MEMORIAL POULTRY LIBRARY The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003073859 Ei o = us 01 "D >«= > a w : =o oi °!S si 00 Q-s sm 1 00 I CO io I CO =o io Im- iCM 5 OS ICO (A THE PRACTICAL POULTRY KEEPER: 91 Complete anii ^taniiartr 0uiiit TO THE MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY, WHETHER FOE DOMESTIC USE, THE MARKETS, OR EXHIBITION. By L. WRIGHT. TENTH EDITION. JV£fV YORK: The Orange Judd Company, 7si, broadway. ^ . I if eJ- /s^y E 7657 By special arrangement, the sale of tMs book in the United States is placed in the hands of The Orange Judd Company, of New York. CASSELL, FETTER, GALPIN & CO., London, Paris & New York. CONTENTS. SECTION I. PAflB Thk Genebal Management of Domestic Poultei, wira t View to Profit: — Chapter I. — Houses and Buns ; and the Appliances necessary to keeping Poultry with Success 3 Chapter II. — On the System of Operations, and the Selection of Stock 14 Chapter in. — The Feeding and General Management of adult Fowls i 20 Chapter IV. — Incubation 34 Chapter V. — The Bearing and Fattening of Chickens .., 44 Chapter VI.— Diseases of Poultry 66 SECTION n. The Beeedino and Exhibition op Pkizb Pouitbt: — Chapter VTI. — Yards and Accommodation adapted for Breed ing Prize Poultry 63 Chapter VIII. — On the Scientific Principles of Breeding, and the Effects of Crossing 70 Chapter IX. — On the Practical Selection; and Care of Breed- ing Stock, and the Bearing of Chickens for Exhibition... 80 Chapter X. — On " Condition," and the Preparation of Fowls for Exhibition; and various other Matters connected with Shows 90 SECTION III. Diffebent Bbeeds of Fowls : theie Chabactebistic Points, with a Compaeison of theie Merits and Peincipal Defects • — Chapter XI. — Cochin-Chinas or Shanghaes 101 Chapter XII. — Brahma Pootras 105 CONTENTS. Chapter XIII. — Malays ... Chapter XIV.— G^me Chapter XV. — Dorkings ... Chapter XVI. — Spanish ... Chapter XVII. — Hamburghs Chapter XVIII.— Polands Chapter XIX. — French Breeds Chapter XX. — Bantams ... Chapter XXI.— The " Various " Class PAtlS . 116 . 118 . 126 . 131 , 138 , 145 . 151 . 162 . 167 SECTION rv. TuBKETs, Obnamental Poultet, and Watbefowl. — Chapter XXII. — Turkeys. Guinea-fowl. Pea-fowl ... ... 175 Chapter XXIII.— Pheasants 185 Chapter XXIV.— Water-fowl 190 SECTION V. The Hatching and Ebaeinq or Chickens AETrFiciALLT : Chapter XXV.— The Incubator and Its Management ... Chapter XXVI. — Bearing Chickens Artificially 203 213 SECTION VI. The Bbbeding and Management of Poultry upon a Large Scale : — Chapter XXVII. — Separate Establishments for Rearing Poultry. Poultry on the Farm. Conclusion... 221 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Gboitnd Plan and Elevation of Poultry Honsa Febdino-dish CovEB fob Feedino-dish POnLTBY-FODNTAIN pBOTECnON FOB THE HbN WHILST SlTriNG Mode of testing Egos .. Goof fob Hen with Chickens Coop fob tbansforting Hen and Brood wlbe-ooteked run for toung chickens Fattening Pens , Plan of Mr. H. Lane's Pooltrt-tabd „ Mb. R. W. Boyle's „ Cbevecoeub Fowls Li FiioHE Cockerel „ Pullet HouDAN Cock „ Hen Breda Fowls Silky „ Bakn-door „ Brindley's Incubator Section op Mb. F. H. Sohrodee'b Incubator Messes. Geaves' Incubator Mb. p. H. Sohbodek's "Motbes " The Pottltbt-house at Belaie PAGE .. 11 .. 26 ,., 26 .. 29 ... 38 .. 41 .. 46 ... 48 ... 49 ... 52 ... 65 ... 68 ... 152 ... 155 ... 156 ... 157 .. 158 .. 159 .. 1C9 .. 171 .. 205 .. 2(57 .. 212 .. 215 .. 225 LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS. View op Hen-house Plan op „ The Open Runs poe Chickens and Fowls Abeangement op Geohnd Flooe op Podltet-hotjse The HATCHmo-ROOM Fbedino-coops The Pobtable Hatching Basket The Kitchen The Stoee-eoom The Audeod Cobn-ein 226 227 229 230 231 232 233 233 234 235 SEPARATE PLATES. Feathers ... White Cochins SlLTER-PENCILfiED HamBUEGHS .. Dabe Beahmas DUCK-WINO Gamb Geet Doeeings Whttb-paobd Black Spanish Silvee-spanqled Polahds Black and Sebright Bantams ■ .., Vaeiegated Cambridge Tdekets Rouen and Atlesbubt Ducks ... Toulouse Geese ... Trontispiece. Pacing p. 101 146 „ 108 121 ,, 127 H 131 147 163 180 191 197 PREFACE. With at least half a dozen books upon the subject of Poultry already at the choice of the reader, some apology may be deemed necessary for the publication of yet another. Such our apology is very brief, and rests in the simple fact that a practical treatise — authoritative and comprehensive, yet simple and popular — has yet to be supplied. ~ We are not to the present time aware of any work we could put into the hands of a person totally ignorant of poultry keeping, with the reasonable certainty that its instructions, if followed, would command success. Descriptions of breeds there are in plenty, some of them of great value ; but very little has been written respecting the practical details of even ordinary poultry management ; and with regard to two very important parts of the subject — ^the breeding and rearing of poultry for exhi- bition, and artificial incubation— ^absolutely nothing has yet been published in a connected form. To occupy this field is one object of the following pages ; which are the finiit of a thorough practical experience and knowledge of fowls, and will, we believe, be found a plain and sufficient guide to the merest tyro in any circumstances that are likely to occur to him j whUst even experienced breeders, we hope, may also find hints which may be useful to tnem. Yet, whilst thus paying special attention to practical management, the different breeds have not been overlooked j and Vm PREFACE. of every leading variety, at least, sufficient description has been given to answer every purpose of the fancier. Where we have permission to give them, the eminent names appended to the difiereut chapters will be ample guarantee for the correctness of this portion of our work,* but it is in every case to be under- stood that we do not rely alone upon our own careful study of the best specimens, biit have the highest authority in each breed for every statement made respecting it. It is the more necessary to state this, because we have been compelled in a few cases to dissent from the well-known "Standard of Excellence " — usually most reliable, and hitherto the generally recognised authority on this part of the subject. It only remains to thank those who have aided us,, and placed their valuable experience and knowledge at the service of -the public. Some of these are old friends : others are, or at least were, personal strangers. But in either case we feel plea- sure in recording that, in nearly every instance, any assistance requested" has been accorded as frankly as it was asked, and has frequently led to after intercourse of a most pleasant kind ; and that to the cheerful and kindly aid of the most eminent breeders in the kingdom these pages owe much of whatever value they may have. Kmgsdown, Bristol. SECTION I. GENEEAL MANAGEMENT OF DOMESTIC POULTRY WITH A VIEW TO PROFIT. TO THE READER The pages of this Section are not intended simply to be read and commended ; but the directions given are such as are proper for the circumstances therein referred to, and are the price to be paid for health and eggs. For instance : when it is said that the roosting-house should be cleansed daily, it is meant that it sJiould be done. When it is said that fowls in confinement should have daily fresh vegetable food, it is intended to convey that such food must be regularly given. And so on. Let the reader deal fairly by us and by his poultry. So will the latter deal fairly by him. GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. CHAPTER I. HOUSES AMD RUNS J AND THE APPLIANCES NECESSAKY XO KEEP refG POULTRY WITH SUCCESS. Fowls should not be kept unless proper and regular attention can be given to tbem; and we would strongly urge that this needful attention should be personal. Our own experience has taught us that domestics are rarely to be relied upon in many matters essential both to economy and the well-being of the stock; and, if any objection be made on the score of dignity, we could not only point to high-born ladies who do not think it beneath them to attend to their own fowls, but can aver that even the most menial offices can be performed in any properly-constructed fowl-house without so much as soiling the fingers. If there be children in the J^mily old enough to undertake such matters, they will be both pleased and benefited by ajitending to what will soon become their pets ; if not, the owner must either attend to them himself, or take such oversight as shaU be effectual in securing not only proper care of his birds, but of his own meal and graiiL If he be unable or unwilling to do at least as much as this, he had far better not engage in such an undertaking: at all. The first essential requisite to success in poultry-keeping is a» thoroughly good house for the birds to roost and lay in. This E 2 ♦ GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP FOWLS. does not necessarily imply a large one or a costly : we once knew a young' man who kept fowls most profitably, with only a house of his own construction not more than three feet square, and a run of the same width, under twelve feet long. It means simply that the fowl-house must combine two absolute essentials — be both perfectly weatherproof, and well ventilated. With regard to the first point, it is not only necessary to keep out the rain but also the wind — a matter very seldom attended to as it ought to be, but which has great influence on the health and laying of the inmates. The cheapest material is wood, of which an inch thick will answer very well in any ordinary English climate; but if so built, the boards must either be tongued together, or all the cracks between them care- fiilly caulked by driving in string with a blunt chisel. Care should also be taken that the door fits well, admitting no air except under the bottom; and, in short, every precaution taken to prevent draught. The hole by which the fowls enter, even when its loose trap-door is closed, should admit enough au- to supply the inmates, and the object is to have but this one source of supply, and to keep the fowls out of all direct draught from it. For the roo^ tiles alone are not sufficient, and if employed at all, there should be either boarding or ceil- ing under them ; otherwise all the heat will escape through the numerous interstices, and in winter it will be impossible to keep the house warm. Planks alone make a good roofing. They may either be laid horizontally, one plank overlapping the other, and the whole well tarred two or three times first of all, and every autumn afterwards ; or perpendicularly, fitting close edge to edge, and tarred, then covered with large sheets of brown paper, which should receive two coats of tar more. This last makes a very smooth, weatherproof, and durable roofing, which throws off the water weU. But, on the whole, we prefer board covered with patent felt, which should be tarred once a year. IMPORTANCE OP VENTILATION. In the north of England, a house built of wood, unless arti- ficially warmed, requires some sort of lining. Matting is often used, and answers perfectly for warmth, but unfortunately makes a capital harbour for vermin. If employed at all, it should only be slightly affixed to the walls, and at frequent in- tervals be removed and welLbeaten. Felt is the best material, the strong smell of tar repelling most insects from taking up their residence therein. If a tight brick shed offers, it will, of course, be secured for the poultry habitation. But let all dilapidations be well repaired, VentUation is scarcely ever provided for as it should be, and the want of it is a fruitful source of failure and disease. An ill-ventilated fowl-house miist cause sickly inmates; and such will never repay the proprietor. This great desideratum must, however, as already observed, be secured without exposing the fowls to any direct draught; and for the ordinary detached fowl-houses, the best plan is to have an opening at the highest point of the roof, surmounted by a " lantern " of boards, put together in the well-known fashion of Venetian blinds. A' south or south-east aspect is desirable, where it can be lad ; and to have the house at the back either of a fire-place or a stable is a great advantage in winter ; but we have proved by long experience that both can be successfully dispensed with if only the two essentials are combined, of good ventilation with perfect shelter. We do not approve of too large a house. For half-a-dozen fowls, a very good size is five feet square, and sloping from six to eight feet high. The nests may then be placed on the ground at the back, where any eggs can be readily seen; and one perch will roost all the birds. This perch, unless the breed kept is small, had better not be more than eighteen inches from the ground, and should be about four inches in diameter. A rough pole with the bark on answers best: the claws cling to it 6 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. nicely, and bark is not so hard as planed wood. By far the greater number of perches are much too high and small ; the one fault causing heavy fowls to lame themselves in flying down, and the other producing deformed breastbones in the chickens — an occurrence disgraceful to any poultry-yard. The air at the top of any room or house is, moreover, much more impure than that nearer the floor. Many prefer a movable perch flxed on trestles. In large houses they are useful, but in a smaller they are needless. If the perch be placed at the height indicated, and a little in advance of the front edge of the nests, placed at the back, no hen-ladder wUl be required; and the floor being left quite clear, wUl be cleaned with the greatest ease, while the fowls will feel no draught from the door. Besides the house for roosting and laying, a shed is neces- sary, to which the birds may resort in rainy weather. Should the house, indeed, be very large and have a good window, this is not ahsolutely needed j otherwise it must be provided, and is better separate in any case. If this shed be fenced in with wire, so that the fowls may be strictly confined during wet weather, so much the better ; for next to bad air, wet is by far the most fruitful source, not only of barrenness, but of illness and death in the poultry-yard. If the space available be very limited — say five or six fbet by twelve or sixteen — the whole should be roofed over; when the house will occupy one end of the space, and the rest will form a covered " run." But in this case the shed should be so arranged that swn-light may reach the birds during some part of the day. They not only enjoy it, but without it, although adult fowls may be kept for a time in tolerable health, they droop sooner or later, and it is almost im- possible to rear healthy chickens. Should the range be wider, a shed from six to twenty feet long and four to eight wide may be reared against the walL Next the fowl-house will still, for obvious reasons, be the most CLEANLINESS. 7 oonvenient arrangement, and it is also best fenced in, as before recommended. The whole roof should be in one to look neat^ and should project about a foot beyond the enclosed space, to throw the water well off. To save the roof drippings from splashing in, a gutter-shoot wUl of course be provided, and the wire should be boarded up a foot from the ground. All this being carried out properly, the covered "run" ought at all times to be perfectly dry. The best flooring for the fowl-house is concrete made with strong, fresh-slaked hydraulic lime and pounded ''cUnkers," put dow;n hot, well trodden once a day for a week, and finally smoothed. The process is troublesome, but the result is a floor which is not only very clean in itself, but easily kept so. Trodden earth will also answer very well. The floor of the shed may be the same, but, on the whole, it is preferable there to leave the natural loose earth, which the fowls delight to scratch in. Cleanliness must be attended to. In the house it is easily secured by laying a board under the perch, which can be scraped clean every morning in a moment, and the air the fowls breathe thus kept perfectly pure. Or the droppings may be taken up daily with a small hoe and a housemaid's common dustpan, after which a handful of ashes or sand lightly sprinkled will make the house all it should be. There is another most excellent plan for preserving clean- liness in the roosting-house, for which we are indebted to The Canada Famner, and which is shown in Fig. 1. A broad shelf (a) is fixed at the back of the house, and the perch placed four or five inches above it, a foot from the wall. The nests are conveniently placed on the ground under- neath, and need no top, whilst they are perfectly protected from defilement and are also well shaded, to the great delight of the hen. The sheK is scraped clean every morning with the greatest ease and comfort, on account of its convenient height, 8 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. and slightly sanded afterwards ; whilst the floor of the house is never polluted at all by the roosting birds. The broad shelf has yet another recommendation in the perfect protection it. affords from upward draughts of air. a Broad shelf, eighteen inches high. b Perch, four inches above. • Kests, open at top and in front. The covered " run " should be raked over two or three times a week, and dug over whenever it looks sodden or gives any offensive smell. Even this is not sufficient. Three or four times a year, two or three inches deep — in fact, the whole pol- luted soil — must be removed, and replaced by fresh earth, gravel, or ashes, as the case may be. Under the shed must be constantly kept a heap of dry dust or sifted ashes, for the fowls to roll in and cleanse them- selves in their own peculiar manner, which should be renewed •8 often as it becomes damp or foul from use. If chickens be a part of the intended plan, a separate com- POULTRY IN CONriNEMENT. 9 partment shomld be provided for the sitting hens ; but this will be further treated of in a subsequent chapter. Many ■will wish to know what space is necessary. The "run" for the fowls should certainly be as large as can be afforded ; an extensive range is not only better for their health, but saves both trouble and food, as they will to a great extent forage for themselves. Very few, however, can command this ; and poultry may be kept almost anywhere by bearing in mind the one important point, that the smaller the space in which they are confined, the greater and more constant attention must be bestowed upon the cleanliness of their domain. They decline rapidly in health and produce if kept on foul ground. If daily attention be given to this matter, a covered shed ten or twelve feet long by six feet wide) may be made to suffice for half a dozen fowls without any open run at all. By employing a layer of dry earth as a deodoriser, which is turned over every day and renewed once a week, the National Poultry Company kept for several years such a family in each pen of their large establishment at Bromley. These pens did not exceed the size mentioned, yet the adult fowls at least were in the highest health and condition; and the company managed, with birds thus confined, to take many prizes at first-class shows. Poultry-keeping is, therefore, within the reach of alL The great thing is purity, which must be secured, either by space, or in default of that, by care. Hardy fowls wiU sometimes thrive in spite of draughts, exposure, and scanty food ; but the strongest birds speedily succumb to bad management in this particular, which is perhaps the most frequent cause of failure. It should also be remarked that poultry thus confined will require a different diet to those kept more at Uberty ; but this win be more fiilly explained in a succeeding chapter. If the run be on the limited scale described, dry earth is decidedly the best deodoriser. It is, however, seldom at the command of those who have little space to spare, and sifted 10 GENEKAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. ashes an incli deep, spread over the floor of the whole shed, ■will answer very well. The ashes should be raked every other morning, and renewed at least every fortnight, or oftener if possible. Of course, the number of fowls must be limited . they should not exceed five or six, and unless a second shed of the same size can be allowed, the rearing of chickens should not be attempted. To those who can give up a portion of their garden, the following plan of a poultry-yard can be confidently recom- mended. It represents, with very slight modification, our own present accommodation j and having tested it by experience, we are prepared to say that it is not only more convenient, more simple, and more cheaply erected than any plan on a similar scale we have seen, but, with the addition of a lawn on which the chickens may be cooped, is adapted to rearing in the highest perfection any single variety of either ordinary or "fancy" fowls. The space required in aU is only twenty-five by thirty-five feet. If more can be afforded, give it, by all meansj but we have found this, with very moderate care, amply sufficient, and we believe it will meet the requirements of a larger class of readers than any other we are acquainted with. The plan here given, it will be seen, comprises two distinct houses, sheds, and runs, with a separate compartment for sitting hens. The nests are placed on the ground at the back of the houses, and the perches, as before recommended, a foot in advance of them, and eighteen inches high. The holes by which the fowls enter open into the sheds, which are netted in, so that in wet weather - they can be altogether confined. In dry weather the shed is opened to give them liberty. The fencing should be boarded up a foot high, not only to prevent rain splashing in, but to keep in when necessary young chickens, which would otherwise run out between the meshes. A walk in. front of the sheds should be, gravelled, a,nd the ELEVATION 5 . ^ ■ '." — t-J — t — s 1 '- . 1 TlaT PLAN o SCALE rig. 2. A A Boosting and laying houBCS. a a Nests. B B Fenced-in covered runs. * b Perches. C C Shed and run tor sitting hens. a c aplss for fowla to aater. DD GrasB runs. 12 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP FOWLS. remainder of the open runs laid down in grasB, which, if well rooted first, will bear small fowls upon it for several hours each day, but should be renewed in the spring by sowing when needed. The runs should be enclosed with wire netting, two inches mesh, which , may be conveniently stretched on poles IJ inch square, driven two feet into the ground, and placed five feet ,apart. The height of the fence depends on the breed chosen. Cochins or Brahmas are easily retained within bounds by netting a yard high ; for moderate-sized fowls six feet will do.; whilst to confine Game, Hamburghs, or Bantams, a fence of eight or nine feet will be found necessary. The netting should be simply stretched from post to post, without a rail at the top, as the inmates are then far less likely to attempt flying over. We do not like to see fowls with their wings cut. If their erratic propensities are troublesome, open one wing, and pluck out all the first or flight feathers, usually ten in number. This will efiectually prevent the birds from flying, and as the primary quills are always tucked under the others when not in use, there is no external sign of the operation. The holes by which the fowls enter the houses should be furnished with trap doors, that they may be kept out at pleasure whilst either part is being cleaned. Each house must also have a small window. Having a shed at the side, ventilating lanterns will not be necessary, as the end will be attained by boring a few holes in the wall between the house and shed towards the highest part of the roof. The compartment for the sitting hen may be walled in at the front ox not ; for ourselves, we prefer it open. Her run may also be covered over or not, at pleasure. To have it in the middle, as here shown, we consider most convenient; but in our own case this compartment is at the aide, instead of between the two houses, which we built close together. This was rendered advisable on account of our shed having unavoidably a PLAN OF THE YARD. 13 due easterly exposure ; and by so arranging the premises that each inhabited house should have one adjoining, we ensured to both one comparatively warm side, and thus, in a measure, counteracted the evil. We give this little bit of personal experience in order that the reader may see the way in which varying considerations are to be weighed before a plan is finally determined on. Such a yard possesses many advantages. Two separate runs are almost necessary if the rearing of chickens forms part of the plan of proceeding. It is also in some respects convenient to keep two different breeds, as one may supply the deficiencies of the other; and many persons consider it advisable to separate the cocks and hens, except during the breeding season, believing that stronger chickens are obtained thereby. The need of the separate compartment for the sitting hens is further insisted on hereafter, but it has also other uses; being, when not so employed, often very convenient for the temporary reception of a pen of strange birds, for which there may be no other accommodation. Each run will accommodate from six to ten fowls, according to their size and habits. For those who purpose to engage in wholesale or prize poultry-breeding, more extensive designs will be given here- after; but enough has now been said to enable the intending poultry-keeper to select from the different plans here indicated the one best adapted to his particular situation, or, mayhap, to contrive a better one of his own. We have pointed out the essentials ; and these being provided for, operations can be commenced, and it becomes necessary to determine upon the plan of proceeding. This, however, will be more fully treated of in the next chapter. 14 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. CHAPTER 11. ON IHE SYSTEM OF OPERATIONS, AND THE SELECTION OF STOCK When poultry are kept as a branch of domestic economics, it will be obvious that the system to be pursued should vary according to the extent of accommodation which can be afforded, and to the object sought. Both these considerations should be well weighed before operations are commenced j and the plan then determined upon as best adapted to the circumstances should, as long as those circumstances remain the same, be consistently carried out and adhered to. It very frequently happens that a regular supply of eggs is the sole object in view, and that neither the time, trouble, nor space required to rear chickens with success can well be spared. If, for instance, a covered shed fenced in with wire, as described in the last chapter, with a small house at the end for roosting and laying iu, be the sole accommodation for the fowls, to attempt rea/ring them would be folly ; * and yet they may be kept so as to yield a good return upon their cost and main- tenance. The proper plan in such a case will be to purchase in the spriiig a number of hens proportioned to the size of the run, and none exceeding a year or eighteen months old. A cock is useless ; as hens lay, if there be any difference, rather better without one, and where eggs only are wanted, his food la thrown away. AU these birds, if in good health and condition, will either be already laying, or will commence almost imme- diately ; and if well housed, as in the last chapter, and properly fed, will ensure a constant supply of eggs until the autiifnnal moulting season. Whenever a hen shows any desire to sit, the propensity must of course be checked — not by the * It is not meant to be denied that ohiokens can be reared in such cir- cumstances, and that in good health and to a fair size. We have ourselves done no ■, but it does not pay, and we do not intend to do it again. TOUNQ BIRDS TO BE SELECTED. 15 barbarous expedient of half di'o-wning the poor bird in cold ■water — a process generally as ineffectual as it is cruel, but, having allowed it to sit on the nest for four or five days, by shutting it up in a dark place, with plenty of water, but rather scanty food. The best plan is to invert a small cask, of which the head has been removed, upon three bricks. A hole being bored near the top for ventilation, this will make a capital pen for a " broody " hen, the food and water being placed just under the rim. A few days of such confinement will take away all desire to sit from almost any hens but Cochins, which should not be kept, on that account, under the circumstances we are considering ; and in about a fortnight the fowl, if not older than we have recommended, will begia to lay again. To buy only young and healthy birds is very important. An experienced hand can tell an old fowl at a glance, but it is rather difficult to impart this knowledge to a beginner, for no one sign is infallible^ at least to an uninitiated interpreter. In general, however, it may be said that the legs of a young hen look delicate and smooth, her comb and wattles soft and fresh, and her general outline, even in good condition (unless fattened for the table), rather light and graceftd ; whilst an old one will have rather hard, horny-looking shanks, her comb and wattles look somewhat harder, drier, and more "scurfy," and her figure is well filled out. But any of these indications may be deceptive, and the only advice we can give the reader is, to use his own powers of observation, and try and catch the "o^d loohr He wiU soon do so, and need no further description. Directly these hens stop laying in the autumn, and before they have lost condition by moulting, they should, unless Hamburghs or Brahmas, be either killed or sold ofi", and re- placed by pullets hatched in March or April, which wiU have moulted early. These again, stiU supposing proper food and good housing, will all be producing eggS by November at farthest, and contLaue, more or less, till the February or March 16 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP FOWLS. following. They may then either be disposed of, and replaced as before, which we should ourselves prefer, as they are just in prime condition for the table ; or, as they will not stop laying very long, the best of them may be retained till the autumn, when they must be got rid of.* For if fowls be kept for eggs it is essential to success that every autumn the stock be replaced with pullets hatched early in the spring. By no other means can eggs at this season be relied upon, and the poultry-keeper must remember that it is the vnrvter which determines whether he shall gain: or lose by his stock ; in summer, if only kept moderately clean, hens will pay for themselves treated almost anyhow. The only exception to this rule is in the case of Cochins, Brahmas, or Hamburghs, which will lay through the winter up to their second, or even third year. The stock to be selected, if a pure strain be chosen, are Hamburgh or Spanish ; either, in favourable circumstances, will give a plentiful supply of eggs, and give no trouble on the score of sitting propensities. The Spanish lays five or six very, large eggs a week in spring and summer, but is not a hardy or free-kying breed for winter, and must have a warm aspect and perfect shelter from wind, if the supply is to be kept up. Hamburghs are tolerably hardy, and are capital winter layers .; they also produce more eggs in a yea/r than any other breed, laying almost every day except when moulting, and never wanting to sitj but the eggs are rather small. More than four or five Hamburghs should not be put in a shed, and they must be kept scrupulously clean ; with these conditions they will thrive, but few breeds suffer so much from filth or overcrowding. Brahmas inay also be strongly recommended. As layers, they are in the very first class ; are very tame, and bear confinement well; and the tendency to sit does not • That la, if the greatest amount of profit be the object sought. The, question of " pets," and the pleasure to be derived from them, we are no» oonsidering. PURE BUKEDS BEST. 17 occur often enough to be troublesome, as in tlie case oi Cochins. When there is a good wide range of any kind, nothing will be so profitable as a few Game hens, the black-breasted red variety being best. The hens are as prolific as any breed whatever, and eat very little in proportion ; but they cannot be kept in close confinement on account of their fighting pro- pensities. For ourselves, we prefer pure breeds, or first crosses j for after all is said on the superiority of mongrel fowls, where is the " barn-door " bird that will lay as many eggs as a Brahma or a Hamburgh ! Still, the cost of a good stock wiU stand in the way with many, and has to be taken into consideration j and to those who cannot afibrd " fancy " poultry, it may there- fore be said once for all, that on the whole, equal success may be attained with ordinary or " barn-door " fowls. Care must be taken in the selection. They should be young, fair-sized, sprightly-looking birds, with plump, full breasts, rather short legs, and nice tight-looking plumage, after such a type as shown on page 171 j they ought also to be chosen from a country yard, where their •parents have been well fed. If such be obtained, they will repay the purchaser, and are hand- somer and better every way than inferior birds of the " fancy " class. Of course, this remark does not apply to mere faults of colour. Fowls are often to be met with at a moderate price, which from some irregularity of feather are quite disqualified as show birds, but which possess in perfection all the other merits of the breed to which they belong. Let such be secured and prized by all means ; but let it be also remembered and be- lieved, that nothing pays so wretchedly as to begin " poultry- fancying'' with inferior stock, and that really fine fowls which never had a grandfather are any day preferable to " degenerate descendants from a line of kings." It has been already remarked that the Cochin breeds are C 18 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP FOWLS. excellent layers in winter, but that their invincible propensity to sit, wliich occurs every two months, or even less, is a fatal objection to their being kept by those who do not desire the care of young broods. If, however, the system adopted depend upon home-reared chickens to replenish the stock, one or two Cochin hens may be kept with great advantage, especially if the other fowls are Spanish or Hamburgh. The frequency of their desire to incubate now becomes a recommendation, as the owner can depend upon "a broody hen" at almost any season which may suit his views ; and if always parted with at the age of two years, they will not fail to maintain their deserved character as good winter layers. The number of such hens must depend upon circumstances. If it be only intended to replace from time to time the laying stock, or to hatch the eggs of non-sitting varieties, one or two Cochins will furnish more broods than wiU. be required ; and when their services are no longer needed in this way, the desire to sit must be hindered as already described. In this case the eggs should be set in March or April, that the young pullets may begin to lay early. In proportion to the number of broods desired may the number of Cochins be increased j and if a constant supply of chickens for the table be — as it often is — ^the main end in view, they may form a very considerable portion of the stock, and every hen may be set in turn. Their own eggs, of course, should not be given them if the chickens be for market, unless running with a Dorking, Houdan, or CrSvecoeur cock, either of which crosses produces a gigantic table-fowl of very fair edible qualities. For home use, however. Cochins are not to be despised when killed anywhere under nine months old ; they carry an immense quantity of solid meat ; and if this be more in the leg than could be desired, it must be also remembered that the said leg, though certainly not equal to breast or wing, IS more tender than that of most other breeds. On the whole, however, if a good stock can be afforded. CHOICE OF BREEDS. 19 and one or two broods of chickens yearly can be managed, we should, for domestic use, recommend Dark Brahmas. The light variety is also good, but the dark is the largor fowl, and looks best under confinement. If there be a double run, as described in Chapter I., the finest birds may be kept pure, and their eggs and progeny, when possible, sold at " fancy " prices ; ■whUst the hens which show faults of colour may be kept in the other run with a large coloured Dorking or Crevecoeur cock. From this cross table-fowls may be obtained which "look like young turkeys," and being hardy are easily reared. The flesh may not be quite equal to that of the game fowl — in delicious flavour " the prince of all breeds " — ^but it equals the Dorking, with greater size, and freedom from that very delicate constitution which often renders the latter an unprofitable fowl. Dorkings, notwithstanding, are not to be despised, and will do well if they have a fair-sized run, well gravelled, and free from wet, with a good dry shed to shelter in. If the supply of table poultry be a main point, no breed, except perhaps Houdans, will compare with this, the favourite fowl of the London market. "When of good stock, they may be got up to an amazing size, and the quality of the meat is excellent. They are also most exemplary mothers, and in moderate weather produce a very fair quantity of eggs ; but are not veiy good winter layers, even when hatched early. In this respect they are excelled by the recently-introduced Houdans, which lay very freely, and are also most hardy fowls, whilst in size and quality of flesh they equal the Dorking, whose blood, though perhaps generations back, we believe them to share, as evidenced by the general form and the peculiar fifth toe. "We consider Houdans pre-eminently the breed for the farmer. They will ultimately be bred larger than even Dorkings, which they equal now; and their extreme hardiness, quick growth, and excellent laying, give us a fowl with nearly all the excellences and but little of the faults of the fine old English breed. 