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Cornell University Library 
 SB 291.I4C7 
 
 Report on the caoutchouc of commerce, be! 
 
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 Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003312919 
 
EEPOET 
 
 ON THE 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC OF COMMERCE, 
 
 BEING 
 
 INPORIATION m THE PLANTS YIELDING IT, THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL 
 
 DISTRIBUTION, CLIMATIC CONDITIONS, AND THE POSSIBILITY 
 
 OF THEIR CULTIVATION AND ACCLIMATIZATION 
 
 IN INDIA: 
 
 BY 
 
 ' JAMES COLLINS, P.B.S. BDIK, 
 
 HONOKAET COKKESPONDIKG MEMBEK OF THE SOCIETY OP PHABMACT OP PAKIS i OP THE PHYTOLOGICAL 
 
 AND MICEOGKAl'HICAL SOCIETY OP BELGIUM ; AKD OP THE SOCIETY OP NATUKAL AND PHYSICAL 
 
 SCIENCES OP CAEACCAS. LATE CUKATOK OP THE MUSEUMs" OP THE PIIAKMACEUTICAL 
 
 SOCIETY OP GKEAT BRITAIN. 
 
 WITH TWO MAPS, FOUR FLATES, AND WOODCUTS. 
 
 WITH A MEMORANDUM ON THE SAME SUBJECT 
 
 BY DE. BEANDIS, 
 
 INSPECTOR GENERAL OP PORESTS, TO THE GOVERNMENT OP INDIA. 
 
 PRINTED BT ORDER OP IIEB MAJESTY S SECRETAKY OP STATE FOR INDIA IN COBNCIL. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 SOLD BY W. H. ALLEN AND CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE ; 
 
 EDWARD STANFORD, 6, CHARING CROSS; 
 
 HENRY S. KING AND CO., 65, CORNHILL ; 
 
 N. TRUBNER, PATERNOSTER ROW. 
 
 (8279.) 1872. 
 
 S 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The numberless uses to -whicli Oaoutcliouc is now appKed has 
 placed it in the front rank of vegetable products, rendering a large 
 and constant supply, imperative, and this necessity early led me to 
 the consideration of the sources of supply, and how such supplies 
 could be increased and insured. 
 
 In consequence of some inquiries made by Major-General 
 Strachey, C.S.I., and Clements E. Markham, Esq., C.B., I was 
 charged by Her Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council 
 to prepare this Eeport. When I had handed in the manuscript and 
 it had been approved of, the Indian Government liberally granted 
 my request that the Heport should be illustrated with plates, &c. 
 
 To Trelawney Saunders, Esq., of the Geographical Department 
 of the India Oiffice, I have to tender my thanks for the oversight 
 he has taken in the production of the maps, and to my friend 
 Gustav. Mann, Esq., for kindly undertaking the production of 
 the Assam map, and in a high degree to Dr. Eorbes Watson, M.A., 
 for material assistance in carrying out my previous inquiries in this 
 subject. 
 
 The excellence of the^ four plates of plants by Mr. Blair 
 speak for themselves, and to W. Carruthers, Esq., E.H.S., of the 
 British Museum, I am indebted for the critical examination of my 
 new species here described, and for his careful oversight in the 
 production of the plates. 
 
 My new species, CasUlloa Markhamiana, I have dedicated to 
 C. E/. Markham, Esq., C.B., as a small mark of my humble 
 appreciation of his scientific attainments, of his untiring zeal and 
 success in the acclinaatization of the Cinchonas in India, and of the 
 great interest he has taken in the production of this Heport. 
 
 (8279.) ^ 2 
 
IV PEEFACE. 
 
 To Dr. Hooker, O.B., F.R.S., I owe many thanks for aid and 
 facilities rendered me in this and other researches for a long period, 
 and to Professor Oliver, E.R.S., J. G. Baker, P.L.S., and J. B. Jack- 
 son, A.L.S., Esqrs., my best thanks are due for assistance and 
 facilities in consulting the Herbarium and Museum. 
 
 To my late dear friend Dr. Eriedrich Welwitsch I am indebted for 
 matter relating to Africa, and but for his death this Beport would 
 have been graced with a promised monograph on the Landolphias. 
 
 To Dr, Bichard Spruce's kindness I am indebted for the most 
 valuable information relating to the Heveas, and to my numerous 
 correspondents at home and abroad I tender my warmest thanks 
 for their invariable kindness in replying to my queries and requests. 
 
TABLE OE CONTENTS. 
 
 Page 
 Preface ..... - iii 
 
 Letter to C. E. Markham, Esq., C.B. ... - vii 
 
 Introduction. — General geographic distribution (with map, &c.) - . ix 
 Part I. — Natural Order Euphorbiace^ : 
 
 1. American sources of supply — 
 
 HevecB species, geographic distribution, &c., and climatic 
 
 conditions - - - - 1 
 
 Collection and preparation of the caoutchouc - 8 
 
 Commercial varieties - - . - .9 
 
 Natural Order ARTOCAKPACEiE : 
 
 1. American sources of supply — 
 
 CastillofB species, geographic distribution, climatic conditions 11 
 Collection and preparation - - .15 
 
 Commercial varieties - . 16 
 
 2. Asiatic sources of supply — 
 
 Ficus clastica, geographical distribution, climatic conditions 
 (with map) - - - . 18 
 
 Collection and preparation . " - . .20 
 
 Commercial varieties - - . - - 21 
 
 Natural Order Apocynace^ : 
 
 1. American sources of supply — ' 
 
 Hancornia speciosa, etc., geographic distribution, &c. . 23 
 
 2. Asiatic sources of supply — 
 
 Urceola elastica, geographic distribution, &c. . 24 
 
 3. Asiatic and African sources of supply — 
 
 Willughbeia edulis, geographic distribution, &c. - 25 
 
 4. African sources of supply — 
 
 Madagascar. Vahecs species, &c., geographic distribution, 
 &c. ---.... 26 
 
 "West coast, &c. Landolphia species, geographic distri. 
 bution, &c. ..... - 27 
 
■n CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 PaetII. — The Cultivation and Acclimatization of trees yielding eaoutchouo. 
 
 Introduction - ' - - - - - 30 
 
 1. The cultivation of Ficus elastica, and the improvement of its 
 
 caoutchouc - - - - 32 
 
 Cultivation ..... 33 
 
 Improvement in the collection and preparation - - 34 
 
 Modes of tapping (with illustrations) - - - 35 
 
 Implements used (with illustrations) - - - - 36 
 
 Collecting vessels - - - 39 
 
 Preparation of the caoutchouc - - - - „ 
 
 2. The acclimation of other plants .... 42 
 
 Relative values of the diiferent varieties - - „ 
 
 Price list, imports, &c. - - - - - » 
 
 Species recommended to be introduced - - 44 
 
 Climatic conditions necessary - - - - - 45 
 
 Results to be expected - - „ 
 
 Conclusion ... - - 46 
 
 Instructions for collecting illustrative specimens - „ 
 
 Memoeandum by Dr. Brandis - - - - - - 48 
 
 Explanation of Maps and Plates - - - - - 55 
 
11, Arthur Street, Deptford, London, S.E. 
 SOtli August 1872. 
 
 To C. R. Maekham, Esq., C.B., F.E.G.S., &c., 
 India Office, London. 
 
 SlK, 
 
 I HAVE the honour to submit, as directed by you, for the 
 information of Her Majesty's Secretary of State for India, a Report 
 on the caoutchouc of commerce, the methods of collecting it, the 
 plants yielding it, their geographic distribution, climatic conditions, 
 and the possibility of their being cultivated and acclimatized in 
 India. 
 
 I have arranged my Report in the following manner : — Part I. 
 Sources of supply (Botanical and Geographical), and Part II. 
 The cultivation and acclimatization of the plants yielding 
 caoutchouc. 
 
 I also send herewith a set of specimens of the different com- 
 mercial varieties, which I beg to present to you for the purpose of 
 being placed in England or India, wherever you may deem that 
 they may be likely to prove most useful for purposes of reference. 
 
 I have the honour to remain. 
 
 Your obedient Servant, 
 
 James Collins, E.B.S.E. 
 
INTEODUCTION. 
 
 The history of India Rubber or Caoutchouc is an exceedingly 
 interesting one. Amongst the earliest accounts we have is that 
 given by Herrera*, in his account of Columbus' second voyage, in 
 which he mentions a game played by the natives of Hayti, with 
 balls made of this substance. Juan de Torquemadaf mentions also 
 a similar use made of it, and notes the name of the tree which 
 yielded it, as the Ulequalmiil or Ule-tree, the Aztec name for 
 Castilloa elastica Cerv. M. Charles de la Condamine gave the 
 first accurate information respecting the Caoutchouc yielded by the 
 " Cahout-chou " or Siphonice {llevecB) of botanists. M. Fresnau, an 
 engineer, residing at Carzenove in Guiana, next turned his attention 
 to the subject, and his ' researches were published by the Prench 
 Academy in 1751. M^ Euse Aublet first described one of the 
 species yielding " Para " Caoutchouc, in his Elora of Guiana, under 
 the name of Sevea Guyanensis. In the Old World the credit of 
 the first discovery of a plant yielding Caoutchouc is due to 
 Mr. James Howison, a surgeon in Prince of Wales Island, and 
 who gave an account of it under the title of "An Elastic Gum 
 Vine." Howison's plant was named by Dr. E/Oxburgh TJrceola 
 elastica. The next discovery was by Dr. E-oxburgh himself, 
 who, receiving a turong lined with Caoutchouc, which, on 
 inquiry he found to be the produce of a fig tree, afterwards 
 named by him Ficus elastica. 
 
 India Rubber, or Caoutchouc, as we prefer to call it, is the 
 inspissated milk or juice of various shrubs and trees, natives 
 of both hemispheres. This milk is found in certain anastomosing 
 
 * Herrera, Historia, decada i., libro iii., cap.iv. 
 
 f Torquemada, De la Monarquia Indiana, torn ii., cap. xliii., p. 663, Madrid 1615. 
 For the references and passages of these and other accounts, see my paper on " India 
 Rubber, its History, Commerce, and Supply." Jour. Soc. Arts, London, Dec. 17th, 
 1869. The Council of the Society of Arts awarded their Lecturer's Medal for this 
 Paper. 
 
 (8279.) b 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 vessels termed Cmenchyma or laticiferous vessels, and are found 
 
 f^l^: 
 
 in the greatest abundance in the 
 Mesophlmtmi or middle layer of 
 the bark (Fig. 1). This milk is 
 only yielded in quantity suflB.cient 
 for commercial purposes by cer- 
 tain plants within the isotherms of 
 70° Fahrenheit, and with a mean 
 annual temperature not lower than 
 61° and averaging about 76°, and 
 with an annual rainfall not lower 
 than about 90 inches. I have ap- 
 pended to this Report two maps, 
 in order to give some idea of the 
 geographical distribution. The first shows the general distribution 
 over the globe (Map I.), and the second that in Assam (Map II.). 
 The former must, however, be taken as an approximation to 
 the truth, as it is the first attempt to thus illustrate the subject. 
 These shrubs or trees are restricted "to three natural orders, 
 viz. ; UwpJiorMacece, Artocarpacece, and Apocynacecs, and in this 
 Report these various plants are treated in this order. 
 
 The following list gives the geographic and botanic sources of the 
 different varieties of Caoutchouc : — 
 
 I. Americcm Varieties : — 
 
 Fig. I . — Laticiferous Tissue. 
 
 BrazU : — 
 
 Par6. 
 
 Maranham. 
 
 Pernambuco. 
 
 Ceara. 
 French Guiana. 
 British Guiana. 
 Venezuela. 
 New Grenada or 
 
 " Carthagena." 
 Ecuador or "Guayaquil." 
 
 Peru. 
 
 SeveaSrasiliensis Miill. arg., &c,, 
 
 Severn sps. 
 
 Sancornia speciosaMuR. arg., &c. 
 
 SLevece sps. 
 
 Hevea Guyanensis Aubl. 
 
 a. paucifolia Miill. arg. 
 
 S. Srasiliensis'M.uU. arg. 
 
 ? Castilloa elastica Oerv. 
 
 Castilloa elastica Oerv. 
 
 {Castilloa elastica Oerv. 
 ? Hevea peruviana ? 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 XI 
 
 Panama. 
 
 Oosta-Eica. 
 Nicaragua. 
 
 Salvador. 
 
 West India (so called). 
 
 Honduras. 
 
 Guatemala. 
 
 Mexico. 
 
 Castilloa elastica Cerv. et C. 
 
 Markhamicma, Collins, n. sp. 
 C. elastica Cerv. 
 C. elastica Cerv. et C. species 
 
 nova ? 
 Q. elastica Cerv. 
 ? Q. elastica Cerv. 
 ? G. elastica Cerv. 
 C elastica Cerv. 
 C. elastica Cerv. 
 
 II. Asiatic Varieties . 
 
 Malayan Archipelago : — 
 
 
 Singapore (so called). 
 
 Ficm species. 
 
 Borneo. 
 
 Urceola elastica Roxb. 
 
 Java. 
 
 Mcus elastica Hoxb. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 ? ? Cynanchwrn ovalifoliwm. 
 
 
 ? Ficus sps. 
 
 Siam. 
 
 ? Mcus sps. 
 
 India : — 
 
 
 Assam. 
 
 Ficus elastica Roxb. 
 
 
 ? Tlrostigma lacciferum Miq. ( 
 
 
 Ficus laccifera Eoxb.) 
 
 III. African Varieties : — 
 
 
 Madagascar. 
 
 Vahece sps. 
 
 
 ? Willughbeia edulis Roxb. 
 
 
 ? ? Ficus elastica Roxb. 
 
 Comoro Islands : — 
 
 
 Johanna. 
 
 VaJieoe sps. 
 
 MoMla. 
 
 Vahece sps. 
 
 Eastern Africa: — 
 
 
 Zanzibar. 
 
 ? Landolphim sps. 
 
 Mozambique. 
 
 L. sps. 
 
 Zambesi. 
 
 L. sps. 
 
xu 
 
 
 INTKODUCTION. 
 
 
 W estern Africa : 
 
 
 
 Gaboon. 
 
 Landolphi(B sps. 
 
 
 Congo. 
 
 L. sps. 
 
 
 Angola. 
 
 LandopJiia owariensis 
 
 &c. 
 ? Ficus sps. 
 ? Toxicophlcea sps. 
 
 Beauv 
 
 Benguela. 
 
 ? LandolpMce sps. 
 ? P Ficus sps. 
 
 
 IV. Australian Variety : — 
 
 Ficus rubiginosa et F. macrophylla. 
 
 Of these mentioned, the only kinds commonly known in commerce 
 we have : 
 
 American : — 
 
 ' Para ; Ceara ; Pernambnco and Maranham (less frequent) : 
 Carthagena ; Guayaquil ; Nicaragua ; " West India ;' 
 Honduras (not frequent) ; Guatemala. 
 
 Asiatic : — 
 
 "Singapore;" Borneo; Java; Penang; Siam ; Assam. 
 
 African : — 
 
 Madagascar and " West Coast." 
 
PART I. 
 
 NATURAL ORDER.— EUPHORBIACE^. 
 
 1. American Sotjuces of Supply, 
 Severn Species, " Par& Caoutchouc." 
 
 Of all the various kinds of Caoutchouc, that of Para is the most 
 highly esteemed, and consequently obtains the highest price. It is 
 furnished by different species of the genus Sevea, Aubl., or iSiphonia, 
 Rich. It, too, is one of the most important articles of export at 
 Pard, the duty on it being stated to form a third of the whole 
 revenue. The travels of Messrs. Edwards,* Bates,t and Wallace, | 
 and Dr. Spruce, § have added materially to our knowledge of these 
 trees and their produce. They are found abundantly in the 
 provinces of the Amazons and of Para, less common in Maranham, 
 and in large quantities in Ceara and Rio Grande du Nord ; 
 frequenting the river banks and marshy places. To the accuracy, 
 industry, and perseverance of Dr. Richard Spruce, however, we are 
 indebted for nearly the whole of our present information respecting 
 the species yielding this important substance, and tUl his time 
 unknown. 
 
 The Heveas are large trees, the trunks of which yield a very pure 
 Caoutchouc, growing abundantly in the humid forests of tropical 
 America, especially along the Amazon and its tributaries. The 
 wood is soft and soon decaying, partly owing to the " tapping " 
 operation to which they are subjected. The seeds are used for 
 baiting fish, and also yield by expression an oil of a clear violet 
 colour, not so siccative as that of linseed oil, but said to be of great 
 use in the preparation of varnishes. 
 
 * Edwards, "A Voyage up the Eiver Amazon," New York, 1847. 
 
 ■f Bates, "Naturalist on the Eiver Amazon,'' 2 vols., London, 1863. 
 
 J Wallace, " Travels on the Amazon and Eio Negro," London, 1853. 
 
 § Spruce in "Hooker's Journal of Botany," 1854, et seq., and in Letters to Collins. 
 
 (8279.) -^ 
 
2 eeport on the caoutchotjc of commerce. 
 
 Vernacular Names: 
 
 Caoutchouc (Maimas IndianSj Frencli Guiana) ; Cau-cho, Caout- 
 chout ; Cahuchu ; Sermga, Jeringa, or Cirmga (Garipon 
 Indians and Portuguese) ; Xermgue (an Indian corruption 
 of Sermga: Xeringue in Lingoa Geral means "a liar," 
 Dr. Spruce queries " a stretcher "!) ; Too de Xirringa (Portu- 
 guese) ; Borracha (Brazilian) ; Sevi^ (Esmaraldas) ; Ywpi 
 da/pi or ddpiche (Venezuela). The collectors in Brazil are 
 called " Seringueiros." 
 Dr. Spruce remarks that aU the species of Sevea do not yield 
 Caoutchouc of good quality, those of the gap6* and caatingaf 
 producing a brittle gum in small quantity. 
 
