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PERMANENT
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PASTURES
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PERMANENT
AND TEMPORARY
PASTURES
BY
MARTIN J. SUTTON
CHEVALIER DE LA LEGION D HONNEUB ! OHEVALIEB DE L ORDRE DD MERITE AGRICOLE
BELLOW OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY
MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL EXAMINATION BOARD
MEMBER OP THE COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OP ENGLAND FROM 1883 TO 1904
MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL OF THE B4TH AND WEST AND SOUTHERN COUNTD2S
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY FROM 1880
MEMBER OF THE COUNCIL OF THE SMITHFIELD CLUB, ETC.
LAHDSCAP1 - -1 DEPAKlJL^ii*
Popular Edition
Sotttom
SIMPKIN, MAESHALL, HAMILTON, KENT & CO. LIMITED
1908
Entered at Stationers' Hall. All rights reserved
THE GOLD MEDAL
OF
THE PARIS EXHIBITION, 1900
WAS AWARDED
FOR THE EDITION OF THIS WORK
CONTAINING THE ILLUSTRATIONS
IN NATURAL COLOURS
Dedication of tbe ffirst Eoition.
TO
HIS KOYAL HIGHNESS
ALBERT EDWARD, PRINCE OF WALES, ,
DUKE OP COENWALL, E.G. &c.
PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND, 1885-6.
THIS WOEK
IS BESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
(bg special permission)
BY
HIS EOYAL HIGHNESS'S OBEDIENT SEEVANT
MARTIN J. SUTTON.
PEE FACE
THE FIRST EDITION
A short paper on 'Permanent Pastures,' written by my father
at the desire of the late Mr. Philip Pusey, appeared in
the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,
vol. xxii., part ii. By special permission this paper was after-
wards published as a pamphlet, and, having run through eleven
editions, the duty of re-editing it fell to me in 1880. At my
father's request I revised and enlarged the work ; and two
editions, numbering together twenty thousand copies, have
since been disposed of.
The laying down of land to grass is now a question
vital to the interests of agriculture ; and it has appeared to
me that, instead of further enlarging the pamphlet, a more
comprehensive treatment of the subject is necessary.
In preparing this volume I have derived valuable assist-
ance from information most readily afforded on certain special
subjects by Mr. W. Carruthers, the accomplished Botanist
to the Royal Agricultural Society of England.
I have found of great practical value the record of ' Agri-
cultural, Botanical, and Chemical Results of Experiments on
the Mixed Herbage of Permanent Meadows,' compiled jointly
by Sir J. B. Lawes, Bart., Dr. J. H. Gilbert, and Dr.
Maxwell T. Masters, which contains the results of minute
and painstaking observations extending over a period of twenty
years. I wish further to thank Dr. Masters for his kindness
in verifying the accuracy of the botanical descriptions of the
Vlll
several grasses which appear at pages 160-204. My acknow-
ledgments are also due to Mr. J. Gilbert Baker, of the Royal
Herbarium, Kew, for information which he has freely given.
To Dr. Stebler, the eminent Continental authority on
agricultural grasses, and to Dr. George Vasey, Botanist to
the Department of Agriculture, Washington, U.S.A., I am
indebted for most interesting details concerning grasses in
Europe and America.
My old and lamented friend, the late Professor Buckman,
was ever ready to give me the benefit of his wide experience,
and I prize his opinions on many of the grasses used in agri-
culture as the conclusions of a practical farmer as well as
botanist.
I feel a special pleasure in acknowledging the great services
rendered me by Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker, in making a
series of chemical analyses of agricultural grasses expressly for
this book. These analyses will be found at pages 160 to 204.
They are of a more exhaustive and practical character than
any which have previously been published, and, with the
Report on page 159, they will be of considerable interest to
scientific agriculturists.
Finally, I have had the advantage of drawing upon my
father's experience of over fifty years in laying down land in
every county, and almost in every parish, of the kingdom,
as well as large tracts in the Colonies.
This book does not profess to be a standard authority
on British Grasses. My aim has been to show the relative
agricultural value of varieties upon which I have personally
experimented.
For any omissions that may be detected perhaps I may be
allowed to plead that the work has been written in brief
moments snatched at intervals from an absorbing business.
MARTIN J. SUTTON.
Reading : February 1, 1886.
PBEFACE
TO
THE PRESENT EDITION
It is twenty-two years since the first edition of this work
appeared. The total number of copies in the six editions
already issued is twenty-five thousand.
The conditions which obtained in 1886 as regards the
Grass Lands of this country are not greatly modified in 1908,
but certainly a more intelligent interest is now taken in the
subject of laying down land to pasture.
I have carefully revised the book to bring it up to date
in every respect, and added in tabular form, at page 29, a
scheme of typical prescriptions of Grasses and Clovers suitable
for permanent pastures on various soils, which I hope may be
useful. These tables have been prepared by my eldest son,
Mr. Martin H. F. Sutton, who takes the keenest interest in
a subject which his grandfather first brought prominently
before the Agriculturists of this country.
MARTIN J. SUTTON.
Reading : February 1, 1908.
CONTENTS
PAGE
THE EXTENSION OF PASTUEES . 1
THE DEAINAGE OF GRASS LAND ... .8
CULTURAL PREPARATIONS .... .17
THE SELECTION OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS . . 25
TYPICAL. PRESCRIPTIONS . . .29
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES (Grammas)
Ageostis alba — var. stolonifera (Fiorm, or Creeping Bent Grass) . . . 30
Axopecukus pratensis (Meadow Foxtail) ... .... 31
Ammophila arundinacea, Psamma arenaria (Sea Meed, Marrem Grass, or
Mat Grajss) ■ .... . . .34
Anthoxanthum odoratum (Sweet-scented Vernal) ... 35
Avena flavesoens (Yellow Oat Grass) .... .... 37
Avena elatior (Tall Oat Grass) . 38
Bromus inermis (Aimless Brome Grass, or Hungarian Forage Grass) . . . 40
Bromus Schr.s;deri (Schroder's Brome Grass) . . .40
Cynosurus oristatus (Crested JDogstail) . ... 41
Dactylis glomerata (Rough Cocksfoot) ... 43
Elymus arenarius (Sand, or Upright Sea Lyme Grass) . 45
Festuca pratensis (Meadow Fescue) . ... ... 46
FESTtrCA elatior (Tall Fescue) .... .... 49
Festuca heterophylla ( Yarious-leaxed Fescue) . ... 52
Festuca ovina tenuifolia (Fine-leaved Sheep's Fescue) . ... 53
Festuca duriuscula (Sard Fescue) . . . 55
Festuca rubra (Bed Fescue) . . 57
Lolium perenne (Perennial Bye Grass) . 58
Lolium vulgare. L. annuum (Common, or Annual Bye Grass) . . . 64
LOLIUM italicum (Italian Bye Grass) ... . ... 64
Phleum pratense (Timothy Grass, or Meadow Catstail) 68
POA pratensis (Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass) .... 71
POA trivialis (Bough-stalked Meadow Grass, or Oroheston Grass) . . . . 73
POA NEMORALIS sempervirens (Hudson's Bay or Evergreen Meadow Grass) . 74
POA serotina (Late Meadow Grass) .... 75
POA AQUATICA (Water-Meadow or Sweet Beed Grass) 75
Xll
AGRICULTURAL CLOVERS {Legummosce) tage
Tripolium repens perenne {Perennial White Clover)
Trifolium pratense {Bed, or Broad Clover) . ■ ■
Trifolium pratense perenne {Perennial Bed Clover, or Cow Grass)
Trifolium hybridum {Alsike Clover) . , . 83
Trifolium minus ( Yellow Suolding) 8 *
Medioago lupulina {Common Yellow Clover, Trefoil, Nonsueh, Black Grass, or
'Hop'). . . . ....
Lotus corniculatus {Birdsfoot Trefoil) . ... 86
SUNDRY PLANTS USED FOR GRAZING, FEEDING, OR MAKING INTO HAY
Achillea Millefolium {Yarrow, or Milfoil) . . . 87
Ciohorium intybus {Chicory, or Suooory) . . •
Medioago sativa {Lucerne) ...
Onobrychis sativa {Sainfoin) . . .
Petroselinum sativum, or Carum Petroselinum {Sheep's Parsley) .
Poterium Sanguisorba {Burnet)
SOWING GRASS SEEDS
Spring Sowing
Sowing with Rape . ....
Autumn Sowing .
THE IMMEDIATE AFTER-MANAGEMENT OF NEW PASTURES .
THE KIDMORE EXPERIMENTS WITH MANURES ON GRASS LANDS ,
THE MANAGEMENT AND IMPROVEMENT OF OLD GRASS LAND
BREAKING UP OLD GRASS LAND
TEMPORARY PASTURES
One Year's Ley . ....
Two Years' Ley . . .
Three Years' Ley
Four, Six, or Eight Years' Temporary Pasture ,
HINTS ON HAYMAKING .
HINTS ON GRAZING .
ENSILAGE (GRASS) . . ...
NOTES ON CERTAIN WORTHLESS GRASSES AND INJURIOUS AND
POISONOUS PLANTS FOUND IN PASTURES ....
77
79
80
85
88
91
92
92
94
96
99
99
102
109
110
117
120
125
125
125
126
129
13S
142
145
PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY
PASTURES
The Extension of Pastures
The Agricultural Returns for 1906, issued by the Board of
Agriculture, show that in England alone the total area of land
under all kinds of crops, bare fallow, and grass, excluding
mountain and heath land, is 24,600,574 acres. Of this area,
13,817,224 acres are in permanent grass, and 10,783,350 acres
are under arable culture. The permanent grass land thus
exceeds the arable by 3,033,874 acres, whereas in 1870 the
arable land exceeded the pastures by 4,049,000 acres.
In Great Britain, the total cultivated area is returned as
32,266,755 acres, of which 17,244,734 acres are given as pas-
ture, and 15,022,021 acres as arable — an increase of permanent
grass between 1870 and 1906 inclusive of 5,171,878 acres. 1
Clover, Sainfoin, and Grasses returned under rotation crops
for Great Britain augment the totals of grass by 4,504,884 acres
in 1870, and by 4,440,746 acres in 1906.
Concurrently with this enormous extension of permanent
pastures, the wheat area in Great Britain has contracted from
3,500,543 acres in 1870 to 1,755,609 acres in 1906. The
decrease thus amounts to about one-half, and in six of the
1 It must unfortunately be admitted that a proportion of this vast acreage has
been allowed to ' go to grass ' unaided, in consequence of the inability of owners or
occupiers to cultivate the land.
B
2 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
intervening years, 1895, 1896, 1901-2-3 and 1904, this propor-
tion was exceeded. 1
When wet summers followed each other in close succes-
sion, the opinion was freely expressed that farmers were suffering
principally from the excessive rainfall, and that immediately
hot summers returned those who had hastily laid down their
land would be equally hasty in ploughing it up again. But
in the South of England we have had hot seasons, accom-
panied with drought sufficient to turn pastures brown and
to prevent the growth ot much aftermath, yet no one thinks
of ploughing the sod. On the contrary, it is considered more
than ever fortunate for both landlord and tenant that such
land remains free from the increasingly heavy outgoings for
labour which, with low prices for produce, render arable land
unprofitable.
Many causes have combined to bring about the conversion
of arable into meadow and pasture. Chief among these in-
fluences have been the low price of corn, the reduced capital
of agriculturists, and the increased cost of labour — and these
conditions still prevail.
However reluctant we may be to accept the situation as
permanent, the fact is indisputable that foreign wheat can at
present be profitably delivered in British ports for a smaller
sum than the actual cost of growing and harvesting the crop
in this country. Formerly the sale of corn was regarded as
the means of setting farmers' finances straight for the year.
Now the corn rotation is looked upon as more or less a
necessary evil, and as involving the most unremunerative
outlay of the whole course.
The diminished capital in the hands of many farmers
renders it impossible for them so to till their land as to secure
the largest possible produce. The only way of ensuring
economy in working their holdings is to lay down a con-
siderable proportion of the land to grass.
1 The lowe 3 t record was in 1904, when the area sown was 1,375,188 acres.
THE EXTENSION OF PASTURES 3
Not the least of a farmer's anxieties is the grave difficulty
as to labour, which appears to become more acute in every
succeeding year. I agree that work for the rural population
ought to be found on the land. But on their side, most of
the able-bodied labourers have refused to live and work in the
country, even where farmers are in a position to pay them.
Landowners and farmers have been privileged to educate the
labourers' children, with the result that the latter remain long
enough at school to acquire a distaste for agricultural life, and
the pick of the boys and young men flock into towns, leaving
the feeble, incapable, and infirm to work on the farms. So
that, having paid an education rate and abolished school fees,
farmers find as a result that the efficiency of labour is
diminished, while the cost is seriously augmented. Those
farmers who still employ a considerable number of labourers
would not object to pay the increase in wages were it possible
in return to obtain as good a day's work from the men as their
fathers gave for less money, but no such willing or capable
labour is now available.
It may be freely admitted that the laying down of arable
land to grass is bad for the nation, not only because the land
does not produce so much food when in grass as it does under
the plough or under spade cultivation, but because there is
less scope for the employment of labour on pastures than on
arable land.
Unfortunately, the question which agriculturists have to
consider is neither the most productive method of cultivating
land, nor the system which will employ the largest number of
labourers, but the most certain way of farming land to avoid
loss. Landowners and farmers cannot be expected to till the
soil at a ruinous sacrifice unless the nation is prepared to pay
for such benefit out of the public purse. Until it is considered
reasonable that men should beggar themselves for the national
good, cultivators must be free to farm in the way that
promises the best return for the capital and skill devoted to
4 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
the business. I do not suggest that an extension of permanent
or temporary pastures in every part of the United Kingdom
will confer the highest social and economic benefits. The
adoption of this course is recommended solely as a means
of enabling many farmers to manage their holdings with a
reduced capital, and to cut down a labour bill that is now
too heavy for them.
The successful farmer of the future will be the man who
is willing to take advantage of every invention that will help
to render him independent of manual labour. Enormous
strides have already been made in this direction. Threshing-
machines, steam-ploughs, and self-binders have revolutionised
the conditions of agriculture. Indeed, it must be patent
that in the absence of such labour-saving machinery British
husbandry could not be carried on by the present body of
farm labourers. And finality in labour-saving is no more
attained in husbandry than it is in manufacturing industries.
As yet the electrical engineer has rendered little assistance
to the farmer, but I am sanguine that in the near future
discoveries will be made which will eclipse all that the steam
engine has achieved in the service of agriculture.
The laying down of land to grass appears to be quite as
much a question for landowners as for tenants. The former
have a direct interest in promoting the movement, as a means
of avoiding the deterioration of their land, and of attracting
tenants to their farms.
I freely admit that there are large tracts of land in this
country which are unsuited for the economic formation of
permanent pastures, because the finer grasses die out, and the
soil gradually becomes filled with moss, twitch, and worthless
indigenous grasses. Much of the prejudice existing against
the making of pastures has been caused by fruitless attempts to
coerce Nature. But, granting that the formation of permanent
pastures cannot be universally advocated, there is no farm land
with which I am acquainted that wiU not profitably respond to
THE EXTENSION OF PASTURES 5
the alternate system alluded to in the chapter on ' Temporary
Pastures.' The advantages of that system, however, are by no
means restricted to soil which is unsuitable for permanent
pastures. The practice of the Lancashire and Scotch farmers
has abundantly proved that no other method of farming pays
so well as laying down the best land in artificial grasses for
periods varying from two to four years, instead of simply
sowing clover and breaking it up after the first season.
Temporary pastures are now recommended for general adop-
tion by some of the most enlightened and able agriculturists
of the country, and I look forward to the wide extension
of this system, not merely as a great means of lessening
the labour bill, but also because it will ensure the storage
in the soil of a large reserve of grain-producing energy ready
for any national emergency, or in the event of such an
alteration of public opinion concerning Free Trade as will
enable the farmer again to produce the food of the country
at a profit. At present the only hope of obtaining a profit
from much of our strong land is to grow grass permanently
or in rotation, and turn it into meat or milk. For milk alone
there is an immense future now that the populations of large
towns better understand its value as an article of diet, and
the 4 railway companies have organised a service to ensure its
speedy delivery in freshness and purity direct to the masses of
the people. 1
Much was anticipated from dairy factories, and some of
them are commercially successful, but it does not appear to me
that for the majority of farmers the difficulty of distribution
will be surmounted in this way. As milk is easily and quickly
1 As the result of two separate inquiries made for the Royal Statistical Society in
1892 and 1904 respectively, it is estimated ' that the average consumption per head of
milk — as milk — in the United Kingdom is 15 gallons. It follows (as there are
practically no imports of fresh milk) that the demand which British farmers have to
meet is now increasing at the rate of some 6,000,000 gallons annually, and it may he
reckoned that during the past twenty years the annual consumption of milk has
increased by something like 100,000,000 gallons.' — Report of the Board of Agriculture
for 1906.
6 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
spoiled, and only a small proportion of the bulk is used in
butter-making, it is desirable that the cream should be
extracted at the earliest possible moment by hand or power
separators, of which I was one of the first to avail myself
in this country. The prejudice against their introduction is
happily dying out, and I have not heard of a single instance
where the separator has been abandoned after a fair trial.
There is no waiting for the cream to rise, and consequently
not the least possibility of decomposition setting in, even in
the hottest weather. The tedious process of skimming is
avoided, and instead of rows of pans to be constantly cleansed,
a few crocks only are required for the cream. The separated
milk never reaches the dairy at all, but goes straight to the
labourers' cottages, or to the calves and mash-tubs for pigs, in
a sweet, wholesome, and digestible condition. Thus the whole
of the milk, minus the fat, is retained for the benefit of the
farmer and his labourers, whereas, when sent to a factory,
the separated milk is lost, at least to the farmer. Experience
has shown that a separator will produce one-third more cream
from a given quantity of milk than can be obtained in the
ordinary way by skimming, so that the cost of the machine
is quickly saved. And in the cream alone there is a portable
and saleable commodity, when it is not required for butter-
making.
Condensed milk may perhaps be profitably manufactured
in this country, but it can scarcely be to the interest of the
farmer to encourage an industry which wiU place him in
competition with the whole world. He had better devote
attention to fresh milk and to the delicate products of milk,
cream, butter, and cream cheese, which suffer from long
transport.
The taste for fancy cheese has greatly developed in recent
years, and there is no reason why British agriculturists should
not compete successfully in the production of some of the more
perishable kinds. The manufacture of marketable commodities
THE EXTENSION OF PASTURES 7
such as butter and soft cheese, will prove of especial service in
districts that are too remote from populous centres to enable
the milk trade to be carried on with profit.
Beef and mutton can be more cheaply fatted, and milk
more cheaply produced, on a farm of which a portion is in
grass than on arable land alone. It may not be possible to
fatten so many beasts or sheep per acre as when stall-fed on
arable produce ; but the point now under consideration is
farming at a profit, and I believe that one of the most potent
factors in the increase of pastures, and especially of temporaiy
pastures, will be this facility of producing meat and milk with
advantage to the grazier as well as to the consumer.
PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
The Drainage of Grass Land
It is beyond the scope of this work to treat the subject of
drainage exhaustively. But while giving a few practical hints
on draining operations, I propose to refer to some of the laws
which render it impossible to maintain a first-class pasture
unless land is properly drained either by natural or by
artificial means.
An impression widely prevails that, however necessary
effectual drainage may be for other farm crops, grass land
may with impunity be left undrained. This is only one part
of the tradition of carelessness which former generations have
handed down concerning pastures. No one who is accustomed
to examine water-logged meadows can fail to be impressed by
the worthless character of the herbage they produce. If there
were no cure, or the expense of the remedy were out of pro-
portion to the benefit to be derived from it, apathy might be
excusable. But as to the greater part of the undrained grass
land which is now lying in a comparatively unprofitable con-
dition through stagnant Mater, there is no doubt that the
vegetation can be immensely improved in quality. Drainage
of pastures has never been known to be other than beneficial ;
and in most instances the quantity of hay or feed will also be
greatly augmented, although from some land already yield-
ing a large bulk of herbage of a low quality the increase after
draining may not be immediately apparent. The total bulk
may even be temporarily diminished. But the loss will be
THE DRAINAGE OF GRASS LAND 9
confined to those plants which possess little or no feeding
value, and therefore regret need not be wasted on their
disappearance. And, as a rule, the work can be carried out at
a cost which will be returned with interest in the course of a
very few years. Drainage alone will go a long way towards
turning a marsh into a profitable pasture, and it renders other
improvements possible at a trifling expense. The important
point to be urged here is that undrained land should not be laid
down to grass. Otherwise careful tillage, costly manures, and
the finest grass seeds will certainly be wasted. The result is
only a question of time. Sooner or later the valuable grasses
which are sown will be supplanted by sedge and rush and
other semi-aquatic vegetation, until the pasture gradually
reaches the worthless condition which invariably prevails on
undrained land.
Every year more water passes through land which is
naturally or artificially drained than through soil which is
generally saturated with moisture. Where stagnant water lies
no rain can enter : it simply runs off the surface by any outlet
it can find. The soil can neither breathe nor digest any
fertiliser applied to it, and it is incapable of utilising the sun's
heat for the development of plant life.
When rain falls on a well-drained field it does more than
merely moisten the soil and supply plants with water. It
has been computed that in each year by means of rain
alone every acre of well-drained land in this country is
benefited to the extent of five to ten pounds of nitrogen.
Indeed, one of the advantages of good drainage is that it
allows the atmosphere to be freely carried into the soil
by rain, when the oxygen sweetens and converts injurious
organic substances into wholesome food for plants. At
the same time, carbonic acid gas derived from rain and air
performs the same operation for the mineral constituents of
the soil.
10 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
Another advantage which results from draining is an
increase in the temperature of the soil. It is well understood
that evaporation produces cold, and the more rapid the
evaporation the greater the cold. TraveUers in the East will
recall the delightful surprise experienced when first they drank
cool water from a porous jar while the thermometer registered
over 100°. Here is an illustration of the conditions which
prevail on a hot day with water-logged soil. Under scorching
sunshine, the soil when full of water becomes intensely cold
immediately beneath the surface. The top crust may feel
warm to the touch, but a plunging thermometer forced into
the subsoil will reveal a difference of many degrees in tem-
perature, which the rainfall on the surface is powerless to
increase. When the sun's rays cease to fall on undrained
land the cold subsoil quickly brings the surface to its own
low temperature. This rapid change gives birth to the
mists which in autumn are so familiar in the Fens and in the
valley of the Thames. Surely there need be no wonder that
under these adverse conditions the grass on badly-drained
land is late to begin growing in spring and early to cease in
autumn.
An eminent German authority has demonstrated that
there is an intimate connection between a warm dry soil and
economy in feeding cattle. Friable land absorbs more heat
than land which is saturated with moisture, and retains the
heat for a longer period. Upon the one animals lie warmer,
especially at night, than they do upon the other. A large
proportion of the food consumed by animals is utilised for
the production of the heat which is constantly dissipated
from their bodies. It follows that additional food becomes
necessary to replace the animal heat lost by the colder
surroundings.
Land which is properly drained comes under the influence
of another operation of nature, to the great advantage of the
THE DRAINAGE OF GRASS LAND 11
crops upon it. Water would, after it has passed through the
surface to the subsoil, be lost to plant life, were it not for
the wonderful natural arrangement known as capillarity. 1 As
the surface soil loses water by evaporation, it draws up
and reabsorbs moisture from below ; and this is especially
the case when the soil becomes dry, and its particles are
disintegrated. The water which is thus brought from the
subsoil contains in solution some of the mineral constituents
from the formation below, which further aid the growth of
plants. This fact accounts for the widely different grasses
which are to be seen in old pastures on surface soils that
appear to be identical. The mineral constituents in a state
of solution are brought up by the water from considerable
depths, and by this means, amongst others, the geological
substratum asserts its influence upon the herbage growing on
the surface.
It is a mistake to suppose that the rainfall goes direct to
the drains and is at once expelled from the land. On the con-
trary, the rain sinks into the land until it meets and mingles
with the subsoil water, and the drains do not begin to run until
the subsoil water rises above their level. While water, how-
ever small the quantity, is flowing in a drain-pipe — and probably
long after it has ceased to flow — it may be taken for granted
that the subsoil is saturated with moisture up to the level of
the drains. The rise and fall of the subsoil water are therefore
determined by the level of the drain rather than by the surface
1 Baron Liebig, in his Natural Laws of Husbandry, thus describes the action of
water in a state of motion : —
' If we regard the porous earth as a system of capillary tubes, the condition which
must render them best suited for the growth of plants is unquestionably this : that
the narrow capillary spaces should be filled with water, the wide spaces with air, and
that all of them should be accessible to the atmosphere. In a moist soil of the kind
affording free access to atmospheric air, the absorbent root-fibres are in most intimate
contact with the earthy particles; the outer surface of the root-fibres here may be
supposed to form the one, the porous earthy particles the other wall of a capillary
vessel, the connection between them being effected by an extremely fine layer of
water.'
12 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
of the soil, as it would be in an undrained state. Thus, in
well-drained land, the air is being continually carried into the
soil by rain, and forced into it by atmospheric pressure as the
subsoil water falls to a lower level, whilst the air is expelled
when the water rises. A water-logged surface is not only
injurious to plant life because there is too much moisture
in it and too little warmth, but because neither rain nor air
can enter from above, nor mineral constituents be drawn from
below. Drainage sets all these natural forces in motion, and
they open the soil and disintegrate its particles for the benefit
of the plant life upon it.
Again, drainage is always beneficial in promoting the early
and late growth of grass, and this is of enormous value in feed-
ing stock. The early autumn and late spring frosts do not
arrest growth on drained land so quickly as on that which is
sodden with moisture. And on the latter there is also the
additional injury which the hoofs of cattle inflict on the grasses.
Thus one of the effects of drainage is to produce an ever-
growing crop.
It has been urged with perfect truth that from arable
land manures are often washed into drains, especially in wet
seasons, and that in draining a farmer may be providing
an outlet for manure which he has placed on the surface
at great expense. Experiments by the late Dr. Yoelcker
and others have clearly proved that, with one exception, for
which the remedy is easily applied, the loss of fertilisers
by means of the drains is inappreciable when a green crop
is on the ground. On the contrary, water flowing from
the drains under a bare fallow alongside, may at the same
time be highly charged with manurial matter. Hence
the grass farmer is protected, as the arable farmer cannot
always be, from this particular loss. The exception alluded
to above is the possible loss of lime — an essential con-
stituent of plants, and one of the substances most easily lost
THE DRAINAGE OF GRASS LAND 13
by the drains. This accounts for the necessity of apply-
ing lime from time to time on drained land which happens
to be deficient in it. But while ammonia — which, by the
process known as nitrification, becomes oxidised into nitric
acid, and, entering into combination with lime, forms nitrate of
lime — may possibly be wasted, it is satisfactory to remember
that superphosphate of lime and other forms of phosphoric
acid are never thus lost. Nor does it appear that potash is
easily abstracted, so that there need be no hesitation in apply-
ing these substances from fear that they will be carried away
by the drains.
It may be accepted as a general truth that grass land
should not be drained so deeply as arable land. The weight of
engines and heavy agricultural machinery has not to be allowed
for, and there is no doubt that grass can advantageously absorb
more moisture than corn crops. Further, the roots of most
grasses do not penetrate very deep, and therefore it is desirable
to have the water somewhat nearer the surface than on the
arable part of the farm.
As to the practical part of draining I need say but little.
There are tracts of country without any arterial drainage,
no river or stream being available into which drains, if laid,
could discharge their effluent water. The remedy is of
course beyond the power of private individuals, except in
a few rare instances. Such works can only be carried out by
Government, or by companies with large funds and under
parliamentary sanction. This subject will, however, one day
claim more attention from statesmen. Scientific engineering
has rendered the task possible ; the real difficulty lies in
its cost. Meanwhile, in such exceptional districts, pastures
having no fall for drain-pipes may be considerably improved
by a system of gutter-cutting on the surface. This practice
would often be serviceable on land subject to floods. Water
should not be allowed to lie on portions of a field after the
14 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
main stream has retired sufficiently to enable this water to
flow if only a channel were provided.
The manner in which drainage should be carried out in
any particular case depends on soil, climate, and other con-
siderations. These conditions must of course be taken into
account, but they concern the details and not the principle of
the work. The difference between the rainfall in the eastern
and western counties, 1 or between the West of England and
Ireland, will regulate the nearness of the lines of drains and
the size of the pipes. But these differences do not touch
the main question, whether to drain or not to drain. Soils
which rest upon a porous subsoil certainly do not need drain-
ing. Other land may be retentive, and yet He so high, or at
such a steep inclination, that the water is discharged with
sufficient rapidity without artificial aid. Indeed, draining
may always be considered unnecessary where the best natural
grasses grow luxuriantly. With these exceptions all clay
lands, whether the clay is only in the subsoil or rises to the
surface, and all peat lands, whether the peat has clay beneath
it or not, and in fact all land which is habitually saturated with
water, must be effectually drained before a pasture of any
value can be established.
The prejudice which occasionally exists against the adop-
tion of a system of drainage can generally be traced to some
1 The following statistics, compiled from the .Reports of the Meteorological Office,
show the difference in rainfall which occurred during 1906 in various districts in Great
Britain : —
' England (Highest rainfall)— Counties of Somerset, Dorset,
Devon, and Cornwall ....
„ (Lowest rainfall) — Counties of London, Middlese:
and adjacent on the North
Scotland — Northern and Western Counties
„ Eastern Counties ....
Wales
The case named by Professor Ansted in his Physical Geography is still more
remarkable. He says : ' At Seathwaite the fall is V27 in., and a few miles off, at
Bishop's Wearmouth in Durham, on the other side of the moors, it is only 17 in.'
36-56 inches
•22-3-2
M
52-98
)»
35-56
42-46
THE DRAINAGE OF GRASS LAND 15
instance where the workmanship has been bad, or where no
care has afterwards been taken to maintain the efficiency of
the pipes. These ought not to be covered in until they
have been proved to work satisfactorily, and as draining is
usually put out to contract, this matter needs close personal
attention.