2 20 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OP FOWLS. On the whole, therefore, of the pure breeds, we should pronounce Houdans to be the farmer's, and Brahmas the family fowl, crossing the table-chickens from the latter with Dorking or not, according as there were one or two runs to keep them in. If a few eggs daily be the object, our own choice would be four or five spangled Hamburghs, provided there be a moderate run, or even a good-sized shed, and they be kept scrupulously clean and well sheltered from driving wind or rain. If the space be very limited, and economy be im- portant, we would select four or five red-faced Spanish, or, as they are now called, Minorcas ; they lay at least as well as their celebrated white-faced cousins, while they are far hardier in winter, and stand confinement very well ; their price, also, being often very little more than that of common hens. In de- fault of either of these, however, and if all be beyond the means of the speculator, we would undertake to show a satisfactory balance-sheet with any good, lively ordinary fowls. ' Let us, however, repeat again — for nothing is so im- portant — whatever be the breed selected, there must be emery aviumn a proportion, at least, regvlarVy replaced by young birds hatched in the spring of the same year. This is the great secret of success, as far as system is concerned ; and if it be neglected, during winter an empty egg-basket will eat up all the summer's profits, and testify dismally to the improvidence of the owner. CHAPTER III. THE FEEDING AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF ADULT FOWLS. A JUDICIOUS system of feeding is very essential to the well- being of poultry, and has, of course, more direct influence upon the profit or loss than any of the circumstances — ^though ec^ually important — which we have hitherto enumerated. We Poultry usually overpes. Si shall, therefore, endeavour to give the subject a full, practical conBideration. The object is to give the quantity and quality of food which will produce the greatest amount of flesh and eggs ; and if it bo attained, the domestic fowl is unquestionably the most profit- able of all live stock. But the problem is rather a nice one. for there ia no "mistake on the right side" here. A fat hen is not only subject to many diseases, but ceases to lay, or nearly so, and becomes a mere drag on the concern ; while a pampered male bird is lazy and useless at best, and very probably, when the proprietor most requires his services, may be attacked by apoplexy and drop down dead. That fowls cannot be remunerative if starved need scarcely be proved, ^x 7iihilo nihil JU ; and the almost daily production of an article so rich in nitrogen as an egg — the very essence of animal nourishment — must demand an ample and regular supply of adequate food. We say no more upon this point, knowing that the common mistake of nearly all amateur poultry -keepers is upon the other side — ^that of over-feeding. The usual plan, where fowls are regularly fed at all, appears to be to give the birds at each meal as much barley or oats as they will eat ; and this being done, the owner prides himself upon Ms liberality, and insists that his at least aye properly fed. Yet both in quantity and quality is he mistaken. Grain will do for the regular meals of fowls,'Whioh live on a farm, or have any other extensive range where they can provide other food for themselves, have abundant exercise, and their digestive organs are kept in vigorous action. But poultry kept in con- finement on such a diet wiQ not thrive. Their plumage, after a while, begins to fall ofi", their bowels become afiiected, and they lose greatly in condition; and though in summer their eggs may possibly repay the food expended, it will be almost impossible to obtain any in winter, when they are most valuable. Even those who profess to correct such errors are not always 23 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. safe guides. We have before us a work that stands high both in character and price, and is in many respects really valuable, in which, just after a caution against overfeeding, the editor gives five pounds of barley meal, ten pounds of potatoes, seven pounds of oats, three pounds of rice boiled, and three pounds of scalded bran, as a week's allowance for five hens and a cook — "of the larger kinds" it is true. Now, at the lowest ordinary prices the cost of such a scale would amount to, at least, £4 4s. In the course of twelve months ; and taking eggs at the high average of a penny each all the year through, every one of the five hens must lay, at least, 200 eggs to repay the mere cost of their subsistence. When we say that 150 eggs per annum is as much as can be obtained from nine hens out of ten, it will be seen at once that poultry could not be made profitable did they consume so enormously; and, in point of fact, we had the curiosity to try this dietary upon six fowls " of the larger kinds," and found it rather more than double what was amply sufficient. The fact is, aU fixed scales are delusive. Not only would Cochins or Crevecoeurs eat twice as much as many other sorts ; but different fowls of the same breed often have very difierent measures of capacity, and even the same hen will eat nearly twice as much while in active laying as when her egg-organs are unproductive, The one simple rule with adult fowls , is, to give them as much as they will eat eagerly, and no more ; directly they begin to feed with apparent indifference, or cease to run when the food is thrown at a little distance, the supply should be stopped. In a state of nature, they have to seek far and wide for the scanty morsels which form their subsistence ; and the Creator never intended that they, any more than human beings, should, eat till they can literally eat no more. It. follows, from this rule, that food should never be left on the ground. If such a slovenly practice be permitted, much of what IMPORTANCE OP CORKEOT FEEDING. 23 is eaten will be wasted, and a great deal will never be eaten at all;. for fowls are dainty in their way, and unless at starvation point always refuse sour or sodden food. The number of meals per day best . consistent with real economy will vary from two to three, according to the size of the run. If it be of moderate exteut, so that they can, in any degree, forage for themselves, two are quite sufficient, at least in summer, and should be given early in the morning, and the last thing before the birds go to roost. In any case, these will be the principal meals ; but when the fowls are kept in con- finement, they will require, in addition, a soamiy feed at mid-day. The first feeding should consist of sofi food of some kind. The birds have passed a whole night since they were last fed ; and it is important, especially in cold weather, that a fresh supply should as soon as possible be got into the system, and not merely into the crop. But if grain be given, it has to be ground in the poor bird's gizzard before it can be digested ; and on a cold winter's morning the delay is anything but beneficial. But for the very same reason, at the evening meal grain forms the best food which can be supplied ; it is digested slowly, and during the long cold nights affords support and warmth to the fowls. A great deal depends upon this system of feeding, which we are aware is opposed to the practice of many, who give grain for the breakfast, and meal, if at all, at night. We believe such a system to be usually adopted from indolence ; it is easier to throw down dry giuin in a winter's morning than to properly prepare a feed of meal,, which is accordingly given at night instead. Fowls so treated, however, are much more subject to roup and other diseases caused by inclement weather tlian those fed upon the system we recommend — a system not only in accordance with theory and our own experience, but with that of the most successfol breeders. Let the sceptical 24 iSENEtlAL MANAGEMENI' OP FOWLS. reader make one simple, experiment. Give the fowls a feed of meal, say at five o'clock in the evening ; at twelve visit the roosts, and feel the crops of the poor birds. All will be empty ; the gizzard has nothing to act upon, and the food speedily disappears, leaving with an empty stomach, to cope with the hng cold hours before dawn, the most hungry and incessant feeder of all God's creatures ; but if the last feed has been grain, the crop will still be found partially full, and the birds will awake in the morning hearty, strengthened, and refreshed. "With respect to the morning meal of pultaceous food, when only a few fowls are kept, to supply eggs for a moderate family, this may be provided almost for nothing by boiling daily the potato peelings tUl soft, and mashing them up with enough bran, slightly scalded, to make a tolerably stiff and dry paste. There will be more than sufficient of this if the fowls tept do not exceed one for each member of the household ; and as the peelings cost nothing, and the bran very little, one half the food is provided at a merely nominal expense, while no better could be given. A little salt should always be added, and in winter a slight seasoning of pepper will tend to keep the hens in good health and laying. This food may be mixed boiling hot over night, and covered with a cloth, or be put in the oven ; in either case it will remain warm till morning — the condition in which it should always be given in cold weather. If a tolerable stock of poultry be kept, such a source of supply will be obviously inadequate j and in purchasing the food there is much variety to choose from. Small or " pig " potatoes may be bought at a low price and similarly treated ; or barley-meal may be mixed with hot water; or an equal mixture of meal and " sharps," or of Indian meal and bran ; either of these make a capital food. Or, if offered on reasonable terms, a cart-load of swede or other turnips, or mangel-wurtzel, may be piurchased ; and when boiled and mashed with meal or. ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS FOODS. 25 " sharps," we believe forms the very heat soft food a fowl can have, especially for Dorkings ; but they cannot everywhere be obtained at a cheap rate, and the buyer must study the local market. A change of food, at times, will be beneficial, and in making it the poultry-keeper should be guided by the season. When the weather is warm, and the production of eggs abundant, the food should abound in nitrogenous or flesh- forming material, and not contain too much starch or oil, both of which, being carbonaceous, have warmth-giving and fattening properties; but when the cold weather approaches, and the eggs even of good winter layers are fewer than in summer, less of nitrogenous and more of carbonaceous food will be needed. The following table has been often copied since its first publica- tion in the " Poultry Diary ; " but its practical usefulness is so obvious that we make no apology for giving it here, with some modification to make the proportion of warmth-giving to flesh- forming ingredients more plain. Mesh-forming Food. ■Warmth-giTing' Bone-making Food. Husk or Fibre. ■Water. 100 lbs. of Gluten, &c Fat or Oil. Stoioh.&o. DUneral Substance. Oats 15 18 18 12 11 11 7 26 44 6 6 6 3 2 8 A trace. 2 3 47 68 53 70 60 65 80 48 5 2 2 5 2 2 1 k. trace 2 * 20 2 4 1 14 5 8 10 Oatmeal Middlings or fine Sharps Wheat 9 14 12 Barley 11 Indian Com... Rice 10 13 Beans & Peas Millc 15 86J To show the practical use of this table, it may be observed that whilst "sharps" or "middlings," from its flesh-forming material, is one of the best summer ingredients, in winter it may be advantageous to change it for a portion of Indian meal. 26 GEUDEAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. It is, however, necessary to avoid giving too great a proportion of maize, either as meal or corn, or the effect will be a useless and prejudicial fattening from the large quantity of oil it contains ; it is best mixed with barley or bean-meal, and is then a most Bconomical and useful food. Potatoes, also, from the large proportion of starch contained in them, are not good unmixed as a regular diet for poultry; but mixed with bran or meal will be found most conducive to condition and laying. In mixing soft food, there is one general rule always to be observed : it must be mixed rather d/ry, so that it will break if thrown upon the ground. There should never be enough water to cause the food to glisten in the light, or to make a sticky porridgy mass, which clings round the beaks of the fowls and gives them infinite annoyance, besides often causing diarrhoea. If the weather be dry, and the birds are fed in a hard gravelled yard, the food is just as well, or better, thrown on the ground. If they are fed in the shed, however, it is best to use an oblong dish of zinc, or, preferably, earthenware, Kg. 3. such as represented in Fig. 3, The trough or dish must, however, be protected, or the fowls wiU walk upon it, scratch earth into it, and waste a large portion ; and this is best prevented, by hav- ing a loose curved cover made of tin and wire, as shown in Fig. 4, which, when placed on the ground over the dish, will effectually pre vent the fowls having anything to do with the food except to eat it, '' ' which they are quite at liberty to do through the perpendicular wires, two and a-half inches apart. Many experienced poultry-keepers prefer to drive the wires into the ground, leaving them six inches high; the trough is then put behind them, and a board laid over, leaning ANIMAL FOOD NECESSARY. 27 on the top of the wirea. The effect of such a plan is pre- cisely similar as regards the protection of the food, and its only disadvantage is, that the wires being always in the ground rather hinder the sweeping of the shed. For this reason we contrived the abo^° cover, and consider it the best, as it is certainly the most convenient plan. If the fowls have a field to run in they will require no further feeding till their evening meal of grain. Taking it altogether, no grain is more useful or economical than barley, and in summer this may be occasionally changed with oats ; in winter, for the reasons already given, Indian com may be given every second or third day with advantage. Buckwheat is, chemically, almost identical in composition with barley, but it certainly has a stimulating effect on the production of eggs, and it is a pity it cannot be more frequently obtained at a cheap rate. We never omit purchasing a sack of this grain when we can, and have a strong opinion that the enormous production of eggs and fowls in France is to some extent con- nected with the almost universal use of buckwheat by French poultry-keepers. Wheat is generally too dear to be employed, unless damaged, and if the damage be great it had better not be meddled with ; but if only slightly injured, or if a good sample be offered of light " tail " wheat, as it is called, it is a most valuable food, both for chickens and' fowls. " Sweepings " sometimes contain poisonous substances ; are invariably dearer, weight for weight, than sound grain; and should never be seen in a poultry-yard. The mid-day meal of penned-up fowls should be only a scanty one, and may consist either of soft food or grain, aa most convenient — meal preferably in cold weather. The regular and substantial diet is now provided for, but will not alone keep the fowls in good health and laying. They are omnivorous in their natural state, and require some portion of animal food On a wide range they will provide this for 28 GENERAIi MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS themselves, and in such an establishment as figured at page 11, the scraps of the dinner- t-able will be quite sufficient ; but if the number kept be large, with only limited accommodation, it will be necessary to buy erery week a few pennyworth of bullocks' liver, which may be boiled, chopped fine, and mixed in their food, the broth being used instead of water in mixing ; these little tit-bits will be eagerly picked out and enjoyed. A very little is all that is necessary, and need not be given more than three times a week. If fowls be much over-fed with this kind of food the quills of the feathers become more or less charged with blood, which the birds in time perceive, and almost in- variably peck at each other's plumage till they leave the skin quite bare. It is also necessary to give a caution against the use of greaves, so much recommended, for obvious reasons, by the vendors. When fowls are habitually fed upon this article their feathers speedily become disarranged and fall off, and when killed the flavoui', to any ordinary palate, is disgusting. There is yet another most important article of diet, without which it is absolutely impossible to keep fowls in health. We refer to an ample and daily supply of green or fresh vegetable food. It is not perhaps too much to say, that the omission of this is the proximate cause of nearly half the deaths where fowls are kept in confinement ; whilst with it, our other direc- tions having been observed, they may be kept in health for a long time in a pen only a few feet square. It was to provide this that we recommended the open yards, in page 11, to be laid down in grass — ^the very best green food for poultry; and a run of even an hour daily on such a grass plot, supposing the shed to be dry and clean, will keep them in vigorous health, and not be more than the grass will bear. But if a shed only be available, fresh vegetables must be thrown in daily. Any- thing will do. A good plan is to mince up cabbage-leaves or other refuse vegetables, and mix pretty freely with the soft food ; or the whole leaves may be thrown down for the fowla FRESH WATER. 29 to devour J or a few turnips may be minced up daily, and Bcattered like grain, or simply cut in two and thrown into the run ; or if it can be got, a large sod of fresh-cut turf thrown to the fowls will be better than all. But something they must have every day, or nearly so, otherwise their bowels sooner or later become disordered, their feathers look dirty, and their combs lose that beautiful bright red colour which will always accompany really good health and condition, and testifies pleasantly to abundance of eggs. The water vessel must be filled fresh every day at least, and so arranged that the birds cannot scratch dirt into it, or make it foul. The ordinary poultry-fountain is too well known to need description, but a rather better form than is usually made is shown in Fig. 5. The advantages of such a construction are two : the top being open, and fitted with a cork, the state of the interior can be examined, and the vessel well sluiced through to remove the green slime which always coUeots by degrees, and is very preju- dicial to health ; and the trough being sUghily raised from the ground, instead of upon it, the water is less easily fouled. But either form, if placed with the ^' ' trough towwrds the wall, at a few inches distance from it, will keep the water clean very weU. Some experienced breeders prefer shallow pans ; but if these be adopted they must be either put behind rails, with a board over, or protected by a cover, in the same way as the feeding troughs already described. Fowls must never be left without water. During a frost, therefore, the fountain should be emptied every night, or there wiU be trouble next morning. Care must always be taken also that snow is not allowed to fall into the drinking vesseL The 30 GENERAI, MAIfAGEMENT OP FOWLS. reason has puzzled wiser heads than ours ; but it is 9, fact, that any real quantity of snow-water seems to reduce both fowls and birds to mere skeletons. It is well in winter to add to the water a few drops of a solution of sulphate of iron (green vitriol), just enough to give a slight mineral taste. This will, in a great measure, guard against roup, and act as a bracing tonic generally. The rusty appearance the water will assume is quite immaterial. The best plan, perhaps, is to keep a large bottle of the celebrated " Douglas* mixture," respecting which we can speak with un- qualified approval, as a most valuable addition to the drink in cold weather of both fowls and chickens. It consists of half a pound of sulphate of iron and one ounce of sulphuric acid dis- solved in two gallons of water ; and is to be added in the proportion of a tea-spoonful to each pint of water in the fountain. Whilst the fowls are moulting, the above mixture, or a little sulphate of iron, should always be used ; it will assist them greatly through this, the most critical period of the whole year. A little hemp-seed should also be given every day at this season, at least to all fowls of value ; and with these aids, and a little pepper on their food, with perhaps a little extra meat, or even a little ale during the few weeks the process lasts, there will rarely be any lost. ^ With hardy kinds and good shelter such precautions are scarcely necessary, but they cost little, and have their effect also on the early re- commencement of laying. In addition to their regular food it will be needful that the fowls have a supply of livie, in some shape or other, to form the sheila of their eggs. Old mortar pounded is excellent ; so are oyster-shells well burnt in the fire and pulverised ; of the latter they are very fond, and it is an excellent plan to keep * So Called because published in the FielA newspaper by Mr. John Douglas, then superintending the Wolseley Aviaries. VALUE OP POULTRT MANURE. 31 a " tree-satioer " full of it in their yard. If this matter has been neglected, and soft shell-less eggs have resulted, the quickest way of getting matters right again is to add a little lime to the drinking water. We shall conclude this chapter with a few further remarks respecting general management. With regard to the nests, they may be of any form, but are best upon the ground. A long box may be employed, divided by partitions into separate compartmepts ; or separate laying- boxes may be used, which is preferable, as more easily cleaned. Many like baskets, made flat on one side, and hung to a nail in the wall ; these should be of wire, and then cannot harbour vermin — the great plague of fowls. The straw should be broken and beaten till it is quite soft, and changed as often as there is any foul or musty smeU. If the nests are offensive the hens will often drop their eggs, quite perfect, upon the ground rather than resort to them. Cleanliness in the house and run has already been insisted upon, and is only again alluded to on account of the value of the manure. This, collected daily, should be put in any con- venient receptacle where it can be kept dry, and either used in the garden, if there is one, or sold. It pays best to use it where possible ; it should always be mixed with earth, being very strong, and is especially valuable for all plants of the cabbage kind ; it is also excellent for growing strawberries, or indeed almost anything if sufficiently diluted. If there be no possibility of so tising it, it is worth at least seven shillings per cwt. to sell, and is greatly valued by all nurserymen and gardeners who know its value ; but there is sometimes difficulty in finding those who do, and getting a fair price. The lowest price we ever knew offered, however, was three shillings per cwt At seven shillings (which we believe to be about a fail value, compared with that of guano, on account of the moisture contained) we consider the value of the manure equal to fuUy^ 32 GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. one-fifth— perhaps one-fourth would be nearer the mark— of the total profit from the fowls. It is, therefore, an item too important to be neglected. Where a considerable number of fowls are killed annually the feathers also become of value, and should be preserved. They are very easily dressed at home. Strip the plumage from the quills of the larger feathers, and mix with the small ones, putting the whole loosely in paper bags, which should be hung up in the kitchen, or some other warm place, for a few days to dry. Then let the bags be baked three or four times, for half an hour each time, in a cool oven, drying for two days between each baking, and the process will be completed. Less trouble than this will do, and is often made'to suffice ; but the feathers are inferior in crispness to those so treated, and may occasionally- become ofiensive. Eggs should be collected regularly, if possible twice every day ; and if any chickens are to be reared from the home stock, the owner or attendant should learn to recognise the egg o/ each particular hen. There is no difficulty in this, even with a considerable number — nearly every egg, to the accustomed eye, has a well-marked individual character; and if there be any hens of value, it may save much disappointment in the character of the brood to know the parentage of those seilected for hatching. Before concluding, it may be expected that something deiinite should be said respecting the actual profit of what may be called domestic poultry-keeping. It is extremely difficult to make any such statement, so much depends upon the price of food, upon the management, selection of stock, and value of eggs. But in general we have found the average cost of fowls, when properly fed, to be about Id. per week each for ordinary sorts, and not exceeding IJd. per week for the larger breeds; when the cost is more we should suspect waste. A good ordinary hen ought to lay 120 eggs in a year, and if good laying IMPORTANCE OF SYSTEM. .33 troeds are selected, such as we have named in Chapter II., there ought to be an average of fully 150, not reckoning the cook, whilst Game or Hamburghs will exceed 200 per annum. Of course, good management is supposed, and a regular renewal of young stock, as already insisted upon. For domestic purposes eggs ought to be valued at the price, of new-laid, and from these data each can make his own calculation. The value of the manure, when it can be sold or used, we consider is about 9d. to Is. per annum for each fowL Finally, let the whole undertaking — ^large or small — be con- ducted as a real matter of business. If more than three or four hens are kept, buy the food wholesale, and in the best market ; let the grain be purchased a sack at a time — potatoes by the cart-load or hundred-weight, and so on. Let a fair and strict account be kept of the whole concern. The scraps of the house may be thrown in, and the cost of the original stock, and of their habitations, may be kept separate, and reckoned as capital invested ; but let everything afterwards for which cash is paid be rigorously set down, and on the other side, with equal strictness, let every egg or chicken eaten or sold be also valued and recorded. This is of great importance. The young beginner may, perhaps, manage his laying-stock well, but suc- ceed badly with his chickens (though not, we hope, if he be a reader of this book), or vice versa ; and it is no small matter in poultay-keeping, as in any other mercantile concern, to be able to see from recorded £icts where has been the profit or where the loss. The discovery will lead to reflection ; and the waste^. neglect, or other defective management being amended, the hitherto &nlty department will also contribute its quota to the general weaL 34 OEKEfiAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. CHAPTER IV. INCUBATION. Much disappointment in the hatching and rearing of young broods would be prevented were more care taken that the eggs selected for setting were of good quality — ^not only likely to be fertile, but the produce of strong and hardy birds. This re- mark applies to common barn-door poultry quite as much as to , the pure breeds. A friend recently complained to us, that out of a dozen eggs only four or five had hatched j and on inquiry, we found that the sitting had been procured from an inn-yard, where, to our own knowledge, only one cock was running with about twenty hens, from which of course no better result could be expected. When the eggs have to be procured from else- where, therefore, whatever be the class of fowls required, it should first of all be ascertaiaed that there is at least one cock to every, six or eight hens, and that he be a strong and lively bird ; and next, that the fowls be not only of the kind desired, but that they are well fed and taken care of. From scraggy, half-starved birds it is impossible to rear a large brood, as the greater number eveli of those hatched will die in infancy. It only remains to ensure that the eggs be fresh, and a successfiil hatchiag may be anticipated. With regard to this latter point, eggs have been known to hatch when two months old, or even more; but we would never ourselves set, from choice, any egg which had been laid more than a fortnight ; and after a month, or less, it is useless trouble. Fresh eggs, if all be well, hatch out in good timej and the chicks are strong and lively ; the stale ones always hatch last, being perhaps as much as two days later than new-laid, and the chickens are often too weak to break the shell. We have also invariably noticed, when compelled to take a portion of Stale eggs to make up a sitting, that even when such eggs have SELECTION OF G008. 35 hatched, the subsequeut deaths have principally occurred in this portion of the brood ; but that if none of the eggs were more than four or five days old, they not only hatched nearly every one, and within an hour or two of each other, but the losses in any ordinary season were very few. When the eggs are from the home stock, their quality should, of course, be above suspicion. It is scarcely necessary to say, that in order to ensure this, every egg before storing should have legibly written upon it in pencil the date on which it was laid. Eggs intended for setting are best kept in bran, the large end downward, and should never be exposed to concussion. Another very good plan is to have a large board pierced with a number of round holes in regular rows to receive the eggs. Hundreds of years ago it was thought that the sex of eggs could be distinguished by the shape — the cocks being pro- duced &om those of elongated shape, and hens from the short or round. Others have pretended to discern the future sex firom the position of the air-bubble at the large end. We need scarcely say, that these and every other nostrum have, hundreds of times, been proved to be erroneous. There is not a breeder of prize poultry in England who would not gladly give twenty pounds for the coveted knowledge, and thenceforth breed no more cockerels than he really wanted ; but the secret has never been discovered yet, and it is even impossible to tell before the egg has been sat upon a short time whether it has been fecundated. We have, in a previous chapter, already mentioned that the sitting hens ought to have a separate shed and run provided for them, in order that the other hens may not occupy their nests during' absence, or they themselves go back to the wrong ones, as they will often do if allowed to sit in the fowl-house. Even in a very small domestic establishment we strongly tecommend that the small additional space requisite be devoted to thit S 2 36 GENERAL MASAGEMENT OP FOWLS. purpose, for all our experience has proved that, whatever suc- cess may be obtained otherwise by constant care and watchful- ness, it is never so great as when the sitter can be shut into a separate run, and be entirely unmolested. An extensive run is neither necessary nor desirable, as it only entices the birds to wander, whereas, in a limited space, they will go back to their nests as soon as their wants are satisfied. A shed five feet square, with a run the same width for ten feet out in front, is quite sufficient for three hens. If the hen rnvst be set on the ordinary nest in the fowl- house, unless she can be watched every day to see that all goes right, it is best to take her off at a regular time every morning, and after seeing to her wants and due return, to shut her in so that she cannot be annoyed. She should be lifted by taking hold under the wings, gently raising them first to see that no eggs are enclosed. Very fair success may be attained by this method of management, which is obviously almost imperative in very large establishments, where numerous hens must be sitting at one time ; but where such large numbers do not allow of a special poultry attendant it is rather troublesome, and on an average there wiU be a chicken or two less than if the hens can be put quite apart, where they need neither be (matched nor interfered with. Since we adopted this plan we have, from good eggs, always tiatched at least nine out of twelve, and generally more; and have had no trouble nor anxiety till the broods were actually hatched, which is any- thing but the case on the other system. With respect to the arrangement of the hatching ma, it should, if possible, be in sight of the other fowls, as it will keep the sitter from becoming strange to her companions, and pre- vent an otherwise inevitable fight on her restoration, to the possible damage of the brood. We prefer ourselves, as stated in the first chapter, a shed five feet wide and five deep, open in front to a small gravel or grass run. Under the shed must be, CHOICE OF THE HElf 37 besides the nests, a good-sized shallow box of sand, dry earth or fine coal ashes, for the hen to cleanse herself in, which she specially needs at this time; and food and water must be always ready for her. "With these precautions the hen may and should in nearly every case, with the exceptions presently mentioned, be left entirely to herself. There are, however, some birds which, if not removed, would starve upon theii nests sooner than leave them; and therefore if the hen has not been off for two or three days (we would test her for that time first), we should certainly remove the poor thing for her own preservation. To feed upon the nest is a cruel practice, which has crippled many a fowl for life, and cannot be too strongly condemned. Of all mothers we prefer Cochins or Brahmas. Their abundant " fluff" and feathering is of inestimable advantage to the young chicks, and their tame and gentle disposition makes them submit to any amount of handling or manage- ment with great docility. Cochins certainly appear clumsy with their feet, but we have never found more chickens actually trodden upon by them than with any other breed. Many complain that they leave their chickens too soon, but we have not found it so ourselves. If they are kept cooped instead of being set at liberty they will brood their chickens for at least two months, even till they have laid a second batch of eggs and desire to sit again ; and by that time any brood is able to do without a mother's care. With regard to Brahmas as mothers, they have a peculiarity we never observed in any other fowl, and have never seen noticed in any work on poultry — they actually appear to look behind them when moving, lest they should tread upon their little ones. Dorkings, also, are exemplary mothers, and go with their chickens a long time, which recommends them, strongly for very early broods. And iastly, a Game hen has qualities which often make her most valuable. She is not only exemplary in her cai'e, and a super* 38 GBarERAL MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. excellent forager for ier young brood, but wiU defend them to the last gasp, and render a good account of the most deter- mined cat that ever existed; indeed, we would almost defy any single creature whatever, quadruped or otherwise, to steal a chick in daylight from a well-bred Game hen. But whatever be the hen chosen, she should be well feathered, moderately short-legged, and tolerably tame. Very high authority* has affirmed that only mature hens should be allowed to sit, and that puUets are not to be trusted ; but our own experience and that of very many large breeders does not confirm this. We have constantly set pullets, and never had any more reason to complain of them than of older birds. The nests may be arranged under the shed any way so that no one can see into them, with the one proviso that they be actually upon the ground. Chicks thus obtained always show more constitution than those hatched on a wooden bottom at a higher level. This holds good even at all times of the year. We are aware that eminent authorities who recommend ground- nests in summer, prefer a warm, wooden box in winter for the sake of the hen ; but she will rarely suffer. The heat of her body whilst sit- ting is so great that a cool situation seems grateful to her — at least, a hen set on the ground rarely forsakes her liest, which is otherwise no uncommon case. We knew of a hen which, during the month of January, made her nest upon the top of '^' ■ a rock in one of the highest and most exposed situations in the Peak of Derbyshire, and brought a large brood of strong chickens into the yard. It is only neces- sary the birds should be protected from wind and rain, in order to avoid rheumatism ; and this is most eflFectually done by employing for the nest a tight wooden box, like Fig. 6, open at * Mrs. FergiiBBon Blair. IMPORTANCE OP MOISTURE. 