 The following is a list of the species of Sevea which have been 
 described, their geographic distribution, together with remarks on 
 them : — 
 
 1. Sevea Spruceana, Miill. arg., in Linnsea, vol. 34, p. 204; De 
 
 OandoUe's Prodromus, vol. xv., p. 716 et seq. 
 Synonym. — IStphoma Spruceana, Benth. in Hqoker's 
 
 Jour. Bot., 1854, p. 370. 
 Geographic Distribution. — Province of Para.J 
 Remarks. — A smaller tree than Mevea Brasiliemis : 
 
 " Caoutchouc is collected from it on the Amazon, about 
 
 " the mouth of the Tapajoz " (Spruce in letter to Collins). 
 
 2. S. discolor, Mull. arg. in D. C. Prod, xv., p. 717. 
 
 Synonyms. — Siphonia discolor. Spruce MSS., Benth. in 
 Hook. Jour. Bot., 1. c. ; Micrandra ternata, R. Br. PI. 
 Jav. Rar., p. 238 (not a Javanese species ! ), 
 
 Vernacular Names. — " Seringa de Gapd." 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — Ega on the Alto Amazonas. 
 Common in the gapo of the Rio Negro (Barra), and of 
 its tributary, the Rio Uaup6s (Panurd). 
 
 Remarks. — "The tree scarcely exceeds 25 feet, but the 
 " branches spread out horizontally, sometimes to a con- 
 
 * Tke " Gapo " (lingoa geral) is land inundated by the rivers and lakes in winter 
 constituting a breadth of from 20 yards to several miles, according as the land is 
 abruptly ascending or perfectly flat. 
 
 t The "Caa-tingas" or "white forests" are parts in which the soil is a thin 
 covering of white sand over granite. 
 
 J In very special cases only are the collectors, &c. given. The geographic distri- 
 bution is based on systematic works on botany and plants in different Herbaria. 
 
REPORT ON THE CAOtJTCHOTJC OP COMMERCE. d 
 
 " siderable distance. The milk is sparing, scarcely elastic 
 
 " when dry " (Spruce). 
 3. S. paucifolia, Miill. arg. in Linnsea, 1. c, D. C. Prod., 1. c. 
 
 Synonym. — Siphonia paucifolia, Spruce, MS., Benth. 1. c. 
 Geographic Distribution.^ — In rocky situations (or " Caa- 
 
 tingas ") about Panur^ along the Rio Uaupes (Spruce). 
 
 Also found in British Guiana (Eob. and Richard 
 
 Schomburgh. Hancock). 
 Remarks. — ^A large tree 40 to 50 feet, yielding a very 
 
 copious milky juice (Spruce). 
 4i. S. rigidifoUa, Miill. arg. in Linngea, 1. c, D. 0. Prod., 1. c. 
 Sjmonym. — Siphonia rigidifoUa, Spruce, Benth. 1. c. 
 Geographic Distribution. — Caatingas of the Rio Uaupes 
 
 (about Panur6). 
 Remarks. — A milky tree of 30 feet in height. 
 
 5. S. Benthamiana, Mull. arg. in LinnBsa, 1. c, D. C. Prod., 1. c. 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — Rio Uaup6s (coll. R. Spruce, 
 2560). 
 
 6. R. Brasiliensis, Miill. arg. in Linnsea, 1. c, D. C. Prod., 1. c. 
 
 Synonyms. — Siphonia Brasiliensis, Willd. Kunth in 
 
 Humb. et Bonpl. Nov. gen. et sp. pi., vol. 7, p. 171 ; 
 
 Benth. in Hook. Jour. Bot., 1. c. (Plate I.) 
 
 S. Kunthiana, Baill. Etud G6n. Euphorb., p. 326. 
 Geographic Distribution. — Province of Para. Also in 
 
 Venezuela (Humb. et B.) 
 Remarks. — " A large handsome tree 60 feet high, branching 
 
 " from the base, and yielding the Caoutchouc most 
 
 " abundantly exported " (Spruce). 
 
 7. jff. lutea, Miill. arg. in Linnsea, 1. c, D. 0. Prod., 1. c. 
 
 Synonyms. — Siphonia lutea. Spruce, MS. ; Benth., 1. c. ; 
 BaUl., 1. c. 
 
 S. apiculata, Spruce, MS. 
 >S'. hrevifolia, Spruce, MS. 
 S. apiculata, Baill., 1. c. 
 Vernacular Names. — " Long-leaved Seringa" {S. apiculata) 
 
 and " Short-leaved Seringa " {S. hrevifolia). 
 Note. — There is some little misunderstanding here. S. 
 apiculata of Spruce is given by Miiller as a synonym. 
 S' hrevifolia of Spruce I have treated as a synonym also, 
 as it seems to have been distributed under the same 
 number (3139), and from the same locality. They may 
 A 2 
 
4 BEPOET ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OP COMMERCE. 
 
 be varieties, or a second name substituted for tbe pre- 
 vious one. 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — Panure on tbe Rio Uaup^s. 
 Also on tbe Casiquiairi. 
 
 Eemarks. — (S. lutea, Spruce.) A tree 70 feet higb, 
 copious nulk, tbougb not so much as S. Brasiliensis, 
 speedily turning black on tbe bands and clotbes, and 
 staining liaen permanently. Wben dry, very elastic and 
 tenacious. I saw a rubber manufactory on tbe same 
 island (at the mouth of the TJaup&s, six or seven mUes 
 north of the Equator), and rubber prepared from the 
 same tree from which I had gathered my specimens. 
 S. apiculata, " long-leaved Seringa," straight, tall, not 
 very thick tree, smoothish thin bark, and yellow, odori- 
 ferous flowers. SI, brevifoUa, " short-leaved Seringa," 
 yields less miUc than S. lutea. A tree cut down near 
 San Carlos measured 100 feet (Spruce). 
 8. E. Guyanensis. Aubl. Guyan, p. 871, t. 335 (1775). 
 
 Synonyms. — Jatropha elastica, L. Supp,, p. 422 (1781). 
 Siphonia elastica, Pers. Enchir, vol. 2, p. 588. 
 S. Guyanensis, Juss. 
 >S'. Cahuchu, Willd. sp. pL, vol. 4, p. 567. 
 
 Vernacular Names. — Sirimga (Garipon Indians); Seve 
 (Natives of the Esmeraldas) ; Caoutchouc (Maimas 
 Indians). 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — Erench Guiana. About Barra 
 on the Rio Negro. Naturalized in Saint Vincent. 
 
 Remarks. — A tree 50 to 60 feet high, trunk 2 feet to 2 feet 
 6 inches in diameter ; bark greyish and not thick, 
 wood white and light. 
 
 Hevece species incerta : 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — Seringa trees have been found 
 to abound on the low islands in mid-river, and along the 
 banks of the River Amazons,* from the Island of 
 
 * The River Amazon changes its name three times along its course. From its 
 source to its confluence with the Yucayali it is called the Maranon or Maranoa. 
 From the Yucayali to the Rio Negro it is called the Solimoes, Solimoens, Alto 
 Amazonas or Upper Amazon, and from the Rio Negro to its mouth the Amazon or 
 Orellana. The chief tributaries on the left from its mouth are the Tocantins, Zingu, 
 Tapajoz, Ramos, Madeira, and Purus. On the right the Rio Negro, with its tribu- 
 taries, the Uaupes and Casiquiari, the latter connecting the Amazon with the River 
 Orinoco. 
 
REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OF COMMERCE. 5 
 
 Marajd to its source. Also its tributaries, the Tocantins, 
 the chief Pard district being between it, and the Zingu, 
 along and between the Tapajoz and Madeira from 3° to 
 7° S. lat. On the Rio Negro, Casiquaiari and Uaup^s. 
 They also occur, according to Dr. Weddell, plentifully 
 on the plains of the Orinoco.* 
 Of the species above enumerated, Dr. Spruce remarks (in letter to 
 Collins) Caoutchouc is obtained : 
 
 At Pard, from Siphonia Braziliensis, Willd., and probably from 
 sereral other species of the same genus : 
 
 On the Amazon. About the mouth of the Tapajoz, from S. 
 Spruceana, Benth. ; towards the mouth of the Madeira are other 
 species not seen by him in good state : 
 
 On the E<io Negro, Uaup^s, and Casiquiari, from — 
 S. discolor, Spruce ; 
 S. rigidifolia. Spruce ; 
 S. lutea, Spruce; 
 S. paucifoUa, Spruce ; 
 S. apiculata. Spruce, 
 
 and from two other species (Nos. 3326 and 3457). 
 Micrandra mvnor, Benth., 1. c, D. C. Prod., vol. xv., p. 709, et 
 M. siphonioides, Benth., 1. c, D. C. Prod., 1. c. 
 Geographic Distribution. — Rio Negro. 
 Remarks. — On the Rio Negro, Caoutchouc, elastic as that 
 of the Seringas, is obtained from this genus (Spruce). 
 Dr. Spruce mentions another genus near Hevea, called by the 
 Barr^ Indians Ctmuri, whose sap contains Caoutchouc, and from 
 whose seeds a vegetable butter is prepared. 
 
 Climatic Conditions op the Heve^. 
 Para District. — In Par4 the seasons are modified, as to be almost 
 exceptional. Guiana and Brazil to the N. and S. of the Para 
 district forms a somewhat elevated tableland, whilst between them 
 is the Para district, the river- valley of which forms a wide extent of 
 low-lying country. During six months very little rain falls (August 
 to Pebruary), the heaviest rains being in April, May, and June. 
 Mr. Wallace gives the rainfall for 1847 as 15 iaches in April, being 
 the greatest monthly rainfall for that year. In January, Eeb- 
 
 * Mr. H. A. Wickham ("Eough Notes of a journey through the Wilderness from 
 Trinidad to Para, &c.," London, 1872) noticed fine " Ciringa" trees on the banks of 
 the Orinoco, and collected caoutchouc for commercial purposes on an island in, the 
 Eiver Caricia or Chirari. 
 
6 
 
 REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OF COMMERCE. 
 
 ruary, and Marcli it gradually increased from 5 to 10, till in April 
 it readied 15. In May it gradually lessened, till ia June and 
 tlirougliout the rest of the year it was under 5 inches (Eig. 2). 
 
 
 JAN. 
 
 FEB. 
 
 MAR, 
 
 APR. 
 
 MAY. 
 
 UUN. 
 
 JULY. 
 
 AUC. 
 
 SEP. 
 
 OCT. 
 
 NOV. 
 
 ""■11 
 
 INCHES 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — , 
 
 ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10. 
 
 V 
 
 \ 
 
 X. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lis. 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 VJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 2 [Vide WaUace, 1. c, p. 431.J 
 
 The heat not generally above 87° in the afternoon, or below 74° 
 at night. The temperature duritig three years only once reached 
 95° (Wallace). The greatest heat is about 2 p.m., from 89° to 94°, 
 p,nd never cooler than 73°. The mean for the year, 81° (Bates). 
 The Amazon begins to fall in the beginning of June ; at the same 
 time the forest trees begia to push out their new leaves, especially 
 those of the river margins. The trees of the Gap6 (land inundated 
 during the winter) begin to flower as soon as the waters leave them. 
 The Amazon is full of islands, and these during the wet season are 
 covered with water, as also is a great extent of low country on 
 either bank. The Amazon begins to rise in December, attains its 
 greatest height in March, and least height in July and August. 
 
 The Amazon vaUey is remarkable for uniformity of temperature 
 and for regular supply of moisture, From June to December is the 
 dry season, and January to May the wet. In the dry season in 
 November there are a few occasional showers, and during the wet 
 season intervals of fine weather. On the Amazon itself the dews 
 are scarcely perceptible, owing probably to the strong wiads which 
 almost daily sweep up it (as far as the mouth of the Rio Negro), 
 whUst on the Eio Eamos Dr. Spruce found the dews to be very 
 heavy. 
 
 Up the Eio Negro the heat early in the morning is about 75° 
 (the temperature of the water 85°, and at noon 86°), increasiag at 
 noon to 95° to 100°. On the banks are dense moist forests, with 
 Caoutchouc trees interspersed. Dr. Spruce, when at Barra, in De- 
 cember 1850, found that the rains had set in some weeks previous, 
 and from December 10th to the beginning of the following February 
 only a single day occurred without some rain. In February there 
 
HEPOET ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OF COMMERCE. 7 
 
 were six fair days ; in March, the most rainy month, but one ; and 
 to April 18th three days of fine weather. During March the highest 
 temperature was 84J^°, many days it not reaching as high as 80°. 
 
 On the Solimoens or Upper Amazons the sea breeze is not felt, 
 and it is therefore more stagnant and sultry. The whole of the 
 country along its banks is covered with one uniform, lofty, im- 
 pervious, and hiunid forest. The soil nowhere sandy, but always 
 either a stiff clay, alluvium, or vegetable mould. The vegetation is 
 very proHflc and the atmosphere densely vaporous. At Ega the 
 year is divided according to the rise and faU of the river. The 
 great annual rise begins about the end of February and continues to 
 the middle of June, and the rain falls very heavily at .times. About 
 the first week in June the flood is at its highest, being over 40 feet 
 above its lowest point. Towards, the middle of July the banks 
 begin to reappear. From the middle of October to the beginning 
 of January the second or lesser wet season prevails, and the second 
 dry season comes on in January and lasts throughout February 
 (Bates). 
 
 Forests of the Amazons. Dr. Spruce gives five distinct series of 
 vegetation : — 
 
 1. The Riparial Forests (or gapos), which with their scrub lie 
 
 submerged for many months of the year ; 
 
 2. The Eecent Forests ; 
 
 3. The Low or "White Forests [caa-tingas ?], the remains of an 
 
 ancient and highly interesting vegetation, which are now 
 being encroached upon by a sturdier growth ; 
 
 4. The Virgin or Great Forests, which clothe the fertile lands 
 
 beyond the reach of inundations ; and lastly, 
 
 5. The Campos or Savannahs, regions of grassy and scrubby 
 
 knoUs, glades, and hollows. 
 Mr. Wallace (1. c.) gives the forest distribution of this part of 
 South America. He says that if a line be drawn from the mouth 
 of the Pariaiba (long. 41° 30' W.) due west towards Guayaquil, it 
 will cut the boundary of the great forest in long. 78° 30', and for 
 the whole 2,600 miles will have passed through the centre of it, 
 dividing it into two nearly equal portions. For the first 1,000 
 miles, or as far as 56° W. long., the width of the forest from north to 
 south is about 400 miles ; it then stretches out both to north and 
 south, so that in long. 67° W. it extends from 7° N. on the banks of 
 the Orinoco to 18° S., on the northern slope of the Andes of Bolivia, 
 
8 REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OP COMMERCE. 
 
 a distance of more than 1,700 miles. This central line whicli 
 Mr. "Wallace draws passes througli the centre of the chief district 
 for the Sevece. If a Une be drawn from about Parahiba to about 
 the point of junction of the River Araias with the Madeira, then 
 continued in a north-west direction to the source of the Meta 
 (tributary of the Japura), then diverging it in a north-east direction 
 to the junction of the Urichunge with the Orinoco, continuing this 
 in an easterly direction, following the coast when intersected by the 
 line tUl the Oyopok is reached, and continuing the line down it, 
 and iinally finishing the line at Santarem, it will enclose the whole 
 of the Hevea region. 
 
 Collection and Preparation op ParA Caoutchouc. 
 The collection commences as soon as the waters have sub- 
 sided, namely, in August, and continues till January or February. 
 In the wet season the milk is too aqueous to allow of profitable 
 collection. The milk is at first of the consistence and colour of 
 cream. This soon changes its consistence by the coalescence of the 
 particles of Caoutchouc, which are suspended in a thin whey-like 
 liquid. Each morning the collectors visit the trees which have 
 been incised the preceding evening and collect the milk. To obtain 
 the nulk from the tree, with a machete or knife a deep horizontal 
 cut is made a few inches above the base of the tree ; from this cut a 
 vertical one is made extending high up the trunk. On either side 
 of this vertical cut others are made at short distances in an oblique 
 direction and meeting it (Pig. 6). The cuts form channels down 
 which the milk runs, and which is received at the base in clay, shells, 
 or other vessels. .Sometimes the yield of the tree is increased by 
 binding the trunk with cords or bands formed of the stems of twining 
 plants (lianas or sip6s), resulting often in the death of the tree.* 
 When a sufficiency of milk has been collected, means are adopted to 
 bring about the coalescence of the Caoutchouc. The method more ge- 
 nerally adopted is by pouring the milk over clay or wooden moulds, 
 and drying each successive pouring by means of a gentle heat. 
 Into a brazier or pan, or pots with narrow necks, heated with wood 
 from beneath, the fruits of various palms are placed ; those of the 
 Urucuri {Attalea excelsa. Mart.) are generally used, but when these 
 are not procm^able, those of Maxvmiliana regia or Astrocaryum 
 
 * From the frontispiece given in Mr. Wickham's book (v. ante) it appears that the 
 barbarous method of denuding the tree for a considerable space of its bark is also 
 resorted to. 
 
REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OP COMMERCE. 9 
 
 murumurum are used. These nuts give off by this toasting to 
 which they are subjected a thick white smoke. In this smoke the 
 Caoutchouc is held and dried. The Caoutchouc prepared in this 
 manner has a beautifully laminated appearance. A second and more 
 modem method is by treating the milk with an aqueous solution of 
 alum, and then subjecting the Caoutchouc to pressure. This method 
 was purchased by the Provincial Government of Pard of M. Henrique 
 Antonio Strauss, and is much liked, inasmuch as it allows of being 
 performed away from the scene of collection, which is always 
 unhealthy. Mr. Augustus Tappenbech, of Liverpool, who was 
 formerly engaged in the Caoutchouc trade in Para, tells me he 
 believes an acid (?) is used ia the preparation of the variety known 
 as Virgin Rubber. Mr. Henry Lee Norris, likewise engaged in the 
 same trade in Pard., found strong liquor ammonias, in the pro- 
 portion of 3 7o5 li^d the desired effect on the milk. I believe too 
 that the vapour of sulphur plays a part in the preparation of some 
 of the Para caoutchouc. 
 
 Para Caoutchouc appears in commerce in several forms : 1st, Plat 
 pouches or " biscuits," a very fine, carefully prepared Caoutchouc, 
 made by successive dippings and " smoked," and with one 
 side cut open, for the purpose of withdrawing the mould ; 
 2nd, " Bottles," made also in the same manner ; 3rd, " Negro- 
 head " or " surnamby," consisting of the scraps of rubber left after 
 the preparation of the finer descriptions, rolled into large balls or 
 blocks, sometimes twelve inches in diameter, and often very mtich 
 adulterated; and, 4th, Loose " scrap." 
 
 The export, about 4,558 tons, from Para in 1869 is as follows : — 
 To London and Liverpool - - 161,987 arrobas.* 
 To European Continent - - 20,514 „ 
 
 To New York - - - 182,843 „ 
 
 Total - - - 365,344 
 
 Maranham. — Occasionally parcels of this Caoutchouc are received 
 here ; it has the general character of that of Pard. 
 
 Ceara. — This Caoutchouc, which has the general character of that 
 of Pard, consists of reddish-brown string-like pieces rolled up into 
 balls or blocks, and known commercially as Ceara "scrap." Species 
 of Sevece abound here. The tree is incised at the beginning of the 
 
 * An arroba zz 25^ lbs. 
 
10 REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OF COMMERCE. 
 
 dry season, and the Caoutcliouc which has oozed out, picked off at 
 the end of the dry season. It is good but barky. 
 
 Prench Guiana. 
 
 Sevea, Guyanensis, Aubl., abounds here, especially along the Eiver 
 Oyapok, the contested boundary line, where the Caoutchouc is 
 collected by the Indians and transported to Para. 
 
 Venezuela. 
 
 Caoutchouc is one of the principal articles of export, but it is not 
 known under that name in this country. Sevece are said to be 
 found rather plentifully. Gastilloa elasUca may also exist. 
 
 Peru. , 
 
 Under the name of Siphonia Feruviana, n. sp., is a specimen in 
 the Kew Herbarium, collected by Lechler at San Garan, in the 
 Eastern Cordilleras of Peru. On the ticket there is a note that the 
 tree attains 80 feet in height, and that the mUk of it is used in 
 making waterproof garments. Mr. Markham also (Travels in Peru 
 and India) noticed Seringa trees in Peru. 
 
REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OP COMMERCE. 11 
 
 NATURAL ORDEE.— AETOOAEPAOEJ]. 
 
 1. American Sources of Supply. 
 
 Castilloa elastica, Cerv., et C. Markhamiana, Collins, species nova. 
 
 Gastilloa elastica, Cervantes. — Suplemento a la Gazeta de 
 Literatura,* Mexico, 2 de Julio de 1794. Tr^cul sur les 
 Artocarp6es. Ann. des Sc, Nat. S** s&ie. Bot. T. 8, PI. 5, 
 1847 (Plate 2). 
 
 Vernacular Name. — " Ule." 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — Vide post. 
 
 Remarks. — Don Vincente de Cervantes describes the Ule 
 tree as one of the loftiest and most luxuriant of the 
 forests which adorn the hot north-east coast of Mexico. 
 Stem three to four yards in circumference, and very 
 straight. Bark smooth, soft, three to four Mnes thick. 
 Branches alternate, horizontal, round, flexible, and 
 furnished at the upper end "with stiff hairs. Leaves 
 alternate, a foot and a half long, and seven inches broad, 
 strongly sinuate at the base, generally terminating in 
 a point, pubescent on both surfaces, entire, though 
 appearing toothed at first sight, especially the younger 
 ones, in consequence of the villous brushes formed by 
 the pubescence at the margin of the leaves, and disposed 
 at equal distances from each other ; .... Fruit 
 from 5 to 20 oval drupes. 
 
 * In the British Museum copy there is no plate of this plant, that of another plant 
 being inserted in mistake. There is an English translation of it, and a plate in 
 " Tracts relating to Botany, by Charles Konig. Printed and sold by Phillips and Pardon, 
 London, 1805." The account was given by Cervantes as an inaugural lecture on 
 botany, and the plant named after Don Juan del Castillo, who was sent to examine 
 the vegetable productions of Mexico, and died in that country in 1793. Cervantes' 
 name of the plant is really Castilla elastica. 
 
12 REPORT ON THE CAOTJTCHGTJC OP COMMERCE. 
 
 C. MarJcliamiana, Collins, sp. nov. (Plate 3). 
 
 Vernacular Name. — U16-U16. 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — Panama (Sutton Hayes !) 
 
 Description. — Leaves alternate, petiolate, oblong-acumi- 
 nate, margin serrate, younger leaves entire, with a long 
 slender nearly entire acuminate apex, and a rounded, 
 not cordate base, upper surface glabrous, under surface, 
 midrib and veins covered with, stiff hairs ; lamina as 
 much as 13 inches long and nearly 7 inches broad, 
 the midrib giving off from 18 to 20 lateral well-marked 
 veins. Petiole semiterete, clothed with stiff hairs, about 
 three lines long. Stipule axillary, solitary elongate- 
 triangular, glabrous within, covered with stiff hairs on 
 the outside, caducous, half an inch in length. 
 ' Male flowers unknown. 
 
 Pemale flowers, many aggregated in a plane involuorate 
 nearly sessile axillary receptacle. Perianth tubular 
 formed of four oblong thick leaves, covered externally 
 with short stiff hairs. Style short cyliadrical, with two 
 thick leaf-like stigmas having serrated edges. Ovary, 
 one celled, and one seeded, the ovule suspended from 
 the top of the cell. 
 
 A small tree 20 feet high. In low woods. Lion Hill, 
 Panama Railway Station (Sutton Hayes, No. 7 ! in 
 Herb., Brit. Mus., Kew, et Collins). 
 
 Remarks. — This plant, of which the materials at hand will 
 not admit of a fuller description, differs from C. elastica 
 in being pubescent on the nerves and petioles only, and 
 not on the parenchyma of the leaves ; in the margins of 
 the leaves being dentate, the leaves of the C. elastica 
 being entire, the villous brushes of stiff hairs on the 
 margin being likely to be mistaken for serratures, and 
 also in being somewhat smaller, ovate, the C. elastica 
 being almost panduriform and somewhat auricular at 
 the base. Mr. Sutton Hayes describes its general ap- 
 pearance as being very similar to C. elastica, having 
 spreading branches, stem smooth, four or five inches 
 in diameter, the fruit a little different, of a red colour, 
 and covered with a silky pubescence, but the most 
 
REPORT ON THE CAOIJTCHOTJC OF COMMERCE. 13 
 
 obvious difference being in tbe leaves. The Caoutcbouc 
 from tbis second species be did not consider so good 
 as tbat of C. elastica. 
 
 In Nicaragua, Caoutcbouc is obtained from Qastilloa 
 elastica, and anotber species wbicb may be Castilloa 
 MarkJiamiana, or a tbird species.* M. Paul Levy, 
 in a letter to me, tbus describes it : — Very near 
 to tbe G. elastica, but its leaf is oval. Eruit 
 6-10 centimetres in diameter; reddisb yellow pulp 
 enveloping tbe seeds. Trunk smooth, cylindrical, very 
 straight, of about 50 centimetres, diameter rarely 
 reaching 150 centimetres; primary branches not 
 numerous and comparatively short, giving rise to a 
 multitude of secondary branches, which are long and 
 slender. Leaves in tufts of 5-6 or more, with a 
 terminal bud. Behind these leaves in December appear 
 small grey points, wbicb eventually burst into an infinite 
 number of small blossoms, many of which the February 
 winds carry off. Tbe remaining ones promptly ripen 
 to fruit, and from two centimetres, the width of tbe 
 flower, a fruit is produced from 6-12 centimetres in 
 diameter. The fruit is covered beneath with greenish 
 grey scales, and attached to tbe branch by a very short 
 peduncle. In April tbe leaves fall off, and new ones 
 are produced immediately. In the middle of January 
 the tree begins to flower, and in March is tbe period 
 of fructification. 
 
 However, as my specimiens have not yet arrived, I 
 cannot say whether it be identical or not. 
 
 Dr. Seemannf speaks of "a species of Caoutchouc 
 " known by its Aztec name of TJle." Now be knew 
 tbe C. elastica well, and often spoke to me respecting 
 it. If it was C. elastica, I think be would have used 
 more concise language. 
 General Geographic Distribution. — The Ule trees are found 
 in Mexico, all Central American Republics (viz., Guate- 
 
 * Since the above was in type, I have been favoured with a personal visit by 
 M. Levy. On shewing him the proofs of the two plates of Castillom here given, he 
 remarked that his species differed from both, being in its characters intermediate 
 between them. 
 
 I " Dottings on the Koadside in Panama, Nicaragua, and Mosquito," London, 1870. 
 
14 REPORT ON THE CAOTJTCHOUC OP COMMERCE. 
 
 mala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Eica), 
 Isthmus of Panama, West Coast of America down to 
 Guayaquil, and the slopes of the Chimhorazo. They 
 have also been found ia Cuba and Hayti. 
 
 Vernacular Names. — Arhol del Tile (Mexico). 
 
 TTle (of the Creoles). 
 Vle.TJU.'' 
 TJlequahuitl (Aztec Ule-tree, Huitl- 
 
 tree). 
 Jehe\ (Ecuador, written Jeve or Heve) . 
 Sule (Nicaragua, amongst Civil In- 
 dians and Creoles). 
 TJli (Oarib Indians). 
 Tassa (Mosquito Indians). 
 
 CiiiMATic Conditions. 
 
 The species of Castilloa seem to like best and thrive in thick, 
 humid, warm forests. They abound in Nicaragua ; and as I have, 
 through the kindness of my friend Br. Bureau, of Paris, received 
 from M. Paul L6vy, a botanical collector in Nicaragua, a good 
 account of their history there, it wUl serve to give a correct idea of 
 their habits. 
 
 The basin of the Hio San Juan is where the U16 tree grows to 
 perfection. This river is the natural vent of the two vast basins 
 of the lakes of Nicaragua and Managua, receiving numerous 
 tributaries, which have all their sources in the innumerable tracts 
 hitherto virgin and unfrequented, and where the trees abound. 
 The ground is very fertile. The district is very unhealthy — it 
 rains for eight or nine months in the year — and the climate very 
 warm and humid. Castillo is the entrepot where the huleros (as 
 the Caoutchouc collectors are called) start from, having first 
 ascertained at this old fort the best districts. These huleros are 
 nearly aU natives of Grenada, or of the Department of the Rivas. 
 The trees prefer humid and warm soils, but not marshy, clayey, or 
 gravelly ground, and the presence of these trees is looked upon as 
 
 * The duplication .of a vernacular name gives intensity to its meaning, and is nearly 
 always done in tlie case of medicinal plants. The milk of the Ule is an effectual 
 remedy in diarrhoeal complaints ; indeed, if a sufficient quantity were taken it wduld 
 " glue up " the viscera. 
 
 ■f The same name is also applied to the Siphocampylos Jamesonianis, D.C., a small 
 lobeliaceous herb yielding Caoutchouc (Spruce). 
 
BEPOET ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OE COMMENCE. 15 
 
 an indication of a fertile soil. It is not distributed irregularly- 
 through the forests, but sometimes in little groups, more or less 
 isolated, such a group being termed a mancha (spot). This 
 grouping is the normal state, and is believed to be caused by 
 monkeys dropping the seeds near an isolated tree, as they are very 
 fond of the pulp by which the seeds are surrounded. The trees are 
 distributed in vetas (veins) or bands, either in a north to south, 
 or east to west direction, the first probably caused by monkeys, by 
 the trees being on a declivity, or by water, and the second by the 
 wind, which daily blows in that direction. This irregular distribu- 
 tion has led M. L^vy to the opinion that in cultivation they should 
 be interspersed between other trees rather than form separate 
 plantations, as he thinks that this sympathetic and antipathetic 
 tendency should not be lost sight of. The hule is often near water- 
 courses, and nearly always on the banks. Trees of small groups 
 give a better net produce than those composing large groups. 
 
 Collection and Pbepakation oe Ule Caoutchouc. 
 
 Time of Tapping. — In Nicaragua it is found that although the Hule 
 yields the juice at aU seasons, the most favourable season is April, 
 when the old leaves begin to fall and the new ones to appear. 
 During the rainy season from May till September the richness 
 of the juice diminishes, From that time till January the rain 
 diminishes and the milk increases ia richness, and the tree prepares 
 to flower, and the fruit appearing in March, during which month 
 and the succeeding one the milk is at its richest. The difference of 
 yield Caoutchouc contaiaed in an equal quantity of milk would in 
 April be 60 7o more than in October. 
 
 Yield by Tapping. — A tree of about 18 inches in diameter bled by 
 skilful hands in April would yield about 20 gallons of mUk capable 
 of giving 50 lbs. of Caoutchouc. This is, however, the maximum 
 yield ; the average is a little below this. A tree of from 20 to 30 feet 
 to its first branches is expected to yield 20 gallons of milk, and each 
 gallon of milk to give 2 lbs. or 2 lbs, 2 oz. of good dried rubber. 
 
 Mode of Collection and Preparation. — The huleros makes a ladder 
 of climbing plants, if unprovided with guachos or hooks, and fastens 
 it to the tree as high up as possible. He incises the tree with a 
 machete or axe well sharpened, in either of two ways. One method 
 is by making one long vertical cut, with diagonal cuts running into 
 
16 EEPOE.T ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OP COMMERCE. 
 
 it, as in Brazil, and a second is by encirling the tree with spiral cuts 
 at an inclination of about 45° (Fig. 4). If the tree be large, two such 
 spirals are made, either crossing each other or lying parallel with each 
 other (Fig. 5). At the bottom of the trunk an iron spout is driven, 
 and the milk receiyed into iron pails. In the evening the milk is 
 passed through a sieve in order to free it as much as possible from 
 foreign matters, before transferring it to the barrels in which it 
 has to be treated. The coalescence of the Caoutchouc is brought 
 about by the addition of the juice of various plants, one named 
 acJiete, and another, or the same, named coasso. Dr. Seeman found 
 that the achet6 was the very common Ipomoea bona-nox, a convolvu- 
 laceous plant. This or these plants are collected and moistened 
 with water, bruised, and the juice, after straining, added to the milk, 
 one pint of the juice being sufficient to effect the coalescence of 
 one gallon of milk. The Caoutchouc, after this operation to which 
 the milk is subjected, appears as a soft mass floating in a brown 
 fluid, and smelling like new cheese. This mass is subjected to 
 pressure from a plank or iron roller, and is called a tortilla, and 
 when dried weigh about two pounds, and generally the produce 
 of one gallon of milk. If these plants are not procurable, about 
 two parts of water is added to one part of milk, and allowed to 
 stand for 12 hours. The residue which separates from the water is 
 poured into vats made in the ground and left to dry. This drying 
 takes from 12 to 14 days. Sometimes the milk is simply poured 
 on prepared ground, and the watery portion allowed to evaporate 
 or otherwise disappear. This, when dry, is subjected to pressure in 
 order to get rid of the bolsas or pockets of watery liquid. These 
 slabs of Caoutchouc are called torta, tortillas, or meros. When the 
 Caoutchouc is allowed to dry in the iron trough, it is rolled into 
 balls and called cabezza. That which dries in the cuts made in 
 the tree is called bola or burucha, and is highly prized in New 
 York. Merma or loss by drying is calculated at about 15 °/^. 
 
 Nicaragua. 
 
 Caoutchouc, as has been seen, is an important article of export 
 from Nicaragua, most of it going to New York. The production, 
 chiefly of the San Juan district, from September 1869 to Sep- 
 tember 1870, amounted to 10,000 quintals, giving employment to 
 about 600 huler6s. 
 
report on the caoutchouc of commerce. 17 
 
 New Grenada. 
 
 The Caoutclioric produced here is known in commerce as 
 " Carthagena," and is imported in the form of sheets of f inch 
 thickness. It has a somewhat "chewed" appearance, resulting 
 from pressure. It is of very good quality. In colour it is black, 
 and also tough, and occasionally " tarry." If analogy of character 
 be anything, I should say it was the produce of Castilloa, which is 
 plentiful. Dr. Spruce says (in letter to Collins), " I have often 
 " been told of a pinnate-leaved tree which I have never seen, but 
 " there is said to be such an one about Serpa on the Amazon, and 
 " the same or a cognate species in New Grenada, the Caoutchouc 
 " of which finds its way to Cartagena." 
 
 Ecuador. 
 
 Ecuador Caoutchouc is exported from Guayaquil, and is the 
 produce of Castilloa elastica. It is in large flakes or lumps of a 
 whitish colour in the best kinds, the lower kinds being porous, the 
 pores being filled with a disagreeable black liquid, which stains the 
 knife and hands. 
 
 Peru. 
 
 The Castilloa elastica is reported here, but its produce does not 
 spem to be exported. 
 
 Panama. 
 
 Large quantities of Caoutchouc from Castilloa elastica and Mark- 
 hamiana are prepared, and chiefly sold in New York. The trees 
 are plentiful on the Hio Gatun and Rio Trinidad. It is chiefly 
 collected in the forests of Darien and Panama. About 2,000 men 
 are engaged in collecting it along the principal rivers. The trees 
 are cut down to obtain the " caoucho," and in Panama there are 
 two establishments for cutting and drying it. 
 
