S>tate CoIIese of ^sctcuUure Sit Cornell iUntbersfitp atbaca, j3. I?. iLibrarp Cornell University Library HC 107.I\/I3A5 Report of the Conservation Commission of 3 1924 014 539 187 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924014539187 mTH THE COMPLIMENTS OF KEPORT OF THE CONSERVATION COMMISSION OF MARYLAND FOE 1908-1909 REPORT OF THE Conservation Commission of Maryland FOR 1908-1909 1909 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL To His Excellency, Austin L. Crothers, Governor of Maryland, Sir: The Maryland Conservation Commission has the honor to present herewith its first report. It is impossible for the Commission to give more than a brief account of the great natural resources of the State and to indicate those lines of action which it believes should be undertaken for their most complete utilization and conservation. The Commission has had to depend for its facts very largely on the scientific bureaus maintained by the State, particularly on the State Geological Survey, the State Agricultural Experiment Station, the State Board of Forestry, the State Shell Fish Commission, the State Weather Service and the State Board of Health. These organiza- tions have been for many years accumulating valuable data regard- ing the State's developed and undeveloped wealth and it is important for the future progress of the State that their work should be con- tinued and enlarged. The Commission particularly recommends that the State make provision for the study of the problem of the reclamation of the great swamp areas adjacent to the Chesapeake Bay since their drain- age, either under Federal or State auspices, would add largely to the wealth of the State. The Commission also calls attention to the necessity of the acquisition on the part of the State at an early day of the deforested areas around the head waters of the streams afford- ing our chief water supplies since the life, health, and industrial activity of the State depend upon the preservation of their flow. Very KespectfuUy, Bernard N. Baker, Wm. Bullock Clark, Edward Hirsch^ Commission. Baltimore, December 31, 1909. CONTENTS. PAGE PREFACE 13 INTRODUCTION 15 MINERAL RESOURCES 25 The Coals 28 The Building Stones 32 The Granites and Gneisses 33 Granites 34 Port Deposit 34 Ellicott City 35 Woodstock 36 Guilford 36 Minor Areas 37 Gneisses 37 The Marbles and Limestones 38 Marbles 39 Marbles of Baltimore County 39 Marbles of Carroll County 40 Potomac Marble 41 Serpentine 42 Limestones 43 The Sandstones 45 Triassic Sandstones 45 Paleozoic Sandstones 48 Cambrian or "Mountain Sandstone" 48 Tuscarora and Oriskany Sandstones 48 Pocono Sandstone 49 Pottsville Sandstone 49 Micaceous Sandstones 49 The Slates 50 The Peachbottom Slates 50 The Clays and Clays Products 52 Common Brick Clays 53 Terra Cotta Clays 55 Sewer-pipe Clays 55 Fire Clays 56 Pottery Clays 56 7 a CONTEISTS. PAGE The Porcelain Materials 57 Flint 57 Feldspar 58 Kaolin 59 The Lime and Cement Products 59 The Sands 60 The Marls 61 The Iron Ores 61 The Gold 63 The Mineral Paints 64 The Tripoli 64 The Mineral Waters 65 The Road Materials 66 Miscellaneous Products 67 Copper 68 Chrome 68 Lead and Zinc 69 Iron Pyrites 69 Manganese, Antimony, Molydenum 69 Soapstone 69 Asbestos 70 Mica , 70 Graphite 70 AGRICULTURAL SOIL RESOURCES 73 Agricultural Soils 74 The Soils of the Eastern Shore 77 The Soils of Southern Maryland 80 The Soils of Northern Central Maryland 83 The Soils of Frederick Valley 84 The Soils of Catoctin Mountain and Blue Ridge 85 The Soils of Hagerstown Valley 85 The Soils of the Appalachians 86 Conclusions 88 Agricultural Products 89 Grains 89 Tobacco 93 Truck Crops 94 Canning Crops 96 Fruits 97 CONTENTS. 9 PAGE Forage Crops 100 Corn 100 Siloes 102 Cost 103 Hay 105 Dairying 105 Farm Animals 107 Rotation of Crops 108 Preventable Losses in Agriculture 110 Animal and Plant Diseases Ill Destruction of Birds 113 Agricultural Statistics , 113 FOREST RESOURCHS 119 Wasteful methods of lumbering 124 Forest Fires ■. 126 The Farmer's Woodlot 127 Use of the Forest 128 Relation of Forests to Stream Flow 132 Conclusions 135 RECLAMATION OF SWAMPS 137 WATER RESOURCES 145 Water Transportation 145 Surface and Underground Waters 147 Irrigation 153 FISHERIES 155 The Crab Industry 155 The Shad Industry 156 The Herring 158 The Striped Bass 159 The Squeteague or "Trout" 159 The White Perch 159 The Menhaden 160 The Yellow Perch 160 Miscellaneous Species 161 OYSTER SUPPLY 167 Food of Oysters 168 Movement of the Water 169 Tide Water Bottoms 172 10 CONTENTS. PAGE Enumeration of Oyster Resources ■. 174 Natural Oyster Bars 174 Barren Bottoms Now Valuable for Oyster Culture 176 Other Barren Bottoms 179 GAME PRESERVATION 181 SCENERY 189 PUBLIC HEALTH 191 GOOD ROADS 195 RECOMMENDATIONS 201 INDEX 203 ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATE FACING PAGE I. A beautiful mountain valley in western Allegany County 15 II. Views illustrating mineral resources 28 Fig. I. — Consolidation Coal Company, Ocean Mine No. 1, Allegany County 28 Fig. II. — Pace of "Big Vein" coal, Ocean Mine No. 3, Allegany County 28 III. Views illustrating mineral resources 48 Fig. I. — iModenahan Granite Quarry, Port Deposit, Cecil County 48 Fig. II. — ^Clay pit and carbonate iron mine, near Hanover, Anne Arundel County 48 IV. Views illustrating agricultural resources 76 Fig. I. — Level farm lands of the Coastal Plain of eastern Mary- land, Talbot County 76 Fig. II. — Valley farm lands on the Piedmont Plateau of central Maryland, with Monocacy Aqueduct, Frederick County 76 V. Views illustrating agricultural resources 84 Fig. I.— Rolling farm lands of southern Maryland, Leonardtown, St. Mary's County 84 Fig. II. — Mountain farm and forest land of western Maryland, Martin Mountain, Allegany County 84 VI. Views illustrating forest resources 120 Fig. I. — Thin forest cover on cut-over slopes, Potomac River Valley, Allegany County 120 Fig. II. — Stand of white oak and hemlock, near Bevansville, Garrett County 120 VII. Views illustrating forest resources 128 Fig. I. — Destruction of forest by fire, near Catonsville, Balti- more County 128 Fig. II. — The condition of a white pine stand after careless lumbering and forest fires, near Thayerville, Garrett County. 128 VIII. Views of swamp lands 138 Fig. I. — Swamp on the Pocomoke River, near Rehobeth, Somer- set County 138 Fig. II. — Swamp with a stand of second growth bald cypress. Battle Creek, Calvert County 138 IX. Views of swamp lands 140 Fig. I. — Swamp along the Wicomico River, near Salisbury, Wicomico County 140 Fig. II. — Swamp along Little Blackwater River, 5 miles south of Cambridge, Dorchester County 140 11 12 ILLUSTEATIOl^S. PLATE PACING PAGE X. Views illustrating water resources 148 Fig. I.— Breton Bay from Abells Wharf, St. Mary's County 148 Fig. II. — Swallow Falls, on Youghioglieny River, Garrett County. 148 XI. Views illustrating water resources 152 Fig. I. — ^Susquehanna River, mouth of Deer Creek, Harford County 152 Fig. II. — Potomac River at Great Falls, Montgomery County.. 152 XII. Views illustrating oyster industry 168 Fig. I. — Tonging for oysters 168 Fig. II. — Dredging for oysters 168 XIII. Views illustrating oyster industry 176 Fig. I. — The oyster fleet in port 176 Fig. II. — Surface of a natural oyster bed 176 FIGIIEE ON PAGE 1. Diagram showing relative values of Maryland mineral production in 1907 26 2. Generalized section showing Maryland coal seams 29 3. Map of Maryland showing the distribution of building stones 34 4. Map of Maryland showing the distribution of clays 53 5. Map of Maryland showing the relative annual production of corn. . 89 6. Map of Maryland showing the relative annual production of wheat. 92 7. Map of Maryland showing the relative annual production of tobacco. 93 8. Map of Maryland showing the acreage in canning crops 96 9. Map of Maryland showing the relative annual production of hay.. 104 10. Map of Maryland showing the relative annual production of milk. 106 11. Map of Maryland showing the Floristic Zones and Ecological Dis- tricts 120 12. Map of Maryland showing the swamp lands in black 137 13. Map of Maryland showing drainage basins 149 PREFACE The present report has been prepared with the aid of specialists in the several subjects presented. The chapter on Mineral Resources has been prepared with the aid ot the Maryland Geological Survey and presents a succinct account of both the developed and undeveloped mineral wealth of the State. The chapter on Agricultural Soil Resources has been prepared with the co-operation of the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station and the U. S. Bureau of Soils, the description of the soils having been prepared by Dr. J. A. Bonsteel of the latter organiza- tion, and the description of the agricultural products by Frederick H. Blodgett of Baltimore. The chapter on Forest Resources has been prepared with the co-operation of the Maryland Board of Forestry, by Mr. F. W. Besley, State Forester. The chapter on the Reclamation of Swamps has been prepared with the aid of the Maryland State Weather Service and the Water Resources Branch of the U. S. Geological Survey, a large part of the data having been furnished by Mr. M. O. Leighton of the latter organization. The chapter on Water Resources has been prepared with the aid of the Maryland Geological Survey and the Water Resources Branch of the U. S. Geological Survey. The chapter on Fisheries has been prepared largely from data furnished by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. The chapter on Oyster Supply has been furnished by the Mary- land Shell Fish Commission, through Dr. Caswell Grave, who has written the contribution on this subject. The chapter on Oame Preservation has been prepared by Talbott Denmead, Esq., Secretary of the Maryland Game and Fish Pro- tective Association. A brief chapter has been prepared which is devoted to the Scenery of the State and the necessity of preserving it. A chapter on Public Health has been prepared largely by Dr. Marshall L. Price, Secretary of the State Board of Health. A chapter on Good Roads has been supplied by the Highway Division of the Maryland Geological Survey. 13 CoN«El!VATI()X COJUIISMIOX OF MARYLAND Plate I THE PIIESERVATIOX OF SCEXERY IS A PART OF CONSERVATION WORK. A BEAUTIFUL MOUNTAIN VALLEY IN WESTERN ALLEGANY COUNTY. EEPOET OF THE CONSERVATION COMMISSION OF MARYLAND FOE 1908-1909 Inteoduotion The movement for the conservation of the natural resources of our country has gained, great headway during the last few years through the attention which has been directed more particularly to the de- pletion of our forests and the waste of our water and fuel resources. This movement which had received the attention of associations and public-spirited citizens generally culminated in the Conference of Governors which was called by President Roosevelt to meet at the White House on May 13-15, 1908. President Eoosevelt in calling this conference wrote each Governor as follows: "My dear Governor : The natural resources of the United States were, at the time of settlement, richer, more varied, and more avail- able than those of any other equal area on the earth. The develop- ment of these resources has given us for more than a century a rate of increase of population and wealth without parallel in history. It is obvious that the prosperity which we now enjoy rests directly upon these resources. It is equally obvious that the vigor and success which we desire and foresee for this nation in the future must have this as its ultimate material basis. "In view of these evident facts, it seems to me time for the country t.> take account of its natural resources and to inquire how long they are likely to last. We are prosperous now ; we should not forget that it will be just as important to our descendents to be prosperous in their time. 15 16 EEPOET COlSrSEEVATION COMMISSION "Recently I declared there is no other question now before the nation of equal gravity with the question of the conservation of our natural resources, and I added that it is the plain duty of us who, for the moment, are responsible to take inventory of the natural re- sources which have been handed down to us, to forecast the needs of the future, and so handle the great sources of our prosperity as not to destroy in advance all hope of the prosperity of our descendents. "It is evident the abundant natural resources on which the welfare of this nation rests are becoming depleted, and, in not a few cases, are already exhausted. This is true of all portions of the United States ; it is especially true of the longer settled communities of the East. "The gravity of the situation must, I believe, appeal with special force to the Grovernors of the States, because of their close relations to the people and the responsibility for the welfare of their com- munities. I have therefore decided, in accordance with the sugges- tions of the Inland Waterways Commission, to ask the Governors of the States and TeiTitories to meet at the White House on May 13, 14, and 15 to confer with the President and with each other upon the conservation of natural resources. "It gives me great pleasure to invite you to take part in this Con- ference. I should be glad to have you select three citizens to ac- company 3'ou and to attend the Conference as your assistants or ad- visers. I shall also invite the Senators and Itepresentatives of the Sixtieth Congress to be present at the sessions so far as their duties ^\'ill permit. "The matters to be considered at this Conference are not confined t'j any region or group of States, but are of vital concern to the Nation as a whole and to all the people. Those subjects include the use and conservation of the mineral resources, the resoiirces of the land, and the resources of the waters in every part of our territory. "In order to open discussion, I shall invite a few recognized au- thorities to present brief descriptions of actual facts and conditions, without argument, leaving the conference to deal with each topic as it may elect. The members of the Inland Waterways Commission INTKODUCTION 17 Avill be present in order to sTiare with me tHe benefit of information and suggestion, and, if desired, to set forth their provisional plans and conclusions. "Facts, which I can not gainsay, force me to believe that the con- servation of our natural resources is the most weighty question now before the people of the United States. If this is so, the proposed conference, which is the first of its kind, will be among the most im- portant gatherings in our history in its effect upon the welfare of all our people. "I earnestly hope, my dear Governor, that you will find it possible to be present. " ' '" Sincerely, yours, (Signed) Theodore Roosevelt." The meetings of the Conference were of the greatest significance and produced a profound impression throughout the country. His Excellency, Governor Crothers, appointed the members of this Com^ mission as his advisors. President Roosevelt having asked each Gov- ernor to select three associates, and they participated in the Con- ference, being in attendance at all of its sessions. The best known authorities in the country discussed the great need of the conserva- tion of the nation's resources if they were to be preserved for the use of future generations. These addresses have been printed and widely circulated throughout the country with the result that the great majority of people have come to firmly believe that not only the national but the state governments must participate in a country- wide movement to protect the natural wealth of the nation if we are to maintain in the future our present great prosperity. The following declaration was unanimously adopted by the Con- ference of Governors : Declaeation "We, the governors of the States and Territories of the United States of America, in conference assembled, do hereby declare the conviction that the great prosperity of our country rests upon the. 18 EEPOET CONSEKVATION COMMISSIOlir abundant resources of the land chosen by our forefathers for their homes, and where they laid the foundation of this great nation. "We look upon these resources as a heritage to be made use of in establishing and promoting the comfort, prosperity, and happiness of the American people, but not to be wasted, deteriorated, or need- lessly destroyed. "We agree that our country's future is involved in this; that the great natural resources supply the material basis upon which our civ- ilization must continue to depend, and upon which the perpetuity of the nation itself rests. "We agree, in the light of the facts brought to our knowledge and from information received from sources which we can not doubt, that this material basis is threatened with exhaustion. Even as each succeeding generation from the birth of the nation has per- formed its part in promoting the progress and development of the Republic, so do we in this generation recognize it as a high duty to perform our part ; and this duty in large degree lies in the adoption of measures for the conservation of the natural wealth of the country. "We declare our firm conviction that this conservation of our natural resources is a subject of transcendent importance which should engage unremittingly the attention of the nation, the States, and the people in earnest cooperation. These natural resources in- clude the land on which we live and which yields our food ; the living waters which fertilize the soil, supply power, and form great avenues of commerce; the forests which yield the materials for our homes, prevent erosion of the soil, and conserve the navigation and other uses of the streams ; and minerals which form the basis of industrial life, and supply us with heat, light, and power. "We agree that the land should be so used that erosion and soil wash shall cease; and that there should be reclamation of arid and semiarid regions by means of irrigation, and of swamp and over- flowed regions by means of drainage; that the waters should be so conserved and used as to promote navigation, to enable the arid regions to be reclaimed by irrigation, and to develop power in the interests of the people; that the forests which regulate our rivers, support our industries, and promote the fertility and productiveness IITTEODUCTION I'J of the soil should be preserved and perpetuated; that the minerals found so abundantly beneath the surface should be so used as to prolong their utility ; that the beauty, healthf ulness, and habitability of our country should be preserved and increased; that sources of national wealth exist for the benefit of the people, and that monopoly thereof should not be tolerated. "We commend the wise forethought of the President in sounding the note of warning as to the waste and exhaustion of the natural resources of the country, and signify our high appreciation of his action in calling this conference to consider the same and to seek remedies therefor through cooperation of the ITation and the States. "We agree that this cooperation should find expression in suitable action by the Congress within the limits of and coextensive with the national jurisdiction of the subject, and, complementary thereto, by legislatures of the several States within the limits of and coex- tensive with their jurisdiction. "We declare the conviction that in the use of the national resources our independent States are interdependent and bound together by ties of mutual benefits, responsibilities, and duties. "We agree in the wisdom of future conferences between the Presi- dent, Members of Congress, and the governors of States on the conservation of our natural resources with a view of continued cooperation and action on the lines suggested; and to this end we advise that from time to time, as in his judgment may seem wise, the President call the governors of States and Members of Congress and others into conference. "We agree that further action is advisable to ascertain the present condition of our natural resources and to promote the conservation of the same; and to that end we recommend the appointment by each State of a commission on the conservation of natural resources, to cooperate with each other and with a commission of the Federal Government. "We urge the continuation and extension of forest policies adapted to secure the husbanding and renewal of our diminishing timber supply, the prevention of soil erosion, the protection of headwaters, and the maintenance of the purity and navigability of our streams. 20 EEPOKT CONSEEVATIOST COMMISSION "We recognize that the private ownership of forest lands entails responsibilities in the interests of all the people, and we favor the enactment of laws looking to the protection and replacement of privately owned forests. "We recognize in our waters a most valuable asset of the people of the United States, and we recommend the enactment of laws looking to the conservation of water resources for irrigation, water supply, power, and navigation, to the end that navigable and source streams may be brought under complete control and fully utilized for every purpose. ^Ve especially urge on the Federal Congress the immediate adoption of a wise, active, and thorough waterway policy, providing for the prompt improvement of our streams and the con- servation of their watersheds required for the uses of commerce and the protection of the interests of our people. "We recommend the enactment of laws looking to the prevention of waste in the mining and extraction of coal, oil, gas, and other minerals with a view to their wise conservation for the use of the people, and to the protection of human life in the mines. "Let us conserve the foundations of our prosperity." Subsequent to the Conference President Roosevelt appointed a National Conservation Commission with Mr. Gifford Pinchot as its chairman. This Commission, which was composed of a number of distinguished citizens prominent in the political and industrial life of the country, requested the Governor of each state to appoint a State Conservation Commission. It is significant that nearly every Governor responded enthusiastically to this request with the result that practically every state has a State Conservation Commission. Several of the State reports have already been prepared, the aim of these commissions being in every case to support and extend the conservation movement by the much needed investigation of the states' material wealth. The National Conservation Commission held conferences in Wash- ington during December, 1908, including a joint conference with State commissions in existence at that time. With a view to pro- moting cooperation among the several State commissions and be- tween these and the National Commission, a Joint Committee on INTEODUCTION 21 Conservation was appointed, consisting of eleven members repre- senting the different sections of the country. Mr. Baker was selected as one of the members. Soon after the inauguration of President Taft this Committee conferred with him; and at his instance the active work of the National Conservation Commission was tem- porarily suspended pending certain anticipated Congressional action, its functions being meantime transferred to the Joint Committee. Under this arrangement, made at the instance of the President, the Joint Committee has held several meetings and has been active in promoting the interests of the several , State conservation commis- sions. At the Conservation Congress held in Seattle in August, 1909, a permanent organization was effected under the title National Conservation Congress, and Mr. Baker was elected to its Presidency. With his colleagues he has planned another Conservation Congress, to be held in September, 1910. A compilation of the statute law of Maryland affecting water rights and kindred subjects as well as all references to the same in the Declaration of Eights and State Constitution was prepared under the direction of Mr. Baker at the request of the National Conserva- tion Commission. It included all laws regulating the erection and maintenance of bridges over navigable waters ; incorporation of water companies ; water powers and the utilization thereof ; draining of swamp lands ; establishment of public landings on navigable rivers, canals, bays, and other streams ; placing of buoys and beacons in Maryland waters, and the maintenance and protection of same ; rights of railroads in crossing canals and navigable waters; interference with the equipment of water companies; penalties for the pollution of rivers and other streams and sources of water supply; nuisances, ferries and licensing thereof; protection and regulation of water courses, springs, ditches, cesspools, drains, etc. ; accretion ; improve- ment of lands bounding on navigable waters and riparian rights ; es- tablishment of wharves, and interference with navigable waters, together with all other ilaryland statutes with respect to matter inci- dental to the above subjects. The Maryland Conservation Commission which was appointed a year ago has put itself in touch with the existing organizations em- 22 EEPOET CONSERVATION COMMISSION ployed in the study of Maryland's natural resources. It finds that a large amount of available information is at hand and that the State is to be congratulated on the efficiency with which these organi- zations are carrying on their work. The organizations particularly referred to are the State Geological Survey, the State Agricultural Experiment Station, the State Board of Forestry, the State Shell Fish Commission, the State Weather Service, and State Board of Health, all of which are splendidly organized and are regarded everywhere not only within but without the State as efficiently conducted bureaus. We recommend to your Excellency that they be given every possible support and encouragement in the conduct of their work. Attention has been directed by the Maryland Conservation Com- mission to the study of the State's leading natural resources which will be considered under the eleven following heads: Mineral Re- sources, Agricultural Soil Resources, Forest Resources, Reclamation of Swamps, Water Resources, Oyster Supply, Fisheries, Game Pres- ervation, Scenery, Public Health, and Good Roads. The National Conservation Commission states in its report to Congress: "The duty of man to man, on which the integrity of nations must rest, is no higher than the duty of each generation to the next; and the obligations of the nation to each actual citizen is no more sacred than the obligation to the citizen to be, who, in turn, must bear the nation's duties and responsibilities. "The permanent welfare of the nation demands that its natural resources be conserved by proper use. To this end the States and the nation can do much by legislation and example. By far the greater part of these resources is a public trust ; they should be administered in the interests of the people as a whole. The states and nation should lead rather than follow in the conservative and efficient use of property under their immediate control. But their first duty is to gather and distribute a knowledge of our natural resources and of the means necessary to insure their use and conservation, to impress the body of the people with the great importance of the duty, and to promote the co-operation of all. E'o agency. State, Federal, corporate, or private can do the work alone. INTKODUCTION 23 "Finally, the conservation of our resources is an immediate and vital concern. Our vsrelfare depends on conservation. The pressing need is for a general plan under which citizens, States, and nation may unitp in an effort to achieve this great end. The lack of co-operation between the States themselves, between the States and the nation, and between the agencies of the National Government, is a potent cause of neglect of conservation among the people. An organization through which all agencies — State, national, municipal, associate, and individual — may unite in a common effort to conserve the foundations of our prosperity is indispensible to the welfare and progress of the nation." MINEKAL KESOUKCES The mineral wealth of the State is now being studied exhaustively by the State Geological Survey and the availability of the various products is being constantly brought to the attention of the public through the numerous reports and maps issued by that organization. During the last decade, since the organization of this bureau, the annual production has more than doubled in value, having increased from about $5,000,000 yearly to nearly $11,000,000 yearly. It is clearly apparent therefore to this Commission that the work of this bureau should be continued and where possible enlarged. The l^ational Government has recently taken up the study of economical methods of production and utilization of the country's mineral resources as well as of the best means for the safeguarding of those who are engaged in mining operations. It is important that Maryland should do its full share in this important work. Close co-operation is now maintained between the ]^ational and State or- ganizations in this field and this should be continued and strength- ened. The mineral resources of Maryland have yielded a great variety of products, some of which afford the basis for important com- mercial enterprises, while others give promise of prospective value. Many of the Maryland minerals have been worked since early colonial days, especially the brick clays and the deposits of iron car- bonate. The Maryland coal deposits also were early discovered, and have been the basis of an important industry for more than half a century. Still other mineral products have been developed within quite recent years, the annual value of the Maryland mineral out- put being steadily on the increase. The ancient crystalline rocks, confined for the most part to the Piedmont region between the Catoctin Mountain and the Chesapeake have afforded the most varied mineral substances. Here occur the most important building- stones; the slates of Delta and Ijamsville; the granite of Port Deposit, Woodstock, Ellicott City, and Guilford ; the gneiss of Balti- 26 EBPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION more; the marble of Cockeysville and Texas; the crystalline lime- stone of Westminster; and the serpentine of Cardiff, Broad Creek, and Bare Hills. In these oldest rocks occur also the ores of gold, copper, chrome, lead, and zinc. Iron ore is also found here while all the flint, feldspar, kaolin, and mica in the State must be sought for SiapstDiie, talc. etc. 535.000. Ores (iron, gold, copper, etc.) ¥38.000. Mineral waters $87,000. Porcelain materials $91,000. Road materials $175,000. Sands and gravel $269,000. Lime and cement $344,000. Building stone $1,556,000. Clays and clay products $1,918,000. Coal $6,624,000. Fig. 1. — Diagram showing relative values of Maryland Mineral Production In 1907. in these rocks. These older rocks also appear in the Blue Ridge district where they form the Middletown Valley and have yielded traces of copper, animony, and iron. Rocks of later age, forming what geologists call the Paleozoic system, constitute the western section of the State. They furnish much sandstone and limestone suitable for building purposes, the latter also being burned extensively for agricultural uses. There MINEEAL EESOUECES 27 .r are also important deposits of cement rock that have afforded the basis for an extensive industry. At the top of this Paleozoic system of rock formations are situated the coal beds of the famous Cumber- land-Georges Creek coal basin, including the "Big Vein" that is universally thought to furnish the highest quality of steam and smithing coal. These same rocks also contain important deposits of fire-clay and iron ore, the former affording the basis for a very important fire-brick industry. The post-Paleozoic formations of the State, although not as rich in mineral products, are not devoid of deposits of economic value. The interesting variegated limestone breccia, known as Potomac marble, and the brown sandstone of Frederick and Montgomery counties belong to the oldest of these post-Paleozoic strata. The series of still unconsolidated beds representing much of the remainder of post-Paleozoic time and comprising all of Eastern and Southern Maryland, and known as the Coastal Plain, furnishes the chief supply of brick, potter's and tile clay; of sand, marl, and diatomaceous earth (silica), and much of the iron ore. The clay industry, particularly, is one of the most important in the State and is largely based on the clays of this region. TABLE SHOWING THE VALUES OF THE OUTPUT OP MARYLAJsTD MINERAL PRODUCTS IN 1907. Coal $6,623,697 Clays and clay products 1,916,238 Porcelain materials — flint, feldspar and kaolin 90,860 Sands and gravel 268,048 Building stone — Granite and gneiss f 1,183,753 Limestone 142,825 Slate 116,060 Marble and serpentine 98,918 Sandstone 13,859 — fl,555,415 Cement, rock and slag 10,000 Lime (agricultural and building) 334,316 Ores, gold, copper, iron, mineral paint 37,767 Soapstone, talc, marl, silica, etc 35,350 Road materials 175,000 Mineral waters 86,606 Total ?11,133,297 28 repoet conseevation commission The Coals The coal deposits of Maryland are confined to western Allegany and Garrett counties and constitute a part of the great Appalachian coal field which covers portions of Pennsylvania, Maryland, Vir- ginia, West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama. Throughout the western portion of this field the rocks with their contained coal beds lie nearly horizontal, but to the eastward low folds that gradually increase in intensity are developed until the ''canoe-shaped" basins of central Pennsylvania, western Maryland, and eastern West Virginia are reached. As a result of this increased folding eastward the coals have been metamorphosed through heat and pressure with a relative reduction in the amount of volatile carbon, the coals gradually changing from the soft bituminous to the semi-bituminous varieties with a further change to the hard anthracite still farther eastward in the anthracite field of Penn- sylvania. In general the coal beds are thickest along the eastern margin of the field and thin westward. ]\tany of the coal seams can be traced continuously over thousands of square miles, while others have only a local development. Conservation Commission of Maryland Plate II PlO. I. — consolidation coal company, ocean mine no. 1, ALLEGANY COUNTY. FlO. II. — FACE OF "big VEIN" COAL, OCEAN MINE NO. 3, ALLEGANY COUNTY. VIEWS ILLUSTRATING MINERAL RESOURCES. MINERAL EESOTJECES 29 FORMATIONS Dunkard ■( 390 + feet Monongahela 240-270 feet Conemaugh •! 600-700 feet Allegheny 200-350 feet Pottsville 325-380 feet Scale : 1 inch = 300 feet. I .&:«• COAL SEAMS Jollytown coal 2 feet Washington coal 3% feet Waynesburg "A" coal 2 feet Waynesburg or Koontz coal 3 to '6 feet TTniontown coal TTppcr SewicKley or Tyson coal 6 feet Lower Sewickley coal 2% feet Redstone coal 4 feet Pittsburg, Elkgarden or "Big Vein" coal 14 feet Little Pittsburg coal 2 feet 2d Litf^e Pittsburg coal 1 foot Fra nklin or U.ittle Clarksburg coal 9 feet T.onaconina: coal 2 feet Elklick coal 1 foot Friendsville, Ames or Crinoldal coal 2 feet Maynadier coal 2 to 3 feet Bakerstown or Bartoii coal 2 to 5 feet Grantsrille coal 3 feet -■--4 Bl'nsh Creek or Masontown coal 2 feet ««4V" Mahoning coal 2 feet ;-?.^ Upper Freeport or Thomas coal 3 "'< to 6 feet - - I Lower Freeport coal 2V2 feet i Upper Kittanning coal 1 to 3% feet — ' Middle and Lower Kittanning. Davis, — T '>r "Six-foot" coal 6 feet ! "Split-six" coal 3 to 4 feet 1 Clarion or Parker coal 2% feet ■— " Brookville or Bluebaugh coal 3 to 6 ,i feet Mt. Savage or Upper Mercer coal 3 ft. Lower Mercer coal 1 foot .__ Qnakertown or B'loomlngtoncoal 2 ft. i. Sharon coal 1 foot Fig. 2.— Generalized section showing Maryland coal seams. 30 EEPOET CONSERVATION COMMISSION The Maryland coals belong to the group of semi-bituminous coals and possess great value for steam and smithing purposes. They are used extensively as fuel for locomotives, steamboats and factories, finding a ready market in Baltimore, ISTew York, and elsewhere along the Atlantic border. The Maryland coals occur in five basins, known as the Georges Creek basin, the Upper Potomac basin, the Castleman basin, the Lower Toughiogheny basin, and the Upper Youghiogheny basin. The present production of coal for the market is almost exclusively confined to the first two basins. The far greater prominence of the Georges Creek basin has led to the application of the name "Georges Creek coal" to most of the coal shipped from the State. Until within recent years practically all of this coal came from the Pittsburg seam or "Big Vein," but the gradual exhaustion of this wonderful seam has led to the exploitation with most satisfactory results of many of the "Small Veins" both above and below the chief seam. There are many companies today mining the smaller seams either exclu- sively or in conjunction with the large seam. There is unquestion- ably a great future for these smaller seams in Maryland, especially in the Upper Potomac basin in southern Garrett county, where they reach their greatest thickness. The total amount of coal in these small seams exceeds many fold that originally contained in the "Big Vein." The many coal seams in the Maryland Coal Measures are shown on the accompany vertical section. The figures given represent the thickness of the seams from roof to floor, including the coal, bone, slate, etc. The most important of the seams after the Pittsburg or "Big Vein" are the Upper Sewickley, the Bakerstown, the Upper Free- port, and the Middle and Lower Kittanning, all of which are being successfully mined at the present time. MINEBAL KESOUECES 31 The following analyses show the average values of the leading Maryland coals: ANALYSES OP THE LEADING MARYLAND COALS. Calorlmeti-lc Values Coal Seams. Volatile Fixed in In Moisture. Carbon. Carbon. Ash. Sulphur. Calories. B. T. U. Upper Sewickley or "Tyson" 83 20.22 70.09 8.86 1.40 7784 14,011 Pittsburg or "Big Vein" 70 18.78 73.13 7.12 1.02 7920 14,256 Bakerstown or "Four-foot" 1.10 18.64 70.32 9.94 2.07 7757 13,973 Upper Freeport or "Three-foot" 1.21 19.47 68.70 10.17 1.73 7764 13,975 Lower Kittanning or "Six-foot" 1.26 19.52 67.20 12.01 2.13 7484 13,471 Brookville 91 21.04 68.83 9.22 1.30 7729 13,912 Although coal was discovered in the Georges Greek basin as early as 1782, the first eastern shipments from the Maryland coal district were not made until 1830, when small amounts were transported by barges down the Potomac River. The first company was incorpo- rated in 1836. Since the construction of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad in 1842 and of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal in 1850, the output from the Maryland mines has very rapidly increased, and more than 30 companies are now engaged in the mining of coal. The U. S. Geological Survey in a recent study of the coal fields of the United States makes this statement regarding the Maryland coal field: "This area has an extent of 455 square miles and the original supply is estimated to have been 8,044,000,000 short tons. Mining began early in the nineteenth century, and shipments were made down the Potomac River in 1830. The first shipments by railroad were made in 1842, in which year 1,708 tons were shipped over the newly built Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. In 1907 the production amounted to 5,632,628 short tons, and the total produc- tion to the close of that year aggregated 147,606,548 short tons, equivalent to an exhaustion, including waste, of 221,000,000 tons, or not quite 3 per cent, of the original supply. The supply still remaining at the close of 1907 was 7,823,000,000 short tons, 1,422 oJ, EEPOET COI^SEEVATION COMMISSION times the production and 948 times the exhaustion represented by the production of that year." The value of the output of the Maryland coal mines in 1907 amounted to $6,623,697. The Building Stoxes The rocks of the State of Maryland present many varieties of ex- cellent building and decorative stones. The greatest amount of the product is obtained from that portion of the State north of Washing- ton and east of Harper's Ferry, West Virginia, which has been termed the Piedmont Plateau, and which includes some of the oldest rocks found in the State. The central location of this area, traversed by two main railroad lines and several local ones, places it within convenient distance of the prominent cities and towns of the Middle Atlantic coast and renders the products both valuable and available wherever the local conditions are otherwise favorable. Counteract- ing the value of this central location, however, is the fact that the State of Maryland represents but a section across a series of geologi- cal formations which are present in Pennsylvania and Virginia, where there are offered similar opportunities for quarrying building stones. In some instances operations were commenced in these areas earlier than in ^Maryland, with the result that trade has been diverted to neighboring states which might be gained for Maryland b;- more energetic and intelligent action on the part of the local operators. At the present time the operations in the area are in no wise commensurate with the supply of material at hand, and the demand Avhich might be developed if sufficient forethought and care were expended to make the output uniform and the quarrying economical. The rich variety in the rocks adapted to structural and decorative purposes renders a description of each variety out of the question, and it becomes necessary to treat the occurrences under the following heads : The Granites and Gneisses. The Marbles, Serpentines, and Limestones. The Quartzite and Sandstones. The Slates. MINERAL KESOUECES 33 THE GRANITES AND GNEISSES Granite is the broad family name that is applied to a large and common group of rocks, which are usually of a somewhat mottled light gray color, and almost always carry two minerals, quartz and feldspar, as essential constituents. Beside these, which make up the mass of the rock, there are dark colored iron-bearing minerals, such as black mica, or biotite, hornblende, and occasionally pyroxene. Each of these may be evident to the eye without the aid of a lens. The foregoing minerals usually form irregular aggregates, in which the individual grains interlock in such a way that the cohesive strength of granite is relatively high. The constituent grains vary very widely in size, from individuals two or more inches in diameter to those which are scarcely separable with the unaided eye. The arrangement of the different mineral grains is irregular and without any prominent lines of distribution, when the granites are unmodi- fied products of crystallization from a molten state. Subsequent action on the rock, however, through pressure or recrystallization, generally arranges the constituent minerals in some regular order, such as in parallel or wavy interlocking lines. It is in this way that many granite gneisses originate from granites, as at Port Deposit. True gneisses, however, usually result from the recrystallization of rocks laid down under water, and still retain their banded character. Since in the trade granites and gneisses compete for the same work, and since, when well sorted, there is little difference in their prac- ticability for building purposes, they will be treated together in the present discussion, the differences between the two being shown in the order of grouping in the discussion of the principal quarries. The regions in Maryland where the granite and gneiss are most extensively worked are at Port Deposit in Cecil County, in the vicinity of Baltimore, at Woodstock in Baltimore County, and at Ellicott City and Guilford in Howard County. Other areas in Howard and Montgomery counties and in the District of Columbia contain some good stone, but it is there quarried only for local use. 34 EEPOET CONSEEVATIOIS" COMMISSIOX Granites Port Deposit. — The Maryland granite which is perhaps- best known outside of the limits of the State is that quarried in the vicinity of Port Deposit. This town is situated on the Susquehanjia River three miles above its mouth at Havre de Grace. It is one of the principal towns of Cecil County and has good railroad connec- tions with Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, and Harrisburg. It is possible also for light crafts to ascend the Susquehanna as far Fig. 3. — Map of Maryland showing the distribution of building stones. as the town and receive their loads directly from the quarry. The value of the granites of this area was early recognized, and the rock was used by the settlers for the foundation of some of the oldest colonial dwellings. The industry arising from the quarrying of the rock is, however, of somewhat later origin. The Port Deposit granite is cut by several series of joints or parting planes which are so situated as to greatly facilitate the extraction of blocks of any desired size. Texturally the stone is marked by an indefinite lamination indicated by the shreds and flakes of black mica. In color the rock is a light bluish-gray which MIFEEAL EESOUKCES 35 in buildings gives a bright, fresh appearance at first, and then gradually becomes somewhat darker through an accumulation of the dust and dirt of the atmosphere. Such a darkening produces a mellowed tone in the buildings which gives a pleasing effect. Chemi- cally and physically this granite is very durable. The chemical and mineralogical analyses show no constituents easily removed by the weather, while the tests on its crushing strength (over 20,000 pounds per square inch), its absorption (0.19-0.25), and freezing thoroughly establish its durability under any circumstances to which it may be subjected. Near Frenchtown, a few miles south of Port Deposit, is another body of granite similarly situated. Here the rock is of the same general character, but the small quarry opened in it has never been very highly developed. Other masses of similar granite, less favor- ably situated for commercial purposes, may be found on either side of the Susquehanna in the neighborhood of Port Deposit. Ellicott City. — The EUicott City granite area consists of an irregular L-shaped mass, which has an extreme length of about five miles in an east and west direction and a breadth varying from one- half to two miles. The quarries of Ellicott City are located on either side of the Patapsco Kiver in Baltimore and Howard counties, and the rock in which they occur extends on the eastern side of the Patapsco as far east as Ilchester, but on the western side only as far as Grays Siding. The material on the Baltimore County or eastern side is a fine-grained rock with a decided foliation or gneissic structure. On the opposite side of the river in Ellicott City itself it is more uniform and granitic. Here it also has a porphyritic struc- ture in consequence of the development of large flesh-colored crystals of feldspar which are disseminated somewhat irregularly through the rock. The time of opening these quarries da.tes back probably into the last of the eighteenth century, but the details of their development are entirely wanting. The opportunities for shipment and drainage are good. Those of the Ellicott City quarry are seldom excelled, as the opening is in the side of a hill so close to the tracks of the Baltimore and Ohio Kail- 36 EEP'OET CON^SEEVATIOX COMMISSION road (main stem) that cars may be loaded simply by turning the derrick boom. Probably no area of granite within the State shows as great varia- tion in the texture and character of the rock as that about Ellicott City. In the quarries on the eastern side of the river the rock appears quite schistose and homogeneous, and practically lacking in porphyritic crystals. Through it are scattered large patches or segregations of the darker minerals, which give to the rock the somewhat somber effect displayed by the Baltimore Cathedral. These patches do not weaken the rock, though they render the stone less attractive. On the other side of the river the stone has a dis- tinctly porphyritic character, which gives to it a mottled effect. The increased amount of feldspar brightens the rock and the distribution of the crystals adds detailed variety to the structure in which it is used. Woodstock. — Perhaps the best granite in Maryland for general building purposes is that which is found in the small area in the southwestern corner of Baltimore County near the railroad station of Woodstock, Howard County. Within this area, near the quarries, is the small town of Grranite, which was formerly known as Walters- ville. The granite mass forms a more or less oval, isolated area ex- tending scarcely two miles northeast and southwest and a mile north- west and southeast. Although so small, it is one of the most im- portant economic areas within the State. The most striking feature of these quarries is the sharp demarkation of the systems of vertical and horizontal joints which are so prominent and so regular as to give the impression of cyclopean masonry. The chemical composition and appearance of the rock are very satisfactory, and the physical tests on the crushing strength (20,000 pounds per square inch), absorption (0.23-0.25), and freezing show the rock to be all that could be desired for strength and durability. Guilford. — Perhaps the most attractive granite found within the State is that which is quarried at Guilford, Howard County, about five miles northwest of Annapolis Junction, on the Little Patuxent Kiver. This granite early attracted attention because of the uni- MINEEAL EESOUECES 37 formity and fineness of its grain, its light color, and pleasing effect. Although the area furnishes excellent monumental and building material, it has until the recent construction of a spur, been situated some miles distant from the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, a circum- stance which has delayed such a development and recognition of the rock as the material deserves. Minor Areas. — Besides the five areas already described there are several other granite masses within the State, as indicated by the map, which have been worked from time to time to supply the local demands, and occasionally with the hope of bringing the stone into commercial importance. Of these smaller masses which have been quarried spasmodically may be mentioned those at Dorsey's Run, between Ellicott City and Woodstock; at Sykesville; at Garrett Park; at Cabin John, in Montgomery County, and the granites of the Middletown Valley. Gneisses Certain of the more uniform and compact gneisses furnish good building material and many quarries have been opened in the areas where the demand is great and the expense of handling and trans- portation is fairly low. These quarries are especially noticeable in the vicinity of Baltimore, where all of these conditions are fulfilled. The gneisses of the area, represented on the map, show great con- stancy in their mineralogical and textural composition. They are composed of alternating bands of fibrous to micaceous hornblende, biotite and chlorite schist between lighter colored more or less feldspathic quartzschist. The dark ferruginous bands break down readily and are not used at all as structural material, but are dis- carded as waste. The best material comes from those portions of the lighter bands which are composed almost wholly of quartz, the prepared blocks differing but little from those made of a well-charac- terized quartzite. The rocks are rather strongly bedded in slabs from three inches to three feet in thickness, and are thus more easily worked than the hardness of the rock might at first suggest. 