39 the bottom^ and also in front, with the exception of a strip three inches high to contain the straw. Let one of these boxes be placed in the back corner of the shed, touching the side, the front being turned to the back wall, and about nine inches from it; and the hen will be in the strictest privacy, will be both perfectly sheltered and kept cool, and wiU never mistake her own nest for the one which may be placed in the other comer. If a third must be made room for, let her nest be placed the same distance from the wall midway between the others, and like them, with the front of the nest to the back of the shed. There will then be still nearly a foot between each two nests for the birds to pass. A damp situation is best for the sitting shed, and will ensure good hatching in hot weather, when perhaps all the neighbours are complaining that their chicks are dead in the shells. Attempting to keep the nest and eggs dry has ruined many a brood. It is not so iu nature ; every morning the hen leaves her nest, and has to seek her precarious meal through the long, wet grass, which drenches her as if she had been ducked in a pond. "With this saturated breast she returns, and the eggs are duly moistened. But if the nest be dry, the hen be kept dry, and the weather happen to be hot and dry also, the moisture within the egg itself becomes dried to the consistency of glue, and the poor little chick, being unable to Ttiove round within the shell, cannot fracture it, and perishes. Such a mis- hap will not happen if the ground under the nest be damp and cooL AH that is necessary in such a case is to scrape a slight hollow in the bare earth, place the nest-box, already described, over it, and put in a moderate quantity of straw cut into two- inch lengths ; or, still better, some fresh- cut damp grass may ba put in first, and the straw over. Shape the straw also into & very tlighi, hollow, and the nest is made ; but care must be taken to well fill up the corners of the box, or the eggs may be rolled into them and get addled. Some prefer to put in first s 40 GENERAL MANAGEMEIfT OF FOWLS. fresh turf ; but if the nest be on the bare ground, as we recom- mend, this is useless. In any case, the straw should be cut into short lengths for a hatching nest, and the neglect of this pre- caution is the most frequent cause of breakage ; the hen, during her twenty-four hours' stay, gets her claws entangled in the long straws, and on leaving for her daily meal is very likely to drag one or two with her, fracturing one or more eggs, or even jerking them quite out of the nest. Should such a mishap occur (and the nest should be examined every two or three days, when the hen is absent, to ascertain), the eggs musn be removed, and clean straw substituted, and every sound egg at all soiled by the broken one be washed with a sponge and warm water, gently but quickly drying after with a cloth. The hen, if very dirty, should also have her breast cleansed, and the whole replaced immediately, that the eggs may not be chUled. A moderate hatch may still be expected, though the number of chicks is always more or less reduced by an accident of this kind. If, however, the cleansing be neglected for more than a couple of days after a breakage, or less at the latter period of incubation, probably not a single chick will be obtained ; whether from the pores of the shell being stopped by the viscid matter, or from the noxious smell of the putrefying egg, it is not very material to inquire. Every egg shotdd also be marked quite round with ink or pencil, so that if any be subsequently laid in the nest they may be at once detected and removed. Hens will sometimes lay several eggs after beginning to sit. In ordinary winters the hen should be set as in summer, giving her, however, rather more straw. Only in severe frost should she be brought into the house j and in that case, or in summer if the ground be very dry, it will be necessary during the last half of the hatching period to sprinkle the eggs slightly with water every day while she is off. This is done best by TESTING THE EGGS. 41 dipping a small brush in tepid water j and is always necessary to success, in dry -weather at least, when a hen is set in a box at a distance from the ground, as is the case in large sitting houses. But, where it can be had, we much prefer the natural moisture of a damp soil : it never fails, and avoids going near the hen. When the number of eggs set yearly is considerable, it is worth while to withdraw the unfertile ones at an early period. About the eighth day let the hen be removed by candle- light, and each egg be held between the eye and the light, in the manner repre- sented by Fig. 7. If the egg be fertile, it will appear opaque, or dark all over, ex- sept, perhaps, a small portion towards the top ; but if it be nn- impregnated, it will be still translucent, the light passing through it almost as if new laid. Afber some experience the eggs can be distin- guished at an earlier period, and a practised hand can tell the unfertile eggs even at the fourth day. Should the number withdrawn be considerable, four batches set the same day may be given to three hens, or even two, and the remainder given fresh eggs ; and if not, the fertile eggs will get more heat, and the brood come out all the stronger. The sterile eggs are also worth saving, as they are quite good enough fcr cooking Fig. 7. 42 GENERAIi MANAGEMENT OF FOWLS. purposes, and quite as fresh even for boiling as nine-tenths of the Irish eggs constantly used for that purpose. We do not, however, recommend this plan when the sitters are few and the eggs from the home stock, as in that case their quality should be known, and sterility very rare. It is a common mistake to set too many eggs. In summer, a large hen may have thirteen, or a Cochin fifteen of her own ; but in early spring eleven are quite enough. "We have not only to consider how many chickens the hen can hatch, but how many she can cover when they are partly grown. If a hen be set in January, she should not have jnore than seven or eight eggs, or the poor little things, as soon as they begin to get large, wiU have no shelter, and soon die oS. It is far better to hatch only six; and rear five, or may be all, to health and vigour, than to hatch ten and only probably rear three puny little creatures, good for nothing but to make broth. In April and May broods, such a limitation is not needed ; but even then eleven or twelve chickens are quite as many as a large, well-feathered hen can properly nourish, and the eggs should only be one or two in excess of that number. A good hen will not remain more than half an hour away from her nest, unless she has been deprived of a dust-bath, and 80 become infested with Uce, which sometimes causes hens thua neglected to forsake their eggs altogether. When a hen at the proper time shows no disposition to return, she should be quietly driven towards her nest ; if she be caught, and replaced by hand, she is often so frightened and excited as to break the eggs. A longer absence is not, however, necessarily &tal to the brood. We have had hens repeatedly absent more than an hour, which still hatched seven or eight chicks ; and on one occasion a hen sitting in the fowl-house returned to the wrong nest, and was absent from her own more than five hours. We of course conside;:ed all chances of hatching at an end ; but as the hen had been sitting a fortnight, concluded \o let her finish ASSISTING THE CHICKENS. 43 her time, and she hatched five chickens. We have heard of a few hatching even after nine hours' absence, and therefore would never, on account of such an occurrence, abandon valuable eggs without a trial. The chickens break the shell at the end of the twenty-first day, on an average ; but if the eggs are new-laid, it will often lessen the time by as much as five or six hours, while stale eggs are always more or less behind. "We never ourselves now attempt to assist a chick from the shelL If the eggs were fresh, and proper care has been taken to preserve moisture during incubation, no assistance is ever needed. To fuss about the nest frets the hen exceedingly ; and we have always found that even where the poor little creature survived at the time, it never lived to maturity. Should the reader attempt such assistance, in cases where an egg has been long "chipped," and no further progress made, let the sheU be cracked gently all round, without tearing the inside membrane ; if al after the first day or two, or indeed from the day they break the shell. In cold weather also, a little sulphate of iron, or " Douglas mixture " should always be added to the water, and a little bread soaked in ale will be found beneficial. The warm milk is excellent, and is much better than the plan recom- mended by many of giving custard ; the latter is too pamper- ing, and after it chickens will sometimes refuse plain whole- some food. For weakly chickens, however, it is most strength- ing to mix up a raw egg with their oatmeaL Above all, unless they have a good run on grass, the supply of green food must be unlimited. For prize chickens, it is a good plan to mix with their meal a portion of the various condiments known as " cattle food" or "cattle spices.'' The appetite is thereby increased, and in confinement the birds grow faster and keep in better condition. Feed often — every hour, if possible, from daybreak, and let the food be always fresh — ^nothing but grain or cky meal MEAKB OP GETTING SIZE. 89 being ever allowed to remain. With such treatment and gooa shelter, if the stock be good and the number has been judi- ciously limited, tho hen will not fail to bring a fair proportion through the most inclement season, and they will be sure to reach a good standard in point of size, having the best time of the year before them when they really begin to grow. It is necessary to give one more caution. Do not let prize chickens roost" too soon — never before they are at least three months old — and then see that the perches are large enough, and not round on the top, but like the Cut side of an oval. If they leave the hen before the proper age for roosting, let them have every night a good bed of nice clean dry ashes. We never allow our own chickens, even while with the hen, to bed upon strav : ashes are much cleaner, and if supplied an inch deep are warmer also. To this plan we attribute a very small proportion of losses, even in very severe weather. If a good field or other grass run be at command, the chickens will of com-se have it, and it will go a long way in supplying aU other defective arrangements. But to our own knowledge some of the finest and largest fowls we have ever seen have been reared in a gravelled yard, not more than eighteen feet square. In such circumstances, besides the most scrupulous cleanliness and good feeding in other respects, there must be green food od libitum — really fine chickens cannot be reared without it, their plumage in particular being of a very inferior appearance, and quite devoid of that beautiliil "bloom" which is now indispensable to success in the show-pen. But with proper care, and attention to the above plain direc- tions, there should be no lack in due season of good fine birds.. As they grow, and get through their first moult, they will be anxiously scanned, and let the best have especial care, taking out for the table all which are manifestly not up to the mark, that the rest may have more attention. We have already said that the sexes should be separated. This is highly essential in §0 BEEEDINO AND EXHIBITION Of PRIZE PODLTnT. the larger varieties to good size, as too early a call on nature degenerates the breed ; and had it been acted upon earlier by exhibitors of poultry, we believe the standard of weight in most fowls would have been now considerably higher than it is. There will thus be secured also greater vigour and fertility during the breeding season. The cockerel should not be put with the pullets intended for exhibition with him, till a fort- night before the show, but it is desirable that the pullets should . have a little longer to get used to each other if they have been previously separated. With the special treatment in view of exhibition, however, wo will begin another Chapter. CHAPTER X. ON "condition," and the preparation of fowls for exhi- bition; AND various other MATTERS CONNECTED WITH SHOWS. Chickens are rarely fit for exhibition until at least six months old, or even more. If the cockerels and pullets have been separated, as recommended in the last Chapter, there will rarely have been any eggs laid before this time ; and stimula- ting food' should now be partially discontinued to retard their production as long as possible, bearing in mind that the com- mencement of laying almost, if not quite, stops the growth, which it is desirable to prolong as far as possible for exhibition birds. In this respect the fancier and the ordinary poultry- keeper proceed upon contrary principles, the one endeavouring to get his pullets into laying order as soon as he can, the other nsing every expedient to procure a precisely opposite result If the chickens have been from the very shell properly and systematically fed, they will, by the time they are fit for show- GOOD COKDITION. 51 ing, be in quite as good condition as they ought to be. Bv giving them two or three times a-day as much soft food as they will eat, they may easily be got up to any degree of obesity ; and such a system of feeding is necessary to success at some shows, where the judges seem ignorant of 'the proper condition of a really healthy fowl j but we must most emphatically raise our voice against the practice. Let it be remembered that birds so &ttened are, comparatively at least, for ever ruined for breeding purposes ; that few chickens will ever be hatched from them, and those few delicate and sickly ; and the reflection may perhaps cause the breeder to hesitate before he sacrifices, it may be the best stock in his yard, to any exhibition shrine. We cannot too severely condemn the conduct of those judges, who by their decisions help to maintain such prejudicial practices, and thereby render practically barr&i many of the finest birds ever bred. We have known a splendid pen of Dorkings, far superior in real size, as measured by the fi:amework of the fowl, passed by contemptuously because inferior in mere dead weight to a pen which it would have been hopeless to breed from. There are, however, honourable exceptions : the most eminent judge in England always refuses to award a prize to a pen which he considers over-fattened ; and thereby does all he can to check a system which prevents many celebrated breeders fi'om sending at all to shows where such practices are known to pievail. What we consider — and our opinion is corroborated by the best judges — to be really "good condition," is such an amount of flesh as can be carried consistently with perfect health and fecundity, combiued with clean, well-ordered plumaga It is in the last particular that a good grass-run is so advan- tageous ; fowls always look clean and nice when so kept, and rarely require much further preparation beyond washing the feet and legs. With a good number of such birds to choose from, there 92 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OP PRIZE POULTKY. should be little difficulty in " matching a pen," even for Bir- mingham or Manchester. Matching is a matter of no sm^all moment, as bad selection is fatal. Each bird is of course sup. posed to be of a fair good size, and tolerably perfect in form, colour, and feather. The two hens must then be carefully examined and compared with each other. Let it first be seen that the colour of their legs, eyes, and plumage generally cor- responds, and that their combs and general proportions are aUke also. Then let every part be examined in detail, see- ing that the neck-hackle, back, and tail are the same in colour and marking ; then the breast and wings. If all be satisfac- tory, and the birds be up to the mark, they should have a good chance of winning. , And let them not be judged too severely. Let the owner remember that few birds are absolutely perfect; and that whilst he, well knowing every fault, may see most plainly the blemishes in his own pen, impartial judges often have to weigh other blemishes against these, and he may thus win after alL Glaring faults cannot of course be passed over ; but fair general excellence will often win the day against a pen far superior in some respects, if accompanied by some decided blemish. The pens should be matched and the birds put together at least ten days before the show prepared for, in order that the fowls may get thoroughly used to each other. Neglect of thia precaution may cause much fighting and destruction of plumage in the exhibition pen, or on the road thither, and not unfre- quently loses a prize. For the following observations on preparation for and send- ing to exliibition, we are indebted to Mr. P. Wragg, the well-known superintendent of the poultry-yard of R. W. Boyle, Esq. When it is remembered that this gentleman's fowls have always to imdergo a sea voyage from Ireland, in addition to the ordinary railway journey, previous to exhi- bition, the beautiful "Woom" and condition in which thov TREATMENT BEFOKJS BXIItlilTION. 93 invariably appear, will cause his remarks to be appreciated by all amateurs. " The system I pursue previous to sending to shows is aa follows : — About a week beforehand I select the pen I intend to send, seeing, of course, that they match well, and carefully wash their heads and legs. I then have a nice dry room pretty thickly covered with clean straw, in which I put them, scatter- ing a few handfuls of wheat amongst it. They scratch the straw about searching for the grains, and thus clean themselves beautifully without further trouble. The birds being kept up by themselves get so used to each other they never quaiTel, either on the journey or in the pen. They have to drink clean water with a little sulphate of iron dissolved, which causes a bright red colour in the ears and comb, and makes them look well and sprightly. " They are fed on oatmeal and Indian meal well boiled to- gether, with a small quantity of salt just to season it; when properly done it is like a thick jelly. Twice, however, during the week, not more, they have rice, which is prepared by adding 1 lb. to a pint of water, and boiling till the water is absorbed, then adding as much milk as it will take up without getting thin, with a handful of coarse brown sugar ; keep stirring the whole till done, and then put in a bowl to cool. Of this they are very fond, and it keeps them from purging. I also giv« them plenty of fresh green food. " In - their hamper I put, of course, plenty of clean soft straw. I also tie on one side of it, near the top, a fresh-pulled cabbage, and on the other side a good piece of the bottom side of a loa^ of which they will eat away all the soft part. Before starting I give each bird half a table-spoonful of port wine, which makes them sleep a good part of the journey. Of course, if I go with my birds, as I generally do, I see that they, as well as myself have " refreshment " on the road. " "With regard to what you have remarked about showing 94 BHEEDINO AND EXIITBITIOK OP PRIZE POULTRY. birds fatj I never do so. As you truly observe, many birds are ruined by it. Good, healthy condition, with a nice gloss on the feathers, is what I aim at in exhibiting, and the treatment I have described is what I have found best calculated to attain it." Little can be added to these directions from so high, an authority. For white fowls, however, or which have much white in their plumage, the cleansing process above described will often be found insufficient. In such cases the birds must be carefully washed with soap and water the night before sending off. Take a fine sponge, and, having well soaped it, smooth down every feather repeatedly, so as to clean without ruffling it ; then repeat the process with water only till the soap is removed, and, lastly, with a soft towel. Let the birds be then left for the night in a box well littered with clean straw, open to, but not too near, the fire. Soda should never be used, as it stains the feathers yellow ; and even the soap must be mild, without much free alkali. If they have had an extensive run on grass, however, the whitest fowls scarcely ever need washing, except as regards their feet and legs, giving also attention to the comb and wattles, if neces- sary. It is the poor dwellers in towns who have to take such precautions, and have so much to contend against. Yet, in spite of all this, we often see town breeders beating the very best country yards; and the fact proves that care and good system are of even more importance than any mere natural advantages. Many exhibitors recommend the giving of linseed for a week before exhibition. Its use is to impart lustre to the plumage, which it does by increasing the secretion of oil The fowls generally refuse the seed whole, and the best method of administration is to add a small portion of the meal daily to the ordinary soft food. A preferable plan, however, and one which agrees better with the health of the fowls, is to let the BEST FOna OF HAUPKB. S5 evening repast of grain for the last fortnight consist of buck- wheat and hempseed in equal portions, which will be equally effective, and is greedily devoured by the birds, adding also to the beauty of the combs and wattles. We recently exhibited, at a first-class show, a pen of dark Brahma chickens, which took the first prize. The redness of the combs and the ex- quisite gloss on the plumage — every feather shining like velvet — ^were much admired ; and we have repeatedly been asked the means by which such condition was attained. The only secret was the use of hempseed and buckwheat, with "Douglas mixture" (see page 30) in the drinking water, combined, of course, with good feeding generally. Much difference of opinion exists as to the best form of ham- per, but general experience approves most of a round shape, of a size to give just ample room to the fowls which have to be shown. Square corners are apt to catch the tails, and cause damage. For Spanish or o&er large-combed breeds it is best to have no cover, simply stitching a strong piece of canvas over the top ; but for most fowls a wicker top is best, as affording more pro- tection. It is of some consequence to committees that these covers should be flat, in order that the baskets may be com- pactly stowed away in the exhibition-hall. In cold weather let the hamper be well lined with canvas, or straw stitched to the wicker-work. And if occupied by geese, let special care be taken that their bills cannot reach either the string fastenings or the direction-labels. They have a peculiar fancy for breakfasting upon those articles ; and even fowls wUl occasionally contract the fame vicious habit. All has now been done that can be done, and the rest must be left to the decision of the judges. It is but rarely that fault can be found with their verdict : their duties are most arduous, and the manner in which, as a rule, they discharge them is deserving of the highest praise ; but one or two are known to have certain invincible prejudices, which 96 BKEEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTRY. prevent them from judging some classes in accordance with- the general rules as understood by the majority. This is to be regretted, as it hinders the good under- standing which always ought to exist between judges and ex- tibitors. The object of both ought to be identical — the promotion of the highest standard obtainable in the different breeds, but it is necessary to this that the breeder should know definitely and authoritatively what he is to seek after. The " Standard of Excellence " did good service here, and was much wanted, but it is silent on many points, and, with reference to some others, . is avowedly ignored by many judges. We think there is much need for a revised and larger work on the same basis ;* and, in the meantime, it is our opinion that exhibitors have decidedly a right to know beforehand who are to judge their birds. To call upon them to send their best stock to a show where, it may be, the judges' knovm prejudices on certain points give them no chance of a prize, is evidently unfair. But we are leaving the fowls, and must return to them, though we have little more to add. Whether they require any special treatment on their return will chiefly depend upon the system of feeding which has been pursued during the period of exhibition. If, as is too often the case, the pernicious plan of feeding on whole barley ad libitum has been retained, the birds will all be more or less feverish and disturbed, and wUl need a corrective. But such feeding cannot be too strongly con- demned. It saves trouble certainly, but if a committee are not willing to take so much pains as will keep the birds in perfect health, they have no right to gather them together. We have the highest possible authority for saying that the best feeding is either barleymeal or oatmeal in the morning, mixed rather dry, and given before the public are admitted, with wheat in the * Very complete scales of points, founded on actual analysis of modem judging-, have, since these remarks were written, been published by the author i» " Ti 9 lUuBtrated Book of Poultry." TREATMENT APTEB EXHIBITION. 97 evening; and, in each, case, only as much as the fowls will eat at once, without leaving any in the pens. Only these two meals should be given, as the birds have no exei-ciso, and do no,' require more, besides which, the natural excitement of the show is best counteracted by a rather spare diet. Water should be given three times a day for a short time only — say five or ten minutes — ^not left for the birds to drink at will. Barley ought not to be used at all, as it is next to impossible it can be properly digested. Fowls fed as here recommended will be returned in as good condition as they were sent, and require no attention at all beyond seeing that they do not get too much water and green food at first. But if they return from a "barley- fed" show, or the system on which they have been fed is unknown, or, in any case, if they appear either feverish or " overdone," give each a rather scanty meal of stale bread-crumb soaked in warm ale, let them have two or three sips only of rather tepid water, and then administer a tea-spoonful of castor-oil to each bird. This will probably be at night. Next day feed them on meal only in moderation, see that they cannot drink to excess, and give them half a cabbage-leaf each, or a large sod of grass, but no other green food ; afterwards let them return to their usual diet. It is in all cases safest not to let them have any grain, and to put them on an allowance of water for the day after their return. If our recommendations be attended to, there will be little injury from exhibition, and the same birds may be shown again and again without sufiering. We know of fowls which have won as many as fifty prizes ; and indeed first-class exhibition birds are almost always shown pretty frequently. They want care and attentive examination after each competition to see that they are not losing health; if it appears so, whatever other engagements may have been made, let them have rest till com- pletely recovered ; otherwise, property worth scores of pounds H 88 BREEDING AND EXHIBITION OF PRIZE POULTEY. may be sacrificed for " just one more cup," to the owner's lasting regret. We know not that we can usefully add any more upon this part of the subject. Something Tnust be learnt by experience, for which no written directions can be substituted ; nevertheless, we are not without hope that these few pages may prove of service in guiding the reader through the, perhaps, hitherto untried ordeal of the exhibition halL SECTION III. DIFFERENT BEEEDS OF FOWLS: THEIR CHAEACTEEISTIC POINTS, WITH A COMPARISON OF THEIR MERITS AND PRINCIPAL DEFECTS. o o o 3 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. CHAPTER XL COCmS-CHINAS OR SHANGHAES. Thk Cochin breed, as now known, appeai-s to have been im- ported into this country about the year 1847 ; those so-called exhibited by Her Majesty in 1843 having been not only desti- tute of feathers on the shanks, but entirely different in form and general character. No other breed of poultry has ever attracted equal attention, or maintained such high prices for such a length of time; and the celebrated "poultry mania," which was mainly caused by its introduction, will always be re- membered as one of the most remarkable phenomena of modem times. To account in some measure for this, it should be remembered that no similar fowls had ever been known in Europe ; and when therefore Cochins were first exhibited, it was natural that their gigantic size, gentle disposition, pro- lificacy, and the ease with which they could be kept in con- finement, should rapidly make them favourites with the public. But the extent to which the passion for them would grow no one certainly could have foreseen. A hundred guineas hag repeatedly been paid for a single cock, and was not at aU an uncommon pr^ce for a pen of really fine birds. Men became mad for Cochins, and spent small fortunes in procuring them ; and all England, from north to south, seemed given over to a nniversal "hen fever," as it was humorously termed. Their 102 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. ad7ocates would have it that the birds had no faults. They were to furnish eggs for breakfast, fowls for the table, and better morals than even Dr. Watts' hymns for the children, who were from them " to learn kind and gentle manners," and thenceforward to live in peace. Such a state of things, of course, could not last, and the breed is now perhaps as unjustly depreciated by many as it was then exalted ; for Cochins have great and real merits, and on many accounts deserve the attention of the poultry-keeper. The mania, absurd as it was, did however good service by awakening a general interest in the whole subject of poultry, which has never since died out. As now "brought to perfection, the breed presents the following characteristics : — The cock ought not to weigh less than 10 or 11 lbs., and a very fine one will reach 13 ; the hens from 8 to 9 or 10 lbs. The larger the better, if form and general make be good. The breast in both sexes should be as broad and full as possible J the general want of breast being the greatest defect in this breed. The neck can hardly be too short in either sex, so that it does not look clumsy ; and the back must be short from head to tail, and very broad. The legs to be short and set widely apart, and the general make to be as full, wide, and deep as possible. The shanks are profusely feathered down to the toes, and the thighs should be plentifully furnished with the fine downy feathers denominated " flufi"." The quality of this " flufi"," and of the feathering generally, is often a pretty good indication of the breed : if fine and downy, the birds are probably well bred; but if rank and coarse, they will not be worth attention as fwncy birds. There is a tendency in the cocks to scanty fur- nishing on the thighs ; but the breeder should choose a bird with as much " fluff" as he can get ; not, however, allowing vulture hocks, which often accompany the heaviest feathered COCHINS. 103 birds, but which are now disqualified at all first-class shows. The colour of the shanks is yellow, a tinge of red being rather a recommendation than otherwise ; but green or white legs are to be avoided. The head should be neat and rather small ; the comb of moderate size, straight, erect, and evenly serrated : a notched, or twisted comb is a great blemish. The ear-lobes must be pure red, no white being allowed. The eye ought in colour to approach that of the plumage, and should appear bright and sprightly. The tail of the hen is very small, and nearly covered by the feathers of the saddle, which are very plentiful, and form a Boftly rising cushion on the posterior part of the back ; the tail of the cook is larger than in the hen, but still small, and must not be very erect, or contain much quUl ; the wings in both sexes very small, neatly and closely folded in, and the general carriage noble and majestic. The principal colours now bred are white, buff, and part- ridge. The white and buff are most popular. The white must be perfectly pure in every feather; and green legs, which are apt to occur in this colour, will disqualify any pen, however meritorious otherwise. In buff the coloiu" may be any shade, but all the birds in a pen must correspond; black is admissible in the tail of both sexes, but the less there is the better. Black pencilling in the hackls is very objectionable, and a bird so marked will have no chance at a good show j but a little markiag, if well defined so as to form a slight necklace, with no trace of indistinctness or clouding, is not to be regarded as a fatal fault. The colour of the cock should correspond with the hens on the breast and the lower parts of the body ; but his hackles, wing coverts, back, and saddle hackles, are usually a rich gold colour. It should be observed that buff birds generally breed chickens lighter than themselves, and that most birds get rather lighter each moulting 104 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. season ; the breeding stock should therefore be chosen one or two shades darker than the colour desired. In partridge hens the neck hackles are bright gold striped with black, the rest of the body light brown pencilled with a very dark shade of the same colour ; the cock's hackles and saddle bright red striped with black, back dark red, wings the same, crossed with a sharply defined bar of metallic green black ; breast and under part of the body black, not mottled. Black used also to be shown, but has nearly disappeared, from the almost impossibility of keeping the colour free from stain. The other colours are grouse and cinnamon. The latter is well described by its name ; grouse is merely very dark partridge. Cuckoo Cochins are nevei' correct in form, and we believe are produced by crossing with the Gueldres. The merits of Cochins have already been hinted at. The chickens, though they feather slowly, are hardier than any other breed except Brahmas, and will thrive where others would perish ; they grow fast, and may be killed when twelve^ weeks old. The fowls will do well in very confined space, are very tame and easily domesticated, and seldom quarreL They cannot fly, and a fence two feet high will effectually keep them within bounds. As sitters and mothers the hens are unsur- passed; though they are, unless cooped, apt to leave their chickens and lay again too soon for very early broods. Lastly, they are prolific layers, especially in winter, when eggs are most scarce. Their defects are equally marked. The flesh is inferior to that of other breeds, though tolerably good when eaten young ; there is, however, always a great absence of breast, which excludes the fowl from the market, and confines it to the family table. The leg, which contains most meat, is, however, providentially not so tough as in other breeds. The want of breast is best overcome by crossing with the Dorking, the result bei^ig a very heavy and well-proportioned table fowl, BRAIIMAS. 105 which lays well, and is easily reared. The hen, excellent layer though she is, has also an irresistible inclination to sit after every dozen or score of eggs ; and this is apt to be very trouble- Bome, except where a regular and constant succession of chickens is desired, when it becomes a convenience, as broods can be hatched with the greatest regularity. Finally, this breed is peculiarly subject to a prejudicial fattening, which, if not guarded against by the avoidance of too much or too &ttening food, will check laying, and even cause death. Cochins are subject to an affection called white comb, con- sisting of an eruption on the comb and wattles much re- sembling powdered chalk, and which, if not dealt with in time, extends all over the body, causing the feathers to fall off. The causes are want of cleanliness and of green food, chiefly the latter. This must, of course, be supplied, with an occasional dose of six grains of jalap to purge the bird ; and the comb anointed with an ointment composed of four parts cocoa-nut oil, two of powdered turmeric, and one of sulphur. On the whole, we consider this breed most useful to supply the famMy demand for either chickens or eggs, or to provide sitters for numerous broods ; but it is little valued as a market fowl unless crossed with the Dorking or Crevecoeur; neither will it be found profitable where eggs are the sole consideration, and the hens cannot be allowed to indulge their sitting propensities. CHAPTER XII. BBAHMA POOTBAS. It is not our province to enter at length into the long disputed and still unsettled question as to whether Brahmas originated in a cross with the Cochin, or are entitled to rank as a distinct variety. There is much to be said on both sides. In favour of the Cochin cross may be named the gigantic size, the feathered 106 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. legs and general appearance, the colour of the eggs, and forma- tion of the skull ; whilst those who believe it distinct have strong arguments in the altogether unique and peculiar comb, the colour, the prominent breastbone, the very different dis- position and habits, and , the opinion of, we believe, every eminent breeder. But one thing is certain : ever since this magnificent breed was introduced, it has steadily become more and more popular, and is now one of the most favourite varieties. To prosper thus, in the total absence of any poultry " mania," a breed must have real and substantial merits. Such Brahmas unquestionably have ; and we shall endeavo'ur, there- fore, to give that full description of them which both their high rank as economic poultry, and their rapidly growing popularity, alike demand. Their most marked peculiarity is in the comb, which is totally different from that of any other variety. It resembles three combs pressed into one. In a first-class cock, the effect is such as would be produced were a little comb, about a quarter of an inch in height, laid close to each side of his own proper comb, twice as high, the centre one being thus higher than the others. Each division of the comb ought to be straight and even, irregular or twisted combs being serious faults in a show- pen. In the hens the comb is very small, but the triple character should be equally evident, and the formation is quite plain even when the chicks first break the shell. When first introduced, single-combed Brahmas were often shown, but are now scarcely ever seen, and rarely take prizes if there are any decently good pea-combed birds at the same show. There are two varieties of Brahmas exhibited, known aa " Light,'' and " Dark" or " Pencilled " Brahmas ; and on no account should they ever be crossed, the result being, acoordin" to Mr. Teebay, who was formerly the most successful and ex- tensiv6 breeder of Brahmas in England, always unsatisfactory. -^f" ' * 6 a 7 FEATHERS. No. 1 is a StHy>ed Feather. ,, 2 a Laced Feather. „ 3, 4 are Spangled Feathers, No. 3 being froin a Golden *' Yorkshire Phea^v and No. 4 from a Lancashire " Mooney" Hen. o 5, 6, 7. S are Pencilled Feathers, No. 5 being plucked from a Hamburgli, 6, 7. 