Mb7 (Somrfl UtttotJSitg pilrt;at;g THE GIFT OF l^....(\ - lAtth^^.?^ ENGINEERING LIBRARY Ay..U-?''l.%l- '.^1 ^IfTP.. UH»RY ANNEX DATE DUE i"""^^^""" P§«.£^ Qf\^_.lJl mm-^ =TOP*^ ■ *MAK5" am 1 ! GAYLORD PRINTED INU.S.A. QE 145.M5°7""' """'*™"l' Library '^.SS,;S^'Il^^S«!v.ofthegeo,ogica,c ,lKl '/> Pre»twioh Geology, p. 10. ORIGIN OF THE EAETH AND ITS CEUST 117 Potassium ■. 1.6 Carbon f Iron , I ^ 2.4 Sulphur- . Chlorine [^ Other elements 1 100 Chemical History of the Earth In whatever manner our earth came into being, every known fact indicates that in the beginning it must have been intensely heated and in a gaseous condition. In obedience to the laws of matter such a mass would constantly lose heat, and with this loss of heat would come a gain in density, first at the surface only, but gradually progressing toward the center till at that point its con- stituent matter had reached at least a fluid condition. This may be the present condition of the earth's interior. As an eminent chemist has observed, here commences the chemistry of the earth, and the probable course of events can best be stated by quoting from the words of the late T. Sterry Hunt. As long as the earth's component matter remained in a gaseous condition and its tem- perature was suflflciently high to prevent the elements from com- bining, these elements remained separate, but as the temperature was reduced, chemical combinations of these elements became possible, and those would be first formed which were stable at the higher temperature. The oxides of silicon, aluminum, calcium, magnesium and iron were probably among the first substances formed. At some early stage of the earth's existence the bases alumina, lime, magnesia and oxide of iron were probably all com- bined with silica and that which represented the earth's crust was a fluid mass similar to a lava. The carbon, chlorine, sulphur and water vapor only existed in the primeval atmosphere, which must then have been too acid to permit the existence of any form of life, as it would probably have destroyed animal or vegetable a Chemical and Geological Essays, pp. 37 et seq. 118 NEW TOEK STATi MUBEUM tissue. As the primeval temperature fell, the acid atmosphere would react on the lava-like crust and where the temperature fell below the boiling point of the acids which composed the atmos- phere, the water of the globe would be highly charged with salts resulting from the chemical action. With the continued fall of temperature the chlorine and sulphur would be gradually removed from the atmosphere until the composition of the latter became similar to that of the present day, though containing more cax- bonic acid gas. This chapter in the earth's history has been so well translated by the aid of chemical science that there is no reason to question its accuracy, but we do not know in detail the history of the mas- sive rocks and gneisses which are now the oldest formations known. It also is probable that a long period of time elapsed be- tween the formation of the primeval ocean and the dawn of life therein. Science has not yet taught us how to measure the length of this period or how to recognize the details of earth-building which occurred in it. Present Condition op the Earth's Interior It has been found by observa;tions taken in deep mines and wells that in going toward the center of the earth, the tempera- ture increases approximately at the ratio of 1 degree Fahrenheit to 51 feet of depth.* At this rate, a temperature would prevail at the depth of 50 miles at which all known substances would be fused. On this basis rests the theory of a molten interior, which is corroborated by various volcanic phenomena. All through the historic period and through long geologic ages before, volcanoes have poured out from subterranean sources vast quantities of molten rock. Physicists who have inves- tigated this matter claim that if the interior of the earth were fluid, the crust would yield to the attraction of the moon and that the phenomena of tides would occur within the earth itself. It also appears that the great pressure on the in- ternal masis must keep it in a condition of solidity. In this con- nection it is pointed out that volcanic phenomena occur along * The extreme ratios are 1-7-40 and 1 -r- 80. COMPONENTS OF THE EAETH's OETJST, MINEEAL8 AND ECCKS 119 lines of mountain making and that probably the outflows of molten rock are due *o local relief of pressure by some upward movement within the mountain masses. Envelopes of the Earth The earth, besides possessing a solid crust and an intensely heated interior, has two fluid envelopes. The gaseous envelope or atmosphere, which consists of the air we breathe, surrounds the entire globe. The liquid envelope, of which the various portions are known as oceans, seas, gulfs, bays, lakes, etc., envelops the globe only in part, tbe exposed portions of dry land being known as islands and continents. These two envelopes, under the influence of physical forces, are very active agents of destruction, transportation and depoisition in their action on the earth's crust. The present relations of the envelopes to the continents, the forms lof the latter, the causes of climate, the origin of the winds and ocean currents are usually discussed under the head of physical geograpliy. As this subject is not at present illustrated in the State Museum, the student is referred to the many excel- lent text^books on this science. COMPONENTS OF THE EARTH'S CRUST, MINERALS AND ROCKS The earth's crust consists of aggregates of matter which occur in stratified and unstratified masses and are known as rocks. The chemical combinations which form these rocks either singly or in mixture are called minerals. The minerals, therefore, all j)0ssess a definite chemical composition which can be expressed by formulae. Eocks vary in composition, as they consist of one or more minerals. The rocks which are mixtures of several min- erals vary in composition as the proportions of their components vary; and it is possible for specimens taken from the same rock mass to differ in chemical composition. 120 NEW TOEK STATE MUSEUM Minerals Minerals are classified by their chemical composition and by t!he geometric forms which they assume in crystallization, each mineral having a (certain range of forms from which it cannot depart." ' These forms are grouped in six systems named as follows: Isometric, Tetragonal, Hexagonal, Orthorhombic, Monoclinic and Trlclinic. These systems are characterized by and named in ac- cordance with the number and relation of the axes about which the external geometric faces are developed. In physical relation with these axes are distinct optical properties which can be determined by clotting the minerals in very thin slices and exam- ining these by means of optical instruments. While there are over 700 recognized mineral species, only a small number are important to the geologist as rock making minerals. Of these a few are sometimes found to be the single components of entire rock masses. Quartz, the crystalline form of silica, is frequently found in large masses in mineral veins and, in its fragmental form, con- stitutes beds of gravel and sand when loose and, when solidified by cementation, forms conglomerates, sandstones and quartzites. Calcite and aragonite are two crystalline forms of carbonate of lime, the former of which is the chief constituent of many great beds of limestone; the latter is usually deposited by water in forms called stalactites, calcareous tufa, travertine, etc. Dolomite, the double carbonate of lime and magnesia wholly or in part farms extensive strata of magnesian limestone. Kaolinite, the hydrous silicate of alumina, is also a very prom- inent mineral in rock masses. In its pure condition it forms beds of potter's clay, and mingled with various kinds of rock- dust it constitutes extensive strata of clay and shale. Of the minerals which mingle in the formation of rocks, the most important are quartz, the feldspars and the magnesia-iron silicates. oFor an elementary discussion of crystallography as well as of mineralogy the reader is referred to Dana'* Manual of Uthology and Mineralogy. COMPONENTS OF THE EAETH's CEUST, MINERALS AND BOOKS 121 The feldspars are silicates of alumina combined with potash, sodax)r lime. The more common species are: orthodase and mi- crocUne, silicates of alumina and potash. AlMte, silicate of alumina and soda. Anorthite, silicate of alumina and lime. Oligoclase, andesite and Idbradorite, which contain both lime and soda, and are intermediate between albite and anorthite. In crystallization orthoclase is monoclinic, the others named are triclinic. The triclinic feldspars are usually called plagioclase in techni- cal rock nomenclature, and are referred to coUectiyely by this term. The magnesia-iron silicates are classified in three principal groups, the amphiboles, pyroxenes and micas. The amphiboles are monoclinic and comprise hornblende, actino- lite and tremolite. Eornblende is a silicate of alumina, iron, lime and magnesia; it is very tough and somewhat fibrous in fracture, its color varies from dark green to blackish green. This is a very import- ant constituent of granites and other crystalline rocks. ActinoUte is a fibrous variety, generally light green in color and containing less alumina. . Tremolite is usually white and contains but little iron and no alumina. It occurs generally in crystals scattered through crys- talline limestone. Ashestus is a finely fibrous tremolite. The pyroxenes have very nearly the same chemical composition as the amphiboles and are also monoclinic but crystallize with a different prismatic angle. Augite, which corresponds closely to hornblende in composition and resembles it in many ways, is an important constituent of many eruptive rocks such as diabase, basalt, etc. Pyroxene is lighter in color than augite and similar to actinolite in composition. Diopside corresponds closely to tremolite in composition and like it, occurs in limestones. 122 NEW YOKE STATE MUSEUM Besides the above species which are monoclinic, there is an important group of orthorhombic pyroxenes. These are hypersthene, bronzite and enstatite. Of the micas there are many species. The most important rock-making mica is Motite, a silicate of alumina, potash, iron and magnesia. It is brownish black in color and is abundant in the granites and gneisses. Muscovite, a silicate of alumina and' potash, is less important as a rock mineral but is valuable cominercially for its thin trans- parent plates used in stove doors, etc. The hydro-micas, margarodite and damourite, are similar to the true micas in composition but contain water. Olivine, or chrysolite, is a silicate of iron and magnesia which occurs usually in small crystals or grains in igneous rocks. It is pale green in color. Olivine is of special importance because from it, by decomposi- tion, is derived a large proportion of the serpentine rocks. Besides these few minerals which are essential components of rocks and usually by their presence or absence determine the rock species, there are others which are only accessory and while of frequent occurrence do not so invariably affect the name of the rock in which they occur. Such are garnet, zircon and staurolite. In addition to the rock-making minerals are those which occur in large masses in other rocks and have a commercial value. Such are corundum, or emery, the ores of iron, e. g. magnetite, hematite, spathic ore; coal, asphalt, halite or rock salt, gypsum, the ore of lead and silver, galenite; the ore of copper and gold, chalcopyrite and graphite or black lead. Of rarer occurrence and great commercial value are the gems diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald, etc. None of these are found in New York. COMPONENTS OF THE EABTH's CK0ST, MINERALS AND K0CK8 123 Rocks These are the materials of the strata and other masses which form integral parts of the earth's crust. Tiey may be classified as massive or igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. The re- lations of these three natural groups may be shown by a trian- gular diagram, as follows: Massive or Igneous Sedimentary or stratified by heat and pressure > Metamorphic < by erosion and deposition This is meant to show that an igneous rock may, by erosion, be reduced to sediment and laid down in beds, or by heat and pressure may be metamorphosed from its original massive con- dition and become schistose. A sedimentary rock may also pass through the metamorphic condition, become fused and enter the igneous state. A metamorphic rock may arrive at the igneous condition by heat and pressure, or may become sedimentary through erosion and deposition. 124 NEW TOEK STATE MUSEUM Igneous rocks The igneous rocks, are very numerous, but may be classified in a few groups by mineral composition and texture. The tex- ture indicates usually the conditions of their cooling. If the cooling occurred at a considerable depth, the process was grad- ual, crystals of the component minerals formed slowly and freely, and the resulting texture is coarse. If the cooling was in the open air, as in a lava bed, the process was more rapid; there was not STiflacient time for crystals to form, and the resulting texture is fine or glassy. The first class is called plutonic, the second volcanic. Plu- tonic rooks abound in the regions where old geologic formations are exposed, since there, either the intrusions did not reach the surface or the surface material which cooled as lava was re- moved by long erosion, and we see only those parts which were deeply covered while cooling. Examples of this are seen in the Palisades of the Hudson; the granite mountains, Anthony's Nose, Storm King, Breakneck and other peaks of the highlands, and in Mt. Marcy, Whiteface, etc., of the Adirondack chain. The volcanic rocks are chiefly exposed in regions of the newer forma- tions because of the deep-seated plutonic masses have not yet been brought to view by erosion. The only good exposure of this character in New York is the mass of red porphyry or trachyte at Cannon's Pt., near Essex, on Lake Charaplain. This statement involves the theory that every volcanic mass has beneath it, or connected with it, a plutonic mass of the same general chemical composition.* The names of a few important igneous rocks and their essential compositions are given below according to the classification of Rosenbusch.* a The accurate classification of rocks dates from aljout 1873, with the develop- ment of methods of study with the microscope. Most of the older hooks in English are mnch behind the present German standard of progress. 1, Mikroskopische Physiographic der Mineralien und Gesteine. to P, o H CM M O < a o SI o a o K O .1 . ' /fl ^', I o Pi P O a O o M <1 H •J o < o a o H » o « a m t^ o n o W S 9 o g > o « E-i m m o V ^ H a » 01 g H W o EH » CO < m o a M o tl tn m ■< M W U a o 1 3 a . Ea El ^ al o n m a Q m S > ■ Reptiles Cretaceous Jurassic Triassic Palaeozoic Proterozoic or Agnotozoic Archaean, not yet sub-divided f Carboniferous Devonian Upper Silurian Lower Silurian or Ordovician Cambrian Fishes Mollusks Crustaceans Keeweenawan . Huronian Laurentian Not known in New York The rock formations of the aeoUiS are called series and of the periods, systems. The systems may be described in general terms as those divi- sions of the series which are world-wide in their differentiation. The subdivisions of the systems which are called groups are chiefly local and variable. The groups are divided into stages. F»AKX 2. GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS OF NEW YORK New York is the mother state in geologic nomenclature, and the names chosen by its early corps of geologists have been adopted in a large degree throughout the whole of the United States. It has moreover, exposed within its borders, a miore com- plete and extensive series of the formations below the Carboni- ferous and above the base of the Cambrian than any other state in the Union. It is therefore evident that a complete and repre- sentative collection of the New York rocks is of no small import- ance and the description of its formations is a matter of much interest. Synopsis System Carboniferous Devonian Group r Chemung-Catskill Portage Hamilton Corniferous ^ Oriskany Stage Glean Conglomerate of Alle- gany and Cattaraugus counties. This is the Pottsville Conglomerate of Pennsylvania. Portage sandstone , Naples beds Gardeau shale and sandstone Cashaqua shale Genesee slate Tully limestone {Encrinal lime- stone Ludlowville shale .Marcellus shale r Corniferous limestone J Onondaga limestone j Schoharie grit L Cauda galli grit Sandstone 138 NEW TOEK STATE MUSEUM System Upper Silurian i Niagara .Medina Salina Lower Silurian < Group stage (Upper Pentamerus limestone Delthyris shaly limestone Lower Pentamerus limestone Shale, limestone, salt and gypsum ("Niagara shale and limestone •{ Clinton sandstone, limestone [ and shale I Medina sandstone ( Oneida conglomerate ' Pulaski and Lorraine shales I Frankfort slate Utica slate Trenton Black river Birdseye Chazy Hudson river Trenton "limestones Cambrian Archaean .Calciferous r Potsdam I Acadian ^^ Georgian Sandstone and limestone Quartzite and slate gneisses and Granites Archaean This name was proposed by Prof. J. D. Dana to include those ancient crystalline rocks, which in nearly all countries are seen to underlie the oldest fossiliferous strata. Although various subdivisions and classifications have been proposed at times, in the light of present knowledge their accu- racy is uncertain and they will not be mentioned here.. The Laurentian rocks of Oanadia may be regarded as types of the Archaean. In New York, as elsewtiere, this system is represented by a series of crystalline rocks including gneiss, granite, diorite and norite. Crystalline limestone is often associated with them, but we do not know whether it should be regarded as truly Archaean. These rocks are exposed where uplifts from below in early time raised them up to form islands in the Palaeozoic seas, or in later time ihave caused them to break through the overlying strata. An instanice of the latter occurs at Littlefalls, where the hard, red and gray granite has been forced up in a dome and appears O H P3 CM GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS OF NEW YOEK 139 in the gorge of the Mohawk protruding through the Hudson river shale and Trenton limestone. Beneath the metamorphic rocks of the Archaean and intersect- ing them, are found what are known as Plutonic « rocks, the pe- culiarity of which is, that they are not found in layers or strata, but in solid masses, and appear to have been forced up from below in a plastic condition. They form the central mass of the Adirondacks, and large areas lof them are found in the High- lands and in many parts of New England. They were once gen- erally called ' primary ' or ' primitive ', as it was believed that they were the original erusit of the earth, first formed in the cool- ing of its melted mass, but it is now doubted whether, if such a crust exists, it can be identified, and many geologists think that most of the granites and other plutonic rocks are only re-melted and altered forms of older ones. That many such masses are so, is certain; and Whether we can find any which are portions of an original crust of the globe, is at least very doubtful. Containing no fossils, these rocks have their chief interest in their value for economic uses in building and other purposes, and in the cabinet specimens of the minerals which they so often contain. The Archaean rocks cover two separate tracts of country in this state, one in its southeastern part known as the Highlands; the other lying in the central portion of the great Adirondack wilderness. Various kinds of rocks are mingled over most of these areas, seeming often to change or gradually pass into each other. The metamorphic masses of gneiss, etc. are more fully exposed (as a general rule) around the edges of the tracts, where they pass under the lower strata of fossiliferous rocks; while the granite, hypersthene and other plutonic masses are more fully developed near the centers of these areas and among the highest of the mountainjsi. Throughout the Archaean districts there are many dykes, or veins of trap or other igneous rock penetrating masses of a dif- ferent character. Not infrequently, a mountain or hill shows = Plutonic, from Pinto, king of the infernal reglon8 in Pagan mythology. 140 NEW TOEK 6TATE MUSEUM such dykes cutting across or througli it for a long distance, and to an unknown depth. These represent cracks or clefts by which the country has been riven and which have been filled by the rise of melted matter from below. They are all sizes, from half an inch to 100 feet or more in thickness. Plutonic diykes are not confined to Archaean regions. Dykes of granite are seen in many places on New York island, penetrat- ing in every direction the Loiwer Silurian mica-schist which forms the masses of its territory. These are examples of a phenomenon frequently observed, viz. : a pliitonic rock penetrating strata of Paleozoic or later age. They are similar in their origin to the out-flows of lava from volcanoes. A prominent example of a late plutonic intrusion is seen in the 'palisades ' of the Hudson, which is described under the Tri- assic rocks. The plutonic and metamorphic rocks generally decompose slowly and produce a poor or barren soil. The districts formed of these rocks are the least fertile in our state, except where over- lying deposits of glacial drift and alluvium furnish a soil which is adapted to tillage and the support of vegetation. Typical Localities of the Archaean The most southern locality of Archaean rock in New York state is on New York island, between 7th and 8th avenues south of 155th street. This is a good exposure and is typical of the Archaean gneiss of southeastern New York. This gneiss is well shown throughout Westchester loounty along the shore of the Hudson, thougli at a few points Lower Silurian limestone and mioa-schist occur. A little north of Peebskill may be seen the granite mountains of the Highlands, which traverse Orange and Putnam counties. These are chiefly massive, though on their flanks are some gneissoid rocks and in many of the valleys are Palaeozoic limestones and schists. Other localities are seen in Dover mountain and in Stissing mountain in Dutchess county. North of this southeastern area, the Archaean rocks are chiefly confined to the region known aa the Adirondack wilderness. n O O El u Q O U 0) O (1< < u a M 0. in a Eh 0) o o "3 * 5 I H Hi O 01 H O o o M < S o z o m a G S a M f a Ml Pi O i-:i Z ^ Hi Is o m Q P B W H 0) Ml sj P. O Oh < o u O la ■< a o m o o n o S O ^i <« C5 a z a a a u o < a a a a, o o H o 15 •«! K O O o a o K b a m z p o S « aj « 3 o H CM a a z ■< n a ■< o « pit O a o ■< It •4 K Z BS a & (4 15 O a p. a o o a si o H Cm o o ■< ,3 > u o Z O a a < u o < n ? be o > o o i4 H O M O Q H O 2; o o o (I. o be O o o o o Hi < O H n "I M a S PLATE XYII.— To face page 140. J. N, Nevius, photo. Empire Marble Co.'s Quarry Near Gouvbrnbur, St. Lawrence Co. Precambrian. OEOLOGIO FOEMATIONS OF NKW YOEK 141 The principal group of mountains, which includes Mt Marcy, is of masisiTe rocks known as norite and anorthosite. The pre- vailing rocks of the wilderness are, however, gneisses of different kinds. In these are many local intrusions of granite and other eruptives. Trap, serpentine and many other rocks of igneous origin are found in all parts of the district. The great route of travel through Lakes George and Champlain is bordered by mountains and cliffs, in which these rocks are seen in great variety. In the Mohawk valley are small exposures of pre-Oambrian, at Littlefalls and near Spraker's. These are important localities and show the relations of ithe over-lying Palaeozoic rocks. Proterozoic or Agnotozoic Eocks of this age are not definitely known in New York. They are well represented in the Lake Superior region by those forma- tions known as Huronian and the copper bearing deposits of the Keeweenaw peninsula. West of the Eocky mountains, they are developed extensively. All rocks between the Archaean and the Cambrian are included. Palaeozoic Upon the plutonic and metamorphic rocks of the Archaean in New York rest directly the Palaeozoic strata which are all fossil-bearing rocks. The Palaeozoic series includes all strata from the base of the Cambrian to the summit of the Carbonif- erous. These stratified fossil-bearing rocks foirm the greater part of the state of New York. At the beginning of the Palaeozoic, all life was marine, prob- ably because the land surfaces were at first too small to materi- ally influence the evolution of living forms. In the Cambrian, crustaceans prevailed, in the Lower Silurian the Cephalopods or cuttle fishes, in the Devonian the soft boned fishes were the dominant type, while in the Carboniferous, fishes and amphibians divided the honors of the sea and the land. 142 NEW YORK STATE MUSBTJM In like manner plant life, beginning with marine forms of low type, gradually developed to the large tree ferns, sigillaria, lyco- pods and equisetae of the coal measures. CAMBEIANo Subdivisions or periods i Sandstone around the Adirondacks Limestone in Dutchess, Washington and Saratoga counties Acadian Limestone in Dutchess county P, . j Rooting slates of Washington county treorgian | Quartzite in Dutchess county The first and lowest Palaeozoic system known in New York is the Cambrian, so called from Cambria, the latin name of Wales, where rocks of this age abound and were first studied by the British geologist, Adam Sedgwick. Our knowledge of the Cam- brian of New York is largely due to the labors of C. D. Walcott, William B. Dwight, and S. W. Ford. The base of the Cambrian system in New York and New Eng- land rests directly upon the Archaean rocks and its limit can be recognized by this fact, as well as by its containing the earliest known fauna. But the termination of the uppermost division is not so apparent, as it grades, both in sediment and fauna, into formations of the Lower Silurian system, thus showing that there was no great physical change to influence the transition. North of the Adirondacks the delimitation is more clearly defined. The strata of the Cambrian system are classified as follows : Upper Cambrian, or Potsdam. The type rock is the sandstone of the northern and eastern borders of the Adirondack mountains, and correlated with it are certain limestones on the south side of the Adirondacks, near Whitehall and Saratoga Springs, and in Dutchess county near Poughkeepsie. The characteristic fossils are the Dikelocephalus trilobites. ' a The descriptions of tlie Georgian and Acadian groups are chleflv from the work of C. D. Walcott, Bulletin No. 81, U. S. Geological Survey. GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS OF NEW YOBK 143 Middle Cambrian, or Acadian. The type rocks are the shales and slates of New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Braintree, Mass., and correlated with them are some limestones in Dutchess county. The characteristic fos- sils are the Paradoxides trilobites. Lower Cambrian, or Georgian. The type rocks are slates, limestones and the ' red sandrock ' of western Vermont; and correlated with them the shales and in- terbedded limestones and roofing slates of Washington and Eens- selaer counties. The characteristic fossils are the Olenellus trilo- bites. Georgian The lowest rock is a bedded quartzite, resting upon the Arch- aean. This is seen on the flank of Stissing mountain, and be- tween Fishkill and Poughquag, in Dutchess county. From here its outcrops extend northeasterly through Massachusetts and Vermont, where it attains a great thickness. At Stissing mountain it passes above into a limestone contain- ing Lower Cambrian fossils. Above this lies a considerable thickness of arenaceous limestone, frequently passing into cal- careous shale, and containing Middle Cambrian fossils. Near Poughkeepsie an extensive limestone formation contains Upper Cambrian fossils. Northward, in Washington county, the quartzite is represented by a great thickness of shales, slates, sandstones and limestones, well shown along a line between Greenwich and Salem, and the superjacent limestones of Dutchess county are entirely replaced in both Eensselaer and Washington counties by slates, shales and sandstones. Mingled fossils of Lower and Middle Cambrian are found at Berlin, Rensselaer county. These formations continue northeastward into Canada. The great belt of roofing slate in western Vermont and Wash- ington county, belongs to this (Georgian) group. The greatest development of this formation is at Georgia, Vt, from which place it extends southward into Washington county, where it Missing Page Missing Page > i o ■. , ' iiirdseye I Chazy . Calcif erous Calciferous Group Overlying the Upper Cambrian or Potsdam sandstone at many points is another, which contains a considerable proportion of lime mingled with it, and from this fact has received the name of the Calciferous sandrock. It may be described as a silicious or gritty limestone, generally of a brownish color, lying in straight, thin layers, and attaining P. O !