38 EEPOET COITSEEVATION COMMISSION The quarries about Baltimore are grouped around two centers, Jones Falls and Gwynns Falls, on the northern and western sides of the city, the location being determined by the facilities afforded by the shape of the country for opening and working the quarries on a horizontal plane. This method of working decreases the cost of handling the stone, avoids any expense because of water, and often furnishes a convenient and cheap dumping ground away from the rock bed which may be worked in the future. Smaller quarries are found at different points within the Piedmont where the gneiss is worked to meet the local demand for foundations, crushed stone, etc. The value for the output of granites and gneisses in the State in 1907 was $1,183,753. THE MARBLES AND LIMESTONES The marbles and limestones are perhaps the most uniformly dis- tributed of all the building stones in the State, for larger or smaller areas may be found in Baltimore, Carroll, Howard, Frederick, Mont- gomery, Washington, Allegany, and Garrett counties. These differ widely, however, in character, mode of occurrence, and geological age. Unlike the granites, gneisses, and serpentines, they are not confined to the central portion of the State, called the Piedmont Plateau, since they are found well developed in the broad Hagers- town and Frederick valleys and in the more mountainous areas of the Alleghanies. The exposures are almost always poor on account of the relative readiness with which these rocks break down under atmospheric agencies, and from the same cause they usually occur in valleys and seldom along ridges or the crests of mountains, as the sandstones do. Moreover, whenever they occur in sufficient bodies the valleys are characteristically broad, flat, and very fertile. According to their geological age the marbles and limestones have undergone various degrees of change, since the time of their forma- tion. There is a progressive increase in their crystalline character and freedom from fossils, from the little changed fossiliferous Greenbrier limestones of Garrett County to the crystalline, non-fos- MINEEAL EESOURCES 39 siliferous marbles of Baltimore County. This increased alteration, which they have undergone, is accompanied by a change in color from the dark limestones of the Carboniferous and Helderberg formations through the lighter Shenandoah limestones to the varie- gated marbles of the vrestern Piedmont formation and the clear white or blue marbles which are so extensively worked in Baltimore County. According to their character, their occurrence, and the uses to which these various stones are put, they may be grouped for discus- sion in the following subdivisions : Marbles, including the highly crystalline dolomites and marbles of Baltimore, Howard, and Carroll counties. "Potomac Marble" or breccia, which is found locally in the "Ked beds" of the iN'ewark formation (Triassic) in Montgomery, Fred- erick, and Carroll counties. Serpentines or "Verde Antique" of Harford, Baltimore, and Mont- gomery counties. Limestones, including the crystalline blue and gray limestones, magnesian limestones, and "dolomites" of Frederick, Washington, Allegany, and Garrett counties. Marbles The marbles of Maryland have been known for their great value in building and monumental work since the beginning of the last cen- tury. They are all confined to that portion of Maryland composed of the highly crystalline rocks of the Piedmont Plateau. Those which are being worked at the present time occur in Baltimore County. Marbles of Baltimore County. — The chief quarries are located at Cockeysville and Texas, on the Northern Central Kailway, about fif- teen miles from Baltimore, and are separated from each other by a distance of a mile and a half. Although situated so close together and presenting but parts of a single formation in the same valley, the quarries expose rocks showing many differences in composition, 40 EEPOET C02fSEEVATIO]Sr COMMISSION purity, coarseness of grain and texture, which have developed dif- ferent industries in the two places. The rock at Texas is a coarse^ grained marble of nearly pure carbonate of lime suitable for use as a flux or fertilizer, while that at Cockeysville is a finer-grained dolo- mitic marble, rich in magnesium and well adapted for building and decorative purposes. The texture of the eastern marble varies widely. The rock from Texas is a very coarsely crystalline marble or "alum stone" in which the individual grains are sometimes /4 or % of an inch in diameter. The constituents are weak in themselves and they are weakly held together. Such a texture renders the rock nearly worthless as a building stone where small blocks must be used and great weights sustained. This is emphasized by the determination of the crushing strength, which is very low. The grain of the Cockeysville or "Beaver Dam" rock, on the other hand, is excellent, the individuals seldom exceeding %i of an inch in diameter, the component particles forming a closely interlocking aggregate. This interlocking of the grains tends to produce a compact and hard rock whose crushing strength is high (20,000 pounds) and absorption ratio low (0.213 per cent). This difference in closeness of grain is not strictly a geographical one, since fine-grained marbles, similar to those at Cockeysville, may be found at Texas. There is at the latter point, however, little evidence of the occurrence of rock which will combine such fineness and closeness of grain, freedom from mica and pyrite, and abundance as is shown in the rock worked by the Beaver Dam Company at Cockeysville. Quarries are also being opened at Sum- merfield, where good deposits of marble have recently been found. Small areas of marble also occur in Howard County. Marbles of Carroll County. — Intermediate between the clear white, fine-grained saccharoidal marbles of Baltimore and Howard counties and the dark blue and gray limestones of the Hagerstown and Frederick valleys are the variegated marbles of Carroll County, which have furnished samples unsurpassed in beauty and variety by those of other states. All of these varieties occur in lenses which do not occupy any considerable extent or present large exposures, but MINEBAL EESOTJECES 41 instead are confined to valleys which are long and narrow and are the direct result of the readier removal of the calcareous rocks than o:: the adjacent shales and sandstones. The marbles thus occupy the bottom lands and seldom outcrop high above the level of the streams. Up to the present time the method of extracting the stone has been very crude, since the only desire has been to obtain the rock in pieces suitable for foundations and ordinary buildings. From a study of the small quarries it seems probable that no blocks can now be ob- tained in size, shape, and quantity for first-class building purposes. The jointing is not trustworthy and the rock tends to break down into thick angular blocks varying in size from eight cubic feet to small fragments. Careful work with channeling machines or diamond drills and a discontinuance of explosives might allow the quarrying of blocks which would be valuable for interior decoration in the form of mosaics and mantels. Another serious drawback in working these rocks, which appear so beautiful in samples, is the irregular distribution of the colors. The white may be replaced by red or the red may be replaced by blue and so on. There seems, however, to be a greater amount of red and white or clear white than anything else. The variations in color are so frequent and uncertain that it seems doubtful if any quarry now opened could fill any moderately large order with material like a given sample. That there are beautiful marbles within these lenses i? beyond doubt, but a suitable place for the development of a profit- able industry in them has yet to be found. Potomac Marble The most interesting building material in the entire State of Maryland is the "Potomac marble," "calico rock," or "Potomac brec- cia," which has been used occasionally for the greater portion of a century. The chief interest in this rock arises from the fact that, as stated by Merrill, "it is the only true conglomerate breccia marble that has ever been utilized to any extent in the United States." The conglomerate is found in several places along the eastern slope of the Blue Kidge and has been quarried near Washington Junction 42 EEPOET COKSEEVATIOIT COMMISSIOI^' on the Baltimore and Ohio Eailroad. The quarries are small af- fairs which have been operated spasmodically. The one most actively operated is located about a mile east of the Washington Junction station. This rock was first brought into notice by Mr. B. H. Latrobe, Superintending Architect in the construction and repair of the Capi- tol and White House before and after the War of 1812. The columns which were then procured are still standing in the old House of Representatives, now used as Statuary Hall. The quarries whence they were obtained have never been fully developed, although Mr. Latrobe thought that he had found in the newly-discovered marble of the Potomac an inexhaustible resource of the most beau- tiful building materials easily accessible by water. The con- glomerate consists of pebbles of limestone of varying size which sometimes reach a foot in diameter, although usually averaging about two or three inches. The fragments which are both well rounded and angular, range in color from gray to blue and dark blue, and occasionally pebbles of quartz, chloritic schist, and white crystal- line marble occur. All are imbedded in a red calcareous matrix mixed with a greater or less amount of sand. Serpentine Serpentine or "Verde Antique" has been quarried in Maryland for many years, but the annual production has always remained small. As this rock enters into competition with some of the marble for interior decoration it has frequently been classed as a marble, al- though as far as the Maryland deposits are concerned it is in no wise related to the marble, however intimately interwoven with calcite veins it may be. The deposits are found in Cecil, Harford, Balti- more, Howard, and Montgomery counties, where they have been worked to a greater or less extent in the hope of obtaining good ma- terial for general building or interior decoration. The most thoroughly exploited are those about Baltimore, at the Bare Hills, those on the banks of Broad Creek in the eastern part of Harford County, and a small area near Cambria in the northern part of the MINEEAL EESOUECES 43 same county. That the stone is capable of furnishing beautiful sliibs for decorative purposes has been clearly proven. The deposits on Broad Creek are situated in the midst of a large serpentine area, which extends from the Susquehanna southwesterly into Baltimore County. The nearest town is the small village of Dublin some three miles to the south, which is lacking in both railroad and canal com- munication. In the shipping of orders it is necessary to have all of the stone hauled to Conowingo on the Perry ville and Columbia Eail- road, a distance of three or four miles. The texture of the stone does not vary widely, and the impression is left that the stone works readily. If due care is used to avoid the use of explosives and the working of the stone after it has lost the so-called quarry water, much of the waste may be avoided. The use of diamond drills or channel- ing machines offers the only method which will justify the expecta- tion of profitable work. What has been said of the Broad Creek rock may equally well be said of that in the smaller openings near Cambria, a small station on the Baltimore and Lehigh Railroad not far from Cardiff. The value of the output of marble and serpentine in Maryland in 1907 was $98,918. Limestones The blue and gray limestones of Paleozoic age have with a single exception never been quarried in Maryland as building stones except for local use. The most important and in fact the only limestone which has been used in prominent buildings is the Shenandoah lime- stone of the Hagerstown and Prederick valleys. This rock is a mag- nesian limestone containing alumina and graphite which, however, shows a wide range in its composition. This stone is usually of a deep blue color when freshly quarried but upon exposure there is slowly formed a thin white coating over the face of the rock which brightens the color to a dove-gray, thereby greatly improving the appearance of the buildings. This change goes on uniformly and accordingly does not pass through the un- sightly mottled stage. 44 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION There is no doubt that this rock might become of considerable importance commercially as a building stone. At present, however, the residual soil, with which it is covered, lends itself so readily to brick-making that there is little demand for stone except in heavy structures or for foundations. Many areas in the Hagerstown Valley offer limestones which may ultimately prove of importance as building stones. Openings in the rock are made only for lime at the present time, and the methods of quarrying, which shatter the rock by heavy charges, make the ex- posures look less favorable for the production of building stone than is actually the case. If proper care in extraction were exercised, there is no doubt but that large blocks of limestone could be quarried ir many places throughout the entire valley, which would in some instances work into a good grade of "black marble." The most successful quarry at the present time is that situated near Eckles Mills, Washington County, operated by the Washington Marble Company. The rock, as here exposed, occurs in several well- defined beds, lying at a moderate dip, which yield excellent decorative stock. The material varies somewhat in color in the different beds but large slabs, suitable for interior decoration, have been obtained, which in their soft, pleasing tones and agreeable markings rival many of the better known foreign marbles. The product of these quarries is already on the market and the present demand forecasts the establishment of a good industry at this locality. In the Frederick Valley little has ever been done towards quarry- ing the blue limestone for building purposes, as almost all of the stone which has been taken out has been burned for lime which finds a ready market. The buildings in Frederick show that there has been some quarrying for building material, since several of them are built of limestone and almost all of them have limestone foundations or sills. West of the Hagerstown Valley in Washington, Allegany, and Grarrett counties there are three Paleozoic limestones, namely the ISTiagara, Helderberg, and Greenbrier. Of these the second is the only one which offers reasonable grounds for expecting good build- MINERAL EESOUECES 45 ing material within its limits. The upper massive beds of the Helderberg which outcrop in five or six small bodies along the Potomac from Hancock to Cumberland, and fo];m a continuous belt from the latter point to Keyser, West Virginia, afford every indica- tion that satisfactory building material may be obtained. Little if any work has been done in this formation because there have been no local demands. Of the two remaining formations the Niagara is of such a nature that it cannot be used at all, and the Greenbrier is scarcely any better adapted to building purposes. Both formations occur in valleys with very few outcrops. The latter division has a single exposure on the Potomac between Keyser and Piedmont, West Vir- ginia, and is imperfectly shown on Jennings Eun and Braddocks Run. It is also injured for structural purposes by the pyrite which occurs scattered through it. The value of the output of limestone for the State in 1907 wa^ $142,825. THE SANDSTONES Although there is but one sandstone within the State which has attained any considerable reputation as a building stone, there are many formations in different parts of the area which furnish suit- able sandstones for local construction. As is the case with all build- ing stones the factor of transportation facilities is so important that only those deposits can come into general use which are high class and situated adjacent to prominent lines of travel either by railroad or boat. The sandstones of the State may be considered under thy following heads: the Triassic sandstones, the Paleozoic sandstones including the Cambrian or "Mountain" sandstone;, the Tuscarora and Oriskany sandstones, the Pocono and Pottsville sandstones, and the Micaceous sandstones. Triassic Sandstones The Triassic or "Seneca Red" sandstones are the only ones quar- ried in Maryland which possess a recognized reputation in the market, or which furnish material for more than local work. The 46 EEPOET CONSERVATION COMMISSION formation in which they occur is extensively developed along the eastern edge of the United States from Connecticut southward through New York, ISTew Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, and in scattered areas into North and South Carolina. It is from rocks of the same age that the well-known building stones from Portland, Connecticut; Prallsville, New Jersey; and Hummelstown, Pennsyl- vania are quarried. This formation enters Maryland from the north near Hmmitsburg, and continues with varying width through Carroll, Frederick, and Montgomery counties to the Potomac River. Between these limits there is an almost continuous belt locally known as the "red lands" which is divided into two areas by a small exposure of the underlying Shenandoah limestone a few miles west of Prederick, where the whole of the Triassic has been removed by stream erosion. In either direction from this point the formation widens to about IC miles at the Mason and Dixon Line and 4 miles where it crosses the Potomac. East of this belt in the southwestern corner of Mont- gomery County there is also a broad area of the same formation which is continued southward into Virginia. It is to this southern area that the quarrying of sandstone is almost entirely confined. The prominent quarries are situated near the mouth of Seneca Creek, Montgomery County, on the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal about 25 miles northwest of Washington. The first use of the Seneca stone is not known, although it is evi- dent that blocks of this material were utilized prior to the Revolu- tion. The beds from which the building stones are now obtained lie west of Seneca Creek, on the left bank of the Potomac River, where the dip is some 15 to 20 degrees to the southwest. The sand- stone beds themselves differ very much, not only in color but also in hardness and texture. Some are fine-grained and can be wrought to a sharp arris, others are coarse-grained and may assume the char- acter of a conglomerate Interstratified with these grits are argilla- ceous shaly beds, which, together with some of the conglomeritic beds, are entirely unfit for the better grades of work, and cannot compete even with local stone for rough foundation work on account of the cost of transportation. In strata showing as wide variation as MINERAL EESOUECES 47 these do it is natural that only a portion of the material excavated is available, and there must necessarily be a considerable waste. The texture of the stone which is placed upon the market is excep- tionally good. It is very fine-grained and uniform and is not at all shaly, and shows little or no disposition to scale when exposed to the weather. The particles of quartz are evidently distributed through a fine, scarcely perceptible cement, and over the entire face there are very minute flakes of muscovite which brightens the general appear- ance of the rock. Occasionally in larger blocks there are seen small bands of coarser grain which indicates the bedding, and in a few instances this alternation in texture is emphasized by variation in the color of the cement. One of the most valuable features of the Seneca sandstone is the extreme readiness with which the stone may be carved and chiseled when it is first quarried. It is then soft enough to be easily cut and the texture is sufficiently uniform to render the stone satisfactory for delicate carving. As is frequently the case with all building stones the rock after exposure loses the readiness with which it may bo worked and becomes hard enough to turn the edge of well-tempered tools. It is this hardening on exposure which protects and preserves the delicate tracery sometimes seen in the finer examples of dressing in blocks from these quarries. The color of the Seneca Creek sandstone as furnished varies from a homogeneous light reddish-brown or cinnamon to a chocolate or deep purple-brown. When freshly quarried the colors are even brighter than after the rock has been exposed some time, the rock presenting tones of a light reddish fawn color. The color changes with the composition. With an increase in quartz the luster of the rock becomes brighter and with an increase in feldspar the tone of the rock becomes grayer, while an increase in the amount of cement deepens the color. Throughout the entire extent of the Triassic as exposed in Mary- land there are small local quarries developed to supply the demands for foundations and occasionally for more pretentious buildings. The general demand, however, is more than overcome by the cost of 48 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION transportation in all but the most favorably situated localities. Tbere are, however, many occurrences which will prove of value as the country becomes developed and improves its facilities for distributing its resources. Paleozoic Sandstones Among the various Paleozoic formations there are five well-marked sandstones. These are the Cambrian, Tuscarora, Oriskany. Pocono, and Pottsville. None of these have been worked to any considerable extent as building stones, because of the lack of demand and of trans- portation facilities. Cambrian or "Mountain" sandstone extends across the State in two parallel bands of dense quartzites which form the Blue Ridge and Catoctin mountains. These quartzites were originally porous sand- stones, which have subsequently been thoroughly consolidated by a dense silicious cement. Similar rocks also occur in the small de- tached area of Cambrian sandstones which forms Sugar Loaf Moun- tain. The rock has never been brought prominently into the market, although it has been used quite extensively for railroads, canals, roads, and a few individual buildings. Other quarries have been opened in a small way along the Western ilaryland Railroad to supply the demands for good road metal and small quarries have been operated as at Emmitsburg. Tuscarora and Oriskany sandstones have a considerable develop- ment in Allegany and Washington counties where the stone has been used to supply the local demands. This is especially true of the area about Cumberland. Here the Oriskany sandstone, which is of a buff-brown to yellow color, was the first to be introduced. It is the source of all the sills, foundations, and lintels for the older buildings. Although this has not proved altogether satisfactory about Cumber- land there are other points in the distribution of this formation where it seems probable that good material may be obtained. When it was found that the Oriskany sandstones were not as durable as expected and that they soon became disfigured by ex- posure, attention Avas directed to the harder white sandstones of the Conservation Commission of Maryland Plate III Fig. I. — MCCLBNAIIAN GRANITE QTTARRY, TORT DFPOSIT, CECIL COUNTY. Fig. II. CLAY PIT AND CARBONATE IRON MINE, NEAR HANOVER, ANNE ARUNDEL COUNTY. VIEWS ILLUSTRATING MINERAL RESOURCES. MINEKAL EESOTTKCES 49 Tuscarora which are exposed in Wills Mountain just west of Cum- berland. The ledge as here exposed has a thickness of some 300 feet, but the solid rock has not yet been quarried since the demand is more readily supplied by utilizing the many detached blocks which cover the slopes of the mountain. At the present time this stone i:j used for foundations and trimmings in all of the better class of buildings in Cumberland. The rock varies somewhat in texture and firmness according to the different beds, but on the whole shows un- usual uniformity. It is bright gray in color and is composed en- tirely of fragments of quartz, which are themselves cemented by a silicious cement, causing the rock to be in reality a quartzite rather than a sandstone. Feldspar and mica are also found in the rock. Few imperfections were noticed and for one of such silicious charac- tei the rock seems to be very free-working. Pocono sandstone has received but little attention and has been used only occasionally as a supply for flagging. It seems quite probable that as the demand for building stones increases the flags, which are well developed in places, may come to be of some im- portance. Pottsville sandstones and conglomerates are interstratified with sandy shales in which thin beds of coal are locally developed. The sandstones are usually coarse-grained and conglomeritic, with marked evidences of cross-bedding which are. irregular in extent and dis- tribution. The individual pebbles, frequently very small, are held together by a silicious cement, which indicates great durability for the rock. Unfortunately such a cement renders the working of the stone both difilcult and expensive. It is probable that this material will never become of economic importance except in the supply of local demands for foundations, steps, and occasional door sills. Micaceous Sandstones Scattered over the northeastern portion of Maryland in Baltimore and Harford counties are several exposures of highly micaceous quartzose rocks, which were originally sandstones but which have now undergone considerable change through dynamic metamorphism. 50 BEPOET CONSEEVATIOIiT COMMISSIOIf These are most characteristically developed in Setters Kidge along the Green Spring Valley, ten miles north of Baltimore where the rock is quarried near Stevenson. The value of the output of sandstone for the State in 1907 was $13,859. THE SLATES Slate suitable for the production of roofing-slate has been found at several points within the limits of the State and quarries have been opened in the Peachbottom area of Harford County, at Hyattstown in Montgomery County, and at Linganore and Ijamsville in Fred- erick County. Slates from the latter county have proved pleasing in color and durable, but the public taste has been educated to cer- tain characteristics for slate which these do not possess and they are of little or no commercial importance. The only area of active operations at present is that in Harford County. The Peachbottom Slates The slate produced in the quarries of the Peachbottom district of Maryland and Pennsylvania is the most widely known structural material manufactured within the limits of the State. Unfortu- nately Maryland has received little credit for its share in the industry although almost all of the productive quarries are situated within its limits. This apparent injustice has arisen from the fact that the shipping point for most of the quarries and the residence of many of the operators is Delta, Pennsylvania, a toAvn lying at the foot of the ridge which supplies the stock for the manufacture of slate. Delta is much larger and better known than its Maryland associate, Cardiff, which is only separated by the State boundary. The topographic relations between the town and the quarries are particularly favorable for the shipment of slates and the establish- ment of a prosperous community. The town is connected with the principal cities of the Atlantic seaboard by the Maryland and Penn- sylvania Railroad reaching from York, Pennsylvania, to Baltimore There is no information at hand from which we may learn when the MINERAL EESOUECES 51 presence of valuable roofing slates was first recognized in this area or when the first material was taken out for roofing purposes. Ac- cording to the local tradition, which is subject to some doubt, the slates were quarried as early as 1750. The building on which these slates were laid was destroyed a few years ago and the inferences concerning its age are based on a series of deeds and family papers which seem to indicate the date of construction as 1749 or 1750, and the source of the material as some point on the ridge not far to the north of the Mason and Dixon Line. The first authentic evidence of quarrying is the slate recently removed from the roof of the old Slate Eidge Church, known to have been built in 1805, which was torn down in 1893. The slates from this old roof which had been exposed to the atmospheric agents of degeneration for nearly a hun- dred years show no change in color or firmness, although some of them were covered by lichens and other vegetable growths. Some of the large slabs have been preserved by the quarry superintendents to show the great stability of their stone, even when poorly prepared and poorly laid. Throughout! all of that part of the area which has furnished good slates the bedding is not clearly defined and the ledges of first-class material do not seem to present any continuous arrangement, sug- gesting valuable beds separated by non-productive ones. This lack of definition in the bedding of the stone renders it impossible to compute with any degree of accuracy the thickness of beds or "veins." Some of the quarries produce good slate over a distance of at least 150 feet across the strike and their operations are limited not by the quality of the stone but by a short-sightedness during early operations which allowed the rubbish to be dumped upon the workable beds. All of the quarries along the line show a great many series of joints which both aid and hinder the working of the quarries. The great number of joints and their intersection with each other at varying angles renders miich of the material extracted unavailable for the manufacture of roofing slates or mill stock. While this is so and the amount of rubbish about the quarries is very great it is 52 EEPOET CONSEEVATIOH^ COMMISSION doubtful if there has been a greater portion of waste material than is common in slate quarries the world over. The most prominent feature in the texture of the Peachbottom slates is the coarse fibrous arrangement of the particles which give to the stone an appearance somewhat suggestive of the fiber of petri- fied wood. This texture renders the slates much stronger in certain directions than they might otherwise be, but precludes the method of breaking the slates by sharp blows applied normal to the cleavage and makes the stock less available for milling purposes. The material prepared for market shows little or no variation in the nature of the stone employed, but the character of the finished product seems to vary somewhat in different quarries. I^ot only is there a difference in the skill with which the work is done, but the quarrymen seem to differ in the amount of care which they exercise in sorting the first and second qualities. The color of the Peachbottom slates is a deep blue-black which is absolutely unfading, as is shown by the color of slates which have been exposed since the beginning of the last century. This fact alone marks the product of the area as one of the best slates of the world. From this color there seems to be no variation in any of the well-prepared material. It should be borne in mind, however, that slates, like broadcloths, when placed side by side with their texture in different positions show differences in their sheen and that these differences may become so marked that an impression of a variation in color is often given. The unfading quality of the Peachbottom slates allies them with the products of the Maine and certain of the Vermont quarries and separates them from the less uniformly colored slates of the Lehigh and Slatington districts which are not always able to retain their color unmodified by exposure. In 1907 the value of the slate manufactured in Maryland was $116,060. The Clays and Clay Pkoducts The clays of Maryland that are suitable for economic purposes are widely distributed and occur at various geological horizons. They are most widely distributed throughout the eastern and MII7EBAL KESOTJECES 53 soxitliern portions of the State although some of the most important clays occur in the central and western counties. The clays of Mary- land are suitable for common brick, fire-brick, enameled-brick, stove-brick, terra cotta, sewer-pipe, tile and pottery. Common Brick Clays Clays suitable for the manufacture of common brick are widely distributed throughout the State. Brick making began in southern Fig. 4. — Map of Maryland showing the distribution of clays. Maryland in colonial days, scattered references to the industry being found in the earliest records. It is evident that practically all of the common brick employed for building purposes in colonial days was made at the local brick yards. Maryland common brick is made from three types of deposits, viz., the Coastal Plain sedimentary clays, the residual clays of the Piedmont Plateau, and the shaly deposits of the Appalachian Region. Clays suitable for the manufacture of common brick are found everywhere throughout the Coastal Plain. The Columbia loams of 54 EEPOET CONSEEVATIOJSr COMMISSION Pleistocene age form a mantle over most of the surface of the dis- trict and on account of their grittiness and ferruginous character are excellently adapted to the manufacture of common brick and are widely used in the vicinity of Baltimore. They have sufficient iron to bum to a good red color, enough fine particles to insure proper plasticity, and enough grit to prevent excessive shrinkage in burning. The only Tertiary clay of any great importance for brick making is the Marlboro clay at the base of the Wanjemoy formation. It is common through sections of Southern Maryland and is well suited to the manufacture of pressed and common brick. The Lower Cretaceous formations afford important brick clays, the Karitan, however, furnishing chiefly buff-burning clays, although red-burning ones occur. The clays from this formation are best developed in Anne Arundel County. The Patapsco formation which underlies the Raritan contains a large amount of highly variegated clays and extends in a broad belt across the State near the western margin of the Coastal Plain. The clays of the Patapsco formation are more plastic than the Columbia clays and as a general rule occur in beds of much greater thickness. They are particularly well adapted to the manufacture of stiff-mud brick while the Columbia clays are rather too gritty for this purpose. Next to the Columbia clays they are the most important brick clays in the eastern section of the State. They are located for the most part near the head of tide along the leading railroad lines and therefore possess great commercial importance. The Arundel formation of the Lower Cretaceous affords large supplies of iron-ore clays which are well adapted to the making not only of common brick but also of pressed brick. They are moder- ately silicious, highly plastic, and have sufficient iron to burn to a good red color. At some localities the Arundel clays are compara- tively free from iron so they burn buff instead of red and lend them- selves well to the production of terra cotta and roofing tile. The residual clays of the Piedmont region are derived from either gneisses, granites, limestones, or schists, as a general rule, and in almost every case are quite ferruginous so that they not only burn to a deep red product but may do so at a comparatively low tempera- MINERAL EESOUECES 55 ture. Those which are derived from a basic igneous rock, such as gahbro or peridotite, usually have a very high plasticity and conse- quently show a high shrinkage in burning. Owing to their high plasticity, however, they generally permit of the admisture of con- siderable sand, although the manufacturer often has some difficulty in thoroughly incorporating the material with the clay. The residual clays are likely to be variable in their depth owing to the uneven surface of the underlying rock, and consequently they may vary any- where from 3 or 4 to 25 or more feet in thickness. The shales suitable for brick making are to be found either in the Devonian or Carboniferous, although up to the present time only the former have been used. With an increase in demand for bricks in the counties of the Appalachian region the Carboniferous shales will no doubt spring into prominence and be opened at a number of points. Many of these shale deposits vdll also probably be found available for the manufacture of vitrified brick. Terra Cotta Clays The terra cotta industry of Maryland has been comparatively little developed, although what has been done is sufficient to show that suitable materials for the purpose are not lacking within the limits of the State. The kinds of materials which have been chiefly employed for this purpose are the buff-burning Arundel clays, the sandy Patuxent clays, and the variegated Patuxent clays. All of these clays are well developed to the south of Baltimore, especially in Anne Arundel and Prince George's counties. At times the varie- gated Patapsco clay is also well adapted for terra cotta work, par- ticularly in the southern part of Baltimore City. Sewer-Pipe Clays The only sewer-pipe clays employed at the present time come from the Arimdel formation, although it is probable that equally good clays could be obtained from the Pleistocene deposits and from the Patap- sco formation. The small importance of the sewer-pipe industry in 56 EEPOET CONSERVATION COMMISSION Maryland at the present time is due rather to trade conditions than to lack of clays for both the Arundel and Patapsco formations yield materials of considerable plasticity. Fire Clays The refractory clays found in Maryland are obtained either from the Coastal Plain formations or from the Carboniferous deposits of the Appalachian region. The Carboniferous fire clays of Maryland have long been v?ell known, the deposits having been worked since 1841. The Pottsville formation is the chief source of the clays which are worked at the present time, chiefly along the eastern flank of Savage Mountain. These Carboniferous fire clays occur in two forms, known as the plastic clay or shale, and the flint clay. Both of them are highly refractory in character. In the Coastal Plain region fire clays are obtained from the Pa- tapsco, Karitan, and Patuxent formations as well as in some instances from the decayed crystalline rocks beneath. The first three of these formations contain lenses or extensive beds of white to yellow-white clays which frequently show a high resistance to fire and can be heated up to the fusing point of cone 27 without in many cases be- coming vitrified. The refractory-ware industry of Maryland is one of the most im- portant branches of the clay-working industry found in the State. Among the more important products are fire-brick, enameled brick, retorts, stove brick, and stove linings. The fire-brick are made both i,i western Allegany County and in Baltimore. The manufacture of enameled brick is confined, however, to the former locality. Re- torts are made in Baltimore while stove brick and stove linings are largely manufactured in Cecil County. Pottery Clays The pottery clays include materials showing a wide range of com- position. The clays suitable for the manufacture of stoneware are to be found at many points in the Patapsco formation, especially in MINEEAT. EESOUECES 57 Cecil County. At the base of the Patapsco formation in the same county tliere is often a bed of bluish-gray, very plastic stoneware clay. Aside from these Cecil County stoneware clays the most im- portant are those outcropping along the shore of the Chesapeake from Bodkin Point southward. Clays suitable for the manufacture of yellow-ware are to be found at a number of points in the Arundel formation and also in the Columbia, both of these formations being extensively drawn upon by the yellow and Eockingham ware manufacturers of Baltimore. Clays for the manufacture of the common red earthenware are abundant and are obtained from the Columbia, Arundel and Patap- sco formations of the Coastal Plain and from the residual clays of the Piedmont Plateau northeast of Catonsville, and also from the resi- dual clays of the Appalachian region around Hagerstown. The Po- tomac clays near Baltimore also afford the basis for the manufacture of the higher grades of pottery. The clay industry is already an important one in Maryland, the value of the output in 1907 being $1,916,238. The Poecelain Mateeials Maryland, as a State, is well provided with porcelain materials such as flint, vein quartz, feldspar, and kaolin. These are chiefly developed in central Maryland and mined in this region only. They are abundantly present over wide areas but only occasionally are they sufficiently free from colored minerals and coloring matter to meet the requirements of porcelain manufacture. Flint The flint or quartz is derived from usually large and pure masses of vein quartz or from portions of the gneiss and granite along their contact where the original rocks have been reduced to white pulveru- lent quartz. Flint has been sought most successfully in Cecil, Har- ford, and Baltimore counties. Most of the material occurs as veins intersecting the country rock, generally gabbro, serpentine, or granite, 58 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION as in the vicinity of Castleton and along Deer Creek in Harford County. Here and elsewhere where the vein quartz is utilized it is necessary to grind the material to a flour and to facilitate this grind- ing it is customary to roast the blocks of quartz and then cool them suddenly by pouring on water, as is done at the flint works at Cono- wingo, Cecil County. The flint from the granite-gneiss contacts requires no roasting but needs to be ground to a flour to meet require- ments. The flint flour is shipped in bags to different points within and without the State, chiefly Trenton, 'Sew Jersey, where it is em- ployed in the manufacture of porcelain, crockeryware, wall and sand- paper, scouring soap, tiles, and paints. Feldspar The feldspar, or spar, occurs in pegmatite veins which are found abundantly developed throughout the southeastern portion of the Piedmont in Cecil, Harford, Baltimore, Carroll, and Howard coun- ties. The material mined is either microcline or orthoclase furnish- ing the so-called "potash spar," or a plagioclase furnishing the "soda spar." The presence of pegmatite dikes in which these minerals occur may be easily recognized by the numerous coarse-grained boulders scattered over the surface or by the chalky white streaks in the road-cuts. They are very frequently found near the borders of the serpentine, gabbro, or granite, and occasionally in the marbles. The valuable dikes are those in which the "spar" is free from colored minerals and relatively free from quartz. Pegmatites of this charac- ter are being worked in Cecil County along the Mason and Dixon Line and in the valley of the Patapsco in Baltimore and Howard counties. All of the material has to be handculled to free it from ferruginous matter which would stain the pottery ware during burn- ing and the output is shipped in a crude state chiefly to Trenton, New Jersey, Baltimore, and East Liverpool, Ohio, where it is ground and used in the pottery works. The supply of valuable spar is chiefly limited to the Piedmont portions of Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. The value of the flint and feldspar produced in Maryland in 1907 was $90,860. MINERAL EBSOUECES 59 Kaolin The kaolin, which is generally a residual white clay derived from feldspathic gneisses comparatively free from minerals containing iron, is best developed in Cecil County. The deposits of this region are closely related to those of adjoining portions of Delaware, although in the latter State part of the kaolin is derived from the decomposed pegmatites. The crude kaolin is washed and deposited in settling tanks, the greater part of the fine quartz and staining con- stituents being removed, and subsequently dried under pressure. The Maryland material is used for fire-clay and sagger-clay, but chiefly in the manufacture of paper. The Lime and Cement Peodtjcts The limestone and marble deposits of Maryland have been exten- sively burned for building and agricultural purposes. In the earlier days the burning of lime was carried on largely over the State, but in later times, since the introduction of phosphates and the improve- ment of transportation facilities, the old quarries and kilns scattered so widely over the country have been for the most part abandoned. There are still several large industries in the marble belt of the Pied- mont area and in the blue limestones of the Frederick and Hagers- town valleys. The limestone and marble