INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION i SURVEV halt Qfalbgc of Agriculture At OlorneU IntwcrHttH atljata, N. g. LCI 08 1.N7T" ''"""'">"-"'"'•>' ^lllTliiiiiMiS'^' ^'*"=a''°n survey of the c 3 1924 013 369 743 Cornell University Library The original of tiiis book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013369743 THE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK THE SURVEY COMMITTEE Charles R. Richards, Chairman John Martin George A. Stevens Thomas J. Carroll Arthur D. Dean William J. Ettinger C. G. Norman Miss Florence M. Marshall Frederick Alfred Mrs. Mathilde C. Ford Emil J. Deering Charles Delaney John J. MulhoUand Royal Meeker Mrs. Sidney C. Borg Lewis A. Wilson, Direetoi- THE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SURVEY OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK Complete Report of the Committee Authorized by the Board of Estimate and Apportionment I. THE PRINTING TRADE II. INSIDE ELECTRICAL WORK IIL CARPENTRY AND JOINERY IV. THE MACHINIST TRADE V. INDUSTRIAL CLASSES IN THE PUBLIC SHOOLS New York City 1918 (a) K/l MANHATTAN LINOTYPE CO. PRINTERS 137-139 E. 86th ST., N. V. (2 iin&t UHDEnwOCiD ft UNDERWOOD. N.r. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE PRINTING TRADE A new era in the commercial printing industry may be said to have begun with the development of the halftone engraving process. This process provides an inexpensive means of illus- trating articles and furnishes a means of graphic advertising foi* the manufacturer and merchant. On the other hand the development of a new business, that of the professional adver- tiser, has given an added impulse to commercial printing. The New York City Red Book Telephone Directory gives the names of 745 companies and firms which conduct advertising agencies and it can be readily imagined that the work of these firms tends greatly to increase the volume of printing. The industry has kept pace with this constantly increasing demand for product. No other industry requires a larger ex- penditure for machinery in proportion to output, and the in- creased capital invested in the printing industry during the past five years (|32,442,000) is slightly more than the increased value of the annual product ($32,061,000). Within the past ten years many commercial structures, espe- cially fitted for the printers' requirements, have been erected in the city, and high speed presses and other modern printing equip- ments of a kind undreamed of fifteen years ago installed within them. Within the last ten years about twenty reinforced con- crete buildings have been erected in the Borough of Manhattan for the occupancy, almost entirely, of the printing and allied trades. These buildings are of an average height of eleven stories, the largest being the Printing Crafts Building, twenty- two stories in height, having a floor area of 528,000 square feet. CENTRALIZATION OF THE PRINTING INDUSTRY The center of the printing indhstry in New York City is located at the lower west side of the Borough of Manhattan, between 25th Street and 43d Street. For many years the print- ing district was located below 25th Street, but during the past few years it has gradually moved uptown. The center of the trade will in all probability remain where it now is for many years due to the new buildings that have been erected by printers in this district. Some idea of the centralization of the trade may be gained from the fact that 87 per cent, of the people engaged in the 22 Industrial Education Survey printing industry in Greater New York work in tlie Borough of Manhattan. This fact should, of course, influence in a large degree the location of any school offering courses to the workers engaged in the trade. NUMBER OF COMPOSITORS AND PRESSMEN IN NEW YORK CITY It is difficult to determine the exact number of workers in the composing and pressrooms of the city. The United States Census report for the year 1914 gives the number of pressmen and compositors in New York City as 24,014. The distribution of these workers in the trade is shown in the following table : Kind of Work Malea Females Total Compositors and Typesetters 16,606 652 17,258 Proofreaders 478 322 800 Pressmen 2,651 5 2,656 Press Feeders 1,496 .351 1,847 Apprentices* 1,370 83 1,453 22,601 1,413 24,014 The members of the survey staff secured information as to the exact number of compositors and pressmen employed in the daily newspaper offices in the city. The following table shows the distribution by occupations of the 3,706 men employed in these offices: Number of Workers Employed in the Composing and Press Rooms of the Daily Newspapers^ Printed in English COMPOSING ROOM PRESS ROOMS Linotype Operators 658 Pressmen 1,040 Handmen 562 Flyboys and Apprentices 439 Proofreaders 199 Makeup Men 129 ^'^"^^ Apprentices 76 Linotype Machinists 70 Foremen 46 Monotype Operators 45 Bankmen 30 Copy Cutters 2'.» Monotype Machinists 12 Extra Ijst 371 2,227 ♦Includes apprentices in other branches of tha trade. The Printing Trade 23 The meu on extra list report at the newspaper office each day and if the edition is sufficiently large they are employed. An attempt was made to secure information as to the number of men employed in the commercial and job shops. Forty-five hundred questionnaires were sent to these shops asking for information as to the number of men employed in each type of work. Replies were received from 732 establish- ments, employing 11,285 men. The following table shows the dis- tribution of these men in the industry : COMPOSING ROOM PRESS BOOMS Handmen 3,075 Pressmen Machine Operators 981 Cylinder 1,140 Two Tliirders 536 Platen 555 Apprentices 485 Job Cylinder 321 Machinists 97 Rotary 147 Magazine 159 ^'^'^'^ Book Web 147 Offset 25 Feeders Job 1,687 Cylinder 1,658 Magazine and Book Web 240 Offset 32 6,111 The following estimate of the total number of men employed in the composing and pressrooms in the commercial shops and newspaper offices in Greater New York was based on the above data, a study of union records and conferences with the com- mittees appointed by the employers' associations and unions : Estimated Number of Compositors and Pressmen Employed in New York City January 1, 1917 Compositors 15,278 Pressmen 4,900 Feeders 5,875 Total 26,053 Size op Shops Seven hundred and thirty-two establishments furnished in- formation as to the number of men employed. Thirty-three per cent, of these firms employed ten or less workers and less than 24 IndustriaJ Education Hurveij o per cent, employed 100 workers or over. The following table shows the number of men employed in shops by groups : No. of Wkrs. ..12345 6tol0 10to25 25to50 SOtolOO 100to200 over200 No. of Shops . .26 85 09 66 72 164 167 52 12 6 3 NATIONALITY OF WORKERS It is impossible to determine with accuracy the nationality of those who are engaged in the composing rooms of New York City. The 1910 U. S. census gives the number of compositors, linotypers and typesetters as 16,826. Of this number 11,534, or 68 per cent., are given as native born and 5,292, or 32 per cent., as foreign born. Among the 2,668 pressmen, 2,109, or 79 per cent., were of native birth (either of native, mixed or foreign parents), as against 559, or 21 per cent., foreign born. In the survey of the evening trade classes maintained by the city, 310 men who were attending the printing classes filled out questionnaires. Of this number 219, or 71 per cent., were native born and 91, or 29 per cent., were foreign born. A study was also made of the application blanks of the men who applied for membership to the New Y'^ork Typographical Union No. 6, an organization enrolling half of the compositors in New York. One thousand cases were taken, which included all who applied for membership during the four years 1913 to 1916. Of this number 791, or 79 per cent., were found to be native born and 209, or 21 per cent., were foreign born. When this situation is compared with the conditions in other skilled trades, such as carpentry with 70 per cent., or brick and stone masonry with 66 per cent, of foreign born workers, the contrast is strikingly apparent. WHERE THE WORKERS ARE TRAINED It is more difficult to determine where the New York printer learned his trade than to determine his nationality. The census gives no information on this point and the question was not asked of the men attending the evening schools. Of the 1,000 men who joined the New York Typographical Union No. 6, between the years 1913 and 1916, 231, or 23 per cent., had received The Printing Trade 25 their training outside of the city, usually in small newspaper offices, and 769, or 77 per cent., had been trained in New York City. Many of the latter group began in small job and commer- cial oflSces, picking up such information as the opportunities of the shop afforded and applied for membership in the Union after the years of apprenticeship had been served. Others joined the Union first as Union apprentices and remained during the entire apprenticeship period. A study of the records of 1,040 members of the Newspaper Pressmen's Union shows that 155, or 15 per cent., had received their training outside of the city and 885, or 85 per cent., had been trained in the city. THE TRANSIENT PRINTER Many printers are attracted to this city because of the higher wages and remain here for indefinite periods. A large number of printers trained in the city become dissatisfied for one cause or another and go to other places. It is difficult to determine what percentage of the printers who come to New York remain and what percentage leave after a few months or years. A study of the records of the Typographical Union No. 6 for the years 1914-1916 shows that an average of 817 traveling cards are received and 761 traveling cards are issued annually. An exaimination of the Pressmen's and Feeders' Unions shows that an average of 200 traveling cards are received and an average of 200 are issued annually. A conservative estimate would seem to indicate that at lea^ 1,500 printers come to the city and nearly as large a number leave the city each year. The confirmed transient printer is in a way an anomaly. In a large number of cases he is the type of man who fails to stick to his job. He much resembles the casual worker. Some pecu- liarity in his makeup prevents him from staying very long in any one place and he is always willing to move on to another city. Of course, there is always a certain percentage of workers who, on account of strikes, dissatisfaction or other reasons, decide to leave one city to take up their trade permanently in another. This class, however, can hardly be included under transients. With the increasing demands made by the trade for men of regular habits who will "stick to the job," the days of the 26 Industrial Education (Purvey transient printer would seem to be numbered. Each year the number of men who join the ranks of the transients grow less and there is no doubt that within a few years the transient printer will be as much of a rarity as the old type of tramp printer is now. FLUCTUATION OF EMPLOYMENT There is but little variation, month by month, in the number of men employed in the printing industry. In the book and job shops the minimum number employed during the year is 90 per cent, of the maximum number employed. In the publication of music the difference is still less, as the minimum number is 95 per cent, of the maximum, and in the newspaper offices there is but 4 per cent, in range. However, the number of men employed does not always tell a complete story in regard to steadiness of labor conditions. In dull times firms in many industries, loath to lose their trained workers and resort to part time employment for a large number rather than continue full time employment for a small number. This is also true of the printing trade, though there is probably less part time employment among printers than among any other class of skilled workers. NIGHT WOEKERS In developing a plan for teaching the workers now engaged in the printing trade, consideration must be given to the large pro- portion of these workers employed at night. Of the 5,000 men employed in some capacity in newspaper printing, approximately 50 per cent, work at night, either on the shift which works be- tween 6 p. m. and 3 a. m. or on the "lobster" shift, which works between 2 a. m. and 10 a. m. In addition to the men working on newspaper printing about 10 per cent, of the 20,000 printers engaged in job and commer- cial printing are c-nguged on night work. Moreover, in the busy season, which begins early in the Fall, overtime work requires a large number of printers to work at night. Night work indeed in the printing trade is of greater importance than in any other important skilled occupation. The Printing Trade 27 TEADE ORGANIZATIONS Employers' Associations The owners of the printing plants in the City of New York are represented by three organizations — The Association of Em- ploying Printers of New York City, The Master Printers' Asso- ciation and the Newspaper Publishers' Association. The Association of Employing Printers is composed of the owners of commercial printing houses in New York City, em- ploying large numbers of men and producing in the neighborhood of 75 per cent, of the printing product of the city. The Master Printers' Association is composed of owners of small shops in the city. The Newspaper Publishers' Association, as the name implies, is composed of the publishers of nearly all the news- papers in the city. Not all of the owners of printing plants in the city are affiliated with these associations, but the majority are connected with some one of the three. Most of the large shops which have membership in these asso- ciations have contracts with the local organizations of workers, in which they agree to employ only members of the local union. There are both individual contracts and association agreements between employers and unions. The conditions under which work shall be carried on, the scale of wages and regulations for apprentices, are also set forth in the contract. In return the employers are protected by their contracts against walkouts, strikes, boycotts or any other form of concerted interference with the peaceful operation of the departments over which the unions have jurisdiction. All disputes arising over scale pro- visions, wages, hours or the reviewing or extending of contracts are subject to local arbitration, if such disputes cannot be settled through conciliation. The Conciliation Committee appointed by the unions and the employers' association endeavors to settle all such disputes, but in case of failure local arbitration is resorted to. Each side appoints a representative and these two representa- tives choose a third. The Board of Arbitration so constituted takes evidence and submits its decision. At present there is no arbitration agreement between the Newspaper Publishers' Asso- ciation and the Typographical Union. 28 Industrial Education Purvey Unions The labor organizations represented in composing rooms and pressrooms of the city are : Typographical Union No. 6 Typographical Union No. 7 (German) Typographical Union No. 83 (Jewish) Typographical Union No. 1.31 (Bohemian) Typographical Union No. 261 (Italian) Typographical Union No. 440 (Hungarian) Pressmen's (Cylinder and Job) No. 51 Newspaper Web-Pressmen's Union No. 25 Franklin Assistants Union No. 23 Job Press Feeders No. 1 There are also unions of bookbinders, stereotypers, electro- typers, photoengravers and mailers. The unions are affiliated with international bodies and are represented through three delegates in a local Allied Printing Trades Council. The local Allied Printing Trades Council is the representative of the International Allied Printing Trades Association, an or- ganization composed of the executive officers of the five Inter- national Printing Trades Unions: International Typographical Union, International Printing Pressmen's and Assistants' Union, International Photo-Engravers' Union, International Stereotypers' and Electrotypers' Union and the International Brotherhood of Bookbinders. This body is the owner of the Allied Printing Trades Union Label. The Local Council en- forces the rules established for its protection. It is also active in other trade matters, such as assisting in the enactment of labor legislation, opposing hostile legislative measures, adjusting disputes between unions and emploj^ers and between the unions themselves. Besides their activities in establishing and maintaining wage scales, reasonable hours of labor and fair working conditions, internationally and locally, the unions have many educational and beneficial features designed to win and hold members of the crafts. The International Typograpliical Union has a home for its The Printing Trade 29 aged and a tuberculosis sanitarium at Colorado Springs, Colo- rado. This institution is known as The Union Printers' Home. It is supported entirely by assessments levied on the membership and is worth over one million dollars. There the old printer, who has no family ties, can spend his declining years in comfort and security. There, also, members afflicted with tuberculosis can receive the latest scientific treatment for that disease. One of the features of the Home is its library. Autographed copies of the books of many contemporary authors have been con- tributed. Former Kepresentative in Congress, Amos J. Cum- mings, bequeathed his entire collection of books and documents to the Home library. It grants a pension of $5 per week to those with twenty years membership who are unable to work, it pays mortuary benefits ranging from |75 to |400 to families of deceased members and gives correspondence courses in print- ing for the improvement of apprentices and journeymen. In New York City, Typographical Union No. 6 contributes an equal amount with the local Newspaper Publishers, Employ- ing Printers' Section and the Hudson Guild (a philanthropic in- stitution) toward the support of a school for printers' apprentices. The Union also maintains a local old age pension fund, and has a hospital fund for the endowment of beds in the principal hospitals of the city. Most of the men working in the pressrooms of New York City and vicinity are members of some one of the four organizations claiming jurisdiction over pressroom positions. The pressmen working in the commercial shops are members of the Pressmen's Union No. 51. The pressmen working in the newspaper shops are members of Web Printing Pressmen's Union No. 25. The cylinder press feeders and assistants on the web presses in the commercial shops are members of Franklin Assist- ants' Union No. 23. The job press feeders are members of the Job Press Feeders' Union No. 1. The pressmen's organizations are affiliated with the Interna- tional Printing Pressmen's and Assistants' Union of North Amer- ica. This International Union is one of the most progressive labor organizations in the country. It owns 1,100 acres of land at BogersvUle in the mountains of Eastern Tennessee, where it maintains a beautiful home for its superannuated members; a well equipped sanitorium for the members afflicted with tubercu- 30 Industrial Education Survty losis and the best equipped school for press work in the world. The executive oifices of the International are located at Rogers- ville, and the annual conventions of the Union are held there in their own convention hall. The Union maintains very compre- hensive correspondence courses in platen press, cylinder press, web press and planographic press work. Both employers and etaiployees consider these the best courses in printing presswork ever published. They also maintain an old age pension fund, whereby an old member who retires from the trade receives $5 per week as long as he lives. A mortuary benefit of ?100 is also paid. THE COMPOSING ROOM The need of the daily newspaper for speed in production and the consequent introduction of new methods has had a great influence upon the printing trade at large. Especially is this true in the composing room of commercial establishments. The newspapers not being in the strictly competitive field of printing, are better able to try out experimental machinery than the com- mercial shops, and are constantly seeking quicker taethods of doing the work in their mechanical departments. The cry is "Speed ! Speed ! More speed !" Before the invention of typesetting machines all type was made in type foundries, which were not a part of a printing ofBce. This hand type was movable type and was laid in type cases. The compositor "threw in" his type and set it out. The dis- tributing process required about one-third of his time. EVOLUTION FEOM HAND SETTING TO MACHINE COMPOSITION The linotype was the first successful typesetting machine. This machine marked a revolution in newspaper composing room work. What four fast hand compositors formerly set in eight hours one "swift" linotype machine operator can now set in seven. The product of the linotype and the present intertype ma- chines is a line of type set according to copy the width of a column, in length called a "slug." These slug-casting machines cast type from the size known as agate* (14 lines to an inch) to 24 point (1-3 inch), which is used for the small reading matter (body type) and for headings and display lines in advertisements. There are also special head- letter machines in newspaper ofiSces adapted to the styles and *NoTE — Linotype, Intertype and Monotype machines can cast smaller sizes than agate, but these sizes are not in common use, and are usually set by handmen from foundry type cases. 