> X %,ji\t' .^^^^^^^^B^^k^t^SP^^^^^^^^^PtsBlPI^ISSBi ^^M^ '^ JHlMWIIra^^B ^^HHJHHE;, H y ^^^^^HfllSM^fiL ~'^^^' ^ JI^Hn^^^^^^^l ' &'--: ;,. ■ .:.■ ./-■■;■•■-■-:,<:■#:■;- .^ 5: ^^^1' ; ) HB "'^" ^ flgi WYNKCt o a o m M M P a S J H m 1" a o z a CM CD O > H g 3 B B nt M < R. < o « p Z CQ o (s. Q ^ a is O > H CO ft o H I > CM o A a o Eh m H B o Eh z a « tH H -' o H J Q < < g Cb a o m 5 g . P M m rt o Eh p 5 K 2 > o GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS OF NEW TOEK 147 a total thickness of 200 or 300 feet. It is well seen at the ' Noses ' about Fonda on the Mohawk, and also at Littlefalls; in each of which places it has been raised to the surface by an uplift which has brought it from its original position below the Hudson river shales which are common in this region. It iRay SiAzo be .seen near Middleville on West Canada creek (where it contains in its cavities many beautiful quartz crystals), and in many places in the vicinity of Lake Champlain and the St Lawrence river, in which latter region it has some layers so purely calcareous as to be profitably burnt for lime. Outside of the Mohawk valley the Calciferous is a true lime- stone and in parts of Columbia, Dutchess, Putnam, Westchester, Orange and Rockland counties cannot be separated from the Trenton. Trenton Group Above the rocks of the Calciferous group between the Mohawk valley and the Canadian border succeeds a thick series of bedded limestones known as the Trenton group. This group has four principal divisions, Chazy, Birdseye, Black river and Trenton. These four divisions are nowhere all found together. Ghasy Limestone Overlying the Calciferous sandrock in northern New York is a dark, irregular, thick-bedded limestone, which derives its name from the village in Clinton county where it was first studied. Its thickness is about 730 feet on Lake Champlain : but, in strik- ing contrast with the wide extent of many other rocks, it is known only in the Champlain valley, and does not appear to extend in any considerable thickness into those parts of the state west or south of the Adirondack region. It is not seen as a distinct or separate mass in the Mohawk valley, though the rocks above and below it are of well known occurrence outside of New York. Birdseye Limestone The rock which succeeds the Chazy limestone is one well known in the Mohawk valley, as well known along the Black river and 148 NEW TOKK STATE MTTSEUM Lake Cham'plain: it is a fine grained, gray, brittle, limestoBe, 30 feet in its greatest thickness: and the most conspicuous of its fossils is one of which the nature is somewhat obscure, but which was regarded as the stem of some marine plant. S:tr,::iditfg in an upright position, perpendicular to the strata the ends of the stems are seen on the surface of the layers, to which they give a peculiar dotted appearance, from which the rock has derived its name, and by which, as well as by its characteristic color and fracture, it is easily recognized. It is a valuable rock for economical uses, as it is a good building stone, and dresses well under the chisel; it is quarried to a considerable extent at various points in the Mohawk valley. Blade River Limestone To the Birdseye limestone succeeds a thin mass, amounting in all to only 10 or 12 feet, but classed as a distinct rock from having a somewhat peculiar mineral character and containing a peculiar set of fossils. It is a dark, thick-bedded, compact, hard limestone, fine grained and taking a high polish, and is worked as a black marble at Glens Falls on the Hudson river, and at Isle La Motte on Lake Champlain. It is also well seen at Watertown, Jefferson county, in the banks of the Black river from which locality it has been named. In the last place it is lumpy and irregular in texture, and not fit for good masonry or marble ; and is known among quarrymen as ' the seven foot tier.' In the Mohawk valley it seems to have been deposited in only a few places, the Birdseye being generally covered directly by the Trenton. Trenton Limestone Above the Black river limestone (or where this is absent, lying upon the Birdseye), is one of the most interesting repositories of organic remains in the state; a thick group of limestone strata, usually black and fine grained with seams of slate toward the lower part, but gray and crystalline near the top. IS c. o H PLATE XXXI.— To face page 148. N. H. Darton, photo. Upper Gorge, Trenton Palls, Oneida Co. Trenton Limestone. P. o a a z o D PLATE XXXIII.— To face page 14b. N. H. Darton, photo. Trenton Limestone, Spencer Fall,, Trenton Falls, Oneida Co. PLATE XXXIV.— To face page 148. N. H. Darton. photo. Utica Shale, Trenton Limestone and Calciferous Sandrock, Canajoharie, Montgomery Co. GEOLOGIC F0KMATI0N8 OF NEW YORK 149 It attains an entire thickness of more than 300 feet, and, suc- ceeding the lower rocks as already described, its edges surround the great Adirondack region in an almost unbroken circuit. Seen at Glens Falls on the Hudson, along the Mohawk at Fort Plain and elsewhere, on the west shore of Lake Champlain, and at many points on the shores of the St Lawrence, it also outcrops along the valley of the Black river and is crossed by West Canada creek at Trenton Falls, from which place it takes its name. In many places it furnishes building stone of excellent quality. Hudson River Group This formation, which is next in upward succession, is an enor- mous deposit of sandstone, slate and shale. The lower part of the Hudson river group is a fissile black slate about 75 feet thick, known as the Utica slate. The higher strata, to which the name of the Hudson river group is more usually restricted, are gray slaty masses, with coarse sandstones, especially toward the top, and in some places near the summit of the group, a coarse sparry limestone. In the eastern part of the state these rocks are 3,500 feet thick, as shown by a boring near Altamont in Albany county. They are well seen in the north of Oswego county, near Pulaski, the south of Lewis county and the middle of Oneida county; also through the Mohawk valley, and from Glens Falls southward along the Hudson river, from which these strata take their name. West of Schenectady they are generally level and undisturbed; but near the Hudson river these strata are upheaved, broken, folded and faulted in every conceivable manner, as may well be seen in many places near Cohoes and Albany and along the Hud- son river railroad. In much of this disturbed region the rock has been changed in texture by the forces to which it has been subjected and fossils are very rare. That part of New York lying east of the Hudson, and along the western border of New England is formed of an enormous mass of upheaved and contorted strata of slate, schist sandstone and limestone, which were at one time supposed to be older than 150 NEW TOEE STATE MUSEUM the Potsdam sandstone, and were called Taconic. This range of rocks contains very few fossils or none in most localities, and geologists have been obliged to study it without the aid which fossils would have given in explaining the relation and true posi- tion of its confused and contorted strata. The general conclu- sion has been that this series of strata is not a separate and distinct one, but merely the eastward extension of the rocks older than the Medina and Clinton groups, changed in character or ' metamorphosed ' by the effect of heat and pressure. The work of Walcott and others has proved that most of the schistose rocks are of Hudson river age, though a portion of them contain Lower and Middle Cambrian fossils and are therefore distinct. In Westchester and New York counties, rocks of Hudson river age cover large areas. They are, however, metamorphosed into mica schist and contain no fossils. Life of the Lower Silurian The animal life of this system was also marine and chiefly represented by sponges, corals, brachiopods, mollusks and crus- taceans. Cephalopods were the dominant forms and were of great size. Fishes have recently been announced by 0. D. Wal- cott. No land animals are known to have existed except some insects reported from Europe. Vegetable life was represented by sea weeds, though a land plant has been found in Great Britain. UPPER SILURIAN SYSTEM The Upper Silurian system, which is the upper division of the original Silurian system, consists in New York state of the fol- lowing divisions: System Group /'Lower Helderberg Onondaga Salt Group j ^£^™® Upper Silurian ^ Niagara Clinton Medina . Oneida PLATE XXXV.— To face page 150. N. H. Dsrton, photo. Gorge in the Utica Shale South op Cana.toharie. Montgomery Co. o B O < o o a C5 a B K W PLATE XXXVII.— To face page 150. J. N. Nevius, photo. Hudson Rivee Shale in Railroad Cutting. Kenwood. Albany Co. Dit> Vertical. PLATE XXXVIII.— To face page 150. J. F. Kemp, photo. Crumpled Hudson River Schist, with Pegmatite Veins, Opposite 130th St., ON West Side of St. Nicholas Ave., New York City. 0) X 1— ( X XI t^l 1^ *l\ H ^^i y < ^ ^ ^'^ CL, m? 3 O o s o z M o o o M Q H CO O M GEOLOGIC FOKMATIONS OF NEW TOEK 151 Generally speaking, the lowest of these groups lies conform- ably upon the strata of the Hudson river group, — the uppermost of the Lower Silurian, — though in eastern Albany county the Hudson river shales are much disturbed. In regard to this relation it has been said by Dana": ' Oases of intervening erosion may be found, for every period loses by erosion a large part of its deposition in the supply of material for the beds of the following period.' Oneida Conglomerate The Hudson river group is coveted in many places by a bed of conglomerate consisting chiefly of coarse sand and rounded pebbles of quartz, cemented together into a firm mass. Being well developed in Oneida county soutli of Utica, it has received its name frora that of the county. It is the base of the Lower Silurian system. In central New York it is but a few feet in thickness, and indeed seems to be entirely wanting in many places; but in the lower Hudson val- ley it swells to a thickness of several hundred feet and south- west of Rqndout forms the Shawangunk mountain from which it receives the name of Shawangunk grit. From this place its upheaved edges may be traced in the range of hills southeast of the Delaware and Hudson canal and parallel to it, and the same rock forms most of the mountain range of the Kittatinny or lilue Eidge, along which the Delaware flows from Port Jervis, where it leaves New York, to the famous Delaware Water Gap where it cuts through the barrier. From this point, its edge ranges southward to Virginia. No fossils have yet been dis- covered in it: indeed the rolled and worn condition of its ma- terials would indicate that it was formed under agitated waters, which did not allow the growth or preservation of organic forms, i The well known summer resort of Lake Mohonk is on the Shawangunk grit. The ' Eensselaer plateau,' in Rensselaer county, is an ex- tensive outcrop of greenish conglomerate, resting conformably a Man. Geol. pp. sxx 152 NEW YOEK STATE MDSEUM upon the Hudson river schists. This is probably equivalent to tJhe Oneida conglomerate, or possibly the base of the Medina group. The source from which such enormous quantities of rolled pebbles of quartz could have been derived and the mode by which they could have been spread so widely over a sea bottom is a very obscure question in geology. Several other such forma- tions of conglomerate are fenown, two of which occur at the lower and middle parts of the Carboniferous system. Medina Sandstone The next succeeding group is that named from a village in Or- leans county where it is well exposed. It is a huge mass of sandy and shaly rock, of very variable hardness from soft marl to hard sandstone, and varying in color from deep red to olive and light gray. It is not known in the far west, seeming to thin out and disappear before reaching Wiscon- sin, but is well seen on the Niagara river, where it forms most of the precipice near Lewiston. At this point the lower part is a soft red shale, with harder and lighter colored layers above, to one heavy bed of which the cables of the Lewiston suspension bridge are fastened. This sandstone may also be seen in the lower part of the river clifFs, extending as far as the upper Suspension Bridge. The same rock is quarried near the lower part of Lockport for building and flagstone, and it forms the lower falls of the Genesee at Eochester, at the top of which the hard uppermost layer, called the ' Gray band,' is very conspicuous from its light color. Further east, the same rock forms the falls of the Oswego river at Fulton; but in the Mohawk valley it thins out, and disappears. In southeastern New York, however, near Eon- dout, it re-appears and is very thick at the Delaware water gap in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, reaching, in the latter state, the thickness of 1,000 feet; and it may be recognized as far south as Alabama. > ' : I o CM bo o .-1 a o o o J O Q O a K EH o o 03 O PLATE XLII.— To face page J52. N. H. Darton, photo. AwosTiNG PaI/LS Over Shawangunk Grit, Peterkill WASKA, Ulster Co. Near Lake Minne- Oneida Conglomerate. ■0,4 d <1 g H s z o o g 3 « s s a o PLATE XLVI.— To face page 152. J. N. Nevius, photo. BEACH MARKINGS ON MEDINA SANDSTONE, LOCKPORT, NIAGARA CO. ORIGINAL SLAB 53 INCHES BY 32 INCHES. to 0) m n < ai H M g Q a a H o n a o3 ft o I > X m o H Z O l§ I fl5 fl^a a g ^ « o ft o Eh U O M U o Z O Z z o a aj pi] »^ 5 » Pi ■ P-fl o el E SH ■cs ; bOca S-o OS'S ■0 4A jq OJ CA 00 a to o 1-5 (l4 Q ■< Z o H g o g 3 m o J M 0} H n : ' '' 1 ^■;;, .- ^^^H^^^I^^HP^^H^^^-* ' ^siBBI^^^^Ii^B }.0^r^--'''^ ■:'.'■ is W'' ' ^ i; ^.^5^^,/^^' ^^ o > P o J « ■g, O - « Is OS M a a o J < a o o < Pi ■"I o < o a P3 z o in o H m o a o o < a < a n Oh' II Z 5 a o Z o z r^ 15 60 .9 .5 ^ 53! o K u M o PS II 01 a Ed i-i < P o a a < z. o o PLATE LXI.— To face page 154. Salina j shales. < Niagara ' -t limsstone. Clinton shales. N. H. Darton. photo. Upper Silurian Rock.s in Road Cut Near Howe's Cave, Schoharie Co. o H 11^ « o Eh o Q Z Z < o a ■< z z o g 3 o 'A GEOLOGIC FOKMATIGNS OF NEW TOEK 155 portion is generally a dark gray slaty rock, with layers of impure limestone, well seen along the Auburn and Syracuse railroad. The important salt springs of Syracuse being derived from these rocks, they received originally the name of Onondaga salt group. In the days of the original Natural History Survey, the salt was not found in solid masses, though the gray part of the rock in some places showed impressions of the peculiar 'hopper shaped ' crystals of halite or rock salt, proving that it once ex- isted there in small quantities. It is now known to be diffused in beds and lenses through large extents of these strata, through which in places the surface water percolates and bears the salt in solution to the deep basin at Salina. This was fonnd, by bor- ing, to be several hundred feet in depth, filled with gravel and sand, in which the salt water seemed to lie as in a reservoir, and from which it is raised by the pumps for the supply of the evap- orating works. The Onondaga lake, which is a comparatively shallow body of fresh water, lies over this deep mass of gravel, but has a water tight bottom of marl which keeps its fresh waters separate from the salt waters below. During the past 18 years a large industry has been developed from the boring of salt wells in New York state at points dis- tant from Syracuse, at Warsaw and in the Genesee valley. These wells show that rock salt in beds and lenticular masses varying in thickness from a few inches to 150 feet is abundantly interca- lated between the layers of shale and limestone of the Salina group. This salt being easily soluble in water does not appear at the surface of the ground nor within reach of surface waters. The upper drab or gray shales of this group contain great quantities of gypsum, which is quarried extensively from Madi- son county westward. The rock over the masses of gypsum often seems arched, as if this mineral, in forming, through some chem- ical chamge, had exerted an upward pressure, lifting the overlying masses. The whole group is remarkably destitute of organic remains; not a single fossil having been found in the lower part or red shale, and but a small number in the upper portion at a few localities. 156 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The Onondaga-salt group is hardly seen in New York east of Herkimer county. The succeeding formation, however, which is grouped with the Salina is fairly persistent. Waterlime Overlying the salt-bearing rocks and forming with them the On- ondaga group is the Waterlime, a succession of dark-colored, fine- grained and straight-bedded layers of limestone, attaining in Mad- ison county a thickness of over 100 feet. It lies immediately over the gray and drab limestones of the upper part of the salt group, and is not divided from them by any very distimct or sudden change in the appearance of the strata. The name is given from the waterlime or hydraulic cement which is extensively manufac- tured from two of the layers toward their upper part: these are generally of a drab color, and separated from each other by a thin mass of blue limestone. They are quarried, burnt and ground on a very large scale near Manlius in Onondaga county, and the hydraulic cement of Eosendale and Eondout is made from the same beds. That manufactured at Williamsville, Erie county, and at Buffalo, is from the upper limestones of the SaJina group below; and in Niagara and Orleans counties, a similar cement is made from some layers of the Niagara group. HELDEEBEEG EOCKS Above the formations already described succeeds a thick series of strata, chiefly limestone, separated by sandstone and grit rocks, first described under the general name of the Helderberg rocks, as they formed the great escarpment of the Helderberg moun- tains in Albany county. Prom this place their edges may be followed southward in the hills lying west of the Hudson river, past the base of the Catskill mountains, and through Ulster county as far as Kingston and Eondout; whence their outcrops bend south westward and extend along the hills west of the valley of the Delaware and Hudson canal, passing out of the state near the northwest corner of New Jersey. They run still farther south- westward, are seen above the Delaware Water Gap, and their O « tH H t* ?; .d o a ^ « ^ J & < a H F< Oi J & El" tl O a z o Q Z a H O a < 6B [ o a s J < K a GEOLOGIC FOEMA'TIONS OF NEW TOEK 157 lower strata are traceable in the Appalachians as far as Tennes- see, though their upper limestones do not extend beyond the Susquehanna. In following them westward from Albany county, we find the lower limestones and sandstones thin out rapidly, not extending beyond the Niagara in any considerable thickness, while the upper limestones are found spreading into the far west. This series of rocks which may be considered collectively in its effect on topography, belongs partly to the Upper Silurian sys- tem and partly to the Devonian and may be divided into two parts; the Lower Helderberg limestones which are of Upper Silu- rian age, and the Oriskany sandstone and Upper Helderberg lime- stones which are included in the Devonian. Lower Helderberg Group The subdivisions of this group are as follows: ThicknesB Scutella limestone Upper Pentamerus Delthyris, or Catskill shaly limestone 100 ft. Lower Pentamerus limestone 65 ft. in Albany county Tentaculite limestone 30 ft. " The Scutella limestone, nam'^d from a fossil crinoid which it contains, is the uppermost member of the group where it occurs, but it has not been found associated with the Upper Pentamerus. The Lower Pentamerus limestone is coarse-grained, thick- bedded and often a concretionary limestone; while the Catskill limestone is in thin layers, with much shaly or slaty matter in- terstratifled with it. The Lower Helderberg group has its greatest development in Albany and Schoharie counties; the subdivisions above given may be differentiated in Greene, Albany and Schoharie counties, but west of the last county they are not distinct and the group itself is indistinguishable from the Salina formation, at the sur- face, M'est of Seneca lake. In the Ldvonia salt shaft, however, about 35 feet of limestone was found containing Tentaculite fos- > 15 ft. in Albany county 158 NEW TOEK STATE MUSEUM sils. It may, with the waterlime, be traced through Pennsyl- vania and Virginia, but is very thin and not found everywhere, having been deposited locally in areas of no great extent. Life of the Upper Silurian There is no radical difference between the general character of the fossil remains of this system, and those of the Lower Silurian, but of several thousand species found in the Upper Silurian, only a few occur also in the Lower Silurian, and the animal forms are nearly all marine. Sea weeds were very abun- dant and a few land plants, similar to equisetae, occur. DEVONIAN SYSTEM This system takes its name from Devonshire in England where its rocks were studied by Sir Roderick Murchison. The Devonian was the age of fishes, since fishes were the pre- vailing type. America has probably the most complete series known of the Devonian rocks but they have a comparatively limited extent. The Devonian rocks contain much carbon in the form of bituminous shales and it has been suggested that there may be more carbon in the Devonian than the Carboniferous. These rocks are well developed in New York but the vertebrate life of the system is better shown in other states. System Devonian Group Chemung Portage Hamilton Corniferous Oriskany Stage ( Gardeau shales ( Cashaqua " Genesee " Tully limestone Moscow shale ] Encrinal limestone Ludlowville shale iMarcellus " Corniferous limestone Onondaga " Schoharie grit i Cauda Galli grit ( Oriskany sandstone to O — © PLATE LXVIII.— To face page 158, N. H. Darton, photo. Sink in the Lower Heldbrberg Limestone West of Coxsackie. Greene Co. be ft O z o Eh m H g 3 o « a o J o f s H PLATE LXX.