are also used as flux for blast furnaces. The coarse-grained marbles of Texas have furnished a large amount for this purpose, and also the limestone quarries at Cavetown on the Western Maryland Railroad. Hydraulic cement has been exten- sively manufactured from the limestone of the Cayuga formation of Silurian age at Cumberland and lEancock, as well as from the older Shenandoah limestone of the Hagerstown Valley near Sharpsburg. The products from these industries have an excellent reputation and have been largely employed both within and without the State. The limestones of Carroll, Frederick, and Washington counties are admirably adapted for the manufacture of Portland cement and two important plants are now under construction, one at Security, 60 REPORT COIS^SERVATIOIv^ COMMISSION^ Washington County, and the other at Union Bridge, Carroll County, the latter of which will also engage in the manufacture of white Portland cement and hydrated lime. Shales of proper composition to mix with the limestones are also found in the same region. Prac- tically unlimited supplies of limestones and shales suitable for the manufacture of Portland cement occur in this section of the State and many industries should be ultimately established here. Another use to which the limestones of the State have been applied in recent years has been in the manufacture of asphalt blocks foi- street paving. These blocks are constructed of crushed and pulver- ized limestone, Trinidad asphalt, -and a residuum of petroleum heated separately and thoroughly mixed and then combined under heavy pressure. These blocks have been used extensivly in Wash- ington and Baltimore in recent years. The value of the output of lime and cement products of the State in 1907 was $344,316. The Sands The sand deposits of the State are widely extended both in the eastern and western sections, but have been but little developed hitherto. The sandy sediment which has been developed upon the bottom of the Potomac River has been dredged in recent years aiul. used extensively for building purposes in Washington. The most important sand deposits in the eastern portion of the State are found in the Magothy and Raritan formations in Anne Arundel County, and extensive openings have been made near the head of the Severn Eiver, where a very pure grade of glass sand is taken out. The output of these diggings is transported on small schooners which are able at high tide to reach the head of the river. The Tuscarora and the Oriskany formations of the western por- tion of the State also afford very pare deposits of quartz which have been ground up and employed to some extent in glass-making. The Oriskany strata in adjacent portions of West Virginia and Penn- sylvania have been extensively worked for many years and afford the chief sources of high grade glass sands in this country. MINEEAL EESOUECES 61 The sandstones, both in the eastern and western portions of the State are capable of much fuller development. The value of the out- put, including gravel, in 1907 was $268,048. The Maels The Eocene and Miocene formations of eastern and southern Maryland are rich in marl deposits, which have never been developed except for local uses. Their importance to the agricultural com- munities where they occur has not been up to the present time very generally recognized, although they have been worked to some extent since the early portion of the last century. The Eocene marls are glauconitic and are like the famous green- sand marls of New Jersey, which have been so extensively employed as fertilizers throughout the eastern and southern portions of that State. The Eocene marls of Maryland are found in Kent, Anne Arundel, Prince George's, and Charles counties and increase in thickness southward. The greensand marls contain commonly a small percentage of phosphoric acid and some potash, while in some areas they are also highly calcareous. When properly used they prove of much value for certain crops. They are spread over the surface of the land, or are applied in the form of a compost with barnyard manure. The Miocene marls are mainly shell accumulations and are never glauconitic. The proportion of shells is often very great, so that the Miocene marls are commonly known under the term of "shell marls." They occur abundantly in Queen Anne's, Talbot, Calvert, and St. Mary's counties, but have never been used so largely as the greensand marls which lie to the north of them. The Ieon Oees The iron industry in Maryland was developed early in colonial days and continued until a recent date to be one of the most im- portant factors in the prosperity of the State. Numerous references are found in the earlier records to the iron ores, and early in the 62 EEPOET COH'SEEVATIOX COMMISSIOIS' eighteenth century we find considerable activity in the manufacture of iron. The Principio Company, one of the most important com- mercial enterprises in the early days of Maryland, was organized in 1722 and began the erection of a furnace in Cecil County near the mouth of Principio Creek. In 1761 the Governor and Council of Maryland reported to the Commission of the Board of Trade and Plantations in England that there were eighteen furnaces and ten forges in the State which made 2,500 tons of pig iron per year. Dur- ing the Eevolutionary War the furnaces and forges of the Principio Company supplied bar iron and cannon balls to the Continental Army. The Principio Company during the War of 1812 produced cannon balls and hardware, and guns as large as 32-pounders were made for the government. Many furnaces were built in other sec- tions of the State during the eighteenth and early portions of the nineteenth centuries, but nearly all of them have been abandoned. Among the most important of these furnaces is the Catoctin furnace in Frederick County, which was built in 1774 and furnished guns and projectiles to the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. In more recent years several modern furnaces have been con- structed near Baltimore, of which by far the largest is that at Spar- rows Point, built by the Maryland Steel Company, which, however, only employs ore obtained from sources outside the State. The only furnace now manufacturing Maryland iron to any ex- tent is the Muirkirk furnace in Prince George's County. It employs very largely the carbonate iron ores which are obtained from the Arundel formation, mainly from Anne Arundel and Prince George's counties. These great lenses of carbonate ore have been worked since early colonial days, but an ample supply still remains. Two types of ore are found in these ore lenses known as the "v/hite ore" or carbonate ore and the "brown ore" or hydrous oxide ore. Ores of iron are found widely distributed in Maryland from the older crystalline rocks down to the more recent deposits, but the most extensive accumulations thus far discovered are the brown and the red hematites of Frederick County, the carbonate ore of Prince George's County, and the iron ores belonging to the coal measures of MINERAL EESOUECES 63 western Maryland. Under the present conditions of the iron in- dustry the Maryland ores have not the value which tHey once had, although the excellent quality of the carbonate ores still makes it possible for them to compete with the cheaper materials of the west and south. This carbonate iron has been largely used by the U. S. Government, it being guaranteed to stand 30,000 pounds to the square inch in the pig, many tests giving 40,000 pounds. Some revival of production has been witnessed in the case of the brown hematites of Carroll and Frederick counties during the last few years. The great Maryland iron industries depend now to a very incon- siderable extent upon local iron ores. The discovery of extensive deposits in other section of our country, particularly in Michigan, Minnesota, and Alabama, coupled with the wonderful extension and cheapening transportation, have resulted in the past few years in driving out the charcoal furnaces and thus leaving no place for the lean ores of Maryland. The average annual value of the output of iron ore at the present time is about $50,000. The GrOLD The crystalline rocks of the Piedmont Plateau have been found to carry gold in Maryland, Virginia, ISTorth Carolina, and Georgia. The gold occurs in quartz veins which occupy the old lines of fracture in the accompanying rocks. The gold occurs either pure in quartz, or in association with pyrite, or in the pyrite itself, and is also some- times accompanied by lead (galena), silver, and telluride of bismuth (tetradymite). The first gold ever found in Maryland was discovered in 1849 near Sandy Springs, Montgomery County, a specimen being ex- hibited to the American Philosophical Society in that year. Most of the Maryland mines are located along the southern edge of Mont- gomery County, near the Great Falls of the Potomac. The oldest mine in this region was opened in 1867. Some wonderfully rich specimens have been obtained from this area, but the gold is so un- evenly distributed that it has not yet been worked with profit. Re- 64 BEPOET COWSBEVATIOIiT COMMISSION ports are frequent of the discovery of gold in other portions of Mary- land, but these finds are generally without foundation and none have as yet been proved to be of any value. The value of the output of gold in Maryland is very variable. It has reached as much as $25,000 annually, while in other years none has been produced. The Mineral Paints Mineral paint has been produced at several points in Maryland and in widely different geological horizons. Large quantities have been obtained in the past from the brown iron-ore deposits in Fred- erick County, but nothing is being done at the present time in that region. Ochre mines have also been operated in Carroll and How- ard counties, and something is being done in these regions at the present time. Important deposits of paint ore have also been obtained from the Patapsco formation in Anne Arundel and Prince George's counties. This ore occurs in a fine and highly ferruginous clay and can be worked readily. There are several industries at the present time established in this belt and the opportunities for its further develop- ment are exceedingly good. The annual value of mineral paints varies largely but probably does not exceed $15,000 annually in recent years. The Tripoli Tripoli, also known in the trade as infusorial earth or silica, is a diatomaceous earth composed of the shells or tests of microscopic plant forms known as diatoms. It is produced in larger quantities in Maryland than anywhere else in the United States. It is found at the base of the Calvert formation and comprises beds which in Anne Arundel, Calvert, and Charles counties attain a thickness of 30 to 40 feet. The most extensively worked localities are situated near the mouth of Lyons Creek on the Patuxent River and at Popes Creek on the Potomac. Tripoli is used for polishing powder and likewise as an excellent non-conducting cover for steam pipes; also from its extremely MINBEAL EESOUECES 65 porous character it is used in the manufacture of dynamite car- tridges. This material was first worked on the Patuxent Kiver in 1882. The average annual vahie is about $5,000. The Mineeai, Watees The mineral waters of Maryland in the past have not attracted much attention, but there are several kinds which are being placed on the market at the present time with greater or less success, and two at least which are being exported in considerable quantities. A few are represented as having medicinal properties, but the majority are sold principally for table waters, mostly in the city of Baltimore. N'early all of the well-known waters come from the crystalline rocks of the Piedmont Plateau, only a few being reported up to the present time from the Appalachian Region and the Coastal Plain. According to the Eleventh Census Report, based upon information obtained in 1890, Maryland ranked thirteenth among the States in the number of springs reported and twenty-first in the volume of product. The amount utilized in that year is stated to have had a market value of $12,057. Since then several new springs have been placed on the market, so that the importance of Maryland as a pro- ducer of mineral waters is gradually increasing, the output in 1907 being valued at $110,039. Around many of the springs in the Piedmont Region summer resorts have sprung up, in part as the result of the pure quality of the water and in part on account of the proximity of the localities to Baltimore and Washington. Among the more important may be mentioned the Chattolanee, Strontia, Lystra, Bentley, Takoma, and Carroll springs. Many other springs are found scattered over the Piedmont Region, but little beyond local use has been made of them up to the present time. The springs of the Appalachian Region are not as well known, although a thermal spring of saline mineral water at Plintstone, Allegany County, has for a long time been highly regarded. There are numerous cold chalybeate springs scattered throughout western Maryland, but there has been as yet only a few attempts to introduce ()() EEPOUT CONSEKVATION COMMISSION the waters or develop the properties upon which they are situated. The most important are the Blue Kidge and Altamont Springs. Very few springs of mineral water of more than local reputation are reported from the Coastal Plain. The Mardella of Wicomico County is very well known and the waters have been placed upon the market. Several other springs of only a local value are reported from the eastern and southern counties, among them a sulphur spring situated at St. Michael's in Talbot County. The Road Materials The State of Maryland is well provided with road-building materials, although their character varies widely, some being far better adapted for this purpose than others. The question of trans- portation is, however, so important that the stone of greatest value cannot always be emploj ed, yet there is no section of the State where there are not some materials sufficiently close at hand to render them available. The best road-building materials in Maryland are the basic igneous rocks, which are found well developed throughout the area of the Piedmont Plateau. Of these there are several types, viz., the gabbro, the peridotite, and pyroxenite, and the diabase. The gabbro or "nigger-head" rock, as it is locally called, is most widely distributed and occupies an extensive area throughout the eastern portion of the Piedmont belt in Cecil, Harford, Baltimore, Howard, and Montgomery counties, the largest outcrops being found in cen- tral Harford and southern Baltimore counties. This rock is rather tough and difficult to work, but affords a valuable and permanent road metal. The peridotite and pyroxenite are not as extensively developed, but occupy very much the same area as the gabbro. These magiiesian rocks are somewhat more easily worked than the gabbro, but do not have its wearing qualities. The most valuable of all these rocks is the diabase, which is so extensively used for road-building purposes in ISTew England and New Jersey and which occurs in several long and narrow outcrops in Baltimore and Howard counties, but is far better developed in Frederick County, MINEEAL EESOUKCES 07 where it occupies a considerable area near the northern border of the State in the vicinity of Emmitsburg. The chief cementing material in all of the igneous rocks is the hydrous oxide of iron. The next group of road-building materials includes the marble, the limestone, and the calcareous sandstones and shales. The car- bonate of lime contained in these deposits acts as a valuable cement, but the materials have far less durability than the igneous rocks above described. They are found covering widely separated areas throughout the Piedmont Plateau and Appalachian Region, the most extensive and available deposits being found in the long, narrow valleys to the north of Baltimore City and in the Frederick and Hagerstown valleys farther west. These materials have already been considerably employed for road-building purposes. The third group of road-building materials includes the gravels of the eastern and southern portions of the State, which belong to the late Mesozoic and post-Mesozoic formations. They cover extensive areas in Cecil, Kent, Queen Anne's, Talbot, Anne Arundel, Calvert, Prince George's, and Charles counties, and with the lessening im- portance extend into the more southern portions of the State. These gravels are rich in iron, which acts as the cementing material. They probably afford less permanent road metal than the igneous rocks which were first described, but when properly used are of great value in road construction. Several of the other rocks, both in the Piedmont Plateau and the Appalachian Region, have been locally employed for road-building purposes, some of the schists and shales as well as some of the more quartzose rocks proving useful though lacking the cementing quali- ties of the three groups of rocks above described. The annual value of the road materials is about $175,000. Miscellaneous Peoducts There are several other mineral substances of greater or less economic importance, which are cither being worked today to some extent in Maryland, or which have been earlier worked within the State, in some instances with great success. None of these products 68 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION will probably give rise in the future to industries of great magni- tude, either on account of the insufficient supply of the material or on account of the very limited use of the products themselves. Copper. — The copper ores of Maryland are found in the eastern and western divisions of the Piedmont and in the Blue Ridge. In every instance they appear to be associated more or less directly with igneous rocks, though sometimes the ore may be best developed in rocks of some other character. The copper deposits lie in a series of zones which follow the general structural lines of the region. Three of these zones, or "veins" as they are called, prior to the opening of the Lake Superior copper region about 1844, and later of the Montana and Arizona mines, were considered of no mean im- portance, and did actually make Maryland for a time a copper-pro- ducing State. The first of these zones extends along the Linganore Hills in Frederick County from New London northward, through Liberty to Union Bridge, the ore occurring in limestones and slates or meta-rhyolites. The second zone runs northeast from Sykesville, through Carroll County, to and beyond Finksburg, the ore being found in the slates and schists. The third deposit, in the Bare Hills of Baltimore County, occurs in an altered gneiss or schist near the contact with the serpentines. Chrome. — The chrome industry in Maryland originated in the discovery in 1827 of chrome ore in the serpentine of the Bare Hills in Baltimore County. Subsequently to that, other deposits were found associated with the serpentine in Harford and Cecil counties, as well as at other points in Baltimore County. Between 1828 and 1850 Baltimore supplied most of the chrome ore consumed by the world, the remainder coming from the serpentine and platinum washings of the Ural Mountains. After 1850 the foreign demand for Baltimore ore declined gradually until 1860, since which time almost none has been shipped abroad. The reason for this was the discovery in 1848 of great deposits of chromite in Asia Minor. This region now supplies largely the world's demand. Since 1886 prac- tically nothing has been done with the chrome deposits of Maryland, although Baltimore is still one of the most prominent centers for chromium salts. MINBEAL EBSOUECES 69 Lead and Zinc. — Traces of galena and zincblende were early noted near the quarries at Jones Falls in Baltimore County, but much more decided indications of these minerals occur in connec- tion with the crystalline limestone in the wesetrn part of Carroll and the eastern part of Frederick counties, where attempts have been made to mine them in the region to the southwest of Union Bridge. In spite, however, of the frequent traces of both these minerals throughout central Maryland, it may be confidently asserted that neither will probably be found to occur in amounts that will repay mining. Iron pyrites. — Small deposits of iron pyrites occur in the Magothy formation on the Magothy River, Anne Arundel County, and works were built at Cape Sable several generations ago for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, but these have long since been aban- doned. The discovery of much larger deposits at other points was the cause for the decline of the industry. Manganese, Antimony, Molybdenum. — The traces of these metals which have been detected in Maryland are even more insignificant than those of lead and zinc. Manganese was once mined a short distance west of Brookville in Montgomery County, but the deposit was not sufficiently extensive to be profitable. More recently man- ganese has been reported from Washington County. Specimens of the sulphide of antimony have been obtained in the Middletown Val- ley but nothing is known of its occurrence or extent. The earliest discovery of molybdenite mentioned on this continent was made at the Jones Falls gneiss quarries in 1811, but the deposit was not sufficient to be of economic value. Soapstone. — Soapstone is a compact variety of talc and in com- position is a hydrous silicate of magnesium. It has been worked to some extent in Carroll, Harford, and Montgomery counties, the most extensive deposits being found a short distance to the north- west of Marriottsville in Carroll County, where for a time the stone was sawed into slabs for the mauufacture of bath tubs. In later years the product has been ground and sold to manufacturers of fire-proof and acid-proof paints, although some slabs are sawed out occasionallv for fire-brick and hearth stones. 70 IJEPORT CONSERVATION COMMISSION Asbestos. — The crystalline rocks of Maryland contain several deposits of asbestos, most of which, however, is not true asbestos, although it passes under that name, but is the fibrous variety of ser- pentine known as chrysoltile. These deposits are in both quality and quantity of production inferior and unimportant. In 1880 one mine in Harford County and three in Baltimore County produced a total of 40 tons, valued at $1,000, but the discovery of extensive deposits in other regions has now entirely stopped any operations for this mineral in Maryland. Mica. — The coarse pegmatites which abound in many parts of the eastern Piedmont Region afford good-sized plates of light-colored mica (muscovite), and attempts have been made to secure com- mercial quantities of this in both Harford and Howard counties, but they have not been successful. Graphite. — Traces of graphite have been found near Pylesville In Harford County at the edge of the Peachbottom slate belt. Several deposits occur farther northward in Pennsylvania where they have been mined to some extent. The report of the National Conservation Commission which has recently appeared contains the following statement regarding a rational basis for the conservation of mineral resources: "In con- sidering the conservation of natural resources it should be held in mind that: "(1) The present generation has the power and the right to use efficiently so much of these resources as it needs. "(2) The nation's needs will not be curtailed; these needs will increase with the extent and diversity of its industries, and more rapidly than its population. "(3) The men of this generation will not mine, extract, or use these resources in such m'anner as to entail continuous financial loss to themselves in order that something be left for the future. There will be no mineral industry without profits. "One of the essential steps is to adopt fundamental principles which give conservation as applied to mineral resources a rational MINERAL EESOUECES 71 basis. Some of the more important of these principles are as fol- lows: I , "(1) The resources which have required ages for their accumula- tion, to the intrinsic value or quantity of which human agency has not contributed, which when once exhausted are not reproduced, and for which there are no known substitutes, must serve as a basis for the future no less than for the present welfare of the nation. In the highest sense, therefore, they should be regarded as property held in trust for the use of the race rather than for a single generation, and for the use of the nation rather than for the benefit of the few indi- viduals who may hold them by right of discovery or by purchase. "(2) Measured in terms of the needs of a great and rapidly grow- ing country, the mineral resources are limited in quantity. "(3) Measured in terms of the life of the nation, at the present increasing rate of consumption and waste we will, while the country is yet in its infancy, exhaust the resources necessary as the essential basis for the welfare of all succeeding generations. To shirk this responsibility on the claim that succeeding generations will probably discover other now unknown resources for their use is unjust and irrational. "(4) The right of the present generation to use efficiently of these resources what it actually needs carries with it a sacred obligation not to waste this precious heritage. "(5) The right to profit in the mining and utilization of our mineral resources does not carry with it the right to destroy the birthright of generations yet unborn, in order that we of today may obtain more easily and more cheaply the products we need for present use. "(6) It is therefore reasonable to expect that the users of mineral products will pay for them such higher prices as will make profit- able their mining and preparation without serious waste. "(7) It is also reasonable to expect that the resulting increase in the first cost of the crude material will insure their more efficient Y2 EEPOBT CONSEEVATION COMMISSION use, and that this in turn will both help to keep down the ultimate cost of finished products and to conserve the resources. "(8) The very abundance and cheapness of our resources have developed an American habit of waste which is the greatest menace to our future welfare. This waste of the past and present entail on us a still greater obligation to strive for the highest possible effi- ciency in the future mining and use of these resources." AGRICULTUEAL EESOIIRCES The agricultural resources of Maryland have for many years received the efficient consideration of the State Agricultural Experi- ment Station and its associated organizations. The farmers of the State have come to fully realize the fact that the highest eflBciency in soil production can only come through an intelligent treatment of the agricultural soils and that the best knowledge in these lines can only be secured through well trained experts in special fields. The farmers of the State have gradually come to recognize the fact that the State Agricultural Experiment Station is a practical factor in this result and that the efficiency of our farm lands has been constantly growing as shown by the increased production during the past decade. In 1900 the total value of agricultural products amounted to $35,053,529. While the latest statistics show that in 1908 it was $44,086,000. It is therefore highly important to the State that this bureau and its associated organizations should be maintained and the scope of their work enlarged wherever pos- sible. Several years ago the State Geological Survey began the prepara- tion of a series of maps in co-operation with the U. S. Bureau of Soils on which the agricultural soils of the several counties arc classified as to their availability for particular crops. These maps are not only of great practical value to our farmers but furnish i,o those looking for homes the information required for the selection of farming lands; This work which has now extended to about one- half the State should be continued and the maps prepared and issued to the public as fast as they are ready. As is shown in the following pages, Maryland has a great variety of soils adapted to a great variety of crops and special lines of farming. A reference to Bulletin ISTo. 70 of the Maryland Experi- ment Station shows the approximate composition of these soils. A calculation will show that these soils contain sufiicient plant food to grow maximum crops for a great many years. The problem then which is before the State is the adoption of some policy which will 73 74 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION assist a majority of the farmers to follow a system of agriculture which will not only develop the producing capacity of the soils to their maximum, in other words, to make the latent plant food avail- able for crops; but at the same time to devise means for conserving the soil fertility by seeing that the systems of farming which are followed will reduce the drain on the land to a minimum and thus enable many generations to enjoy the results of profitable agricul- ture. Every soil, and kind of crop to which it is planted will require a different system and treatment in order to economically bring it to a higher state of fertility and have it remain so. Future agricul- ture will devise means for making available the plant food in the subsoils more largely than at present. The State can well afford to spend considerable money in develop- ing and conserving her agriculture resources. There is need of much investigation as to how this can be accomplished most effectually and economically. There is need of a wider distribution of literature to those who will read ; but most of all there is need of more oppor- tunity for farmers to learn by that most apt and thorough teacher, observation (seeing) the value of improved methods. Let the State adopt the policy of carrying information of this character into every county and every election district and in a few years time it will give to the great occupation of farming a new birth of marvelous possibilities and make it a profession rather than a vocation. Such a policy if conscientiously carried out will double the State's resources from agriculture and greatly increase the tax- able basis. It would also increase the social, political, and financial influence of the farmers and place the balance of power where it can be most safely lodged. Ageicultueal Soils The soils of any region constitute the surface exposures of the various geological formations which occur at that place. The study of considerable areas of soils, located in many different states and derived from many different geological formations, has developed AGEICULTUEAL EESOUBCES 75 several facts concerning the relationships which exist between the soils and the geology. Without entering into details, it may be stated that the classifications employed in geological science and in soil science are not identical, although in the study of the soils the geological relationships must always be taken into consideration. In making a geological classification of the rock-forming materials of any region it is important to study the geological history of the region. On this account the time element enters largely into the identification of geological formations and the construction of maps which shall represent them. Similarly, when geological maps are diawn it is not always most necessary to represent the actual occur- rence of the material which lies exposed to the air. In a region where ore deposits, coal, oil, or other economic geological products occur it is frequently of prime importance to show the location of the materials with which they are associated. Thus a geological map frequently shows the underlying rock formation and gives very little space to the delineation of a few feet of sand, loam, or clay which may occur at the surface. It is with this latter class of materials that the soil map is chiefly concerned, since the surface deposits, even though no more than 2 or 3 feet in thickness, are the ones which interest the farmer and the ones upon which vegetation, either wild or cultivated, flourishes. The classification of the soils does not consider to any great ex- tent the geological age of the material from which the soils are de- rived, since it is highly immaterial to a crop of sweet potatoes whether the soil upon which it is growing is of rather recent date, as in the case of soils derived from the Pleistocene formations, or whether it is comparatively ancient, as would be the case if it were derived from Cretaceous deposits. So far as the farmer and his crop are concerned, sand is sand, and a sweet potato crop will thrive as well upon a sand of one age as upon sand of another age, provided the physical texture, chemical composition, drainage, aeration, and the other factors which affect plant growth are equal or nearly so. Thus the soil map of any region does not coincide exactly with the geological map of the same area. Still it is possible^ in the great majority of cases, to state with considerable accuracy that a given 1Q EEPOET COH^SEEVATION COMMISSION geological formation which has once been studied and its soil type or types determined, will be found in other areas not yet studied to give rise to the same class of soils. There are two general rules which must be taken into consideration whenever an attempt is made to show the relationships between the soils of a region and its geological formations. The first of these general propositions is that a single geological formation may give rise to two or more diif erent soil types. It mat- ters little whether the geological formation is an unconsolidated marine sediment, such as occurs in the Coastal Plain Region in Maryland and elsewhere, or a solid granitic rock, such as occurs in the Piedmont Plateau Region of the country, or even a limestone such as occurs in the Hagerstown and Frederick valleys. In the Coastal Plain Region the soils are laid down as marine sediments from sus- pension in ocean water. Because of this method of formation, there may be deposited at one and the same time, stiff, plastic clays m deep, quiet water, medium or coarse sands near the shoreline, and gravel and boulder beds where some large stream is rolling rock fragments seaward. All of these materials might well be classified as a single geological horizon, since their formation has taken place at approximately the same time, but when these materials are ele- vated above sea-level and become soils, the clay, the sand, and the gravel have totally different relationships to crops, and will consti- tute at least three different types of soil. In the Piedmont Region, where there are extensive areas of granitic rocks, the frost, the rain, burrowing animals, and the growth of plants all tend to break the solid rock into finely divided earth material which ultimately con- stitutes a soil. While the original rock over a considerable area may remain identical, the character of the geological forces at work in producing soils may vary considerably within small limits. This is especially true where not only weathering or soil preparation is being carried on, but also erosion, or the removal of completed soils is tak- ing place, and the character of the soil which is formed depends to a considerable degree upon a nice adjustment of the two sets of forces embraced in the words "weathering" and "erosion." Thus the same granite rock may give rise in one place to a sandy loam Conservation Commission of Maryland Plate IV Pig. I. — LEVEL FARM LANDS OF THE COASTAL PLAIN OF EASTERN MARYLAND, TALBOT COUNTY. Fig; II. — ^VALLEY FARM LANDS OF THE PIEDMONT PLATEAU OF CENTRAL MARYLAND, VTITH MONOCACY AQUEDUCT, FREDERICK COUNTY. VIEWS ILLTJSTRATING AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. AGEICULTUEAL EESOUECES 7T soil, in another place to a loam, and in still another place to a clay. These remarks apply in the same way to soils derived from lime- stones, sandstones, shales, slates, and a variety of other solid rocks. The second of these general propositions is that a soil type agri- culturally uniform throughout may be derived from more than one geological horizon. A single example will serve to illustrate this point. Suppose that at any one time a bank of sand of Cretaceous age is subject to wash from the falling rain and the flowing streams and that a part of this sand is removed, transported a few miles, and laid down as a bank or bar of sand within some tidal estuary or along a shoreline. The character of the sand itself will change very little during this operation, but if the work is being carried on at the present time the sand in its old original locality will be Cretaceous in age, while in its new, derived locality it will be Eecent in age. Thus there will be a wide discrepancy in geological age between the sand in the two localities, but this will be either the chief or the only difference between the two deposits. As soon as the Kecent sand is elevated sufficiently above water-level to be well drained, it will be- come the home of plants, and is very likely to be well suited to the production of watermelons, sweet potatoes, or some other crop, as the same sand in its old home locality. Thus the character of the material dominates the crop adaptation, while the age of the ma- terial very frequently has little effect upon its agricultural value. Holding in mind the differences in climate due to variations in altitude and topography, the consideration of the variations in the soils themselves will show that the agricultural resources of the State of Maryland are extremely varied, and that few areas of the same size present so admirable an opportunity for the selection of climatic and soil conditions suitable for the production of a wide range of crops, for the employment of intensive methods of cultivation, and for sharp discriminations in the specialization of crop production. THE SOILS OF THE EASTEEN SHOEE In southern Cecil County, in Kent, Queen Anne's, and Dorchester counties the higher-lying areas are occupied by a type of soil called the Sassafras loam in the State Geological Survey and the United 78 EEPOKT CONSERVATION COMMISSION States Bureau of Soils reports. Both on the Eastern Shore and in the majority of instances in Southern Maryland, this soil is derived almost solely from materials vi^hich are known to belong to the Wicomico formation of Pleistocene age. The surface soil of this type consists of about 10 inches of mealy brown loam which is underlain by a heavy, reddish-yellow loam subsoil to a depth of from 3 to 6 feet. This in turn rests upon gravelly and sandy sub- strata, which aid greatly in the natural underdrainage of the soil. There are to be found also, in Wicomico, Somerset, and Worcester counties other areas of this type occupying the level terraces and river necks. In Cecil, Kent, and Harford counties, where the Sassafras loam is ill. the best state of cultivation, it produced from 20 to 25 bushels of wheat per acre, from 40 to 60 bushels of corn, and about one ton of hay. It is used extensively for the production of sugar-corn for canning, and it also produces 7 or 8 tons of tomatoes per acre. This type has been long occupied by the famous peach orchards of Mary- land and Delaware, while more recently the culture of pears has been engaged in profitably. This type is the best adapted of any in the entire Coastal Plain to the purposes of general farming. Its present value ranges from $65 per acre in the northern counties to $30 or $15 per acre farther south. South of the Chester River there are large areas of orange or brown sand of medium coarseness, known as the Norfolk sand. This soil type illustrates the occurrence of materials which are agricultur- ally of the same character in two or more geological formations, the Xorfolk sand of the Eastern Shore occurring in both the Wicomico and Talbot formations of the Pleistocene age. This soil also occurs along the river necks of Cecil and Kent counties, but it is a more prevalent type farther south. The surface soil consists of a coarse to medium brown sand having little coherence. It is frequently more loamy than the subsoil, due to a small admixture of humus. The depth of this surface soil is usually about 8 inches. The sub- soil consists of friable orange or yellow sand extending to a depth of several feet. The type maintains a moisture supply of from 5 to 10 per cent, of water, and is easily warmed and well suited to the AGEIGULTUEAL EESOUECES Y9 production of all early crops. It occupies the broad, flat river-necks and low divides of the southern portion of the Eastern Peninsula. Ir is a typical early truck soil, widely utilized for such purposes from Long Island to Cape Hatteras. Wherever shipping facilities are adequate, as on the Eastern Shore, or where the population understands the production and marketing of truck crops this soil is held in high esteem. Many acres of Norfolk sand are still await- ing development in the southern counties of this region. The ex- perience of all the better farmed localities proves the adaptation of this type to the production of sweet potatoes, watermelons, and canta- loups of fine quality, and also to early peas, sugar corn, tomatoes, rhubarb, and root crops. In the near vicinity of large markets the iS^orfolk sand attains to almost fabulous values. On the Eastern Shore its value ranges from $50 down to $3 or $4 per acre. This soil offers excellent opportunities to those desiring to secure land in locations suitable for trucking and market-gardening. It is not a general-purpose soil. The Portsmouth sand is another type suited to the trucking in- dustry. It is found on both the Wicomico and Talbot formations. The surface soil is a fine-grained, black or brown loamy sand which owes its color to a high humus content. It is underlain at a depth of about 10 inches by a fine-grained or yellowish subsoil. The Portsmovith sand occupies low-lying, poorly-drained hollows and bowl-shaped depressions in the southern part of the Eastern Shore. Ar present it is chiefly timbered or cultivated to general farm crops. It should be cleared, drained, and cultivated to celery, onions, cab- bage, late strawberries, and similar late truck crops. In the vicinity of Portsmouth, Virginia, whence its name is derived, it is utilized as a general truck soil. The Elkton clay is a poorly-drained counterpart of the Sassafras loam occurring chiefly in the Talbot formation. It is probable that a large part of it could be converted into the better type by proper undcrdrainage. In its present condition, the surface soil is a brown loam having a depth of about 9 inches. The subsoil is a stiff, mot- tled yellow and gray clay loam. It is a fair grass and wheat land, but to attain its highest value it should be drained and used as a 80 EEPOET COKSEEVATIOISr COMMISSION general farming soil. The Elkton clay occupies low river necks and poorly-drained divides throughout the region. Other types of importance on the Eastern Shore are Sassafras sandy loam. Sassafras gravelly loam, and Meadow. The first two occur in the Wicomico formation in the northern portion, and largely ill the Talbot formation in the southern portion of the Eastern Shore. Meadow represents poorly-drained land not suitable for agricultural crops at the present time. It may occur in materials of any geologi- cal age. In the northern part there are large areas of Susquehanna clay and Susquehanna gravel, both of which are nearly worthless for agricultural purposes. These soils are derived from the formations of the Potomac Group. Unfortunately, they are crossed by the main railroad system and present to the traveler a picture of desolation which is very far from representing the scenes to be enjoyed only a few miles away on either hand. Along the Atlantic coast line the marshes are underlain by Gal- veston clay, and the barrier beaches consist of Galveston sand, neither type possessing agricultural value at present. These are both of Talbot age.