It is a safe general rule not to make any single drain too
long. Plenty of fall should be given, or the pipes may not
work well after they have been laid some time. A good fall
renders them to a considerable extent self-cleansing ; and the
small drains should not enter the large drains at right angles,
but always obliquely, so that the water may retain its momen-
tum, when the occasional flushing after a sharp storm will
prevent the pipes from becoming choked. For short distances
near hedgerows or trees, the use of socket pipes securely
jointed with cement — not clay — is to be strongly recom-
mended. The slight additional expense may save a large
subsequent outlay.
As to the depth at which the pipes should be inserted,
and the distance between the rows, no definite rule can be
laid down. Experience has proved that in heavy land they
must be near together, and not too deep ; but in lighter
land the lines may be comparatively far apart. It is a
common practice to cut the trenches three feet deep and
to allow a distance of fifteen feet between the rows, but
almost eveiy field has some peculiarity of conformation or
subsoil which affects the question. After the pipes are
covered in, one man should be held responsible for periodical
examination of the outlets, to ensure their being kept in
working order.
Sometimes there is an indurated pan, or hard mass, formed
beneath the cultivated surface by the weight of the plough
and the trampling of horses during a long series of years.
A similar condition, resulting from natural causes, is found on
16 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
some heath lands, four or five inches below the surface. These
hard subsoils are as impervious to water as beds of cement.
Before putting drain-tiles into such land, an experiment
should be made to ascertain whether satisfactory drainage
cannot be obtained by breaking up the subsoil to a sufficient
depth. If the trial prove successful, the expense of putting
in tiles may be saved, and the fertility of the land will be
increased. But in many cases it will be necessary both to
break up the subsoil and to put in pipes before effectual
drainage can be secured.
17
Cultural Preparations
Among the questions which need consideration before laying
down land to grass, perhaps there is not one which has
received less attention than the condition of the soil. Grass
is frequently regarded as a last resource for land which
is thoroughly exhausted, and which no longer pays for the
cultivation of any other crop. It is too often assumed
that grass will grow anywhere, and under all circumstances.
And although the old and wasteful process of allowing land
to ' go to grass ' is no longer advocated to any extent, many
farmers consider it sufficient to harrow in a few seeds, and
let them take their chance. The practice is extremely mis-
chievous, resulting in immense loss of both time and money.
No farm crop requires more care in the preparation of the
land than does a crop of permanent grasses ; and there cannot
be greater folly than to sow costly seeds, especially of the
finer varieties, on land which has not been adequately
prepared to receive them.
The choice of land suitable for permanent pasture is
seldom open. Other circumstances than fitness for this pur-
pose generally determine the matter. But occasionally it does
happen that on some estate or farm there is a possibility of
selecting the fields which are to be turned into grass. The
guiding principles are few and simple. It may be accepted as
an established conclusion, that sharp sands and gravels are not
well adapted to the formation of pastures, but that heavy loams
and most strong clays are eminently suitable for grasses and
18 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
clovers, and will produce abundant crops. The fact that heavy
soils are expensive to cultivate as arable is an additional reason
why they should be laid down to grass. Again, if there be the
choice of two fields, one sloping to the north and the other to
the south, preference should be given to the former, because
it will be less liable to burn in a hot summer.
Drainage has been referred to in the preceding chapter,
and is a matter of the utmost consequence. If the land is
naturally well drained, there will be a fortunate saving of
expense, but otherwise this operation should be preliminary
to all else.
Beyond question, the very best preparation for a spring
sowing of permanent grass seeds is a bare fallow in the
previous summer. This affords the opportunity of destroying
successive crops of indigenous annual weeds, and it is im-
portant that these should be got rid of by scarifying and
dragging rather than by ploughing, for the plough is only too
certain to bring to the surface a fresh stock of weed seeds
ready to germinate in the following spring. Many influences
may aid or hinder the work, which depends not only on the
character of the soil and the previous cropping, but also on
the atmospheric conditions which prevail while the operations
are in progress. Here the advantage of a bare fallow is
realised, because the cultivator has the whole summer and
early autumn in which to accomplish the task.
Deep ploughing should be carried out first, and if sub-
soiling is considered necessary, there is all the greater reason
for doing it early. Then, by means of the scarifier and the
roller, the soil can be cleaned and so far rendered fit to
receive the seeds that in the following spring only one or
two turns with the harrow will be required to perfect the
seed-bed. There are good reasons for insisting on thorough
preparation of the land in the first instance. Careless
and half-hearted work wastes both seed and labour, and
the routine has to be attempted a second time under great
CULTURAL PREPARATIONS 19
disadvantages. Causes entirely beyond human control may
sometimes render it needful to re-sow, even after the most
earnest effort ; but no one should lay himself open to the
possibility of self-reproach for having contributed to partial
failure by neglect. More of the failures in attempting to
create pastures could, if all the facts were known, be traced
directly to the unfavourable state of the soil, and to its pre-
vious cultivation, than is generally believed, and it is true
wisdom, as well as sound economy, to wait a year, or even two
years, rather than risk sowing upon soil which is foul or out
of condition.
The bare fallow, however, will be the exception ; as a rule
it cannot be afforded. In the interests of the coming pasture,
a root or potato crop is the next best preparation, and unless
the land is capable of growing a first-class crop of roots, it
will be incompetent to produce even a fair pasture. A root
crop offers the advantage that while few are disposed to
manure a bare fallow heavily, a liberal dressing of farmyard
dung will not be denied to the mangels or swedes. To
young grasses it is a great gain when, instead of manuring at
or soon after sowing, the land can be made rich and put into
good heart in the preceding year. The tender and delicate
roots of the rising grass plant may be seriously impaired by
contact with crude raw manure ; whereas they will readily
assimilate a rich dressing which has had time to become
mellow, or to be absorbed into the staple.
Supposing land to be prepared by feeding off a crop of
turnips with sheep, it may happen that the turnips have to
be supplemented with meadow hay. If so, it is important
that the hay should be only such as has been cut very early,
otherwise the ripe seeds of the least useful grasses will, as
they pass the sheep undigested, in due time spring up and
make the pasture foul. Such grasses as Holcus lanatus,
JBromus mollis, and other worthless varieties, often find then-
way into a pasture in this manner.
c 2
20 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
Whether the roots are fed off during September or
October by sheep eating hay or cake— and the use of cake is
to be strongly commended— or whether the roots are carted
off during autumn, in either case the plough should be put
into the ground the moment it is at liberty. This first
ploughing must be deep and thorough, and should be quickly
followed by another ploughing to lay the land up rough for
the winter. In February, or as early as the land is workable,
get the harrow and the roller upon it until the seed-bed is fine,
firm, and level. A tenacious soil, which dries off lumpy, may
involve the expenditure of much time and energy to put it
into good order. The delay will prove tantalising, but im-
patience is a bad husbandman, and the implements must be
kept going until a satisfactory finish is obtained. It should
be generally known that few grass seeds will grow at a
greater depth than half an inch, even in fine friable soil. In
cracks and fissures they will be utterly lost. Hence a sowing
on ground which is rough is foredoomed to partial or entire
failure, and the plants which do come will be the coarser
varieties only.
Consolidation is equally important, for the young grasses
cannot obtain foothold upon a loose or hollow soil. In such a
case it is impossible to secure a perfect plant ; and here again
the finer sorts will fail. It is no unusual thing 1 to see a full
plant of grass all round the headlands of a newly-sown field,
while the centre is thin or bare. The explanation is that
the greater traffic over the headlands created a firmer seed-bed
for the grasses than was made for them elsewhere.
Even after land has been fully prepared for the seeds, it will
be all the better if allowed to lie untouched for a few days
before sowing ; but if the season is advanced waiting may be
dangerous. Otherwise the delay offers two advantages. It
allows the soil further time to settle down, and also wives the
annual weeds a chance to start, so that by a final turn of the
harrow they may be killed before the grass seeds are sown.
CULTURAL PREPARATIONS 21
Annual weeds, unfortunately, are certain to come only too
plentifully, and will demand constant attention when grass
seeds are sown without a corn crop in spring. 1
As a preparation for autumn sowing, no other crop is equal
to an early variety of Potato. Earthing-up the rows exposes
a great surface to atmospheric influences, and this materially
aids the disintegration of the soil. Another point in its favour
is that the crop is generally lifted by hand, and the soil is sub-
jected to a course of spade husbandry, which, as a preparation
for grass, is superior to all other modes of cultivation. When
digging the Potato crop the labourers should fork up and
throw aside every bit of couch they come across. This will
very effectually assist the cleaning process. The only objection
1 A remarkable instance of the vitality of buried seeds was reported by a corre-
spondent in The Times of March 26, 1894. The following is a verbatim copy of the
letter : —
' The fact that seeds of weeds, especially of annuals, are capable of retaining their
vitality for a number of years in the soil is a circumstance well known to farmers of
arable land. An objection often advanced against deep ploughing, particularly of
light soils, is that it may "bring up the charlock." To what length of time buried
seeds may continue alive is not certainly known, but the following carefully made
observations, 3ent to us by Mr. S. James A. Salter, F.R.S., of Basingfield, near
Basingstoke, are well worth recording : — " Twenty-four years ago I purchased this
property (Basingfield), a large portion of which was at that time arable land bearing
good crops of grain, which were, [however, in a very weedy condition, the principal
weeds being charlock (Sinapis arvensis), red poppy {Papaver Rhoeas), and fumitory
(Fumaria officinalis). It is important to note that all three of these plants are annuals.
In the autumn of that year (1870) I laid the land down to grass (permanent pasture),
and it has remained so ever since. I make hay annually with the first crop of grass ;
and the second I feed off with sheep. From time to time I dress the grass with
artificial manure — kainit and superphosphate. None of the before-named weeds are
ever seen unless the soil is disturbed ; but directly the surface is broken, and soil some
six or eight inches deep is brought up and exposed to atmospheric influences and light,
all three of the weeds named appear in abundance, especially the charlock and poppy.
This occurred conspicuously last year (1893). The seeds producing these plants had
been buried twenty-three years, but at a depth beyond vivifying influences, though still
retaining vitality. There can be no fallacy in the observation ; it has occurred over and
over again. Eight years ago, after a very hard frost and a thaw, the surface of the
ground being very rotten, I had occasion to take a waggon heavily laden across this
pasture ; the wheels sank deeply into the soil, and tore up the ground, bringing to the
surface much subsoil. In the spring these furrows were filled with charlocks, and
presently, when they flowered, there were two parallel yellow ribands to be seen across
the land, following the irregular course the waggon had taken. It was a most striking
sight. There was not another charlock to be seen in the field. The seeds producing
these beautiful yellow ribands had been buried fifteen years.'"
22 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
to sowing immediately after Potatoes is the difficulty of
consolidating the land; but by planting a first-early variety
the crop can be marketed in July, and before the grass seeds
are sown in August a persistent use of the harrow and roller
will do much to make a firm seed-bed.
It will now be proper to refer to some of the emergencies
which arise when land must be laid away to grass at the
earliest possible moment, whether in a fit condition for the
purpose or not. One of the commonest instances is that of a
clover ley which it is desired to turn into a permanent pasture.
There is a natural feeling of reluctance to break up the clover
plant, and the hope is indulged that grass seeds will take upon
it. The objections to this course are many and serious,
although they are not always insurmountable. Possibly
indigenous weeds have already such a hold of the ground as
to afford very little chance of the grasses making head against
them ; and in soil crowded with clover roots the young grasses
have not a fair opportunity of establishing themselves. Still,
however undesirable the practice of turning a ley into a
permanent pasture must ever remain, necessity knows no law,
and sometimes this unpromising experiment is crowned with
success. Those who leave much to chance will deserve and
obtain a poor result ; but the man who is persistent and
determined to succeed will often secure an adequate return for
his labour and outlay. The chief inducement to make the
attempt is the probable saving of a considerable expense in
breaking up the land and getting it ready to sow down again.
The first process in converting an old ley should be a
vigorous harrowing in the autumn, and it must be no child's
play. There is not the least cause for alarm in the apparent
wreck of the standing plant. The more ruthlessly it is torn the
better chance will there be for the grass seeds, and the more
satisfactory the ultimate pasture. Follow up with a top-dress-
ing of cake-fed manure or compost early in the winter, and
the land will then, although only in a limited and imperfect
CULTURAL PREPARATIONS 23
degree, be prepared to receive the grass seeds in the following
spring. Of course the old clover plants afford shelter to the
newly-sown grasses.
So little remains to be said on this part of the subject
that perhaps it will be convenient to dispose of it at once,
although the question of seeding does not properly belong
to this chapter. As to the choice of seeds, it is mere waste
to sow fine or weak growing varieties on an old clover ley.
The adverse circumstances of the case will afford them little
chance of struggling into life, to say nothing of a profitable
existence. The sorts selected must be the stronger and
more robust of the perennial grasses, and the seed should
be got in early, before the clover has time to shoot vigorously
in spring. Accomplish the task in February if possible ; bush-
harrow after sowing, and as a finish put the roller twice over
every part of the field.
Another plan I have personally adopted, with success, has
been to feed the second crop of a clover ley in August with
sheep eating cake, sowing the grass seeds among the clover in
front of the sheep, and leaving them to trample in the seeds
and manure the land as they eat off the crop. It is important
not to sow in the early morning, or at any time when the
standing plant is wet, or the seeds will adhere to the clover
and be eaten by the sheep, instead of falling to the ground to
be trodden in.
Other instances of a similar character might be cited, but
as they only need some modification of the method already
explained, it may be enough to say that I have known tolerably
successful pastures to be formed on an old Sainfoin ley, a
worn-out Lucerne plant, a three or four years' ley, and even on
clean Barley and Oat stubbles, without ploughing or using
any other implement than the harrow, the seed-barrow, and
the roller.
A different but very frequent case of emergency is that
of a piece of glebe or other land that has been neglected for
24 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
many years until it has become a perfect mat of black twitch
(Alopecurus agrestis). In despair of cleaning it at a reasonable
cost, the rector or owner decides to allow it to ' go to grass,' as
hundreds of acres have actually gone. AVisely, it is considered
desirable to give Nature some assistance, but it is almost a
misnomer to dignify that assistance by the name of prepara-
tion. In this instance also the routine previously advised
is applicable. Rigorous harrowing in autumn, a heavy top-
dressing during winter, and the sowing of suitable strong-
growing seeds in early spring, are the means by which the
most profitable results can be ensured. I know many cases
where this rough-and-ready treatment has been followed by
a fairly paying plant. Especially may improving crops be
anticipated when the land is continuously manured, or where
grazing cattle are liberally assisted with artificial food.
The Selection of Grasses and
Clovers
All the operations which concern the making of a pasture are
important, but it is no exaggeration to say that a judicious
combination of the various grasses and clovers which are to
constitute the crop may be justly regarded as vital to success.
Failure here means the waste of all other energies, for it is
worse than useless to incur the labour and expense of establish-
ing plants which are not wanted. However good they may
be elsewhere, they will be no better than weeds if they fail to
answer the required purpose. The choice of suitable seeds has
provoked greater conflict of opinion, both among theorists and
practical men, than aught else, and in my opinion the main
cause of the controversy arises from the attempt to deduce
large inferences from small experience. The laying down ol
land to grass is only an occasional incident on most farms —
perhaps it would be correct to say on most estates — and in past
years it was less frequent than at present. Even now it is the
exception to find persons who are able to speak from experience
based upon actual practice over more than a very limited area.
Yet the man who has dabbled a little in laying down land
will sometimes follow it up with a letter to a daily or weekly
newspaper, or deliver a speech at a local farmers' club, from
which it might be inferred that the agriculturists of the United
Kingdom will find in a particular mixture of seeds the
preventive of all the ills to which grass lands are subject.
A little knowledge on laying down land is a very dangerous
26 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
thing. No prescription, however excellent eveiy one of the
varieties which compose it may be, can by any possibility be
suitable for universal application. The attempt to put forward
even a first-class mixture of grasses for all soils and all
purposes savours essentially of empiricism. The dogmatism
which proclaims the ' universal mixture ' of grasses is near
akin to the pretensions of the quack medicine vendor that his
particular nostrum will infallibly cure all the complicated evils
under which humanity suffers. Those who possess the widest
experience on this subject are least inclined to lay down rigid
rules. Land agents who have had the management of large
estates in various parts of the country, and who have had
greater opportunities for extensive observation than most men,
are exceedingly careful to consider differences of soil, subsoil,
and the purpose to which each individual pasture is to be
devoted ; and their success is chiefly attributable to the wise
application of general knowledge to special cases.
It is interesting to pursue the various phases of the ques-
tion as they are exemplified in the current public journals.
A fashion comes into vogue for a time, to be superseded and
condemned by the fashion which follows. Some pet theory is
driven hard, and takes the public fancy. It is declared to be
infallible ; that wisdom will die with its author ; and that all
preceding writers were mere presumptuous novices. The past
half-century furnishes many amusing instances of this kind.
Some time ago a cry was raised that Italian Rye Grass was the
saving clause in British agriculture. It was not only to be
grown alone and in alternate leys, but no permanent pasture
could possibly be successful which did not contain a large
proportion of it. When this theory exploded there was
a rebound to the other extreme. Italian Rye Grass was said
to be generally unfit for a permanent pasture ; and in this
opinion I concur, although I do not agree with those who
allege that Italian Rye Grass deteriorates into twitch, and
is therefore unsuitable for cultivation. Italian Rye Grass
THE SELECTION OF GRASSES AND CLOVERS 27
never yet produced twitch, although it is quite possible that
the seeds of that pest may have been sown with an impure
sample.
The misuse of Cocksfoot may be cited as another example.
Instead of being reserved for those soils and purposes for which
it possesses an undoubted value, it has been recommended for
the production of high-class hay everywhere, and even for
sowing on geological formations for which it is totally unsuited.
Excellent pastures have been literally ruined by the introduc-
tion of Cocksfoot. Alternate leys on the Chiltern Hills, where
Rye Grass and Clover had previously answered well, have, by
the introduction of Cocksfoot, yielded almost unsaleable hay,
and, having once been allowed to seed, the Cocksfoot has
proved difficult to eradicate. Those who are familiar with the
art of forestry are well aware that it would be futile to
attempt to grow elm timber on sandy land, or larch on land
which is only fit for Scotch fir. And if an opinion were pro-
mulgated that any single kind of timber should be grown upon
every estate in the kingdom, it would excite general ridicule.
Had the laying down of grass received the careful attention
which has been devoted to forestry, it would be considered just
as unreasonable to sow any one species of grass on all soils and
for all purposes, as to recommend elm trees to be planted
everywhere.
The sowing of Poas has been condemned as unnecessary
because it happened that some varieties of Poa were indigenous
where the experiment was made. But a New England farmer
will not hesitate to sow Poa pratensis alone, and long experi-
ence has proved that he does not prize this grass too highly.
On the other hand, in certain districts of New Zealand, where
Poa pratensis develops a troublesome twitch-like habit of the
worst character, the suggestion that it should be sown at all
would only provoke an expression of incredulous amazement.
Surely such a widely different estimate of the value of a single
variety may well suggest a doubt as to the universal adaptation
28 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
of any one kind of grass to all soils and districts. Indeed, the
whole question is one of experience, and those who possess
the largest knowledge, obtained from the widest sources, will
concur in the opinion that each individual case must be con-
sidered independently and on its own merits. From the begin-
ning there should be a clear understanding of the condition and
capabilities of the soil. The subsoil, too, must be taken into
account, for sooner or later its influence will tell decisively
upon the existence of certain grasses. Then the purpose ol
the crop must not be overlooked. Whether it is chiefly for
hay, or entirely for grazing, will prove an important considera-
tion in determining the sorts to be sown. Even the kind of
cattle the land is intended to carry is worth more than a passing
thought. Milch cows, fatting stock, sheep and horses, or a
combination of these animals, can be provided for if proper
care be taken in the selection of grasses and clovers.
In succeeding chapters the various plants, seeds of which
are generally sown for permanent pastures and alternate
husbandry, are described, with their relative value, fitness for
certain purposes, and such other particulars as indicate the
sorts and proportions to be used on the different soils and
under the conditions usually prevailing in this country. In so
complex a subject it is not easy to make the selection in any
case. But I am anxious, as far as may he in my power, to
prevent a repetition of the costly blunders which have too
often been made in this branch of British agriculture. With
this object in view six typical prescriptions of Grasses, Clovers.
&c. for various soils are given on the following page.
29
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30
PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
Agricultural Grasses
(GrAMINEA?)
AGEOSTIS ALBA-VAE. STOLONIFEEA
{Fiorin, or Creeping Bent Grass).
This plant thrives in spongy soil which is not firm enough to
produce ordinary herbage, and in land which cannot be drained
it will get a living where other grasses perish. In moun-
tainous districts where rain falls frequently and abundantly,
and the atmosphere is moist, Fiorin grows freely, both on light
land and on peat. The plant affords very early feed in spring,
but its chief value lies in its continued growth late in autumn.
Fiorin has been pastured as late as the middle of December.
If not eaten down in autumn the herbage in the following
spring is sweet and wholesome food for young stock. One
disadvantage is the tendency of the plant to become ergoted ;
another, that where Fiorin exists in large proportion the turf
looks brown for some time after the hay has been cut.
Although this grass has the peculiarity of rooting from the
procumbent nodes of the stem, especially in pastures much
trodden by cattle, it is not dependent alone upon the surface
soil for support. In suitable situations the roots penetrate
the subsoil to a considerable depth, and a series of rainy
summers always creates a demand for seed out of proportion
to its value, but when hot dry years return Fiorin is quite
as unreasonably condemned.
The Agrostis family is generally deficient in nutritive
value, and although A. alba stolonifera is regarded as an
exception, and has been highly recommended by several
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 31
authorities, I do not concur in the opinion that it should
invariably be included in ordinary prescriptions, if only for the
reason that the true variety is not always to be depended on
from a sowing of seed. The method of securing Fiorin by
obtaining plants from land where it grows indigenously, cutting
up the long trailing roots, and planting them in prepared
ground, is far too costly a process in proportion to the value
of the grass.
Some of the other forms of Agrostis, such as A. vulgaris;
A. dispar, A. capillaris, A. alba, and A. nigra, are known to
be inferior to the true Fiorin, and the seeds of these cannot
always be certainly distinguished, even by a botanist, from
those of A. stolonifera. A. vulgaris is the Common Bent and
A. alba is the Marsh Bent ; both are weed grasses, included
in the term twitch or squitch.
In the absence of the flowering panicle, Agrostis alba
stolonifera is easily recognised at all seasons of the year by the
short leafy branches which burst through the sheath at each
node of the numerous stolons. The ligule is long and pointed,
and sometimes serrated at the margin.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
ALOPECURUS PRATENSIS
(Meadow Foxtail).
Of the native species of Alopecurus, this is the only
one which is used for agricultural purposes, and it is justly
regarded as one of the most important grasses we possess.
Cattle show great partiality for it, and chemical tests reveal
its high nutritive qualities. Foxtail is thoroughly perennial in
character, and does not attain complete development until
three years after seed is sown. The full value of the plant
cannot, therefore, be realised in alternate husbandry unless
the ley is to remain down more than two years. Even then
Cocksfoot is more suitable for temporary pastures, although
32 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
Foxtail is the more nutritious plant. Foxtail is, in fact,
essentially a landlord's grass, for which he may willingly
pay in the full assurance that the future of the pasture will
justify the outlay.
Foxtail begins to bloom about the middle of April, but
by the third week of May it is practically in full flower, and
should there be a sufficient proportion of it in a meadow to
warrant early mowing, the crop ought to be cut ; for although
ripening does not, as is the case with nearly all other grasses,
seriously deteriorate the quality, it is wasteful to allow the bulk
of its palatable and nourishing herbage to be shrivelled up and
lost on the ground while other varieties are maturing. The
necessity for early cutting should influence the proportion of
Foxtail included in a prescription for a meadow, but in laying
down a pasture this consideration need not be entertained.
After taking a crop, it is one of the quickest grasses to again
commence growing, shooting up its green herbage before other
varieties make a start, and in bulk the aftermath frequently
exceeds the early growth.
One characteristic which gives Meadow Foxtail a high
value is the immense amount of leafy herbage produced in
proportion to the quantity of stalk, and for this reason the
extent of its presence in a pasture often remains unsuspected.
The early growth is also in its favour. Other conditions being
equal, a pasture which contains Foxtail in abundance will carry
stock ten days in advance of a pasture in which it is wanting.
These facts have doubtless originated the idea that Foxtail is
peculiarly a pasture grass, but it yields so good a crop and of
such excellent quality that it is almost of equal service for
making into hay. As one of the few grasses that thrive under
trees, it should be plentifully used in sowing down orchards
and shady pastures.
In the North, Meadow Foxtail is not much sown for hay,
because in high latitudes the culms seed long before other
herbage is fit for the scythe. Otherwise this grass is as well
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 33
adapted to Scotland as to the North of Europe generally.
There is scarcely a forage plant known which endures cold so
well, and spring frosts do it little harm. Even in the severest
winters, when other grasses suffer much damage, Foxtail re-
mains comparatively uninjured. The distribution of the plant
in this country is very unequal. In Devonshire it is un-
common, and in South Wales rarely seen, but it is plentiful
in most of the alluvial meadows bordering the greater rivers
of England. In districts where this grass is entirely wanting
I should scruple to recommend the sowing of any quantity in
new pastures ; but the great excellence of the herbage renders
a trial on a limited scale desirable.
Sometimes Foxtail is carelessly mistaken for Timothy,
but, besides other differences, the former comes to maturity
quite a month before the latter. Both flourish in strong soils,
and a stiff loam or clay is necessary to fully bring out the fine
qualities of Foxtail, and to maintain it in a green state during
hot dry weather. Still, it luxuriates in warmth, and on well-
drained land in moisture also, but during prolonged rain a
heavy crop may be beaten down, and then it is liable to rot at
the roots. This fact again points to the necessity of mowing
in good time. Although it is useless to sow seed on undrained
land, this is one of the best grasses known for land under
irrigation, and the water-meadows in the South of England,
which always include it, produce immense crops.
On very dry soils Foxtail is so stunted and diminutive as
to appear to be almost a different variety, but even under such
conditions it may sometimes be worth using in small propor-
tion, and wet seasons will prove that this is not a mistaken
policy. In parks and paddocks round residences where a
green appearance and constant growth are important, seed
should be sown freely. The result will gratify the eye of the
proprietor and benefit the cattle which graze upon the pasture.
True seed of Alopecurus pratensis is generally expensive,
and it is so fight and delicate in formation as to need
D
34 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
exceedingly well-prepared land to ensure vegetation. Unfor-
tunately, the stiff soils which specially suit Foxtail are the
most difficult to make fine in time for sowing. But for this
grass alone it is worth a strenuous effort to get the land into
good order.
The short, degenerated, truncate ligule, and the long,
broad, prominently veined leaves, together with the involute
character of the emerging leaf, distinguish this species in the
absence of its flowering spike-like panicle. The dark brown
or violet sheath is a further aid to identity.
The experiments at Rothamsted and Kidmore prove that
nitrate of soda and mineral salts have a marvellous effect upon
the growth of Foxtail. It assimilates larger quantities of
manure than many other grasses, and differs from Cocksfoot in
the fact that the latter appears to benefit more from ammonia
salts than from nitrate of soda, whereas Foxtail does equally
well with both.
Most of the seed imported into England comes from
Southern Russia. The German seed sold at Breslau is imma-
ture and grows badly. Occasionally very fine samples are
obtained from Sweden, but the best seed of all is Dutch ; and
although the most careful botanist can detect no difference
between the seed grown in Holland and that obtained from
other countries, the Dutch seed produces a much more robust
as well as an earlier plant.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
AMMOPHILA ARUNDINACEA (Host.)
PSAMMA ARENARIA (R. & S.)
{Sea Reed, Marrem Grass, or Mat Graxs).
An Act passed in the reign of Elizabeth, and renewed in
the reign of George II., prohibited the pulling up of this plant,
or the destruction of it in any other way. Like Ely m us
arenarius, it is used for fixing sand on the sea-coast, but it
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 35
possesses no feeding value, and is rejected by all herbivorous
animals. The name of Mat Grass arises from its being
employed as a material for mats. It also makes excellent
thateh. The time of flowering is July.
ANTHOXANTHUM ODORATUM
(Sweet-scented VernaV).
This very distinct species is grown chiefly for the pleasant
odour it imparts to the hay crop, which enhances the price of
the hay, and it is only when the grass is dry that the fragrance
is fully distinguishable. So marked is this quality that in the
South of Europe an extract is obtained from the plant which
is used in the manufacture of scent. But the grass possesses
an agricultural value quite apart from the purpose it serves as
a condiment for cattle, for it is one of the earliest varieties,
coming into full flower at the beginning of May. It is a true
perennial, exceedingly hardy, and continues growing until late
in autumn, so that the aftermath is actually much larger in
bulk, as well as more nutritious, than the first crop. This fact
clearly indicates that Sweet Vernal is as useful for grazing as
for cutting. One characteristic of this grass is its brilliant
green colour ; hence it should be employed in mixtures for
ornamental grounds in larger proportion than would be reason-
able if the quantity of hay or grass were of primary con-
sideration ; while, for the park, especially round a mountain
home, it is invaluable. But to sow the seed for lawns is a
mistake, although it has been recommended for that purpose.
The leaves are too broad and flat, and look unsightly in a
sward that is kept down close.
Sweet Vernal grows abundantly in some parts of Devon *
and in the Eastern Counties, and the plants invariably thrive
1 A gentleman in South Devon has written me concerning Anthoxanthwm
odoratum as follows : —
' This grass grows wild in this neighbourhood in the hedgerows, and cattle are
d 2
36 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
better in pastures among other varieties than when two of
them happen to be contiguous. On deep, rich, moist soils this
grass grows luxuriantly, and on marshy land it throws up
flower-culms all through the summer. In wet, peaty land the
plant comes so large and reed-like as to deceive those who are
not experienced botanists. It also thrives under the shade of
trees and does remarkably well under irrigation. Yet, strange
to say, Sweet Vernal grows freely on thin moors and sandy
dunes, and appears to be capable of living in soil which will
not support any other useful grass.
When out of flower the plant is easily recognised by its
sweet-smelling, short, broad leaves, as well as by the fringe of
long hairs which surround the neat, obtuse ligule. The leaves,
too, are somewhat hairy on both upper and lower surfaces.