31 32 Industrial Education Survey sizes of letters used in headings at the beginning of articles. It is still necessary to set certain kinds of matter in movable type. For tabular work (railroad time tables, tariffs, etc.) ; diction- aries; matter where cuts (illustrations) are introduced and the measures broken up ; and work where it is known in advance that there are to be many corrections it is more economical to use the product of the monotype machine (see description) which makes movable type, i. e,. each character, space and quad in a single piece. The monotype (movable type) casts type set according to copy from agate (1/14: inch) to 36 point (i^ inch) and is used for reading matter, but especially for tabular work and display. It also casts spaces, quads, leads, rules and slugs. Another slug-casting machine, the slug display line caster makes possible the casting of large type display lines in one piece. This is accomplished by the linotype principle adapted to type sizes larger than 12 point (1/C inch). This machine casts from 14 point (7/36 inch) to 60 point (5/6 inch) and any width up to 261/2 ems (4 5/12 inches). The method used is the same as in hand composition, except that the typesetter sets matrices (dies) into a stick by hand, fits the assembled matrices with the stick into the casting machine, casts a slug and distributes the matrices back into the case, in which they are kept for future use. The slug is known as an overhanging slug on a 12 point base. When ready to make up, the overhanging part of the slug must be supported underneath by leads or slugs of the right height to prevent breaking off. The height of the base cor- responds to the height of the leads and slugs cast by the mono- type or linotype lead caster, so there is plenty of the supporting material needed in most newspaper composing rooms. THE "NON-DISTRIBUTION" SYSTEM These typesetting machines have not only made possible a great saving of time in setting type but have effected another great economy in the matter of distribution. When the material cast in these machines, type, leads, slugs, rules and borders, has been used it is not distributed in cases, but is remelted and used again to feed the machines. In this way the time of distribu- tion is saved. This method gives a new face of type on every day's edition, and accounts for the good typographical appear- ance of the modern newspaper. THE LINOTYPE The Printing Trade 33 These processes have all tended to reduce the number of handmen required in a newspaper composing room and the changes, while gradual, have had the effect of forcing handmen either to learn the opei'ation of machines or to seek work in commercial shops. When the handman does learn machine opera- tion, he is likely to be more adept in setting matter used for advertisements and display than an operator who has had no training in this branch of the work. Handmen will always be required in composing rooms to assemble, make up and lock up type set on machines, but not in such numbers as formerly. When the handman is ready to assemble an advertisement or display matter he takes all the type for the job which has been set on the machines and sets the displayed lines (i. e., the larger lines which are used to emphasize the subject) and cuts borders and inserts rules and cuts. In a modern newspaper copnposing room, if there is no line larger than 86 point (l^ inch) in a piece of displayed matter there is no necessity of distributing any part of it back into the type cases. If an advertisement or display matter contains a line larger than 36 point (i/^ inch) it is either a line of foundry type or one made on a slug display -line caster. If the former, the line must be lifted from the matter when the used form is to be broken up, and distributed into its proper case. The commercial shop soon avails itself of whatever has proven efficient and economical in the newspaper plant and the tendency to the introduction of typesetting machines in the former soon became marked. All improvepients of late years have taken this course and the "non-distribution" system is the next step toward effliciency and economy in the commercial shop and is rapidly being introduced. Effect of "Non-Distribution'-" System on Handmen The handmen feel the effect of the introduction of the "non- distribution" system just as soon as it is introduced, but it effects the less skilled among them more than the highly skilled. In every shop there are men who lack confidence, or initiative, and who must be instructed in detail. They are kept at such simple tasks as distribution, setting from reprint and assisting other journeymen who have charge of publications or other kinds of work. With the "non-distribution" system in vogue their princi- pal occupation is gone. If they have not the ambition to take M Industrial Education Survey up and master the new processes they must suffer the conse- quences that follow a loss of steady employment. For such men a school giving a course of study in composing room work would be a great help and a course for journeymen would, no doubt, be eagerly grasped by many of them. Such men are re- luctant to attend schools where there are mixed classes of ap- prentices and journeymen. A separate course for journeymen seems the right solution for this class of printers. The evolution from hand setting to machine composition forms a chapter in the history of printing that is brilliant in mechanical achievement, but tragic for the wage earner who could set only straight matter and who was brushed aside by the new devices. The trade could not absorb all of these handmen; one out of every four being suflScient under the new conditions. The misery of those days was alleviated partly by local unions furnishing out-of-work relief, and by the establishing of an old age pension fund by the International Typographical Union. Gradual adjustment to the new order was bound to come. The handman whom the trade could not support drifted away and the machine operator took his place as the typical craftsman. Future Field of the Hand Compositor The field of the hand compositor is also being invaded by the designer and engraver. Cover pages, artistic type display for advertisements, booklets, menus and the better class of com- mercial printing was once the work of the artistically inclined handman and in shops where the latest faces produced by the type foundries are purchased he is still able to compete, in a measure, with the designer and engraver. But whenever a cus- tomer now wants a particularly attractive piece of work, he calls in the designer, whose hand lettering and decorations are likely to be far superior to anything the typesetter can con- struct from the material at his disposal in most composing rooms. The photoengraver transforms the designer's work into shape for printing and thus eliminates the compositor with artistic tendencies. Considerable opportunities are open to this class of handman by developing their latent artistic talents through the study of hand lettering and designing. With a knowledge of letter forms and type faces the handman starts with an equip- ment that will enable him to master the technique of this new art more rapidly and more thoroughly than one who never handled type. The Printing Trade 35 ♦UNION SCALE OP WAGES FOR COMMERCIAL SHOP COMPOSING ROOMS DAT NIGHT 8 Hours 8 Hours Apprentice 5 6.00-$22.50 $ 6.00-122.50 Handman $25.00 $28.00 Monotype $26.00 $28.00 Linotype and Intertype operators $26.00 $28.00 Makeup $25.00 $28.00 Stonehand $25.00 $28.00 Proofreader $25.00 $28.00 Machinist $26.00-$31.50 $31.00-$36.50 Foreman f30.00 up $30.00 up Piece workers receive from |0.46 to f 0.56 per 1,000 ems. This affects only three union shops in New York City where piece work rates are in operation. The third (midnight) shift rate is $31 for 7 hours for all, including 30 minutes for lunch. The 7 hours may be arranged for any time between 1 a. m. and 10 a. m. Rate for overtime — price and one-half. Rate for Sunday and holidays — double price. The wages for compositors in non-union shops range from |15 a week to the maximum of the union scale. The wages paid in non-union shops are, as a rule, lower than the wages paid in the union shops. The eight-hour day is generally observed except in the smaller shops. tUNION SCALE OF WAGES FOR DAILY NEWSPAPER COMPOSING ROOMS DAY 8 Hours Apprentice $ 7-$20 Handman $30.00 Monotype v $30.00 Linotype and Intertype Oper- ators $30.00 Bankman $30.00 Copy Cutter $30.00 Makeup $30.00 Proofreader $30.00 Machinist $25.00-$31.00 Foreman $50 and up NIQHT MIDNIGHT 8 Hours T/i Houn $7-$21-$23 $7-$24 $33.00 $36.00 $33.00 $36.00 $33.00 $36.00 $33.00 $36.00 $33.00 $36.00 $33.00 $36.00 $33.00 $36.00 $31.00-$36.00 $31.00-$36 $50 and up $50 and up *As this report was being printed an agreement was entered into by the Printers' League Section and Typographical Union No. 6 for a flat raise of $2.00 per week for all journeymen. tAs this report was being printed, a new scale was presented to the News- paper Publishers by the Union seeking an advance of $6 per week. 36 Industrial Education Survey Rate for overtime — price and one-half. There are only two non-union daily newspaper composing rooms in New York City. The wages and hours in these shops are the same as in union shops. No holidays on morning newspapers, but afternoon dailies observe Thanksgiving, Christmas, New Years and Fourth of July. APPRENTICE TRAINING IN THE COMPOSING ROOM The training that an apprentice receives in the composing room is better than similar training in most industrial occupa- tions. If a boy does satisfactory work, he becomes a journeyman at the end of five years. This assurance of a journeyman's wage at the expiration of a definite period of training attracts many boys to this branch of the trade. The art of printing is continuously educative, especially to the typesetter. The primer and the treatise on diflferential cal- culus come to him as a part of his daily work. Some of the copy he reads may leave an impression on his mind. All of it adds to the sum total of his intelligence. His work, his environment and his associations tend to make him a good citizen in any com- munity. COMMBECIAL AND JOB ShOPS A study of the records received from 732 commercial and job shops shows that there are in these shops 4,153 hand and ma- chine journeymen compositors, 536 two-thirdersf and 485 ap- prentices employed in the composing rooms. From figures col- lected by survey staff and committees it is estimated that there are in round numbers approximately 1,250 apprentices in the composing rooms of New York City. The two-thirders may be classified either as journeymen or apprentices. If they are eliminated the data shows that there are about twelve appren- tices to each hundred journeymen. In New York City nearly all the large shops have trade agree- ments with the union providing for the length of apprentice- ship, the number of apprentices to be employed in each shop, the work to be done each year of the apprenticeship, the wages to be paid and other details. The union insists that the number ■\ "Two-thirder" is a craft term designating one who hag not reached the competency of u journeyman, and is usually paid two-thirds of a journeyman's wage. The Printing Trade 37 of apprentices shall not exceed the number stipulated in the agreement, and that each apprentice shall be required to serve a full term of five years. These agreements provide that there shall be but one appren- tice for every eight journeymen or major fraction and that not more than eight apprentices shall be employed in any one oflce. Each union oflSce of any size shall be allowed at least one appren- tice, and each newspaper shop is limited to four apprentices. Following is an excerpt from the Scale of Prices of New York Typographical Union No. 6, giving in detail the rules governing the employment of apprentices agreed to between the Printers' League of America and the Closed Shop Division of the United Typothetse (employing printers) and the Union: Etjles Governing the Employment ov Apprentices In book and job offices apprentices may be employed in the ratio of one to every eight men or a majority fraction thereof; but no more than eight ap- prentices shall be permitted in any office. Each union office shall be allowed at least one apprentice. In offices where the work fluctuates, the average for the preceding year shall be the basis for the number of apprentices. Any office not doing hand composition, but confining itself exclusively to machine composition, shall not be allowed any new apprentices after the adop- tion of this scale. , In the first year an apprentice shall be required to perform general work in the composing room at the discretion of the foreman at any work which he may be deemed capable of doing. The foreman is required to test the ability of aU apprentices under his charge during the first year of their service, to determine the fitness of such apprentice for the trade. The apprentice shall thereupon receive from his fore- man a written statement of his qualifications, copy of which he shall file with the union and the organization to which this office belongs. Should an appren- tice be proven incapable he shall then be refused further work at this branch of the trade. Any dispute arising through this measure with any office not in the Printers' League or Closed Shop Division of the Typothetae may be laid be- fore the Joint Conference Committee of either the Printers' League or Closed Shop Division of the Typothetae and Typographical Union No. 6, at which all parties concerned shall be present. In the second year an apprentice shall be employed at least fifty per cent, of his time at hand composition and distribution. He shall be given opportunity to set reprint ads and job work. In the third year an apprentice shall be employed at least seventy-five per cent, of his time on the floor at hand composition and distribution. He shall be given opportunity to set ads and job work from manuscript, and assist on make- up and imposition. AU apprentices shall serve a term of not less than three (3) nor more than six (6) months of the third year as copy-holder and assistant proofreader, but shall not do first reading. 38 Industrial Ediication Survey In the fourth year an apprentice shall be employed at least seTen houti etch day at hand composition, distribution, make-up, and stone work. In the fifth year an apprentice shall be employed his full time at floor work, and during the last three months may be allowed to set live matter on machine. He shall receive the following scale : In effect January 1, 1916, to January 1, 191S : For first 3 months !P16.50 For second 3 months 18.50 For third 3 months 20.50 For last 3 months 22.50 In effect January 1, 1918, to Octobei- 1, 1919 : For first 3 months $17.50 For second 3 months 19.50 For third 3 months 21.50 For last 8 months 23.50 The ratio of one to eight shall be maintained for all shifts and overtime. Apprentices shall be registered on the book.s of the Union and shall at all tim.e8 be under the direction of the foreman and supervision of the chairman in regard to carrying out these rules. All apprentice! when rejiitered shall be between 16 and 21 years of age. * If * No apprentice may leave one office and enter the service of another em- ployer without the written consent of his first employer, endorsed by the Presi- dent of Typographical Union No. 6. When an apprentice is discharged the foreman shall at once notify the chairman of such fact, who shall investigate the cause of discharge, and if, in his opinion, the discharge is not for good and sufficient reasons he shall so report to an officer of the union. A form of indenture shall be piepared, to be appiDvod by the employer and Typographical Union No. 6, for the signature of each apprentice registered in offices. Any apprentice who wilfully neglects the duties which he is required to attend to under these rules may be brought up and disciplined by the Discipline Committee of the Union. These rules shall be posted conspicuously in all offices. In commercial shops a five-year apprenticeship, following the rules agreed to between employers and unions, will produce a fairly good compositor, but every shop lacks something toward turning out a fully competent, capable mechanic. There are large ehops devoted wholly to magazines and trade papers where the work is of a routine nature, performed on a time schedule, and with very little variety. The shops that do book and job work are almost ideal places in which to train apprentices, since the diversity of work brings them in touch with every important phase of composing room operation. The apprentice handles ma- chine and hand composition, display for advertisements and job The Printing Trade 39 work, makeuij, stonework and machine composition, has proof- room practice and gains a general idea of wliat plioto-engraving, electrotyping and bookbinding contribute to the industry. Another type of shop is the small job office with only platen presses, the largest of which can print a sheet 17 x 23 inches. Here the apprentice may handle machine type set by a trade com- position house. He does not see a typesetting machine in opera- tion and fails to grasp its possibilities. He obtains no instruc- tion in imposition of cylinder press forms and in making up large pages. In the great number of small printing offices, boys are working at typesetting. In some small shops no system- atic effort is made to teach these boys the trade — they pick up whatever knowledge they can and seldom become competent print- ers. It is obvious that a boy can never be graduated as a well- trained journeyman from an office where the character of the work is commonplace and the equipment poor. Many of these boys leave the trade, as they see no future for themselves after a few years in the small shops. Some continue and find employ- ment as "two-thirders," and a few eventually get into large offices and develop into good printers. Boys in the small shops receive from $5 to $9 per week, "two-thirders" from |10 to |18. If a boy has a common school education he can begin as a printer's apprentice, but to advance he must give some time to the study of spelling, grammar, punctuation, capitalization and syllabica- tion. It is possible to become an acceptable typesetter without special study. The mere process of correcting the galleys, noting and remembering the errors made, will in time make a boy useful, but his usefulness and opportunities for steady employment will be enhanced if he enters apprenticeship well grounded in the English language or attends continuation or evening classes during his apprenticeship period. Arithmetical knowledge is also very important for him. In the composing room there are calculations and measurements to be figured. The setting of the stick, the measurement of type pages, the calculation of mat- ter on galleys, the imposition of forms, the cutting of paper, the casting up of tables, the various kinds of mathematical matter occurring in copy, all require a knowledge of arithmetic. If the apprentice has given to this branch serious study in school, it will be much easier for him to grasp the many problems coming up in the course of his work. The composing room graduate makes the ideal executive in 40 Industrial Education Survey printing establishments and the many calculations that must be worked out in the business ofQce will be easier for one well grounded in fundamental requirements during his apprenticeship. Another reason for eflBciency in figuring is that the composing room calculations affecting typesetting call for accuracy. Estimat- ing the amount of matter copy will make ; casting off tables to be set ; ascertaining areas in triangles, quadrangles, circles, ovals and irregular forms; obtaining margins in imposition, all call for a knowledge of arithmetic that every typesetter should acquire early in his career. Drawing straight lines to square up and register pages in sheets from the press make necessary a knowl- edge of the elementary principles of drafting and the use of the steel square and the straight edge. A further advance in this field will bring the student to the art of hand lettering, designing and color harmony, all of which have a place in the modern printing establishment. A compositor who can make sketches accurately, indicating the appearance of display matter before setting up, is a valuable asset to every shop. To be able to do hand lettering that can be reproduced by the photoengraver brings a compositor into a field that will easily lead to a better salary and a more desirable place in the trade. Even if a type- setter finds that he has no talent or skill for drawing he should study sufficiently to be able to read sketches, layouts, diagrams and color schemes, as these are a necessary part of his trade equipment. Newspaper Offices *Seventy-six apprentices were found in a total of 2,227 work- ers employed in the composing rooms of the newspapers published in English in New York City. The following rules governing the employment of apprentices have been agreed to between