* THE SOILS OF SOUTHEEN MAETIAND The Sassafras loam, as already described along the Eastern Shore, occupies small areas along the river terraces of Southern Maryland. Here, also, it is a product of the Wicomico formation. It is usually not so well tilled as on the Eastern Shore and produces smaller crop yields. The Norfolk sand, also previously described, occupies con- siderable areas on the low, flat, river necks of Southern Maryland, and it is also extensively dsveloped, with a more hilly topography, along the streams and in the upland regions. Its prevalence in the northern part of Anne Arundel County has rendered that region pre-eminent in Maryland as a producer of truck crops, its cantaloups and early peas receiving especially favorable notice. In the more southern counties the N'orfolk sand is utilized in the production of peaches, tobacco, and corn. In the Southern Maryland counties this *For more extended descriptions of these soil types, see reports and maps of the Maryland Geological Survey and United States Bureau of Soils. AGEICULTUEAL EESOUECES 81 soil is not only derived from materials occurring in all of the Pleisto- cene formations, but it is also found where sandy members of the older underlying formations reach the surface. The Sassafras sandy loam, which is well adapted to the production of all canning crops, is quite extensively developed in the form of river terraces in Southern Maryland, and Elhton clay is occasionally encountered in Prince George's County. Both of these types have the same geological relationships as on the Eastern Shore. The chief upland or plateau type in St. Mary's, Charles, and Prince George's counties is the Leoimrdtown loam. This soil type is derived from materials of Sunderland age, and also from the older Pliocene deposits found upon the high land in all the Southern Mary- land counties. The surface soil to a depth of about 9 inches is a yellow or gray silt loam. It is underlain at a depth of from 5 to 8 feet by gravel beds or gravel and sand. A large part of this type is occupied by white oak and pitch pine (P. rigida) forests. When so occupied its value is about $2 or $3 an acre. The value of the cleared lands varies from $5 to $12 per acre. While this land is little esteemed by the majority of farmers of this region, its capabili- ties have been abundantly demonstrated upon a few farms where improved methods of tillage, fertilization, and crop rotation are practiced. In St. Mary's County, near Park Hill, certain farms of this type are producing from 20 to 25 bushels of wheat and 35 bushels of corn per acre. iN^ear I^ew Market one farmer is securing 1% tons of hay per acre. Similarly, in Prince George's County, a few farms under good cultivation show the capabilities of the type and display the opportunities awaiting farmers who will and can use stable manures and green crops as sources of humus, will apply lime, and will increase the depth of surface loam by gradually increasing the depth of plowing. This type should be farmed to general grass and grain crops, with the breeding of cattle as an adjunct to permanent soil improvement. The omission of tobacco from the rotation is imperative. The Norfolk loam has a fine-grained, sandy-surface soil, underlaia by a reddish-yellow, fine sandy loam subsoil. The soil and subsoil mass rests upon yellow or orange sand of medium grade. The type 82 EEPOET coisrsEEVATioisr commissio:n" occupies ridges and crests along both the Patuxent River and Chesa- peake Bay. This type is probably a product of the Sunderland formation. Its surface is usually slightly rolling or nearly level. The Norfolk loam produces small yields of Maryland pipe-smoking tobacco of excellent quality. It is peculiarly well adapted to the production of small fruits and the later truck crops. With better transportation facilities this type V70uld afford an excellent soil for producing strawberries, dewberries, raspberries, and blackberries for the Washington and Baltimore markets. The Collington sandy loam has a loose, loamy brown sandy surface soil, usually about a foot thick. It rests upon a sticky, yellow or greenish-yellow clayey and sandy subsoil. Both soil and subsoil are derived from the decomposition and chemical alteration of the beds of greensand (glauconite), a material rich in potash. Indeed, the subsoil of the type frequently contains as high as 2% per cent, of potash salts. The type occupies considerable areas in central Prince George's and Anne Arundel counties. It produces larger yields of corn, tobacco, and grass than the average of the region. It is also well adapted to the production of peaches, pears, and plums, and to the cultivation of white potatoes and peas. It is underlain in all cases by greensand (glauconite) marls such as are used extensively ill ]^ew Jersey for purposes of fertilization. The Maryland marls are not as rich in phosphoric acid and lime as those of Xew Jersey. The Collington sandy, loam is notable among the agricultural soils of Southern Maryland on account of its being a single type derived chiefly from a single geological formation. It has been formed by the weathering out of the greensands of Eocene age where they are exposed at the surface. Large areas in northern Prince George's and Anne Arundel coun- ties are occupied by Susquelianna clay and Susquehanna gravel, two soils which are nearly worthless for agricultural purposes. The Susquehanna clay loam consists of a surface covering of sand or sandy loam over a Susquehanna clay subsoil. It is fairly productive for general farm crops. The ^yindsor sand is a coarse sandy, and somewhat gravelly soil found in southern Prince George's and in Calvert counties. It bears some excellent peach orchards, but is AGEICULTUEAL EESOUBCES 83 usually of little value for agricultural purposes and is occupied by pitch-pine forests and thicket. Of these soils, the Susquehanna types are derived from the various deposits of Potomac age, as on the Eastern Shore. The Windsor sand may be derived from several formations, but the larger portion of the material from which it is derived falls v^ithin the Sunderland formation of the Pleistocene. THE SOILS OF KOETHEEIT CEITTEAL MAETLAl^D. The Oecil loam, derived from the decay of granite and other similar rocks, constitutes the principal soil type of this entire region. It occupies large areas in the -western part of Cecil County, in Har- ford, Baltimore, Howard, and Montgomery counties, and a smaller area in Carroll County. The surface soil is a loam or heavy sandy loam of a brown or yellow color, having a depth of about 10 inche'j. It is underlain by a heavy loam or silt loam of a reddish-yellow color. Both soil and subsoil frequently contain fragments of quartz and of partially decomposed parent rock. The Cecil loam is very generally recognized as well adapted to general farming under careful manage- ment. It produces about 15 bushels of wheat per acre, from 30 to 30 bushels of corn, good yields of grass, and 7 or 8 tons of tomatoes. In Harford County a large amount of sugar corn for canning purposes is produced on the Cecil loam, and the corn fodder is fed to extensive dairies which supply milk, cream, and butter to Baltimore. The type is well watered and is valued at from $35 to $80 per acre as farm land. Much higher prices are paid for locations suited for suburban or country residences. The Cecil mica loam closely resembles the Cecil loam, except that both soil and subsoil contain large percentages of flakes of white (Muscovite) mica. It is formed from the decomposition of the highly crystalline Wissahickon schists and constitutes a fair general farming soil somewhat less productive and durable than the Cecil loam. It is locally known as the "gray lands." The Cecil clay occupies broad belts and scattered, irregularly- shaped areas which extend from northern Cecil County across Har- ford and Baltimore counties into Howard County. The surface soil, 84 EEPOET CONSEEVATIOlSr COMMISSION which has a depth of about 6 inches, is a dark red or reddish-brown clay. It is underlain by a stiff, tenaceous red clay subsoil which grades into the undecomposed gabbro from which the soil is chiefly derived. Locally some areas are heavily strewn with boulders which have resisted the processes of decomposition. These are usually forested. The type is spoken of as the "red lands" from its color. It constitutes a strong, durable general-purpose soil, pro- ducing good crops of corn, wheat, and grass, and fair yields of tomatoes. Its surface is rolling to hilly and numerous streams have their headwaters within its areas. Throughout the northern central region, especially in Baltimore and Carroll counties, are found small limestone valleys marked by fertile loam and clay loam soils. These resemble the limestone valleys farther west in Maryland, in their crop adaptations and yields. There are also considerable areas of loamy soils in western Montgomery, Howard, and Carroll counties derived from the slaty rocks of the region. Though none of these types have been mapped, they are known to be fairly fertile general-purpose soils. THE SOILS OF fredeeiok: valley The Prederick Valley, at the eastern base of the Catoctin range, has two main series of soil types. The shales and sandstones of the Triassic (Newark) series give rise to the Perm series of soils, investi- gated and mapped in the Trenton, New Jersey, and the Lebanon- Dauphin, Pennsylvania, areas. The Newark brownstone gives rise to a red sandy loam soil and subsoil, known as the Penn sandy loam. Sandstone fragments are common in both soil and subsoil. The subsoil approaches a clay loam in many cases. The type is easily tilled, but the crop yields are rather small. The Penn loam con- sists of a dark red loam surface soil underlain by a heavier red clay loam subsoil. The surface is gently rolling and fairly well drained. The soil is esteemed as almost equal in fertility to the much better known limestone soils of the origin. The Penn clay is very similar, except that both soil and subsoil are a stiffer clay. Wheat, corn, and grass are the principal crops. CONSBUVATION COMMISSION OF MARYLAND Plate V Pig. I. ROLLING FARM LANDS OF SOUTHERN MARYLAND, LEONARDTOWN, ST. MARY'S COUNTY. Fig. II. — mountain farm and forest land of western Maryland, martin mountain, allegany county. VIEWS ILLUSTRATING AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. AGEICULTUKAL BESOUBCES 85 The limestone soils which cover the southern part of the Frederick Valley are the Hagerstown loam and the Hagerstown clay. Their full description is given in the account of the Hagerstown Valley. THE SOILS OF CATOCTIN MOUNTAIN AND BLUE EIDGE The region comprised in the Catoctin and Blue Kidge mountains and the included Middletown Valley has not heen mapped with respect to its soils, but it is known to contain among others the Porters series of soils mapped in Virginia and Iforth Carolina. The famous mountain peaches of Maryland are produced on the Porters Hack loam of the mountain coves and valleys of the region. The soil is a brown sandy and stony loam having a rich dark-brown or black color, due to large amounts of organic matter. The soil is fertile, but is difficult of cultivation for ordinary crops on account of its stony character and steep slopes. It is only partially utilized for peach orchards, and the industry may be more extensively developed. The iN'ewton (Albemarle) pippin can also be raised with profit in this region and in the Middletown Valley. The Valley lands are formed of loams and clays derived from the weathering of volcanic rocks. They are well adapted to wheat, corn, oats, and grass, and constitute good soils for apple culture. THE SOILS OF HAGEESTOWN VALLEY The Hagerstown Valley and the southern portion of the Frederick Valley are occupied by a very characteristic series of soils derived from the weathering of the Shenandoah limestones. The Hagers- town loam has a surface soil which consists of a brown or yellow loam about 12 inches deep. It grades downward into a yellow clay loam which extends to a depth of 2 feet or more, which in turn is uuderlain by a stiff, tenaceous red clay. The surface of the type is rolling to gently undulating, and the area is well watered by numer- ous streams. Of these Antietam Creek drains the Hagerstown Val- ley and the Monocacy River is the chief stream in the Frederick Val- ley. The Hagerstown loam is one of the strongest, most durable, and most fertile soils occurring east of the Alleghany Mountains. It 86 EEPOET COWSEEVATION COMMISSION frequently produces 30 bushels of wheat, 60 bushels of com, and 2 tons of hay per acre. It is also adapted to apple orcharding and serves as a basis for extensive dairy operations. The land is high- priced but not expensive. The majority of farms on this type are improved with good houses and barns and little land in the area can be purchased for less than $60 per acre. The Hagerstown clay differs from the Hagerstown loam chiefly iu lacking the more loamy surface soil. The subsoil material of the loam is closely the equivalent of the surface of the clay. The Hag- erstown clay is a little more difficult to work than the loam type, but it constitutes a strong and fertile wheat and grass soil. Small ridges and knolls occur throughout both of these types. They are occupied by a sandy loam soil of the same Hagerstown series. Such areas produce fair grass and grain crops and also bear good apple orchards. All of these types have originated from the decay and solution of limestone rock. The soils are not especially rich in lime, as this material has largely been dissolved during the processes by which the soil was formed. The physical texture of these types is improved and good tilth secured by generous applications of lime. This causes a granulation of the soil and aids all the processes which con- stantly prepare plant food from the soil mass.* THE SOILS OF THE APPALACIIIAlSrS The soils of the more mountainous region of the Appalachians in Western Maryland follow in their variations the geological forma- tions from which they are derived. In the majority of cases the types occur in long, narrow areas along the crests and flanks of the mountains. They consist of clay, loam, and sandy loam soils which are occupied extensively by hardwood forests or are cultivated in small areas to grass, oats, rye, and buckwheat. The most important type of the region is derived from the surface decomposition of the Helderberg limestone. The surface soil is here usually a heavy red or yellow loam and the subsoil a clay loam of the same color. This *For complete description and maps of these regions see United States Bureau of Soils. The types of the Hagerstown Valley are described in the reports on Lancaster County, 1900, and Lebanon County, 1901, of the Penn- sylvania areas lying in the northward extension of the same valley. AGRICULTUEAL EESOUECES bl soil is adapted to the production of corn and wheat, and it also con- stitutes a naturally hlue-grass soil. Where the soil is stony from the presence of undecayed limestone and chert, rye and potatoes are raised, and on favoring slopes peaches, grapes, and small fruits are successfully cultivated. The Romney-Jennings formation gives rise to yellow and gray shale loams upon which rye and oats do fairly well and early corn is a profitable crop. It also constitutes the mountain pasture land of the region. The Hampshire soils will be described in discussing Garrett County.* The Alleghany Plateau, which constitutes the larger part of Gar- rett County is marked by comparatively few soil types. The Rom- ney-Jennings soils were described in the previous section. Agri- culturally the soils derived from the Hampshire formation are the most important. They occupy large areas in the central portion of the county. The surface is rolling to hilly and occupies altitudes of 1,500 to 3,000 feet or more above sea-level. The surface soils are red or reddish-brown loams and sandy loams, varying with the sandy or shaly nature of the rocks of which they form the decomposition products. The soil depth is usually 7 or 8 inches. The subsoils are heavier red loams and red clays, varying in texture with rock varia- tions, as in the case of the surface soils. The soils are not generally strong, but are easily cultivated on all except the steepest slopes. These are forested or form pasture lands. The Hampshire loam and sandy loam produce from 20 to 35 bushels of wheat in a favorable year, and about 50 bushels of oats per acre. Potatoes, rye, and buckwheat are also raised and excellent crops of hay are secured. Large areas of these types are found in the vicinity of Oakland, Accident, and Cove. The only other soils of considerable extent are those derived from the Allegheny formation. The soils are shallow, and sandy loams predominate. Oats, buckwheat, and grass are the principal crops, and a large part of the formation is forested. On the Conemaugh formation, especially near Grantsville, there are considerable areas of loams and sandy loams which produce good yields of potatoes *See Maryland Geological Survey, Report on Allegany County. 88 EEPOKT CONSEEVATION COMMISSION and fair yields of hay, oats, and buckwheat. Certain mountain swamp soils known as the "Glades" are very productive when artifi- cially drained. The surface soil is a black, mucky mass which is usually underlain at a depth of about a foot by a saturated yellow clay loam. Near the larger towns this soil is used for market- gardening, and cabbage, celery, and onions could also be raised to advantage.* CONCLUSIONS Stretching as it does from tide-water to mountain crest and including the full range of geological formations, from the most ancient to the most recent, the State of Maryland presents an excep- tional diversity of climate and soils. Its agricultural possibilities have not been developed to their full capacity. Consequently the State presents favorable opportunities to the well-trained, hard- working farmer of either small or large capital. He may locate in a selected region and devote his energies to the production of certain special crops with which he is especially familiar, or he may locate elsewhere and follow general farming, stock-raising, or dairying. If the raising of fruit constitutes his speciality, the northern and western regions present advantages for apple culture or for peach raising. Some of the best opportunities existing at present in the United States for specialized intensive agriculture are to be found in Maryland within easy reach of the great markets of Baltimore, Washington, Philadelphia, and Pittsburg. For the home-seeker no more pleasant surroundings can be found than on the old plan- tations of the tide-water region, where the products of the water are almost as accessible as those of the land; or in the rolling plateau region of northern central Maryland, where well-tilled fields and hoarded groves of timber checker the landscape and the topo- graphy is relieved by low, rounded hills and shallow valleys. The limestone valleys can only be equalled in fertility by other limestone valleys or by the broad prairies of the Corn Belt. The western mountain and plateau region is in some part still awaiting develop- *See Maryland Geological Survey, Report on Garrett County. AGEICULTDEAL EESOUECES 89 ment, although its pioneers have demonstrated its agricultural capa- bilities. Ageicultueai, Peoducts The chief agricultural products of the State are corn, wheat, tobacco, truck crops, canning crops, and forage crops. Grains The leading grains of the State are corn and wheat which are widely produced throughout the State. In the western section oats, Fig. 5. — Map of Maryland showing the ralative annual production of corn. rye, barley and buckwheat are likewise produced in limited areas. Corn. — There are few crops in cultivation that are available in so many ways as is corn, but this is not the place to enumerate the various purposes to which this product of the field is put in the in- dustrial or manufacturing pursuits. Here the agricultural uses are of importance. There are two classes of uses to which the corn crop is ordinarily applied, one being limited to the fresh, the other to the ripe or dry crop. In each of these both the stalks and the ears are 90 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION included, for sweet corn and green fodder are used fresh, while the stock is fed with the ripe ears and with the stover. The different sections of the country and of the State also, make different prepara- tions for the utilization of the crop in the respective ways mentioned. In truck regions the sweet corn is marketed as a vegetable for table use on the cob; at a little distance from the market the same type of corn goes to the cannery and the need for prompt use by the con- sumer is removed, and the fresh vegetable season becomes extended by the use of the canning process to include the full year. In a some- what similar way the dairyman may feed his stock with the freshly cut stalks, and the green husks, cobs, and waste ears from the can- nery, while fresh, or he may store the succulent stalks for winter feeding by use of the silo, and thereby extend the season of green feed through the winter. The greatest corn crops are produced in the central part of the State, as will be seen from the map. But the highest yield per acre may easily be located in some other region, as the result of individ- ual farming. The highest average yield per acre, for any one county, was 42.8 for Harford County (1899 figures), while the average for the State was just 30 bushels.* In the counties in which both green corn for canning, and field corn for harvesting are grown, it is difficult to learn whether both are included in the crop yield figures, or are kept separate as a can- ning crop and a grain crop respectively. The counties giving the highest total crop are not identical in rank with those having highest acreage, though the same ones form the highest group of four in each case. In marketing two customs are evident. In those cases where wagon haul is possible, the corn is usually sold in the ear. But when the railroad is used the shelled corn is shipped, leaving the cobs on the farm. On account of the relatively large amount of mineral material (ash) in the cobs, it would be good farm practice if the farmers would regularly shell their corn, and so sell it. The cobs form an excellent fuel, for quick fire and efficient heat, match- *The census year was an extremely poor year for all farm products. The average yield of corn for 1905 -was 36.9 bushels. AGEICTJLTUEAL EESOUECES 91 ing the best of cordwood. The ashes obtained, if kept from rains would be efficient as a top dressing, on account of the potash and phosphoric acid contained. Progressive farmers find it to their advantage to keep the mineral substances used by their crops, and to restore them to the soil, rather than to loose those elements and thereby diminish the fertility of fields. Wheat. — The great bread crop — wheat — is less concentrated than is corn, on the basis of total yield for the county. The deep loams of the Eastern Shore are favorable to the production of large crops, and the level surface renders harvesting easy. The fields there are less frequently disfigured with the bare areas left by the rows of com shocks than is the case elsewhere in the state. When the wheat is sown the shock rows are often left, and in the spring in the Midland Zone oats are frequently sown in these spaces, and left to ripen after the wheat has been harvested. Some farmers plant as close as possible to the shocks, driving around them as they come to the shock-row, but this leaves spots entirely bare where the shocks stood, and makes the rows through that portion of the field curved and crossed, an efi^ect not liked by most farmers. The Coastal Zone has less need for the extensive barns of the other areas, and the barnyard is less important as A. feeding and shelter place for stock. In the central portion of the State wheat thrashing commonly takes place from the barn floor, the straw being thrown into the barnyard through a narrow high door provided for that purpose; the engine standing on the grade in front of the main door. This secures for the stock a supply of coarse fodder through the winter, also assists in the preparation of the yard compost, by the trampling of straw into the litter of the yard enclosure. In the Coastal Zone the thrashing commonly occurs in the open, and at several points the straw is used in paper manufacturing, rather than as fodder. This is largely due to the proportionally smaller number of cattle maintained in this area. The use of yard manure is largest in the central portion of the state, where there are numerous farm ani- mals. In the areas of light soils along the Bay there is little 92 EEPOET CONSEEVATIOIir COMMISSION manure available, since there are few animals to produce the rich compost of litter from the barnyard. City manure, which is much used in the upper regions along the Bay is less beneficial to the soil than the barnyard compost. The latter is much more retentive of moisture and helps the soil to hold its water supply in a more help- ful degree than does the dryer type of manure. Maryland is not prominent as an oat or rye producing state, but both of these are raised in every county. Much of the oat crop is ail adjunct of the wheat, and is grown in the bare belts left by the MARYLAND SHOWING THE RELATIVE PRODUCTION OF WHEAT I Il [ [| | OVER ICXJO.OOO B03Hei_S [ 1 ISO.OOO TO IpOO.OOO V^-^ 500,000 - iso.ooo tS:\'\\l ^QOOO . SOOpQO [t[IM| 100,000 ■ LSQOOO fg^^? ; ^ 50,000 . lOO.OOO I I UNDER 5D,000 L__._ Fig. 6. — Map of Maryland showing tlie relative annual production of -wheat. rows of corn shocks at the time of wheat seeding. But in the higher land of the Mountain Zone oats are grown in the field, not merely as a filler in the shock rows. Eye is produced in varying amounts through the State, but there is no definite relation between its yield per county and other factors, as soils or climate. The leading county ill point of yield is Carroll, where the German love for rye bread is an evident factor. Buckwheat is raised in small areas through the Midland and Mountain Zones. The total yield is less than half the rye crop, the leading county being Garrett, which in the census year 1899 pro- duced 71,400 bushels, or more than half of the State's crop. AGEICULTUEAL EESOUECES 93 Tobacco The tobacco crop assumed so great an importance in the life of early Maryland and its sister colony Virginia, that they are hardly to be considered apart from it, especially if the out-of-doors side of their work is in mind. It was not only the chief crop to be planted, but the one which took most care in the handling and preparation after gathering, and which also was on hand the longest before its value became available for use. Fig. 7. — Map of Maryland showing the relative annual production of tobacco. The last feature makes the tobacco crop somewhat like a slow selling stock of a merchant. His capital is tied up for a long time before he can realize upon it through sales. Prices may be of such character as to give good profit, but the risk is large and the idle capital is earning nothing. On the contrary it is constantly requir- ing more added to it in the way of further care and labor up to the time of sale. While this is true of other crops to some extent, the amount of care and of labor tobacco requires after it has been re- moved from the field, and the length of time before it is usually sold is greater than in most other cases. 94 EEPOET COlirSEEVATION COMMISSION The soils preferred are sandy loams or slightly firmer lands, which can retain the water of rainfall, and also release it to the needs of the growing plants. While tobacco is characteristic of the Coastal Zone, a considerable amount is now raised in the region along the lower end of Parr's Eidge, in parts of Montgomery, Frederick and Carroll counties. Here, as the seasons are not so warm as in the lower areas, the barns are adapted to the flue-curing of the tobacco, as is the custom in the Ohio Tobacco region. Tobacco being a crop which can stand long hauls to market, it has maintained its supremacy in the counties of Southern Maryland where facilities for rapid transportation are less developed, and has given place to varying degrees to other crops in areas better fitted for prompt marketing of produce. Truck Crops In the Coastal Zone there are to be found the broad fields of corn and tobacco, of wheat also, with fields of strawberries and sweet potatoes in the warm loamy areas. As the vicinity of Baltimore is reached, the area of the single fields of the general crops become smaller, and the various special crops included under the general term "truck," become more prominent. Tomatoes, sweet corn, peas for canneries and market, Avith all the different crops that contribute to the supply of the city dweller, are found in more abundance as the hauling distance becomes less. On the Western Shore the dis- tance from the city at which truck growing is profitable, is in a gen- eral way found to be closely related to the distance easily covered by wagon hauling in marketing the produce. Such produce as melons which are brought to the wharves in the quick sailing boats of the Bay, are grown at a much greater distance, and the staple canning crop — the tomato is extensively grown on the Easitern Shore and shipped to the city by steamer. The Eastern Shore, as a whole, is much more of a small fruit or truck region than the Western Shore for the presence of good rail- road transportation to the northern markets in addition to the steam AGEICULTUEAIi EESOUECES 95 and sailing vessels assure the grower probability of prompt market- ing. The water-carried produce usually goes to Baltimore; the railroad transportation is mostly to the cities farther north (Phila- delphia and ISTew York). The commission merchants of these cities send their buyers into the truck and especially the fruit regions of the State, and buy the crops of the growers at the farm in many instances. This is quite commonly done upon the Eastern Shore, and in the apple area of the western part of the State, and is of benefit to the grower in that he has his market come to his goods instead of having to send the goods to the market. The level nature of the Coastal Zone, and the deep rivers penetrating the land far back from the Bay, assist materially in the development of the region as a truck and fruit section. Of the truck crops, tomatoes lead in acreage and yield, with sweet corn second. Cabbage and melons are next in importance, but the method of recording the crop is quite different in the two groups. The first group, tomatoes and corn, are recorded in bushels; the second, by the individual unit, head of cabbage or single melon. Peas and beans are quite important as truck crops, but just what pro- portion of the yield should be credited to the truck and which to the canning list is difiicult to determine. It is quite possible that any given load of produce might be raised as a truck crop, but through the various channels of trade finally reach the consumer as canned goods. Strawberries may be discussed as a truck crop more conveniently than as a fruit, since it is also a canning crop. The chief straw- berry areas are on the sandy soil of the Coastal Zone. The crop from the Eastern Shore is delivered to the northern cities, Philadelphia and beyond, while the Western Shore berries more largely supply Baltimore and Washington and Pittsburg. This is the direct rela- tion to the lines of communication established in the respective areas. The markets are in general supplied from the nearest source of straight shipment, as every handling adds to the cost of transporta- tion, and to the risk of loss to the grower. Together these add Lo the price which the consumer pays for his berries under normal con- ditions. 96 EEPOET CONSERVATION COMMISSION Of the other berries which are grown for market, the total crop is comparatively small, and does not figure in the State's business as does the straAvberry crop. Anne Arundel County leads in strawberries, and in sweet pota- toes also. Baltimore County is first in white potatoes and in onions. The total crop of sweet potatoes is about one-third that of the white potato crop. Canning Crops. — The canning industry is one of the most im- portant branches or adjimcts of Maryland Agriculture. The farmer Fig. 8. — Map of Maryland showing the acreage in canning crops. in the Coastal Zone by his contracts for tomatoes knows his possible income in advance, and does not have to seek an uncertain market. The contracting feature does not assume so prominent a factor in regard to the pea and corn canning, but in each of these there is a nearby market assured the producer who supplies the canning fac- tory. The chief corn canning area is in the central Midland Zone, the other two crops, tomatoes and peas, are characteristic of the warmer soils of the Coastal. Baltimore being a market centre draws upon distant as well as local sources of supply. This is noticeable in the canning industry. AGEICULTUEAL EESOUECES 97 Peaches form an important part of the year's output from the city .factories, the fruit being either consigned to the canneries, or bought in the open market. Strawberries are not regularly canned to an im- portant degree, but at times of glutted markets they are so treated. A modification of ordinary canning is found in the preparation of fruit juices for use in summer drinks. Much of the strawberry fruit juice so used is secured in the Baltimore markets through the can- ning factories. Apples and vegetables, such as sweet potatoes and beans, are put in under special conditions, but such special lines have not been developed much beyond the point of filling in otherwise idle time between regular crops. The relative acreage in canning crops in the several counties may be seen from the map on this page. It serves also for a trucking map, as the two industries are closely related in their development. Fruits In the earlier days of fruit growing the Eastern Shore joined as one agricultural unit in the production of the "Delaware Peaches" which still figure largely in the markets of the upper Atlantic cities and in the adjacent interior regions. Much of the actual peach production, however, has been transferred from the Coastal Zoae to the Midland, and is even passing beyond into the Mountain Zone area, in the latter case beyond the limits of our discussion into West Virginia. The incurable disease of the peach known as "Yellows" is largely responsible for the shifting of the peach industry, as when its activity destroyed the productive orchards in one place the busi- ness was developed in another, to meet the demand from the markets dependent upon the State for their supplies of this fruit. The I'ellows has foUow'ed the movement of the commercial orchard areas, and the industry in other parts of the State is threatened. The importance of destroying the trees as soon as there is a sight of disease is now recognized as essential to its control, and the more thrifty growers do so as part of the season's work. Under present conditions the region about the upper end of the Blue Eidge is important in the fruit industry; and it is in this 98 EEPOET CONSEEVATIOW COMMISSION region that the "Mountain Peach" as a product of Maryland was developed. The varieties which have the word "Mountain" as part of their name are not confined to the high ground, as both the light fleshed Mountain Rareripe, and the Mountain Rose, are or were grown on the low elevations of the Delaware-Maryland Peninsula. The qualities that made the Mountain Peach so well known were probably due to the conditions of growth, just as is the case in the growing of apples, proper regard being used for suitable varieties for growth. The character of ground used for the planting of orchards of either peach or apple, is preferably recently cleared woodland, and there is a cultivated crop, of corn usually, grown among the trees during the first years after planting, before the trees come into bear- ing, afterward it is the practice among the best growers to cultivate during the early part of each season, and sow some form of clover or cow peas to cover the soil during the ripening period and before the winter sets in to turn this growth under to decay as a source of the next seasons nitrogen. Where the season is open and much rain is expected, the late plowing is often deferred until spring, the plants acting as a protection against washing. Grapes are grown extensively in the Blue Ridge section of the State, but do not take so prominent a place in the fruit markets as do the peaches. The large Italian or Japanese Chestnuts are grown to a considerable degree on the woodland slopes of the Pen Mar region, where the sprouts which grow from the cut stumps of the native chestnut are grafted with the large type and an early bearing orchard of the nut trees results. One great advantage of thus de- veloping an orchard lies in the presence already of an extensive root system on the part of the native tree whose stump-sprout is used for the stock into which to graft the foreign scion. A difficulty the growers have to meet is that the early opening of the burrs allows insects, like the wevils, to reach the young nuts, and by laying their eggs in them make them wormy and unsalable. Methods of control are coming into use by which this loss may be diminished. Working upon the supposition that soil which has supported a crop of wild deciduous trees will maintain a cultivated crop of trees AGEICULTUEAL EESOUECBS 99 also, the ridges in the higher parts of the Midland Zone have been planted to apple orchards; the headquarters of the industry being in the region near Hancock, near the western end of Washington County. The conditions here approximate those of the celebrated apple regions of 'New York, the extremes of the climate not being reached here however. This is a comparatively new form of fruit gi'owing in this section and has not yet reached its full development ; many of the orchards being too young as yet to produce commercial crops. As the production increases it seems quite possible that Maryland will become known for its apples as favorably as it now is for peaches and strawberries. Just beyond Hancock a section of good farming country is to be found in several broad ridges and corresponding valleys which are in some cases too steep for easy tillage. These are often set out in apple orchards, the acreage in this section being very considerable and on the increase. The older orchards are now coming into bear- ing. As in the case of the peach, the preference is for land that has recently been in timber, and one may see in some of the orchards the waste from the lumbering still lying where it was left at the time of cutting. Some of the hillsides afford pasturage to the Au- gora goat, or to sheep, both of which especially goats act as fore- runners to the orchard through their ability as clean feeders. The goats secure the necessary pasturage from the sprouts and under- growth, killing the undesired shrubbery about the orchard area ; after- wards they are removed, and the trees planted with a certainty that much of the growth of woody shrubs, that often continues for sev- eral seasons under other conditions, will not interfere with the work in hand. This ability of the goats depends upon a proper propor- tion of animals to the area to be cleared; there should be enough animals to feed the shoots as fast as they develop and by successively eating off the shoots as they are renewed, the plants are soon killed through the constant loss of all leaf surface, without which in some form no plant can long remain alive. The roots of these dead shrubs soon decay, and the field is thereby the more easily cared for. The long hair (mohair) of these goats is a valuable addition to the rev- enue of the farm, and comes in as almost clear profit so far as cost of food is concerned. 100 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION One feature concerned in the clearing of the slopes, and planting to orchards, lies in the resulting washing of the soils. Under the modem method of cultivation of commercial orchards, the soil is bare during the season of the early summer when the rains are often heavy and driving. Under clean tillage the soil is easily washed away in such a rain-fall and gullying results. The time since the orchards were set out is too short to be able to make any statement as to injury actually done, but this is certainly a source of loss to the orehardist, through the removal of the better portions of the soil near the top, as well as to his valley fields upon which the debris and waste of the steeper fields are washed. Some keep a strip of some kind of green plant, cow-peas, rye, or other quick growing crop, in the space midway between the rows of trees through the season when the cultivation is going on, this being turned xmder and the whole planted to a quick growing crop about mid-season. The ex- posure of the whole surface is thus materially reduced, and the con- ditions of washing and gullying thereby lessened. Forage Crops One of the important sources of forage is found in the leaves and stalks of corn. The dry stover is prepared in two ways ; either by "pulling blades" and "topping," which is most common in the Coastal Zone, or by "cutting corn," as is commonly practised in the other Zones of the State. The method of saving fodder by the former system is thus de- scribed by one who is located upon a large farm in Worcester County ; the details may be slightly different elsewhere. The description is inserted to show the amount of labor involved in the method, as compared to the other methods, i. e., cutting the stalk at the ground and shocking, or running the whole plant with or without the ears, through shredding or chopping machines. Three men together work down two rows, the first man cutting tops, and the two following him pulling blades. The tops from eight hills are thrown together as the men take the two rows and on the return trip the tops from eight other hills are added to the pile AGEICULTUEAI. EESOUKCES 101 making a "stoop" of 16 hills. The blades have been pulled by the strippers and made into "bunches" which are tied with a blade of fodder and hung upon the standing portion of the stalk to cure. The next step is to tie up the tops which have been lying in the "stoop" for a day. Two or three of these are tied into a "tie" or bunch, using a tough stalk for the purpose, thus putting tops of 32 to 48 hills together, according to the rankness of the fodder; these three "ties" are stood together to cure until time to stack. In stacking, 100 bunches or "ties" are set up first, being built about a center pole ; on the top of the tops which thus act as a foundation the blades from the same stalks are added, the whole arranged to shed water like a thatch roof. With one hundred ties to the stack, there are 4-800 hills accounted for in each stack, or a square of nearly 70 hills to a side. The men each receive 10c to 15c per hour, and put in ten hours as an average day. In thus gathering fodder, the ground is gone over several times, once to cut tops and strip blades, again to gather these into "ties" and to put the "ties" into trios of three ties each, to cure. A third trip over the ground is required in collecting these "trios" into the final stacks of 100 ties. The entire field must be gone over three times with no account taken of the short steps required in collecting the material into the successively larger units at the different times. As a substitute for hay this type of fodder is perhaps better than the others, especially for horses, as the coarsest portions are left in the field, but the hand labor involved is comparable to that required to gather grain by cradling instead of by some of the horse-power reaping machines. The ears may be husked from the standing stalk, or as is more often the case, broken off and husked at leisure, often with pleasure attendant, as at "husking bees." The stalks and what may be left of the husks or blades, are usually left to be turned under in the spring and afford some exercise to stock during the outdoor weather of the winter months. In "cutting corn" the procedure is more simple, and the utiliza- tion of the fodder is more complete. The essential difference lies in the cutting of the stalk close to the ground, with the blades, ears. 102 EEPOET CONSEEVATIOBT COMMISSION and top in place, and curing the whole plant in shocks, as were the tops in the first method. In this method the field is ordinarily planted promptly to wheat, the corn rows being disc-harrowed or otherwise loosened for the sowing of the grain, and this is in the ground before the corn is husked from the shocked stalks. The fodder is in this case usually fed to the cattle only, the other stock having hay in the more common cases. The fodder is usually thrown into the barnyard, or into a pasture field, and the cattle soon strip the blades and other edible parts tramping and breaking the rest as they move about. In the yard this is helpful in the general prepara- tion of the compost, but when fed in the field there is nearly complete loss in utility of the coarser parts. The use of self -binding corn harvesters is not so common in this State as in some of those farther West, but they are often used where the com is to be stored in a silo. The harvester makes bundles of a size convenient to handle at the cutting machine, and works more rapidly than hand labor. It is possible to cut silage direct from the field by the use of the harvester, which cuts about as fast as the bundles are hauled to the barn and fed to the silage cutter. The corn is usually harvested for this purpose when the kernels are past the "milk" condition and becoming mealy when cut by the thumb nail. Siloes. — The use of siloes is so much more customary now than a few years ago that it is hardly necessary to describe the construc- tion of them. The common type is the "stave silo," located just out- side the barn, and rising to about the same height as the eaves. The essential point in these, as contrasted to the older pit or stone silos lies in the entire absence of corners, and the possibility of keeping the structure tight by the long screw rods which, like hoops of a barrel, are placed at intervals about the cylindrical tank which forms the silo of this type. A cement foundation is provided to assure a firm base and the rest is built of lumber, dressed on the inside at least, if not on both sides. 'No rough points, or corners are left, and the finely cut ensilage is packed well against the walls, well dis- tributed elsewhere, and any holes or spaces carefully guarded AGEICULTUEAL EESOTTECES 103 against, contact with the air being the danger to be avoided, as spoiled silage results. The loss from this cause in a well packed, and tightly built silo, is not usually more than the top eight to twelve inches, and after the silage is ready for use, the injury rarely extends further. By the use of ensilage the entire corn plant is utilized, except the lowest six or eight inches of the stalk which are left as stubble, and the richness of fresh fodder is largely preserved. To a less degree the feeding value of the dry stalks may be retained through the use of the various shredding machines, and feed cutters. These tear and chop the stalks and attached blades, husks, and ears if there are any left, into pieces so small as to be easily eaten by cattle with almost no waste. The shredded fodder is almost ideal bedding material, as its absorbing power is very great, and its fine condition makes its distribution as bedding and later as compost, much more convenient than is possible with coarser litter. There are machines on the mar- ket which will take loose bundles of stalks and reduce the stalks and blades to shredded fodder, and at the same time husk the ears, throwing these to one side ; however) there does not seem to be much call for these in this State, none having been seen in use during the past two seasons. Cost. — The practice of "pulling blades" as the method first de- scribed is often called, is a common but expensive one. The rate paid for the labor necessary to gather the fodder makes the bulk equivalent of a ton of timothy hay cost as much as the hay itself. In some localities it is the custom for men or boys not otherwise occupied at the time to hire out to "pull blades" at a rate of a dollar a day, and to spend a considerable time in this work. The rate paid is sometimes reckoned on the quantity prepared, especially if done in part on shares, the basis being the amount which is gath- ered into the piles or shocks which have been mentioned, and which form the means of calculating the fodder yield of the crop. The custom is one that requires a great amount of time for the return received. Most of this is saved in the process of ensilage making. The use of the corn harvester is of value in cutting the ripe corn 104 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION just as much as in gathering for the silo, and this reduces the amount of travel over the same ground to a large degree and much of that which is still necessary is done by draught animals rather than by laborers on foot. It is thought by some that the quality of the corn from topped fields is not so good as that from adjacent fields in which the entire stalk was cut at the proper time, both ripening in the field in the manner customary in the respective cases. The dif- ferences were found through careful analyses, and while hardly Fig. 9. — ^Map of Maryland showing the relative annual production of hay. enough to influence ordinary feeding uses, might be of considerable influence in the seed quality of the corn for the next crop. The several methods of utilizing the corn crop are somewhat char- acteristic of the several Zones of the State ; the top-and-blade gather- ing being largely prevalent in the Coastal, while the use of the siloes is most common in the Midland Zone. The use of the stover or whole fodder, is common in the upper part of the Coastal, and in both Midland and Mountain Zones, the areas overlapping in this feature more than in the other two, but the limits are not sharply drawn for either. AGKICDLTUKAL KESOUECES 105 Hay. — ^As might be supposed, the soils that are favorable to the dairy industry are also well suited to the production of hay, and in the sections too far from transportation to make the shipping of milk a profitable business the raising of hay for sale in the baled form or loose, becomes of importance. The higher areas of the Mid- land Zone, and some portions of the Mountain Zone are important factors in the hay supply of the Baltimore and Washington markets. There are some natural meadows from which commercial hay is cut, but more frequently this wild hay is used at home. Most of the hay sold is that from the clover-timothy steps in crop rotation, as these are a standard in the market. Incident to the production of hay comes the production of seed for the replanting of the crop. Both clover and grass seed are raised to some extent in this State, although neither becomes of great importance in the general market. Dairying Dairying has become an important element in the State's agri- culture, and this is found to be directly related, according to present methods, to the soils of the several sections. It has been expressed in saying that "one cannot raise milk where the blue-grass does not grow naturally." This means that in those parts of the State in which the native grasses do not form a turf, as does the blue-grass, there is little use in raising dairy cattle ; for the absence of pasturage is in most cases a determining factor against the production of milk in commercial amounts. It will be seen from the maps on later pages, that the Coastal Zone is very largely in the area of unfavor- able soil conditions, hence lying outside the present dairy area. If, however, the present methods should be changed, so that the use of large fields for pasturage would be unnecessary, the food material being secured in some other way, as by fodder corps, soil- ing crops, or ensilage, the profitable limits of the dairy area could be extended to include some of the lighter loams not now available for such purposes. Some people have objected to the use of ensilage because of the possible flavor the milk might receive from the feed. It has been 106 EEPOET CONSERVATION COMMISSION found that if the ration of silage be given immediately after milk- ing instead of before or while milking, there will be no flavor im- parted to the milk from the food, and the full benefit of the suc- culent milk producing material will be received. The greatest development of the dairying industry is of course in regions convenient to the large cities, where the milk can be de- livered promptly by the railroads. The presence of towns of con- siderable size in the central part of the State helps to distribute the Fio. 10.