When the stalk is masticated a lavender-like flavour can be
detected.
The agreeable perfume imparted to hay by Sweet Vernal
has created a demand for seed out of all proportion to the
supply. The seed is gathered by hand from plants growing
wild in the woods and clearings of Central Germany, and only
a very small quantity is sent to this country. The result is
the frequent substitution of the annual species A. Puelii,
which is every year largely exported from Hamburg under
the name of Sweet-scented Vernal. This grass (A. Puelii),
which is not a native of Britain, cannot be made partially
permanent even by the process of cutting, for it flowers
all the summer long, and if prevented from seeding at hay
time, the flower-heads are thrown up later, and, as cattle
do not relish them, seed is produced and the plant dies. It
is therefore extremely important to secure the true perennial
Anthoxanthum odoratum, which is, and always must be, a
costly seed.
fond of it in the winter months. It has the merit of shooting very early in the spring.
Towards the end of February, after a few days of mild and moist weather, it
commenced to sprout strongly, and I observed that all kinds of cattle preferred it to
other grasses.'
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 37
Although manure is not directly injurious to Sweet
Vernal, it indirectly destroys this grass by enabling other
varieties to elbow it out of existence.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
AVENA FLAVESCENS
(Yellow Oat Grass).
This grass is not nearly so well known or appreciated as
it deserves. It prospers in marl and calcareous soil, and in
all light land rich in humus, particularly in that which contains
lime. The forage is of good quality, and is greedily taken by
cattle.
Avena flavescens does not flower until midsummer. In
the Thames Valley it contributes no inconsiderable portion of
the herbage of the water meadows, and over the South of
England it affords a fair quantity for the scythe at hay time,
while the aftermath is abundant. The leaves are pale green ;
flowers golden yellow, and they show conspicuously.
In the absence of the flower the plentiful supply of soft
deflexed hairs upon the lower sheaths, together with the
ciliated ligule, are characteristics by which this grass may be
recognised. In a favourable light the low acute ribs of the
blade are clearly visible, and a single row of hairs is discernible
along each rib.
The seed of Yellow Oat Grass is always expensive, and
until recently it has been difficult to obtain a sufficient supply.
Probably many of the adverse opinions expressed concerning
this variety have resulted from sowing in its stead that
pestilent weed Air a Jieoouosa (Wavy Hair Grass), the seed of
which is not altogether dissimilar from, but has often been sold
for, Avena flavescens by those who are not familiar with the
true article. Seed of the latter, however carefully saved, only
germinates moderately well, and the high price necessitates its
sparing use. When arranging the prescription for a pasture
38
PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
a full seeding of other grasses must be given, and then, if
expense be no object, a pound or two of Avena flavescens may
be added.
Both at Rothamsted and Kidmore this grass has shown
itself capable of holding its own very fairly without any
manure at all. Nitrate of soda and mineral manures, however,
considerably augment the produce.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
AVENA ELATIOR
(Holcus avenaceus ; Arrhenatherum avenaceum).
Tall Oat Grass, or False Oat Grass, is known by all these
names ; and in Dauphine, where it is very much grown,
especially for seed, it is called Fromental. Sinclair recom-
mended this grass for agricultural purposes ; but, notwith-
standing his favourable opinion, it has not in this country
received the attention it deserves. At one time, no doubt, its
value was overestimated, and, in the reaction which naturally
followed, the grass was consigned to undeserved neglect.
Possibly the somewhat bitter taste, and the aversion which
cattle at first display towards it when grown alone, may
account for the indifference shown to it in England, although
when mingled with other grasses the slightly bitter flavour is
not apparent. On the Continent, and especially in Sweden,
where it is largely cultivated, both cattle and sheep take it
freely. Its value for cold northern countries is indisputable,
but a warm climate is necessary to fully develop its great
merits. In the Southern States of North America it is
known by the names of Evergreen Grass and French Rye
Grass, and is regarded as one of the very finest grasses for
producing an immense weight of herbage, far surpassing
Timothy in the abundance of its crop. The roots penetrate
so deeply into the soil as to enable the plant to withstand both
cold and drought.
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 39
Tall Oat Grass is almost indifferent to circumstances, and
may be grown pretty nearly everywhere. It is seen to least
advantage on poor thin land ; but on good light and medium
soils, as well as in all forms of clay, if not too damp, it grows
from two to four feet in height. In warm forcing situations
it will produce two heavy crops of hay in one season, and
will continue to throw a blade until autumn frosts appear.
The plant starts into growth very early in spring, and
after the crop has been mown there is one peculiarity which
must be borne in mind, or much waste may result. When cut
this grass absorbs moisture in the same manner as Trifolium
incarnatum, and therefore hay containing it must be got into
rick as rapidly as possible. As the stems are not succulent,
Avena elatior can quickly be made into hay, which keeps
particularly well.
For permanent pastures this grass cannot always be
regarded as suitable, on account of its uncertain duration on
some soils, and there is also the objection that the herbage
is extremely coarse.
The long, smooth, narrow, deep green leaves, the youngest
of which are tightly twisted or rolled throughout their length,
together with the truncate hairy ligule and keeled sheath,
enable a student to determine this species when the flowering
panicle is absent.
The rapid growth of Avena elatior makes the plant a gross
feeder, and it will absorb any reasonable quantity of manure,
especially of the nitrogenous class.
When sown in autumn a much larger produce is obtained
in the following year than from a spring sowing.
A weed variety of this grass, growing in arable land, is
characterised by the formation of a bulb-like growth in the
ground, just above the root, and is known by the name of
Onion Couch. Tall Oat Grass has no resemblance to Avena
fatua, the Wild Oat Grass or Havers, which is a weed of corn-
fields, and is much like the cultivated oat in appearance.
40 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
BROMUS INERMIS
(Awnless Brome Grass, or Hungarian Forage Grass).
This grass is much used in the South-east of Europe, and
produces an extraordinary amount of fodder. The plant is
also largely grown in several parts of North America, where it
endures both heat and cold, thriving where no other grass of
any value can be relied on. In this country, of which it is not
a native, all kinds of stock eat it greedily, even in preference
to Italian Rye Grass. Compared with that grass, Bromus
■inermis starts earlier in spring, yields quite double the crop at
the first cut, and the analysis made for me by Dr. J. Augustus
Voelcker shows the Bromus to be the richer in albuminoids
and nitrogen.
The plant is perennial, grows rapidly, and yields an
immense quantity of succulent herbage. Seed is usually sown
alone for a forage crop, but unfortunately the germination in
the open is rather capricious, even after the usual tests have
proved satisfactory.
BROMUS SCHR^DERI
(Schroder's Brome Grass).
This grass is not a native of Britain, and cannot claim
to be strictly perennial. Still, it is a valuable forage plant.
The herbage, although harsh, is very sweet and nutritious,
and is readily eaten by stock. The plant is remarkable for
its habit of free growth in early spring and late autumn.
Constant mowing or grazing is the secret of successful culture,
and the growth should not be allowed to attain a greater height
than eighteen or twenty inches ; four or five crops will then be
produced in a year. In warm moist seasons especially its use-
fulness will be manifested. Several years ago I saw a field
of Schroder's Brome Grass which kept an extraordinary head
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 41
of sheep penned on it. The crop was ready again at one
end of the field as soon as the sheep had finished at the other.
The roots feed on the surface, and the plant will thrive on
the thinnest soil. So vigorous is the growth that weeds are
crowded out, and in my opinion Bromns Schrccderi has not
been cultivated in England to the extent it deserves.
This is the Prairie Grass of Australia, and is of immense
value as a fodder crop in the arid districts of that country.
It will therefore be inferred that wherever drought is prevalent,
especially for long periods, it is desirable that an experimental
plot should be sown, as the plant may prove to be of great
service.
CYNOSURUS CRISTATUS
(Crested DogstaiT).
One of the chief grasses of British agriculture. Asso-
ciated with Hard Fescue and Sheep's Fescue it may be said
to compose the best of our sheep pastures. It constitutes a
valuable bottom grass, and is supposed to exercise a beneficial
influence in the prevention of foot-rot. Certain it is that
sheep show great partiality for the leaves, eating them down
so closely that there would be a danger of the plant being
exterminated were it not for the fact that the seed-culms soon
become hard, and are then rejected by the animals, with the
result that seed is matured and shed copiously almost every
season. Superficial observers have occasionally misnamed these
stalks ' bents,' and have depreciated the grass accordingly. Up
to the time of forming seed these stalks do no harm, but the
actual production of seed interferes greatly with the aftermath.
To prevent this injury, and because it is needless to allow seed
to be shed every year, it is sometimes worth while to put the
mower over the pasture in the early part of July to take off
the rising culms. The stalks have been used as fine straw in
bonnet-making.
42 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
At the time the crop is cut this grass is too small to make
much difference in the weight of hay, and the fact has been
urged as an objection to the sowing of Dogstail. The answer
is, that it is distinctly a grazier's grass, being found in all the
most celebrated natural sheep pastures of the country, and its
value for grazing is shown by its extraordinary growth in
August, when other grasses are giving up.
On lawns and pleasure-grounds the fine evergreen herbage
is especially prized ; and in deer parks Dogstail should be liber-
ally used, for deer are, if possible, more fond of it than sheep.
Cynosurus thrives in compact soil and will endure con-
ditions under which few other grasses can exist. The roots
are hard, and as they penetrate deep the plant is naturally
adapted for dry soils, and can withstand drought. Still I have
seen it growing luxuriantly on tenacious clays, especially near
the sea. Cynosurus forms a conspicuous proportion of the rich
pastures in Romney Marsh and other low-lying parts of Kent,
and it is remarkable that a grass which does so well in such
situations should also find a congenial home on thin upland
pastures. On dry loams with a chalk subsoil it should be sown
freely. In fact, there is hardly any soil in the kingdom for
which it is unsuited. Full maturity is not reached until the
second or third year.
The following description of the foliage of this grass will
aid in determining its presence in pastures. Lower sheaths
yellowish white ; leaves tapering from base to tip ; under
surface of leaves glossy ; young leaves folded on the mid-rib ;
ligule truncate.
At Rothamsted and Kidmore Crested Dogstail appeared to
thrive equally well on the unmanured plots and on the plots
dressed with mineral manures alone. The plant manifested
antipathy for ammonia salts, and an appreciation of nitrate of
soda.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 43
DACTYLIS GLOMERATA
(Rough Cocksfoot).
This is one of the most widely distributed of all the
grasses. It is indigenous in hedgerows and ditches in almost
all parts of England, and shows considerable variations in
character in different soils and situations ; but prior to its
introduction from the United States in the eighteenth
century, Cocksfoot does not appear to have been sown for
agricultural purposes. On dry calcareous land the plant
is stunted and wiry, while in fertile valleys and rich land
it grows to an immense size. Its proper place is on good,
strong, damp soils in low-lying districts, where it produces a
great quantity of leafy herbage. In such lands the culms do
not change so quickly to woody fibre as on drier soils, and the
stalks are eaten down by stock with greater relish. Even on
the land which best suits this grass I would sow less of it
than is generally advised, and substitute larger proportions of
Meadow Fescue and Foxtail. For Cocksfoot is an unsightly
grass, growing in great tufts ; the foliage is harsh to the touch,
and the coarse hard stems, two or three feet high, are not only
objectionable to the eye, but they prevent the hay from fetch-
ing top market price, and the flower-heads are extremely liable
to ergot. Besides, the aftermath of Cocksfoot is inferior in
quality to that of Foxtail, and on thin soils, in a dry season,
the former is often very much withered by rust.
It has been computed that an acre of Cocksfoot will
sustain twice as many sheep as an acre of Timothy. This may
be true of the early growth, but it certainly does not hold good
of the later crop, for the productiveness of the two grasses is
nearly reversed after midsummer.
Some years ago a writer gave Cocksfoot greater prominence
than older authorities assigned to it. As a result old pastures
have unfortunately been ruined by a sowing of the seed,
44 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
and new pastures have had to be broken up because this grass
was sown in too great proportion. Concerning its immense
cropping power on strong moist soils there cannot be two
opinions; but it does not endure long-continued drought so
well as Foxtail, and is entirely out of place in upland meadows.
When a fine hay crop is the chief desideratum, Cocksfoot should
be omitted altogether, and its place be filled by Meadow
Fescue.
The valuable qualities of Cocksfoot are even better
realised in a three or four years' ley than in a permanent
pasture. 1 With Rye Grass and Clover it forms a superior
feeding ley, and yields a very bulky crop for consumption on
the farm, where its coarseness is not objectionable. Full
maturity is not attained until the second year.
Cocksfoot comes into flower in June, and meadows in
which it abounds must be cut early, so that the flowering culms
may be in a young stage of growth. After early cutting,
the plant quickly starts again, and while tender the herbage is
much relished by all kinds of cattle. Mere size or coarseness
is not a standard of excellence, for a smaller crop of Cocksfoot
from a rich, fight loam has been proved by analysis to be more
than equivalent to a heavier crop taken from fen land, and the
quality is always higher before flowering than after the seed
has been developed. Experiments show that in April ten per
cent, of the herbage of this grass consisted of nutritive matter :
while at midsummer the proportion was only about three and
one-third per cent. These are important facts to be borne in
mind in laying down a new pasture. To make Cocksfoot into
hay at the end of April, however, would necessitate the sowing
of this grass alone, because other varieties are not ready for
1 The Swiss authority, Dr. F. G. Stebler, is very emphatic on this point. Tie says :
' It is chiefly in temporary meadows that it is most advantageous. Yet if sown too
largely at first it has the same fault as if sown alone, forming cushions, and consequently
an unequal turf. It is better to begin by sowing but little, and, after allowing other
sorts to develop properly, to sow a little more later. Only in exceptional cases is it
necessary to sow more than 15 per cent, at first. A good rolling is very beneficial in
spring. This levels the tufts.'
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 45
cutting at that time ; and Cocksfoot manifests such a strong
tendency to grow in clumps, that, with no other grass to
occupy the interstices, the soil would be only partially filled
with plants.
The great size of Cocksfoot points to its usefulness in
covers, although unfortunately it does not answer well with
brushwood. Yet it thrives under trees, as is implied by its
American name of ' Orchard Grass.' On pastures which are
much shaded, a considerable proportion should be sown in
company with Foxtail, Various-leaved Fescue, and other
grasses which are reliable beneath dripping foliage.
Upon an understocked pasture Cocksfoot will send up its
flowering stems, and I strongly advocate running the mower
over in time to prevent seeding.
The thick, yellow base of the shoot, compressed above,
and the strongly keeled leaf, with its erose ligule, will, in the
absence of the flowering head, distinguish this species at all
seasons of the year.
Cocksfoot when stimulated with ammoniacal manures has
a remarkable tendency to smother and starve out the clover
plants of a pasture in which it abounds.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
ELYMUS ARENARIUS
(Sand, or Upright Sea Lyme Grass).
No other grass is equal to this for binding loose or blow-
ing sand, for which purpose the mat-like roots are naturally
adapted. Seed has been extensively sown on portions of the
English and Dutch coasts. Height, four feet. Flowers in
July.
46 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
FESTUCA PRATENSIS
(Meadow Fescue).
Much confusion has arisen from the fact that Linnaus
considered this grass to be a mere variety of F. elatior.
Hudson first gave it the rank of a distinct species under the
name of F. pratensis. Continental botanists still follow
Linnaeus and call it elatior, reserving for the larger species,
known by English botanists as elatior, the title of Festuca
arundinacea or Festuca littorea. We have now, however,
to deal with the smaller species, known in this country as
F. pratensis.
Meadow Fescue is common in Great Britain and on
the continent of Europe, and its presence is a fairly certain
indication of good land. In situations adapted to the re-
quirements of the grass it scarcely suffers from winter cold or
white spring frosts. It flourishes in strong, deep soil, especially
in low-lying meadows and valleys where a moist atmosphere
prevails ; and in this country is rarely successful at an eleva-
tion of 500 feet above the sea level. Festuca pratensis is
abundant in the Vale of Aylesbury, which is noted for the
luxuriance of its pastures, and in well-drained clay districts
it is thoroughly at home. Professor Buckman says : ' In rich
meadow flats, as in the Vale of Berkeley, the celebrated
locality for the production of Double Gloucester cheese, the
Festuca pratensis is a common and valuable denizen.' Again
he says : ' In an agricultural point of view Festuca pratensis
is indicated for best lowland pastures not liable to floods.'
Scarcely any grass equals this for land under irrigation,
although it is entirely unsuited to a water-logged soil.
Some writers have recommended Meadow Fescue for
one or two years' leys, but as the plant requires three years
to attain maturity, I cannot advise the sowing of seed for a
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 47
shorter period than three or four years. I regard it as a land-
lord's grass, to be used principally for permanent pastures.
Festuca pratensis seldom flowers until the end of June,
and does not usually mature seed until the first week in
August. The ripening of seed lowers the nutritive quality,
but it does not greatly diminish the bulk. Sinclair's experi-
ments proved that between the time of flowering and the
development of seed the depreciation in feeding value was
very serious indeed. But there is no need to anticipate loss on
this ground, because, being a late-flowering species, the hay is
almost always cut before the danger becomes imminent. One
other point deserves mention here. In early districts, where
hay is cut in the first or second week of June, this grass will
not be at its best, and therefore it should be sown more
sparingly than where the hay harvest occurs about midsummer.
The introduction of Meadow Fescue into America fur-
nishes another example of an alteration in character which
such a change sometimes brings about. The time of flowering
is much earlier there, the plant thrives at a higher altitude,
and often grows four feet high, instead of about two feet high
as in England. In East Tennessee it flourishes and makes
superior hay at 1,500 feet above the sea level. The verdant
growth during winter in North Carolina has secured for it the
local designation of ' Evergreen Grass,' and in Virginia it is
known as ' Randall Grass.'
In habit, Meadow Fescue resembles true Perennial Rye
Grass, but the herbage of the former is more leafy, and the
seed-culms fewer. On light thin soils, and at altitudes where
Festuca pratensis is unsuitable, an additional quantity of true
Perennial Rye Grass, combined with Festuca duriuscula and
Festuca ovina tenuifolia, may well take its place.
Although Meadow Fescue occasionally grows rather rank,
the herbage is always tender and succulent, and the quality of
the hay first-rate. With cattle the plant is ever a favourite,
and, if possible, is even more relished than Foxtail. These two
48 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
grasses flourish under the same conditions, except that the
Fescue scarcely stands heat so well as Foxtail. For practical
purposes I am inclined to regard Festuca pratenm as the
better grass, especially as the germination of the seed is more
reliable, and experiments have shown its decided superiority
in bulk. Up to the time of ripening seed an acre produced
209 pounds more nutritive matter than did an acre of Foxtail
in the whole year. The early growth of Meadow Fescue is
not large by comparison, but before the end of June it leaves
Foxtail far behind. After the crop of the latter has passed its
prime, the former continues to grow, and thus maintains a
supply of herbage which would otherwise be wanting in the
pasture. At the time hay is cut Cocksfoot is superior in bulk,
but Meadow Fescue largely atones for the deficiency by its
increased production afterwards.
Stock show a marked preference for Meadow Fescue over
Cocksfoot, if the latter is allowed to grow the least old. The
one is invariably eaten down close ; the other is frequently
permitted to develop into large tufts and send up wiry culms
which the animals refuse to touch. Horses also eat Festuca
pratciisis greedily, and seed should always be sown for their
benefit on suitable land, especially as the paddocks are often
within sight of the mansion, where constant verdure is desir-
able.
All points considered, this may properly be regarded as
one of the most valuable grasses that can be sown.
The following characteristics will help to determine this
species in the absence of the flowering panicle : Sheath
smooth, reddish purple at base ; young leaves involute (rolled)
in bud ; ligule very short, obtuse, surrounded by a well-
marked auricle ; blade glossy on lower surface.
At Rothamsted, Meadow Fescue did not show to
advantage. It occasionally manifests rather unexpected
antipathies as to soil, and in some localities is starved out ot
pastures by other grasses. Nitrate of soda and mineral
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 49
manures alone seem capable of augmenting its growth.
Stebler, however, speaks favourably of the effects of fresh
farmyard manure.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5*. Edition.
FESTUCA ELATIOR
(Tall Fescue).
The name F. elatior given to this grass by Linnaaus not
only included the tall-growing variety which English botanists
alone know as F. elatior, but under that designation he
included the smaller sort, afterwards elevated into a distinct
species by Hudson, which is now known in England as F.pra-
tensis. Although the indigenous variety of F. elatior found
exclusively in wet marshy places, inland ditches, and tidal
waters, is so coarse and harsh as, according to Curtis, to be of
little value for good pastures, Sinclair pointed out its merits
as a fodder grass for strong undrained clays unsuited to the
growth of the finer grasses. He also calls attention to the fact
that no crop can be depended on from sowing the seed, and
adds : ' It does not perfect much seed, and can only, therefore,
be propagated by parting and planting the roots.' Again he
says : ' The seed is universally, according to all my observa-
tions, affected with a disease called clavus (ergot), and conse-
quently infertile.' On this ground Sinclair actually named the
grass Festuca elatior sterilis. And Curtis, at the beginning of
the nineteenth century, stated that ' the seeds of this plant
when cultivated are not fertile, hence it can only be introduced
by parting its roots and planting them out.'
As a matter of fact, although the F. elatior indigenous to
this country is often sterile, Continental seed is fertile, and it is
saved and exported to England annually. As explained at
page 46, it is known abroad, not as Festuca elatior, but as
Festuca arundinacea. And Mr. Carruthers distinctly states
50
PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
that the ' Festuca elatior of English authors is the same plant
as Festuca arundinacea of the Germans.'
I need hardly say that, principally in consequence of the
confusion caused by the fact that the German collectors and
botanists know pratensis as elatior, large quantities of seed are
sold in England under the name of elatior which are simply
pratensis Hudsoni. The true elatior (arundinacea) seed is dis-
tinguishable by its larger size and the more pointed shape of
each grain. It has also a very perceptible roughness on the
back of each seed, the three nerves extending the whole length
of the back of the grain being armed with minute spines which
are easily seen under an ordinary microscope, and these spines
are entirely absent in the smaller seed of the true pratensis
Hudson/.
Sinclair named the F. arundinacea of the Continent
Festuca elatior fertilis, and he had never seen it in a wild state
in this country. He says : ' This grass, which is nearly allied to
the common Festuca elatior, perfects an abundance of seed,
though not entirely free from diseased portions, and is there-
fore not liable to the objection which takes so much from the
value of that variety (F. elatior stcril/s). It is equally early in
the produce of foliage, and flowers earlier than the barren Tall
Fescue by eight or ten days. The produce is equally nutritive.
For damp soils that cannot conveniently be made sufficiently
dry by drains this would be a most valuable plant, either to be
cut for soiling or made into hay and reduced to chaff as it
might be wanted.'
The sowing of a considerable quantity of F. elatior
(Festuca arundinacea) seed on certain new pastures, and the
vigorous growth of the plant, especially in times of drought,
induced Mr. Carmthers to recommend this grass for good
medium loams and strong soils, and not simply, as advised
by Sinclair and others, for moist undrained clays and fens.
Experience has proved that this Fescue is not permanent
on soils which differ from its natural habitat, and I still
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 51
advise caution in sowing seed, not only on account of the
tendency of the grass to become ergoted, but because of the
extreme coarseness of the hay produced. Upon the latter
point Mr. J. Gilbert Baker, of the Royal Herbarium, Kew, in
referring to Festuca elatior as found growing wild in England,
has accurately stated that ' Festuca elatior is a tall, coarse grass,
with stems reaching four or five feet in height, and leaves one to
two feet long by a quarter to half an inch broad.' Specimens
of this robust type may be found in the water-meadows in the
South of England.
The illustration published in the 5*. Edition of this work
was drawn from a portion of a plant raised from seed of the
foreign Festuca elatior (arundinacea) sown in light garden soil.
It will be seen that the plant is far more robust than
Festuca pratensis grown alongside, and falls little short of
the size which Mr. Baker describes the plant to attain when
growing wild. I have adopted the distinctive name of Festuca
elatior Jertilis, very happily given by Sinclair to the foreign
seed-bearing variety, to distinguish it from the English variety
called by him Festuca elatior sterilis.
I may add that Festuca elatior, whether produced by the
planting of the divided roots of the indigenous variety, or as
the result of sowing seed of the Continental form — Festuca
arundinacea — equally maintains the creeping habit of the root
which is one distinctive feature as compared with Festuca
pratensis Hudsoni.
When not in flower this variety may be recognised by the
following characteristics of the herbage. Upper surface of
the deep green leaf very prominently ribbed, and hard to the
touch, especially so at the edges. The round lower sheaths are
striated and rough ; the bottom of basal sheath purple or red.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
52 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
FESTUCA HETEROPHYLLA
(Various-leaved Fescue).
Festuca heterophylla was introduced into England in 1814.
It comes into flower rather earlier than Festuca ovina tenui-
folia, and ripens its seed about the middle of July. Sinclair
calls it Festuca ovina hordeiformis, or Long-awned Sheep's
Fescue, and he was of opinion that when allowed to ripen
seed at least one-half the nutritive value of the grass was lost.
The foliage is darker and more glossy than that produced
by other Fescues. Festuca heterophylla is extensively grown
in France, and, although a southern plant, I am satisfied that
in this country, especially in all the warmer districts, it might
with advantage be sown with greater freedom than is usual
on strong well-drained soils, where Festuca ovina tenuifolia
and even Festuca duriuscula are liable to be overpowered by
Cocksfoot. Various-leaved Fescue shows a decided partiality
for calcareous land, succeeds in marshes, and grows better
under the shade of trees than in the open. It is a most valu-
able Fescue, and indeed one of the best of the finer grasses.
The early growth makes it exceedingly useful in a pasture,
but the aftermath is small.
This Fescue will not alone make a homogeneous turf,
as the plants form tufts which will not amalgamate ; but in
company with Festuca rubra and Poa pratensis it will fully
occupy the soil.
The loose brown sheaths and triangular form of the
harsh, long, slender root-leaves are points by which this grass
may easily be recognised in the absence of the flower-head.
To ensure true seed the crop has to be grown alone,
because the heads when ripe resemble other Fescues so closely
that the collectors find it difficult to gather a perfectly true
sample by hand.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 53
FESTUCA OVINA TENUIFOLIA
(Fine-leaved Sheep's Fescue),
Under the name of Festuca ovina all the smaller Fescues
are sometimes grouped, and much confusion has resulted from
the practice. A writer will speak very strongly for or against
Festuca ovina, and it will afterwards appear that he was
referring to Festuca duriuscula. Again, Festuca duriuscula,
Festuca rubra, and Festuca heterophylla are all occasionally
mistaken one for another. The dwarf Festuca ovina tenuifolia,
or angustifolia, differs from them all, not only in growth, but
in the seed, which is small, smooth, and of a golden-brown
colour, while the seed of all the others is larger and of a
darker hue.
Only a small proportion of the seed sold in England under
the name of Festuca ovina tenuifolia is the true fine-leaved
variety. From descriptions which are published in this
country it is obvious that the distinguishing characteristics of
the seed are unknown to some of those who offer it, and as
it generally costs must more than seed of F. duriuscida or
F. rubra, the great diversity in the quotations for this grass
is easily accounted for.
The Fine-leaved Sheep's Fescue (F. ovina tenuifolia) is
the smallest grass cultivated for agricultural purposes, and is
perfectly distinct from other Fescues, being densely tufted,
with abundance of very narrow leaves and slender flower-
stalks. The herbage is succulent, although wiry in appearance,
and the culm has the peculiarity of being angular, while all other
cultivated Fescues have round stalks. The plant comes into
flower the third week of June, grows from six to twelve inches
high, and retains its green colour during hot dry weather.
It is therefore much used in the making of lawns, for which
purpose it possesses a special value in combination with other
fine-leaved grasses.
54 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
Where Sheep's Fescue grows freely it is a favourable
indication of a healthy neighbourhood.
For hay this grass is practically useless, as the growth
is too dwarf to be gathered by machine or scythe. This
is pre-eminently a pasture grass for sheep on poor light
soils and in hilly country, especially where the subsoil is
chalk, and it is generally believed to exercise a beneficial
influence on the wool. It forms a principal component
of the pastures on chalk downs, where its herbage is
very sweet and nourishing, and Southdown mutton doubt-
less owes its fine flavour and quality to being fed on this
wholesome grass. In Scotland it constitutes a large part
of the sheep herbage of the Highlands, and all through
Russia and Siberia it affords almost the only pasturage for
cattle and sheep on dry, sandy, rocky soils where no other
grass will grow. In this country horned stock show it no
favour.
The roots penetrate to a great depth, and it is note-
worthy that as the plant is unable to avail itself of nitrogenous
manures, it soon disappears from a pasture which is manured
to suit stronger-growing grasses.
Fine-leaved Sheep's Fescue is peculiarly adapted for
autumn or, correctly speaking, for late summer sowing. The
seedlings are so small that they are liable to be choked by
spring weeds, and if sheep are turned in too soon they tear up
many plants. But when well established on a poor thin soil
Festuca ovina tenuifolia maintains its position, and is a match
for any intruder. Full development is not attained until the
second or third year.
The long, slender, setaceous, folded leaves, no thicker than
thread, and tightly encased by the sheaths in pairs and threes,
together with the russet green of the foliage, will ensure the
recognition of this grass in upland pastures.
On the soils which especially suit Fine-leaved Fescue it
is almost indispensable, and the feeding value is very high.
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 55
For dry hilly pastures a considerable proportion of seed
should be included in the mixture.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s: Edition.
FESTUCA DURIUSCULA
(Hard Fescue).
The common name applies solely to the flower-heads,
which, when ripe, become decidedly hard. The herbage,
however, is tender, succulent, and much liked by all kinds
of cattle.
Hard Fescue forms one of the principal constituents of
the sheep pastures of this country. On all suitable soils it is
of importance in forming a close bottom to the turf among
stronger-growing varieties, and in this respect is of especial
service for upland pastures. Sinclair found Hard Fescue to
thrive best in company with Festuca pratensis and Poa trivialis.
His experience is confirmed by my own, and I also find that
when sown with Fine-leaved Sheep's Fescue a close and
nutritious crop is produced for sheep on down land.