8 from a Dark or P°""'"'"* tj,^!.^.. BRAHMAS. 107 The cross may be known, if the birds profess to be " dark," by the lighter, gayer appearance of the cock's breast, perhaps accompanied with large white splashes, and sandy coloured or brownish patches' about the pullets. Should the fowls be offered as "light" Brahmas, the pullets will have bufl^ yellowish, or sandy backs and wings, and the cocks most likely yellowish hackles. The following description of light Brahmas has been care- fully drawn up under the supervision of John Pares, Esq., of Postford, near Ghiildford, well known as the most eminent exhibitor of this variety for many years past : — "Light Brahmas are chiefly white in the colour of the plumage, but if the feathers be parted, the bottom colour will often be found of a bluish grey, showing an important dis- tinction between them and white Cochins, in which the feathers are always white down to the skin. The neck hackles should be distinctly striped with black down the centre of each feather. (See " Feathers," No. 1). That of the cock is, however, often lighter than in the case of the hen. The back should be quite white in both sexes. " The wings should appear white when folded, but the flight feathers are black. " The tail should be black in both sexes. In the cock it is well developed, and the coverts show splendid green reflections in the light It should stand tolerably upright, and open well out laterally, like a fan. "The legs ought to be yellow, and well covered with white feathers, which may or may not be very slightly mottled with black : vulture hocks are a gi-eat defect. ^ « " The ear-lobes must be pure red, and every bird should, of course, have a perfect pea-comb, though good birds with a single comb have occasionally been shown with success." • This most not be ooirfoimded with the browniah tinge which nearly all " dark " Brahma hens acquire with age. 108 DIFFERENT BREEDS OP FOWLS. The "dark" or "pencilled" Brahmas are similar to the above in comb, form, symmetry, &c., but as diflferent in colour as can well be. By the kindness of E,. W. Boyle, Esq., of Bray, Ireland, who has for some years been known as the most eminent breeder of dark Brahmas in the United Kingdom, we are enabled to give the best description of this magnificent variety which has ever been published, most carefully drawn up by him for publication in these pages. " The head of a perfect Brahma cock should be surmoimted by a good 'pea-comb,' which resembles three small combs running parallel the length of the head, the centre one slightly the highest, but all evenly serrated and straight, and the whole low and set firci on the head. Beak strong, well curved, and the colour of horn. Wattles full : ear-lobes perfectly red, well rounded, and faUing below the wattles. " His neck should be rather short,* but well curved, with very fuU hackle, which is silvery white striped with black, and ought to flow well over the back and sides of the breast. At the head, the feathers should be white. Back very short, wide, and flat, rather rising into a nice, soft, small tail, carried rather upright. The back almost white. The saddle-feathers white, striped with black, as in the neck, and the longer they are the better. The soft rise from the saddle to the tail, and the side feathers of the tail, to be pure lustrous green black, except a few next the saddle, which may be slightly ticked with white : the tail feathers themselves pure black. "The breast should either be black, or black with each feather slightly and evenly tipped with white, but on no account splashes of white : it should be well carried forward, foil, and broad. Wings small, and well tucked up under the saddle-feathers and thigh fluff', A good sharply-defined black bar across the wing is very important. " The fluff on the thighs and hinder parts ought to be black * The " Standard " says long. A great error. — Jfote by Author. S "^ — ,^_ BRAHMAS. 109 or very dark grey. The lower part of the thighs should have plenty of nice soft feathers, almost black, rouuding oflf about the joint and hiding it, but on no account running into ' vul- ture hooks,' which I consider a great eyesore. " The cock should carry himself upright and sprightly, and great width and depth are important points : a good bird should show great size, and ' lopk big.' " The hen's head should be small, with a perfect pea-comb, as in the cock, but smaller; and the beak also resembling his in the decided curve and colour. Wattles quite small and neatly rounded, the red ears hanging below them. Neck short, and gradually enlarging from head to shoulders. Feathers about the head greyish, verging to white, and the hackle more striped with black than in the cock. " General make of the back, tail, thighs, wings, and breast, the same as in the cock, but of course in proportion. " The colour of the hen, except the neck and tail, is the same aU over, each feather, even up to the throat on breast, having a dingy white ground, very much and closely pencilled with dark steel grey. The pencilling on the thtoat and breast is very im- portant, and is one of the first points looked at in a prize hen. " The hen's legs are short and thick, not quite so yellow as the cock's, and profusely feathered on the outside with feathers the same colour as the body. Her carriage is scarcely so up- right as that of the male bird. "With regard to the economic merits of. Brahmas, the puUets lay when six months old, and usually lay from thirty to forty eggs before they seek to hatch; but I have repeatedly known pullets begin to lay in autumn, and never stop— let it be hail, rain, snow, or storm — for a single day till next spring. I have kept several breeds, such as Dorkings, Spanish, and Hamburghs; but never now give to my tenants any but Brahmas, as they say they can rear them so much more easily, and greatly prefer them. 110 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. "As to their size, I cannot agree ■with those who think 'breeding for colour' detracts necessarily from this point. I have had a cock weighing fifteen pounds, and hens twelve pounds, but these are veiy unusual weights. I have, however, two cockerels of this year (1866), only six and a half months old, one of which weighs ten and three quarter pounds, and the other eleven and a quarter pounds. The latter I weighed off a grass run. He is the largest for his age I ever bred, and I am confident he will next year weigh fifteen to sixteen pounds, or even more. I consider twelve to thirteen pounds for a cook and nine to ten pounds for a hen very good weights. Cockerels for exhibition, when six months old, ought to weigh from eight to eight and-arhalf pounds, and pullets from six to seven pounds. " In breeding, it is necessary to be very swre the stock for generations back has not been crossed. I would then select the most perfect cock I could procure at any price, not less than twelve pounds weight, and mate him with either three pullets, or three hens a year old : if hens, to weigh at least nine pounds j if pullets, eight pounds. Each bird to be entirely free from vulture-hocks or brown-red feathers. From such parent- age there will be little disappointment." Mr.-F. "Wragg, the manager of Mr. Boyle's yard, adds the following valuable practical remarks on the breeding of Dark Brahmas : — "I would on no account breed from birds with faulty combs, or the slightest twist in the tail, as such defects are most surely transmitted to a large proportion of their progeny. I would also reject a cock with ' splashes' of white on his breast, or a hen with very dingy brown in the feathers. "I select, if possible, a cock with perfeMy black breast, thighs, and flufl^ and other qualities well defined, two years old, and twelve pounds in weight. I would put him with three pullets, their first season, square-built, short-legged birda. DRAIIMAS. 1 1 1 with broad-striped hackles, small and perfectly straight combs, and perfect in feathering. By this I mean that each feather should be most distinctly pencilled ; and I am most particular that on the breast especially every single feather right up to the throat should show four or five distinct half circles of black on the same ground colour as the rest of the body. Let the pullets be nine pounds weight Breed from such birds, and nearly half the chickens will be fit for exhibition. " I wish to repeat, that for breeding I select a cock with all the underparts perfectly black. For exhibition, either the same colour or a little white mottling wiU do. A mottled cock looks best. I especially dislike to see the 'flufi"' on the cock's thighs with white in it. Many of the chickens from such a parent would be very bad in colour, showing light ' streaky' feathers on the breast." Joseph Hinton, Esq., of Hinton, near Bath, one of the earliest breeders of Dark Brahmas, adds a few remarks which also deserve attention. " I have always striven," he says, " to keep Brahmas from being considered birds of colour only. The chief point in judging should be form, then size, then comb and colour. Body to be as broad and deep as possible : legs stout and wide apart, and cannot be too short, or too well feathered. The leg feathering ought to be abundant from the very hock. To see a nearly bare shank, even with a weU-feathered foot, is very unsightly. I prefer a slight tendency to vulture-hock — that is, an abundance of soft curling feathers, projecting over the hock \dA. hiding the joint : a naked hock to me is an abomination, Enock-knees also, which frequently occur in cockerels, are very objectionable. "As to "colour, I prefer myself the clea/r grey, but it is unfortunately liable to lightness on the breast. Por this reason many breeders prefer a reddish-brown breast, but I myself should object- to the reddish tinge. 112 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. " It is also objectionable when the flight or primary quills in the cock's wing are not well tucked under the outside part of the wing, though I think they have laid too much stress on this point in the 'Standard of Excellence.'* The fault is rarely seen in the master cock of the yard, and I believe it therefore to occur from the efforts of the junior birds to save them- selves from punishment by the 'king of the walk' In such struggles the wing is rapidly extended, and then often not fairly returned. In time this becomes a habit, and greatly mars the beauty of the bird." The latter fault alluded to is unfortunately too frequent. It can, however, be cured by carefully returning every feather to its proper place, and then tying twine round the end of the wing, to prevent the bird from opening it till the feathers are re-set into their position. About a month will ensure this ; and in the meantime the bird must of course sleep on straw as it cannot fly. Mr. Hinton's remarks on colour lead us to almost the only disputed point in this breed. Mr. Lacy, and other eminent breeders, avowedly •prefer a decided brown ground colour for the hens, for reasons which we will give in his own words : — " I have been a breeder of Dark Pencilled Brahmas," he says, " for fifteen years, ten of which I kept them in America, where they are the favourite fowls amongst farmers and planters. I began by purchasing the besb I could find, which were beautifully symmetrical in shape, and very large, the cock weighing thirteen pounds, and the hens nine pounds each. The colour of the hens was as follows : neck-hackle white, streaked with black ; saddle and wings a beautifully pencilled * We rather agree with the " Standard " in this matter. The first prize cock at Birmingham last year (1866) had the defect alluded to, and the award of the jndgea wa3 condemned by every breeder at the show oB Ihat very ground, though the bird was very fair otherwise. BRAHMAS. 113 brown, the ground colour being the darh, with lighter mark- ings of a quarter-moon shape on each feather j breast a light salmon-coloured ground, with dark pencillings of the same quarter-moon shape, forming the most beautiful contrast of the two colours imaginable. The fluff had also the brown tinge. ' " This colour I have striven to produce and sustain in my strain of birds, breeding as they do much more true to colour than the grey variety. This last, I believe, has been introduced by some cross, as I have obtained grey pullets from other yards whose produce has been mixed, whilst they themselves have moulted to the brown shade and sometimes even to the red. Besides this, the great difficulty of producing light-hreasted pullets cannot be got rid of in grey birds ; because, having, as I believe, been crossed with a lighter colour, they will ' throw out' a majority of inferior birds. I do not, however, like a reddish- brown colour ; nor will any breeder be troubled with it, provided he uses proper discretion in the selection of his breeding stock." Others maintain that the brown colour referred to is a blemish, and we must ourselves side with this view. But, whether we are right or wrong in this, it is certain that the variation in opinion is most unfortunate ; for the difference of colour does not at all appear in the cocks, andi hence there is always great danger, in purchasing a male bird, of injuring the pencilling which may be preferred. Each school, however, has a right to its own fancy, and we can only advise the utmost care in every introduction of fresh blood that may be made, that the tinge of the strain purchased corresponds with that already in the yard. It is to neglect of this precaution so many bad coloured, mottled, and " streaky " birds owe their origin.* * The above remarks refer to Brahmas as they are now exhibited and judged. But ire must remark that the birds formerly shown so success- Cully for several years together by Mr. R. Teebay, at Birmingham, aai I IH DIFFERENT BREERS OF POTVLS. " Vulture hocks" have also occasioned considerable dis- cussion. The " Standard of Excellence " states that they are to be considered objectionable, but not a disqualification. Many breeders defend them, as being always more or lesg associated with heavy shank-feathering; but all first-class judges at present seem agreed to absolutely disqualify any pen in which vulture-hocked birds appear, though soft (Stirling feathers tucked in nicely round, and hiding the joint, are decidedly to be preferred. The precision of the pencilling is very important, on the breast especially, but has hitherto been overlooked in every published description of Brahmas. Every feather should be distinptly pencilled across several times with black, as are the pencilled Hamburghs, but more minutely, on a dull white ground. On the breast the marking should be equally' distinct and abundant, but it there follows the outline of the feather, and becomes a series of four or five " lacings," one within the other. By the kindness of an eminent exhibitor and breeder of this variety we are enabled to give engravings of actual feathers taken from very perfect prize birds, which will illus- trate this. {See plate of " Feathers," frontispiece.) No. 6 is a feather from the centre of a pullet's breast ; No.. 7 is from the flat of the wing ; No. 8 from the coverts of the tail. Birds thus pencilled are of exquisite beauty, but second-rate specimens many other shows, vrere much darker than now, the dark pencilling being BO dense and black as to have quite a metallic green shade, which we have not now seen in hens for some time. The pullets are probably bred lighter through selecting cocks as free as possible from any red or bronze In the wing coverts, some amount of which appears essential to breeding dark birds. We simply note this change to a lighter shade as one too important to pass over; whether it be of itself any deterioration is, of course, a fair subject for difference of opinion. But many experienced breeders will also note changes in shape, and other characteristics— the result of various crosses, and whigh certainly ar^ not improre- BRAHMA3. 115 often show a cloudy, indistinct mass of minute and confused maxkiugs, which are far inferior in aj piarance. At a show held at Oswestry last year (1866) a pen of Brahmas was shown in the " Light " Class, of which the two pullets were beautifully laced on the breast, with all the precision of a Silver Sebright Bantam. The effect was very pretty indeed, and we hope the variety may be perpetuated. Little more need be added. "With regard to the merits of Brahmas, they must certainly i-ank very high. In size the dark variety surpasses every other breed yet known, the heaviest cock ever recorded, so far as we are aware, having attained the enormous weight of eigJUeen pounds, and thirteen and fourteen being not uncommon at good shows ; though only good strains reach this weight, and miserable specimens are often seen which are inferior in size to Cochins. They also lay nearly every day, even in the depth of winter, and ii pure bred, scarcely ever sit till they have laid at least thirty or forty eggs. When they sit more frequently, the hen will usually be very brown, and is, we believe, crossed with the Shanghae. As winter layers, no breed equals them. "We are writing at the end of November, and have a hen which has laid forty-five eggs in forty-eight days, whilst others are little inferior. Brahmas are likewise very hardy,, and grow uncommonly fast, being therefore very early ready &r table, in which par- ticular they are profitable fowls, having plenty of breast-meat. They bear confinement as well as Cochins, being, however, far more sprightly ; and scarcely ever, like them, get out of con- dition from over-feeding. The flesh, however, though better than that of Cochins, is much inferior, after six months, to that of the forking ; and this is their only real fault ; but a cross with a CrevScoeur or Dorking cock produces the most splendid table fowls possible^ carrying almost incredible quantities of meat of excellent quality. Such a crOiSH is well worth the attention of the farmer. I 2 116 DIFFEHENT BUEEDS OF FOWLS. On the whole, there is no more profitable fowl "all round" than the Brahma ; and a few hens at least should form part m' the stock of every moderate yard. CHAPTER XIIL MALAYS. The Malay was the first introduced of the gigantic Asiatic breeds, and in stature exceeds that of any yet known. The cock weighs or should weigh from nine to eleven pounds, and when fully grown should stand ai least two feet six inches high. But the general size of this breed has of late greatly deteriorated. In form and make Malays are as difierent from Cochins as can well be. They are exceedingly long in the neck and legs, and the carriage is so upright that the back forms a steep incline. The wings are carried high, and project very much at the shoulders. Towards the tail, on the contrary, the body becomes narrow — the conformation being thus exactly opposite to that of the Shanghae. The tail is small, and that of the cock droops. The plumage is very close, firm, and glossy, more so than that of any other breed, and giving to the bird a peculiar lustre when viewed in the Ught. The colours vary very much. We consider pure white the most beautiful of all; but the most usual is that well known under the title of brown-breasted red game. The legs are yellow, but quite naked. The head and beak are long, the latter being rather hooked. Comb low and flat, covered with small prominences like warts MALAYS. 117 Wattles imd deaf-eai-s very small. Eye usually yellow.* The whole face and great part of the throat are red and naked, and the whole expression " snaky " and cruel. This is not belied by the real character of the breed, which is most ferocious, even more so than Game fowls, though inferior to the latter in real coui-age. Malays are subject to an evil habit of eating each other's feathers, a propensity which often occurs in close confinement, and can only be cured by turning them on to a grass run of tolerable extent, and giving plenty of lettuce with an occasional purgative. The chickens are delicate, but the adult birds are hardy enough. They appear especially adapted to courts and alleys, and may not unfrequently be seen in such localities in £x>ndon. The principal merit of Malays is as table fowls. Skinny as they appear, the breast, wings, and merrythought together carry more meat than perhaps any other breed ; and, when under a year old, of very good quality and flavour. They also make good crosses with several breeds. Mated with the Dorking they produce splendid fowls for the table, which also lay well ; and with the Spanish, though both parents are long- legged, the result is most usually a short-legged bird of peculiar beauty in the plumage, good for the table, and, if a hen, a remarkably good sitter and mother. They have also been extensively crossed with the English G!ame fowl, in order to increase the strength, size, ferocity, and hardness of feather. * The " Standard " says the eye should be fiery red, but this is moat decidedly -wrong. We should, of course, hesitate to state positively that a "red eye" has nmer been seen; but we do say we never saw one, and doubt if any one else ever did, at all events lately. An eminent breeder of this variety informed ns that the native fanciers in India preferred a pearly or white eye ; but that there also he knew on good authority the red eye was unknown, except in very rare instances. How the " Standard * came to give " red " eyes as a jKiint, is a mystery. 118 DIFFERENT BKEEDS OP FOWLS. The great Jiawback of Malays is their abominably quarrel- some disposition, ■whicli becomes worse the more they are con- fined. The hens are also inferior as layers to most other breeds J and on these accounts the pure strain is not adapted to general use, though useful in giving weight and good " wings " to other varieties of fowL CHAPTER XIV. GAME. No variety of fowl has been so enthusiastically cultivated by amateurs as the Game, and in none perhaps is there so much room for legitimate difference of opinion. The varieties are legion, and to describe every one would be hopeless, except in a work specially devoted to the purpose ; we shall therefore only give descriptions of the leading breeds, as written for this work ,by Trevor Dickens, Esq.,* of London, one of the most eminent authorities in England on all points connected with the Game fowl. "The Game cock, as the undisputed king of all poultry, requires more careful judging in regard to shape, than any other bird. The Brown-reds have long been most perfect in outline ; but the following description will apply to a perfect bird of any breed. " The beak should be strong, curved, long, and sharp ; the comb single, small, and thin, low in front, erect, and evenly serrated ; it is usually red, but sometimes darkish red. Head long and sharp, with the face and throat lean and thin. Ear- lobes small and red, never whitish. Neck long, strong, and • Well known for his annotations on the breeds of Qame in the Poultry Chronicle, under the signature of " Newmarket." OAUC. 119 well arched ; the hackle short, hard, close, firm, and broad in the feather. Back short, and very hard both in flesh and feather ; broad at shoulders, narrow at tail, and rounded at the sides. Breast broaid and very hard, but not by any means too lean or too full — ^the last would be useless weight ; a good hard breast is most essential, as it is the most vulnerable part of the bird. The rump should be narrow, neat, and short, the saddle feathers close, hard, and short. Wings very strong, and of a just medium length, well rounded to the body, and carried neither high nor low, but so as to protect the thighs. Very long- winged birds are usually too long in the body, and short- winged birds too broad in the stern. Tail neither long nor short, but medium length, and carried erect to show good spirit, but not ' squirrel-fashion ' over the back ; it should be well ' fanned,' or spreading, and the sickle feathers of a good round full curve, and standing clearly above the points of the quill tail-feathers.* Very long-tailed birds are soft and long-bodied, and short- tailed birds are too short-winged, and often have broad rumps Thighs short f jind very muscular, hard, and firm ; placed well wide apart, and well up to the shoulders, in order to give a fine fore-hand and make the bird stand firm on his legs; which latter should be sufficiently long, but not too much so, and placed wide apart as the thighs. Spurs low down, long, sharp, and rather thin; a little curved upwards, and not turning in too much. Feet flat, broad, spreading, and thin ; the claws and nails straight, long, and strong ; the back claw especially long and flat to the ground, to give a firm footing. The whole plumage should be very close, short, and hard, ■with glossy reflections, and the • Many breeders, espeoially in Yorkshire and London, prefer close or folded tails. But, as a rule, the well raised and spread tail shows more spirit, if not clumsy, which is of course bad. t The "Standard of Excellence" says "rather short." This is decidedly not emphatic enough to denote the proper proportions iu a good cook.— iVbfe by Author. 120 DlPfEREXT BREEDS OP FOWLS quills or stems strong and elastic. Body in Ijand short and very hard, and the general carriage upright, quick, fierce, and sharp. The back is best rather curved, provided it be flat crosswise, and not hump-backed or lop-sided. Weight for exhibition, 4J to 5^ lbs. ; for the pit, not over 4J lbs. "The hen should correspond in form, but of course in proportion, Itardness of flesh and feather, -with shortness of body, being main points. Good hens generally become spurred, and such breed the hardest and best cocks. The proper weight of a hen is from 3 to 3^ lbs. " A short or clumsy head, short or soft neck,- long body, narrow shoulders, long thighs, legs set close together, loose or soft plumage, and especially what is known as a ' duck foot,* are serious defects. It should be remembered that a Game fowl is always judged mainly in reference to its fighting qualities, and anything which interferes with them is a fault in the bird. " With respect to the varieties of Game, the sorts which take nearly all the prizes and cups are the Brown-red, Black- breasted Red, Silver Duck-wing Greys, and Piles, all which are cup-birds. " The Brown-red is essentially dark in blood, the eyes being a very dark brown, with the comb and face inclining to a dark gipsy purple, and the beak dark also. Breast of the cock a red-brown, shoulders sometimes passing into a rich orange-red jolour. Wing-butts of a dusky or dark smoky brown, and general colour a dark red. Legs dark iron-brown or blackish bronze, with dark talons. Hackle with dark stripes, and thighs like the breast. The tail a dark greenish black, and the wing is often crossed with a glossy green bar. The general colour of the hen is very dark brown, grained or pencilled with lighter brown; her neck-hackle a dark golden copper-red, thickly striped with dark stripes ; and her oomb and face darker than in the cock bird. Good hens are usually spurred, and their tail feathers show a slight curve. V /...//.. <1 a i^ c GAME 121 " The Brown-red breeds are most esteemed in the Midland Counties, anrf at the principal shows take most cups. They are also the favourite breed with sportsmen, and are best in sliape of all ; but like all the dark-combed varieties, are not such good layew as those with bright red combs. " Black-breasted Reds are essentially recJ-blooded birds, the plumage being generally a bright red, rather deeper on the body than in the hackle. Hed eyes are absolutely essential to good birds, all others being inferior and infallibly denoting a cross. The cock's wings are bright red in the ujjper part, and rich red chestnut in the lower, with a steel blue bar across ; breast bluish black, with glossy reflections ; thighs the same ; tail greenish black, the feathers without much down at the roots. The comb and wattles of all Black-reds must be bright red, and the legs are usually willow colour in cup birds, though any leg will do if the birds are bright in colour, and have red eyes. The general colour of the hen is a rich red partridge-brown, with a red fawn-coloured breast, and reddish golden hackle with dark stripes ; the cock's hackle also is striped vmdemeath, but clear above. Spurred hens are the best, but are not so frequent as in the preceding variety. "SUver Duck- wing Greys are purer in blood than the Yellow or Birchen Duck-wings, and are white-skinned when of pui-e breed. General colour of the cook, a silver grey ; hackle striped with black underneath, but clear above; back a dear silver grey j breast either bluish black or clear mealy silver colour; wing crossed with a sted-blue bar, and the lower part of a creamy white ; tail greenish glossy black. Hen a silvery bluish grey, thickly frosted with silver ; breast a pale fawn-colour; neck-hackle silvery white, striped with black. The comb and face in both sexes are bright red. The legs may be either white, blue, or willow ; but of course the whole pen must match, and white leg to silver feathering is certainly the most correct match. Willow is, however, most common in 12S DlF'FEKfeNt BREEDS Of FOWLS. the legs, but least pure in blood ; the white or blue-legged birds being the true-bred Silver Duck-wings. Eyes should be red in Willow and Blue-legged strains, and yellow in Yellow and White-legged strains in all the Duck- wing Game fowls. " The Yellow Duck-mngs are similar to the above except in the straw-colour or birchen tinge, and the copper-coloured saddle. They have yeUow skins, and wiUow or yeUow legs. In this variety the cock's breast is always black, the hen's a pale fawn colour, whilst the silver hen often has a clear mealy or silver breast instead of fawn. " Ked eyes and willow legs are the only correct colours for prize Duck-wings. Bright red eyes and white legs for prize Piles. " The colour called Piles consists, in the cock, of a bright red piled on a white ground, the hackle being red and white striped ; the back is chiefly red, and the breast mostly white, but often with red markings ; the tail should be white, but a few red feathers are not amiss ; black in the tail, as seen in the Worcestershire Piles, is, however, very objectionable. The hens are red-streaked or veined on a white ground, the breast redder than the cock, and the tail white, with a few red feathers occasionally. The reddest Piles are the best birds, and prize pens should be selected with bright red eyes and white legs. " Whites should have bright red eyes, and white legs are "Black Game fowls should have black eyes and bluish black legs — have won a few cups. "Da/rk Greys ought always to have black eyes and legs. The hens are very dark. " The original wild varieties of Game fowls are three : — (1.) The Black-breasted Red, with fawn-breasted partridge hens j (2.) Brown-breasted Reds, with dark legs, and dark brown (not black) hens; and (3.) Red-breasted Ginger Reds with yellow legs, »nd the hens a light partridge colour. These three colours were probably reclaimed at a very early period, and are still found in India as wild birds. From them all the other colours were originally bred; the varieties hatching dark chickens from the brown or dark reds, and all others from the other two sorts. These varieties can be merely named, and are most conveniently classed thus, according to the colour of their chickens when hatched : — Light Chickens. 1. Whites. 2. Piles. 3. Blue Duns. 4. Bed Buna. Striped Chickens. 5. Blaok-breasted Eeds. 6. Red-breasted Ginger Beds. 7. Duck-wings. 8. Yellow Birchens. 9. Mealy Greys. Dabe Chickens. 10. Brown Eeds. 11. Dark Greys. 12. Dark Bircliens. 13. Black. "There are also four other varieties not generally known, called Red Furnaces, Cuckoos, Spangles, and Polecats, making at least seventeen well-defined sorts of Game fowls j but besides these, there are at least twenty-seven named sub-varieties, or forty-four in alL To describe these in detail would be useless, and I shall only, therefore, add the following general remarks : — " The best criterion of blood in all Game fowls is the colour of the eyes, a point which has been, strange to say, totally over- looked in every work on poultry hitherto published. Black eyes show dark blood, and the hens of such strains lay white eggs. Red eyes denote red blood, and lay pinkish eggs. Yellow or daw eyes lay yellowish eggs. These last are inferior in spirit to the others. Brown and bay eyes result from crossing different breeds. "The only sorts of much use for fighting are those with black or red eyes, and the three varieties now usually employed are the Brown-breasted Beds, Dark Greys (which are strongest and hardiest of all), and Black-breasted Beds, with white legs and dark, red eyes. The sorts which fight the quickest are, however, the Bed Cheshire Piles, with bright red eyes and white legs, the Bed-breasted Ginger Beds, with bright red eyes 124 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. and yellow legs, and Whites, -witli white legs and bright red eyes ; but they have not quite so much strength and power of endtirance. The Black-breasted Reds with willow legs are generally too slow and soft for the pit, as are the Blacks also. " The best layers are the Black-breasted Reds with willow egs, the hens being partridge colour ; and Red Cheshire Piles with white legs. The worst layers are the greys, Dark Greys' and Dark Birchen s being worst of aU. With the exception of these. Game fowls lay remarkably well, and in favourable circumstances will, I believe, surpass any breed. My wUlow- legged Black-breasted Red hens have averaged from 211 to 284 eggs per annum. To reach this, however, they will require a good run, but if well attended to, are always good layers. It is worth remarking that yellow and blue-legged birds generally lay best in all poultry. " Game cock chickens should be shown undubbed; but at their first Christmas they become 'stags,' and should then have their comb and wattles taken neatly and closely oflf with a very sharp pair of scissors. " Different varieties ought not to be crossed, but kept dis- tinct. In breeding either for stock or exhibition, nothing is so necessary as to have a good proportion of cocks. There should be one to every six hens at least ; and as in a large yard it is impossible, from their pugnacity, to keep more than one full- grown brood cock, there should be a good supply of fine young birds or 'stags' kept under him, and breeding with the hens, when all the eggs will be fecundated, and the chicks vigorous and healthy. This is the only way of breeding good stock from a large yard ; and it is of course preferable, when practicable, to keep each cock to his own limited family of hens. Pullets ought never to be bred from at all, and should be kept away from the cocks, using their eggs for household purposes. Good old birds will always breed strong chickens, and in this breed it scarcely matters how old they are so long as they remain strong and OAME. 125 healthy. The breeding pens should be selected with great care, not from the largest, but from the best-sltaped and strongest birds. The more cock chicks in a brood the better, as it is always an evidence of strength and vigour in the strain ; and the pullets, though fewer, are finer and handsomer birds invariably, "Game eggs should not be hatched before the 21st of March, nor after the end of May. This breed is of warmer blood and stronger constitution than any other, and the chicks consequently hatch earlier, often breaking the shell at the end of the nineteenth day. As soon as they begin to fight, the tjocks should be separated, and, if possible, put out to ' walk ' at a farm ; the pullets will rarely injure themselves, and their quarrels are only amusing." To the foregoing remarks of Mr. Dickens — the best descrip- tion of the breed ever .yet published — we shall only add a few sentences on the general qualities of Game fowls. Their merits are many and various. In elegance of shape, in hardihood, in bold and fearless spirit, what can equal them 1 But besides these recommendations, they rank, as already stated, in the very first class as layers, provided only they have a good run ; whilst for delicacy of flavour their flesh is confessedly beyond any comparison. They should never be fatted, being too im- patient to bear the process ; but if eaten just as taken off their runs are equal to the pheasant. They also eat little, and are therefore profitable fowls, whilst as mothers the hen is not to be equalled. She should not be given too many eggs, on account of her small size ; but she will hatch her full comple- ment, and when hatched will take good care of them, defending them against any foe to the last gasp. If there be cats in the neighbourhood commend us to a good Game hen. There are, however, a few drawbacks. The size of both birds and eggs is small, which of itself makes them of little value as^ market fowl, and in confinement the Game hen will fi-'S DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. by Eo means lay so well as Brahmaa, SJpanisli, or HamburgnSi Their pugnacious disposition also disqualifies them for small runs, though not to the extent generally supposed. On the whole, we should pronounce this breed the very one for a country gentleman, who can give his fowls ample range ; and it will in such circumstances afford a constant aud abundant supply of the most delicious eggs and meat to be obtained. Their good laying qualities may also recommend them to the farmer in some localities. But they cannot be considered a profitable breed for domestic purposes in general, or to those whose object iu poultry-keeping is to supply the market with table birds. CHAPTER XV. DORKINGS. This is a pre-eminently English breed of fowls, and is, as it always will be, a general favourite, especially with lady fanciers. The general predilection of the fair sex for Dorkings may be easily accounted for, not only by the great beauty of all the varieties, but even more perhaps by their unrivalled qualities as table-birds — a point in which ladies may be easily supposed to feel a peculiar interest. The varieties of Dorkings usually recognised are the Grey or Coloured, Silver Grey, and White. We believe the White to be the original breed, from which the coloured varieties were produced by crossing with the old Sussex or some other large coloured fowl That such was the case is almost proved by the fact that only a few years ago nothing was more uncertain than the appearance of the fifth toe in coloured chickens, even of the best strains. Such uncertainty in any important point is always an indication of mixed blood ; and that it was so in this case is shown by the result of long and careful breeding, whicib , '.,.;.. ..,/, !' ■ noiiKiNOR. 