France, daughter of Catha- rine de' Medici. B. 1553. D. 1615. Margaritone d'Arezzo, Italian painter, sculptor. 13th c. Marheineke, Philipp Konrad, German Protestant theologian. B. 1780. D. 1846. Maria H. (Maria da Gloria), queen of Portugal, daughter of Pedro I. of Bra- zil. B. 1819. Declared queen 1836. Throne usurped by her uncle, Dom Miguel, 1838. Placed in possession of her kingdom 1833-'4 D. 1853. Maria Christina, queen of Spain, wife of Ferdinand VII., regent for her daughter, IsabeUa II. B. 1806. D. 1878. Maria de' Medici, second wife of Henry IV. of France. B. 1573. D. 1642. Maria Ijouisa, second wife of Napoleon I., daughter of Francis, emperor of Austria. B. 1791. Married 1810. After Napoleon's fall duchess of Parma. D. 1847. Maria Theresa, sovereign of the Austrian dominions (queen of Hungary and Bohemia), wife of Francis I., emperor of Germany. B. 1717. Suc- ceeded her father, Charles VI., 1740. D. 1780. Mariana, Juan, Spanish Jesuit, historian. B. 1536. D. 1623. Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI., daughter of Maria Theresa. R 1755. GuiUotined 1793. Mariette, Auguste fidouard, French Egyptologist. B. 1831. D. 1881. Marini, Giambattista, Italian poet. B. 1569. D. 1635. Mario, Giuseppe, marquis di Candia, Italian singer. B. 1808. D, 1883, Marion, Francis, American soldier. B. 1732. D. 1795. 486 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Mariotte, Edme, French physicist. D. 1684. Marius, Caius. Roman general. B. about 157 b. c. D. 86. llarivaxiz, Pierre Carlet de Chamblain de, French writer of comedy, novelist B. 1688. D. 1763. Mark Antony. See Antony. Mark Twain. See Clemens. Markham, Clements Robert, English geographer, author. B. 1830. Marlborough, John Churchill, duke of, English general. B. June 24, 1650. D. June 16, 1722. Marlitt, E. See John, BnoENiE. Marlowe, Christopher (Kit), English dramatist. B. 1564. D. 1593. Marmier, Xavier, French author. B. 1809. D. 1892. Books of travel, novels, translations from the German. Marmont, Auguste Frederic Louis Viesse de, duke of Ragpisa, French gen- eral. B. 1774. D. 1852. Marmontel, Jean Fran5ois, French author. B. 1723. D. 1799. " Contes moraux" ("Moral Tales"). "Belisaire" and "Les Incas" (romances). Tragedies. Operas. " Elements de Litterature.'' Mamix, Philip' van. See Sainte-Aldegondb. Marochetti, Carlo, baron, Italian sculptor. B. 1805. D. 1868 (close of (1867?). Marot, Clement, French poet. B. 1495. D. 1544. Marquette, Jacques, French Jesuit, missionary. B. 1637. D. 1675. Voy- age down the Mississippi with Joliet, 1673. Marracci, Ludovico, Italian Arabic scholar. B. 1612. D. 1700. Marryat, Frederick, captain, English writer of fiction. B. 1792. - D. 1848. Mars, Anne Frangoise Hippolyte Boutet, French actress. B. 1778 or 1779. D. 1847. Marschner, Heinrich, German composer. B. 1795. D. 1861. Marsden, William, British philologist, numismatist, authority on the Malay language. B. 1754 D. 1836. Marsh, George Perkins, American scholar, author, diplomatist. B. 1801. D. 1883. " Origin and Histoiy of the English Language." " The Earth, as modified by Human Action." Marsh, Othniel Charles, American palaeontologist. B. 1831. D. 1899. Marshall, John, chief justice of the United States 1801-'35. B. 1755. D. 1835. Marshall, William Calder, Scottish sculptor. B. 1813. D. 1894. Marshman, Joshua, English missionary and Chinese, Sanskrit, and Benr galee scholar. B. 1768. D. 1837. Marsigli, Luigi Ferdinando, count, Italian savant. B, 1658. D. 1730. Marston, John, English dramatist. D. about 1634. Marstrand, Wilhelm, Danish painter. B. 1810. D. 1873. Martel, Charles. See Charles Martel. Martens, Georg Friedrieh von, German publicist. B. 1756, D. 1821. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 487 Uartial (Marcus Valerius Martialis), Latin epigrammatic poet. B. about 43. D. about 104. Martin I., pope. Elected 649. Deprived of his dignity 653. Martin IV., pope. Elected 1381. D. 1285. Martin V., pope. Elected 1417. D. 1431. Martin, Aime. See Aime-Mabtin. • Martin, Pranjois Xavier, American jurist. B. in Prance 1764. D. 1846. Martin, Henri, Prench historian. B. 1810. D. 1883. " Histoire de Prance." Martin, Saint, bishop of Tours. B. about 316. D. about 400. Martin, Sir Theodore, British poet, translator, biographer. B. 1816. " Life of His Royal Highness the Prince Consort." Martineau, Harriet, English authoress. B. 1803. D. 1876. Tales and Novels. " Illustrations of PoHtieal Economy " (series of tales). " Illustra- tions of Taxation." "Society in America." "Eastern life. Past and Present." " History of England during the Thirty Years' Peace." Martineau, James, English divine, philosophical writer, brother of Har- riet Martineau. B. 1805. Martinez de la Kosa,Prancisco, Span, statesman, author. B.1789. D. 1862. Martins, Karl Priedrich PhUipp von, German traveler in Brazil, botanist. B. 1794. D. 1868. Martyr, Peter, historian. See Anghieba. Martyr, Peter, Reformer. See Peteb Mabttb. Marvell, Andrew, member of Parliament, writer, celebrated for his attacks on the government of Charles II. B. about 1621. D. 1678. Marx, Karl, German socialist, founder of the Internationale. B. 1818. D. 1888. Mary L, queen of England, daughter of Henry VIII. and Catharine of Aragon. B. 1516. Reigned from 1553. D. 1558. Married to Philip IL of Spain. Mary H., queen of England, daughter of James II., wife of William III. B. 1663. D. 1694. Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold, wife of Maximilian, B. 1457. D. 1482. Mary of Lorraine (of Guise), queen regent of Scotland, mother of Mary Stuart. B. 1515. D. 1560. Sister of Prancis, duke of Guise. Mary Stuart, queen of Scots, daughter of James V. and Mary of Lorraine. B. Dec, 1543. Queen from Dec. 14, 1543. Forced to abdicate in favor of herson,JamesVI.,July 34, 1567. Executed Feb. 8, 1587. Married to the dauphin Prancis 1558 (queen of France 1559-'60); to Darnley, 1565; to BothweU, 1567. Masaccio (Tommaso Guidi), Italian painter. First half of 15th c. Masaniello (Tommaso Aniello), leader in an insurrection of the Neapolitan populace in 1647. B. about 1633. Killed 1647. Masham, Lady Abigail, favorite of Queen Anne. D. 1734. Mdainisaa, a Numidian king, who in the second Punic War fought at first 488 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. on the side of Caxthage and then joined Rome. B. about 840 b, a Bt about 148. Maskelyne, Nevil, English astronomer. B. 1733. D. 1811. Mason, Francis, American missionary in Burmah. B. in England 1799. O 1874. Hason, George, American statesman. B, about 1735. D. 1793. Mason, James Murray, American politician. B. 1798. D. 1871. Mason, John, soldier of Connecticut. B. 1600. D. 1672. Mason, Lowell, American composer. B. 1793. D. 1873. Maspero, G., French Egyptologist, writer on the early history of the East B. 1846. Massasoit, Indian sachem. D. 1661. MassSna, Andre, prince of Essling, French general. B. 1758. D, 1817. Massey, Gerald, English poet. B. 1838. Massillon, Jean Baptiste, French pulpit orator. B. 1663. D. 1743. Massinger, Philip, EngUsh dramatist B. about 1583. B. 1640. Massinissa. See Masinissa. Masson, Dayid, British literary historian. B. 1833. Principal production, "Life of John Milton." Masudi, Arabian scholar, writer. D. 956. Matejko, Jan, Polish painter. B. 1838. D. 1893. Matema, Amalie, Viennese singer. B. 1847. Mather, Cotton, American theologian, writer. B. 1663. D. 1738. Mather, Increase, American clergyman, writer. B. 1639. D. 1733. Mathew, Theobald, " the apostle of temperance." B. in Ireland 1790. D. 1856. Mathews, Charles, English actor. B. 1776. D. 1835. Matsys (Metsys), Quintin, Flemish painter. D. about 1530. Matteucci, Carlo, Italian scientist. B. 1811. D. 1868. Matthew Paris, English chronicler. D. 1259. Matthias, emperor of Germany, brother of Rudolph U. B. 1557. Reigned in the archduchy of Austria, part of Hungary, and Moravia from 1608. King of Bohemia from 1611. Emperor from 1612. D. 1619. Matthias Corvinns, king of Hungary, son of John Hunyady. B. 1443. Reigned from 1458. D. 1490. Matthisson, Friedrich von, German poet. B. 1761. D. 1831. Maturin, Charles Robert, Irish novelist, dramatist, preacher. B. 1783. D. 1824. Maudsley, Henry, English physiologist. B. 1835. " Physiology and Pa- thology of Mind." •' Responsibility in Mental Disease." " Body and Will." Maupassant, Guy de, French writer of fiction, poet. B. 1850. D. 1893. Maupertuis, Pierre Louis Moreau de, French mathematician, astronomer. B. 1698. D. 1759. Maurepas, Jean Frederic Phelypeaux, count de, French statesman. B. 1701. D. 1781. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 489 Maurice, Byzantine emperor. See Maukicius. Uaurice, duke and elector of Saxony, general, ally of Charles V. in the war of the Smalcald League, subsequently the champion of the Protestant cause. B. 1521. Killed 1553. Kaurice of Nassau, prince of Orange, stadtholder of the Netherlands, general, son of William the Silent. B. 1567. D. 1625. Matirice, Frederick Denison, English divine, social reformer, writer on re- ligion and philosophy. B. 1805. D. 1872. Uaurice, Thomas, English scholar, author. B. about 1754. D. 1824. Works on the antiquities and history of India. Mauricius, Byzantine emperor. B. about 539. Breigned from 582. Exe- cuted 602. Uaurocordatos. See MAyBocoRDATOS. Maury, AUred, French author. B. 1817. D. 1892. Works on the religious beliefs, superstitions, and legends of antiquity and the Middle Ages. Various works on the forests of France. Maury, Jean SiSrein, archbishop of Paris. B. 1746. D. 1817. Maury, Matthew Fontaine, American hydrographer. B. 1806. D. 1873. Mavrocordatos, Alexander, Greek soldier, statesman. B. 1791. D. 1865. Max, Grabriel, German painter. B. 1840. Maxentius, Boman emperor. Proclaimed 306. (Recognized in a small portion only of the Roman world.) D. 312. Maximian (Maximianus) I., Roman emperor. Colleague of Diocletian 286- 305. Executed 310. Maximilian I., emperor of Germany, of the house of Austria, son of Fred- erick III. B. 1459. Reigned from 1493. D. 1519. Husband of Mary of Burgundy and grandfather of Charles V. M tt-rinniliaTi H., emperor of Germany, archduke of Austria, king of Hun- gary and Bohemia, son of Ferdinand I. B. 1527. Reigned from 1564. D. 1576. TUp-Tirnilin-n^ archduke of Austria, emperor of Mexico, brother of Francis Joseph. B. 1832. Shot 1867. Maximilian, duke and afterward elector of Bavaria. Reigned 1597-1651 (elector from 1623). Maximilian, prince of Neuwled. See Neuwied. Maximilian Joseph, "duke in Bavaria," German author. B. 1808. D. 1888. Novels, dramas, travels. Maximin (Maximinus), Roman emperor. Reigned 235-238. Maxwell, James Clerk, British physicist. B. 1831. D. 1879. May, Sir Thomas Erskine, English author. B. 1815. D. 1886. Works on the British Parliament and constitution. " Democracy in Europe." Mayenne, Charles de Lorraine, duke of, last head of the Catholic League, brother of Henry I. of Guise. D. 1611. Mayer, Alfred Marshall, American physicist. B. 1836. D. 1897. Mayer, Johann Tobias, German astronomer. B. 1723. D. 1762. 490 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAET. Uayer, Julius Robert, German physicist. B. 1814. D. 1878. One of the originators of the mechanical theory of heat. Uayhew, Henry, Eng. writer. B. 1812. D. 1887. Author of humorous writ- ings, of " London Labor and London Poor," " The Wonders of Science," &c. SCayo, Richard Southwell Bourke, earl of, British statesman, viceroy of India 1869-'73. B. 1823. Assassinated 1873. Mazade, Charles de, French political writer. B. 1820. D. 1893. Kazarin, Jules, cardinal, prime minister of Louis XIV. B. in Italy 1603. D. 1661. Mazeppa, hetman of the Cossacks, ally of Charles XII. B. about 1645. D. 1709. aiazzini, Giuseppe, Italian patriot, revolutionist. B. 1808. D. 1872. Mazzolim, Ludovico, Italian painter. First half of 16th c. mazzuchelli, Giovanni Maria, count, Italian biographer, critic. B. 1707. D. 1765. " Scrittori d'ltalia." Mazzuola, Francesco. See Parmioiano. Mead, Larkin Goldsmith, American sculptor. B. 1835. Head, Richard, English physician. B. 1673. D. 1754. Sleade, George Gordon, American general. B. 1815. D. 1872. Mechain, Pierre Frangois Andre, French astronomer. B. 1744. D. 1804 or 1805. Mechelii (Meckenen), Israel von, German engraver. D. 1503. MecM, John Joseph, English agi-iculturist. B. 1802. D. 1880. Medhurst, Walter Henry, English missionary, Chinese scholar. B. 1796. D. 1857. Medici, Alessandro de', duke of Florence. B. about 1510. Declared duke 1532. Assassinated 1537. Medici, Catharine de'. See Cathaedte de' Medici. Medici, Cosmo de' (Cosmo the Elder), Florentine statesman, patron of arts and letters. B. 1389. D. 1464. Medici, Cosmo de' (Cosmo the Great), grand-duke of Tuscany. B. 1519. Ruler of Florence from 1537. Proclaimed grand-duke 1569. D. 1574. Medici, Giovanni de'. See Leo X., pope. Medici, Giovanni Angelo de'. See Pins IV., pope. Medici, Giulio de'. See Clement VII., pope. Medici, Lorenzo de' (Lorenzo the Magnificent), head of the Florentine state, patron of arts and letters, poet. B. 1449. Governed from 1469. D, 1492. Medici, Maria de'. See Maria de' Medici. Meer, van der, Jan (the elder), Dutch painter. B. about 1628. D. about 1691. Meer, van der, Jan (the younger), Dutch painter. B. about 1658. D. about 1705. Megerle, Ulrich. See Abraham a Sancta Clara. Mehemet AU, viceroy of Egypt. B. about 1769. Ruled 1805-'48. D.184a BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 491 JiaCehemet Ali, Turkish general. B. in Prussia 1827. Murdered 1878. Uphill, Etienne Henri, French composer. B. 1763. D. 1817. Meilhac, Henri, French dramatist. B. 1832. D. 1897. Meissner, Alfred, German pOet, novelist. B. 1822. D. 1885. Meissonier, Jean Louis Ernest, French painter. B. 1815. D. 1891. Mekhitar (Mechitar), founder of the Armenian congregation of Mekhitarists. D. 1749. Uela, Pomponius, Roman geographer. Flourished about a. d. 50. Melanclitlioii (Melanethon), Philipp, German Reformer. B. 1497. D. 1560. Uelboxmie, William Lamb, viscount, British prime-minister 1834, 1835-'41. B. 1779. D. 1848. Uelendez Valdes, Juan Antonio, Spanish poet. B. 1754. D. 1817. Keletins, author of the Meletian schism. D. about 326. Meletius, Saint, bishop of Antioch. D. 381. Uelikoff. See Loris-Melikoff. Hellin, Gustaf Henrik, Swedish novelist. B. 1803. D. 1876. ICelo, Manuel de, Spanish historian, poet. B. in Portugal 1611. D. 1665. Melville, Andrew, Scottish Reformer. B. 1545. D. 1622. Melville, Sir James, Scottish soldier, writer of historical memoirs. B. about 1535. D. 1617. Melville, Lord. See Ddndas. Memling, Hans, Flemish painter. Flourished second half of 15th c. Memmi, Simone (Simone di Martino), Italian painter. B. about 1283. D. 1344. Manage, GUles, French scholar. B. 1613. D. 1692. " Dictionnaire etymolo- gique de la langue fran^aise." Menander, Greek comic poet. B. 342 b. c. D. about 291. Menant, Joachim, French Assyriologist. B. 1820. Menasseh ben Israel, Dutch rabbi, writer. B. in Portugal about 1604. D. 1657. Author of a " Defence of the Jews," addressed to Cromwell. Mencins (Meng-tse), Chinese philosopher. 4th c. b. c. Mendelssohn, Moses, German - Jewish philosopher. B. 1729. D. 1786. " Phaedon, oder uber die Unsterblichkeit der Seele " (" Phsedo, or the Im- mortality of the Soul "). " Jerusalem, oder fiber religiose Macht und Judenthum" ("Jerusalem, or Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism"), " Morgenstunden " (" Morning Hours," on the existence of God). Mendelssohn-Bartlioldy, FeUx, German composer, grandson of Moses Mendelssohn. B. 1809. D. 1847. Mendez Finto, Portuguese traveler, adventurer. B. about 1510. D. 1583. Mendiz&bal, Juan Alvarez y, Spanish financier. B. about 1790. D. 1853, Mendoza, Antonio de, viceroy of New Spain (Mexico). D, 1552. Mendoza, Diego Hurtado de, Spanish author, soldier, diplomatist. B. about 1503. D. 1575. "Guerra de Granada contra los Moriscos." Poems. " Lazarillo de Tonnes " (satirical romance) formerly ascribed to him. 492 BIOGKAPHIOAL DICTIONAKY. Hendoza, Inigo Lopez de, marquis of Santillana, Castilian soldier, states- man, noted as a poet and scholar. B. 1398. D. 1458. Mendoza, Pedro Gonzales de, Spanish prelate. B. 1428. D. 1495. Henendez de Aviles, Pedro, Spanish commander, colonizer of Florida. B. 1519. D. 1574. Mengs, Rafael, German painter. B. 1728. D. 1779. menno Symons (Menno Simonis), founder of the sect of Mennonites, native of Friesland. D. about 1559. Menshikoff, Alexander, prince, Russian statesman, general. B. 1672. D. 1729 or 1730. Henshikofif, Alexander, prince, Russian soldier, diplomatist, commander of the forces in the Crimea in 1854 and in the beginning of 1855. B. 1787. D. 1869. IXenzel, Adolf Friedrich Erdmann, German painter. B. 1815. ICenzel, Karl AdoU, German historian. B. 1784 D. 1855. Works on German history. SEenzel, Wolfgang, German historian, critic. B. 1798. D. 1873. Works on German history and literature. Mercadante, Saverio, Italian composer. B. 1795. D. 1870. Hercator, Gerard, geographer, cartographer. B. in Flanders, 1513. D. 1594 Mercer, Hugh, American soldier. Killed 1777. Uerck, Johann Heinrich, German writer, friend of Goethe. B. about 1741. D. 1791. Meredith, Owen. See Lttton. Marian, Maria Sibylla, artist, naturalist. B. in Germany 1647. D. 1717. Merian, Matthaus (the elder), Swiss engraver. B. 1593. D. 1650. Merian, Matthaus (the younger), painter. B. in Switzerland 1621. D. 1687. M^rim^e, Prosper, French novelist, dramatist, poet, historical writer. B. 1808. D. 1870. Merivale, Charles, English historian. B. 1808. D. 1893. « History of the Romans under the Empire." Merle d'Aubign6, Jean Henri, Swiss historian. B. 1794 D. 1872. "His- toire de la reformation au XVI* siecle." Merlin de Douai, Philippe Antoine, count, French statesman, jurist. B. 1754. D. 1838. Merrick, James, English poet. B. 1720. D. 1769. M6ry, Joseph, French author. B. 1798. D. 1866. Satirical and other poems, novels, sketches of travel, dramas. Mesmer, Friedrich Anton (Franz f), German physician. B. about 1734 D. 1815. Messala (Marcus Valerius Messala Corvinus), Roman general, orator, scholar, B. about 65 b. c. Messalina, wife of Claudius. Put to death a. d. 48. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 493 Uetastasio, Pietro Antonio Domenico Bonaventura, Italian poet. B. 1698. D. 1783. Operatic dramas. Metellus (Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus), Roman general. D. 115 B. c. l[et«llus (Quintus CBBcilius Metellus Numidicus), Roman general. Consul 109 B. c. Uetellus (Quintus Cseciliiis Metellus Celor), Roman consul 60 b. c. D. 59. Uetellus (Quintus Csecilius Metellus Creticus), Roman general. Consul 69 B. c. UethodiuE, Glreek missionary to the Slavs. D. about 885. nCettemich, Clemens Wenzel Lothar von, prince, diplomatist, statesman, chief minister in Austria 1809-'48. B. May 15, 1773. D. June 11, 1859. U ettemicb, Richard von, prince, son of the preceding, Austrian diploma- tist. B. 1829. D. 1895. Uetzu, Gabriel, Dutch painter. B. about 1630. Ueulen, Antoine Fransois van der, French painter. B. in Brussels 1634 D. 1690. Meyer (von Bremen), Johann Georg, German painter. B. 1813. D. 1886. Meyer, Johann Heinrich, Swiss writer on art. B. 1759. D. 1882. Meyerbeer, Giacomo, German composer. B. 1791. D. 1864. Meyerheim, Eduard, German painter. B. 1808. D. 1879. Meyerheim, Paul Priedrich, German painter. B. 1843. M6zeray, Prangois Eudes de, French historian. B. 1610. D. 1683. "His- toire de Prance." MSzidres, Alfred, French author. B. 1826. Works on the English drama- tists, on Petrarch, Goethe, &c. Mezzofanti, Giuseppe, cardinal, Italian linguist. B. 1774. D. 1849. Miall, Edward, English journalist, Nonconformist writer. B. 1809. D. 1881. Miaulis, Andros, Greek admiral. B. about 1768. D. 1835. Micah, Hebrew prophet. Second half of 8th c. b. c. Michael, czar of Russia, founder of the Romanoff dynasty. Reigned from 1613. D. 1645. Michael Angelo (Michel Angelo Buonarroti), Italian painter, sculptor, architect, poet. B. March 6, 1475. D. Feb. 17 (18 f), 1564.* Michael Obrenpvitch, prince of Servia. Reigned 1839-'42, 1860-'68. As- sassinated 1868. Michael Falseolo^s, Byzantine emperor. Emperor of Nicaea from 1359. Conquered the Byzantine throne 1261. D. 1382. Michaelis, Johann David, German Biblical scholar. B. 1717. D. 1791. * Michael Angelo's birth is eometimes falsely placed in the year 1474 and his death in 1563. This is due to the circumstance that in varions parts of Italy (as was also the case In England) the year formerly began with March 25, so that March 6, 1476, and Feb. 17, 1564, modem reckoning, were Included in the years 1474 and 1583. 494 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAKY. Michaud, Joseph Frangois, French journalist, historian, poet, one of the founders of the " Biographie UniverseUe." B. 1767. D. 1839. Michaux, Andre, French botanist. B. 1746. D. 1803. Michaux, Francois Andre, French botanist. B. 1770. IX 1835. lllichel Angelo. See Michael Angelo. jDIichelet, Jules, French historian, miscellaneous writer. B. 1798. D.' 1874 " Histoire de France." " Histoire de la revolution frangaise." Kichelis, Friedrich, German Old Catholic theologian. B. 1815. D. 1886. Slicipsa, king of IN'umidia. D. 118 b. c. Mickiewioz, Adam, Polish poet. B. 1798. D. 1855. Middleton, Conyers, English divine, scholar. B. 1683. D. 1750. « Life of Cicero." lUiddleton, Thomas, English dramatist. D. 1627. Kidhat Pasha, Turkish statesman. B. about 1828. D. 1884 Mieris, Frans (the elder), Dutch painter. B. 1635. D. 1681. Hieroslawski, Ludwik, Polish revolutionist, soldier. B. 1814 D. 1878. Wifflj-n, Thomas, American general. B. 1744 D. 1800. Mignet, Francois Auguste, French historian. B. 1796. D. 1884 Best- known work, " Histoire de la revolution fran9aise.'' Uiguel, Dom, usurper of the throne of Portugal, uncle of Maria da Gloria, B. 1802. Declared king 1828. Dethroned 1833-'4. D. 1866. Miklosich, Franz von, Slavic philologist. B. in Styria 1813. D. 1891. BEilan Obrenovitch., king of Servia. B. 1854. Elected prince 1868. As- sumed the royal dignity 1882. Abdicated 1889. Mill, James,- British historian, political economist, philosopher. B. 1773. D. 1836. " History of British India." Mill, John Stuart, English philosopher, economist, son of James Mill. B. May 20, 1806. D. May 9, 1873. " System of Logic." " Principles of Political Economy." "Essay on Liberty." "Utilitarianism." "The Subjection of Women." Millais, John Everett, English painter. B. 1829. D. 1896. Miller, Hugh, British geologist B. 1802. D. 1856. "The Footprints of the Creator." " The Testimony of the Rocks." " My Schools and School- masters." Miller, Joaquin, American poet. B. 1841. Millet, Jean FranQois, French painter. B. 1815. D. 1875. Mills, Clark, American sculptor. , B. 1815. D. 1883. Milman, Henry Hart, dean of St. Paul's, English historian, poet. B. 1791, D. 1868. " History of the Jews." Works on the history of Christianity, Milne-Edwards, Henri, French naturalist, B. 1800. D. 1885. Milnes, Richard Monckton. See Houghton. Milo, Titus Annius, Roman tribune. Slain 48 b. c. Mile of Crotona, athlete. Latter part of 6th c. b. c. Milosh Obrenovitch, prince of Servia from 1817 to 1839, and from Dec, 1858 to 1860. D, 1860. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 495 Uiltiades, Athenian general. D. 489 B. c. Milton, John, English poet, Puritan. B. Deo. 9, 1608. D. Nov. 8, 1674. " L' Allegro " and " II Penseroso," " Comus," " Lycidas," written between 1632 and 1637. "Pro Populo AngUcano Defensio," published 1650. " Paradise Lost," 1667. " Paradise Regained," 1671. " Samson Agonistes," 1671. Various ecclesiastical and political writings. Milyutin, Dmitri, Russian minister of war. B. 1816. Milyutin, Nikolai, Russian statesman. B. 1818. D. 1873. Mimnermus, Greek poet. 600 b. c. Mind, Gottfried, Swiss painter. B. 1768. D. 1814. Minghetti, Marco, Italian statesman. B. 1818. D. 1886. Mini6, Claude fitienne, French inventor. B. 1804. D. 1879. Minto, Gilbert £Iliot,'earI of, British statesman, governor general of India 1807-'13. B. 1751. D. 1814. Minutoli, Heinrich (Baron Menu von Minutoli), German archaeologist, his- torical writer. B. in Geneva 1773. D. 1846. " Reise zum Tempel des Jupiter Ammon und nach OberSgypten." Miiabeau, Honore Gabriel Riquetti, coimt de, French orator, statesman, revolutionist. B. March 9, 1749. D. April 3, 1791. Mirabeau, Victor Riquetti, marquis de, French economist, father of the preceding. B. 1715. D. 1789. " L'ami des hommes " (" The Friend of Man "). Miramon, Miguel, Mexican soldier, revolutionary leader, president of Mexi- co 1859-'60, partisan of Maximilian. B. 1833. Shot 1867. Miranda, Francisco, Venezuelan revolutionist. D, 1816. Mirandola. See Pico della Mlbahdola. Mirbel, Charles Frangois Brisseau de, French botanist, vegetable physiolo- gist. B. 1776. D. 1854. Mistral, Frederic, Provengal poet. B. 1830. Mitchel, John, Irish journalist, revolutionist. B. 1815. D. 1875. Mitchel, Ormsby Macknight, American astronomer. B. 1810. D. 1863. Mitchell, Donald Grant (" Ik Marvel "), American author. B. 1823. " Rev- eries of a Bachelor." " Dream Life." " My Farm of Edgewood." Mitchell, Maria, American astronomer. B. 1818. D. 1889. Mitchell, S. Weir, American physician, physiologist. B. 1829. Mitchell, Sir Thomas Livingstone, British Australian explorer. B. 1792. D. 1855. Mitford, Mary Russell, English poetess, dramatist, writer of tales. B. 1787. D. 1855. Best known by her sketches of English rural life. Mitford, William, English historian. B. 1744. D. 1837. "History of Greece." Mithridates the Great, king of Pontus. B. about 133 b. c. Reigned from 120. D. 63. Mitscherlich, Bilhard, German chemist. B. 1794. D. 1863. Mittermaier, Karl Joseph Anton, German jurist. B. 1787. D. 1867. 