Early in spring Hard Fescue starts into growth, flowering
at or a little before midsummer, and yields an abundant latter-
math. On moist and rich soils it affords an immense amount
of herbage, which sometimes grows higher than the seed-stems,
and the plant will endure drought when the land is in good
condition. As the nutritive value is much diminished by
the formation of seed, the crop should be cut in time to prevent
deterioration. In hay the presence of this grass is generally
indicative of superior quality, and mountain graziers insist that
Hard Fescue contains more ' proof ' than many varieties that
receive a higher character from the chemist.
Festuca duriuscida is more robust in growth than F. ovina
tenuifolia, and occupies a position among the smaller Fescues
56 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
similar to that filled by F. pratensis among the taller species.
The plant does not grow in tufts, but is perfectly distinct ; the
seed is larger, and is wanting in the rich golden-brown colour
which distinguishes true seed of Festuca ovina tenuifolia from
that of all other Fescues. On good soil Hard Fescue is
also undoubtedly superior to Red Fescue. The foliage is less
harsh, the root is not creeping, and in dry seasons Festuca
duriuscula is more than able to hold its own. It should also
be stated that in dry seasons Festuca duriuscula temporarily
develops a partially creeping habit, and in wet seasons Festuca
rubra becomes less creeping than in dry years. This does not
make it a matter of indifference as to which of the two is sown.
Each variety is constant in character on the soil which suits it,
and there is waste of time and fodder in putting either plant
on land where it will take several years to adapt itself to
uncongenial surroundings.
The folded, almost cylindrical, stiff, deep glaucous green
leaves, which radiate from the point of union of the short
sheaths, and the absence of a ligule, are sufficient to determine
the presence of this species in the pasture.
As Hard Fescue is the most widely distributed of the
small Fescues, the seed is naturally the cheapest, and is fre-
quently accepted for the higher-priced sorts by those who are
unacquainted with its appearance. This variety may properly
be regarded as the least expensive and most desirable base,
or bottom-herbage grass, of a permanent mixture for nearly
all soils. But for alternate prescriptions it should be used
cautiously. On some soils the plant is difficult to eradicate,
and after a ley is broken up it is often troublesome among
corn.
Stimulating manures do little or nothing for Hard
Fescue ; they only encourage other grasses at its expense. At
Kidmore the bone plots exhibited the most favourable results.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 57
FESTUCA RUBRA
(Red Fescue).
The common name is derived from the reddish brown
colour of the lower leaf-sheaths. The difficulty of obtaining
true seed of this grass has fostered the frequently expressed
opinion that it is only a form of F. duriuscula. But besides
a more robust habit, it is further distinguished by its creeping
roots, which enable the plant to remain green and succulent
when other grasses are burnt up. For this creeping tendency
some writers have wholly condemned Red Fescue. I am
unable to go that length, and regard the plant as an essential
constituent on poor dry harsh soils and upland pastures,
especially for its great power of withstanding drought. This
quality naturally fits it for use on railway slopes, and for all
burning soils and hot climates. Yet it will endure both cold
and shade ; indeed, under these conditions it produces most
herbage. On deep soils where Meadow Fescue will thrive this
grass is out of place. For golf links, putting greens, and
recreation grounds Red Fescue is unequalled in the endurance
of hard wear. It also offers the further advantage of needing
mowing less frequently than some other grasses, and for this
reason it is useful on banks and slopes.
Red Fescue shoots rather later in the spring than Fine-
leaved Sheep's Fescue, and produces an abundance of small
herbage which fills up the bottom of a pasture, and also
renders it serviceable in ornamental grounds. The plant
flowers in June, and ripens seed about the middle of July.
This is one of the few grasses which improve as they get older,
the leaves and stems being actually more nutritious, as well
as of greater bulk, at the time of ripening seed than earlier in
the season. All cattle like the herbage, and with hares it is so
great a favourite that a quantity of seed should be sown where
this game is preserved in large numbers. Red Fescue must be
58 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
regarded as especially a pasture grass ; for hay it is of small
utility, and the lattermath is inconsiderable. Sinclair believed
it to attain perfection in the second year, and limited its
duration to seven or eight years.
In the absence of the flowering culm, the reddish purple
base of the short sheaths, and the long, flexuous, shining, deep
green, half-closed leaves, together with the pale-red underground
stolons, are a sufficient guide in determining this variety.
The seed resembles that of Festuca duriuscula, but is
larger and germinates well — decidedly better in the open air
than under artificial conditions.
LOLIUM PERENNE
{Perennial Rye Grass).
An American writer enumerates between sixty and
seventy varieties of Rye Grass, but no great experience is needed
to discover that in so long a list there are more names than
sorts. The majority are mere synonyms ; others are selections
having no permanent character ; so that for practical purposes
the number of distinct varieties may be reduced to about half
a dozen. In the United States, moreover, the term Rye
Grass is applied to several species of Elymus ; hence it is
necessary to make sure as to the species concerned when
reading American observations on Rye Grass.
Lolium percnne was the first grass gathered separately for
agricultural purposes. It is better known and more frequently
used than any other species, and notwithstanding the assertions
that it is biennial and not perennial, I am satisfied that it is
entitled to the name by which it has been known since 1611,
the date of the earliest agricultural book which mentions it.
That this grass is not perennial on all soils, nor under adverse
conditions, may be freely admitted, and few, if any, grasses
are. But when seed of true Perennial Rye Grass is sown on
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 59
suitable soil and the natural requirements of the plant are met,
it will prove to be perpetual.
Perennial Rye Grass was in this country first sown in
the Chiltern parts of Oxfordshire, and is still of great service
in some portions of that district on cold sour clays, and on
light stony land so deficient in lime that it will not grow
Sainfoin.
The eminent Swiss botanist, Dr. F. G. Stebler, describes
it as ' one of the most valuable plants in our meadows. For
pasture on clay soils it cannot be replaced by any other plant,
and therefore it is largely used in mixtures for forming pasture
grass of best quality. In the North of Germany there are
even experienced growers who sow only Rye Grass with a
little White Clover. The duration of this plant varies much
according to soil and climate.' I have put the last sentence in
italics, because in this remark Dr. Stebler has accurately
indicated the origin of the diversity of opinion which prevails
concerning the duration of this grass. While Rye Grass is
indigenous and perennial in many districts, it will stand for
only a limited time under adverse conditions of soil and
climate. On a burning sand or thin gravel it is never
permanent, but it answers on a gravelly clay, is at home on all
loams, and revels in tenacious land. Even pure clay is not too
stiff for it. The poorer and drier the soil, the shorter will be
its duration. On the contrary, the richer and more moist the
land, always supposing the drainage to be good, the greater
the certainty that Rye Grass will be permanent. The plant
responds quickly to irrigation, either of pure water or of
liquid manure, but stagnant water soon kills it. The natural
habit points to the secret of successful treatment. The
roots are maintained by the surface soil, and as poor land
speedily becomes exhausted by the free growth, of necessity
the plant dies.
Pastures which are stimulated by the droppings of cake-
fed cattle, or which are dressed at proper intervals with
60 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
farmyard manure, continue to grow Rye Grass year after year
without re-sowing. When hay is cut early, seeding is, of
course, impossible, and if the pasture is grazed the cattle will
take care that seed does not ripen. They never permit the heads
to flower ; the culms and herbage are always closely cropped.
Seed of Perennial Rye Grass germinates with unusual
freedom, and it may be relied on to produce a crop under con-
ditions that are fatal to other varieties. The plant matures
very quickly and is not injured by the tread of cattle. While
other grasses are dependent on season and weather, Rye Grass
is able to hold its own under all circumstances, enduring
winter frost and summer heat. Another great advantage is
that Perennial Rye Grass is so little deteriorated by being
allowed to grow old before it is cut. In fact, there is no doubt
that as the crop becomes nearly ripe the quality improves,
and probably the discrepancies between some chemical
analyses and the experience of farmers in feeding stock are
traceable to premature cutting.
The high feeding value of Perennial Rye Grass is shown
by Dr. J. Augustus Voelcker's report and analysis (given in
the 5s. Edition), from which it will be seen that of the larger
grasses Foxtail only is superior to Perennial Rye Grass in
nutritious properties. Experiments made by feeding cattle on
hay composed exclusively of this grass confirm my estimate
of its valuable qualities. It also deserves to be widely known
that Rye Grass straw cut into chaff is a very substantial
food for cattle. An experienced farmer, probably the largest
grower of Rye Grass in this country, informed me that he
always prefers giving his store cattle and horses the chaffed
straw of Rye Grass, when it has been harvested in good
condition, to feeding them on meadow hay cut from an old
pasture, and that the animals show a decided preference for
the former.
Morton's ' Cyclopaedia of Agriculture ' contains the follow-
ing remark on this subject : ' According to M. Pean de Saint-
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 61
Gilles, a French agriculturist, the ripe straw left after threshing
out the seeds is a better fodder than hay made from the green
straw. After giving many thousand trusses of the straw to his
horses without other food for several months, he found that
they ate it as readily as the finest hay, and that it kept them
in high condition.'
The objection occasionally urged against Rye Grass, that
it does not produce an aftermath, only holds good as to starved
crops, and on soils which are not adapted to grow the plant.
Even the very cheapness of the seed has been given as a reason
for not using it. In the best sense of the term Rye Grass is
cheap as compared with many natural grasses, but surely this is
a special argument in its favour. It is quite true that Festuca
protends possesses many of its good qualities and excels it in
aftermath, but the difference in the price of the two articles is
considerable, and the Fescue is distinctly inferior in nutritive
qualities, except in its early stage of growth.
One of the main reasons for including Perennial Rye Grass
in mixtures for permanent pastures is its reliability, already
alluded to, for ensuring a plant. This is a matter of great
importance, for if grasses do not fill the ground in the first
season, weeds will inevitably appear. And the Rye Grass
yields a bulk of hay during the first two years which could
not be obtained without it. Again, Rye Grass fosters the
growth of other varieties and aids the general progress and
development of such grasses as are slow in coming to maturity.
For all these reasons I advocate the use of Perennial Rye
Grass seed in prescriptions for permanent pastures. On land
which cannot maintain Rye Grass permanently, excellent
service will be rendered while it lasts, and the plant will yield
up its place when other grasses are sufficiently established
to occupy the soil. Meanwhile crops of valuable herbage will
be secured.
Most of the Rye Grass seed sown in England is saved in
Scotland and in the North of Ireland, and I have no doubt
62 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
that its acclimatisation in those cold districts tends to maintain
its hardiness and its permanency. The popular notion that the
first year's crop of Perennial Rye Grass seed produces only an
annual plant is a mere fiction, but to ensure a crop consisting
exclusively of the true perennial variety it is necessary that
maiden seed should be rejected for permanent pasture.
For alternate husbandry Perennial Rye Grass is indis-
pensable, whatever the soil may be. Even on land where the
plant certainly would not be permanent, seed should be liberally
sown for a short term of years. The excellence of the herbage,
the great weight of produce, its early and late growth, and
the important fact that it endures the trampling of stock, are
all strongly in favour of sowing seed freely.
The endurance of Rye Grass under severe treading de-
serves more than a mere passing mention. By the sides of
country roads a thick formation of turf, the envy of those who
wish to make a lawn, is often observable ; and this turf will
be found to consist almost exclusively of Rye Grass. On one
occasion, in company with Mr. Carruthers, we both at the
same instant noticed the strong development of Rye Grass at
the gate of one of my pastures, then laid up for hay, where
cattle usually congregated before milking-time in the seasons
when the field was grazed. Examination proved that the Rye
Grass was also prominent on the green path across the field.
Had the extraordinary growth been near the gate alone, the
inference might have been drawn that the increase of such a
gross feeder as Rye Grass was attributable to the droppings
from cattle kept waiting there ; but as the herbage throughout
the entire length of the path, which traverses several different
soils, is nearly all Rye Grass, it affords evidence of superiority-
over every other grass as to the capability of the plant for
enduring the tread of man and beast. This characteristic
accounts for the large proportion of Rye Grass in the grass
lands of this country which have been depastured from time
immemorial.
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 63
Exceptionally heavy dressings of nitrogenous manures
applied to Rye Grass when in mixture with other varieties for
a hay crop are inimical to its existence, because the manures
enable coarse grasses like Cocksfoot to obtain the ascendency.
But when Rye Grass is sown alone, or mixed with Broad Clover
only, the crop is greatly increased by the application of manures,
proving that the plant has no inherent objection to them.
Both at Chiswick where Rye Grass was grown alone, and at
Rothamsted where it formed only a portion of the herbage,
moderate doses of nitrate of soda had a marked effect upon its
growth, and the fact was especially noticeable that the nitrate
produced an immense amount of root-fibre as well as leafy herb-
age. It is also interesting to find that at Rothamsted, after
decreasing for three years, Rye Grass slightly increased in pro-
portion to the other surrounding grasses, thus affording evidence
of its perennial character. The ammonia salts which proved so
powerful a stimulant to some of the coarser grasses did not
benefit Perennial Rye Grass sufficiently to enable it to hold
its position against them. On the nitrate plots only was its
position maintained. At Kidmore the plant flourished in the
bone plots.
The highly glazed leaves of L. perenne, together with the
prominent mid-rib, are sufficient to distinguish it at all seasons
of the year. The leaf is narrow-tipped, has an obtuse ligule,
surrounded by an auricle or collar-like portion of the blade ;
whilst the younger leaves are folded throughout their length
on the mid-rib when emerging from the flat purple sheath.
The illustration, botanical description, and chemical
analysis of Sutton's Perennial Rye Grass — a branching variety,
considerably dwarfer than Pacey's, and still more perennial in
character — are in the 5*. Edition.
64 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
LOLIUM VULGARE. L. ANNUUM
{Common, or Annual Rye Grass).
The seed of this plant is larger and flatter than that of the
Perennial and Italian varieties. It is almost as broad as the
seed of Bromus mollis, but is lighter and awnless. The plant
deserves to be better known, for it possesses valuable properties,
yielding a good bulk of nourishing herbage of a light green
colour, and sending up a dense mass of flowering culms. The
roots, being small, are more easily got rid of when the ley is
ploughed than are the roots of the perennial variety; and
there is a general concurrence of opinion that although the
plant is of such rapid growth, and draws its nourishment
entirely from the surface soil, it does not greatly impoverish
the land for the next crop.
The objections which have been urged against the use of
Perennial Rye Grass in mixtures for permanent pastures are
largely owing to the substitution of Annual Rye Grass. The
latter is only biennial in duration, and its use in a permanent
prescription is indefensible. Most of the advantages of the
annual variety can be obtained from its more permanent
relation, but reliable seed of the former is less easy to procure,
and is frequently higher in price.
LOLIUM ITALICUM
{Italian Rye Grass).
I wish to prevent the possibility of a misunderstanding
by saying at once that this grass is only under consideration
here in its proper connection with alternate husbandry. In a
permanent pasture it is generally harmful, and the seed should
rarely be included in a prescription for that purpose.
Italian Rye Grass was probably first cultivated in Lom-
bardy, and spread thence through Europe. It was introduced
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 65
into England in 1831 by the late Mr. Charles Lawson, of
Edinburgh, who was an old friend of my father. At first
Mr. Lawson imported seed from Hamburg, but a few years
later he was able to obtain it direct from Leghorn. The
experiments made with Italian Rye Grass by the late Mr.
William Dickinson resulted in crops which were then
considered marvellous, and for many years his name was
prominently associated with this fodder plant. His system
of irrigation with liquid manure no doubt suggested the idea of
sewage treatment, and it is not too much to say that without
Italian Rye Grass the present method of sewage farming could
not be carried on. There is no other green crop, except
perhaps JBromus inermis, which can be substituted for it, or
which will yield equally valuable herbage.
There are considerable variations in the character, pro-
ductiveness, and duration of the several strains of this plant ;
still, roughly speaking, all are biennial. The seed which is
imported from the Continent yields very heavy crops, but is
so infested with pernicious weeds as to need most careful
cleaning before it is fit to sow. To avoid the risk of making
the land foul, seed has long been grown in Ireland, and con-
tinuous selection has developed all the good qualities of the
imported stock, except its extreme vigour. Lolium italicum
Suttoni, which is now largely grown, was obtained by careful
selection of the most free-growing and leafy plants. This
stock grows with extraordinary rapidity, with but a small
proportion of stalks, so that the crop, whether green or made
into hay, is of specially fine quality.
Italian Rye Grass will grow in almost any soil, but is least
satisfactory on poor dry land, unless it can be freely assisted
with liquid manure. Still, fair results have been obtained
from heaths dressed with marl and farmyard dung. This
grass needs warmth and moisture, and in rich damp soils
the growth is extremely rapid. Irrigation by liquid manure
results in enormous crops, following each other in surprisingly
66 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
rapid succession ; and the plant is so hardy as to endure our
coldest winters without injury, while it starts earlier in spring
and grows later in autumn than any other grass.
Italian Rye Grass is so much preferred by stock, that when
a two years' ley which contains it is fed off, the cattle will not
allow a single flower-stem to ripen. The forage promotes a
great flow of milk, and improves the flavour of butter and
cheese. The celebrated Parmesan cheese is said to be made
from the milk of cows fed entirely on Italian Rye Grass.
No wonder, therefore, that with such remarkable qualities
the plant should have been recommended and used for per-
manent pastures, although nearly every authority has pro-
nounced it unsuitable for that purpose. Italian Rye Grass is
so gross a feeder as actually to choke and smother the Poas and
finer Fescues, instead of simply nursing and sheltering them
from scorching heat and severe frost as does the comparatively
slower-growing Perennial Rye Grass. Valuable as Italian is
for alternate husbandry in the company of other strong-growing
grasses, such as Cocksfoot and Timothy, I have always objected
to its use in permanent pastures, even during the years when
the contrary custom prevailed. This view is now admitted to
be sound, and the circumstances must be altogether excep-
tional which warrant the admixture of any proportion of the
seed in a prescription for permanent pasture.
With singular inconsistency, some writers who disapprove
of Italian Rye Grass in a mixture of permanent grasses, advo-
cate its employment for renovating an old pasture. A more
illogical proposition has never been made. When the brief
existence of Italian Rye Grass terminates, the pasture will be
left in a worse state than before.
There is a prejudice against this grass because it severely
taxes the soil, and it is quite true that Italian Rye Grass will
appropriate all the nourishment it can get. But that is an
argument in its favour. It means that the plant is a powerful
agent in extracting constituents from the soil, which it yields
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 67
up in valuable food for cattle. Given the desire of obtaining
from an acre of liberally fed land the largest possible produce
within twelve months, and Italian Rye Grass has no equal for
fulfilling the condition.
Another prejudice is that Italian Rye Grass is a bad pre-
paration for wheat. On that point Mr. Dickinson's own words
can be quoted : ' Thirty sheep may be kept upon Italian Rye
Grass, fed through hurdles, upon as little land as ten can be
kept upon the common system upon common grass, and the
finest crops of wheat, barley, oats, and beans may be grown
after the Italian Rye Grass has been fed off the two years
of its existence. Wheat invariably follows the Italian, and
splendid crops are grown.'
Again, it is objected that twitch is produced by Italian
Rye Grass. With pure seed this is impossible, but plenty
of Italian Rye Grass seed infested with twitch is freely bought
and sold every year. The remedy is in the buyer's own hands.
When twitch is already in the soil, a starved crop of Rye Grass
may give the couch an opportunity of asserting itself. Still,
the tendency of a well-fed and frequently cut crop of Italian
always favours the destruction of twitch.
Italian Rye Grass is very frequently sown with Broad
Clover in composite mixtures for alternate husbandry, and it
may also be used with Avena elatior when a more durable crop
is wanted. But the most profitable method is to grow Italian
Rye Grass alone, because the crop can be cut before the stalks
become hard and lose their nutritious qualities. Another reason
why Italian should not be allowed to grow old is that the plant
is extremely succulent, and in warm thundery weather there is
a risk of the roots beginning to rot. On this account a very
bulky crop cannot be safely left for seed in a hot, damp
summer.
The usual months for sowing are February, March,
September, and October, and the quantity three bushels per
acre, but seed may be sown at any time from spring to autumn.
s 2
68 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
The plant is rolled in spring, the crop is cut frequently, and
the land broken up in the following spring twelvemonth.
Many farmers make it a rule to sow in October, and on
warm moist soils crops have sometimes been cut at Christmas,
and again in the following April. Such experience, however,
is exceptional, but it proves the hardiness and fertility of
the plant.
Italian Rye Grass, when out of flower, may be recognised
by the same characteristics which distinguish L. perenne, with
this difference: in L. perenne the sheath is flat, while in
L. italicum the sheath is round.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
PHLEUM PRATENSE
{Timothy Grass, or Meadow Calstail).
To see this grass in perfection a visit must be paid to the
United States, where it is grown alone, and yields amazing
crops of hay, three, four, and in one recorded instance six feet
high. In the pastures of that country some of our finer
meadow grasses are unknown and Timothy is more highly
prized than with us. It is supposed to have been introduced
into England for agricultural purposes about the middle of the
eighteenth century, and is now widely distributed. The plant
is perennial and fibrous-rooted, but under certain conditions
the root shows a tendency to take a bulbous form. Indeed,
the character of the plant varies considerably in different soils
and situations.
Timothy luxuriates in clay districts and on moist soils, and
on peat the growth is unsurpassed. This is one of the grasses
most certain to grow, and is specially serviceable in the company
of Foxtail, because it fills the interval between the first growth
and the aftermath of that grass. Another substantial advan-
tage is that Timothy attains the height of its productiveness in
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 69
the first year after being sown, but unless it is properly fed
there is a tendency to weakness in the third or fourth year ;
and considering the tax which it necessarily makes on the soil,
this will occasion no surprise.
No other grass will bear extremes of heat and cold better
than Timothy, and in rigorous winters, which severely test the
endurance of other hardy grasses, this will stand the trial
uninjured. All cattle eat the herbage greedily, and horses
manifest especial fondness for it. Timothy adds materially to
the weight of the hay crop, and is not only highly nutritious
while young, but the feeding value increases until the seed is
formed. If, however, the plant is allowed to mature seed,
little or no aftermath is to be expected.
This grass is generally regarded as a late variety, and cor-
rectly so, because it flowers in July. Still, the early herbage
is good, and sheep may be run over a pasture containing a
large proportion of it until late in spring without endangering
the crop of hay. The plant is really mown to greatest advan-
tage before the ears are out of their sheaths, having regard to
the quality of the hay and the quantity of the aftermath. It
should be clearly understood that I am here alluding to the
treatment of a meadow containing an unusual quantity of this
grass.
When grown alone as a fodder plant, Timothy may not
only be allowed to remain uncut until in full flower, but even
for ten days or a fortnight later, and during that time the
feeding value will be augmented. Sinclair says that, 'subject
to the weather being such as to keep it in growth, every two
days' growth after flowering will increase its nutritive value as
much as any eight days' growth before that period.' But these
hard wiry stalks, when dried, can scarcely be called hay, and
although they may be nutritious, it is necessary to reduce them
to chafF before they are given to cattle.
Timothy should form a constituent of every permanent
prescription for heavy soils, but as in recent years there has
70 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
been a tendency to give undue prominence to this grass,
I consider it necessary to say that an excessive proportion
in a pasture may be mischievous. The herbage is coarse,
the stalks soon become hard, and in that state the increased
feeding value is of no service if cattle refuse to graze them, as
they undoubtedly do, or if the abundant presence of this grass
reduces the price of the hay.
When seed is freely shed there is a danger that the
plant will take almost exclusive possession of the land,
especially on those formations which favour its growth. And
once sown it is a very difficult grass to eradicate. All points
considered, great judgment is requisite in order to realise the
full advantage of Timothy, and at the same time to maintain
the general efficiency of the pasture.
A marked characteristic of Timothy is its extreme hardi-
ness, and for this quality it is extensively grown in Canada
in association with Alsike Clover, for one and two years'
leys. For the same purpose it has won favour in Scotland,
where experience has proved that hay made from Timothy
and Alsike is highly sustaining food for horses in hard
work. Such hay, when well harvested, is in constant demand
at a profitable figure. Another excellent crop is obtained by
sowing a mixture of Timothy and Cow Grass. It would
perhaps be impossible to find two plants which are more
suitable for growing together. For alternate husbandly
generally Timothy offers very substantial benefits; the only
objection to its employment for a term of years is the trouble
experienced in getting rid of it when the ley has to be
broken up.
The greyish-green tint of the short, broad leaves, and
involute character of the emerging leaf, together with the
smooth sheath and obtuse ligule, clearly distinguish this grass
from others when the cylindrical flower-spike is wanting.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 71
POA PRATENSIS
(Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass).
Although there is a general resemblance between this
grass and Poa trivialis, the two plants differ materially in
habit, character, and structure. Poa pratensis is unlike Poa
trivialis in having broader and blunter foliage, an obtuse ligule
to its leaf, smooth stalks, and creeping roots that send out
long stolons which take a horizontal direction and form
little tufts. Each species has a value of its own, and is
fitted to serve a purpose for which the other is less adapted.
Poa pratensis is naturally suitable for enduring drought, while
Poa trivialis thrives in moist land. This is the chief constitu-
tional difference between the two plants, and although each of
them will to some extent conform to the conditions which
specially favour the other, yet the distinction clearly indicates
the use to which each one should, as a rule, be applied.
Poa pratensis does not root very deeply, but is dependent
principally upon the surface soil, and is therefore met with on
all geological formations if the surface happens to be suitable.
All eminent authorities concur in recommending it for good dry
soils, and my own experience has convinced me of the correct-
ness of their opinion, but light land must be rich in humus to
ensure success. On heavy and tenacious soils this grass will
often grow, but it is not then seen to the greatest advantage.
During the first year Poa pratensis remains small and
does not throw up any stalks. When fully established it
flowers once annually ; after the stems are cut, no others are
formed until the following season. Primarily this is a pasture
grass, because the flowers rise too early for the scythe.
Otherwise, for very forward cutting it is valuable for hay,
and when the crop has been taken, a good aftermath of leafy
herbage follows. The earliness of Poa pratensis is no doubt
attributable to the fact that the plant appears to be insensible
72 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
to cold, or growth would not continue during spring frosts.
The presence of a large proportion of this grass will, by the
shelter it affords to other varieties, make an early pasture, and
for this reason it is of especial service to the grazier, to whom
half a ton of feed at the end of March or the beginning of
April is of more importance than a ton in May.
For lawns, Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass may be
freely sown, as it is strictly perennial, and forms a fine
compact turf
In the West of Ireland, where this grass grows all the
year round, it should be largely used ; and, as one of the most
suitable grasses for fogging, it should be serviceable in Wales.
For railway embankments or other situations on which a rapid
matting turf is wanted for holding the soil together, there is
no more valuable plant.
In the United States, where Poa pratensis is known under
the name of Kentucky Blue Grass, or June Grass, it has been
cultivated with striking success. When once established
as a pasture the value of the land is immediately enhanced.
Americans grow it on their richest soil, and are surprised that
we use the plant so little and never sow it alone. In some
parts of New Zealand this grass has developed a very
objectionable habit of growth. It overruns pastures, and is
difficult to eradicate from arable land when once it has
obtained a footing. This fact does not prove the Avorthless-
ness of the grass for British use. The case is analogous to
that of our familiar Sweetbriar, which since its introduction
into Tasmania forms thickets in that country, entangling
and overpowering other vegetation, throwing underground
suckers across fields, and matting the soil with a dense mass of
fibre. But we are not on that account inclined to sacrifice the
charming bush of our gardens and hedgerows. Neither the
merits of Poa prateitsis when cultivated in America, nor its
demerits when sown in certain districts of New Zealand,
however interesting they may be, need influence our estimate
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 73
of the value of a grass which experience has proved to be of
great service in this country.
The rounded, concave tip of the leaf, together with the
obtuse ligule, the yellowish green of the lower sheaths, and
short stolons, will enable the observer to determine the
presence of this species in a pasture.
Dressings of nitrate of soda discourage the growth of
Poa pratensis, while mineral superphosphates combined with
ammonia salts foster it. At Kidmore decorticated cotton cake
was also conducive to the growth of this grass.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5*. Edition.
POA TRIVIALIS
(Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, or Orcheston Grass).
This variety differs from Poa pratensis in having narrower
foliage, a long pointed instead of a blunt ligule to its leaf,
fibrous instead of creeping roots, and slightly rough sheaths.
The roughness is only apparent to a sensitive touch, but is
readily perceived when the grass is drawn across the tongue.
Poa trivialis was first sown in this country about 1780,
and in recent years it has been mistakenly recommended for
all purposes. On strong moist soils, where Poa trivialis is
quite at home, it surpasses Poa pratensis both in quantity and
in quality, but the favourable comparison does not extend
to light land liable to burn, on which the superiority of Poa
pratensis becomes manifest. The plant is subject to injury by
spring and autumn frosts, and also by severe winters. It is
rich in potash and phosphoric acid, and soon exhausts land
which is not naturally good or constantly fed.
This grass forms a large part of the turf of valleys in
mountainous districts where the rainfall is considerable. It
thrives under trees, prospers in water-meadows and all moist
situations, and bears well the hoofs of stock, but it must be
74 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
mown before the foliage turns yellow at the base, or it is liable
to rot. Sinclair says that it is unprofitable for any purpose on
dry exposed situations.
Poa trivialis flowers at the usual time for cutting hay, but
is especially useful for pastures nevertheless. The herbage is
of more value at the time of ripening seed than earlier in the
season, but as ripening does not take place until the end of
July, it is impossible in the South of England to keep the hay
crop waiting for it. The aftermath is good after early cutting
only. Sinclair advises its use for permanent pastures on rich
soils and in sheltered positions, and I quite agree with this
view. Valuable as this grass is for such situations, I do not
consider that for any other land it is worth while to incur the
cost of seed, which, if true, is always expensive. Wherever
Poa pratensis will answer, it should be used instead.
When not in flower this species is recognisable by the
slender leaf, which gradually tapers from the base to the tip of
the blade, and has a well-marked keel. The young leaves are
compressed, and folded on the mid-rib, the lower sheaths are
loose and tinged violet-purple.
At Kidmore nitrate of soda and muriate of potash had
a marked effect on the development of this grass ; ammonia
salts diminished its growth. The Rothamsted experiments
have clearly established the fact that in this respect it differs
altogether from Poa pratensis.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
POA NEMORALIS SEMPERVIRENS
{Hudson's Bay or Evergreen Meadow Crass).