1 27 has now rendered the fifth toe permanent, and finally established tne variety. In no breed is size, form, and weight so much regarded in judging the merits of a pen. The body should be deep and full, the breast being protuberant and plump, especially in the cock, whose breast, as viewed sideways, ought to form a right angle with the lower part of his body. Both back and breast must be broad, the latter showing no approach to holiowness, and the entire general make full and plump, but neat and compact. Hence a good bii'd should weigh more than it appears to do. It is difficult to give a standard, but we consider that a cock which weighed less than 10 lbs., or a hen under 8| lbs., would stand a poor chance at a first-class show ; and cocks have been shown weighing over 14 lbs. This refers to the coloured variety. White Dorkings have degenerated, and are somewhat less. The legs must be white, with perhaps a slight rosy tinge ; and it is imperative that each foot exhibits behind the well- known double toe, perfectly developed, but not runnihg into monstrosities of any kind, as it is rather prone to do. , An excessively large toe, or a triple toe, or the fifth toe being some distance above the ordinary one, or the cock's spurs turning outward instead of inward, would be glaring faults in a show pen. The comb may, in coloured birds, be either single or double, but aU in one pen must match. The single comb of a cock should be large and perfectly erect. White Dorkings should {lave double or rose combs, broad in front at the beak, and ending in a raised point behind, with no hollow in the centre. In the Grey variety the colour is not material, so long as the two hens in the pen matcL The cock's breast may be either black or mottled with white ; the hackle, back, and saddle are usually white, more or less striped with black ; and the wing we like best to see nearly white, wi'th a well-defined 'black bar across. 12& DIFFERENT BRRED8 OF FOWI.S. In the Silver Grey Dorking, however, colour is imperative This variety, there is not the slightest doubt, was at first a chance off-shoot from the preceding, but has been perpetuated by careful breeding. Coloured birds wiU always occasionally throw silver-grey chickens, and such are sometimes exhibited as "bred" Silver Greys; but it is needless to add that disappoint* ment is sure to ensue, unless the strain has been kept pure for many g'enerations. The Silver Grey colour is as follows : — Cock's breast a pure and perfect black ; tail and larger coverts also black, with metallic reflections; head, hackle, back, and saddle feathers, pure silvery white; and the wing bow also white, showing up well a sharply-marked and brilliant bar of black across the middle. A single white feather in the tail would be fatal. Hen's breast salmon-red, shading into grey at the thighs ; head and neck silvery white striped with black, back " silver grey," the white of the quiU showing as a white streak down the centre of each feather ; wings also grey, with no shade of red ; tail dark grey, passing into black in the inside. The general appearance of both birds should be extremely clean and aristocratic. The white birds should be what their name implies — a clear, pure, and perfect white. There is generally in the cock more or less tendency to straw or cream colour on the back and wings, and we would by no means disqualify a really first-class bird in all other points on account of it; but it is decidedly a fiiult. White Dorkings are usually much smaller than the coloured, which we believe to have hindered the popularity of this truly, exquisite variety. It has often occurred to us that this defect might be easily remedied by crossing with the large Grey Dorking, and then breeding back; and on a recent visit to Linton Park we saw the experiment fairly commenced, with every prospect of success. A good white cock had been mated with some light-coloured hens, and out of the prcgeny there DORKINGS. 129 appeared six or seven pure white chiokeus, of veiy great merit. Two cockerels attracted our special attention ; they were not six months old when we saw them, but they were fully up to the Grey Dorking standard of size, and we have not the slightest doubt, when full grown, would weigh at least 12 lbs. each, whilst in colour they were quite equal to their parent. We commend this method of increasing the size to all White Dorking fanciers. We have also known a cross tried with the White Cochin, but never saw a bird so produced that was fit to look at. We cannot let the subject of size pass without alluding to the great obligations Dorking breeders are under to Mr. John Douglas. By careful selection of stock, and close attention, with probably the help of a cross, he succeeded in raising the standard of this breed at' least 2 lbs. higher than had ever been known before; and the fowls he bred have never yet been It should be remembered that Dorkings degenerate more than any variety from interbreeding ; and, if fresh blood be not introduced, rapidly decrease in size. They also suffer much from frequent exhibition, not bearing confinement well. We are, however, inclined to think that in some degree this arises from the vicious practice of over-feeding the birds, to increase their weight, before showing ; and we cannot help expressing our decided opinion that judges should always dis- qualify such an over-fed pen, however meritorious otherwise. No less is due to the public, who not unfrequehtly purchase prize pens to breed from ; for a pen in such a condition ol unhealthy fatness is not only useless at the time, but can rarely be got into really healthy condition again. We have seen a really magnificent pen of Dorkings, whose lives we would not have given three weeks' purchase for ; and which, even if they did survive, were irretrievably ruined for breeding, and ought therefore to have been condemned by the judges. J 130 DIPTERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS Dorkings are peculiarly subject to "bumble foot " — a chronic gathering, or abscess, probably first produced by the heavy birds descending on the ground from too high perches, but now it appears more or less hereditary in the breed ; at least we have seen it repeatedly in fowls never allowed to roost high enough to cause it in this way, and which had the unrestricted run of a spacious park. We believe there is no remedy but to let the abscess grow to maturity, and then remote it surgically. The operation will be successful about once out of three times. The great merit of Dorkings has already been hinted at, and consists in their" unrivalled excellence as table-fowls. In this respect we never expect to see them surpassed. The meat is not only abundant and of good quality, surpassing any other English breed except game, but is produced in greatest quantity in the choicest parts — breast, merrythought, and wings. Add to this, that no breed is so easily got into good condition for the table, and enough has been said to justify the popularity of this beautiful English fowl. It should also be noted that the hen is a most exemplary sitter and mother ; and, remaining longer with the chickens than most other varieties, is peculiarly suitable for hatching early broods. The Dorking is not, however, a good layer, except when very young; and in winter is even decidedly bad in this respect. The chickens are also of very delicate constitution when bred in confinement, and a few weeks of cold wet weather will sometimes carry off nearly a whole brood; they ought not, therefore, to be hatched before May. But it is only right to say that when allowed unlimited range the breed appears hardy, and as easy to rear as any other, if not hatched too soon. At Linton Park, ,, the chickens are all left with the hens at night, under coops / entirely open in the front ; and grow up in perfect health, whilst the old birds frequently roost in the trees. It is in confinement Jr on wet soils that they suffer, and the only way of keeping Kiem successfully in such circumstances is to pay the strictest SFAinSH. 131 attention to oloanliness and drainage, and to give them some fr»ih turf every day, in addition to other vegetable food. With these precautions, piize Dorkings have been reared in gravelled yards not containing more than 300 square feet. In fine, the breed is most valuable for the market^ or as a general fowl, on a wide and well-drained range. But we cannot recommend it to supply the table with eggs, or as a profitable fowl to be kept in a limited space. Our illustration is drawn from a magnificent pair of Grey Dorkings kindly lent for the purpose by Lady Holmesdale. CHAPTEE, XVL SPANISH. Unlike almost all other varieties, there really appears some reason for believing that this breed of fowls did originate, or at all events come to us, from Spain. It has, however, been long known and valued by amateurs in this countiy, and perhaps no other is so generally popular. This is no doubt partly owing to their truly aristocratic and haughty appearance, but no less also to their unrivalled large white eggs, which exceed in weight those of any other breed, except the lately introduced La niche, and are always sought after for the breakfast- table. Of all the varieties of this breed now known, the white- &ced Black Spanish is by far the most important, and the only one for which a special class is reserved at most poultry exhibi- tions ; all others having to be shown in the class "for any other variety." Of this truly beautiful breed the following descrip- tion has been given us, and subsequently most carefully revised by Mr. H. Lane of Bristol, weU known for his magnificent J 2 132 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. strain, and -who has probably taken more first prizes -with hi« birds than any other breeder ■within a similar period : — " The general carriage of Spanish fowls is of great import- ance. The cock especially should carry himself very stately and upright, the breast well projecting, and the tail standing well up, but not carried forward as in some birds. The sickle- feathers should be perfect and fully developed, and the whole plumage a dense jet black, with glossy reflections in the light. The hen should be equally dense in colour, but is much less glossy. Any white or speckled feathers, which now and then occur, are fatal faults. " The legs should be blue or dark lead-colour ; any approach to white is defeidedly bad.* The legs in both sexes are long, but the fowl should be nevertheless plump and heavy. I con- sider a good cock for exhibition ought not to weigh under seven pounds : the hen a pound less ; and I have had several excellent cocks which weighed eight pounds each. All Spanish fowls in really good condition are heavier than they appear to be. " The comb must be very large in both sexes, and of a bright vermilion colour. That of the hen should fall com- pletely over on one side, but the cock's comb must be perfectly upright, the slightest approach to falling over being fatal to him at a good show. The indentations also must be regular" and even, and the whole comb, though very large, quite free from any appearance of coarseness. Any sign of a twist in front is a great £iult. "The most important point, however, is the white face. This should extend as high as possible over the eye, and be as wide and deep as possible. At the top, it should be nearly arched in shapCj approaching the bottom of the comb as nearly • It is singular that the old fanciers imperatively reqmred these identical bluish white legs in prize birds; and legs of too dark a tint were often put in poultices to make them light enough I 8PAKISH. 133 as possible, and reaching eidewaya to the ear-lobes and wattles, meeting also under the throat. In texture the face ought to be as fine and smooth as possible. The ears are large and pen- dulous, and should be as white as the face. Any fowl with red specks in the face has not the slightest chance. " With regard to Spanish fowls as layers, the pullets will generally lay when six months old, and T seldom get less than five or six eggs a week from eaoL My house is warmed,* which has, of course, some influence on a breed so delicate ; but with this artificial aid, I find my pullets lay throughout the winter, as above. " The great thing with the chickens is to keep them out of the damp. They scarcely ever get roup ; but if not kept dry die away rapidly, no one knows how. They ought not, there- fore, as a rule, to be hatched very early in the year, and one sock ought not to be allowed more than three hens, as the eggs are less fertile than those of most other breeds." The following additional remarks on this fowl are compiled from information furnished us by various amateurs. Spanish are judged most of all by the quantity and quality of the " face." If this be rough and " warty " so as to hinder the sight of the bird, or have any decided red mark, especially above the eye, or be much disfigured in the same region by feathers, the bird has little chance. Such feathers are often pulled out, but if thus " trimmed" a pen ought always to be disqualified, though it is almost universally done by exhibitors. Like all other black fowls, coloured or even white feathers will occasionally happen. Such birds are hopeless to exhibit, and decidedly bad to breed from. That the comb of the cock should be absolutely erect is most important, and many breeders, to secure this, place light wire frames, or " cages," over them, as soon as sufficiently developed to hold the wire in place : the combs are thus grown * For plan and description of Mr. Lane's establishment, see Chap. VII. 134 DirrEBENT BREEDS OP FOWLS. Btraiglit, like cucumbers ! But there will rarely be need for this, if the breeding-stock be of good constitution. The hens selected for breeding should therefore be carefully chosen with good thwh combs, which spring up with some arch before they fall over the side of the head. Hens with combs that fall dead over will rarely breed strong-combed cockerels. The comb of both sexes should, howevar, get thin at the edge, or it will appear heavy and clumsy. Mr. Lane has alluded to the delicacy of the chickens. During feathering, which is in this breed a very slow process, they require special care and most generous diet, or few will be reared. When full grown, however, they are a tolerably hardy fowl altogether, but always suffer much in moulting, and during very cold or damp weather. In no breed is purity of race of so much importance as in this \ and in introducing a fresh cock it is especially needfdl to see that both his appearance and his pedigree are quite satisfactory. One of the most eminent breeders in England informed us a few months since that aU his chickens of the season had been ruined by the introduction of a fresh cock, whose face when purchased appeared perfectly white, but who had imported more or less red into every chicken hatched from him. There oan be no doubt, however, that too close interbreeding has greatly injured the Spanish fowl, and that both size, constitu- ' tion, and prolificacy have been sacrificed to the white face alone. Such a result is to be regretted j and as it is now becoming generally acknowledged and deplored, we may hope that it is not' yet too late to get back some of the size and hardihood of the Spanish fowl as formerly known.* * It was a subject of general remark that at the last Birminghain show (December, 1866) the SpaniBh fowls were larger and finer on th« whole than-had been seen for a considerable time ; and at the Bristol show a month after there was confessedly the most splendid collection of this breed that had ever been seen, as was emphatically remarked by the Judges. We hope the improvement may not be merely temporary. SFAKISH. 195 The other principal varieties of Spanish are — the Minorca, or Red-faced Black ; the White ; the Blue, or Andalusian; and the Ancoua, Grey, or Mottled breed. Minorca. — This breed resembles in comb, ears, shape, and colour of plumage, the white-fiiced breed, but considerably sur- passes it in size; and, on an average, we consider the comb more largely developed ; the legs are also shorter. A good cock ought to weigh from eight to nine pounds. It is the best layer of all the Spanish breeds, and the chickens are tolerably hardy. It is a great favourite in the West of England, and deserves to be more widely cultivated, as it far surpasses the preceding in everything except the white face. Prizes are now and then ofiFered to Minorcas, and, on one or two occasions, we have known them allowed to take honours in the general "Bkck Spanish" class; but usually they are quite overlooked by poultry judges. We think it would be well worth while to try the effect of throwing a cross of this breed into its more aristocratic rela- tive. The hen should be selected for the cross, of course — ^not only to avoid the risk of contaminating a whole strain by the experiment, but because it is chiefly size and constitution that are wanted, while the red face must be as speedily as possible "bred out" again. Let a fine Minorca hen, therefore, be put with a good white-faced cock, and her eggs care- fully kept apart. When hatched, let one or two of the puUets only which show most size and constitution be again reserved, and mated with another good cock of a different family, and so on. We have never seen the experiment tried, but beKeve a few years of this system would breed good white* faced birds, far superior in size and stamina to any of tha existing strains. White. — This breed should have a red face and white ears, as in the Minorca, which it also resembles in size, shape, and general qualities. The plumage, however, is snow-white, with- 136 DIPFEEENT BREEDS OP FOTTLS. out a single stain. All black fowls occasionally throw white chickens, and no doubt the white breed was thus accidentally originated. Straw-colour in the cook, or stains nf red in the ears, are the most common faults in this variety. AiTDALUsiAJT. — TMs must be considered a truly useful and handsome fowl, being, according to general testimony, the hardiest of all the Spanish breeds. The plumage is slaty blue, in many specimens sUghtiy laced with a darker shade, but the neck hackles and tail feathers are glossy black, and harmonise very richly with the rest. Ears white and face red, as in the Minorca. Unlike other Spa,nish chickens, these are very hardy, and feather rapidly and well, which gives them a great advan- tage. This breed appears each year to increase the number of its admirers, and may very probably attain in time to a distinct class of its own. AsoosAS. — Mottled all over, or what is called " cuckoo" colour, and look rather pretty. In all other points they resemble Minorcas, being, however, of a smaller size. The so-called " Columbian" fowl is evidently a cross between the Spanish cock and Malay hen, but would be well worth establishing as a distinct breed. The black plumage is of extra- ordinary lustre, whilst the bird is of great size and hardihood, excellent for the table, and the hen a most' prolific layer^ the eggs being also probably the very largest known. Even as a cross, such fowls are well worth keeping ; and there can be no doubt that a well-established breed combining these qualities would soon become a favourite. Spanish fowls of any kind are very little subject to roup, at least in any marked or specific form j but suffer exceedingly from cold or wet. Severe frost especially often attacks the comb and wattles, and if the bird in this state be not attended to, it will be disfigured for life. The proper treatment is to rub the affected parts with snow or cold water, exactly as in SPANISH. 137 the human subject, but not on any account to take the frost- bitten bird into a warm room until recovered. The fowls are also very long over their moult, and need special care and nourishing food at this season. They are also Uable to a peculiar disease called " black rot." The symptoms are a blackening of the comb, swelling of the legs and feet, and general wasting of the system. It can only be cured in the earlier stages by frequent doses of castor-oil, to keep up purging ; at the same time giving freely strong ale or other stimulants, with warm and nourishing food. Another singular disease occasionally occurring in this fowl has never, we believe, had any name given to it ; but the symp- tom is the occurrence, in rapid succession, of bladders under the skin, which contain however nothing but air. We believe the cause to be debility : at least, nourishing and stimulating food, pricking each vesicle as it rises, will generally effect a cure. The merit of Spanish fowls is their production of large white eggs, which are laid in great abundance in moderate weather. They are also of very good quality as table-birds. But they cannot be called good winter-layers, unless with the aid of artificial heat ; and their delicacy of constitution is a great drawback to their otherwise many merits. "We believe, however, that fanciers have this point much in their own hands; and, even in spite of such a serious fault, wherever htrge eggs are valued or desired, the Spanish will always be regarded as a most useful and profitable fowl — ^the Minorca being the best regarded from this point. As a " fimcy" fowl we believe the " white-faced" variety to be the most profitable of any, as good stock are always saleable at high prices, and oat of a dozen good eggs there are almost invariably a larger proportion of chickens fit for exhibition than can be reckoned upon in any other breed we are acquainted with. 138 DIFFEBENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. i For two or three weeks before exhibition, Spanish fowls should be allowed as much meal as they like to eat. The day before sending off, the legs should be carefully washed, and also the comb, wattles, and facej drying the latter carefully with a soft towel The feoe wiU probably get rather red under this treatment, and if so, the bird must be put for the night in a warm room, kept perfectly darle, which will make all right again. The hamper should also be carefully lined, that the birds may not take cold, and the top should be high enough to avoid any danger of injury to the combs. To send fowls of this breed to winter shows La a basket not lined, is in severe weather almost certain deatL CHAPTER XVIL HAMBUBGHS. TTmoEB the name of Hamburghs are now collected several varieties of fowls, presenting the general characteristics of rather small size, brilliant rose combs, ending in a spike behind, projecting upwards, blue legs, and beautifully pencilled or spangled plumage. None of the Hamburghs ever show any disposition to sit unless in a state of great freedom, but lay nearly every day all through the year, except during the moulting season, whence they used to be called " Dutch every- day layers." It is not our province to enter into the question of the origin of the different breeds of Hamburghs. There can be no doubt that the usual classification into simply spangled and pencilled is not sufficient to mark the distinct varieties that exist ; but our duty is to teke the classes as we find them, and describe them as they are now recognised at the leading shows ; paying special attention to the plumage, as exactness of HAMBUBQHB. 139 marking is of more importance in thia than in almost any other breed. In so doing we are glad to acknowledge the able assistance of Mr. Henry Beldon, of Goitstook, Bingley, York- shire, who at present breeds these beautiful varieties more extensively, and takes more prizes, than any one else in the kingdom. Silver-Pencilled. — The size of this exquisite breed is small, but the shape of both cock and hen peculiarly graceful and sprightly. Carriage of the cock very conceited, the tail being borne high, and carried in a graceful arch. The comb in this, as ia all the other varieties, to be rather square in front, and well peaked behind, full of spikes, and free from hollow in the centre. Ear-lobe pure white, free from red edging. Legs small and blue. The head, hackle, back, saddle, breast, and thighs of the cock should be white as driven snow. Tail black, glossed with green, the sickle and side feathers having a narrow white edging the whole length, the more even and sharply defined the better. Wings principally white, but the lower wing-coverts marked with- black, stowing a narrow indistinct bar across the wing. The secondary quills have also a glossy black spot on the end of each feather, which gives the wing a black edging. The most frequent defect in the cock is a reddish-brown patch on the wing, which is fatal. We believe this fault to occur nearly always in old birds, and remember seeing a cock which had taken thirty-seven prizes moult out thus at last, and so en(f his career as an exhibition bird. The bar on the wings i{ difficult to get, and is not imperative ; any cock with a nicely edged tail, and quite free from coloured or black markings on any part of the body, ought to stand a fair chance in exhibition, if form and comb be good. As a bird to breed from, however, he would be a failure ; as it is impossible to get well-marked pullets except from a cock with a good proportion of black onder-colour 140 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. The most frequent fault in the hen is a spotted haekle^ instead of a pure -vrhite. The rest of the body should have each feather distinctly marked, or "pencilled" across with bars of black, free from cloudiness, or, as it is called, " mossing." (See "Feathers," No. 5.) The tail feathers should be pencilled the same as the body ; but to get the quiU feathers of the wings so is rare, and a hen thus marked is unusually valuable. General form very neat, and appearance remarkably sprightly. Golden-Pencilled. — ^The form of this breed is the same as the preceding variety, and the black markings are generally similar, only grounded upon a rich golden bay colour instead of a pure white. The cock's tail should be black, the sickles and side feathers edged with bronze ; but tails bronzed all over are often seen. The bar on the wing is not imperative, or even usual, in this breed. The colour of the cock is always much darker thou that of the hens, generally approaching a rich chestnut In all pencilled Hamburghs the value chiefly depends on the exactness and definition of the markings, which ought to be a dense black, and the ground colour between quite clear. The silver is slightly the largest breed. Golden-Spangled. — Whilst the markings on pencilled Hamburghs consist of parallel bars across the feathers, the varieties we are now to consider vary fundamentally in having only one black mark at the end of each feather, forming the spangle. This black marking varies in shape, and though only one variety is recognised in each colour at poultry exhibitionB, it is quite certain that both in gold and silver there are two distinct breeds, distinguished by the shape of the spangle. The best known of the two varieties^ and the most often seen, is the breed long known in Lancashire under the name of " mooneys," from the spangles being round, or moon-shaped. The ground colour of the Golden " Mooney " Hamburghs is a rich golden bay, each of the feathers having a large circle, or HAUBUROHS. 141 moon, of rich black, having a glossy green reflection. (See "Feathers,'' !Na 4.) The hackle should be streaked vith greenish black in the middle of the feathers, and edged with gold Tail quite black, even in the hens. All the spangles should be large and regular in shape. In the cock the upper part of the breast is usually glossy black, but lower down, at least, it ought to be rich bay, and spangled like the hens. The cock of this breed is rather small in proportion to the hens. The second variety is that known chiefly in Yorkshire aa "pheasant fowls," and differs greatly in the plumage. Instead of the spangles being round, as in the " mooneys," they are crescent-shaped (See "Feathers," No. 3), approaching the character of lacing ; the marking is also seldom so sharp and definite^ being often a little " mossed." In the cock the crescent spangles on the breast run so much up the sides of the feathers as reaUy to become almost a lacing. The latter variety is the largest, hardiest, and the best layer ; but is seldom seen at shows pure-bred. The usual plan appears to be, to show mooney hens along with cocks bred between mooney and pheasant fowls. The reason of this is that the mooney cock has scarcely ever a pure ear-lobe, and generally has a dark breast j and by crossing the two breeds together, cocks are produced with spangled breasts and white ear-lobes, and altogether much larger and showier birds than the pure mooneys. It will be seen, therefore, that to breed birds for exhibition, two distinct lots must be penned up; viz., pure mooneys for the pullets, and mooneys with Yorkshire Pheasants for the cockerels ; of course choosing birds for this purpose with the best developed ear-lobes and most evenly spangled breasts. The cross thus obtained may be also used to breed cocks from, but not to breed puUets ; although of late even hens have been shown with a taint of the Yorkshire Pheasant in them, as evidenced by their white ear-lobes and 142 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. larger size. These birds show •well under cover, but when seen in full daylight are not to be compared to the true-bred mooney hen in richness of plumage. We have been careful to explaia this at length, because ignorance of it has disgusted many with this truly beautiful breed. Many a "first- prize pen " has been purchased, and the breed afterwards given up in disgust, on account of the cross in the cock not being known or understood, and the pen there- fore bred from as in other breeds. We cannot but consider such cross-breeding a great pity ; but it is encouraged by the judges, who look mainly for a white deaf-ear ; and all we can do therefore is to make the plan of breeding plain to the uninitiated. Silver-Spangled. — ^In this class two similar varieties exist. The Lancashire silver " mooney," with large round spanglea^ resembles the golden, substituting a silvery white ground colour. The outside tail feathers in the hen, however, differ from the golden mooney, being silver white, with only black moons at the tips. The moons on wing covert feathers in both sexes should form two black bars across the wings j the more regular these bars the more valuable the bird. The silver pheasant-fowl of Yorkshire has smaller spangles, and not so round, without, however, running into the crescent form of the golden pheasant-fowL The tail is white in both cock and hen, ending in black spangles. The cock's breast has also &r less spangling than the mooney breed. With regard to breeding Silver-spangled Hamburghs for exhibition, the case is still more complicated than in the golden variety, as even the silver-mooney contains two distinct sub- varieties. The purest strain breeds cocks that are hen-feathered, or marked and feathered exactly like the hen, with the excep- tion that the top feathers of the taU are rather longer. This variety formerly took all the prizes, being larger and much handsomer in marking; but the judges at Birmingham dis- EAMBUKOHS. 143 caailed them some years ago, and sinoe then they have nearly died out, being only kept up by a few of the most eminent breeders who know their real merits. There is another and fer more common variety of mooney, which breeds cocks with dark tails and reddish ear-lobes, and is probably originally a cross from the higher-bred variety just mentioned with the Yorkshire Pheasant. Be this as it may, cocks for exhibition are usually bred by mating this latter variety again with the Yorkshire Pheasant, the cross producing a cockerel which meets the requirements of the judges, having a fuU yet clear tail, and pure white ear-lobes ; it, however, lacks that depth of colour for which the true-bred mooney is conspicuous. Good pullets can also be bred firom the Lancashire dark and full- tailed cock when mated with his own hens, but not equal in either colour or size to those bred from the hen-feathered birds j which latter, however, are of little use for breeding cockerels. We cannot avoid remarking on the folly of these ingenious and yet clumsy proceedings, so opposed to real scientific breed- ing. The proper plan would have been to adopt as a basis the most perfect variety — the hen-tailed mooney — and by careful selection of breeding stock, to banish that feature when found to be objectionable, which might have been done in a few years, all other merits of marking being retained. Instead of this, we find a system which infallibly disgusts every one ignorant of its mysteries with the whole breed ; and whether judges or exhibitors are most to blame 'for it, it would be hard to decide. There is also a hen-feathered Golden Hamburgh j aiud in both colours these birds are very hardy and long-lived. But it is to be noted that Silver-spangled Hamburghs, both Lanca- shire and Yorkshire, are much better layers than the Golden birds. It aho'old be noted that many tipangled Hamburgh chickens I4l DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. are at first penciMed in the feathers, the true spangling onlj appearing with the first moult. Black HAMBUEaHS. — There is little doubt that this breed has been produced by crossing with the Spanish ; the white face often half-apparent, the larger size (cocks often weighing 7 lbs.), and the darker legs, aU betray its origin. It is, how- ever, perfectly well established as a distinct variety, and good strains breed quite true to colour and other points. In the black variety the comb of the cock is considerably larger than in the others we have noted, the wattles also being large and round. Plumage black, spangled, when seen in the light, with dark glossy green. Hens similar in plumage j but in general make rather square and heavy, with short legs, very different from the other varieties. On the whole, we can most strongly recommend Hamburghs as a profitable breed. Each hen will lay from 200 to 250 eggs in a year, which certainly exceeds the production of any other fowl ; and if they are generally small, the consumption of food is comparatively even more so. Though naturally loving a wide range, there is no real difficulty in keeping them in con- finement, if cleanliness be attended to. Last year we hatched a brood of eleven, two of which were killed, and all the re- mainder we have now. TUl three months old they had the run of the garden, since which they have been chiefly confined in a shed ; but are all in perfect health, and well repay their food. Indeed, more profitable fowls are none; whilst their varieties of barring, pencilling, or spangling, with their elegant shape, form the very perfection of bird beauty, and never fail to excite admiration. The great difficulty in keeping them arises from their erratic propensities. Small and light, they fly like birds, and oven a ten-feet fence will not retain them in a small run. They may, it is true, b|e kept in a shed ; but, if so, the numbA must be very limited. Where six Brahmas would be kept, POLANDS. 145 four Hamburghs are quite enough, and they must be kept dry and scruptdously clean. The pencilled birds are also, most certainly, delicate, being very liable to roup if exposed to cold or wet; they should not, therefore, be hatched before May. The spangled are hardy, and lay larger eggs than the pencilled; but the latter lay rather the most in number. For profit, however, we should recommend the black Hamburgh, on account of the large size of the eggs ; and this variety is certainly the most extraordinary egg-producer of all breeds known. Hamburghs are too small to figure much on the table. They carry, however, from the smallness of the bones, rather more meat than might be expected, and what there is of it is of first-rate quality and flavour. CHAPTER XVin. POLAITDS. JJiiDER the title of Folands, or Polish fowls, should be collected all varieties which are distinguished by a well-developed crest, or tuft of feathers on the top of the head. This crest invariably proceeds from a remarkable swelling or projection at the top of the skull, which contams a large portion of the brain ; and it is worthy of remark, that as the comparative size of this protube- rance invariably corresponds with that of the crest springing from it; the best crested chickens can be selected even when first hatched. It is also remarkable that the feathers ou the crest of the cock resemble those of his neck-hackles, being long and pointed, whilst those of the hen are shorter and round; and this difference forms the first means of distinguishing the res. The comb of all Polish fowig is likewise peculiar, being of K 146 DIFFERENT BREEDS OP FOWLS. what is called the two-horned character. This formation is most plainly seen in the Crevecoeurs, where the two horns are very conspicuous. In the breeds more specifically known as Polish, the comb should be almost invisible, but what there is of it will always show the bifurcated formation. Under the title of Polish fowls, might perhaps be included the CrSvecoeurs, Houdans, and Gueldres, if not La PlSche; but we shall, for convenience of reference, describe these crested fowls in a separate chapter on the French breeds, and confine our- selves here to the other tufted varieties, including the recently introduced Sultans. The following descriptions have been corrected to the latest date by Mr. Heniy Beldon, of Bingley, Yorkshire, well known as a prize-taker with these breeds. White-ceested Black. — This is the most generally known of all the varieties. The carriage of the cock, as in all Folands, is graceful and bold, with the neck thrown rather back, towards the tail ; body short, round, and plump ; legs rather short, and in colour either black or leaden blue. There should be no comb, but full wattles of a bright red ; ear-lobes a pure white. Plumage black all over the body, with bright reflections on the hackle, saddle, and taiL Crest large, tegular, and full, even in the centre, and each feather in a perfect bird we suppose of a pure white ; but there are always a few black feathers in front, and no bird is therefore to be disqualified on that account, though the fewer the better. Weight from five to six pounds. Hen very compact and plump in form. Plumage a deep rich black. Crest almost globular in shape, and in colour like the cock's. "We never yet saw a bird in whose crest there were not a few black feathers in front, and we doubt if such were ever bred. Where they do not appear, we believe the crests have always been " trimmed," and in no class does this practice 60 frequently call for the condemnation of the poultry judge. o tu a pa >^ cs ■< '"!' '*i ., f >H,^ . FOLANDS. 