— To face page 158. N. H. Darton, photo. Cliff of Lower Pentamerus Limestone, Near Indian Ladder, Albany Co. GEOLOQIO FOEMATION8 OF NEW TOEK 159 Oriskany sandstone This rock which overlies the Lower Helderberg group, is, at Oriskany Falls, whence it derives its name, a coarse light colored sandstone about 20 feet thick. In localities further west it is somei:imes, as at the falls of the Chittenango creek and at Split Rock near Syracuse, either wanting or represented only by a few inches of dark sandy rock; sometimes, as between Elbridge and Skaneateles, 30 feet thick; and in other localities, of various intermediate thicknesses. Near Schoharie, it contains some lime with its sand, and is light colored; in some parts of the Helder- berg region, as near Clarksville, and Knox, it is only a foot or two thick, a hard, dark colored stratum full of fossils and having" on its upper surface myriads of impressions of the Spirophyton Cauda galli. In Pennsylvania, it is from 150 feet to 300 feet in thickness, and contains the same organic remains which are found in it in New York. Cauda Galli Grit Above the Oriskany sandstone, in the Helderberg region, is a mass of sandy slate or shale, often more than fifty feet thick; but it is not known west of Herkimer county. In Pennsylvania, it is seen from the state line to the Wa/ter Gap. It is valuable as a road metal though not very durable and forms, by decom- posing, a poor soil. It is equally barren in fossils, the only form known being what is called the Cocktail fucoid, Spirophyton Cauda galli, supposed to be the remains of a marine plant, the form of which resembles the peculiar plumage from which it is named. The abundance of this fossil has given the rock in which it lies the name of ' Cauda gaJli grit.'' Schoharie Grit Upon it lies the Schoharie grit, a thin mass, usually only four or five feet of hard calcareous sandstone, which, when freshly quarried, looks like a gray limestone, but when long weathered, a This important fact is not noted by either Mather or Linciclaen though it must have been observed by them, F. J. H. M. If A.S I have noted under Oriskany, this fossil is not confined to the Cauda galli and occurs on the Oriskany- sandstone. F S. H. M. 160 NEW TOEK STATE MUSEUM loses its carbonate of lime and becomes a gritty yellowish sand- stone. It is found only from Cherry Valley eastward, extending round the front of the Helderbergs and along the hills west of the Hudson, but does not appear to be known in Pennsylvania. Upper Helderberg or Corniferous Limestone This which lies above the Schoharie grit, Cauda galli grit and Oriskany sandstone, and where these are wanting, together with the Lower Helderberg, as in western New York, rests immedia- tely on the waterlime group, is one of the most widely known and useful limestones of the state. The lower portion, from 10 to 20 feet in thickness, is generally a coarse-grained crystalline gray rock, and, when free from chert, working well under the hammer and chisel, and often taking a good polish as a marble. It is called, from being very extensively quarried in Onondaga county, the Onondaga Limestone. It is easily traced from near Rondout on the Hudson to the Helderbergs in Albany county, where its outcropping edge turns westward, and extends past Schoharie, Cherry Valley, Bridgewater, Oriskany falls, the falls of the Chit- tenango below Cazenovia, Split Eock, Auburn, Phelps, Le Roy, and Williamsville to Black Rock. Through nearly all this dis- tance it preserves its well marked character, and is extensively used in building. The upper portion of the group is what was originally called the Corniferous limestone, from its containing beds and nodules of hornstone or chert: it is usually from 30 to 50 feet thick, a bluish or grayish rock, often having some shale interstratifled with it. Though these two portions of the Upper Helderberg limestone are in most places very distinct, yet in others, especially in the west, they seem to run together or blend in one mass; so that they are now regarded only as local varieties of a single rock. Upper Devonian Rocks In the Upper Helderberg group, we have the last or highest formation of limestone of any considerable extent or thickness in the state. All the southern counties, lying above or south of o o a g o o > J J a n o o 1" o h" z o a a fa z oj o o Vi^^ GEOLOGIC FOEMATIONS OF NEW TOEK 161 the line of outcrop of the Onondaga and Oorniferous limestones as before described, are nearly destitute of this useful rock; being formed of vast deposits of slaty, shaly, and sandy strata, several thousand feet in thickness, the exposures of which extend south- ward from a few miles south of the Erie canal to beyond the Pennsylvania line. These rocks give rise to peculiarities in the topographic feat- ures of the country which they underlie, and in its soil and vegetable productions. Containing little lime, the culture of wheat does not generally succeed well upon them; nor does the central wheat growing district extend over them for more than a few miles south of the limestone range, except in a few alluvial valleys, or places where calcareous materials from the limestone belts have been strewed over the southern shales by glacial action, of which we shall speak hereafter. Grazing and dairying are almost exclusively the pursuits of the farmer. The most marked physical features of this great extent of country are its deep valleys and long hills, usually extending in a north and south direction, as an inspection of any map will show. Some of these long north and south valleys dam- med by drift deposits are the basins of that remark- able series of lakes beginning with Otsego, and com- prising Canaseraga, Cazenovia, Otisco, Skaneateltes, Owasco, Cayuga, Seneca, Crooked, Canandaigua, Honeoye, Canadice, Hemlock, and Conesus; all so similar in general form and direction, and in the shape and geological formation of their en- closing hills. Over the whole extent of these rocks, the country is ' rolling,' or broken into ridges generally running north and south, and rising from one to eight hundred feet above the main valleys; and it is rarely that we find among them a plain half a mile wide, except in a few of the ' bottom-flats ' or alluvial lands along the larger rivers, such as the Genesee. These rocks are generally quite uniform in their character, especially in the eastern part of the state near the Hudson valley, and might be grouped into one enormous formation 5,000 feet or more in thickness, except for a few variations in texture, and 162 NEW YOEK STATE MU8KTJM some more marked differences in the fossils of their lower, middle, and higher portions, on account of which they have been separ- ated and described under the successive divisions of the Mar- cellus, Hamilton, Genesee, Portage, Chemung and Catskill. Hamilton group The Hamilton group, named from its exposure at Hamilton, Madison county, consists of the following sub-divisions. Group Stage /^Genesee Tully -rr .1. J i Moscow shale ] Hamilton < Encrinal limestone I ( Ludlowville shale I Marcellus Marcbllus Shale ■ The lowest division, resting immediately on the Upper Helderberg limestone, was named from the village of Marcellus, near which it is well exposed. It is a mass of dark, fissile, short- fractured shale, one or two hundred feet in thickness, in most places containing layers of impure limestone and rounded con- cretions of similar material in its lower part. At the village of Stafford in Genesee county, a thin limestone is well exposed about 40 feet above the base of the Marcellus. It has been called by Prof. J. M. Clarke, the Stafford Limestone, and extends from central New York to Lake Erie. In Onondaga county the Goniatite limestone replaces the Staf- ford limestone. These shales closely resemble those of the coal formation and sometimes contain thin seams of coaly or bituminous matter, which have misled many persons to spend consider- able sums in digging and boring in them, with the illfounded expectation of finding useful layers of coal. This is an idle hope, for they lie thousands of feet below the Carboniferous system, beneath which no valuable coal strata have ever been found. Ml a o y. < ft O m {-I < ^ ■ 111 = 1 y a; Si C3 O 1=1 < 0^ bo cS a o > m H o . ^ . a « a . 2 o Pi z < M z o a Q « a p< (1. P S-o bo ci a :V«V^« I'Tl Tit v,7 1 J.'- - ■. i' ,r, M I, ■. •' ■ (' f.'V ■ 1' o o (u . oil tH ® Si a, o o H > o Hi < Z geologic foemations of new toek 163 Hamilton Shale The Marcellus shales change gradually at their higher part into the Hamilton shale which is a harder, lighter colored mass, often containing sandstones, and, in central New York and as far east as the Catskill range, is 1,000 feet or more in thickness. Like the Marcellus shale, many parts of it show few marks of stratification; but it is divided vertically by joints, which, where it is excavated, are often as upright and smooth as the walls of a plastered building. In the more eastern part of the state, it is generally coarse-grained and sandy; in western New York, it is fine-grained, soft and more calcareous, forming by its decomposition a rich fioil. In the survey of the fourth district Hall divided the Hamilton into three parts; at the base the Ludlowville shale, overlaid by the Encrinal limestone and at the summit the Moscow shale. The Ludlowville and Moscow horizons take their name from localities in western New York. The Encrinal limestone is named from its prevailing fossil. TULLY LIMESTONE The Hamilton group terminates in central New York with a very impure dark limestone, about 10 feet thick, which received its name from the village of Tully in Onondaga county. In the eastern and western parts of the state this rock does not exist, as it extends only from Ontario county to Madison, and beyond these limits the Genesee slate lies directly on the Hamilton group. The Tully limestone contains some fossils which are common to it and the lower shales. Genesee The next rock in upward order is the Genesee, a series of layers of thin-bedded, fissile, black slate, in some places 150 feet thick, but diminishing westward so that it is only about 25 feet on Lake Erie. It is, however, distinctly recognized in Pennsylvania, where it is some 300 feet thick. It derives its name from one of its best localities in this state, the gorge of the Genesee river 164 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM below Portage. It is generally recognized by its black, soft, slaty texture, but its fossils are very rare. Portage group This name has been given to the next higher portion of the great slaty and shaly masses, which form the walls of deep gorge of the Genesee at Portage and cover everywhere on the south the Hamilton group and Genesee slates. This enormous pile of sandy, slaty and shaly strata is in some parts of the state 1,000 feet in thickness : it was divided by Prof. Hall into a lower mass called the Cashaqua shale, a middle mass called the Gardeau shale and flagstones, and a terminal mass of sandstones seen at Portage; but in middle and eastern New York, these divisions are not distinct. Much of this group is a soft olive-colored shale; but its most useful portions are its layers of flagstone, which are largely quar- ried near Norwich and Ithaca, on the hills back of the Helder- bergs, on those west of the Hudson river as far down as Bondout; and in Sullivan county near the Delaware river. Prom Chenango and Broome counties eastward to Greene county the Portage is represented by the Oneonta formation which forms the lower 1,000 feet of the Catskill mountain strata. The soft shales of the Portage group contain many of the con- cretions known as Septaria, which also occur in the Marcellus shales. Chemung group To the Portage succeeds the Chemung, so called from being well exhibited at the ' Narrows ' of the Chemung river, near Waverly, in Tioga county. Its thickness of 1,000 or 1,500 feet is made up of a series of thin-bedded sandstones with intervening shales and occasional beds of impure limestone mainly formed by the materials of fossil shells. In many places it abounds with fossils. While well developed in central and western New York the Chemung, as a group of fine sediments, disappears to the eastward and is represented by the Catskill formation. a o O i K a o •I* A- V,-. %if -'si ^,««**-/ * i o o a O & D O a mU-P I 'A o o t»' CO A '' >/ Relief Map of the Eastern Catskill MotJNTAiNS and the Hudson river Valley. GEOLOGIC F0EMATI0N8 OF NEW TOEK 165 Catskill group The Chemung passes or changes eastward into the Catskill, an enormous series of shaly and sandy strata, which covers all the upper range of the Catskill mountains, and many of the higher tracts of the southern counties as far west as Steuben. In the latter county it is only a thin mass of calcareous sandstone, and farther west it thins out and disappears entirely; but in the Cats- kill region it is probably 2,500 feet thick, and twice as much in Pennsylvania; whence it is found southward along the mountain ridges, but in thinner volume. The beds of this series are varied in color, being greenish gray sandstones, fine-grained reddish sandstones, slates, shales, grind- stone grits and an aocretionary mass appearing like fragments of hard slate cemented in calcareous rock. The hard sandstone often weathers in a peculiar way, dividing into thin layers almost like piles of boards- ' ' , The fossils of this rock are very few. Recent studies of this group suggest that it is not entitled to distinct recognition but is equivalent to the Chemung and perhaps to the Portage. Re- mains of plants are numerous, forming occasionally tiny seams of coal; and in some localities are teeth, bones and scales of fiishes. The latter are often conspicuous objects, as they are usually white or bluish in color, and contrast strongly with the red rock. Life of the Devonian In the Devonian is observed a marked general advance in the character of life on the globe. ■Sponges were few. -Brachiopods were varied and numerous. MoUusks were abundant. Corals were highly developed and very numerous. ! ' ' Fishes were the dominant type and appear to have supplanted the immense cephalopods which ruled in the Lower Silurian seas. Plant life was well represented on land, especially by ferns. Conifers also existed. The abundant flora which gave rise to the coal formations of the Carboniferous first became prominent in the Devonian. 166 NEW TOEK STATE MTJSETJM CARBONIFEKOUS SYSTEM This system took its name from the fact of its being the chief coal bearing formation of Europe. The Carboniferous is not well represented in New York; some of the uppermost sandstones, shales and conglomerates near the Pennsylvania boundary are undoubtedly of this age, but they contain no fossils. In the endeavor to identify the Carboniferous strata of New York, it has been necessary to take up the known strata of this age in Pennsylvania and trace them, so far as possible, into New York. The gradation from the rocks of the Devonian to those of the Carboniferous is not abrupt. On either side of the assumed boundary plane are greenish gray shales and sandstones without distinctive characters. For the present purpose it is necessary to describe the succession of the Pennsylvania rocks and indi- cate their occurrence in New York. Sub-Carboniferous, Pocono group Above the uppermost Devonian sandstones lie the rocks which are considered to be the base of the Carboniferous system. They are mainly sandstones with occasional beds of conglomerate. This conglomerate is said to occur on some of the peaks of the Catskills, but it has not yet been recognized in southwestern New York. Sandstones of Pocono age doubtless occur in New York near the Pennsylvania boundary but they have no fossils. The Pocono formation attains a thickness of more than 2,500 feet in Pennsylvania on the Susquehanna river. Some thin seams of coal occur in it. It contains no fossils except fragments of plants. Mauch Chunk group The Pocono is succeeded by a formation called the Mauch Chunk group, which, in Pennsylvania, is about 3,000 feet in its greatest thickness, though far less in some districts. It is almost entirely composed of soft, red shales and argillaceous red sand- GEOLOGIC F0EMATI0N8 OF NEW YOEK 167 stones seen in the northern counties and generally around the edges of the different coal fields. In southern Pennsylvania it includes limestones. This formation has not bedli recognized in New York. Pottsville conglomerate The Mauch Chunk red shale is covered by a thick series of strata, known as the Pottsville conglomerate. It is a gray and whitish conglomerate, in massive beds alternating with gray sandstones, and consists mainly of rolled and rounded quartz pebbles cemented with ferruginous sand into a solid mass. Some of its finer or more sandy layers often show lamination in a diagonal or slanting direction. It is 1,700 feet thick at its maxi- mum and often contains one or more thin seams of coal; being the lowest horizon in which any considerable quantity of that mineral has yet been found. It is remarkably massive in its general appearance, the ledges often separating into huge blocks with wide fissures between, which have been fancifully compared to ruined cities. Such localities are to be seen in New York six miles south of Olean, seven miles south of Ellicottville and near Wellsville, where they are popularly called * rock-cities.' This is locally known as the Olean conglomerate. The ' rock cities ' lie on high points not far from the Pennsyl- vania line and are simply remnants of the conglomerate left far north of the main body of the rock by the wear and tear of the elements, which, going on through ages, has worn away this mas- sive stratum over a great extent of country. They are impressive monuments to the vastness of that erosion, which has left them in this isolated position and which will in the course of future centuries demolish them entirely. This conglomerate is the highest and latest formed of all Palae- ozoic rocks known within the limits of New York. In Pennsyl- vania it is the base of the ' Productive Coal-measures,' as the strata containing workable layers of coal are called. They are made up of thick beds of sandstones and black shale, with which the coal layers are interstratified. The coal strata are of all thicknesses, from a few inches up to 20 or even 168 NEW TOBK STATE MUSEUM 100 feet, and are separated from each other by masses of rock from 10 or 20 to 200 or 300 feet thick, and are mined in various ways according to their situation. Geologic investigation in all coal regions has led to the conclu- sion that the strata of coal are composed of vegetable matter, which during the Carboniferous epoch appears to have reached an enormous and luxuriant growth, and formed vast accumula- tions, which after being buried under the marine sediments of clay and sand which now form the shales and sandstones over them, underwent chemical changes which transformed them to their present condition. The proofs of this are found in the fact that the rocks above and below the coal seams are filled with vegetable remains, leaves, stems, roots, etc.; the trunks of the trees being in some places found still erect and standing upon their roots, but converted into coal ; and that even the coal itself, though in most cases it is solidified into one mass so as to show no organic structure, displays in other instances, under the microscope, all the structure of wood; the cells, the ducts through which the sap once circulated, and even minute markings by which it can be determined whether the wood belonged to one or another general class of trees. The vegetable origin of all coal is well established; but the mode in which great accumulations of it were made, over such vast areas, is yet an obscure question. A single bed of coal, that called the Pittsburgh seam, is known to extend over no less than 14,000 square miles, with a usual thickness of from four to ten feet. Other layers, though less in extent, are much greater in thickness, reaching even 100 feet. The prevailing opinion is that it grew in enormous morasses or swampy tracts, resembling on a larger scale the Great Dismal swamp, or the Okefinokee swamp of Georgia, in which the annual fall of leaves, branches, and trunks through a long period of time formed thick peaty masses, which, being submerged under the sea and covered with sedi- ments, became the vast deposits of fossil fuel which are now of so great importance. GEOLOGIC ITOKMATIONS OF NEW YORK 169 The fossils of the coal measures are almost entirely vegetable. In the slates above the coal seams, most perfect and beautiful impressions of leaves occur in profusion; and large trunks or stems are found, almost always compressed to a thickness of only an inch or two, though two feet or more in width. The greater part of these trees seem to have been allied to the tree-ferns of tropical climates, though there are remains of coniferous trees and several other vegetable families. The character of this fossil vegetation would seem to indicate that at the time it grew, a far warmer climate than that now known prevailed over the tem- perate and arctic zones. The fact that coal is of vegetable origin, seems to explain why the lower rocks which form the state of New York contain no coal. 'They appear to have teen formed before terrestrial vegetation flourished to an extent sufficient to form accumulations of this sub- stance. The first relics of land plants are found in the Upper Silurian ; above this they become more numerous and in the Catskill group of the Devonian are quite abundant, forming occasionally minia- ture coal seams an inch thick. In the Carboniferous rocks they increase suddenly to an enor- mous quantity, and in later formations are found in considerable, but generally in less abundance. Ooal is also found in newer roicks, such as the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary. The coal or lignite beds of the central part of the continent near the Eocky mountains, belong to the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. The coal of Vancouver island on the Pacific coast is Cretaceous. The coal beds near Eichmond, Virginia, are of Triassic age. The con- clusions to be drawn from our present knowledge are that good coal is found above the Carboniferous system, but never below it. Permian This formation which is well developed in Europe, taking its name from the Province of Perm, in Eussia, is not known to exist in New York state. It occurs in Texas and its vicinity. It has been suggested that some of the uppermost deposits commonly 170 NEW TOEK STATE MUSEUM known as Carboniferous in Pennsylvania, should be referred to this horizon. Life of the Carboniferous Animals Foraminifera were abundant. 'Sponges were well represented. Reef building corals were scarce. Orinoids were abundant. Brachioipods were large and numerous. , i Mollusks were prominently represented by cephalopods. The fishes of the Carboniferous were rery numerous and were principally sharks and ganoids. The presence of amphibians was the prominent feature in the life of the Carboniferous; their bones occur in the coal measures. The largest were about the size of alligators. Before the close of the Carboniferous, reptiles appeared. Plants Vegetable life was well represented by ferns, lycopods, equi- setae, conifers and cycads. These were the plants which sup- plied the vegetable tissue which forms the coal beds. Mesozoic Time The Mesozoic presents a marked contrast to the Palaeozoic. The sea was peopled with fishes. Cephalopods were most promi-. nent among the mollusks. True reptiles which appeared in the Permian were large and numerous and reached their highest development.! Mammals appeared as a new element but held a subordinate position. They were at first quite small. There was a complete change in the vegetation. Sigillaria and calamites disappeared and the age of gymnosperms succeeded that of acrogens or pteridophyta. Arborescent conifers were very large and abundant. The cycads occupied the place of the palms of the present day. The Mesozoic series includes the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretace- ous systems. GEOLOGIC rOEMATIONS OF NEW TOBK 171 TRIASSIO SYSTEM This system received its name in Germany where it consists of three distinct members. In England it is known as the New Red Sandstone and contains the salt deposits of that country. West of the Mississippi river the Triassic is well represented in the United States, but in the east it is found only in narrow troughs on the east side of the Appalachian chain and approxi- mately parallel to it. It is well developed in the Connecticut valley and is again found near Stony Point, New York, from which locality it extends southwest across Eockland county into New Jersey, thence through Pennsylvania and Virginia. In the latter state it includes the Deep and Dan river coal basins which are of considerable importance. The Triassic deposits of New York and New England were apparently formed in estuaries and consist of shales and sand- stones. These bear ripple marks, sun cracks, rain prints and the foot prints of enormous biped reptiles with three toes. These were at first supposed to be bird tracks. Fishes are also abund- ant in the sandstones of New York and New Jersey. The eastern Triassic rocks are imi>ortant as having furnished the greater part of the brown sandstone, which is used so exten- sively for building houses in our eastern cities. The Triassic period was also characterized by eruptions of igneous rock, which formed the well known trap dykes of Connecticut and New Jer- sey. In the latter state the most prominent is that known as the ' Palisades of the Hudson,' which extend along the west shore of the Hudson river from Staten Island to a point north- west of Nyack. At the level of the river the rock is a nearly horizontally stratified red sandstone; but between the bedding planes a vast volume of melted rock has been injected, and in cooling has assumed the rudely crystalline or columnar struc- ture so common in basaltic or trap rocks. The broken edge of this enormous sheet of trap, fronting on the river, form's the precipice so well known as ' the Palisades.' The Orange moun- tains are also of the same formation. 172 NEW rOEK STATE MUSEtTM Life of the Triassio period In the Triassic was the reign of the amphibians, some of which were very large. The m'ost highly developed was the labyrin- thodon, which had the form of a frog and was as large as an ox. Reptiles were very large and numerous but their remains are more abundant in Europe than America. The mammalian fauna was insignificant; fishes were numerous; mollusks were abun- dant, but were not a prevailing type. JURASSIC SYSTEM The connection between the Triassic and Jurassic is very close and the passage is very gradual. The Jurassic takes its name from the Jura mountains of France and Switzerland, which are chiefly composed of the rocks of this age. In eastern North America the Jurassic is moderately developed, and it is con- sidered that a part of the Triassic sandstone, already described, may have been deposited during this age. West of the Mississippi the Jurassic is well developed. Life of the Jurassic period The Jurassic was especially characterized by the prominence of reptilian life which appeared in a great variety of forms and occupied every place in nature. Reptiles were large and numerous, in the ocean and on land. Even in the air immense lizards with wings like those of a bat were abundant. In this age the first of the birds appears. This was the archaeopteryx, found in the slates of Solenhofen, Germany, a bird which was rudimentary in its development. The wings were short and also the wing feathers which were radiated. The tail was vertebrated and the vertebrae bore feathers. It had no teeth. The sharks and ganoid fishes were large and abundant. The mammals were numerous, but subordinate in rank, not being larger than rats and opossums. In this system also was the culmination of the ammonite fam- ily, a group of coiled cephalopods named from their resemblance to the horns on the statues of Jupiter Ammon. As the cephalo- o H > Eh "J PLATE LXXXVIll.— To face page 172. Triassic Diabase. S. R. Stoddard, photo. The Palisades op the Hudson. View Northward from Englewood Cliffs. N. J. p. X z ■< o q" ■>! Eh Z O S a a z M O EH O fa ■s « Z SI z H O S FP H J Eh K O o W . O H O M CO « H ^ Z fe °l o n a PLATE XCI.