496 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Mivart, St. George, English naturalist. B. 1837. Moawiyah, founder of the Ommiyade dynasty of caliphs. Reigned 661-680. ]II5bius, August Ferdinand, German mathematician. B. 1790. D. 1868. Mocazina. See Atha ben Haeem. Moflfat, Robert, Scottish missionary. B. 1795. D. 1883. HLogila,, Fetr, Russian theologian. B. about 1597. D. 1646. SEoliamnied (Mahomet), founder of Islam. B. in Mecca 570 or 571. D. 633. Mohammed II., Turkish sultan. B. 1430. Reigned from 1451. D. 1481. Mohammed IV., Turkish sultan. B. about 1643. Reigned 1648-'87. D. about 1693. Mohl, Hugo von, German vegetable physiologist. B. 1805. D. 1873. Mohl, Robert, German writer on constitutional law. B. 1799. D. 1875. MShler, Johann Adam, German Catholic theologian. B. 1796. D. 1838. Mohs, Friedrich, German mineralogist. B. 1773. B. 1839. Moir, David Macbeth, Scottish author. B. 1798. D. 1851. Moira, earl of. See Hastings, marquis of. Moivre, Abraham de, French mathematician. B. 1667. D. 1754 Mokanna. See Atha ben Haeeu. Molay, Jacques de, last grand-master of the order of Templars. Burned in Pariri 1314. Molbech, Christian, Danish historian, philologist. B. 1783. D. 1857. Molbech, Christian Knud Frederik, Dan. poet, dramatist. B. 1831. D. 1888. Mol6, Louis Mathieu, count, French statesman, premier 1837-9. B. 1781. D. 1855. Moleschott, Jacob, Dutch-German physiologist. B. 1832. D. 1893. MoliSre (Jean Baptiste Poquelin), French writer of comedy. B. Jan. 15, 1633. D. Feb. 17, 1673. " Les precieuses ridicules," 1659. " L'ecole des maris." "L'ecole des femmes." "Tartufe." "Le misanthrope." "Le medecin malgre lui." " L'avare." " Le bourgeois gentilhomme." " Les femmes savantes." " Le malade imaginaire," 1673. Molina, Luis, Spanish theologian. B. 1535. D. 1600. Molinos, Miguel, Spanish mystic. B. 1637. D. 1696. Moltke, Helmuth von, count, German strategist. B 1800. D. 1891. Mommsen, Theodor, German historian. B. 1817. "Romische Geschichte" (extending to the end of the republic). " RSmische Chronologic bis auf Caesar.'' " Geschichte des romischen Milnzwesens " (" History of Roman Money "). " Romisches Staatsrecht " (" Roman Constitutional Law "). Monboddo, James Burnet, Lord, Scottish jurist, author. B. 1714 D. 1799. " Dissertation on the Origin and Progress of Language." " Ancient Meta- physics, or the Science of Universals." Monge, Gaspard, French mathematician. B. 1746. D. 1818. Monk, George, duke of Albemarle, English Parliamentary general, who be- came the chief actor in the restoration of the Stuarts. B. 1608. D. 1670, BIOGEAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 497 Uonmoutli, James Scott, duke of, reputed son of Charles II,, soldier. B. 1649. Executed for attempting to seize the throne 1685. Konrad, Ditlev Gothard, Danish bishop, statesman. B. 1811. D. 1887. Monro, Alexander, British physician, anatomist. B. 1697. D. 1767. Uonroe, James, president of the United States 1817-25. B. April 38, 1758. D. July 4, 1831. Uonstrelet, Enguerrand de, French chronicler. B. about 1390. D. 1453. Uontagu, Basil, English lawyer, author. B. 1770. D. 1851. Montagu, Edward Wortley, Eng. author, son of Mary Wortley M. B. 1713. D. 1776. " Reflections on the Rise and Pall of Ancient Republics." Montagu, Elizabeth (bom Robinson), English authoress. B. 1720. D. 1800. " Essay on the Genius and Writings of Shakespeare." Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley (bom Pierrepont), English authoress. B. about 1689. D. 1762. Celebrated for her letters descriptive of oriental life. Introduced inoculation for small-pox into England. Montague, Charles, earl of Halifax, British statesman. B. 1661. D. 1715. Montaigne, Michel de, French essayist. B. 1533. D. 1592. Montalembert, Charles de, count, French statesman, orator, writer. B. 1810. D. 1870. " Vie de Sainte &isabeth de Hongrie." "Les moines d'Ooeident depuis Saint Benoit jusqu'S, Saint Bernard " (" The Monks of the West from Saint Benedict to Saint Bernard "). Montalembert, Marc Rene de, marquis, French military engineer, B. 1714 D. 1800. Montalvan, Juan Perez de, Spanish dramatist. B. 1602, D. 1638. Montanus, Arias. See Aeias Montanus. Montcalm, Louis Joseph de, marquis, French general in America. B. 1713. Killed 1759. • Montecuculi, Raimondo, count, Austrian general. B. in Italy 1609, D, 1680. Monteflore, Sir Moses, English-Jewish philanthropist, B, Oct, 24, 1784 D. July 28, 1885. Montespan, Fran^oise Athenals de, marchioness, mistress of Louis XIV. B. 1641, D. 1707. Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, baron de, French author. B. Jan. 18, 1689. D. Feb. 10, 1755. " Lettres persanes " (directed against the princi- ples of government prevailing in France and the follies of society). " Con- siderations sur les causes de la grandeur et de la decadence des Remains." " De I'esprit des lois " (" The Spirit of Laws "), greatest production, 1748. Monteverde, Claudio, Italian composer. B. about 1565. D. about 1650. Montez, Lola, dancer, favorite of Louis I. of Bavaria. B. of a Creole mother, probably in Scotland, about 1830. D. 1861. Montezuma H., emperor of Mexico. Reigned 1503-'30. Montfaucon, Bernard de, French scholar. B. 1655. D. 1741. " L'antiquitS expliquee et representee en figures." " Palaeographia Greeca." "Lei monuments de la monarchie franjaise." Editions of the Greek fathers. 33 498 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. BEontfort, Simon de, French commander in the crusade against the Albi> genses. Killed 1318. Uontfort, Simon de, earl of Leicester, son of the preceding, leader of the English barons against Henry III. Killed 1365. Uontgolfier, Jacques £tienne and Joseph Michel, inventors of the balloon. B. in France 1745, 1740. D. 1799, 1810. BEontgomery, James, British poet. B. 1771,, D. 1854 Uontgoinery, Eichard, American general. B. 1736. Killed 1775. Uontholon, Charles Tristan de, marquis, French soldier, companion of Kapoleon at St. Helena, editor, jointly with General Gourgaud, of the emperor's memoirs. B. about 1783. D. 1853. Uonthyon. See Montton. Konti, Vinoenzo, Italian poet. B. 1754. D. 1838. Montmorency, Anne, duke de, French general, constable of France, B, about 1498, Killed 1567. Montmorency, Henry U., duke de, French general B. 1595. Executed 1633. Montmorency (Montmorency-Laval), Matthieu Jean Ffelicite, duke de, French statesman. B. about 1767. D. 1836. Montpensier, Anne Marie Louise d'Orleans, duchess de, cousin of Louis XIV. B. 1637. D. 1693. Montpensier, Antoine d'Orl&ms, duke de, youngest son of Louis Philippe. B. 1824 D. 1890. Montrose, James Graham, marquis of, Scottish royalist commander, B. about 1613. Executed 1650. Montucla, Jean !^tienne, French mathematician, writer on the history of mathematics. B. 1735. D. 1799. Montyon (Monthyon), Antoiue Jean Baptiste Robert Auget, baron de, French philanthropist. B. 1733. D. 1830. Moorcroft, William, English traveler in the East. D. 1835. Moore, Sir John, British general. B. 1761. Elled 1809. Moore, Thomas, British poet. B. May 38, 1779. D. Feb. 25, 1852, " LaUa Rookh." "Irish Melodies." Morales, Luis de, Spanish painter. B. about 1509. B, 1586. Moran, Edward, American painter. B. 1839. Moran, Thomas, American painter. B. 1837. Motata, Olympia Fulvia, learned Italian lady. B. 1536. D. 1555. Moratin, Leandro Fernandez de, Spanish writer of comedy. B. 1760. D, 1838. Moratin, Nicolas Fernandez, Spanish poet. B. 1737. D, 1780, Moray. See Murrat. Mordaunt, Charles. See Feterbqbouoh, More, Hannah, English authoress. B. 1745. D. 1833. Dramas. Moral tales. " Thoughts on the Manners of the Great." " Strictures on the Modem System of Female Education." " Coelebs in Search of a Wife," BIO&RAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 499 Uore, Henry, English philosopher. B. 1614. D. 1687. More, Sir Thomas, English statesman, author. B. 1478. Executed 1535. "Utopia." Uoreau, Jean Victor, French general. B. 1763 (1761 V). Killed 1813. Morellet, Andre, French writer. B. 1737. D. 1819. " Melanges de litte- rature et de philosophic du XVIII" sieole." Uorelos, 3os6 Maria, Mexican patriot commander. B. 1765. Shot 1815. Uoreto, Augustin, Spanish dramatist. D. 1669. Uoretto, H. See Bonvicino. Korgagni, Giovanni Battista, Italian anatomist. B. 1682. D. 1771. Morgan, Daniel, American general. B. 1736. D. 1802. Morgan, Sir Henry, buccaneer. B. in Wales about 1637. D. about 1690. Morgan, Lewis Henry, 'American author. B. 1818. D. 1881. "League of the Iroquois." " The American Beaver and his Works." " Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family." Morgan, Lady Sydney, Irish authoress. B. about 1783. D. 1859. Novels (best known, " The Wild Irish Girl "). Works treating of the social state of France and Italy. " Woman and her Master.'' Morghen, KaSaelle Sanzio, Italian engraver. B. 1758. D. 1883. Morhof, Daniel Georg, German author. B. 1639. D. 1691. Morier, James, English writer of fiction. B. about 1780. D. 1849. "The Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan." MSrike, Eduard, German poet, novelist. B. 1804. D. 1875. Morland, George, English painter. B. about 1763. D. 1804. Morley, Henry, Eng. author. B. 1822. D. 1894. Lives of Palissy, Cardan, and Henry Cornelius Agrippa. " First Sketch of Eng. Literature." "Library of English Literature." " English Literature in the Reign of Victoria." Morley, John, English author, critic, statesman. B. 1838. " Edmund Burke," "Voltaire." "Rousseau." "Diderot." " Richard Cobden." "Walpole." Momay, PhUippe de (Duplessis-Momay), Huguenot statesman, religious writer, author of memoirs. B. 1549. D. 1623. Momy, Charles Auguste Louis Joseph de, duke, French statesman. B. 1811. D. 1865. Morpeth, Lord. See Caelisle, G. W. F. Howard, earl of. Moiphy, Paul, American chess-player. B. 1837. D. 1884. Morris, George P., American journalist, poet. B. 1802. D. 1864 Morris, Gouvemeur, American statesman. B. 1752. D. 1816. Morris, Lewis, English poet. B. 1833. Morris, Robert, American financier. B. 1734. D. 1806. Morris, William, English poet. B. 1834. D. 1896. Morrison, Robert, English missionary, Chinese scholar. B. 1782. D. 1834. Morse, Samuel Finley Breese, American painter, inventor of the electric telegraph. B. 1791. D. 1873. Mortier, i^douard Adolphe Casimir Joseph, duke of Treviso, French gen- eral B. 1768. Killed 1835. 500 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAET. Mortimer, Roger, earl of March, favorite of Isabella, queen of Edward II. Executed 1330. Morton, James Douglas, earl of, regent of Scotland. Executed 1581. Morton, Levi Parsons, vice-president of the United States 1889-93. B. 1824. Morton, Samuel George, American geologist, craniologist. B. 1799. D. 1851. Morton, William Thomas Green, American dentist, who first publicly intro- duced the use of anaesthetics (1846). B. 1819. D. 1868. Moscheles, Ignaz, German composer. B. 1794. D. 1870. Moschus, Greek poet. 8d c. b. c. Mosen, Julius, German poet, novelist. B. 1803. D. 1867. Mosenthal, Salomon Hermann, German dramatist. B. 1831. D. 1877. Moser, Johann Jakob, German jurist, publicist. B. 1701. D. 1785. Mosheim, Johaon Lorenz von, German ecclesiastical historian. B. 1694. D. 1755. Mothe-Cadillac. See Cadillac. Motherwell, WilUam, Scottish poet. B. 1797. D. 1835. Motley, John Lothrop, American historian. B. 1814. D. 1877. " Rise of the Dutch Republic." " History of the United Netherlands." " Lite and Death of John of Barneveld." Mott, Lucretia (bom CofSn), American social reformer. B. 1793. D. 1880. Mott, Valentine, American surgeon. B. 1785. D. 1865. Moultrie, William, American general. B. 1731. D. 1805. Movers, Franz Karl, German scholar. B. 1806. D. 1856. Principal work, " Die Phonizier." Mozart, Wolfgang, German composer. B. Jan. 27, 1756. D. Dec. 5, 1791. Miicke, Heinrich Karl Anton, German painter. B. 1806. D. 1891. Mugge, Theodor, German novelist. B. 1806. D. 1861. MiUilbacli, Luise. See Mundt, Klara. Muhlenberg, Gotthilf Henry Ernst, American botanist. B. 1753, D. 1815. TUvdr, John, British Sanskrit scholar. B. 1810. D. 1883. " Original San- skrit Texts on the Origin and History of the People of India, their Re- ligion and Institutions." Mulder, Gerard Jan, Dutch chemist. B. 1803. D. 1880. Mulgrave, Oonstantine John Phipps, Lord, British navigator, B. 1734. D. 1793. Mulgrave, John Sheffield, earl of. See Sheffield. Miiller, Priedrich, German poet, painter. B. 1750. D. 1825. Miiller, Priedrich, German comparative philologist, ethnologist. B. 1834 Miiller, Priedrich Max, German-English Sanskrit scholar, comparative phil- ologist. B. 1833. " Lectures on the Science of Language." " Chips from a German Workshop." " Introduction to the Science of Religion." " Lec- tures on the Origin and Growth of Religion." BIOGRAPniCAL DICTIONARY. 501 ICuller, Johann. See Regiomontanus. Muller, Johann Friedrich Wilhelm von, German engraver. B. 1782. D, 1816. Miiller, Johann Gotthard von, German engraver. B. 1747. D. 1830. MUUer, Johann Heinrich Jakob, German physicist. B. 1809. D. 1875. SCiiller, Johannes, German physiologist. B. 1801. D. 1858. Miiller, Johannes von, German historian. B. in Switzerland 1753. D. 1809. " Die Geschiohte der sehweizerisohen Eidgenossenschaf t " (" History of the Swiss Confederacy"). " Vierundzwanzig Buoher allgemeiner Ge- schiehten " {" Twenty-four Books of Universal History "). Muller, Johannes Eduard, Grerman sculptor. B. 1838. Muller, Julius, German Protestant theologian. B. ISOl. D. 1878. Miiller, Karl Otfried,*G«rman Hellenic scholar, archaeologist. B. 1797. D. 1840. Muller, Max. See MClleb, Friedbich Max. Muller, Otfried. See MOller, Kabl Otfeied. Muller, Otto, German novelist. B. 1816. Miiller, Otto Frederik, Danish naturalist. B. 1730. D. 1784 Miiller, Peder Erasmus, Danish bishop, scholar. B. 1776. D. 1834. " Li- brary of the Sagas." Muller, Sophie, German actress. B. 1803. D. 1830. Muller, Wilhelm, German poet. B. 1794. D. 1837. Miiller (von Konigswinter), Wolfgang, German poet, writer of tales, novelist. B. 1816. D. 1873. Celebrated as a poet of the Rhine. Mulock, Dinah Maria (Mrs. Craik), English novelist. B. 1826. D. 1887. Mulready, WiUiam, British painter. B. 1786. D. 1863. Mummius, Lucius, Roman general, who conducted the final operations a^inst the Achaean League in 146 b. c. Munch, Andreas, Norwegian poet, dramatist. B. 1810 (1811?). D. 1884. Munch, Ernst Hermann Joseph von, German historian. B. 1798. D. 1841. Munch, Peder Andreas, Norwegian scholar. B. 1810. D. 1868. "Det norske Polks Historic." Miinch-Bellinghausen, Eligius Franz Joseph von, baron ("Priedrich Halm"), German dramatist. B. 1806. D. 1871. Miinchhansen, Karl Priedrich Hieronymus von, baron, German soldier, famous for his lying anecdotes. B. 1720. D. 1797. Mundt, Klara ("Luise Milhlbach"), German novelist, wife of Theodor Mundt. B. 1814 D. 1873. Mundt, Theodor, German novelist, literary critic. B. 1808. D. 1861.- Munk, Salomon, Jewish Hebraist, Arabic and Syriac scholar. B. in Ger- many 1805. Settled in Prance. D. 1867. Munk&csy, Mih&ly, Hungarian painter. B. 1844. Mitnnich, Burkhard Christoph, count, Russian general, statesman. B. iq Oldenburg 1683. D. 1767. 502 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Miintz, Engine, French writer on art, biographer of Raphael. B. 1845. Uiinzer, Thomas, German curate, leader of the insurgent peasantry in 1535, B. about 1490. Executed 1535. Mtmzinger, Werner, Swiss traveler in eastern Africa, officer in the Egyp- tian service. B. 1833. Killed 1875. Hurad. See Amukath. Miirat, Joachim, French general, king of Xaples 1808-'15. B. 1771. Shot Oct, 1815. Husband of Caroline Bonaparte, sister of Napoleon. Uuratori, Ludovico Antonio, Italian antiquary, historian. B. 1072. D, 1750. "Rerum Italicarum Seriptores." " Antiquitates Italicae Medii ^vi" "Annalid'ItaUa." Uuravieff, Mikhail, Russian noble, administrator, military commander. B. 1796. D. 1866. Kuravieflr, Nikolai, Russian general. B. about 1794 D. 1866. Murcliisoii, Sir Roderick Impey, British geologist. B. 1793. D. 1871. Mure, WiUiam, Scottish scholar. B. 1799. D. 1860. " Critical History of the Language and Literature of Ancient Greece." Murger, Henry, French author. B. 1823. D. 1861. " Seines de la vie de Boheme." Murillo, Bartolome Esteban, Spanish painter. B. 1618. D. 1683. Uumer, Thomas, German satirist. B. 1475. D. about 1536. Murray, Alexander, Scottish philologist. B. 1775. D. 1813. " History of the European Languages." Murray (Moray), James Stuart, earl of, half-brother of Mary, queen of Scots, regent of Scotland. B. about 1583. Killed 1570. Murray, John, American divine. B. 1741. D. 1815, Murray, John, English publisher. B. 1778. D. 1843. Murray, Lindley, grammarian. B. in Pennsylvania 1745. D. 1836. Murray, WiUiain. See Mansfield. Musseus, Greek poet. About A. d. 500. " Hero and Leander." (Mussbus is also the name of a mythical Greek poet.) Musiius, Johann Karl August, German author. B. 1735. D. 1787. " Volks- marchen der Deutsohen" (" Folk-lore of the Germans "). Muspratt, James Sheridan, British chemist. B. 1821. D. 1871. Musschenbroek, Pieter van, Dutch natural philosopher. B. 1692. D, 1761. Musset, Alfred de, French poet B. 1810. D. 1857. Musset, Paul Edme de, French novelist. B. 1804. D. 1880. Mustapha L, Turkish sultan. Reigned 1617-18, 1623-'3. Put to deaOi 1639. Mustapha II., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1695-1703. D. 1704. Mustapha HI., Turkish sultan. Reigned from 1757. D. 1773. Mustapha IV., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1807-8. Put to death 1808 Myer, Albert J., American meteorologist. B. 1837. D. 1880. Myron, Greek sculptor, B. about 480 b. c. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 503 ITsbis, tyrant of Sparta. Reigned 807-193 b. o. Nabopolassar, king of Babylonia, father of Nebuchadnezzar. D. 605 b. c. Nachtigal, Gustav, German African explorer. B. 1834. D. 1885. Nadir Shah (Kuli Khan), king of Persia. Reigned from 1736. Assassi- nated 1747. ITsBvius, Cneius, Roman poet. D. about 304 b, c. Nahum, Hebrew prophet. Probably about 630 b. c. Nana Sahib, one of the leaders in the Sepoy Mutiny 1857-8. Napier, Sir Charles, British admiral. B. 1786. D. 1860. Napier, Sir Charles /ames, British general, conqueror of Sinde. B. 1788. D. 1853. Napier, John, Scottish mathematician, inventor of logarithms. B. 1550. D. 1617. Napier, Robert, Scottish nautical engineer. B. 1791. D. 1876. Napier, Sir William Francis Patrick, British general, military historian, brother of Sir C. J. Napier. B. 1785. D. 1860. « History of the War in the Peninsula." Napier of Magdala, Robert Cornells, Lord, Brit, general. B. 1810. D. 1890. Napoleon. See Bonaparte. Nares, Sir George, English Arctic explorer. B. 1831. Nares, Robert, English scholar, theologian. B. 1753. D. 1889. Narses, Byzantine general. B. about 568. Naruszewicz, Adam Stanislaw, Polish historian, poet. B. 1733. D. 1796. Narvaez, Pamfilo de, Spanish commander in America. D. 1538. Narvaez, Ramon Maria, duke of Valencia, Spanish statesman. D. 1868. Nash, Richard, English man of fashion. B. 1674. D. 1761. Nasi^d-Din, shah of Persia 1848-'96. B. 1831. Assassinated 1896. Nassaii, Maurice of. See Maurice of Nassau. Naumann, Johann Friedrich, German ornithologist. B. 1780. D. 1857. Navarrete, Martin Fernandez de, Spanish author. B. 1765. D. 1844. Best known by his work on the voyages of discovery of the Spaniards, Navez, Frangois Joseph, Belgian painter. B. 1787. D. 1869. Neal, John, American author. B. 1793. D. 1876. Neander, Johann August Wilhelm, German theologian, ecclesiastical his- torian. B. 1789. D. 1850. Nearchus, admiral of Alexander the Great. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylonia, son 6f Nabopolassar. Reigned from 605 b. c. D. about 561. Necho, king of Egypt, son of Psammetichus. Reigned about 610-595 b. c. Necker, Jacques, French minister of finance under Louis XVI. B. in Geneva 1733. D. 1804. Neef (Neefs), Pieter (the elder), Flemish painter. B. about 1570. D. about 1651. 504 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. ITees von Esenbeck, Christian Gottfried, German botanist. B. 1776. D. 1858. ITeliemiah., governor of Jerusalem under Artaxerses I. Second half of 5th c. B. c. Nekrasoff, Nikolai, Russian poet. B. 1821. D. 1878. NSlaton, Auguste, French surgeon. B. 1807. D. 1873. Nelson, Horatio, Lord, English admiral. B. Sept. 29, 1758. Killed Oct. 21, 1805. Nelson, Thomas, American patriot. B. 1738. D. 1789. Nemesianus, Marcus Aurelius Olympius, Latin poet. Flourished toward close of 3d c. a. d. Nemours, Louis d'Orleans, duke de, second son of Louis Philippe. B. 1814. D. 1896. Nepomiik, John of, patron saint of Bohemia. Killed 1393. Nepos, Cornelius, Roman historian. Flourished about 40 B. c. Neri, FUippo de' (Saint Philip Neri), founder of the order of Oratorians. B. in Italy 1515. D. 1595. Nero, Roman emperor, son of Agrippina and step-son of Claudius. B. A. d, 87. Reigned from 54 D. 68. Nero, Claudius. See Claudius Nebo. Nerva, Roman emperor. B. a. d. 32. Reigned from 96. D. 98. Nesselrode, Karl Robert, count, Russian statesman. B. 1780. D. 1862. Nestor, Russian chronicler. Beginning of 12th c. Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople 428-431. Neuhof, Theodor von, baron, German adventurer, king of Corsica 1736-'8. B. about 1686. D. 1756. Neiikomm, Sigismund, German composer. B. 1778. D. 1858. Neumann, Karl Friedrich, German orientalist, historian. B. 1798. D. 1870. Works on Asiatic history. History of the United States. Neuville, Alphonse de, French painter. B. 1836. D. 1885. Neuwied, Maximilian, prince of, German traveler in Brazil and North America, naturalist. B. 1782. D. 1867. Newberry, John Strong, Amer, geologist, palaeontologist. B. 1832. D. 1892. Newcastle, Henry Pelham Finnes-Pelham-Clinton, auke of, English states- man. B. 1811. D. 1864. Newcastle, Margaret Cavendish, duchess of, wife of William Cavendish, duke of Newcastle, English authoress. B. about 1625. D. 1673. Newcastle, Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of, British statesman. B. about 1693. First lord of the treasury and prime-minister 1754-'6 ; first lord of the treasury in Pitt's ministry from 1757 ; head of ministry on Pitt's retirement 1761 ; resigned 1762. D. 1768. Newcastle, William Cavendish, duke of, English royalist general. B. 1592. D. 1676. Ne'wcomb, Simon, American astronomer. B. 1835. Newcome, William, English Biblical scholar. B. 1729. D. 1800. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 505 Newcomen, Thomas, one of the early improvers of the steam-engine, Eng- lishman. Patent granted to him 1705. Newman, Francis William, English philosophieo-religions and historical writer, philologist, reformer, brother of J. H. Newman. B. 1805. JTewman, John Henry, an English clergyman, who gradually departed from the established church, and eventually embraced Catholicism. B. 1801. Cardinal 1879. D. 1890. Newton, Charles Thomas, English archaeologist. B. 1816. D. 1894. Newton, Sir Isaac, English natural philosopher, mathematician. B. Dee. 25, 1643. D. March 20, 1727. Discovered the composition of light 1666 ; con- ceived the theory of the law of gravitation about the same time ; the " Prin- dpia," enunciating the law of gravitation and setting forth the system of the universe, presented to the Eoyal Society in 1686 and printed in 1687. Newton, John, English clergyman and author. B. 1735. D. 1807. Newton, John, American engineer. B. 1823. D. 1895. Ney, Michel, duke of Elchingen, prince of the Moskva, French general, B. 1769. Executed 1815. Nicander, Greek poet. 2d c. b. c. Niccolini, Giovanni Battista, ItaJian poet. B. 1782. D. 1861. Nicephorus Fhocas, Byzantine emperor, general. Keigned 963-'9. Nicholas L, pope. Elected 858. D. 867. Nicholas H., pope. Elected 1058. D. 1061. Nicholas ITL, pope. Elected 1277. D. 1280. Nicholas IV., pope. Elected 1288. D. 1292. Nicholas V., pope. Elected 1447. D. 1455. Nicholas I., czar of Russia, brother of Alexander I. B. July, 1796. Reigned from Dec., 1825. D. March 2, 1855. Nicholas H., czar of Russia since 1894, son of Alexander III. B. 1868. Nicholas, prince of Montenegro since 1860. B. 1841. Nicias, Athenian general. Put to death 413 B. c. Nicola Fisano, See Pisano. Nicolai, Christoph Priedrich, German author. B. 1783. D. 1811. Nicolas, Sir Nicholas Harris, English author. B. 1799. D. 1848. Works on the English peerage and knighthood, &c. Nicole, Pierre, French Jansenist, philosopher, moralist. B. 1625. D. 1695, Nicomachus, Greek painter. 