 Costa Eica. 
 The U16-TJle is said to exist here in great abundance. 
 
 Salvador. 
 
 Caoutchouc is collected from Castilloa elastica for export, 
 though unknown as such in this country. 
 
 (8279.) ■" 
 
18 bepoet on the caotjtchotjc 01" commebce. 
 
 West Indies. 
 Under the name of " West India " the best description of Central 
 American Caoutchouc is known. The finest is in the form of 
 blocks, consisting of thin separable " sheet " and of great purity, 
 and the second as " scrap " good, but barky. In general character 
 it is good, but barky. None of the West India Islands seem to 
 produce Caoutchouc for commercial purposes, and it owes its name 
 to the fact of the West India steamer calling at St. Thomas as the 
 last station. Yucatan or Belize or the Central Republics may 
 furnish it. 
 
 HONDUBAS. 
 
 This description of Caoutchouc, probably also the produce of 
 Castilloa elastica, appears rarely in English markets. It is of good 
 quality, and Tery free from "tarry " matter. 
 
 Gtiatemaia. 
 
 This Caoutchouc is the lowest American variety. It is prepared 
 ia blocks, consistiag of sheets pressed together, but contains mixed 
 with the Caoutchouc more of the black resinous substance than 
 any other variety. This resin, which gives Caoutchouc a " tarry " 
 appearance, is not liked, and its presence ia quantity prevents 
 Guatemala Caoutchouc from attaining a much higher price. 
 Mr. Mann informs me that in Hanover they do not intend ^o 
 buy any more of this variety, as the " tarry " matter is believed to 
 make the workmen iU. 
 
 Mexico. 
 As has already been stated, the Castilloa elastica is very abundant 
 in some parts of Mexico, on the warm coast regions, and especially 
 at Cordova and Vera Cruz. Parcels of Mexican Caoutchouc have 
 been recently sold in London and Liverpool. 
 
 2. — Asiatic Sotjbces op Supply. 
 Mous elastica, Eoxb. &c. 
 Mcus elastica, B/Oxb., Fl. Ind., v, iii. p. 545. 
 
 Vernacular Names.— ^«<«Mr or Kasmeer (Bengal). Pohon 
 
 Karet or Kohlehlet (Javanese). 
 Geographic Distribution. — Assam, Java, and probably 
 other Malayan countries. Cultivated in Malabar, &c. 
 
BBPOET ON THE CAOIJTCHOTIC OF COMMBBCE. 19 
 
 Urostigma lacciferum, Miq., Flo. Ind. Bat,, v. i. p. 575. Thwaites' 
 Enum. PL Zeylan., p. 265. 
 
 Synonym. — Ficus lacdfera, Roxb., Flo. Ind., iii. p. 54!5. 
 
 Wight's Ic. t. 656. 
 Geographic Distribution. — Assam, Java, Ceylon, &c. 
 Remarks. — ^The late Dr. Anderson, when in England, as- 
 sured me that he believed a part of Assam Caoutchouc 
 was furnished by this tree. It would be interestiag and 
 useful to collect authentic specimens. 
 General, Remarks. — Ficus elastica is the chief, if not the only 
 soiu'ce of Assam and Java Caoutchouc. Other Artocarps deserve to 
 be examined, especially those of the genus Ficus and Artocarpus, 
 A. chaplhsha and Icbhoocha — for instance.* Mr. Leeds, writing from 
 the SUHgoree Camp, Sikkim., says he has collected and sold 
 Caoutchouc obtaiaed from Ficus Indica. Is this a slip of the pen ? 
 It does certainly yield Caoutchouc, but, it has always been stated, 
 in insufficient quantities for commercial purposes. 
 
 Ficus elastica, Roxb. 
 Indian or Assam Caoutchouc. 
 
 Geographic Distribution and Climatic Conditions. — To Mr. Gustav 
 Mann's very excellent and valuable Report on the Caoutchouc 
 Trees in the Durrung District,! and a long, valuable MS. account 
 furnished me by the same gentleman, through the kiadness and 
 courtesy of Dr. Brandis, the Inspector General of Indian Forests, 
 I am chiefly indebted for the geographic distribution, &c. 
 
 The Ficus elastica is found along the foot and in the low tropical 
 valleys of the Himalayas, from the Mechi River on the Nepaul 
 boundary at 88° E. long., to the extreme eastern boundary of 
 Assam, 79° E. long., as well as along the foot and in the low valleys 
 of the southern mountains of the Brahmapootra vaUey, viz. the 
 Patkye Mountains, the Naga, Khasi Jynteah and Garrow Hills. 
 Although found so far west as the Nepaul boundary, it is not 
 abundant untU east of the Bor Nuddee (the western boundary of 
 the Durrung district), where it is common in the forests at the foot 
 
 * From what I recollect of a specimen I have seen, said to be from this tree, it had 
 a brittle and non-elastic character very like that of Bassia elliptica Dalz. 
 
 ■j- "Progress Report of Forest Administration in Bengal for the Year 1868-69." 
 Calcutta, 1869.. 
 
 B 2 
 
20 BEPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OP COMMERCE. 
 
 of the hills in the Khaliag, Booree-Goma and Kooreeaparah 
 Dooars, between the Bor Nuddee and Moora Dhunseeree Nuddee, 
 and has been exported from the forests, which extend over about 
 40 square miles), as well as from the low valleys of the Bhootan 
 Hills, immediately above them, and especially from the forests in 
 the neighbourhood of the exit of the Noonae Nuddee in the 
 Khaling Dooar and the adjoining hills, and those between the 
 Deemjany and the E.ootah Nuddees. 
 
 In the Chardooar forests, between the Moora Dhunseeree, or 
 Bootah Nuddee and the Bhoralee Biver, they are abundant. The 
 Chardooar forests cover about 220 square miles. In these forests, 
 between the Beelseeree and the Gobhoroo Nuddees, they are found 
 as far as 16 miles from the hills ; but as here the atmosphere is 
 drier than at the hills, the produce is not nearly so abundant. 
 
 In the Nowdooar forests, covering about 2,000 square miles, the 
 atmosphere is dryer, but the Caoutchouc obtained from trees close 
 to the hills is good. 
 
 In the Chydooar forests. Caoutchouc trees are only found in the 
 forest along, and immediately at the foot of, the hUls. They are 
 also most abundant in the Luckimpore and Naga Hill districts, as 
 well as in the low valleys of the mountains immediately adjoining 
 them. 
 
 Mr. Leeds, the conservator of the Bengal forests, writes me that 
 he has been collecting Caoutchouc in Sikkim (Camp Silligoree), 
 it being the first collection in that district. 
 
 Collection and Prepakation oi* Assam Caoutchouc. 
 
 Mode of Tapping. — The collectors with their " Daos " or knives 
 cut every part of the tree they can get at. The cuts on the lower 
 portions of the stem, and the roots which run along for a distance 
 of 30 to 40 feet, vary from 6 to 18 inches in length, and are made 
 diagonally through not only the bark, but also the wood, which is 
 thus injured. The cut is elliptical in shape, being about 3 inches 
 across the centre. The milk flowing. from these cuts is received 
 into holes prepared in the ground, or in leaves doubled up in funnel 
 shape. The cuts on the upper branches are smaller, and the milky 
 juice is allowed to dry on the tree. About 50 oz. of milk is the 
 yield of a tree in August, giving about 15^ oz. of pure Caoutchouc. 
 During the cold season, from October — March, the milk is scantier, 
 but richer than in the warm weather, March — October. 
 
REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OP COMMERCE, 21 
 
 Mode of Preparation. — ^The first or " loaf " kind obtained from 
 the lower parts of the stem and roots is the only kind prepared 
 artificially. The milk is poured into boiling water, and stirred till 
 it gets sufficiently firm to be carried about without being clammy 
 or stickiag together. Messrs. Martin, E-ichie, & Co., of Tezpore, 
 to prepare their Caoutchouc, poured the milk into large wooden 
 boxes or bins 6 feet square, and partly filled with water, the 
 Caoutchouc after a time floating on the top. The Caoutchouc 
 (being still fluid) was then taken out and boiled over a slow flre in 
 iron pans 4 to 6 feet in diameter, and 2 to 2^ feet deep, 2 parts of 
 water being added to the Caoutchouc, and the whole stirred con- 
 stantly. As soon as the Caoutchouc coagulated into a mass, ifc was 
 taken out with iron forks and pressed, and again boiled and pressed, 
 and then dried in the sun, and finally washed over with lime. 
 
 Assam Caoutchouc is shipped from Calcutta in baskets made of 
 split rattans, and generally covered with a " gunny " bag. These 
 " baskets " weigh about 3 cwt. each. The Caoutchouc has a peculiar 
 mottled appearance, and consists of pieces from a cream or flesh 
 colour to that of a bright pink, verging into red. It is very glossy, 
 and sometimes covered with a film (oxidized ?) of a greyish white 
 colour. The Caoutchouc is either ia the form of separate balls of a 
 stringy character, or large masses or irregular blocks. Though it 
 is somewhat improved dmdng the last year or two, it has always 
 been noted for the large admixture of bark and earthy matters. 
 Some " block " Assam has been known to yield 35°/^ of bark, clay, 
 and sand. During the past year Assam Caoutchouc has obtained 
 Is. Zd. per lb. (Para, same date, 3*. Irf.) This Caoutchouc, which I 
 saw, was very pure, and in small balls. Mr. Leeds' specimens, 
 which were only an average of that collected at the Silligoree 
 Camp, I valued at the same time at 2s. OcZ. to 2s. \d., it being 
 slightly " barky," owing to the hill men being unused to collection. 
 At the request of Mr. Leeds I had furnished him with a few hints 
 on the subject, and was glad to find they had had such a good eff'ect. 
 Mr. Leeds insisted, and rightly too, on the Caoutchouc being pure 
 and unadulterated. 
 
 Mr. Mann gives the forest revenue derived from Caoutchouc in 
 the DmTung, Luckimpore, and Nowgong districts for the years 
 1861 to 1870 as 83,733 rupees,* the total for 1869-70 being 23,940 
 rupees. __^ 
 
 * Printed as " maunds " in the Eeport. 
 
22 REPOET ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OP COMMEECB. 
 
 In 1868, 2,500 maunds were sold in the Mungledye Bazar, about 
 the same quantity in the Tezpore, and 1,500 in. the Chydooar. 
 
 A quantity of Caoutchouc is also imported into Assam, collected 
 by the tribes from the hills beyond British territory. 
 
 Malayan Caoutchouc. 
 
 SiN(jAPOEE. — The Caoutchouc which takes its name from this 
 island is the produce of surrounding countries, and has all the 
 characters of the Caoutchouc yielded by the Mcus elastica, Roxb. 
 
 Caoutchouc is imported into Singapore, which is the entrep6t for 
 the Malayan Archipelago, from Java, Sumatra, China, Manilla, 
 Borneo, Malay Peninsula, Penang, and Malacca. Of these coun- 
 tries, that of Borneo and Malacca is the produce of TTrceola elastica, 
 Boxb. 
 
 Java Caoutchouc is the produce of Mcus elastica as identified by 
 my friend Dr. de Vrij. It is called " Fohon Karet " or Kohlehlet* 
 by the natives. They incise the tree and allow the milk to dry on 
 the trees, forming the strings so obtained into a rope-like torch, 
 which they use in searching for edible birds' nests. 
 
 Penang and Siam produce Caoutchouc of good quality, and 
 having the characteristics of that furnished by Ficus. With regard 
 to Penang, there is an asclepiadaceous plant, the Cynanchum 
 ovalifoliwm, Wight, a smooth twining plant, which Dr. Wallich says 
 yields an excellent Caoutchouc, but all my inquiries respecting the 
 question have had no present result. 
 
 China is said to contain Caoutchouc trees. Dr. Seemannf 
 mentions the Ficus elastica, Roxb,, as a cultivated plant in 
 Hongkong. 
 
 Apeican Caoutchouc 
 
 Madagascae. — Dr. Meller records the Ficus elastica, Eoxb., as 
 occurring here. 
 
 Angola. — Dr. Welwitsch mentions a species of Ficus yielding 
 Caoutchouc. 
 
 * " Kohlehlet S. = Ficus elastica, Exb., var. bengalensis Bl." Hasskarl. Cat. PI. in 
 Horl. Bot. Bagoriensi Cult. 
 
 t Seemann, "Botany of the Voyage oi'H.M.S. 'Herald,'" p. 413. London, 1852-7. 
 
KEPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OF COMMEECE. ' 23 
 
 NATURAL ORDEE.—APOCYNAOE^. 
 
 1. American Sources oe Supply. 
 
 Scmcornia speciosa. Mull. arg. 
 
 Pernambuco Caoutcliouc. 
 
 Mcmcornia speciosa, Mull. Arg. in Martius' Plo. Bras,, Apocynacese, 
 
 p. 24. 
 
 Vernacular Names. — Mangaiha (Piso, Bras., p, 76) ; MaU' 
 
 gabiba vel mcmgaiba (Marcgr. Bras., p. 122). 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — About Bio Janeiro. In the 
 
 provinces of Bahia, Pernambuco, Goyaz, Sao Paulo, 
 
 Sergipe, Minas geraes, Rayal, &c. 
 
 Varieties. — a. mi/nor = S. speciosa, Gomes, obs. bot. med. 
 
 bras. 2, p. 1, t. 1 ; D.O. Prod., viii., p. 325. 
 
 b. Maxvmilicma = S. speciosa, Nees et Mart., 
 
 Act. Soc. Cur., xi., p. 85. 
 
 c. Lundii. D.O. Prod. 1. c 
 
 d. Gardneri, Miill. arg. = M. pubescens fi. 
 
 ? Gardneri. D.C. Prod. 1. c. 
 
 e. pubescens j Miill. Arg. = S. pubescens, Nees 
 
 et Mart. 1. c. 
 Remarks. — Tbe fruit is beld in high, estimation, is of a 
 yellow colour, a little streaked witb red on one side, and 
 about the size of an Orleans plum.. Tbe tree reaches 
 the ordinary size of the apple tree, with small leaves 
 and drooping branches, giving it the appearance of a 
 weeping birch. It affords a good Caoutchouc, but is 
 not much collected, as the tree is more valued for its 
 fruit. M. Claussen* gives its general geographic dis- 
 tribution as being on the high plateaux of South 
 America, between 10° and 12° S.L., at a height of 3000 
 to 5000 feet above the sea level. The Sancornia laxa, 
 A.D.C. {Taberncemontana laxa, Benth.) is ihe Ambelania 
 laxa, Miill. Arg., Mart. PI. Bras. The Sancornia gracilis, 
 Benth., is the Zscliohkea gracilis of Miill. Arg., 1. c. The 
 Qowma dulcis, Benth., (= C utilis, Miill. 1. c.) and the 
 
 * Brit. Assoc. Eeports, 1855, p. 103. 
 
24 REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OP COMMERCE. 
 
 C. triphylla, Aubl. (= Gerbera triphylla, Rudge), yield 
 also a milky juice wMch is elastic wlien fresh, but not 
 SO when dry. 
 
 2. Asiatic Sources of Supply. 
 TJrceola elastica, E,oxb. 
 
 "Borneo" Caoutcbouc [and SumatranJ. 
 
 Ureeola elastica, E-oxb., As. Res., 1799, t. 5, p. 167, c. icon, 
 D. C. Prod., viii., p. 358. Wight, ic. t. 473. 
 
 Synonyms. — VaTiea gimimifera ? Poiret. 
 Taherncemontana elastica, Spreng. 
 
 Vernacular Names. — Gutta-susuov susuh (Mai., milk-gum) ; 
 jintawan, variety a., jintawan susu, or milky jiutawan ; 
 rarietjh.fjintawan bulat, or round fruited jintawan ; and 
 C. ngret or ngerit jintawan ? also variety a., serapit, 
 most common ; variety b., petabo, the best variety ; and 
 variety c, mefmngan, the greatest quantity. Getah- 
 Jcatjai ? Sumatra. 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — Borneo, Singapore (all 
 destroyed ?), Sumatra, Penang, and Malay Peninsula 
 generally. 
 
 B;emarks. — When first this Caoutchouc appeared in com- 
 merce (1864) under the name of " gutta-susu," from 
 Borneo {via Singapore), I succeeded in identifying it as 
 the produce of Tlrceola elastica from comparisons drawn 
 from the " Singapore Local Beporter,"* Mr. James 
 Motley,! Mr. Low, J Roxburgh, § and Campbells' || 
 accounts and specimens. 
 
 It is a climbing plant, sometimes attaining to a length of 
 200 paces, with a trunk at times as thick as a man's 
 body. The bark is soft and thick. The fruit is large 
 and of a fine apricot colom', containing from 10 to 12 
 seeds surrounded by a pulp of a delicious flavour. 
 
 * August 7th, 1853. 
 
 ■f Kew Jour, Botany, v. 5, p. 167, &c. 
 
 j Sarawak ; its Inhabitants and Productions, by Hugh Low, London, 1848. 
 
 § Roxburgh, 1. c. 
 
 II In Herb. Brit. Mus. 
 
REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OF COMMERCE. 25 
 
 Collection and Preparation. 
 
 The plant is cut into small pieces from a few iticlies to two or 
 three feet in length, and the milk allowed to flow into jars or 
 buckets, the flow being hastened at times by applying heat to one 
 end of the billet. When a sufficiency of milk has been collected, 
 salt is added to it, by which means the particles of Caoutchouc are 
 made to coalesce together, and the outside being acted on first 
 encloses little cells or pockets of fluid. 
 