the Newspaper Publishers' Associa- tion of New York and Typographical Union No. 6: In newspaper offices, declared as such by the Union, apprentices may be employed in the ratio of one to every twenty men or a majority fraction thereof, but no more than four shall be permitted in any office. In the first year an apprentice may be required to perform general work in the composing room at the discretion of the foreman. *As this report was being printed a new agreement was presented to the Newspaper Publishers by the Union seeking the abolition of all apprentices in newspaper offices. The Printing Trade 41 In the second year an apprentice shall be employed at least fifty per cent of his time at hand composition and distribution. In the third year an apprentice shall be employed at least seventy-fire per cent, of his time at hand composition and distribution, and shall receive one- half of the regular scale. In the fourth year an apprentice shall be employed at least seven hours each day at hand composition and distribution, and shall receive one-half of the regular scale. In the fifth year an apprentice shall be employed at least seven hours each day at hand composition and distribution, and in machine oflBces may practice on the machine, and shall receive two-thirds of the regular scale. Apprentices shall be registered on the books of the Union and shall at all times be under the supervision of the chairman. All registered apprentices shall be between the ages of sixteen and twenty- one. Apprentices shall be prohibited from working overtime or more than six days in any one week. On the completion of the term of service of an apprentice and his admis- sion into the Union he shall be placed at the bottom of the priority list in the office in which he is working. * * * In newspaper offices an apprentice cannot obtain the training to fit him for competency in a commercial shop. The newspaper composing room must meet editions promptly, and workmanship must often be sacrificed for speed. An apprentice trained where the details of good typesetting are secondary to speed is likely to form habits that need correcting and this has been recognized by the trade, first by limiting the number of apprentices in news- paper composing rootaas to four, and second, by insisting on their attendance to the Hudson Guild School for Printers' Apprentices. A newspaper apprentice can learn sufficient in five years to make him a useful employee in the particular office where he is em- ployed, but unless he receives instruction in display, job work, book and magazine makeup and imposition, he will not be a com- petent all-around compositor. Need for Outside Training Each type of shop mentioned, except the book and job office, lacks some essential to turn out a finished typesetter. Thus, many apprentices on becoming journeymen carry a handicap that hinders them from attaining higher wages and better positions. The trade is cognizant of its shortcomings regarding appren- tice training, and the organized portion of it has, in a measure, sought to improve the opportunities of its apprentices to obtain outside instruction in the things that the shop fails to give. Em- 42 Iiuliistrial E(lnrafioii Survey ployers' associations and labor organizations co-operate in the work of the Hudson Guild School for Printers' Apprentices, and the West Side Y. M. C. A. School is maintained by employers. Details concerning these institutions will be found elsewhere in this report. These schools, howevei-, do not touch all branches of the industry and are not equipped to meet fully the demands of the trade. Boys and Helpers In every printing office there is much work that boys can per- fortaa. These are usually engaged as errand boys and are put to such work as delivering packages, putting away material, such as leads, reglets, rules and furniture ; running proof presses, sweep- ing and cleaning and holding copy for proofreaders (except in newspaper offices). These boys are usually 16 years of age, but some may be but 14 or 15 years old, to whom the health authori- ties have issued working papers. They are usually advanced to apprenticeship in the mechanical department. Helpers in composing rooms work around the linotype ma- chines and in the monotype casting rooms. They carry metal, keep the metal pots filled, keep the machines clean and are gen- erally useful in the machine department. In the monotype east- ing room they watch the casting operation, remove the type gal- leys when filled and serve as general assistants to the machinists. While they acquire knowledge of the machines and are useful Avorkers, their occupation is regarded as a "blind alley" job. To become machinists on either linotype or monotype machines, an apprenticeship at the machinist's trade is necessary, as well as special courses in the factories where composing room machinery is built. Helpers who are engaged without special technical training seldom advance beyond the stage of simple tasks. They are generally young men between the ages of 18 and 25 years of age, although some are older. Their wages range from |9 to |15 per week. Ability to read and write simple English is the only education required for the job. Dexterity in handling material is all the skill that is required. WOMEN IN COMPOSING KOOMS Many women find employment in composing rooms as machine operators and in the proofrooms. That they are received in the The Printing Trade 4.3 union on an equal footing with men is shown by the following extract from the Book of Laws of the International Typo- graphical Union : "Equal wages and conditions shall prevail for both sexes in every local jurisdiction of the International Typographical Union, subject to the require- ments of the laws of the various states, as these laws affect women workers. Any member who violates the provision of this section, upon conviction, shall be punished by a fine of not less than $25 or suspended, as the union may deter- mine, in accordance with International Law." Women make eflScient keyboard operators, developing speed equal to the best male workers. There are at present more mono- type than linotype operators among women composing room employees. In the proofrooms women, who have had composing rooin training, find employment for which they are well adapted, and many have risen to well paid positions as copy readers and expert indexers. A recent act of the New York Legislature forbids the em- ployment of women after 10 o'clock at night. This has deprived many women printers of situations on morning newspapers, and some who could not transfer to the day shift were forced to seek work in commercial shops in which wages are lower. There are about 1,000 women employed in the composing rooms in New York City. About a quarter of this number are members of the Union and receive the regular scale of wage. About two-thirds of the women engaged in composing rooms are machine operators and about one-third proofreaders. CIRCUIT MACHINISTS In some 50 trade composition shops in the city with equip- ments of from one to fifteen machines, a breakdown occurs occa- sionally, calling for the services of an expert typesetting machin- ist. Many of the shops are too small to employ a machinist reg- ularly and depend on what is known as a circuit machinist to make their repairs. There are several circuit machinists in New York who have built up a lucrative trade attending to the repairs of typesetting machines in small shops. These "men are familiar with every detail of the work and make needed repairs quickly and thoroughly. 44 Industrial Education Survey SUBDIVISION OP COMPOSING KOOM WORK In the early days of printing the term printer meant a crafts- man who could perform all of the operations necessary to pro- duce a finished book. In Gutenberg's time the printer built the press, cast the type, made the ink and inking pads, set the type, printed the sheets, and finally bound the book. In Franklin's day some changes had occurred. The printer of that day could buy presses, type and ink, but he still cast his rollers, set type, ran the press and bound the printed sheets. Somewhat later, about 1800, roller making and bookbinding became separate industries. In the printing office itself there occurred a division into composing room and pressroom. In the composing room compositors came gradually to specialize as straight matter hands, jobbers, stonehands and proofreadere. When machinery was introduced a further division of labor took place, and linotype and monotype operators, and machinists were added. In large modern composing rooms men are kept at spe- cial tasks for long periods. They became experts at certain kindi of work and are valuable financial assets to the offlce on that ac- count. For this reason they are kept at their special tasks and each special operation is almost a trade in itself. Training for the Composing Eoom Workke There are forces at work seeking to bring about a broader training for the composing room worker, but much remains to be done. Specialization is necessary and inevitable, but it is also detrimental in a degree to the chances for the worker, as a man is often held in one shop, fearing to change, because he lacks train- ing in many of the things that would enable him to do the work of an all-round mechanic. In the following pages an effort has been made to cover what the worker in the composing room does, the knowledge necessary for the routine performance of his task and that needed for full comprehension of his work. HANDMAN The handman reads copy and assembles type by hand, includ- ing straight composition, tables and display. To do this, he setB the composing stick to measure, picks up type from the case, jus- The Printing Trade 45 tifies and spaces it in the stick and transfers each stickful to galley (when typesetting machines are employed this process is done by the machine.) He corrects the type in the galleys and pages according to proofreader's marks, makes up pages (see makeup), arranges same (imposes) and locks up forms for the foundry or presses, putting in furniture and making margins ac- cording to sizes required. (See stonehand.) He should be able to perform various unclassified duties, such as distributing type, cutting leads and rules, and "pulUng" proofs by hand or on proof presses. The handman needs facility In interpreting copy that is badly written, in correcting errors which have crept into the manuscript and in setting copy in which spelling and punctuation are faulty. He must possess skill in setting, making up and distributing type, and have the ability to memorize sections of copy. The handman should have the training indicated for an ap- prentice. His knowledge of mathematics should enable him to read mathematical signs, common fractions, decimals and Roman numbers, when occurring in copy. He should know the printers' point system ; be familiar with the foot rule and steel square ; read proofreaders' marks ; interpret sketches, layouts and diagrams. His knowledge of mathematics should be sufficient to enable him to make the calculations necessary for tabular work and to figure margins and space in locking up pages for press and foun- dry. As suggested under apprentice training advancement in the printing trade is dependent largely upon mental growth and broad acquaintance with the terminology and good usage in general and special literature. This breadth of information is particularly needed by the expert handman. The handman should endeavor to cultivate a feeling for proportion, and balance in type arrange- ment so as to obtain the best effect from display work. Any latent artistic talents should be developed along the line of hand letter- ing, decorative designing, and color harmony. The handling of type gives the handman a knowledge of letter forms that usually require close study by letter draftsmen who are not printers. It is an easy step from hand lettering to other decorative schemes used in printing and many successful printer artists are gradu- ates of the composing room. It is also from among handman that composing room executives are usually chosen, as the best gen- eral knowledge of composing room work is obtained by the men employed in the hand department, I<> Industrial Education Survey LINOTYPE AND INTERTYPE OPERATORS (Men and Women) Linotype and intertype operators M''ork on keyboard machines that cast slugs of various measures and sizes of type. By touch- ing keys on a keyboard matrices (letter moulds) and space bands, (for spaces between words) are assembled. By throwing down a lever the assembled line is sent to a casting device, which auto- matically casts the line, after which the matrices are automatic- ally returned to their proper channels in the magazine and space- bands to their holder. The feeding of the metal pot (unless self- feeders are attached) and the emptying of the galley which re- ceives the lines, must be performed by hand. The operator must be able to read all kinds of copy, to memorize sections of the same, and give it proper interpretation as regards spelling and punctu- ation. He should possess accuracy and speed in manipulation of keyboard, which he shoidd be able to operate by the touch system. The operator puts his individual "slug" at the head of his "take" or galley to indicate matter set by him. He also keeps the metal pot filled. The operator should have the training indicated for the ap- prentice, and in addition should understand the mechanism of the machine, so that in an emergency he would be able to make minor repairs. As in the case of the handman the operator should devote much of his leisure to the study of literature, newspapers, public documents and printing trade papers to familiarize himself with names of persons, places and events, as these things are constantly occurring in copy passing through his hands. Beside the special skill required the greatest need of the machine operator is the breadth of training represented by the superior hand compositor, and this is not always found among machine workers. LINOTYPE AND INTERTYPE MACHINISTS Linotype machinists are employed in plants where the number of machines used is suflScient to justify the employment of a man whose sole duty is to keep the machines in repair. Usually, plants of more than four machines employ one or more machinists. The machinist makes repairs and adjusts and supervises the machines to see that they are running properly ; sees that the temperature ■ — r^^^^^i«Sj -l * 1 f|nTR i^Jffiia^ ^ n ^gggljj ^^-_.-^,,._ n aU^li^ 1 I'M P^iH^ ^SB^^^^^^^MLwaBM— ^lg^ ^T 1' ifi^w^^i 1^^^^^ ;^P^PMipMMIIIIHI|ll - v-saan^^^j^jp^ INTERTYPE TYPESBTTINa MACHINE The Printing Trade 47 of metal is correct and tests it mechanically to determine if alloy is in proper proportion. He changes matrix magazines, repairs matrices and spacebands ; and supervises the remelting of metal. He must be able to clean and refit gas and electric burners, clean, repair, adjust and oil working parts of the machine, such as cams, delivery slide levers, pumps, distributor mechanism, driv- ing and intermediate shafts, clutch, keyboards and magazines. He adjusts the metal pot and plunger, the spacebands, vise, knife wiper, ejector slide, elevator, matrix transfer, spaceband levers and pawls, mold discs and slide, mold driving mechanism, start- and stopping device, etc. The linotype machinist needs a common school education and should be an all-around machinist on small work. He must under- stand the mechanism of the machine; know the printers' point system ; be an expert in micrometer reading, and be able to inter- pret diagrams relating to machinery. Most machinists have at some time worked in the factories where the machines are built, and these factories are always open to them for the study of new machines, devices and parts as they are introduced. MONOTYPE OPERATOKS (Men and Women) The monotype casts movable type, and consists of two separate machines — keyboard and caster. The monotype keyboard oper- ator strikes a key, which perforates a paper ribbon carried on the keyboard. The position of these perforations upon the paper rib- bon determines the letter the casting machine will make, just as perforations in a roll of music for a mechanical player determine the notes the piano will play. As the operator thus sets the copy at the keyboard, the ribbon is wound on a spool, which is trans- ferred from the keyboard to the casting machine whenever it is desired. The monotype casting machine is a complete type foundry which, when controlled by the paper ribbon, casts type set up, ready to print from, in automatically justified lines. This mat- ter is cast with low quads and spaces if the work is to be printed from type, or with high quads and spaces if it is to be electro- typed or stereotyped. It also makes type, rules, leads and slugs for the cases. The operator must care for his keyboard, often, ^8 Industrial Education Survey making minor repairs. He changes the machine for different sizes of type and width of composition. As with the linotype operator, he must develop accuracy and speed in the manipulation of the keyboard with the touch system. An operator should have the training indicated for an appren- tice. In addition he must master the monotype unit system for making calculations. The keyboard operation is different from that of the linotype, in that it resembles the standard typewriter keyboard. He is required to have greater facility in mathematics than the linotype operator, inasmuch as he is called upon to make mathematical calculations in the operation of the drum scale, and in estimating space needed for rules and other material in the completed form. A thorough knowledge of the technique of the compositor's art is essential for the operator, though he does not need the skill of a hand compositor. He must understand the re- lation of the keyboard to the caster machine, in order to keep the caster going properly when it receives the perforated roll. More- over, he should know something of the construction of the caster. A monotype operator should possess the same general knowl- edge as indicated under linotype operator, and special knowledge of the mechanism of the monotype keyboard. The peculiar pos- session of a monotype operator is his thorough acquaintance with his keyboard and the general mechanism of the machine. MONOTYPE MACHINIST The monotype machinist selects the matrices from which type is cast, adjusts the perforated paper coming from the keyboard machines and supervises the mechanical operation of , the machine. He regulates the burners under the metal pots ; makes repairs and adjustments to the caster and the keyboard machines, tests metal mechanically to see that the alloy is in proper proportion, tests type measurements, and usually has charge of the storage of matrices and type sorts. The monotype machinist should have the same general qualifi- cations as the linotype machinist. In addition he must under- stand the mechanism of the monotype machine and comprehend fully the monotype unit system and gauges. The monotype factories in Philadelphia and Boston furnish the schools from which these machinists graduate. o m CM O The Printing Trade 49 MACHINIST OPBEATORS Printers who have sufficient knowledge of the mechanism of the linotype, intertype and monotype machines to perform both the functions of a typesetter and a machinist are found in small plants. MAKE-UP MAN A make-up man is a handman, or operator, employed at mak- ing up pages. In a commercial shop this task consists of divid- ing type on galleys into pages, inserting rules, cuts, running titles, and marginal and foot notes. When pages are spaced into equal lengths they are tied up. They are then ready to submit to the author, or to be printed. The educational and other qualifications, wages and opportu- nities are the same as for handmen. A newspaper make-up man requires all the knowledge of a handman. He assembles type for publication into pages, under the supervision of an editor, and locks up the forms for the stereo- typers. Speed and accuracy are the principal requirements of a- make-up man, and this work is usually performed by men with long experience in the newspaper composing rooms. PEOOFREADER The proofreader compares proofs with copy, and indicates errors in type, English and office style. He queries author's pos- sible errors, revises the second proofs and passes (O. K.'s) pages and sheets for the foundry and presses. The proofreader must have a well-grounded knowledge of Eng- lish usage, especially as relates to grammar, spelling, punctuation and syllabication. He must know the conventional proofreader's marks. The union rules require that the proofreader shall have served the regular apprenticeship for compositors or machine operators. A wide acquaintance with general topics, such as literature, the arts and sciences, politics, business and sports, together with a knowledge of scientific mathematical and technical symbols, are very desirable qualifications. A proofreader cannot be too well read. An acquaintance with one or more foreign languages, 50 Industrial Education Survey geography, and a knowledge of the resources and history of the principal countries of the world, are \'aluable assets, especially in the newspaper office. Proofreaders usually develop from among the most intelligent of composing room employees and are generally