4th c. b. c. Niebuhr, Barthold Georg, German historian. B. 1776. D. 1831. "RO- mische Geschichte." Niebuhr, Carsten, German traveler in the East. B. 1733. D. 1815. Niel, Adolphe, French soldier. B. 1802. D. 1869. Niembsch von Strehlenau. See Lenau. Niemcewicz, Julian Ursin, Polish author. B. 1757. D. 1841. Niepce, Joseph Nic^phore, one of the inventors of photography. B. in France 1765. D. 1833. Niepce de Saint-Victor, French photographer. B. 1805. D. 1870, 506 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. mghtingale, Florence, English philanthropist. B. 1820. ITikita, prince of Montenegro. See Nicholas. ITilsson, Christine, Swedish singer. B. 1843. Nilsson, Sven, Swedish naturalist, arohasologist. B. 1787. D. 1883. Xfinon de I'Enclos. See L'Enclos. Ifisard, Jean Marie Napoleon Desirfi, French critic, literary historian. R 1806. D. 1888. " Histoire de la litteratdre f rangaise." Nitzsch, Gregor Wilhelm, German scholar. B. 1790. D. 1861, Works on ^ the early poetry of the Greeks. IToailles, Adrien Maurice de, duke, French general, statesman. B, 1678. D. 1766. Ifobunaga, Japanese warrior and governor. B. 1533. D. 1583. Nodier, Charles, French novelist, lexicographer, grammarian, critic, writer of memoirs. B. about 1780. D. 1844. NSggeratli, Jakob, German geologist. B. 1788. D. 1877. NSldeke, Theodor, German orientalist. Biblical critic. B. 1836. NoUekens, Joseph, English sculptor. B. 1737. D. 1823. Nordens^Sld, Nils Adolf Erik, Swedish Arctic explorer, B. 1832, ITorfolk, Thomas Howard, third duke of, B, about 1473. D. 1554. Norfolk, Thomas Howard, fourth duke of. B. about 1536. Executed 1573. ITormanby, Constantine Henry Phipps, marquis of, English statesman. B, 1797. D. 1863. North, Christopher. See Wilson, John. North, Francis, Lord Guilford, English judge. B. 1637, D, 1685, North, Frederick, Lord, British premier 1770-'83. B. 1732. D, 1792. Northbrook, Lord, See Baring, F, T. and T. G. Northoote, James, English painter. B. 1746. D. 1831, Northoote, Sir Stafford (Lord Iddesleigh), Eng. statesman, B. 1818. D. 1887, Northumberland, John Dudley, duke of, father of Lord Guildford Dudley, B, 1502, Executed 1553, Norton, Andrews, American theologian. B. 1786. D. 1853. Norton, Caroline Elizabeth Sarah (born Sheridan), English authoress. B. 1808. D. 1877, Norton, Charles Eliot, American scholar, author. B. 1827. Nostradamus (Michel de Notredame), French astrologer. B. 1503. D, 1666, Nottingham, Charles Howard, earl of. See Howard, Noureddin, sultan of Syria, Keigned from 1146. D. 1174. Novalis. See Hardenbgbg, Fkiedbich von. NovikofF, Nikolai, Russian author. B. 1744. D, 1818, Numa Fompilius, reputed second king of Rome, aoout 715-672 B. c, Nu&ez, Alvar (CabcQa de Vaoa), Spanish explorer. "D. 1564, Nuiiez de Arce, Gaspar, Spanish poet. B. 1834. Nuttall, Thomas, American naturalist, B. in England 1786. D. 1859. Nyerup, Rasmus, Danish author. B. 1759. D. 1839, Authority on the old Danish language and literature. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 507 Oates, Titus, inventor of the Popish Plot. B. about 1650. D. 1705. Oberlin, Jean Frederic, Alsatian philanthropist. B. 1740. D. 1836. Obrenovitch. See Michael Obrgkotitch, Mtt.aw O., Milosh O. O'Brien, William Smith, Irish revolutionist. B. 1803. D. 1864. Occam (dckham), William of, English scholastic philosopher. D. 1347. O'Connell, Daniel, Irish political agitator, orator. B. 1775. D. 1847. O'Connor, Feargus Edward, Chartist leader. B. 1796. D. 1855. O'Conor, Charles, American lawyer. B. 1804 D. 1884 OctaviTis. See Augustus. Odilon Barrot. See Babrot. Odoacer, Grerman military chie^ king of Italy. Reigned from 476. Put to death 493. O'Donnell (O'Donel), Leopold, count of Lucena, duke of Tetuan, Spanish general, statesman. B. 1809. B. 1867. (Ecolampadius, Grerman Reformer. D. 1531. Oehlenscliiager, Adam Glottlob, Danish poet. B. 1779. D. 1850. Espe- cially celebrated as a writer of tragedy. Oersted, Hans Christian, Danish physicist, discoverer of the relation between electricity and magnetism. B. 1777. D. 1851. Oertel, Abraham van. See Oktelius. Oetinger, Friedrich Christoph, German theologian, mystic. B. 1702. D. 1783. Offis king of Mercia. Reigned about 758-796. Offenbach, Jacques, French composer. B. 1819. D. 1880. Ofterdin^n, Heinrich von, German minnesinger. Close of 13th c. Oggione (Uggione), Marco da, Italian painter. D. 1530. Ogilby, John, author. B. in Scotland 1600. D. 1676. Translations of Vir- gil and Homer. " Geography of the World." Oglethorpe, James Edward, founder of the colony of Georgia in 1733. D. 1785. Ohm, Georg Simon, German physicist. B. 1787. D. 1854 Distmguished for his investigations in galvanism. Ohm, Martin, German mathematician. B. 1792. D. 1872. O'Keefe, John, Irish dramatist. B. 1747. D. 1833. Oken, Lorenz, Grerman naturalist. B. 1779. D. 1851. Olaf IL, Saint, king of Norway. Slain 1030. Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthaus, German astronomer. B. 1758. D. 1840. Oldcastle, Sir John, Lord Cobham, English religious reformer. Put to death 1417. Oldham, John, English satirical poet. B. 1653. D. 1683. Ole BulL See Bull. Olga, Saint, Rnssian princess. D. 969. 508 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Oliphant, Laurence, English traveler, author. B. 1839. D. 1888. Oliphant, Margaret (bom Wilson), British noTslist, biographical writer, B. 1828. D. 1897. Olivaxez, Gaspar de Guzman, count, minister of Philip IV. of Spain. B. 1587. D. 1645. Olivier, Guillaume Antoine, French entomologist. B. 1756. D. 1814. Ollivier, ^mile, head of the French cabinet in 1870. B. 1835. Olmsted, Denison, American scientist. B. 1791. D. 1859. Olshausen, Hermann, German Protestant theologian. B. 1796. D. 1839. Olshausen, Justus, German orientalist. Biblical scholar. B. 1800. D. 1882, Olyiapias, mother of Alexander the Great. Put to death 316 b. o. Omar I., caliph. B. about 581. Eeigned from 634. Murdered 644, Omar Khayyam, Persian poet, astronomer. D. about 1124. Eubaiyat (Quatrains), philosophical effusions in praise of earthly joys. O'lleara, Barry Edward, physician of Napoleon. D. 1836. Om.er Fasba (Michael Lattas), Turkish general, native of Croatia. B, 1806, D. 1871. Omri, king of Israel. Beigned about 899-875 b. o. {Dwncker; 931-920, Opperfy Ongaro. See Dall' Ongaro. Oost, Jacob van (the elder), Flemish painter. B. about 1600. D. 1671 or 1674 Oost, Jacob van (the younger), Flemish painter. B. about 1637. D. 1713. Oosterzee, Jan Jacob van, Dutch theologian. B. 1817. D. 1883, Opie, Amelia (bom Alderson), English writer of tales, poetess, B, 1769, D. 1853. Opie, John, English painter, husband of Amelia Opie. B. 1761. D. 1807, Opitz, Martin, German poet, B. 1597. D. 1639. Oppert, Jules, French orientalist. B. in Germany 1835. Chiefly dis- tinguished as an Assyriologist. Oppian, Greek poet, author of " Halieuticas" a poem on flshiag. Flour- ished about A. D. 180. (" Cynegetica," a poem on hunting, is supposed to have been written by another Oppian, who flourished about a genera- tion later.) Optic, Oliver. See Adams, William T, Opzoomer, C, W., Dutch philosopher, jurist. B. 1831. D, 1892. Orange, prince of. See William, prince of Oeanoe, and Willum III, Orbigny, Alcide Dessalines d', French naturalist, B, 1803. D. 1857. Orcag^na (Andrea di Clone), Italian painter, architect, sculptor. 14th c, Ordericus Vitalis, English chronider, B. 1075. D. about 1143. Orellana, Francisco, Spanish adventurer. Descended the Amazon 1541. Orelli, Johann Kaspar, Swiss classical scholar. B. 1787. D. 1849. Orflda, Mateo Jose Bonaventura, French toxicologist. B. in Minorca 178Z D. 1853. Orford, earl of. See Walpole. Oriani, Bamaba, Italian astronomer. B. 1753. D. 1833. Origen, Greek father of the church, B, about 185. D. about 254. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 509 Orkhan, sultan of the Turks. Reigned from 1336. D. 1359. Orleans, Adelaide, princess of. See Adelaide. Orleans, Charles, duke of, nephew of Charles VI. of Prance. B. 1391. D. 1465. " Orleans, Ferdinand, duke of, eldest son of Louis Philippe. B. 1810. D 1843. Orleans, Gaston, duke of, brother of Louis XIIL B. 1608. D. 1660. Orleans, Louis, duke of, brother of Charles VI. B. about 1372. Assassi- nated 1407. Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, duke of (" Philippe %alitg "), father ol King Louis Philippe. B. 1747. Executed 1793. Orleans, Philippe, duke of, brother of Louis XIV. B. 1640. B. 1701. Orleans, Philippe, duke* of, regent of Prance during the minority of Louis XV. B. 1674. D. 1733. Orloff, Alexei, count, Russian admiral. B. 1737. D. 1808. Orloff, Alexei, count, Russian commander, diplomatist. B. 1787. D. 1861. Orloff, Grigori, count, favorite of the empress Catharine IL B. 1734. D. 1783. Ormond, James Butler, earl, afterward marquis and duke, of, supporter of Charles I., lord lieutenant of Ireland. B. 1610. D. 1688. Orosius, Paulus, Latin Christian historian. Early in 5th c. Orrery, earl of. See Botle, Charles. Orsay, Alfred Guillaume Gabriel d', count, leader of fashion. B. in Prance 1801. D. 1853. Orsini, Pelice, Italian patriot, who made an attempt upon the life of Napo- leon IIL B. 1819. Executed 1858. brsted. See Oersted. Ortelius (Abraham van Oertel), Plemish geographer. B. 1537. D. 1598. Osbom, Sherard, English naval officer, author. B. 1833. D. 1875. Oscarl.,kingof Sweden and Norway, son of Bernadotte. B. 1799. Reigned from 1844. D. 1859. Oscar II., king of Sweden and Norway since 1873, son of Oscar L B, 1839. Osceola, Seminole chief. B. 1804. D. 1838. Osiander, Andreas, German Reformer. B. 1498. D. 1553. Osman. See Othman. Osman Digna, Mahdist commander in the Soudan. B. in Prance 1836. Osman Fasha, Turkish general, defender of Plevna. B. about 1837. OssoU, marchioness d'. See Puller, Margaret. Ostade, Adriaan van, Dutch painter. B. 1610. D. 1685. Ostade, Isaac van, Dutch painter, brother of Adriaan van Ostade. Osuna (Ossuna), Pedro Tellez y Giron, duke of, viceroy of Naples. B. 15791 D. 1634. Otfried, German monk, poet. 9th c. Othman, caliph. Reigned from 644 Murdered 656. 510 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Othman (Osman), founder of the Ottoman Empire. B. 1259. D. 1336. Otho, Eoman emperor. B. A. d. 33. Seized the throne 69. Took his own life 69. Otho I., the Great, emperor of Germany, son of Henry the Fowler. B. 913. Chosen king 936 ; crowned emperor of the Bomans 963. D. 973. Otho II., emperor of Germany, son of Otho I. B. 955. Reigned from 973. D. 983. Otho in., emperor of Germany, son of Otho II. B. 980. Reigned from 983. D. 1002. Oth.0 IV. (of Brunswick), emperor of Germany, son of Henry the Lion. B. 1174. Elected emperor in opposition to Philip of Swabia 1198. Recog- nized 1208. His authority at an end 1314. D. 1318. Otho, king of Greece, son of Louis I. of Bayaria. B. 1815. Elected 1833. Deposed 1863. D. 1867. Otis, James, American patriot, orator. B. 1735. D. 1783. Otranto, duke of. See FoughjS. Ottocar II., king of Bohemia. Reigned from 1353. Slain 1378. Otway, Thomas, English dramatist. B. 1652. D. 1685. Oudinot, Nicolas Charles, duke of Reggie, French general. B. 1767. D, 1847. Oudinot, Nicolas Charles Victor, duke of Reggio, French general. B. 1791. D. 1863. Oiiida. See Be la Raie^. Outram, Sir James, English general in India. B. 1803. D. 1868. Overbeok, Friedrich, German painter. B. 1789. D. 1869. Overbeck, Johannes Adolf, German writer on ancient art. B. 1826. Overbury, Sir Thomas, English writer, courtier. B. 1581. Poisoned by the earl of Rochester and the countess of Essex (the future earl and countess of Somerset) 1613. Overweg, Adolf, German African explorer. B. 1822. D. 1852. Ovid (Publius Ovidius Naso), Latin poet. B. 43 b. o. D. a. d. 18 or 17. " Metamorphoses " (dealing with the Greek and Roman myths involving transformation from one state of being to another). "Heroides" (letters written by heroines of mythology to their lovers). " Amores." " Ars Amatoria." " Fasti " (a sort of poetical calendar). Oviedo y Valdes, Gonzalo Fernandez de, Spanish historian. B. 1478. D. 1557. " Historia general y natural de las Indias Occidentales." Owen, John, English theologian. B. 1616. D. 1688. Owen, Richard, English naturalist. B. 1804. D. 1893. Owen, Robert, British socialist. B. 1771. D. 1858. Owen, Robert Dale, American spiritualist, author, son of Robert Owen. B. 1801. D. 1877. Oxenstiern (Oxenstjerna), Axel, count, chancellor of Sweden, head of the government during the minority of Christina. B. 1583. D. 1654 Oxford, earl of. See Harlet. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 511 P. Paalzow, Henriette von, German novelist. B. 1788. D. 1847. Fachomius, Saint, Egyptian ecclesiastic, founder of the first regular mon- astery. D. about 350. Pacini, Giovanni, Italian composer. B. 1796. D. 1867. Pacuvius, Marcus, Latin tragic poet. B. about 320 b. c. D. about 130. Fadilla, Juan Lopez de, leader of the Castilian people in the rising of 15aO-'21. Executed 1521. Faer, Ferdinando, Italian composer. B. 1771. D. 1839. Faez, Jose Antonio, Venezuelan patriot, general, president. B. 1790. D. 1873. Faganini, Niceolo, Italian violinist. B. 1782. D. 1840. Fage, William, American painter. B. 1811. D. 1885. Paget, Sir James, English surgeon. B. 1814. Fahlen, Peter von der, count, Bussian commander, statesman, leader in the conspiracy against the life of the emperor PauL B. 1746. D. 1826. Failleron, l^douard, French writer of comedy, poet. B. 1834. Faine, Martyn, American medical writer. B. 1794. D. 1877. Faine, Thomas, Anglo-American political and philosophical writer. B. 1737. D. 1809. "Common Sense," 1776. "The Crisis," first number 1776. " The Eights of Man," 1791-'2. " The Age of Reason," 1794-'5. Faisiello, Giovanni, Italian composer. B. 1741. D. 1816. Faixhans, Henri Joseph, Fr. artillery ofBcer, inventor. B. 1783. D. 1854. Falacio Valdes, Armando, Spanish novelist. B. 1853. Palacky, Frantisek, Bohemian historian, political leader. B. 1798. D. 1876. Falafoz, Jose de, Spanish general, defender of Saragossa against the French 1808-'9. B. 1780. D. 1847. Falestrina, Giovanni Pietro Aloisio da, Italian composer. D. 1594 Faley, William, English theologian, philosopher. B. 1743. D. 1805. " Evi- dences of Christianity." " Natural Theology." VUSy, John, count, Hungarian general in the service of the Hapsburgs. B. about 1663. D. 1751. Palfrey, John Gorham, American theological writer, historian. B. 1796. D. 1881. " History of New England." Falgrave, Sir Francis, English historian. B. 1788. D. 1861. "Rise and Progress of the English Conunonwealth " (Anglo-Saxon period). " His- tory of Normandy and England." Falgrave, William Giflord, English traveler in Arabia. B. 1826. D. 188& FalUi:ao, C. G. M. A. A. Cousin-Montauban, count de, French general B. 1796. D. 1878. Faliaot, A. M. F. J. Beauvois de, baron, French naturalist. B. 1752. IX 1820. Palisay, Bernard, French potter. B. about 1510. D. about 1589. Palladio, Andrea, Italian architect. B. 1518. D. 1580. 513 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Falladius, Roman writer on agriculture. 4th c. a. d. Pallas, Peter Simon, German trayeler, naturalist, and ethnologist in th« Russian service. B. 1741. D. 1811. Palliser, Sir William, British inventor (shot and guns). B. 1830. D. 1882. Palma, Jacopo (the elder), Italian painter. D. 1538. Falma, Jacopo (the younger), Italian painter. B. 1544. D. 1628. Palmblad, VUhelm Fredrik, Swedish author. B. 1788. D. 1852. Palmer, Edward Henry, English orientalist, explorer of the Sinaitic Penin- sula. B. 1840. Killed 1882. Falxaer, Roundell, Lord Selbome, English statesman. B. 1812. D. 1895. Palmerston, Henry John Temple, viscount, English statesman, prime-min- ister 1855-'8, 1859-'65. B. Oct. 20, 1784. D, Oct. 18, 1865. Palomino de Castro y Velasco, Acislo Antonio, Spanish painter, writer on painting. B. about 1653. D. about 1726. Pamphilus, Greek painter. Flourished between 390 and 350 b. c. Panckoucke, Charles Joseph, French publisher, translator. B. 1736. D, 1798. Panckoucke, Charles Louis Fleury, French publislier, translator. B. 1780. D. 1844. Panini, Sanskrit grammarian. 4th c. b. c. (f). Panizzi, Sir Anthony, librarian ol the British Museum. B. in Italy 1797. D. 1879. Paoli, Pasquale, Corsican patriot, general. B. 1726. D. 1807. Paolo, Fra. See Saem. Papin, Denis, French physicist, inventor. B. 1647. D. about 1715. Papiaeau, Louis Joseph, Canadian revolutionist. B. 1789. D. 1871. Papinian (^milius Papinianus), Roman jurist. Put to death A. D. 212. Papirius Cursor, Lucius, Roman general. D. about 300 b. c. Papirius Cursor, Lucius, Roman general, son of the preceding. D. about 350 B. c. Pappenheim, Gottfried Heinrioh, count, German Catholic general in the Thirty Years' War. B. 1594 Killed 1633. Paracelsus, Swiss alchemist, medical impostor. B. 1493. D. 1541. Pardessus, Jean Marie, French jurist. B. 1772. D. 1853. Pardoe, Julia, English authoress. D. 1863. Par6, Ambroise, French surgeon. B. 1517. D. 1590. Pareja, Juan de, Spanish painter. D. 1670. Parini, Giuseppe, Italian poet. B. 1729. D. 1799. Paris, Louis Philippe d'Orleans, count de, son of the duke of Orleans, eldest son of Louis Philippe. B. 1838. D. 1894. Author of a history of the civil war in America. Paris, Matthew. See Matthew Paris. Park, Mungo, Brit, traveler in Africa. B. 1771. D. about beginning of 1806. Parker, Matthew, archbishop of Canterbury. B. 1504. D. 1575. Parker, Theodore, American Unitarian clergyman. B. 1810. D. I860. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 513 Farkman, Francis, American author. B. 1823. D. 1893. Works relating to the exploration of the Great West, French rule in Canada, &c. Fanua, Alessandro Famese, duke of. See Farnese. Farmenides, Grreek philosopher. Flourished about 450 b. c. Farmenio, Macedonian general. Put to death about 330 b. c. Farmigiano, II (Francesco Mazzuola), Italian painter. B. about 1504 D. 1540. Famell, Charles Stewart, Irish political leader. B. 1846. D. 1891. Famell, Thomas, Irish poet B. 1679. D. 1718. Famy, fivariste Desire Desforges, chevalier de, French poet. B. 1753. D. 1814. Farr, Catharine. See Catharine Pakb. Farr, Samuel, English scholar. B. 1747. D. 1835. Farr, Thomas, an Englishman who is said to have attained the age of 153 years. D. 1635. Farrhasins, Greek painter. 400 b. c. Farry, Sir William Edward, English Arctic explorer. B. 1790. D. 1855. Farsons, Theophilus, American jurist. B. 1750. D. 1813. Farsons, Theophilus, American jurist. B. 1797. D. 1883. Farsons, Thomas William, American poet B. 1819. D. 1893. Farton, James, American biographer. B. 1833. D. 1891. Farton, Sara Payson Willis (" Fanny Fern "), American authoress, wife of James Parton. B. 1811. D. 1873. Pascal, Blaise, French author, mathematician. B. June 19, 1623. D. Aug. 19, 1662. " Lettres provinciales " (directed against the Jesuits). " Pen- sees sur la religion " (" Thoughts on Religion "). Faschal IL, pope. Elected 1099. D. 1118. FaakeTitch, Ivan, Russian general B. 1783. D. 1856. Fasquier, Audiffret See Audiffket-Pasquier. Fasquier, £tienne, French advocate, historian. B. 1529. D. 1615. Fassaglia, Carlo, Italian theologian. B. 1812. D. 1887. Fassavant, Johann David, German writer on art B. 1787. D. 1861. Fassow, Franz, German Greek scholar, lexicographer. B. 1786. D. 1833. Fasta, Giuditta, Italian singer. B. 1798. D. 1865. Fasteur, Louis, French chemist, especially distinguished for his discoveries regarding the agency of bacteria in fermentation, putrefaction, and the propagation of contagions affections. B. 1832. D. 1895. Faterculus, Velleins, Roman historian. B. about 19 b. c. Paterson, WiUiam, founder of the Bank of England. B. about 1658. D. 1719. Fatknl, Johann Reinhold von, a Livonian noble, who, having been sentenced as a rebel by the government of Sweden, entered the service of Augustus the Strong and Peter the Great B. about 1660. Executed by Charles XII. 1707. Faton, Sir Joseph Noel,iBritish painter. B. 183L 34 514 BIOGEAPHICAL DICTIONAEI. Patrick, Saint, " apostle of Ireland." 5th c. Patrick, Simon, English divine. B. 1626. D. 1707. Patti, Adelina, singer. B. in Spain 1843. Paul, Saint. Date of death variously placed in the lat|«r part of the reign of Nero. Paul II., pope. Elected 1464. D. 1471. Pa'ol III. (Alessandro Pamese), pope. Elected 1534. D. 1549. Paul IV. (Giovanni Pietro Carafa), pope. Elected 1555. D. 1559. Paul v., pope. Elected 1605. D. 1621. Paul, czar of Russia, son of Catharine II. B. 1754 Beigned from 1796, Murdered 1801. Paul, Vincent de. See Vincent de Paul. Paul Veronese. See Caoliabi. Paula, St. Francis of. See Francis of Paula. Paul,diiig, Hiram, American naval ofBcer. B. 1797. D. 1878. Paulding, James Kirke, American author. B. 1779. D. 1860. "The Diverting History of John Bull and Brother Jonathan." "The Back- woodsman " (poem). " Merry Tales of the Three Wise Men of Gotham." " The Dutchman's Fireside " (romance). Pauli, Eeinhold, German historian. B. 1823. D. 1882. English history. Paulinus, Saint, bishop of Nola. B. about 353. D. 431. Faulinus, Suetonius. See Suetonius Paulinus. Paulus, Heinrich Eberhard Gottlob, German Protestant theologian, B. 1761. D. 1851. Paulus (Paullus), L. JEmilius, Roman general. Slain 216 b. c. Paulus, L. ^miUus, Roman general. D. 160 b. c. Paulus Diaconus, Lombard chronicler. D. about close of 8th o, Pausanias, Spartan general. D. about 468 b. c. Pausanias, Greek topographer. 2d c. a. d. Pauwels, Ferdinand, Belgian painter. B. 1830. Pazton, Sir Joseph, English architect, gardener. B. 1803. D, 1865, De- signed the Crystal Palace at Hyde Park. Payer, Julius, Austrian Arctic explorer. B. 1842. Payne, John Howard, American actor, dramatist. B. 1793. D. 1852, Author of " Home, Sweet Home." Peabody, George, American philanthropist. B. 1795. D. 1869. Pedro I., emperor of Brazil, son of John VI. of Portugal and father of Maria da Gloria. B. 1798. Reigned 1823-'31. D. 1834. Pedro II., emperor of Brazil 1831-'89. son of Pedro I. B. 1825. D. 1891. Pedro the Cruel, king of Castile. B.1334. Reigned from 1350. Slain 1369. Peel, Sir Robert, EnglLih statesman. B. Feb. 5, 1788. Prime-minister 1834-'5, 1841-'6. D. July 2, 1850. Peirce, Benjamin, American mathematician. B. 1809. D. 1880. Pelagius, author of the Pelagian heresy. Beginning of 5th c. Pelayo (Pelagias), founder, of the kingdom of Asturias. D. about 737. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 5I5 Pelham, Sir Henry, prime-minister of England 1743-'54, brother of the duke of Newcastle. B. about 1696. D. 1754. Pelham, Thomas Holies. See Newcastle. P61issier, Aimable Jean Jacques, duke of Malakoff, French general. B. 1794. D. 1864. Pellegrini, Peliegrino (Pellegrino Tibaldi), Italian painter, architect. B. about 1527. D. about 1600. Pelletan, Pierre Clement Eugene, Fr. writer, politician. B. 1813. D. 1884. Fellico, Silvio, Italian author. B. 1789. D. 1854. "Prancesca da Kimini" (tnigedy). " Le mie prigioni " (recounting the author's sufEerings undei'' gone in Austrian prisons). Pelopidas, Theban gemeral. Slain 364 or 363 b. c. Pelouze, Theophile Jules, French chemist. B. 1807. D. 1867. Pemberton, John C, Confederate general, defender of Vicksburg. B. 1814. D. 1881. Pembroke, earl of, poet. See Heebert, William. Penn, William, founder of Pennsylvania. B. 1644. D. 1718. Pemi, Sir William, English admiral. B. 1631. D. 1670. Pemiant, Thomas, English zo51ogist. B. 1726. D. 1798. Pepe, Ghigliebno, Italian general, author. B. 1783. D. 1855. Pepin of H^ristal, Prankish ruler. D. 714. Pepin the Short, first king of the Pranks of the Carlovingian dynasty, son of Charles Martel and father of Charlemagne. Ruled over a portion ' of the Prankish realm from 741 ; over the whole, from 747. D. 768. (Pepin ruled as mayor of the palace until about the close of 751, when he put aside the nominal Merovingian king and mounted the throne.) Fepperell, Sir William, American general. B. 1696. D. 1759. Pepys, Charles Christopher. See Cottbnham. Pepys, Samuel, secretary to the English navy, author of a celebrated diary, B. about 1633. D. 1703. Perceval, Caussin de. See Caussin de Perceval. Perceval, Spencer, English statesman. B. 1763. Prime-minister 1809-'12. Assassinated 1813. Percival, James Gates, American poet. B. 1795. B. 1856. Percy, Henry (Hotspur), English warrior. Slain 1403. Percy, Thomas, English scholar, writer. B. 1739. D. 1811. " Reliques of Ancient English Poetry." Perdiccas, Macedonian general. Assassinated 321 b. c. Perez, Antonio, Spanish statesman. B. about 1539. D. 1611, Perez Oaldds, Benito, Spanish no,Telist. B, 1845. Pergolesi (Pergolese), Giovanni Battista, Italian composer. B. 1710. D. 1736. Periander, tyrant of Corinth. Reigned about 627-587 b. c. Pericles, Athenian statesman. B. about 495 b. c. D. 429. Perier, Auguste Casimir Victor Laurent, French statesman. B. 1811. D, 1876, Perier, Casimir, French statesman. B, 1777, D, 1833, 516 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Perier (Casimir-Perier), president of Fiance, See CASiMlE-PBEniH. F6rouse, La. See La PiEOusE. Perrault, Charles, French author. B. 1638. D. 1703. "Parallele des anciens et des modemes." " Hommes illustres du siScle de Louis XIV." (" Eminent Men of the Century of Louis XIV."). Fairy tales (on which the author's reputation now chiefly rests). . Perrault, Claude, French architect. B. 1613. D. 1688. Ferry, Arthur Latham, American political economist. B. 1830. Perry, Matthew Calbraith, American naval officer. B. 1794. D. 1858. Perry, Oliver Hazard, American naval officer, commander in the battle of Lake Brie. B. 1785. D. 1819. Persano, Carlo Pelion, count, Italian admiral. B. 1806. D. 1883. Perseus, king of Macedon. Beigned 179-168 b. c. Persigny, Jean Gilbert Victor Fialin, duke de, French statesman, friend of Napoleon m. B. 1808. D. 1873. Persius Xlaccus, Aulus, Latin satirical poet. B. a. d. 34. D. 63. Perty, Maximilian, German naturalist. B. 1804 D. 1884 Pertz, Georg Heinrich, German scholar. B. 1795. D. 1876. " Monumenta Germanise Historica." Perugino, II (Pietro Vannucei), Italian painter. B. 1446. D. 1534 Peruzzi, Baldassare, Italian architect. B. 1481. D. about 1537. Pescara, Fernando Francesco d'Avalos, marquis of, Italian general ia the service of Spain. B. about 1493. D. 1535. Peschel, Oskar Ferdinand, German geographer, ethnologist. B. 1836. D, 1875. Pestalozzi, Johann Heinrich, Swiss educational reformer. B, 1746. D. 1837. Peter I., the Gfreat, czar of Russia, son of Alexis. B. June 9, 1673. Beigned from 1683. (His half-brother, Ivan, joint sovereign till 1689.) D. Feb. 8, 1735. Peter II., czar of Bussia, grandson of Peter the Great, B. 1715. Beigned from 1737. D. 1730. Peter III., czar of Bussia, grandson of Peter the Great. B. 1738. Beigned from Jan., 1763. Deposed by his wife, Catharine (II.), and murdered July, 1763. Peter of Blois, ecclesiastic. D. about 1300. Peter the Cruel. See Pedro the Ceuel. Peter the Hermit, French enthusiast, apostle of the first crusade, D. 1115, Peter Lombard, See Lombard, Peter, Peter Martyr, historian. See Anghieka. Peter Martyr (Pietro Martire Vermigli), Italian Reformer. B, 1500, D. 1563. Peterborough, Charles Mordaunt, earl of; English general. B. about 1658. D. 1735. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 517 Petermann, August, German geographer. B. 1822. D. 1878. Peters, Christian August Priedrich, German astronomer. B. 1806. D. 1880. Peters, Christian Henry Frederick, German-American astronomer. B. 1813. D. 1890. Potion, Anne Alexandre Sabes, president of Hayti. B. 1770. D. 1818. Potion (P^thion), J^rSme, French revolutionist. B. 1753. D. 1794 Petb, Sir Morton, English railway contractor. B. 1809. D. 1889. PetSfl, Sandor, Hungarian poet. B. 1883. 1). probably 1849. Petrarch (Petrarca), Francesco, Italian writer of sonnets. B. 1304. D. 1374 Petrie, W. M. Flinders, English Egyptologist. B. 1853. PetrouiTis Arbiter, Latin author. Middle of first c. A, D. (t), Petrus de Vineis. See Vineis, Petbus db. Petms XiOm'bardus. See Lombabd, Peteb. Pettie, John, Scottish painter. B. 1839. D. 1898. Peucer, Kaspar, Grerman Reformer. B. 1525. D. 1603. Peutinger, Eonrad, German antiquary. B. 1465. D. 1547. Peyronnet, Charles Ignace de, count, French politician. B. 1778. D. 1854 Pfeiffer, Ida, German traveler. B. 1797. D. 1858. Pheedo (Phaedon), Greek philosopher. Beginning of 4th c. b. c. Pheedrus, Latin fabulist. Early in flist c. a. d. Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum. Beigned about 570-555 b. c. Pherecydes, Greek philosopher. 6th c. b. c. Phidias, Athenian sculptor. B. about 490 B. c. D. about 432. Philaret, metropolitan of Moscow. B. about 1784 D. 1867. Philemon, Athenian comic poet. B. about 360 b. c. D. 262. Philidor. See Danican. Philip H., king of Macedon. B. 382 b. c. Reigned from 359. Assassi- nated 836. Father of Alexander the Great. Philip v., king of Macedon. Reigned 220-179 b. o. Philip the Arabian, Roman emperor. Reigned 244-'9. Philip I., king of Prance. B. 1058. Reigned from 1060. D. 1108. Philip H. (Philip Augustus), king of Prance. B. 1165. Reigned from 1180. D. 1223. Philip m., the Bold, king of France. B. 1245. Reigned from 1270. D. 1285. Philip rV., the Fair, king of Prance. B. 1268. Reigned from 1285. D. 1314 Philip v., the Long, king of France. B. about 1293. Reigned from 1316. D. 1322. Philip VI. (of Valois), king of France. B. 1293. Reigned from 1328. D. 1350. Philip the Handsome, sovereign of the Netherlands, king of Castile, son of Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, husband of Joan the Mad. B. 1478. D. 1506. Father of Charles V. PhiUp H., king of Spain, son of Charles V. B. 1527. King of Naples and 518 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAKY. Sicily from 1554. Sovereign of the Netherlands from 1555, King of Spain from 1556. D. Sept. 13, 1598. Husband of Mary, queen of Eng- land. Philip III., king of Spain, son of Philip II. B. 1578. Keigned from 1598. D. 1631. Philip IV., king of Spain, son of Philip III. B. 1605. Reigned from 1621. D. 1665. Philip v., king of Spain, grandson of Louis XIV. B. 1683. Proclaimed king 1700 ; firmly established on the throne 1711. D. 1746. Philip of Swabia, emperor of Germany. Elected 1198. Assassinated (after a contested reign) 1308. Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, son of John the Good of France. Invested with the duchy 1363. D. 1404. Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy. Beigned from 1419. D. 1467. Philip the magnanimous, landgrave of Hesse. Reigned from 1509. D, 1567. Philip, King, sachem of Pokanoket. Killed 1676. Philippoteauz, Felix Emmanuel Henri, French painter, B. 1815, D. 1884. Philips, Ambrose, English poet, dramatist. B. about 1671. D. 1749. Phillips, Wendell, American orator, abolitionist. B. 1811. D. 1884, Philo Judaeus, Jewish philosopher of Alexandria. First half of first o. a. d, Philopoemen, general of the Achsean League. B. about 253 b. c. D. by poison at Messene 183 (beginning of 182 1). Philostratus, Greek sophist, biographer, writer on art. First haU of 3d c A. D. Philostratus (the younger), Greek writer on art. First half of 3d c. a. d. Fhips (Phipps), Sir William, American commander, governor of Massachu- setts 1692-'4. B. 1651. D. 1695. Phocion, Athenian general. B. about 402 b. g. Condemned to death by the Athenians 317. Photius, patriarch of Constantinople. D. about 891. Phryne, Athenian hetmra. 4th c. b. c. Physick, Philip Syng, American surgeon. B. 1768. D. 1837. Piazzi, Giuseppe, Italian astronomer. B. 1746. D. 1836. Picard, Jean, French astronomer. B. 1630. D. 1683. Piccini, Niccolo, Italian composer, B. 1738. D. 1800. Piccolomini, Octavio, Austrian general in the Thirty Years' War, B. 1599, D. 1656. Pichegru, Charles, French general. B. 1761. D. 1804. Pichler, Karoline (bom Von Greiner), German novelist. B. 1769. D. 1843, Pickens, Andrew, American general. B. 1789. D. 1817. Pickering, Timothy, American statesman. B. 1745. D. 1839. Pico della Kirandola, Italian scholar. B. 1463. D. 1494. Pictet, Franfois Jules, Swiss zoologist, palaeontologist. B. 1809, D. 1872. Pictet, liaoul, Swiss physicist. B. 1843, BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 5I9 Pictor, Fabius. See Fabius Pictor. Pierce, Franklin, president of the United States 1853-'7. B. Nov. 23, 1804. D. Oct. 8, 1869. Pike, Zebulon Montgomery, American general. B. 1779. Killed 1813. Piloty, Karl von, German painter. B. 1836. D. 1886. Finckney, Charles Cotesworth, American soldier, statesman, diplomatist. B. 1746. D. 1825. Pinckney, Thomas, American diplomatist, general, brother of C. C. Pinck- ney. B. 17S0. D. 1828. Pindar, Theban lyric poet. B. aboat 520 b. c. D. about 440. Pindemonte, Ippolito, Italian poet. B. 1753. D. 1828. Pinel, Philippe, French physician, noted for his reforms in the treatment of the insane. B. 1745. D. 1826. Pingre, Alexandre Grui, French astronomer. B. 1711. D. 1796. Pinkerton, John, Scottish author. B. 1758. D. 1826. Pinkney, William, American lawyer, diplomatist. B. 1764 D. 1823. Pinto, Mendez. See Mendez Pdjto. Pinto, Serpa. See Sekpa Pinto. Pinzon, Martin Alonso, Spanish navigator. D. 1493. Pinzon, Vicente TaSez, Spanish navigator. Discovered Central America 1497. Discovered Brazil early in 1500.* Piombo, Fra Sebastiano del, Italian painter. B. 1485. D. 1547. Fiozzd (Mrs.), Hester Lynch (bom Salusbury, married first to Mr. Thrale), Eng. authoress. B. 1741. D. 1821. " Anecdotes of Dr. Samuel Johnson." Piranesi, Giovanni Battista, Italian engraver, architect. B. 1730. D. 1778. Piion, Alexis, French writer of comedy. B. 1689. D. 1773. Pisani, NiccolS, Venetian admiral. Middle of 14th c. Pisani, Vettore, Venetian admiral. D. 1380. Fisano, Andrea, Italian sculptor, architect. B. about 1270. D. about 1345. Pisano, Giovanni, Italian scijptor, architect. B. about 1240. D. about 1320. Pisano, Nicola, Italian sculptor, architect. D. about 1378. Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens. Usurped the government for the first time 560 B. c. D. 527. Pitaval, Francois Gayot de, French author. B. 1673. D. 1743. "Causes celebres et interessantes " (" Famous and Interesting Trials "). Pitman, Isaac, inventor of a system of phonography. B. in England, 1813. D. 1897. Pitt, William, earl of Chatham, English statesman. B. Nov. 15, 1708. ' Secretary of state and head of the administration from Dec, 1756 to April, 1757, and from June, 1757, to Oct., 1761. Again head of the min- istry as lord privy seal 1766-'8. D. May 11, 1778. Pitt, William, son of the preceding, prime-minister of England 1783-1801, 1804-'6. B. May 38, 1759. D. Jan. 33, 1806. * TWb event is sometimes erroneonsly placed in Jan., 1499. 520 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Fittacus, ruler of Mytilene, one of the seven wise men of the Greeks, poet B. about 652 b. c. Eeigned about 589-579. D. about 569. Pius II. (^neas Sylvius Piccolomini), pope. B. 1405. Elected 1458. D. 1464. Pius III., pope. Elected 1503. D. 1503. Pius rv., pope (Giovanni Angelo de' Medici). B. 1499. Elected 1559. D. 1565. Pius v., pope. B. 1504. Elected 1566. D. 1572. Pius VI., pope. B. 1717. Elected 1775. D. 1799. Pius VII., pope. B. 1742. Elected 1800. D. 1823. Pius VIII., pope. B. 1761. Elected 1829. D. 1830. Pius IX. (Mastai-Ferretti), pope. B. May 13, 1793. Elected June 16, 1846. D. Feb. 7, 1878. Pizis, Theodor, German artist. B. 1831. Pizarro, Francisco, conqueror of Peru. B. in Spain about 1471. Assassi- nated 1541. Platen, August von, count, German poet. B. 1796. D. 1835. Plato, Greek philosopher. B. about 429 b. c. D. about 348. Platoff, Matvei, count, general of the Cossacks. D. 1818. Flautus, Titus Maccius, Latin comic poet. B. about 254 B. c. D. 184 Playfair, John, Scottish natural philosopher. B. 1748. D. 1819. Playfair, Lyon, British chemist, who has figured conspicuously as a com- missioner of government in matters pertaining to public health, industry, &o. B. 1819. D. 1898. Pleyel, Ignaz, German composer. B. 1757. D. 1831. Fliuy (Flinius), the elder. Soman naturalist. B. a. d. 23. D. 79. Pliny, the younger, Roman writer. B. a. d. 61 or 62. D. about US. " Panegyricus." "Epistolae." Flotinus, Neo-Platonic philosopher. B. in Egypt about A. d. 204. D. about 270. Plowden, Edmund, English jurist. B. about 1517. D. 1584 Flunket, William Conyngham, baron, Irish lawyer, orator. B. 1764 D. 1854 Plutarch, Greek biographer. D. about beginning of 2d c. a. d. Pocahontas, Indian heroine. B. about 1595. D. 1617. Pocock, Edward, English orientalist. B. 1604 D. 1691. Pococke, Richard, English traveler. B. 1704 D. 1765. Podiebrad, George, king of Bohemia. Reigned from 1458. D. 1471. Poe, Edgar Allan, American author. B. 1809. D. 1849. "Tales of tha Grotesque and the Arabesque." " The Raven." Poerio, Carlo, baron, Neapolitan patriot, statesman. B. 1803. D. 1867. Poggendorff, Johann Christian, German physicist, chemist. B. 1796. D, 1877. Pogg^o Bracciolini, Giovanni Francesco, Italian classical scholar, authob B. about 1380. D. 1459. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 521 Fogodin, MikhaU, Russian historian, antiquary, Panslavist, B. 1800. D. 1875. Foisson, Simfeon Denis, French mathematician. B. 1781. D. 1840. Pole, Reginald, English cardinal. B. 1500. D. 1558. Polevoi, Nicolai, Russian journalist, historian, dramatist. B. 1796. D 1846. Folignac, Jules Augusta Armand Marie de, prince, prime-minister of Charles X. 18a9-'30. B. 1780. D. 1847. Foliziano, Angelo, Italian classical scholar, poet. B. 1454. D. 1494. Folk, James Enox, president of the United States 1845-'9. B. Nov. 3, 1795. D. June 15, 1849. Pollio, C. Asinius, Roman general, author, patron of learning. B. 76 b. c. D. A. D. 4 Follock, Sir George, English general in Afghanistan in 1843. B. 1786. D. 1872. Follok, Robert, Scottish poet. B. 1799. D. 1837. " The Course of Time." Polo, Marco, Venetian traveler (Taitary, China, &c.). B. about 1354. D. about 1334 • Folybius, Greek historian. B. about 305 b. c. D. about 133. Polycarp, Saint, bishop of Smyrna. Burned about 168 (t). Polycletus, Greek sculptor, architect. Flourished about 430 b, c. Polycrates, tyrant of Samos. Put to death 533 b. o. Folydore VergiL See Vekgil. Folygnotus, Greek painter. Flourished from about 463 b. c. Fcdysperclion, Macedonian general. D. after 308 b. c. Fombal, Sebastiao Joze de CarraJho, marquis of, Portuguese statesman. B. 1699. D. 1782. Fomeranus (Pommer). See BtreEirsAaEN. Pompadour, Jeanne Antoinette Polsson, marchioness de, mistress of Louis XV. B. 1731. D. 1764 Fompey (Pompeius), Crieius, Roman general, triumvir with Csesar and Cras- sus. B. 106 b. c. Murdered 48. Fompey, Cneius, son of Pompey the triumvir. B. between 80 and 75 b. c. Slain 45. Pompey, Sextus, son of Fompey the triumvir. B. 75 b. c. Put to death 35. Pomponius lEela. See AIela. Ponce de Leon, Juan, Spanish adventurer, discoverer of Florida in 1518. D. 1531. Ponce de Leon, Luis (Fray Luis de Leon), Spanish poet. B. 1537. D. 1591. Foncelet, Jean Victor, French geometer, mechanical engineer. B. 1788. D. 1867. Pond, John, English astronomer. B. about 1767. D. 1886. Foniatowski, J6zef Antoni, prince, Polish general, marshal of France. B. 1762. Drowned 1813. 522 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Foniatowski, Stanislas Augustus, king of Poland. B, 1732. Eeigned 1764^'95. D. 1798. Fonsard, Pranjois, French dramatist. B. 1814. D. 1867. Best-known productions, " Lucrfiee " (tragedy) and " L'honneur et I'argent " (comedy). Fonson du Terrail, Pierre Alexis de, viscount, French norelist. B. 1829, D. 1871. Fonte, Francesco and Jaoopo da. See Bassano. Fontiac, Indian chief. B. about 1712. D. 1769. Fontoppidan, Erik, Danish scholar, author. B. 1698. D. 1764 Foole, Matthew, English Biblical scholar. B. 1624. D. 1679. Fope, Alexander, English poet. B. May 23, 1688. D. May 30, 1744. "Es- say on Criticism," 1711. " The Rape of the Lock," 17ia-'14 Transla- tions of the " Iliad " and " Odyssey." " Dunciad," 1728-'43. " Essay on Man," 1783. Fope, John, American general. B. 1822. D. 1892. FSppig, Eduard, German traveler in South America, naturalist. B. 1798, D. 1868. Fordenone, II (Giovanni Antonio Licinio), Italian painter. B. about 1483, D. about 1540. Forphyry (Porphyrins), Neo-Platonic philosopher. B. about 233. D. about 305. Forpora, Mccold, Italian composer. B. 1686. D. about 1767. Forsena (Porsenna), Lars, reputed king of Clusium about 500 b. c. Foraon, Richard, English classical scholar. B. 1759. D. 1808. Forta, Baceio della. See Bartolommeo, Pra. Forta, Giambattista della, Italian physicist. B. about 1540. D. 1615. Fortalis, Jean !^tienne Marie, French jurist, statesman. B. 1745. D. 1807. Forter, Anna Maria, English novelist. B. about 1781. D. 1832. Forter, David, American naval oflBcer. B. 1780. D. 1843. Forter, David Dixon, American naval officer. B. 1813. D. 1891. Forter, Pitz John, American general. B. 1822. Forter, Jane, English novelist. B. 1776. D. 1850. " Thaddeus of War- saw." " The Scottish Chiefs." Forter, Noah, American scholar, philosophical and educational writer. B. 1811. D. 1892. Forter, Sir Robert K, English painter, traveler. B. about 1775. D. 1843. Fortland, duke of. See Bentinck, William Henry Cavendish. Forus, king in northwestern India. Put to death about 317 b. c. Fosidoniiis, Greek philosopher. B. about 185 b. c. D. about 51. Fotemkin, Grigori, prince, favorite of Catharine II. of Russia. B. 1736 or 1789. D.1791. Fothier, Robert Joseph, French jurist. B. 1699. D. 1772. Pott, August Friedrich, Gei-man philologist. B. 1802. D. 1887. Pott, Peroival, English surgeon. B. 1713. D. 1788. Potter, Louis de, Belgian patriot, author. B. 1786, D. 1859. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 523 Potter, Paul, Dutch painter. B. 1625. D. 1654 Potgoulat, Jean Joseph Frangois, French historical and religious writer. B.1808. D.1880. " Histoire de Jerusalem." "Histoire de Saint Angus- tin." " Histoire de la revolution trangaise." Foussin, Nicolas, French painter. B. about 1594. D. 1665b Powell, John Wesley, American explorer. B. 1834 Powers, Hiram, American sculptor. B. 1805. D. 1873. Povliataii, Indian sachem. D. 1618. Poynter, Edward John, English painter. B. 1836. Pozzo di Borg^, Carlo Andrea, count, Russian diplomatist. B. in Corsica 1764 D. 1842. Piadier, James, French sculptor. B. 1792. D. 1852. Pradt, I)ominique Duf our, abbe de, French ecclesiastic, diplomatist, political writer. B. 1759. D. 1837. Prati, GioTanni, Italian poet. B. 1815. D. 1884 Pratt, Charles. See Causen. Praxiteles, Greek sculptor. Middle of 4th c. b. c. PreUe, Edward, American naval officer. B. 1761. D. 1807. Preller, Friedrich, (Jerman painter. B. 1804 D. 1878. Prescott, William, American soldier. B. 1726. D. 1795. Prescott, William Hickling, American historian. B. May 4, 1796. D. Jan. 28, 1859. " History of Ferdinand and Isabella." " Conquest of Mexico." « Conquest of P^ru." " History of Philip H." Pressens6, Edmond Dehoult de, Fr. Prot. divine, author. B. 1824 D. 1891. Preti, Mattia (11 Calabrese), Italian painter. B. 1613. D. 1699. Pi^vost d'Exiles, Antoine Fiangois, French author. B. 1697. D. 1763. « Manon Lescaut " (work of fiction). " Histoire generale des voyages." Pidvost-Paradol, Lncien Anatole, French journalist, historical and politi- cal writer. B. 1829. D. 1870. Price, Bartholomew, English mathematician. B. 1818. D. 1898. Price, Bonamy, English political economist. B. 1807. D. 1888. Price, Thomas, Welsh historian. B. 1787. D. 1848. Prichard, James Cowles, English anthropologist, ethnologist, physiologist. 8.1786(17851). D. 1848. Priessnitz, Vincenz, founder of the system of hydropathy. B. in Austriaa Silesia 1799. D. 1851. Priestley, Joseph, English physicist, chemist, philosopher, theologian. R 1733. D. 1804 Discovered oxygen 1774 Prim, Juan, Spanish general, statesman. B. 1814 Assassinated 1870. Plimaticcio, Francesco, Italian painter. B. 1490. D. 1570. Pringsheim, Nathanael, German botanist. B. 1823. D. 1894 Prior, Matthew, English poet. B. 1664. D. 1721. Priscian (Priscianus), Latin grammarian. About a. d. 500. PxiBcillian (Priscillianus), Spanish ecclesiastic. Executed 385. PlObus, Marcus Aurelius, Roman emperor. Reigned 276-282. 524 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Froclus, Neo-Platonio philosopher. B. about 413. D. 485. Frocopius, Byzantine historian. D. about a. d. 565. Procopius, Andrew (the.Great), Hussite leader. Slain 1434. Procter, Bryan Waller (" Barry Cornwall "), English poet. B. 1787. D. 1874 Proctor, Kiohard Anthony, English astronomer. B. 1837. D. 1888. Prokesch-Osten, Anton von, baron, Austrian diplomatist, author. B. 1795. D. 1876. Propertius, Sextus AureUus, Latin elegiac poet. B. about 50 b. c. Protagoras, Greek sophist. D. about 411 e. c. Protogenes, Greek painter. Latter part of 4th c. b. c. Proudhon, Pierre Joseph, French socialist. B. 1809. D. 1865. Provence, count of. See Louis XVIII. Prudentius (AureUus Prudentius Clemens), Latin Christian poet. B. 348, Prud'hon, Pierre Paul, French painter. B. 1758. D. 1833. Prynne, William, Puritan political writer. B. 1600.D. 1669. Przhevalski, N., Russian traveler in central Asia. B. 1839. D. 1888. Psammeticlius (Psamatik) I., king of Egypt. Reigned (at first only over a small portion of the country) about 665-610 b. c. Ptolemy (Ptolemaeus) Soter (Ptolemy Lagi), founder of the Greek dynasty in Egypt. Governor of Egypt from 323 b. c. King from 306. D. 283. Ptolemy Philadelphiis, king of Egypt. Reigned from 285 b. c. (at the beginning as the colleague of his father, Ptolemy Soter). D. 247. Ptolemy Euergetes, king of Egypt. Reigned 247-222 (331 f) b. c. Ptolemy Philopator, king of Egypt. Reigned 333 (221 ?>-205 (2041) b. c. Ptolemy Epiphanes, king of Egypt. Reigned 205 (204 f)-181 b. c. Ptolemy Philometor, king of Egypt. Reigned (with intermission) 181- 146 B. c. Ptolemy Physcon, king of Egypt. Reigned 146-130, 127-117 b. c. Ptolemy Lathyrus, king of Egypt. Reigned jointly with his mother 117-107 b. c. ; alone, 89-81. Ptolemy Auletes, king of Egypt. Reigned 80-58, 55-51 b. c. Ptolemy, Claudius, Graco-Egyptian astronomer, geographer. 3d c. a. d. PUckler-lUujskau, Hermann Ludwig Heinrich von, prince, German author. B. 1785. D. 1871. Sketches of travel. Pufendorf, Samuel von, baron, German jurist, publicist. B. 1632. D. 1694 " De Jure Naturae et Gentium " (" On the Law of Nature and Nations "). PugateheflF, Yemelyan, Cossack rebel. B. 1736. D. 1773. Pulaski (Pulawski), Casimir, count, Polish soldier. B. 1747. Killed at Sa- vannah 1779. Pulci, Luigi, Italian poet. B. 1431. D. about 1487. "II Morgante maggiore " (poem of chivalry). Pulteney, William, earl of Bath, Eng. statesman. B. about 1684. D. 1764 Pumpelly, Raphael, American geologist. B. 1837. Purbach (Peurbach), Georg, German astronomer. B. 1423. D. 1461. BIOdftAPBiCAt DiCTlONAftir. 525 Purcell, Henry, English composer. B. 1658. D. 1695. Pursh, Ppederick, botanist, native of Siberia, of German origin, who de- senbed the flora of North America. B. 1774. D. 1830. Pusey, Edward Bouverie, English divine. B. 1800. D. 1883. Pushkin, Alexander, Russian poet. B. 1799. Killed 1837. Putlitz, Gustav zu, Ger. poet, dramatist, writer of Action. B. 1831. D. 1890. Putnam, Israel, American soldier. B. 1718. D. 1790. Puvis de Chavannes, Pierre, Pi'eneh painter. B. 1824. D. 1898. Pyat, Felix, Pi-enoh socialist. B. 1810. D. 1889. Pym, John, English statesman, who, with Hampden, headed the commons m their attacks upon the government of Charles I. B. 1584 D. 164a Pyrrho, Greek philosopher. . Latter part of 4th c. b. c. Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. Killed 373 b. c. Pythagoras, Greek phacsopher. B. about 580 b. c. D. about 497. Pytheas, Greek navigator of Massilia. Lived probably about 300 b. c. a Quarles, Francis, English poet. B. 1593. D. 1644. Quatre&ges, Jean Louis Armand de, French naturalist, anthropologist. B. 1810. D. 1893. Quatremere, ]^tienne Marc, French orientalist. B. 1783. D. 1857. Quatrem^re de Quincy, Antoine Chrysostome, French writer on art. B. 1755. D. 1849. Quesnay, Francois, French economist. B. 1694. D. 1774. Quesnel, Pasquier, French Jansenist. B. 1634 D. 1719. Quetelet, Lambert Adolphe Jacques, Belgiau writer on social science, statistician, astronomer. B. 1796. D. 1874 Quevedo y ViUeg'as, Francisco Gomez de, Spanish humorous and satiri- cal writer, poet B. 1580. D. 1645. Quin, James, English actor. B. 1693. D. 1766. Qnincy, Josiah, American patriot. B. 1744 D. 1775. Qujncy, Josiah, American statesman, son of preceding. B. 1773. D. 1864 Quincy, Quatremere de. See Quatreh^e de Quincy. Quinet, Edgar, French author. B. 1803. D. 1875. Works on literature and on reUgiou, political and philosophical writings, poems, &c. Quintana, Manuel Jose, Spanish patriot, poet. B. 1773. D. 1857. Qnintilian (Marcus Fabius Qnintilianus), Roman rhetorician. B. about A. D. 40. " De Institutione Oratoria." Qnintus Curtiiis. See Cubtius. B. Babanus (Hrabanus) Uaurus, German prelate, theologian. B. about 776. D. 856. Sabelais, Francois, French author. D. 1553. "Gargantuaet Pantagmel'' Osatirical romance). 