 Borneo Caoutchouc is white, soft, porous or spongy, generally 
 wet, the pores being filled with salt water and whey. When old it 
 changes colour to a dull pink or red, and frequently contains a 
 saline incrustation oa the inside. 
 
 3. Asiatic and African Sources of Supply. 
 
 Wilhiglibeia edulis, E-oxb., cor. pi. iii. ; t. 280, ib. !F1. Ind., 
 Ed. 1832, V. 2, p. 57. D.C. Prod., viii., 321. Ver. Luti-ani. 
 Geographic Distribution. — Chittagong, Silhet, Madagascar, 
 
 Mauritius. Cult, in Java. 
 Remarks. — A climbing shrub. 
 W. Martabanica, Wall., pi. As. Ear., iii., p. 45, t. 272. 
 Geographic Distribution. — Martaban, Chittagong. 
 E-emarks. — " Juice copious. India rubber collected." 
 (MS. note ia Herb. Ind., Hook, fil., and Thomson.) 
 W. Javanica, Blum., bijdr. tot. fl. ned. Ind., p. 1024. 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — Woods ia Java. 
 TF. celebica, Blum., 1. c. 
 
 W. ? coriacea. Wall., list n. 1620, pi. As. Ear., 3, p. 45. 
 Geographic Distribution. — Singapore . 
 Eemarks. — Twining plant. 
 General Eemarks. — Of these species we have only record of two 
 species, W. edulis and W. Martabanica, having Caoutchouc pre- 
 pared from them, but I have mentioned the others in order to 
 du'ect attention to this point. Dr. Eoxburgh found W. edulis in 
 Chittagong and Silhet, and describes it as a climbing plant which 
 when wounded yielded a pure viscid juice, when soon on exposure 
 changed to Caoutchouc. This plant is worthy of attention. 
 Species of Willughbeice have also been recorded from Eangoon, 
 Malacca, Khasia Hills, and Ceylon. 
 
26 report on the caoutchouc of commerce. 
 
 4j. African Sources of Supply. 
 
 VahecB species. Madagg,scar Caoutcliouc. 
 
 Vahea gummifera. Lam., 111. 1. 169, D.C. Prod, viii., p. 327. 
 Synonym. — Taberncemontana squamosa, Spreng. 
 Geographic Distribution. — Madagascar. 
 
 V. Madagascariensis, Boj., Hort. Maur., p. 207, D.0. 1. c. 
 Synonyms. — Echites, Sieb., fl. Maur. Exs,,' n. 124. 
 
 Faterna elastica, Sieb., ibid, n. 278. 
 Vernacular Names. — VouaSere ; VoaSme ; Lia/ne de 
 
 Gomme elastique (Fr.), Voacamga. 
 Geographic Distribution. — Madagascar and Isle of France. 
 Remarks. — A climbing sbrub ; flowers in March and 
 December. 
 
 F. Comorensis, Boj., Hort. Maur., p. 207, D.C. 1. c. 
 
 Vernacular Name. — Vaughinia. 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — Johanna (Comoro Islands). 
 
 Hemarks. — A beautiful chmbing shrub ten feet high, 
 growing near the sea and by water, and ia woods to an 
 altitude of 4,000 feet. Flowers white, sweet scented; 
 fruit, colour and form of orange. Flowers ia September. 
 
 V. Senegalensis, A. D. C, Prod. 1. c. 
 Vernacular Name. — Anjouan. 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — A climbing shrub in 
 Senegambia. 
 
 General Remarks. — M. Coignet* mentions that on the North-east 
 coast of Madagascar, Caoutchouc is obtained from three varieties of 
 climbing plants {VaJiece), and a shrub 16 to 19 feet high. Of the 
 climbers one variety gives the best product, though the natives 
 roix all together. The Caoutchouc is prepared iii either of two 
 ways, by treatment with salt water or by artificial heat. Mada- 
 gascar Caoutchouc, which is rather new to English commerce, 
 was first known as " Mauritius " Caoutchouc. It has been however 
 largely used in France. At the present time it is highly valued ia 
 this country, standing next to Pard in price. 
 
 * Bulletin de la Societe de Geographie, Sept. 1867, p. 289. 
 
EBPORT ON THE CAOTJTOHOUC 01 COMMERCE. 27 
 
 Landolphice Species. 
 "West Coast" (African) Caoutch.ouc- 
 Landolphia Owariensis, Pal. de Beauv. M. Owar et Benin, I., 
 p. 54. t. 34., D.C. Prod, viii., p. 320. 
 
 Synonym. — Fcederia Owariensis, Spreng., Sys. i., p. 669. 
 
 Vernacular Name. — Licongwe or lAcomgue (sing.). 
 Macomgue (plural form) (Plate 4). 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — ^Dr. Welwitsch remarks (in MS. 
 to Collins) that this species " first discoyered by Palisot 
 de Beauvais in Owar and Benin, and afterwards by Don 
 in Sierra Leone, I have encountered rather frequently 
 in several of the highland districts of Angola, and con- 
 sequently the habitat of this plant may be stated as 
 extending from 10° lat. N. to 10° lat. S. on the tropical 
 coasts of West Africa." 
 
 Remarks. — Dr. Welwitsch (1. c.) describes it as a " large 
 climbuag plant, four to six inches in diameter, at a 
 height of two or three feet from the ground. Prom 
 this point it is divided into several long thin branches 
 which are again and again divided, climbing along the 
 stems and larger branches of neighbouring trees, to 
 which they fix themselves by means of most tenacious 
 spirally-twisted tendrils formed out of the indurated 
 flower-stalks after the ripe fruit has faUen off. The 
 fruit is about the shape of a middle-sized orange, con- 
 taining under a hard, nearly woody, reddish brown 
 shell, a sweet, rather acidiilous pulp, which is eaten by 
 the natives." 
 L. Heudelotii, D.C. Prod. 1. c. 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — Senegal. 
 L. florida, Benth. in PI. Nigritiana, p. 444. 
 
 Vernacular Name. — " aboh " or " abo " (fruits). 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — Dr. Welwitsch remarks (1. c.) 
 this species is found " rather frequent in most of the 
 primeval forests of inner Angola, where, at an elevation 
 of 1,500 to 2,500 feet, I often met with this beautiful 
 climber, and gratified myseU: with its sweet acidulous 
 fruit, though not less so with the beauty and marvellous 
 abundance of its large snow-white and jasamin-scented 
 flowers." 
 
28 REPORT ON THE CAOtlTCHOrC OP COMMERCE, 
 
 ZandolphicB species incerta. lu tlie Kew Herbarium and 
 Museum are the following : — 
 
 Jj. species. 
 
 Geographic Distribution. — Tropical Africa, lat. 1° N. 
 Remarks. — "The leaf of the African Eubber plant." 
 Coll. G. Mann. 
 
 L. species. Prov. Zanzibar. Coll. Dr, Kirk. 
 
 L.florida ? Pruits and Caoutchouc from the district on the 
 Congo River. Coll. Dr. Hilliard. 
 
 Carissa species. "Wood and rubber collected by Dr. Kirk 
 (Livingstone expedition) . 
 
 I/. ? " Shupanga, India Rubber shrub." Coll. Dr. J. Kirk. 
 
 L. near Owariensis, Shupanga, India Rubber liana, wood, fruit, &c. 
 Dar Salam, 1868. Coll. Dr. Kirk. 
 
 General Remarks. — Of these unascertained species oi Landolphice 
 which yield Caoutchouc, the Caoutchouc sent by Dr. Hilliard is 
 identical with our West coast "ball" Caoutchouc. The last two 
 specimens sent by Dr. Kirk are identical, and a portion of the 
 stem of the " India Rubber plant of Zanzibar and East tropical 
 Africa," as he calls it, also sent by him, is, at least as far as 
 comparison of woods will admit, identical with the first specimen 
 sent xmder the name of Carissa, and both agree with a piece 
 sent by Dr. Africanus Horton'from Cape Coast Castle. Dr. Kirk, 
 in a letter addressed to Dr. Hooker, C.B. (and which the latter 
 has kindly allowed me to copy), says: — "This plant (referring 
 to the last sent) is a woody climber, common along the maritime 
 region, and abundant at the mouth of the Zambesi, being 
 found largely at Shupanga on that river at 100 miles from the 
 coast. The produce of this has been shipped from Quillimane for 
 America. The fault has been that the rough bark has often been 
 imbedded in the gummy mass through careless collection. It is 
 not an article of trade at Zanzibar, but I have been endeavouring 
 to induce the natives to collect it. John Kirk. December 25th, 
 1868." 
 
 To Dr. Welwitsch however (whose valuable additions to our 
 Icnowledge of the Plora of tropical Africa are so well Imown) belongs 
 the credit of first identifying the plants yielding African Caoutchouc. 
 He says (1. c.) it was principally from the L. Owariensis, Beau., that 
 he saw the Caoutchouc collected by the natives of Golungo-Alto 
 and of Cazengo. 
 
REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OF COMMERCE. 29 
 
 Du Chaillu speaks of the Caoutcliouc vine, doubtless a Landolphia, 
 known by the name of Dambo, as being common about the River 
 Benito. Also more plentifully in the valleys, bottomlands, and high 
 grounds about the Rivers Moondah and Ikoi, the produce of those 
 growing on high grounds being considered the best. 
 
 Collection and Preparation. 
 
 The collection and preparation of African Caoutchouc is con- 
 ducted in a very slovenly and wretched manner. The natives cut 
 oif a piece of bark and the milky juice is allowed to run into holes 
 made in the ground, or on leaves. In Angola Dr. Welwitsch 
 describes the method there resorted to as even if possible worse, A 
 native having cut a tree places the palm of his hand against the 
 stem and allows the milk to trickle down his arm. He goes from 
 tree to tree, and when his arm is covered, beginning at his elbow 
 he rolls the Caoutchouc back towards his hand, till it comes off 
 in the form of a ring. It is also by some collected and allowed to 
 coalesce in wooden vessels. The wood of the plant contains a gum, 
 so that if the cut penetrates it, this becomes mixed with it and 
 spoils the Caoutchouc. African Caoutchouc has however improved 
 in some districts recently, and the price has been higher for the 
 improved kinds. Mr. Lee Norris, late Manager of the North 
 British Rubber Company, wrote me that he believed the better 
 kinds were prepared with the aid of strong liquor ammonise added 
 in the proportion of 3 per cent. The chief districts from which 
 African Caoutchouc is exported are the Gaboon, Congo, Angola, 
 Benguela, and Zambesi. 
 
 African Caoutchouc is received in the form of flakes, round 
 balls, and tongues, has a disagreeable odour, possibly the result of 
 decomposition, is viscous, and generally least elastic of all the 
 varieties. 
 
30 KEPOET ON THE CAOUTCHOTJC OF COMMEKCE. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 THE CULTIVATION AND ACCLIMATION OP TREES 
 YIELDING CAOUTCHOUC. 
 
 The use of Caoutchouc or India Rubber is no longer restricted to 
 the rubbing out of pencil marks, as the latter name implies, but has 
 now really become a necessity in the industries. Its applications 
 are indeed legion, and stUl more numerous would they be, if larger 
 quantities of good quality and at lower prices could" be supplied. 
 
 The cultiration of economic plants and the acclimation in 
 localities where the various conditions, which are so many elements 
 of success, are more controllable than in their native habitat, has a 
 very important bearing on the commerce of a country, and becomes 
 the more necessary for the sustentation and improvement of trade 
 and manufactures, as the march of civilization and colonization 
 or the recklessness of native collectors reduce the area and number 
 of spontaneous forest products. It may be taken as an axiom 
 beyond all controversion, that we cannot long rely on the 
 spontaneous products of the forests, and that recourse must be had, 
 sooner or later, to conservation, cultivation, and acclimation, in 
 order to keep up necessary supplies of aU necessary vegetable 
 products. In illustration of this I may be permitted to quote from 
 a lecture* delivered by me on this subject, some remarks on the 
 collection of India-rubber, which wUl serve very well to convey a 
 general idea of how forest products are collected, and also to 
 illustrate a few points to which I wish to draw attention: — 
 " To those who are unacquainted with the forests of intertropical 
 " America, the obstacles there met with are incomprehensible. 
 " The traveller finds an inextricable confusion of vegetation, - 
 " covered with creepers, through which a day's hard labour wiU 
 " not secure the advance of a hundred feet. Now, a straggling 
 " and slimy marsh, out of which he is only with difficulty able to 
 " extricate himself; next, an insurmountable ravine, which it is 
 " necessary to flank, thus tripling the amount of labour. Add 
 " to these, the perpetual fear of wild beasts, and the frequent want 
 " of water, and then judge of what passes in the mind of the poor 
 
 * "On the Study of Economic Botany; and its claims, educationally and com- 
 mercially considered." Jour. Soc. Arts, February 16th, 1872. 
 
ce 
 
 REPORT ON THE CAOTJTCHOrC OF COMMERCE. 31 
 
 " hulero, who, after many of such risks and much labour, arrives 
 " at the foot of a tree he had seen from afar, and discovers it is not 
 " what he seeks. Besides the qualities required in a hulero to 
 " enable him to find his way in ah obscure forest, it is necessary 
 for him to serve an apprenticeship to learn how to properly bleed 
 a tree ; that is to say, to extract as much milk as possible from 
 " the tree without killing it. With respect to killing it, however, 
 " he is not at all particular. Near the towns, aU the trees along 
 " the roadsides are marked by scars made by amateur huleros, and 
 " present strange, exaggerated forms. The forests are full of these 
 " attempts, by which, in ten years, the most beautiful trees within 
 " a circle of many, leagues of the rancho of a would-be Indian 
 " Jiulevo are frequently destroyed. It is to this cause alone that 
 " the blighted appearance of the forests of the inhabited part of 
 " Nicaragua is due. The cut with the machete, to be successful, 
 " must penetrate at one blow through the bark without touching 
 " the wood, otherwise the tree is destroyed ; and from the difficulty 
 " of handling the machete, and the carelessness of the huleros, 
 " Caoutchouc trees are destroyed with fearful rapidity. The 
 " hulero, having collected his rubber, returns to the towns to 
 " dispose of it, where he is subject to great wrongs from the small 
 " traders, nearly universally a very low class. When the price 
 " has at last been agreed upon, the hulero finds that the greater 
 " part is already owing for his outfit and spirit score, and fi"equently 
 " the trader does not part with him till the small balance is 
 " expended in debauchery and drink. Full of revengeful feeling, 
 " the cheated, hardly- dealt- with hulero departs, and destroys all 
 " the trees he meets with on his road. The contract between a 
 " party of huleros and an agent is made after quite a patriarchal 
 " fashion. They regard each other seriously, strike hands, and 
 " the bargain is completed. It is to the agent that application 
 " is made to secure the active and armed resistance and aggression 
 " of the huleros in case of a revolution. He generally succeeds in 
 " engaging them in the civil war by means of a good bounty, a 
 " high rate of pay, a considerable equipment, and a more handsome 
 " dress than that of the other soldiers." 
 
 Now, it can be easily seen from this, that such collection of 
 forest products is precarious and objectionable in several ways. 
 First, with regard to the collectors themselves. It is, as a rule, 
 only when other means of employment are wanting that they take 
 
32 REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OF COMMERCE. 
 
 to that of collecting, and, even on moral grounds alone, sncli a life 
 is anything but humanising. Frequently, too, such operations are 
 interrupted by the caprice of some petty ruler, who requires their 
 services in warfare. This is the case everywhere. Then, often, 
 from causes other than natural, the trees yielding the wished-for 
 product are so far apart as to necessitate a vast extent of ground 
 to be gone over before any quantity can be collected, which greatly 
 adds to the cost, and in many cases precludes the possibility of 
 collection at all. The transport, too, is difficult, coniined very often 
 to human or animal porterage, which will not allow of bulky 
 articles being collected. Many valuable woods labour under this 
 disadvantage, and unless they are on the margin of navigable rivers, 
 and can be thus floated down, they are lost to man's use. Now, 
 the great object of cultivation and acclimatisation is to centralise 
 and concentrate in a manageable space. The modes of collection 
 adopted afford many reasons why, in the case of all necessary 
 products, cultivation and conservancy should be resorted to. The 
 native modes of collection are, to say the least, very destructive, 
 and entail a great loss of material, for often, were cheap means of 
 transit available, other parts now wasted could be utilised. 
 
 1. THE CULTIVATION OE FICUS ELASTICA AND THE 
 IMPROVEMENT OE ITS CAOUTCHOUC. 
 
 The condition of Caoutchouc industry in Assam at the present 
 time is very far from favourable. Mr. Gustav Mann remarks 
 (Report) on the condition of these trees as follows : — 
 
 " The privilege was sold (in. the Durrung district) for 
 " 1,012 rupees to kyahs, in the Mungledye Bazaar, who purchased 
 " 2,500 maunds, but had not the slightest control over the tapping 
 " of the trees by those to whom they sub-let their right, and 
 " encouraged the latter as much as was in their power to obtain 
 " the largest possible quantity during the short time they held the 
 " monopoly of buying it, as consistent with their interest, without 
 " any regard, however, for future supplies, which was of most 
 " disastrous consequence, in as far as it induced the men who 
 " tapped and collected the rubber to indulge in the most outrageous 
 " wholesale destruction of these valuable trees, by either felling 
 " them with axes, or, if this was too troublesome, to collect fire- 
 " wood and bum them down, so as to render the operation of 
 
EEPORT ON THE CAOTJTCHOUC OP COMMERCE, 33 
 
 tapping more convenient than it would have been had the trees, 
 been left standing ; and several hundred magnificent trees were 
 counted, in all directions, lying on the ground with cuts across 
 their trunks and roots from six to 18 inches long, three inches 
 broad, and a foot to 18 inches apart, and smaller cuts on the 
 upper branches of them, by which all that they could yield was 
 extracted immediately after they were felled, with an utter 
 disregard for future wants. So that at present there is absolutely 
 no rubber worth speaking of to be got from these forests, nor 
 for centuries to come, unless the tree is replanted." 
 