— Map of Maryland showing the r3lative annual production of milk. milk industry over a broader area. The natural pasturage which prevails in the northern part of the State is an important factor in the success of the dairy farmer. The sale of milk removes comparatively little fertility from the farm, as the chief components of milk are similar to those of green plants; i. e., water and carbon compounds which contain but little ash or mineral matter. By keeping the other produce on the farm for home consumption, the general fertility of ones land would in- crease rather than decrease from time to time. AGEICULTUEAL EESOUKCES 107 Farm Animals Through the region of firm soils which favor the dairy industry, there is an accompanying line of agriculture closely related to it in many ways — the feeding of beef cattle. It is the practice of many farmers to buy cattle of the beef type in the fall, stall feed them through the winter and in the spring sell for the export trade. Other farmers where pasture is abundant carry their steers through the winter on the coarse forage of the farm, fatten on pasture during the summer and sell as "grassers" in the fall. The careful farmer thus gains in two ways by the increased valuation at time of sale, and by the accumulated fertility during feeding time, which is of no little permanent value in the upbuilding of the farm's capacity for crops. In case the farm is located in convenient relation to corn canning factories, the waste from the cannery — cobs, husks, refuse ears, etc., is often secured by the growers and fed either fresh to dairy or as ensilage to both dairy and beef cattle. This particular feature may be found around Westminster or Frederick^ both being important centers in each of the three lines mentioned, dairy, can- ning and beef raising. The "Glades" that occur in the Mountain Zone were important natural pasture lands before the separation of Garrett from the older Allegany County. Their pasture character is still important, ap the firm deep soil with usually a sufficient supply of moisture, is well fitted to the growth of the grasses of the pasture type. Both sheep and cattle are raised in these areas, and they also afford nat- urally favorable conditions for hay raising. The raising of sheep is developed to a considerable business in the two extremes of the State, the Mountain Zone and the Eastern Shore District of the Coastal Zone. The counties in which there are any considerable number of sheep are Garrett, and the three counties from the Sassafras to the Choptank, — Kent, Queen Anne's and Talbot, the loam soils of these areas giving good pasturage for grazing. Other animals which are important in Maryland^ are pigs and horses. The former are raised in small numbers quite generally 108 EEPOKT CONSEEVATIOX COMMISSION over the State, but the pasture counties of the Midland Zone are the ones where horses are produced. Rotation of Crops Crop rotations have much to do with the general maintenance of fertility of the farm lands, and the particular rotation practised is found to be quite different in the several sections of the State. In general the plan is best developed from the theoretical standpoint at least, in the Midland Zone, where the soil conditions make possi- ble a choice of several types of crops which may be grown in such order as to form a beneficial succession on a given field. The theory of crop rotation is that a continued cropping of one kind of plant in some way diminishes the available supply of the particular elements of soil fertility which that plant requires in greatest degree, this loss being met and counteracted by introducing other crops which add available plant food to the soil or at least draw upon the soil materials in different proportion from the first crop. Whether the effect is exactly as stated or not is of secondary importance here, the point being that a succession of crops average better than a long continuance of a single one, upon a given area of land. Most farmers practise some type of rotation, and the choice of successive crops varies with the section of the State in which the farm may be located. Rotations of the Midland and Western Zones are based upon the maintainance of each field for at least two seasons in a clover and timothy sod. In the Midland Zone the typical rotation may be taken as starting with corn ; this is usually followed by wheat in the fall of the same year. After the wheat is off, the stubble is usually plowed, and after a period of fallowing, often omitted, may be again sewn in wheat, with timothy and clover, the former seeded with the wheat, the latter the following spring. The field is allowed to re- main in hay for two years, being pastured to some extent after each mowing. After the second year of hay, the sod is usually turned under and corn comes again as the next crop. In case the farmer has a permanent pasture to develop at inter- vals, it is usually done as the natural outgrowth of the hay field. AGEICULTUEAL KESOUECES 109 the use as pasture coining in as the yield of hay diminishes after a few years of cutting. In those sections where the pastures are nat- ural and do not need to be planted the hay fields are pastured only sufficiently to keep down a too luxuriant aftermath. The conditions in parts of the Coastal Zone are such that the clover item is often omitted, on account of the difficulty of securing a crop of this plant. In some cases cow-peas or other legumes of similar type are substituted for the clover, or in a growing number of cases, alfalfa is the crop planted. The particular form of legume must be selected to suit the local conditions of soil and climate. Tobacco comes into the rotation in the section of the Zone along the western shore of the Bay, and in the rotation as given above it may b(^ considered as substituted for the hay crop, reducing the rotation to three instead of four years ; corn, wheat, tobacco being the order in this case, while corn, wheat, hay, was the order before. The introduction of such crops as potatoes, into the general farm rotation or of the several truck and canning crops in the truck areas, causes a variation from the rotation order as outlined. This has more or less importance as the area of the field is wholly involved or only a portion of it receives the special crop. In the truck areas the regular rotation of staple crops is less apparent, as the land is under more continuous cropping and practically every crop receives its share of fertilizer or manure. In the effort to keep the land in crop the truck farmer rarely alternates the type of plants grown to a degree sufficient to meet the theoretical conditions for rotation suggested above. The trucker has this advantage over the regular farmer, — much of his produce is green vegetation, as lettuce, spinach, cabbage, etc., comparatively little developing to the point of ripe seeds, as is the regular thing with such crops as corn and wheat. It is the latter type of crop that is hard on the fertility of a field, because of the amount of phosphoric acid taken in the ripen- ing of the seeds. Green crops take very little of soil fertility from the land, for the solid substance is largely derived from the air as carbonic acid, and built into the cellular tissues of leaf or stalk, the cells being filled with the juices of the plant, or with such other material as starch, of a similar character to the cells themselves, as 110 REPORT CONSERVATION COMMISSION regards composition. Such crops withdraw but little fertility from the soil, as one can determine for himself by comparing the amount of ashes left by a few pounds of cabbage or lettuce or some fresh fodder crop with that left by the same weight of wheat or corn. There are other sources of loss in the fertility of ones farm land, and one of those is the gullying and washing of plowed ground. When it is desirable to cultivate fields having steep slopes the method of plowing known as "contour plowing" can be used to advantage. In this method the furrows are run around the hill in- stead of up and down the slopes. Each furrow thus acts as a terrace to check the rush of water, and by retaining the first accumulation permits a longer period for soil absorption. In a moderate rain such check to the beginning of the rivulets may prevent the washing, and the field thus escape serious cutting or gullying for a considerable time. The damage done by washes in the fields may be seen to some extent on almost any slope in Southern Maryland, the Midland Zone, or in the higher land westward. The damage is done not only by the carrying away of the soil from the field which is cut and gullied, but the lower fields and meadows or pastures are to an often serious degree injured by the deposition of the transported material. While the damage by sudden bursts of extreme rainfall, cannot be avoided, the amount could be decreased, and in normal rains materially reduced by a little more care in methods of tillage, and of selection of fields for cultivation. Preventable Losses in Agriculture Upon the average farm certain items, once sources of profit, may by a difference in general conditions cease to pay their way and become actual expenses in the year's cash account. Differences i:i shipping facilities, and the shut down of a canning factory, may in this way change such a crop as tomatoes from the profit to the loss side of the account book. To a certain degree such losses are not preventable on the part of the individual farmer, they are related to broader conditions than his one farm, and he needs to adapt himself to the new conditions, or aid in the effort to restore the old. AGEICULTUEAL KESOUECES 111 There are sources of loss, however, that the individual farmer is responsible for, and which affect directly his own income from crops raised. These losses are usually due either to tillage methods, or to diseases of plants and animals raised. The first — poor or unwise methods in tillage — are losses hard to estimate, but are evident in the differences in crop returns as obtained by neighboring farmers on similar soils. This finds expression in the yield per acre of wheat and corn among the different farmers of a community, the same men usually leading for several years at a time. By more general con- servation of the resources present in the soil, made available through deep tillage and through cultivation, the same expense for fertilizers may produce a much increased return in crops from the same acreage. Animal and Plant Diseases The occurrence of diseases among the animals and plants of the farm is in most cases within possible control. This is demonstrated in the practical elimination of hog cholera from the list of diseases by proper care. Prompt destruction of the first diseased individual, and serum treatment promptly applied to the rest of the drove, affords an efficient and satisfactory means of saving the hogs on the farm. Similar preventive or control measures are applicable to several diseases among stock. In many of these the prompt de- struction of the individual animals first diseased, with imm.ediate treatment of the others, reduces the loss to those first affected. The removal of the active source of infection is of greatest importance in the maintenance of health of the rest of the animals. The death of one or two prevents the loss of all. Among plants there are diseases which yield to control measures as surely as does hog cholera. The chief difficulty lies in the reluctance on the part of the individual to take the trouble involved or to meet the relatively slight expense. Among the diseases of plants which are readily controlled are: Black rot of apple, leaf curl of peach, rot of peach, cantaloupe blight, mildew of beans, and others affecting the surface of the plant tissues first and thence extending inward. 112 EEPOET CONSERVATION COMMISSION Diseases originating within the tissues of the plant are not readily controlled, because they cannot be reached by our present methods of control. Several of these diseases are kept in check by the same methods which are used against insect depredations, such as the lime-sulphur-salt spray against San Jose scale. This usually acts as a check to rot and curl of peach, as well as being destructive to the scale insects. Bordeaux mixture in turn, as applied to potatoes for blight, keeps down the injury from flea beetles which fill the un- sprayed leaves with fine "shot holes." The occurrence of other diseases and insect pests can be called to mind in every locality, the effect of which has been to materially re- duce the size of the otherwise possible crop or herd raised. Losses due to a decrease below a possible amount are difficult to estimate, and more difficult to realize, since one does not actually have at any time the equivalent of the value lost. The loss due to burning a corn crib with the stored crop is definite and tangible. The loss due to the absence of a hundred bushels from the possible crop is indefinite and theoretical, since no labor has been put on the absent crop, and it has not been in evidence in any form. The actual difference in resources at the end of the year may be quite as great in the decrease of the crop as in the lost by fire. Without information at hand upon this feature of the State's resources, it is impossible to make an exact estimate of the amount involved in losses from diseases in stock and crops during a single year. It is probable however that the average loss for the State in any one crop, due to preventable diseases, is equivalent to one-tenth of the crop as grown. That is the crop grown is about 90 per cent, oi the amount there would have been without these diseases. The actual loss, were figures at hand, would more likely increase than decrease this amount of loss. Among animals, where control of disease is more strictly enforcible by law, the loss may not be over 5 per cent. That is the general returns from live stock may be as higli as 95 per cent, of that possible from the same animals without disease. The losses on individual farms however, both among ani- mals and crops may in some cases go as high as 75 per cent., with such diseases as hog cholera, or potato rot. Even a 5 per cent, loss AGKICULTUKAL EESOUECES 113 for the whole State for 1908, when the total valuation of agricultural products was over $44,066,375, would be over $2,200,000. Destruction of Birds One source of loss to the whole State is through the destruction of birds which feed upon insects or rodents. It is highly probable that the financial loss to farmers, due to the stealing of grain by field mice and other small animals, far exceeds the total sum realized by bounties for killing of hawks, etc. It is, in fact, paying money for the protection of rats and mice, the latter feeding on the crops of the farmer and thus costing him more money. It is a well established fact that hawk bounty laws operate as if they were mouse protection laws, the killing of the hawks allowing the mice to in- crease much more rapidly than they would do otherwise. Through the killing of insect eating birds, the damage caused by caterpillars is materially increased. The damage occasionally done by the stealing of a chicken, or the loss of a few cherries, is made up many times over by the death of the worms, of all sorts, that furnish food to the hawks and other birds. The detailed relation between insect damage, and grain stealing by small animals on one side, and the shooting of predatory and insect eating birds on the other, has been carefully studied by the National Department of Agriculture. Their study shows the details in definite cases, and the above summary merely hints at the direct loss the farmer experiences when he shoots a hawk or robin. By conserving the birds of the neighborhood the farmer diminishes his losses during the season to a very considerable degree. Agbicijltueal Statistics The figures given in the following tables are taken from the Re- port on Agriculture of the U. S. Census for 1900. The details there available for comparison are more complete than in other sources at hand, and their value for comparison is not lost by the passing of a few years. The actual figures would vary considerably from one year to another, according to climatic factors, but the relative 114 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION amounts would not be subject to such immediate fluctuations. Thus the amount spent for Labor and for Fertilizers in the several coun- ties will not be the same in any two years. But the amount spent in Baltimore County will not vary much as compared with the amount spent in Calvert County in the same year. It will be noted that those counties which rank high in expendi- ture stand high also in values of produce. Another comparison quickly made, is between the values of farm buildings in the dif- ferent counties, high total values being associated with those coun- ties which are so situated as to require winter shelter for crops and animals. By comparing the value of Farm Implements for dif- ferent counties, the type of farm practice may be judged in a general way. With few simple tools, such crops as tobacco and corn may be raised, but with added complexity of crop rotation comes the demand for more machinery to secure the best return from each crop. This finds its highest value in those counties in which the most varied crops are raised, in which the soil is used to its full capacity by suc- cessive crops quickly succeeding one another, and in which the natural fertility of the soil conserved and the retention of soil moisture aided by intelligent use of fertilizers, barnyard and green manures. AGEICtTLTUEAL RESOURCES AGRICULTUEAL STATISTICS. TABLE I.— NUMBER OF FARMS AND ACREAGE OF IMPROVED LAND. .\cres Acres* No. of Counitles. .\crP3. Improved. Per Farm. Farms. Allegany 160,348 75,905 179.4 894 Anne Arundel 206,967 148,325 109.6 1,889 Baltimore 340,206 244,806 75.7 4,496 Calvert 136,625 88,605 126.9 1,077 Caroline 183,501 125,908 98.5 1,863 Carroll 276,593 227,693 82.6 3,352 Cecil 200,629 141,401 122.9 1,633 Charles 263,255 153,465 138.6 1,900 Dorchester 243,497 128,160 121.3 2,007 Frederick 374,381 308,041 99.9 3,747 Garrett 243,510 123,932 136.2 1,788 Harford 248,925 174,255 102.4 2,431 Howard 146,039 110,546 120.3 1,214 Kent 169,288 138,944 179.9 941 Montgomery 283,469 212,840 136 . 2,085 Prince George's 265,003 174,273 111.6 2,374 Queen Anne's 224,143 173.396 153.9 1,456 St. Mary's 192,503 109,553 149.0 1,292 Somerset 144,970 82,650 95.3 1,521 Talbot ' 164,792 119,266 137.4 1,199 Washington 249,221 197,948 104 . 1 2,393 Wicomico 207,284 122,453 89.6 2,314 Worcester 241,434 132,549 121.5 1,987 Total 5,170,075 3,516,352 112.4 46,012 TABLE II.— VALUATIONS OF FARMS AND THEIR EQUIPMENT. Counties. Land. Buildings. Tools. &c. Labor. Fertilizers. Allegany $ 1,945,000 $ 669,940 ? 136,730 ? 58,600 S 16,480 Anne Arundel 3;659,970 1,885,740 275,470 331,670 183,970 Baltimore 23,190,670 9,295,710 1,235,380 866,030 313,560 Calvert 1,546,070 659,100 100,840 66,820 46,480 Caroline 2,874,970 1,051,050 243,080 125,240 93,290 Carroll 7,210,730 4,501,850 719,340 336,560 160,000 Cecil 4,773,490 3,024,820 440,610 301,840 146,430 Charles 2,775,240 1,216,610 191,650 68,240 48,500 Dorchester 2,761,440 1,087,720 218,740 138,960 76,800 Frederick 12,394,570 5,645,840 855,380 502,250 190,560 Garrett 2,900,670 992,210 226,210 63,600 23,220 Harford 5,519,510 4,160,360 570,600 372,010 272,960 Howard 3,494,690 2,275,470 321,990 217,660 108,410 Kent 4,258,300 1,365,050 276,780 303,010 112,500 Montgomery 9,491,930 3,525,170 576,010 418,060 198,370 Prince George's... 5,710,630 2,577,410 323,820 263,210 74,310 Queen Anne's 4,558,610 1,590,780 384,780 288,880 130,330 Somerset 1,622,690 995,000 157,020 131,070 42,030 Talbot 4,200,570 1,690,700 304,220 241,480 89,040 Washington 8,223,320 3,552,060 516,250 309,750 111,540 Wicomico 1,923,360 882,320 171,640 79,380 60,560 Worcester 1,978,540 878,290 173,400 72,360 52,490 Total 1120,367,550 154,810,760 $8,611,220 $5,715,520 $2,618,890 ♦Average for each county. 116 EEPOET CONSEKVATION" COMMISSION TABLE III.— ACREAGE AND CROP YIELDS BY COUNTIES. Corn. Counties. Acres. Bushels. Allegany 8,029 171,530 Anne Arundel. 25,634 582,400 Baltimore 38,447 1,530,990 Calvert 11,848 275,690 Caroline 26,306 672,520 Carroll 39,880 1,660,340 Cecil 26,132 1,026,010 Charles 22,391 447,170 Dorchester . . . 28,731 654,360 Frederick 57,484 2,279,040 Garrett 5,690 169,150 Harford 24,627 1,056,980 Howard 19,885 782,680 Kent 29,376 982,350 Montgomery .. 40,030 1,489,760 Pr. George's... 28,776 676,930 Queen Anne's. . 36,973 1,130,740 St. Mary's 20,705 392,830 Somerset 23,363 441,540 Talbot 21,997 807,680 Washington . . 37,526 1,201,250 Wicomico 40,550 582,960 Worcester 43,464 714,890 Wlieat. Acres. Bushels. 6,895 73,000 6.800 63,920 36,486 536,290 3,181 33,050 24,509 331,480 58,097 808,180 31,358 559,860 10,360 115,250 21,969 313,130 92,620 1,314,280 3,037 57,540 22,935 332,590 25,941 416,570 42,373 817,120 48,436 776,280 10,550 104,110 55,278 972,640 15,008 175,580 6,604 95,860 42,853 846,340 59,955 829,700 3,282 41,110 5,735 71,420 Oats. Acres. Bushels. 3,062 64,250 699 11,010 5,785 142,950 448 5,330 208 3,000 3,251 94,740 5,302 157,120 315 4,040 271 4,590 2,946 76,310 10,336 290,160 4,456 122,380 578 11,650 325 4,770 508 12,040 1,044 18,760 258 4,580 77 1,120 699 10,910 90 1,990 1,132 26,040 212 3,030 2,557 37,960 Rye. Bushels. 11,680 1,700 55,530 2,020 1,970 86,910 440 2,770 1,290 30,970 15,540 1,510 10,480 80 28,150 8,800 830 820 440 190 9,440 1,140 560 Hay. Acres. 8,222 3,262 47.940 243 8,181 41,753 23,457 2,068 4,450 20,386 26,405 26,201 16,417 7,364 32,559 5,800 4,100 1,924 4,813 6,301 29,551 2,996 4,515 Tons. 8,844 3,468 50.803 328 7,472 46,055 22,611 2,246 5,347 54,446 29,832 26,420 16,324 5,269 34,095 7,158 4,069 2,430 6,777 6,332 35,215 3,400 5,373 Total 658,010 19,766,510 634,446 9,671,800 44,625 1,109,560 279,550 357,224 386,768 TABLE IV.— DAIRY INTERESTS. Milk Butter Counties. Dairy Other Stocfc Gallons Pounds Produce Cows. Cows. Steers. Value. Produced. Produced.* Value.* Allegany 2,763 400 466 $ 338,974 1,013,108 183,300 ? 113,577 Anne Arundel.. 2,738 162 198 598,679 973,188 152,593 118,781 Baltimore 18,045 781 385 2,259,295 10,370,504 1,075,274 1,103,039 Calvert 1,713 84 218 306,412 480,375 35,775 50,042 Caroline 3,572 176 77 579,514 1,351,051 260,683 88,883 Carroll 14,186 265 403 1,210,730 7,690,576 1,258,700 527,957 Cecil 9,056 356 354 984,644 3,641,790 484,790 241,230 Charles 3,474 223 718 578,543 812,086 133,555 70,487 Dorchester 3,992 615 336 628,417 1,159,085 158,372 79,744 Frederick 17,473 570 1,937 2,160,795 8,745,300 1,493,740 525,672 Garrett 5,994 1,097 1,881 822,072 2,176,704 420,883 172,702 Harford 10,291 339 2,030 1,460,396 5,268,218 566,243 426,690 Howard 4,495 121 658 676,286 2,276,540 459,873 171,077 Kent 6,139 474 75 774,715 1,800,378 136,027 105,019 Montgomery . . 8,738 449 1,926 1,486,558 4,214,832 320,835 450,230 Prince George's. 3,982 312 220 712,118 1,674,568 215,393 188,488 Queen Anne's.. 6,837 334 96 1,049,553 1,549,988 173,545 89,568 St. Mary's 2,613 173 488 450,554 622,063 107,538 54,503 Somerset 1,730 211 115 381,843 580,653 111,714 51,051 Talbot 4,470 321 104 759,581 1,333,438 172,370 86,346 Washington ... 8,032 342 901 1,221,620 3,733,544 793,073 231,131 Wicomico 2,429 143 137 469,069 963,856 187,881 79,273 Worcester 3,375 1,450 344 589,658 1,003,070 182,315 94,846 Total 147,284 9,490 14,068 $20,855,877 64,040,517 9,096,662 $5,228,698 •Amount marketed, 5,828,684 pounds. AGEICTJLTUEAL EESOUECES 117 TRUCK ACREAGE. Acres. Baltimore District: Anne Arundel County 15,946 Baltimore County 11,843 Carroll County 2,060 Harford County 16,750 Howard County , 670 47,169 Eastern Shore District: Caroline County 5,721 Cecil County 1,607 Borchester County 5,328 Kent County 2,495 Queen Anne's County 1,530 Somerset County 1,30.'? Talbot County 1,887 Wicomico County 3,718 Worcester County 591 24,180 Scattered: Frederick County 3,056 Garrett County 6 Montgomery County 201 Prince George's County 3,507 St. Mary's County 350 Washington County 332 TOBACCO CROP. 7,452 Pounds. Acres. Allegany County 140 Anne Arundel County 3,350,250 6,067 Baltimore County 3,160 6 Calvert County 4,768,180 10,137 Carroll County 65,300 83 Charles County 5,584,560 9,002 Dorchester County 3,000 3 Frederick County 125,330 161 Harford County 73,690 70 Howard County 89,680 115 Montgomery County 431,960 553 Prince George's County 5,542,080 10,466 St. Mary's County 4,551,350 6,244 Wicomico County 200 1 Worcester County 600 3 Totals 24,589,480 42,911 FOEEST KESOUKOES The forest resources of the State are being thoroughly investigated by the State Board of Eorestry, which has under way a detailed survey of the forest growth of each county, the purpose being to point out to the people of the State the extent of this valuable asset, and how to improve it. Through the State Forester, the farmers and other woodland owners in the State are shown how they can most advantageously utilize this important resource. Eurthermore, the broader problems affecting the well-being of all our people are pre- sented in the various publications issued by this bureau. It is the opinion of this Commission that the work of the Forestry Board, so admirably inaugurated, should be continued and expanded in the future, and that the forest lands around the headwaters of our streams, elsewhere referred to, should be purchased and entrusted to its care as State Forest Eeserves. Our forests, so long regarded as a field of unrestricted exploita- tion, are now coming to be recognized in their true light as a great natural resource, to be used and conserved for the benefit of the whole people. Of late years there has been a decided change in the attitude of the public on this question. Unlike other resources, the forest is capable of indefinite use, and the using, if done wisely, tends to increase its productiveness rather than diminish it. The main use of the forest is as a source of timber supply. Wood is indispensable and its use so varied, that it is a product that enters into nearly every phase of our economic life. But the forests have still other less direct uses, and relations to other resources which are vital and important. For example, without the forests on the water- sheds to conserve and control the flow of streams, they often become raging torrents carrying destruction in their course. Where the forest has been removed, the navigation of streams is often seriously interrupted by low-water stages during periods of drought, and the accumulation of silt in the channels, deposited by flood water, has in many cases entirely stopped navigation or else made it perilous. It 119 120 EEPOET CONSERVATION COMMISSION follows that the use of rivers and streams for power purposes is economically impossible without the preservation of forests on their watersheds. The vast stores of wealth in our coal mines, themselves the product of forests of past ages, need an abundant and cheap supply of timber for their development. The soil, itself, the source of nearly all our food supply, requires the protecting influence of the forest to make it fully productive. And so in many ways the forest stands as the protector and preserver of our prosperity. Fig. 11. — Map of Maryland showing the Ploristic Zones and Ecological Districts. The forests of Maryland are rich in their variety of tree species, especially those of commercial value. The variations in soil con- ditions, the range of altitude and differences in climate give to our forests, characteristics of the north as well as of the south. Almost all of the woods native to the eastern United States are found within the State. In the mountains we find the spruce, hemlock, white pine, yellow birch and beech — all valuable constituents of the northern forests. Through the central section are the valuable white oak, red oak, poplar, walnut, hickory, etc., which give to the Middle Atlantic CoxsEBVATioN Commission of Maryland Plate VI Fig. I. — THIN FOREST cover on cut over slopes, POTOMAC RIVER VALLEY, ALLEGAKY' COUNTY. SO^^^JI Fig. II. — STAND OF ViTHITE OAK AND HEMLOCK, NEAR BEVANSVILLE, GARRETT COUNTY. VIEWS ILLUSTRATING FOREST RESOURCES. rOEEST EESOUECES 121 States the timber of the best quality. On the Eastern Shore Penin- sula are to be found the loblolly pine and the cypress, both valuable constituents of the southern forests. The natural conditions in Max'yland are excellent for producing timber of the best quality, and our forest area, if rightly managed, is sufficient io supply more timber than we use, and this is the end to be attained. But our forests are far from producing the maximum yield because they have been badly misused. Everywhere the same waste, neglect, and indifference are apparent. Little attention has been given to the future. For 250 years we have practiced forest destruction until there is little more to destroy, and now we must practice conservative forestry for self-preservation. The original forests covered 90 per cent, of the State and came to us as the accumulated wealth of centuries of growth. The wooded area has been steadily reduced until it now represents but 35 per cent, of the total land area. Practically all of the forest land is owned by private individuals. The State owns but 2,000 acres in forest reserves, and there are no national forests within our bound- aries. It is apparent, therefore, that any forest policy for the State, to be practical, must enlist the woodland owners by not only showing them what present conditions and future prospects are, but also by pointing out practical ways of forest improvement that shall be financially profitable. The State Forester, has for the past three years, been engaged in a forest survey of the State and a study of the forest conditions as a basis for this work. The table given below is from his report and shows in a concise way the present timber wealth, by counties: 122 EEPOKT CONSEKVATIOls' COMMISSION WOODED AREA, AMOUNT AND VA1,UE OF STANDING TIMBER IN MARYLAND. (Includes all species of trees 10 inches and over in diameter measured at breast height, 4% feet from the ground.) County. Wooded Area. g^ Total Stand. (10" and over in diameter.) Hardwoods. Pines. pa Per (3) (3) (3) Acres. Cent. M. bd. ft. M. hi. ft. M. bd. (t. Allegany Anne Arundel. . . Baltimore Calvert Caroline Carroll Cecil Charles Dorchester Frederick Garrett Harford Howard Kent Montgomery . . . . Prince George's. Queen Anne's. . . St. Mary's Somerset Talbot Washington . . . . Wicomico Worcester 163,650 51 134,948 24,164 159,112 $409,862 105,348 38 89,124 5,689 94,813 239,877 118,729 29 213,512 200 213,712 641,136 62,390 45 70,638 7,717 78,355 164,427 72,462 33 48,308 24,154 72,462 217,381 32,422 11 61,464 100 61,564 184,692 73,931 31 62,304 420 62,724 157,020 147,840 50 121,968 40,656 162,624 426,888 149,635 41 74,683 149,364 224,047 672,139 50,928 12 61,020 94 61,114 183,342 273,357 64 365,698 *45,234 410,932 1,095,181 81,872 29 147,204 148 147,352 442,056 57,453 36 80,300 134 80,434 240,302 33,755 17 50,129 149 50,278 174,276 62,255 19 56,030 4,980 61,010 155,015 127,200 41 107,838 8,720 116,558 313,744 59,279 25 65,558 11,019 76,577 273,529 119,080 50 83,831 61,823 145/654 353,131 51,024 24 25,512 95,670 121,182 408,192 37,338 22 22,402 67,209 89,611 291,238 73,168 20 73,000 168 73,168 146,504 111,513 47 26,606 97,639 124,245 416,082 134,627 43 35 94,796 93,099 187,895 561,988 2,199,256 2,136,873 738,550 2,875,423 $8,168,002 3 Doyle log measure used. * Includes hemlock. An examination of the table shows that 74 per cent, of the stand of timber in the State is hardwood, of which the oaks constitute much the larger per cent., followed by chestnut, gums, poplars and hickory. The stand of pine, which represents 26 per cent, of the total stand, includes a small amount of hemlock in Garrett County. The loblolly pine, found on the Eastern Shore and in Southern Maryland counties, contributes more saw timber than any other pine. Spruce pine is abundant in Southern and Central Maryland, and is FOEEST EESOUECES 123 largely used for pulp-wood and cord-wood, but is less important than loblolly pine as a timber tree because it seldom attains a diameter of 10 inches. ■The third pine in importance is the pitch pine. This is found sparingly within the range of scrub pine, but its distribu- tion is extended to the western part of the State, where it attains timber size on large areas. The white pine, at one time forming large forests in Western Maryland, is now only found scattered through the forests of the mountains in decreasing proportion. The practical extermination of the white pine has been due to the strong demand for white pine lumber and ithe severe fires that have invari- ably followed lumbering operations. STAND AND VALUE OF TIMBER BY SECTIONS. Section. ■d S,^ OS Wooded gt« Areas. ■So Oh ^-^ Stand : 10" and over in diameter. Hardwoods. Pines. Total. Oi B 3 Acres. Per Cent. M. bd. ft. M. bd.ft. M. bd. ft. Western 437,007 20 500,646 69,398 570,044 $1,505,043 Central 550,738 25 754,834 6,244 761,078 2,150,067 Southern 561,858 26 473,399 124,605 598,004 1,498,067 Eastern Shore 649,653 29 407,994 538,303 946,297 3,014,825 Totals 2,199,256 100 2,136,873 738,550 2,875,423 $8,168,002 The forest rightly used is a renewable resource that should serve the next generation as well, if not better, than the present one. Un- like the exhaustive annual crop, such as com or wheat, the forest maintains the fertility of the soil and improves growth conditions. Nature has provided it with means for perpetuation so that without man's interference it would continue from generation to generation, and century to century, undiminished in vigor and usefulness. In it.^ primeval condition, however, growth is offset by decay, and there is no contribution of material for constructive purposes. ISTature's ways are often extravagant as shown in the forests. The taking of the accumulated growth when it reaches maturity and before it falls by decay, simply prevents a needless waste and does not reduce the 124 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION forest capital. Man, however, unrestricted in the use of this great resource, has not been content to take only the annual increment, but has cut into the forest capital to such an extent as toreduce it below the point of sustaining the timber supply for a needy people, and that too, in the face of increased demands. The result is that a serious timber shortage is fast approaching, and apparently, cannot bo averted many years longer. The reduction of the forest area to 35 per cent, as at present is not alarming since, under conservative methods of management, the present area would be capable of sup- plying our needs. The alarming situation with us is the continued reckless waste of our forest resources. Not only are we extremely wasteful with forest material, but we are so careless of the future, that our woodlands are, by our very carelessness, rendered either entirely unproductive, or capable of producing but a fractional part of a normal timber growth. Land had to be cleared for the growing of food crops, and the forest consequently has been cut away to make room for this legiti- mate use. In all probability the forest area will be still further re- duced, until all agricultural soils, that will pay higher revenue in growing food crops than in forest, will be under cultivation. The forest area can be reduced to 25 per cent, if properly distributed, and fully productive, without disturbing the right balance between agriculture and forestry, and interfering with the highest develop- ment of the country. This may be regarded as inevitable, and it is the duty of the present to provide, as far as possible for this natural development. The question, then, is not that of increasing the pres- ent forest area, or holding it against further decrease, but rather making our woodlands more productive. Many years of past abuse have completely changed the character of the woodlands and reduced the yield to less than one-third of what they are capable of producing under proper management. This has been brought about in two ways, by wasteful -methods of lumbering, and through destructive forest fires. Wasteful methods of lumhering. — The native tree species found in the State are those of the highest commercial value. Every section has the species which are best adapted to the local conditions. In FOEEST EESOUECES 125 the original growth, where natural conditions were not interfered with, the preponderance of the valuable species was greatly marked. A hundred and fifty years of use has greatly changed the forest relationships. The change has been brought about by a process of repeated culling and the effect of forest fires. The best trees of the best species were first removed because such material was the only kind that had a commercial value. As good timber became less plentiful and demands increased, further culling was practiced and this policy has been pursued without interruption. The result could iiot be otherwise than a depleted, impoverished forest. The larger representation of desirable species has given way to a preponderance of the less valuable kinds. The ground is too often encumbered with crooked, scrubby, defective trees, and those of inferior species left remaining through repeated cuUings because such material had no market value. Each time the forest was cut over in this way the proportion of worthless material increased, and that of the better grade decreased, until there is little room for a valuable growth to develop. Another feature of the misuse of the forest, has been the waste of material. At least one-half of the usuable portions of the trees cut have been either left in the woods to rot, or have been wasted in extravagant sawing methods at the mill. Not only does the large per cent, of timber left in the tops of the trees, represent extravagance in logging, but the presence of this waste in the forest, encourages forest fires and makes them many times more destructive than would be the case with more economical and cleaner methods of management. The combined effects of reckless cutting and de- structive fires, is strikingly shown in the case of the white pine forests in Garrett County. Forty years ago, along the southern end of Meadow Mountain, there stood a magnificient white pine forest, the equal of any found south of ISTew England. The pine was cut according to the wasteful methods in practice at that time, leaving the ground covered with a large amount of waste. Eires followed, as has been almost invariably the case in mountain logging, with the result that every living tree, small or large, was killed. The humus was destroyed, and the soil burnt to the bare rocks. ■ The pine was completely exterminated, and in the forty years since the fires, noth- 126 REPORT CONSERVATION COMMISSION ing has appeared but huckleberry bushes and briars where once stood the best of timber. The same thing has happened, though in a less degree, in all of the white pine forests in the mountain sec- tions until that species once forming extensive forests over a con- siderable part of the mountain section, is found now only as scat- tered individuals distributed through the hardwood forest. Forest fires. — 'Next to the destructive lumbering methods, forest fires are the greatest enemy of the forest. For the past twenty years it is estimated that the annual loss from forest fires in Maryland exceeds a hundred thousand dollars, and when it is known that nine- tenths of the fires are preventable with reasonable precaution, it makes the loss more appalling. The prevalence of forest fires has retarded the adoption of conservative methods of forest management. Investment in forest property in some sections of the State is not considered safe because of the fire menace. There is naturally not the inducement to care for the young growth, so essential in any system of proper forest management, where there is the probability of the young forest, even if it becomes re-established, being swept away by a fire started through some one's carelessness. The solution of the fire problem can only be brought about through the enforce- ment of stringent fire laws, backed by an educated and aroused public sentiment which realizes the value the forest represents in timber production, and the protection it affords to our water resources. Since the creation of the Board of Forestry in 1906 a forest warden system has been organized to help suppress forest fires. There has been no State ajjpropriation for this work, the expense of which falls upon the counties. There are now sixty forest wardens in the State whose special duty is to look out for forest fires, and to take prompt measures to extinguish any that may occur. For their services they receive a small compensation for the time actually employed. The value of this service to the State has been repeatedly demonstrated in suppressing fires before they had a chance to do a great amount of damage, ilueh valuable information about tha nvimber and extent of forest fires is secured by the wardens and FOEEST EESOUECES 127 reported to the State rorester, who is ex-officio the Chief Fire Warden. For the year 1909 seventy-six forest fires were reported. The acreage burned over was 21,134, and the amount of damage was estimated to be $71,032. The past year has not been quite an average one as regards conditions promoting forest fires, nor do the above figures show the full extent of the damage. In many sections of the State there are no forest wardens, so that the data is incom- plete. Making estimates for counties for which there are no reports, it is probable that the total damage for 1909 was about $75,000. The reduction in the amount of the annual fire damage from $100,000 to $75,000 indicates the value of the forest warden service. Twenty-four of the fires reported, were from unknown causes. Of those from known causes 25 or 48 per cent, were started by rail- road locomotives [including logging railroad locomotives], 12 or 23 per cent, were caused by hunters, 12 or 23 per cent, from brush burning, and the remainder by campers, saw-mills, and one was incendiary. For the service of the wardens and for the paid help who assisted them in extinguishing the fires reported for 1909, the total cost to the counties, was $325. It is safe to say that the expend- iture of this money was one of the best invesments ever made by the people. The Farmer s Woodloi. — At least 75 per cent, of the forests of the State are owned by farmers in woodlots varying from five to one hundred acres. These lots are confined to the less arable portions of the farm, but constitute a very important asset. It is from the woodlot that the farmer obtains his fuel supply, fencing material, and timber for general construction purposes. The surplus is sold to timber buyers, forming the local supply. It is evident that the improvement of our forest conditions must come about through a changed attitude among private owners towards this question. If these owners, who hold so much of the woodland, can be induced to look upon their woodlot not only as a source of present revenue but as an investment for the future, the main problem will be solved. Timber has advanced in price to the point where it pays to take care of the section growth, and the certainty of further increase in value 128 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION is assured. The difficulty is that the growing of timber is a slow process and does not strongly appeal to the average landowner who cannot expect to reap the direct benefit of his endeavor during his own lifetime. If the landovroer cannot be persuaded to adopt reasonable methods of forest management, to insure the continued production of his woodlands in his own interest, it will become the duty of the State or nation to interfere and place such restrictions upon the cutting of timber as will insure the future timber supply. It is to be hoped that such drastic measures will be unnecessary, but there are numerous precedents in the older European countries for such action. As timber prices advance to the point where they will represent the cost of growing lumber, forestry will be universally practiced, because not to do so would involve financial loss. The question for the present is how to induce the landowner to adopt rational methods of management under present conditions. The offer made by the State Board of Forestry to examine and give expert advice in the handling of woodlands is helping to introduce practical forestry in the State. Many examinations are made by the State Forester every year and plans of management submitted. This feature of State co-operation can be greatly extended by establishing in every county one or more demonstration woodlot forests of from 10 to 100 acres each to be managed by the State Forester. These should be located at convenient points where they will serve as object lessons of practical forestry applied to local conditions and adapted to local needs. These forests would represent an investment to the State, and not an expense, as they would eventually be more than self-supporting, Use of the Forest The present uses of the forest are numerous and important. A large number of industries are directly dependent upon it for their existence, and many others depend upon forest products as their chief source of supply. No data are at hand to show how much capital is invested in these industries but it is known to be enormous. The lumber business in the United States ranks fourth among the Conservation Commission of Maryland Plate VII Fig. I. — destruction of forest by fire, near catonsville, Baltimore county. ^\ 1' ":■- 1- 1 ,,■ ^■„ St.; ! / - .