older in years than the average worker. Men and women from 25 to 70 are engaged in this line of work. STONEHAND The stonehand lays type pages and plates on the flat imposing stone, or on patent blocks, according to a standard imposition, or one furnished by a bookbinder. He places proper furniture between pages and margins, as various sizes of pages or paper re- quire, squares and lines up pages in chases and locks the forms for press. He also makes the final corrections and registers the pages after the pressman has adjusted the guides on the press. The educational and other qualifications are the same as for the handman. The stonehand should be familiar with sizes, weights and qualities of papers, the standard hand and machine folds, the sizes of beds and speeds of presses in the plant where he is em- ployed. He should be conversant with various arrangements of layouts in order to secure the most economical results in the use of paper or the number of impressions on the press. Stonework is the hardest manual labor in a composing room. Stonehands are usually the older journeymen between the ages of 30 and 60 years. They easily command more than the minimum wages. All executives must have a thorough knowledge of stone- work as the appearance of a finished book is dependent on proper imposition and registering of forms. COPYHOLDER (BoTS AND Girls)' A copyholder, when not a regular apprentice, is usually a boy or girl 16 years of age, or over. The copyholder follows the read- ing of the proofreader, calling attention to the departures from copy, or reads to the proofreader. Clear enunciation, proper pronunciation, and a fair knowledge of English usage are essential. The Printing Trade 51 A copyholder has no future in the trade unless he or she can become an apprentice in the composing room, and eventually de- velop into a proofreader. In itself it is a "blind alley" job. COPYCUTTEB ( Newspaper) A copycutter receives copy from news, editorial and advertis- ing departments, cuts it into "takes" (sections), and numbers them for distribution to typesetters. He judges and allots these "takes" so that the typesetters on a particular piece of work will all finish as nearly at the same time as possible. A newspaper copycutter requires all the knowledge of a handman, and should be familiar with machine operation. Copycutters are selected from among the men with long experience in newspaper work. BANKMAN (Newspaper) The bank is an inclined table divided into long gaUey-like sec- tions where operators deposit their "takes" when set. The bank- man puts the "takes" in their proper order, places them on a galley, numbers them, and turns them over to the proofpress operator, or proves them himself. Usually two first proofs are taken; one to send to the proofroom to be read, the other to be filed for the use of the foreman to ascertain the amount of type each operator has set. When the proof is corrected the operator's number slug is removed and the matter closed up in continuous story form and is ready then for the editor's revision and correc- tion, if required. FOREMAN AND SUPERINTENDENT CJomposing room foremen and superintendents should have a thorough understanding of the mechanical processes of hand work and machine operating; be familiar with the details of photo- engraving, stereotyping, electrotyping, presswork, and bookbind- ing; have a sufficient knowledge concerning ink, paper, printing material, tools, equipment and accessories to secure best results 52 Industrial Education Survey and possess the requisite executive ability to efifectively direct the work of the employees. They are usually men of long experience in the trade. Good salaries, ranging from $30 to as high as ?150 per week are easily commanded by competent men. THE PRESSROOM MECHANICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE PRESSROOM In the installation of the most modern machines and devices making for greater economy and efficiency, the pressroom has been surpassed by no other department. Automatic feeders, automatic presses, pile deliveries, mechanical overlays, improved processes of printing and make ready, and presses built for greater produc- tion and speed are being constantly developed. Supply men, chemists and inventors are constantly bringing into the press- room newer, in some cases, revolutionary methods, to bring about increased and better ouput at the same, or lower cost. Types of Presses There are three types of presses now running in the pressrooms of New York City; platen, cylinder and rotary. In the platen press the form and the platen (impression sur- face) are both flat, and the printing is done by bringing both surfaces together under pressure. A cylinder press (sometimes known as a flat bed press) is one in which the bed carrying the form is flat and passes back and forth beneath a cylinder (known as the impression cylinder) that rotates at constant speed. The printing is done when the medium which is to be printed upon passes between the form and the cylinder. A rotary press consists of two cylinders, the plate cylinder and the impression cylinder, and the printing is done by passing the material to be printed between these two cylinders. A perfecting press is a press that prints both sides of the sheet before delivering it. What is known as a web-press is a press that is fed by paper in roll form, and as the press is printing, the paper feeds continuously from the roll. There are two kinds of web presses, cylinder and rotary. As a general rule, however, when a web-printing press is spoken of it means a web rotary per- fecting press. 53 84 Industrial Education Survey Speed of Presses Continues to Increase Manufacturers continue to make improvements upon presses which, from a mechanical viewpoint, seem already perfect. The demand for greater production and finer kinds of work constantly stimulates the eflfort towards improvement. Machines which are popular today may be obsolete ten years from now. The crying demand is for speed. The class of work which is being done today seemed almost impossible a few years ago. For example, one press has been developed which prints four colors, using four plate cylinders and only one impression cylinder. The rotary web perfecting presses are constantly gaining in favor. They are turning out a high grade of work at far greater speed than the cylinder presses and most of the magazine and book work of the city is being printed upon them. It is only a question of time, in the judgment of the printing authorities con- sulted, when the web presses will be used for much of the work now accomplished by cylinder presses. The largest press built is a double octuple press, having eight pairs of cylinders. The press consists of two separate octuple presses that can be coupled together, if the size of the sheet to be produced requires it. The builders of this press claim it can run 32-page papers at the rate of 75,000 per hour. The press that has been most successful as a producer, in the newspaper pressrooms of New York, is one consisting of three pairs of cylinders, known as a sextuple press. It is fed by three rolls of paper, each four newspaper pages wide. This press pro- duces 96,000 12-page papers, or 48,000 24-page papers, per hour. Before 1917 the highest production ever attained by any press of the same number of cylinders was 70,000 12-page papers, or 35,000 24-page papers. One trouble the press builders are beginning to meet is due to the great speed at which the presses are being run. The composi- tion of which the rollers are made does not always stand the con- siderable centrifugal force to which they are subjected, and pieces of roller composition become detached and fly off as the press is running. It will be interesting to know just when, and at what rate of speed, the press builders will declare they have reached a point of maximum efficiency. The machine and automatic devices now being introduced are far more complicated, and require more delicate handling and adjustment than those of the past. This necessitates more highly The Printing Trade 55 trained pressmen, in fact, calls for a trained mechanic, competent to deal intelligently with the complicated and costly machinery placed in his care. METHODS OF PRINTING There are three methods of printing — relief, intaglio and plan- ographic. In the first two processes the printing is accomplished because of the printing surface being either raised in relief above the rest of the plate, or etched below the surface. In the planog- raphic process known as the offset process, the printing surface is in the same plane as the surrounding surface of the plate. In the first two processes printing is made possible by difference in position: in the last by difference of condition. The relief and intaglio processes are purely mechanical processes, but the offset is a chemical as well as a mechanical process. The relief method is represented by printing from type, line cuts and halftones, either directly or in the form of stereotypes or electrotypes. The ink is deposited by rollers upon the raised sur- face of the form, and the medium to be printed upon is impressed upon this surface. The intaglio process of printing is known as "Gravure," "Roto- gravure," "Rotarygravure" and "Photogravure." The first and last names are mostly used when speaking of work printed from flat plates, but all four names are proper when the printing is done from etched cylinders in a web press. In rotary web presses the cylinder, upon which the design or work is etched, is a steel drum with a facing or jacket of copper. This cylinder revolves through an ink fountain and comes out dripping with ink. A steel blade known as the doctor blade oscil- lates across the surface of the cylinder, scraping away all super- fluous ink from the surface and leaving the ink only in the de- pressions of the cylinder. The paper passes between the copper etched cylinder and the impression cylinder which consists of medium hard rubber. The impression cylinder tends to force the paper into the depressions causing the ink to be deposited upon the paper. Because of the varying depths of the etched depressions, dif- ferent thicknesses of ink are deposited on the different tones. This causes some difficulty in the matter of drying the ink deposited upon the solid tones. In order to accelerate the drying, the sheet 56 Industrial Education Survey is run over a steam cylinder. New presses for this process are now being built to run at the rate of 30,000 four page newspapers per hour. These are built after the type of the web rotary perfecting machines. The planographic method is represented by the so-called offset process in which the printing is performed by a moistened sur- face of zinc and aluminum either directly or indirectly with the aid of a cylinder carrying a rubber blanket. In this method the desired printing pattern, whether of type or cuts, is transferred to a plate through the medium of certain substances which render the surface grease attracting. The spaces untouched by the pat- tern are grease resisting when moistened by water. The plate is put upon a cylinder and, as the cylinder revolves, it first comes in contact with the water rollers ; where the plate is grease attract- ing, it repels the water, but the rest or blank parts of the plate are dampened. As the cylinder continues to revolve, it comes in contact with the inking rollers. The inking rollers ink the grease attracting part of the plate, but that part of the plate that has been dampened, is now grease repellant and repels the greasy ink. The plate then deposits the ink upon a rubber blanket, which serves as the final printing surface. The advantages claimed for the offset process is that it needs no make ready on the press and gives good results when printing on rough as well as on calendered stock. EMPLOYMENT The conditions of employment in New York, with one or two exceptions, are on a par with the best shop conditions in the coun- try. The pressrooms are well lighted, but in most cases poorly ventilated, due to the fact that for the best results from the inks, there must be no draft, and the temperature of the pressroom must be maintained fairly constant. The sanitary conditions are looked after by committees ap- pointed by the unions, who co-operate with the employers, with the result that there are very few complaints. Due to a campaign of education, inaugurated by the Interna- tional Printing Pressmen's and Assistants' Unions, assisted by the local unions, the death rate from tuberculosis, which was very high in the past, has been greatly reduced. Poorly ventilated pressrooms, paper dust, fumes from ink, metal, and oils, necessi- The Printing Trade 57 tate on the other hand strong lungs for all contemplating entrance to the trade. Danger of being caught in the machinery, or of being cut by the metal plates, resulting with blood poisoning, makes it a slightly hazardous trade. The nature of the work, which involves handling large forms and rollers, requires workers who are strong physically. Good eyesight and hearing are also essential in the pressroom. There is a constant strain on the eyes, and the ability to tell by the sound when the press parts are not running true is very essential. All the organized shops, and many of the unorganized shops, have an eight-hour day, or 48 hours a week. The work is fairly constant all the year round, with the exception that it drops off a little during the summer months. The trade, as regards the number of workers, is virtually at a standstill. In the job shops automatic presses with greatly in- creased output are being installed, and in consequence the volume of work produced is greater, but the number of positions either remains the same or is decreasing. As these automatic presses can do the work of two or three ordinary job presses, they effect a large saving in floor space. Automatic feeders are also eliminat- ing job press feeders. In the commercial shops web presses are fast supplanting the cylinder presses. All of the book magazines are being printed on web presses. There is one publication in New York that formerly required 90 odd cylinder presses to turn out work now being done by eight web presses. This, of course, decreases the number of positions for pressmen and their assistants. Automatic feeders are also being placed on all cylinder presses, thereby decreasing the number of cylinder feeders. In the daily newspaper oflSces, as the circulations of the sev- eral papers increase, higher speed machines are installed which increase the output, but do not effect the number of positions. HOW PRESSROOM WORKERS ARE TRAINED No DEPiNiTBi Training Foe Apprentices The fact that the conditions in the modern pressroom require the services of two or more feeders to one pressman, makes it im- possible to give the boy who enters a pressroom any definite as- surance as to the training he will receive. As a matter of fact many men spend fifteen or twenty years in the pressroom before 58 Industrial Education Survey they become pressmen and, in some cases, they never reach this position, but remain as feeders, or assistants. The chances for promotion in this branch of the trade are slight, but the wages paid to the feeders and assistants seem to be high enough to at- tract sufficient numbers to supply the demand. The boy who wishes to become a pressman may enter either a newspaper office as a flyboy, or a commercial, or job shop as a feeder. The training, character of work and opportunity for ad- vancement in the two types of offices differ. Newspaper Offices As a rule, the boy who enters the newspaper pressroom serves five years as a flyboy before he is registered as an apprentice. However, if there is a vacancy among the apprentices and there are no flyboys who have served five years, the boy who has served the longest period is promoted. The apprentice must serve three years before he is eligible for the position as pressman on a news- paper press. The fact that he has served five years as a flyboy and three years more as an apprentice is no guarantee that he will become a journeyman at the end of that period. He must wait for promotion until there is a vacancy among the pressmen, or until there is a new position created as a result of an increase in the volume of business. Since the newspaper pressrooms in New York City are almost entirely manned by union workers, the union records give an ac- curate picture of the training of the pressroom worker. Accord- ing to these records there are about 336 flyboys and 100 pressroom apprentices. During the last three years an average of twenty apprentices were made pressmen each year, making room for a corresponding number of flyboys to become apprentices. During the same period an average of thirty flyboys were taken on each year, in order to fill the vacancies caused by the promotion of fly- boys to apprentices, and by the dropping out of those who became discouraged. Nearly all the boys who enter the pressroom are eighteen years of age and are physically strong. They are paid from |12 to ?15.50 a week during the eight years they serve as flyboys and ap- prentices. The maximum number of apprentices allowed in any newspaper office is five. No systematic instruction is given them 5n the newspaper pressroom and any knowledge which they The Printing Trade 59 acquire must be picked up. In an attempt to remedy this defect, the Newspaper Pressman's Union has recently organized a class in the theory of presswork for the ilyboys, apprentices and press- men in newspaper offices. After a boy becomes a pressman he may, after a number of years, become a pressman in charge. In the newspaper press- rooms there is a pressman in charge for each machine. The chance to gain promotion to this position is about one to five, as there are usually five pressmen for each pressman in charge. Commercial Shops In commercial shops having both job and cylinder presses, the boy who desires to become a pressman has to enter as a job press feeder. In shops with only cylinder presses or cylinder and web presses, the boy begins as feeder on a cylinder press. There is no definite period of training in the commercial pressrooms and a boy may work there all his life and yet never become a pressman. If a boy enters the trade as a job press feeder, his chance for advancement is very slight, as only a small per cent of the job press feeders are promoted. A study of the records of Job Press Feeders Union No. 1, reveals the fact that during the year 1916, out of 546 members only twelve became job pressmen, and thirty- six became cylinder press feeders. The previous year, out of a membership of 460 feeders only two became job pressmen and twenty-five became cylinder press feeders. Many of these boys, after remaining at this work five or six years, become discour- aged and go into other occupations. During the past year ninety- four (dropped out) from. the union, eighty of whom entered other occupations. The following table compiled from the records of the above organization gives certain data as to the number of union job press feeders, number taken, number suspended, etc., during the past three years : 1914 1915 1916 Number in Union 378 460 546 Number promoted to Job Pressmen 2 2 12 Number promoted to Cylinder Feeder 21 25 36 Number of withdrawals 9 1 27 Number suspended 14 41 67 Number new members ■ ■ 95 113 238 The job press feeders in the Union are from sixteen to twenty- five years of age. They receive a salary of f 12.50 a week. GO 1 ltd a atrial Education Survey It is estimated that there are about 1,500 job press feeders in non-union shops. The opportunity for advancement seems very small, partly for the reason that a large percentage of the shops are equipped only with platen presses. In union shops, cylinder press feeders are not considered ap- prentices. When a feeder is made an apprentice he is taken from the feeding board and put on the floor to assist the pressman, and must serve four years in this position before he becomes a jour- neyman. In some shops, when a cylinder feeder is made an ap- prentice to the cylinder pressman, a job press feeder is made an apprentice to a cylinder press feeder and serves four years in this capacity before he becomes a cylinder press feeder. Only one ap- prentice is allowed for every four cylinder pressmen and no chapel or shop is allowed more than five apprentices. A large percentage of the cylinder press feeders and apprentices come from the ranks of the job press feeders. Many of these men work as cylinder press feeders for years before they become cylinder press appren- tices. The cylinder press feeder may become an assistant on the book and magazine web press, but if he does he can never become a book and magazine web pressman unless he returns to the cylinder press and spends four years as an apprentice. This is due to the rule that all book and magazine web pressmen must come from the ranks of the cylinder pressmen. As a result of this' rule very few cylinder pressmen ever have experience on the book and maga- zine web press before they become pressmen in charge of this type of press. The assistant on the book and magazine web press is the only person who is trained in the care and operation of the ma- chine under the direction of a pressman, and he is not allowed to become a pressman on this press unless he returns to the