147 Weight of the hen four to five pounds. This variety is peculiarly delicate and subject to roup. Black-cbested White. — There is indisputable evidence that there once existed a breed of Black-crested White Polands; but, unfortunately, it is equally plain that the strain has been totally lost. The last seen appears to have been found by Mr. Brent, in 1.854, at St. Omer, and if the breed still exists at all, we believe it will be found either in France or Ireland. Its disappearance is the more to be regretted, as it seems to have been not only the most ornamental, but the largest and most valuable of all the Polish varieties. The hen described by Mr. Brent dwarfed even some Malay hens in the same yard. We believe the colour of this variety may be recovered by breeding from such birds of the kind next mentioned as show any tendency to black in the crest, and carefully selecting the darkest crested chickens. Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier did commence such an experiment, and succeeded perfectly in producing white chickens with black crests, though they always became more or less marked with white in subsequent moults. The attempt was therefore discontinued, though a few years' longer perse- verance would undoubtedly have established the strain trae to colour, in accordance with the principles laid down in Chapter YIIL But the great comparative size, which all accounts agree belonged to the old breed, we are afraid is for ever lost. White-crested White. — This breed, and those which foUow, difier from the white-crested black Polands not only in greater hardihood, but in having a weU-developed beard under the chin, in lieu of wattles. They are large fine birds, and the crest is finer and more perfect than in most other colours. They are also among the best in point of laying. The plumage needs no description, being pure white throughout. Silver Spangled — In this variety the ground colour of the plumage is a silver white, with well-defined moon-shaped black spangles. (See " Feathers," No. 4). In the cock, the hackle k2 148 DIFFERENT BREEDS OP FOWLS. feathers are white, edged and tipped with black; in the hen each hackle feather should have a spangle on the end. Tail feathers clear white, with a large spangle on the ends. The spangling on the wing coverts should be large and regular in both sexes, so as to form two well-defined bars across each wing. The proper spangling of the breast is very important. Many cocks are nearly black on the upper part, which is a great fault. The crest feathers are black at the base and tip, with white between. Crest to be full and regular, showing no vacancy in the centre. A few white feathers usually appear after the second moult in the very best bred hens, and in old birds are not a disqualification, though certainly a, fault. Ear-lobes small and white ; wattles none, being replaced by a black or spangled beard. The size of this breed is very good, weight of the cock six to seven and-a-half pounds ; hens four to five and-a-half pounds. Besides the moon-shaped spangling, birds are shown with laced feathers, that is, with an edging of black on the outline of the feathers, but thicker at the end. This marking when perfect is of exquisite beauty, and appears at present to secure most of the prizes. The hens have clear white tails, laced and spangled with black j but the cocks have generally dark tails, which takes much from their beauty. A few have, however, been shown with clear tails like the hens, but appear to find no favour with the judges, who seem to prefer the darker- looking birds, inferior in beauty as they nevertheless certainly are. From such laced birds were derived the celebrated Sebright Bantams. ' Golden- Spangled. — -This breed is similar to the preceding in the black markings, substitutiug a rich golden ground for the silver white. The tail of the cock, however, is dark bay, the sickles being tipped with black, and th.e side feathers edged evenly with the game colour. Like the preceding variety, POLANDS. 1 49 goldea-spangled Folands are also very often shown with the markings in the form of a lacing, and such are just now most popular. Bdfp or Chamois Polands are a recent introduction. This breed resembles the golden-spapgled in the colour of the ground, but the spangles present the anomaly of being white instead of black. They were first produced, there can be no doubt, by crossing the golden-spangled with white birds, and even yet they do not appear to have been thoroughly estab- lished or bred exactly true to colour. The appearance is very pretty, and the variety will no doubt become a favourite. Blue, grey, and cuckoo or speckled Polands are also occasionally shown, but are evidently either accidental occur- rences, or the result of cross-breeding, and cannot be recom- mended even to the fancier. All the bearded Folands are rather liable to grow up " hump-backed," or " lob-sided" in the body. Of course either defect is a fatal disqualification. Sultans. — This breed was introduced by the well-known Miss E. Watts, of Hampstead, and is a very ornamental bird, difieiing greatly in appearance from any of the varieties hitherto named. In size they are rather small, the cocks weighing only &om four to five pounds. They make most exquisite pets, being very tame, but at the same time brisk and lively ; and their quaint little ways never fail to afford much amuisement. They appear well adapted to confinement. The plumage is pure white, crest included, in which they therefore resemble the white Polands. They differ, however, very greatly in appearance. Their legs are very short, and feathered to the toes ; the thighs being also abundantly fur- nished, and vulture-hocked. They are likewise amply muffed and whiskered round the throat, and the tail of the cock is remarkably full and flowing. The crest differs from that of most other Polands, being more erect, and not hiding the eyes. 150 DIFFERENT BEEED8 OP FOWLS. The comb consists of two small spikes in front of the crest. The legs are also white instead of blue, and tlie foot has a fifth toe, like the Dorking fowl The adult birds appear hardy. There is a breed known as Ptarmigans, which is evidently a degenerate descendant from some former importation of Sultans. Some special precautions are necessary in rearing Polish chickens. The prominence in the skull, which supports the crest, is never completely covered with bone, and is peculiarly sensitive to injury. On this account Cochins, or other large heavy hens, should never be employed as mothers. A game hen wiU be the best. The young also fledge early and rapidly, and usually suffer severely in the process ; they therefore require an imple allowance of the most stimulating food, such as hemp- seed, meat, and bread steeped in ale ; and, above all, they miist be kept dry. Polands have certainly solid merits. They improve in appearance, at least up to the third year. In a favourable locality they are most prolific layers, never wanting to sit, and the flesh is remarkably good. They appear also peculiarly susceptible of attachment to their feeders. And lastly, they suffer remarkably little in appearance or condition from exhibition. Their great fault is a peculiar tendency to cold and roup— the white-crested black variety being the most delicate of all. The dense crest becomes during a shower saturated with water, and the fowls are thus attacked in the most vital part No birds are so affected by bad weather. In exposed or damp situations they wiU die off like rotting sheep, and it is hope- less to expect any return. They can only be kept success- fully in warm, genial situations, on well -drained ground, with a chalk or sand sub-soil, and with ample shelter to which they can resort during showers. In such circumstances they OREVECffiUBS. 161 will do well, and repay the owners by an ample supply of Mr. Hewitt cautions Polish breeders against attempting to seize their birds suddenly. The crest so obscures their vision that they are taken by surprise, and frequently so terrified as to die in the hand. They should, therefore, always be first spoken to, or otherwise made aware of their owner's approacL CHAPTER XIX.- FRENCH BREEDS. Since the fancy for poultry breeding spread in some degree to our GraUic neighbours, several remarkable breeds of fowls hava been introduced into England from France, which it wiU be convenient to describe in one chapter. They all deserve especially the careful attention of the mercantile poultry breeder, possessing as they do in a vsry high degree the im- portant points of great weight and excellent quality of flesh, with a remarkably small proportion of bones and offal. These characteristics our neighbours have assiduously cultivated with most marked success, and we cannot avoid remarking yet again on the results which might have been produced in thia country had more attention been paid to them here, instead of laying almost exclusive stress upon colour and other fimcy points. Most of the French breeds have more or less crest, which naturally places this chapter next to that on the Polish fowls. It is remarkable also that they all agree in being non-sitters^ or at least incubate but very rarely. CsEYECCEUBS. — This breed has been the longest known in England, and is the one most preferred in France for the 1S2 SifS-eeenT bseeds of fowls. 0SEVECCBUB8. 153 quantity and quality of its flesh. The full-grown cock will not unfrequently weigh 10 pounds, but 7^ to 8 pounds is a good average. In form the CrSve is very full and compact, and the legs are exceedingly short, especially in the hens, which appear almost as if they were creeping about on the ground. In accordance with this conformation, their motions are very quiet and deliberate, and they appear the most contented in confinement of any fowls we know. They do not sit, or very rarely, and are tolerable, layers of very large white The comb is in the form of two well-developed horns, surmounted by a large black crest, and giving the bird a decidedly " diabolical" appearance. Wattles full, and, like the comb, a very dark red. The throat is also furnished with ample whiskers and beard. Plumage mostly black, but in the largest and finest birds not unfrequently mixed with gold or straw on the hackle and saddle. Which is to be preferred will depend upon circum- stances. Judges at exhibitions always prefer a pure black all over; and if the object be to obtain prizes, such birds must of course be selected both for breeding and show purposes ; at the same time we should fail in our duty were we not distinctly to record our opinion that such a choice is most unfortunate, as the golden-plumaged birds are generally by far the largest and finest specimens. It should be remembered that the French have mainly brought these breeds to perfection by seeking first the useful qualities, and if our " feather-breed- ing " propensities be applied to them, we much fear that uni- formity wUl only be attained at the price of the deterioration of the strain in size and real value. The merits of the Cr6ve consist in its edible qualities, early maturity, the feciUty with which it can be both kept and reared in confinement, and the fine large size of its eggs. The 1S4 DIFFERENT BBEGDS OF FOWLS. hen. is, however, only a moderate layer, and the eggs are often sterile, while the breed is rather delicate in this country, being subject to roup, gapes, and throat diseases. This delicacy of constitution appears to improve somewhat as the fowls get acclimatised, and we should, therefore, recommend good English- bred rather than imported birds. Altogether, we do not recom- mend the Creve as a good breed for general domestic purposes ; but it is certainly a splendid fowl for either table or market, and as such, especially on a large scale, in favourable localities, well repay the breeder. Our engraving was drawn in France from remarkably good and perfect specimens. La FijiCHE. — In appearance this breed resembles the Spanish, from which we believe it to have been at least partly derived. It exceeds that breed, however, in size, the cock often weighing from eight to even ten pounds. Both sexes have a large, long body, standing on long and powerful legs, and always weighing more than it appears, on account of the dense and close-fitting plumage. The legs are slate- colour, turning with age to a leaden grey. The plumage resembles the Spanish, being a dense black with green reflec- tions. The look of the head is peculiar, the comb being not only two-homed, much like the Crfevecoeur, near the top of the head, but also appearing in the form of two little studs or points just in front of the nostrils. The head used to be sur- mounted by a rudimentary black crest, but English fanciers very soon bred this out, and the presence of crest is now con. sidered a disqualification at all good shows. The wattles are very long and pendulous, of a brilliant red colour, like the comb. The ear-lobes are dead white, like the Spanish, and exceedingly developed, meeting under the neck in good speci- mens. In fact, no breed could show stronger traces of its Spanish origin. LA niiCBtf. m The appearance of the La Flfeohe fowl is very bold and in- telligent, and its habits active and lively ; at the same time it does not appear to thrive well in our climate. The hen is an excellent layer of very large white eggs, and does not sit. The Iia Fl%clie Cockerel, flesh is excellent, and the fine white transparent skin makes a very favourable appearance on the table, which is only marred by the dark legs. The breed is, however, very delicate, and does not lay well in winter, except in favourable circumstances. Altogether, it is decidedly less suitable than the preceding for 1S6 filFPERENT BftEEDg OP fOWLS. domestic purposes, but still most valuable as a table fowL Aa an egg producer, it is as nearly as possible similar to the Spanish, not only in the size and number of the eggs, but the seasons and circumstances in which they may be expected. In La Fl^che Pullet. juiciness and flavour the flesh approaches nearer to that of the Gams Fowl than any other breed we know. The cocks sufier much from leg weakness and disease of the knee-joint, and do not bear the fatigue and excitement of exhibition so well as most fowls. They require, thereforck special care, and the moderate use of stimulants. HouDANS. — This' fowl in many respects resembles the Dork- HOUDANS. 157 ing, and Dorking blood has evidently assisted in its formation. We believe that a cross between the latter and a white Poland would not be very wide of the mark. Houdans have .the size deep compact body, short legs, and fifth toe of the Dorking, Houjdau Cock. which in form they closely resemble, but with much less ofife,! and smaller bones. The plumage varies considerably, but is most usually white, with lai^e black spangles, the size of a shilling in many specimens. We should certainly like to see iii& spangling reduced in size of the markings, but sincerely hope this will not be sought at the expense of weight, In which 158 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. the Houdan is pre-eminent among the French breeds. We feel certain that by breeding for this more useful quality the fowl may be reared to a greater weight than even the coloured Dorking; we have ourselves seen hens which weighed ten pounds, but such a size is not common, and very small speci- Eoudon Hen. mens are more often seen at exhibitions than of the other French varieties. The head should be surmounted by a good Polish crest of black and white feathers. The wattles are pendent and well developed, and the comb is the most peculiar in formation of all the French breeds, resemlbling, as has been said, the two leaves of a book opened, with a long strawberry in the centre ; in the hen it should be very small and rudimentary. Imported Houdans frequently want the fifth toe, evidently BKEDAr OR GUELDRBS, 159 160 DIFFERENT BREEDS OP FOWLS. derived from the Dorking ; and it might at this early period ba easily bred out. We cannot but express our regret this should not be done, regarding it, as we do, not only as an eyesore, but in our opinion more or less connected with the diseased foot of the Dorking fowl. The aim of fanciers, however, seems to be to ensure the additional toe by careful selection, and in a few years it will be established as an indelible feature. With respect to the merits of Houdans, we have no hesita- tion in pronouncing them one of the most valuable breeds ever introduced into this country ; and in this judgment we are fully corroborated by Mr. F. H. Schroder, of the National Poultry Company, who expressed to us his strong opinion 'that in general usefulness Houdans surpassed all the French varieties, to which the company devote their principal attention. We have in this breed the size, form, and quality of the Dorking, with earlier maturity. The hen is a most prolific layer of good- sized eggs, which will almost invariably be io\uid/eMe — a point the Dorking is very deficient in, as all prize breeders know to their cost. The chickens feather very rapidly and early, but are nevertheless exceedingly hardy, perhaps more so than any except Cochins or Brahmas, and are therefore easily reared with little loss. They are emphatically the fowl for a farmer, and will yield an ample profit on good feeding, both in eggs and flesh. Almost their only drawback is their refusal to incubate. Many, however, will consider this an advantage. The bird will bear a moderate amount of confinement well, but in this respect is not quite equal to the Crevecoeur. Bkeda or Gueldbes. — This fowl is of exceedingly well- proportioned shape, with a wide, full, prominent breast, The head carries a small top-knot, and surmounts a rather short, thick neck. The comb is very peculiar, being hollowed or depressed instead of projecting, which gives to the head a most singular expression. Cheeks and ear-lobes red ; wattles ditto, and in the cock very long and pendulous. LA BRESSE. 161 The thighs are well furnished and vulture-hocked, and the «hanks of the legs feathered to the toes, though not very heavily. The plumage varies, black, white, and cuckoo or mottled, being most seen. The cuckoo-coloured are known exclusively by the name of " Gueldres," and the black bear chiefly the name of Bredas ; but it is much to be desired that one name should be given to the whole class, with simply a prefix to denote the colour. We prefer ourselves the black variety, the plumage of which is beautifully deep and rich in tone, with a bronze lustre ; but Mr. F. Schroder, who thinks highly of the breed, prefers the cuckoo or Gueldres fowl. This is quite matter of fancy, all the colours being alike in economic qualities. The flesh is excellent and tolerably plentiful, very large cocks weighing as much, as eight or nine pounds. They are very good layers, and the eggs are large ; like the other French breeds, the hens do not sit. The chickens are hardy, and the breed is decidedly useful and well adaptted to the English climate. Our illustration is drawn from a very good pair of the Black or Breda variety. La Bbessk — ^This fowl is hardy and large, but we cannot^ at present at least, consider it as a distinct or established breed. The birds are all colours without distinction, presenting exactly the appearance of very large and fine barn-door or cross-bred fowls ; and we believe that it is, in fact, no breed, but a mix- ture of fine specimens of difierent races. A few years' breeding in England will decide this, and may possibly produce some uniformity in colour. At present we can only say that the shape and size should be as nearly as possible that of the Grey Dorking, while the colour may be anything. Of course, in an exhibition pen the two hens must match. Mr. Schroder com- mended the La Bresse fowl to us as pre-eminent for its early maturity and fattening qualities, and we should consider it a valuable addition to our farm-yard stock. By the fiajicier it will b« little prized. L 162 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWL& It will be seen that the French breeds are eminently table fowls ; and it is worthy of remark that by breeding for edible qualities, without paying over-much attention to feather or other fancy points, our neighbours have succeeded in producing bu-ds for superior to any EngUsh breed — ^we will not say in quality, so long as Game and Dorking are left us — but in smallness of bone and offal. We should hope that the lesson may not be lost upon our breeders, and that poultry committees may be led to afford somewhat more encouragement than they have hitherto done to the cultivation of size and general proportion, with a view to the table, as distinguished from mere artificial or fancy qualities. Of all the French breeds we should ourselves give the first rank to the Houdan, on account of its great hardihood and plentiful production of eggs. Next in value we would place Gueldres and La FlSche. The CrSves, beautifully heavy birds as they are, we consider too delicate in our climate ever to become a general favourite. Others, however, would place them first ; and as we have endeavoured to state fairly all points bearing on the subject, we must leave the reader to form his own judgment and make his own comparison. One thing is certain, that all these fowls are composite — are artificially created ; and it would be well if a little more enterprising experiment in tiiis direction were made by English breeders. CHAPTER XX. BANTAMS. There is not the slightest reason for supposing that any of the diminutive fowls known as Bantams are descended from an original wild stock. They are in many cases the exact counterparts of ordinary domestic breeds, carefully dwarted BANTAMS. 163 and peribcted by the art of man ; and even where this is not 80, the process by which they were produced is occasionally on record. They are, in fact, more than any other class, "artificial fowls," and their attractiveness consists rather in their beauty than in any economic value. We can only enumerate and give descriptions of the principal varieties, as drawn up under the able supervision of the Rev. G. S. Cruwys, of Tiverton, long celebrated for his success as an exhibitor and breeder of these beautiful birds. Sebrights. — Cock not to exceed twenty, and hen sixteen ounces. For exhibition still less is preferable, but not fov breeding. Carriage of the cock, the most conceited it is pos- sible to conceive of; head thrown back till it touches the nearly upright tail ; wings drooping halfway down the legs ; motions restless and lively, always strutting about as if seeking for antagonists. The "bird is, in fact, " game to the back- bone," and will attack the largest fowl with the utmost impudence. Plumage close and compact, and every feather laced with black all round the edge. The shoulder and tail coverts are the parts most likely to be faulty in this ; but in first-class birds every single feather must be properly edged right up to the head. This part usually appears darker from the smaller size of the feathers; but the nearer the head is to the rest of the body in colour the better. The only exceptions allowable in the lacing are on the primary quills or flight- feathers of the wings, which should have a clear ground, and be only tipped with black. The tail feathers ought to be laced, and in the hen must be so ; but in the cock this is rather rare. In his case a clear ground colour throughout, nicely tipped with black, may be allowed to pass instead. The cock must be perfectly herirfeaihered throughout, his tail not only square and straight, without sickles, but the neck and saddle-hackles resembling those of the heo. Mr. Hewitt. 164 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. however, a most eminent authority on this breed, remarks that while this is imperative for exhibition, he has always found such cocks nearly or quite sterile, probably in con- sequence of the long interbreeding necessary to maintain the strain in perfection. He recommends, therefore, that a cock for breeding should show a moderate approach to sickle-feather- ing, when the eggs will become productive. The comb should be a perfect rose, with a neat spike behind, pointing rather upward, free from any depression, and rather livid in colour. Face round the eye rather dark. Eye itself a sparkling dark red. The ear is supposed to be white, but Mr. Hewitt remarks that he never found it so without a great falling oS in the lacing of the plumage, and a bluish tinge is as near an approach to it as can be safely obtained. Bill slate-coloTired ; legs blue and clean. There are two varieties. In the gold-laced the ground colour is a rich golden yellow. In the silver-laced, a pure white. In both cases the ground must be perfectly clear and unsullied, varied only by the clear black line round each feather, which constitutes the lacing. (See plate of "Feathers,"' No. 2.) Lately the Silver Sebrights have shown a decided golden tinge, which greatly mars their beauty, and which may have arisen from an opinion frequently expressed by a well- known breeder, that the clearest birds were bred from a cross between the gold and sUver-laced. If this be the case, the sooner such an opinion is exploded the better, as it has already half ruined the beautiftil silver breed. "With respect to the breeding of Sebrights, Mr. Hewitt makes two further remarks. First, that although at three years old the birds become more or less grizzled with white, and therefore greatly deteriorated for exhibition, the stock then produced from them is frequently fiir superior ; and secondly, strange as the fact may seem, that better marked birds are usually obtained by mating a heavily-laced cook with a hen BASTAUS. 166 scarcely sufficiently marked, than when both parents are perfect in their plumage. Game. — In Game Bantams the plumage is precisely similar to the corresponding varieties of the Game fowl, from which they were undoubtedly obtained by long interbreeding, and continually selecting the smallest specimens, occasionally, perhaps, crossing with a Bantam to expedite the process. The carriage and form must also be similar, and the drooping wing, so common in other Bantams, would infallibly disqualify a pen of Grame. In courage and "bottom" Game Bantams are not behind their larger relatives. In constitution they are the hardiest of all Bantam breeds. In weight the cock must not exceed one and a half pounds, or the hen twenty ounces. Black. — This is at present one of the most popular Bantam classes. The plumage is a uniform black, with no trace of rust, or any other colour, and, in the cock, with a bright lustre like that of the Spanish fowl. Tail of the cock full and well arched ; legs short, dark blue or black in colour, and perfectly clean. Comb a bright red rose. Ear-lobes white; face red, in the latter points resembling the Minorca fowL Cock not to exceed twenty, hen eighteen ounces. Black feather-legged Bantams have now and then been shown, but never yet established a footing. Fashion changes, however; and novelties being now much sought after, we are inclined to believe that a good feather-legged black-breed would speedily become a favourite. White. — ^This breed should be as small as possible, never exceeding two pounds per pair. Except that the legs are white and delicate, all other points are similar to the Black Bantam, changing the colour of the plumage from black to a spotless white. It should, however, be remembered that while the white ear-lobe is required by most judges, as in the black variety, there are some who prefer a rfd, and this latter we 166 DIFFERENT BBEEDR OF FOWLS. must express ovir own decided opinion is much the smartest looking, and harmonises better with the white plumage. The most usual fault is a yellowish colour in the cock's saddla A single comb is, of course, fatal A very pretty feather-legged White Bantam is not im- frequently seen, and, though long neglected, appears to be coming into fashion again. They are usually rather too large, and attention will have to be paid to this particular if the breed is to become popular. Nankin. — This is one of the old breeds of Bantams, and at one time nearly disappeared, but attempts have been recently made to re-introduce it. The grouiid colour is a pale orange yellow, usually with a little pencilling on -the hackle. The best tail, to our fancy, is a pure black, with the coverts slightly bronzed. The comb is rosej and the dark legs should be perfectly clean. Pekin or Cochin Bantams. — This most remarkable of aD Bantam breeds has only been introduced a few years, the original progenitors having been stolen from the Summer Palace at Pekin during the Chinese war. They were first shown in 1863. They exactly resemble Buff Cochins in colour and form, possessing the feather-leg, abundant fluff, and all the other characteristics of the parent breed in full perfection, and presenting a most singular appearance. They are not yet common, and the interbreeding necessitated by only one origi- nal stock existing, has caused much sterility and constitutional weakness. The strongest birds have been bred by crossing with other feather-legged Bantams to introduce fresh blood, and then breeding back to the pure strain. Pekin Bantams are very tame, and make excellent pets. Japanese. — This is the only addition to our poultry-yards yet imported from Japan, though we should hope yet to receive from that country some accessions also to our larger kinds. The Japanese Bantam is very short-legged, and differs from most of the older varieties in having a very large single comb. The THE "various" class. 167 colour varies. They are often shown mottled or cuckoo- coloured, but what we like best is a pure white body with glossy, jet-black tail. Bantam chickens require a little more animal food than other fowls, and, for a week or two, rather extra care to keep them dry. After that they are reared as easily as other fowls, and should indeed be rather sccmiily fed to keep down the size. The hens are good mothers, and are often employed to rear small game; and are not bad layers, if the eggs were only larger. "We believe them, however, to produce quite as much for their food as ordinary breeds. But their chief use is in the garden, where they eat many slugs and insects, with very little diimage. On this account they may be usefully and profitably kept where a separate poultry-yard is found impracticable. We should prefer the Game variety, as being hardiest ; and, being good foragers, five or six of these may be kept in a garden for almost nothing, requiring only a house two feet square to roost and lay in. Bantam eggs are the very thing to tempt the appetite of an invalid, and are just nicely cooked by pouring boiling water over them upon the breakfast-table. CHAPTER XXI. THE "various" class. Under this heading we propose to describe, shortly, the principal breeds of poultry which usually appear in the class " for any other variety " at our shows, but have never established their claim to a special class of their own. For the most part these breeds have little economic value, but are too well marked in their characteristics to be entirely passed by. DuHFiES, OR Cheepers. — ^This is probably the most usefiil variety of any mentioned in this chapter, and under various names, such as Go Laighs and Bakies, has long been known 168 DlPfEREN'r BftEfibS OF fOWLB, and valued in Scotland, though never popular in this country. The principal characteristic is the extreme shortness of the shank, or leg bone, which should not exceed two inches from the hock joint to the ground. In other respects they most resemble Dorkings, lacking, however, the fifth toe, and being far more hardy than that variety. The hens are good layers of rather large eggs, and as mothers cannot be surpassed. The plumage is generally an irregular speckle, and it is difficult to get them any uniform colour. The cock should weigh six or seven and the hen five or six pounds. Dumpies certainly deserve to be better known. They have no particular faults, and, combining as they do very fair laying with great hardiness and first-class edible qualities, they must be considered decidedly profitable fowls. Their extreme short* ness of leg also points out their value as a cross to correct the " stUtiness " of some of our larger breeds, whilst the white- ness and quality of the flesh would be improved at the same time. Redcaps. — This must also be regarded as a profitable fowl. It is a kind of Golden-spangled Hamburgh, with the difiference of being almost as large as a Dorking, and having the rose comb most prodigiously developed, that of the cock being often three inches across, and too heavy to stand upright. They cannot therefore be regarded as ornamental, which is probably the reason they do not meet with much general approval, being moreover often dark on the breast^ and far inferior to the Hamburghs in beauty of marking. But they are enormous layers, not to be surpassed by any variety; and, with the advantage of a large, plump body, we must pronounce them to be in economic value equal to any we know. They are hardy and easily reared, but not often met with except in York- shire, whence they should be procured if a good stock is desired. SiLKT, OB Negro Fowls. — This breed possesses two distinct peculiarities. The webs of the feathers have no adhesion, and SILET FOWLS. 169 the plumage is therefore " silky," or conaisting of a number of single filaments, which makes the bird appear much larger than it really is, the actual weight of the cock being generally under three pounds, and of the hen about two pounds. The colour is usually pure white, but other colours are occasionally seen. The second peculiarity is the dark tint of the bones and skin, from which the name of " negro " fowls is derived. The skin is of a ^ery dark violet colour, approaching to black, even the comb and wattles being a dull dark purple. The bones also are covered with a nearly black membrane, which makes the fowl anything but pleasant to look at upon the table ; but if the natural Silky Fowls. repugnance to this can be overcome, the meat itself is white, and very good eating, indeed superior to that of most other breeds. The plumage is often so excessively developed as to give the birds a most grotesque appearance. Our illustration is not in the least exaggerated, and is a good representation of many specimens of the breed. l?0 tolFFERENf 6REEDS 01? POWLS. The comb varies in shape ; but a Malay comb is best. There is generally a small crest on the top of the head. The legs are mostly well feathered to the ground, and often have five toes ; but neither point is universal. The sole value of the Silky Fowl is as a mother to Banlam, or other small and delicate chickens, such as pheasants or partridges. For such purposes they are unequalled, the loose long plumage affording the most perfect shelter possible. They are, of course, peculiarly susceptible to cold or wet, and have no other value than that stated, except from their singular and not unornamental appearance. The Emu, or Silky Cochin is an occasional sport from the ordinary Cochin fowl. The plumage resembles that of the preceding variety ; but in every ,other point the fowl is a true- bred Cochin. The loose feathering being no real protection from wet, this breed, like the other, is very delicate in our climate. Fbizzled Fowls present a most remarkable appearance, every feather in good specimens being cui-ved, or turned back from the body, so as to show a portion of the under side, like the curved feathers in the tail of a common drake. The colour of the plumage is generally white, with single combs; but double combs and various colours are also seen. Frizzled fowls are, as might be supposed, exceedingly deli- cate, and most uncertain layers. The flesh is also inferior, and they have therefore no economic value, whilst they cannot even be termed ornamental. Their only recommendation is their singularity, in which certainly it would be very hard to surpass them. E.UMPLESS Fowls are of various colour.