-- Fig. II. — the condition of a white pine stand after careless lumbering and forest fires, near THAYERVILLE, GARRETT COUNTY. VIEWS ILLUSTRATING FOREST RESOURCES. irOEEST RBSOUECES 12i) great industries and its importance in this State gives it a prominent place. Its prestige, however, is seriously threatened and cannot Li; maintained without a change in the present forest policy. Investigations are now in progress which will soon enable us to know definitely what the forest produces annually. From present information based on partial data for 1907 and 1908 the average annual forest production is as follows:* Value at Point Product. Amount. of Production. Lumber 224,246,000 board feet $3,475,800 Lath 17,108,000 pieces 38,500 Shingles 14,820,000 pieces 63,850 Piling 100,000 pieces 350,000 Mine props 3,472,000 cubic feet 347,200 Cordwood 100,000 cords 300,000 Poles 89,000 pieces 178,000 Railroad ties 224,500 pieces 112,250 Pulpwood 18,000 cords 80,000 Total $4,945,600 The value of the forest products of the State amounts to about $5,000,000 annually. The lumber cut of 168,534,000 feet, board measure, for 1908 as reported by the United States Census and Forest Service is probably an underestimate as indicated by investi- gations covering about three-fourths of the State but the figures are adequate for purposes of comparison with preceding years. From this same source of information the cut for 1907 was 213,786,000 feet, board measure, and that for 1906 was 219,098,000 feet, board measure. This steady decrease in the cut in spite of an increased demand for lumber can only be explained by the waning of our timber supplies. The great falling off for the cut of 1908 is partly due to the general business depression, but does not account for the whole difference. The fact cannot be denied that we have used *The difference between lumber and timber values at the point of produc- tion, as given above, must not be confused with stumpage values In the item of lumber, for example, the value at point of production averages $15.50 per thousand feet, while its stumpage value as represented in the standing tree, is on the average about $2.85 per thousand. The difference, or $12.65 per thousand, represents the labor cost of cutting and logging, the milling costs and a fair profit on- the investment. The lumber and timber industry in the State gives employment to over 10,000 men. 130 EEPOET CONSEKVATIOI^ COMMISSION nearly all of the original supply and that the present forest growth is not sufficient to meet our needs. The average yearly growth on the woodland of the State is probably not over 75 board feet per acre, giving an annual growth of 164,942,700 board feet on the 2,199,235 acres of woodland. The cut of lumber alone in 1908 took more than the growth for that year. When to these other de- mands upon the forest already enumerated is added the destruction by fire, it is probable that we are using our forests over three times as fast as they are growing. In other words, we are using up our forest capital rapidly, and the falling off in the lumber cut, especi- ally when there is a greater demand for lumber than ever before, indicates that we have gone to the limit and that we must now get along with a diminished supply. The length of the period of timber shortage into which we have apparently entered will be determined bj- the attitude of landowners toward this forest question. Not only is the perpetuation of the lumber business at stake, but numerous in- dustries depending on the forest will be seriously crippled, if not destroyed, unless the production of our forests can be maintained. Other States are in the same predicament and cannot be depended upon to help us out with cheap timber for any length of time, making it incumbent upon us to provide for our own needs. Wasteful and destructive methods of logging, and handling the forest generally, are largely due to ignorance of conditions. The seller of timber stumpage does not properly safeguard his interests in requiring the buyer to protect the young gro^rth, and the buyer does not make full utilization of the trees cut, either in his haste to put the timber on the market, or because of lack of knowledge of market possibilities, the study of which will enable him to find a profitable sale for large quantities of material now left in the woods to rot. As it is, half of the tree is wasted in the woods or at the mill. Under intelligent methods of handling, and a knowledge of economi- cal uses, this waste could be largely eliminated and our timber supplies made to go nearly twice as far as they now go. When our own timber supplies fail we cannot draw upon other States for they are much in the same condition as ourselves. IfOEEST EESOUKCES 13 i The exhaustion of ready supplies of timber for the various uses has forced us to practice economies and to cast about for substitutes. As a result trees that a few years ago had practically no value are now taking a prominent place through the discovery of valuable properties. Going still further we are taking woods of low dura- bility, and by treating them with preservatives at small cost, make them more durable than the rarer expensive woods. This is all in the nature of adjusting ourselves to the rapidly changing condition of plenty to that of actual want. Still greater economies must be practiced. We use six times as much wood per capita as G-ermany, nine times as much as Trance, and sixteen times as much as Great Britain. Yet we are repeating the follies that these countries prac- ticed toward their forests before forest preservation became a public necessity, and like them we are destined to suffer similar calamities, unless we can be taught to profit by their experiences. Insect and fungus diseases of forest trees in Maryland have assumed a threatening attitude, and with destructive lumbering methods, forest fires, and waste in the use of forest material, they are to be classed as one of the destructive influences destroying the forest. The Yellow Locust, our best fence post tree, is being attacked by the locust borer to such an extent as to make the growing of locust unprofitable in some sections of the State, and the disease is spread- ing. The Chestnut, a rapid growing tree of exceptional value for poles and posts, has been subjected to a fungus bark disease for many years in southern and central Maryland. UTow a new fungus disease of a virulent character has entered the State and is doing great damage. Judging from the experience in New York where this disease apparently emanated, and in New Jersey and Pennsylvania where it has spread, the extermination of the Chestnut is threatened. E.ELATIOIT OF I'OEESTS TO StEEAM FlOW The relation which the forest bears to stream flow is an exceed- ingly important one. "No forests, no rivers" is the French proverb. The forest cover is recognized as the best natural reservoir known. Streams having their source in the forest present an evenness of flow 132 EEPOET CONSERVATION COMMISSION that is never found in streams not having this protection. The ef- fect on steep slopes is more marked than that on gentle slopes. The beneficial effect of the forest cover is shown in several ways. In the first place, under the forest is found a layer of humus or litter which furnishes an ideal absorbing surface for the rainfall. It has been proven by experiment that humus is capable of holding the equiva- lent of from one to four times its own weight. Second, the presence of this organic matter as a soil cover, acting as a mulch, improves the condition of the underlying soil in making it more capable of absorbing large quantities of water. Third, the roots of the trees themselves penetrating the depths of the soil, not only furnish in- numerable channels for the entrance of water, but also hold the soil intact, almost effectually preventing erosion even on the steepest slopes. There are in Maryland, in whole or in part, the watersheds of four rivers which are distinctively state streams, and three others which traverse it for a part of their course. The first four rivers, namely the Potomac, Patapsco, Patuxent and Gunpowder are all used for power purposes and in the case of the Potomac and Gun- powder, their importance is greatly emphasized in that they con- tribute to the domestic water supply of important cities and towns. The combined drainage area supplying these four rivers above tidewater is 3,204 square miles, of which 981 square miles or 28 per cent, is wooded. The beneficial influence of a forest cover is clearly shown by comparing two branches of the Potomac Eiver. The North branch above Cumberland, coming as it does from the forest clad mountain watershed, is quite clear and not subject to extreme fluctuations. The flow of the South Fork, in eminating from watersheds that have a small percentage of forest, is turbid and subject to flood conditions following heavy rainfall. The Potomac River drainage area in Maryland, above the City of Washington, covers 2,Y10 square miles, of which 824 square miles, or practically 30 per cent., is wooded. A large part of this watershed above Cum- berland is absolute forest land and never can be profltably devoted to cultural crops. It will always be in forest ; yet without fire pro- tection, growth is slow and unsatisfactory, so that it is not returning rOEEST EESOIJECES a satisfactory revenue to the present owners. Its value for water- shed protection purposes, makes it very desirable that the State should acquire a large part of it, to be maintained as forest reserve land. Under state protection and careful management, it will, in time, become a source of considerable revenue in timber production and also afford necessary protection to the headwaters of important streams. Repeated fires in the mountain forests have not only pre- vented the growth of valuable timber but they have destroyed the humus and leaf litter and greatly reduced the capacity of the forest for conserving the water. The watersheds of the Patapsco, Patuxent, and Gunpowder Elvers lio in a hilly county which is largely agricultural, and therefore, ex- tensive forests for watershed protection are not possible. There is a tendency to clear away the forest cover on the steep hillside, and along the steep banks of streams, in extending the agri- cultural lands. Such lands filled with organic matter collected by the forest, produce good crops for the first few years, and the humus, in the soil, makes it absorb surface moisture readily, and prevents erosion. When, however, this organic matter is exhausted after a few years of cultivation, erosion commences and the thin surface soil is rapidly washed away, leaving sterile, gullied hillsides to slowly go back in forest. The soil which has been washed into the streams, and which represents the cream of the land, renders the water turbid and unsuited for domestic use. The silt is deposited in reservoirs behind dams built for power purposes thus greatly re- ducing their capacity and usefulness, and works into the navigable channels of rivers impeding, if not altogether preventing navigation. The Patapsco Kiver is a case in point. Years ago this river was navigable as far as Elk Eidge Landing. But then the river's source was well protected by a forest cover. Silting began simtiltaneously with the clearing away of the forests, and has followed at about the same ratio as the forest area has been reduced. Now it is with dif- ficulty that the navigable channel can be kept open as far as Balti- more. The drainage of the Patapsco Eiver embraces 282 square miles, of which 62 square miles or 22 per cent, is wooded. Its waters are used extensively for generating power and are also used 134 EEPOET CONSEEVATIOIT COMMISSION for domestic purposes. The same is true of the Patuxent now navi- gable only as far as Bristol but formerly open for navigation several miles further up. The Gunpowder Kiver, though not a navigable stream, is one of the most important in the State because of its re- lation to the water supply of Baltimore City. It has a drainage area of 153 square miles of which 15 per cent, is wooded. The waters from all of the important State streams are used for domestic purposes to an increasing extent. The v/ater supplies of Baltimore, Washington, Cumberland and a number of smaller toAvns are drawn from this source. Anything which effects the purity of the water must, in the very nature of the case, be of vital importance to over a million people using that water. The preservation of the forests at the headwaters of these rivers is therefore a matter of public concern. It is the duty of the State and of the cities and towns involved, to provide every reasonable safeguard in protecting the purity of the domestic water supply because there is no othor one thing that contributes so much to the public health. The forest is not only the best conserver of water known but it is also the best purifer, and therefore its preservation and even extension on the steep hillsides of the drainage areas is a matter that demands imme- diate public attention. The amount of soil washed into the streams from cleared hillsides east of the Alleghany Mountains and in Central Maryland, is esti- mated at about 500 pounds per acre per annum. This is the finely divided particles of the surface soil which contain the highest fer- tility and which are in the proper condition to exercise the greatest influence in retaining soil moisture. The ultimate effect, especially on steep slopes, will be the impoverishment of the soil, both as to quality and depth, to the end that much of this land will be rendered unfit for agricultural use. The steep hillsides will pay larger return? in timber growing than in agricultural crops, and so devoted will add immensely to the timber and water supply. A forest on the upper slopes of hills acts as an ideal absorbing surface which collects the water, conducts it to the lower strata and by percolation trans- mits it slowly and evenly down the slope to maintain the best mois- ture conditions for cultivated crops on the lower slopes of the hills and in the valleys. foeest kesoueces 135 Conclusions ISTo State in the Union is better situated for forestry development than Maryland. Not only are there native tree species of the highest value, but given a fair chance, and reasonable protection from fires, good forests are assured. The soil and climate are admir- ably adapted for a rapid wood growth. Market conditions are excel- lent. Whenever there is a local timber supply, an industry is established to use it. Transportation both by rail and by water is excellent, bringing the products of the forest within easy reach of the best markets. There are large areas of non-agricultural lands on mountain, la swamp, and on steep, rocky hillsides, better adapted for the growing of timber than for any other crop, and which if carefully managed, will bring good returns. Much of the land in the mountains should be perpetually preserved in forest by the State. It is needed to insure a permanent timber supply, to protect the headwaters of State streams, to provide breeding places for game, and to furnish pleasure grounds for the people. Demonstration woodlot forests should be established by the State in every county, to show landowners, by object lessons what prac- tical forestry can do for them. It is believed that this plan would be effective in promoting the general adoption of proper forestry methods. The preservation of the forests by wise use is necessary for the well being and continued prosperity of our great industries. The lumber business and wood using industries are directly dependent upon the forest; the mining of coal requires immense qiiantities of mine props and timber, the railroads of the State require hundreds of thousands of cross-ties annually ; the telephone and telegraph lines must have poles in large quantities. So at nearly every turn our dependence upon the forest is exemplified, and because it is so uni- versal, its real significance is often overlooked. There is ahead of us, and not far distant, the certainty of a period of timber shortage. It will effect every one because of our depend- ence upon the forest for the necessities of life. Our forests are being 136 REPORT CONSERVATION COMMISSION SO mismanaged that not only is the present production at a low ebb, but their producing power has been so reduced by misuse, and lack of fire protection, that it will take years of persistent effort to bring it back to normal productiveness. Forest fires have annually damaged the forests to the extent of $100,000. incurring additional loss to their producing power, and impairing their capacity to protect water flow. Nine-tenths of this loss is preventable, and therefore unnecessary. The State has made a suitable beginning in taking an inventory of our forest resources, and has laid the foundation for a broad forest policy. It is now of the utmost importance to continue the work and to place the forests of Maryland on the best possible basis for present production and future usefulness. EECLAMATION OF SWAMPS Very little attention has hitherto been directed to the extensive swamp and marsh lands of the State which if reclaimed would add greatly to the total area available for agricultural production, it has long been recognized that such lands are highly productive since they have for generations been receiving enrichment from the adja- cent soils. The National Government through several of its depart- mental bureaus has turned its attention to a study of the many F*iQ. 12. — ^Map of Maryland showing the Swamp Lands In Black. phases of this important subject. In Maryland the State Weather Service and the State Geological Survey have already co-operated with the U. S. Geological Survey in a consideration of this problem and have made estimates of the amount of land which might be made available after the swamps have been drained. The State Weather Service through the botanical survey which it has been conducting in an endeavor to determine the relations of plant grovi^th to differ- ences of climate and soils has paid particular attention to the various types of plant growth in the swamps and marshes. It is the purpose 137 138 BEPOE.T COWSEKVATION COMMISSION of these bureaus through co-operation with the Water Resources Branch of the U. S. Geological Survey to further extend this work at the first opportunity. The expenses attending such an investiga- tion are such, however, that it will be impossible for the bureaus mentioned to furnish plans and specifications for reclamation pur- poses without a considerable increase in the appropriations now available. The State Conservation Commission if supplied by the State with adequate funds could most advantageously take up in co-operation with the national and State bureaus mentioned a thorough study of this important subject which both directly and indirectly would add so largely to the material wealth of the State. The reclamation of the swamp and marsh areas of the State, the extent of which is shown in the tabulated statement given below will unqestionably have to be taken up by the State before it can be ulti- mately consummated. The smaller areas doubtless will be ultimately improved by private enterprise, but the great tracts covering tens of thousands of acres can hardly be reclaimed except under official auspices. That this will redovm greatly to the advantage of the State both directly and indirectly is clearly apparent, as such re- claimed lands, due to their great fertility, could be sold at high prices while the taxable basis resulting therefrom would become a permanent asset of the State. AREAS OF SWAMP AND MARSH LANDS IN MARYLAND. Fresh Salt. Total. County. Sq. Miles. Acres. Sq. Miles. Acres. Sq. Miles. Acres. Baltimore 1.7 1,088 5.4 3,456 7.1 4,544 Anne Arundel 3.3 2,112 1.9 1,216 5.2 3,328 Prince George's 8.6 5,504 0.2 128 8.8 5,632 Charles 11.9 7.616 22.1 14,144 34.0 21,760 Calvert 3.2 2,048 1.2 768 4.4 2,816 St. Mary's 0.3 192 1.3 832 1.6 1,024 Harford 0.4 256 11.3 7,232 11.7 7,488 Cecil 0.2 128 6.5 4,160 6.7 4,288 Kent 0.4 256 7.9 5,056 8.3 5,312 Queen Anne's 9.7 6,208 4.5 2,880 14.2 9,08S Talbot 0.3 192 5.3 3,392 5.6 3,584 Caroline 9.7 6,208 2.6 1,664 12.3 7,872 Dorchester 78.3 50,112 123.2 78,848 201.5 128,960 Wicomico 17.1 10,944 22.1 14,144 39.2 25,088 Somerset 7.7 4,928 68.5 43,480 76.2 48,768 Worcester 33.0 21,120 35.4 22,656 68.4 43,776 Garrett 4.5 2,880 4.5 2,880 Other counties 4.0 2,460 4.5 2,560 Total 194.3 124,352 319.4 204,416 513.7 328,768 Conservation Commission of Maeyland Plate VIII Pig. I. — SWAMP on the pocomoke river, near rehobeth, somerset county. Pig. II. — SWAMP with a stand of second growth bald cypress, battle creek, CALVERT COUNTY. VIEWS OP SWAMP LANDS. EECLAMATION" OF SWAMPS 139 It will thus be seen that the State of Maryland has 328,768 acres capable of reclamation, of which 124,352 acres are fresh-water swamps and 204,426 acres salt-water marshes. The eastern and southern counties of the State bordering the Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean have 323,326 acres, of which 118,912 acres are fresh-water swamps and 204,416 acres are salt-water marshes. The central and western counties have 5,440 acres of larger swamp tracts, all of which are fresh. In addition to the larger tracts here indicated smaller swamps and marshes scattered over the farm land raises the total to fully 500,000 acres, or about one-twelfth of the total area of the State. It requires little argument to show that this vast area of unproductive land, which might become the richest in the State, should be made avail- able for agricultural purposes at the earliest opportunity. It would add from $10,000,000 to $15,000,000 to the taxable basis of the State. Many States of the Union have enacted legislation and prosecuted measures which have resulted or promised to result in extremely beneficial operation and large increases in the wealth of the State. It will be of interest to review some of these acts and to determine the benefits resulting therefrom. Federal Acts. — The Federal Government at an early date recog- nized the importance and desirability of reclaiming the swamp lands in the United States and accordingly gave to the States within which they were located such public swamp lands as were found unfit for cultivation under the then existing condition with the proviso, that the proceeds of the sales of those lands should be applied exclusively so far as necessary to their reclamation. The first law of this kind was passed in 1849 and related exclusively to Louisiana. During the following year a similar law was passed granting to all States the same privileges. The text of the Act is as follows : "Be it enacted ty the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress ossemMed, that, to enable the State of Arkansas to construct the necessary levees and drains to reclaim the swamp and overflowed lands therein, control of those swamps and overflowed lands, made unfit thereby for cultivation, which shall remain unsold at the passage of this Act, shall be and the same are hereby granted to said State. "Section 2. Be it further enacted, That it shall be the duty of the Secre- tary of the Interior as soon as may be practicable after the passage of this 140 EEPOET COI><"SEEVATION" COMMISSIOlsr Act, to make out an accurate list and plat of the lands described as afore- said and transmit the same to the Governor of the State of Arkansas, aad, at the request of said Governor cause a patent to be issued to the State therefor; and, on that patent, the fee simple to said land shall vest in the said State of Arkansas subject to the disposal of the Legislature thereof, provided, however, that the proceeds of said land whether from sales or by direct appropriation in kind shall be applied exclusively as far as necessary to the purposes of reclaiming said lands by means of the levees and drains aforesaid. "Section 3. And lie it further enacted. That in making out a list and plat of the lands aforesaid all legal subdivisions, the greater part of which is "wet and unfit for cultivation," shall be included in said list and plat; but when the greater part of a subdivision is not of that character the whole of it shall be excluded therefrom. "Section 4. And be it further enacted, That the provisions of this Act shall be extended to and their benefit be conferred upon each of the other States of the Union in which such swamp and overflowed lands, known and designated as aforesaid may be situated." Approved September 28, 1850. The foregoing Act of Congress shows that more than a half cen- tury ago the value of swamp lands was generally recognized and their beneficial disposition provided for. Inasmuch as Maryland is not one of the public land states none of the benefits of this Act were realized by Maryland but, as will hereinafter be shown, the State of Maryland has within its borders about 500,000 acres of swamp land and up to the present time the benefit of reclamation thereof has not been appreciated to the extent that it was so appreciated by the United States Congress as early as 1850. The Act above quoted gave to the states in fee simple an area of 63,438,200 acres of swamp land. We will review the acts of several states to determine what has been done by them. South Carolina. — This state, like Maryland, was one of the origi- nal thirteen and owned all the swamp lands within its borders. Con- sequently it did not receive any such land from the Federal Govern- ment. It has, however, passed certain drainage acts as follows: The first step in co-operative drainage was taken in 1900 when the State Legislatures created the Sanitary and Drainage District of Charleston County. Under this act a large portion of Charleston County is being drained with the result that the land is now being cultivated and made fit for habitation. Before such work was done this land constituted a malarial swamp. As a result of agitation on CONSEBVATION COMMISSION OP MaBYLAND Plate IX Fig. I. — SWAMP alo?;g the wicomico biveb, near Salisbury, wicomico county. Fig. II. — SWAMP along little blackwateb bivee, 5 miles south of Cambridge, doeohestee county. VIEWS OF SWAMP LANDS. RECLAMATION OF SWAMPS 141 the subject the South Carolina Legislature passed a general drainage law which provided that, upon the request of the Senator or Repre- sentatives of any county the Governor shall appoint five residents who shall be known as the Sanitary and Drainage Commission of that county. The Commission is given control of all sanitary, agri- cultural and road drainage outside of the incorporated towns and may require the owners of land to drain such lands as are unsani- tary. An estimate of the amounts needed for drainage for the en- suing year must be filed with the State Comptroller in the month of January to be submitted by him to the Legislature. The Legisla- tiire then levies the necessary tax upon the lands of the county and may also grant to the commissioners the right to issue county or township bonds for drainage work. Since this law was passed Georgetown County has organized a drainage district, had prelimi- nary surveys made in co-operation with the Department of Agri- culture of the United States and has commenced the construction. A drainage district is being formed in Darlington County, though it has not yet reached the stage of actual construction. In Charleston County the work already performed has resulted in the reclama- tion of about 55,000 acres of land. The work was done by convict labor and the cost has not exceeded $1.50 to $2.50 per acre. Not only has the waste land been cultivated, but the health conditions have improved so much that malaria has practically disappeared and it is possible for white people to live upon the land. Florida. — Florida received from the United States, under the Swamp Act of 1850, 20,185,000 acres. Much drainage work has bf^en carried on locally in the State of Florida and State legislation on the subject was not passed until 1907, when the Florida Legisla- ture created the Everglades Drainage District and empowered the trustees of the Internal Improvement Fund to levy an annual tax of five cents per acre on all land within the district. It is the intention of the State to permanently lower Lake Okeechobee and drain the Glades by a number of canals leading from the Lake. The work is now in progress and two dredges are excavating two canals leading from E'ew River. One of these canals, named "l^ew River Canal," will be 55 miles long, 100 feet wide and 10 feet deep, while the other. 142 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION known as the Caloosahatchee Canal, will be 23 miles long;, 100 feet wide, and 10 feet deep. A third canal, known as the St. Luciue Canal, 35 miles long, 100 feet wide and 10 feet deep. These figures give some idea of the magnitude of the State's projects. Mississippi. — ^Within this state there are 6,lY3,000 acres of swamp land, of which 3,341,000 were secured under the Federal Swamp Act of 1850. Under an enabling act of the Legislature, groups of counties in the swamps and overflowed parts of the state are author- ized to unite into drainage districts for the investigation of drainage measures and their prosecution. The most important that has been formed is the Tallahatchie Drainage District, which comprises 1,150,683 acres. Louisiana. — ^Within this State are 9,600,000 acres of swamp and overflowed land. The problem of protecting and draining them was early recognized and the work of leveeing was begun many years ago by State and county authorities through the formation of Levee Districts. A Board of State Engineers was created that was charged with the engineering work incident to this improvement. Much assistance was received by the construction of levees by the Federal Government for the improvement of navigation on the Mississippi River. To show the burden of levee taxation, it may be stated that the annual tax in the Fifth Levee District is ten mills ad valorem, five cents per acre specific and one dollar per bale on all cotton raised. The railroads crossing the districts are taxed one hundred dollars per mile. Two drainage districts have been organized in Louisiana. The Central Bayou Drainage District comprises 23,000 acres and the prospective cost of the improvement will be about $30,000. The Roundaway Bayou Drainage District comprises 60,000 acres. The approximate cost of drainage will be $3.75 per acre and the character of the investment will be appreciated upon reflection that the laud now absolutely worthless for agricultural purposes will, when brought under cultivation, have a value of from $40 to $150 per acre. EBCLAMATION OF SWAMPS 143 Texas. — ^It is only withm the past few years that drainage has been seriously considered in Texas and so the construction of drain- age work is only in its infancy. This is not a surprising state of affairs when one considers that until ten years ago very little atten- tion was paid to agriculture, cattle raising being the chief industry. The citizens of the State have given much attention to the organiza- tion of drainage districts. For this purpose the tax-payers of any county or any proposed district organize and present a resolution to the county commissioners, praying for a public hearing to consider the practicability and utility of the project. Following this twenty- five freehold resident tax-payers within the proposed district deposit with the County Clerk two hundred dollars to cover the cost of hold- ing an election, and if the project receives public approval in such election, which requires a two-thirds majority, the County Com- missioners appoint district drainage commissioners, bonds are issued and the work is prosecuted. It has been estimated that the drainage of the Gulf coast country of Texas will cause the enhancement of land values aggregating $700,000,000. The rental values will be in- creased $100,000,000. and the annual value of the crops will be increased $420,000,000. Arkansas. — The area of wet lands in Arkansas is 5,760,000 acres and a number of drainage laws have been enacted by the Arkansas Legislature authorizing the formation of drainage districts and the issuance of drainage bonds secured by the real estate comprising the district. One of the important districts in the State is that of the St. Francis Basin, comprising 140,000 acres. The work consists of building a levee along the west bank of St. Francis Kiver, construc- tion of drainage ditches to carry off the interior drainage water. It is estimated that the complete work will cost about $260,000, and the maximum assessment under the law will be $4 per acre. Illinois. — Illinois is the pioneer State in the construction of extensive drainage systems. It has an area of wet lands equal to about 3,000,000 acres. The landowners in the State have themselves reclaimed more than 100,000 acres and the State Legislature has made a special appropriation for the study of the subject. In addi- 144 EEPOET CONSEEVATIOX COMMISSION tion to this, the State appropriated $10,000 for a survey of Cache Eiver bottoms for the purpose of making adequate plans for their reclamation. The bottoms consist of 91,000 acres which could be reclaimed at an average cost of $4 per acre. The State is in active co-operation with the United States Geological Survey and the Bureau of Experiment Stations. The wet lands are being mapped and the flow of water therein is being studied. Drainage surveys are being prosecuted and the general engineering problems are receiving minute attention. The increase in the value of land drained in Illinois has been many times greater than the cost of drainage covering the entire State. As a State project, therefore, the investment has already paid for itself although the extent of lands actually drained is small com- pared to that susceptible of drainage throughout the State. Minnesota. — Up to 1909 more than $3,000,000. has been spent in drainage work in Minnesota, of which amount the State expended $542,000. The State has created a State Drainage Commission and the work is carried on with contiiiually greater activity. So great was the increase in drainage work during 1907 and 1908 that the State Drainage Engineer estimated that more land was drained during those two years than in all the years previous. Among the other States in which drainage takes an all-important part are Missouri, Indiana, Iowa, iMichigan, Wisconsin, and Cali- fornia, and in every case it has been shown that swamp and over- flowed lands constitute a large measure of the resources and that their reclamation is probably more profitable, considering the ex- penditure incurred, than any other work that those States have taken up. It should not be forgotten that, as a rule, swamp lands consti- tute the best agricultural land available when properly drained and, inasmuch as it can be reclaimed for a small price, the resulting values are so great that the utility of the work as a State enterprise cannot be questioned. WATEE EESOUECES The water resources of the State are very great, but they are only partially utilized at the present time. They may be considered under the three heads of water transportation, underground and surface waters for industrial and potable purposes, and irrigation. Water transportation.- — There is no State in the Union so marvol- ously provided by nature with water lines of transportation which by their dissection of the country make it possible to reach more than one-half of the cities and towns of the State including the great port of Baltimore which, with its deepened channel, is now accessible to the carrying trade of the world. Furthermore, the Chesapeake Bay which divides the State into two important districts is so situated as to form part of a great interstate inland line of transportation. The perfecting of these transportation lines must necessarily devoh^e on our national government, and although the concerted action of our intelligent and public-spirited citizens can do much to direct the character of these improvements, it is hardly within the province of the State to actually supervise them nor as a State to become respon- sible for the great outlays involved. The State of Maryland at an early period in its history before the day of railroads entered on a broad policy of public improvements that was chiefly concerned with the extension, by means of canals, of our water lines of transportation. The obligations then assumed have led the State in later years to approach such questions of inter- nal improvements with great caution ; in fact they are prohibited at the present time by the Constitution of the State. It is important, however, that the citizens of Maryland should use every legitimate influence to impress upon the Congress the need ot improving our lines of water communication and in taking our part with neighboring States in developing the great interstate waterway system of which the Chesapeake Bay forms so important a part. It is essential in this connection that the State should see to it that the streams entering these waterways are so protected within our borders 145 146 EEPOET CONSEEVATION" COMMISSION that they will not injure the transportation channels. Reference has already heen made to the need of reforestation of the sources of our larger streams as a means to this end. The United States Government had expended down to and includ- ing 1906 the following sums in improvement of our water lines of transportation : Total Date of Earliest Appropriation Appropriation Annapolis harbor $10,000 1880 Baltimore harbor and Patapsco river 6,602,530 1836 Battery Island piers 17,775 1886 Breton Bay harbor 49,500 1878 Cambridge harbor 116,358 1871 Chesapeake and Ohio Canal 1,000,000 1828 Chesapeake Bay headwaters 500 1836 Chester river 61,847 1873 Choptank river 70,885 1880 Claiborne harbor 16,863 1902 Corsica creek 30,000 1882 Crlsfleld harbor 75,025 1875 Deal Island passage 10,000 1881 Elk river 83,968 1874 Fairlee creek 10,000 1889 La Trappe river 9,117 1892 Manokin river 29,272 1890 Northeast river 20,640 1872 Patuxent river 14,000 1888 Pocomoke river 35,043 1878 Queenstown harbor 35,606 1871 Rookhall harbor 41,429 1896 St. Jerome's creek 26,500 1881 Susquehanna river 210,890 1852 Tred Avon river 6,000 1880 Tyaskin creek 10,158 1902 Warwick river 23,909 1880 Wicomico river 87,498 1872 Worton harbor 12,000 1872 Total $8,717,313 Additional sums have been appropriated since 1906 and work is now under way at a number of points under the direction of Govern- ment engineers. The improvement of the approaches to the port of Baltimore is of vast importance to the future prosperity of the State. WATEE EESOUECES 147 The importance of Baltimore as a port may be seen from the fol- lowing shipments and receipts obtained by the U. S. Census for the year 1906: Shipments Receipts Net Tons Net Tons Canned goods 49,005 18,640 Cement, brick and lime 11,028 21,936 Coal 2,274,731 15,026 Cotton 12,188 51,130 Flour 4,546 19 Fruits and vegetables 3,789 58,293 Grain 45,616 52,185 Ice 732 47,154 Iron ore 1,767 2,450 Lumber 10,447 503,351 Naval stores 354 22,758 Petroleum and other oils 83,921 71,154 Phosphate and fertilizer 251,641 167,285 Pig iron and steel rails 94,979 22,458 Stone, sand, etc 2,022 60,805 Tobacco 1,343 48,142 Miscellaneous merchandise 731,298 695,657 Total 3,579,407 1,858,443 Grand total tonnage 5,437,850 The total value of the foreign exports and imports reaching the harbor of Baltimore as given for the year 1906 by the U. S. Census was $140,009,699, making Baltimore the fourth of the Atlantic Coast ports in the value of its foreign trade, ISTew York, Philadelphia, and Boston alone surpassing it. Altogether a total of more than 1,500 vessels engaged in foreign trade enter and clear from Baltimore dur- ing a single year, while the aggregate foreign tonnage amounts to more than three million tons. The total number of passengers reported on enrolled steamers in the local inspection district of Baltimore during the year 1906 is given by the U. S. Steamboat Inspection Service as 3,Y02,8Y3. Surface and Underground Waters. — The greater part of the State 01 Maryland lies in the Atlantic drainage, but a small area in the western part of the State is drained by the Youghiogheny River, whose waters find their way into the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Ohio Eiver. The most important drainage areas witliin the State are as follows: (1) the Youghiogheny River drainage, which in- 148 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION eludes the greater part of Garrett County, (2) the Potomac Kiver drainage, which includes Allegany, Washington, and Frederick coun- ties, and portions of Garrett, Carroll, Montgomery, Prince George's, Charles, and St. Mary's counties, (3) the Western Chesapeake Bay drainage, which includes Harford, Baltimore, Anne Arundel, Cal- vert, and Howard counties, and portions of Cecil, Carroll, Mont- gomery, Prince George's, Charles, and St. Mary's counties, (4) Eastern Chesapeake Bay drainage, which includes Kent, Queen Anne's, Talbot, Caroline, Dorchester, Wicomico, and Somerset coun- ties, and portions of Cecil and Worcester counties, (5) the direct Atlantic Ocean drainage, a small area in Worcester County in which the streams flow directly into the Atlantic Ocean or its tributaries. On the accompanying map the outlines of the several basins are shown. Most of the streams of the State belong to one of two types, although there are some streams which exhibit the characteristics of both types in different portions of their courses. One type is found west of a northeast-southwest line, known as the "fall line," extending across the State through Elkton, Baltimore, and Washington. Here the streams have fairly steep slopes and flow over rocky beds Their courses lie through a rolling country in which hard rocks prevail. Eapids and gorges are of frequent occurrence and there are many op- portunities for water-power development. Some of these have been utilized, but there are still many available power sites that are capable of yielding a large amount of horsepower. Much study has been given to this region, the Water Resources Branch of the TJ. S. Geologi- cal Survey materially aiding the local organizations in the study of the district. Particular attention has been given to the drainage basins of the Potomac and Susquehanna rivers and their tributaries as well as to the Gunpowder, Patapsco, and Patuxent rivers Stream measurements have been made in many instances over a term of years Si> that the variations in the stream flow are fairly well known. This is important for future developments on these streams and the data secured are frequently called for by those seeking information for water-power sites and for municipal supply. Conservation Commission of Maryland Plate X pr^ Fig. I. — BRETON bay from abells wharf, ST. Mary's county. Pig. II. — swallow falls, on youghiogheny river, garrett county. VIEWS ILLUSTRATING WATER RESOURCES. WATER EESOUECES. 14-9 East of the "fall line" the streams and the topography and geology- have a different character. Here the country is less rolling and the surface formations are unconsolidated sands and clays. The streams flow sluggishly in winding courses and in the lower counties open out and become estuaries of the Chesapeake Bay. Here also the streams are navigable in their lower courses, but owing to the slight velocity they split up rapidly in places, and on many streams the head of navigation is several miles farther down stream than it was a half ' Pig. 13.— Map of Maryland showing Drainage Basins. century ago. As a result of the general flatness of the country there are no water-power sites in this section. In this area also a smaller proportion of the rainfall finds its way into the streams, as the loose porous soil, most of which is cultivated, absorbs the water very quickly. As there are no natural lakes of importance in the State there is no regularity in the stream flow such as would exist if there were storage reservoirs on the headwaters of the streams. The flow of the streams varies according to the rainfall. In areas that are highly cultivated the rainwater runs off quickly and the streams rise rapidly at times of large precipitation. In wooded areas the water is held back and 150 KEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION readies tlie streams more gradually. The highest water generally oc- curs in the spring months when the- snow and ice melts, the ice carried by the large streams, especially the Potomac and Susquehanna, fre- quently gorging and causing extensive iloods. The rocks of the State are permeated with water which is widely used, being derived both from shallow and deep-seated wells. The older rocks west of the "fall-line" are in the main highly consolidated, the water being derived largely from fissures which cross the rocks irregularly, often without reference to the planes of stratigraphy. To the east of the "fall-line," on the other hand, the geological de- posits are for the most part unconsolidated and well marked water horizons occur at varying depths from the surface to bed-rock. These water-bearing zones which occur at various horizons in the Cretaceous and Tertiary strata maintain a nearly uniform dip toward the east and soutlieast so that it is possible to determine with very great ac- curacy the depth at which supplies of water may be secured. The supply of deep-seated or artesian waters in such rocks is thus de- pendent on a knowledge of the geology of the region. An investigation of our surface and underground waters is now being conducted jointly by the State Geological Survey and the State Board of Health on behalf of the State of Maryland and the Water Resources Branch of the U. S. Greological Survey on behalf of the J^ational Government to determine the quality and quantity of the available waters. The eastern and southern counties of the State have been already' studied and it is the purpose of these organizations to take up the central and western portions of the State the coming year. This work should be continued and its scope if possible still further extended. We know but little regarding the value of our surface and underground waters for industrial and potable uses, nor do we appreciate the necessity of ascertaining such information. Few questions are more intimately interwoven with the daily life of the people than the question of water supply. Heretofore it has not been brought prominently to the attention of the citizens of Maryland because good water supplies are fairly abundant within this state and there has been little apprehension concerning the future such as •would have inevitably taken place had there been an alarming de- WATEK KESOUECES 151 ficiency at any season. But the fact is no guarantee that the future will not bring forth its water-supply menaces. On the contrary it may be accepted with certainty that as the population of the State increases and as its industries multiply and become more important, the question of water supply will appear to our people in a very dif- ferent light from that which it does at present. There is nothing more certain than the fact that the future development of the State is absolutely limited by its water-supply resources. The rapid concentration of population in the cities is making it more and more difficult each year to provide for their use sufficient domestic water supply. The problem now is difficult but it is trivial in comparison with that which will present itself in the future. The great cities of the country are going farther and farther afield for their water supplies and, in consequence, are paying more and more for the rights and properties involved, The situation requires study and necessitates wise and foresighted preparation. The sooner the State adopts the policy of acquiring and setting apart for future use sources of water supply that shall be perpetually dedicated to the public the sooner will be removed the menace that is already on the horizon. With reference to water power, it is clear that the duty of the State lies in the provision of measures whereby the water powers of the State shall be purposefully developed and equitably regulated. Water-power development is no longer a local matter. The trans- mission of electrical power has rendered it, in all respects, a public utility. In this State the question has not attracted as much atten- tion as in others because the proximity of coal fields affords facilities for abundant steam power at a low price. Therefore, water powers as a rule are unattractive, but this will not always be so. It is in- evitable that with the exhaustion of our coal supplies, or with the increasing difficulty of mining them, the cost will increase and the point will surely be reached at which it will be cheaper to utilize all the water power available than to pay for the fuel necessary to create steam power. Then will the water powers of Maryland be appre- ciated and utilized. At that time it will be necessary to have in hand all the facts concerning the amount of water available, and habits of 152 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION our rivers, so that it may be immediately applied to development that will be most useful. Various States have organized water-supply commissions for the study and regulation of water-supply development and their value to those States is every day being demonstrated. Among the pro- gressive measures may be mentioned that passed by the ISTew York Legislature and designated as Chapter 569 of the Laws of 1907. The text of the law is so advanced in its purport that a part of it will here be quoted : "Tlie people of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows: "Section 1. On passage of this Act the State Water Supply Commission is authorized and directed to devise plans for the progressive development of the water powers of the State under State ownership, control and main- tenance, for the public use and benefit and for the increase of public revenue. "Section 2. The Commission shall proceed at once to collect information relating to water powers of the State and shall devise plans for the develop- ' ment of such water powers as it deems available and may devise plans for the development of such other water powers as shall be brought to its atten- tion by the mayor of any city, the president of any village, the supervisor of any town, or the chairman of the Board of Supervisors of any county, by petition verified and filed with it, praying for the development of such water powers. Bach petition shall show and set forth the public purposes to be served by the development therein proposed, and the Commission may sub- poena the petitioner or petitioners and such other persons as may be deemed desirable to appear before it and to testify under oath, which oath may be administered by any member of the Commission as to the statements made in the petition and as to other matters relating to the subject thereof. "Section 3. The Commission shall present a report to the Governor and the Legislature, on or before the first day of February in the year 1908, show- ing the progress made in its investigation and shall, if practicable, complete its investigation to such extent as will enable it to devise a comprehensive and practical plan for the general development of the water powers of the State and shall, if practicable, make the final report of such plan to the Governor on the first day of February in the year 1909. The Governor shall, if practicable, submit this final report, with his own recommendations, if any, relating thereto to the Legislature on or before the 20th day of March, 1909. In addition to the number provided by law, two thousand copies of the report of the Commission and recommendations of the Governor shall be printed. "Section 4. If any plans devised by the Commission shall include the con- struction of a dam or dams upon any river or water course the Commission shall ascertain and report as nearly as practicable the water storage capacity in cubic feet of the reservoir created by each such proposed dam, the recorded rainfall on the watershed of the proposed dam and the maximum, minimum and average flow of water per second in cubic feet during each month in the year at the point where it is proposed to locate such dam. It shall, as nearly as practicable, estimate the water horse power which would be developed at such proposed dam, the probability of selling such water power and the probable gross and net revenues from both direct and indirect sources Conservation Commission of Maryland Plate XI Fig. I. SUSQUEHANNA RIVER, NEAR MOUTH OF DEER CREEK, HARFORD COUNTY. Fig. II. — POTOMAC river at great falls, Montgomery county. VIEWS ILLUSTRATING WATER RESOURCES. WATER EESOUECES. 