— To face page 172. J. N. Nevius, photo. Reptilian Footprints on Triassic Sandstone, Turner's Palls, Mass. Original Slab IS Inches bt 27 Inches. o H M a p 01 g Oh GEOLOGIC FOEMATIONS OF NEW TOEK 173 pods were represented in great development by the orthoceras in the Lower Silurian seas, so were they represented by the am- monite in the Jurassic. The orthoceras disappeared after the Triassic age. The smaller mollusks were also abundant and began to assume more nearly the features of those which occur at the present day. At this time the oyster made its appearance. CEETACEOUS SYSTEM The Jurassic system was succeeded by the Cretaceous. This received its name in Europe from the chalk formation, which in England and France is very prominent, being several hun- dred feet thick. The chalk is a limestone which has not been consolidated. If it had been exposed to the same agencies as the Palaeozoic limestones it would probably like them have been consolidated to form a hard rock. A large part of the chalk consists of skeletons and shells of foraminifera, some of the species being found in the ocean at the present day. With these foraminifera, which are mostly calcareous, are the remains of other minute animals called polycystines which are silicious and also the spicules of sponges. These, by some chemical action, have been gathered together and consolidated into nodules of flint which is a variety of quartz similar in composition to the horn- stone of the Corniferous and other limestones. Hornstone is also called chert and has furnished the material for most of the North American Indian arrow-heads which are commonly called flint arrow-heads. As a matter of fadt the true flint does not occur in America and technically American flint arrow-heads are made of chert or hornstone. It is not impossible, however, that early traders from England may have supplied our Indians with flint from Europe. In America there is but little chalk, although the Cretaceous system is largely developed. It extends from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic ocean in a belt 200 miles wide. On the Atlantic coast Cretaceous deposits are found beneath the Tertiary and consist chiefly of sand and clay. The clays which occur on Long 174 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Island and are well represented from Staten Island to the Ticin- ity of Camden, New Jersey, are important in tne manufacture of pottery. Some of the clay beds contain plant remains and about 50 species of land plants have been recognized here. Among these are many genera which exist at the present day, such as the cinnamon, sassafras, oak, gum etc. The character of this vegetation suggests that a temperate climate prevailed in this region during cretaceous time. A little later, in the Ter- tiary, a sub-tropical climate prevailed in what are now the Arctic regions. West of the Mississippi the Cretaceous deposits of our country are divided into three principal groups; the Dakota, which consists of sandstone and conglomerate with beds of clay; the Colorado, a group of limestone and bituminous shales; and the Laramie, which is a bed of passage into the Tertiary and con- tains important deposits of lignite, a variety of coal. Life of the Cretaceous period In the Cretaceous, mammals were still insignificant. The mem- bers of the ammonite group of the cephalopoda, were numerous and varied in form. The other mollusks were closely allied to those of the present day. Many bony fishes appeared and sup- planted the ganoid fishes which had previously prevailed. The reptilian fauna was prominent, but became greatly diminished before the tertiary. With the close of tliis period occurred a great change in the life of the globe. I i Cenozoic Time Following the close of the Mesozoic age begins the Cenozoic, which includes the Tertiary and Quaternary systems and is char- acterized by a marked resemblance of its life, to that of the present day. TEETIAEY SYSTEM Sir Charles Lyell divided the European Tertiary into three parts; the Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene. The Eocene was esti- mated to contain about 10% of living species, the Miocene about 50% and the Pliocene about 90%, but these percentages are not of world wide application. GEOLOGIC FOEMATIONS OF NEW YOEK 175 The Tertiary of our Atlantic slope consists chiefly of sands and clays, which in the southern states are well developed. A much larger development occurs west of the Mississippi river on the sites of extinct Tertiary lakes. Marine Tertiary is also found on the Pacific coast. In New York state the Tertiary is not accurately identified and is indivisible, but is probably represented by sands and gravel on Staten Island and Long Island. There is comparatively little marine Tertiary in North America, as the northern part of the continent was out of water at that time. The Tertiary beds west of the Mississippi are chiefiy fresh water deposits formed in lake basins. The Tertiary was a period of mountain making. In southern Europe the great chains of mountains known locally as the Pyrenees, Alps, Apennines and Carpathians, consist to a large extent of Tertiary rocks. This is also true of the Himalaya mountains of India. It is known that extensive disturbances in our Appalachian system occurred during the Tertiary. Life of the Tertiary period Birds and mammals succeeded the reptiles of the cretaceous. Of the mammals all the orders no'W existing were represented. Reptiles were not more numerous than at present and were simi- lar to existing genera. Fishes were very abundant. Insects were many and varied. Mollusks were abundant; oysters oc- curred in great variety and of enormous size. Corals were not plentiful. Land plants were very abundant and very similar to those of the present day; the cypress grew in the Arctic regions. QUATEENARY SYSTEM At the close of the Tertiary a coldlftemperate climate reigned in the United States and a grea4: ice age began, during which the northern part of our continent was covered with a sheet of ice many hundred feet thick. The chief evidences of this are the inscriptions of the continental glaciers on the rocks in the shape 176 NEW tokkJstate museum of grooves and polished surfaces and the material transported by it. ' ',,>,! The glacial phenomena are well marked. Ice worked blocks of stone have a peculiar angular form, which does not occur on water worn boulders. The theory of continental glaciation was first worked out in Europe from- studies of the glaciers of the Alps. These are the result of a copious precipitation of moisture on the mountains in the form of snow and the formation of snow ice. Large masses of this consolidate and form ice rivers or glaciers, which slowly move toward the valleys grooving and polishing the rocks over which they pass and tearing off rock fragments, which in turn are polished and scratched as they are dragged along in the base of the ice. Glaciers now exist in Iceland, Greenland and Alaska and in other Arctic countries, also on some of the mountains of Wash- ington, South America, Asia and Africa. They also abound within the Antarctic Circle. Evidences of former continental glaciation occur in both hem- ispheres. , In New York state the continental glacier extended as far south as Long Island and Staten Island and formed at its front a great ridge of transported rock debris, sand, gravel, boulders and clay, ut some points over 360 feet in height, which is called the ' ter- minal moraine ' and is known locally as the back bone of Long Island. I After reaching its point of maximum extension and resting there, perhaps for a long time, the ice sheet with a recurrence of a warmer climate began to retreat. This retreat was not at an even rate. There were periods of arrested motion and probably of temporary advance as shown by the moraines of recession. These are masses of earth, gravel and boulders which form small hills and ridges. ; As the ice melted, great volumes of water were poured over the land and the valleys were flooded. The streams thus formed were loaded with sand and gravel which they carried for a dis- < o o a H «<' o EH ( < o z ■=! R Z Z « ■H o > O H Hi o o s H a a o B a 0! o O a Ml O Oi K J M Eh m n B EH O m P a! Eh H W Eh" a « ; m a H a J a K s Eh o O H H CI d o o 2; o > D < < Pi ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 183 posable varieties oi pyrite is not only prejudicial to strength and durability but also to the beauty of the stone as soon as it begins to decay. The term ' granite ' as used among builders and architects is not restricted to rock species of this name in geologic nomencla- ture, but includes what are known as gneisses (foliated and bedded granites), diorites, gabbro and other crystalline rocks whose uses are the same. In fact, the similar adaptability and use have brought the latter species into the class of granites. For example, the Au Sable granite of Essex county is a norite. The term is applied in some cases to the diabases or trap-rocks, as the ' granite quarries ' of Staten Island. Another massive crystalline rock which is used in building is norite, consisting of labradorite and hypersthene, with some brown mica. It is a common rock in the Adirondack region, and is known commercially as a granite. The massive crystalline rocks are of common occurrence in New York, but not in outcrops over extensive areas, excepting in the Adirondack region and in the Highlands of the Hudson. The schistose crystalline rocks are developed extensively in the Highlands of the Hudson and on the borders of the Adirondack region. On New York island and within the city limits the gneiss rocks have been quarried at many points. In Westchester county there are belts of gneiss and mica schist, in which quarries have been opened near Hastings; near Hartsdale, east of Yonk- ers; at Kensico; at Tarrytown and at Ganung's, west of Croton Falls. In Putnam county there are quarries of granite near Peekskill, Garrison's and Gold Spring. West of the Hudson river there are quarries on lona island; at West Point; on Storm King mountain, near Cornwall; near Suffern; at Eamapo; and on Mount Eve, near Florida. The outcrops of the gneissoid and granitoid rocks are so numerous in the belt of the Hudson High- lands that quarries can be opened at many points. The supply of stone is inexhaustible. On the Hudson river, between Peeks- kill and Fishkill, there is a fine section of these rocks exposed. 184 NEW YOEK STATE MUSEUM On the borders of the Adirondack region quarries have been opened in the towns of Wilton, Hadley and Greenfield, in Sara- toga county; at Whitehall, in Washington county; at Littlefalls, in Herkimer county; Grindstone Island, Jefferson county; and near Canton in St Lawrence county. The inaccessibility of much of this region and the distance from the large city markets have prevented the opening of more quarries in the gneissic rocks on the borders of the Adirondacks. TEAP Trap-rock or trap is the common name given to a class of eruptive rocks because of a structural peculiarity, and has no distinctive significance in mineralogical composition. The rocks of the Palisade mountain range and of the Torn mountain, which extends from the New Jersey line, on the west shore of the Hud- son river to Haverstraw, are known as trap-rocks. There is an outcrop on Staten Island, at Graniteville, near Port Richmond, where a large amount of stone has been quarried at the so-called ' granite quarries.' The trap-rock of the Palisades range is a crystalline, granular mass of plagioclase feldspar (usually labradorite) augite and magnetite. It is generally finer crystalline than the granite. The colors vary from dark gray through dark green to almost black. j This trap-rock is hard and tough, but some of it is split readily into blocks for paving. It has been used extensively in New York and adjacent cities for street paving, but since the introduc- tion of granite blocks this use has nearly ceased. On account of its toughness it makes an admirable material for macadamiz- ing roadways. It is so bard that only rock-face blocks are used in constructive work. Several prominent buildings in Jersey City and Hoboken are built of it. There is a large quarry on the river at Rockland lake, near Haverstraw, the output of which is for street work and road material almost exclusively. There are also quarries at Piermont and at Graniteville, Staten Island. EOONOMIO GEOLOGY 185 SANDSTONE Sandstone consists of grains of sand which are united by a cement. The grains may be of varying sizes, from almost impalpable dust to small pebbles, and may be angular or more or less rounded in form. The cementing matter also may vary greatly in its nature. From this variation, both in the grains and in the cement, there is an almost endless gradation in the kinds of sand- stone. Quartz is the essential constituent, but with it there may be feldspar, mica, calcite, pyrite, glauconite, clay or other minerals, and rock fragments common to stone of sedimentary origin. These accessory materials 'Often give character to the mass, and make a basis for a division into feldspathic, micaceous, calcare- ous sandstones, etc.. as one or another of them predominates. The texture of the mass also is subject to a wide range of vari- ation, from flne-grained, almost aphanitic, to pebbly sandstone, or conglomerate, or a brecciated stone in which the component parts are more or less angular. Some of the brown sandstones of the Triassic age, quarried near Haverstraw, are such conglomeratic and brecciated sand- stones. Accordingly, as the grains are small or large, the stone is said to be fine-grained or coarse-grained. The variety of the cementing material also affords a basis for classification. Silicious sandstones have the grains bound to- gether by silica. They consist almost exclusively of quartz, and grade into quartzite. The ferruginous varieties have for their cement an oxide of iron, often coating the grains and mak- ing a considerable percentage of the whole. The iron is usually present as ferric oxide. Calcareous sandstones are marked by the presence of carbonate of lime. When it exceeds the quartz in amount, +he sandstone becomes a silicious limestone. In the argillaceous varieties, the binding material is a clay, or an im- pure kaolin. The cementing material determines in most cases the color. The various shades of red and yellow depend upon the iron 186 NEW YOEK STATE MUSEUM oxides ; some of the rich purple tints are said to be due to oxide of manganese. : The gray and blue tints are produced by iron in the form of ferrous silicate or carbonate. By an irregular association of masses of different colors a variegated surface is produced, or by an alternation of white and variously-colored lamin£e a striped appearance is given to the mass. Sandstones occur stratified and in beds of greater or less thick- ness, and they are said to be thick-bedded or thin-bedded. In some cases the beds are so thick, and the stone of such a uniform texture, that the stone can be worked equally well in all direc- tions, and is known as freestone. A laminated structure is com- mon, especially in the thin strata, or when the stone is micaceous. When the beds can be split into thin slabs along planes parallel to the bedding, it is called a flagstone. A less common structure is what is termed lenticular or wedge-shaped, in which the upper and under surfaces lack parallelism, and the beds wedge out. It makes the quarrying more difficult, and produces more waste material. The variations in the nature of the component grains, and binding material, in their arrangement, and in the forms of bed- ding, produce a great variety of stone, and the gradations from one to another are slight. The hardness, strength, beauty and durability are determined by these varying elements of constitu- tion. The stone best resisting the action of the atmospheric agencies is that in which the quartz grains are cemented by a silicious paste, or in which the close-grained mass approaches in texture a quartzite. The presence of mineral liable to decomposition, as feldspar highly kaolinized, of mica, marcasite, and pyrite, of calcite in quantity, aUd clays, affects the durability and tends to its de- struction. Sandstones are classified according to their geologic age also. They are found occurring in all the series, from the oldest to the most recent formations. Those of a given age are generally ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 187 marked by characteristic properties, which serve for their identi- fication, aside from the fossil organic remains by which their exact position in the geologic series is fixed. This persistence in characters is exemplified in the Medina sandstones, in the Devonian bluestone, and in those of Triassic age. Sandstones occur in workable quantity in nearly all the greater divisions of the state. Quarries have not, however, been opened everywhere in the sandstone formations, because of the abundant supply of superior stone from favorably situated localities. There are, in conse- quence, large sandstone areas and districts in which there is an absence of local development, or abandoned enterprises mark a change in conditions, which has injuriously affected the quarry industry. Following the geologic order of arrangement and beginning with the Potsdam sandstone, the several sandstone formations are here briefly reviewed. Potsdam sandstone This formation is the oldest in which, in this state, sandstone is quarried for building purposes.** The bottom' beds are of fine, silicions conglomerate; above are sand'stones generally in thin beds'. It is gray-white, yellow, brown and red in color. In texture it varies from a strong, com- pact quartzite rock to a loosely coherent, coarse-granular mass, which crumbles at the touch. Outcrops of limited area occur in the Mohawk valley. In the Champlain valley the formation is well developed at Fort Ann, Whitehall, Port Henry and Keeseville, and quarries are opened at these localities. The stone is a hard, quartzose rock, and in thin beds. North of the Adirondacks the formation stretches westward from Lake Champlain to the St Lawrence ; and there are quarries in the towns of Malone, Bangor and Moira in Frank- lin county; in Potsdam and Hammond in St Lawrence county; a Some of the sandstones east of the Hudson and In the Taghkanic range may belong to the Lower Cambrian. See Amcr. Jour, of Science, series 111, vol. 35, pp. 399-401. But there are no quarries opened In these localities. 188 NEW TOEE STATE MUSEUM and in Claytan, Jefferson county. In parts of Clinton county the stone is too friable for building. The most extensive openings are near Potsdam; the stone is hard, compact and even-grained, and pink to red in color. Some of it has a laminated structure and striped appearance. It is an excellent building stone and is widely known and esteemed for its beauty and durability. The Hammond quarries produce a gray to red stone. Nearly all of the output is cut into paving blocks and street material. Hudson river sandstone Bocks of this group outcrop in Orange county, northwest of the Highlands and in the valley of the Hudson river north- ward to the Champlain valley in Washington county. From the Hudson westward, the Mohawk valley is partly occupied by them. The belt increases thence in breadth, in a northwest course across Oneida, Oswego and Lewis counties, and continues to Lake Ontario. I j The rocks consist of shales interbedded with sandstones and silicious conglomerates. The sandstones are generally flne-grained and of light-gray or greenish-gray color. They are often argillaceous and not adapted for building purposes. But the even-bedded and well-marked jointed structure makes the quarrying comparatively easy, and the nearness to 'lines of transportation, and to the cities of the Hudson and Mohawk valleys have stimulated the opening of quarries at many points. For common rubble work and for local use, the quarries in this formation have furnished a large amount of stone. The more important quarrying centers are now at Khinecliff-on-the-Hudson, New Baltimore and Troy, in the Hudson valley; at Aqueduct, Schenectady and Duanesburg, Schenectady county; and Frank- fort Hill, Oneida county. Flagstones are quarried from this formation in the gorge of the Bozenkill a few miles northwest of Altamont, Albany county. PLATE CVI.— To face page 188. J. N. Nevius, photo. Potsdam Sandstone, Clarkson's Quarry, 3 Miles South op Potsdam, St. Lawrence Co. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 189 Oneida conglomerate This formation is developed to its greatest thickness in the Shawangunk mountain in Orange and Ulster counties. It is recognized in the Bellevale and Skunnemunk mountains, also, in Orange county. In the central part of the state it is traced westward in a narrow belt from Herkimer county into Oneida county. The prevailing rocks are gray and reddish-gray, silicious conglomerates and sandstones, which are noted for their hardness and durability. The cementing material is silicious. The jagged edges and angular blocks and the polished and grooved surfaces of the glaciated ledges, so common on the Shawangunk range, afford the best proof of the durable nature of these rocks. The bottom beds, near the slate, contain some pyrite. No attempt has been made to open quarries for stone, excepting at a few localities for occasional use in common wall work. The grit rock is quarried near Esopus creek for mill- stones, and at Ellenville is crushed for glass sand. The accessibility 'of the outcrops to the New York, Lake Erie and Western railroad, the New York, Ontario and Western rail- road, the West Shore railroad and the Delaware and Hudson oanal lines is an advantage, as well as the comparative nearness to New York. No other formation in the state exhibits in its outcrops better evidence of ability to resist the weather. Medina sandstone The Medina sandstone is next above the Oneida conglomerate. It is recognized in the red and gray sandstones and the red and mottled (red and green) shales of the Shawangunk and Skunne- munk mountains in Orange county. A large amount of the red sandstone has been quarried on the north end of the Skunne- munk range, in the town of Cornwall, for bridge work on the railroads which cross the range near the quarry. The red sandstone is seen exposed in the cuts of the Erie railway northeast of Port Jervis. This formation reappears in Oswego county, and thence west to the Niagara river in a belt bordering Lake Ontario. 190 NEW TOEK STATE MUSEUM Quartz is the principal mineral constituent associated with some kaolinized feldspar. The cementing material is mainly oxide of iron, with less carbonate of lime. The stone is even- bedded and the strata dip gently southward. The prevailing systems of vertical joints, generally at right angles to one an- other, divide the beds into blocks, facilitating the labor of quarrying. Quarries have been opened at Fulton, Granby and Oswego, in Oswego county; at several points in Wayne county; at Rochester, on the Irondequoit creek, and at Brockport, Monroe county; at Holley, Hulburton, Hindsburg, Albion, Medina and Shelby Basin, in Orleans county; and at Lockport and Lewiston, in Niagara county. The Medina sandstone district proper is restricted to the group of quarries from Brockport west to Lockport. The leading varieties of stone are known as the Medina red stone, the white or gray Medina and the variegated (red and white) or spotted. The quarries in this district are worked on an extensive S'cale, and their equipment is adequate to a large annual production. The aggregate output is larger and more valuable in dimension stone for dressing than that of any other quarry district in the state. Including the stone for street work, the total value is greater than that obtained from the stone of any other geological formation in the state. The stone has gained a well-deserved reputation for its value as a beautiful and durable building material ; and its more general employment, both in construction and in paving, is much to be desired. The extent of the outcrops offers additional sites for quarirying opera- tions, and the greater use of this stone, and the increase of the producing capacity of the district are here suggested. Clinton group Thfe rocks of this group are shales, thin beds of limestone and shaly sandstones. They crop out in a narrow belt from Herkimer county west to the Niagara river and bordering the Medina sand- stone on the south. Sandstone for building has been quarried in the southern part of Herkimer county; at Clinton, near Vernon ECONOMIC'^GEOLOGT 191 and at Higginsville in Oneida county, from this formation. The nearness of the Medina sandstone, with its more accessible quar- ries and superior stone, has prevented the more extensive. devel- opment of the quarrying industry in the sandstone of the Clinton group. Oriskany sandstone The Oriskany sandstone formation is best developed in Oneida and Otsego counties. The rock is hard, silicious and cherty in places, and generally too friable to make a good building stone. No quarry of more than a local importance is known in it. Cauda galli grit and Schoharie grit These rocks are limited to Schoharie and Albany counties and to a very narriow 'belt which stretches south and thence isouth- west to Ulster county. The Cauda galli sandstomes are argilla- ceous and calcareous land are noifc durable. They are used in Albany county for road metal, but are not very good for this purpose. The Schoharie grit is generally a fine-grained, calcare- ous sandrock which also is unsuited for building. Quarries in these rocks have local use only. Marcellus shale As its name implies, this formation is chairacterized by shaly rocks, which are not adapted to building. The abundance of good building stone in the next geologic membeir below it — the Co'rniferous limestone — whoise out'crop borders it on the north throughout the central and westeirn parts of the state, also pre- vents any use which might be made of its stone. A isdngle quarry was at one time opened in it lat Ohapinville, Ontario^ county. Hamilton group The rocks of the Hamilton group outcrop in a narrow belt, which runs from the Delaware river, in a northeast eourae, across Sullivan and Ulster counties to the Hudson valley near Kings- ton; thence north, in the foot-hills, bordering the Catskills, to Albany county; then, bending to the northwest and west across the Helderberg mountains into Schoharie county; thenoe inicireajs- 192 NEW TOEK STATE MUSEUM ing dn width, througti Otsego, MadisoD and Onoiidaga ooiunties, foirming the upper part of tlie Susquehanna amd Ohienango water- siheds; theii'ce west, across Cayuga, Seneca, Ontario, Livingston, Geniesee and Erie counties to Lake Erie. In this distance there is some variation in compoisition and texture. Im the western and central parts of the state there is an immense development of sliale® and the few quarries in the sandstone referable to this group are unimportant. In the Helderberg region in the Hud- son valley and thence, southwest, to the Delaware river, the sand- stones predominate, and all loif the beds are more sandy than at the west. Bluestone There is a great development of the bluish-gray, hard, compact and even-bedded stone, which is known as ' Hudson river blue- stone.' ' This is a variety of sandstone, which, by reason of its even texture can be cut or sawed into any desired foorm and is there- fore peculiarly available for honse trimmings of various kinds. The sandstone is usually intenbedded with shale and in general, the layers in the quarries vary from an inch to several feet in thickness; the thinner of these are used for flagstones and the thicker are cut into dimension stones for building purposes. The geological horizon of the commercial bluestone is very near the dividing line between the Hamilton and Portage groups. It is, however, not usually possible to determine in which of these groups a given quarry belongs, owing to the great scarcity of fossils. The bluestone industry is chiefly located in Ulster county and the quarries are almost innumerable but the business is oon- tTolled by a few large dealers who are located at points favorably situated for shipment and who, to a considerable extent, buy stone from the men who quarry it. Bluestone is also produoed in the counties of Albany, Greene, Sullivan, Delaware and Chen- ango in Eastern New York and in Cattaraugus and Wyoming counties in Western New York. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 193 The number of quarries is large amd can 'be increaised in- definitely, as nearly the whole area of the foirmation appears to be capable of producing stone for flagging or for 'building. The difficulty of indicating the division line between itTie Hamil- ton and the Oneonta and the Hamilton and the Portage groups of rocks makes it impossible to refer to localities more particul- arly. The quaiTies near Codperstowm, and in the lake region, particularly at Atwater, Trumamsburg, Watkins and Penn Yon belong to the Hamilton group. Portage group In this is included the Oneonta sandstone, the limits of which at the east can not be indicated; the flagstone beds of the Hud- son valley and of the eastern part of the State continue up into the Oneonta sandstone horizon. Many of the quarries are in the latter formation. The more western and northwestern and higher quarries are in it; and some of the Chenango county quarries also. The Portage rocks in the western part of the State consist of shales at the base; then shales and flagstones; and the Portage sandstone at the top. In the last division, thick beds with little shale are marks of this horizon. The stone is generally fine- grained. The quarries near Portage and near Warsaw are in it; also the quarries at Laona and Westfleld in Chautauqua county. Although not of as great extent in its outcrop as the Hamilton group, the Portage rocks are developed to a thickness of several hundred feet along the Genesee river at Mount Morris and at Portage; and form a belt having a breadth of several miles through Tompkins, Schuyler, Yates, Ontario and Livingston coun- ties, and thence west to Lake Erie. The formation is capable of supplying an immense amount of good building stone and flag- stone throughout its undeveloped territory. Chemung group The rocks of the Chemung group crop out in the southern tier of counties, from Lake Erie eastward to the Susquehanna. The shales are in excess of the sandstones in many outcrops, and there 194 N'EW YORK STATE MUSEUM is less good building stone than in the Portage horizon. The variation in color and texture is necessarily great in the extensive area occupied by the Chemung rocks, but the sandstones can be described as thin bedded, generally intercalated -with shaly strata, and cf a light-gray color, often with a tinge of green or olive- colored. The outcropping ledges weather to a brownish color. Owing to the shaly nature of much of the sandstone of the Che- mung group, the selection of stone demands care, and the location of quarries where good stone may be found is attended with the outlay lof time and money, and with great chances of possible fail- ure. Quarries have been opened near the towns and where there is a market for ordinary grades of common wall stone, and also for cut stone, but the larger part of their product is put into retaining walls. At Elmira and Corning good stone has been obtained, which is expensive to dress, and does not compete for fine work with sandstones from districts outside of the State. The quarries at Waverly, Owego, Elmira and Corning, and nearly all of the quarries in Allegany, Cattaraugus and Chautauqua counties are in the Chemung sandstone. Catskill group As implied in the name, this formation is developed in the .Cat- skill mountain plateau in the eastern part of the state. Sand- stones and silicious conglomerates predominate over the shales. The thicker beds of sandstones are generally marked by oblique lamination and cross-bedding, which make it difficult and expen- sive to work intoi dimension blocks. Except for flagging and for local use but little is quarried. There are no large towns in the district, and consequently the demand is light. There are, how- ever, some good quarries, which are worked for flagging, chiefly along the New York, Ontario and Western railroad and the Ulster and Delaware railroad lines in Ulster and Delaware counties; and in the Catskills, in Greene county, there are quarries in Lexington, Jewett, Windham, Hunter and Prattsville. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 195 Triassic formation This formation, which is known, locally, as the red sandstone, is limited in New York to a triangular area in Kockland county, between Btony Point on the Hudson and the New Jersey line, and to a small outcrop near the north shore of Staten Island, which is the soiuthern end of the same belt. The sandstones are both shaly and silicious, and the varieties grade into one another. Conglomerates of variegated shades of color also occur, interbedded with the shales and sandstones. Formerly these conglomerates were in favor for the construction of furnace hearths. They are not now quarried. The prevailing color of the sandstone is dark-red tO' brown, whence the name ' brownstone.' In texture there is a wide variation, from fine conglomerates, in which the rounded grains are somewhat loosely aggregated, to the fine, shaly rock and the ' liver rock ' of the quarrymen. Oxide of iron and some carbonate of lime are the cementing materials in these sandstones. , The well-known Massachusetts Longmeadow sandstone and the Connecticut brownstone are obtained from quarries in the Con- necticut valley region, and of the same geological horizon. The Idttlefalls, Belleville and Newark freestones are from the same formation in its southwest extension into New Jersey. Quarries were opened in this sandstone more than a century ago, and many .of the old houses of Eockland county are built of it. Prof. Mather reported 31 quarries on the bank of the Hudson near Nyack. The principal market was New York city^ and the stone was sold for flagging, house trimmings and com- mon walls. The Nyack quarries have been abandoned, with one or two exceptions, as the ground has become valuable for villa sites and town lots. There are small quarries at Suffern, near Congers Station, near New City and at the foot of the Torn mountain west of Haverstraw. They are worked irregularly and for local supplies of stone. The stone is sometimes known as ' Nyack stone,' also as ' Haverstraw stone.' 196 NEW TOBK STATE MUSEUM SLATE Argillite, clay-slate, or roofing slate, which is marked by the presence of cleavage planes, and can be split into thin plates of uniform thickness, is a characteristic rock in the Hudson river group and the Lower Cambrian or Georgian group. Slate suitable for roofing has been found in many localities, and quarries have been opened in Orange, Dutchess, Oolumbia, Rensselaer and Washington counties. The openings in Orange county have not resulted in productive quarries. In Oolumbia county quarries were worked many years ago, east of New Lebanon. The Hoosick quarries, in Eensselaer county, were once more extensively worked, and produced a good, black slate. Out- crops of red slate are noted east of the Hudson, from Fishkill and Matteawan northward, but no attempts have been made to open quarries in them. The productive slate quarries of the state are in a narrow belt, which runs a north-northeast course through the towns of Salem, Hebron, Granville, Hampton and Whitehall in Washington county. This slate belt is divided by the quarrymen into four parallel ranges or 'veins,' which are: East Whitehall red slates; the Mettowee, or North Bend red slate; the purple, green and varie- gated slates of Middle Granville; and the Granville red slates. The latter are close to the Vermont line. Further to the east, but over the state line, in Vermont, is the range of the sea-green slates. j The quarry localities are at Shushan, Salem, and Black Creek valley, in the town of Salem, Slateville, in Hebron, Granville, the Penrhyn Slate Company's quarries. Middle Granville, Mettowee or North Bend quarries, and the Hatch Hill quarries in East Whitehall. ; LIMESTONE AND MAEBLE Limestones consist essentially of calcium carbonate. They are, however, often quite impure; and the more common accessory constituents are silica, clay, oxides of iron, magnesia, and bitumi- ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 197 nous matter. These foreign materials may enter into their com- position to such an extent as to give character to the mass, and hence they are said to be silicious, argillaceous, ferruginous, magnesian, dolomitic, and bituminous. The chemical composition is subject to great Tariation, and there is an almost endless series of gradation between these various kinds. Thus, the magnesium carbonate may vary in quantity from a trace, to the full percentage of a typical dolomite. Or, the silica may range from a fractional percentage to the ex- treme limit where the stone becomes a calcareous sandstone. Crystallized minerals, as mica, quartz, talc, serpentine and others, also occur, particularly in the more crystalline limestone. In color there is a wide variation — from the white of the more nearly pure carbonate of lime through gray, blue, yellow, red, brown, and to black. The color is dependent upon the impuri- ties. The texture also varies greatly. All limestones exhibit a crys- talline structure under the microscope, but to the unaided eye there are crystalline and massive varieties. There are coarse crystalline, fine crystalline, and sub-crystalline varieties, accord- ing as the crystals are larger, smaller, or recognized by the aid of a magnifying glass only. The terms coarse-grained and fine- grained may apply when there is a resemblance to sandstone in the granular state of aggregation. Other terms, as saccharoidal (like sugar), oolitic, when the mass resembles the roe of a fish; crinoidal, made up of the stems of fossil crinoids, also are in use, and are descriptive of texture. The state of aggregation of the constituent particles varies greatly, and the stone is hard and compact, almost like chert, or is loosely held together and crum- bles on slight pressure, or again it is dull and earthy as in chalk. The crystalline, granular limestones, which are susceptible of a fine polish, and which are adapted to decorative work, are classed as marbles. Inasmuch as the distinction is in part based upon the use, it is not sharply defined and scientific. G-enerally the term is restricted to those limestones in which the sediments have been altered and so metamorphosed as to have a more or 198 NEW YORK, STATE MTJSETJM less crystalline texture. There is however some confusion in the use of the terms, and the same stone is occasionally known as marble and limestone, e. g., the Lockport limestone or marble; the limestone and coral shell marble of Becraft's mountain, near Hudson; the Lepanto marble or limestone near Plattsburg, and others. < The fossiliferous limestones are made up of the remains of organisms which have grown in situ, as for example, the coralline beds in the Helderberg and Niagara limestones, or have been deposited as marine sediments. In the case of the latter the fossils are more or less comminuted and held in a calcareous matrix. Generally the fossil portions of the mass are crystalline. The Onondaga gray limestone from near Syracuse, and the Lock- port encrinal limestone are good examples. The fossil remains are less prominent and scarcely visible in some of the common blue limestones, as in the lower beds of Calciferous and in some of the Helderberg series. These rocks are compact, homogeneous and apparently uncrystalline and un- f ossilif erous. They are usually more silicious or argillaceous, that is, they contain quartz or clay, the latter often in seams rudely parallel with the bedding planes. On weathering, the difference in composition is often markedly apparent at a glance. Similar differences in composition are seen in the more crystalline mar- bles, and are evident either by variation in color, or in the pres- ence of foreign minerals, as mica, quartz, hornblende, pyrite, etc. The variations in the strength and durability is as great as in the composition and texture. Some are stronger than many granites in their resistance to crushing force, and equally endur- ing; others consist of loosely cohering grains, and axe friable and rapidly dissolved by atmospheric agencies. The more silicious and compact limestones are generally the more durable and stronger; in the marble the well-crystallized and more homogene- ous texture consists with endurance and strength. Both the mag- nesian and dolomitic varieties are gdod stone as is proven by the Calciferous and the Niagara limestones, and in the marbles of Tuckahoe and Pleasantville, in Westchester county. be o > o ■a! ■.aw--"- PLATE CVIII.— To face page 198. J. N, Nevius, photo. Interior of Northern New York Marble Co.'s Quarry, Near Gouverneur, St. Lawrence Co. Precambrian. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 199 Crystalline lirQestones occur in New York and Westchester counties, and in the Highlands of the Hudson. In the Adiron- dack region there are numerous localities. The rock in many of them is too impure and has too many foreign minerals to admit of its use as marble. Quarries have been opened in Westchester, Putnam and Dutchess counties, which have yielded a large amoiunt lof fine white marble. In the northern part of the state, the Port Henry and the Gouverneur quarries have been produc- tive. The geological horizon of some of these marbles is in doubt. The belt in the eastern part of Dutchess and Putnam counties belongs tO' the Vermont marble range, and is probably metamor- phosed Trenton limestone. The Westchester marbles are of the same age. The limestones which furnish building stone in this state are the Calciferous, Chajiy, Birdseye, Black river, Trenton, Niagara, Lower Helderberg, Upper Helderberg, or Corniferous, and Tully. The geographical distribution is given in the following notes, and in the order of geological succession, from the lowest to the highest. Calciferous sandrock The rocks of the Calciferous formation in the Miohawk valley and in the Champlain valley are more silicious than at the south- west, in Orange county and in the Hudson valley, and hence the designation as a sandrock. / Much of it at the north is a limestone rather than a sandstone, and may be termed a magnesian or silicio- magnesian limestone. Nearly all of the limestones, which are quarried for building stonq, in Orange and Dutchess counties are from this formation. The stone occurs generally in thick and regular beds. It is hard, strong and durable and is adapted for heavy masonry as well as for fine cut work. The quarries near Warwick, Mapes' Corners and near Newburgh in Orange county and those on the Hudson rlv^er, near New Hamburg, are in the Calciferous. The Sandy Hill quarry and those at Canajoharie and Littlefalls are also in it. 200 NEW YOEK STATE MUSEUM Trenton limestone Under this bead the Chazy, Birdseye, Black river and Trenton limestones are included. The Chazy limestone crops out in Essex and Clinton counties and in the Champlain valley — ^its typical loiealities. The beds are thick and generally uneven. Kegular systems of joints help the quarrymen in getting out large blocks. Quarries at Wills- boro Point and near Plattsburg are in the horizon of the Chazy. The stone is suitable for bridge work and for heavy masonry. The members of the Trenton above the Chazy limestone are recognized in may outcrops in the sioutheaBtern part of the state; in the Hudson-Champlain valley; in the Mohawk valley; in the valley of the Black river and noirthwest, bordering Lake Ontario; and in a border zone on the north of the Adirondacks, in the St Lawrence valley. In a formation so widely-extended there is, as might be expected, some variation in bedding, texture and color. Much lof the Trenton limestone formation proper is thin-bedded and shaly and unfit for building stone. In the Birds- eye also the stone of many localities is disfigured on weathering, by its peculiar fossils. Generally the stone is sub-crysitalldne, hard and compact and of a high specific gravity and dark-blue to gray in color. But the variation is wide, as for example, be- tween the black marble of Glens Falls and the gray, crystalline poick of the Prospect quarries near Trenton Falls. The variation is often great within the range of a comparatively few feet ver- tically; and the same quarry may yield two or more vairieties of building stone. In several quarries the Birdseye and Trenton are boith represented. Many quarries have been Oipened in the formatiion and there are many more localities "where stone has been taken from outcropping ledges, which are aot developed intto quarries proper. The more important localities which are worked steadily are : Glens Falls, Amsterdam, Tribes Hill, Cana- joharie. Palatine Bridge and Prospect in the valley of the Mo- hawk; and Lowville, Watertown, Three Mile Bay, Chaiumont and Ogdensburg in the Black river and St Lawrence valleys. The railroad and oajial lines, which traverse the territory occu- ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 201 pied by these cE'crmatioms, aflEord transportatiioii facilities and offer induoements to those who are sieeking new quarry sites where these limestomes may be found in workable extent. Niagara limestone The Niagara limestone formation is well developed west from Boohester to the Niagara, river; and there are large quarries in it at Eiochester, at Lockport and at Niagara Palls. The gray, sub-crystalline stone in thick beds is quarried for ibuilding pur- poses. It is filled with encrinal and coralline fossils and the un- equal weathering of the matrix and the fossiliferous portions are sometimes such as to give the dressed surface a pitted appearance with cavities which roughen and disflgure it. For foundations and heavy masonry it is well adapted. It has been extemsively employed in the western part of the state. Lower Helderberg limestones The Water-lime, Tentaculite and Pentamerus limestones are included in this group. The outcrops are in the Eondout valley, southwest from Kingston to the Delaware river; in the foot- hills east of the Oatslrills — ^in Ulster and Greene connties; on Becraf t's mountain, near Hudson ; and in a belt stretching west from the Hudson valley, along the Helderbergs and across Scho- harie into Herkimer county. The Tentaculite limestone is dark-ciolored, oompaict and in thick beds and can be quarried in large blocks. Some lof it can be polished and makes a ibeautiful black marble, as for example, that of Schoharie. The Pentamerus limestones, both the lower and the upper, are in thick 'beds and are gray, sub-crysitalline in texture, and look well when dressed. They are adapted to heavy masonry as well as for cut work. Quarries are opened in this group of limestones in the Scho- harie valley, at Howe's Cave, Oohleskill, Cherry Valley and in Sipringfield. The quarries west of Oatskill and in Becraft'a mountain, near Hudson, are also in it. 202 NBW YORK STATE MUSEUM Upper Helderberg limestones The Upiper Helderberg formation appears in the Hudson Talley at Kingston; thence it runs in a toelt west of the river, to the Heldepberg mountains, bending to the west-noiPthwest, and thence west it continues across the state to the Niagara river and Lake Eirie. The subdivisions are known as the Onondaga, the Oor- niferous and the Seneca limestones. The first is more generally recognized as the ' Onondaga gray limestone ' and the last as the Seneca blue limestone. There is much diversity in the limestones 'of this group in its long range of outcrop. The Onondaga gray stone is gray in color, coarse crystalline; and makes beautiful ashlar work, either as ro'ck face or as flue tooled, decorative pieces. The Oorniferous limestone is hard and durable, but it is so full of chert that it can only be used for common wall work. The Seneca blue limestone is easily dressed and is a fairly good building stone. Limestone of the Upper Helderberg epoch is quarried exten- sively at Kingston, Ulster county, and is a valuable building stone. In Onondaga county there are the well-known Splitrock and Eeservation groups of quarries, which have produced an im- mense quantity of excellent and beautiful stone and which has found a market in all of the central part of the state. They are in the lower member of the group. Going west, there are the large quarries in the iSeneca limestooe at Union Springs, Waterloo, Seneca Falls and Auburn. The LeRoy, Williamsville, Buffalo and Black Eock quarries are in the Oorniferous lime- stone. The aggregate output of the quarries in the Upper Helderberg limestones exceeds in value that of any other limestone formation in the state. The many quarries of the Trenton probably pro- duce more stone. Tully limestone The Tully limestone lying above the Hamilton shales, is a thin formation which is seen in Onondaga county and to the west — ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 203 disappearing in Ontario county. It does not furnish any stone other than for rough work and in the immediate neighborhood of its outcrops. Calcareous tufa As a supplement to the limestones the quarries in calcareous tufa at Mohawk, in the Mohawk valley, and at Mumford, Monroe county, should here be mentioned, although they are only of local importance. GLACIAL DRIFT This material, consisting of unsorted clays, sands, gravels, cobbles ajid boulders, is found in all parts of the state. The nature of the imbedded stone varies greatly both as to variety and amount. In places the deposits are full of large blocks of stone and of more or less rounded and scratched boulders; in other localities the hard, quartzose cobbles and small boulders predomi- nate. In the sandstone districts of the southern and western parts of the state the surface deposits of glacial drift contain much sandstone, as in the Medina sandstone belt, the Hudson river blue stone territory and the red sandstones at Haverstraw and Nyack. In the Highlands and in the Adirondacks the rounded, crystalline, granitoid and gneissic rocks predominate. On Long Island the terminal moraine includes a great amount of stone, and of many kinds. The cobblestones were formerly used for paving roadways, but this kind of pavement is no longer laid. From the fact of the stone being picked off the fields in the clearing of land for tillage, the stone fragments from the drift have been known as ' field- stone; ' and they were used in the earlier constructions for walls, foundations and buildings, in localities where no quarries had been opened. Some of the oldest houses on the western end of Long Island, and in the Hudson river counties are built of such field stone. At Yonkers the excavations for foundations and in street grading afford an abundant supply of stone for common wall work. In parts of Brooklyn the drift furnishes a great deal of stone in the shape of huge boulders. 204 NEW TOEK BTA.TE MCTSECTM The stone of the drift is generally hard and durable, having resisted the wear of rough transportation. The economic use of the surface stones of the drift in constructive work, where they can be laid up in walls, is a desirable utilization of what is still in many parts of the state worse than waste — a nuisance in the tilling of the soil. This formation can not, however, be con- sidered as one of the important sources of stone in the quarry industry, although capable of yielding a great deal of rough stone. It will no doubt do so in the future clearing and improve- ment of the country. Road Metal In New York the best materials for road metal are trap, granite and magnesian limestone. Trap is a general term for some of the basic eruptive rocks, the word being related to or derived from the German Treppen which signifies a flight of steps and is suggested by the somewhat regu- lar manner in which the rock is jointed. The trap which is used in New York for a road metal is a dia- base and consists chiefly of the minerals augite and labradorite, the former being a silicate of iron and magnesia and the latter being a lime-soda feldspar. Other minerals are present in small quantity but do not influence the properties which make the rock valuable as a road metal. While sufficiently hard to resist the wear of heavy trafiBc to a satisfactory extent, it possesses a high degree of binding or cementation power. This means that the dust produced by wear when moistened unites quite firmly and forms a cement which binds the larger fragments to a considerable extent. This property is most noticeable in rocks containing much lime, magnesia and alumina. Good trap is found only in Kichmond and Rockland counties, and in the intermediate area of New Jersey bordering the Hudson river. Its outcrop is known as the ' Palisades.' Granite consists chiefly of quartz mixed with one or more of the feldspars and hornblende or a mica. Hornblende has essentially ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 205 the same composition as augite wMch occurs in trap; and a horn- blende granite should be a very good road metal. Where horn- blende is absent one woiuld expect to find less binding power. Granite is harder than trap and therefore should resist wear better, but this quality is offset by its usually smaller binding power so that trap should be preferred as a rule. Granite is found in the Adirondack region and in the Highlands of the Hudson, alsio in Westchester county. The commercial term granite includes various kinds of gneiss. Magnesian limestone has great binding power but is quite soft and therefore not very durable for heavy traflflc. Chemically, this rock is a carbonate of lime, containing also magnesia, alumina and silica. It has been suggested that it might be used profitably as a binder with stone of less binding power. Sandstone has usually no lime, magnesia or alumina and there- fore has no binding properties and never makes a first rate road, as the fragments continually break loose. Limestone is found chiefly in areas parallel to and near the main line of the New York Central railroad and in a zone around the Adirondacks. In New York the best road materials occur in certain limited areas, and at points distant from these the cost of transportation is the controlling feature. For high class road building, trap and granite will be preferred and used in all places where their cost is not prohibitory. Ex- perience shows, however, that unless these materials are used under the direction of experienced road engineers, they are less satisfactory than limestone, and when it is proposed to mac- adamize a road by simply covering it with broken stone, the latter though less durable, will be more satisfactory. When granite and trap are properly laid, on a well prepared bed and rolled with a heavy steam roller to the proper standard of firmness, nothing can be better, but where no steam roller is available and the subgrade is not properly prepared, the trap and granite are liable to afford only an unpleasant and uneven surface of hard angular fragments which ceaselessly roll about on the 206 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM surface of the road injuring the horses and making pleasure driving impossible. Limestone from its softness and greater binding power is more easily rolled into an even surface under the wheels of vehicles, and while not having the durability to support heavy traffic for a long time, can be cheaply renewed if the source of supply is not far distant. This fact has been recognized for a long time at points within easy reach of the limestone quarries. In Onon- daga county at many points a portable crusher has been used to crush the blocks for road metal from the limestone fences which are cheerfully donated by the residents for the improve- ment of the roads. There are many other counties in which this might be done as may be seen from the geologic map. In most of these areas limestone will be found in the fences and may be crushed for road metal at small expense. Many of the local stone quarries, which are scattered over the state, sell for road metal the rock obtained in stripping off the upper layers from their quarries. A few large quarries are operated for road metal alone and deserve special mention. Many tons of material are quarried annually from the Pali- sades range near Piermont. The material, which is exceedingly tough, is either dressed for paving blocks or crushed for road metal. Farther up the Hudson river the limestone quarries of Tomkins Cove have been in operation for a number of years and supply large quantities of rock for macadam. Other quarries are at South Bethlehem, Albany county, Howe's Gave, Schoharie county and there are several near Syracuse and Buffalo. This m^gnesian limestone is one of the best materials used. It is hard, packs easily and makes a good surface, but the cost of maintenance is considerable. At lona Island a granite is quarried and crushed to five or six different sizes for road metal amd concrete. The fine residue or dust is sold for polishing. o (M s O m Q B a o g o . H S !5 o H ja « a Eh a 13 ■s >- n S • < ft o > u H H o o K f< to •J B s O > O m o B H « o < B a p a la PLATE CXVII.