^, the only essential characteristic being the absolute want of a tail, or of any approach to one. It is, indeed, exceedingly difficult to breed any particular colour, as few persons have interest in the breed sufficient to persevere long enough for securing uniformity. The handsomest are white : black also looks well ; but speckled are BABN DOOK. 1?1 172 DIFFERENT BREEDS OP FOWLS. most common. The size also varies very much, ranging from three to seven pounds each. In this variety not only are the tail feathers absent, but the caudal vertebrae are either wanting altogether, or only rudimentary. The hens are usually very fair layers, sitters, and mothers, and of average quality for the table ; the eggs, however, are very apt to prove sterile. On the whole, the breed has few decided faults, and is hardy ; the only reason, we suppose, that it is not generally bred, being that birds certainly look handsomer with a tail than without one. Russians. — This breed is mostly kept in Scotland. It is decidedly a "rough-looking" fowl, being ornamented with tufts of feathers on each jaw, and an abundant beard under the chin. The colour is generally white or buff ; but black is also seen, with mixed colours also ; the most valuable are spangled like Hamburghs. On the whole, this is a good useful fowl, .the flesh being satisfactory, whilst the hens are good layers and rather small eaters. The breed is hardy. Other fowls are occasionally shown, but do not require special notice, and we believe are very often mere accidental offshoots, or crosses, from well-known breeds. Some few, such as Rangoons and Chittagongs, are evidently chiefly Malay in their parentage ; but fowls are constantly shown in the class for "any other distinct varieties" which would defy any attempt to describe their origin. When the parentage is evident, the principal value of such specimens is to show the effect of crossing, in which respect they are often useful This part of poultry-breeding is too much neglected. By it in a great measure has all other agricultural stock been brought to its present perfection ; and when steady effort shall be made to combine the qualities of some of our best varieties, establishing the strain afterwards by careful selection, we believe we shall have a breed of fowls which in size, prolificacy, and edible qualities united, will surpass any kind hitherto known. 173 AMERICAN FOWLS Since the early editions of this Work were published, several breeds have been introduced into England from America. They are all of the " useful " type, rather than the ornamental ; but one of them, at least, is rapidly becoming a favourite, and an " American " class at shows is almost always well filled. DoMiNiquES are probably one of the oldest varieties, being only a fixed type of those " Cuckoo " fowls which have always been such favourites with hen-wives. They resemble, in fact, the Cuckoo-coloured fowls known as Scotch Greys, with the exception of having rose-combs and yellow legs. They are plump and tender on the table, and capital layers, and might make a valuable cross for the Cuckoo Dorking. They are, in our opinion, never likely to make a popular variety for showing j but we know several who have kept them for their merely useful qualities, and in no one case has there been disappoint- ment in this respect. Leghorns much resemble in body a small Spanish fowl, having the same large combs (upright in the cocks and falling over in the hens). They have, however, red faces like Minorcas, with a white deaf-ear much smaller than those of Spanish, and all the varieties have bright yellow legs. There are White, Cuckoo-colovired or Dominique, and Brown breeds, the latter the same colour in both sexes as our Black-breasted Bed Gramea All are hardy, and the Tnost astonishing layers we know, averaging over 200 eggs per a,nniim in many cases. The colours are about alike in economic value : in America th« 174 DIFFERENT BREEDS OF FOWLS. Brown Leghorns axe much the most popular, and realise high prices ; but in England, so far, the White variety has met with by far the most cordial reception. The Leghorn was undoubt- edly imported from the Mediterranean, and its extreme hardi- ness is therefore remarkable. The only mishap to which it ia subject is the large comb , becoming frost-bitten, which many Americans guard against by dubbing. It is a non-sitting breed, and lays the largest egg for its size of any fowl we know. Its economic value may be described as that of a Hamburgh, but laying a much larger egg, besides being — what the Hamburgh is not — ^well adapted for confinement. Plymouth Rocks are apparently only a cross between Dominiques and Cochins. They nearly resemble Cuckoo Cocliins in all but having clean legs ; and we have seen traces of feather which make this distinction doubtful. We cannot speak very highly of this variety as yet, as it appears to breed with little certainty, and to be far from a good layer. Even in America this breed has never become extensively popular, and can only be recommended to those who desire a large bird of the Asiatic type without tho accompaniment of leg-feather. TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATERFOWL CHAPTER XXII. TURKEYS. GUINEA-FOWL. PEA-FOWL. Turkeys. — The most opposite opinions have been expressed by different breeders as to whether or not the rearing of turkeys in England can be made profitable ; and the gsneral judgment we are bound to say, seems to be that they can barely be made to repay the cost of their food. There are not wanting, how- ever, those who from their own experience maintain the contrary ; and we believe that where the balance-sheet is unsatisfactory, the cause will generally be found in heavy losses from want of care. The usual mortality in turkey chicks is tremendous, and quite sufficient to eat up any possible amount of profit ; but there are many persons who for years have reared eoery chick; sLnd, under these circumstances, they will yield a very fair return. Without depending upon any one single breeder, we have taken much pains to gather, from the best authorities, the essentiab of such successful management ; and wherever our directions shall be found to differ from others previously pub- lished, the reader may rely with confidence that the treatment given is such as has been thoroughly tested and proved to give the best results. The first main point to remember is, that for about the 176 TURKEYS, OKNAMENTAL FOULTRT. AND WATERFOWL. first six weeks or two months the turkey chicks are excesdvely delicate, and that the very slightest shower, even in warm weather, will often carry off half of a large brood. When aboat two months old, however, the red naked protuberances about the neck and throat begin to appear, and as soon as these are feirly developed, the cMcks become poults, and are soon hardier than any other fowl, braving any weather with impunity. It is therefore well worth while, and absolutely necessary to pecuniary success, to provide special shelter for the young broods during the critical period, ordinary poultry accommo- dation being insufficient. Even damp ground is so fatal that a boarded floor is advisable. When any number are to be reared — and we certainly cannot recommend for profit the rearing of turkeys on a »mall scale — we should advise the erection of either a very spacious shed, floored with plank, or a large building of one storey high, to be devoted entirely during the season to the turkey stock. Of course, by a buUding we mean a mere shell of four bare walls, well roofed, and well lighted With shelter of this kind there hardly need be a chick lost, except fi'om accident. It has been stated by many that the number of hens allowed to a turkey cock maybe unlimited; and it certainly does appear indisputable that one visit to the cock is sufficient to render fertile all the eggs laid by a turkey hen. The best breeders, however, affirm that as the number of hens allowed to one bird approaches a score, the chicks show falUng off in consti- tution; and the number ought therefore to be limited to twelve or fifteen — quite enough brood stock for even a large establish- ment. The turkey cock may be used for breeding at two years old, and the hen at twelve months, but are not in their prime tiU a year older. They wiU be first-class breeding stock, as a rule, for at least two years later, and many cocks in particular will breed splendid chickens for considerably longer; TURKEYi. 177 a good bird should not therefore be discarded till his progeny show symptoms of degeneracy. The size of the hens is of special importance, much more than that of the cock, in ■whom good shape, strength, and spirit are of more value, if combined with a fair good size. The turkey-hen generally lays about eighteen eggs — some- times only ten or a dozen, and when each egg has been taken away when laid, it may be more. We once heard of ninety eggs being laid by a turkey-hen, but can scarcely credit such a statement. A very good plan is to give a turkey's first seven eggs to a common hen — quite as many as she can cover — ^when there wUl be generally just abou'; enough laid subsequently to be hatched by the turkey herself. The best time to hatch the chicks out is in the months of May and June, or even July ; and all eggs set should be marked, as the turkey often lays, several after commencing incubation. In a state of nature, the turkey-cock is constantly seeking to destroy both the eggs and chickens, which the female as sedulously endeavours to conceal from him. There is generally more or less of the same disposition when domesticated, and, when it appears, it must be carefully provided against ; but the behaviour of very many cocks is quite unexceptionable j and as such a quiet disposition saves a great deal of trouble, it is always worth while to ascertain the character of the cock of the year in this respect. If he be friendly to the chicks and sitting • hens, he n[iay be left at large ; if otherwise, he must be kept away. The turkey-hen is \ery prudish, but gives scarcely any trouble while sitting. She sits so constantly that it is needful to remove her daily from her nest to feed, or she would absolutely starve. Nevertheless, when absent she is apt to be forgetful, and therefore, if allowed to range at liberty, care should be taken that she returns in time — twenty minutes. A better plan, however, in to let her have her liberty only in a M 178 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AND WATEK-FOWL. confined run of grass. Besides her daily feed, a water vessel and some soft food should be always within her reach. No one must visit the hatching-house but the regular attendant^ or the hens will get startled, and probably break many eggs, which easily happens, from the great weight of the birds. Many have alleged that the turkey sits thirty-one days. This is an error. The chicks break the shell from the twenty- sixth to the twenty-ninth day, scarcely ever later. The day but one before the hatching is expected, the hen. should be plentifully fed, the nest cleaned of any dung or feathers during her absence, and an ample supply of food and water placed where she can reach it, as she m/ust not again he distwrhed till the chicks are out. In dry weather, if the nest be in a dry place, the eggs will have been daily sprinkled as described in .Chapter IV. With these precautions, there will rarely fail to be a good hatch. The egg-shells may be cleared away after hatching haa pro- ceeded some hours, but the chicks should never he taken away ■ from the hen, and never he forced to eat. The latter practice is very general, as turkey chicks are very stupid, and do not seem to know how to peck. But a much better plan is to put two ordinary hen's eggs under the turkey, five or six days after she began to sit, which will then hatch about the same time as her own, and the little chickens will teach the young turkeys, quite soon enough, what they should do. "Water or mUk may be given, however, by dipping the tips of the finger or a camel- hair pencil in the fluid, and applying it to the end of their beaks. The usual feeding is oatmeal and bread-crumbs, mixed with boiled nettles. Such food is not good, as turkey chickens for a few weeks have a great tendency to diarrhoea, which the oatmeal rather increases, and the result is a weakening of the igrstem, and frequently many deaths. The very best feeding at first — say for a week— is hard-boiled eggs, chopped snmll. TURKEYS. 179 mixed with nothing but minced dcmdelion. With regard to the choice of this herb, Mr. Trotter — who was the first to stvdy turkey treatment rationally — and after him many others, have observed that, when at liberty, the young birds invariably choose the dandelion before all other green food, and it probably serves to keep the bowels in proper order. Wlien dandelions cannot be obtained — and it is well worth while to grow them wherfa turkeys are reared — ^boiled nettles chopped fine are perhaps the best substitute. At the end of a week or ten days some bread-crumbs and barley-meal may gradually be added to the egg, which may be by degrees lessened, until quite discontinued at the end of three weeks. About this time, a portion of boiled potato forms an excellent addition to the food, and by degrees some small grain may be added also — ^in fact, assimilating the diet very much to that of other poultry. Curds also are excellent as a portion of the dietary, but must be squeezed very dry before they are given. They are easiest prepared by adding a pinch of alum to a quart of milk slightly warmed. By this feeding, the little chicks will get well through their first great danger — the tendency to diarrhoea already alluded to ; and the cost of the egg will be repaid by the extra number reared. The second penl to be guarded against is cold and damp : a wetting is absolutely /otoi. The chicks should be kept entirely nnder the shed, on a board floor kept scrupulously clean and nicely sanded, except during settled sunny weather, when they may be allowed a little liberty on the grains, after the dew is quite dry. But in cold or windy weather, however fine, they must be kept in the shed, and well screened from the wind. If there be a one-storey building, their best place will be the top floor, the bottom being devoted to the sitting hens and other adult stock. Their water also must be so supplied that they cannot wet themselves by any possibility ; and these precau- u 2 180 TURKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POtJLTRT, AND WATER-FOWL. tions must be continued till they are nine or ten weeks old, when they will begin to " put out the red," as it is called, or to develop the singular red excrescences on the neck so charac- teristic of the turkey breed. This process will last some little time, and when completed the birds will be pretty fully fledged. They are now hardy, but must not be too suddenly exposed to rain Or cold winds. Take some reasonable care of them for a while longer, and very soon they will have become the hardiest birds known in the poultry-yard, braving with impunity the fiercest storms, and even preferring, if permitted, to roost on high trees through the depth of winter. In fact, turkeys will rarely roost in a fowl-house ; and a very high open shed should therefore be provided — the higher the better — the perches being placed as high as possible. They might be left to their natural inclination with perfect safety so far as their general health is concerned ; but in very severe weather their feet, if roosting on sxposed trees, are apt to become frost-bitten. To attain great size, animal food and good feeding generally must be supplied from the first. By this means astonishing weights have been attained ; we knew of a cock which weighed very nearly /ori p o f 'XittSBSK,?!^^'-- GEESE. 197 attention they need none, beyond the precaution of keeping them in until they have laid every morning. This is necessary, as the Duck is veiy careless about laying, and if left at liberty will often drop her eggs in the water whilst swimming. Our illustration is drawn from the Birmingham prize birds of last year. G-EESK — "Of the two principal breeds of geese," Mr. Fowler writes, " I very much prefer the Grey or Toulouse to the White or Embden, being larger and handsomer. I have had a Toulouse gander which weighed thirty-four pounds, a weight never, I am sure, attained by the White breed. They are also better shaped, as a rule, and every way the more profitable variety. The forehead should be flat, and the bill a clear orange red. The plumage is a rich brown, passing into white on the under parts and tail coverts. " The Embden Gtoose is pure white in every feather, and ^e eye should show a peculiar blue colour in the iris in all well-bred birds." We should recommend for market to cross the Toulouse Goose with the White, by which greater weight is gained than in either variety pure-bred; but much will depend upon circumstances. White or cross-bred geese require a pond, but the Toulouse, with a good gi-ass run, will do well with only a trough of water, and will require no extra feeding, except for fattening or exhibition. The only foreign varieties requiring mention are the Chinese and the Canada geese, both of which appear to be really mid- way between the geese proper and the swans, which they resemble in length of neck. The Chinese Groose is of a general brown colour, passing into light grey or white on the breast, with a dark brown stripe down the back of the neck. They have much of the beauty of the swan, which they also resemble in having a dark protuberance round the base of the upper mandible. The voice 198 TUEKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRT, AUD WATEKFOWl. is very harsh and peculiar. This breed is not a good grazer, and is best reared in the farm-yard. The Canada Goose also is not a good grazer, and does best near mcurshy ponds, in which ciicumstances they will thrive and be found profitable. With regard to the general management of geese little need be said. More than four or five should not be allowed to one gander, and such a family will require a house about eight feet square ; but to secure fine stock three geese are better to one male. Each nest must be about two feet six inches square, and, as the goose will always lay where she has deposited her fwst egg, there must be a nest for each bird. If they each lay in a separate nest the eggs may be left ; otherwise, they should be removed daUy. Geese should be set in March or early April, as it is very difficult to rear the young in hot weather. The time is thirty to thirty-four days. The goose sits very steadily, but should be induced to come off daUy and take a bath. Besides this she should have in reach a good supply of food and water, or hunger will compel her, one by one, to eat all her eggs. The gander is usually kept away ; but this is not very needful, as he not only has no enmity to the eggs or goslings, but takes very great interest in the hatching, often sitting by his mate for hours. The goslings should be allowed to hatch out entirely by themselves. When put out, they should have a fresh turf daily for a few days, and be fed on boiled oatmeal and rice, with water /row a pond, in a very shallow dish, as they should not be allowed to swim for a fortnight, for which time the goose is better kept under a very large crate. After two weeks they will be able to shift for themselves, only requiring to be protected from very heavy rain till fledged, and to have one or two feeds of grain daily, in addition to what they pick up. For &ttening they should b^ ponned up half-a-dozen 8 WANS. 199 together in a dark shed and fed on barley meal, being let out several hours for a last bath before being killed, in order to clean their feathers. " For exhibition," Mr. Fowler says, " all geese should be shut up in the dark, and fed liberally upon whole barley or oats thrown into water. It is essential to great weight to keep them very quiet, letting them out in the water, however, for half an hour every day." Swans. — There are six or seven varieties of swans known to naturalists, but only three are at present, or likely to be, domesticated in this country — ^viz., the large English White or Mute Swan ; the Australian or Black Swan, and the Chili or Peruvian Swan. The plumage of the two first needs no description; but that of the Chilian Swan differs from either in being white on the body, with a black head and neck, making rather a pleasing contrast of colour. In size the White Swan is largest of aU. All three varieties are long-Kved, and particular birds are reported to have reached the age of one hundred years. The following remarks on swans are by Trevor Dickens, Esq., of London, who is well acquainted with these beautiful birds : — ; " Besides ornament, swans are often of considerable use in clearing lakes or canals from weeds generally, and in particular from the one peculiar plant which within late years has become an only too well-known nuisance. To this there is, however, a drawback, as they also destroy the young fry of fish. " The large English Wliite Swan is most beautifid in form, as wcU as in colour. The Black Swan is also apt to be bad- tempered, and is more mischievous on the water ; for all which reasons the first place must stiU be given to the magnificent old English breed. It sometimes occurs wUd, but in such circumstances is always of a rather grey colour instead of pure white. The fiqest swans in England are to be seen in the 200 TUKKEYS, ORNAMENTAL POULTRY, AMD WATERFOWL. Thames and Trent rivers, and at Abbotsbury in Dorsetshire. The Marquis of Exeter, at Burghley Park, the Marquis of Abercorn, and in Scotland the Earl of Wemyss, are also well known for their beautiful swans. " The female swan lays in February, every other day until seven to nine eggs are laid, and then sits for forty-two days.* More than five cygnets, however, are seldom hatched. The nest is made somewhere amongst the flags and weeds at the water's edge, and it is. dangerous to approach either the male or female during incubation, as they are very irascible, and a blow from their strong pinions will even break a man's arm. " The cygnets are best fed by throwing meal upon the water. The old birds, if they have a large water range, will only need feeding in severe winter, when they should have grain. They also like grass thrown to them, and bread, which they will frequently eat from the hand. " It is usually asserted that the swan is strictly monogamous. But I have frequently seen two females with the male during the breeding season, and believe the idea to have arisen from the stronger female always seeking to drive the weaker away before breeding. Full-grown males never agree at all, and must, therefore, be kept separate." It is impossible to add anything on the general manage- ment of swans, as the young birds must be left to shift for themselves, the parents being too jealous and powerful to submit to restraint. But for this, they might perhaps be more widely kept, as the young cygnets are excellent for the table, and very easily reared. * Bechstein, a most accurate observer, and many others, oontradiot this, and state that the swan sits for only tb'rty-five days. SECTION V. THE HATCHING AND EEAEING OF CHICKENS ARTIFICIALLY. THE HATCHING AND REARING OF CHICKENS ARTIFICIALLY. OHAPTEE, XXV. THE DfCUBATOS AND ITS MANAGEMENT. The artificial hatching of chickens, as is well known, has been practised as quite an ordinary thing in Egypt for thousands of years, and with the most complete success ; yet, strange to say, is only a very modern experiment in Europe, and, on the whole, by no means a satis&ctory one. To give a history of all, or even of the principal attempts that have been made to hatch chickens by heat artificially applied, would far exceed our limits, and would be of no practical use. It will be enough to say that Reaumur was the first who really took the matter up in earnest, and he suc- ceeded also about as well as those who have come after him. Hi a method was to place the eggs in wooden casks, or other vessels, and then to surround the whole with fresh dung in a state of fermentation, which was renewed as often as necessary. For obvious reasons this system is never likely to be popular ; but it is mentioned by Mr. Geyelin as still employed with snscess in France. Cantelo was the first to imitate the hen in supplying the heat from aAove, and his apparatus was very fairly successful, the only real objection being its great cost. Precisely the same may be said of the elaborate contrivance of Miaasi ; it 204 ABTIFICIAli HATCHINQ AND REARING OV CHICKENS. hatches chickens with success, but is too costly ever to become popular, unless the price can be greatly reduced ; and, on the whole, the only incubators we consider well adapted to general use are those of M. Carbonnier, Mr Biindley, and Mr. F. Schroder, which we shall first describe, referring afterwards to the essentials of successful management. That described by Mr. Geyelin in his well-known pamphlet we do not think worth consideration. M. Carbonnier's -incubator is so simple as to be easily ■understood without a diagram, and can be constructed by any country workman. The heating apparatus consists of a tin or copper cistern, or boiler, of any desired size, made with a flat bottom, and heated by a lamp, for which a chamber is provided in one end. The lamp must, of course, be constructed to bum for a certain time without alteration, and it is essential that the lamp chamber be in the end of the cistern, that there may be a proper and regular circulation of the water. The cistern should be kept nearly filled, with a thermometer constantly immersed to show the temperature. Under the cistern slides a drawer, in which the eggs are placed upon a little hay. They should not, however, be ex- posed direct to the heat of the cistern — the great failing of most incubators — ^but ought to be covered with a piece of canvas, on which is spread a layer of sawdust half-an-inch thick. The sawdust readily becomes warmed by the heat of the cistern, and, resting gently upon the eggs, warms them in a more natural manner than any other incubator we know. In the egg-drawer a second thermometer should be kept, to show the heat to which the eggs are actually subjected. It ahould be observed that in this, as in every other incubator, the cistern must extend some inches beyond the eggs on every side, or those outside will not get their proper heat, and there- fore perish. The management of this incubator is very simple. The 205 lamp must be so adjusted that the actual temperature of the sawdust may be kept at a standard of 102" or 103°,* and then * As this temperature varies from that usually given, see remarks oi the subject further on. 206 AKTIPICIAL HATCHING AND EEAHING OP CHICKENS. regularly and properly attended to, so as to ensure this. Once a day the eggs must be withdrawn, and exposed for twenty minutes to the cold air of the apartment ; and, when replaced, each egg must be turned over, and the sawdust laid again upon them, and sprinMed, from a small watering-pot, with water heated to 105°, so as to make it slightly moist. In all these proceedings Nature is most exactly followed, and the result wUl be a good proportion of well-hatched chickens. The arrangement of Mr. Brindley's incubator is shown by Fig. 14 F is a copper boiler, heated either by a gas jet or by a paraffin lamp, B, furnished with a reservoir, also marked B, carefuUy constructed to burn with steadiness. , From this boiler the hot water flows constantly through a system of metal pipes arranged in a horizontal plane between two plates of glass, which thus form a hot-mr chamber heated by the pipes. Under the lower glass plate slides the drawer, 0, lined with felt, which contains the eggs, E. At each side of the lamp, at A, are temporary receptacles, or artificial mothers, to receive the chickens for the first day, after which they must be removed and provided for separately. The hot-air chamber is provided with a " safety valve,'' acted on by the expansion of mercury, which can be balanced to open at any desired tempe- rature. Such a valve appears to have been first employed by M. Vallde, of the Jardin des Plantes, Paris ; but we believe Mr. Brindley's valve to be superior, and, within reasonable lirmts, to answer its purpose very fairly. To make any valve the sole regulator, and expect it alone to keep the heat uni- form, as some appear to do, is absolute nonsense. All that can be expected of any valve is to open when the heat becomes two or three degrees too high, and admit cool air to reduce it to the proper teniperature ; but if the air be carelessly allowed to get really hot, the valve, though open, cannot keep the heat down, neither can it guard against a lower temperature than is proper. Mr. Brindley's incubator, it will be seen, difiers radically THE INCUBATOR. 207 in principle from the preceding, as also &om the next vre shall notice, in that water is not emp'oyed directly to warm the eggs, but simply to impart heat to a chamber of hot air, through which the heat is communicated. Otherwise the management is veiy similar. The eggs require to be withdrawn and cooled once a day ; and before they are replaced they should be care- fully turned, and sprinkled with warm water, which should rig. 15. also be allowed to moisten the felt lining of the tray in which they are contained. The last incubator we shall describe, and the last yet made public, is the invention of Mr. F. H. Schroder, the able manager of the National Poultry Company, and is shown in section in Fig. 15. Mr. Schroder has adopted an altogether distinct and separate boiler, which is not shown, and which is connected with the hot-water tank, 0, of the incubator by two pipes, B being the inlet pipe and D the outlet. This tank is provided with an open tube, I — ^in which a thermometer can 208 ARTIFICIAL HATCHINO AND EEAWNG OF CHICKKNS. be placed to show the temperature — and with a ventilating tube, H, which is open at top and bottom. Under the tank slide the egg-drawers, E, which in area resemble the quadrant of a circle, Mr. Schroder's incubator being of a circular form. The bottoms of these drawers are of perforated zinc. Under all is a tank, F, of cold water. The space, G, above the hot water -tank, is surrounded by perforated zinc, and partly filled with sand, both to preserve the heat, and to form a convenient and ■ warm receptacle for the newly-hatched chickens. Curtaina are also provided to surround the sides of the incubator, and thus guard in some measure against change of temperature in the apartment. In using this incubator the egg-drawers, E, are partly filled with chaff, or other similar material, on which the eggs are deposited. The water from the cold water cistern F, under- neath them, slowly evaporates with the heat above, and prO' serves a gentle moist atmosphere around the eggs during the process of incubation, percolating as it does through the chalF and perforated bottom of the egg-drawer. Ventilation takes place through the middle shaft, or pipe, H. In this incubator, therefore, sprinkling the eggs is not needful, all that is neces- sary being to replenish the cold water tank, F, when exhausted j but the eggs, as in all incubators, should be withdrawn, cooled for half an hour, and afterwards turned, every day. We have no hesitation in pronouncing the cold water tank in this incubator a most valuable invention, and one which answers its immediate purpose well ; while it also, to some extent, tends to equalise the temperature. The arrangement at top for the chickens is also very simple and convenient, and the whole shows both originality and ingenuity in a very high degree. That artificial incubation will ever commercially supersede^ in ordinary seasons and for ordinary eggs, the natural process, we do not for a moment believe. That it does so in Egypt is VALUE OP AS INCUBATOR. 209 not the slightest argument ; in that country there is a climate both warm and steady, whilst in this it is both cold and very variable. The value of incubators is to hatch when hens eannoi be had, and in such seasons 70, 60, or even 40 per cent, will often be thankfully accepted by breeders for exhibition as ample return. Now it will not do to purchase an incubator, light the lamp, put in the eggs, and expect that, proAdded the lamp be only kept burning, all will go right The consequence would be utter &ilure. And, on the otlier hand, we would undertake to hatch somewhere between the averages we have quoted with the very worst Incubator that was ever constructed ; only per- haps changing the lamp, if very faulty, for one constracted to bum more regularly. Certain precautions must be taken, certain conditions must be secured, and certain errors must be guarded against. And first it must be remembered that in artificial hatching it is absoluldy necessary the eggs be fresL Hens will hatch eggs a fortnight old or more — ^incubators scarcely ever. Of course, if the artificial process were perfect, this difference would not be. But it is not perfect — it is a substitute. We are fighting against a host of difficulties ; we must, therefore, take the &ct as we find it, and choose only eggs that do not exceed five or six days old. This caution cannot he neglected toiih impunity; if any inventor promise otherwise, let the credulous purchaser only try. Again, the incubator must be placed where it shall not be exposed to jarring or concussion. That timid hens always hatch small broods is well known j yet many appear to think that they can expose their artificial hen to any vibration or noise without injary. This is to court a danger which Nature is ever seeking to avoid. , That the eggs should be daily sprinkled has already been mentioned. Only in Schroder's Incubator can this precaution A O 210 ARTIFICIAL HATOHINQ AND REARING OP CHICKENS. be disoensed with ; and we cannot but consider that gentlt;- inan's evaporating ti-ay the most valuable feature in the whole invention. Still it answers quite as well to sprinkle with water daily, if it be done ; the value of Schroder's plan is in the case of forgetful operators. It must be remembered that eggs in the circumstances we are considering require moisture more than under a hen in the very driest season, since even then eggs naturally hatched get a little humidity from the perspiration of the hen's body. But in an incubator all must be supplied, and any omission is death and failure. But the greatest mistake is in seeking too high a tempe- rature. In every published work we have seen, the standard and proper heat for the eggs is given as 105°, and we have not the slightest hesitation in saying that to this the largest pro- portion of failures is due, the chickens being roasted in their shells. We do not mean to say that 105° will kill the chicks, or will not hatch them; but we do say that some hours of 108° will kill a few ; and as in this climate it is impossible to main- tain a constant temperature, if 105°- be taken as the standa/rd, it is sure to be exceeded again and again ; and thus, two or three perhaps at a time, the chicks are killed. On the other hand, Lt hag been conclusively proved that whilst 98° is not enough to hatch successfully, the temperature may be allowed to sint so low for some time occasionally with little injury. Let 102° therefoi-e be taken as the proper standard for the eggs, and more chickens will be hatched than have ever been. A rise of sevei-al degrees will then not be fatal, whilst an occasional fall will also be borna ; and, with, fresh eggs, a good hatch may be expected.* And this leads us to the great difficulty of all artifi- • Since writing the above we have had a communication from Mr. Brindley, in reply to a note embodying the above opinion, in which he fully concurs with the view we have here expressed, and encloses the direc- tions is^ed with his patent incubator, in which 103° is given as the proper temperature. We are happy to find our judgment thus corroborated, and \rillingly give him credit as the first to publish a correct statement on the sujbjeot. MANAGEMENT OF THE INCUBATOR. 211 «ial hatching — that of maintaining a reguLar temperature in our rariable climate. The same lamp-flame will not keep up during the night the same heat in the water by many degrees as it maintained during the day, aaad the difference must be carofully provided for, or disappointment will ensue. This is where many fail, and where so much attention is requisite. Changes of weather must be guarded against, and compensated in like manner ; and for all this there must be the most constant reference to the thermometers, both the one in the heating chamber or cistern, and the other which should always be kept in the egg-drawer itself It is here that Mr. Brindley's valve will be useful ; but it wIU not do to depend upon it ; it will help, but it will not do the work of supervision. Mr. Schroder's idea of surrounding the whole with curtains is also good, and may be applied to any incubator. But, with all these helps, the lamp itself must be carefully arranged so as to give uiore heat during the night than in the day, and in cold weather than in mild ; and the process should also be carried on in the part of the house where the temperature is most uniform. A bedroom is a good place, as it is untenanted in the day, whilst at night the occupants help to keep up the heat. Another, and the best plan, is to place the incubator in a room with a fireplace, but not near it, and to light a fire in the evening proportionate to the coldness of the weather. By this means something like uniformity may be preserved in the room, and this will go a long way to maintain it in the machine. It is for the same reason that in the simpler forms of incubators the hot water cistern should extend several inches beyond the eggs on every side. In small machines this is specially required ; and the neglect of so necessary a precaution is one great reason why the small ordinary incubators fre- quently purchased almost always fail ; the outside eggs cannot be kept warm enough without roasting the others. It is by constant and careful attention to such minute o 2 213 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING AND REARING OP CHICKENS. circumstances, and thus only, that success in hatching can be attained. No particular form of incubator will answer without such care, and with it almost any will do, though the three we have selected are indisputably the best. The two last men- tioned are more elaborate, and perhaps more complete ; whilst that of M. Carbonnier is the cheapest and most natural. In his system we particularly like the layer of damp sawdust gently resting upon the eggs, and communicating a moist heat from the hot cistern, which closely approaches the natural hatching of a hen, and we believe will be ultimately found to be more successful at the very last, when the chick actually chip the shell, than any other. Since the preceding pages were first published, the incubators there de- scribed have been made and sold to some extent, but success has been but THE ARTIFICIAL MOTHEH. 