 The climate of Assam in the districts in which the Ficus elastica 
 luxuriates is as proved by their condition admirably suited. It is 
 excessively moist in the rains, subjected during this period to 
 partial inundation, and the mixed forests in which these trees grow 
 best, remain moist all through the dry season. The following 
 figures of rainfall are taken from Mr. Blanford's paper on the 
 normal rainfall of Bengal (Jour. As. Soc, 1870) : Goalpara, 94-4; 
 Gowhatty, 70 ■ 7 ; Nowgong, 80 ; Tezpore, 76 ; Seebsaugor, 90 ; 
 Cachar, 123 ; Silhet, 150 ; and Chittagong, 108. In the best districts 
 the soil is all dihivial and alluvial, but in the hot steamy valleys of 
 the mountains it occurs also on rocky ground. The heat is about 
 98° in the shade in Upper Assam. Under these conditions, which 
 are of excessive moisture, even partial inundation during a portion 
 of the year. Caoutchouc trees of all countries thrive best. 
 
 Cultivation of Ficus elastica. — This, Mr. Mann proposes, should 
 be done by opening out lines 15 feet wide, and planting alternately 
 on either side of the lines, at about 100 feet apart. This should be 
 done in the districts where the trees grow best. 
 
 The Ficus elastica is exceedingly easy of cultivation, branches 
 planted in the ground will speedily establish themselves. Stock 
 plants could also be kept in readiness to obtain the branches from. 
 
 Mr. Mann mentions the Durrung forest and the forests between 
 the Deemajang and the Eootah Nuddees on the west of the 
 Bhorolee river, and on its east the immediate neighbourhood of 
 the " Duphalaghur " as being well adapted for the purpose of 
 planting. I understand that since the publication of Mr. Mann's 
 Report, more suitable localities have been discovered in the 
 Luckimpore district. If planting were resorted to a tree so planted 
 would yield at half the age a naturally grown tree would, as in 
 the latter case several years elapse before an aerial root can reach 
 
 C8279.) C) 
 
34 REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OE COMMERCE. 
 
 the ground and establisli itself, and would be consequently all this 
 time would be sayed. 
 
 Mr. Mann calculates that even commenciag at 50 years, the 
 clear profit of a tree, tapped every third year, and lasting to 
 100 years old, would be 320 rupees of Caoutchouc, beside 250 rupees 
 of lac. Each third year a tree, of 50 years old, would yield 40 lbs. 
 of very pure Caoutchouc, but a planted tree could be safely tapped 
 at 25 years, though its yield would not be so great as an older tree. 
 
 Preventative measures should be adopted both in the case of 
 present trees and any which may be planted, by limiting the time 
 of tapping, guarding against over-tapping, and not allowing binding 
 or total destruction of a tree. It would be well to divide the 
 various forests into districts so as only to allow tapping during the 
 months of January, February, and March, in every third year in 
 each district. The question of leases is an important consideration, 
 and I believe that it will be found necessary either to extend the 
 leases to a much longer period, in order to render it. advantageous 
 to the interest of the holder to take the greatest possible care of 
 the trees or for the Government to take it entirely into their own 
 hands and not grant leases at all. 
 
 Improvement m the Collection and Preparation of the 
 
 Caoutchouc. 
 
 Improvements should be effebted in the collection and preparation 
 of the Caoutchouc of the Ficm elastica. The time of year at 
 which the milt sap ascends to the flowers has an effect on the 
 quantity of Caoutchouc yielded. At the time of flowering of the 
 Heveas scarcely any milk can be obtained from the trunk, 
 whereas the panicles if cut, yield it in large drops. If a tree be 
 tapped too often, without a sufficient period of rest being allowed 
 to intervene between each successive operation, each successive 
 yield is less rich in Caoutchouc and more watery and the tree 
 itself becomes permanently injured. In the wet season there is a 
 larger per-centage of water in the milk than in the dry season, and 
 therefore the collection is not so profitable. The time best suited 
 in Assam, Mr. Mann finds to be Eebruary, March, and April. 
 After tapping, a period of at least three years should elapse before 
 the operation is repeated in order to allow the tree to recover its 
 strength. Judicious tapping does not injure a tree nor check its 
 growth, but the danger lies in over-tapping or bleeding to death. 
 Natives always resort to over-tapping if left to themselves. This 
 
REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOTJC 0¥ COMMERCE. 
 
 35 
 
 impoverislies the tree, and predisposes it to succumb to atmospheric 
 changes, and to the attacks of insects, for healthy trees are not so 
 liable to these latter destructive agents, and very seldom does a 
 tree so injured long survive these united influences. 
 
 Mode of Tapping. — In temperate climates, the only tree which 
 is tapped for its juice is the sugar maple {Acer saccharmum, L.) 
 This is tapped with an auger f inch in diameter. The trees are 
 perforated with two holes, four or five inches apart, in an oblique 
 ascending direction, 18 or 20 inches from the ground, care being 
 taken that the perforation does not enter too deep. The sap is 
 allowed to run down small channels consisting of split elder stems, 
 &c. When these precautions are taken the tree is uninjured, the 
 wood alone being somewhat softer and less durable, as is the case in 
 the wood of all " tapped " trees. 
 
 From the Manna Ash of Calabria and Sicily {Fraxmns ornus, L.) 
 the sweet concrete exudation known as Manna is obtained by 
 incisions in the bark of the tree. The tree is not tapped till it has 
 ceased to produce new leaves. Cross or transverse cuts about 
 2 inches long are made with a hooked or curved Icnife. This is only 
 done on one side in the season. The following year the incisions 
 are made further round the tree so that in three or four years the 
 first line of cuts is returned to (Fig. 3).* 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 * Taken from a specimen collected in Calabria by D. Hanbui-y, Esq., F.R.S., and 
 kindly lent me by him. 
 
 C 2 
 
36 
 
 REPORT ON THE CAOTITCHOUC OP COMMERCE. 
 
 In Nicaragua tlie Ule tree ( Castilloa elastlca, &c.) is tapped in 
 the form of a spiral, surrounding the tree at an inclination of 
 about 45° (Kg. 4). A single tree often requires 2,000 cuts to 
 complete the surrounding. If the tree be large, two such spirals 
 are made, either cutting each other or running parallel to each 
 other (Pig. 5). This is however a "very injurious manner. 
 
 In Para, Guiana, &c. in tapping the Seringa (Sevece sps.) a long 
 perpendicular incision is made from near the base and extending 
 high up the trunk. On each side of this line and 
 meeting it are numerous small oblique cuts. Some- 
 times a basal cut is made extending some dis- 
 tance round the trunk on each side of the vertical 
 cut (Fig. 6). This mode of tapping, especially if 
 made without the basal cut and with slight modi- 
 fications to suit particular cases, has much to 
 recommend it as it is equally applicable to large 
 and small trees, and in the case of the Mcus 
 elastica, which is a congregation of stems, and 
 where all sides are not equally accessible, it 
 can be adopted with ease, whereas the spiral 
 incision can only be used where the whole of the 
 circumference of the trunk is accessible. In 
 the tapping of the stems of Ftcus, where deeply 
 furrowed, the vertical line alone could be used or diagonal cuts only 
 on the side best suited, and in tapping roots one long cut could be 
 made so inclined as to form a natural channel with smaller ones 
 above it. 
 
 Implements used. — In South America and other countries 
 machetes (small axes) or long knives are used. All these are very 
 bad, as in their slovenly use the tree is gashed in a frightful manner. 
 The huleros in Nicaragua, for instance, before withdrawing the axe 
 after a cut is made, press heavily on the handle in order to open 
 the wound as much as possible, thus extending the injury to a 
 considerable distance. 
 
 In tapping, the greatest care should be taken not to injure the 
 Cambium layer. This Cambium layer is situated on the outside of 
 each annual zone, and is a layer of vitally active cells, in which the 
 new layers of bark and wood are elaborated and given off. If 
 injm'cd, the wood and bark suffer and no new bark consequently 
 cicatrises over the wound. Mr. Mclvor's very successful and 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
EEPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OP COMMERCE. 
 
 37 
 
 interesting physiological operation .in removing bark from living 
 CinchoncB owes its success to the care taken in order to ensui-e this 
 Cambium layer from injury. 
 
 The only effect to provide in such an implement is that it 
 should just remove or cut through sufficient hark to rupture the 
 laticiferous vessels, situated principally in the middle or Mesophlceum 
 layer of the bark, and thus allow the milk to escape. The very 
 formation of such a tool should prevent the possibility of « hacldng " 
 or chopping through the bark. The Manna knives (Figs. 7 and 8) 
 are good for their purpose, and Mr. Mann has sent me a knife 
 (Kg. 9), which had before suggested itself to me and which is 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 h. Proposed Tapping Edge for trial. 
 
 used in the forests of Hanover for marking standing timber, and 
 in this country also for marking timber, and which I have found, 
 when I had occasion to use it for some little time, exceedingly 
 w6ll adapted to the purpose. A similar knife is also used by 
 farriers. The blade which when open forms an obtuse angle with 
 the handle, has its end bent round in a (J shape, the lower of it 
 being the only cutting edge. If a few such blades of a larger 
 size, fixed or flxable to long handles for reaching up the trunks 
 of trees, were tried, I believe they would prove a good kind of tool 
 to use. Certain modifications might be made, as possibly to make 
 
38 
 
 REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OP COMMERCE. 
 
 the point more of a Y shape^^and a guard rurming through it 
 such as oyster or preserved me'at-tin knives are provided with 
 might he added. ' ' * , 
 
 New roEM op Tapping Knife (James Collins). 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 A, shoulder ; B, triangular base of knife blade ; C, knife edge. 
 Pig. 12. 
 
 Simple form of handle with a 
 
 blade with the same description of 
 
 cutting edge. 
 
 After fully considering the various requisite points in order to 
 produce the best form of cutting instrument, I have constructed a 
 small model which I send herewith, and of which a drawing is given 
 (Figs. 10-12). In using it, it is drawn towards the operator, against 
 the bark. The first part of the blade is sharp so as to cut through 
 the bark. This blade gradually widens at its base till at its termina- 
 
KEPOET ON THE CAOTJTCHOUO OP COMMERCE. 39 
 
 tion it is wedge-sl^aped. Above tKp Ijlade a shoulder projects. The 
 wedge-shaped cutting edge Qpens the bark just sufficient to allow of 
 the escape of the mills;. The shoulder prevents the knife penetrating 
 too deeply, thus preserving the wood from injury. The relative 
 distance between the knife-edge and the shoulders can be made 
 according to the thickness of the bark in different species, as all 
 that is necessary is to rupture the milk vessels {laticiferous tissue 
 or Cmenchyma) . The advantages of this instrument I take to be 
 that of removiag no portion of bark, and thus not hiuderiag 
 cicatrization ; doiag away with the possibility of " hacking ;" and also 
 I believe if tried would prove itself a simple and effectual instrument. 
 The handle can be made long or short, or both, as experience may 
 dictate. It may also be made iu clasp knife form, the blade 
 when opened forming a more or less obtuse angle with the back of 
 the handle. 
 
 Collecting Vessels. — The general coUecttug vessels are leaves 
 folded up in funnel fashion, clay plastered to the trunk of the tree, 
 or calabashes. Clay contaminates the mUk in a very objectionable 
 manner. Iron vessels large enough to hold the product of a 
 siagle tree might be provided. One side of them might be slightly 
 concave ia order to accommodate its side to the tree. Large vessels 
 of the same material would be necessary for the different 
 gatherings. 
 
 Preparation of the Caoutchouc. — In reviewing the different 
 methods by which the particles of Caoutchouc are caused to coalesce, 
 from the whey Hke liquid iu which it is suspended in its recent 
 state, we find they are various. "We may however classify them 
 thus : — 
 
 Group i. — Coalescence brought about by heat — Examples : 
 (1.) Artificial heat (dry) - Pard, Madagascar. 
 (2.) „ (hot water)- Assam. 
 
 (3.) Natural heat - - Assam, Ceara. 
 Group ii. — Coalescence brought about by the addition of various 
 substances : 
 
 (4.) Alum - - - Para. 
 
 (5.) Liq. Ammonias fort ? - Para, African (best kinds). 
 (6.) An acid ? (acetic acid ?) Pard. 
 (7.) Certain plants - - Nicaragua. 
 ■ (8.) Presh water - - Nicaragua. 
 (9.) Salt water - - - Borneo, Madagascar. 
 (10.) Sulphur - - - Para. 
 
40 REPOllT ON THE CAOlfTCHOUC OF COMMERCE. 
 
 Of these various methods that by the cautious application of dry 
 heat is generally accounted the best, and the Para Caoutchouc of 
 the best description is prepared in this manner. The action of the 
 TJrucuri and other nuts {Attalea excelsa. Mart. &c.) I cannot 
 altogether understand ; I am inclined to look upon it as only a ready 
 means which has suggested itself of drying the Caoutchouc without 
 injuring or aflfecting its quality. The heat of a naked fire would if 
 great care were not taken bm^n the Caoutchouc ; and because it is a 
 convenient and safe method, and fulfils the desired conditions, it may 
 have at last come to be looked upon as essential. Certain I am that 
 it has no blackening action as is so frequently stated. That this 
 blackening is due to atmospheric infiuences can be easily verified by 
 any one taking a piece of thick Para Caoutchouc, cutting it through 
 so as to expose the white or yellowish white centre, and notice how 
 soon the white will be changed to black by the influence of light 
 and air.* The cautious application of heat especially if supplemented 
 by the fumes of melted sulphur, which I believe is used in Para, 
 would and does "furnish the best prepared Caoutchouc. Of natural 
 heat, or allowing the Caoutchouc to coalesce and the water to 
 evaporate spontaneously, though the Caoutchouc is in as good a 
 condition as the tree can yield it, yet it always has masses of bark 
 adhering to it, and necessitates a second visit being paid to the tree, 
 and this alone is objectionable as the scene of operation has constantly 
 to be shifted. 
 
 Of the addition of various substances such as alum and certain 
 plants the action seems to be similar to that of rennet on casein, 
 but I have had no opportunity afforded me of testing the precise 
 action of these substances. The chief plant used in Nicaragua 
 is the common Ipomcea bona-nox, L. = Calonyction speciosum, 
 Choisy. a convolvulaceous plant. This was identified with the 
 " achete " by Dr. Seemann at my instigation. The use of alum, as 
 before stated is very much used in Para. The treatment with an 
 acid (Acetic ?) can only be put down as a conjecture at present. 
 The action too of Liquor Ammonia is generally said to retard coa- 
 lescence ; whether its action be to stay this coalescence in order first 
 to get rid of as much aqueous liquid by the difference of density I 
 do not know. In the wet processes as distinguished from the dry 
 methods of preparation, viz., by the addition of hot, cold, or salt 
 water, &c., they are open to the objection of retaining moisture in 
 
 * Caoutchouc, like other hydrocarbons, absorbs oxygen readily, and thus undergoes 
 the change indicated. The resins (albine and fiuavile) found in gutta percha appear 
 but to be gutta percha plus oxygen. 
 
REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OF COMMEKCE. 41 
 
 the CaoutcliouCj by the outer portions of the coalescing milk 
 becoming first acted upon and inclosing water inside it. 
 
 Next to purity, dryness stands as the foremost desiderata in well 
 prepared Caoutchouc. The wet processes, particularly that with 
 alum, is very easy of application, but the precaution should be taken 
 to prepare the Caoutchouc in thin sheets, and^subjecting them to 
 hydraulic, screw, or other pressure. 
 
 Purity and freedom from false packing, adulteration, and ad- 
 mixture of all kinds should be attended to in order to produce a 
 good marketable Caoutchouc, frequently one sees a parcel of 
 Caoutchouc in which possibly are patches of sand, stone, bark, &c., 
 and as a necessary consequence it is valued at a low price. The 
 Caoutchouc itself m.aj be very good, and if free from these foreign 
 substances, which add weight, would fetch a much higher price. 
 Not only has an allowance or deduction to be made for the foreign 
 matter, for a manufacturer cares not to pay Is. 6d. to 2s. for stones 
 and sand, (even though they have the recommendation of coming 
 from a distance, a great recommendation now-a-d^ys,) but also for 
 loss of time, wear and tear of machinery in cleansing it. There is 
 beside this the loss of freight value to be thought of. 
 
 This admixture and adulteration arises from careless collection in 
 allowing bark, &c., to fall in the milk, or fraudulently introducing 
 it for the sake of increasing the weight ; the first can be obviated by 
 passing the milk through sieves before subjecting the mUk to any 
 further process, and while it is yet fresh. The second by refusing 
 to receive any such adulterated Caoutchouc, if the power of refusal 
 be possessed. The second cause of adulteration is by the admixture 
 of the milk (very often resinous) of the trunk, or of other trees, 
 with the Caoutchouc, and which not only is an adulteration, but 
 frequently destroys the goodness of the Caoutchouc altogether, 
 causing it to become "heated" and spoiled. This should be guarded 
 against, and after a little experience such admixture can be detected 
 in the milk or prepared Caoutchouc. To guard against careless or 
 fraudulent adulteration it is important that the host form in which 
 the Caoutchouc can be prepared should be considered. Large 
 masses of even good Caoutchouc never will fetch so high a price as 
 small pieces, as in the latter case the chance or facility of adultera- 
 tion is reduced to a minimum. The Caoutchouc should be prepared 
 in thin separate sheets or cakes not more than one or two inches 
 thick, and if moulds are used, wooden ones of the shape of a 
 child's battledore would be the best form. 
 