This variety grows very early in spring, yields a greater
bulk of herbage than Poa pratensis, bears drought remarkably
well, and is the most valuable of the cultivated Poas. For
lawns and ornamental grounds it answers admirably, and is
AGRICULTURAL GRASSES 75
indispensable for sowing under the shade of trees. The seed
is too costly, and the supply too uncertain, to warrant a large
use of it in ordinary grass -land farming.
The very short sheath — not more than one-quarter of the
length of the flat blade— together with the laciniated obtuse
ligule, and the compressed character of the younger leaves, are
points by which this variety may be recognised when not in
flower.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
POA SEROTINA
[Late Meadow Grass).
This variety flowers later than other Poas, and it is also
later in ripening seed than either Poa protends or Poa trivialis.
The plant is successful on almost all kinds of soil, especially
on rich moist land. For hay it is a valuable grass, producing
an abundance of foliage early in the season. The aftermath is
not very great, but in permanent pastures it has the merit of
growing freely between the period of ripening and after-yield
of most other grasses.
Quite a year is required to develop strong plants of Late
Meadow Grass, and for this reason it cannot be recommended
for alternate husbandry. True seed is difficult to obtain.
In the absence of the flowering panicle Poa serotina can
always be distinguished from Poa nemoralis by the short blunt
ligule.
POA AQUATICA
( Water-Meadow or Sweet Reed Gi-ass).
Adapted for low-lying land subject to floods, nutritious,
and generally liked by cattle. In the Fen districts it forms
a large part of the herbage, and yields abundant crops of hay.
76 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
From the name it will be understood that this grass is specially
suitable for water-meadows, and seed may also be included
in permanent mixtures for undrained clay. The flowering
occurs in July and August.
Poa aquatica is also known as Glyceria aquatica, and is
common in the water-meadows of the South of England,
where the closely allied Floating Sweet Grass, Glyceria
fluitans, is also frequently found.
77
Agricultural Clovers
(Leguminos^)
TRIFOLIUM REPENS PERENNE
(Perennial White Clover).
This plant was first cultivated in the Netherlands ; hence
the familiar name, Dutch Clover. Probably it was not sown
in England until the beginning of the eighteenth century,
although it is now indigenous all over the country. The seed
will lie dormant for a long time and at a great depth, and be
ready to spring into life when brought to the surface. The
habit of the plant is creeping, and when once established it
soon covers the ground. Sometimes its luxuriance is excessive,
and the numerous flower-heads, for which cattle manifest no
partiality, are a disadvantage, so that in sowing White Clover
judgment should be exercised. In warm, rainy seasons it
spreads rapidly, but makes little or no progress during cold,
dry weather. Besides the mass of fibrous surface roots there
is a long tap-root which goes deep into the subsoil, sustaining
the plant during drought when only the parent stem grows,
the lateral and creeping shoots remaining dormant.
The character of this clover differs materially, according to
the soil on which it is grown. Sinclair remarks that ' it main-
tains itself in soils of opposite natures,' because of its peculiarity
in having two distinct forms of root. It prospers on mellow
land containing lime, and on all soils rich in humus, from marl
78 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
to gravel, or gravelly clay. In poor land it does better, and is
less sensitive to atmospheric influences than Red Clover, and is
of great importance on land which cannot be depended on to
grow Perennial Red Clover. In early spring it produces very
little food, and the plant is so dwarf that it is practically
useless for cutting. For a crop of hay Alsike is preferable.
Still, Perennial White Clover forms an essential constituent
of every good pasture. All cattle eat the herbage with
relish, but it is less useful for the production of milk than of
flesh, and is of special service in fattening sheep. No doubt the
crop is more palatable to stock before the plant flowers than
afterwards ; indeed, a profusion of flowers is no indication of
an abundant bite. White Clover is not suitable for culture
alone, and it is better for cattle when mingled with grasses,
especially with Perennial Rye Grass. The Norfolk farmers
largely use it for ewes and lambs, but from difference of
climate the favourable opinion they entertain is not shared by
practical men in the West of England.
The fertilisation of White Clover is aided by insects.
From ten flower-heads visited by bees Darwin obtained ten
times as many seeds as from a corresponding number protected
by gauze. On a subsequent occasion he failed to obtain a
single fertile seed from twenty protected heads.
When White Clover is one of the constituents of mixed
grasses and clovers, the application of ammonia salts and
nitrate of soda so develops the gramineous herbage that there
is a smaller growth of White Clover than when the land is
left unmanured. Mineral manures — basic slag especially — con-
siderably augment the crop of White Clover, and a similar
result is obtained from dressings of marl or vegetable ash.
There is a Wild White Clover which is prized by many
farmers, but much of the seed offered under this name is
unreliable.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
AGRICULTURAL CLOVERS 79
TRIFOLIUM PRATENSE
(Red, or Broad Clover).
Red Clover is said to be indigenous in every country in
Europe except Greece. In a wild state its presence is an
indication of the fertility of the soil. Although a strong-land
plant, it will grow on almost any soil, and contains so much
moisture that only one-fifth of the weight of the green crop is
found in the haystack.
Winter and spring frosts are very injurious to Red Clover,
and to save the plant a top-dressing of long manure is some-
times necessary, for which, however, there is a return in due
time.
A considerable diversity can be discerned in the various
strains of Red Clover. Seed is imported from all parts of
Europe, and large quantities from North America. Each
country has one or two well-defined types of this plant, and
although growers may be careful to avoid buying any but so-
called English seed, the fact that the stock may only have been
imported two years previously will account for the differences
which are every year visible in crops of Red Clover. The
prejudice existing against foreign seed, especially that from
America and France, is well founded. Experience has proved
that seed from either country produces a smaller crop than
can be obtained from a stock which has been acclimatised in
England for many years, and there is also the great danger of
Dodder to be considered. The seed grown in Styria and in
some districts of North Germany, however, is as robust and
hardy as the English stocks.
Trifolium pratense is quite unsuited for permanent
pastures, but should form a large proportion of an alternate
mixture. The great root-growth made during the two years
80 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
of its existence is the best possible preparation for the following
wheat crop.
Red Clover is incapable of self-fertilisation, and the
Humble Bee is almost exclusively the medium by which
pollen is conveyed from anther to stigma. In Australia and
New Zealand, until the Humble Bee was introduced, seed
was rarely ripened, and the Red Clover sown in those colonies
was all imported, principally from England.
The character and culture of Red Clover are so well
understood as to render further remark needless.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
os. Edition.
TRIFOLIUM PRATENSE PEREXXE
(Perennial Red Clover, or Cow Grass).
This clover doubtless originated in a cross between
Trifolium praten.se, or Broad Clover, and Trifolium medium,
or Zigzag Clover. 1 The latter has never been in commerce,
nor has it been grown as a crop, except for experimental
purposes. Yet some writers have fallen into the error of
confusing it with the true Perennial Red Clover, which in
Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Hampshire, and Wiltshire is known
as Cow Grass. In these counties Cow Grass is of immense
importance, and enters largely into the rotation of arable
land. The use of it is extending to other parts of England,
and it is astonishing that so valuable a plant has not long
since been widely recognised as indispensable for temporary
1 Trifolium medium. — The Cow Grass, or Zigzag Clover, of botanists is so called
from the decided zigzag growth. So distinct is the plant that it can scarcely be classed
with Red Clover at all. The blossom is darker in colour than that of Trifolium
pratenxe, the head less dense, invariably growing on a long peduncle instead of
immediately adjacent to the leaf. The absence of the broad membranous stipule,
and the substitution of one which is long and narrow, terminating gradually in a spear-
like point, is also a marked characteristic, by which, those who have once observed
this peculiarity are never again likely to mistake Trifolium medium for Trifolnan
pratense.
AGRICULTURAL CLOVERS 81
pastures, instead of being restricted to permanent pastures
only.
Trifolium prutcn.se perennc differs from Broad Clover in
having a somewhat taller, smoother, and, except in its very
young state, a less hairy stem, and a stronger, less fibrous, and
more penetrating root. The plant carries its flowers some
way above the foliage, surpasses Broad Clover in succulence
and weight of crop, and stands frosts much better.
The root of Perennial Red Clover reaches down into the
subsoil, enabling it to obtain moisture and nourishment in the
hottest weather, when Red Clover gives up from drought.
This penetrating habit also affords a means of sustenance to
the plant on land which is too poor to grow Broad Clover, and
frequently makes it desirable to increase the proportion of this
seed for pastures on thin uplands.
Perennial Red Clover has two characteristics which
greatly augment its value : flowering does not begin until at
least ten days later than Broad Clover, and the more robust
and solid stems remain succulent and eatable by stock long
after Broad Clover has become pithy and withered. Perennial
Red Clover fills up the gap between the first and second
cuttings of Broad Clover, and comes into use at a time when
no other green food is available for the horses of the farm,
but it rarely gives a second crop of any consequence.
Cow Grass produces comparatively little seed from its
single crop ; whereas Red Clover yields a good crop of seed
from the second cutting, after the first has been taken as
fodder. Consequently seed of the perennial variety is neces-
sarily high in price.
It is worth noting that Cow Grass is understood on
Mark Lane, and in many parts of England, to mean no more
than a fine handsome sample of Broad Red Clover. The true
Perennial Red Clover is rarely obtainable, except from those
who make its culture a study. And, just as all Rye Grass
has been condemned because the annual variety has been used
G
82 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
where only the perennial kind should have been employed,
so true Cow Grass — Trifolium pratense perenne — has been
disparaged because Broad Clover has been called by its name
and supplied as the genuine article.
When the late Mr. H. M. Jenkins was in Flanders on his
tour with the late Mr. James Howard some years ago, he
found that this Perennial Clover was relied on as the chief
soiling crop, and was used in exactly the same way as in the
English counties I have named. So far as I am aware,
however, true Belgian Cow Grass is never offered in this
country, and if it were offered, there would be the risk of
its being foul.
The true Perennial Red Clover is an invaluable plant for
permanent pastures, and should be included in every mixture
for that purpose. Its presence in a pasture at midsummer,
when Alsike is giving up, is of great service, and although it
does not produce a second crop for the scythe, it yields a
quantity of excellent food. Perennial Red Clover is not per-
petuated in pastures by seed, as is commonly supposed, but
from short stout branches extended from the parent plant,
which root and take the place of the parent should conditions
of soil or climate interfere with its perennial character.
Dr. Stebler observed that the plant differs from ordinary
Red Clover in having a less fibrous root, stalks generally solid
instead of hollow, and that it produces fewer flowers, and
therefore a smaller yield of seed. As a consequence true seed
is always expensive and difficult to obtain. Dr. Stebler also
supports my opinion that this clover is more strictly perennial
than any other variety, and he distinctly states that it is a
mistake to confound Trifolium pratense perenne with Trifolium
medium.
At Rothamsted, ammonia salts had the effect of elimi-
nating this plant from the various plots to which they were
applied, whether alone or in conjunction with mineral manures.
Nitrate of soda also diminished the growth. Even potash and
AGRICULTURAL CLOVERS 83
mineral manures did not maintain the permanence of this
clover. It is a remarkable fact that the unmanured plots,
where there was little other herbage to interfere with it, were
the only plots on which Cow Grass retained its original
position. The Rothamsted experiments, however, decisively
proved this plant to be more enduring than Trifolium repens ;
hence there can be no doubt whatever as to its great value in
laying down land to pasture.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5*. Edition.
TRIFOLIUM HYBRIDUM
(Abike Clover).
Although this plant was named by Linnasus, there is
reason to doubt whether it is a hybrid between Red and
White Clover, as is generally assumed. The common name
of Alsike is derived from the village of Syke, near Upsala in
Sweden, where it has been grown with great success. The
plant is indigenous in Southern Europe, yet it does not appear
to have been cultivated until after the example was set in
Sweden, whence it reached this country.
Alsike Clover is a true perennial, and on the Greensand
formation comes up year after year where once it has been
sown, but on some light soils it is not permanent. Were it
not for the surface growth, and the consequent inability to
withstand drought, Alsike would take a more important
position in agricultural operations than Broad Clover,
especially as the former will often grow on clover-sick land.
Alsike Clover is peculiarly adapted for damp soils, and is
decidedly more productive in wet than in dry seasons ; it
endures heat and cold well, succeeds in undrained clays better
than any other variety, and is the only clover that will stand
irrigation. On damp soils, if the crop becomes laid it should
be promptly cut ; if left it may begin to rot at the base.
G 2
84 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
For meadows and pastures Alsike Clover is far superior to
White Clover, as it produces a crop tall enough for the scythe,
and materially adds to the total weight of hay. It also pro-
duces more keep and is better relished than White Clover.
On some soils Alsike will grow quite as much herbage as Red
Clover, and as the vegetation is principally composed of
leaves, care is requisite in the process of making hay, or the
leaves get broken off and are lost, especially as the plant is
more succulent than Red Clover and takes longer to make
into hay.
The time of flowering approximates to that of Cow Grass,
and the nutritive value is highest at the flowering stage. The
plant is not hasty in getting old and pithy, as is the case with
Red Clover. After cutting, Alsike Clover shoots quickly, but
the growth is low, and the total of the aftermath only equal to
half the first cut. Still, the plant has a high value for pastures,
and is one of the best clovers for alternate husbandry. It
flourishes in the same deep moist soil as Timothy, and makes
an excellent companion to that grass. With Tall Oat Grass,
Italian Rye Grass, and Cocksfoot it also combines well and
yields excellent forage.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
TRIFOLIUM MINUS
{Yellow Suckling).
This clover is by no means unworthy a place in a per-
manent mixture, for although it is an annual and the growth is
very small, yielding but scanty produce on the gravelly soils
and stony places where Yellow Suckling is generally found, yet
on the Greensand it is of considerable value, forming a dense
mass of herbage and seeding itself down every year. When
grown with Rye Grass, and cut before the plant gets old, it
makes excellent hay which is much relished by stock. In such
AGRICULTURAL CLOVERS 85
a case the roots cannot be depended on for another crop, but
if pastured and kept constantly down the plant will provide
a bite all the summer.
The small foliage of Trifolium minus is admirably suited
for lawns and pleasure grounds.
MEDICAGO LUPULINA
(Common Yellorv Clover, Trefoil, Nonsuch, Black Grass, or ' Hop').
A fibrous-rooted biennial which flowers from May to
August, and to a casual observer closely resembles Yellow
Suckling ; but the foliage is a paler green, the stems much less
hard and wiry, and the flowers not so dark, whilst the entire
plant is usually covered with a fine down. The black seed-
pods, which have earned for it the name of ' Black Medick,'
are also useful as a means of identification. Trefoil starts so
early in spring as to give a bite before any other clover, and
flowers ten or fifteen days in advance of Trifolium pratense.
Although the procumbent habit of growth prevents the
plant from yielding much herbage for the scythe, and there
is very little aftermath, the quantity of keep in spring is con-
siderable. Trefoil is primarily adapted for alternate husbandry,
being only biennial in duration. Seed is, however, so freely
shed by this clover as to render it practically permanent, and
as chemical analysis shows the herbage to be nutritious, there is
good reason for including a small proportion in most perma-
nent mixtures, especially as it grows compactly and helps to
make a good bottom to a pasture. Where it is indigenous in
abundance, seed need not be sown, nor should it be admitted
to those soils on which it is liable to smother other plants.
Common Yellow Clover endures cold better than heat,
will grow freely on almost any soil, and shows preference for
such as are calcareous, because lime is one of its necessities.
Clay marl is its special home. Fresh green manure does not suit
the plant, but a top-dressing of a good compost or of vegetable
86 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
ash generally brings a full crop. All manures containing
potash and phosphoric acid have a magical effect on its growth.
Sheep injure it less than they do Red Clover.
Trefoil is rarely sown alone, but frequently with White
Clover, and it is important that the Trefoil should not predo-
minate, or it may take entire possession of the land. Foxtail,
Sweet Vernal, and Smooth- stalked Meadow Grass combine
well with Trefoil in affording early and valuable herbage.
Although Trefoil is the name by which 31. lupulina is
most widely known, and many farmers call it ' Hop,' it must
not be confounded with the true Hop Clover, Trifolium
procumbens, a native British plant, which is not used in
agriculture.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5s. Edition.
LOTUS CORNICULATUS
(Birdsfoot Trefoil).
This plant is strictly perennial, and attains maturity in the
second year after sowing. It often fills up the bottom of a
pasture when other sorts are deficient, and will do this on land
which is clover-sick. Birdsfoot Trefoil is useful for all soils,
and is remarkable for its endurance of drought, however
extreme. On high exposed thin soils it is more productive
than any other clover, and it augments the total of the crop
without apparent detriment to the taller, upright-growing
varieties. Therefore, if expense need not be considered,
seed in limited quantity should certainly be sown. Unfor-
tunately, such soils do not often warrant the outlay for this
clover, the price of which is almost prohibitory.
Birdsfoot Trefoil is eaten with avidity by all kinds of
stock. The plant has narrow leaves, a smooth stem, and
bright yellow flowers, occasionally tinged with red.
87
Sundry Plants used for Grazing,
Feeding, or making into Hay
ACHILLEA MILLEFOLIUM
(Yarrow, or Milfoil).
Although neither a grass nor a clover, but a compositaceous
plant, like the daisy, the tansy, and the chamomile, Yarrow
is such an ever-present constituent of dry pastures that it
naturally claims consideration here. The leaves are dense
and elegantly fimbriated, and the flowering time is after mid-
summer. The plant is strictly perennial, and multiplies itself
by root-growth. It appears to be independent of the presence
of potash in the soil, and will consequently flourish where
clovers can scarcely maintain existence, or fail entirely.
Yarrow is adapted for pastures, not for meadows, and seed
should be excluded from the mixture for a crop that is to be
generally mown. Sheep are very fond of the herbage, which
is believed to impart an excellent flavour to mutton, venison,
and to butter also, notwithstanding its astringent qualities.
On dry gravels and light sands that will hardly support
any other plant Yarrow will grow, and no summer is too hot
for it. So great is its power of enduring drought that after a
dry season there is always a large demand for seed, and as this
is difficult to obtain of reliable germination, the price runs up
to an extravagant figure.
Ammonia salts appear to be inimical to the growth of
Yarrow, nitrate less so, but heavy doses of any ammoniacal
manure are certain to reduce its bulk by increasing the
88 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
strength of surrounding grasses. Mineral manures alone seem
to favour its development.
For illustration, description, and chemical analysis, see
5*. Edition.
CICHOR1UM INTYBUS
{Chicory, or Succory).
This perennial grows wild in dry wastes, on roadsides, and
the borders of fields in many parts of England. When in
bloom its bright blue flowers are very conspicuous. The plant
is cultivated to a considerable extent on the Continent, and
the blanched leaves have been used from time immemorial for
salads. Chicory will flourish on nearly every class of soil, and
has been proved to be profitable upon poor sands as well as
on richer and more productive land. Associated with Burnet
and mixed grasses and clovers, seed may be sown to produce
pasturage for sheep and cattle. The radical leaves, which
shoot up close to the ground, are continually cropped by stock,
and afford excellent fodder.
MEDICAGO SATIVA
{Lucerne).
The common name of this plant is generally supposed to
be derived from the canton or town of Lucerne, in Switzerland.
But Dr. Stebler controverts this opinion, although he is at a
loss to account for the appellation. Lucerne was known to the
ancient Greeks and Romans as a forage plant. It is mentioned
by Virgil, and at the beginning of the Christian era by several
agricultural writers. In Persia and other Eastern countries
the plant is still used for horses. Throughout the American
continent it is known by the Spanish name of Alfalfa.
Wet summers diminish the culture of Lucerne in
England, but dry seasons always restore it to favour, although
SUNDRY AGRICULTURAL PLANTS 89
English farmers have never appreciated its merits to the same
extent as their Continental brethren. In part, no doubt, this
is owing to climate, and in part to soil. Lucerne is essentially
a plant for dry climates and dry soils. Cold, dry air has no ill
effect upon it ; but moisture, with or without heat, is directly
prejudicial. Its duration depends more on the subsoil than
the surface ; indeed, the nature of the surface is of small
moment so long as the subsoil is calcareous. In some parts of
the Continent Lucerne remains as good a crop twenty-five
years after sowing as in the third year of its existence, but in
this country five years is the usual term, and seven years may
be considered the fair limit of its vigorous life, even on suitable
land. It is interesting to note the diverse surface soils on
which Lucerne thrives, but investigation will always prove
that whatever the nature of the surface may be there is
a substantial agreement in the subsoils where this plant
flourishes. The distance to which the tap-roots penetrate is
almost incredible. In the first season they will often go
down two feet or more. I have been told of one instance
where a Lucerne root was traced unbroken to a depth of
sixteen feet.
But for its unsightliness Lucerne would be more fre-
quently sown for permanent pastures than it is, a practice
advocated by the late Sir J. B. Lawes. The plant develops
so rapidly that it stands far above the surrounding herbage,
and imparts a broken and irregular appearance to the meadow.
Still, it must be conceded that a certain proportion of Lucerne
is desirable in every prescription of seeds intended for the
formation of a permanent pasture where the soil or subsoil is
calcareous.
In many localities Lucerne cannot be cultivated suc-
cessfully, and to attempt to grow it on impervious clay, or
on any cold adhesive land, will only be waging a fruitless
war against Nature. Warm and calcareous soils are highly
favourable, and a sheltered field, sloping to the south, will
90 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
suit it to perfection, provided always that lime can be reached,
for this the plant must have. Sometimes there is a strong
desire to grow Lucerne on soil deficient in lime. To meet
the case a heavy dressing of marl is applied six months
before sowing ; but the process is costly, and at best the
effects are temporary, because it is impossible to bury the
marl deep enough to feed the roots after they have pierced
the surface soil. The richer the soil the earlier will Lucerne
come to full development, and land should be chosen in
which the roots will be able to strike down without undue
resistance.
The principal point in the culture of Lucerne is to secure
a thoroughly clean seed-bed. Weeds soon ruin the plant, and
therefore farmyard or stable manure, although good in itself,
is dangerous from the seeds it may contain. Ash of all kinds
is beneficial, and, of course, artificial manure can be freely
resorted to. Three hundredweight of superphosphate per acre
is a good dressing. The best preparation is a crop of potatoes.
As a rule, April is the time for sowing, and the seed must not
be deeply buried. In England Lucerne is almost always sown
alone, while on the Continent a thin seeding of corn is often
put in with it. 1
When well established the herbage must on no account
be allowed to grow old before being cut ; in fact, the plant
should not be permitted to flower.
Lucerne is rarely made into hay, as the leaves are lost
during the drying, and the process is exceedingly wasteful.
The most convenient and profitable way of growing it is to
sow a patch near the homestead, so that the daily portion
when cut has only to be carried a short distance to the stables.
The plant is peculiarly rich in albumen, and is even more
1 My friend the late Mr. Clare Sewell Read told me that he had been most
successful in obtaining a plant of Lucerne by sowing it in wheat, while he had never
succeeded with it in barley, and seldom when sown alone. He attributed the failure
among barley to the closer sowing of this corn as compared with wheat ; and the failure
when sown alone to the plant being smothered by annual weeds.
SUNDRY AGRICULTURAL PLANTS 91
nutritious than Red Clover. When given alone, especially if
cut very young, there is a possibility that cattle fed upon it
may become blown, but when chaffed with good oat or barley
straw Lucerne is a wholesome and valuable food. Several
cuts are obtained in a year, making altogether an immense
weight of keep. It is not worth while to sow seed unless the
crop can be allowed to stand for at least three years.
Between 1893 and 1906 the area of Lucerne in England
expanded from 17,617 acres to 55,405 acres, the increase
amounting to 37,788 acres — a sufficient proof that the merits
of Lucerne are becoming more generally appreciated, especially
in seasons of drought.
ONOBRYCHIS SATIVA
{Sainfoin).
Sainfoin has been cultivated in this country for over two
hundred years. It is essentially a food for sheep, which in
pasturing the plant do it no injury. Sainfoin is also useful for
horses, but produces nothing like the quantity of green food
that can be obtained from Lucerne.
In Norfolk and some other of the Eastern counties,
Sainfoin takes the place of Red Clover, and is rarely allowed
to remain down more than two years, generally only one.
Against this practice nothing can be urged, for it is probably
the best possible preparation for wheat. But the method
adopted in Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Wiltshire, and Hampshire,
of putting down Sainfoin alone for four or five years, has
grave disadvantages. Gradually the Sainfoin plant diminishes,
and every form of worthless vegetation increases, until the
land becomes exceedingly foul. Instead of sowing Sainfoin
alone, to remain down more than two years, the seed may
with advantage form one of the constituents in a mixture of
grasses and clovers for three or four years' ley. The sowing
92 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
of Sainfoin alone is expensive, and more or less precarious.
When combined with strong-growing grasses there is less risk
of failure, and the grasses keep down weeds and prevent the
growth of couch and other pests which almost invariably over-
run a pure Sainfoin ley after the first two years.
In the green state Sainfoin is quite free from the danger
of blowing cattle, and when made into hay it is an admirable
and nutritious food. But the making of Sainfoin hay is rather
a difficult business, particularly in catching weather. Like
Trifolium, the plant has a hollow stem, which when cut is
more quickly deteriorated by wet than any of the clovers.
There are two varieties, the common, and the giant or
double cut, the latter being the earlier and more rapid-growing
of the two, but decidedly less durable.
PETROSELINUM SATIVUM, or CARUM PETROSELINUM
(Sheep's Parsley).
This plant is frequently included in mixtures of grasses
for uplands and sheep downs. Sheep manifest a great fond-
ness for the herbage, which has been said to be a preventive of
rot and red-water in that animal. Hares will visit gardens for
the sake of the Parsley grown in them, and where this game is
abundant it may be worth while to sow patches in the covers.
The seed germinates so slowly that six or seven weeks may
elapse before a plant is visible.
POTERIUM SANGUISORBA
(Burnet).
Burnet is a perennial, and a native of Britain. When
sown alone the coarse unpalatable herbage is declined by all
kinds of stock unless pressed by hunger, but it is eaten when
SUNDRY AGRICULTURAL PLANTS 93
associated with more tempting herbage. Seed is sometimes
sown with grasses on poor chalky soils, where in dry summers
sheep graze the closely cropped pastures. In mixtures of
seeds for rabbit-warrens, Burnet may be employed with advan-
tage, and it is occasionally used in limited proportion for
pastures on light sandy soils.
94 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
Sowing Grass Seeds
The actual work of sowing grasses is simplicity itself, but as
the germination of the seed and the equal distribution of
the plant depend on the accuracy of the process, the details
should be carried out with due regard to the serious loss which
carelessness entails. The necessity for making the seed-bed
fine and firm has already been enforced. At sowing time
the soil should be dry enough to allow the implements to
work freely without any tendency to gather clods on the
roller. Waiting for suitable weather may tax the patience
severely, but it is worse than useless to enter into a conflict
with Nature. All such conflicts inevitably end in the defeat
of man.
The first operation is to run the harrow over the land
to prepare it for the seed, which may be sown either by
hand or by means of the seed-barrow. Some men are very
skilful in spreading seeds equally, and on a still day their
work may be successful. But grass seeds are light, and
a gentle breeze is sufficient to make the sowing irregular.
As the barrow delivers the seed nearer to the ground, it will,
as a rule, distribute the grasses more evenly than the most
practised sower by hand. But whichever method is adopted,
there is a decided advantage in making two sowings. Half
the quantity should be sown by passing up and down the
land, and the other half by crossing the first sowing at right
angles.
A bush-harrow is the best implement for covering the
seeds, but a light iron harrow will answer, and the lighter it is
SOWING GRASS SEEDS 95
the better. The object to be secured is that as many seeds as
possible shall be thinly covered with soil. Grass seeds will
germinate and become established when they are merely
pressed upon the surface of the earth, provided they are not
consumed by birds or scorched under a hot sun. But many
seeds will fail to germinate at a greater depth than half an inch.
Hence the necessity of a fine soil and shallow sowing.
The roller must promptly follow the harrow, and it makes
a better and more certain finish to go over the ground twice
in different directions with a roller of moderate weight than to
accomplish the task at one stroke with a heavier implement.
The importance of this part of the work will be made apparent
if any spots are missed by the roller, for on those spots no grass
will appear.
A good plant may often be obtained by rolling with the
Cambridge or ring roller. Then sow the seed, and after-
wards cross the land once or twice with the ordinary smooth
roller.
Sowing grass seeds by the seed-drill is a modern practice,
and for light sandy soils, especially in a dry spring, it has
decided advantages. Under favourable conditions drilled seeds
germinate freely, and endure summer drought when surface-
sown seeds become malted. The covered drills afford pro-
tection from direct sunshine, the seeds have more certain
access to moisture, and on corn that has grown too high in
spring to render broadcasting a safe procedure the drill
may often be available. In any case the coulters should
be carefully adjusted for shallow sowing, and must be set as
closely as possible. Sowing at two operations should also
be regarded as a necessity. The harrow will not be requisite
after drilling, but the importance of rolling firmly down is
of even greater consequence than when seeds are got in by the
hand or seed-barrow.
Hard and fast rules cannot be laid down as to the time
for sowing. In a great measure it depends on the weather,
96 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
and perhaps the easiest way of arriving at a conclusion will be
to consider separately the relative merits of spring and autumn
sowing.
Spring Sowing. — The term 'spring sowing' is here in-
tended to apply to the months of March, April, and May,
and as a rule it is better to sow early than late. In the early
spring the soil is generally moist enough to keep the plants
growing after they have made a start. But as the season
advances the state of the ground becomes increasingly critical
in this respect, and there is the risk that it may become too dry
to maintain the grasses until the next rainfall. Then follows
the extreme mortification of seeing a promising plant gradually
wither away.
April is properly regarded as a safe and favourable
month in which to sow, but if the seed-bed is ready and the
land in working order by the middle of March, there need be
no scruple as to putting in the seed. And should there
happen to be signs of approaching rain, it is worth any
reasonable effort to get the sowing done and the land rolled
down before a change of weather can stop the work. It is
an advantage to sow before rather than immediately after a
shower, even supposing the land can be worked soon after
rainfall, which may or may not be the case. The seeds
gradually absorb moisture from soil and dew until rain comes,
and then the plants rapidly spring up.