cylin- der press, as a feeder or apprentice, and waits until there is an opportunity for him to become a cylinder pressman. As a result of the above mentioned rule, and the fact that pres- ent conditions in the modern pressroom require the services of two or more feeders to one pressman, the opportunity for promo- tion for the feeder is not very promising. The cylinder feeders in union shops are paid $18.00 a week, and this wage in the past has been sufficient to secure the requisite number of workers. The records of the Franklin Cylinder Pressfeeders' Union No. 23, show that during the year 1916, forty-nine men out of a member- ship of 2,540 were promoted to the position of pressmen. During The Printing Tradt 61 the previous year, twenty-eight men out of 2,325 were promoted to the same position. These figures show that less than 2 per cent, are promoted annually. The following data was compiled from the records of the above union : 1914 No. in Union 2200 No. promoted to Cylinder Pressmen 42 Withdrawals 50 Traveling Cards issued i 58 Travelers received Deaths 24 1915 1916 2325 2540 28 49 54 70 60 64 60 25 28 WEEKLY WAGES OF COMMEECIAL AND NEWSPAPER PRESSROOM WORKERS Kind of Work Day Night Union Non-Union Union Non-Union Commercial Shop: Job Press Feeder $12.50— $7^12.50 $15— $7— 115.00 Cylinder Feeder $18.00— $7— $18.00 $20— $7— $20.00 Web Press Assistant $19.00— $22.00 $15— $22.00 $20— $23.00 $15— $23.00 Job Pressman . . . $20.00— $27.00 $1^— $20.00 $22— $29.00 $13— $29.00 Cylinder ■Pressman $26.00— $28.00 $18— $26.00 $2&— $30.00 $18— $30.00 Cylinder Press- man (on color) $28.00— $36.00 $20— $36.00 $30— 1$38.00 $20— $38.00 Book and Magazine .... $33.00— $37.00 $25— $37.00 $3E^— $37.50 $25— $37.50 Newspaper Offices: Flyboy $12.00— $15.00 $12— $15.50 Pressman $27.00 $28 Pressman in charge $33.00 $34 The wages paid pressroom workers in New York City are somewhat lower than those paid to the composing room em- ployees. The figures shown in this table for the union shop employee represent the wages provided for in the scale and are the wages commonly paid, although a small per cent of the men receive wages above the scale. Where two figures are given the 62 Industrial Education Survey larger represents the wage paid for operating more than one press or certain types of presses. The newspaper pressrooms are 98 per cent organized and all the newspaper pressmen receive the union scale of wages. The chart also shows the minimum and maximum wages paid in the non-union shops. The information concerning the wages paid non-union workers was collected by the members of the sur- vey staff and the figures checked by the conference committee ap- pointed by the printing trade organization. A small per cent of the employers of the non-union workers pay the union scale ol wages, but as a rule the average wage paid in the non-union shops is much lower than the wage paid in the union shops. NEWSPAPER PEESSEOOMS In the newspaper ofSces the conditions of employment are somewhat different from those found in the commercial shops. Here the types of presses are uniform in each ofSce. The work is heavy and the demand that editions be out on the street as quickly as possible necessitates constant hustle and rush and re- quires the pressroom worker to be quick and strong. The pressman in charge must thoroughly understand the ma- chine he has in his care; he must be alert and a quick thinker, able to detect and remedy trouble instantly. Some presses have what is called a fudge cylinder ; it is a separate unit in itself used to print the summary of a story, or baseball scores, three or four minutes after the story is received at the office. One New York office makes it a practice to sell an edition with the full score of the game to the fans coming out of the Polo Grounds who have just witnessed the game. The presses in the newspaper offices are the largest built, con- sisting of thousands of parts and costing thousands of dollars, and it is consequently very essential that the pressman in charge be a very competent mechanic. The steady force in a newspaper shop is limited to the number of positions required for the smallest sized sheet. There are extra journeymen and flyboys, known as "subs," who report daily at the office, and if the size of the paper to be published that day necessitates extra men, or subs, they are put on for the day. Some of these subs report at one office for years before they are classed as steady men. They are hired according to a priority list estab- The Printing Trade 63 lished in each oflSce. Usually as high as 30 per cent of the force of a newspaper office are on the sub list. In the following pages an effort has been made to indicate what the pressroom workers do, and in each case the knowledge necessary for the performance and comprehension of the work. CYLINDER PRESSMAN The cylinder pressman adjusts the plungers and gibs of the air cushions. The functions of the air cushions and plungers are to overcome the momentum of the bed as it reverses. The power stored up in the air cushion by compressing the air gives impetus to the press bed on its return stroke. The plungers are properly adjusted when the bed moves over the center smoothly. These plungers are changed on their rods when the speed of the press is changed, and here the pressman with a slight knowledge of mechanics goes about his work in an intelligent manner. He then adjusts the cylinder to the bearers of the bed, which keep the cylinder from riding on the form. These are set by al- lowing a light to shine through the opening between the cylinder bearers and the bearers of the bed, and gradually setting down the cylinder on the bed bearers by adjusting the impression screws until all light is shut off. When this is done on both sides, a little more pressure is added so that the cylinder will ride snugly on the bed bearers. Another method is to put a piece of thin tissue paper between the bearers and bringing the cylinder down until there is a good "bite" on the paper. The bed bearers should be type high, which is 0.918 inch. A pressman must note the number of threads to the inch of all screw adjustments, in order to know exactly just what change each turn of the screw will make. The gibs are next looked after, and the pressman should know how to adjust them so that they will not bind. Packing a cylinder is the next step in getting the press in con- dition, and too much care cannot be taken in this operation. The packing of a cylinder press generally consists of a press-board and a manila sheet, tough but smooth, clamped on one end and wound around the first reel. This manila sheet is shrunk on in most cases by wetting with a sponge and water and letting it dry. On this are placed five or six sheets of calendered stock, termed hangers, and a smooth manila sheet as a top sheet. The completed packing should stand one thin sheet above the cylinder bearers. 64 Iitdustrial Education Survey This, as a rule, gives the right impression. A pressman should know how deeply the cylinder is cut below the bearers and with this information to start with he can, with the use of a microm- eter, measure his packing for the right thickness. An overpacked cylinder will cause trouble, such as poor register, worn forms, packing pulling from the gripper edge, etc. To make the cylinder and bed travel in harmony, a segment of a gear is connected to the cylinder, and a gear rack, known as the register rack, is attached to the bed. The pressman should know how to set these in proper mesh so that the bed rack drives the cylinder smoothly. If this rack is not set properly good register is impossible. The function of the register rack is to start the bed and cylinder in harmony at the beginning of the printing stroke. The form is next put on the press. The pressman should know just how far the form can come to the end of the bed without hit- ting the grippers when the press starts to print. This can be learned by pasting a sheet of paper over the top sheet and pulling an impression on it, care being taken to open the clamps so they do not batter the form, and also closing the clamps when they clear the form again to prevent hitting the opening tumbler when they come up. If the form is out too far it will show on the sheet, and by this method a line can be found to which the form should be brought. This is generally marked on the bed of the press. The form should be back far enough to clear the fourth form roller when the bed is run back, for if not, this will show a streak on the printed sheet. In order to lock the form on the press, the pressman must be familiar with all of the furniture used in the composing room, as well as reglets, leads, slugs, and quoins. He should be familiar also with the printer's point system and understand imposition. In tightening a form he must be careful not to spring it, as the form must be flat on the bed. In many of these adjustments there are numerous little tricks that can be picked up only through experience. The pressman should know how to set the fountain blade, which bears against the steel duct or roller. This blade is pressed upon the roller by screws. Care must be taken not to buckle the blade and the best method is to set the pressure from the center to each end. The more the pressure the less ink can be fed to the roller. The roller feeds forward a fraction of a revolution accord- m m Ah Q o Q O The Printing Trade 65 ing to the adjustment of a ratchet at the side. The best practice is to set the ratchet for a considerable movement like five or six teeth and to adjust the fountain blade to allow only a thin film of ink to feed to the roller. The rollers are set by screw adjustment so as to cause a flat of about one-eighth of an inch. If set down too hard they cause a drag which shows on the plate and sheet. This is due to the fact that the rollers do not travel as fast as they should, due to the de- crease of the radius caused by tightening the roller too much. The grippers are set by putting two sheets under the stop and one under each gripper and then closed hard enough to have a good grip on the paper and so that all pull alike. An uneven grip- per affects the register. The shoeflies which raise the sheet over the strippers are next set. The sheet bands should be set to touch the cylinder lightly and keep the sheet smooth and prevent it from wrinkling. The stop guides should be set to raise just as the grippers close on the sheet. The side guides are set for the size of a sheet and placed to keep the sheet square. The fly fingers, or delivery grippers, are set to deliver the sheets in a straight pile. All these adjustments are important and time must be taken to learn how to make them properly. At this point the pressman begins the make ready. An impres- Bion is pulled to see how the form prints. This impression shows any weak spots in the form or packing and whether the entire form is type high or not. If the form is not type high, he under- lays it by placing patches of paper under the form wherever the impression is weak. An underlay is only to bring those parts of the form that are low, type high and not to make up for deficien- cies in the packing. A pressman who tries to make up for such deficiencies in this way finds himself in trouble before the run is oflf the press. In these days when the composing room makes new type for nearly every job very little, if any, underlaying is needed^ except for cuts. If half-tone cuts are in the form, a cut overlay will be neces- sary. A half-tone cut consists of solids, medium shades and high lights. These high lights consist of fine dots and are in the same plane of the plate as the solid. If the same pressure was put on these dots as on the solids, the dots would soon flatten out, caus- ing the high lights to fill up. The function of the overlay which consists of patches of paper on the impression cylinder, is to give 66 Industrial Education Survey additional pressure to the darker tones and at the same time eas- ing ofif on the high lights. The overlay is put upon a shrunk sheet and a hanger dropper. After the overlay is in place, another im- pression is pulled and the pressman marks out a "spot up sheet," to bring out any weak places in the packing. In this work great care must be taken since too much packing on one spot will have a tendency to bear off on other spots, making them light. As each spot up sheet is added to the impression cylinder, a hanger is taken ofif. When the impression is satisfactory the press is ready to run. Considerable time is required to make a hand-cut paper over- lay properly and a number of patented overlays have been intro- duced. One of the most successful of these is known as a chalk overlay. This overlay consists of a special waterproof sheet of paper coated on both sides with chalk. A proof of the form is pulled, with special ink, on this prepared sheet. The sheet is then dipped into a pan containing a lime solution that etches away the chalk that is not protected by ink. The lime solution is kept at a certain constant density to obtain the best results and the press- man tests this solution with a hydrometer. Chalk overlays are being used in a great many pressrooms throughout the city. All pressmen need to know the qualities of the various inks used and how to reduce them and, except in the case of the roto- gravure pressman, should understand the composition of the roll- ers and the care necessary to preserve them. All except the news- paper pressman who deals with only one kind should be familiar with the different grades of paper used and their qualities. All should understand the elementary phenomena of static electricity and be able to eliminate its disturbing effects in the pressroom. With the exception of the platen and rotogravure pressmen they all need to know how to pack the impression cylinders and how to adjust the fountain blade. All except the offset and roto- gravure pressmen must be able to make underlays and overlays and all but the rotogravure and newspaper pressmen to mix colored inks to match proofs sent from the art room. Pressmen require little mathematics ; all need familiarity with common fractions to 64ths and decimals to the thousandth place and all need sufficient knowledge of mensuration to measure simple plane surfaces, such as squares, and circles in respect to circumference and diameter. All except the rotogravure pressmen need to know how to use The Printing Trade 67 the micrometer and all but the oflfset and newspaper pressmen should be able to read the hydrometer. All should be familiar with the printers' point system, and all should know something of the simple chemistry of inks and paper. All should understand the simple mechanics of liquids and gases as well as the principles involved in the action of cams, levers, screws and gears. Speed and accuracy are required of the pressman in setting cylinders, rollers, guides, stops, fountains, grippers, etc., and facility in handling the micrometer and hydrometer and making measure- ments accurately. The temperature of the pressroom should be kept about con- stant 70 deg. Fah. to 75 deg. Pah. as the atmospheric conditions affect the rollers, ink and paper, causing picking, offset and poor register; Significance of the Occupation There are about 2,500 cylinder pressmen in New York City. Of this number about 1,800 are in the pressmen's union. The cylin- der pressman's job is important as it is the stepping stone to the higher positions in the pressroom. A cylinder pressman may be- come a rotary, web, rotogravure or offset pressman in a commer- cial shop. The number of cylinder pressmen has not increased with the volume of business, as the web press is now doing much of the work previously done by cylinder presses. The cylinder pressman can obtain all of the practical knowledge necessary for this position in the shop, but the technical knowledge needed for full comprehension of the work and for advancement must be secured on the outside. CYLINDER FEEDER The cylinder feeder puts rollers into the press and takes them out. He oils and cleans the rollers and press, patches up sheets and helps the pressman make register. He piles paper on the feed board, and combs it down in order to lift one sheet at al time in feeding. He feeds sheets to drop guides and then gently slides them to side guides. He trips the press when he misses a sheet in order to prevent the form from printing on the impression cylin- der. He attends to the automatic feeders and helps the pressman in a general way. In oiling it must be remembered that a new press needs oiling 68 Industrial Ediicntion i^urrey more often than an old one. Prominent bearings should be watched closely to prevent warming up. In cleaning a press it is necessary for the feeder to acquire the habit of doing the job well. In leaving a press it should be clean enough to run on a color job if necessary. The method generally used to clean a job press is to sprinkle some solvent upon the cylinder or plate and rollers which is then distributed by running the press for a few minutes. The rollers are then removed, and they, as well as all other parts of the press, are wiped clean and dry. When a press feeder leaves his press at night it should be thoroughly clean. In cleaning the rollers, the feeder should be familiar with their composition so as to know how to protect them from injurious treatment. He must know how to patch up sheets marked out by a pressman, and how to match cut overlays. He should be familiar with the furniture used in a composing room to help the, pressman lay the form on the bed of the press, and in making register. Good register depends a great deal upon whether a sheet is fed to the guides properly or not, and considerable skill is re- quired in feeding large sheets. The feeder must be particularly careful in feeding sheets that have been printed on one side to place them on the feed board in the right direction. If the feeder misses a sheet, he trips the press. That is, by the use of a lever worked with his foot, he lifts the cylinder ofif the form, thereby preventing the form from printing. If he did not do this the form would print on the cylinder packing, and the next few sheets printed would have an offset on the reverse side. The cylinder feeder is sometimes called upon to operate the automatic feeders. For his immediate work the feeder needs little beyond the re- quirements as indicated. If, however, he is to prepare for pro- motion, he must study and equip himself with the knowledge necessary for the pressman. Significance of Occupation There are about 3,500 cylinder feeders in New York and about 2,000 of these are in the Assistant's Union. The work is fairly constant and the wages high enough to hold most of them in this position. The line of promotion is to assistant on the web press, or to cylinder pressman, but the chances for promotion are slight, as a study of union records shows that less than two per cent are promoted annually. The number of positions are not increasing. The Printing Trade 69 due to the fact that the web press is being introduced to do the work of the cylinder press. The practical knowledge for the work can be secured on the job, but the technical knowledge for a thorough comprehension of the work or for promotion, must be secured from some outside agency. MAGAZINE OR BOOK WEB PRESSMAN In getting the press ready for a job the web pressman sets cyl- inders, rollers, knives, slitters, fountains, guides, stops, points, angle bars, etc. He measures packing and packs the cylinders. He pulls proof for an underlay, if an underlay is needed, and he marks out the sheet for it and underlays the plates. He registers the plates as to color and margin. If using a half-tone he puUa the proof for an overlay,' cuts and matches it and overlays the plates. He next pulls a proof for spot-up sheets, marks it out, and puts the spot-up sheets over the overlay. He then covers the cylin- der. He mixes colored inks to match proofs sent from the art room and keeps the color and impressions even. He adjusts all working parts of the press and examines printed product for spoiled sheets. He is in charge of the men under him and is held responsible for the output of the press. In addition to the knowledge required of the cylinder press- man, the web pressman should know how to figure the amount of packing that is required on the impression cylinder. To do this he multiplies the number of teeth on the impression cylinder gear wheel by the circular pitch of the teeth — ^the pitch being stamped on the gear. This multiplication gives the pitch cir- cumference, or printing line. He then measures the bare cylinder with a steel tape to obtain its circumference. By dividing each of these circumferences by pi (3.1416) he obtains their diameters, and one-half the difference between these diameters gives the thick- ness of the packing necessary to bring the impression cylinder up to the pitch line, or even with the bearers. The pressman generally adds about 0.003 of an inch to this amount for impres- sion. The plates are next put on the web press, being held down snugly to the cylinder by means of clips. The secret of good printing and long runs on a web press is that the circumference of both the plate and the impression cylinders should be equal, that the cylinders should be parallel, and run in harmony with each other. 