 These remarks will apply equally to the case of any introduced 
 species. 
 
42 
 
 REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OF COMMERCE. 
 
 2. THE ACCLIMATION OF OTHER PLANTS YIELDING 
 
 CAOUTCHOUC. 
 
 The acclimation, or acclimatization, as it is also called, leads us 
 first to tlie consideration of tlie relative values of tlie different 
 varies of Caoutchouc, and no Letter criterion can be taken than 
 that of the actual market value. The following tables give the 
 prices, together with the imports or actual sales of the same, in 
 London and Liverpool, during the period from June 1871 to 
 June 1872. The prices quoted are those actually paid for the best 
 descriptions of each variety imless otherwise stated. The average 
 price is taken from the total of the various prices paid during the 
 12 months, and not from the highest or lowest prices alone. 
 
 Table 1. — Imports and Prices of Caoutchouc ia Londoti from 
 
 June 1871 to June 1872 (based on the Monthly Eeports 
 
 of Messrs. Jackson & Till, Colonial Brokers, Mincing Lane, 
 
 London) : — 
 
 Imports for 12 Months 
 ending June 1872. 
 
 Description. 
 
 East Indian 
 
 Para and W. Indian 
 
 1,347 tons. 
 721 tons. 
 
 Prices paid, at per lb. during the same period, for the best parcels 
 
 only : — 
 
 Description. 
 
 Highest Price 
 paid. 
 
 Lowest Price. 
 
 Average for 
 the year. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Pard 
 
 3 1 
 
 2 8 
 
 2 10 
 
 Singapore 
 
 2 3 
 
 1 101 
 
 2 
 
 Penang . - . . 
 
 1 10 
 
 1 9 
 
 1 91* 
 
 Borneo - - - 
 
 1 lOi 
 
 1 71 
 
 1 9 
 
 Assam . - - - 
 
 2 31 
 
 1 41 
 
 I 8t 
 
 West India 
 
 2 3i 
 
 1 111 
 
 2 
 
 Guatemala - - 
 
 1 11 
 
 1 Si 
 
 1 7 
 
 Guayaquil (pressed) - - - 
 
 2 3 
 
 1 71 
 
 2 0| 
 
 Carthagena .... 
 
 2 3 
 
 1 Hi 
 
 2 1 
 
 African 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 r 5 
 
 Madasgascar 
 
 2 41 
 
 1 lOJ 
 
 2 3 
 
 Pew parcels. f The highest price paid was for a parcel of great purity, 
 
 t This was early in the year, before it became so appreciated. 
 
REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OP COMMERCE. 
 
 43 
 
 Table 2. — Sales and Prices of Caoutchouc in Liverpool from 
 June 1871 to June 1872 (based on the Monthly Reports of 
 Messrs. J. H. Rayner & Co., Colonial Brokers, Liverpool) : — 
 
 Description. 
 
 Sales. 
 
 Para 
 
 Carthagena 
 
 Ceara 
 
 Guayaquil 
 
 African 
 
 Honduras 
 
 Mexican 
 
 3,610 tons (imported duri 
 
 1,770 bales sold 
 
 3,320 „ „ 
 
 480 tons „ 
 
 905 „ 
 
 A few bales. 
 
 ng the year). 
 
 Note. — The actual 
 imports may be 
 slightly lower, as at 
 times a parcel may 
 be re-sold for specu- 
 lation purposes. 
 
 Prices paid at per lb. for best descriptions only, during the same 
 
 period : — 
 
 Description. 
 
 Highest Price 
 paid. 
 
 Lowest Price 
 paid. 
 
 Average 
 for the Year. 
 
 Para - ... 
 
 4'. d. 
 3 1 
 
 s. d. 
 2 8 
 
 s. d. 
 2 11 
 
 Cear^ - . . . - 
 
 2 1 
 
 1 10 
 
 2 
 
 Carthagena 
 
 Guayaquil (pressed) 
 
 African* - - - . 
 
 2 3 
 2 3 
 2 1 
 
 1 10 
 1 10 
 
 1 8 
 
 2 1 
 2 1 
 1 11 
 
 Honduras 
 Mexican 
 
 One 
 
 parcel. 
 
 1 Hi 
 
 1 lOi 
 
 " This is for the hest kind, which is new to commerce. It is the same description as the other kinds 
 of African, but better prepared. The prices for African Caoutchouc for June 1872 are: tongues, 
 \s. 8id, balls. Is, ll^d., niggers, 2s. 2rf., knuckles, Is. S\d., and flake. Is. 9Jd 
 
 Allowing all the varieties to be equally pure, their relative value 
 may be taken in the following order : — 
 
 Para, Madagascar, Carthagena, Ceara, W. India (sheet), 
 Gruayaquil (pressed), Singapore, Assam, Penang, Guayaquil (com- 
 mon), African, Borneo, and Guatemala, 
 
M REPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC OF COMMERCE. 
 
 Species recommended to Introduction. — I should strongly recom- 
 mend the introduction of as many as possible of the plants yielding 
 Caoutchouc in quantities sufficient for commercial purposes, as pos- 
 sibly by cultivation there will be not only an atavism or returning to 
 their original or primeval goodness, but even an increase of yield over 
 that of spontaneous yield may be safely looked for, as has proved 
 so remarkably the case in the- Cinchonce. 
 
 Para Caoutchouc, as seen by the prices paid for it, is undoubtedly 
 the best description. There are no purposes to which Para 
 Caoutchouc cannot be applied, the question of price alone precluding 
 its application for purposes which, if price admitted, it would be used. 
 Por the production of the best articles possessing all the properties 
 for which Caoutchouc is valued, Para Caoutchouc would be un- 
 doubtedly chosen above all others. It is more tensile, retains its 
 strength to a much greater degree, is less acted upon, than Assam 
 or any other Caoutchouc whatever, and its superiority is not due 
 to mere purity (as seen from the diflference of price of 9>\d. of 
 " fine Para " and pure Assam), but to its belonging to a different 
 genus. Para Caoutchouc is in certain cases absolutely indispensable, 
 such as for articles requiring the greatest strength, elasticity, &c., 
 and other cases again where its combination with the commoner 
 varieties is necessary in order to impart the same qualities. Uses 
 can be found for all kinds, and it would be impossible for the 
 Para Caoutchouc to be supplied in sufficient quantities to render 
 the cultivation of other species unnecessary ; no cultivation would 
 be likely to render other kinds so good as to supercede Para 
 Caoutchouc. The milk of the Hevece is very pure, and unmixed 
 with resins or other substances, as is the case with some other kinds.* 
 
 Seeds of the Hevece could easily be procured from the Amazon 
 districts, and their germination ensured on the spot, as probably 
 from the quantity of oil they contain, they would rapidly lose this 
 power, oily seeds losing their germinating power quicker than 
 non-oily seeds, owing to oxidation of the oil soon setting in. Young 
 plants introduced, or plants raised from seed, in a new country more 
 quickly accommodate themselves to differences of climatic con- 
 ditions than larger plants do. 
 
 I should also strongly recommend the introduction of the 
 Castilloa elastica, Cerv., and the other one or two species of the 
 
 *Is the resin present in many kinds of Caoutchouc a "stem" resin ? if so, its presence 
 •would be owing to too deep incision. 
 
EEPOBT ON THE CAOUTCHOTJC OF COMMBKCE. 45 
 
 same genus, as they furnish good Caoutchouc, capable of much 
 improvement, and the tree is easily cultivated. 
 
 Of the remaining plants, I should also strongly recommend the 
 introduction of the Apocynaceous climbing plants, viz., TJrceola 
 elastica, Hoxb., Vahece, sps., Willughbeia eduUs, and the species 
 of LandolphicB. 
 
 The TJrceola elastica, E-oxb., has long been known, and is said to 
 be ready to tap after the third year's growth, and when cut down 
 soon to spring up again. 
 
 The species of Vahece which yield Madagascar Caoutchouc are very 
 valuable sources of supply. Although this variety of Caoutchouc is 
 comparatively new to English commerce yet it speedily has had its 
 good qualities recognized, and now stands next that of Par^ in value. 
 
 The Willughbeice and the Landolphioi are very near to each 
 other, and may, when better materials for comparison exist, even 
 prove generically the same. They are easily cultivated and are 
 susceptible of much improvement. 
 
 Climatic conditions necessary. — As to the climatic conditions 
 existing in India, isomeric with those under which the species re- 
 commended to be introduced exist in their habitats, Upper Assam 
 seems to be remarkably well adapted, as the conditions under which 
 the Ficus elastica best thrives are exactly those required more or 
 less by all Caoutchouc yielding plants. Speaking of the cultivation 
 of the Ficus elastica, Roxb., Mr. Mann describes the whole country 
 of Upper Assam as resembling one extensive basin of diluvial and 
 alluvial deposit, and that very rich and excessively moist plantations 
 could be got up easily. 
 
 With special regard to the Hevece, Dr. Spruce writes me that 
 they thrive best at or near the sea level, in a mean temperature of 
 78° to 80°, and that does not pass the limits of 70° to 90° ; in a 
 humid climate where there are rarely 10 days together dry even in 
 the (so called) dry season, and that they are trees of the primitive 
 forest or river margin, never found in savannahs. Ceylon, Malacca, 
 and some parts of Borneo, from what he has riead, come nearest to 
 the Amazon districts. However, I leave the comparison of climatic 
 conditions to those who know India well, only recording my opinion 
 that I believe the Castilloa elastica and the climbing plants would do 
 well ia Upper Assam, and the Sevece almost, if not equally as well. 
 
 Mesults to be expected. — The tree kinds could be safely tapped at 
 twenty -five years of age, and their produce if collected and prepared 
 as I have intimated would reaUse a handsome profit. The climbing 
 
46 BEPORT ON THE CAOUTCHOUC 01" COMMERCE. 
 
 plants, coiild be grown around existing trees and thus save much 
 time, trouble, and expense, and would begin, to yield at a much 
 earher date, the TJrceola elastica, Roxb., being said to be fit for the 
 tapping operation at three years old. 
 
 Conclusion. 
 
 On the whole question of the trees yielding Caoutchouc, its pre- 
 paration, &c. there is still much to be learned. In this report I have 
 incorporated all the essential points afFecting the question, which I 
 have been able to gather during several years study of the subject — 
 searching at home and instituting inquiries abroad in order to 
 obtain valuable and trustworthy information. I should in conclu- 
 sion beg to recommend that the subject should be studied on the 
 chief spots where the trees are found. Especially would I 
 particularize the Amazon districts as likely to yield much valuable 
 information to one going prepared on the subject, as to trees 
 yielding Caoutchouc (for there is much to be learned on this branch 
 of inquiry alone), its preparation, and other inquiries which would 
 suggest themselves to a person well versed in the subject. I 
 therefore beg to add a series of instructions, rather as indicating 
 types or classes of questions requiring elucidation. In Assam Mr. 
 Mann would be weU qualified to seek answers to these queries if 
 time and opportunity be granted him for the purpose. 
 
 SPECIMENS AND INEORMATION DESIRED 
 ON CAOUTCHOUC AND THE TREES PRODUCING IT. 
 
 1. Samples of crude juice, without any preparation whatever, 
 care being taken to place the same, immediately on collection in 
 air-tight vessels in order to guard against any spontaneous change 
 taking place. If two such specimens can be sent, to one should be 
 added a small quantity of liquor ammonise. Care should be taken 
 to exclude light. (Strong tinned cans would be convenient vessels 
 to send the milk.) 
 
 2. Samples of Caoutchouc, prepared in as many different ways as 
 possible, such as with the aid of (a) artificial heat ; (b) hot water ; 
 (c) natural heat ; (d) alum ; (e) liquor ammonise ? ; (f ) acetic 
 acid? ; (g) any plant, and also sending a quantity of the plant' so 
 used; (h) freshwater; (i) salt water; (j) burning sulphur, taking 
 care to note the time occupied, and all the steps of each process, 
 using in every experiment an uniform quantity of the same milk. 
 
REPORT ON THE CAOTJTCHOUC OE COMMERCE. 47 
 
 3. Samples of the whey-like suhstance which separates from the 
 Caoutchouc duriag its coalescence. 
 
 4. Samples of prepared Caoutchouc in the form or forms proposed 
 to export it in, care heing taken that it is as clean and dry as possible. 
 
 5. Information on the average yield of each kind of tree, and at 
 different seasons, the best season for collecting, and the relative 
 yield by simple tapping ; (2) tapping, assisted by binding, and total 
 destruction. Of course, in practice, the two latter methods shoald 
 not be resorted to. A specimen of the stem showing methods of 
 tapping would be interesting. 
 
 6. Dried specimens of a branch of the tree, having the leaves, 
 flowers, and fruit attached. These may easily be dried between 
 sheets of any porous paper, care being taken to change the paper a 
 few times at first, tiU the plants are perfectly dry. The specimens 
 should be as characteristic as possible ; leaves on different parts of 
 a tree vary in some instances very considerably. 
 
 7. Specimens of leaves, flowers, and fruits attached, preserved in 
 a jar or bottle, in some spirit as brandy, spirits of wine, or in acetic 
 acid, or a solution-"of salt, care being taken that the mouth of the 
 vessel be well secured to prevent leakage. 
 
 8. Specimens of the wood (a smaU section of the stem) and bark. 
 All the botanical specimens and the Caoutchouc should be gathered 
 from the same identical tree. 
 
 9. When there is more than one kind of variety of tree yielding 
 the same substance, complete specimens of each kind should be 
 collected and sent. 
 
 10. SmaU parcels of fresh seeds should be sent by post, as this 
 saves much time ; seeds also (in addition to the ordinary method) 
 should be sent packed in sugar, as this method is said to prevent 
 oxidation of oil. 
 
 11. Information respecting the geographic distribution and 
 climatic conditions, how best propagated, native names, and any 
 other information should be sent. 
 
 12. Great care should be taken that the labels should be correctly 
 and securely affixed to the specimens, and that the letter or other 
 account should coincide with the numbers or names on the specimens. 
 
 I shaU be very glad to receive any such specimens and report on 
 
 the same. 
 
 JAS. COLLINS, 
 
 11, Arthur Street, 
 
 Deptford. 
 
48 
 
 MEMOEANDUM 
 
 ON 
 
 MR. COLLINS' EEPOET ON CAOUTCHOUC, 
 
 DATED 28th October 1872. 
 
 Mr. Collins' report seems to me to suggest two questions of great 
 practical importance for India : — First. What can be done for 
 the introduction into India of those trees which yield the Para 
 Caoutchouc, and of some of the climbing plants which yield the 
 rubber of Madagascar, Africa, and Borneo. Second. — What can 
 be done to increase the production and to improve the quality of 
 the Assam Caoutchouc, the product of Fieus elastica. It may not 
 be out of place to place on record a few observations with regard 
 to these two questions, which have suggested themselves to me 
 while discussing the results of Mr. Collins' valuable report, 
 with Mr. Gustav Mann, who has the advantage of a personal 
 acquaintance with the Caoutchouc forests of Assam and the 
 Caoutchouc yielding tracts of Western Africa. 
 
 2. There is no doubt that Para rubber is a very superior article, 
 the price lists given by Mr. Collins prove this sufficiently, and the 
 concurrent testimony of Caoutchoiic manufacturers in this country 
 seems to show that where great elasticity and powers of resistance 
 are required, such as for buffer springs of railway carriages, and the 
 like. Para rubber must be used. Again there seems no doubt 
 that Para Caoutchouc retains its excellent qualities longer than 
 most other kinds, that in fact it is more durable. I do not say 
 that it may not be found expedient to introduce some of the other 
 kinds into India also, but at first our efforts should be mainly 
 directed to ascertain by actual experiment whether it is possible 
 profitably to cultivate on a large scale some of the species of Hevea 
 which yield Caoutchouc in Para, on the Amazon river, and the Eio 
 Negro. 
 
 3. The first question then appears to be, whether there is any 
 part of India with a climate similar to that of those regions of 
 Brazil where the best rubber is produced. The data brought 
 together by Mr. Collins in his report seem to show the following 
 facts. The mean annual temperature in the province of Para, on 
 
MEMOKANDTJM. 
 
 4£ 
 
 the Amazon and the Eio Negro, is stated between 78° and 81°, 
 the extremes being 73° and 100°. The annual mean and the greatest 
 heat is thus the same as what we have in British Burma and " on 
 the western coast (Malabar, Canara, and the Concan), but there 
 is that difference, that ia the northern part of these districts the 
 thermometer falls lower during the cool season than appears to be 
 the case ia the equatorial forests of BrazU. By way of illustration 
 I will give a table of means, and another of absolute extremes, of 
 some stations on both coasts, to which, for the sake of comparison, 
 I have added Calcutta and one station in Assam. The figures are 
 taken from Schlagintweit's Meteorology of India, first part, 1866. 
 
 Mean Temperature of the Potjr Seasons and of the Year. 
 
 
 
 Calcutta. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Cannanore. 
 
 Rangoon. 
 
 Gohatti. 
 
 
 
 Cool season. 
 
 Dec, Jan., Feb. - 
 
 68-1 
 
 76-0 
 
 80-0 
 
 76-0 
 
 65-6 
 
 Hot season. 
 
 Mar., Apr., May - 
 
 82-2 
 
 83-0 
 
 84-0 
 
 81-0 
 
 77-4 
 
 Rainy season. 
 
 June, July, Aug. - 
 
 83-3 
 
 82-0 
 
 79-0 
 
 80-0 
 
 82-6 
 
 Autumn. 
 
 Sept., Oct., Nov. 
 