To sow later than the end of May is most hazardous.
Even the middle of May will often be too late, especially
on heavy soils, which in a dry season are also liable to crack,
to the injury of the grasses.
Now comes the question as to sowing alone or upon a
corn crop. This depends on the object in view, as well as on
the length of the purse. Apart from the money considera-
tion, each method has its advocates, and undoubtedly there
are sound reasons to be urged in favour of either practice.
SOWING GRASS SEEDS 97
When a first-class pasture or an ornamental park sward
is wanted as quickly as possible, and the cost is of no
importance, the sowing of grass and clover seeds without
corn will, in the majority of seasons, produce the most
satisfactory pasture in the shortest time. Opportunity is thus
afforded for early and frequent mowing, which tends to
strengthen the young grass. A still more valuable service
is rendered by the scythe in preventing weeds from seeding,
and these are certain to be troublesome enough under the
most favourable conditions. On the other hand, in an
extremely dry summer, the shelter of a light corn crop will
prove of great value to the young grass plant. It may even
result in an actual gain of time. Without its aid there is a
possibility that the grasses may stand still or completely fail for
want of moisture. An established pasture when burned brown
by the sun speedily recovers its verdure after rain, but young
grasses cannot endure so fiery an ordeal.
The assistance rendered in checking weeds is another
benefit derived from a corn crop. To appreciate its value,
compare one of the finer grasses with some weed growing
near, and it will at once be apparent that the delicate stripling
has no chance of resisting its masterful neighbour. The
annual weeds will die out by-and-by, but in the meantime
almost every one of them will destroy some grass plants. It
follows that the more abundant the weeds the thinner will
be the pasture, and until the grasses tiller out and cover the
ground the crop will be proportionately small. Unfortunately,
both drought and weeds prove more injurious to the smaller
than to the coarser grasses. The fact that corn assists in
the battle against both foes is quite sufficient to account for
the very general practice of sowing permanent grass seeds
with a corn crop.
On the pecuniary value of the corn it is needless to
dwell. The point is too important to escape attention, and,
as a rule, this consideration is alone sufficient to determine
H
98 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
the question in favour of corn. Of course a corn crop will
levy the usual tax upon the land, and it should be clearly-
understood that the grasses are not to sustain the loss. A
liberal top-dressing of cake-fed manure must be applied after
the com is cut, to compensate the grass for what the corn has
absorbed.
One point is of utmost consequence if corn is not to
injure the coming pasture, and this is the necessity of a very
light seeding of corn. A heavy crop is harmful in itself, and
involves further danger when it becomes laid. On the spots
where a heavy crop is lodged the grass will probably be
killed outright, and the slight additional gain derived from
a full seeding of corn will be more than counterbalanced by
losses in the grass plant, to say nothing of the labour of
patching it afterwards.
The time for sowing grass seeds with spring corn will be
either immediately after the corn is got in, or when it is only
two or three inches high. It is well understood that the less
forward the cereal, the better the chance for the grass.
On heavy, and especially on rich land, the choice of corn
is open. It may be either barley, oats, or wheat, and wheat is
always desirable for the grass. l For lighter soils barley or oats
are available, and oats are preferable to barley.
Under certain conditions it answers well to cut the oats
green, and turn the crop into hay or silage. This method of
treating the herbage helps to keep down weeds quite as much
as when the oats are allowed to mature, and it takes far less
out of the land. 2
1 I have been most successful from an April sowing on a thin plant of wheat, and
the late Mr. Clare Sewell Read said : ' I never find any difficulty in obtaining a plant
from seeds, even in May, when sown with wheat, for then the ground is firm and the
surface soil very fine. Often when the seeds fail in barley, the headlands round by
the gates have a good plant, because there is fine mould on the surface and a solid
bottom.'
2 A well-known Scotch agriculturist states that he ' considers the best method
of sowing to be with about two bushels of oats, to be cut green before there is any
kernel. There is a large crop of useful fodder, the small seeds have beneficial protection
while they require it, annual weeds are lcept down, and the grasses get relief by the
SOWING GRASS SEEDS 99
Occasionally a field in autumn wheat is wanted for a per-
manent pasture, and there is no difficulty if the land be clean
enough, and the grass seeds can be sown before the wheat is
too high. In favourable weather the seeds may be put in even
as early as the middle of February, as the corn will defend
the young grass from injury by frost. Should the wheat
be very backward, however, or stand thin on the ground,
the sowing had better be deferred for a time. In the event of
the land being at all foul, hand-hoeing must be resorted to,
and this will open the ground for the grass seeds. The
necessary harrowing and rolling will be beneficial to the
wheat plant.
Sowing with Rape. — Notwithstanding all that has
been said in favour of sowing Rape with grass seeds, I cannot
recommend the practice. Instances can doubtless be cited
where no injury has resulted. But the great objection
remains that Rape necessitates feeding off the crop by sheep,
and, when the Rape is ready, the grasses rarely have sufficient
hold of the ground to bear grazing with impunity. The
animals eat the hearts out of some plants, pull up many more^
and altogether do a lot of harm to a young pasture.
Autumn Sowing. — Many writers have vexed their souls
concerning the relative merits of spring and autumn sowing,
without getting nearer to a solution of the problem. It
cannot be solved at all by generalities, although the attempt
has often been made. For practical ends it may be disposed
of here by accepting necessity as a guide, and then perhaps
there need be little or no controversy about it. The decision
largely depends on the possibility of working heavy land in
a wet spring. Sometimes autumn sowing is resorted to when
early cutting at the stage most suitable for them to have full possession of the soil.'
lie adds : ' I have sown down one hundred and sixteen acres in this way. The same
grasses, sown at the same time, and sometimes on parts of the same field, hut with the
oats allowed to ripen, have proved decidedly inferior.'
h 2
100 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
a hot dry summer has scorched the life out of a spring plant.
This is one of the many misfortunes to which the agriculturist
is liable, but it does not touch the point now under considera-
tion.
Were all the land of the United Kingdom light, probably
the question would never have arisen. There would have been
a general consensus of opinion in favour of spring sowing. It
is the extreme difficulty of making heavy land ready for grass
seeds before the spring is too far advanced which renders the
state of the weather of so much more importance when sowing
grasses than when sowing any other seed. Sometimes it is
absolutely impossible to thoroughly pulverise a tenacious soil
until May is far gone, and then it is very risky indeed to put
in grass seeds. Thus an autumn sowing becomes imperative.
Having reached this conclusion, it is satisfactory to remember
that in addition to the chance it affords of making a thoroughly
sound seed-bed, the temperature of the land in autumn is
highly favourable to the germination of grass seeds, particu-
larly in the North of England. Further benefit is to be
derived from the clearing of successive crops of annual weeds,
most of which would have appeared among the grasses of an
earlier sowing.
The danger of an autumn sowing mainly concerns the
clovers. Young grasses, especially of the stronger varieties,
will stand much winter cold with impunity. Not so the
clovers, although when established they also will endure
severe weather unharmed. But while young, a wet cold
winter will almost certainly make an end of them. A
retentive soil will foster a magnificent pasture containing
plenty of clovers when once the plants are matured, and
yet on such soils it will frequently prove most difficult to
obtain clovers from a sowing of seed in autumn.
As to the best month for autumn sowing, it must not be
forgotten that grass seeds are peculiarly liable to be ' malted '
under a burning sun when the ground is not moist enough to
SOWING GRASS SEEDS 101
keep the plants going. A shower on a dry soil, followed
by scorching sunshine, is quite sufficient to destroy the
germs, and many failures of autumn- as well as of spring-
sown seeds are attributable to this cause alone. Even when
the failure is not total, it is a serious matter if the finer
grasses are killed and only the coarser varieties survive. After
the stronger varieties have had a six months' start it is very
difficult to establish the finer grasses. As a consequence the
pasture may always be inferior in quality.
Supposing, however, that the soil is not too dry, and is
otherwise in good condition, sowing in August is to be
commended, and the earlier the better. The plants will
then have a chance of becoming fairly strong before winter
sets in. The first week in September is, in most seasons,
the latest date at which a permanent pasture can be laid
down with any reasonable hope of a satisfactory result, except
in the extreme South.
I have formed a good grass layer by sowing in autumn
with winter oats, and the grass came so forward as to be fit to
carry stock in September of the succeeding year.
Every field sown in autumn should undergo a searching
examination in the following spring. If it is evident that the
clovers and finer grasses have failed, more seed of the missing
sorts should be sown before the grasses become too strong.
There need be no anxiety as to the effects of spring frosts, for
the grasses will afford the young clovers friendly and effectual
shelter.
102 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
The
Immedia te A fter-Mana gement
of New Pastures
A spring sowing of grasses is made at a time when atmospheric
changes are sudden and severe, and grass seeds are not so well
constituted for resisting these violent changes as corn and other
heavy seeds. Besides, the spring is never so dry and cold as to
prevent the growth of weeds, nor is the May sun hot enough
to kill them ; but after sowing, a long spell of unfavourable
weather will seriously retard the grasses. Meanwhile the
ground may be covered with chickweed, groundsel, 1 and other
weeds. As these extend, the chances of the grasses dimmish,
until at length it is possible that only a few spots will be found
on which they show sufficiently to prove that there would have
been a crop had circumstances been favourable. In a back-
ward spring early sowing increases the danger of the grasses
being smothered by weeds.
But if early sowing has its perils, late sowing is not free
from them. From the former arises the possibility that the
young grasses will be injured by weeds, and from the latter
that before the grasses are sufficiently established to endure
great heat, they may be scorched beyond recovery by fierce
sunshine. Or the soil may be so dry that the germination of
the seed is dependent on rain, and if only a brief shower falls,
the seeds will start. Then, should there come the dry blast of
an east wind, or burning drought, every seedling will perish.
1 Groundsel will actually flower when the thermometer stands near the freezing-
point. Humboldt observed the plant growing in the upper reaches of the Andes, just
below the region of eternal snow, where the sun has little power and where hurricanes
are incessant.
IMMEDIATE AFTER-MANAGEMENT OF NEW PASTURES 103
I am not conjuring up difficulties for the sake of saying
* There is a lion in the way,' but rather to show that for
so important and costly an undertaking as laying down land
to grass there is absolute necessity for insisting on the
cleanest possible seed-bed. Even when the farmer has done
his utmost to clean the land, plenty of weeds will spring up.
It is then a question of precedence. If the grasses come
quickly, the annual weeds do little harm when promptly
checked, but if the weeds obtain a strong lead, the injury to
the grasses may prove serious, perhaps entirely destructive.
Happily, the majority of seasons favour the sower, but that
does not relieve him from the necessity of taking every reason-
able precaution to ensure success under what may prove to be
very adverse influences. Possibilities must be considered, and
by being forearmed the probability of success will be enhanced.
In the immediate after-management of newly-sown grass
the advantages of dispensing with a corn crop can be fully
realised. It is impossible to render active assistance to
grasses sown in corn until the crop is cut and carried ; but
when grass is sown alone the plant can be mown with a sharp
scythe as soon as it is a few inches high, and the benefit will
speedily be visible. After mowing, the roller should be put
over the land again, which will help still further to consoli-
date it, and to give the young plants a firm grip of the soil.
The more frequently the pasture is mown and rolled during
summer, the more rapidly will the ground be clothed with
verdure. By August or September, in a favourable season,
the grass may be allowed to grow on to produce a small latter-
math hay crop, after which it will carry horned stock, eating
cake, through the autumn. The young crop should never
be allowed to grow unchecked until winter sets in, as the
herbage has a tendency to rust and rot away.
Although constant mowing will get rid of groundsel and
other annual weeds, it will be powerless against such pests as
docks and coltsfoot. These can only be removed by a spud or
104 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
narrow hand-hoe, and for the sake of the future of the pasture
it is well worth while to give these strong-growing weeds
early and persistent attention. Thistles can be eradicated
by repeatedly chopping them off near to the ground with
an old scythe until they bleed to death.
Should it be found by the middle of May that the grass has
failed, no time must be lost in shallow-ploughing or cultivating
the land, breaking it down again into fine tilth, and re-sowing.
Supposing, however, that the seed has taken over the main area,
leaving some bare spots, these must have their crust broken
with a hoe, followed by a heavy rake, and be re-sown, raked over,
and again rolled down. When the plots which have missed
plant are too large for hand work, the harrow can be employed
instead of the hoe and rake. It will never do to assume that
the crop is all right. Rather assume that it is not perfect until
examination has shown the contrary.
Grasses and clovers sown with corn should not be allowed
to suffer injury from thistles and other coarse weeds. The
destruction of these pests is necessary for the corn, and is
imperative for the success of the grasses. Immediately the
corn is off the ground the whole field should be carefully
examined to ascertain whether there is a plant or not. After
a wet harvest there will be no difficulty in deciding promptly.
But in a dry season I do not advocate a hasty judgment.
The dry stubble, the parched ground, and the brown herbage
all help to mislead. A few hours of warm soaking rain may
put a new complexion on an old face in so brief a time as
to produce an almost magical effect, and therefore it is not
wise to be in too great a hurry to pronounce upon success
or failure. I know more than one instance where a spring
sowing of permanent grasses was followed by a dry summer,
and when the corn was cut no plant at all was visible.
A top-dressing of four hundredweight per acre of bones and
superphosphate was applied, with such good effect that in the
following summer a heavy crop of hay was cut.
IMMEDIATE AFTER-MANAGEMENT OF NEW PASTURES 105
If the plant is evidently all right, there can be no doubt
that it will abundantly pay to give a top-dressing of farmyard
manure, or some good artificial, to help the young grass into
vigorous growth. Bare spots caused by the laying of the corn
or from any other agency must be lightly broken, sown, and
rolled down again. It will be quite necessary to look these
patches over in the following spring to see that they have passed
safely through the winter, otherwise they must be sown once
more.
Should the failure be total, it will generally be impossible
to smash a hard stubble, and get it clean, fine, and firm by the
first or second week of September ; and therefore it is usual to
defer re-sowing until the following spring. On two or three
occasions I have risked sowing grass seeds on an unbroken
stubble, after the manner common with Trifolium. In each
case the stubble was unusually clean, and directly the corn
was carried, a heavy drag was put over the land and the
seed was bushed in. The success was very marked indeed,
but I do not feel justified in drawing large inferences from
a few experiments of this kind.
A pasture sown with corn will not, after the corn is cut,
be in the same condition for grazing as when grasses are
sown alone. In the latter case the care and attention that
can be devoted to the plant through the summer make all
the difference. After a showery season horned stock can
sometimes be turned on to a stubble containing young grass
without inflicting serious injury. But if there are occasional
instances of this kind there can be no doubt about the folly of
permitting sheep to graze it. Sheep bite extremely close,
and with a snatching movement which uproots an immense
number of the young plants that have not sufficient hold to
bear the strain. Another fact is worth consideration. Both
cattle and sheep, if allowed to graze too soon, are apt to
pick out certain grasses and clovers for which they have a
partiality, leaving others to seed or to develop into ugly tufts.
106 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
Whenever this happens it is wise to let a man go over the
ground two or three times, and cut these tufts down. The
new growth will afterwards be eaten close.
It is unquestionably sound practice to mow a permanent
pasture the first year after sowing, and on some soils it may
be advisable to mow in the second year also. The loss to the
land must, of course, be restored, either by a liberal dressing
of farmyard manure, in autumn, or by artificials rich in
phosphates and potash, applied in spring.
In the early management of autumn-sown grasses, the
object to be kept constantly in view is the promotion of free
growth before winter sets in. Topping the young grass with
the scythe and rolling will prove advantageous to the plants
in helping them to cover the ground and become firmly
rooted. Immediately the growth begins in spring mow once
more, and a final rolling is also essential. After an autumn
sowing it is especially necessary to cut the hay crop very
early. When it is carried, cattle may be turned in to graze,
but sheep had better be kept off until the following year.
Several of the finer grasses, if permitted to seed while
young, are so weakened that they die, and on some soils
they appear to perish more readily than on others. This
does not show that such grasses should be excluded from a
prescription for a permanent pasture, as some writers affirm.
It would be just as reasonable to say that because certain
varieties which revel in a dry soil disappear after a succession
of wet summers, therefore they ought to be omitted. A
pasture is laid down that it may yield nutritious herbage, not
that seed may be saved from it. Grasses which require three
or four years to attain maturity— and there are varieties which
do not reach their highest vigour in less time — must of
necessity be weakened or destroyed by producing seed in the
first or second year after sowing, just as animals are per-
manently stunted by allowing them to reproduce their species
at too early an age.
IMMEDIATE AFTER-MANAGEMENT OF NEW PASTURES 107
The opinion is widely entertained that the critical period
of a pasture is the third or fourth year after it has been sown.
But if a pasture begins to tail about that time, it is probably
attributable to mismanagement and starvation. No farmer
supposes for a moment that he can for several years in suc-
cession take heavy crops off arable land and put nothing on
it. Yet this is a very common delusion concerning grass land.
And I say most emphatically, that the man who thinks it
reasonable to treat either a new or an old pasture on that
principle deserves to find it deteriorate in quantity and in
quality also. Liberties of this kind are sometimes taken with
a rich old pasture, and the injury may not at once be
apparent ; but it is most unreasonable to expect that a young
pasture will become established under the starving system and
at the same time yield heavy crops.
One cause of the early deterioration of some new pastures
is no doubt traceable to grave faults in the prescription of the
grasses sown. Too many farmers are content if they can only
see ' something green,' without bestowing a thought as to
whether the ' something ' is good or bad. So long as men will
only pay about half the value of a first-class prescription of per-
manent grasses and clovers, I suppose dealers will be found who
are prepared to supply so-called permanent mixtures, consisting
mainly of annual varieties of Rye Grass, Yorkshire Fog, Tussock
Grass, and other cheap seeds utterly unsuitable for the purpose.
In a subsequent chapter reference is made to feeding an
old pasture by supplying the animals upon it with cake, and
there is no better means of enriching the land. But if the
plant cannot be safely fed off until about eighteen months
after sowing, obviously some other means of stimulating the
pasture must be adopted, and this is why I strongly advise a
top-dressing of farmyard manure after corn is carried, or an
application of artificial manure in spring.
The Rothamsted and my own experiments at Kidmore
have demonstrated a fact which I am anxious to emphasise.
108 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
After every care has been exercised in selecting suitable
grasses and clovers, and a plant has been established, the
herbage of any piece of grass will eventually depend on the
after-management. If a field which has been judiciously sown
be divided into several portions, and each portion is subjected
to distinct and continuous treatment for successive years, a
decided difference in the herbage of the several parts will
become manifest. Certain manures encourage the growth of
certain grasses, and indirectly effect the destruction of those
species which are not benefited, by enabling stronger neigh-
bours to choke them. Only those who have carefully observed
the results obtained in the late Sir J. B. Lawes's experimental
grass plots will adequately realise the importance of applying
suitable manures, not merely for the purpose of augmenting
the crop, but as a means of maintaining or destroying some of
the grasses.
Manuring is not the only way of effecting changes in
the character of a plant of grass. Some varieties are specially
adapted for grazing, others for making into hay. A fine old
pasture which has been fed for many years will often yield a
miserable crop of hay, and may be utterly ruined by being
mown for several consecutive seasons. Conversely, a meadow
which has been mown for years and kept in condition by
annual top-dressings may prove altogether unsatisfactory as a
pasture. Grazing gives all varieties of grasses, except a few
which will not bear treading, a full chance of existence ; while
haying fosters the growth of those grasses which come to
maturity at a particular period of the year. Some of the most
valuable pasture grasses are often entirely absent from good
old meadow land. It is therefore desirable as far as possible
to reserve meadow land exclusively for mowing, and pasture
land for grazing.
On the following page is a statement showing the weights
of hay obtained from a young pasture under different manures
in successive seasons.
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110 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
The
Management and Improvement
of Old Grass Land
In 1872 there appeared in the Royal Agricultural Society's
Journal an account by Mr. R. H. Thompson of a personal
inspection of the grass lands of England and Ireland. His
laborious journey included visits to the most famous grazing
districts, and it was undertaken when farmers were at the
height of then* prosperity. The following are his conclu-
sions : —
' 1st. That although very excellent management is to be
met with in parts of our best grazing districts in
Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Gloucestershire,
Somersetshire, and several other counties, this
must be considered quite exceptional, and the
treatment of the bulk of the grass lands of the
country is very unsatisfactory.
' 2nd. That our grass lands, if properly managed, would
be easily able to meet the demand made upon
them for an increased production of meat, even it
the supply required were greatly in excess of the
present rate of consumption.
• 3rd. That money judiciously laid out in improving
grass land makes a better return than money laid
out on arable land.'
These remarkable statements are as worthy of profound
attention from those who possess old pastures, as from those
THE MANAGEMENT OF OLD GRASS LAND 111
who contemplate laying away arable land to grass. Unfortu-
nately, the grass lands of this country are now in very little
better condition than they were at the time Mr. Thompson
wrote. There is not the least exaggeration in saying that
thousands of low-lying meadows and upland pastures are not
yielding half the produce which could be obtained from the
land were it in better heart. These pastures grow inferior hay
and little of it, the production of milk is restricted, and the
capacity for fattening stock is diminished. The result is an
enormous national loss, and the truth must be told that this
loss is almost entirely avoidable. The prime cause is negli-
gence, begotten of the mistaken notion that a pasture is
self-supporting. There is a very general assumption that the
owners and occupiers of grass lands are not only relieved from
the anxiety and expense of arable tillage, but that they are
under little or no obligation to make any return to the soil for
all that may be taken from it in the form of hay, milk, or
meat. I propose to specify some of the influences which have
reduced many English pastures to their present unsatisfactory
state, and to suggest means of restoring them to fertility.
One of the principal causes is the practice of taking hay
crops for several successive years without giving any adequate
return in manure. The necessity for treating arable land
liberally is never disputed for a moment. Yet the arable land
has the advantage of being constantly broken up and enriched
by rain, air, and other of Nature's fertilising agencies ; while a
pasture is, by its fixed condition, debarred from the benefit of
all cultural operations, except the use of the harrow and roller.
If properly drained, grass land can generally be maintained in
the full tide of fertility by judicious manuring alone ; but this
is often negligently or wilfully withheld.
The prevalent idea that continuous haymaking is inimical
to the welfare of a meadow is entirely illusory, and probably
arises from the failure to give any return to the land for the
crops taken from it. Of course the hayrick can be made the
112
PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
instrument of impoverishing grass land more quickly than can
overstocking ; still, it is not so much the cutting of a meadow
which is injurious, but withholding the top-dressing of manure
or compost which all mown grass should annually receive.
Again, immense damage is done to some meadows by
cutting the crops for hay very late in the season. Many of
the grasses have time to form and ripen their seeds, and
nothing exhausts plants so much. Some of the finer grasses
cannot safely be taxed in this way. They may endure the
ordeal once or twice, but if the drain on their resources is
frequently repeated they gradually dwindle away. So long as
these grasses are mown early, or grazed, they are perfectly
perennial, as is conclusively proved by their continued exist-
ence in some of the finest old pastures of the kingdom where
they have never been allowed to seed. To manage any
pasture or meadow in such a way as to exterminate some of its
most valuable and nutritious grasses is surely killing the goose
that lays the golden egg. And this is exactly what is done by
constant greed for the rick. Of course an early crop means
a smaller bulk of hay, but unless the turf is exceptional in
character the quality is higher than from a later cutting, 1 and
1 In the Journal of the Bath and West and Southern Counties Society for 1890-91,
page 375, it was suggested by the editor that I should undertake a series of experi-
ments with the object of determining ' the value of aftermath, according to the period
of the first cutting ; also to determine the relative food-producing powers of a meadow
when various times of cutting were resorted to.' I gladly assented to the suggestion,
and my friend Dr. Voelcker, the Consulting Chemist to the Society, was kind enough
to undertake the chemical part of the experiment. The results were published in
the Society's Journal, Vol. II., Fourth Series, from which I have extracted the
following comparative table of five plots in the same field, having the same aspect, soil,
and other conditions calculated to ensure uniformity of growth : —
Analyses op Grass eeom the Plots — First Cutting. In Dried (at 212" F.) State.
Date of
Soluble
Insoluble
Digestible
Indigestible
Soluble
Carbo-
hydrates, &C.
Mineral
Matter
Silica
Cutting
Albuminoids
Albuminoids
Fibre
3112
Fibre
(excluding
Silica)
No. 1
June 3
3-41
7-82
26-67
23-43
5-75
1-80
„ 2
„ 17
2-28
6-67
3261
30-87
20-93
502
1-62
„ 3
July 2
1-46
6-92
3214
31-70
20-41
5-51
1-86
„ 4
„ 15
1-81
698
27-35
31-10
24-78
5-69
2-29
» 5
„ 29
3-44
5-67
28-88
30-47
24-33
5-10
2-11
THE MANAGEMENT OF OLD GRASS LAND 113
the loss of bulk in the first instance results in a net gain, for
the aftermath will be the greater, and the pasture will not be
damaged for future seasons. Where grasses perish, the gaps
are almost certain to be filled by worthless or noxious forms of
vegetation, and thus the herbage diminishes in value so long
as a false system of management is pursued.
Another source of injury to pastures arises from the
manner in which grazing is conducted. It should not be
necessary to repeat so trite a remark as that land is never
enriched by the droppings of cattle fed exclusively upon its
herbage, but, on the contrary, must by degrees become the
poorer for supporting the lives and increasing the weight of
the animals which graze upon it. In milk and flesh the land
yields its produce in highly concentrated forms, and without
external aid the process of exhaustion must of necessity go on.
But when the herbage consumed is supplemented with cake,
corn, roots, hay, or other extraneous food, benefit is conferred
on the pasture in addition to the advantage which the animals
derive from it. The improvement will, of course, be gradual,
and its progress be regulated by the quantity and the quality
of the additional food supplied. In this extra feeding of
grazing animals there is a simple and economical means of
enriching a poor pasture, and the increased weight of the
stock is an immediate if only a partial return of the outlay.
Agricultural chemists tell us, and their analyses are supported
by experience, that animals only assimilate one-tenth of the
nutritious qualities of cake or other highly concentrated
feeding stuffs, and that the remaining nine-tenths, after
passing through the cattle, are available for vegetation, in
a form specially adapted to meet the requirements of plant
fife. This explains the marked improvement which is always
observable when grass is depastured by cake-fed cattle — an
improvement superior to that effected by a dressing of
farmyard manure, because none of the valuable elements are
lost by fermentation. And this fact suggests the economical
114 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
aspect of the practice. The carting of heavy bulks of manure
is avoided, and the land at once has the benefit of the
droppings. When manure is stacked in heaps, or is allowed
to he in the farmyard, some of its most fertilising constituents
drain away or are dissipated in the atmosphere. It will also be
evident that to graze a pasture by day and fold on the arable
at night is a very ingenious device for ruining grass land.
Even when sheep are helped with cake, it is no sufficient
compensation for their absence during twelve out of the
twenty -four hours.
A further means of deteriorating grass land is the practice
of allowing pastures reserved especially for horned cattle to
be overstocked. When an ox-pasture is eaten down so bare as
to allow the roots of the more succulent grasses to become
scorched, it is a serious injury, not only for that year's feed,
but for subsequent seasons. In one instance, during a hot
summer I hoped by a liberal allowance of cake to make a
pasture carry more stock than the crop justified, and the result
was disastrous to the plant. On the other hand, an established
sheep-pasture cannot well be cropped too close to maintain
constant growth of the sweet fine herbage of which it should
consist.
Widespread indifference prevails as to the predominance
of such weeds as cowslips, primroses, orchids, daisies, and
plantains, although these plants frequently show that the soil is
in such a condition as to be incapable of maintaining nourish-
ing herbage. The mere presence of these weeds and of barley
and brome grasses is an evil in itself, and they indicate that
the land is starved, just as tussock grass, rushes, and sedges
prove the need of drainage. Thistles, docks, coltsfoot, and
other large weeds may also abound, and they cannot be
eradicated without the constant use of the scythe and spud.
In a foul pasture the weeds are generally so mixed up with
what good herbage there may be, that they can only be
improved out of existence as better grasses are induced to take
THE MANAGEMENT OF OLD GRASS LAND 115
their places. A heavy dressing of salt applied after weeds have
been cut will kill a lot of them, and an application of gas-lime
has been known to effect a surprising change in the herbage of
an inferior pasture. The folding of sheep thickly will also
produce marked benefit on poor upland grass if the animals
are at the same time fed with corn or cake. They should be
penned on the ground long enough to make it as brown as
a fallow, and then many weeds will be killed outright. This
practice differs very much in its effects from that of giving
sheep the run of the land. Whatever discourages the growth
of rough herbage encourages that which is better. It is equally
true that, however good a pasture may be, it has only to be
treated with a policy of masterly inactivity, and in time it will
revert to the waste condition of a moorland.
A succession of wet summers is another fruitful source of
injury to pastures. The bulk of herbage forced from them
during warm damp seasons tends greatly to their impoverish-
ment, and some of the grasses which are more especially
adapted for dry soils will probably perish. Well-drained land
naturally suffers least. Land not well drained becomes sour
and unwholesome, and only the sedges and coarse water-
grasses survive.
Hitherto nothing has been said about seed, and it may
be frankly admitted that with liberal management it is quite
possible to restore the fertility of some pastures without sowing
seed. But the remedy will take time, perhaps many years ;
and it is a penny-wise and pound-foolish procedure to
occupy a long period in making an improvement which might
be effected in a single season. The outlay beyond that
necessarily incurred in carrying out the improvements already
suggested is very trifling. In every case where the plant
stands thin on the ground it will pay to sow a few pounds of
the finer grasses and clovers per acre. I am acquainted with a
farmer who sows twenty pounds of grass seeds per acre every
autumn on an old pasture, because he has found by experience
i 2
116 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
that when he omits doing so there is the difference of a ton of
hay per acre in the cut of the following year. The seed may
be sown before the grass starts growth in February, or late in
August or the beginning of September. On damp land pre-
paration should be made by an application of salt to the most
weedy parts, and a severe dragging over the entire surface.
A well-mixed compost of lime, the contents of ditches, and
any other available rich material, should be distributed over
the whole meadow, and the seeds can be sown on any day
when the ground is dry enough to permit the roller to be used.