— To face page 222. N. H. Darton, photo. Quarry in Lower Pext.4Merus and Tentaculitb Limestone, Howe's Cave, Schoharie Co. o Ml o > O o b O n a o o assiTe garnet, 'Shell garnet aind pocket gar- net, the former being impuTe from the admixture of other miner- als. The shell garnet is almost entirely pure and the most valn- aible for industrial purposes. The pocket garnet is that w'hich occurs in small segregations or incipient crystals in the gneiss. This garnet is used almost exclusively in the manufacture of sandpaper, or garnet-paper, as it is called, which is employed extensively for a:brasdve purposes in the mamufacture of boobs and shoes. It is also employed to some extent in the wood manufacturing industry. For metals garnet is not as good as emery, although some satisfactory results have been obtained from its use on brass. It has been experimentally mixed with emery in the manufacture of emery-wheels but without very satisfactory results. Emery The variety of Corundum known as emery is quarried at many points in Cortlandt township, Westchester county, from deposits which occur in the eruptive rocks known as the ' Oortlandt series.' It is used by the New York Emery Company at Peekskill. DiATOMACEOus Eakth — Infusorial Earth This material consists of hydrated silica, and is the accumu- lation of the minute skeletons of microscopic forms of vegetable life known as diatoms. It accumulates in the bottom of ponds and lakes, and is found in recent as well as Tertiary and Cretace- ous formations. While the living diatoms are found in all the waters of the state, deposits of diatomaceous earth have been reported from only two localities. One of these is in White lake, town of Wilmurt, Herkimer county, and the other is on the shore of Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, on the property of Dr. Oliver Jones. The latter is a fossil deposit in beds probably of Tertiary age. The White lake deposit is the only one in use ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 227 commercially at present. The material is dug from the bottom of the lake, which covers about four acres, and has a thickness of two to 30 feet, being covered by about four feet of water. It is washed and run through strainers and pipes to settling vats, where it stands for 24 hours. The water is then drawn off and the material shovelled into the press. Here it is made into cakes four feet square and four inches thick. These are subdivided into cakes one foot square and piled under sheds to dry. For this information I am indebted to the proprietor, Mr. Thomas W. Grosvenor, of Herkimer. The White lake material is at present only used for polishing, though similar material is used for absorbing nitroglycerine in the manufacture of dynamite. Talc This material ooeuris near Edwards, St Lawrence county, N. Y., in a. narrow belt several miles long and about a mile wide. There are several quarries on the line of this belt. It is ground in malls near Gouverneur under the control of the Asbestos Pulp Company. It is chiefly used in the manufacture of paper and a small quantity is used in soap, paint and other minor purposes. The annual product is about 30,000 tons, valued at about $240,000. Peat This material, which is tihe ^residue from the partial decay of plaints in water, is of frequent oocurrence, but is only used locally as a fertilizer. Petroleum and Illuminating Gas The occurreoice of petroleum in New York was first recorded by a Franciscan friar who visited the oil spring at Cuba, Allegany county, in 1627. Late in the present century the oil from this spring wias highly valued by the Indians for external applications and was tfliought to have a highly curative power. It was ■R'idely known under the name of ' Seneca oil.' The pro- duction of oil in New York is at present confined to Cattaraugus 228 NEW TOBK STATE MUSKUM and Allegany ooTinties. The Oattaraugus county fieM is a north- ward extension oS the Bradford field of Pennsylvania 'and is con- tinuoue oiver the 'sltate line. Tihie Allegany county field i® more iisolated, althoiugib tihe oil comesi fnoim the same geological hori- Z'on, which is a sandstone in the upper Ohemung lor Oatskill. This has b'een disicussied in great detail by Qhiarle® A. Asbburner in the Tramsactioinis of American Insitdtute of Mining Engineens for 1887. I Natural illuminalting gas was first used in New York at Fre- dionia, Chautauqua oonnty, in 1821. It is still in use at the local- ity in question, 'but the quanitity is inBiuflQcient to .supply the whole village. Besides Fredonia, at the present time Buffalo, Honeoye Falls, Pulaski and Sandy Greek are using natural gas for heat- ing and illuminating purposes and wells have been bored in the vicinity of Oswego, as well as at Fulton and Baldwinsville. Gas wells have 'been bored tentatively at a large nuimiber of places in New York State and small quantities of gas have been found, but the enterprises have noit ibeen financially succiessful. At present m'any of the wells in Buffalo have ceased tO' yield and a large quantity of the natural gas now consumed in that city is brought in pdpe-lines from Canada. The gas of Fredonia comes from ishiales immediately over the corniferous limestone. The gas of the oil districts comes, like the oil, from the horizon of the Oatskill. The gas of cenitral 'and northern New York comes from the Trenton limestone. Natural Carbonic Acid Gas This material is obtained at Saratoga iSprings and vicinity by boring wells to a depth of about 350 feet. Carbonated waters flow to itlhe surface and are conducted through pipes to large gas holders, where the gas separates from the water and is then pumped into compressors from which it is forced into steel cyl- inders under a pressure of about 1,000 pounds to the square inch. These eylinders^ when filled, lare shipped to the consumers, who use it eMefly in ithe manufactuTe of soda water, boith for the w^hlolesale and retail trades. At present this gas is shipped from KOONOMIC GEOLOGY 229 Sairaitoga Springis to New York. New Jersey, Penmsylvania, Massacliiusetts, Connecticut and Ebode Island. In addition to the large quantities consumed for soda water, it is also being used for refrigerating purposes and in the manufacture of cod liver oil. Mineral Waters The mineral isprings of New York are widely known. In addiition to the revenue from mineral springs used for baths at health iresorts, a large industry now exiBts in the boititling and slhipment of mineral waters for domestic consumption. List of Mineral Springs in New York which are Commercially Productive Adirondack Mineral Springs (H. V. Knight), Whitehall, Wash- ington counity. I Avon Sulphur Springs (O. D. Phelps), AVon, Livingston county. Artesian Lithia Spring (C. O. McCreedy), Ballston Spa, Sai-a- toga county. lOairo White Sulphur Spiring (H. K. Lyon), Cairo, Greene county. Cayuga Mineral Spring (Lucius Baldwin), Cayuga, Cayuga county. CMttenaii'go WMte Suliphur Springs (W. H. Young), CMtten- ango, Madision coiunty. Ohlordne Springs (J. L. Grover), iSyracuse, Onondaga cOunty. 'Oliftom Springs (Dr. Henry Foster), Clifton Springs, Ontario county. Dansville Springs (J. Antlhur Jackson, s-ecretary and manager), Danisville, Livingston county. Deep Bock Spring (Deep Rock Spring Co.), Oswego, Oswego county. Massena Springs (Shedden & Steams), Massena, St. Lawrence county. Numda Minenal Springs (Daniel Price), Nunda, Livingston county. Beid's Mineral Spring (J. R. McNeil), South Argyle, Washing- ton coiunty. 230 NEW yOEK STATE MUSEUM Richfield Springs (T. B. Proctor), Bic'Meld Springs, Otsego county. Ohampion Spring (J. Z. Formel), Saratoga Spring®, Saratoga county. Eimpdre Spring (H. W. Hayes, manager), Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county. Excelsior Spring (F. W. Lawrence), Saratoga Springs, Sara- ttoga ciQiunty. Geyser Springs (Geyser Spring Co.), Saratoga Springs, Sara- toga county. Hatborn Spring (Hathoirn Spring Co.), Saratoga Springs, Sara- toga county. Old Eed Spring (E. H. Peters, superintendent), Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county. Viichy Springs (L. A. James, superintendent), Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county. Sharon Springs (John H. Gardner & Son), Sharon Springs, Schioharie 'county. Slaterville Magnetic Springs (W. J. Cams & Son), Slaiberville, Tom,pkini& county. i Verona Mineral Springs (A. A. Hunt, M. D.), Verona, Oneida county. White Sulphur Springs (T. 0. Luther), Ballston Spa^ Saratoga county. White Sulphur Springs (J. Hochstatter), Berne, Albany county. Star Springs, Saratoga Springs. Elkhorn Spring (Clark Snook), Manlius. Boyal Spring (A. Putnam, Jr., president), Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county. Lebanon Thermal Spring (P. Carpenter), Lebanon Springs. Crystal Bock Water Co. (L. G. Deland, president), Fairport.' Victor Spring (H. J. Dickinson, Buffalo), Darien, Genesee county. Geneva Magnetic Mineral Spring (C. A. Steele), Geneva, N. Y., Ontario county. Oneita Springs (Oneita Spring Co.), Utica, N. Y., Oneida county. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 231 Empire Seneca Spring (M. W. Cobb, of Fredonia), Dunkirk, N. Y., Chautauqua county. Crystal Spring (Asa D. Baker), Barrington, N. Y., Yates county. Great Bear Spring, Fulton, Oswego county. Minerals Not Commercially Important In addition to the minerals which have already been mentioned there are many deposits in New York which are not at present of commercial importance. These may be roughly classified as metallic minerals and non-metallic minerals. METALLIC MINERALS In this class are iron pyrites, arsenopyrite, chromite, chalcopy- rite, cuprite, galenite, cerusite, sphalerite, wad or bog manganese, millerite and molybdenite. The galenite and pyrites have re- spectively yielded small quantities of silver and gold at certain places, but at no locality in New York have enough of the precious metals teen found at any time to pay for the expense of extracting them. From time to time capital is invested for the purpose of gold or silver mining in New York, but always without practical results. The experience of 50 years has shown that neither in New York nor in New England have either of the metals been found in paying quantities. The following is a list of the principal localities at which the various metallic minerals are found: IRON, SULPHUR, ARSENIC Pyrite, iron pyrites, Usulphide of iron. Anthony's nose, West- chester county, mine formerly worked; Philips ore bed, Phillipstown, Patterson, southeast of Carmel and near Lud- ington mills, in Putnam county; with galena at Wurtsboro lead mine, Sullivan county; Flat creek, Miomtgomery county; near Canton, St Lawrence county, in extensive beds; Duane, Franklin county, large bed; Martinsburg, Lewis county; Eighteen mile creek, Erie county, and many other localities, sparingly in rocks. 232 NKW TOEK STATE MUSEUM Arsenopyrite, mispickel. Near Edenville, Orange county, with arsenical iron and orpiment, im a vein in white limestone; near Pine pond in Kent, and near Boyd's Corner, Putnam county. These localities have been opened, but not worked for arsenic. Chromite, chrome iron ore. In serpentine, Phillipstown, Putnam county; Wilks' mine, Monroe, Orange county. COPPER Chalcopyrite, copper pyrites; sulphide of iron and copper. An- cram lead .mine, ColumJbia county; Bockee mine, Columibda county; near Edenville, Orange county; with arsenopyrite; near Wurtsboro, Sullivan county, with galena in considerable abundance; Ellen ville and Red Ridge lead mines, Ulster county; near Roissie, and also near Canton, in St Lawrence county, once worked. Many additional occurrences are reported where it is in small quantity. Cuprite, red oxide of copper. Near Ladento'wn, Rockland county, in thin seams, in trap rock. LEAD Galenite, galena; sulphide of lead. Oitisville, Orange county; Ellenville and Red Bridge, Ulster co'unty; with copper pyrites and blende, in a gangue of quartz in Oneida conglomerate, mines nO' longer worked; Wurtsboro, Sullivan county; near Sing Sing, in Westchester county; northeast township, Dutchess county; Ancram, Columbia county; strings of galena, blende and pyrites in limestone; White creek, Washington county; Martinsburg, Lewis county; Spraker's basin, Montgomery county; Rossie and vicinity, St Lawrence oonnty; mines largely worked years ago; ore occurs in vein with 'blend, pyrites and copper pyrites. These mines have all been idle for several years. Cerusite, carlonate of lead. Rosisie, Robinson, Ross and other lead mines, in St Lawrence county; Martinsburg, Lewis 'county ; near Sing Sing, on Hudson, associated with galena, in small quantity. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 233 ZINC Sphalerite, zinc hlende; sulphide of zinc. Aissociated with galena at lead mines in SulliTan, Ulster and Orange connities; Ancram, Oolumlbia county; Flait creek, Montgomery county; Salisbury, Herkimer county; Martinsburg, Lewisburg, Lewis county; Cooper's Falls, Mineral Point, and in Fowler, St Law- rence county. I MANGANESE Wad, earthy manganese, hog manganese. In town of Austerlitz, Columbia county, are several localities; also in Hillsdale and Canaan, same county; smaller deposits near Houseville, Lewis county, and southeast of Warwick, Orange county. NICKEL Millerite, sulphide of nickel. Sterling iron mine, Antwerp, Jeffer- son county, famous for crystalline forms. MOLYBDENUM MolyMenite; sulphide of molyldenum. West Point and near Warwick, Orange county; Philips mine, Putnam county; Clinton county, but sparingly, in granite rocks. NON-METALLIC MINERALS Under the head of non-metallic minerals which have a com- mercial value but do not occur in New York in a quantity large enough to be of economic importance, may be enumerated apatite, asbestus, barite, biotite, calcite, fluorite, magnesite, muscovite and serpentine. The principal localities for these minerals are given herewith : Apatite; phosphate of lime. Hammond, St Lawrence county, crystalline, with calcite, zinc ore and feldspar; near Gouverneur, St Lawrence county, crystals in calcite, Vrooman lake, Jefferson county; Greenfield, Saratoga county; near Hammondsville, Essex county; with magnetite in some of iroii ores near Port Henry; other localities of occurrence. Barite, iarytes, heavy spar; sulphate of Mryta. Ancram, Colum- bia county; near Schoharie Courthouse, with strontianite, in the 234 NEW TOEK STATE MUSEUM Water-lime group; Carlisle, Schoharie county; near Littlefalls and Fairfield, Herkimer county; near Syracuse, Oniondaga county; Pillar Point, Jefferson county, in large veins; Hammond and De Kalb, St Lawrence county. Calcite, calcareous tufa, travertine; carbonate of lime. Vicinity of iSchoharie Courthouse, Schoharie county; iSharon Springs, a large deposit; Howe's Cave, Schoharie county; near Catskill, Greene county ; head of Otsquaga creek, iStark, Herkimer county ; Saratoga Springs; near Syracuse and in Onondaga valley, Onon- daga county; between Camillus and Canton, same county; near Arkport, Steuben county; near EUicott's mills, Erie county, and many lesser deposits. Fluorite, fluor spar; fluoride of lime. Muscalonge lake, Alexan- dria, Jefferson county, very fine crystals; Lowville, Lewis county; Niagara county, at Lockport; Auburn, Cayuga county; Rossie and Mineral Point, St Lawrence county. Magnesite, carbonate of magnesia. Near Eye, Westchester county; Warwick, Orange county; New Rochelle, Westchester county; Stony Point, Eockland county; Serpentine hills, Staten Island; everywhere in thin seams and strings. Muscovite, mica. As a rock constituent, common. In large plates near Warwick and at Greenwood at Mount Bashaii pond, in Orange county; Pleasantville, Westchester county, once opened and mined; Henderson, Jefferson county; Potsdam and Edwards, in St Lawrence county. Serpentine. Staten Island, near New Bochelle and near Rye, Westchester county; Phillipstown, Putnam county; near Amity, Orange county, verd antique; Johnsburg and Warrensburg, War- ren county; Shelving rock, Lake George, Washington county; Gouverneur, Fowler, Edwards and Pitcairn townships, in St Lawrence county; other localities of oocurrence in small quantity. COAL AND LIGNITE Coal and lignite, while they occur in New York, can never be found in commercial quantities. The coal measures of Pennsyl- vania are not found north of the boundary line between Pennsyl- ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. 235 vania and New York, and what coal has been disoovered in the latter state is in older formations which do not contain this valuable mineral in commercial quantities. Many thousands of dollars have been spent in fruitless efforts to obtain coal in New York, but year after year men appear in the field who seem anxious to pay for their own experience. It can not be too strongly urged upon the attention of the people of the state that it is absolutely useless to seek for coal in New York. Coal. Woodstock, Ulster county, thin vein in the Catskill, worked out; in seams interstratified with shale, in Chautauqua, Erie, Livingston and Seneca counties. Lignite, hroicn coal. Near Rossville^ Staten Island, thin seam in clay; also in Suffolk county in clays. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY Geologic Text-Books and Books of Reference Geology is not, like history, a embject which can be learned wholly from books. Not even an elemenitary knowledge of it can be readily obtained without careful field study of some promi- nent district. The student must, however, use (books to supply him with inifiormation as to the work of others who have gone before, while his powers of ohservation and inference are being trained on geologic phenomena. When taking up the field study of a new district, it is import- ant to ascertain what is already known concerning it. An attempt is made, therefore, to direct attention to the principal publications on New York geology. The four geologic reports of Hall, Mather, Emmons and Van- uxem on the districts assigned to them in the original survey of the state which was begun in 1837 and concluded in 1841, are now out of print, but are found in most of the public libraries of New York, and can be purchased of the dealers in old books in the larger cities. They contain an immense amount of valuable detail and should be oonsulted by all persons interested in New York geology. The report on the fourth district by James Hall, is as valuable to-day as when it was written and comparatively little has been added by later investigators in the region des- cribed, except in regard to quaternary and economic geology. In addition to these four quarto volumes on the geology of New York, there have been many papers published in the annual reports ^of the New York State Museum and the State Geologist of New York. A multitude of papers have alsoi been published by persons not officially connected with the State SUGGESTIONS FOE STUDY 237 Geologist or with the State Museum. These will be found in the publications of various scientific societies; the New York Aca- demy of Sciences, the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science, the G-eological Society of America and 'Others; in the American Journal of Science, the American Geologist and other periodicals; and in the publications of the U. S. Geological Survey. Prof. John M. Clarke, in the 13th report of the State Geologist for 1893, also in the 47th report of the New York State Museum, has puiblished a list of papers on the geology of New York from 1876 to 1893. Attention is also directed to Bulletin No. 127 of the U. S. Geological Survey, entitled Catalogue and Index of Contributions to North American Geology, 1732-1891, by N. H. Darton, price 60 cents. For a proper understanding of the geographic distribution of the New York formations, a geologic map of the state is neces- sary. For general reference the large map prepared by the State Geologist is invaluable, and for field use, the small Economic and Geologic map is recommended. This may he purchased through the Secretary of the University of the State of New York for 25 cents per copy unmounted, or 75 cents dissected and mounted on muslin. The invaluable Geological Railway Guide of MacFarlane, pub- lished by Appleton & Co., is commended as a guide in travel. Dana's Manual of Geology is also indispensable as a compendium and reference book on the geology of the United States. The most excellent Text-look of Geology by Sir Archibald Geikie is highly recommended for reference. The Principles of Geology by Sir Charles Lyell is a vi"ork of great value which should be read by all students and teachers. Dana's Text-hook of Geology is very useful. While many are deterred from the purchase of these volumes by their seeming high price, it is, after all, but a small sum to pay for the liberal education in geology which can be obtained through their judicious use. 238 NEW TOEK STATE MUSEUM In addition to the more technical books described above, there are many accurate and important works written for popular read- ing both at home and abroad. The number of these is constantly increasing and they can be found in the large libraries or obtained through the book sellers. Field Work OUTCROPS There are in general two classes of geologic strata, the hard and the soft. In New York the hard strata include all rocks older than the Cretaceous. The soft include the formations of the Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary. Almost everywhere the hard rocks are overlaid by soft deposits, usually of Quarter- nary age, so that in any locality there is generally both hard and soft geology. The hard geology is probably best for the beginner to take up first, where he has a choice between the two. In Dana's Manual of Geology and Sir Archibald Geikie's Outlines of Field Geology, detailed directions are given for methods of study among the hard rocks. The most important habit to be cultivated by the beginner in geology, is that of recognizing outcrops when they occur, or in their absence, of determining by surface indications the character of the rock which underlies the soil. The beginner must form early, the habit of distinguishing loose fragments or boulders from ledges or outcrops, and in regions devoid of outcrops must study carefully the stone fences for frag- ments of the local rock. The fences as a rule represent the aggre- gate of loose rock fragments gathered from the surface of the agricultural lands and these fragments have usually come from the underlying rock. In parts of western New York, over the soft Salina shales no fragments of local rock are foiund because it decomposes into clay. There the fences are formed of small, hard cobblestones chiefly derived from the granite and gneiss rocks of Canada and brought to their present resting place by the great ice sheet. \ SUGGESTIONS FOE 8TCDT 239 Where the covering of soil and other loose material is thick, outcrops should be sought along the beds of rivers, creeks and rivulets. Eunning water usually cuts through the softer material and reaches the harder rock below. For this reason the gutters and ditches by the sides of roads should be examined for expos- ures, if no other source of information is available. It is not possible here to give any adequate directions for the study lof soft geology. This branch is still immature and is chiefly in the hands of specialists. The literature of Quaternary geology is, however, very large and by a careful study of it, the beginner may form some conception of its scope. A single field day with a good geologist is worth more than many weeks of reading. FOSSILS It is important for the beginner to realize that perfect speci- mens of fossils such as are exhibited in the museums and figured in the works on palaeontology are not every where to be found and that the more common examples are fragmentary. Were it not for the dissolving action of atmospheric water on carbonate of lime the study of fossils would still be in its infancy, as in many cases the fossil is whollyinclosed in a firm mass of limestone from which it can not be separated by the hammer alone. On the sur- face exposures of limestone, the action of the weather removes a part of the matrix, exposing for a time the surface of the shell. This after a few years may in turn yield to the dissolving action of atmospheric water and gradually disappear, another specimen at a lower level being gradually brought to view in its place. In sandstones, the calcareous fossils are usually entirely dissolved out of the surface layers and it is only by the impressions or casts which they leave behind, that we know of their existence. If means are afforded for excavation and blasting, below the reach of the rain water, will be found a bed of rock from which the calcareous matter has not been dissolved away, but in this case it is often difficult to separate the fossils except by long and tedious process of cleaning or developing with small tools. 