526 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONATRT. Rachel (Elisabeth Rachel F^lix), French actress. B. about 1820. D. 185& Bacine, Jean, French tragic poet. B. Dec., 1639. D. April, 1699. " Andromaque," 1667. " Britannicus." "Berenice." "Bajazet." "Mith- ridate." " Iphigdnle en Aulide." " Phedre." " Athalie," 1691. Radcliffe, Ann (bom Ward), English novelist. B. 1764 D. 1823. " The Mysteries of Udolpho." IUi.detzky, Joseph Wenzel von, count, Austrian general, commander against the Italians m 1848-'9. B. 1766. D. 1858. Badowitz, Joseph Maria von, Prussian statesman, political writer, B. 1797, D. 1853. BaebTim, Sir Henry, Scottish painter. B. 1756. D. 1823. Baff, Joachim, German composer. B. 1822. D. 1882. Baffles, Sir Thomas Stamford, lieutenant governor of Java, philanthropist, naturalist. B. 1781. D. 1826. Bafinesque, Constantine Smaltz, American botanist. B. 1784 D. 1842. Bafa, Carl Christian, Danish antiquary. B. 1795, D. 1864 Baglan, Fitzroy James Henry Somerset, Lord, English general in the Crimea. B. 1788. D, 1855. Bagotzky. See B1e6czt, Bagusa, duke of. See Marhont. Baikes, Robert, originator of Sunday-schocls, B. in England 1735. D, 1811. Baimondi, Marc' Antonio, Italian engraver. Early in the 16th c. B&kdczy, Ferencz (Francis), prince of Transylvania, leader of the Hunga- rians in their struggle against Austria in 1703-'ll. B. 1676. D. 1735. B^e (Rasles), Sebastien, French Jesuit missionary la America, B. 1658. KiUed 1724 Baleigh, Sir Walter, English courtier, navigator, author, B. 1552. Exe- cuted 1618. Bambotiillet, Catherine de Yivonne, marchioness de, French leader of so- ciety. B. 1588. D. 1665. Bameau, Jean Philippe, French composer. B. 1683. D. 1764 Barneses II., king of Egypt. Reigned about 1350-1280 b.c. Bamorino, Girolamo (Giovanni Pietro Bemorino), Italian revolutionist, gen- eral. B. about 1792. Shot 1849. Bamsay, Allan, Scottish poet. B. 1686. D. 1758. " The Gtentle Shepherd." Bamsay, Sir Andrew Crombie, British geologist. B. 1814. D. 1891. Bamses. See Ramgses. Bamus, Petrus (Pierre de la Ram€e), French philosopher. B. about 1515. Killed 1572. Bamusio, Giambattista, Italian writer. B. 1485. D. 1557. Author of a collection of ancient and modem travels. Bandolph., Edmund, American statesman. B. 1753. D. 1813. Bandolph, John, American statesman, orator. B. 1773. D. 1833. Bandolph, Peyton, American patriot. B. 1723. D. 1775. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. SSt Banke, Leopold von, German historian. B. Dec. 30 or 21, 1795. D. May 23, 1886. Various works, on the history of Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, the principal being the history of the popes and that of Ger- many in the period of the Reformation ; numerous other works on German history, miscellaneous historical productions, and a universal history. Baoul-Bodxette, Desire, French archaeologist. B. about 1790. D. 1854. "Histoire critique de I'etablissement des colonies grecques." Numerous works on ancient Greek and Roman art, &o. Raphael (RafEaelle Sanzio d'Urbino), Italian painter. B. 1483. D. April 6, 1520. Bapoport (Rappaport), Solomon Judah, rabbinical critic, rabbi of Prague. B. 1790. D. 1867. Bapp, (Jeorg, founder of the sect of Harmonists in the United States. B. in Germany 1770. D. 1847. Bapp, Jean, count, French general. B. 1772. D. 1821. Bappaport. See Rapoport. Bashi. See Solomon ben Isaac. Bask, Rasmus Christian, Danish philologist. B. 1787. D. 1832. Baspail, FranQois Vincent, French chemist, vegetable physiologist, revolu- tionist. B. 1794 D. 1878. Battazzi, Urbano, Italian statesman. B. 1808. D. 1873. Bauch, Christian, German sculptor. B. 1777. D. 1857. Baumfir, Priedrich von, German historian. B. 1781. D. 1873. " Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit." " Geschichte Europas seit dem Bnde des 15. Jahrhunderts." Bauscher, Joseph Othmar von, Austrian prelate. B. 1797. D. 1875. Bavaillac, Fran9ois, assassin of Henry IV. of France. B. about 1578. Put to death 1610. Bawdon, Lord. See Hastings, Feancis. Bawlinson, George, English historian, brother of Sir Henry Rawlinson. B. 1815. " The History of Herodotus." " The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World." "The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy: Parthia." " The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, or the Sassanian or New Persian Empire." " History 6f Ancient Egypt." Bawlinson, Sir Henry Creswicke, English archaeologist, decipherer of cunei- form inscriptions. B. 1810. D. 1895. Bay, John, English botanist. B. 1628. D. 1705. Bayleigh, John William Strutt, lord, English physicist. B. 1842. Baymond rv., count of Toulouse, crusader. D. 1105. Baymond VI., count of Toulouse, protector of the Albigenses. B. 1156. D. 1232. Baynal, Guillaume Thomas Frangois, French historical writer, freethinker. B. 1713. D. 1796, Best known work, " Histoire philosophique et politique des etablissements et du commerce des Europeens dans les deux Indes." Baynouard, Franjois Juste Marie, Provenfal scholar, B. 1761, D, 1836, 628 BlOGEAfHiCAL DICTIONARY. Razis. See Bhazes. Keade, Charles, English novelist. B. 1814. D. 1884 Reade, William Winwood, Bng. African explorer, author. B. 1839. D. 1875. B^aumur, Eene Antoine Perohault de, French scientist. B. 1683. D. 1757. Steamier, Madame J. F. Julie Adelaide, French leader of society. B. 1777. D. 1849. Beclus, £:iisee, French geographer. B. 1830. Redi, Francesco, Italian naturalist, poet. B. 1686. D. 1698 or 1697. Bedwitz, Oskar von, baron, Q-eiman poet, dramatist, novelist. B. 1828. D. 1891. Reed, Joseph, American patriot. B. 1741. D. 1785. Regiomontamus (Johann Miiller), German astronomer. B. 1486. D. 1476. Reg^nard, Jean FranQois, French writer of comedy. B. 1655. D. 1709. Regnault, Henri Victor, French chemist, physicist. B. 1810. D. 1878. Regnatilt, Jean Baptiste, baron, French painter. B. 1754. D. 1839. Regnier, Mathurin, French satirical poet. B. 1573. B. 1613. Regius, Marcus Atilius, Roman general in the first Funic War. Middle- of 3d c. B. c. Rehoboam, king of Judah. Beigned about 953-983 b. c. (Dwncker; abontl- 978-960, common ehron.). Reichenbach, Heinrich Gottlieb Ludwig, German botanist. B. 1798. D. 1879. Reichenbach, Karl von, baron, German scientist. B. 1788. D. 1869. Reichstadt, duke of. See Bonafabte, NAPoiJoir (I^apoleon II.). Reid, Mayne, British writer of books of adventure for boys. B. 1818, D. 1888. Reid, Thomas, Scottish philosopher. B. 1710. D. 1796. Reimanus, Hermann Samuel, German philosophical writer. B. 1694 D. 1768. Known chiefly as the author of the " Wolfenbuttel Fragments," Reinhold, Karl Leonhard, German philosopher. B. 1758. D. 1838. Reiukens, Joseph Hubert, German Old Catholic bishop. B. 1831. D. 1896. Reiske, Johann Jakob, German philologist. B. 1716. D. 1774 Rembrandt, Dutch painter, etcher. B. about 1606. D. 1669. Remigius (Remy), Saint, bishop of Rheims. B. about 439. D. about 533. RSmusat, Charles Francois Marie de, count, French author, statesman. B. - 1797. D. 1875. R6musat, Claire iSlisabeth Jeanne Gravion de Vergennes, countess de, French writer of memoirs. B. 1780. D. 1831. R6musat, Jean Pierre Abel, French orientalist. B. 1788. D. 1883. Works on the langruages of China, Mongolia, &c. Reua,n, Ernest, French author, orientalist. B. 1823. D. 1893. Best known by his " Vie de J6sus " and other works on the origins of Christianity. Ren6 the Good, duke of Anjou and Lorraine, count of Provence, king of Naples. B. 1409. Succeeded Joanna II. in Naples 1485 ; dispossessed by Alfonso V. of Aragon 1443. D. 1480. BIOGKAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 539 Reni, Guido. See Guido Reni. Bennell, James, English geographer. B. 1743. D. 1830. Bennie, George, British engineer. B. 1791. D. 1866. Bennie, John, British engineer. B. 1761. D. 1821. Benoiif, Peter Le Page, British Egyptologist. B. 1824 Benwick, James, American writer on mechanics. B. about 1790. D. 1863. Beshid Pasha, Turkish statesman, leader of the reform party under Abdul-Medjid. B. 1802. D. 1858. Bethel, Alfred, German painter. B. 1816. D. 1859. Betz, Jean Franpois Paul de Gondi, cardinal de, one of the leaders of the Fronde. B. 1614. D. 1679. Beuchlin, Johann, German, Greek, and Hebrew scholar, a reviver of clas- sical learning, who did much to pave the way for the Reformation. B,' 1455. D. 1522. Beumont, Alfred von, German historian. B. 1808. D. 1887. Works deal- ing with Italian history. Beuter, Fritz, German poet, novelist, writer in the Platt-Deutsch dialect, B. 1810. D. 1874. Bevere, Paul, American patriot. B. 1735. D. 1818. Bewbell, Jean Baptiste (Jean Francois?), member of the French Directory, B. 1747. D. 1807. Beynolds, Sir Joshua, English painter. B. 1738, D, 1793, Bhahanus Uaurus. See Babanus Maurus. Bhazes, Arabian physician. B. about 932. Bibault, Jean, leader of Huguenot colonists in Florida. Eilled 1565. Bibera, Jose. See Sfaonoletto. Bicardo, David, English political economist. B. 1772. D. 1823. Bicasoli, Bettino, baron, Italian statesman. B, 1809. D. 1880. Biccio, Domenico. See Brusasobci. Bich, Edmund, Saint, archbishop of Canterbury. D.' about 1241. Bichard I., Coeur de Lion, king of England, son of Henry II. B. 1157 Reigned from 1189. Killed 1199. Bichard II., king of England, son of Edward the Black Prince. B. about 1366. Reigned 1377-99. D. 1400. Bichard m., king o£ England, brother of Edward IV. B. 1452. Reigned from 1483. Slain 1485. (Previous to his accession styled duke of Glou- cester.) Bichard de Bury (Bichard Aungervyle), English prelate, statesman, patron of learning. D. 1345. Bichard Plantagenet, earl of Cornwall, emperor-elect of Germany, brother of Henry III. of England. B. 1309. D. 1272. Bichardson, James, British African explorer. B. 1809. D. 1851. Bichardson, Sir John, British Arctic explorer, naturalist. B. 1787. D. 1865. Bichardson, Samuel, English novelist. B. 1689. D. 1761. "Pamela," " Clarissa Harlowe." " Sir Charles Grandison." 35 530 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAET. Richelieu, Armand Emmanuel Duplessis, duke de, French statesman, B, 1766. D. 1822. Richelieu, Armand Jean Buplessis, cardinal de, prime-minister of Louis XIIL B. Sept. 5, 1585. D. Dec. 4, 1642. Richelieu, Louis Francois Armand Duplessis, duke (marshal de). B. 1696. D. 1788. Richmond, countess of. See Beaufokt, Marqargt. Richmond, earl of. See Henry YIL, king of England. Richmond, Legh, English clergyman. B. 1772. D. 1827. Author of "Annals of the Poor," including the story of "The Dairyman's Daugh- ter." Riohter, &ustav, German painter. B. 1823. D. 1884. Richter, Johann Paul Friedrieh (" Jean Paul "), German author. B. 1763. D. 1825. Humorous and philosophical compositions. Richthofen, Ferdinand yon, baron, German traveler in China, geologist. B. 1833. Ricimer, German military chief, virtual head of the Western Empire. D, 472. Ridley, Kicholas, bishop of London. Burned 1555. Riedel, August, German painter. B. 1799. D. 1883. Riedesel, Friedrieh AdoU von, baron, German general in the British ser- vice in America. B. 1738. D. 1800. Rienzi, Cola di, Roman popular leader. B. about 1312. Killed 1354, Rietschel, Ernst, German sculptor. B. 1804. D. 1861. Righini, Yincenzo, Italian composer. B. 1756. D. 1812. RinehartjWilliam Henry, American sculptor. B. 1825. D. 1874 Ripley, George, American scholar. B. 1803. D. 1880. Ripon, Frederick John Bobinson, earl of. See Goderich. Ripon, George Frederick Samuel Bobinson, marquis of, English statesman, viceroy of India, 1880-'84. B. 1827. Ristori, Adelaide, Italian actress. B. 1821. Ritteahouse, David, American mathematician, astronomer. B. 1732. D. 1796. Ritter, Karl, German geographer. B. 1779. D. 1859. Ritter, Heinrioh, German philosopher. B. 1791. D. 1869. "Gesehichte der Phaosophie." Rivaxol, Antoine de, count (assumed name), French wit, author. B. 1753. D. 1801. Rivas, duke of. See Saavbdba. Rivrng^n, James, Anglo-American journalist. B. about 1724 D. 1803. Rizzio, David, an Italian, favorite of Mary Stuart. Murdered 1566. Robbia, Luca deUa, Italian sculptor. D. about 1483 (t), Robert IL, king of France. Reigned 996-1031. Robert I., king of Scotland. See Bruce. Robert II., king of Scotland, first of the Stuart dynasty. Reigned 1371-9(1 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 53I Robert m., king of Scotland. Reigned 1390-1406. Kobert I., le Diable (the Devil), duke of Normandy, father of William the Conqueror. D. 1035. Bobert H., Courthose, duke of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror. B. 1134. Bobert the Wise, king of Naples. Reigned 1309-'43. Bobert Ouiscard, Norman conqueror, duke of Apulia and Calabria. B. about 1015. D. 1085. Bobert, Louis Leopold, French painter. B. 1794 D. 1835. Bobert-FIeury, Joseph Nicolas, French painter. B. 1797. Boberts, David, British artist. B. 1796. D. 1864. Boberts, Sir Frederick S., British general in Afghanistan. B. 1833. Bobertson, Frederick William, English clergyman. B. 1816. D. 1853. Bobertson, Thomas WLUiam, English dramatist. B. 1839. D. 1871. Bobertson, William, Scottish historian. B. 1731. D. 1793. " History of Charles V." " History of Scotland during the Reigns of Mary and James VI." " History of America." Boberval, Gilles Personne de, French mathematician. B. 1603. D. 1675. Bobeapierre, MaximiUen, French revolutionist. B. 1758. Executed 1794. Bobinson, Edward, American scholar, traveler. B. 1794. D. 1863. " Bib- lical Researches in Palestine." Bobinson, Therese (" Talvj "), wife of the preceding, daughter of Ludwig Helnrich von Jakob, German authoress, Slavic scholar. B. 1797. D, 1870. Bobinson, John, English Puritan. B. 1575. D. 1625. Bob Boy (Robert Macgregor Campbell), Scottish freebooter. B. about 1660. D. about 1734 Bocbambeau, Jean Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, count de, French gen- eral in America. B. 1735. D. 1807. Bocbefort, Henri, French journalist, political agitator. B. 1830. Bochefoucattld. See La Rochefoucauld. Bochejaquelein. See La Rochejaquelein. Bochester, John Wilmot, earl of, English courtier, poet. B. 1647 or 1648. D. 1680. Bochette. See Raoul-Rochette. Bodcingham, Charles Watson Wentworth, marquis of, prime-minister of England 1765-'6, 1783. B. 1730. D. 1783. Bodbertus, Karl, German political economist, socialist, politician. B. 1805. D. 1875. Bodenberg, Julius (real name, Julius Levy), German poet, novelist, journal* ist, writer of ethnographic sketches. B. 1831. Boderic, last Visigothic king of Spain. Slain 711. Bodiger, Bmil, German orientalist. B. 1801. D. 1874 Bodney, George Brydges, Lord, English admiral. B. 1718. D. 1793. Boebling, John Augustus, American engineer. B. in Prussia 1806. D. 1869. 532 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY, Boebling, Washington A., American engineer. B. 1837. Roebuck, John Arthur, English statesman. B. 1802. D. 1879. Bioemer, Olaf (Olaus), Danish astronomer. B. 1644. D. 1710. Roger I. (Roger Guiscard), Norman conqueror, count of Sicily, brother of Robert Guiscard. B. 1031. D. 1101. Roger II., king of Sicily. B. about 1097. Count of Sicily from 1101 ; king from 1130. D. 1154. Rogers, Henry Darwin, American geologist. B. 1808. D. 1866. Rogers, John, English Reformer. Burned 1555. Rogers, Randolph, American sculptor. B. 1835. D. 1893. Rogers, Samuel, English poet. B. 1763. D. 1855. Rohan, Henri de, duke. Huguenot leader. ' B. 1579. D. 1638. Rohan, Louis Rene l^douard de, prince, French cardinal, noted in connec- tion with the afEair of the diamond necklace. B. 1734. D. 1803. Bohlfs, Gerhard, German traveler in Africa. B. 1831. D. 1896, Rokitansky, Karl, Austrian physician. B. 1804. D. 1878. Roland, Prankish warrior. Slain 778. Roland (Rolande de la FlatiSre), Jean Marie, Girondist. B. 1734. D. 1793. Roland, Marie (or Manon) Jeanne Fhilipou, Madame, Girondist, B. 1754. Executed 1793. Rollin, Charles, French historian. B. 1661. D. 1741, " Histoire ancienne," " Histoire romaine." Rollo, Norwegian viking, first duke of Normandy. D. about 931, Romagnosi, Gian Domenico, Italian jurist. B. 1761. D. 1835. Romanes, George John, British naturalist. B. 1848. D. 1894. "Mental Evolution in Animals." " Mental Evolution in Man." Romano, Giulio. See Giulio Romano. Romantzoff. See Rumiantzeff. Romilly, Sir Samuel, English lawyer, statesman. B. 1757. D, 1818. Romney, George, English painter, B, 1734, D, 1802. Romiilus, reputed founder of Rome in 753 b, o, Romulus Augustulus, Roman emperor. Reigned 475-'6, Ronge, Johannes, founder of the sect of German Catholics. B, 1813. D, 1887, Ronsard, Pierre de, French poet, B. 1524, D, 1585, Rooke, Sir George, English admiral, B. 1650. D, 1709, Roon, Albrecht von, count, Prussian general and minister of war, B, 1803. D. 1879, Rosa, Francisco Martinez de la. See Martinez de la Rosa. . Rosa, Salvator, Italian painter. B. 1615. D. 1673. Rosamond, favorite of Henry II. of England. D. 1177. Rosas, Juan Manuel de, Argentine dictator. B. 1793. Ruled 1839-'5a D. 1877. Roscher, WOhelm, German political economist. B. 1817. D. 1894. Roscius, Qulntus, Roman comedian. D. about 62 b. c. Roscoe, Henry Enfield, English chemist, spectroscopist. B. 1833, BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 533 Boseoe, William, English historian. B. 1753. D. 1831. Histories of Loren- zo de' Medici and Leo X. Bosebery, Archibald Philip Primrose, earl of, prime-minister of England 1894-'5. B. 1847. Bosecrans, William Starke, American general. B. 1819. D. 1898. Rosen, Priedrich August, German orientalist. B. 1805. D. 1837. Bosenkranz, Karl, German philosopher. B. 1805. D. 1879. Eosenmiaier, Ernst Priedrich Karl, German Biblical scholar, orientalist. B. 1768. D. 1835. Bosini, Giovanni, Italian novelist, literary critic, writer on Italian art. B. 1776. D. 1855. Bosmini-Serbati, Antonio, Italian philosopher. B. 1797. D. 1855. Bosny. See Solly. ' Boss, Sir James Clark, Eng. Arctic and Antarctic explorer. B. 1800. D. 1863. Boss, Sir John, British Arctic explorer. B. in Scotland 1777. D. 1856. Boss, Robert, British general in America. B. about 1770. Killed 1814. Bosse, William Parsons, earl of, British astronomer. B. 1800. D. 1867. Bossel, Louis Nathaniel, French Communist. B. 1844. Executed 1871. Bossetti, Dante Gabriel, English artist, poet, son of Gabriele Rossetti. B. 1828. D. 1883. Bossetti, Gabriele, Italian poet, commentator of Dante. B. 1788. D. 1854 Bossi, Ernesto, Italian actor. B. 1839. D. 1896. Bossi, Giovanni Battista de', Italian archseologist. B. 1833. D. 1894. Bossi, Pellegrino, count, Italian statesman. B. 1787. Killed 1848. Bossini, Gioacchino, Italian composer. B. 1793. D. 1868. Bostoptcbin, Pedor, count, Russian soldier. B. 1765. D. 1836. Both, Rudolf, German Sanskrit scholar. B. 1831. D. 1895. Bothe, Richard, German Protestant theologian. B. 1799. D. 1867. Bothscbild, Mayer Anselm, German-Jewish banker, founder of the pros- perity of the Rothschild family. B. 1743. D. 1813. Botteck, Karl von, German writer on universal history. B. 1775. D. 1840. Bottmann, Karl, German painter. B. about 1797. D. 1850. Bougd, Olivier Charles CamiUe Emmanuel de, viscount, Prench Egyptolo- gist. B. 1811. D. 1873. Boiiget de Lisle, Claude Joseph, author of the " Marseillaise." B. 1760. D. 1836. Boiiber, Engine, Prench politician, chief minister of Napoleon III. B. 1814. D. 1884. Bousseau, Jean Baptiste, Prench poet. B. 1670. D. 1741. Bousseau, Jean Jacques, French author. B. in Geneva, June 38, 1713. D. July 3, 1778. "Julie, ou la Nouvelle Hfeloi'se," 1760. "]6mile, 6u de I'education," 1763. "Le eontrat social," 1763. "Les confessions," posthumous. Bousseau, Philippe, French painter. B. 1816. D. 1887. Bousseau, Theodore, Prench painter. B, 1813. D. 1867. 634 BIOGKAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Kovigo, duke of. See Savaet. Rowe, Nicholas, English dramatist. B. 1674, . D. 1718. Kowland, Henry Augustus, American physicist. B. 1848. Koyer-Collard, Pierre -Paul, Pr. statesman, philosopher. B. 1763. D. 1845, Rubens, Peter Paul, Flemish painter. B. 1577. D. May 30, 1640. Rubini, Giovanni Battista, Italian singer. B. 1795. D. 1854. Rubinstein, Anton, Russian pianist, composer. B. 1830 (1829 T). D. 1894. Rucellai, Giovanni, Italian poet. B. 1475. D. about 1525. "Le Api" (" Bees," didactic poem). Rilckert, Priedrioh, German poet. B. 1788. D. 1866. Especially noted for his translations of oriental poetry and original poems referring to the East. " Die Weisheit der Brahmanen." (" The Wisdom of the Brahmins," didactic poem). Rudolph of Hapsburg * (Rudolph I.), emperor of Germany, founder of the present house of Austria. B. 1218. Elected emperor 1373. D. 1391. Rudolph IL, emperor of Germany, archduke of Austria, king of Hungary and Bohemia. B. 1553. Succeeded his father, Maximilian II., 1576. D. 1612. Ruffini, Giovanni Domenico, Italian patriot, novelist (writings in English). B. about 1807. D. 1881. Rufinus, minister of Arcadius. Murdered a. d. 395. Ruge, Arnold, German revolutionist, author. B. 1802. D. 1880. Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, count, American physicist, philanthropist, administrator in the Bavarian service. B. 1753. D. 1814 Rumiantzeff (Romantzoff), Petr, count, Russian general. B. 1735. D. 1796. Rtmeberg, Johan Ludwig, Swedish poet. B. in Finland 1804. D. 1877. Runjeet Singh, Sikh ruler. D. 1839. Rupert (Ruprecht) of the Palatinate, emperor of Germany. Reigned 1400-1410. Rupert, prince, nephew and general of Charles I. of England. B. 1619. D. 1683. Rurik, Varangian leader, who laid the first foundations of the Russian Em- pire. D. 879. Rush, Benjamin, American physician. B. 1745. D. 1813. Rush, Richard, American statesman. B. 1780. D. 1859. Ruskin, John, English writer on art. B. 1819. Russell, John, earl, English statesman, prime-minister 1846-'53, 1865-'6. B. Aug. 18, 1793. D. May 38, 1878. Russell, John Scott, British nautical engineer. B. 1808. D. 1882. Russell, William, Lord, English statesman. B. 1639. Executed 1683. * The castle of Hapsburg was located in what is now the canton of Aaigao, in Switzer land. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAHY. . 535 Bussell, "William, British historian. B. 1741. D. 1793. "History of Modern Europe." BusseU, W. Clark, English novelist. B. 1844 "The Wreck of the Oros- venofr" and other seafaring novels. Bussell, William Howard, British journalist, author. B. 1831. Biistow, Wilhelm, Gtennan military writer. B. 1831. B. 1878. Butledge, John, American statesman. B. 1739. D. 1800. Buysdael, Jacob, Dutch painter. B. about 1635. D. 1683. Buyter, Michael Adriaanszoon de, Dutch admiral. B. 1607. Killed 1676. Bydberg, Victor, Swedish novelist, poet, scholar. B. 1839. D. 1895. Best known by his " Last of the Athenians " (depicting the struggle between paganism and Christianity). S. Sasdi, Persian poet B. about 1190. D. 1391. " Gulistan " (" Flower Gar- den "). " Bostan " (" Fruit Garden "). Saadia ben Joseph, Jewish philosophical and exegetical writer, translator of the Old Testament into Arabic. B. in Egypt 893. D. about 941. Saavedra, Angel de, duke of Rivas, Spanish statesman, poet. B. 1791. D, 1865. Sabelliiis, African ecclesiastic 3d c Sabine, Sir Edward, British scientist, chiefly distinguished in the field of terrestrial magnetism. B. 1788. D. 1883. Sacher-Uasocli, Leopold von, Austrian novelist. B. about 1835. D. 1895. Sacheverell, Henry, English clergyman. B. about 1673. D. 1784. Sachs, Hans, German poet. B. 1494 D. 1576. Sackville, George, viscount, English soldier, statesman. B. 1716. D. 1785. Sackville, Thomas, earl of Dorset, English statesman, writer. B. 1536. D. 1608. Sacy, Antoine Isaac Sylvestre de, baron, French orientalist. B. 1758. D. 1838. Sacy, Samuel Ustazade Sylvestre de, French polit writer. B. 1801. D. 1879. SadL See Saadl Sadoleto, Jacopo, Italian ecclesiastic, author. B. 1477. D. 1547. Sag^asta, Fraxedes Mateo, Spanish statesman. B. 1837. Said Pasha, viceroy of Egypt. Reigned 1854^'63. Saint-Andr^, Jacques d'Albon de, marshal, French Catholic leader. Killed 1563. Saint-Amaud, Jacques Leroy de, French general. D. 1854 Saint Clair, Arthur, American general. B. 1734 D. 1818. Saint-Cyr, Laurent Gouvion. See Gouvion St. Cyr. Sainte-Aldegonde, Philip van Mamix, baron de, Flemish patriot. B. 1538. D. 1598. Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin, French literary critic, poet. B. 1804 D. 1869. " Tableau historique et critique de la pofeie frangaise et du thefttre 536 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. frangais au XVI' siecle." " Causeries du Lundi " and " Nouvpaux Lun< dis " (literary criticisms). " Galerie des femmes celebres." " Critiques et portraits litt^raires." " Histoire de Port Royal." Sainte-Claire DevdUe, Charles, French geologist, meteorologist. B. 1814. D. 1876. Sainte-Claire BevUle, Henri l^tienne, French chemist. B. 1818. D. 1881. Saint-Gtormain, count de, adventurer, impostor. D. 1784 (according to some about ten years later). Saint-Hilaire, Barthelemy. See BARTHiLEiiY Saint-Hilaike. Saint-Hilaire, Auguste de, French botanist. B. 1799. B. 1853. Saint-Hilaire, GeoSroy. See Geoffeot Saint-Hilaibe. Saintine (pseudonym of Joseph Xavier Boniface), French writer of fiction, dramatist. B. 1798. D. 1865. Best known by his story of " Picciola." Saint John, Bayle, English author. B. 1822. D. 1859. Saint John, Henry. See Bolinobroke. Saint John, James Augustus, English author. B. 1801. D. 1875. Saint-Just, Antoine, French revolutionist. B. about 1767. Executed 1794 Saint-Lambert, Jean Fran$ois de, marquis, French poet, philosopher. B. 1716. D. 1803. Saint-Karc Girardin, Francois Aug^iste, French author, journalist, fi. 1801. D. 1873. Writings on French literature, on dramatic literature, politics, &o. Saint-Pierre, Charles Irenee Castel, abbe de, French writer on politics and social reform. B. 1658. D. 1743. Saint-Fierre, J. H. Bemardin de, French author. B. 1737. D. 1814 Best known by his tale of " Paul et Virginie. " Saint-Saens, Camille, French composer. B. 1835. Saint-Simon, Claude Henri de, count, French socialist. B. 1760. D. 1825. Saint-Simon, Louis de Kouvroi, duke de, French writer of memoirs. B. 1675. D. 1755. Saint- Victor, Paul de, French dramatic and art critic. B. 1827. D. 1881. Sala, George Augustus Henry, English author, journalist. B. 1828. D. 1895. Saladin, sultan of Egypt and Syria. B. 1137. D. 1198. Saldanha, Joao Carlos, duke of, Portuguese statesman. B. 1791. D. 1876. Sales, Francis de. See Francis de Sales. Salieri, Antonio, Italian composer. B. 1750. B. 1825. Salisbiuy, Robert Cecil, earl of. See Cecil. Salisbury, Robert Cecil, marquis of, English statesman. B. 1830. Prime minister June, 1885— Jan., 1886, July, 1886— Aug., 1892, and since 1895. Sallet, Friedrich von, German poet. B. 1812. D. 1843. Sallust (Caius Sallustius Crispus), Roman historian. B. about 86 b. c. D, 34. Histories of the conspiracy of Catiline and the Jugurthine war. Salmasius (Claude de Saumaise), Fr. classical scholar. B. 1588. D. 1653, Salvandjr, Karcisse Achille de, coirnt, French statesman, author, B, 179& BIOGRAPmCAIi DICTIONARY. 