To ensure germination it is important that the bush or chain
harrow should precede the roller. The meadow should then
be laid in for hay, and after the crop is cut cattle may be
allowed to depasture the land, but sheep must not be admitted
until the following year. Upland pastures may be treated in a
similar manner.
For destroying moss there is no better dressing than two
cart-loads of lime mixed with eight cart-loads of light loam
per acre : pure lime is too powerful to be applied alone. The
heap should be turned several times until the lime is
thoroughly slaked and well incorporated with the loam.
After dragging the turf with heavy iron harrows, the com-
post should be evenly spread. There will soon be a marked
improvement, and a full return for the outlay.
The effect of dragging a pasture is not everywhere
appreciated at its full value. The mechanical action breaks
up the congested surface, allows the atmosphere to penetrate
to the roots, and thus promotes a free and healthy growth of
the plants. It also enables the grasses to absorb and derive
benefit from any fertilising agent or compost which may be
applied to the surface, instead of allowing part of the dressing
to be washed away by the first heavy rain.
117
Breaking up Old Grass Land
Some pastures are so unproductive and foul with weeds, that
in order to secure better crops the only satisfactory course is to
break them up, grow turnips or other roots for a year or two,
and then sow good permanent grasses and clovers. This is
always a serious proceeding ; but if, in addition to breaking
up the land, there be also the willingness to incur the cost
of paring and burning, I believe the operation may often be
worth undertaking, provided the soil is suitable.
A poor mountain pasture, however practicable it may be
to ameliorate its condition in other ways, must on no account
be destroyed. Paring and burning will almost certainly fail
to increase its productiveness, and it is well-nigh impossible to
form a sod on such land by artificial means. Nor will burning
answer with any light sandy soil. Unless clay is a principal
constituent, burning is to be avoided, for it will only do harm.
As a rule, peats and thin clays resting on chalk are benefited
by the process. The colour of the soil as a rule indicates
whether or not burning will be advantageous. A bronzy
black soil is fair evidence of the presence of protoxide of iron.
Where this chemical compound exists in quantity burning
will generally improve the soil, for the protoxide is injurious
to vegetation ; by the action of fire it becomes a peroxide,
which is beneficial to plant life.
An old and easy mode of discovering whether land will
benefit by burning is to place sods in a large iron pot or
kettle, closely covered, and place over a gentle fire. The
118 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
heat must not be sufficient to create a flame. Gradually the
sods will char away to ashes. If the land is suitable, the
ashes will be red and powdery, mixed with a few black
particles, and when put into water will make it more or less
muddy. In the proportion that the water holds the ashes in
suspension will the land be benefited by burning. If the land
is unsuitable, the ashes will be sandy, and instead of making
the water thick they will be precipitated to the bottom,
leaving the water almost clear. Supposing this experiment to
be in favour of the operation, even then only a small area
should be tried until there is conclusive evidence that the
proceeding would be advantageous.
There is no necessity to pare the soil deeper than three
or four inches, and instead of the spade or turfing iron, a
paring plough made for the purpose is to be preferred, especially
as it leaves the slice of soil on its edge, so that a drying wind
soon fits it for being gathered into heaps. To economise
labour, many small fires scattered over the field have been
advocated, and undoubtedly they save much carrying of the
turf and facilitate the spreading of the ashes. But small heaps
are very wasteful. It is almost impossible to prevent them
from flaring, and that is ruinous. Large dense masses, how-
ever, can be burned slowly and evenly, and at a comparatively
low temperature. This point is worth attention, for it makes
an enormous difference in the fertilising value of the ash.
The inorganic constituents of the soil are rendered soluble when
burned slowly, and become more insoluble when overburned.
The effect of burning is to get rid of all the organic
matter. But the mineral constituents — with the exception
of nitrogen — remain, and they are so transformed by fire as
to be easily assimilable by future crops.
The consumption of all the organic matter by fire is of
course a destructive process, and in itself involves a consider-
able loss, but the effect of fire upon the inorganic substances
goes far to neutralise this loss. The soil is rendered capable
o
BREAKING UP OLD GRASS LAND 119
of assimilating ammonia, nitrogen, and other plant foods more
rapidly than before. Fire reduces clay to a friable, disinte-
grated condition, when the staple readily absorbs fertilising
matter. The late Dr. Voelcker conclusively proved this to be
the case, and that the effect of heat is to transform some of the
mineral elements from an insoluble to a soluble state. For
instance, as the soil probably contains various compounds of
silicates and of lime, the lime becomes liberated by the heat,
and, under the high temperature, attacks the silicates, sets free
part of the potash from its insoluble compound, and converts
it into soluble plant food. This liberation of potash has
probably more to do with the success of burning than any
other result consequent upon it. Thus the action of fire
effects chemical and physical changes in the soil which are of
material advantage to the plant life which follows. Burning
has really very much the same effect, but in a more intense
degree, that liming has in sweetening the soil, and in setting
free quantities of inorganic matter which were previously in a
locked-up condition. 1 An admixture of lime with the ashes
greatly augments their value for clay soils.
Burning also destroys the noxious forms of vegetation, and
the land is freed from bots and grubs, and other destructive
larvse of insects.
It is usual to take at least one crop of roots immediately
after burning, and in such a case a mis-plant is rarely known.
The ashes absorb so much moisture from the atmosphere, and
give it up so slowly, that turnip seeds have plenty of time to
germinate, however great the heat. Even the fly is seldom
troublesome on newly-burned land.
1 The following is Sir JEL Davy's analysis of the ash of burnt turf : —
Parts
Carbonate of lime 80
Sulphate of lime, or gypsum ... . . .11
Charcoal .......... 9
Saline matter, principally sulphate of potash and muriate of magnesia . 3
Oxide of iron ............ 15
Insoluble earthy matter . . . ... 82
200
120 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
Temporary Pastures
Although a large proportion of the cultivated soil of the
United Kingdom is perfectly adapted for being laid away to
pasture, it is unquestionably true that certain soils do not
take kindly to permanent grasses. There are also cases where
absence of fences and want of funds to make them, the
cultural preparations and expense of the seeding, combine
to render the creation of a permanent pasture impracticable.
In relation to this subject I published a short paper some
years ago which had this question for its title : ' Is there no
Alternative ? ' As an answer I ventured strongly to press
upon the attention of agriculturists the necessity of adopting
the system of alternating grass with corn and roots as a
means of enabling them to work with less capital and of
reducing the labour bill by at least one-third. The late
Mr. Clare Sewell Read gave the sanction of his high authority
to this practice by publicly stating that he considered it to
be the only possible way of meeting modern conditions of
agriculture.
Several of the reasons why some land will not grow a
satisfactory permanent pasture are very ably stated by one of
the greatest French agricultural authorities, Monsieur H.
Joulie, in his essay on ' Permanent and Temporary Meadows
and Pastures,' for which the Socie'te des Agriculteurs de
Prance awarded him a gold medal. He says : ' At first the
grass plants find a soil suitably dressed with farmyard or other
manure, that is to say, containing all the elements necessary
TEMPORARY PASTURES 121
for their growth. So they grow vigorously. But little by
little the soil becomes more compact, the subsoil more dense,
and the rain or water of irrigation penetrates with greater
difficulty. During the droughts of summer the moisture rises
up less easily from the subsoil, and thus, from physical causes,
the production settles down to a normal level. In time the
chemical condition of the land also undergoes a material
change : not only is the layer of soil which is occupied by
the roots rendered incapable of supplying a sufficiently large
amount of the elements necessary to the vegetation, but,
owing to the continued accumulation of vegetable debris, the
layer of soil in which the roots live at length becomes sour,
even where the earth may originally have been calcareous, and
may still be so in the underlying layers, so that the good
plants tend to disappear and give place to a vegetation which
is characteristic of sour land.'
After giving the reasons and experiments which prove his
case, Monsieur Joulie adds : ' From all that has been stated
we can now draw the following practical and economical
conclusions : —
' 1st. That the cultivation of roots and cereals deprives
the soil of nitrogen, whilst that of grass and leguminous plants,
temporary or permanent, on the contrary, causes it to accumu-
late in the soil. That nitrogen being the most expensive
manure to buy, it is not economical to devote part of the land
permanently to arable and part to grass, for while the one uses
up the nitrogen, the other accumulates it in excess. On the
contrary, it is preferable to alternate on the same piece of land
the cultivation of roots and cereals with that of grass leys, so
as in a measure to repair by the second the loss of nitrogen
which the first cause to the soil. By this means cultivation
can be kept up indefinitely without purchased nitrogen, pro-
vided that the land be maintained in a fit state of richness as
regards the mineral elements which are indispensable to healthy
vegetation.
122 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
' 2nd. The practical application of this principle is, that
the temporary occupation of the land by a grass ley for two or
three years, which takes its turn in the rotation of crops, should
be preferred. We thus secure the improvement of the soil
obtainable from the cultivation of Leguminosae (clover, lucerne,
vetches, &c). But as this class of plant will not succeed on
every soil, temporary " leys " with gramineous (grass) herbage
ought to give, where leguminous plants do not succeed,
analogous, if not equally good, results, and so assist materially
in solving the problem of producing cereal, root, and other
crops with increasing economy.'
Upon nearly all soils alternate husbandry may be adopted
with immense advantage, and on light sandy soil, where a
satisfactory pasture is rarely formed, it is far wiser to sow a
temporary than a permanent mixture. The periodical breaking-
up of the land at the end of every three or four years, and its
treatment as arable for one or two seasons, will render it capable
of again yielding valuable crops of grass.
The heavy crops that can be obtained from artificial
grasses during a limited number of years are, no doubt, partly
attributable to the judicious selection of grasses and clovers.
But other influences are at work. The continual use of
manure has put the land into good heart, and cultural opera-
tions have allowed the atmosphere to set free the elements
which grasses readily assimilate. There are, unfortunately,
plenty of instances where improper seeding or starved land
renders a profitable permanent pasture impossible. To these
preventable causes I am not now alluding, but to soils
which, in despite of fair treatment, agglomerate and become
impervious to atmospheric influences, and refuse to give up
the necessary elements for the continuous free growth of
grasses.
Apart, however, from this question of an unsuitable soil,
there are weighty reasons for the adoption of a system of
alternate husbandry. Two-thirds of many farms might
TEMPORARY PASTURES 123
with advantage always be in artificial grass. A great saving
would be effected in tillage operations, horseflesh, and labour.
The land would break up at the end of the term in excellent
condition and full of clover roots as a store of nourishment
for the succeeding grain crop. The custom of maintaining
agricultural holdings that are almost entirely arable, or almost
entirely pastoral, has failed to meet the necessities of our time.
What is wanted now is a combination of arable and pastoral
husbandry, so that when corn does not pay and stock is profit-
able, or vice versa, each occupier may obtain benefit from one
branch of his business. The grazier would be profited in being
able to winter his own stock instead of selling it to make
a winter's manure for the arable farmer. On the other hand,
the arable farmer would not then, as now, be compelled to
sell his stock immediately his roots were exhausted, or pay the
grazier to summer the animals for him. When neither arable
nor pastoral farms yield a profit, the system I am advocating
has the merit of reducing expenses to a minimum.
The specialising of agriculture has been carried to injuri-
ous excess. Great arable farms, without enough pasture to
keep half a dozen cows, and large grazing farms that are want-
ing in sufficient arable to grow straw and roots for winter
consumption, should both be regarded as evils. The admirable
system, pursued in Lancashire and in Scotland, of annually
laying away in artificial grasses a proportion of each farm for
a period of three or four years, is so successful that it is
surprising the practice has not long since been adopted all over
the country. Instead of this, the sowing of Broad Clover
alone is still the rule, and the admixture even of Rye Grass the
exception. In comparatively few instances is it usual to sow
with the clovers such heavy-cropping varieties as Rye Grass,
Foxtail, and Timothy, without which the best results cannot
be obtained from the alternate system.
The admission of corn into this country without duty,
with the present high rate of labour, renders it impossible
124 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
to grow wheat at a profit on land heavily burdened with rates,
taxes, and other charges. Were the price to rise to a figure
that would make wheat a profitable crop to grow, we could
almost supply home requirements from British soil ; but while
the doctrines of Free Trade prevail the farmer must turn
his attention to other crops besides wheat, and discontinue
flogging the dead horse. As an alternative, I am fully
persuaded that the general adoption of short-term leys will
prove to be a substantial gain. In itself the system of tem-
porary pastures is good, and a means of good, for it opens up
a less ruinous method of farming with a much smaller capital
than is sufficient for the conduct of a purely arable farm.
It has been said with truth that the immediate return from
grass is less than from arable land ; and while farmers were
paying high rents they could not afford to dispense with a crop
of wheat, which could readily be turned into money. This
argument takes no account of the continued outlay a wheat
crop involves, which more than absorbs the price realised for
the corn.
The wide assumption that there is no alternative between
the old four-course system and the laying down of land to
permanent pasture will not bear a moment's examination.
The result of this fallacy is fraught with mischief, and entails
an enormous loss on the farmers of this country every year.
The alternate system offers a remedy of proved value, the
adoption of which will tend very materially to turn a deficit
into a favourable balance. Cocksfoot, Timothy, Italian Rye
Grass, and other strong-growing grasses, not only produce
heavy crops of nutritious hay, but they smother weeds and
keep the land clean ; that is, supposing it to have been in a
reasonably clean condition when sown. The alternate system
will justify neither slovenly preparation nor foul seeding.
Those who sow rubbish will assuredly reap as they sow. The
seeds sold for leys sometimes consist largely of Goose Grass
and Yorkshire Fog, with a liberal sprinkling of sorrel and
TEMPORARY PASTURES 125
docks. Let no man who puts such a vile mixture into his
land blame the system I am advocating for the miserable
results he may obtain.
One Year's Ley. — For this purpose the varieties must
obviously be restricted to those which yield a large and
immediate return. Annual or Italian Rye Grass will
form the basis of the mixture, and an addition of Perennial
Rye Grass will generally be desirable, as also a very small
quantity of Cocksfoot and of Timothy. For grazing, Broad
Clover is preferable to Cow Grass, and White Clover will also
be a necessary constituent. But for hay, Alsike should
replace White Clover. Trefoil is a doubtful article ; upon
many soils it is indigenous, and in some few cases objection-
able ; but there are many instances where a proportion of it is
not only legitimate, but beneficial.
Two Years' Ley. — The extended duration of the ley
justifies an increase of Timothy and Cocksfoot, but it is very
easy to overdo the latter. Italian will almost certainly be
preferable to Annual Rye Grass, although the proportion must
be diminished, and a larger quantity of Perennial Rye Grass be
substituted. Alsike and White Clover should be more freely
sown, and the weight of Broad Clover be slightly reduced. A
heavier total seeding will be necessary to make a satisfactory
two years' ley than is required for a single season, and more
regard must be paid to peculiarities of soil and to the object
in view.
Three Years' Ley. — Besides retaining Timothy, Alsike,
White Clover, and Perennial Rye Grass, it is still an advantage
to include some Italian Rye Grass, Broad Clover, and Trefoil
for the sake of the first year's produce. The value of the hay
will be increased, and the pasture will be more palatable to
stock, by partially replacing Cocksfoot with Meadow Fescue ;
126 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
and Foxtail may also be introduced. When the ley is needed
for pasturage, an addition of Hard Fescue will render good
service by making the bottom grass dense, and the Broad
Clover may then be supplemented with Cow Grass. On
chalky soils either Sainfoin or Lucerne may be desirable.
The total quantity of seed will approximate more nearly to
that required for a permanent pasture, although the finer
varieties will be omitted.
Four, Six, or Eight Years' Temporary Pasture.—
There is a general impression that, for so long a term as four
years, a permanent prescription should be employed, but this
involves needless expense. Some of the finer grasses that are
properly included for permanent pastures would be wasted if
sown for only four years ; they would scarcely become established
until the term had nearly expired, and would certainly yield
no adequate return for the outlay incurred. For the longer
periods of six or eight years some modifications in the
prescription must be made, but these will depend on the
circumstances of each particular soil. The principal object is
to produce heavy crops, which can only be secured by an
almost exclusive use of the stronger-growing grasses and
clovers.
Reverting to the question ' Is there no Alternative ? '
referred to at the opening of this chapter, it is interesting to
remember that subsequent to the publication of a former
edition of this work there appeared in ' The Times ' an instructive
communication from the Earl of Leicester, K.G., describing-
the results of trials made at Holkham, Norfolk, with the
object of securing, on poor soils, pasture that should last for a
period of not less than six years. The mixture of seeds that
was found to give the best results consisted of Cocksfoot,
Perennial Rye Grass, Italian Rye Grass, Meadow Fescue,
Hard Fescue, Tall Fescue, Timothy, Tall Oat Grass, Yellow
TEMPORARY PASTURES 127
Oat Grass, Alsike Clover, White Clover, and Yarrow. It is
very desirable that the pasture should not be too closely
grazed by sheep during the summer months of the first two
or three years, and it is better, when practicable, to mow the
crop the first year after laying down. The rye grasses ensure
a sufficiency of herbage during the time other varieties are
attaining full development. The two oat grasses are included
because they are native to the Holkham district. With
suitable modifications in the constituents, and a considerable
addition to the quantity of seed per acre, as may be needed by
local conditions of soil and climate, this mixture, which has
given such good results on poor soils in Norfolk, might prove
useful in other districts.
Temporary pastures are, as a rule, sown with spring corn,
and they require substantially the same treatment as per-
manent pastures, although, as the grasses employed for the
former purpose are strong growers, there is not quite the same
necessity for extreme caution in preparing the land ; but even
here laxity and carelessness entail a sufficiently heavy penalty.
A temporary pasture may, in a favourable summer,
afford a valuable bite for horned stock soon after the corn is
cut ; and as the grasses are robust and comparatively coarse,
although none the less nourishing on that account, they will
not be injured by the hoofs of cattle. The rolling should be
done in November, instead of waiting until spring. Supposing
stock to be kept off the ground, and the autumn prove warm
and genial, it will sometimes be possible by the end of
October to get a cut of useful green food.
The pasture needs bush-harrowing and rolling down early
in spring before being laid in for hay. The first year's crop
will mainly consist of Rye Grasses and clovers, but the bottom
of a three or four years' ley may be expected to improve for
at least two years, and the Foxtail, Timothy, Cocksfoot, and
other plants will increase in bulk in the third and fourth
seasons.
128 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
A heavy dressing of cake-fed farmyard manure, applic
towards the close of the year, will pay well. Nothing improvi
artificial grasses so much, and there must be no niggardline
in its use. The fresher the manure when placed on tl
ground, and the less it has been allowed to ferment, the bett<
the grass will thrive. In the Kidmore grass experimem
good results were also obtained from a dressing per aci
of one hundredweight of nitrate of soda, with three-quartei
of a hundredweight of muriate of potash, given in alternal
years.
129
Hints on Haymaking
A good deal has been written for and against the practice of
mowing and grazing alternately. Strictly speaking, meadow
land is always mown, and pasture land is always grazed.
Although the terms and the practice are sometimes regarded
as convertible, there is more in the distinction than appears at
first sight. Certain grasses are better adapted for the scythe
than for being eaten down by stock, and some fields contain a
preponderance of one or more of these varieties. A meadow
which answers to its strict definition should consist of those
grasses which flower almost simultaneously, so that the entire
crop may be ready for mowing at one time. Such a crop must,
of necessity, be most unsatisfactory for grazing. There will
be no early or late grasses for the cattle, but a heavy weight in
June and July, which cannot be fed off economically. On the
other hand, a good pasture, consisting of the grasses which
ensure a continued succession of food, yields but a poor hay
crop. However, the question before us now is not the best
means of creating either the one or the other, but the turning
into hay of grass set apart for that purpose.
The presence of stones, crocks, and other hard rubbish
deposited by top dressings not only diminishes the crop
while growing, but will by-and-by make it necessary to set the
machine high enough to avoid breakage. Now the mower
should always be set as low as possible, for the bottom herbage
is, weight for weight, more valuable than the top, and every
inch of the former counts both in weight and in quality. The
K
130 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
clearing of stones from the field is therefore worth scrupulous
attention, and it should be done before the grass makes a start
in early spring. The turf must also be well bush-harrowed
and firmly rolled down.
The time for mowing varies in different localities and in
different seasons. But there are sound reasons for urging the
importance of cutting the grass young, before even the earliest
varieties have formed seeds in their flower-heads. In most
grasses, and in all clovers, the formation of saccharine matter
takes place in their stems during the early stage of growth,
and the best hay is usually made from grass before the flower-
ing heads have begun to turn colour. Experiments made
in the chemical laboratory prove that, although there are
exceptions, the great majority of grasses contain nearly double
the quantity of nutritive matter before, than they do after,
ripening seeds. This applies also to the clovers which form so
large a proportion of every good meadow.
An objection to the early cutting of grass deserves a
passing remark. It is quite true that young grass shrinks
more than grass of older growth. In other words, a larger
quantity of moisture is evaporated by the former, but as the
loss is pure water only, it is of no importance whatever. The
balance remains in favour of early mowing, for the hay is of
higher quality and far more digestible, to say nothing of the
advantage of an increased aftermath and the benefit conferred
on the pasture by early cutting. 1
1 The following free extracts are from ' The Relative Feeding Value of Grass Cut
at Different Periods of Growth,' by Martin J. Sutton and Dr. J. A. Voelcker, published
in The Journal of the Bath and West and Southern Counties Society, Vol. II., Fourth
Series, and subsequently issued by the Society as a separate pamphlet : —
' An old pasture at Kidmore was divided into five plots resembling each other in
texture, aspect, surface soil, subsoil, and in the botanical constituents of the turf.
These five plots were cue on the different dates named in the subjoined table. The
total weight of hay produced for the season was practically the same for Plots Nos. 1
and 3 ; but the fact must not be lost sight of that the relative dryness of hay in the
field is solely dependent on the state of the atmosphere at hay-time, and it is quite
impossible, in a series of cuttings extending over the whole season, to take up the
hay in the same degree of dryness each time. The real basis of comparison is not the
weight of hay, nor the weight of green produce, but the dry weight after moisture
HINTS ON HAYMAKING
131
Mowing machines have greatly altered the conditions of
haymaking, and the change is not always in favour of the hay.
The temptation is to cut more grass than can be dealt with,
and in wet seasons this may involve serious loss ; for in a scorch-
ing time grass becomes hay almost without any making, and if
not promptly ricked it may be so burnt up as to render the
fibres hard and woody.
The stems of grass are protected by a thin coating of
silicate, which has been termed ' Nature's waterproof mantle.'
Tossing the grass about breaks the stems, and at the fractures
moisture enters and decay is hastened. Hence in continued
wet weather the cut grass should be allowed to lie just as it is
left by the scythe or mower, when it will take the minimum of
harm. In fine weather the tedding machine should be used
much more freely than is commonly the case, for every time
the machine goes over the ground a different surface is exposed
to the sun. Often, when the end of a field is reached, the
had been expelled by a temperature of 212° Fahr. A glance at the table will show
that the total dry weight of herbage comes out in the same order as the numbering of
the plots — i.e. Plot No. 1 yielding the largest quantity, and No. 5 the smallest.
' By comparison of Plot No. 1 and Plot No. 4 (the first cutting of the latter Plot
taking place simultaneously with the haymaking of the district) the loss resulting
from late mowing is only too apparent.
Total Constituents in Lbs. per Acbe oe the different Cuttings
produced on each plot.
Plot 1*
Out June 3,
Sept. 2,
Oct. 29
Plot 2.
Plot 3.
Plot 4.
Plot 5.
Cut June 17,
Cut July 2,
Cut July 15,
Out July 29,
Sept. 17
Sept. 29
Oct. 29
Oct. 29
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
Soluble Albuminoids
124
120
85
68
177
Insoluble Albuminoids .
706
536
502
538
402
Soluble Carbo-hydrates, &
1,144
1,228
1,121
1,089
1,195
Digestible Fibre ....
2,461
2,294
2,104
1,947
1,874
Mineral Matter (excluding Silica) .
442
368
370
376
348
Indigestible Fibre ....
1,860
2,008
1,897
1,755
1,769
Water
21,593
16,549
16,550
13,111
14,991
335
165
156
219
188
Total produce per acre, in lbs.
28,665
23,268
22,785
6,235
19,103
20,944
Total dry weight per acre, in lbs.
7,072
6,719
5,992
5,953
* Only No. 1 Plot produced a third crop.
K 2
132 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
beginning is ready for turning again, and it is a mistake to
suppose that because scorched grass makes bad hay, therefore
quickly made hay resembles scorched grass. These remarks
are intended to apply exclusively to meadow hay. Clovers,
Sainfoin, &c, should be turned in the swath by hand, and with
the utmost care, to avoid breaking off the leaves.
When a particular field is ready, the whole strength ot
the farm should be concentrated on the labour of gathering
and carting the hay to the rick. I have known a crop of grass
cut one morning and stacked at night ; but the crop was light,
the heat unusual, and the desiccation of the plant had consider-
ably advanced before the mower was used. Although it is
seldom done, I am persuaded that in hot weather grass might
often with advantage be put into windrows on the day it is cut.
Dew is well-nigh as injurious to half-made hay as rain, and grass
which has parted with much of its water on a hot summer day
is in a condition to reabsorb moisture from the atmosphere at
night. This process goes on much more rapidly when the hay
lies scattered on the ground than when it is raked together.
The cocks should not be opened too early in the morning, and
if the sun prove hot it will spoil the colour to scatter the grass
very much. Greenness is one of the indications of well-made
hay, while a brown shade, whether resulting from rain or sun-
burning, is a certain sign of deteriorated condition. Three
days ought to make good hay in fan- weather from an ordinary
crop. Grass which is cut one day, tedded repeatedly the next,
cocked that night, and opened out again on the following
morning, may be fit to carry in the afternoon of that — the
third— day. A very heavy crop, however, or a crop in which
there is an unusual proportion of clover, must not be ricked so
quickly, nor must it be left too thin on the ground. Succulent
grass with large solid stems, full of moisture, is least easy to
turn into hay, and is most liable to fire when ricked. This
danger is often increased by fine weather, because the leaves
and smaller shoots become ready to carry more quickly than
HINTS ON HAYMAKING 133
the succulent stems. Those who have had experience with
water-meadows are aware of the extreme hazard of carrying
hay from them too soon. An old and safe test of fitness is
to gather together a few of the stout stems and twist them
tightly into a rope. If moisture exudes, the grass is not
ready for the rick. Clover stems, Cow Grass especially,
contain a large amount of moisture, and if ricked too soon
there is a risk of the heat rising injuriously. The use of the
haymaking machine must be avoided entirely when clover
forms a large proportion of the crop.
Dry and benty grass which does not contain much clover
will almost ' make itself in fine weather, and but little fear
need be entertained that it will fire. Indeed, if the rick does
not heat somewhat the hay will be of inferior quality.
Ricks may occasionally be seen standing on the bare
ground where floods are not unknown. It is unwise to erect
them on such spots, for they absorb moisture almost as readily
as a sponge. Some injury will certainly ensue from the
damp ground, and the whole bulk of hay may be made
mouldy by a flood. The cost of stone or iron staddles will
often be repaid in a single year, and they render it safe to
put hay into a rick much earlier than where this means of
bottom ventilation is lacking.
The best shape for a rick is square. A thin oblong form
exposes too large a surface to the atmosphere, and a very
high-pitched roof is objectionable on the same ground. The
bottom of the stack should be smaller than the eaves, so
that rain falling from the thatch will clear the sides of the
rick. In building, the centre should always be kept higher
than the outside, and every layer of grass must be firmly
trodden down. The roof must be steep enough to shoot off
rain and snow, but it injures the upper portion of the hay to
go higher than is necessary to secure this object. Roughly
stated, the top of the rick measured across under the eaves
should be about one and a half or two feet more than from
134 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
the eave to the ridge. This gives almost an equilateral
triangle.
Rick-cloths cost money, but they are of great service in
protecting partially-made ricks when hay-carting is suddenly
arrested by rain. They also render it easy to proceed with
several ricks simultaneously, and therefore the grass can be
stacked in a more moist condition than when a rick has to be
hurried up and promptly thatched. Indeed, rick-cloths save
all anxiety about thatching, for the task can be deferred until
after the first rise of heat has been dissipated, and it is con-
sequently safe to put the roof on.
The practice of making ventilating shafts in the centre of
a rick by pulling up a sackful of hay as the work proceeds need
only be resorted to in catching weather, when it is impossible
to put the hay together in first-rate order. No doubt the
contrivance has prevented many ricks from firing, but it
restricts the partial fermentation which takes place in a solid
stack, and this is an important influence in the manufacture of
a fragrant sample of hay. A much better method of treating
grass about the dryness of which there is a doubt, is to place
layers of dry straw between thicker layers of hay. The straw
will absorb the excessive moisture, and with it many of the
valuable juices of the clovers, which will greatly enhance the
feeding value. This procedure is not available for hay which
is intended to be sold, but it will make capital fodder for home
consumption.
' Weathered ' hay — that is, hay which has been repeatedly
soaked and dried until much of its value has been lost — will
be improved in quality and made more palatable to stock by
sprinkling coarse salt over the layers of the rick as the building
proceeds. From ten to twenty pounds of salt should be used
for each ton of hay.
After grass is cut for hay, it parts with nearly three-
fourths of its weight by evaporation ; but, except under the
influence of long-continued rain, no chemical change of
HINTS ON HAYMAKING 135
importance occurs in the field. In the rick, however, very-
considerable chemical changes take place, such as the creation
of sugar by the action of heat on the starch contained in the
grass. The difference between good and bad hay nearly as
often results from too little or too great heat being evolved in
the stack, as from faults in the process before stacking. Over-
heating, even when it does not go so far as to blacken and char
the hay, produces so much acetic acid as to make the fodder
sour and unpalatable. Dr. Thompson showed that 387^
pounds of grass are required to make 100 pounds of hay. The
loss is chiefly water, but not entirely so. This is demonstrated
by the fact that an animal which thrives on 100 pounds of
grass will not do nearly so well on 25 pounds of hay sup-
plemented with 75 pounds of water. The loss of nutritious
ingredients is of course attributable to the process of fermenta-
tion carried on in the stack. The sugar has been largely
converted into alcohol and carbonic acid, by which a certain
amount of waste has occurred.