153 which would he derived from the sale of such power at such proposed dam. It shall also state the relation of such gross and net revenue to the total cost of the construction, annual maintenance and depreciation, including the cost of necessary land and riparian right and cost of acquiring them, and after deducting the annual cost of maintenance and depreciation, the net revenues which would he annually derived therefrom and the length of time in which such revenues would pay off the whole cost of the construction and riparian rights, with interest thereon. The Commission may include such other mat- ters as it shall deem proper In its report to the Legislature. "Section 5. The Commission in its report shall treat the general plan it shall devise and recommend for the development of the water power of the State as one project, and shall treat the specific and separate piece of develop- ment as parts of the whole in order that the Legislature and the people may have before them at once the more complete and comprehensive statement of the possibilities of water power of the State, and detailed as well as the aggregate cost of the development in such general plans proposed to be made." This subject is demanding more than ever before the' attention of communities throughout the country since the loss entailed by insuffi- cient and impure water supplies is recognized to be one of the greatest with which our citizens have to contend. Irrigation.— Ivvigation of land for the watering of crops has only recently attracted attention in Maryland because of the normally adequate rainfall throughout the State. It has been suggested, how- ever, that it would be entirely feasible to construct dams above the head of tide on many of our Eastern Shore streams by means of which reservoirs could be made for the distribution of water over the sandy soils of the extensive lowlands of this portion of the State. It is certain that such a project would result in greatly increasing the productiveness of large areas as well as making possible the intro- duction of crops not grown at the present time. Irrigation is not alone confined to arid regions, but has been em- ployed in certain portions of Europe where intensive farming has been practised. The adaptability of many of our Eastern Shore lands to small fruits and trucking crops has been long demonstrated and the yield would be greatly increased if crops of this character could be regularly watered during the growing season. There are few sections of the East which could be more successfully irrigated than the level lands of the Eastern Shore of Maryland. It is im- portant, therefore, that this subject should be thoroughly investigated and practical measures devised by which irrigation may be brought about. FISHEEIES Maryland lias in proportion to its area a longer coast line than any other Atlantic or Gulf State, and this extensive coast line is not a barren sandy waste but a large part of it encircles the Bay and its innumerable estuaries and furnishes an ideal resort for all sorts of food fishes, crabs and shellfish. While nature has been thus lavish in her bounties very little care has been taken to conserve this source of wealth for which Maryland has long been justly famous and the fishing industry has steadily declined, although no State is better situated for increasing nature's bounties to an almost unlimited degree by intelligent treatment. Maryland up to 189 Y held first rank among the Middle Atlantic States for the value of its fisheries. By 1901, however, it had declined to fourth place, where it has since remained. In 1901 the total number of persons engaged in the fisheries of the State was 36,260, while in 1904 it was only 30,33Y, a decrease of 16 per cent., while the capital invested in the fisheries decreased in the same period from $6,506,066 to $5,983,465, or 8 per cent. The total fisheries' products of the State in 1904 were 81,128,866 pounds, valued at $3,336,560, having shown in the period from 1901 a decrease of 2 per cent, in quantity and 11 per cent, in value. While the chief factor in this decrease in fisheries is due to the oyster industry, which is treated in another chapter, other fishing industries have fallen off, so that it is increasingly important that a careful statement of existing conditions be made. The Ceab Industey The Crab Industry ranks next to oystering as one of Maryland's leading fishing industries. The lessening supply in more northern waters has caused a steadily increasing demand for Maryland crabs. Crisfield and Deal Island continue to be the principal shipping points for soft crabs, while Oxford, Cambridge and Mt. Vernon furnish most of the hard crabs. From Cambridge and Mt. Vernon the crabs 155 156 EBPOKT CONSERVATION COMMISSION are shipped alive, while at Oxford most of them are canned. Hard crabs are voracious feeders and are caught in astonishing numbers by trot lines ; the soft crabs which take no food and hide in the sand or grass are taken mainly with scrapes and scoop nets, the former being operated entirely from sailboats and the latter from small skiffs and by wading. At Crisfield the oyster industry, formerly the to.wn's chief support, has been to a certain extent superseded in importance by the crab trade. As many as 1,000 boxes, each holding 15 dozen soft crabs, are sometimes shipped from this point by express in a single day. While the season is limited by the warm weather, ex- tending from April to October, an expert crabber can with scarcely any outlay make $100.00 per month. To avoid the irregularities in the daily catch of soft crabs "shed- ding pens" are used and the hard crabs are thus kept until they be- come soft. An experienced fisherman can tell at a glance the yellowish female and browner males that are about to shed their shells. The price of crabs grows rapidly from ten cents a dozen when they are put in the pens to thirty, forty or fifty cents when they are put on the market as soft-shell crabs. In 1901 the crab catch in Maryland amounted to 29,474,379 hard crabs and 12,910,746 soft crabs, making a total of 14,128,375 pounds, valued at $288,447. In 1904 the total catch amounted to 18,398,147 pounds, valued at $358,847, while in 1908 the catch amounted to 20,373,200 pounds, but owing to lower prices was valued at only $320,000. This latter figure represents the astonishing number of 67,910,667 individual crabs captured in a single year. There seems to be no limit except the limit of natural food supply to restrict the future growth of this important industry. The Shad Industry The shad ranks as our most delicate and delicious as well as our most profitable food fish, and its capture furnishes employment to a large number of persons. In 1901 the total catch in Maryland waters amounted to 3,111,181 pounds, valued at $120,602. In 1904 FISHEEIES 157 this had decreased to 2,912,249 pounds, but the increased price gave the value for that year as $159,772. The census .figures for 1908 show a catch of 3,936,800 pounds, valued at $246,590, a substantial increase over 1904 in both quantity and price, and due entirely to artificial propagation by the U. S. Fish Commission. The mature shad is a fish of the open ocean which visits our shores each spring, entering our inlets and bays and making their way to fresh water, where alone their eggs are deposited. The market sup- ply is caught during this spring migration when the fishes enter our inland waters heavy and fat after their winter feast in the ocean, since they take no food during their migration. Instances are re- corded of their having ascending the Susquehanna River above the Pennsylvania line before their progress was cut off by the construc- tion of dams. In recent years the river catch has fallen off steadily, although this has been largely offset by the Bay catch. Since the fish are taken before reaching their spawning grounds they were threatened with extinction, and in 1880 the U. S. Fish Commission began the work of systematically collecting the eggs from the market catch, artificially fertilizing them and distributing the young. This work has been prosecuted steadily since that date and has grown to hugh proportions, 79,316,600 fry having been distributed in 1908. The shad fry planted in Maryland and adjacent waters alone during that year numbered 24,362,000, which were distributed as follows: Washington 600,000 Accokeek Creek 1,915,000 Chesapeake Bay 9,814,600 Broad Creek 1,625,000 Gunpowder River 450,000 Pamunkey Creek 3,389,000 Pi^cataway Creek 4,591,000 Swan Creek 1,978,000 Even this artificial propagation scarcely offsets the dangers of cap- turing such a large proportion of the mature fishes before they reach their spawning grounds. Then, too, the spawning grounds have been greatly restricted, those of most value having been cut off by the con- struction of dams and other obstructions. Consequently the catch in the streams of the State has declined steadily, while that of the open bay has increased. a Ob KliPORT CONSEKVATION COMMISSION THE SHAD CATCH OF MARYLAND IN 1904 BY WATERS. Number. Va'ue. Chesapeake Bay 466,163 $96,368 Potomac 372,647 68,052 Susquehanna 39,275 8,087 Choptank 38,862 7,907 Nantiooke 31,028 7,308 Wicomico 28,370 5,946 Pocomoke 13,995 3,179 North East 13,315 2,626 Fishing Bay 10,980 1,801 Patuxent 9,577 2,483 Elk 8,850 1,600 Sassafras 8,150 1,592 Pocomoke Sound 5,360 814 Chester 4,215 1,010 West 3,750 962 Blackwater 2,088 497 Little Choptank 1,405 330 Atlantic Ocean 1,240 402 Tangier Sound 1,090 153 Bush 866 180 Honga 718 148 St. Martin's 115 31 Manokin 16 5 The gill net fisheries of the upper portions of our rivers have prac- tically disappeared in the last few years, the decline in total catch from 1901 to 1904 being 43 per cent, in the Potomac, 41 per cent, in the Susquehanna, 71 per cent, in the Choptank, 11 per cent, in the ISTanticoke, and 17 per cent, in the Wicomico, and while these figures are in a measure offset by the open water catch, they empha- size the precarious condition of a fishery which prevents reproduc- tion except by artificial means. Kent County leads in the shad industry, closely followed by Cecil and Harford. Then come Dorchester, Talbot, Wicomico, Calvert, Prince George's, Anne Arundel, Worcester, Somerset, St. Mary's. Caroline, and Queen Anne's. The ITeeeibtg The catch of Alewives or river herring ranks next in importance to that of shad; the catch in 1908 amounting to 28,804,900 pounds, valued at $156,590. For the year 1901 the catch amounted to only 13,747,157, valued at $91,308. In 1904 the catch was 14,484,970 FISHEKIES 159 pounds, valued at $137,982, an increase over 1901 of only 5 per cent, in quantity but 51 per cent, in value, the latter due largely to the greater quantity salted by the fisherman. The fishing season is so short and the quantities taken are so large that except when salted it is often impossible to dispose of the fish at any price. In Cecil and Harford counties considerably less than half the catch is sold fresh. With the increasing catch of late years prices have become very low. Possibly canning industries could build up a profitable business in utilizing these fish, which woiild then bring better prices, and the catch would consequently increase enormously in volume. The Striped Bass The next important food fish is the striped bass; the catch in 1908 amounting to 639,600 pounds, valued at $65,160. In 1904 these figures were 721,240 pounds, valued at $72,207, while 824,418 pounds were taken in 1901, valued at $68,568. Thus the catch has decreased over 22 peir cent, in volume during eight years. While not so important as some other species, artificial propaga- tion would doubtless check the present decline in striped bass fishing. The Squeteague ok "Tegut " Squeteague or "Trout," as they are called in the local market, come almost entirely from the Worcester County fisheries. The catch in 1908 amounted to 1,190,800 pounds, valued at $46,540. In 1904 it was 785,215 pounds, with a value of $23,207. While in 1901 it was 1,018,775 pounds, valued at $26,921, an increase in volume in eight years of about 16 per cent., but an increase in value during that period of nearly 80 per cent. The White Peech The annual catch of White Perch in 1908 ranks next to that of Squeteague, amounting to 544,500 pounds, valued at $30,410. In 1904 these figures were 545,053 pounds, with a value of $30,84J, while in 1901 the catch amounted to 452,815 pounds, valued at 160 EEPOKT CONSEEVATION COMMISSION $25,005, an increase of about 20 per cent hi the past eight years, which is most encouraging since in the four years from 1897 to 1901 the decline amounted to 51 per cent, in quantity. The fishes are largely caught in purse seines in the Bay and the fisheries center around Kock Hall in Kent County. The revival of the industry is due entirely to artificial propagation, the U. S. Fish Commission liberating 303,680,000 fry in Chesapeake Bay and its estuaries during the single year 1908, so that the future outlook for the White Perch fisheries is very promising. The Menhaden As this little fish never reaches our markets, landsmen are hardly aware of its existence, although in many ways it is one of the most important as well as one of the most abundant fishes of the Atlantic Coast of the United States. By far its greatest value is due to its abundance, thus furnishing an inexhaustable food supply for pre- daeeous food fishes like the blue fish, bonito, Spanish mackerel, etc. li: is consequently very valuable as bait for all kinds of marine fishes, and is preferred as bait in the northern cod, mackerel and halibut fisheries. Its direct commercial value is based on the valuable oil which is obtained from it, the residue from the. oil compressors being used in the manufacture of fertilizer. In 1908 the catch amounted to 12,292,800 pounds, valued at $30,030 ; the bulk being taken in large seines operated from small steamers centering at Orisfield and in seines operated from the shore in Worcester County. The catch ir 1904 amounted to 9,849,400 pounds, valued at $20,189, while that in 1901 amounted to 7,122,230 pounds, valued at $11,573. The industry is thus on a healthy basis, showing an increase of nearly 80 per cent, in the total catch during the last eight years, although it offers a promising field for still greater exploitation in the future. The Yellow Peech The value of the yellow pei-ch taken during 1908 was $22,250, representing a catch of 358,800 pounds, or 66,080 pounds more than in 1901. Yellow perch are successfully propagated artificially, the FISHEEIES 161 U. S. Fish Commission having planted over 382 millions during 1908. Of this immense number 303,592,000 fry were liberated in the creeks and rivers of Maryland, which tends to hold out a very promising future outlook for these fishes. MlSCELLAIiTEOUS SpECIES Fishes which furnish a basis for lesser industries or are taken in- cidentally in the pursuit of other food fishes are of considerable variety. The Catfish comes next in importance after the Yellow Perch, the catch in 1908 amounting to 408,800 poimds, valued at $18,440, a decrease of 80,000 pounds compared with 1901. The U. S. Fish Commission distributes a considerable number of catfish annually, but none were placed in Maryland streams during 1908. The Sturgeon ranks next to the Catfish in importance in Mary- land, 45,500 pounds, valued at $17,0Y0 being taken during 1908. In 1904 the catch amounted to 184,845 pounds, valued at $27,035, while in 1901 it was 113,438 pounds of a total value of $6,989. The sturgeon is an ocean fish, the source of caviar and is taken inciden- tally chiefiy by the gill-net fishermen of Worcester County. The Clam catch amounted to 10,300 bushels in 1908 with a value o:' $16,470. In 1904 the yield was 4,725 bushels, valued at $4,880, while in 1901 it amounted to 13,450 bushels, valued at $14,384, thus showing a very slight increase for the eight years. Clams are taken only in Chincoteague and Sinepuxent bays off Worcester County and in Tangier Sound near Crisfield. Most of the clammers are negroes and the more profitable Crab fishery has diverted a large number of men formerly engaged in clamming in the vicinity of the latter town. The Spanish Mackerel is one of the most highly prized food fishes common in the Baltimore markets, the bulk of the supply coming, however, from areas south of Maryland. Formerly a con- siderable quantity were taken annually by Maryland fishermen and a revival of the industry may be hoped for. The Eel is taken very generally throughout the State, mostly in eel pots. At Cambridge, in Dorchester County, the fishery is vigor- ously prosecuted for two or three months, beginning about the middle 16:2 EEPOET CONSERVATION COMMISSION of March. Some oyster dredgers refit at the end of the oyster season for eel fishing, the men living aboard the vessels and fishing from row boats, for the most part in the Potomac Eiver. The eels are dressed and sold fresh or salted, the smaller being sold as bait for hard-crab trot lines. The catch for 1908 aniounted to 220,600 pounds, valued at $12,670. In 1904 it amounted 326,465 pounds, valued at $12,919, and in 1901 it was 337,011 pounds, of a value of $12,369, a decrease of nearly 50 per cent, in quantity for the eight years, but only a slight decrease in total value. Other species of which the annual catch amounts to over $5,000 include the Butterfish, the German Carp, Sea Bass and the Terrapin and Turtles. The United States Fish Commission liberated 17,300 Brook Trout and 48,490 Rainbow Trout in Maryland waters during 1908. The State Fish Commission operates a small hatchery at Druid Hill Park devoted to the propagation of the fresh water game fishes. During 1908 they hatched 150,000 Eainbow Trout eggs and 2,080,000 Yellow Perch eggs furnished them by the Federal Commission. This work is admirable and should be extended. The following table shows the details of the catch of the Fisheries of Maryland for 1904, taken from the U. S. Fish Commissioji Report published in 1907, which are the latest complete returns available : PISHEEIES 163 PRODUCT OF THE FISHERIES OF MARYLAND IN 1904. Species. Pounds. Value. Alewives, fresh 9,589,430 $55,263 Alewives, salted 4,895,540 82,719 Black bass 14,150 1,325 Bluefish 91,460 3,855 Bonlto 3,150 102 Butterfish 375,062 9,890 Carp, German 139,280 4,633 Catfish 491,435 18,381 Cero 5,130 156 Cod 310 12 Croaker 165,840 2,688 Drum 30,975 301 Eels, fresh 250,165 10,705 Eels, salted 76,300 2,214 Flounders 35,005 1,192 Gar pike 4,000 10 Gizzard shad 7,225 136 Hickory shad 4,500 90 Kingflsh 7,610 940 Mackerel 16,240 1,296 Menhaden 9,849,400 20,189 Mullet 24,935 745 Perch, white 545,053 30,841 Perch, yellow 265,470 10,685 Pike 42,317 3,716 Pompano 300 45 Scup 31,610 2,558 Sea bass. 59,600 2,580 Shad 2,912,249 159,772 Sheepshead 950 68 Spanish mackerel 1,950 241 Spot 13,480 411 Squeteague 785,215 23,207 Striped bass 721,240 72,207 Sturgeon 164,245 8,313 Cavair 20,600 18,722 Suckers 2,775 72 Sunflsh 7,450 487 Crabs, hard *12,665,282 168,996 Crabs, soft **5,732,865 189,851 Shrimp 2,400 800 Squid 14,000 41S Clams, hard (bushels) 37,800 4,880 Turtles 13,400 456 Terrapin 3,923 2,71S Totals 50,121,316 $918,886 *37,995,846 in number. **17,198,595 in number. 164 REPORT CONSEEVATIOir COMMISSION- The next table represents the latest available data on the Maryland Fisheries and is printed from advance information from the present census and is not complete in all particulars. PRODUCTION OF THE FISHERIES OF MARYLAND IN 1908. Pounds. Value. AI«wives (river herring) 22,804,900 $156,590 Butterfish 150,800 7,420 Gterman carp 166,700 7,100 Catfish 408,800 18,440 Eels 220,600 12,670 Menhaden 12,292,800 30,030 White perch 544,500 30,410 Yellow perch 358,800 22,250 Sea bass 225,300 6,780 Shad 3,936,800 246,590 Squeteague or "Trout" 1,190,800 46,540 Striped bass 639,600 65,160 Sturgeon 45,500 17,070 Crabs, hard 12,785,900 124,350 Crabs, soft 7,587,300 195,000 Terrapin and turtles 17,300 5,310 Clams (bushels) 10,300 16,470 Miscellaneous 70,400 Total $1,078,580 While the present conservation of Maryland fisheries is largely concerned with the oyster, which promises such great future returns, the foodfishes should not be neglected. Much remains to be learned of the feeding and other habits of our more important species and much can be accomplished by the intelligent utilization of the results of investigations carried on by the members of the U. S. Fish Com- mission. The greatest promise is held out by active co-operation with this valuable bureau in the systematic restocking of our waters. The German institutes for pond culture show what can be done by scientific methods to increase the supply of foodfishes in fresh waters, and it has been shown in European seas that the mass of living food produced from uncultivated water may equal that yielded by culti- vated land. Inland waters may be put to many uses: sometimes they are utilized as sewage outlets for cities, sometimes they are con- verted into commercial highways or they may be restricted by the reclamation of fertile swamp lands. All these are important and riSHEEIES 165 necessary developments and any one of them may be best under tbe local circumstances; but, in promoting any such undertakings, due regard should always be paid to the importance and promise of natural waters as a perpetual source of cheap and healthful food for the people of a country. OYSTEE SUPPLY The future of our oyster supply has received consideration for many years, ever since the decline in the industry began more than a decade ago. Although the agitation has been continued with ever- increasing vigor by those Avho have recognized the need of a more intelligent treatment of the question, nothing substantial was accom- plished until the organization of the State Shell Pish Commission, which is today handling the problems presented to it with much success. It now seems probable that with ftirther legislation along the lines proposed by the Commission we shall be able to increase the production of oysters in an economical way during the coming years. Tide water, by reason of the saline matter it holds in solution, supplies one of the conditions most evidently necessary to the life and growth of oysters and the claim has therefore been made by many that all of that vast area of the territory of Maryland over which the tide ebbs and flows (more than 640,000 acres of bottom), may properly be regarded as the basis upon which to calculate the extent of the oyster resources of the State. There are other conditions, however, equally as important and necessary for the well being of oysters as salt or brackish water, and any part or parts of the tide water area which may be found to lack any one of these growth determining factors must necessarily be excluded when attempting to estimate the total area of bottoms which possess actual or latent value for oyster production. It may be well, therefore, to enumerate these conditions and to state briefly how each contributes a necessary part in making oyster production possible. The conditions known to be important and determining factors for the growth of oysters, in addition to the one supplied by salt or brackish water, are the following : (1) A supply of oyster food in the water. (2) A movement of the water over the bottom sufiiciently swift and continuous to carry a supply of food adequate for the needs 167 168 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION of the oysters on a bed, and swift enough at times, in some localities, to sweep away deposits of silt which accumulates upon the surface of the bottom. (3) A bottom of sufficient hardness, if muddy, to support shells and oysters at or near its surface ; of sufficient tenacity, if sandy, not to be torn to pieces or shifted through the action of waves or storm currents. Food or Otstees Oyster food is probably not entirely absent from any natural body of salt or brackish water and when considering the full value of an oyster bottom for oyster production it has not been thought neces- sary until comparatively recently, to take into account the quantity of oyster food available to the oysters on the bottom in question. Experience in oyster culture on leased grounds, however, and observations of the quantity and quality of oysters produced on certain natural oyster bars, have demonstrated conclusively that localities differ very greatly in the quantities of oyster food their waters furnish and have shown also that it is quite possible to stock even the richest oyster feeding grounds with more oysters than can be fed. The food of oysters consists of the microscopic plants which grow chiefly upon bottoms covered by salt and brackish water and to some extent also in the waters above the bottom. Quite a number of kinds of microscopic plants (or diatoms) are to be found in almost every locality and each species seems to be distributed to other localities in accordance vfith the same laws which have been observed to regulate the distribution of the higher forms of plant and animal life with which we are better acquainted. Different species of diatoms inhabit different regions and the individuals of the same species may be very numerous at one time or season and be almost entirely wanting in the same locality at another season. These microscopic plants derive the substances necessary to their growth and, multiplication from the organic materials and gases held ir solution in the water immediately surrounding them and they are CONSEBVATION COMMISSION OF MARYLAND Plate XII Fig. I. — TONGING FOE OYSTEES. ■■■■BP^^SiRa^S^. yTBH^^^T J I J; -,^.-^_ p^ •■^^^^•"^T^^^^ -^ ^ ,-'»■'■;;::■■,:'..::•;•-■ -/'•;■■■ -> ... .--.-^r^^^i^r:":;": | Fig. II. — DEEDGING FOE OYSTEES. VIEWS ILLUSTRATING OYSTER INDUSTRY. OYSTBE SUPPLY 169 most prolific and numerous in the regions which receive or contain the richest supply of fertilizing materials. The chief source of the materials which, by their decomposition, contribute to the water the fertilizing substances necessary for the growth of the plants upon which the oysters feed, is the great land areas surrounding the head waters of the Bay and its tributaries. At the time it is leached from the land, some of this material is in a form such as to be immediately available for use in supporting and stimulating the growth of the vegetation of the rivers and Bay but bj far the greater volume is made up of insoluble sedimentary ma- terial which sooner or later settles in the low basins of the rivers, coves and the Bay and there forms the extensive flats of very soft black mud or ooze converting them into great reservoirs of rich plant fertilizer which become centers for the propagation of oyster food. Such being the origin and distribution of the materials on which the production of oyster food depends, the reasons for the differences that have been observed in the value of differently situated grounds for growing oysters become more apparent. MOVEMENT OF THE WATEB The plant organisms on which the sedentary oyster feeds are in some cases endowed with the power of movement, but this power is so limited that it serves little more than to raise them a short distance above the bottom. In order therefore that any oyster may profit by a position on an oyster bed located adjacent to the richest food supply, there must be some means operating to distribute the oyster food from the place in which it is produced to the oyster beds where it is needed. This food distributing agent is the currents, produced mainly by the action of tides but often caused by winds and the flow of fresh water into the headwaters of the tributaries. At all places in the Bay and its tributaries where an appreciable rise and fall of the tide exists, an ebb and flow of water takes place over the bottom, but the rate of which the water flows over a given bottom depends not upon the range of the tide alone but also upon the situation of the bottom with reference to the deep water channel I'rO BEPORT CONSEEVATIOlSr COMMISSION and to the shore line, and it is greatly influenced also by the shape of the shore line, the depth of water and the contour of the surround- ing bottom. The swiftest currents to be found in the Bay or in any of its tribu- taries are developed in their deep water channels where oyster bars are seldom found. A series of measurements of the velocities of the currents of a river, taken during a period of strongest flow, show a very sudden decrease in their rate at the immediate edge of the main channel and a continued, but more gradual, reduction in velocity as one approaches the shore, where, on the shallow bottoms, the move- ment of the water can hardly be called a current but may best be described as a gentle "set." If the locality in which the measure- ments are made be one with a broken shore line or one in which the bottom presents an irregular surface the development of counter cur- rents, cross currents and eddies is to be expected. Oysters depend upon these movements of the water to supply two of the conditions most essential to their well being and propagation. The flrst is that of collecting the microscopic oyster food from the bottoms where it is produced, holding it in suspension and trans- porting it to the oysters on the beds. Currents need not be swift in order to accomplish this purpose for it is a matter of general ob- servation that natural oyster bars of very considerable area and pro- ductiveness have been built up on bottoms over which none but slug- gish currents are ever developed, and as is stated in a former para- graph, natural bars are seldom found associated with the swiftest currents. The fact, however, that a current of slow velocity and small volume is able to carry a food supply sufficient for the maintenance of the oyster communities which have been built up in connection with it by nature, must not be taken as an indication that the number and ex- tent of such oyster communities can be indefinitely increased and that all will continue to thrive. Instances are not wanting in which the bottoms of an oyster producing region have been so completely and densely covered with oysters that the available food supply was not equal to the demand put upon it. The bottoms of Lynnhaven Bay are noted for the quality of the oysters they produce, and the OYSTER SUPPLY 171 prices these oysters bring gives every incentive to increase the output t(.. its greatest possible volume. It has been found necessary, how- ever, on account of the limitations of the food supply and the fact that about two-thirds of the bottoms of the entire bay are in actual use for oyster culture, to limit the quantity of oysters planted per acre to amounts not exceeding 150 bushels on the best bottoms and to less than 100 bushels per acre on the parts of the bottom less favor- ably located. There are natural bars also that are so situated in the Bay and in some of its tributaries that, when conditions favorable to the develop- ment of oyster fry come about, they become so overstocked that the food supply, even when carried by swift currents, is not able to sup- port such vast communities, and the oysters remain poor and without value. While it is not possible to control the conditions under which an increase either in the velocity of currents or in the quantity of oyster food may be brought about in an open body of water like a bay or a river, it is quite possible, on the other hand, to determine the value of both of these factors in oyster production in any locality and to use these determinations as a basis for calculating the quantity of oysters per acre and the number of acres which may with profit be planted in the locality imder consideration. Investigations are now being carried on by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries and the Maryland Shell Fish Commission looking toward this end. The second condition essential to the maintenance of oysters which is largely supplied by the water because of its movements, is that of the action of swiftly moving currents in gathering up and holding in suspension the great quantities of sediment with which all of the bottoms of the Bay and its tributaries become thickly covered during calm weather and at the times of slack water on the changes of the tide. The oyster shells on the natural bars offer the natural places for the attachment of oyster fry and the growth of young oysters and, when these shells are covered with fine sediment, they are effectively insulated against oyster fry, for it has been found that the minute oyster, at the time it passes from its free swimming condition to that 172 EEPOET CONSEEVATIOIT COMMISSION in which it assumes the sedentary habit of life, requires a clear hard surface on which to adhere. Those that fall upon sediment covered shells or muddy bottoms are smothered. The oyster beds which recuperate most quickly and fully after having been depleted or exhausted from close fishing, are those over which swift tidal currents are regularly developed and their ability to recuperate quickly depends almost wholly to the fact that sedi- ment is not allowed to accumulate and remain on the cultch. Oyster beds located in very sluggish water are the most easily injured by over fishing. The sediment with which their shells become coated may occasionally be carried away through the action of waves during severe storms, but during the greater part of the season when the water surrounding them contains floating oyster fry their clutch is not in a condition to receive it. The young oysters which settle upon them do not find the conditions necessary for their attachment and growth and the annual increase of such beds is therefore slow. It is well, however, that there are great areas where the move- ments of the water are rapid and constant, for here the conditions are favorable for the establishment of nurseries for raising seed oysters. It is well also that there are still greater areas of bottoms over which the flow of water is not rapid, for here the conditions are favorable for growing and fattening the transplanted seed. TIDE WATER BOTTOMS The diversity in the character of the bottoms of the tide water area in Maryland is probably as great as that of the soils of an equal area of the adjoining land territory. Bottoms of hard sand and soft black mud predominate, these materials being found either entirely separate or mixed in varying proportions. Bottoms composed of stony materials, gravel, clay, fullers earth and peat are not uncommon, but in comparison with the area of bottoms of sand and mud, they are small in amount. The bottoms best adapted to the needs of the oyster are those com- posed of sand and mud mixed in such proportions as to produce a OTSTEB SUPPLY 173 bottom of sticky consistency ; a bottom hard enough to support oysters at or near its surface but sufficiently coherent to resist the action of waves and currents. A general statement regarding the distribution of muddy and sandy bottoms can be made, which will be found to hold fairly true for the tributaries of the Bay and to a certain degree for the Bay also — ^bottoms of soft black mud (too soft to support oysters or shells) occupy the main and lateral deep water channels and the deeper areas of the basins of coves and inlets. Pure hard sand ic usually found to form a narrow strip of the bottom in the shallow water along the shores. It is also found to constitute the axes of the sand bars which often extend from projecting points of land far into the stream. Between these areas of usually barren bottoms, the hard or sticky bottoms occur which have been found to form the basis upon which natural oyster bars have been formed and which offer opportunities for oyster planting. The consistency of this oyster bottom is not uniform, as this depends upon the relative amounts of the two principle ingredients which enter into its composition. Ex- aminations of this bottom made along a line from the pure sandy strip near shore to the soft mud of the channel would usually show a gradual change from almost pure sand to very soft ooze ; the propor- tion of mud to sand increasing directly with the increase in distance from shore. It will not be necessary to limit oyster planting to these areas of sticky bottoms for oysters will grow on both sand and mud. Arti- ficial means will have to be employed in both cases however, to pre- vent loss of oysters. The shifting of the sand can be prevented by covering it with an amount of shells or gravel sufficient to hold it together, and oysters can be prevented from sinking into soft mud by first filling the mud with an amount of shells sufficient to give it the necessary hardness. Many natural oyster bars have been formed upon sand bars and great oyster "lumps" have been established in the midst of deep soft mud. ' iti eepokt conservation commission Enumeration of Otstee Eesoueces Having enumerated and briefly discussed the conditions under which oyster production is possible, an attempt may now be made to estimate the extent of the bottoms covered by tide water in Mary- land which possess value, either actual or latent, for producing oys- ters, and to suggest conditions and measures under which these re- sources may be made more valuable. NATUEAL OYSTEE BAES The survey of the natural oyster bars of Maryland which is being made by the Maryland Shell Fish Commission, assisted by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, is now nearing completion. It is to be regarded as an attempt on the part of the State to make a careful inventory of its oyster resources for use as a basis for constructive oyster legislation. The survey not having been completed it is not yet possible to give definite statistics, but from the results thus far accomplished the indications are that the State owns about 180,000-200,000 acres of natural oyster bars. The distribution of these valuable bottoms in the tide water coun- ties, may be seen from the following table : County Number Area of Bars ol Bars Acres Anne Arundel 91 33,666 Somerset 37 27,566 Wicomico 15 2,038 Worcester 28 1,655 Calvert 42 12,303 Charles 15 2,361 St. Mary's 125 25,780 Baltimore ] ^^^^ . , I (about) *50,000 Queen Anne s I Talbot J Dorcliester** 30,000- 45,000 Total 185,369-200,369 *The computations from the work of the summer in these counties have not been completed and 50,000 acres is an estimate of the total area of the natural bars in all of the counties. **The oyster grounds of Borchester county alone remain to be surveyed. It is estimated that natural oyster bars aggregating 30,000-45,000 acres will be found in Dorchester waters. OYSTER SUPPLY 175 In 1882-1884 the total area of natural oyster bars in the State (exclusive of Worcester County) was estimated by the "Brooks-Wad- dell-Legg" Commission to be about 125,000 acres. This estimate "was made in the absence of surveys, (except that of Tangier Sound made in 1878-1879 by Lieut. Francis Winslow for the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey) and it wns not regarded by the Commission as an accurate one. It is probable that the total area of the beds then and now is not greatly different. A very considerable area of the natural oyster grounds vfhich wsls productive in 1882-1884 is novF barren, having been exhausted by over-fishing, but, on the other hand, a large area of the bottom which was then barren (probably equal to that which has been lost) has since been added to the area of natural bars. This growth of the oyster bars, which has been especially extensive in certain localities, has resulted mainly from the work of oystermen in scraping or dredging oysters and shells from the bars to the adjacent bottoms and to a certain extent also from culling oysters over barren bottoms. The natural bars of Maryland were apparently in their best condi- tion from 1874 to 1892, the average annual yield during this period having been about 10,000,000 bushels of oysters. The output of the beds varied considerably from year to year, falling to 7,500,000 bushels in 1879 and reaching 15,000,000 bushels in 1884, the high water mark for the output of the oyster grounds of Maryland. A gradual decline in the output from the beds took place during the period from 1892 to 1904, low water mark having been reached in the latter year when the total yield did not exceed 4,500,000 bushels, an average yield per acre (180,000 acres) of 25 bushels as compared with the average of 83 bushels per acre reached in 1884. During the summers of 1905-1906 the conditions necessary for the development of the spawn of oysters and the attachment of young oyster fry seem to have been remarkably favorable throughout the entire tide water area of the State for, wherever the bar? had not been badly depleted of shells, a fine set of spat was secured and, as a result, the product from the bars increased in 1907-1908 to some- thing over 6,000,000 bushels, an average yield per acre of 33 bushels. 176 EEPORT CONSERVATION COMMISSION It is evident, however, from the statistics recorded above that the oyster bars, even after the increase of 1906-190Y, are not producing as much, by about 9,000,000 bushels per year (50 bushels per acre) as they did produce in 1884 and, since they have been surveyed and definitely reserved to the general public for use as a free oyster fishery, it becomes the duty of the State to so supervise this valuable resource as to make it yield an income more nearly commensurate ■with its possibilities. It should not be difficult to formulate, and put into operation, plans by which the annual output from the natural oyster bars may be very greatly increased and it is suggested that, in the State Fishery Force, the State already owns an equipment well adapted to carry on the work of cultivating its public oyster grounds in much the same way that oyster planters in the l^orth cultivate their private oyster farms. The State might well afford to equip these vessels with heavy drags or dredges and commission them to work on the beds during the summer months when they are now idle. It would be possible with this equipment to stir up the sunken cultch on the depleted beds and thus ensure a more abundant set of spat; to break up the too rank growth of oysters on overstocked bars and scatter part of them upon the adjacent poorly stocked grounds; and if thought advisable, to plant shells upon the bottoms where the cultch has been worn out or removed. BARREN BOTTOMS NOW VALUABLE FOE OYSTER CULTURE Bottoms which do not produce oysters in sufficient abundance to induce oystermen to resort to them for a livelihood are said to be "barren." Some of this barren bottom however, is valuable for the crabs it harbors, and other areas for the clams it produces and such bottoms have therefore been reserved by the State for public crab, and clam fisheries. All bottoms outside the limits of the natural oyster bars, crabbing grounds and clam beds are or will eventually be opened for lease to citizens of the State for the purposes of oyster culture. It is of real interest to the citizens of Maryland to know ; 1st ; how much of this Conservation Commission of Mabtland Plate XIII a a n m o a < VIEWS ILLUSTRATING OYSTER INDUSTRY. OTSTEE SUPPLY 177 great area of barren bottom, aggregating more than 450,000 acres, is really valuable for producing oysters, and 2nd ; what legal protection and freedom from restriction must be given the oyster planter in order that he may successfully develop the latent possibilities of the grounds he has leased for oyster production. The survey of the natural oyster bars afforded an excellent op- portunity to those engaged in the work to study the conditions under which oysters grow naturally and, to a certain extent also, to ascer- tain whether these conditions are to be found on bottoms not occupied by natural oyster bars. As a result of these observations it is esti- mated that there are about 100,000 acres of the bottoms now barren on which the conditions seem to be as favorable for oyster produc- tion as on the natural oyster grounds. In fact, a very considerable part of the area under consideration would now be occupied by oyster beds if the shells and oysters with which it was formerly stocked, had not been so completely removed by oystermen as to leave no cultch to which young oysters might find places for attachment. The distribution of the barren bottoms on which all of the physical and biological conditions necessary for the well being of oysters seem to be present and which are therefore now valuable (without special preparation) for use for oyster planting purposes, is indicated in the table which follows : TABLE SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF FIRST-CLASS OYSTER PLANTING BOTTOMS. County Area of Bottom Acres Anne Arundel 5,000 Somerset 22,000 ■Wicomico SOO Worcester 2,215 Calvert 14,044 Charles 1,500 St. Mary's 13,956 Baltimore 1 Kent I (about) *20,000 Queen Anne s | Talbot I Dorchester (estimated) **20,000 Total 99,315 *The surveys of the grounds of these counties have been completed but the areas of natural bars or planting bottoms have not been computed. **The bottoms of Dorchester county have not been surveyed. 