537 D. 1856. " Don Alonzo, ou I'Espagne, histoire contemporaine." " His- toire de Pologne avant et sous le roi Jean Sobieski." Salvator Bosa. See Bosa. Salviati, Antonio, Italian mosaic painter. B. 1816. D. 1890. Salvini, Tommaso, Italian actor. B. 1839. D. 1896. Samuel, Hebrew prophet. 11th c b. c. Sancho the Great, king of Navarre. D. 1035. Sancta Clara, Abraham a. See Abraham a Sancta Clara. Sand, Greorge. See Dudbvant. Sandeau, Jules, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1811. J). 1883. Sandoval, Prudencio de, Spanish historian. B. about 1560. D. 1631. Sandys, George, English poet. B. 1577. D. 1644. Paraphi'ases of various books of the Old Testament. Translation of Ovid's " Metamorphoses.'' Sangallo, Antonio da, Italian architect. B. about 1482. D. 1546. (Another architect of the same name flourished somewhat earlier.) San Martin, Jose de, Argentine patriot leader. B. 1778. D. 1850. Sanmiclieli, Michele, Italian architect. First half of 16th c. Sannazaro, Jacopo, Italian poet. B. 1458. D. 1530. " Arcadia " (pastoral in prose and verse). Sansovino (Andrea Contucci), Italian sculptor, architect. D. 1539. Sansovino (Jacopo Tatti), Italian sculptor, architect. B. about 1479. D. 1570. Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de, president and dictator of Mexico, general. B. about 1795. Governed 1833-'6, 1839, 1841-'4, 1846-'7, 1853-'5. D. 1876. Santerre, Antoine Joseph, French revolutionist, commander. B. 1753. D. 1809. Santillana, Marquis of. See Mekdoza, iSioo LotEZ de. Sapor (Shapur) L, king of Persia. Reigned from about 340. D. about 371. Sapor H., the Great, king of Persia. B. about 309. Reigned from his birth. D. about 380. Sappho, Greek poetess. 600 B. c. Sarcey, Francisque, French journalist, dramatic critic. B. 1838. Sardanapalus (Assnr-baiii-pal), king of Assyria. Reigned from 668 b. c. D. about 626 (t). Sardoii, Victorien, French dramatist. B. 1831. Sargent, John Singer, American painter. B. 1856. Sarg^on, king of Assyria. Reigned 733-705 b. c. Sarmiento, Domingo Faustino, president of the Argentine republic 1868-'74 B. 1811. D. 1888. Sarpi, Paolo (Fra Paolo), Venetian ecclesiastic, historian. B. 1553. D. 1633. History of the council of Trent. Sars, Mikkel, Norwegian naturalist. B. 1805. D. 1869. Sarti, Giuseppe, Italian composer. B. 1739. D. 1803. Sarto, Andrea del, Italian painter. B. about 1486. D. 1531. 538 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAET, SsLvl, king of the Jews. Slain about 1033 b. c. {Dwncker; 1058, Oppeti). Saiilcy, Louis Pfelicien Joseph Caignart de, French antiquary, munismatist B. 1807. D. 1880. Noted for his researches in the field of Jewish antiqm- ties. Saurin, Jacques, French Protestant preacher, B. 1677. D. 1730. Saussure, Horace Benedict de, Swiss geologist, meteorologist, naturalist B. 1740. D. 1799. " Voyages dans les Alpes." Sauveur, Joseph, French natural philosopher. B. 1653, D. 1716, Noted for his discoveries in musical acoustics. Savage, Kichard, English poet. B. 1698. D. 1743. " The Bastard," "The Wanderer," Savary, Anne Jean Marie Bene, duke of Eovigo, French general. B. 1774 D. 1833. Savigny, Friedrieh Karl von, German jurist, authority on Iloman law. B. 1779. D. 1861. Savile (SaviUe), George, marquis of Halifax, English statesman. B. about 1630. D. 1695. Savonarola, Girolamo, Italian monk, who denounced the corruptions of the church and the vices of society, and sought to reform the Florentine state. B. 1453. Put to death 1498. Saxe, John Godfrey, American humorous poet, B. 1816, D. 1887. Saze, Maurice, count de, French general, illegitimate son of Augustus the Strong of Saxony. B. in Germany 1696. D. 1750. Sazo Orammaticus, Danish historian. D. about 1304. Say, Jean Baptiste, French political economist. B. 1767, D, 1832. Say, Leon, French statesman, financier. B. 1836. D. 1896. Say, Thomas, American naturalist. B. 1787. D. 1834. Sayce, Archibald Henry, English Assyriologist, B. 1846. Scaliger, Joseph Justus, French critic, chronologist, son of J, C, Scaliger. B. 1540. D. 1609. Scaliger, Julius Csesar, Italian classical scholar, critic. B. 1484 D. 1558. Scanderbeg (George Castriota), Albanian ruler, warrior. D. 1468, Scarlatti, Alessandro, Italian composer. B. 1649. D. 1735, Scarlatti, Domenico, Italian pianist, composer. B. 1683. D, about 1757. Scarpa, Antonio, Italian anatomist. B. 1747. D. 1833. Soarron, Paul, French burlesque writer. B. 1610. D. 1660. ScauruB, Marcus iEmilius, Roman general, consul, senator. B. about 160 B. c. Scaurus, Marcus ^milius, a Roman noted for his extravagant expenditure. Curule sedile 58 b. c. Schack, Adolf von, count, German poet, translator from the Spanish andPer sian. B. 1815. D. 1894 Schadow, Friedrieh Wilhelra, German painter. B. 1789. D. 1863. Schadow, Johann Gottfried, German sculptor. B. 1764. D. 1850. Schafarik, t'aul Joseph, Slavic scholar. B, in Hungary 1795, D, 1861. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 539 SchSfer, Heinrich, German historian. B. 1794. D. 1869. Histories of Portugal and Spain. Scbaff, Philip, American divine. B. 1819. D. 1893. Scheele, Karl Wilhelm, Swedish chemist. B. 1743. D. 1786. Scheffel, Joseph Victor von, German poet. B. 1826. D. 1886. Scheffer, Ary, French painter. B. 1795. D. 1858. Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von, German philosopher. B. Jan. 27, 1775. D. Aug. 20, 1854. Schendel, Petrus van, .Belgian painter. B. 1806. D. 1870. Schenkel, Daniel, German Protestant theologian. B. 1813. D. 1885. Scherer, Edmond, French theological writer, critic. B. 1815. D. 1889. Scherr, Johannes, German historical writer, literary historian, novelist, B. 1817. D. 1886. Sdierzer, Karl von, Austrian traveler. B. 1831. Schiaparelli, Giovanni Yirginio, Italian astronomer. B. 1835. Schiller, Friedrich von, German poet, dramatist, historian. B. Nov. 10, 1759. D.May 9, 1805. Dramas: " Die Rauber " (published 1781), " Fiesco," "Cabale und Liebe," "Don Carlos," " Wallenstein," "Maria Stuart," "Die Jungfrau von Orleans," " Die Braut von Messina," " Wilhelm Tell " (1804). Most famous lyric poem, " Das Lied von der Glocke " (" The Song of the Bell"). Historical works: "Geschichte des Abfalls der Vereinigten Niederlande " (" History of the Revolt of the United Netherlands "), "Geschichte des dreissigjahrigen Kriegs " (" History of the Thirty Years' War"). Schilling, Johannes, German sculptor. B. 1828. Schimper, Wilhebn Philipp, Alsatian botanist. B. 1808. D. 1880. Dis- tinguished in the field of bryology and in that of vegetable palaeontology, Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, German architect. B. 1781. D. 1841. Schlagintweit, Adolf, German traveler in the Himalaya, Thibet, and Tar- tary. B. 1839. Murdered 1857. Schlagintweit, Hermann, German traveler in the Himalaya and Thibet. B. 1826. D. 1883. Schlag^intweit, Robert, German traveler in the Himalaya and Thibet. B. 1833. D. 1885. Schlegel, August Wilhelm von, German poet, critic, translator of Shakes- peare, Calderon, and other writers. B. Sept. 8, 1767. D. May 12, 1845. Schlegel, Friedrich von, German author, critic, philosopher. B. March 10, 1773. D. Jan. 11, 1839. "Geschichte der Poesie der Griechen und Romer." "Geschichte der alten und neuen Literatur." "PhUosophie des Lebens " (" Philosophy of Life "). Philosophic der Geschichte." Schleicher, August, German philologist. B. 1831. D. 1868. Schleiden, Matthias Jakob, German vegetable physiologist. B. 1804. D. 1881. Schleiermacher, Friedrich Daniel Ernst, German theologian, preacher, philosopher. B, 1768. D,1884, " Reden tiber die Religion "(" Discourses 540 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. on Religion"). "Grundlinien einer Kritik der bisherigen Sittenlehre" (" Outlines of a Critique of all Past Systems of Ethics "). " Der ohristliche Glaube " (" Tlie Christian Faith "). Schliemann, Heinrich, German archseologist. B.1822. D.1890. "Trojanisohe AlterthUmer"(" Trojan Antiquities"). "Mykense." "Ilios." "Troja." Schlosser, Friedrieh Christoph, German historian. B. 1776. D. 1861. " Weltgesohiohte " (" Universal History "). " Geschichte des 18. Jahr- hunderts." Schlozer, August Ludwig von, German historian, political writer. B. 1735. D. 1809. SchlSzer, Kurd von, German diplomatist, historian. B. 1832. D. 1894 Schliiter, Andreas, German sculptor, architect. B. about 1664. D. 1714, Schmerling, Anton von, Austrian statesman. B. 1805. D. 1893. Sclimidt, Friedrieh, Viennese architect. B. 1835. D. 1891. Schinidt, Julian, German critic, literary historian. B. 1818. D. 1886. Schnaase, Karl, German writer on art. B. 1798. D, 1875. Schneider, Johann Gottlob, German Greek scholar. B. 1750. D. 1823. Schnorr von Karolsfeld, Julius, German painter. B. 1794. D. 1873. Schbelcher, Victor, French politician, author. B. 1804. D. 1893. SchSffer, Peter, German printer. D. about 1503. Scholten, Johannes Hendrik, Dutch theologian, Kew Testament critic B. 1811. D. 1885. Sohomberg, Frederick, Protestant soldier in the service of Louis XIV. and subsequently of William III. B. about 1616. Killed 1690. Sohomberg, Henri de, count, French general. D. 1633. Schomburgk, Sir Bobert Hermann, explorer of British Guiana. B. in Prussia 1804. D. 1865. SchQnbein, Christian Friedrieh, German chemist. B. 1799. D. 1868. Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe, American writer, authority on the American Indians. B. 1793. D. 1864. Schopenhauer, Arthur, German philosopher. B. 1788. D. I860. Schrader, Everhard, German Assyriologist. B. 1836. SchraderiMulius, German painter. B. 1815. Schrevelius, Cornelius, Dutch classical scholar. B. about 1615. D. about 1664. Greek-Latin dictionary. Schreyer, Adolf, German painter. B. about 1828. SchrSckh, Johann Matthias, German church historian, B. 1783. D. 1808. SchrSder, Friedrieh Ludwig, German actor. B. 1744. D. 1816. SchrSder, Sophie (born Biirger), German actress. B. 1781. D. 1868. SchrSder-Devrient, Wilhelmine, German singer. B. 1804. D. 1860. SchrSdter, Adolf, German painter. B. 1805. D. 1875. Schubart, Christian Friedrieh Daniel, German poet. B. 1743 (17391). IX 1791. Schubert, Franz, German composer. B. 1797. D. 1828. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 541 Schubert, Gotthilf Heinrieh von, German scientific writer, psychologist, mystic. B. 1780. D. 1860. Schiicking, Levin, German author, chiefly distinguished as a novelist B 1814. D. 1883. Schulte, Johann Friedrioh von, German Catholic theologian, writer on canon law. B. 1837. Schultze, Max, German anatomist, especially noted for his investigations regarding protoplasm. B. 1825. D. 1874. Schultz-Schultzensteiii, Karl Heinrieh, German vegetable and animal physiologist. B. 179a D. 1871. Sohtdze, Ernst, German poet. B. 1789. D. 1817. Best known by "Die bezauberte Rose " (" The Enchanted Rose "). Schulze-Deli t zsch, Hfermann, German statesman, organizer of working- men's co-operative associations. B. 1808. D. 1883. Schumann, Clara, German pianist, wife of R. Schumann. B. 1819. D. 1896. Schumann, Robert, German composer. B. 1810. D. 1856. Schuiz, Carl, American statesman, biographer. B. in Prussia 1839. Schuyler, Eugene, American traveler in Turkestan, author of a history of Peter the Great B. 1840. D. 1890. Schuyler, Philip, American general. B. 1733. D. 1804 Schwab, Gustav, German poet B. 1793. D. 1850. Schwanthaler, Lndwig, German sculptor. B. 1803. D. 1848. Schwartz, Marie Sophie (bom Birath), Swedish novelist. B. 1819. D. 1894. Schwarz, Berthold, German monk, chemist, reputed to have invented gun- powder. First half of 14th e. Schwarz, Earl, German Protestant theologian. B. 1813. D. 1885.- Schwarzenberg', Felix von, prince, Austrian statesman. B. 1800. D. 1853. Schwarzenbei^, Karl PhUipp von, prince, Austrian general, commander- in-chief of the allies in the campaign against Napoleon in 1813-'14. B. 1771. D. 1830. Schwegler, Albert, German author. B. 1819. D. 1857. "Das nacha- postolische Zeitalter" ("The Post- Apostolic Age"). "Geschichte der griechischen Philosophic." " Geschichte der PhUosophie." Schweinfurth, Georg, German traveler in central Africa. B. 1886. Schweinitz, Lewis David von, American botanist. B. 1780. D. 1834. Schwerin, Kurt Christoph von, count, Prussian general B. 1684. Killed 1757. Schwind, Moritz Ludwig von, German painter. B. 1804. D. 1871. Scipio, Lucius Cornelius, sumamed Asiaticus, Roman general. Vanquished Antiochus the Great 190 b. c. Scipio, Publius Cornelius, sumamed Africanus, Roman general, hero of the second Punic War. B. about 334 b. c. D. about 183. Scipio (Scipio ^milianus), Publius Cornelius, sumamed Africanus (MinorX Roman general, commander in the third Punic War. B. about 185 b. g Murdered 129. 542 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Scipio, Quintus Oseoilius Metellus, partisan of Pompey. Put an end to his own life 46 b. c. Sclopis, Federico, count, Italian jurist, statesman, historian, B. 1798. D. 1878. Scopas, Greek sculptor. 4th c. b. c. Scoresby, William, English navigator. B. 1780. D. 1839. Scoresby, William, English Arctic navigator. B. about 1789. D. 1857. Scott, Sir George Gilbert, English architect. B. 1811. D. 1878. Scott, Michael, Scottish sage, writer, reputed magician. D. about 1390. Scott, Sir "Walter, Scottish poet, novelist. B. Aug. 15, 1771. D. Sept. 31, 1833. "The Lay of the Last Minstrel," 1805. " Marmion," 1808. "Th^ Lady of the Lake," 1810. " Eokeby," 1813. "Waverley," 1814 "The Lord of the Isles," 1815. "Guy Mannering," 1815. "The Antiquary,"' 1816. "Bob Roy," 1817. "The Heart of Mid-Lothian," 1818. "The Bride of Lammermoor," 1819. " Ivanhoe," 1819. " Kenilworth," 1831. "Quentin Durward," 1823. "Life of Napoleon," 1837. "Tales of a Grandfather," 1837 (first series). Scott, Winfield, American general. B. June 13, 1786. D. May 29, 1866. Scotus, Duns. See Duns Scotus. Scotus, John. See Erigena. Scribe, Eugene, French dramatist. B. 1791. D. 1861. Scud^ry (Souderi), Georges de, French author. B. about 1601. D. 1667. Scudery, Madeleine de, French authoress, sister of the preceding. B. 1607. D. 1701. Best known by her romances. Sealsfleld, Charles (pseudonym of Karl Fostl), German novelist. B. 1793, D. 1864. Sebastian, Dom, king of Portugal. B. 1554. Reigned from 1557. Slain 1578. Sdbastiani, Frangois Horace, count, French general, diplomatist, statesman, B. 1773. D. 1851. Seccbi, Angelo, Italian astronomer. B. 1818. D. 1878. Seckendorf, Priedrich von, count, German general. B. 1673, D, 1763. Seckendorf, Yeit Ludwig von, German statesman, author, B. 1626. D. 1693. " Commentarius Historicus et Apologetious de Lutheranismo." " Deutscher Fiirstenstaat." S6daine, Michel Jean, French dramatist. B. 1719. D. 1797. Sedgfwick, Adam, English geologist. B. about 1786. D. 1873. Sedgwick, Catharine Maria, American novelist. B. 1789. D. 1867. Sedgwick, John, American general. B. 1813. Killed 1864. Sedley, Sir Charles, English poet, dramatist. B. 1639. . D. 1701, Seebach, Marie, German actress. B. 1834. D. 1897, Seeley, John Robert, English author. B. about 1834. D. 18i95. "Bcoe Homo : The Life and Work of Jesus Christ." " Life and Times of Stein." Seemann, Berthold, German-English naturalist. B. 1835. D. 1871. Seguin, £!douard, Franco-American physician^ authority on idiocy and insanity. B. 1813. D. 1880. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 543 Sdgur, Louis Philippe de, count, French author. B. 1753. D. 1830. His- torical and political writings, dramas, memoirs. S6gur, Paul Philippe de, count, French historian. B. 1780. D. 1873. "Histoire de Napoleon et de la grande armee pendant I'annee 1812." Sejanus, favorite of Tiberius. Put to death a. d. 31. Selbome, Lord. See Palmer, Roundell. Selden, John, English statesman, juridical writer, celebrated for his*" Table Talk." B. 1384. D. 1654. Seleucus Nicator, Macedonian general, founder of the kingdom of the Seleuoidse (kingdom of Syria). B. about 358 b. c. Assassinated 380. Selim L, Turkish sultan. Reigned 1513-'20. Selim n., Turkish sultan. Reigned 1566-'74 Selim IIL, Turkish sult&n. Reigned 1789-1807. Put to death 1808. Selkirk, Alexander, a Scottish sailor, who led a solitary life on the island of Juan Fernandez from Sept., 1704, to Feb., 1709. Semler, Johann Salome, (Jennan Protestant theologian. B. 1725. D. 1791. Semmes, Raphael, Confederate naval officer. B. 1809. D. 1877. Semper, Gottfried, German architect. B. 1803. D. 1879. Semper, Karl, German traveler in the Philippine Islands, naturalist. B, 1832. Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, Roman philosopher. D. a. d. 65. Seneca, Marcos Annaeus, Roman rhetorician. B. about 60 b. c, D. about A. D. 35. Senefelder, Aloys, inventor of lithography, a German by birth. B. 1771. ' D. 1834. Senior, Nassau WUliam, English political economist. B. 1790. D. 1864. Sennacherib, king of Assyria, son of Sargon. Reigned 705-681 b. c. Septimius Severus. See Sevebus. Sepulveda, Juan Ginez de, Spanish historian. B. about 1490. D. about 1574. Serpa Pinto, Alexandre Alberto, Portuguese traveler in Africa. B. 1846. D. 1900. Serrano, Francisco, duke de la Torre, Spanish statesman, general. B. 1810. D. 1885. Sertorius, Quintus, Roman general. B. about 121 b. c. Killed 72. Servetus, Michael, Reformer. B. in Spain about 1509. Burned in Geneva 1553. Servius Tullius, king of Rome. Reputed to have reigned from about 578 to about 534 b. c. Seti I., king of Egypt. About 1400 b. c. Severus, Alexander. See Alexander Sevebus. Severus, Septimius, Roman emperor. Reigned from 193. D. 211. Severus, Sulpicius. See Shlpicius Sevebus. S6vign6, Madame Marie de, French epistolary writer. B. 1636. D. 1696. Seward, Anna, English poetess. B. 1747. D. 1809. 544 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Seward, William Henry, American statesman, secretary of state under Lin- coln and Johnson. B. May 16, 1801. D. Oct. 10, 1873. Sextus Empiricus, Greek philosopher. First half .of 3d c. A. d. Seydlitz, Priedrich Wilhelm von, Prussian general. B. 1731. D. 1773. Seyffarth, Gustav, German Egyptologist, Biblical chronologist. B. 1796. D. 1886. Seymour, Edward. See Somerset. Seymour, Horatio, American statesman. B. 1810. D. 1886. Seym.our, Jane, third wife of Henry VIII. D. 1537. Sforza, Francesco, Italian warrior, duke of Milan. Beigned 1450-'66. Sforza, Ludovico (il Moro), duke of Milan. Virtual ruler from 1480. Duke 1494r-1500. D. about 1510. 'Sgravesande. See Gratesande. Shadwell, Thomas, English dramatist. B. 1640. D. 1692. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, English statesman. B. 1621, D. 1683. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, earl of, English philanthropist. B. 1801. D. 1885. Shaftesbury, Anthony Cooper, English moralist. B. 1671. D. 1713. Col- lected works published under the title of " Characteristics of Men, Man- ners, Opinions, and Times.'' Shah Jehan, Mogul emperor. Reigned 1628-'58. D. 1666. Shakespeare, William, English dramatist. B. April (23?), 1564. D.April 23, 1616. Shamyl, Caucasian chieftain. B. about 1796. D; 1871. Sharp, Granville, English abolitionist. B. 1734. D. 1813. Sharpe, Samuel, English Egyptologist, Biblical scholar. B. 1799. D. 1881. Shaw, Henry (" Josh Billings "), American humorist. B. 1818. D. 1885. Shays, Daniel, leader of a rebellion in Massachusetts in 1786-'7. B. 1747. D. 1835. ShefiB.eld, John, earl of Mulgrave, marquis of Normanby, duke of Bucking- ham or Buckinghamshire, English statesman, poet. B. 1649. D. 1721, Shell, Richard Lalor, Irish orator. B. 1791. D. 1851. Shelbume, WUliam Petty, earl of (marquis of Lansdowne), English states- man, prime-minister 1782-'3. B. 1737. D. 1805. Shelley, Mary Wollstoneoraf t, English writer of fiction, biographer, daughter of William Godwin and wife of P. B. Shelley. B. about 1797. D. 1851. Shelley, Percy Bysshe, English poet. B. 1793. D. 1822. « Queen Mab." ■' Alastor, or the Spirit of Solitude." " The Revolt of Islam." " Prome- theus Unbound." " Adonais." " Address to the Skylark." Shenstone, William, English poet. B. 1714. D. 1763. Elegies, odes, pastorals. " The Schoolmistress." Shere All, ameer of Afghanistan. B. 1825. The throne left to him by, his father. Dost Mohammed, 1863. His authority established 1869. D. ; 1879. BI06KAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 545 Sheridan, Philip Henry, American general. B. 1831. D. 1888. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, statesman, dramatist B. in Ireland 1751. D. 1816. "TheRirals."- " The SchooHor Scandal" Sherman, Roger, American statesman. B. 1731. D. 1793. Sherman, William Tecumseh, American general. B. 1820. D. 1891. Shir Ali. See Shere Ali. Shishak (Sheshonk), king of Egypt. Expedition against Judah under- taken about 949 B. 0. (JOuneker; about 973, eomnum chrmology). Shore, Jane, mistress of Edward IV. Shuvalof^ Petr, count, Russian diplomatist. B. 1837. D. 1889. Sibour, Marie Dominique Auguste, archbishop of Paris. B.1792. Murdered 1857. Sicard, Roch Ambroise Xlucurion, abbe, French instructor of deaf-mutes. B. 1743. D. 1833. Sickingen, Franz von, German soldier. B. 1481. Killed 1533. Siddons, Sarah (bom Kemble), English actress. B. 1755. D. 1831. . Sidgwi(^ Henry, English author. B. 1838. "The Methods of Ethics. ' " Principles of Political Economy." Sidi Kohunmed, emperor of Morocco. Reigned from 1859. D. 1873. Sidmouth, viscount. See Addinoton. Sidney, Algernon, English statesman. B. about 1623. Executed 1683. Sidney, Sir Philip, English author, soldier. B. 1554. Killed 1586. "Arca- dia " (pastoral romance in prose and veise). " Defence of Poesie." Sidonius Apollinaris, Latin Christian poet B. about 481. D. about 485. Siebold, Karl Theodor Ernst von, Gkrman physiologist, comparative anato- mist, zoSlogist B. 1804. D. 1885. Noted for his researches in the natural history of the lower animals. Siebold, Philipp Franz yon, Grerman traveler, naturalist, explorer of Japan. B. 1796. D. 1866. Siemens, Sir Charles William, Cterman-English physicist, inventor, manu- facturer (regenerating furnace, electric appUances). B. 1823. D. 1883. pjAmATu;^ Ernst Werner, Gierman physicist, inventor, manufacturer (dectric appliances). B. 1816. D. 1893. Siemering, Leopold Rudolf, Grerman sculptor. B. 1835. Sieyte, Emmanuel Joseph, abbe, French revolutionist. B. 1748. D. 1836. Sig^smund, king of Hungary, emperor of Germany, king of Bohemia, brother of Weneeslas. B. 1368. Emperor from 1411. D. 1437. Sigismund L, king of Poland. Reigned 1506-'48. Sigismnnd II. Augustus, king of Poland. Reigned 1548-'73. Sigismund Vasa, king of Poland and Sweden. Reigned in Poland 1587- 1633. Kmg of Sweden 1593-'9. D. 1633. Signorelli, Lnca, Italian painter. B. about 1441. D. about 1584 Sigoumey, Lydia (Huntley), American authoress. B. 1791. D. 1865. BiliiTinaTi^ Benjamin, American physicist chemist, geologist B. 1779. IX 1864 36 546 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Silliman, Benjamin, American chemist, physicist. B. 1816. D. 1885, Simeon Stylites, Syrian ascetic. . D. about a. d. 460. Simms, William Gilmore, American novelist, poet, historical writer, R 1806. B. 1870. Simnel, Lambert, pretender to the English crown. B. about 1472. Attempt to dethrone Henry VII. made 1487. Simon, Jules, French statesman, philosophical and political writer, B. 1814. D. 1896. Simon, Richard, French Biblical critic. B, 1638. D. 1713. Simon de IContfort. See Montfobt. Simon Uaccabseus, leader of the Jews. Assassinated 135 b. c, Simonides, Greek poet. B. about 556 b. c. D. about 467. Simpson, Sir James Young, Scottish physician. B. 1811. D. 1870. Simpson, Thomas, English mathematician. B. 1710. B. 1761. Simrock, Karl, German scholar, poet. B. 1802. B. 1876. Translator ol mediffiTal German and Scandinavian poetry. Sims, James Marion, American surgeon. B. 1813. B. 1883. Sinclair, Sir John, Scottish economist. B. 1754. B. 1885. Sismondi, Jean Charles Leonard Simonde de, French historian, political economist. B. in Geneva May 9, 1773. B. June 25, 1842. " Histoire des republiques itaUennes du moyen age." " La litterature du midi de rEurope"("The Literature of the South of Europe"). "Histoire des Sixtns rv., pope. Elected 1471. B. 1484. Sixtus v., pope. Elected 1585. B. 1590. Skeat, Walter William, English scholar. B. 1835. " Etymological Biction- ary of the English Language." Skobeleff, Mikhail, Russian generaL B. about 1844. B. 1882. Skoda, Joseph, Austrian physician. B. 1805. B. 1881. Skrzynecki, Jan Boncza, Polish generaL B. 1786. B. 1860. Sleidan (Philippson), Johann, German publicist, historiographer of the Smal- cald League. B. 1506. B. 1556. " Be Statu Religionis et Reipublicse, Carolo Quinto Csesare, Commentarii." SlideU, John, American politician. B. 1793. B. 1871. Sloane, Sir Hans, English physician, naturalist. B. 1660. B. 1753. Smart, Christopher, English poet, translator of Horace. B. 1722. B. 1770 or 1771. Smeaton, John, English engineer. B. 1724. B. 1792. Smibert (Smybert), John, Scottish- Amer. painter. B. about 1684. B. 1751, Smiles, Samuel, British author. B. about 1812. Works on famous engi- neers, on oonduct, on duty, &c. Smirke, Sir Robert, English architect. B. 1780. B. 1867. Smith, Adam, Scottish political economist, philosopher. B. June 6, 1723. B. July 8, 1790. " Theory of Moral Sentiments," 1759. " Inquiry into the Kature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 1776." BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 647 Smith, Albert, English humorous writer, author of dramatic "entertain- ments." B. 1816. D. 1860. Smith, Alexander, Scottish poet. B. 1830. D. 1867. Smith, George, English Assyriologist. B. about 1840. D. 1876. Smith, Gerrit, American abolitionist B. 1797. D. 1874. Smith, Horace, English humorous wiiter, novelist. B. 1779. D. 1849. Chiefly known as the author, jointly with his brother James, of " Rejected Addresses," parodying the principal British poets of the day. Smith, James, English humorous writer. B. 1775. D. 1839. "Rejected Addresses." (See Smith, Hosace.) Smith, Sir James Edward, English botanist. B. 1759. D. 1828. Smith, John, principal, founder of the colony of Virginia. B. 1579. D. 1631. Smith, Joseph, founder of the sect of Mormons. B. 1805. Killed 1844. Smith, Robert Payne, English Syriac scholar. B. 1818. D. 1895. Smith, Seba, American writer. B. 1792. D. 1868. Best known as the author of humorous political letters. Smith, Sydney, English clergyman, writer, celebrated for his wit. B. 1771. D. 1845. One of the founders of the " Edinburgh Review " ; author of " Letters on the Subject of the Catholics, by Peter Plymley." Smith, Thomas Southwood, English physician, author. B. 1788. D. 1861. Smith, William, English geologist. B. 1769. D. 1839. Smith, William, Eng. classical and Biblical scholar. B. about 1813. D. 1893. Smith, W. Robertson, British orientalist, Biblical scholar. B. 1846. D. 1894. Smith, Sir W. Sidney, English admiral. B. 1764. D. 1840. SmithBon, James, English scientist, bequeather of the fund with which the Smithsonian Institution was founded. B. about 1765. D. 1829. Smollett, Tobias George, British novelist, historian. B. 1721. D. 1771. "The Adventures of Roderick Random." "The Adventures of Pere- grine Pickle." "The Adventures of Ferdinand Count Fathom." "The Expedition of Humphrey Clinker." " History of England." Smyth, William Heniy, English naval officer, geographer, hydrographer. B. 1788. D. 1865. SneU, Willebrord, Dutch mathematician. B. 1591. D. 1626. Snorri Sturlason (Snorre Stnrloson), Icelandic historian, author of part of the younger Edda. B. 1178. Murdered 1241. Snyders, Prans, Flemish painter. B. 1579. D. 1657. Sobieski, John, king of Poland. Reigned from 1674 D. 1696. Socinna, Faustus, Italian theologian. B. 1539. D. 1604 Socinus, Laelius, Italian theologian. B. 1525. D. 1562. Socrates, Athenian philosopher. B. about 470 b. c. Condemned to death 399. Sodoma, II (Giovanni Antonio Bazzi), Italian painter. D. middle of 16th c Sohn, Karl Ferdinand, (Jerman painter. B. 1805. D. 1867. Bolaiider, Daniel Charles, Swedish-English naturalist. B. 1736. D. 1783. 