70 Industrial Education Survey The platea used on book and magazine web rotary presses for long runs are generally electrotype plates. Such a plate is made from the flat type form that has been set up in the com- posing room, by taking an impression of the form in wax under pressure. This wax impression is given a coating of graphite and also a coating of iron filings and sulphate of copper and is then put into the electrolytic bath, where a film of copper is deposited upon it. This sheet of copper is backed up with a composition consisting of tin, lead and antimony. When thus strengthened it is put through a curving machine, which benda it into semi-circular form to fit the plate cylinder. Certain colored inks set up a chemical action when in con- tact with copper faced electrotype plates, which on long runs destroy the face. A pressman should study these inks and know when to tell the electrotyper to steel face the plates. The pressman next sets the rollers, which are adjusted by screws and should be set to get about one-eighth of an inch flat on them. If not set even the rollers soon give out, on account of too much friction. In the case of form rollers, each must be set with the same pressure against the distributing cylinders and the plate cylinders, as both of these surfaces are timed so as to run together. If the roller is set harder against one of these than the other there will be a drag on one of the surfaces, result- ing in friction, which in turn generates heat. This soon causes a loss of the roller as well as a poorly inked plate. The web pressman sets his trolleys, which help to propel the sheet along so as to have an even pull. In setting a slitter the flat edge should be set snugly to the side of the groove, causing the slitter and roller to cut the sheet similar to the cut given by a pair of scissors. If not set this way the slitter tears the sheet in a ragged edge. The angle bars must be set at a 45° angle, thus insuring an equal pull, unattainable at any other angle. The nipping rollers are set to help the sheet along, and to insure an even fold. Fold- ing blades should be set so as to tuck the sheet between the folding rollers, which must be set to crease the sheet into an even fold. Gripper points must be timed to take the sheet and release it at the proper moment, otherwise the sheet will be torn. These must be set even and not too far out. The fly pans must be set to Bend the papers out on the strap in an even row. m M H o Q o o « The Printing Trade 71 If the packing was perfect and the platea perfect, the presB- man could now go ahead and print, but this ideal condition is never present; therefore, what is known as the make ready has to supply deficiencies in the plates and packing. On web presses very little underlaying is done. If the press calls for a plate 0.250* points thick, the foreman generally has them cut down to 0.247 points and adds a 0.003 point sheet under them, so that if the plates are high in any one spot he can cut out from under the plate, or, if on the run the high lights are beginning to fill up, he takes this sheet from under the plate. A web pressman needs to know rather more about mechanicB than the cylinder pressman, particularly as regard the calcula- tions and action of gears. Significance of the Occupation There are about 400 magazine and book web pressmen in Ne\n York City ; of this number about 300 are in the pressmen's union. The number of positions in this line is growing in importance, due to the increase in the volume of work done upon these presses. A man competent to fill this position should be a first class mechanic. Practical knowledge is generally gained in the shop. The technical knowledge needed for full comprehension of the work must be gained through some outside agency. ASSISTANT ON MAGAZINE OR BOOK WEB PRESS The web press assistant puts the rollers into the press and removes them. He takes a roll of paper ready for the press, puts it on the spindle and locks it into place so that it will not come loose when the press is running. When a roll of paper is ex- hausted he removes the paper core from the spindle. He cleans and oils the rollers and press, keeps the fountains filled with ink, leads the paper through the press, patches up, helps make register as to color and margins, and assists the pressman in underlaying and overlaying the plates. The feeder runs the brake and tensions and helps the pressman in a general way. The feeder has charge of the rollers on the web press, and as these rollers are of different diameters and lengths he must know where each roller goes. He should know the names of the differ- ent parts of the press. He should understand imposition, how to adjust the spring rollers to the size of the paper rolls and * Points here refer to 0.001 of an inch. I'-i JiKhistridl Education Hnrvey how to run the brake and regulate the tensions to keep the waste at a minimum. The assistant in book or magazine web press, although not in direct line of promotion to pressman, occupies a position of some responsibility, and in order to do his work effectively needs to possess a large part of the knowledge required by the pressman. Significance of the Occupation There are about 700 assistants on the web presses in New York City and of this number about 500 of them are in the As- sistant's Union. The chance of promotion is very slight, but the wages paid are high enough to attract men to the position who are willing to stay in it. The number of positions are increasing because of the increase in the number of web presses. Practical knowledge can be gained in the shop, but the technical knowl- edge necessary for full mastery of this job must be gained outside of the shop. EOTOGRAVUEE PRESSMAN The rotogravure pressman puts the etched cylinder into the press, sets cylinders, doctor blades, compensating rollers, guides, stops, grippers, etc. He registers cylinders for margin, adjusts the impression cylinder for impression and sharpens and regu- lates the amount of pressure on the doctor blade. He keeps the ink at a certain constant density and adjusts all the working parts of the press. He examines the printed product for spoiled sheets and is responsible for output of the press. In putting the cylinder into the press, the pressman sets the impression cylinder down and tests for the proper position by means of paper between the cylinders. If the cylinder is deeply etched he adds more impression. The impression cylinder is driven by friction, and the size is not built up to the same cir- cumference as on other presses. The pressman should know how to sharpen and set the doctor blade. This blade presses on the surface of the etched copper cylinder, scraping all of the ink from unetched portions which represents the blank parts of the printed sheet. The pressure of the blade on the surface of the plate is adjusted by weights, and great care must be used in setting the doctor blades so as to not have it wear too quickly. The more often a blade is changed the quicker the plate wears. the Printing Trade 73 The pressman should know how to tell the proper density of the ink, as this must be kept constant. The ink is thinned by a very volatile substance which evaporates quickly. When the ink becomes too thick the pressman adds xylol to thin it. The pressman should know what a well printed sheet is and how to detect 'and remedy trouble. The mechanism of a rotogravure press is about the same as a web press, and what applies to the mechanical requirements of a web pressman also applies to a rotogravure pressman. Significance of the Occupation There are about 100 rotogravure pressmen in New York City. Of this number about 75 are in the Pressmen's Union. The line of promotion is to foreman. This position has only been created within the last few years and is bound to increase in numbers due to the high class of work done by these presses and also on account of their increased speed, as in other cases, practical knowledge can be gained in the shop, but the technical knowledge must be gained outside. ASSISTANT EOTOGEAVURE PRESSMAN The assistant helps to put the cylinders into the press, gets the rollers ready for the press, keeps the press supplied with paper and removes the empty paper cores. He cleans and oils the pipe rollers and press, fills the ink, fountains, leads the sheet through the press and runs the brake and tension. He helps pressmen in a general way. He needs the same eqxiipment as the assistant on the maga- zine and web press. OFFSET PRESSMAN The offset pressman sets cylinders, distributing and form rollers; water and ink fountains, guides, stops and automatic feeders. He puts plates on the plate cylinder and packing on the packing cylinder. He washes ofif the prepared plate and pulls proof for register, registers plate, color and margins and, if necessary, etches blank part of plate, and gives the design a coating of asphaltum. He keeps the rubber blankets clean, sees that the color and impression are even, mixes inks to match proofs sent from art room and adjusts all working parts of the press, 74 Industrial Education Survey including automatic feeders. Finally, he examines all printed copies for spoiled sheets and is responsible for the output of the press. The offset pressman should possess the requirements for a cylinder or web pressman. He should also know how to regulate the water fountain and run the press with a minimum amount of water, in order that the design will print best. He should know how to register for colors and margins by shifting his plate, paper file or cylinder. He must keep the ink from scumming up the plate, which will happen if the ink is too greasy. The press- man should know how, by the aid of an acid solution in the water fountain to keep the blank parts of the plate clean. If the design becomes weak he should know how to apply a coating of asphaltum to strengthen it. He should know how to add acid resist to the design and re-etch the blank parts of the plate. The offset pressman, furthermore, should understand the com- position of the blankets in order to renew their vitality. He should know how to mix colors so as to match a given proof, and how to regulate color. He should have a knowledge of the prop- erties of the zinc and aluminum printing plates. He should know the names of all the parts of the press and have a knowledge of its mechanism that he may make necessary adjustments, including those on automatic feeders. Finally, he should know what a well printed sheet is and how to detect and remedy trouble. He is responsible for the output of the press. Besides the knowledge of fractions and mechanics required by the cylinder pressman, he should be familiar with the apoth- ecary system of weights and measures in order to mix etching solutions and should understand the chemical action that takes place when acid solutions and metal interact. Significance) op the Occupation The number of positions of this kind is increasing on account of the substitution of presses using zinc and aluminum plates in- stead of the stone process. The technical knowledge necessary for this position is greater than for an ordinary cylinder pressman. The practical knowledge can be learned in the shop, but much of the technical knowledge must be gained on the outside. ASSISTANT OFFSET PRESSMAN The assistant offset pressman puts the rollers into the press The Printing Trade 75 and takes them out. He oils and cleans rollers and press and assists pressman in cleaning blankets and gumming up plates. He helps pressman put blankets on cylinders and helps make register as to margins and color. He piles paper into the feed board and feeds it down to the guide. He attends to the automatic feeders and assists the pressman in a general way. The assistant offset pressman should know the names of all the different parts of the press, and should know how to put the different rollers into their respective places. He should under- stand the composition of the rollers used so as to be able to clean them without destroying them. If nap form rollers are scraped the wrong way the nap is injured, thereby destroying the roller. He should know how to clean the blankets and gum up a plate. In oiling it must be remembered that a new press needs oiling more often than an old one. Important bearings should be watched closely to prevent their becoming too warm. He should know how to feed sheets down to the guides prop- erly. He should know how to operate the automatic feeder. The knowledge required for his regular duties is indicated above. To prepare for advancement the assistant must equip him- self to meet the requirements of the pressman. SiGNIFICANCH OF THB OCCUPATION There are about 100 men engaged in this work in New York City, about one-half of whom are members of the union. What has been said about the assistant on a magazine and book web press applies here. JOB PRESSMAN A job pressman is called upon nowadays to operate email sized cylinder and rotary presses as well as platen presses. He sets either platens, cylinders on bearers or cylinders, according to the type of press operated. He sets rollers, grippers, guides, stops and automatic feeders. He locks form or plate to the bed of the press or plate cylinder, pulls a proof for an underlay, underlays plate or form, if underlay is needed. He next makes register for margins and color. If working on half tones, he pulls a proof for an underlay, cuts and matches overlays and overlays form or plate. He pulls a proof for a spot-up sheet, marks out a sheet for a spot-np sheet and puts it on the cylinder. 7(i iHfliiatriiil Educalion Hitrrei/ He covers up the platens, or cylinder, keeps color and impres- sion even, mixes colored inks to match a given proof, examines the printed sheet and adjusts all working parts of the press. If the pressman is operating a platen press, he should know how to set the plates so as to obtain an even impression over the whole surface of the form. This is done by putting the proper packing on the platen and adjusting the top screws. The bottom screws are very seldom touched, as the impression at this point is regulated by the amount of packing. In putting the form on the press, the pressman sees that the clamps are tight. The duties of a job pressman from this point on, are about the same as those of the cylinder or rotary pressman, except that his machine is a very small one. For knowledge required, see "cylinder pressman." Significance of the Occupation There are about 1,000 job pressmen in New York City. Of this number 327 are members of Printing Pressmen's Union No. 51. On account of the introduction of automatic feed job presses the demand for job pressmen is not increasing. Some of the auto- matic job presses do the work of two or more hand fed presses. The chances for advancement for a job pressman are slight, as a very small number become cylinder pressmen. The wages paid, however, are high enough to attract many workers to this branch of the work. JOB PRESS FEEDER The job press feeder puts rollers into the press and removen them. He inks, oils and cleans rollers and press. In inking with a brayer, or knife, no impression of the form should be made until the ink is sufficiently distributed so as not show any streaks on the paper. He helps register forms ; patches up sheets marked out by the pressman. He feeds paper into the press with his right hand, first putting the sheet to the bottom guides and then gently sliding it along to the side guides while the press is open. After this sheet is printed he removes it with his left hand, as the press is opening, and starts again with another sheet. When he misses a sheet he trips the press. In a few shops he operates automatic feeders. He examines the printed product, calls the pressman's attention to anything he thinks wrong, and assists the pressman in a general way. A STANDARD TYPE JOB PRESS The Printing Trade 77 The job press feeder should know how to patch up sheets neatly &nd quickly, using a minimum amount of paste. He should know how to move the guides to obtain good register. He should also know what a well printed sheet is. For a press with an automatic feeder the operator needs to know how to attend these feeders and make the necessary adjustments. Quickness and accuracy of movement are necessary, both to feed paper into the press and remove it, since the average press operates at the rate of 1,500 sheets an hour. Skill is required to patch up sheets and to make delicate adjustments for the auto- matic feeders. What has been said in regard to the cylinder press feeder applies to the job press feeder both in regard to knowledge required and preparation for advancement. Significance of the Occupation There are 500 job press feeders connected with the Job Press Feeders* Union No. 1 in New York City. Of this number, about fifteen are advanced each year to the position of job pressman and about thirty-five to that of cylinder press feeders. The posi- tion of job press feeder is most important in the small printing shops of the city. In these small establishments there are about 1,500 job press feeders who are not affiliated with the union. Most of these workers remain in this position, although a num- ber become discouraged and enter other lines of employment. The introduction of automatic feeders is decreasing the number of men in this occupation, since one operator can tend three or iOur automatic presses. The job press feeder may secure in the shop the knowledge needed to do the work satisfactorily, but the knowledge need for promotion to something better, must be secured through some outside agency. NEWSPAPER PRESSMAN IN CHARGE In getting the press ready, the pressman sets cylinders, rollers, knives, slitters, fountains, guides, stops, points, angle bars, trol- leys, compensating rollers, etc. He measures packing for the impression cylinders, registers the plates as to margins and regulates and keeps the color even. He adjusts the impression cylinder and keeps the cylinders parallel, and adjusts all work- 78 Industrial Education Survey ing parts of the press. He examines the printed product for spoiled sheets. He directs the men under him and is responsible for the output of the press. The plates used on a newspaper web press are stereotype plates. A matrix of paper is made, under pressure, from the type form, set up in the composing room. This matrix is bent into semi- cylindrical form and semi-cylindrical castings 7/16" thick com- posed of tin, lead and antimony are made in the matrix aa a mold. The edges are then shaved, the dead metal routed out and the Bides trimmed. The plate is then ready for the press. There are autoplate machines on the market that can turn out three finished plates a minute. Twenty to iifty plates can be made from the same matrix. The newspaper pressman in charge must set his cylinders parallel and the proper distance apart. Newspaper presses do not have any bearers and it is more difiBcult, therefore, to set the cylinders on such a type of press. In order to set the cylinders the pressman first multiplies the pitch of the gear on the impres- sion or plate cylinder by the number of teeth to get the pitch circumference. He then measures the circumference of the bare plate and impression cylinders, and divides each of these by pi to obtain their diameters. One-half of the difference of the diameters of the plate cylinder and the gear gives the thickness of plate to be carried ; and one-half of the difference of the dia- meter of the bare blanket cylinder and the gear gives the amount of packing to be carried. To the amount of packing calculated the pressman, due to the soft packing used, adds 0.020 points. This total amount allows for impression and is the amount of packing used. He uses a gauge to set his cylinders, putting it between the two cylinders and gradually letting them down by adjusting the impression screws until the cylinders are at the proper distance apart and parallel. He next measures his pack- ing by the use of a micrometer and has the pressman dress the cylinders. The directions given under "Magazine and Book Web Press- man" for the setting of rollers, fountain, trolleys, slitter, angle bars, nipping rollers, folding blades, gripper points and fly pans apply equally in the case of the newspaper pressman. The knowledge required is also very similar. The position of newspaper pressman in charge, however, is one of greater respon- sibility and he should possess executive ability sufScient to eflfec- tivf ly direct the men under him. The Printing Trade 79 Significance of the Occupation There are about 200 pressmen in charge in New York City and they are all in the Newspaper Pressmen's Union. These positions are practically constant on account of the increased output of the new types of presses. Quick thinking is very essential for the newspaper pressman, as indicated by the rule "do not stop the press unless absolutely necessary." A man in this position may become a foreman. Practical knowledge can be gained in the shop, but the technical knowledge needed must be gained from some outside agency. PKESSMAN ON NEWSPAPER PRESS The pressman puts rollers into the press and removes them ; puts blankets and muslins on the impression cylinders or covers impression cylinder with pressboards, hangers and top sheets and puts plates on the plate cylinders. He underlays plates. He gets rolls of paper