 79-7 
 
 81-0 
 
 80-0 
 
 81-0 
 
 77-5 
 
 Year 
 
 - 
 
 78-3 
 
 80-3 
 
 80-8 
 
 79-3 
 
 75-8 
 
 Absoiute Extremes of Temperature. 
 
 
 - 
 
 Calcutta. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Eangoon. 
 
 Gohatti. 
 
 
 Min. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Max. 
 
 
 ("Dec. 
 
 51 
 
 80 
 
 66-2 
 
 90-8 
 
 62 
 
 90 
 
 49 
 
 73 
 
 Cool season 
 
 < Jan. 
 
 49 
 
 78 
 
 60-0 
 
 88-2 
 
 62 
 
 92 
 
 48 
 
 73 
 
 
 Feb. - 
 
 52 
 
 81 
 
 68-8 
 
 87-2 
 
 59 
 
 97 
 
 48 
 
 80 
 
 
 ' March - 
 
 61 
 
 90 
 
 67-2 
 
 93-3 
 
 64 
 
 100 
 
 52 
 
 90 
 
 Hot season 
 
 < Apr. 
 
 69 
 
 95 
 
 74-0 
 
 93-2 
 
 75 
 
 100 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 
 .May 
 
 74 
 
 106 
 
 79-3 
 
 94-2 
 
 73 
 
 95 
 
 60 
 
 92 
 
 
 'June 
 < July - 
 
 75 
 
 105 
 
 76-0 
 
 95-3 
 
 75i 
 
 90 
 
 70 
 
 91 
 
 Rainy season 
 
 74 
 
 98 
 
 75-8 
 
 89-4 
 
 75 
 
 89 
 
 76 
 
 88 
 
 
 .Aug. 
 
 76 
 
 92 
 
 74-4 
 
 89-2 
 
 76 
 
 881 
 
 74 
 
 91 
 
 
 'Sept. 
 
 72 
 
 92 
 
 75-0 
 
 88-3 
 
 76 
 
 96 
 
 70 
 
 90 
 
 Autumn 
 
 < Oct. 
 
 70 
 
 90 
 
 73-0 
 
 92-5 
 
 74 
 
 92 
 
 67 
 
 87 
 
 
 _Nov. 
 
 59 
 
 87 
 
 71-6 
 
 91-5 
 
 691 
 
 901 
 
 58 
 
 81 
 
 (8279.) 
 
 D 
 
50 MEMORANDUM. 
 
 4. At Bombay the temperature falls as low as 60° in January, 
 and at Rangoon it sinks to 62° in December and January. Further 
 south however on either coast this drawback would be avoided. I 
 have no access at present to records of absolute extremes, but the 
 mean monthly temperatures at sunrise are given in Schlagintweit's 
 work for several places on both coasts, of which it wiU suffice to 
 give Cochin as an example : — 
 
 Cochin. 
 
 December 75 to 78-2 
 
 January - - - - 74 „ 75 
 
 February - - - 74-5 „ 76-8 
 
 Further south on the western and Burma coast the extremes of 
 heat also are more moderate than at Rangoon and Bombay. At 
 Cochin for instance the highest monthly mean taken at 4 p.m. does 
 not exceed 90°. We may therefore conclude that Canara, Malabar, 
 Travancore and the Burma coast from Moulmein southwards offer 
 the desired conditions as regards temperature for the successful 
 cultivation of the Caoutchouc yielding species of Hevea. I would 
 specially draw the attention of forest officers in this respect to the 
 moist evergreen forests at the foot of the Coorg Ghats, and in 
 Canara, as well as to the Attaran valley, and similar localities in 
 Tenasserim. 
 
 5. The annual rainfall in Vavk seems to be about 60 to 90 inches, 
 this would be somewhat less than the annual fall on the southern 
 part of the western and Burma coast (Cananore 123, Cochin 
 105 inches, Moulmein 175, Mergui 165 inches) ; but the supply 
 of moisture appears to be more uniformly distributed over the 
 seasons of the year in the Caoutchouc yielding region of Brazil 
 than is the case in most parts of the moist zones of India. 
 
 In Para the rains are from March to July, but some rain falls 
 also during the dry season. In the Amazon valley it rains from 
 January to May, but there are occasional showers in November, 
 and intervals of fine weather during the wet season. So far the 
 data given by Mr. Collins would agree weU with the seasons on 
 the western and Burma coast, save that the principal rains occur 
 at another time of the year. But Dr. Spruce states positively that 
 the Heveas thrive best in a humid climate, where there are rarely 
 10 days together dry even in the so-called dry season. 
 
MEMORANDUM. 
 
 61 
 
 The nearest approach to tliis would be found in some parts of 
 Ceylon, which, as regards temperature also, would appear to offer 
 to the Brazilian Heveas a most congenial climate. In Malabar, 
 Travancore, and on the southern Burma coast the distribution of the 
 rainfall over the year wiU be apparent from the following data, 
 which I have mainly extracted from Mr. Glaisher's report upon 
 the Meteorology of India. 
 
 
 Cananore. 
 
 Cochin. 
 
 Quilon. 
 
 Mergui. 
 
 
 Cool season inches 
 Hot season - - „ 
 Rainy season - - - „ 
 Autumn - - - „ 
 
 2-0 
 17-5 
 84-9 
 18-1 
 
 4-2 
 23-0 
 61-0 
 16-8 
 
 2-9 
 21-9 
 43-9 
 17-1 
 
 7 
 20 
 90 
 
 48 
 
 Total - - - „ 
 
 122-5 
 
 105-0 
 
 85-8 
 
 165 
 
 6. So much is clear that the southern part of the western 
 and Burma coast has a climate which is likely to suit the 
 requirements of the Caoutchouc jdelding species of Hevea, and it 
 is not impossible that eventually these trees may be found to 
 accommodate themselves to a wider range with regard to tem- 
 perature and humidity. It will therefore be well at once to make 
 special arrangements to obtain a supply of plants, and of seeds 
 also, in case they should be found to retain their vitality sufficiently 
 long. This is a subject which I would beg to recommend to the 
 attention of the Government of India and of His Grace the Secretary 
 of State for India in Council. Mr. Mann has communicated to me 
 a detailed monthly price current of the London rubber market for 
 the period from 1857 to 1866, from which it appears that the price 
 of fine Pard was Is. 7c/. per lb. in 1857, that in 1866 it had risen 
 to 2s. 6d. on the average, and Mr. Collins now informs us that the 
 present rate is 3s. Id. per lb. It appears certain that the demand 
 for superior kinds of Caoutchouc for the rolling stock of railways 
 and other purposes wUl increase considerably, and it will in every 
 respect be advantageous to produce in India an article so useful 
 and valuable as Pard rubber. 
 
 7. In the second place, attention should be paid to the introduc- 
 tion of the climbing Apocynaceous plants (Vahea sp.) of Madagascar, 
 which yield the excellent article, which, according to Mr. Collins, 
 
52 
 
 MEMORANDUM. 
 
 has been largely used iu Prance and is now beginning to be appre^- 
 ciated in this country. The mean temperature of the year in the 
 northern part of Madagascar is about 77° (hot season, January to 
 April, between 80° and 85°). 
 
 The cultivation of this plant would probably yield an earlier 
 return than the Brazilian Heveas, and that circumstance might 
 be an inducement for the introduction of those climbers also 
 which yield the African rubber (Landolphia sp.) and the Borneo 
 Caoutchouc (Urceola elastica) both belonging to the same natural 
 family of Apocynacese. In addition to the climbers it will be 
 well by way of experiment to introduce plants of Castilloa elastica, 
 a large tree which yields the Caoutchouc of Central America. 
 
 8. Before now proceeding to discuss the second subject, viz. the 
 measures to be taken for increasing the production and improving 
 the quality of the Assam Caoutchouc, it will be well to notice the 
 relative value of the principal kinds of rubber imported into this 
 country. Prom the Liverpool and London price lists for 1871-72 
 given in Mr. Collins' report, it appears that the principal descrip- 
 tions may be classed as follows with regard to price and quality : — 
 
 Name of article, and country whence 
 obtained. 
 
 Name of Plant 
 yielding it. 
 
 Price paid for last Parcel. 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Para (Para and Amazonas) 
 
 Madagascar 
 
 West India (Central America) • 
 
 Carthagena 
 
 Guayaquil (pressed) 
 
 Singapore (Indian Archipelago) 
 
 Assam - - - ■ 
 
 Ceara (Ceara in Brazil) 
 
 Hevea sp. 
 
 s. d. 
 2 8 
 
 Vahea sp. 
 
 1 10* 
 
 Castilloa elastica 
 
 1 111 
 
 Do. 
 
 1 10 
 
 Do. 
 
 1 n 
 
 Ficus sp. 
 
 1 101 
 
 Ficus elastica 
 
 1 41 
 
 Hevea sp. 
 
 1 10 
 
 s. d. 
 3 1 
 
 4i 
 
 8^ 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 * Madagascar Caoutchouc is a very superior article, which has recently only become known in this 
 country, the lowest price quoted was early in the year, before it became appreciated. 
 \ Price of a parcel of Assam of great purity. 
 
 The African rubber (Landolphia) varies exceedingly in price and 
 quality, and the Borneo Caoutchouc, the produce of Urceola elastica, 
 is only quoted at Is. 1\d. to 1*. \^\d. per lb. Assam rubber 
 stands low in the list at present, but there seems good ground to 
 
MEMOEANDTJM. 53 
 
 believe that this is mainly due to the large proportion of impu- 
 rities (bark, sand, stones) with which it is commonly mixed. The 
 Caoutchouc which was collected and prepared by Messrs. Martin, 
 Richie and Company of Tezpore, while they had the lease of the 
 Caoutchouc forests previous to 1865, and which was known in the 
 London market under the name of fine slab Assam, was a very 
 superior article, and quite lately an improvement has again taken 
 place in the quality of the Assam product. 
 
 9. Mr. Mann thinks that apart from the accidental (and sometimes 
 intentional) impm^ities, such as pieces of bark, wood, sand, stones, 
 the Assam article is often adulterated with the milk of other species 
 of Picus, which is of a quality much inferior to the milk of 
 F. elastica. Messrs. Martin and E-ichie* are said to have given 
 up their lease before it had expired, because the supply had 
 diminished so far that their business was no longer remunerative, 
 and from late reports which I have seen on the subject I gather 
 that the number of Caoutchouc trees remaining in British territory 
 is believed to be limited. Under these circumstances it does not 
 appear likely that any considerable improvement of the article 
 can now be expected to be effected through the agency of private 
 enterprise, except at the risk of exhausting the remaining sources 
 of supply. The question then arises, whether it is possible in some 
 way or other to place the collection and preparation for the 
 market of this valuable article under the control of public officers 
 who will devote their whole time and attention to this subject. 
 No great skill is required for the collection and preparation of a 
 pure and valuable article, the facts stated in Mr. Collins' report 
 and in Mr. Mann's previous papers on the subject, will enable any 
 intelligent and careful person to arrange and superintend the 
 collection and preparation. 
 
 10. Mr. Mann specially insists on the following points being 
 observed : — 
 
 1. Presh cuts to be made only in February, March, and April, and 
 
 the trees to have rest for two years between each tapping. 
 
 2. The cuts to be at least 18 inches apart, to penetrate into the 
 
 bark only, not into the wood, and to be made with an 
 instrument more suitable than the others at present used. 
 Mr. Mann prefers the German timber scoring knife. 
 
 * Mr. Mann's Keport on the Caoutchouc Tree in the Durrung District. 
 
54 MEMORAJJDTJM. 
 
 3. As far as possible the milk to be collected in a fluid state in 
 
 narrow mouthed rattan baskets, and to be brought to 
 central manufactories. 
 
 4. Endeavours to be made to convert the milk into a solid state 
 
 by a process of slow drying similar to that practised in Para. 
 
 5. In case this method should not succeed, then the process 
 
 employed by Messrs. Martin and Richie to be followed. 
 
 6. Those varieties of Caoutchouc which dry naturally on the tree, 
 
 to be collected with care, and to be picked so as to get rid 
 of aU impurities. 
 
 So much however is evident that unless the collection and 
 preparation of the Caoutchouc produced in British territory is 
 placed under the .control of public officers who have an interest 
 in the protection and improvement of the forests, no satisfactory 
 result can be expected. If this is not practicable then we must 
 for future improvements entirely rely on the Caoutchouc planta- 
 tions to be established. 
 
 11. Under all circumstances should plantations of the Ficus 
 elastica be commenced at once in Assam on a large scale. The 
 tree strikes readily from cuttings, its cultivation therefore is easier 
 than that of most other trees. In one of his first reports on 
 the subject Mr. Mann suggests that Unes be cleared through the 
 forest and that cuttings, as large as possible, be planted at con- 
 venient distances on either side of these lines. Very likely this wiU 
 be a good plan to commence with, and as the carriage of big 
 cuttings over long distances would be expensive, nursery beds 
 should be prepared and enclosed for the growth of such cuttings 
 from small sHps. 
 
 If suitable soil and localities are selected, and if these planta- 
 tions are at once placed under efficient supervision, there ought to 
 be no difficulty in this undertaking, and operations should in my 
 opinion be commenced as soon as possible on a large scale, and in. 
 accordance with a well considered plan. 
 
 D. BEANDIS. 
 
5B 
 
 EXPLANATION OF PLATES, &c. 
 
 Map 1. Showing approximately the limits through which the trees furnishing 
 Caoutchouc in quantity are distributed ; by James Collins. 
 
 Map 2. Showing the distribution of Ficus elastica, Roxb., in Assam ; by Gustav 
 Mann. 
 
 Plate 1. Hevea Brasiliensis, Miill, arg. (natural size), from a specimen in the 
 British Museum Herbarium, collected by Dr. Spruce. 
 
 1, flower bud ; 2, section of a female flower ; 3, androecium ; 4, pollen 
 grain ; 5, pistil, with the calyx cut away ; 6, the three-lobed stigma ; 
 7, section of a fruit of Hevea Brasiliensis ? 8, seed of ditto. 7 and 8, 
 natural size. 
 
 Plate 2, Castilloa elastica, Cervant. (natural size), from specimens in the Herbaria 
 of the British Museum and of James CoUins. 
 
 1, group of female flowers ; 2, single flower with exserted filiform 
 stigmas ; 3 and 4, sections of ditto, and showing the ovary in different 
 stages of development ; 5, magnified portion of margin of leaf, showing 
 bunches of stiff hairs. 
 
 Plate 3. Castilloa Markhamiana, Collins, sp. nov. (natural size), from specimens 
 in Herbaria of British Museum, and of James CoUins. 
 
 1, group of female flowers; 2, section of ditto; 3, single female 
 flower with the exserted foliar stigmas ; 4, section of ditto. 
 
 Plate 4. Landolphia owariensis, Pal. de Beauv. (natural size), from a specimen 
 collected by Dr. Welwitsch, in the Herbarium of James Collins. 
 1, flower ; '2, section of ditto ; 3, stigma ; 4, fruit. 
 
LONDON: 
 
 Printed by Geokge E. Etke and William Spottiswoode, 
 
 Printers to the Queen's most Excellent Majesty. 
 
 Eor Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 
 [P. 1907.— 1000.— 3/73.] 
 
APPROXIMATE SliETC H op the GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBITTION of CAOUTGHOUC YIEEDEN^G TREES, 
 
 BY JAMES COLLINS, F.B S.EDIN. 
 
?aMATE SKETCH OP THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBITTION of CJLOUTCHOLTC YIEEDE^G THEES 
 
 BY JAMES COLLINS, F.B SEDIN. 
 
 StzcfiA'r^,'; (TeoifJjE,vhihT6 <t 7. Charmg Orosi 
 
02° 
 
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 ~£::'£:'r:2!:f^^p't,j<^^j 
 
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 ''//,f*:"))lli!~ 
 
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 96" 
 
 
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 Glf.0 
 
 
 
 ^"::;iS^iMfe,i„ 
 
 
 'Off,' 
 
 O-' 
 
 \V 
 
 
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 THE DISTRIBUTION 
 
 OF THX 
 
 m7 CAOUTCHOUC TREE OB EICUS ELASTICA 
 
 ^■s 
 
 26' 
 
 
 ^'t/ 
 
 
 
 i"i -i? 
 
 \^j Gustav Maiiu . 
 
 Scale of English Miles 
 10 p 20 4o eo 
 
 EXPLANATION. 
 
 r 1 Trojctof (MiLfihyijvwhLchtheCaiJuJxhaiic TreejFicus altxsticu^) 
 
 I -^ I isgrtn^irig cibundx^jdLyS: front w}u^nj:eCajyutchj?uj^is eacportej^ 
 
 ] I TrxtjcL in. which' occjisumaXiy (jioutdtoitc Trees are met with' 
 
 I 1 TrdfLirt whjxh'die Soom Forests occllt ancL in. whuJi' 
 
 1 I Mooqah Silk. Warms are renreit . 
 
 > Eastern. Unut of the. Sal Tree fSfuyrea. tobiLsUv) 
 
 Line b^vrul which no JieveroLe Contrails eccercisejiiy Gafanment. 
 
 '2H15fc> . UcLghis of^ Efu^lish. Feet 
 [95 [. . AnjuA.at Jiojin/ult uv Jnches 
 
 9'Z° 
 
 94:° 
 
 96° 
 
 Stan/ards Geog^3st&b* 6 Scl Chariiuj Cross 
 
,; . .<■ 
 
D.Bkir aA naL. duel. eL IntK. 
 
 IVn"n!LepnBro 
 
D.Bl 
 
D, Blair ajdLnsA/ del et/ IrtK 
 
 Mniet 
 
I r 
 
 ;v 
 
 V- 
 
 c ^ 
 
 \ 
 
 V >=^ 
 
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 U. 
 
 ./ 
 
 Vv- 
 
 \>" 
 
 y 
 
 Umijeni Bro;