178 EEPOET CONSEBVATIOK COMMISSION In order to build up a successful industry in oj-ster culture it is as necessary that the conditions under which the planter operates he conducive to his success and prosperity as that the ground he leases shall lack none of the conditions essential to the well being of the oysters he may plant upon it. To provide the legal, industrial and social conditions under which citizens of the State may profitably engage in oyster culture on the bottoms which are so admirably adapted to oyster production, is one of the objects of the Haman Oyster Culture Law, and in many respects it has effectively dotie so. That there are conditions other than those provided by the Law, however, which are equally important for the development of a satis- factory industry in oyster culture in Maryland, has been conclusively demonstrated by the experience of fours years of the operations of this law. The restrictions which it was thought wise and necessary to place upon the operations of oyster planters, in order that those who engage in the free oyster fishery might feel that their rights were not being sacrificed, have seriously retarded, and almost stopped, the develop- ment of an industry in oyster planting and has in no way benefited the free fishery. It is therefore recommended that these restrictions be removed to the extent: 1st. That citizens who apply for leases for barren bottoms for the purposes of oyster culture, be not restricted as at present to 10 acres in tributaries and to 100 acres in the Bay, but that they may be allowed as much as 30 acres in tributaries and 500 acres in the Bay. 2nd. That Lessees of barren bottom be granted the right to plant, cultivate and gather their oysters by any means and at any time that may be desired by them. 3rd. That certain natural oyster bars which are known to be no prolific that the oysters they produce, due to their great abundance, are not able to attain marketable size, be designated as bars from which seed oysters may be sold to Maryland oyster planters, and that the Cull Law shall not apply to the bars so designated. OYSTBE SITPPLT 179 It is suggested that bars in the following localities be thus desig- nated, subject, however, to the approval of the Commander of ihe State Fishery Force. 1st. The part of the Bay situated above a line from Bodkin Point, on the Western Shore, to Swan Point, on the Eastern Shore, exclusive of Swan Point Bar. 2nd. Broad Creek. 3rd. Harris Creek. 4th. Tar Bay. OTHEE BABEEN BOTTOMS The bottoms outside the limits of the areas which have been re- served from leasing and exclusive of the 100,000 acres of barren bottoms immediately valuable and available for oyster production, aggregate more than 300,000 acres. These bottoms include : 1st, all of the deep water channels of the Bay and its tributaries; 2nd, the extensive basins in sheltered coves which have been filled with a deep black organic ooze by the con- tinued and uninterrupted deposit of the silt brought down by the rivers from their drainage basins; 3rd, the great sand flats which occupy the shallower portions of the Bay; and, 4th, the areas over which the water becomes so fresh, periodically, that oysters if planted upon them, would either be stunted in their growth or killed. When a thriving industry in oyster culture shall have been estab- lished in connection with the bottoms which are immediately valuable and available, and a need and demand has thereby been created for a still greater area for use for oyster planting purposes, it will be possible to convert a very considerable part, perhaps 200,000-250,000 acres, of the pure sandy areas and very soft muddy bottoms into bottoms suitable for oyster production. The sandy areas can be rendered valuable by covering them with an amount of shells, gravel, etc., sufficient to prevent shifting. The deep muddy bottoms may be made to support oysters by filling them with an amount of shells, gravel, etc., sufficient to give them a stiff or hard consistency. GAME PRESERVATION In summing up a list of our natural resources the game is often omitted. The value of game to a State is not very easy to calculate, yet Maine with its system of licenses can keep track to a certain extent of the amount of game killed each year, the number of guides employed and the number of hunters within the State. The State of Maine estimates that it is benefited each year through its game by over one million dollars and California by the same means considers itself benefited by almost double that amount. It is certainly worth while therefore for any State to see that its game is properly pro- tected and preserved. When this country was first settled game of all kinds was plenti- ful, and man made very little inroads upon its numbers. Nature had struck a balance between the game and its natural enemies and the game held its own, man not upsetting this balance to any ap- preciable extent with his old muzzle loader. But man multiplied, forests faded away before the settlers, guns improved and the driving out of large game in settled districts be- came a certainty, and as the larger game decreased the hunters ap- plied their energies to the smaller game which up to the time of the passing of the big game had not been molested. As in all other fields man was not satisfied to reap a small profit on his game crop but wanted it all without any regard to the future or the interests of posterity. He destroyed the bison ; the elk are almost gone, and all other big game had to be protected to prevent their following the bison. It is not only necessary to ascertain what game there is and only kill the proper percentage of the increase, leaving enough game to restock the depleted covers, but it is also absolutely essential that the game should be protected from their enemies other than man. Leaving the big game out of the question as being of only passing interest to Maryland, there being little big game outside of our three western counties, our small game is constantly preyed upon by its- enemies, who know no closed season nor the moral necessity of conserving our natural resources. Foxes, hawks, stray cats and dogs, 181 182 EEPORT COlirSIiEVATION COMMISSION snakes and other natural enemies prey upon our game birds, song birds and rabbits throughout the year. It is true they may do little damage during the summer or early fall and some species of hawks may not kill birds until the snow is on the ground and food is scarce when it is a case of the survival of the fittest. Any carnivorous bird will take what he can get if he is starved and hungry, and can appreciate a fat partridge as well as an epicure. The scarity of feed and cover for the birds and possibly snow make them easy prey at such times, consequently it is useless to save a certain percentage of birds over after the shooting season unless we destroy their enemies or likewise leave enough for their enemies' needs. The solution is easy: protect the birds and small game against the promiscuous shooter who cares nothing for the future and who will kill every thing he sees. See that no more birds or game are killed by hunters than the amount of game will stand, leaving enough to restock the covers for another season; and kill ruthlessly their natural enemies. Their natural enemies can be easily handled if care is used and sufficient funds are at hand, cats can be destroyed, hawks, weasels, and like vermin can be trapped and other enemies kept down suf- ficiently to cause little trouble, but what shall we do with Man, the games' unnatural enemy. This is the serious question. Protective laws have been tried, periods when it is illegal to kill game as during the breeding seasons have been made, and as game has become scarcer the periods in which it is legal to kill have been shortened, but all to no avail for the game continues to get scarcer. Man not satisfied with the muzzle loader patented the breech loader, then the repeater and now the automatic. Where a good gun used to cost $100 or over, a good gun can now be purchased for $25.00 and a single barrel gun can be bought for less than $5.00; hunters have increased as population has grown, farmers have cleared up their lands of all good cover as real estate increased in value, all to the detriment of the game. Laws in this State are unenforceable ; first, because they are intricate and second, because there is no money to enforce them, consequently illegal shooting here is very much indulged in. Shoot- ing during closed periods takes place in every county, although con- ditions are improving because of a more enlightened public opinion. GAME PEESEEVATION 183 Maryland has suffered greatly in its advancement of good game laws and better game protection by the fact that a County law takes precedence over a State law, differing in this respect from all other States, and this has resulted in a mass of local legislation which lacks uniformity, clearness, and in some cases justice. iMearly any bill marked local will pass the Legislature and no one seems the wiser until some one attempts to enforce the law. Sometimes the repre- sentatives of the counties to which they relate do not seem to know how the bills passed. Governor Crothers realizing the evils of local legislation in all phases of law appointed a committee, during the session of 1908, to investigate the evils thereof and suggest a remedy. They reported that nothing could be done until a State law took precedence over a County law, and a bill will be introduced along this line this coming session of the Legislature, but unfortunately it will require a Constitutional amendment to cure the difficulty. It is safe to say that no branch of law has suffered more from this local legislation than that relating to Game and Fish. During the session of 1908 there were thirty-seven local game bills passed, and yet practically no attempt on the part of the State to acquaint the public of either the thirty-seven new laws or the thirty-seven hundred old laws, no codification of the Game and Fish laws being accessible. Politics has played a good part in this; the salaried positions of game and fish officers have always been looked upon as sinecure^s and in many cases are awarded for political services without regard to merit. The present efficient State Warden is handicapped by having no paid wardens to help him, and practically no funds, or rather insufficient funds to patrol 12,000 square miles of the State. Summing up conditions in Maryland we find that : The laws are complicated and lack uniformity, which is absolutely essential ; there is no money with which to enforce the mass of game and fish laws. These are the two most important points to remedy. Conditions can be bettered by the counties getting together in a sensible way and making their laws correspond in opening and closing seasons and in the wording of the statutes. At present there are seven different opening dates for partridges and thirteen different opening dates for woodcock. This is unnecessary and lacks common 184 EEPORT CONSERVATION COMMISSION sense. Why should Talbot County open its season on November 2nd, and Queen Anne's, not even separated by a fence line, open its season on November 15th? Calvert opens its rabbit season November 1st, and its partridge season November 5th. What reason can there bu for this ? Montgomery, Prince George's, Anne Arundel, and Howard practically meet in a point, yet their seasons open on November 1st, November 9th, November 15th, and November 10th, respectively. There can be no real reason for this. The Game and Fish Commission of Maryland appointed by Governor Crothers, and representing all parts of the State, has re- ported in favor of a uniform law for the State, and there is no good reason why it should not become a law. It would undoubtedly improve the situation materially. Under the present complex system it is almost impossible to keep from breaking some game law, for instance Anne Arundel County's open season for snipe and plover is exactly reversed and has been for some years. It is an error of course, but no one sees fit to correct it. Howard County, by a pecu- liar situation has repealed its woodcock and squirrel law and the two are absolutely unprotected in this county, another mistake, but it seems hard to have it corrected. And there are many other mixed up situations that must be straightened out before we can expect the average gunner to respect the laws. All this can be simplified by an agreement between the counties, or the passage of a State law as recommended by the Game and Fish Commission. Enough for the laws although their complications would fill a volume. Now, if we have the laws simplified they will be easier to enforce, but they will not enforce themselves, nor will the State with an unpaid deputy warden system enforce them. Throughout the country Legislatures have refused to appropriate sufficient money for properly enforcing the game and fish laws, and other means of raising revenue has always been resorted to. The most successful way yet devised is the system of licensing every hunter, charging him one dollar for the privilege, the revenue derived therefrom being used for game and fish protection. This has many attractive features and is in force in thirty-four States in this country and in practically all the provinces of Canada. First it puts the cost of GAME rEESEEVATIOlT 185 maintainiug tlie game and fish upon the persons who derive the benefit. Very few sportsmen object to paying $1.00 per annum when they know it is going to be used for the protection of game which will result in direct benefit to them. We pay $2.00 per annum for a city dog license from which we derive no benefit and do not protest, and there will be no protest from the hunter in paying a resident hunting license of $1.00 in Maryland. The State Game and Fish Commission has likewise reported favorably for a law along this line, a bill for which will be introduced in the. Legislature of 1910. If passed it will provide adequate funds for protection and propagation. At present the State expends about $4,000 per annum of the tax-payers' money for game protection and accomplishes nothing. Under the proposed resident hunting license system it is estimated that the State would receive at least $20,000 per annum and would not take a cent of the tax-payers' money. This would be sufficient to meet the expenses of a paid warden system throughout the State and thus accomplish a great deal. All this is far from the ideal plan, but if accomplished will vastly improve our natural resources as far as game is concerned, but it is still necessary to do more. There is practically no shooting today of any consequence in this State except upon posted land ; in other words nearly all game has been killed on property that is open to the public. This country looks aghast at the idea of a game pre- serve system as un-American and foreign, but we will have to come to it to preserve our game from the irresponsible party who kills every bird in a covey or every rabbit on a farm, leaving no game to replete the covers for the following season. A State game preserve, is an excellent thing, and the one proposed in Western Maryland should become a real thing at once, but this will not generally benefit the rest of the State, and we should therefore have places in every county where it is illegal to kill game ; this would absolutely insure the survival of a certain amount of game each year which would in time stock the surrounding country and prevent positive extermina- tion. This can be accomplished by individuals or by the State. Individuals have already seen the wisdom of such things and have posted their property, others have formed game preserves where they 186 EEPOET CON"SEEVATION COMMISSIOlSr have good shooting, yet game is increasing on their premises for they only shoot in season and destroy the gam'es' enemies. The Second District of Baltimore County is a good example of a posted section, over ninety per cent, of the farmers having signed an agreement to post their property and prohibit shooting vs^ithout written permission. Practically no promiscuous shooting occurred in this district this past season. They intend to protect their game during the winter from their enemies and feed the birds during the rough weather and in two years it is probable that they will have more game there than anywhere else in the State. While Maryland is struggling with a county local law system which other States abolished long ago, her sister States throughout the country are getting together in trying to make their State laws uniform. Yet this will not altogether remedy the difficulty they are trying to better, namely the preservation of migratory birds, such as the ducks and woodcock. The ducks summer and breed North, pass- ing along the length of our coast in the fall through many States, governed by many different laws, and winter in the South, where they are shot all winter, only to again run the gauntlet in the spring through those States which permit spring shooting, on their way to tbeir breeding grounds. The woodcock breeds in Maryland as well as our other coast states and migrates South. Summer shooting is permitted in many coun- ties of Maryland and prohibited in most other States north of us. It does not seem fair that other States should refrain from shooting in the spring and summer for the benefit of those States who do not see the moral side of the question. The only absolute remedy for this situation, the States being at odds over the subject, just as the Maryland counties are with their opening dates, is to place the control of all migratory birds in the hands of the Federal authorities. This is rather far off, and other means will have to be resorted to in order to protect migratory fowl and birds for the present. The game of Maryland is a valuable State product and it is most important that we look at the situation seriously and accomplish many needed improvements before it is too late. Our game birds GAME PRBSEEVATIOIT 187 are not only the means of giving the residents of the State recreation, but they are valuable to the farmers on account of the great number of noxious weed seeds and insects which they destroy. The shooting is also a source of revenue to the farmer if game is plentiful for he can lease his shooting rights for a fair sum and shoot himself when he desires; and he can board the sportsmen and in many ways add to his income thereby. SCENERY Maryland, from its exceptional geographical situation midway between the North and South, and extending as it does from the Atlantic across the mountains to the Alleghany Plateau, contains natural features of wide variety and exceeding beauty. Add to this the presence of the Chesapeake Bay, with its many estuaries and no State will be found to surpass ours in natural beauty. The natural scenery of a State may have and should have a prac- tical value quite aside from its esthetic or sentimental value, although the former is founded in large part on the latter. An enumeration of specific instances where scenery has been conservea and thus made to furnish the basis of a large wealth will make this meaning plain. It is estimated that over fifty million dollars are annually left in Switzerland by tourists. The inhabitants have simply protected the forests which clothe the mountain slopes, the game which frequent their shadows, and the fish which inhabit the streams. When we further consider the accessibility afforded by good roads and the accommodations of excellent hotels, the natural scenery has been capitalized as it were, and pays better dividends than any other industry in that country. Examples of this sort nearer home are plentiful and many could be mentioned. The people of Maine have made millions of dollars out of their woods, lakes, rivers, and shores. Game is protected and hence plentiful, the streams abound in fish because destructive killing is not permitted, nor are the waters allowed to be contaminated. The forests are still maintained in their primeval character. As a result thousands flock to Maine and spend their money in the enjoyment of these natural beauties and they return year after year. Like conditions may be found in other northern resorts like the White Mountains and the Adirondacks and in southern resorts like Asheville. The protection of the scenery of Maryland will be found to be aji investment which will pay big dividends in this direction, as well as produce the other and more manifest advantages which have been described in the previous pages. Some few resorts have been developed in this State, notably on the sea shore, along the Bay, and 189 190 EEPORT CONSEEVATIOIf COMMISSION in the Catoctin, Blue Eidge, and Alleghany Mountains, but with the natural advantages, particularly the scenic and climatic, this develop- ment should be much greater. Add to these natural advantages the geographic situation of these areas immediately adjacent to densely populated centers like those of Baltimore, Washington, and Pitts- burg, and there is no reason why Maryland should not offer great inducements to the tourist class and to those seeking for delightful locations for summer homes. Thus far Maryland has done little with its natural scenic features except to mar or mutilate them, and much remains to be done before the State can take its proper rank as a resort for health seekers and sightseers. The forests must be preserved, the streams kept free from contamination and stocked with fish, game must be adequately protected, and good roads and hotels must be built. In building roads the value of scenery should be considered when these are laid out in certain sections of the State. Finally, a healthful water supply is a prominent factor in building up resorts and summer colonies. While all of these factors are expensive and difficult, they are all concomitants of larger problems of conservation upon which Maryland has already made a beginning. We are building a system of modern roads which, as it becomes more advanced, will make accessible the many attractive spots which are at present remote from the beaten tracks, and more and more transient travelers will stop and linger at our resorts. With communication easy many who can afford a country place but wish to be near their business in Balti- more or Washington, or wish their families nearer than the New Jersey or Wew England resorts, will build their homes in the Blue Ridge or in some of the other charming localities with which the State abounds. We already have an efficient forestry bureau which is seeking to check forest fires and exhaustive lumbering. When this is accomplished water power, navigation, and municipal supplies will be conserved, the washing of the soil will be checked, and agri- cultural lands will be preserved. These are some of the more direct results which follow forest conservation, but hand-in-hand with the conservation of the forests and our future wood supply goes the preservation of our natural scenery. If the forests are made to grow on our watersheds and the streams are kept from destruction then the hills and valleys will soon return to their pristine loveliness. PUBLIC HEALTH Among the economic resources of the State, the people which com- prise its population rank first. All property having intrinsic value is directly dependent upon the population. Real property such as land, buildings, minerals, and standing timber only possesses poten- tial value. All of these resources become of actual value only when developed by the population. The only practical way of determining the money value of human life is in wages earned and these are chiefly secured by the individual between the ages of 20 and 60. It must be remembered that practi- cally all of the money received as wages is returned to the State or community in one form or another. During 1907, according to figures secured by the State Board of Health, out of a total of 20,982 deaths in Maryland, 9,232 were due to preventable disease, and during 1908 out of 18,916 deaths, 8,323 were due to preventable disease. The deaths of individuals during wage-earning age (20 to 60 years) from tuberculosis in the counties alone in 190Y were 746 and in 1908, 768. These figures are taken from the rural districts as the figures for deaths by ages are not available for Baltimore City. The Tuberculosis Commission of Maryland adopted, in computing the loss caused by tuberculosis, the "Life capital method" in which the wages received by an individual cut off by death or disease are regarded as a loss in toto to the community. The loss also considers the loss of future wages, or potential loss caused by death. According to the Tuberculosis Commission the economic loss caused to the State of Maryland by the death of wage-earning males from tuberculosis in the counties and Baltimore City amounts to $15,264,860. annually, and for wage-earning females to $9,140,060. giving a total loss to the State of $24,404,910. annually from this one disease. The loss to the State caused by tuberculosis is greater than that caused by any other disease. First, because tuberculosis is the most common of all diseases ; second, because it causes generally the death 191 192 EEPOET CONSERVATION COMMISSION of young adults during the wage-earning periods; third, because it ranks first as a cause of dependency. The deaths of individuals from other preventable diseases in the counties during the wage-earning period (20 to 60 years) were in 1907, 544 and in 1898, 595. If the cost of deaths from other pre- ventable diseases in the wage-earning period is proportionate to that from tuberculosis, we shall have to add $18,343,981. to the loss from tuberculosis, making a total loss from all preventable diseases of $42,748,891. among wage-earners alone. It is to be remembered that this estimate does not include the loss caused by the death of adults not wage-earners, such as the mothers of families, nor does it include the potential loss from the death of infants which is a very considerable item. The calculation takes no account of the considerable loss caused by sickness, both in wage- earners and those not wage-earners. Taken altogether the Secretary of the State Board of Health com- putes that an annual loss in Maryland from preventable disease of over $50,000,000. would be a conservative estimate. Professor Irving Fisher in his "Keport on JSTational Vitality, Its Wastes and Conservation," says : "The problem of conserving natural resources is only one part of the larger problem of conserving national efficiency. The other part relates to the vitality of our population. The two parts are closely interwoven. Protection against mining accidents, forest fires, floods, or pollution of streams prevents not only loss of property, but loss of life. The prevention of disease, on the other hand, increases economic productivity. "So far as we can compare vital and physical assets as measured by earning power, the vital assets are three to five times the physical. The facts show that there is as great room for improvement in our vital resources as in our lands, waters, minerals, and forests. This improvement is possible in respect both to the length of life and to freedom from disease during life. "Contrary to common impression, there is no iron law of mortality. Recent statistics for India show that the average duration of life there is less than twenty-five years. In Sweden it is over fifty years, in Massachusetts forty-five years. The length of life is increasing PUBLIC HEALTH 193 wherever sanitary science and preventive medicine are applied. In India it is stationary. In Europe it has doubled in three and a half centuries. The rate of increase during the seventeenth and eigh- teenth centuries was about four years per century, during the first half of the nineteenth century about nine years per century, during the latter half of the nineteenth century about seventeen years per century, and in Germany, where medical and sanitary science has reached the highest development, about twenty-seven years per cen- tury. The only .comparative statistics available in this country are for Massachusetts, where life is lengthening at the rate of about four- teen years per century, or half the rate in Germany. "There is no need, however, of waiting a century for this increase. It could be obtained within a generation. Three-fourths of tubercu- losis, from which 150,000 Americans die annually, could be avoided. Eighteen experts in various diseases, as well as vital statisticians, have contributed data on the ratio of preventability of the ninety different causes of death into which mortality may be classified. From these data it is found that fifteen years at least could be at once added to the average human lifetime by applying the science of preventing disease. More than half of this additional life would come from the prevention of tuberculosis, typhoid, and five other diseases, the pre- vention of which could be accomplished by purer air, water, and milk. In Lawrence, Massachusetts, after the installation of a pure-water supply, the death rate from typhoid was reduced by 80 per cent. Eor every death thus saved from typhoid, two or three deaths are saved from other diseases. "Judging from the English statistics of illness, we must conclude that at all times in the United States about 3,000,000 persons are seriously ill, of whom about 500,000 are consumptives. Fully half of this illness is preventable. "If we appraise each life lost at only $1,700 and each year's average earnings for adults at only $700, the economic gain to be obtained from preventing preventable disease, measured in dollars, exceeds one and a half billions. This gain, or the lengthening and strengthening of life which it measures, can be secured through medical investigation and practice, school and factory hygiene, re- 194 EEPOET COKSEEVATION COMMISSIONS' striction of labor of women and children, the education of the public in both public and private hygiene, and through improving the effi- ciency of our municipal. State, and national health service. Our National Government has now several bureaus exercising health functions, which only need to be concentrated under one department to become co-ordinated parts of a greater health service worthy of the nation." Sir William Petty in his article on "The Value of the People" says: "Many writers assume, implicitly at least, that the net pro- duction of an average individual and the consumption during the whole of his life are equal ; or, in other words, that he would neither add to nor take from the material well-being of a country, in which he stayed all his life." He regards the average value of an indi- vidual to the community as perhaps $1,000. The State of Maryland is now expending on its health department only $20,300 annually, and the Commission believes that a large increase over this figure would be one of the most profitable invest- ments the State could make in the conservation of its natural resources. GOOD ROADS The highways of the State should not be omitted in any considei-a- tion of conservation since increased facilities and reduction in cost of transportation and communication are among the most important factors in the economic and social life of our people. Good highways are especially important in the development of the agricultural resources of the State and their relation to the other natural resources is also obvious. Their value as a factor in the development of resorcs has already been pointed out. Adam Smith, in his "Wealth of ISTations," published in 1776, before the construction of railroads, states that "Good roads, canals, and navigable rivers, by diminishing the expense of carriage, put the remote parts of the country more nearly upon a level with those in the neighborhood of the town. They are upon that account the greatest of all improvements. They encourage the cultivation of the remote, which must always be the most expensive circle of the country. They are advantageous to the town by breaking down the monopoly of the country in its neighborhood. They are advan- tageous even to that part of the country. Though they introduce some rival commodities into the old market, they open many new markets to its produce." With some small changes, these ideas are applicable to the present time. "The rivers," stated the philosopher Pascal, "are roads that move and carry us whither we wish to go." "Yes," was the comment of another, "provided we wish to go whither they carry us." It may be supposed that a State -with such an excellent arrangement of rail- ways and waterways as Maryland would not need roads, but such is not the case, even in those sections through which the railways and waterways pass. Eloads must be used to reach them and whatever development takes place in the latter results in increasing travel over the roads themselves. The ordinary intercourse within the limits of a neighborhood depends \ipon the public roads, and their condition. From England the statement comes that it is "safe to say that land values are improved, and that agricultural, commercial, and 195 1&6 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION manufacturing industries are materially benefited through, the opera- tion of good public roads in the country. Erom Scotland: "Roads are the life and necessity and hope of all Scottish industries, and their value increases rather than diminishes with railroad extension. Property would, without them, be comparatively valueless." The material development of the French country has been attributed to its splendid roads, and, in "Problems of To-day," Professor Ely writes : "The great French reformer, Turgot, who did so much for the province of which he was governor, turned his attention first of all to the ordinary public roads, and demonstrated the advantage of first-class highways. There can be no doubt that the excellent roads he constructed were one important cause of the prosperity of Limoges." A farmer in New Jersey has written one of the Road Commissioners as follows: "I would not sell my house and accept another worth $7,000, as a gift, and be obliged to live in it two miles from a macadam road. 'So farmer in the neighborhood would buy a farm not located on the macadam road. Now that they have a sample of the road they all want it." Economy effected by good roads occurs more particularly in three ways. First, in the reduction of the number of animals which have to be kept to do the work. Second, in the reduc- tion of wear and tear on the horses. Third, in the saving of repairs to wagons and harness. Besides these savings there are occasionally special losses on account of bad roads, difficult to esti- mate in the aggregate. Many indirect benefits result from good roads. There would be more travel through the country in carriages, on horse-back, in automobiles, and on bicycles, and more money would be spent there to the advantage of the people. There would be great benefits from easy intercourse with one's neighbors, impos- sible perhaps to measure in dollars and cents. Religious activities would be cultivated. Education would be facilitated. Easy inter- course is especially valuable in a country like ours where the policy of the government rests finally on the vidll of the people; for the judgment of the voters finds expression at the polls; and nothing helps more to a right judgment than full and free discussion, which in some sections is very greatly hindered for a part of the year by GOOD EOADS 197 the almost impassable state of the roads. Proper appreciation of the value of better roads has not been entirely wanting by any means among the people of Maryland in the past. Until recently, how- ever, from colonial times through the earlier years of the State, the energies of her people were taken up with more pressing needs, and when the subject began to engage their attention and great highways for commercial purposes were about to be built, the invention of steam railways and the building of canals opened up other means of transportation and the energies of the people turned toward their development to the neglect of the public roads. The struggle of the early settlers in this country developed an independence and self- reliance in the race which has had much to do with its later progress, but which has often prevented it from using the best means for development in certain directions. This self-reliance has led in some instances to the feeling that what one man has done, any other man can do; and to the rejection of the fact that there are always some men fitted by natural ability and training to carry out certain lines of work better than any other men. The harm of this appears most glaringly in those cases where political appointments are not made for fitness and where experience gained by service is not regarded as an important reason for reappointment. Our roads have likewise suffered because the necessity of skilled engineers is not appreciated; indeed, in many sections of the State, where there is not a single road that could be called even fair, there are any number of people who think they know all that is to be known about building roads. It may be asked why then have not roads like railways been developed and made economically efficient. Probably because the railways are carried on for gain by private enterprise and every effort is made to increase the profit; here any man who invents a new device, or develops a new method, can, if he knows how to take advantage of his improvement, obtain a reward. The benefit of a new process is measured by the profit it produces ; and active railway managers are always on the lookout for means of increasing their profits. The system of managing the highways is quite different. The counties pay a certain sum annually to maintain the roads for 198 EEPOBT CONSEEVATION COMMISSION the benefit of the people, but it is not a business enterprise carried on by the County Commissioners for gain. Furthermore, the County Commissioners have many and varied duties; the care of the roads can occupy but a small part of their attention, and the people who are most active in the election of the Commissioners often insist that political and not business methods shall prevail in the management of the public roads. They are not put under the immediate care of competent engineers; no reckoning is made of the advantages or disadvantages of one method of repair over another, or of one form of construction over another; and improved methods are not introduced. The people therefore suffer, and are put to heavy expense vrhich might be much reduced if efBcient methods were employed. Much valuable information applicable to roads can be gained by a study of ordinary business methods. During the years from 1893 to 1897, when the business of the country was in such a depressed condition that profits were extremely small, the necessity of reducing running expenses made itself felt, and if we look at the railroads we shall see how the reductions were accomplished. In addition to increasing the efficiency of the employees, immense sums of money were invested in straightening curves, reducing grades, putting down heavier rails, buying larger and more powerful engines and larger cars and thus increasing the train-load and reducing the expense of operation, so that at the present time the railroads are not only paying the interest on the increased capital but are making larger profits for their stockholders, though in many cases the freight rates have been lowered. Similarly, the roads must be improved in order to increase the efficiency of farmers by enabling them to haul heavier loads, and to do it at times when other work is not pressing, and thus reduce the time and expense of hauling. The saving thus effected would often make the difference between success and failure in farming. But how is this to be done? Large sums of money are annually spent on the maintenance of the roads without appreciable results. Would anything be gained by spending more? Or are there any fundamental reasons why our roads are so bad which might be cor- GOOD EOADS 190 rected ? We find, however, in all countries which have really good roads that the following are regarded as essential: (1) Engineering skill. (2) High Standard. (3) Permanent tenure of office and personal responsibility. (4) A sufficient outlay of money. (5) Constant care. (6) Classification. Within the past ten years the foregoing facts have begun to be appreciated throughout the State, and Maryland is now headed in the right direction in this matter. Considerable progress has been made, though not perhaps to the entire satisfaction of all of those interested, who, with characteristic American impatience, expected to accomplish in one-tenth of the time, and even less expense, what European countries have secured only in several generations, or perhaps centuries. Easter progress will depend largely on two things: Eirst, greater annual provision of necessary funds for the work; and second, continued or greater efficiency in the manage- ment of those funds by the skilled and trained officials. Contrary to the general opimon, Maryland has been by no means behindhand in this work, but one or two States antedate her in the modem expression of the movement (to disregard entirely con- sideration of the government road work begun and abandoned several decades ago). New Jersey and Massachusetts began in 1893 and 1894, respectively, with their work of road improvement. New York began in 1898, and Connecticut about this time. Maryland, before beginning actual work, ordered an investigation of her local conditions in 1898, and one of the most thorough and voluminous reports on the subject of roads ever issued was published by the Maryland Gieological Survey in 1899. Erom 1898 to the present time, the State of Maryland has furnished technical assistance to the counties desiring such, though the financial aid of the State in actual construction was not begun until 1905, when the State Aid 200 EEPOET CONSERVATION COMMISSION Act became operative. Since this latter date, Maryland had appro- priated to January 1st, 1910, for financial aid to her counties, $1,000,000, and had authorized and begun the expenditure of a $5,000,000 loan for the purpose of building a system of main high- ways through all portions of the State at the expense of the State Treasury alone. EECOMMENDATIOJSrS 1. The Commission recommends the establishment of a State Conservation Bureau with an adequate annual appropriation to meet the expenses connected with the propagation of work which is nor- mally the function of such an organization. Similar bureaus have been established in other States in accordance with the plan proposed by the lN"ational Conservation Commission and are proving of much value in the development of the States' natural resources. 2. The Commission recommends the continuation of the valuable work now under way by the following State scientific bureaus, viz., the State Geological and Economic Survey, the State Agricultural Experiment Station, the State Board of Forestry, the State Shell Fish Commission, the State Weather Service, and the State Board of Health. The results of their work have been widely commented upon both at home and abroad, and Maryland has gained in recent years a reputation for progress which it could not otherwise have attained. The relatively small amount which these bureaus cost the State has been returned many fold by the increased development of the natural resources with which they deal. It would be a good in- vestment for the State to increase the amoimts already appropriated to them. 3. The Commission particularly recommends the study of the problem of the reclamation of the great swamp and marsh areas adjacent to the Chesapeake Bay. The drainage of these regions either under Federal or State auspices would add largely to the wealth of the State. It is important to know the character of these swamp and marsh lands and the cost of their reclamation. Much aid can be secured from the State Geological Survey and the State Weather Service in the conduct of such an investigation and the Water Kesources Branch of the U. S. Geological Survey also stands ready to co-operate whenever the State makes provision for the work. It is important that engineering plans should be prepared for the several areas in order that accurate information may be available as 201 202 EEPOET CONSEEVATION COMMISSION to the cost entailed. If the State should see fit to undertake the pro- ject at her own expense, the sale of the lands thus reclaimed would ultimately reimburse the State for the outlay. 4. The Commission also recommends the acquisition on the part of the State at an early day of the deforested areas around the head- waters of the streams affording our chief water supply since the public health and industrial activities of the State depend on the preservation of their flow. Such lands can in most instances be pur- chased at small expense and could be turned over to the State Board of Forestry to administer as State Forest Reservations. Several States are today acquiring such lands at State expense with a view to the preservation of the water resources. Maryland would l^e greatly benefited by such a policy and the Commission strongly recommends an adequate appropriation to this end. 5. The Commission recommends that in dealing with the recla- mation of swamp lands and the reforestation of cut-over lands, and in all other related matters, the policy of cooperation between the State and Federal Governments be adopted and consistently pur- sued. The resources involved depend primarily on natural supply and movement of running waters, and since nearly all the inland waters of Maryland are interstate, and are largely connected through headwaters and source streams with navigation over which the Fed- eral Government exercises supervision, it is especially desirable that the interests of the people of the State and of the entire country should be considered jointly. This policy, necessary for the ultimate protection of the interests of the State, is in accord with the prin- ciple adopted by the ISTational Conservation Commission that "No agenc;^. State, Federal, corporate, or private, can do the work alone." INDEX. Agricultural Products, 89. Agricultural Resources, 73. Agricultural Soils, 74. Agricultural Statistics, 113. Animal Diseases, 111. Antimony, 60. Asbestos, 70. Bal£er, Bernard N., 5, 21. Barron Bottoms, 176. Besley, F. W., 13. Blodgett, Frederick H., 13. Bonsteel, J. A., 13. Bricli Clays, 53. Building Stones, 32. Canning Crops, 96. Chrome, 68. Clams, 161. Claris, Wm. Bullock, 5. Clays, 52. Clay Products, 52. Clays, Brick, 53. , Fire, 56. , Pottery, 66. , Sewer Pipe, 55. , Terra Cotta, 55. Coals, 28. Conservation Commission, 5. Copper, 68. Corn, 89. Crab Industry, 155. Dairying, 105. Dairy Interests, 116, Denmead, Talbott, 13. Destruction of Birds, 113. B Eastern Sbore, Soils of, 77. Bel, 161. Farm Animals, 107. Farms, Acreage of, 115. , Number of, 115. . , Valuation of, 115. Feldspar, 58. Fire Clays, 56. Fisheries, 155. Flint, 57. Food of Oysters, 168. Forage Crops, 100. Forest Fires, 126. Forest Resources, 119. Forests, Relation to Stream Flow, 132. —. , Dse of, 128. Frederick Valley, Soils of, 84. Fruits, 97. G Game Preservation, 181. Gneisses, 37. Gold, 63. Good Roads, 195. Grains, 89. Granites, 34. Granites and Gneisses, 33. Graphite, 70. Grave, Caswell, 13. Hagerstown Valley, Soils of, 85. Hay, 105. Herring, 158. Hlrsch, Edward, 5. Introduction, 15. Iron Ores, 61. Iron Pyrites, 69. Irrigation, 153. K Kaolin, 69. Lead, 69. Lelghton, M. O., 13. Letter of Transmittal, 6. Lime and Cement, 59. Limestones, 43. M Manganese, 69. Marble, Potomac, 41. Marbles, 39. Marbles and Limestones, 38. 203 204 INDEX Marls, 61. Menhaden, 160. Mica, 70. Micaceous Sandstones, 49. Mineral Paints, 64. " Resources, 25. '* Waters, 65. N Natural Oyster Bars, 174. O Oyster Resources, 174. OystPr Supply, 167. Oysters, Food of, 168. Paleozoic Sandstones, 48. Peachbottom Slates, 50. Percb, Wliite, 159. , Yellow, 160. Plant Diseases, 111. I'orcelain Materials. 57, Potomac Marble, 41. Pottery Clays, 56. Preface, 13. Preventable Losses Price, Marshall L., 13. Public Health, 191. R Reclamation of Swamps, Road Materials, 66. Rotation of Crops, 108. n Agriculture, 110. Sanda, 60. Sandstones, 45. Sandstone, Micaceous, 49. , Paleozoic, 48. , Triassic, 45. Scenery, 189. Serpentine, 42. Sewer-Pipe Clays, 55. Shad Industry, 156. SUoes, 102. Slates. 50. Slates, Peachbottom, 50. Soapstone, 69. Soils of Appalachians, 86. " " Blue Ridge, 85. " " Catoctin Mountain, So. " " Eastern Shore, 77. " " Frederick Valley. 84. " " Hagerstown Valley, 85. *' " Northern Central Maryland, " '* Southern Maryland, SO. Southern Maryland, Soils of, 80. Spanish Mackerel, 161. Squeteague, 159. Striped Bass, 159. Sturgeon, 161. Swamps, Area of, 138. , Reclamation of, 137. Terra Cotta Clays, 55. Tidewater Bottoms, 172, Tobacco, 93. Tobacco Crop, 117. Triassic Sandstones, 45. Tripoli, 64. Trout, 159. Truck Acreage, 117. Truck Crops, 94. U Use of the Forest, 128. W Water Resources, 145. Water Transportation, 145. Wheat, 91. White Perch, 159. Yellow Perch, 160. Z