ready for the press, keeps press supplied with paper and removes empty paper cores. He cleans and oils rollers and press, fills fountains, leads sheets through the press, patches and keeps fold of the sheet even. He runs the brake and tensions. He should know the names of the different parts of the press. The rollers are of different sizes and he should know how to- put them in their respective places. He should know how to dress cylinders and how to keep them smooth and even. He should know the imposition of the plates so as to get them on in their right places, and in putting plates on cylinder he should be careful not to spring them. He should know how to underlay plates and to patch up sheets marked out by the pressman in charge, and how to lock rolls of paper on the spindles, so they will not work loose when the press is running. He should know, the leads of the different sheets through the press, for if the "lead-up" is wrong the sheets will be out of register, and con- sequently be spoiled. He oils the press and what has been said about oiling for a cylinder feeder applies here. He should have a knowledge of the folder, as he has to keep the fold of the sheets straight and even. He should know how to carry an even tension, as the regis- ter and folds of the sheets, as well as a clean cut, depends upon this adjustment. The tension is adjusted by means of blocks and a screw covering the spindle head, and more tension is applied 80 Industrial Educution Survey by turning the screw which tightens the block. He must adjust the spring rollers, when a change is made from a full to a % or V^ roll. To do this properly some knowledge of the composition of forces is desirable. He should understand the operation of the rheostat controlling the motor for starting and stopping the press. He should possess in general the knowledge noted in the case of the assistant on book and magazine web press and the cylinder feeder. Significance of the Occupation There are about 800 of these men in New York City and all are members of the Newspaper Pressmen's Union. The number of these positions is practically constant, as noted under newspaper pressman in charge. The chances of promotion to pressman in charge is in the ratio of 1 to 5. The practical knowledge can be gained in the shop, but the technical knowledge required must be gained from some outside agency. FLYBOY ON NEWSPAPER PRESS The flyboy carries plates to and from the press, leads the sheets down the former and through the folding cylinder and watches folder and former to prevent paper choking up press. He piles papers on tables and carries them to mail or delivery room. He cleans former and folder and compensating and pipe rollers. He fills and adjusts paste fountains and helps the press- man in miscellaneous ways. He should know the names of the different parts of the press, the leads of the sheets through folder and should know how to adjust paste fountain. He should know the imposition of the plates, so that he can place the plates alongside of the press in position convenient for the pressmen. Significance of the Occupation There are about 450 in this occupation in New York City and all are connected with the Newspaper Pressmen's Union. Pro- motion is not rapid. At the end of about eight years, however, fly boys become pressmen. This is dependent upon the condition The Printing Trade 81 of the business. These boys must be physically strong. The knowledge needed on the job can be learned in the pressroom, but the knowledge needed for advancement must be gained elsewhere. SUMMARY OF THE TRADE STUDY The foregoing findings concerning the composing and press rooms of the printing trade of New York City indicates a very large centralized industry that is steadily increasing in numbers and output and constantly making use of new and progressive methods of production. They show an industry in which indus- trial peace has been the rule for many years, and where trade agreements between employers and employees have been success- fully maintained, and trade disputes adjusted through a system of arbitration. They also indicate a situation representing good wages and steady employment and where success and advance- ment are largely dependent on alertness of mind and a store of both general and specific information. The findings also repre- sent, at least in the composing room, an organized system of apprenticeship, receiving boys at 16 years of age with a regular scheme of advancement. In the composing room this apprentice- ship system very largely, supplies the ranks of the adult workers. On the other hand, the findings indicate that this apprentice- ship system is not sufficient to furnish the related technical knowledge demanded for full mastery of the trade with its con- stantly advancing standards. They also indicate that only in a small range of establishments is it possible for the apprentice to secure the broad, practical experience necessary for the all round skilled worker. Such a situation seems to indicate that instruction in the nature of pre-employment courses for boys before the age of 16 years would fulfill a helpful function, at least in preparing for entrance to the composing room. The findings also indicate very clearly that instruction arranged for workers already em- ployed and adapted to the needs of the various special depart- ments and various degrees of advancement, would serve a valu- able purpose both to the individual trade worker and to the interests of the trade in general. OUTSIDE AGENCIES FOR THE TRAINING OF PRINTERS In New York City there are at least eleven different agencies offering courses of instruction to men and boys who are either already at work in the printing trade or who desire to enter it. The duplication and overlapping of courses for beginners, aa well as the lack of courses for men who desire advanced work, are clearly shown in a study of these different schools. Of the fifteen hundred persons taking these courses, over 90 per cent, are men and boys who are already at work in the trade and less than 10 per cent, are boys preparing to enter it. SCHOOLS ESTABLISHED BY THE BOAED OF EDUCATION The Board of Education of the City of New York has estab- lished trade preparatory courses in printing in the three voca- tional day schools, and trade extension courses in printing in five evening schools. The organization and methods of these schools are described at some length in Part V of this report. Below is a brief description of the work of each school as it re- lates to the printing trade. The day courses are open to any boy 14 years of age who either is a graduate of the elementary schools or who can show that he is prepared to take the work by success- fully passing an examination given by the principal of the school. These courses are two years in length. The courses in the evening schools are open to those working at the printing trade. DAY TRADE PEEPARATORY COURSES IN PRINTING Day Vocational School fob Bots The printing department in this school was organized in 1 909 and is the oldest trade preparatory course in printing in the city. The original equipment has been added to until the print shops are the best equipped (school print shops) in the city. There are three shops devoted exclusively to printing, i. e., the hand com- 82 The Printing Trade 83 posing room, the pressroom and the linotype and iftonotype room. The hand composing room is furnished with a poor equipment accommodating twenty boys ; the pressroom has five job presses, one modern cylinder press, one stop cylinder press and a paper cutter; in the machine composing room are five linotypes, one monotype, with extra keyboards for the linotype and standard typewriter keyboards for the monotype. At the time of the survey fifty-two boys were enrolled in this department. The boys spend five periods each day in the shop, and three periods in related work. The shop instruction is indi- vidual in character and during the second year boys are allowed to specialize on the linotype, monotype, pressroom work or in hand composition. The course is two years in length, but the diploma of the school is withheld until the boy has worked at the trade six months and his work has been approved by hia employer. There was little attempt made at the time of the survey to teach typographical design, cost estimating or to organize special courses in English for the pupils in printing. The numbers en- rolled in this department were so small that it was impracticable to provide teachers with special training to teach related sub- jects. The limited numbers also made it impracticable to grade the boys according to their previous education or ability in shop work. The students in this department were required, hpwever, to take a course in lettering with the instructor in sign painting. Six teachers of shopwork are employed in this school; two teachers of hand composition, one of whom acts as head of the department; a teacher of press work, a teacher of bookbinding and one each for the linotype and monotype machines respec- tively. The cost for salaries for the six shop teachers who give all of their time to the boys registered in printing is |8,000. This department has had since last July an average enrollment of 53 boys. The work of this department is devoted largely to the print- ing of records, cards and circulars for the Board of Education. The value of the product of this department amounts to about 11,000 a month. Murray Hill Vocational School The printing department in this school was organized Febru- ary 2, 1914. The department is located in a basement room and 84: Industrial Education Survey is poorly lighted and ventilated. The equipment consists of the usual small shop hand typesetting equipment, two small job presses, one automatic job press, a paper cutter and stitcher. The course of study includes hand typesetting, straight display and tabular, the imposition of small forms for job work, the care and use of job presses and the operation and care of the automatic job press. The boys spend three periods a day in the shop and four periods a day in book work. At the time of the survey forty boys were enrolled in this department. One instructor of printing is employed who teaches both the composing and press work. The number of boys enrolled in this department is so small that it is impracticable to provide instructors with special training to teach the related subjects, such as typographi- cal design, cost estimating and applied design. The small num- bers made it necessary to combine the boys from two trade groups for the work in drawing, English, mathematics and science, and as a result these courses were general in character. Brooklyn Vocational School The printing department in this school was organized in June, 1915. The equipment and course of study are practically the same as at the Murray Hill School, with the exception of the automatic press. Forty-six boys were enrolled in this depart- ment at the date of the survey. One teacher of printing is employed who teaches both the composing and presswork. The conditions in this school in regard to the numbers en- rolled, the character of instruction are practically the same as those described in the Murray Hill School. PUBLIC EVENING SCHOOL COURSES IN PRINTING Harlem Evening Trade School The Harlem Evening Trade School, which is maintained in the same building as the Vocational School for Boys, has the advantage of the superior equipment of this school and as a result the number of printers enrolled in this school is larger than in any other public school. Courses are given in hand com- position and press work, in the care and operation of linotypes and in the care and operation of monotypes. There were 152 students enrolled in the night printing classes. They ^v^ere em- ployed in the following occupations : The Prinlifig Trade SS Monotype Wobk (2 classes) Journeymen 17 Two-thirders 3 Monotype Caster and Operator. ... 3 23 Linotype Work (2 classes) Journeymen 20 Apprentices 12 Two-thirders 6 Linotype Operator 1 Machinist 1 Grocery Clerk 1 41 PRESSWOBK (2 classes) Apprentices 14 Feeders 11 Helpers 3 Pressmen 2 Asst. Pressmen 2 Compositors 2 Washer-up 1 Bookbinder 1 Brakeman on Press 1 Shipping Clerk 1 38 Hand Composition (2 classes) Apprentices 24 Helpers 7 Feeders 7 Compositors 6 Machine Hands 2 Proof Boy 1 Order Clerk (Printing) 1 Clerk 1 Unclassified 1 50 Murray Hill Evening Trade School There were four courses oflfered for compositors and press- men at this school at the time of the survey. Two courses were offered in composing room work and job press work, and two courses in the care and operation of the Kelly Press. The courses in composing room work and job press work were sixty nights in length and the courses in Kelly Press work were twenty- four night courses. Each of the two sections of the course in Kelly Press operation was limited to sixteen pupils. Sixty-two students in the four courses filled out questionnaires giving their occupations as follows : Composing and Press Work Apprentices 11 Pressworkers 8 Errand Boys 4 Helpers 4 Proofreaders 2 Compositor 1 Shipping Clerk 1 Keixt Press Work Pressmen 22 Feeders 6 Pressmen's Apprentices 3 31 31 86 Industrial Education Survey Stutvesant Evening Trade School There are two courses in proofreading offered in this school. Each course consists of sixty two-hour lessons. At the time of the survey sixty students had enrolled for this course. Forty- six were in attendance and filled out questionnaires, giving their occupations as follows : Pboofeeading (2 classes) Journeymen 18 Apprentices 8 Proofreaders 5 Copyholders 4 Editorial Work 2 Stenographers 2 Foreman 1 Snlesman 1 Bookbinder 1 Reporter 1 Decorator 1 Writer 1 Secretary 1 46 Brooklyn Evening Trade School There are five courses offered for printers in the Brooklyn Evening Trade School; two courses in composition and presa- work; two courses in the care and operation of the linotype and one course in proofreading. At the time of the survey 95 men were enrolled in these classes. Their occupations follow : Composition and Pbess Wobk Linotype Wobk (2 classes) (2 classes) Apprentices 20 Compositors 18 Helpers 5 Apprentices 10 Feeders 4 Two-thirders 4 Pressmen 3 Linotype Operators 3 Clerks 3 Proofreaders 2 Journeymen 2 Helpers 2 Two-thirders 2 — Copyholders 2 37 Linotype Operator 1 Machine Hand 1 PBOOrREADINO Errand Boy 1 (^ <=''iss) Stock Clerk ( Printing) 1 Copyholders 4 Journeymen 2 45 Two-thirders 2 Apprentices 2 Printing Salesman 1 Clerical Work 1 Cutting Machine Worker 1 13 The Printing Trade 87 Elementary Evening School No. 95, Manhattan There is one class in printing at this school. The twelve pupils in attendance gave their occupations as follows : Apprentices 7 Errand Boys 3 Barbers 2 12 The numbers enrolled in each of the evening trade extension classes in printing were so small that it was economically impos- sible to obtain an organization of classes based on the previous trade experience of the applicants. No one class in printing in the evening schools was made up entirely of apprentices, two- thirders, feeders, pressmen or journeymen compositors. In only two classes was an attempt made to plan the course of study to meet the needs of special groups of workers. The equipment provided in most cases was so limited that the work was necessarily very elementary in character. No courses were maintained for printers in English, cost estimating, mechanics, typographical design, color work, chemistry or the theory of magazine and book web presswork. Little evidence was found that the employers' associations or unions were co-operating with the school authorities in develop- ing practical or related courses. SCHOOLS MAINTAINED UNDER PRIVATE AUSPICES School for Printers^ Apprentices The School for Printers' Apprentices of New York was organ- ized as a co-operative school January 1, 1913. It is managed and financed jointly by Typographical Union No. 6, the Employing Printers' Section, New York Branch of the American Newspapers Publishers' Association and the Hudson Guild, a social settle- ment at 436 West 27th Street. The Union contributes |2,000, the Employers a like sum and the Guild |1,000 and rent for the maintenance of the school each year. A Board of Directors, consisting of four members from each of these bodies, determines the policy of the school. Registered apprentices who have had at least one year's pre- vious experience in printing offices are eligible for admissioQ. 88 Industrial Education Surcey The object of the school is to instruct only those who have shown a determination to make printing their vocation. Both day and night classes are conducted at the school. Over 100 employerg in the city permit their apprentices to attend two hours of one afternoon each week, on the employer's time, with the proviso that the apprentice will attend one night each week on his own time. There are at present 346 pupils enrolled in the school. All branches connected with the composing room are taught in the school except machine composition. English composition, spell- ing, grammar and punctuation are also taught as supplemental to the apprentices' needs. A new equipment costing ?6,000 was recently contributed to the school by men interested in printing. This equipment is not excelled in point of eflQciency by that of any plant in the city. Newspaper Pressmen's School Realizing the need for technical courses for their members, the oflScials of Newspaper Printing Pressmen's Union No. 25 estab- lished a school at the union headquarters in the fall of 1916. This school was open from September until March. Two hundred members of the union availed themselves of the opportunity to secure technical instruction relating to their daily work. The course of study included lectures on types of presses, methods of printing, chemistry of inks, rollers and paper, mathematics through mensuration and the simple mechanics of cams, levers, screws and gears. The courses were offered four afternoons a week for the night workers and an equal number of evenings a week for the day workers. On account of the limitations of room and the number demanding instruction, it was found necessary to limit the attendance of each class to one afternoon or one evening a week. Employing Printers' School in Estimating and Cost Finding A course in estimating and cost finding is maintained by the Association of Employing Printers. This course was started sev- eral years ago by the Typothetse of the City of New York and was taken over by the Association of Employing Printers when the Association was organized. There are 67 men enrolled in this class, which is made up of employers' salesmen, office men, The Printing Trade S9 foremen, journeymen and apprentices. The course consists of fifteen lessons of three hours each. The classes meet twice a month from 6 :30 to 9 :30 o'clock. Home work \& required of each pupil. On account of the limited facilities at the Association Headquarters it has been found necessary to refuse a large num- ber of applicants. A fee of ?15 is charged for this course. The West Side Y. M. C. A. School of Printing The circular issued by the Y. M. C. A. gives the following information concerning this school : "The Y. M. C. A. School of Printing is maintained to assist ambitioui boyi and to provide competent workmen for the printing industry of New Tork City. It is closely connected with the printing trade through an Advisory Com- mittee composed of ten employing printers well known in the city. "Enrollment in the school is open to shop apprentices only, whether em- ployed in composing or press rooms, or whether employed in cloied or open •hops, and irrespective of religious affiliations. "Each apprentice is expected to spend either one mornins (of four hours) per week of his employer's time at the school, this to be devoted to actual work of composition or press work. In addition, he is expected to spend two evening ressions (of two hours each) per week on his own time, this to be devoted to academic study along lines applying particularly to his work. "The enrollment in the school is made through the boy's employer, some- times by part payment by the boy, and sometimes entirely by the boy's parent*." The tuition fee is $50 per annum. At the time of the survey twelve boys were enrolled in this school. Pressmen's Correspondence Courses The International Printing Pressmen's and Assistants' Union has developed correspondence courses for its members. This course was established in 1911 and is given by the school main- tained by the Union in Tennessee. Courses are offered in platen press work, cylinder press work, rotary press work and planographic press work. These courses include the study of the various types of presses, mechanical adjustments, methods of make-ready, underlaying, overlaying, study of inks, rollers, papers and blankets. These courses are considered by many printing authorities as being the best courses offered in presswork and have been a great help to the pressmen who have taken them. 90 Industrial Education Survey The price of each course is |5 and the deficit incurred is paid by the union. There are 88 pressmen in New York City taking these courses. Thirty-five pressmen have graduated from these courses. International Typographical Union Corrbspondench Couesi The I. T. U. course in printing was developed and perfected in response to a demand voiced at the annual meeting of the Union in 1907. A commission was appointed to develop the course of study, and after careful consideration of the problem decided that a course should be given by correspondence. The course of instruction was developed by the Inland Printer Tech- nical School in Chicago. Local secretaries have been appointed to assist in developing the courses. There are two courses offered, one in hand lettering and prin- ciples of typography and the other on capitalization, punctua- tion and other elementary typographical principles. The first course consists of thirty-seven lessons on lettering, design, color harmony, composition, hand lettered advertisements, layouts of booklets and books, paper making, plate making and imposi- tion. The second course consists of nine lessons on punctuation, use of capital letters, proofreaders' marks and their meanings and type faces and their uses. The course in lettering, design and principle of typography costs |25 and the course in capital- ization, punctuation and elementary typographical principles costs ?10. The International Typographical Union gives a prize of $5 in the form of a rebate to each student who finishes the full course, but not to those who take the short course only. At the present time there are 234 students in New York City taking the above courses. Seventeen students in the city have graduated from the course. The Baron db Hirsch Trade School The Baron de Hirsch Trade School conducts a day class in printing covering five and one-half months. The equipment con- sists of a composing room and five job presses. Instruction is given in composition, imposition, presswork and printing shop practice. The average number of graduates, each six months, since the course was instituted in June, 1913, has been eighteen. The Printing Trade 91 The New York Trade School The New York Trade School conducts an evening class in job composition and presswork. The class meets three evenings a week for a period of six months. The course is arranged for young men of from 17 to 25 years of age, who are either engaged in the trade or are beginners. The tuition fee is 114. The enroll- ment for the past year was twenty students. Other Schools In addition to the above mentioned agencies there are three private trade schools offering courses in linotype and monotype opei-ating. Courses are also given in linotype and intertype operating at the New York factories of the companies which make these machines. The instruction is limited to representatives from plants in which these machines are used. RESOLUTIONS ADOPTED BY CONFERENCE COMMITTEES EMPLOYERS' COMMITTEES When the findings of the survey were completed, they were submitted to the conference committees appointed by the Asso- ciation of Employing Printers and Master Printers' Association and the following resolutions were adopted by the committees: 1. With the exception of a few minor points* the committee approves the facts as represented in this report. 