240 NEW YORK STATE MUSECM Within the writer's observation, students at the beginning of their field experience are misled by the perfection of cabinet specimens and figures and hope to find everywhere such perfect forms; as a matter of fact, they must learn to be guided for the most part by fragments. It does not seem possible to give within the limits of this publi- cation any adequate description of the fossils which are charac- teristic of the different strata. It is better for these to refer to the original publications of the New York Natural History Survey. In the four reports on geology by Mather, Emmons, Vanuxem and Hall, numerous illustrations of fossils are given but the names are, in many cases, out of date. In the volumes on Palaeontology froiii I to VII, are described and figured most of the fossils of New York state from the Potsdam sandstone to the Chemung. Volume VIII gives a revision of the Brachiopoda. To these volumes, therefore, the student should refer for the identifi- cation of such forms as he may find in his field excursions. A few of the more common species are figured in Dana's Manual of Geology, which should be in the hands of every student. For those pursuing more critical studies, the work of S. A. Miller on North American Geology and Palaeontology is of great value as it gives a complete list of all Palaeozoic fossils described up to the date of its publication and indicates the more modern names in the many cases where there has been a change of nomenclature. Of the eight volumes of New York palaeontology mentioned, tie first two are out of print and are only to be had from dealers in second hand books, but they will probably be found in most of the public libraries of New York state. The remaining volumes are sold at $2.50 each. THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY OF NEW YORK AND THE ORIGIN OF THE STATE MUSEUM The New York State Museum, organized by act of legislature in 1870 under the title of the State Museum of Natural History and placed under the trusteeship of the Eegents of the University, is the result of the geological survey of the state commenced in 1836. THE NATTJEAL HISTOEY SUEVET OF NEW TOEK 24:1 This survey was established at the expressed wish of the peo- ple to have some definite and positive knowledge of the mineral resources and the vegetable and animal productions of the state. , Hon. Stephen Van Rensselaer was the patron of the first enter- prise of this kind, and had published much valuable information, but it was felt that a more thorough investigation was needed. The idea was fully expressed in a memorial presented by the Albany Institute to the state legislature in 1834, in which the object was thus stated: 'to form a grand and comprehensive collection of the natural productions of the state of New York; to exhibit at one view, and under one roof, its animal, vegetable and mineral wealth.' In 1835 the New York Lyceum of Natural History presented a memorial to the legislature on the same subject, and it is pre- sumed that this memorial and the influences prompting the re- quest of the Albany Institute, induced the legislature of 1835 to pass a resolution requesting the secretary of -state to report to that body a plan for ' a complete geological survey of the state, which should furnish a scientific and perfect account of its rocks, soils and minerals; also a list of its mineralogical, botanical and zoological productions, and provide for procuring and preserving specimens of the same, etc' Pursuant to this request, Hon. John A. Dix, then secretary of state, presented to the legislature of 1836, a report proposing a plan for a complete geological, botanical and zoological survey of the state. The scientific staff of the natural history survey of 1837 was appointed by Governor Seward pursuant to an act of the legis- lature, and consisted of John Torrey, botanist, James E. De Kay, zoologist, Lewis C. Beck, mineralogist, W. W. Mather, Ebenezer Emmons, Lardner Vanuxem and James Hall, geologists, and Timothy A. Gonrad, paleontologist. The state was divided into four districts, each of which was assigned to a geologist in the order given. ; The heads of the several departments reported annually to the governor the results of their investigations, and these constituted 242 NEW TOEK STATE MUSEUM the aamual octavo reports which were published from 1837 to 1841. The final reports were published in quarto form, beginning at the close of the field work in 1841, and 3,000 sets have been distributed, comprising four volumes of geology, one of mineral- ogy, two of botany, five of zoology, five of agriculture and eight of palaeontology. ■■ The collections in the several departments were supposed to re- quire a room of some magnitude, and it was thought that such could be found in the third story of the old capitol, by taking away a partition and throwing into one, two rooms used by com- mittees; but long before the completion of the survey it was evi- dent that the collections would require much more space than the capitol rooms would afford, and in 1840 Gov. Seward, in response to a memorial urging ' the importance of providing suitable rooms or a separate building for the collections made during the sur- vey,' recommended that the old State hall on the corner of State and Lodge streets be used for that purpose. This old building was replaced in 1857 by a new one. Geological and Agricultural hall, and the collections which at first were to find plafce in two committee rooms, now occupy a large part of the main floor and three entire floors above, besides storage ac- commodations in the basement. These collections form a scientific museum of great interest and value, and its publications are recognized among the works of standard authority in science. _ The geological survey of New York has been comprehensive and extended, yet some portions of the work are still incomplete; the northern part of the state has been but partially studied, and its geologic structure is but im- perfectly known. This museum, with its extensive and increasing collections and publications, plays an important part in the educational system of the state, since the importance of this kind of education has become so fully and generally recognized. Although neither coal nor mines of gold or silver have been found within the state, it has been shown that New York pos- sesses the most complete and unbroken series of the Palaeozoic THE NATUBAL HI8T0EY SURVEY OF NEW TOKK 243 or older fossiliferous rocks known in tie world; and that for these the collections of the museum with the nomenclature adopted by the geological survey of New York will always be the standard of reference and authority. It may justly be said that Hon. John A. Dix, as secretary of state, in 1836 laid the foundation of this museum and of all the scientific land practical results which have accrued from the in- auguration of the geological suiTey of the state of New York. At the time of the final arrangement of the collections of the geological survey, in 1843, very little was known in this country regarding museums of natural history, and no true appreciation of what such an institution should be, existed, except in the minds of a few persons. It is not strange, therefore, that there should have been a general acquiesence in the proposition that the collections of ithe geological survey should be deposited in the old State hall for ' safe keeping,' and the idea of constant and steady increase toward a great museum of natural history was scarcely, if at all promulgated. The collections and the rooms that they, occupied were placed in charge of a curator, Mr. J. W. Taylor, who was succeeded by Mr. John Gebhard, Jr, and he in turn in 1857 by Colonel Jewett. The small annual appropriations made by the legislature were only sufficient for the custody and very moderate increase of the collection. Mat- ters remained in this condition till 1865, when the legislature piasised some resolutions tending to the expansion of the museum; and, following these, the secretary of the board of regents ad- dressed a circular letter to numerous scientific men, professors and teachers, asking suggestions as to the best mode of putting in force the objects of Hhe legislature as expressed in the reso- lutions referred to. The communications in reply to this were published in the 19th report of the State Cabinet, together with a recommenda- tion of the committee of the regents to whom the subject had been referred. This recommendation became the first step to- ward an improved condition, and a recognition of the necessity of regarding the museum as a series of collections in natural Bistory which were to be increased and elaborated in every die- 244 NEW YORK STATE MTJ8BUM partment. In 1865 Ool. Jewett resigned and was succeeded by James Hall. The discovery of the mastodon skeleton at Oohoes, in the summer of 1866, and its acquisition by the State Cabinet, attracted much attention toward the institution. At the nexit legislature successful application was made for |5,000 to purchase the Gould oollection of shells and this accession of 60,000 specimens repre- senting 6,000 species was generally appreciated. The new capitol commissioners, wishing information as to the siources of building material, engaged the curator of the State Cabinet to make a reconnaissance which resulted in a report to the commis.si oners, and the acquisition to the State Cabinet, by this and other means, of a large collection of marbles, limestones, sandstones and granites which are now included in the collection which occupies two sides of the entrance hall of the museum. At first the State Cabinet received no regular or fixed appro- priation of money from the legislature, but in 1870 la law was passed organizing the same, under the designation of the State Museum of Natural History, and appropriating $10,000 annually to provide for the salaries of the director and three assistants, together with the expenses of increase and preservation of the collections. In addition to this, a sum was annually appropri- ated for the salary of a botanist, and special appropriations have been made from time to time. In 1881 a state entomolo'gisit was/ appointed and in 1883 was made a member of the museum staff. I The present appropriation of $12,000 is quite inadequate to the requirements of such a museum, but a visible and substantial progress is made in each of the departments, as shown in the increasing order and the additions to the collections, as recorded in the annual museum reports. In 1889 the State Museum was made an integral part of the University of the State of New York. In 1894 the present director was appointed. Most of the museum remains on the four floors of Geological hall on State street, at the corner of Lodge. Here are the collections in mineralogy, geol- ogy, palaeontology, zoology and ethnology and the ofl&ces of the director and his assistants. The state geologist and palaeontolo- THE NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY OF HEW YORK. 245 gist and his staff have their ofSoes in State hall in Eagle street, and the entomologist and botanist are in the north east section of the fourth floor of the capitol. The State Museum in addition to its ■WQirk 'of collecting material representative of the natural resources of the state, is also the seat of the geologic and nat- ural history survey which has been in progress since 1832, and under the auspices of which numerous reports have been pub- lished on geology, palaeontology, zoology and botany. The mu- seum is open to the public from 9 a. m. till 5 p. m. daily except on Sundays and other holidays. Inasmuch as the State Museum icomprises all scientific work intrusted to the regents it is proper to mention the resurvey of the boundary line between New York and the states of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. This was done in accordance with res- olutions passed by the legislature in 1867 and in 1875, and by the laws of 1880 the boundary lines resurveyed and monumented under the direction of the regents were accepted as the true boundaries of the state. OFFICERS OF THE STATE MUSEUM Administrative division Frederick J. H. Merrill, Ph. D. (Columbia) Director A. G. Richmond Honorary curator in archaeology J. N. Nevius Assistant Joseph Morje Page Research division t James Hall, M. A. (Eensselaer polytechnic) LL. D. (Harvard) State geologist and paleontologist Charles H. Peck, M. A. (Union) State botanist * J. A . Lintner, Ph. D. (N. Y.) State entomologist John M. Clarke, M. A. (Amherst) Assistant state geologist and paleontologist Philip Ast Lithographer George B. Simpson Draftsman Geologist's Martin Sheehy Messenger assistants Jacob Van Deloo Clerk Ephraim Porter Felt, B. S. (Boston) Sc. D. (Cornell) Entomologist's assistant * Died May 5, 1898. tDied August 7, 1898. INDEX The superior figure allows the exact place on the page in ninths; e. g. 1217 means seven-ninths of the way clown page 121, Acadian group, 1431, 144^. Actinolite, 1215. Adirondaoks, Plutonic rocks, 124^, 1392; Archaean roeks, 1409-413; limestone, 1428; sandstone, 1428, 1447; iron ores, 2186. Aeons, see Geologic time. Aguotozoio series, 135', 141*. Air, 1193 ; geologic changes produced by. 128«, 1792, 239s. Albany county, Hudson river group, 149^ ; lower Helderbcrg group, 1578. Albite, 1212. Amphiboles, 1215. Andesite, 1212, 1252. Animals, classification, 130-31. Anorthite, 1212. Anwrthosite, 1411. Anthony's Nose, 1245. Antwerp red hematites, 219*. Apatite, localities producing, 2338. Aragonite, 120^. Archaean series, 1385-40^; term defined, 1386; exposures, 1388-41*; typical localities, 1406-41*. Archaean time, 135'. Archaeopteryx, 172^. ArgillitQ, 1961. Aristotle, geologic observations of, 113'. Arrow-heads, material, 173'. Arsenic, localities producing, 2318. Asbestus, 121'. Ashburner, C : A., articles on produc- tion of oil, 2282. Asphalt, 122'. Atmosphere, see Air. Augite, 1218, 1252. Barite, localities producing, 2339. Basalt, 1252;. constituents, 1218. Beaver, fossil, 1789. Beck, L. C, mineralogist, 2418. Biotite, 1222. Birds, of Jurassic period, 172'; of Tertiary period, 175*. Birdseye limestone, 1475, 147M8*, 2005. Bishop, I. P., photographs by, 110'. Black lead, 122'. Black marble, 1485. Black river limestone, 1475, 148*. Blue Eidge, formation, 151^. Bluestone, iy2*-933. Boundary lino, resurvey, 245'. Breakneck mountain, 1245. Bronze age, 179'. Bronzite, 1222. Brown hematite ore, see Limonite. Brownstone, 195*. Building stones, 1483, 149', 152', 160«, 181-204. Burden iron mines, 2221. Calcareous tufa, 120', 2032 ; localities producing, 2342. Calciferous group, 1468-47*. Calciferons sandrock, 1996. Calcite, 120^; localities producing, 2342. Cambrian system, 138*, 1422-463; origin of name, 142*; depth in Washington county, 1459 ; life of, 146i. Ciranon's Point, 1246. Carbonate of lime, localities produc- ing, 2342. Carbonate ores, 221^-22*. Carbonic acid gas, 2288. 248 NEW TOEK STATE MUSEUM Carboniferous system, 137S, 1661-705; life of, 1701. Cashaqua shale, 1643. Catskill group, 1651, 194«. Catskill limestone, 157^. Catskills, conglomerate, 166^. Cauda galli grit, 1595, 191<, 2073. Cement, hydraulic, 156'. Cement, lime and, 222^. Cenozffic time, 135', 1747-79*. Cbalcopyrite, 122'. Chalk, 1733. Champlain valley, caleiferous sand- rock, 1473; Chazy limestone, 147''; clays, 2117-123. Chazy limestone, 147=, 2002. Chemical history of the earth, 1173-18'. Chemical rocks, 125^. Chemung group, 164', 1939-945. Chert, 1737. Chromite, localities producing, 2322. Chrysolite, 1224. Clarke, J : M., papers on geology of New York, 2373. Class! tication, of geologic time and strata, 135-36, Clay, 1208, 1255, 1773, 2083-139; pro- ducts, 2133. Clay-slate, 1961. Clinton county, sandstone, 1452. Clinton group, 1531, 1908-912. Clinton ores, 2198-206. Coal, 1227; vegetable origin, 1257, 1682; shales resembling, 1628; inPottaville conglomerate, 167* ; fossils of coal measures, 1691; localities producing, 1696, 2349. See also Carboniferous system. Cobblestones, 20.37. Cocktail fucoid, 1597. Cohoes mastodon, 2441. Colorado group, 174*. Colnmbia county, caleiferous lime- stone, 1473; limonites, 2207-217; spathic iron ore, 2219-22*. Conglomerate, 120», 125*, 1275, 1666. See also Oneida conglomerate ; Potts- ville conglomerate. Connecticut brownstone, 195'. Conrad, T. A., pilaeontologist, 2418. Copper ore, 1227 ; localities producing, 2323. Corniferous limestone, 1602,12022. Corundum, 1227, 2266. Cretaceous system, 1733-746; life of, 1745. Crust of the earth, II66-I72, 1197. Crustaceans, 141'. Crystalline limestone, 1262, 1388, 1991 constituents, 1216. Crystalline rocks, 1367, 1832. Crystallography, 1209. Dakota group, 174*. Dana, J. D., Manual of lHhology and mineralogy, 1209 ; Manual of geology, 1512, 2377. Darton, N. H., photographs by, 1109- 111; Tjulletin on North America geology, 237*. De Kay, J. E., zoologist, 2418. Devonian system, 1377, 158*-659; origin of name, 1585 ; life of, 1657. Diabase, 1252 ; constituents, 1218. Diamonds, 1228. Diatomaeeous earth, 2267, Diopside, 1219. Diorite, 1833, 1252, 1388. Dix, John A., plan for geologic survey, 2416; founder of museum, 2432. Dolomite, 1207. Dover mountain, formation, 140'. Dutchess county, limestone, 1428, 1432 j quartzite, 143*; caleiferous lime- stone, 1473 ; limonites, 2207-217. Dwight, W: B., geologic studies, 1425. Dykes, 1399-403. Dynamic geology, 1281-292. Earth, origin of, 1148-172; crust, 1166- 172, 1197 ; chemical history, 1173-185 ; present condition of interior, 1186- 191 ; envelopes, II92. Economic geology, 181-234. Elementary substances, II66-I72. INDEX TO MTJSEtIM BULLETIN 19 249 Elephant, fossil, 178«. Emeralds, 1228. Emery, 122', 2266. Emmons, Ebenezer, geologist., 2418; statement quoled, 110*; geologic re- port, 2366. Encrinal limestone, 163*. Enstatite, 1222. EuJ;omologist, state, appointed, 244'. Envelopes of the earth, 119^. Eoeene, 174'. Erie county, hydraulic cement, 156^. Feldspars, 1209, 1211. Fertilizers, 2236, 224«, 227'. Field work, 2383-40'. Fishes, 113', 1418; of Carboniferons system, 170^ ; of Cretaceous period, 1746; of Devonian system, 1585, 1658- of Jurassic period, 1728; of Lower Silurian system, 1506; of MeSozoic time, 170'; of Tertiary period, 175'; of Triassic period, 171=, 1723. Flagstone, 152', 164*, 186*. Flint, 1736. Fluorite, localities producing, 234*. Ford, S. W., geologic studies, 1425. Formations, geologic, of New York, 137-79 ; trinity of, 1275. Fossil ores, 2198-206. Fossils, bibliography, 240^ ; disintegra- tion, 239*-40'; early mention of, 113'-146 ; of Acadian group, 1432 ; in Black Eiver limestone, 148^; of Cam- brian system, 142*; of Carboniferons system, 170' ; in Catskill group, 1655 ; in Cauda galli grit, 159' ; in Cham- plain valley clays, 2122; in Clinton group, 153* ; of coal measures, 1691 ; of Devonian system, 165'; of Georgian group, 1433 ; in Lower Silurian sys- tem, 1505; in Niagara limestone, 2013 ■ in Oriskany sandstone, 1593 ; in Potsdam group, 142'; of Quater- nary system, 1786-79*; of Triassic system, 1715; of Upper Silurian sys- tem, 1582. See also Palaeontology. Franklin county, sandstone, 1452. Freestone, 1863, 1956. Gabbro, 1832. Galeuite, 1228; localities producing, 2326. Gardeau shale, 1643. Garnet, 1226, 2259. Gebhard, John, jr, curator of museum, 2436. Geikie, Sir Archibald, Text-ioolc of geology, 237'. Genesee river falls, 154'. Genesee rock, 1638-641. Genesee valley, salt wells, 1556, 224*. Geologic formations, of New York, 137-79. Geologic map of New York, 2375. Geologic series, 126*, 1365. Geologic strata, see Strata. Geologic time, classification, 135-36 Geology, defined, 1133; history as a science, 1133-14'; beginning of geologic history, 1148; historic, 1263-27'. See also Dynamic geology. Georgian group, 1432-441. Glacial drift, 2033-43. Glaciers, 1762. Glass sand, 225*. Gneiss, 125^, 1388, I832, 2053 ; constitu- ents, 1222 ■ exposures, 140'. Gold, ore, 122'; mining in New York, 2316. Goniatite limestone, 1628. Gould collection of shells, 2442. Granite, 1252, 1338^ 181*-83*, 2049-53, 2056 ; constituents, 1215, 1222. Granitic rooks, 181*-849. Grapbite, 122', 2248. Gravel, 1205, 125* ; as road metal, 2082. Greene county, lower Helderberg group, 1578. Groups, 1366. Guide to geology of New Yorle and to the state geological cabinet, by Ledyard Lincklaen, 1096-103. Gypsum, 122', 1256, 155', 2246. 250 NEW YOBK STATE MUSEUM Halite, see Eock salt. Hall, James, statemeuts quoted, 110*; aolinowledyement to, 1115; geologic reports, 2366 ; geologist, 2418; curator ot museum, 2441. Hamilton group, 1622-641, 1918-923; shale, 1631. Haverstraw stone, 195'. Helderberg rocks, 156''-58i. Hematite, 122', 2192. Highlands, formation, 124=, 1392, 1396^ 1408 : magnetic iron ores, 2168-18^. Historic geology, 126^-27'. Hornbleude, 1215, 1251, 182«, 2049-51. Hornstone, 1737. " Horses," 2173. Hudson river, carbonate ores, 2219-22*. Hudson river bluestoue, 192*. Hudson river sandstone, 188*. Hudson river group, 1493-50*. Hudson valley, clays, 2108-116. Hnut, T. S., quoted, 1176. Hydr.iulic cement. 156'. Hydromica schist, 126i. Hyperstlieue, 1222, 1251- Ice age, 1759-772. Igneous rocks, 1232, 124i-253,_ constitu- ents, 122*. Illuminating gas, 2279, Infusorial earth, 2268. Iron age, 1797. Iron ores, 214*-22*; localities produc- ing, 2319. Jefferson county, sandstone, 1452; Black river limestone, I486; hema- tite, 2192. Jewett, Ezekiel, curator of museum, 2436 ; resignation, 2441. Jurassic system, 1723-732; life of, 1726- 732. Kaolin deposits, 2132. Kaolinite, 120'. Kemp, J. F., Geology of Moriah and JVesipori townships, 2146. Kittatinny mountains, formation, 1516. Labradorite, 1212. Lake Champlaln, iron ores, 2I86-I91, Lake Mohonk, on Shawangunk grit, 1518. Lakes of central New York, 1616. Lapworth, , geologic studies, 146^. Laramie group, 174*. Laurentian rocks of Canada, 138'. Lead ore, 122'; localities producing, 2326. Lenticular iron ores, 2198. Lewis count.y, Potsdam sandstone exposures, 145i ; Hudson river group, 1496. Lignite, localities producing, 235*. Lime and cement, 2225. Limestone, 125', 127^, 1969-2033; con- stitnenis, 1219, 1949-955; of Acadian group, 1443; of Adirondacks, 1428; of Dutchess county, 1432; of lower Silurian system, 1468-493; Trenton group, 1475; of upper Helderberg group, 1589-601; of npper Siluiiau system, 153i-58i; of Washington county, 1437. See also Crystiilline limestone; Magnesian limestone; Tully limestone; Upper Helderberg limestone. Limonites, 2207-218. Liucklaen, Ledyard, Guide to geology of New Torlc and to the state geological cabinet, 1096-103. Lithology, manual of, 1209. Littlefalls, Archaean rooks, 1389-391; pre-Canibrian rocks, 1413; calciferous sandrook, 1471. Long Island, terminal moraine, 176', 2036. Long Island clays, 212*. Longmeadow sandstone, 1956. Lower Helderberg group, 157*-58i. Lower Helderberg limestones, 2015. Lower Pentamerus limestone, 1577. Lower Silurian system, 1383, 146*-507 ; life of, 1505. Ludlowville shale, 163*. INDEX TO MUSEUM BULLETIN 19 251 Lyell, Sir Charles, PrinoipUs of geology, 1135, 2378; division of European Ter- tiary, 1748. Mac Farlane, James, Geological rail- way guide, 23T'. Magnesia-iron silicates, 1209, 121*. Magnesian limestone, 120', 205'. Magnesite, localities producing, 2345. Magnetic iron ores, 2168-191. Magnetite, 122'. Mammals, of Mesozoic time, 170'; of Jurassic period, 1728 ; of Cretaceous period, 174^; of Tertiary period, 1756. Man, age of, 179^. Manganese, localities producing, 233'. Marble, 1443, 1978-983. Maroellns shale, 1625, 1916. Marl, 2235. Massive rocks, see Igneous rocks. Mastodon, 1786; Cohoes, 244i. Mather, W. W., statements quoted, 110*; geologic reports, 2366; geolo- gist, 2418. Mauch Chunk group, 1669-671. Mechanical rooks, 125*. Medina sandstone, 152* ; 189'-908. Mesozoic time, 135', 1706-74'. Metallic minerals, 2315. Metamorphio rocks, 1232, 125S-26S. Mica, 1222 j localities producing, 2346. Mica schist, 1261. Microclino, 1211. Miller, S. A., North American geology and paleontology, 2405. Millerite, localities producing, 233*. Millstones, 2238. Mineral paint, 2229. Mineral w.iters, 2293-30. Mineralogy, manual of, 120'. Minerals, defioed, 1198; classification, 1201-229; number of species, 120*; commercially unimportant, 2313-34. Miocene, 1749. Mohawk valley, pre-Cahmrian rooks, 1413; Birdseye limestone, 1479-48*; Trenton limestone, 149^; Hudson river group, 1496. Molding gand, 225'. Molybdenum, localities producing, 2335. Moscow shale, 163*. Mt Marcy, 1245, 1411. Mt Whiteface, 1245. Mud stone, 1275. Murchison, Sir Roderick, geologic studies, 1465, 158'. Muscovite, 1223; localities producing, 2346. Natural gas, 228'. Natural history survey of New York, 2408-432 ; scientific staff, 241'. Nebular hypothesis, 1153-166. New York city, rocks, 1406, 150*. New York state geologic formation, 137-79 ; present surface, 1798-809. Newberry, Dr. J: S., acknowledgment to, 1115. Niagara cataract, how produced, 154i. Niagara county, hydraulic cement, 1566. Niagara group, 153'-54'. Niagara limestone, 2012. Niagara river, Medina sandstone, 1525. Nickel, localities producing, 233*. Non-metallic minerals, localities pro- ducing, 233'-349. Norite, 1252, 1388, 141i, 183*. Nyack stone, 1959. Officers of state museum, 246. Oleau conglomerate, 1676. Oligoclase, 1212. Olivine, 122*, 1252. Oneida conglomerate, 1513, iggi. Oneida county, Hudson river group, 1496. Oneonta sandstone, 193*. Onondaga county, waterlime, 1565; limestone, 162'. Onondaga limestone, 1605, 2022. Onondaga salt group, 1548-566. Oolitic ore, 2198. Orange county, caloiferous limestone, 1473. Orange mountains, formation, 1719. 