548 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONABT. Soliman. See Solymait. Soils, Antonio de, Spanish historian, dramatist. B. 1610. D. 1686. "His- toria de la conquista de Mexico." Solis, Juan Diaz de, Spanish navigator. Killed 1516. Solomon, king of the Hebrews. Beigned about 993-953 b. c. {Dtmcker; 1017-978, Oppert). Solomon ben Gabirol (Avicebron), Jewish poet, philosopher. B. about 1020. D. about 1075. Solomon ben Isaac (Bashi), Jewish Biblical and Talmndical commentator. B. about 1040. D. 1105. Solon, Athenian lawgiver. B. about 638 B. c. B. about 559. Solovieff, Sergei, Russian historian. B. 1820. D. 1879. Best known by his history of Russia. Solyman II., the Magnificent, Turkish sultan. B. about 1495. Reigned from 1520. D. Sept. 5, 1566. Somers, John, Lord, English statesman. B. 1652. D. 1716. Somerset, Edward Seymour, duke of (earl of Hertford), general, lord pro- tector of England. Executed 1552. Somerville, Mary, British mathematician, scientist. B. 1780. D. 1873. " The Connection of the Physical Sciences." " Physical Geography." Som.erville, WiUiam, English poet. D. 1743.. Principal production, "The Chase." SQmmermg, Samuel Thomas von, German anatomist, physiologist. B. 1755. D. 1830. Sonnini de Manoncoiirt, Charles Kicolas Sigisbert, French naturalist. B, 1751. D. 1812. Sontag, Henriette, German singer. B. 1806. D. 1854 Sopbia, sister of Peter the Great and regent of Russia during his minority. B. 1657. D. 1704. Sophocles, Greek tragic poet. B. about 495 b. c. D. probably 406. Sorel, Agnes, mistress of Charles VII. of France. B. about 1409. D. 1450. Soto, de. See Ds Soto. Soubise, Benjamin de Rohan, seigneur de. Huguenot leader. B. 1583. D. 1643. Soubise, Charles de Rohan, prince de, French general. B. 1715. D. 1787. Soiili6, Melchior Frederic, French novelist, dramatist. B. 1800. D. 1847. Boiilouque, Paustin, emperor of Hayti. B. about 1783. Elected president 1847. Emperor from 1849 to close of 1858. D. 1867. Soult, Kicolas Jean de Dieu, duke of Dalmatia, French general B. 1769. D. 1851. South, Robert, English divine. B. 1633. D. 1716. Southcott, Joanna, fanatic, prophetess. B. in England about 1750. D 1814. Southey, Caroline (bom Bowles), second wife of Robert Southey, English authoress. B. 1786. D. 1854. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 549 Southey, Robert, English author. B. 1774. D. 1843. "Thalaba, the Destroyer," "The Curse of Kehama," "Roderick, the Last of the Goths," and other poems. Versions of " Amadis de Gaul " and the " Chronicle of the Cid." Historical and biographical works (including " History of the Peninsular War "). " Book of the Church/' " The Doctor." Southwell (Sotwell), Nathaniel, English Jesuit scholar. D. 1676. Southwell, Robert, English Jesuit, author of religious writings. B. 1560. Executed 1595. Southworth, Emma D. E. (bom Nevitt), American novelist. B. 1818. Souvestre, ]&mile, French author. B.1806. D. 1854. Novels, tales, dramas, historical and literary essays. Sowerby, George Brettingham, English cOnohologist. B. 1788. D. 1854. Sowerby, George Brettingham, English conchologist. B. 1813. D. 1884. Sowerby, James, English conchologist. B. 1757. D. 1833. Spagnoletto, 11 (Jose Ribera), Italian painter. B. in Spain 1588. D. 1656. Spalding, Martin John, archbishop of Baltimore. B. 1810, D. 1878. Spallanzani, Lazaro, Italian naturalist, physiologist, embryologist. B. 1729. D. 1799. Spangenberg, August Gottlieb, founder of the Moravian church in Amer- ica. B. in Germany 1704. D. 1792. Spanheim, Ezechiel, classical scholar, numismatist, diplomatist. B. in Geneva 1629. D. 1710. Sparks, Jared, American biographer. B. 1789. D. 1866. Editor of the correspondence of the Revolution, the writings of Washington, and the works of Franklin. Spartacus, leader of insurgent gladiators in Italy. Slain 71 b. c. Speke, John Harming, English African explorer. B. 1837. D. 1864. Bpence, Joseph, English author. B. 1699. D. 1768. Spence, William, English entomologist. B. 1783. D. 1860. Spencer, Herbert, English philosopher. B. 1820. Principal works in the order of their publication: "Social Statics" (1851), "Principles of Psy- chology," " Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative," " First Princi- ples of a System of Philosophy," " Principles of Biology," " The Study of Sociology," " The Principles of Sociology," " Ceremonial Institutions," "The Data of Ethics." Spener, PhiUpp Jakob, German Protestant theologian, founder of the school of Pietists. B. 1635. D. 1705. Spenser, Edmund, English poet. B. about 1553. D. 1599. " The Faerie Queen." Speranski, Mikhail, count, Russian statesman. D. 1839. Speusippua, Greek philosopher. Middle of 4th o. b. c, Spiegel, Friedrich, German Iranian scholar. B. 1830. Spielhagen, Friedrich, German novelist. B. 1829. Spindler, Karl, German novelist. B. 1796. D. 1855. Spinola, Ambrosio de, marquis, Spanish general. B. about 1569. D, 163Q 550 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Spinoza, Barueh (Benedict), Dutch-Jewish philosopher. B. Nov. Zi, 163a D. Feb. 31, 1677. Spohr, Ludwig, German composer. B. 1784. D. 1859. Spontini, Gaspare, Italian composer. B. 1774. D. 1851. Spottiswoode, William, English mathematician, scientist. B. 1885. D. 1883. Sprag^e, Charles, American poet. B. 1791., D. 1875. Sprat, Thomas, English writer. B. 1636. D. 1713. Author of an account of the Eye House Plot, poems, &c. Sprengel, Kurt, German writer on medicine, botanist. B. 1766. D. 1833. Sprenger, Aloys, German orientalist. B. 1813. D. 1893. "Das Leben und die Lehre des Mohamad." Spuxzheim, Johann Gaspar, German phrenologist. B. 1776. D. 1832. Squier, Ephraim George, American archaeologist, authority on American antiquities. B. 1831. D. 1888. Staal, Marguerite Jeanne Cordier de, baroness, French writer of memoirs. B. about 1684. D. 1750. Sta§l (Stael-Holstein), Anne Louise Germaine de, baroness, daughter of the minister Necker, French authoress. B. 1766. D. 1817. "Delphine," " Corinne, on I'ltalie " (works of fiction). " De I'Allemagne " (on the litera- ture of Germany). " Dix annte d'exil " (" Ten Tears of ExUe "). Stafford, William Howard, A-iscount. B. 1613. Executed for alleged com- plicity in the Popish Plot 1680. Stahl, Friedrich Julius, German political philosopher. B. 1803. D. 1861. Stahl, Georg Ernst, German chemist B. 1660. D. 1734. Stahr, Adolf, German author. B. 1805. D. 1876. Works on Italy and on ancient art, literary studies, life of Lessing, &c. Stahremberg. See Stabhembero. Staix, earl of, viscount of. See Dai^bthfle. Stambuloff, S., Bulgarian statesman. B. 1853. Murdered 1895. Standish, Miles, Puritan soldier in New England. B. about 1584. D. 1656, Stanhope, Charles, earl, English inventor, statesman. B. 1753. D. 1816. Stanhope, Lady Hester, granddaughter of the earl of Chatham, noted for her eccentric career in Syria. B. 1776. D. 1839. Stanhope, James, English general, statesman. B. 1673. D. 1731. Stanhope, Philip Henry, earl (Lord Mahon), English historian, statesman. B. 1805. D. 1875. Works on Spanish and English history. "Life of William Pitt " (the younger). Stanislas Augustus. See PomATOWSEi. Stanislas Leszczynski, king of Poland. B. 1677. Reigned 1704r-'9. Duke of Lorraine from 1737. D. 1766. Stanley, Lord. See Derby. Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn, dean of Westminster, ecclesiastical writer. R 1815. D. 1881. Best known works, " Sinai and Palestine " and " Lectures on the History of the Jewish Church." BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 551 Stanley, Henry M., African explorer. B. in Wales 1841, Stanley, Thomas, English writer on philosophy, poet, editor of ^schylus. B. 1635. D. 1678. Stanton, Edwin McMasters, American statesman, secretary of war under Lincohi and Johnson, 1862-'8. B. 1814. D. 1869. Starhemberg (Stahremberg), Ernst Rudiger von, count, defender of Vienna against the Turks in 1683. B. 1635. D. 1701. Starhemberg, Guido von, count, Austrian commander, D. 1737. Stark, John, American soldier. B. 1728. D. 1833. Statins, CsecUius. See C^cilius STAiros. Statius, Papinius, Latin poet D. about a. d. 100. Staunton, Sir George Thomas, English writer on China. B. 1781. D. 1859. Stedman, Edmund Clarence, American poet, critic. B. 1833. Steele, Sir Richard, British author. B. 1673. D. 1739. Comedies. Essays in the "Tatler," "Spectator," and "Guardian." Steell, Sir John, Scottish sculptor. B. 1804 D. 1891. Steen, Jan, Dutch painter. D. 1679 (1689 f). Steevens, George, English Shakespearean scholar. B. 1736. D. 1800. Steffens, Heinrioh, German philosopher, author. B. in Norway 1773. D. 1845. Stein, Frau Charlotte von, friend of Goethe. B. 1743. D. 1837. Stein, Heinrich Priedrieh Karl von, baron, Prussian statesman. B. 1757. D. 1831. Stein, Lorenz von, Crerman writer on political economy, finance, and govern- ment. B. 1815. D. 1890. Steinle, Johann Eduard, Q«nnan painter. B. 1810. D. 1886. Steinthal, Heymann, German philologist. B. 1833, StendhaL See Beyle. Stephen, king of England, grandson of William the Conqueror, Reigned from 1135. D. 1154. Stephen L, Saint, king of Hungary. Reigned from 997 (with the title of king, from 1000). D. 1038. Stephen m. (H.), pope. Elected 753. D. 757. Stephen X. (IX.), pope. Elected 1057. D. 1058. Stephen B&thorL See BIthoei. Stephen Dushan, king of Servia. Reigned from 1331. D. close of 1355. Stephen, Sir James, English statesman, historian. B. 1789. D. 1859. Stephen, Sir James Pitzjames, English jurist. B. 1829. D. 1894. " Lib- erty, Equality, and Fraternity." Stephen, Leslie, English author. B. 1883. " Hours in a Library." "English Thought in the Eighteenth Century." " The Science of Ethics." Stephens (ifetienne, Estienne), the name of a French family of printers in the 16th and 17th c. Stephens, Alexander Hamilton, vice-president of the Confederate States. B.1812. D. 1883. 552 BIOGRAPmOAL DICTIONART. Steph.eii8, John Lloyd, American writer of travels. B. 1805. t). 1852. Stephenson, George, perfeoter of the locomotive engine. B. in England 1781. D. 1848. Stephenson, Robert, English engineer, son of George Stephenson. B. 1803. D. 1859. Sterling, John, English poet, novelist, essayist. B. 1806. D. 1844. Stem, Daniel. See Agoult. Sterne, Laurence, English author. B. 1713. D. 1768. " Tristram Shandy." " The Sentimental Journey." Sermons. Stemhold, Thomas, English translator of the Psalms. D..1549. Stesichorus, Greek poet. D. about 555 b. c. Steuben, Priedrich Wilhelm von, baron, Prussian officer who fought on the American side in the Revolution. B. 1730. D. 1794. Stevens, Edwin Augustus, American nautical engineer, endower of the Stevens Institute of Technology (Hoboken). B. 1795. D. 1868. Stevens, George Alexander, English burlesque writer. D. 1784. "The History of Tom Fool." Stevens, John, American mechanical engineer, conspicuous in the history of steam navigation. B. 1749. D. 1838. Stevens, Robert Livingston, American nautical engineer. B. 1788. D. 1856. Stevens, Thaddeus, American statesman, abolitionist. B. 1793. D. 1868. Stevehson, Robert Louis Balfour, British novelist. B. 1850. D. 1894, Stewart, Balfour, British physicist. B. 1828. D. 1887. Stewart, Charles William, marquis of Londonderry, Earl Vane, British general, statesman, diplomatist. B. 17781 D. 1854. Stewart, Dugald, Scottish phUosopher. B. 1753. D. 1828. Stieglitz, Heinrich, German poet. B. 1803. D. 1849. Stilicho, a Vandal in the Roman service,, minister and general of Honorius. Executed a. d. 408, Still6, Alfred, American physician. B. 1813. Stillingfleet, Edward, English theologian. B. 1635. D. 1699. Stimpson, William, American naturalist. B. 1832. D. 1872. Stirling, Lord. See Alexander, William. Stobseus, Joannes, Greek compiler. About 5th c. a. d. Stockmar, Christian Friedrich von, baron, friend and adviser of Prince Albert and Queen Victoria, author of memoirs. B. in Germany 1787. D. 1863. Stockton, Francis Richard, American writer of fiction. B. 1834. Stockton, Robert Field, American naval oflScer. B. 1795. D. 1866. Stoddard, Richard Henry, American poet. B. 1825, Stokes, Sir G«orge Gabriel, British mathematician, physicist. B. 1819. Stolberg, Christian von, count, German poet. B. 1748. D. 1821. Btolberg, Friedrich Leopold von, count, German poet. B. 1750. D. 1819. Stoiy, Joseph, American jurist. B. 1779. D. 1845. Best known by his commentaries on the constitution of the United States. Story, William Wetmore, American sculptor, author. B. 1819. D. 189S. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 553 Stowe, Harriet (Beeohet), American authoress. B. 1811. D. 1896. " Uncle Tom's Cabin." Strabo, Greek geographer. D. about A. d. 24 Strack, Johann Heinrich, German architect. B. about 1805. D. 1880. Stradella, Alessandro, Italian composer. B. about 1645. Assassinated 1678. Stradivari, Antonio, Italian violin-maker. B. 1644 D. 1737. Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, adviser of Charles I. B. 1593. Executed 1641. Strange, Sir Robert, British engraver. B. 173i. D. 1792. Stratford de Bedcliffe, Stratford Canning, viscount, English diplomatist. B. 1788. D. 1880. Strauss, David Priedrieh, German theological and philosophical writer. B. .1808. D. 1874 " Das Leben Jesu." •' Ulrich von Hutten." " Der alte und der neue Glaube " (" The Old and the New Faith "). Strauss, Johann, Viennese composer. B. 1804 D. 1849. Strauss, Johann, Viennese composer. B. 1835. Street, Alfred Billings, American poet. B. 1811. D. 1881. Street, Greorge Edmund, English architect. B. 1824 D. 1881. Strickland, Agnes, English authoress. D. 1874 Principal production, " Lives of the Queens of England." Strong, James, American Biblical scholar. B. 1823. D. 1894 Strousberg, B. R, German speculator, builder of railways. B. 1824. D.1884 Struensee, Johann Eriedrich von, count, minister of Christian VII. of Den- mark. B. 1737. Executed 1772. Strutt, Joseph, English author, artist. D. 1802. Works on the manners, customs, dress, sports, &c., of the English people in past times. Struve, Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von, German-Kussian astronomer. B. 1793. D. 1864 Struve, Gustav von, Gterman revolutionist, author. B. 1805. D. 1870. Struve, Otto Wilhelm von, Russian astronomer. B. 1819. Stuart, Arabella, cousin of James I. of England B. about 1575. D. 1615. Stuart, Charles Edward. See Chables Edward Stuart. Stuart, Gilbert, Scottish historical writer, critic. D. 1786. Works on the British constitution, the Scottish Reformation, the progress of society in Europe, &c. Stuart, Gilbert Charles, American painter. B. 1755. D. 1828. Stuart, James, English antiquary. B. 1713. D. 1788. "Antiquities of Athens." Stuart, James E. B., Confederate general. B. about 1833. Killed 1864 Stuart, James Edward. See James Edward Stuart. Stuart, Moses, American Biblical critic. B. 1780. D. 1853. Stubbs, William, English historian. B. 1835. "The Constitutional His- tory of England." Stuler, August, German architect. B. 1800. D. 1865. 554 BIOGKAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Sturlason. See Snobri Stublason. Sturt', Sir Charles, English Australian explorer. D, 1869. Stuyvesant, Peter, director general of New Netherland 1647-64 B. 16021 D. 1682. Suarez, Francisco, Spanish Jesuit. B. 1548. D. 1617. Sucta.et, Louis Gabriel, duke of Albufera, French general. B. 1770, D. 1826. Suckling, Sir John, English poet, dramatist. B. about 1609. D. about 1642. Sucre, Antonio Jos6 de. South American patriot leader. B. 1793. Assasa- nated 1830. Sue, Eug&e, French novelist. B, 1804 D. 1857. "Les mysteres de Paris." " Le Juif errant " (" The Wandering Jew "). Suess, Eduard, Austrian geologist, palaeontologist, politician. B. 1831. Suetonius (Caius Suetonius Tranquillus), Soman historian. B. about a. d. 72. Lives of the twelve Ceesars. Suetonius Faulinxis, Roman general. Commander in Britain 59-62. Suidas, Grreek lexicographer, encyclopaedist. About 11th c. a. d. Suleittia,n Pasha, Turkish general. B. about 1840. D. 1892. Sulla (SyUa), Lucius Cornelius, Roman general, dictator. B. 138 b. c. D. 78. Sullivan, Sir Arthur Seymour, English composer. B. 1843. Sullivan, John, American general. B. 1740. D. 1795. Sullivant, William Starling, American botanist. B. 1803. D. 1873. Sully, Maximilien de Bethune, duke de (baron de Rosny), minister of Henry IV. of France. B. 1560. D. 1641. Sully, Thomas, American painter. B. 1783. D. 1872. Sulpicius Severus, Latin ecclesiastical historian. B. about 363. Suniaroko£f, Alexander, Russian dramatist. B. 1727. D. 1777. Sumner, Charles, American statesman, abolitionist. B. 1811. D. 1874 Sumter, Thomas, American general. B. 1734. D. 1832. Sunderland, Charles Spencer, earl of, English statesman. B. 1674 D, 1722. Sunderland, Robert Spencer, earl of, English statesman. B. about 1641. D. 1702. Surajah. Dowlah, nawaub of Bengal. Put to death 1757. Surrey, Henry Howard, earl of, English poet, commander. B. about 1516k Executed 1547. Suso, Heinrich, German monk, author. D. 1365. Sussex, duke of. See Augustus Fbederick. Suvaroff (Suvorofi), Alexei, count, Russian general. B. 1729. D. 1800. Swainson, William, English naturalist. B. 1789. D. about 1856. Swammerdam, Jan, Dutch entomologist, anatomist, physiologist. B. 1637, D. about 1680. Swedenborg, Emanuel, Swedish philosopher, theosophist. B. 1688, IX 1778. BIO&iUPHICAL DICTIONARY. 555 Sweyn, king of Denmark. Reigned from 985. D. 1014. King of England 1013-'14. Swieteu, Gerard van, Dutch-Austrian physician. B. 1700. D. 1773. Swift, Jonathan, dean of St. Patrick's Dublin), political writer, satirist. B. 1667. D. 1745. Most famous productions, " The Tale of a Tub " (satire on the Catholics and dissenters) and " Gulliver's Travels." Swift, Lewis, American astronomer. B. 1830. Swinburne, Algernon Charles, English poet. B. 1837. Songs and ballads, " Atalanta in Calydon," " Brechtheus " (tragedies on the Greek model). " Chastelard," " Bothwell," " Mary Stuart " (forming together a dramatic trilogy). "Songs before Sunrise." " Songs of the Springtides." Sybel, Heinrich von, German historian. B. 1817. D. 1895. Works on the first crusade, on German history, and on the period of the French Kevo- lution. Sydenham, Thomas, English physician. B. 1634 D. 1689. Sylla. See Sulla. Sylvester L, Saint, bishop of Rome. Elected 314. D. 335. Sylvester H. (Gerbert), pope. Elected 999. D. 1008. Sylvester, James Joseph, English mathematician. B. 1814. D. 1897. Sylvius, .aineas. See Pius II. Syme, James, Scottish surgeon. B. 1799. D. 1870. Symmaclius, Saint, bishop of Rome. Elected 498. D. 514. Symmachus, Qointus Aurelius, Roman orator, vn:iter. D. about A. D. 410. Symonds, John Adding^on, English author. B. 1840. D. 1893. Princi- pal production, " History of the Renaissance in Italy." Synesius, Neo-Platonic philosopher. D. early in the 5th c. Syphaz, Numidian prince. D. about 301 b. c. Szalay, L&zld, Hungarian historian. B. 1813. D. 1864. Sz^chenyi, Istv&n, Hungarian statesman. B. about 1791. D. 1860. Taaffe, Eduard von, count, Austrian statesman. B. 1833. D. 1895. Tacitus, Cains Cornelius, Roman historian. D. probably after a. d. 117. " Germania." " Agricola." " Historic " (what is extant treating of the period 69-70). " Annales " (beginning with the accession of Tiberius). Tacitus, Marcus Claudius, Roman emperor. Reigned 275-376. Tadema. See Alua Tadgha. Tagliacozzi (Taliacotius), Gaspare, Italian surgeon. D. 1599. Taglioni, Maria, dancer, daughter of Philip Taglioni. B. in Sweden 1804. D. 1884 Taglioni, Paul, dancer, composer of ballets, son of PhQip Taglioni. B. in Vienna about 1809. D. 1884 TagUoni, Philip, ballet-master, composer of ballets. B. in Italy about 1777 D. 1871. 556 BIOGRAPHIC iL DICTIONARY. Taillandier, Saint-Eene, French writer on history and literature. B. 1817. D. 1870. Taine, Hippolyto Adolphe, French author. B. 1838. D. 1893. " Histoire de la litterature anglaise." " Voyage en Italic." " Philosophie de I'art en Italie" and other works on art. "Notes sur I'Angleterre." "Les origines de la France contemporaine " (embracing " L'ancien regime " and " La revolution "}. Tait, Archibald Campbell, archbishop of Canterbury. B. 1811. D. 1882. Tait, Peter Guthrie, British physicist, mathematician. B. 1831. Talbot, John, earl of Shrewsbury, English general. B. about 1373. Killed 1453. Talbot, William Henry Fox, one of the inventors of photography, scholar, author. B. in England 1800. D. 1877. Talfourd, Sir Thomas Noon, English writer of tragedy. B. 1795. D. 1854. Taliacotius. See Taqliacozzi. Tallard (Tallart), Camille de, French general. B. 1653. D. 1728, Talleyrand (Talleyrand -Perigord), Charles Maurice de, prince, French diplomatist. B. 1754 D. 1838. Tallien, Madame. See Chimat. TaUien, Jean Lambert, French revolutionist. B. 1769. D. 1820. Talma, Fransois Joseph, French actor. B. 1763. D. 1836. Talyj. See SoBmsoN, Thebese. Tamerlane (Timour), Mongol conqueror. B. about 1386. D. 1405. Tancred, Norman crusader, nephew of Robert Guiscard^ B. 1078. IX 1112. Taney, Roger Brooke, chief justice of the United States 1836-'64 B. 1777. D. 1864. Tarleton, Bannastre, English soldier in America. B. 1754. D. 1833. Tarquinius Friscus (Tarqviin the Elder), king of Rome. Reputed to have reigned from about 616 to about 578 b. c. Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin the Proud), last king of Rome. Reputed to have reigned from about 534 to about 510 b. c. Tartini, Giuseppe, Italian violinist, composer. B. 1692. D. 1770. Tasman, Abel Janssen, Dutch navigator, discoverer of Tasmania 1642. Tasso, Bernardo, Italian poet. B. 1493. D. 1569. Most celebrated produc- tion, " L' Amadigi " (heroic poem). Tasso, Torquato, Italian poet, son of Bernardo Tasso. B. March 11, 1544. D. April 25, 1595, Greatest productions, " Gerusalemme liberata " (epic poem on the first crusade) and " Aminta " (pastoral drama). Tassoni, Alessandro, Italian poet. B. 1565. D. 1635. Tate, Nahum, British poet. B. 1653. D. 1715. "Miscellanea Sacra, or Poems on Divine and Moral Subjects.'' "Panacea, a Poem on Tea." Version of the Psalms (prepared jointly with Brady). Tatius, Achilles. See Achilles Tatius. Tauler, Johann, German mystic. B. about 1390. D. 1361. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 557 Tausig, Karl, German pianist. B. 1841. D. 1871. Taylor, Bayard, American traveler, author. B. 1825. D. 1878. Books of travel, poems, works of fiction, translation of Goethe's " Faust." Taylor, Brook, English mathematician. B. 1685. D. 1731. Taylor, Sir Henry, English poet, essayist. B. 1800. D. 1886. Principal production, " Philip van Artevelde " (dramatic poem). Taylor, Isaac, English philosophical and religious writer. B. 1787. D. 1865. Taylor, Isaac, English philologist. B. 1829. " Etruscan Researches." " The Alphabet ; an Account of the Origin and Development of Letters." Taylor, Jane, English authoress, sister of the elder Isaac Taylor. B. 1783. D. 1824. " Original Poems " and " Hymns " for children (written jointly with her sister, Ann). " Contributions of Q. Q." (essays). Taylor, Jeremy, English religious writer, distinguished as an advocate of toleration. B. 1613. D. 1667. Taylor, John, English poet. B. about 1580. D. 1654. Taylor, Richard (" Dick "), Confederate general, son of President Taylor. B. 1826. D. 1879. Taylor, Thomas, English translator of Greek classics. B. 1758. D. 1835. Taylor, Tom, English dramatist. B. 1817. . D. 1880. Taylor, Zachary, American general in the Mexican war, president of the United States 1849-'50. B. 1784 D. July 9, 1850. Tchaikovski, Petr, Russian composer. B. 1840. D. 1893. Tchemyshevski, Nikolai, Russian author. B. 1828. D. 1889. ^ Best known by his Nihilistic novel " What is to be done t " Tchihatchef^ Petr, Russian traveler, naturalist. B. 1812. D. 1890. Tecumseli, Indian chief. B. about 1768. Killed 1813. Tegetthoff, Wilhelm von, Austrian admiral. B. 1827. D. 1871. Tegndr, Bsaias, Swedish poet. B. 1782, D. 1846. Best known work, "PrithiofsSaga." Tejada, Lerdo de. See Lebdo se Tejada. Teleky, Ldszl6, count, Hungarian statesman. B. 1811. D. 1861. Telford, Thomas, British engineer. B. 1757. D. 1834. Tellez, Gabriel (" Tirso de Molina "), Spanish dramatist. D. 1648. Temple, Sir William, English diplomatist, author, B. 1628. D. 1699. Tencin, Claudine Alexandrine Guerin, marchioness de, French leader of soci- ety, novelist. B. 1681. D. 1749. Tenerani, Pietro, Italian sculptor. B. 1789. D. 1869. Teniers, David (the elder), Flemish painter. B. 1582. D, 1649. Teniers, David (the younger), Flemish painter. B. 1610. D. 1690. Tennant, William, Scottish poet. B. 1785. D. 1848. Tennemann, Wilhelm Gottlieb, German historian of philosophy. B. 1761. D. 1819. Tennent, Sir James Emerson, British author. B. 1804. D. 1869. Works on Greece and Ceylon. 558 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Tennyson, Alfred, Lord, English poet. B. 1809. D. Oct. 6, 1892. "Tha May Queen," 1833. "Locksley Hall." "The Princess." "In.Memo- riani." "Maud." "Idyls of the King." "Enoch Arden." "Queen Mary, a Drama." Tenterden, Lord. See Abbott, Chaeles. Terburg, Gerard, Dutch painter. B. 1608. D. 1681. Terence (Publius Terentius Afer), Roman comic poet. B. about 190 b. c, D. about 159. Terpander, Greek musician, poet. Flourished about 670 b. c. TertuUian, Latin father of the church. B. about middle of 2d c Tetzel, Johann, German monk, vender of indulgences. D. 1519. Tewfik Pasha, khedive of Egypt 1879-'92, son of IsmaU. B. 1852. D. 1892. Thackeray, William Makepeace, English novelist. B. 1811. D. Dec. 24, 1863. "Vanity Pair," 1846-'8. " The Book of Snobs." "Pendennis." " Henry Esmond." " The Newcomes." " The Virginians." Thaer, Albrecht. German writer on agriculture. B. 1752. D. 1828. Thais, Greek hstcsra. Second half of 4th c. b. c. Thalbergr, Sigismond, pianist. B. in Geneva 1812. D. 1871. Tbales, Greek philosopher. B. about 640 b. c. D. about 546. Theiner, Augustin, Catholic scholar, author of documentary ecclesiastical compilations, &c. B. in Germany 1804. D. 1874 Themistocles, Athenian statesman, commander. D. about 460 b. c. Th6nard, Louis Jacques, French chemist. B. 1777. D. 1857. Theobald of Champagne and Navarre, troubadour. See Thibaud. Theobald, Lewis, English Shakespearean critic. D. 1744. Theocritus, Greek bucolic poet. About 270 b. c. Theodore, king of Abyssinia. D. by his own hand 1868. , Theodoret, Syrian ecclesiastical historian. B. about 390. D. about 457. Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths. Beigned from 475. D. 526 King of Italy from 493. Theodosius the Great, Boman emperor. Beigned over the eastern portioi of the Boman Empire from 379 ; became undisputed master of the whoh 394. D. 395. Theodosius H., Byzantine emperor. B. 401. Beigned from 408. D. 450. Theognis, Greek poet. Second half of 6th c. b. c. Theophrastus, Greek philosopher, writer. B. about 372 b. c. D. about 287. Principal extant work, " Moral Characters." Theopompus, Greek historian. B. about 378 b. c. D. after 305. Theramenes, Athenian commander, demagogue, one of the Thirty Tyrants. Condemned to death 404 b. c. Theresa (Teresa), Saint, Spanish nun, religious writer. B. 1515. D. 1582. Th6roig^e de M^ricourt, Anne Josephe, " amazon of the French Bevolu- tion." B. 1763. D. 1817. Thespis, reputed founder of Greek tragedy. Second half of 6th c. B. o. Th^venot, Jean de, French traveler in the East, author. B. 1638. D. 1667. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 559 Thdvenot, Melchisedech, French scholar, historian of travels. B. about 1620. D. 1693. Thibaud (Theobald), count of Champagne, king of Navarre, crusader, troubadour. D. 1253. Thibaut, Anton Priedrich Justus, German jurist. B. 1774. D. 1840. Thierry, Amedee, French historian. B. 1797. D. 1873. Histories of the Gauls, of Gaul under the Romans, and of Attila and his successoi-s. Thierry, Augustin, French historian, brother of Amedee Thierry. B. 1795. D. 1856. Histories of the Norman conquest of England, of the Mero- vingians, and of the rise of the Third Estate. Thiers, Adolphe, French statesman, historian. B. April 16, 1797. Prime- minister under Louis Philippe in 1836 and 1840. President of France 1871-3. D. Sept. 3", 1877. " Histoire de la revolution frauQaise." " His- toire du consulat et de I'empire." Thiersch, Friedrich Wilhelm, German Hellenist. B. 1784. D. 1860. Thirlwall, Connop, English historian, bishop of St. Davids. B. 1797. D. 1875. " History of Greece." Tholuck, Friedrich August Gotttreu, German Protestant theologian. B. 1799. D. 1877. Thomas, Charles Louis Ambroise, French composer. B. 1811. D. 1896. Thomas, George Henry, American general. B. 1816. D. 1870. Thomas, Isaiah, American printer, journalist. B. 1749. D. 1831. Thomas, Joseph, American scholar. B. about 1811. D. 1891. "Diction- ary of Biography and Mythology." Thomas a Kempis. See Eemfis. Thomas Aquinas. See Aquinas. Thomasius, Christian, furtherer of juridical reform, philosopher. B. in Germany 1655. D. 1738. Thompson, Benjamin. See Rumford. Thompson, Thomas Perronet, English writer, noted for his advocacy of the abolition of slavery and the repeal of the Corn Laws. B. 1783. D. 1869. Thomson, Sir Charles WyvUle, British naturalist. B. 1830. D. 1882. Thomson, James, British poet. B. Sept. 11, 1700. D. Aug. 37, 1748. " The Seasons." " The Castle of Indolence." Thomson, Thomas, British chemist. B. 1773. D. 1852. Thomson, WUliam, Lord Kelvin, British physicist. B. 1824. Thoreau, Henry David, American author, naturalist. B. 1817. D. 1862. Works descriptive of his hermit life at Concord, Mass., and of his ram- bles through the country. Thombury, George Walter, English author. B. 1838. D. 1876. Thomhill, Sir James, English painter. B. 1676. D. 1734. Thomycroft, W. Hamo, English sculptor. B. 1850. Thorpe, Benjamin, English Anglo-Saxon scholar, writer on northern my- thology. B. about 1783 (f). D. 1870. Thorwaldsen, Bertel, Danish sculptor. B. Nov. 19, 1770. D. Mar. 34, 1844. 660 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. Thothmes HI., king of Egypt. 16th c. b. c. Thou, Jacques Augusts de, French statesman, historian. B. 1553. D, 1617. History of his own time (in Latin). Thrale. See Piozzi. Thrasybulus, Athenian patriot, commander. Killed 390 b. c. Thucydides, Athenian historian. B. about 471 b. c. D. about 400. His- tory of the Peloponnesian War. " Thunberg, Karl Peter, Swedish botanist. B. 1743. D. 1828. Thurloe, John, English statesman. B. 1616. D. 1668. Thurlow, Edward, Lord, lord chancellor of England. B. about 1782. D. 1806. Thum, Heinrich Matthias von, count, Bohemian patriot, soldier, B. 1580. D. 1640. Tibaldi, Pellegrino. See Pellegeini. Tiberius, Roman emperor, step-son of Augustus. B. 43 b. c. Reigned from A. D. 14. D. 37. TibuHus, Albius, Latin elegiac poet. B. about 56 b. c. Tickell, Thomas, English poet. B. 1686. D. 1740. "The Prospect of Peace." " The Royal Progress." " Elegy on the Death of Addison." Ticknor, George, American author. B. 1791. D. 1871. "History of Spanish Literature." Tidemand, Adolf, Norwegian painter. B. 1814. D. 1876. Tieck, Christian Priedrich, German sculptor. B. 1776. D. 1851. Tieck, Ludwig, German poet, novelist, critic, translator of Shakespearean plays and of " Don Quixote." B. 1773. D. 1853. Tiedemann, Dietrich, German philosopher. B. 1748. D. 1803. Tiederaann, Friedrich, German anatomist, physiologist. B. 1781. D. 1861. Tiedge, Christoph August, German poet. B. 1752. D. 1841. Best known production, " Urania " (didactic poem on the immortality of the soul). Tighe, Mary, Irish poetess. B. 1773. D. 1810. Principal poem, " Psyche." Tiglath-pileser II., king of Assyria. Reigned 745-727 b. q. Tigranes I., king of Armenia. Reigned from about 96 to about 55 B. o, Tilden, Samuel Jones, American lawyer, politician. B. 1814. D. 1886. Tillemont, Sebastien le Nain de, French historian. B. 1637. D. 1698. Best Jmown as a writer on the early history of the church. Tillotson, John, English prelate. B. 1630. D. 1694. Tilly, Johann Tserclaes, count, general of the Catholic League in the Thirty Years' War. B. 1559. Killed 1632. Timoleon, Corinthian general, who delivered Syracuse from Dionysius the Younger. D. 337 b. c. Timon the misanthrope, an Athenian. Toward close of 5th c. b. c. Timotheus, Athenian commander, D. about 354 b. o, Timour. See Tamerlane. Tindal, Matthew, English religious writer. B. about 1657. D, 1733, Tindale, William, See Tvndale. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 561 TiaB&, Miss Alexine, Dutch traveler in Africa. B. 1839. Murdered 1869. Tintoretto, 11 (Jacopo Robusti), Italian painter. B. 1518. D. 1594. Tippoo Sahib, sultan of Mysore. B. 1749. Killed 1799. liraboschi, Girolamo, Italian author. B. 1731. D. 1794. "Storia della letteratura italiana." Tiiso de Uolina. See Tellez. Tischbein, J. Heinrich Wilhelm, German painter. B. 1751. D. 1829. Tisdibein, Johann Heinrich, German painter. B. 1722. D. 1789. Tischendorf, Constantin von, German Biblical paleographer and editor. B. 1815. D. 1874 Tissaphemes, Persian satrap. Put to death 395 b. c. lissot, Simon Andre, Swiss physician. B. 1728. D. 1797. Tisza, Edlmdn, Hungasian statesman. B. 1830. Titian (Tiziano Vecellio), Italian painter. B. 1477. B. Aug. 27, 1576. Titus, Roman emperor, son of Vespasian, B. a. d. 40 or 41. Took Jerusa- lem 70. Reigned from 79. D. 81. Tocqueville, Alexis de, French statesman, political philosopher. B. 1805. D. 1859. "La demoeratie en Amerique." Works on the history of Prance in the eighteenth century. (See Beaumont, Gustave de.) Todhunter, Isaac, English mathematician. B. 1820. D. 1884. Todleben, Franz Eduard, Russian military officer. B. 1818. D. 1884 Togrul Beg, founder of the Seljuk empire, D. 1063. TokSlyi (T5k01i), Imre, leader of the Hungarians in a struggle against the house of Austria. B. 1656. D. 1705. Toland, John, British author. B. about 1670. D. 1722. " Christianity not Mysterious." "Lite of Milton." " Anglia Libera " (on the succession to the throne of England). Tollens, Hendrik Comeliszoon, Dutch poet. B. 1780. D. 1856, Tolstoi, Alexei, count, Russian poet, dramatist. B. 1817. D, 1875, Tolstoi, Dmitri, count, Russ. statesman, minister of pub. instruction under Alexander IL, of the interior under Alexander IH. B. 1823. D. 1889. ToUtoi, Leo, count, Russian novelist. B. 1828. Tommaseo, Niccold, Italian patriot, scholar, commentator of Dante. B, about 1803. D. 1874 Tomomi Iwakura, Japanese statesman. D. 1883. Tompkins, Daniel D., American statesman. B. 1774. D. 1825. Tonstall (Tunstall), Cuthbert, English prelate. B. about 1475. D. 1559. Tonty, Henry de, companion of La Salle. D. 1704 Tooke, J. Home, English politician, philologist. B. 1736. D. 1812. Tooke, Thomas, English political economist. B. 1774. D. 1858. Tooke, William, English writer on Russia. B. 1744 D. 1820. Toombs, Robert, American politician. Secessionist. B. 1810. D. 1885. Toreno, Jose Maria, count of, Spanish statesman, historian of the Peninsular War. B. 1786. D. 1843. Tor&eus (Thormodr Torfason), Icelandic historian. B 1636. D, 1719. 37 562 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONART. Torlonia, Alessandro, prince, Italian capitalist, phUanthropist, art-coUectoi; drainer of Lake Pucino. B. 1800. D. 1886. Torquemada, Tomas de, inquisitor general of Spain. B. about 1420. D. 1498. Torrey, John, American botanist. B. 1796. D. 1873. Torricelli, Evangelista, Italian physicist, mathematician, inventor of the barometer. B. 1608. D. 1647. Torstenson, Lennart, Swedish general in the Thirty Tears' War. B. 1603, D. 1651. Toschi, Paolo, Italian engraver. B. 1788. D. 1854. Totila, king of the Ostrogoths. Slain 552. Totixnefort, Joseph Pitton de, French botanist. B. 1656. D. 1708. Tourville, Anne Hilarion de Cotentin, count de, French admiral. B. 1642. D. 1701. Toussaint I'Ouverture, FranQois Dominique, Haytian Kegro general. B, about 1743. D. 1803. Townshend, Charles, viscount, English statesman. B. about 1674. D. 1738. Townshend, Charles, English statesman. B. 1725. D. 1767. Tracy, Destutt de. See Dbstctt de Tract. Trajan (Trajanus), Roman emperor. B. a. d. 52 (53 1). Reigned from 98. D. 117. Tredgold, Thomas, English engineer. B. 1788. D. 1829. Txiegelles, Samuel Prideaux, English Biblical scholar. B. 1813. D. 1875. Treitschke, Heinrich Gotthard von, German historical and political writer, politician. B. 1834. B. 1896. Ti^mouille (TrSmoille), Louis de la, French general. B. 1460. Killed 1525. Trench, Richard Chenevix, archbishop of Dublin, author. B. 1807. D. 1886. Various works relating to the New Testament. " The Study of Words." " English, Past and Present." Trenck, Franz von der, baron, Austrian soldier. B. 1711. D. 1749. Trenck, Friedrich von der, baron, Pruss. soldier. B. 1726. Guillotined 1794. Trendelenburg, Adolf, German philosopher. B. 1802. D. 1872. Trevelyan, Sir George Otto, English author, statesman. B. 1838. " Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay." " The American Revolution." Treviranus, Gottfried Reinhold, German naturalist. B. 1776. D. 1837. " Biologie oder Philosophic der lebenden Natur." Treviranus, LudoU Christian, Ger. veget. physiologist. B. 1779. D. 1864. Tribonian (Tribonianus), Roman jurist. D. a. d. 545. Triooupis, Spiridion, Greek historian. B. 1791. D, 1873. Trivulzio, Gian Giacomo, Italian general in the service of France. D. 1518. Trochu, Louis Jules, French general, commander of Paris during the siege by the Germans. B. 1815. D. 1896. Tcollope, Adolphus, English author, brother of Anthony TroUope. B. 1810. D. 1892. Best known as a writer on Italy. Principal production, "His- tory of the Commonwealth of Florence." BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONAKT. 563 Trollope, Anthony, English novelist. B. 1815. D. 1883. Trollope, Prances (born Milton), English novelist, writer of sketches of travel, mother of Anthony and Adolphus Trollope. B. about 1780. D. 1863. "Domestic Manners of the Americans," 1833. Tromp, Comelis van, Dutch admiral. B. 1639, D. 1691. Tromp, Maarten Harpertzoon, Dutch admiral. B. 1597. Killed 1653. Txoplong, Raymond Theodore, French jurist. B. 1795. D. 1869. Troyon, Constant, French painter. B. 1810. , D. 1865. Trumbull, John, American satirical poet. B. 1750. D. 1831. Trumbull, John, American painter. B. 1756. D. 1843. Trujnbull, Jonathan, American statesman, patriot. B. 1710. D. 1785. Trumbull, Jonathan, American statesman. B. 1740. D. 1809. Tryon, WiUiam, colonial governor of North Carolina and of New York (the last of New York), British general in the War of the Revolution. D. 1788. Tscluniliauseii, Ehrenfried Walter von, count, German mathematician, philosopher, noted for his improvements in the manufacture of lenses and porcelaui. B. 1651. D. 1708. Tschudi, .ffigidius, Swiss historian. B. 1505. D. 1572. Tscbudi, Priedrieh von, Swiss naturalist. B. 1820. D. 1886. Tschudi, Johann Jakob von, Swiss traveler in South America, naturalist. B. 1818. D. 1889. Tucker, Abraham, English philosopher. B. 1705. D. 1774. Tttckerman, Henry Theodore, American author. B, 1813. D. 1871. Va- rious works on art and literature, biographical essays, &c. Tudor, Owen, husband of Catharine of Valois, the widow of Henry V. of England, and grandfather of Henry YTI. Sailed 1461. Tull, Jethro, ShigUsh agriculturist. D. 1740. Tullius, Servius. See Sebvius Tulltos. Tulloch, John, Scottish ecclesiastical writer. B. 1833. D. 1886. Tullus Hostilius, reputed third king of Rome, about 672-640 b. c. TunstalL See Tonstall. Tupper, Martin Farquhar, English poet. B. 1810. D. 1889. " Proverbial Philosophy." Tuzenne, Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, viscount de, French general. B. Sept. 11, 1611. Killed July 37, 1675. Turgeneff, Ivan, Russian novelist. B.Nov. 9, 1818. D. Sept. 3, 1883. Espe- cially distinguished as a delineator of the social aspects of contemporary Russia. Turgot, Robert Jacques, French controller general of finance 1774-'6. B. 1727. D. 1781. Turner, Joseph Mallord William, English painter. B. 1775. D. 1851. Turner, Sharon, English historian. B. 1768. D, 1847. Best known by hia " History of the Anglo-Saxons." Turner, William, English naturalist. D. 1568, 564 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONABY. Turretin (Turretini), Frangois, Swiss theologian. B. 1623. D. 1687. Turretin, Jean Alphonse, Swiss theologian. B. 1671. D. 1737. Tusser, Thomas, English georgio poet. D. about 1580. Twain, Mark. See Clemens. Twiss, Sir Travers, English jurist. B. 1809. D. 1897. Tychsen, Olaus Gerhard, German oriental scholar. B. 1734 D. 1815. Tyler, John, president of the United States from April 4, 1841 to 1845. R March 29, 1790. D. Jan. 17, 1863. Tyler, Wat. See Wat Tyler. Tyndale (Tindale), William, English Bef ormer. Biblical translator. Put to death 1536. Tyndall, John, Brit, physicist. B. in Ireland Aug. 21, 1830. D. Dec. 4, 1893. Tyrone, Hugh O'Neill, earl of, Irish insurgent leader. D. 1616. TyrtseixB, Greek poet. 7th o. b. c. Tyrwhitt, Thomas, English critic, classical scholan B. 1730. D. 1786. Tytler, Alexander Fraser (Lord Woodhouselee), Scottish author. B. 1747. D. 1813. " Elements of General History." " Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Henry Home, Lord Eames." Tytler, Patrick Fraser, Scottish historian, biographer. B. 1791. D. 1849. " History of Scotland." Tzschimer, Heinrich Gottlieb, German Protestant thecdogian. B. 1778. D. 1828. TT. Vccello, Paolo (Paolo di Dono), Italian painter. B, about 1397. D. about 1475. TJdall, Nicholas, English playwright. B. about 1505. D. 1556. TTeberweg, Friedrieh, German historian of philosophy, B. 1826. D, 1871. TTggione, Marco da. See Oqgione. TJgolino della G-herardesca. See Gherabdesca. XJhland, Ludwig, German poet. B. 1787. D. 1862. Ujfalvy, Charles Eugene, traveler in Central Asia, ethnologist, a native of Vienna, of Hungarian extraction, settled in France. B. 1843. XJlfllas (Wulflla), Gothic Biblical translator. B. about 311. D. about 381. Xnimann, Earl, German Protestant theologian. B. 1796. D. 1865. TTlloa, Antonio de, Spanish savant, naval commander. B. 1716. D. 1795. TJlpian (Domitius Ulpianus), Boman jurist. Killed a. d. 328. XTIrici, Hermann, German philosopher, critic. B. 1806. D. 1884 TTmbreit, Friedrieh Wilhelm Karl, German Prdtestant theologian. B, 1795k D. 1860. TTncas, sachem of the Mohegans. D. about 1682. XTnger, Franz, Austrian botanist, palseontologist. B. 1800. D. 1870. Unger, William, German engraver. B. 1837. Opham, Thomas Cogswell, American philosophioal and religious writer. B, 1799. D. 1872. BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 505 Urban IL, pope. Elected 1088. D. 1099. TTrban VI., pope. Elected 1378. D. 1889. XTrban VIH. (MafEeo Barberini), pope. Elected 1623. D. 1644 TJre, Andrew, Scottish chemist. B. 1778. D. 1857. « Dictionary of Chem- istry." " Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines." Urqubart, David, British author. B. 1805. D. 1877. " The Spirit of the Bast." XTrquiza, Juste JosS de, Argentine general, statesman. B. 1800. Assassi- nated 1870. TTslier (Ussher), James, archbishop of Armagh, Biblical chronologist. B. 1580. D. 1656. TJvaxaS, Sergei, count, Kussian statesman, scholar. B, 1785. D. 1855. XTzzi&h, king of Judah, Beigned about 792-740 b. c. {Dwncker; 811-758, Opperf), V. Vaca, Cabega de. See NuSez, Alyab. Vacberot, iitienne, French philosophical writer. B. 1809. Vaga, Perino del (Pietro Buonaccorsi), Italian painter. B. 1500. D. 1547. Valckenaer, Lodewijk Casper, Dutch classical scholar. B. 1715. D. 1785. Valdes, Palacio. See Palacio Vaides. Valdez. See Melendez Yaldez. Valenciennes, Achille, French naturalist. B. 1794. D, 1865. Chiefly noted for his work on fishes. Valens, emperor of the East. Beigned 364-378. Valentin, Gabriel Gustav, German physiologist. B. 1810. D. 1883. Valentinian (Valentinianus) I,, emperor of the West. Reigned 364-375. Valentinian U., emperor of the West. Made the associate of his brother, Gratian, 375, when little more than an infant. On Gratian's overthrow became sovereign of part of the Empire of the West 383. Sole emperor of the West from 388. Murdered 392. Valentinian ZH., emperor of the West. Keigned from 425. Murdered 455. Valerian (Valerianus), Roman emperor. Reigned from 254 to about 260. Valerius Corvus, Marcus, Roman general. B. about 371 b. c, D. about 271. Valerius Flaccus, Caius, Latin poet. D. about a. d. 90. Valerius Uazimus, Latin author. First half of first c. a. d. " Factorum et Dictorum Memorabilium Libri IX." Valette, Jean Parisot de la, grand-master of the Knights of Malta. B. 1494. D. 1568. Valla, Lorenzo, Italian classical scholar. D. about 1460. Valle, Pietro della, Italian traveler in the East. B. 1586. D. 1652. VaUidre, duchess de la. See La VALLiftRE. Vallisnieri (Yallisneri), Antonio, Italian naturalist, embryologist, B, 1661. D. 1730. 566 BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. V&iub6ry, Armin, Hungarian traveler in Central Asia, author of Yarions works on the Bast, philologist. B, 1833. Vanbrugh., Sir John, English dramatist, distinguished also as an architect. B. 1666. D. 1726. Van Buren, Martin, president of the United States 1837-'4l. B. Dec. 6^ 1782. D. July 24, 1862. Vancouver, George, BngUsh navigator. D. 1798. Vandamme, Dominique Joseph, French general. B. 1770. D. 1830. Van der Goes. See Goes. Van der Heyden. See Hetden. Vanderlyn, John, American painter. B. 1776. D. 1852. Van der Meer. See Meeb. Van der Meulen. See Meulen. Vandervelde, Adriaan, Dutch painter. B. 1639. D. 1672. Vandervelde, Willem (the elder), Dutch painter. B. 1610. D. 1693. Vandervelde, Willem (the younger), Dutch painter. B. 1633. D. 1707. Vandyke (Van Dyok), Sir Anthony, Flemish painter. B. March 22, lS9ft D. Deo. 9, 1641. Vane, Sir Henry, English statesman. B. about 1612. Executed 1662. Van Erpen. See Ekfenius. Van Eyck. See Eyce. Van Helmont. See Helmont. Vanini, Lucilio, Italian philosopher. B. about 1585. Burned 1619. Vanloo, Charles Andre, French painter. B. 1705. D. 1765. Vanloo, Jean Baptiste, French painter. B. 1684. D. 1746. Vannucci, Pietro. See Peruqino. Van Oost. See Oost. Van Oosterzee. See Oosterzee. Van Itensselaer, Stephen, American statesman. B. 1765i D. 1839. Van Scbendel. See Schensel, Van Swieten. See Swieten. Vanvitelli, Luigi, Italian architect. B. 1700. D. 1773. Vargas, Luis de, Spanish painter. B. 1502. D. 1568, Vamhagen von Ense, Karl August, German author. B. 1785, D, 1858. Biographical sketches; writings dealing with his own life and times; works relating to his highly gifted wife, Bahel.