However closely a field may be raked after the hay cart,
a quantity of loose hay will remain scattered about, and
it will be well worth while to turn in cattle to pick this up,
and also to browse on the patches round the headlands and
ditches which have escaped the mowing machine. Much
waste is incurred by carelessness in this matter, and if the grass
by the hedges and ditches is not eaten down while green, it
will be unsightly all the summer. Immediately the cattle
have consumed the fodder they must be driven out of the
field, to give the aftermath time to make a fair start.
The making of aftermath hay is not by any means general,
and is always precarious. Autumnal dews and shortening
days, combined with the succulent nature of the herbage, are
all against it. But as many of the late-growing grasses, of
which the herbage principally consists, are specially nutritious,
there is a prevalent opinion that the lattermath is of higher
quality than the first cut.
136 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
The old Welsh system of ' fogging,' or allowing the hay
crop to cure itself, uncut, in the open fields, demands but briet
notice here. The fields are fed off by winter stock early in the
spring up to the end of April ; then the grass is laid in as if
for hay, but is left uncut all the summer, and stock are not
permitted to graze until December. Welsh farmers state that
cows feeding on the dry grass give as good butter as in the
spring of the year ; that the frost makes the grass sweet ; and
that the herbage shoots very much earlier in the following
spring, because it is protected by the brown growth of the
previous year ; also that when mixed with the old grass it is
much more wholesome and sustaining food. The inducement
to adopt this system is that all expense and anxiety of hay-
making are avoided. Some farmers actually let their grass
fields stand untouched from May until February or March of
the following year, when the stock are turned out of doors.
No doubt the practice supplies a great deal of food at a time
of scarcity, and this food is specially prized for the early-
calving cows. The whole system is, of course, contrary to all
the recognised canons by which grass land is managed in
England.
The quantity of hay annually produced in Great Britain
differs widely from year to year, and this variation is mainly
attributable to the character of the season. On the following
page the Returns of the Board of Agriculture are quoted
for ten years, from 1897 to 1906 inclusive. From these
figures it will be observed that although the acreage does
not greatly vary during the decade, there is an enormous
divergence in the crop realised in different years. The largest
yield was 212,760,858 cwt. in 1898, and the smallest weight
132,365,975 cwt. in 1901.
The estimated average production per acre of rotation
hay in the former year is 33-65 cwt., and in the latter year
25-48 cwt., while from permanent grass the return is 29-2-1 cwt.
in 1898 and 16-63 cwt. in 1901. Roughly speaking, it may
HINTS ON HAYMAKING
137
be said that about two thirds of the annual production is
obtained from permanent meadows and one third from clover,
sainfoin, and grasses under rotation.
Year.
Areas.
Aores.
Estimated Total Produce
Cwt.
1897 .
. ... 6,795,750
179,095,713
1898 .
. ... 6,917,458
212,760,858
1899 .
. ... 6,553,549
160,448,248
1900 .
. ... 6,574,836
170,554,892
1901 .
. ... 6,706,517
132,365,975
1902 .
. ... 6,944,805
201,386,651
1903 .
. ... 7,166,720
195,061,446
1904 .
. ... 7,087,445
187,455,180
1905 .
. ... 6,876,998
164,627,200
1906 .
. ... 6,975,447
171,690,660
138 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
Hints on Grazing
Most watchful care is needed to obtain the best results from
grazing land, and only those who are actually engaged in the
business have any adequate conception of the ceaseless anxiety
it involves. Two main objects must be kept steadily in view —
the constant progress of the stock, and the maintenance of
fertility in the pasture. It may be necessary to change the
cattle from field to field, or to alter the relative proportions of
sheep and horned stock at very brief intervals. However
arduous the labour, the cattle must be kept growing ; and the
grass be so fed off as to avoid waste and ensure continuous
herbage. Allowance has also to be made for differences in
seasons. In dry summers, what little grass there may be is
extremely valuable for its high quality and sustaining power ;
but when vegetation is rank and sodden with moisture, a
much larger quantity may fail to put on flesh. Truly 'the
farmer's eye makes the beast fat.'
No precise date can be given for beginning to graze
pastures in spring. Cattle should not be turned out until
there is enough feed to keep them going without too much
help from hay, nor until the ground is firm enough to prevent
their hoofs from damaging the young shoots of the grasses.
On the other hand, if the grass gets too old the animals will
refuse much of it, and the fodder will be |lost. Pastures
consisting largely of early, strong-growing grasses, particularly
Cocksfoot, will need to be stocked before others which pro-
duce finer and later varieties. Even after cattle have made
HINTS ON GRAZING 139
a start, late spring frosts or a persistent east wind may upset
the grazier's calculations, and the stock may begin to go back
through scarcity of food. Then a supply from the Mangel
clamp, or from a few acres of Cabbage or Thousand-headed
Kale, will prove a boon indeed.
When sheep begin to graze in mixed pastures they will
probably keep the plant down close ; but, as herbage grows
more rapidly, young horned stock should be added, so as to feed
down the rising culms and flower-stalks which the sheep pass
by. Sometimes neither sheep nor bullocks will eat the stems
of Cocksfoot, and then it is necessary to run the mower over
the pasture to prevent a copious seeding of this grass, which,
however valuable in suitable proportions, is on certain soils a
great pest when allowed to predominate. I have known cattle
to derive benefit from grazing in one pasture by day and being
turned into a different field at night, and it is interesting to
note the eagerness which stock soon display for this change in
their run.
A pasture specially adapted for fattening bullocks should
not, as a rule, have sheep put on it ; and a perfect sheep pasture
should never have the grass long enough to feed a bullock ; but
from an ordinary pasture, devoted to mixed stock, probably
the aggregate produce will not be utilised except by a judicious
combination of horned stock, horses, and sheep. The grazier
affords clear evidence of his skill by the manner in which he
takes advantage of the special characteristics of every separate
field as the seasons vary. In so proportioning stock as to feed
the crop down evenly he benefits the pasture, and by changing
the animals from field to field a difference of diet is ensured, for
scarcely any two pastures produce exactly the same herbage.
Each animal has its own likes and dislikes, but between them
they are almost certain to clear the crop. Calves need the best
grass that can be given them, and they generally thrive better
alone than in company with other animals. Cows and sheep
feed better together than do fat bullocks and sheep, and this
140 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
mixture of stock is exceedingly good for the grass. But a first-
rate bullock pasture is not certain to be a suitable place for
milch cows ; they are more likely to put on fat than to increase
the flow of milk.
As fat beasts approach fitness for the butcher they become
very dainty, and will often leave behind a lot of feed. This
should be got rid of quickly by crowding the field with store
stock. Then a brief rest will prepare it for bullocks again.
It is a wise rule to start the stock on the worst pasture of the
farm, and gradually move them forward to that which is
better. Stock which have once had good food will not take
kindly to that which is inferior, but when placed upon it they
lose flesh, and this is ruinous for the grazier.
No matter how rich a pasture may be, I believe it to be
sound practice for the beasts, for the grass, and for the farmer's
pocket, to supply a liberal addition of Cabbage, Mangel, and
above all of oil cake, before the feed runs at all short. A good
grazier will not be content unless the stock lie down on the
pastures a great part of every day. If they do not quickly
satisfy appetite they cannot put on fat, and this is impossible
when the animals are wholly dependent on grass which is eaten
down close.
A stringent rule cannot be laid down as to when grazing
land should be cleared of cattle for the winter. It must be
done in time to ensure ample pasturage hi the following spring,
and the grass should be eaten down close before very cold
weather sets in. It is surprising with what relish cattle will
take some of the coarse grasses late in autumn which they
have refused to eat during summer. Frost no doubt sweetens
and makes these coarse tufts palatable. If they are not
consumed they must be mown before Christmas.
The necessity of scattering the droppings of cattle is well
understood, although it is often neglected. By postponing this
work until late in the year a quantity of grass is lost to the
grazier. Large unsightly patches of herbage appear, which the
HINTS ON GRAZING 141
animals will not touch. Yet, after the grass of these patches
is mown and has become withered, it is often sought for by
animals affected with scour, and it has been stated to have
a medicinal effect in curing them. The right thing to do,
however, is to have the droppings scattered frequently, and in
any case of neglect to have the tufts mown. An appliance
attached to the chain harrow will effect the most complete
distribution of all droppings.
A supply of pure water is a matter of great consequence
for the animals. It is true they will drink that which is
impure, stagnant, and filthy, but it is a vitiated taste, and
such water is distinctly injurious to them. Tube wells often
prove cheaper and better than the old system of pond-making.
Shade and shelter are also helpful to cattle. Trees and
hedgerows save them from fierce sunshine, and ditches should
not intervene to prevent access to the shade. Groups of trees
in the field not only add to the beauty of the landscape, but
prove beneficial to the animals on scorching days. Rough
sheds, open in front and facing south, are desirable in early
spring, as they afford protection from biting east winds and
cold, violent rains. In these sheds lumps of rock salt should
always be kept within reach of the stock.
142 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
Ensilage
(GRASS)
The preservation of green fodder, in an undried state, for
winter feeding is not a recent discovery. The long and severe
winters which prevail in Canada compelled the stock-keepers
of that country to adopt the system long before it became
familiar to farmers in the United Kingdom. 1 At first an
underground silo, or a special construction above ground, was
considered imperative, but it was soon discovered that air
could be excluded from forage stored in old barns and out-
houses, and silage has even been made in casks. It is there-
fore obvious that costly buildings are not essential, and the
erection of them has practically ceased. The silage stack is
generally preferred. By this contrivance sweet or sour silage
can be made at will, and the atmosphere can be effectually
prevented from injuring more than a few inches of the exterior
of the fodder. The stack also offers an advantage over the
fixed silo, as it can be erected on any spot that will save
haulage and facilitate feeding.
Subtropical plants such as Maize and Sorghum are grown
expressly for conversion into silage, and almost every kind of
herbage which this country produces has been experimented
on, with more or less satisfactory results. Here I am only
alluding to ensilage in relation to grass, and, so far as
its application to this crop is concerned, I am persuaded
that the use of the silo or silage stack will, in favourable
1 In so different a climate as that of the islands of the South Seas the natives avail
themselves of the principle of the silo for the preservation of bread-fruits.
ENSILAGE 143
seasons, be the exception. Grass will continue to be turned
into hay very much as heretofore. When a farmer can convert
his grass into hay in three genial days, it is improbable that
he will consent to cart nearly four times the weight of green
fodder to the silo, with the risk of failure in the end.
Still, it has been clearly demonstrated that in wet
summers the silo or silage stack is an immense boon. In
districts where the average of seasons is unfavourable to hay-
making, ensilage has materially modified the conditions of
profitable farming. The reports of greatest success come from
farms worked under the alternate system of three or four years'
leys. Prescriptions of grasses, clovers, &c, specially adapted
for growing suitable herbage for the silo produce the best
silage.
Lattermath grass may with advantage be sent to the silo
or silage stack, on account of the difficulty of making hay in
autumn, and, as the late crop has the reputation of possessing
more 'proof than the summer cutting, it will be all the more
valuable for ensilage. The decision to convert a crop of grass
into silage should be acted upon from the outset. It is a
mistake to suppose that hay badly washed by rain can yield
good silage.
The cost of labour in making silage is not generally
higher than the cost of haymaking in ordinary weather,
and is decidedly less than the outlay for haymaking in bad
weather. In wet seasons, too, the hay is not only more
costly to make, but when made is of low feeding quality ;
so that silage in such years- will not only be cheaper but
superior.
Those who have tried silage as food for dairy cows are
practically unanimous in its favour, although there is some risk
in feeding it alone. In fattening bullocks, however, the
Rothamsted experiments prove that for putting on flesh,
swedes and mangels have a considerable advantage over grass
or clover silage, whether sweet or sour.
144 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
Analyses show that in the process of conversion there is a
serious loss in the nutritive qualities of green provender after
it is placed in the silo, yet practical men and agricultural
chemists agree that the dietetic value of the food has been
clearly established when used in conjunction with hay, corn,
and roots, especially for dairy cattle. The animals are bene-
fited in health, the flow of milk is augmented, the colour of the
butter improved, and no unpleasant flavour is imparted to it.
145
Notes on Certain Worthless Grasses
and Injurious and Poisonous Plants
found in Pastures
No feature of modern farming is more calculated to excite a
feeling of astonishment than the indifference shown concerning
the presence of worthless grasses and pernicious weeds in grass
land. On too many farms something green, and plenty of it,
appears to be the supreme object of attainment. Whether the
crop is made into hay, or beasts and sheep are turned out to
eat what they can, and reject or tread down the remainder, the
animals are expected to thrive on the herbage.
Every arable farmer knows that unless land is kept clear
of couch, black grass, thistles, &c, the crops of corn must
suffer ; but it does not appear to be equally evident to the
grazier that certain plants, however useful they may be else-
where, must in a pasture be classed among weeds. It is no
sufficient answer to say that the plants increase the bulk of
herbage. They are none the less weeds on that account. The
objectionable character of some other plants is freely admitted,
and feeble, intermittent attempts may possibly be made to
eradicate those which are easily recognised, and are admitted
to be directly injurious or actually poisonous to sheep, and
especially to milch cows. The erroneous impression that it is
difficult or impossible to eliminate these worthless or injurious
plants from grass land has deterred many farmers from
attempting the task, or, at all events, there has not been the
146 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
persistence that would have achieved success. Were it only-
possible to deal with the pests of grass land by the plough
and scarifier, as on arable soil, the effort would be hopeless.
Happily, the weeds of pastures are amenable to treatment
which, though far less costly, is more effective, lasting, and
remunerative in its results. Some few of the deep-rooted
plants, as thistles, coltsfoot and rushes, need repeated attention
with the scythe or spud for two years ; but the majority of
pasture weeds succumb to well-regulated and suitably adjusted
doses of chemical manures, which beneficially stimulate the
nutritious grasses. The grazier may therefore clean and enrich
his land at the same time, and prove by his own experience
that as a rule the poor pasture is foul, while the rich pasture
is clean.
To effect an improvement takes time and needs patience.
A pasture or meadow which has become deteriorated through
years of neglect cannot be won back to first-class condition in
a single season, nor can a good and clean crop be maintained
in its most profitable state without unceasing vigilance. It is,
however, reassuring to know that the necessary cost of labour,
and the outlay for manures which favour the development of
the stronger-growing grasses and at the same time discourage
the growth of many forms of pernicious vegetation, will on
pasture land eventually yield a far more abundant return
than can be recouped from a similar expenditure on arable
land.
In order to prevent the deterioration of pastures, or to
improve the herbage, worthless plants should be promptly
recognised, and methods of eradication be understood. This
involves a knowledge of the pests of pastures, their duration,
mode of perpetuation, and other peculiarities which may suggest
the readiest means of compassing their destruction. Large
weeds, such as thistles, docks, and coltsfoot, are too con-
spicuous to escape notice. Less obtrusive but equally baneful
subjects are too often allowed to live on ; and the bad grasses,
NOTES ON WORTHLESS GRASSES, ETC. 147
because they happen to be grasses, continue to flourish, to the
exclusion of species rich in feeding constituents.
As a rule, the low condition of a pasture is most mani-
fest near its boundaries. This may arise from the neglect of
hedgerows and ditches, or from the carelessness of neighbours,
who permit the dissemination of weed seeds, to their own loss
and that of adjoining owners. In this matter it is not often
possible to control the action of others, but it is the duty of
every occupier to destroy with an unsparing hand the evil
tenants of his own land.
From the series of experiments made by the late Sir J. B.
Lawes and Sir J. H. Gilbert at Rothamsted, and confirmed
by my own independent trials at Dyson's Wood and Kidmore
Grange, it has been demonstrated that most of the annual
and not a few of the perennial weeds can be, for all practical
purposes, eliminated from a pasture by applications of
combined mineral and ammoniacal salts. Judicious dressings
of these salts augment the luxuriance of the stronger grasses,
so that such pests as buttercups, dandelions, plantains, sorrel,
and Briza media are starved out, and even Bromus mollis is
considerably reduced in vigour. Lime alone is a powerful aid
in promoting luxuriance among the better class of herbage,
and is also distinctly prejudicial to weeds, especially to
those of annual duration. Early cutting, too, has produced
remarkable effects in discouraging weed life. In the years
1891 and 1892 part of a meadow at Kidmore Grange, thickly
strewn with weeds, was cut in advance of the usual haymaking
season, and in the second year a marked diminution of worth-
less plants was perceptible, as compared with the remaining
portion, which had been cut at the time usual in the district.
To enumerate all the pestilent plants found in pastures is
beyond the design of this chapter. In alluding to those which
are most common and injurious to stock, opportunity will
be seized to indicate the readiest means of reducing their
numbers and of preventing their perpetuation.
i 2
148 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
Coltsfoot (Tussilago Farfara).— Pastures on poor, stiff
clays are not infrequently overrun with this weed. The
creeping underground stems render spudding impossible, but
the yellow flower-heads, which appear in advance of the leaves
during February and March, should be cut, to prevent seed
being ripened ; and another cutting when the leaves are about
half-grown will weaken the plants.
Couch, or Twitch (Triticum repens). — A pest that is
universally known, and appears to be almost irrepressible.
The rootstocks are stout, and minute portions will grow and
spread in all directions, robbing the land of its fertility. On
light soils which have not been thoroughly cleaned before
sowing seeds it is very troublesome, but as the turf becomes
consolidated the couch diminishes in quantity, and under good
management it eventually disappears. It is never found in
rich old pastures.
Docks {Rumex sp.) are found on all farms. The species
most troublesome in grass lands are Rumex obtusifolhis and
Rumex crispus, both perennials, flowering and seeding
abundantly. In the South of England, the flowering period
is about the first or second week in June, and the destruction
of plants should be accomplished before that time. By means
of the docking iron, when the ground has been softened by
rain, the whole of the tap-root can be removed, and it is
important not to leave a remnant, or fresh growth will give
renewed trouble. Should there be no opportunity of drawing
the roots, frequent cutting at the collar will weaken the
docks, and when persistently followed up will reduce then-
numbers. It is a mischievous practice to throw docks into
ditches or under hedges ; very little moisture is requisite to
maintain life and enable them to perfect seed.
Comparatively few samples of clover harvested in this
country are entirely free from dock seed, but it is true
economy to ensure a pure sample.
NOTES ON WORTHLESS GRASSES, ETC. 149
Foxtail, Slender (Alopccurns agrestis). — This annual,
the Black Twitch of the Midlands, also called Hungerweed, is
chiefly troublesome in temporary pastures on sandy and other
light soils, and the objection to it is that the mass of root-
fibres absorbs the available plant food in the soil, without
making a return in wholesome herbage. Consolidation of the
turf is unfavourable to its existence, and in grass kept close
and firm it is starved out. The seed of Slender Foxtail,
sometimes in considerable proportion, is found in low-priced
samples of Alopecurus prat ends.
Knapweed, or Hardheads (Centaurea nigra). — A
tough, much-branched perennial, common to many pastures
and leys, on both wet and dry soils. Where it is very abun-
dant or shows a tendency to spread, a judicious application of
ammonia salts and mixed minerals will almost banish this
weed from grass lands.
Ragwort (Senecio Jacobxa). — A coarse, perennial weed,
allied to the common groundsel, sometimes attaining a
height of four feet. It throws up bright golden flower-heads,
seeds freely, and is common in the light-soil pastures of many
districts. Cattle avoid it, but sheep are said to eat the leaves
when young. A single plant will spread over a space eighteen
inches in diameter. The roots are brittle, and it is futile to
attempt to draw them in spring, as every scrap left in the
ground will produce a vigorous plant in the following season.
Cutting the flower-heads before full development results in the
shrinking and hardening of the roots, which are then easily
drawn when the soil has been softened by autumnal rains.
Rib Grass, or Narrow=leaved Plantain (Plantago
lanceolata). — A free-seeding, deep-rooting perennial, common
to most soils. Its presence among grass is countenanced by
some farmers, who have yet to be convinced that other and
150 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
more nutritious herbage might profitably occupy its place;
on this point comparative analyses leave no room for doubt.
Whatever manurial dressings are favourable to the grass crop
are prejudicial to Rib Grass. The seed is one of the most
frequent impurities of Red Clover, and Perennial Rye Grass
often contains a considerable percentage of it.
Sedges and Rushes {Car ex sp. and Juncus sj>.). — Even
under vigilant supervision these plants will sometimes intrude
on the low-lying portions of water-meadows, and if neglected
they multiply so rapidly as to practically exclude the
gramineous herbage. The most effectual mode of destroying
these semi-aquatics is to drain the land thoroughly; where
this is impracticable the herbage must be cut low several
times in every season.
Soft Brome Grass {Bromus mollis). — The early and
abundant production of seed facilitates the spread of this per-
nicious grass. So rapidly is the seed-crop developed that the
leaves and stems are drained of the little nutrition they pos-
sessed, and the herbage is therefore worthless as hay. As
Soft Brome Grass is of annual, or at most of biennial, duration,
early mowing for two or three seasons reduces it in meadow
lands, and in pastures it can be diminished by a dressing of
ammonia salts combined with mineral manures.
Sorrel, Common {Rwncx Acetosa), is closely allied to
docks, and is found in nearly all meadows, sometimes in great
profusion. The plant sends down its tap-root to a considerable
depth, and destruction by hand is almost impracticable.
Dressings of mineral and ammonia salts weaken sorrel, and at
the same time assist the grass crop.
Thistle, Creeping {Cardims arvcnsis). — AVhen once esta-
blished in a pasture this pest is difficult to extirpate. Soils rich
in lime are its favourite home. On such land the strong
NOTES ON WORTHLESS GRASSES, ETC. 151
rootstocks creep in all directions, and penetrate to a depth of
two or three feet. Constant spudding in early spring, when
the shoots are full of sap, will hasten the exhaustion of this
perennial weed.
Thistle, Marsh (Carduus palustris), often abounds in
low-lying marshes, and sends up a solitary erect stem to a
height of three or four feet. A large quantity of seed is
ripened, and disseminated over a wide area, during July and
August. Spudding low down, before the flower-heads have
fully developed, is the best means of destroying this annual
thistle.
Tufted Hair Grass, or Tussock Grass (Aira ccespi-
tosa). — The great raised tufts of this grass which are seen in
some low-lying meadows are a proof of neglect and mismanage-
ment. Its herbage is worthless, and is so harsh and dense as
to interfere with both scythe and machine at hay-time. The
roots impoverish the land, and where a few plants have been
allowed to develop, they should be removed by grubbing.
Efficient draining will always ensure the extirpation of Tussock
Grass. The seed of this grass is often one of the impurities
of Alopecurus pratensis, and of some other grasses used in
laying down land.
Woolly Soft Grass, or Yorkshire Fog (Holcus lana-
tm). — One of the most persistent and troublesome of the worth-
less grasses, possessing structural endowments which ensure its
continued existence under extremely varied conditions. The
perennial roots form a dense mat near the surface, and the
plant endures both drought and frost almost with impunity.
The flowering period extends from June until late in autumn,
and if left undisturbed a large quantity of seed is perfected.
Manuring appears to have little effect in reducing the vitality
of Woolly Soft Grass, unless a high degree of fertility is
152 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
continuously maintained. Early mowing tends to weaken the
plant, and prevents the seed from maturing. Depasturing
and the close treading of land by sheep have been known to
lessen the proportion of this grass ; and it is certainly advisable,
in the event of flower-heads showing in autumn, to skim the
meadows with a scythe.
Seed of Holcus lanatus is found more or less in all
inferior samples of Alopecurus pratensis, Cyrwsurus cristatus,
and some other grasses used in prescriptions for sowing
down permanent and temporary pastures.
Yellow Rattle (Rhinanthus Crista-galli). — A parasitic
annual which preys on the roots of grasses and clovers in
many water-meadows and poor, damp pastures. Cattle dislike
it, and as the seeds are matured before meadows are usually
mown, there is full opportunity for its increase. Salt at the
rate of three or four hundredweight per acre, applied to those
portions of the pasture where Yellow Rattle abounds, will
greatly reduce and may entirely exterminate the plant.
The plants already described are negatively objectionable,
being deficient in those qualities which are essential in crops
intended for the support of animal life. Economic prin-
ciples demand that such plants should be destroyed, and their
places filled with herbage which contributes to the credit side
of the agricultural balance-sheet.
The plants to which I have now to refer possess the
far more serious fault of containing active poisons, or of being
injurious in some other way, such as tainting milk and ren-
dering butter unsaleable. Cattle, and especially in-calf cows,
frequently show a predilection for unusual herbage, and the
death of valuable animals may be the first intimation that
watercourses, hedges, and ditches have not been kept free
from poisonous plants ; or the loss of a good market for milk
and butter may be almost equally disastrous. When cattle
NOTES ON WORTHLESS GRASSES, ETC. 153
are first turned out of their winter quarters, tufts of Garlic-
Mustard, Yellow Rocket, and Crow Garlic are very tempting ;
but they are all milk-tainting plants, and should not be
permitted to exist where live-stock have access.
Buttercups (Ranunculus acris and R. bulbosus). — These
two varieties are common in meadows and pastures, and in
their green state taint the milk of cows that eat them. The
volatile, acrid constituent is dissipated when the plants are
dried and made into hay. Of the two, R. bulbosus is less
acrid than R. acris, and stock are less disposed to eat the
latter, which flowers later in the season than the former.
A satisfactory mode of extirpating Buttercups has yet to
be discovered. They are too numerous to be dealt with
individually, but they occupy so much space that no reason-
able effort should be spared to weaken their growth. Early
mowing checks them, and a generous dressing of farmyard
and artificial manures assists the valuable herbage, while it
discourages the development of Buttercups.
Crowfoot, Celery = leaved (Ranunculus sceleratus), is by
far the most poisonous of our native Ranunculi. It imme-
diately affects the milk of cows that eat the leaves, and has
been known to cause the death of young stock. The habit ot
the plant is erect ; the leaves glossy, rather fleshy, and divided,
somewhat resembling those of celery ; the small pale yellow
flowers appear throughout the summer, and, like the leaves,
emit a strong nauseous odour when bruised. This species can
be exterminated by pulling up the plants, which is very easily
done ; and if ditches and ponds are thoroughly cleaned for a
couple of seasons, during May or June, Celery-leaved Crowfoot
will cease to be troublesome.
Deadly Nightshade (Atropa Belladonna). — A poisonous
plant found in waste places on chalky and limestone soils,
154 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
which is easily distinguished by its solitary purple flowers and
the fetid odour of the leaves when bruised. Whenever this
plant is discovered it should be effectually destroyed.
Fetid Mayweed, or Stinking Chamomile (Anthemis
Cotula). — A white-flowered, annual, compositaceous plant,
having furrowed stems and finely-cut leaves covered with
minute resinous glands, secreting an acrid principle which
blisters the skin when the plant is handled. The fetid odour
differentiates this from other Mayweeds, such as the Common
Chamomile and the Corn Chamomile. The species is common
in rough pasture lands and leys, and should be kept under by
the repeated use of a sharp hoe.
Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), Tansy (Tanacetum
vulgare), and Wormwood (Artemisia Absinthium) are well
known to be injurious plants, and should not be allowed to
exist within reach of cattle and sheep.
Garlic, Crow (Allium vineale). — The green, fistulous,
onion-like leaves of this plant show conspicuously in pastures
and meadow land early in spring, while the grass is yet short,
and the tufts appear to be very tempting to milch cows, whose
milk is at once affected by its pungent, acrid properties. The
flowers, or rather the heads of bulbils, are thrown up in July,
and if allowed to mature they disperse and grow with great
rapidity. Persistent hand-pulling of the bulbous roots early in
the year is the only way of ridding pastures of Crow Garlic.
Garlic=Mustard (Alliaria officinalis or Sisymbrium
Alliaria).— A rank annual cruciferous plant, which emits the
odour and tastes strongly of Garlic. It is common in hedo-e-
rows, and early in the spring its alluring bright green leaves are
often eaten by cows, when a very unpleasant flavour is im-
parted to milk and butter. The boundaries of pastures should
NOTES ON WORTHLESS GRASSES, ETC. 155
be freed from this plant before the white flower-heads appear
in May. Seed is freely perfected in June or July. This plant
is also known by such names as Hedge Mustard, Sauce Alone,
and Jack-by-the-hedge.
Hemlock, Common {Conium maculatum). — A strong-
growing biennial, found in hedgerows and woodsides of dry and
sandy soils. In the second year it grows to a height of four or
five feet, and flowers in July. The leaves are bright green,
very large, and cut into fine segments ; the stem large, hollow,
and spotted with purple. The plant possesses in a marked
degree the qualities of a narcotic poison, and when bruised it
emits a powerful mouse-like odour which is very characteristic.
By cutting off the rank growth early in the season flowering
and seeding may be prevented ; and as this is one of our most
injurious native plants, continuous efforts should be made to
destroy it.
Hemlock, or Water Drop wort (CEnanthe crocata). —
A coarse-growing, umbelliferous, poisonous perennial, attain-
ing a height of three or four feet, and having deep green
compound leaves. The umbels of white flowers appear in
July. In the South of England and the Midlands this plant
often abounds in ditches and by the side of watercourses to
which cattle have access. Cutting down the plants in spring
and early summer, and keeping ditches, &c, clean, are the
most efficacious means of preventing mischief from this
dangerous plant.
Meadow Saffron (Colchicum autumnale). — A poisonous
bulbous plant, which is not uncommon in light-soil pastures
and meadows in the Midlands. The pale purple flowers appear
in autumn, followed by broad, glossy, lily-like leaves in the
spring. The bulbs should be forked up immediately the plant
is discovered.
156 PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY PASTURES
Water Pepper (Polygonum Hydropiper). — An evil-
smelling, pungent annual, which grows in ditches and water-
courses, and affects the milk of cows if eaten. It should be
rooted out and destroyed.
Yellow Rocket (Barbarea vulgaris). — A yellow-flowered
cruciferous plant, which often grows in abundance by ditches
and streams, and in early spring throws up large tufts of
turnip-like leaves, which, notwithstanding a pungent, nauseous
flavour, are freely eaten by cattle, with the result that milk
and butter are tainted. Before stock are turned on to the
pastures in spring a labourer should be sent round with a hoe
to cut the tufts below the crown, and as the plant is of biennial
duration only, it can be easily destroyed. Seeding should not
be allowed.
As a rule, the wise and safe course is to collect all injurious
plants after they are cut or uprooted, and burn them.
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