252 NEW TOEK STATE MUSBU:\[ Ordovician system, see Lower Silurian system. Organic rocks, 125''. Oriskany sandstone, 1573, 159', 1912. Orleans county, hydraulic cement, 156^. Orthoclase, 1211, 1251. Oswego county, Hudson river group, 1496. Outcrops, 2383-39*. Oysters, 173^ ; of Tertiary period, 175'. Packard, A. S., First lessons in zoology, extract from, 132. Palaeontology, 1293-302. See also Fos- sils. Palaeozoic series, 1418-705; outcrops in New York, 1846, 2429-432. Palaeozoic time, 1358. Palisades, igneous rocks, 124^, 140*, 171'; trap-rocks, 184*, 2049. Peat, 227'. Pentamerus limestones, 201^. Periods, 136i. Permian formation, 1698-70^. Petrified wood, 179^. Petroleum, 227*. Phosphate of lime, localities producing, 2338. Photographs, llOMli. Physiography of New York, 1341-353. Plagioclase, 1213-1251. Plants, classification, 1331; develop- ment, 1421, 1696; of Cambrian sys- tem, 1463 ; of Carboniferous system, 1706 ■ of Devonian system, 165' ; of Mesozoic time, 170'; of Tertiary period, 175' ; of Upper Silurian sys- tem, 158*. Pliocene, 1749. Plutonic rooks, 124*, 1252, 1392. Pocono group, 1666. Porphyry, 1253. Portage group, 1642, 1934. Potsdam group, 142^, 144*-459. Potsdam sandstone, 1446-455, 1875-883. Potter's clay, 1208. Pottery, manufacture of, 1742. Pottsville, conglomerate, 1672-698. Precious metals, see Gold ; Silver. Proterozoic series, 141*. Proterozoic time, 1358. Putnam, B. F., article on iron ores, 2145. Putnam county, calciferous limestone, 1473. Pyrite, localities producing, 231'. Pyroxene, 121', 1219, i82*. Pythagoras, geologic observations, 113'. Quartz, 1205, 1209, 1252, 2249. Quartzite, 1206, 143*. Quaternary system, 1758-79*; fossils of, 178«-79*. Red sandstone, 171', 195i. Reindeer, fossil, 1789. Rensselaer county, rocks, 1433; fossils, 1438 ; roofing slate, 1441. Rensselaer plateau, 1519-521. Reptiles, of Carboniferous system, 170*; of Cretaceous period, 1746; of Jurassic period, 1726; of Mesozoic time, 170'; of Tirtiary period, 1756; of Triassic period, 1722. Rhyolite, 1253. Ries, Dr. Heinricb, photographs by, 1109. Road metal, 1596, i84', 1915, 204*-82 ; quarries, 2045-56; requisite qualities, 2078. Rock cities, 1676. Rock salt, 122', 1256, Rockland county, calciferous lime- stone, 1473. Rocks, 1231-262 ; defined, 119'. See also Igneous rocks ; Metamorphic rocks ; Sedimentary rocks. Roofing slate, 126i, 1433, 1439_441^ igei. Rosenbusch classification, 1248-253. Rossie hematites, 2196. Rubies, 1228. INDEX TO MUSETTM: BULLETIN 19 253 St Lawrence county, sandstone, 1452 ; hematite, 2192. Salina group, 1548-56'. Salt, 2239. Salt springs, 1552. Sand, 1205, 1254. Sandrock, 1433. Sandstone, 125*. 127=, 171^, 1851-959; composition, 120'; as road metal, 2054 ; of Cambrian system, 1428, 1437 ; Hudson river group, 149*; Mauch Ciiunk group, 1669; of Pocono age, 166'. See also Clinton group ; Medina sandstone; Oriskany sandstone; Potsdam sandstone ; Red sandstone. Sapphires, 1228. Saratoga county, limestone, 1428. Schist, 1261. Schoharie county, lower Helderberg group, 1578. Schoharie grit, 1598-602, 191*. Scutella limestone, 157'. Sea weeds, 1463, 1506^ isgs. Sedgwick, Adam, geologic studies, 142*. Sedimentary rooks, 1232, 1253^ 1265-279. Seneca limestoues, 202^. Seneca oil, 2279. Septaria, 1646. Sericite, 122*. Series, see Geologic series. Serpentine, 1412, 2193, 2218; compo- sition, 1225; localities x)roducing, 2348. Shale, 1255, 1275, 2141; constituents, 1208 ; of Cambrian system, 1431, US'?; of Hudson river group, 149*; Mauch Chunk group, 1669 j Portage group, 1642 ; as road metal, 2081 ; of Upper Silurian system, 1531-561. See also Hamilton shale ; Marcellus shale. Shawangunk grit, 1515. Shawangunk mountain, Oneida con- glomerate, 1891. Silurian system, origin of term, 146*. See also Lower Silurian system; Upper Silurian system. Silver, ore, 122' ; mining in New York, 2315. Slates, 1262, 143i, 143T, 149*, 1638, 196i. See also Roofing slate. Smock, J. C, bulletin on iron ores, 214*. Soda ash, 2243. Spathic iron ore, 122', 2219-22*. Spirophyton Cauda galli, 159*. Sprakers, pre-Cambrian rocks, 1413. Stafford limestone, 1627. Stages, 1366. Stalactites, 120". State museum, origin, 2408, 2432; quarters, 2422, 2448-452 ; organiza- tion, 2445 ; ofacers, 246. Staten Island, clays, 2131; limonites, 2218. Staurolite, 1226. Stissing mountain, Archaean rocks, 1409; quartzite, 143*; marble and limestone, 1443. Stockbrldge, limestone, 144*. Stone age, 1796. Storm King, 1245. Strata, thickness, 126* ; classification, 135-36, 2383. Sulphur, localities producing, 2318. Survey of New York, 2408-432. Syenite, 1252. Synopses, see Tables. Syracuse, salt springs, 1552, 2239. Systems, defined, 1365. Tables, classification of animal life, 1311-322; classification of geologic time and strata, 135*-366 ; classifica- tion of plant life, 133; geologic formations of New York, 1375-385; iron ores, 2151; Rosenbusch classifi- cation, 1251 ; sedimentary rocks, 1255. Taoonic rocks, 1501, Talc, 2275. Talcose schist, 1261. Taylor, J. W., curator of museum, 2435. 264 NEW YOEK STATE MUSEtIM Tentaoalite fossils, 1579-581. Tentaculite limestones, 201'. Terminal moraine, 1766, 2036. Tertiary system, 1748-75' ; Hie of, 175'. Text-books on geology, 2363-382. Time, see Geologic time. Torn mountain, 184*. Torrey, John, botanist, 241^. Trachyte, 1252. Trap, 1399, 1412, 1844^ 204*, 2056. Travertine, 1207 j localities producing, 2342. Trenolite, 1215, Trenton group, 1475-49^. Trenton limestone, 147=, 1488-493, 2001-H. Triassic formation, 1951. Triassic system, 1711-722 ; life of, 1721. Tuffs, 1255. Tully limestone, 1636, 2029-31. Ulster county, spathic iron ore, 221'- 22*. Upper Devonian rocks, 1609-622, Upper Helderberg limestone, I6O2, 2021. Upper Silurian system, 1381, 150'-583; life of, 1582. Utica slate, 149*. Van Rensselaer, Stephen, patron 01 first survey, 2412. Vanuxnm, Lardner, statements quoted, 110*; geologic report, 2366; geolo- gist, 2418. Vegetable life, 1331. Vinci, Leonardo da, geologic observa- tions, 1141. Volcanic rocks, 124*, 1252. Walcott, C. D., Bulletin of the XJ. S. geological survey no. Si, 110' ; geo- logic studies, 1425. Warsaw, salt wells, 1556. Washington county, limestone, 1428; rocks, 1433; quartzite, 143'; roofing slate, 1439-441 ; Cambrian forma- tions, 1459. Water, geologic changes produced by, 128*, 1792, 2395. Waterlime, 1562, 2015. Westchester county, Archaean gneiss, 140'; calciferous limestone, 1473; rocks, 150*. Xenophanes, geologic observations, 113'. Zinc, localities producing, 2332. Zircon, 1226. Index to plates in geologic order. Igneous. PI>».TE FACING PAGE I. Granite Dyke in Hudson Kiver Schist, South Side of 192d St., New York City 124 II. Igneous Granite on Lower Silurian Limestone, 192d St., New York City , 124 III. Exposure of Serpentine Eocb, Hoboken, N. J. Derived from the Chemical Alteration of an Igneous Rock 124 IV. Palisades of the Hudson Eiver. Seen from Hastings, West- chester county. Triassio Diabase Overlying Sandstone Which is Concealed by the Talus 124 LXXXVII. Palisades of the Hudson River, from Fort Lee, N. J.; View Northward Along the 172 LXXXVIII. Palisades of the Hudson, The ; View Northward from Engle- wood Cliffs, N. J 172 LXXXIX. Triassic Diabase Exposed in a Cut for the Orange Mountain Cable Road, Orange, N. J 173 XC. Triassic Sandstone, Contact of Trap and Underlying; south end of Lane's Quarry, Fort Lee, Bergen couuty, N. J 172 Archaean or Precambrian. V. Precambrian Gneiss, Mohawk Valley at Littlefalls, Herkimer county 138 VI. Precambrian. Folds in Fordham Gneiss, north side of 138th street, east of 7th avenue, New York city 140 VII. Precambrian. View from PeekskiU. Highlands of the Hud- son. . . ...... . --. — . 140 VIII. Precambrian. Anthony's Nose and Manitou Mountain. Highlands of the Hudson 140 IX. Precambrian. Crow Nest and Storm King. Highlands of the Hudson 140 X. Precambrian. View of the Highlands of the Hudson and Sugar Loaf Mountain, from Ft. Montgomery, Orange county 1^ XI. Precambrian Granite. Breakneck Mountain, seen from the Shore Opposite Cold Spring, Putnam county 140 XII. Precambrian and Lower Silurian. Fishkill Mountain, seen from Cornwall, Orange county 140 266 NEW TOEK STATB MTJSEUM I'LATE FACING PAGE XIII. PrecainTbrian Gneiss, Gorge of the Hudson River, Luzerne, Warren county, and Hadley, Saratoga county 140 XIV. Precambrian Eocks, Adirondack Mountains, Avalanche Lake, Essex county 140 XV. Precambrian Rocks, North End of Willsboro Tunnel, shore of Lake Champlain, Essex county 140 XVI. Precambrian Marble, E. E. Stevens' Quarry, three miles south of Canton , St. Lawrence county 140 XVII. Precambrian, Empire Marble Co.'s Quarry, near Gouverneur, St. Lawrence county 140 XIX. Precambrian Gneiss, Dodge Farm, Macomb, St. Lawrence county. Potsdam Sandstone Resting Unconformably upon, 144 XX. Precambrian Gneiss, Hudson River, near Jessup's Landing, Saratoga county. Potsdam Sandstone Resting Unconform- ably on 144 XXIV. Precambrian Crystalline Rocks, Mosherville, Saratoga county, Potsdam Conglomerate on 144 XXV. Precambrian Crystalline Schists, "West Shore R. R. Cutting, one mile west of Downing Station, Montgomery county. Calciferous sandrock Resting on 146 CV. Precambrian. Granite Quarry, Round Island, near Peekskill, Westchester county 182 CVIII. Precambrian, Interior of Northern New York Marble Co.'s Quarry, near Gouverneur, St. Lawrence county 198 Cambrian. XVIII. Potsdam Sandstone, Quarry of Merritt & Tappan, three miles south of Potsdam, St. Lawrence county 144 XIX. Potsdam Sandstone, Resting Unconformably upon Precam- brian Gneiss, Dodge Farm, Macomb, St. Lawrence county, 144 XX. Potsdam Sandstone Resting Unconformably on Precambrian Gneiss, Hudson River, near Jessup's Landing, Saratoga county 144 XXI, Potsdam Sandstone. Hell Gate, Ausable Chasm, Clinton county 144 XXII. Potsdam Sandstone, Grand Flume, Ausable Chasm, Clinton county 144 XXIII. Potsdam Conglomerate, Mosherville, Saratoga county. Glaci- ated Surface of 144 XXIV. Potsdam Conglomerate on Precambrian Crystalline Rocks, Mosherville, Saratoga county 144 CVI. Potsdam Sandstone, Clarkson's Quarry, three miles south of Potsdam, St. Lawrence county 188 INDEX TO PLATES IN GEOLOGIC ORDEE 257 Lower Silurian. I'LATE FACING I'AOE XXV, Calciferous Sandrook Kestiug on Preoambrian Crystalline Schists, West Shore E. E. cutting, one mile west of Down- ning Station, Montgomery county 146 XXVI. Calciferous Sandrock, East Canada Creek, Herkimer county, one mile above its mouth 146 XXVII. Calciferous Sandrock, East Canada Creek, two miles above its mouth, Herkimer county 146 XXX1\^ Calciferous Sandrock, Utica Shale and Trenton Limestone, Canajoharie, Montgomery county 148 XXVIU. Calciferous-Trenton laraestone, Plain of; view of Inwood, Manhattan Island 146 XXIX. Calciferous-Trenton, Metamorphosed; Marble Quarry, Sing- Sing, Westchester county 146 XXXIX. Calciferous-Trenton Limestone, Metamorphosed Hudson Eiver Mica Schist Overlying Semi-crystalline; Verplanck's Point, Westchester county 150 CVII. Calciferous-Trenton Limestone, Metamorphosed; Marble Quarry, Tuckahoe, Westchester county 198 CIX. Calciferous-Trenton Limestone, Metamorphosed ; Limestone Quarry, Tomkins Cove, Eockland county 206 XXX. Trenton Limestone, Glens Falls on the Hudson Eiver, Saratoga and Warren counties 148 XXXI. Trenton Limestone, Upper Gorge, Trenton Falls, Oneida county - 148 XXXII. Tienton Limestone, Principal Cascade, Trenton Falls, Oneida county 148 XXXIII. Trenton Limestone, Spencer Fall, Trenton Falls, Oneida county 148 CXIV. Trenton Limestone, ^^larry in, Saratoga county, south bank of Hudson Eiver opposite Glens Fal Is 222 XXXIV. Trenton Limestone, Utica Shale and Calciferous Sandrock, Canajoharie, Montgomery county 148 XXXV. Utica Shale, Gorge in the ; South of Canajoharie, Montgom- ery county 150 XXXVI. Hudson Eiver Group, Fold in Sandstone of the; Catskill Creek, Greene county 150 XXXVII. Hudson Eiver Shale in Eailroad Cutting; Kenwood, Albany county. Dip Vertical 150 XXXVIII. Hudson Eiver Schist, with Pegmatite Veins, Crumpled; opposite 130th street, on west side of St. Nicholas avenue. New York city 150 XXXIX. Hudson Eiver Mica Schist Overlying Semicrystalline Calciferous-Trenton Limestone, Metamorphosed ; Ver- planck's Point, Westchester county 1 50 258 NEW YOKK STATE MUSEUM PLATE FACING PAGE XL. Hudson River Shale, Oneida Conglomerate Resting on ; eastern face of Shawangunk Mountain, two miles south of Lake Mohonk, Ulster county 152 I. Hudson River Schist, Granite Dyke in ; south side of 192d street, New York city 124 II. Lower Silurian Limestone, 192d street, New York city. Igneous Granite on . 124 XII. Lower Silurian, Preoamhrian and, Fishkill Mountain. Seen from Cornwall, Orange county 140 XXVIII. Hudson River Schist, Hills of; View of In wood, Manhattan Island 146 XXXIV. Utiea Shale, Trenton Limestone and Calciferous Sandrock, Cana joharie, Montgomery county 148 Upper Silurian. XL. Oneida Conglomerate Resting on Hudson River Shale; Eastern Face of Shawangunk Mountain, two miles south of Lake Mohonk, Ulster county 152 XLI. Shawangunk Grit, Cliffs of; on the West Shore of Lake Mohonk, Ulster county 152 XLII. Shawangunk Grit, Awosting Falls over; Peterkill, near Lake Minnewaska, Ulster county, Oneida Conglomerate 152 XLIII. Niagara Gorge near Lewiston, Medina group 152 XLIV. Niagara River Gorge, south of Lewiston, Niagara county 152 XLV. Medina Sandstone; Beach Markings and Seaweed (Arthro- phycus harlani) on 1,52 XL VI. Medina Sandstone ; Beach Markings on ; Lockport, Niagara county 152 XLVII. Medina Grey Sandstone, Falls over ; near Lockport, Niagara county 152 XLVIII. Medina Grey Sandstone, near Lockport, Niagara county 152 XLIX. Medina and Clinton Groups ; Lower Falls of the Genesee River, Monroe county, over the Grey Medina Sandstone.. 152 L. Medina, Clinton and Niagara Groups; Gorge of the Genesee River, Monroe county, below the Lower Palls 152 LI. Medina and Clinton Groups ; Gorge of the Genesee River, Monroe county, below the Lower Falls . 152 LII. Niagara River Gorge, below Devil's Hole, Niagara county. New York Central E. K. cut 154 LIII. Niagara River Gorge, south of Lewiston, Niagara county. New York Central E. R cut 154 LIV. Niagara River Gorge, Wall of the ; American side. View from Foster's Flats, one and one-half miles north of Sus- pension Bridge 154 INDEX TO PLATES IN GEOLOGIC OEDEB 259 PLATE PAOIMO PAQB LV. Niagara Go.'ge below the Suspension Bridge, Niagara county. View from the Canadian side 154 LVI. Niagara Groups, Medina, Clinton and ; Niagara Eiver Gorge from the Suspension Bridge, looking north 154 LVII. Outlet of the Whirlpool, Niagara River, Niagara county. View northward from the Canadiau shore 154 LVIII. Niagara Group, Upper Falls of the Genesee River, Rochester, Monroe county 154 LIX. Niagara Group, Gorge of the Genesee River below the Upper Falls, Rochester, Monroe county 154 LX. Niagara Eiver, Niagara county. View from bluff near Lewis- ton, looking north 154 LXI. Upper Silurian Rocks in road cut near Howe's Cave, Scho- harie county 154 LXII. Clinton and Salina Groups in West Bank of Rondout Creek, High Falls, Ulster county 154 LXIII. Clinton Beds at High Falls, Ulster county, Arch in Salina and 154 LXIV. Quarry of the Cummings Cement Co., Akron, Erie county... 156 LXV. Waterlime Group, Old Mine of ihe Newark Cement Co., Rondout, Ulster county 156 LXVI. Waterlime Group, Ulster county; High Falls of Rondout Creek, over Cement Beds of the 156 LXVII. Helderberg Escarpment, West Mountain, Schoharie, from a photograph by N. H. Darton 158 LXVIII. Lower Helderberg Limestone, Sink in the; west of Cox- sabkie, Greene county 158 LXIX. Lower Helderberg Limestone, interior of Howe's Cave, Schoharie county, showing Subterranean Stream, Stalac- tites, etc 158 LXX. Lower Pentamerus Limestone, Cliff of; near Indian Ladder, Albany county...^ - 158 ex. Lower Helderberg Limestone, Quarry in the; South Bethle- hem, Albany county 206 CXV. Waterlime Group, Interior View of Cement Mine at Rosen- dale, Ulster county 222 CXVI. Waterlime Group, Cement Quarries, one mile south of White- port, Ulster county 222 CXVII. Buffalo Cement Co., Buffalo, Erie county. Quarry of the 222 CXVIII. Lower Pentamerus and Tentaculite Limestone, Quarry in; Howe's Cave, Schoharie county 222 CXVIII. Tentaculite Limestone, Quarry in Lower Pentamerus and; Howe's Cave, Schoharie county 222 CXIX. Quarriesof the Buffalo Cement Co., Buffalo, Erie' county 222 260 NEW YOKK STATE MUSEUM Devonian. PLATE FACING PAGE LXXI. Corniferous Limestone, Cayuga Creek, Bellevue, Erie county. The surface shows the dissolving action of -vrater 160 LXXII. Marcellus and Hamilton Shales, Athol Springs, Shore of Lake Erie, Erie county 162 LXXII I. Devonian Shales, Cliff of; Shore of Lake Erie, near Bay View, Erie county 162 LXXIV. Devonian Shales, Exposure of; Gorge of Eighteen Mile Creek, Erie county 162 LXXV. Upper Devonian Bocks, Gorge of Eighteen Mile Creek, near Lake View, Erie county 162 LXXVI. Hamilton Shales, Shore of Lake Eric, at the Mouth of Eigh- teen Mile Creek, Erie county 162 LXXVII. Devonian Eocks, Wanakah. Shore of Lake Erie, Erie county 162 LXXVIII. Devonian Strata, Honk Falls, near Napanock, Ulster county 162 LXXIX. Devonian Shales, Eroded; Shore of Lake Erie, Mouth of Pike Creek, near Derby, Erie county 1C4 LXXX. Portage Shales, Hamilton and ; Shore of Lake Erie, Mouth of Pike Creek, near Derby, Erie county 164 LXXXI. Lower Portage Shales. Triphammer Falls, Ithaca, Tompkins county 164 LXXX II. Portage Group, Black Shales, Pike Creek, near West Fails, Erie county 164 LXXXIII. Portage Group, Shore of Lake Erie ; Clay Iron Stone Con- cretions 164 LXXXI V. Wittemberg Range, View of the; Southern Catskills, from a point one-half mile east of Shokan Station, Ulster county, looking west 164 LXXXV. Catskill Mountains and the Hudson River Valley; Relief Map of the Eastern 164 XCIV. Corniferous Limestone, Glacial Scratches on the ; Cheek- to waga, Erie county 176 CXI. Corniferous Limestone ; Road Metal and Paving Block Quarry of the Barber Asphalt Co. Near Humboldt Park- way, Buffalo, Erie county 206 Triassic. LXXXVI. Triassic Conglomerate, Stony Point, Rockland county 172 LXXXVII. Palisades of the Hudson River, from Fort Lee, N. J. View Northward Along the 172 LXXXVIII, Palisades of the Hudson, The ; View Northward from Engle- wood Cliffs, N. J 172 LXXXIX. Triassic Diabase Exposed in a Cut for the Orange Mountain Cable Road, Orange, N.J 172 INDEX TO PLATES IN GEOLOGIC ORDER 261 PLATE xc. XCI. XCII. XCIII. IV. XXVUI. FACING PAGE Triassio Sandstone, Contact of Trap and Underlying; south end of Lane's Quarry, Fort Lee, Bergen county, N. J 172 Triassic Sandstone, Reptilian Footprints on; Turner's Falls, Mass 172 Triassio Sandstone, Bain Prints and Reptilian Footprints on ; Turner's Falls, Mass 172 Triassic Sandstone, Ripple Marks on ; Turner's Falls, Mass.. 172 Triassic Diabase Overlying Sandstone which is Concealed by the Talus. Palisades of the Hudson River, seen from Hastings, Westchester county 124 Palisades (Triassic) in the Background ; View of luwood, Manhattan Island. Plain of Calciferous Trenton Linje- stone. Hills right and left of Hudson River Schist 146 Quaternary. XCIV. Glacial Scratches on the Coruiferous Limestone, Cheek- towaga, Erie county 176 XCV. Quaternary Delta Deposit of Croton River, one mile south of Croton Lauding, Westchester county 176 XCVI. Quaternary Kame Deposit, View of ; Noith Albany 176 XCVII. Qnaternary Sand and Gravel Beds, Section of; North Albany, shown in last illustration 176 XCVIII. Quaternary Sand Plain, Valley of Erosion in the ; near Del- mar, Albany county 176 XCIX. Quaternary Drift Hills Southwest of Glens Falls, Warren county. French Mountain in the Distance, Lake in 176 C. Quaternary Plain at the foot of the Helderberg Escarp- ment, between Ravena and South Bethlehem, Albany county 176 CI. Quaternary Sands. Crescent shaped Lake formed by natural diversion of Stream into a new Channel. Valley of the Normanskill, near Albany, Carved by the Stream Through a Plain of 176 CII. Sand Bars, Lake Erie, mouth of Eighteen Mile Creek, Erie county 176 cm. Glacial Boulders Washed from Moraine, Stony Point, near West Seneca, Erie county. Shore of Lake Erie 176 CIV. Foot of the Selkirk Glacier, British Columbia, Showing the Formation of a Moraine Deposit 176 XXIII. Glaciated Surface of Potsdam Conglomerate, Mosherville, Saratoga county - - IW 262 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Economic. PLATE FACING PAGE CV. Preeambrian, (Jranite Quarry, Eouod Island, near Peekskill, Westchester county 182 CVI. Potsdam Sandstone, Clarksou's Quarry, three miles south of Potsdam, St. Lawrence county 188 XVIII. Potsdam Sandstone, Quarry of Merritt & Tappan, three miles south of Potsdam, St. Lawrence county 144 CVII. Calciferous-Trenton Limestone, Metamorphosed; Marble Quarry, Tuckahoe, Westchester county 198 CVIII. Preeambrian, Interior of Northern New Tfork Marble Go.'s Quarry, near Gouvernour, St. Lawrence county 198 XVI. Piecambrian Marble, E. E. Stevens Quarry, three miles south of Canton, St. Lawrence county 140 XVII. Preeambrian, Empire Marble Co.'s Quarry near Gouverneur, St. Lawrence county 140 CIX. Calciferous-Trenton Limestone, Metamorphosed ; Limestone Qrnrry, Tomkins Cove, Rockland connty 206 XXIX. Calciferons-Trenton Limestone, Metamorphosed; Marble Quarry, Sing Sing, Westchester county 146 ex. Lower Helderberg Limestone, Quarry in ; South Bethlehem, Albany county 206 CXI. Corniferous Limestone. Road Metal and Paving Block Quarry of the Barber Asphalt Co., near Humboldt Park- way, Buffalo, Erie county 206 CXII. Stone Crushing Plant of the Barber Asphalt Co., Buffalo, Erie county 206 CXIII. Pleistocene Brick Clays, Haverstraw, Rockland county 210 CXIV. Trenton Limestone, Quarry in ; Saratoga connty, south bank of Hudson River, opposite Glens Falls. Rock quarried for quick lime 222 CXV. Waterlime Group ; Interior View of Cement Mine at Rosen- dale, Ulster county 222 CXVI. Waterlime Group ; Cement Quarries, one mile south of Whiteport, Ulster county 222 CXVII. Lower Pentamerns and Tentaculite Limestone, Quarry in ; Howe's Cave, Schoharie county 222 CXVIII. Quarry of the Buffalo Cement Co. Buffalo, Erie county 222 CXIX. Quarries of the Buffalo Cement Co. Buffalo, Erie county. .. 222 LXIV. Quarry of the Cummings Cement Co. Akron, Erie county.. 156 LXV. Waterlime Group, Old Mine of the Newark Cement Co. Rondout, Ulster county - 156 University of the State of New York New York State Museum PUBLICATIONS Museum reports. New York state museum. Annual report 1847 — date. pi. O. Albany 1848— date. Average 250 pages a year. Price for all now in print, 50 cents a volume in taper: 75 centt in clotfi. Museum bulletins. University of the State of New York. State museum bulletin, v. 1-5, O. Albany 1887 — date. Price to advance subscribers y^ cents a year. Volume 1. 6 nos. Price $i in cloth. Bulletins of this volume are paged independently. 1 Marshall, W: B. Preliminary list of New York unionidae. igp. March 1892. Price 5 cents. 2 Peck, C : H. Contributions to the botany of the state of New York. 66p. 2 pi. May 1887. Out of print. 3 Smock, J: C. Building stone in the state of New York. iS2p. March 1888. Out of print. 4 Nason, F. L. Some New York minerals and their localities, igp. 1 pi. Aug. 1888. PHce 5 cents. 5 Lintner, J. A. White grub of the May beetle. 3ip. il. Nov. 1888. ^ce 10 cents. 6 Lintner, J. A. Cut-worms. 36p.il. Nov. 1888. Price \o cents. Volume 8. 4 nos. Price $1 in cloth. . 7 Smock, J : C. First report on the iron mines and iron ore districts in the state of New York. 5 + 7op. map 58x60 cm. June 1889. I'rice 20 cents. 8 Peck, C:H. Boleti of the United States. 96p. Sep. 1889. Price 20 cents. 9 Marshall, W : B. Beaks of unionidae inhabiting the vicinity jOf Albany, N. Y. 23P. i pi. Aug. 1890. Price 10 cents. 10 Smock, J: C. Building stone in New York. 2iop. map 58 x 60 cm, tab. Sep. 1890. I^ice 40 ceiits. Volume 3 11 Merrill, F: J. H. Salt and gypsum industries in New York. 92p. 2 maps 38x58, 61x66 cm, n tab. 12 pi. April 1893. Price 40 cents. 12 Merrill, F: J. H. & Ries, H. Brick and pottery clays of New York state. 167P. 1 map 59x67 cm. 2 pi. March 1895. Price 30 cents. 13 Lintner, J. A. Some destructive insects of New York state; San Jos6 scale. 52 p. 7 p). April 1895. Price 15 cents. 14 Kemp, J. F. Geology of Moriah and Essex townships, Essex co. N. Y., with notes on the iron mines. 38p. 2 maps 30X33, 38x44 cm. 7 pi. Sep. 1895. PUce 10 cents. 15 Merrill, F : J . H- Mineral resources of New York. 224P. 2 maps 22X35, 58 x65cm. Feb. 1896. Pi'ice \o cents. Volume 4 16 Beauchamp, W: M. Aboriginal chipped stone implements of New York. 86p. 23 pi. Oct. 1897. Price 25 cents. 17 Merrill, F: J. H. Road materials and road building in New York. 48p. 2 maps 34X44, 68x92 cm. 14 pi. Oct. 1897. F^ice 15 ceitts. 18 Beauchamp, W : M. Polished stone articles used by the New York aborigines. io4p 35 pi. Feb. 1898. Price 25 coiis. 19 Merrill, F: J. H. Guide to the study of the geological collections of the New York state museum. 156P. ii9pl. i map. Nov. [898. Price 40 cents. Volume 5 20 Felt, E. P. Elm-leaf beetle. 45p. 5 pi. July 1898. Price 5 cents. 21 Kemp, J. F. Geology of the Lake Placid region. 24p. i map 31X86 cm'. I pi. Sep. 1898. Price 5 cents. 22 Beauchamp, W : M. Earthenware of the New York aborigines. 78p. 33 pi. Oct. 1898. I^ce 25 cents,. University of the State of New York Economic map. Merrill, F: J. H. Economic map of the state of New York. 59x67 cm. 1894. Price, unmou?ited it^ cents, backed on muslin 75 cents, mounted on rollers 75 cents. Scale 14 miles to i inch. Museum memoirs. University of the State of New York. Memoirs of the New York state museum, v. i, Q. Albaiiy 1889. Uniform with the paleontology. I Beecher, C : E., & Clarke, J: M. Development of some Silurian brachiopoda. 9sp 8 pi. Oct. 1889. Price 80 cents. Natural history. New York state. Natural history of New York. 30 V. il. pi. maps, Q. Albany 1842-94. Divisions 1-5 out of print. Division i De Kay, J. E. Zoology. 5 v. pi. 1842-44. " 2 Torrey, John. Botany. 2 v. 1843. " 3 Beck, L. C. Mineralogy. 24+536P. il. pi. 1842. " 4 Mather, W: W. ; Emmons, Ebenezer; Vanuxem, Lardner; and Hall, James. Geology. 4 v. pi. maps. 1842-43. " 5 Emmons, Ebenezer. Agriculture. 5 v. il. maps. 1846-54. Division 6 Paleontology. Hall, James. Paleontology of New York. il. pi. sq.Q. Albany 1847 — date. Bound in cloth. V. I Orgnnic remains of the lower division of the New York system. 23 + 338p- 99 pl- 1847. Out of print. V. 2 Orf^anic remums of the lower middle division of the New York system. 8+362P. 104 pi. 1852. Out of print. V. 3 Organic remains of the Lower Helderberg group and the Oriskany sandstone, pt i, text. i2 + 532p. 1859. Price [$3.50.] pt 2, 143 pi. 1861. Price $2,50. V. 4 Fossil brachiopoda of the Upiier Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung groups. ii + i+428p. 69 pi. 1867. Price%2.t^o. V. 5, pt I Lamellibranchiata i. Monomyaria of the Upper Helder- berg, Hamilton and Chemung groups. i8+268p. 45 pi. 1884. Price $2.c;o. Lamellibranchiata 2. Dimyaria of the Upper Helder- berg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung groups. 62 + 293P. 51 pi. 1885. Price $2.50 pt 2 Gasteropoda, pteropoda and cephalopoda of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung groups. 2 v. 1879. V. I, text, 15 + 492P. v. 2, 120 pi. Price %2.^o for z v. V. 6 Corals and bryozoa of the Lower and Upper Helderberg and Hamilton groups. 24+298P. 67 pi. 1887. ' Price $2.50. V. 7 Trilobites and other rrustacea of the Oriskany, Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage, Chemung and Catskill groups. 64-I-236P. 46 pi. 1888. Cont. supplement to v. 5, pt 2. Pteropoda, cephalopoda and annelida. 42p. 18 pi. 1888. Price $2.50. V. 8, pt I Introduction to the study of the genera of the paleozoic brachiopoda. Price $2.50. pt 2 Paleozoic brachiopoda. 16+394P. 84 pi. 1894. Price $2.50. "^m, 5s* ■mm