213 limited with them all, owingf ohiefly to the faot that rery few people have patience to give that constant care which alone can purchase success. Lately an incubator has been extensively sold by Messrs. Jacob Graves and Co., o( Boston, U.S., which far surpasses all those here described in the perfection of its apparatus for preserving a uniform temperature. Its external appear- ance is represented in the engraving opposite, and it has had a greater amount of actual nuxea in work than any other ever yet made. At the Boston show, in 1873, it hatched regularly and successfully, challenging the admiration of many fanciers who had previously lost all faith in " artificial hens." We have reason to believe that an English incubator is, as we write, nearly perfected, which will remove most of the practical difficulties hitherto found so serious, and enable eggs to be hatched without more than a moderate amount of trouble. This measure of success has been attained by attending to conditions we long ago pointed out as essential, and especially by aif ording to the eggs a constant and ample supply of fresh air, in which most incubators hitherto constructed — even the best — have been deficient. CHAPTER XXVI. REARING CHICKENS ARTIFICIALLY. The artificial rearing of chickens must be regarded as a question entirely distinct from the artificial hatching of them, and may often become advisable, or even necessary, when they have been hatched under a hen. The mother may die just when her care becomes most necessary ; or she may bo a valuabk hen, whose eggs sire much wanted, and whom it is not advisable to subject to the wear and tear of a young brood. And lastly, some persons consider that it is absolutely better to bring up chickens by hand, even when they have been naturally hatched ; believing that under the shelter provided, and not being forced to accompany the hen in her rambles, a greater portion are reared, that they grow faster, and make ultimately finer fowls. We cannot certainly agree in such an opinion, though there are respectable authorities who hold it. We admit that, with care, chickens may be reared with as nvuch success as by a hen, 214 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING ANB BEARING OF CHICKENS. but more we cannot concede; and even for this much the greatest care is requisite, and proper management is absolutely necessary. Some sort of an "artificial mother" must of course be provided, and the best form of all is the ordinary one. This consists of a board sloping down from four inches above the ground to about two inches ; and for a brood of a dozen chicks, about a foot square. It is covered on the under side with a piece of lamb or sheep-skin dressed with the long wool on, and which should only be tacked round the edges of the board, so as to fall a little slack with its own weight, and thus rest upon the chickens. By attending to this, as well as to the slope of the board, the largest and smallest chickens will be accommo- dated with equal comfort. A few small gimlet holes should be bored in this cover for ventilation. Instead of sheepskin, some employ a manufactured article which resembles a number of cotton wicks hanging thickly from a sort of linen foundation. We should jprefer this wheu obtainable, but it is very difficult to procure, while sheepskin is always at command. The board so furnished must be mounted on two sides and a back of wood, the back being two inches high, and the sides, of course, sloping up from that height to four inches in the front, which is left open for the chicks to enter by. This front side is, however, furnished with a curtain of flannel four and a half inches deep, which thus sweeps the ground and excludes the cold air, whilst the chicks push under it either Way with the greatest ease. There should be no bottom at all. We believe the addition of a wooden bottom to be the great reason why so many have difficulty in rearing chickens artificially. Such a bottom may be sanded or covered with ashes with the most 8ed\ilous care ; but it will harbour vermin, and become more or less tainted, and the chickens will then be sure to droop away. Moreover, it is hopeless to expect good constitution in birds reared more than the first fortnight on a wooden floor. Let THE ARTIFICIAL MOTHER. 215 the " mother " be set on the ground, evenly covered an inch deep^ with sand or nice dry ashps ; let it be never left two nights in precisely the same spot, and let the ground it is to occupy be A is the frame of fhe wire mn. B are the wire blinds, each movable, and thus allowing the ran to be cleaned out easily. C is the "hood," which takes off— as shown at the dotted line — and is used when the chickens are able to perch. D is the hairy cover— the substitute for the hen's body. This is detached, and fits either along the dotted line, and so is suited for chickens not able to perch, or when the hood and perch are used, forms the cover to the same. E Perch. F Tressels and stand. perfectly clean and dry before each removal Such care will be well repaid. In severe weather, however, it is almost necessary to keep the chickens within doors till about three weeks old, and a wooden floor to the " mother " then becomes necessary. No 216 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING AND REARING OF CHICKENS. better arrangement perhaps can be devised than that contrived by Mr. F. H. Schroder, and shown in Fig. 16; which is constructed to stand upon trestles at a convenient height for cleansing. The roof of the " mother " is here made so as to be raised at pleasure when the chickens are able to roost, and allows of a perch being introduced; but long before this time they ought to be removed to the ground, if designed for anything but mere in-door amusement. The floor of such temporary homes must be scrupulously cleaned every day, and sprinkled with clean sand or fine ashes so as completely to cover the wooden bottom. But in ordinary weather it is better, warming the " mother " with hot water, to put the chickens on the ground at once. In front of it must be a covered run, which may be about three to four feet long, enclosed at the sides and end by board, and covered with glass. The board enclosing it must not be less than a foot in height, with a few holes bored near the top for ventilation ; otherwise the atmosphere within will be too close for the chicks to live in it. It is well to make the glass top so that it can be lifted in warm weather like a cucumber frame, or the heat will become stifling. Neglect of these pre- cautions also causes many failures. In front of the covered run, again, must be an open run fenced in and covered over with small mesh wire netting. This may be any convenient size, and should extend over grass if possible. Communication between this, open run and the covered run and " mother," is maintained by one or two small traps large enough for the chicks to pass when tolerably well grown, which are left open to allow of their free passage in fine weather, but should be kept closed when it is wet or very cold. As in very heavy weather the glass roof of the covered run is not sufficient protection, the whole arrangement must be placed under an open shed in some sheltered situation. MANAGEMENT OF THE CHICKS. 217 Cleanliness in tte two runs is of nearly as much importance as under the "mother." They should be raked over constantly, if gravel or sand ; and if set upon grass, the whole should be moved to fresh ground every two or three days. The fleece or upper part of the " mother " itself is liable, if neglected, to get infected with insects. To prevent this, powdered sulphur should be frequently dusted into it, and a little paraffin put on here and there occasionally will also in a great measure expel them by the strong smell. No point is perhaps so universally neglected as this. But chickens when tormented by vermin never thrive, and we believe are occa- sionally worried even to death by this intolerable plague. Such will be all the accommodation needed in ordinary summer or spring weather, during which the chicks, when in the ' " mother," will keep themsdves comfortably warm. But for the preservation of broods hatched in January or February, it will be necessary to add artificial heat, which may be done by having on the top board of the " mother " a vessel to be filled with hot water the last thing at night, and once or twice during the day. In very severe weather even this will not be sufficient and the water must be kept hot through the night by a lamp or other contrivance. Of course, if there be hot air apparatus for a greenhouse, or any other permanent source of heat, it may be made available in any convenient manner, and a lamp dispensed with. The feeding will not differ from that already given. Hard boiled eggs chopped up, and very coarse oatmeal moistened with milk or water, is best to commence with, as the chickens will begin to peck much more readily at such tiny morsels than at anything in the shape of sop. Groats chopped up small are also very useful in teaching them to feed. This is, in fact, the only difficulty, and is best got over by tapping on the floor with the end of the finger, at the same time clucking like a hen. But very few cliickens give any trouble in this way. and the 218 ARTIFICIAL HATCHING AND REARING OP CHICKENS. art of feeding is one which, once learnt, is fortunately never forgotten. Let not anitaal or green food be neglected, or the chickens will never be superior specimens ; and let grain be added by degrees^ but still letting the chief diet till at least three months old consist of soft food. This, however, has been fully treated of in Section I., and we will only add a caution that the young birds be never neglected. Remember that chicks with a hen, if at liberty, can almost always procure some food — enough to maintain life at least — if their regular meal be for- gotten; whilst those reared in this manner are entirely de- pendent upon their owner's care, and one forgotten meal, even if not fatal at the time, frequently lays the foundation of mortal disease, by leaving the poor little things with no strength to endure any inclemency of the weather. The want of such support is what makes bread sops so objectionable a food for young birds. To sum up aU : Warmth (with ventilation). Cleanliness, and Constant Feeding will give unfailing success in the rearing of chickens artificially ; and when there has been signal failure, tho cause will be found in neglect of one of these three. The whole art is therefore simple enoiigh, and every large poultry- keeper should make himself to some extent conversant with it, as such experience mav often prove serviceable, even should he be one of those who &hun "incubators" as they would the plague. For instance, a hen cannot cover well more than six or seven chickens if hatched very early, but can hatch well ten or eleven : hence a poultry-breeder experienced in artificial rearing has much advantage over another ignorant of it, as he can set all his hens in January (when "broody" hens ai-e very scarce) on their full complement of eggs, and when hatched give each as many as she can properly protect, and bring the remainder up by hand. To exhibitors especially the possibility of thus getting early stock in increased numbers is of great and special importance. SECTION VI. THE BEFEPIKG AlsJ) MAKAGEMET^T OE POULTEY UPON A LAEGE SCALE. POULTRY ON THE LAEGE SCALE. CHAPTER XXVII. SEPARATE ESTABLISHMENTS FOR REARING POaLTKY. POULTlrt ON THE FARM. CONCLUSION. In seeking to give such information as may be useful to any contemplating the wholesale rearing and keeping of fowls as a distinct business, we labour under the great disadvantage that there is no successfiil concern of the kind in England to which we can refer. That this is not for want of a market for either ■ eggs or chickens, is proved by the continuous high prices of the one, and the many millions of the other yearly imported from France and Ireland. StUl it is the fact ;* and for any actual examples which we can consider worthy of imitation, we have therefore been compelled to cross over to France, where such enterprise is carried on to an extent, and with a success little dreamed of in this country, and which proves that here also the first who shall bring to bear upon it the same amount * Id this and other observations which more or less directly appear to reflect upon the well-known National Poultry Company's establishment at Bromley, it is not meant to assert that the concern there ia a losing one; on this point we have no information whatever, and make no such imputation jf the slightest kind. But it has become, from sheer necessity, a mere assemblage of pens for breeding and showing prize poultry, and selling eggs therefrom ; and has altogether failed to provide a supply of fowls for the market at a cheap rate, as every one predicted it would, and on whioa ground it was ostensibly inaugurated. 222 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE. of practical knowledge; sound judgment, and good business mauagement, will not fail to reap a similar harvest. It is, however, very necessary, to make these reservations. Nothing is more easy than to publish sanguine calculations showing from one to three hundred per cent, profit to be derived from such concerns, and more than one such have we seen ; but unless these computations are founded upon some sound practical knowledge of such details as are contained in the foregoing pages, they cannot but prove delusive. It was here that Mr. Geyelin so signally failed. With many good ideas — -some of which, have been found truly valuable — he utterly lacked that real knowledge of /owls which could alone have turned them to account; and hence his well-known pamphlet, full as it was of really useful conceptions, and awakening as it deservedly did very great attention to the subject of wholesale poultry -breeding, abounds also with absurdities which could only provoke a smile from every one who had actually kept fowls. He was essentially a theorist ; and since his theories involved certain principles which were fundamentally wrong, that his plans should fail practically was an inevitable necessity. And that they have done so is an admitted fact. Mr. Geyelin's fundamental idea was, that with proper care and judicious feeding, fowls could be bred, reared, and kept for any purpose — either for chickens or for eggs — far more economically, and in better health, in close confinement, than even with a moderate degree of liberty. .And to those ignorant of the subject he apparently demonstrated his point. He alleged truly that the chickens would be protected from wet and cold ; that they would never be over-tired ; and that they ' would always be properly fed ; and in his arrangements he therefore provided that they should be hatched and reared on wooden floors. But he forgot that such treatment would not give cormiiiniium, without which no sysliem can in the long nm CLOSE CONFINEMENT. 223 .be remunerative ; and this one flaw in the argument has rendered valueless all his after reasoning. On the first apjjear- aivce of Mr. Geyelin's pamphlet, we ventured to predict that whilst he might keep in health and good condition grown fowls, his plans would fail altogether with regard to chickens ; and since chicken-rearing is at the very root of all plans for keeping poultry on the large scale, would practically fail alto- gether. The event has justified this prognostication to the letter ; for whilst the National Poultry Company have kept in good health, and taken numerous prizes with, adult birds from their small pens, they have not succeeded in sending any amount of dead stock to the London market ; and on a recent visit to their establishment at Bromley, we found the Geyelin system of rearing the broods altogether abandoned, and the chickens were being brought up out of doors as usual. At a smaller establishment in the provinces, buUt on the exact model of that at Bromley, we found precisely similar results. Such being the case, we shall not give any detailed descrip- tion of Mr. Geyelin's plans, referring those who may be desirous of investigating them to his own pamphlet for further information.* But in justice to him we must nevertheless remark that he has rendered real assistance to the advancement of poultry-breeding of no small value. He has conclusively proved that adult fowls can be kept in health in pens of only six feet by twelve, and demonstrated in connection with this the great value and importance of deodorisation ; he was the first in this country to insist pviilicly upon the necessity of giving soft food as well as grain ; and, most important perhaps of all, he pointed out perspicuously the design of nature, and the necessity to the Tnost profitable result, of making the fowls feed the land whilst the land fed the fowls. These are im- * Since these pages were vmtten, the disastrous failure of the National Poultry Company has more than confirmed all our remarks. 224 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALE. portant services, and it would ill become us not to acknowledge them, though we cannot follow him to his conclusions. In attempting ourselves to give such information as may be useful to those contemplating this branch of commercial enter- prise, we shall in the first place, translating from an interesting work* published under the authority of the French Minister of Agriculture, give a short and illustrated description of one of the latest and best managed establishments in France, after- wards making such remarks as may appear advisable. The establishment in question is said to belong to the Baroness de Linas, and is situated at Charny, a village near Paris. Left a widow some years since, with a small estate of about fifteen acres, which bears the name of Belair, Madame de Linas, partly for amusemeat and partly in order to augment a rather scanty income, turns her attention to poultry, and has for some time succeeded in both objects. Many of her arrange- ments are peculiar ; but all are the result of much thought, and are worthy of attentive examination. The poultry-house at Belair is represented in perspective by the accompanying plate. It is in two storeys, each 7J feet in height ; measures in all 60 by 15 feet, and is divided by par- titions into four compartments of equal size. This house ia designed for the accommodation of about 1,200 laying hens, with a due proportion of cocks, which are lodged, in the four upper apartments ; whilst the lower are devoted to storing, cooking, hatching, and other necessities of the business. Round the front and ends of the house there is a gallery, five feet wide, at the level of the upper floor, roofed like a verandah, on which the doors of the fowl-houses open, and to which the birds ascend by broad step-ladders. The gallery can-ies a small railway, travelled by a truck, and at each end is a lifting tackle, by which simple means the manure and eggs are col- • " Ponies et (Eufs," par Eug. Gayot. Paris : liibrairie Agricole, 26, Kue Jacob. ■ i 1/ lliffi.!%#(;#e^y*«'«-'''i- ''{*'■■•'■■■■■■ jy :..__ ■^ 226 POULTRY OS THE LARGK SCALE. lected and lowered down, whilst straw, sand, and anjrthing else required, ar« hauled up, and distributed with the least possible amount of labour. The doors of the hen-houses do not- open on hinges, but- slide in panels, so as always to leave the gallery rlear. They are furnished with traps, as usual, by which "the m^^0^ ■* ■ ** -f* ^>. II 1 1 >!.'■ rig. 17. View of Hen-house. birds can enter when they are closed. The object of^thus elevating the hen-houses are two-fold— dryness and salubrity, and security from thieves and vermin, as the ladders can be taken away at night, and all access cut off. The interior arrangements of all four upper apartments, or hen-houses, are precisely similar, and are shown in Figs. 17 and 18. HEN-HOUSE. 227 Each apartment is designed for about 330 fowls, and the interior dimensions are 16 feet by 15. The perches, shown in plan at j, Fig. 18, consist of flat planks, four or five inches wide, with only the top corners rounded off, and arranged on a frame so as to be movable, at a height of 16 inches above thei OQiLU Pig. 18. Plan of Hen-house. floor. Such perches never cause crooked breast-bones ; the heaviest fowl can reach them, and there is never any dispute for the highest place, which is always the case when arranged en echelon or ladderwise. The nests, shown at n n, are arranged in five tiers against the front and back walls. They are formed vei-y simply, by dividing long square troughs, open at the top, into compart- p 2 228 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCALF. ments. by means of partitions sliding in grooves. The bottoms of the troughs project, so as to form broad ledges, along whiclj the hens can walk; and inclined ladders, shown at e, give ready access to each ledge, and, consequently, to any nest The floor is formed of resinous pine wood, in order to repel vermin. Every crevice is stopped up, and the whole scraped clean and profusely sanded every morning whilst the birds are at their fii-st meal. In addition to this, the whole is \yell fumigated and whitewashed twice a year. Air is admitted to each apartment by the pipe B, which rises through the middle of the floor, and which is brought from over the furnace in the kitchen, as shown at o in the plan of the ground-floor (Fig. 20). By this means the tem- [)erature in winter is kept warm. Another pipe through the ceiling carries ofi" the products of res[)iration. In summer, ventilation is further promoted by keeping open the Venetian blind.'i, p, with which the house is furnished, a is the door opening, uj)on the gallery. Fig. 19 shows the arrangement of the open runs, which occupy about an acre and a-half each, and are of a wedge- form, converging on the compartments of the fowl-house, and opening towards the further end, where they are bounded by a clear running brook. Each run is provided with a spacious shed, built on rising ground, and small clumps of trees and bushes are also grown, to afford shelter from the sun. Shallow pits, filled with fine sand, are also provided. ' Every three months a fourth of each run is sown with hay-seed, and lightly dug over, in order to renew the turf and bury all manure. A supply of worms is also in this way afforded to the fowls. The fences might, of course, be of any adequate kind, but are constructed at Belair in a very ingenious manner. A double row of poplar, elm, or apple-trees is planted, and sutfered to grow for several years unmolested. Then each tree is nearly cut through with a bill-hook, and bent over, but 230 POULTRY ON THE LARGE SCAlEi '".^7'""^ i 1 1 ju. JU UMl ■ V, y, fceeder. Errors on the part of the, 78 , The Power of the, 78 Breeding, What Attentive, might do, 79, 80 Breedme-season, Shelter during the, 45—47 Breeds for the Poultry-yard, Choice of, 20 Bresse, La, 161 Brindley's Incubator, 206, 207 Brown-Reds, The, 120, 121 Buckwheat as Food, 27 as Food prior to Shows, 95 Buenos Ayres Black Ducks, 195, 196 BuffPoIands, 149 CaU Ducks, 195 Canada Geese, 198 Carbonnier's Incubator, 204 — 206 Cats, How to prevent the Inroads of, 48, 49 Cayuga Ducks, 196 Chamois Folands, 149 Ohick, Separation of the, from the Shell, 43 , I , How to act when the, sticks to Shell, 43 Chickens, Importance of Cleanliness to, 48 , Benefit to, of Cooping near Grass, 47, 48 , Dark, 123 , Evil of making. Drink when Hatched, 45 , Exhibition, Treatment of, when Hatched, 86—89 ' , How often, should he Fed, 50 • , Food for, as they grow older, 50- - — , Food for, in Cold Weather, 51 , How the Hen can escape the Worry of, 85 , The Best Condition of, for Home Use, 54 , Light Game, 123 , First Meal of, 45 , When, are ready for Exhibi- tion, 90 , Prize, The Best Food for, 86— 89 , When, should Boost, 89 , Striped, 123 , Treatment of, in Cold Weather, 51 Chicks, The Best Pood for, 49,. 50 Chinese Geese, 197, 198 Cleanliness in AJM^ificial Bearing, 217 in the Eoosting-house, 7 Cochin Bantams, 166 Cochins, About, 101, 102 , General Appearance of, 103, 104 , Build of, 102, 103 , Characteristics of, 102 , Colours of, 103, 104 , Effect of Crossing on, 77 , Defects of, 105 , Diseases to which, are liable. 105 , Merits of, 104 as Mothers, 37 , Eelative value of, 105 I.fDEX. 247 Cochius, Silky, 170 . Weight of, 102 Coloured Dorking, Etfect of Crossing on, 77 Colonel Stuart Wortley's locuoator, 212, 218 Columbian, The, 186 Common Pheasant, The, 188 Concussion, Danger of, in Artificial Hatching, 209 Condition, to preserve Fowls in good, 84 , What is really good, 91 Construction of the Fowl-house, S. 4 . Cramp, Treatment for, 56 Creepers, 167, 168 Crfevecoeurs, 162, 153 , Faults of, 154 , MeriU of, 153, 154 Crossing and Selection Combined, Results of, 77, 78 Crossing, Effect of, on Cochins, 77 , on Coloured Dorking, 77 , on Game Fowls, 77 , on Surrey Fowl, 77 , Examples of, 77, 78 , The Principle and Advantage of, 76 Cygnets, Treatment of, 200 Dark Brahmas as Breeding -fowls, 19 — ^— , Description of, 108—110 , Mr. Boyle's Opinion on, 108 — 110 Dark Game Chickens, 123 Dark Greys, The, 122 Deodorisers, The Best, 9, 10 Diarrhoea, Treatment for, 69 Disease, The Best Cure for, 55 — , How to Prevent, 65 , General Symptoms of, 59 , Treatment upon Appearance of, 69, 60 Domestic Poultry-keeping, Profits from, 32, 33 Dorkings as Breeding-fowls, 19 Dorking, the Coloured, Effect of Crossing on, 77 Dorkings, Diseases to which, are liable, 180 ,General Description of, 126, 127 , Effects of Inter-breeding on, 129 as Layers, 130 as Mothers, 37 , Hints about the Rearing of, 130, 131 , The Silver-grey, 128 as Table-fowls, 130 , The White, 128, 129 Douglas Mixture, Use of the, 30 Draughts in the Fowl-house, 4 Ducks, Call, 195 , A Few Hints respecting, 196 , Houses for, 196, 197 , Large Black, 196 as Layers, 196 , Muscovy, 195 . The Rearing of, 190, 191 , Use of, 191 Dumpies, 167, 168 East Indian Black Duck, 195, 196 Eggs, How to act in case of Acci- dents to, 40 , The Sprinkling of the, in Artl ficial Hatching, 209, 210 , The, used in Artificial Hatch- ing, 209 , Advantage of Distinguishing the, 32 , Testing the Fertility of, 41, 42 for Setting, Importance of using Fresh, 34, 35" , How often, should be Gathered, 32 , The Proper Number of, for Hatching, 42 Egg-laying Stocks, The, 16 Eggs for Setting, How to Keep, 35 , How to Pack, 86 for Setting, The Selection of, 84 Embden Geese, 197 Emu, The, 170 English White Swans, 199 Exhibition, When Chickens are ready for, 90 , Proper Food during, 96, 97 248 ExhiMtion, Immediate Preparations for 93, 94 , Treatment after, 97 Exhibition Chickens, Treatment of, when Hatched, 86—89 Fancy Poultry, 17 Farm, The Advaniage of Rearing on a, 70 Fat, Hints as to Extra Weight and, 53, 54 Fattening, The Best Food for, 53 Fattening Hens, 52, 53 Fattening, Duration of the, Process, 53 , Objections to, 91 ■ The Secret of. Profitably, 53 Feathers, How to Dress, 32 , Loss of, Treatment for, 58 , Value of, 32 Feeding, Errors to be guarded against in, 23, 24 , Importance of Judicious, 20, 21 , Evils of Over-, 21, 22 , of Sitting Birds, The, 37 Fl^che, La, 154 , Merits of, 155, 156 Fledging, Treatment for Bad, 56 Food, Animal, necessary for Fowls, 27 for Artificially-reared Chickens, 217, 218 , Benefit of Change of, 25 , Best, for Chicks, 49, 50 for Chickens in Cold Weather, 51 for Growing Chickens, 50 for Prize Chickens, 86—89 . , How to give, to the Fowl, 26, 27 for large nnmber of Laying- fowls, 24, 25 for small number of Laying- fowls, 24 , Best, for Morning Meal, 23 , Best, for Evening Meal, 23 , Rule for Regulating the Supply of. 22 Food, To Mix Soft, 26 , Vegetable, Importance of, 28 Foods, Analysis of various, 25 Fowl-house, Construction of the, 8, 4 , Draughts m the, 4 , The Flooring of the, 7 -^ — , Size of the, 5 , Ventilation of the, 5 Fowls, Attention to be paid to, 3 , What makes the Best, 91 , How to keep them in Good Condition, 84 , How Old, should be Cooked, 55 , What to do with Old, 15, 16 , Various, 172 -^ — , How to^;ell Young, 15 Fowl-sheds, The Advantage of, G, 7 French Breeds, The, 151 , Features of the, 162 Frizzled Fowls, 170 Game Bantams, 165 Chickens, Light, 123 , Striped, 123 Game Fowls, The Black, 122 , The Best Criterion for Blood in, 123 , The Breeding of, 124, 125 , Effect of Crossing on, 77 , Demerits of, 125, 126 , Description of, 118—120 , Best Fighters among, 123, 124 , Time for Hatching Eggs of, 126 , Best Layers among, 124 , Merits of, 125 , Original Wild Varieties of, 123 Game Hens, 17 as Mothers, 37, 88 Gapes, Treatment for, 57 Gardener's Friend, The, 191 Geese for Exhibition, Treatment of, 199 , General Management of, 198 as Sitters, 198 Golden " Mooney " Hamburgs, 140, 141 Golden-pencilled Hambui^s, 140 Golden-spangled Hamburgs, 140, 141 Golden Pheasant, The, 188, 189 Golden-spangled Polands, 148, 149 INDEX. 249 Oolden Yorlssbire Pheasant-fowl, 141 Goslings, Treatment of, 198, 199 Grass, Benelit of Cooping near, 47, 48 Green Food, Great Value of, for Prize Fowls, 89 Gneliires, The, 161 Guinea-ciiicks, Treatment of, after Hatching, 182 Guinea-fowls as Layers, 182 , Bemarks on, 181, 182 Hamturg Cocks, Silver-pencilled, Chief Faults in, 139 Hens, Silver-pencilled, Chief Faults is, 140 Hamburgs, The, 16, 138, 139 , The Black, 78, 144 , Golden " Mooney," 140, 141 , Golden-pencilled, 140 , Golden-spangled, 140, 141 , Lancashire Silver " Mooney," 142 as Layers, 144, 145 , Silver-pencilled, 139 , Silver-spangled, Breeding, 142, 143 — ^ — ^,Silver-spangIed,Breeding, Proper Mode of, 143 Hamper, Best Form of, 95 Hatching, Hints to Buyers of Eggs for, 85, 86 , Proper Number of Eggs for, 42 , Preparations for, 44, 45 Hatching, Time of, 43 , Tiine of, for Shows, 85 , Treatment immediately after, 44 Hatching-run, Proper Arrangement of the, 36, 37 Heat, The Supply of, for Artificial Hatching, 211, 212 Hempseed as Food Prior to Shows, 95 Hen, Effect of, on Progeny, 83 Hens, Number of, to the Fen, 84 Houdans, 167—160 as Breeding-fowls, 19 , Merits of, 160 Hybrid Pheasants, 189, 190 InoBbator, Brindley'g, 206, 207 , Carbonnier's, 204 — 208 , Sohroaer's, 207, 208 , Jacob Graves and Sons, 212, 213 Indian Meal as Food, 26 Insect Vermin, Treatment for, 69 Japanese Bantams, 166, 167 Javan Pea-fowl, 183 Judges, their Merits and Demerits, 96 Judging, Objections to the Present System of, 78, 79 Killing, The Best Mode of, 64 , The Various Modes of, 54 La Bresse, 161 Laced Bantams, 77, 78 La Fleche, 154 , Merits of, 165, 156 Lancashire Silver "Mooney" Ham- burgs, 142 Lane's, Description of Mr., Esta- blishment, 64—67 Large Black Duck, 196 Laying Hens, Food for a Small Num- ber of, 24 , Food for a Large Number of, 24, 25 , How to Keep, 14, 15 Leg Weakness, Treatment for, 66 Light Brahmas, Description of, 107 Light Game Chickens, 123 Lime, Value of, 30, 31 Linseed as Food prior to Shows, 94 Linton Poultry-yard, Description of the, 69 Maize as Food, 26 Malays, Description of the, 116, 117 , Faults of the, 117 as Table-fowls, 117 Male, How the, affects the Progeny, 83 Manure, Use of Poultry-, 31, 32 Matching, Points to be Considered in, 92 Meal, The Best Food for Mid-day, 27 ,The Best Food for Morning, 23 ,The Best Food for Evening, 23 250 INDEX Meals, Nnm'beT of, a Day, 23 Minorca Spanish, The, 135 Moiature, Importance of, to Setting Hens, 39 " Mooney " Golden Hambnrgs, 140, 141 , Lancashire Silver, 142 and Golden Yorkshire Pheasants, Show-breed from, 141, 142 Moulting, Bad, Treltment for, 56, 57 , Treatment during, 30, 31 Muscovy or Musk Ducks, 195 Nankin Bantams, 166 Negro Fowls, 168—170 Nest, The Construction of the, 31 , The Formation of the, 39, 40 , Absence of Hen from the, 42, 43 , Arrangement of, for Sitting Birds, 38 Old Fowls, How, should be Cooked, S5 ■ , What to do with, 15, 16 Over-feeding, Evils of, 21, 22 Park, Advantages of Bearing in a, 69 Pea-chicks, Kearing of, 184 Pea-fowl, Black- winged, 183 — — •, Disposition of, 183, 184 , Javan, 183 Pea-fowls, Where, should be kept, 184 , Remarks on, 182, 183 Pekin Bantams, 166 Pencilling, 114 Perch, Size and Position of the, 5, 6 Pheasant Chicks, Early Treatment of, 187, 188 , Treatment of, 186, 186 Pheasants, Best Food for Adult, 186 , Treatment of, after Breeding- season, 188 , The Common, 188 , Best Diet for, 186 , Collecting the Eggs of, 187 Pheasants' Eggs, Hatching of, 187 Pheasants, To avoid the " Gapes " in, 186 , The Golden, 188, 189 Pheasants, The Handling o^ 190 , Hybrid, 189, 190 , Pens for Kearing, on Large Scale, 186, 187 , The Silver, 189 , How to make, Sit, 185 , Treatment of, 185 Piles, The, 122 , The Prize, 122 , The Worcestershire, 122 Pip, Treatment for, 59 Plucking, 54 , Hints as to Appearance after, 5S Plumage, How to Modify the, 83 Polands, Black-Crested White, 147 , Buff, 149 , Chamois, 149 , The Comb of, 145, 146 , Great Faults in, ISO, 151 , Distinguishing Features of, 146 , Golden-spangled, 148, 149 , Merits of, 160 , Precautions Necessary in Bear- ing, 150 ^, Silver-spangled, 147, 148 , Tenderness of, 150, 151 Poland, White-crested Black, Cooks, 146 , White-crested Black, Hens, 146, 147 Polands, White-crested White, 147 Potatoes as Food, 26 Poultry-keeping a Matter of Business, 33 , The Great Essential in, 9 Poultry-manure, Value of, 31, 32 Poultry, The Descent of, 71—74 Poultry-yard, Choice of Breeds for, 20 , Plans of a, 10—13 Prize Chickens, The Food for, 86 —89 , When, should Roost, 89 Kearing in a Park, The Advantages of, 69 Prize-fowls, Space required for, 64 muEx. 251 Rearing on a Large Scale, Space re- quired for, 64 Redcaps, Tlie, 168 Beds, The Blacli-breasted, 121 , The Brown, 120, 121 Relationship, To provide against, in Breeding, 82 ■ , Attention to be paid to Degrees of, 82 Roosting-house, Cleanliness in the, 7 Rouen Duclcs, Description of, 193, 194 and Dralces, Difference between, 194 , Fattening of, 194 Rouen Ducltlings, Treatment of, 195 Roup, A Fact worth Knowing about, 57 , Treatment for, 58, 59 Bumpless Fowls, 170, 172 Run, How the, should be kept, 8 , Space required for the, 9 172 Schroder's " Artificial Mother," 216 Incubator, 207, 208 Scientific Theory of Breeding, Im- portance of, 70, 71 Sebright Bantams, Description of, 163, 164 ,The Two \arieties of, 164 Selection, Evils of Over-great Artifi- cial, 75 and Crossing Combined, Be- snlts of, 77, 78 , Effects of, 74, 75 , Examples of, 76, 77 Setting, Importance of using Fresh Eggs for, 34, 35 ■ , How to Iteep Eggs for, 35 , The Selection of Eggs for, 84 in Winter, 40, 41 Sexes, Separation of the, 89, 90 Shell, How to act when the Chick adheres to the, 43 , How to assist Chicks from the, 43 Silky Cochins, 170 Fowls, 168 -170 Silver Duck-wing tireys, The, 121, 122 Silver-grey Dorkings, The, 128 Silver-pencilled Hamburgs, The, 139 Silver Pheasant, The, 189 Silver-spangled Hamburgs, Breeding, for Exhibition, 142, 143 Silver-spangled Polands, 147, 148 Silver Yorkshire Pheasants, 142 Sitting, How to Prevent, 15 Sitting Hens, Benefit of Moisture to, 39 , Arrangement of Nests for, 38 , Management of, in the Ordinary Nest, 36 , Separate Provision for, 35 , Qualifications necessary in, 37, 38 , Protection of, against the Weather, 38, 39 Sitting-shed, Best Situation for, 39 Size, How to Increase the, 83 Snow-water, Evil Results from use of, 29, 30 Soft Egg, Treatment for, 59 Spanish, The, 16 , The Comb of the, 132—134 — — , Diseases to which the, are liable, 136, 137 , Treatment of, before Exhibi- tion, 138 , The Face of the, 132, 133 , The, as "Fancy" Fowls, 137 , The, as Layers, 137 , Merita of the, 137 , The Minorca, 135 , Importance of Purity of Race in the, 134 and other Delicate Breeds, Establishment for Rearing, 64^ 68 , The, as Table-fowls, 137 , The White, 135, 136 , Description of the White-faced Black, 132, 133 Striped Game Chickens, 123 Sultans, 149, 150 Surrey Fowl, Effect of Crossing on the, 77 Swans, 199 Swan, The Black, 199 , The English White, 199 252 INDEX. Swans as Layers, 200. "Sweepings," Objections to usa of, as Food, 27 Temperature necessary in Artificial Hatching, 210, 211 Toulouse Geese, 197 Turliey-chicks, Diseases to which, are liable, 179, 18t. , Proper Food, for, 178, 179 , Danger of Moisture to, 176 , Treatment of, 176 , Treatment of, immediately after Hatching, 178 , Danger of Bad Weather to, 180 Turkey-cock, Disposition of, 177 Turkey-hen, Disposition of, 177, 178 Turkey-hens as Layers, 177 Turkeys, The Breeding of, 176, 177 , The Eoreigu Breeds of, 180, 181 Turkey's Hatching, Duration of, 178 Turkeys, Kinds of, 180 jEemarks on the Bearing of, 175 , Size of, 180 .Treatment of, when Hardy, 180 ■ , Treatment of, immediately be- fore Hatchmg, 178 Utility, The Great Advantage of, 79 Vuioas Fowls, 172 Vegetable Food, Importance of, 28 Vegetables, Benefit of, to Chickens, 51 , What, may be used, 28, 29 Ventilation of the Fowl-house, 5 Vermin, Precautions against, 217 , Insect, Treatment for/ 59 Vulture Hocks, 114 Water, Fresh, Importance of, 29 Water-vessel, Best Kind of, 21 Weather, Hints as to, in Artificial Rearing, 215—217 Weight, Hints as to Extra Fat and, 53, 54 Wheat as Food, 27 White Bantams, 165, 166 White-crested BlackPoland Cocks, 146 Black Poland Hens, 146, 147 White Polands, 147 White Dorkings, The, 128, 129 Whites, The, 122 White Spanish, The, 135, 136 Worcestershire Piles, The, 122 Wortley's (Colonel Stuartj Incubator, 212, 213 Yellow. Duck-wings, The, 122 Yorkshire Golden Pheasants and "Mooneys," Exhibition Fowls from, 141, 142 Yorkshire Silver Pheasant Fowls, 142 Young Fowls, How to tell, 15 rf«.^tii:«'^^i«4 ■^^■viw^wi iiin|ww>n||||