2. This committee recommends that the Board of Education establish a Central School of Printing and consolidate in it all printing equipment now used in the three day vocational schools and the evening trade schools. With the limited facilities now provided in each of these schools, it is impossible to secure sufQ- ciently large numbers of students to allow them to be grouped according to their previous training and experience. The Central School would give an organization large enough to enable the teachers to grade the pupils- according to their rank in the grade. It would also give a large enough organization to provide for spe- cial teachers for special subjects. The committee heartily endorses the recommendation of the establishment of a Central School of Printing. 3. In order to make the school more effective, the committee recommends that a special advisory committee of nine members be appointed to assist the Board of Education in developing this school, and that such advisory committee be made up of four representatives from employers' associations, four from labor organizations and one other member; such committee to be •These items were later modified in accordance with the Tiew of th« committee. 92 Th0 Printing Trade 93 appointed by the Board of Education. This committee should be given liberal powers over the school, such as providing courses of study, checking up the work of teachers to see that the work meets the practical needs of the trade, to assist in selecting of equipment and in giving examinations from time to time to deter- mine the fitness of the boys who enter the trade. 4. The City of New York now owns the old Wynkoop-Hallen- beck Building. This committee strongly recommends the setting aside of the four upper floors of this building for the Central School of Printing. This building is well lighted and was used by printers for a number of years. There are about 12,000 square feet of floor space on each floor. The committee recommends that the upper floors of this building be remodeled and put in first class shape for the School of Printing. 5. The committee recommends the continuing of a two-year day vocational school course, such course to be open to any boy 14 years of age who has completed the grammar school, or who la in the 7th or 8th grade, and recommends that preference to enter the printing classes be given to applicants who have completed the work of the elementary school. 6. This committee recommends that in selecting apprentices, the employing printers in New York City give preference to the graduates of the Central School. The committee feels the need for the day school training, not with the idea of turning out more apprentices, but with the idea of training boys so that they will make better apprentices.* 7. The committee recommends that the City equip this school with modem print shop equipment. The industry is changing so rery rapidly that it is impossible to use equipment that was con- * At the conference at which these recommendations were adopted, the com- mittee assured the members of the survey staff present that every graduate of thif icbool would be taken care of in the oflSce of members of the assoeiation, and promiied the hearty support of the Association of Employing Printer* in placing the graduatet of this school. They also stated that they would be very glad to give the boys who graduated from this school, who show unusual ability, a higher rate of compensation than is paid to the boy taken on from the regular grammar school or from the streets. 94 Industrial Education Survey sidered up-to-date a few years ago. The only way to demonstrate to the printers in New York that the work of the day vocational school is worthy of consideration is by installing a modern equip- ment whereby the boys can learn the best practices that are in use in the modern composing and pressrooms. 8. This committee recommends that the Board of Education establish continuation classes for all boys who are apprentices in the printing trade. They strongly urge as a committee that the members of their association send their apprentices to this school for four hours per week with pay, with the understanding that the boy is to attend two nights a week on his own time. The committee believes that this course should be maintained for two years, that is, during the boy's first and second year appren- ticeship. They recommend that courses be given in English, proofreading, display composition, drawing, arithmetic, theory of presswork, mathematics and mechanics and care and operation of presses. 9. This committee heartily recommends the establishment of evening classes in the Central School for the printers who are engaged during the day, and the establishment of afternoon classes for printers who work at night. The committee feels that this is the big problem in vocational training for the printeri and recommends the following courses: 1. English. 2. Proofreadios- 3. Lettering. 4. Color Harmony and Design. 6. Hand Comiwsition. 0. Boob Composition. 7. Linotype and Intertype Operating. 8. Monotype Operating. 9. Imposition. 10. Arithmetic for Compositora. 11. Estimating and Cost Finding. 12. Mathematics and Mechanics for Pressmen and Feeders. 13. Courses in the Chemistry of Ints, Rollers, Blankets, etc., for Presamen. 14. Courses in Platen Presswork, including the Care and Operation of Automatic Feeders. 15. Courses in Theory and Practice of Cylinder Presswork. 10. Courses In Theory and Practice of Magazine and Book Web Presiworfc. 17. Courses in Theory and Practice of Offset Presswork. The Printing Trade 95 18. Courses in TJnderlaying, OTcrlaying, etc. 19. Courses in Color Work for Pressmen, includine the mixing of inks. 20. Courses in Electricity for Printers. 10. The committee also recommends that a registration fee of f 2 be required of all journeymen who desire to take extension courses. That such fee shall be returned upon the completion of 75 per cent, of the full attendance. 11. The committee recommends that an Exhibition Room be provided in this school; such room is to be used in exhibiting the best examples of printing produced in New York City and out- side of the City. This could be used to good advantage in teach- ing the young men coming into the trade the possibilities of qual- ity printing. 12. The committee also recommends that quarters for a read- ing room be provided for the men who wish to come to the evening school to attend classes. A large number of men in the printing trade work in New York and live in the suburbs and many of these men will undoubtedly make it a practice to stop off at the school for afternoon or evening classes. The committee urges that comfortable quarters be provided for these men, either in the form of a reading room or library. 13. The committee also recommends that in the matter of the examinations for the men who wish to teach in this school the advice of the advisory committee be sought. It is hardly necessary to state that this committee strongly urges the employ- ing of men who have had exceptional training in the trade. Finally, the committee feels that the printing industry in New York is so large that the problem can be handled more efiS- ciently in a modern, well equipped Central School of Printing. The committee heartily endorses all the recommendations made and promises the hearty support of their organization in carrying out the above euggestions. UNION COMMITTEE The findings were also considered by the conference com- mittee appointed by the Allied Printing Trades Council and the resolutions below were adopted by the committee. These resolu- 96 Industrial Education Survey tions were subsequently brought before the following organiza- tions in business meetings and were approved and adopted by them: Typographical Union No. 6, New York Printing Press- men's Union No. 51, New York Newspaper Web Printing Press- men's Union No. 25, Franklin Union No. 23 and New York Job Press Feeders' Union No. 1. WHEREAS, At the request of Organized Labor's Conference Committee on Industrial Education the Board of Estimate and Apportionment of the City of New York appointed a committee to conduct an industrial education survey to determine the need of vocational training in the City of New York ; WHEEEAS, The report of the committee shows that there is a need for vocational courses in printing in the City of New York, this Union recommends : 1. That the Board of Education establish a Central School of Printing and consolidate in it all the printing equipment now used in the three day vocational ■cbools and in the evening trade schools. 2. That the Board of Education secure the four upper floors in the old Wynkoop-Hallenbeck building for the School of Printing. This building is lo- cated at the New York end of the Brooklyn Bridge and ia an ideal location for the proposed school. The old Wynkoop-Hallenbeck building now owned by the City was formerly occupied by printers and is well adapted to the needs of the School of Printing. 3. That the Board of Education continue the two year day vocational course in printing; that such course be open to any boy 14 years of age who has com- pleted grammar school or who is in the 7th or Sth grade. This committee also recommends that the attendance at the day school be limited to 300 boys. (Ai the trade normally absorbs about 400 boys a year the limit of the day vocational school to 300 boys will safeguard the trade inasmuch as the graduating class of any one year will never exceed 100 or 150 boys). 4. That the Board of Education establish part-time industrial classes for all first and second year apprentices in the printing trade. This committpe also recommends that the employers send their apprentices to this school for four hours per week with pay with the understanding that the boy is to attend two nights a week on his own time during the 3rd, 4th, and 5th years of his ap- prenticesMp training. That courses be given in English, proofreading, display composition, drawing, arithmetic, hygiene and civics for the composing room apprentices and theory of presswork, mathematics, mechanics, hygiene, civics and the care and operation of presses for the press room apprentice. 5. This committee heartily recommends the establishment of day and eve- ning classes in the Central School of Printing for men and women engaged in The Printing Trade 97 the printing trade. The committee recommends the establishment of the fol- lowing courses : 1. English. 2. Proofreading. 3. Lettering. 4. Color harmony and design. 5. Hand composition. 6. Book composition. 7. Linotype and Intertype operation. 8. Monotype operating. 9. Imposition. 10. Arithmetic for compositors. 11. Estimating and cost finding. 12. Mathematics and mechanics for pressmen and feeders. 13. Courses in the chemistry of inks, rollers, blankets, etc., for pressmen. 14. Courses in platen press work, including the care and operation of automatic feeders. 15. Courses in theory and practice of cylinder press work. 16. Courses in theory and practice of magazine and book web press work- 17. Courses in theory and practice of o£Eset press work. 18. Courses in underlaying, overlaying, etc. 19. Courses in color work for pressmen, including the mixing of inks. 20. Courses in electricity for printers. 6. That the Board of Education require a registration fee of $2.00 of all men and women in the trade who desire to take extension courses in the afternoon or evening classes; that such fee shall be returned upon the completion of 75 per cent of the course. 7. That the Board of Education appoint a special advisory committee of nine members to assist in developing the School of Printing, such advisory committee to be made up of four members representing employers' associations, four representing labor unions, and one other member. That the Board of Education consider the recommendations of this committee on the following points : 1. Courses of study. 2. Training and experience of teachers. 3. Character of equipment. 4. Examination of pupils from time to time to determine their fitnes» to enter the trade or continue at the trade. 8. That the Board of Education provide an exhibit room in the Central School of Printing, such room to be used for exhibiting the best samples of printing produced in New York City and elsewhere. 9. That the Board of Education provide a modern up-to-date library and reading room for the men who attend the School of Printing. 98 Industrial Education Survey ENDORSEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL PRESIDENT A copy of the Printing Report was submitted to Mr. George L. Berry, President of the International Printing Pressmen and Assistants' Union of North America. Mr. Berry's comment upon the report is below: INTERNATIONAL PRINTING PRESSMEN AND ASSISTANTS' UNION OP NORTH AMERICA OFFICE OF THE PEESIDENT Pressmen's Home, Tenn. June 1, 1917. Mr. Lewis A. Wilson, Director, Industrial Education Survey, 49 Lafayette St., New York, N. Y. My Dear Mr. Wilson : Your Committee in charge of the Printing Survey made in New York City has been kind enough to submit to me a general outline of the work accomplished, and to this work I have given careful consideration. In the first instance the principle underlying the program of research in Graphic Arts was correct and exemplified the new thought that is gaining ground throughout the world, wherein trade education is recognized as being important to the welfare of employer, employee and to society as a whole. As a printer I can best pass upon the value of that part of the report dealing with the pressrooms of the newspaper and commercial offices, and to this part of the report I have given especial attention. It is » splendid accom- plishment ; it embodies the assembling of facts that can be grasped quickly. It will do much in the promotion of a better understanding of the trade, and it moreover will do much in bringing the interest of the trade into a more harmonious relationship. The International Printing Pressmen and Assistants' Union maintains its Trade School ; it believes in improved craftsmanship. It aspires to the highest conception of printing. It therefore is in full accord with the splendid recom- mendations growing out of the review and survey that has been made by the Committee in charge of this work in behalf of New York City. Our endorse- ment, therefore, is unqualified, and we are in hopes that the successes so far attained will meet a happy reception from the Board of Estimate of New York City to the end that the permanency of the recommendations may be assured. Very respectfully yours, GEORGE L. BERRY, President. The Printing Trade 99 ENDOESEMENT OF OPFICEE OF THE NEWSPAPER PUBLISHERS' ASSOCIATION Mr. Lewis Wilson, Director, Industrial Education Survey, 49 Lafayette St., New Xork. Dear Mr. Wilson : I have read with interest the report on the printing trade, and heartily endorse the recomiliendations made by the committee appointed by the Asso- ciation of Employing Printers, and the resolution adopted by the Printing Unions. The development of a central school of printing will give New York City an institution that will adequately meet the needs of the printing trade in this city. The advantages of such a school are very clearly outlined in the report. Very truly, DON. C. SEITZ, Chairman, Conference Committee Newspaper Publishers' Association REPORT OF ADVISORY COMMITTEE The special advisory committee upon educational provisions for the printing trade, after giving a large amount of time to the consideration of the findings, submitted a report emphatically recommending the establishment of a Central School for the print- ing trade. Among other arguments the committee present the following : "At present no school is large enough or important enough to organize its courses of instruction so as to comprehensively meet the demands of the trade. Such courses could be provided in a Central School of Printing. The need for such a school is urgent. Its advantages over the present scattered courses of instructioif are numerous and unquestionable. Some of the more important of these are as follows : "In the first place, a central school of printing permits certain economies in administration not possible in schools of other types. "The success of a vocational school depends to a large degree upon the co-operation of the three parties vitally concerned in the problem, i. e., the employers, the employees and the school author- ities. The employing printers' associations and unions have recommended the establishment of a central school of printing. It is evident that both employers and employees will show great interest in such a central school, and will co-operate with it in many useful and important ways. They will look upon it. in a sense as their school, and it will mean much more to them than if a number of courses in printing were given in departments of several schools. "A central school of printing, with its extensive and complete equipment, would attract and hold the interest of men in the trade who under present conditions do not care to attend the schools in which the equipment is scanty and of poor quality. "A central school would permit a considerable variety of courses; unit courses, graded courses, advanced and specialized courses in trade subjects, etc., such as cannot be given in the present schools. The printing industry in New York City has enough workers easily to provide a sufficient number of students for such a central school. 100 The Printing Trade 101 "A central school of printirg could not only organize courses in different subjects, but it could organize separate courses for persons of different ages or ability; courses for apprentices, for tlie two-thirders, for the journeymen and for the foremen. The separation of trade pupils into such natural groups would add greatly to the efficiency of the instruction. A sufficient number of students of the various grades would be available in a central school to permit such separation. This is impossible in the present schools because of lack of numbers. A central school of printing, because of the variety of its equip- ment and the specialized skill and ability of its various teachers, could more readily and effectively adapt its courses to the chang- ing needs of workers than is possible in the departmental type of school. The active co-operation of an advisory committee of the kind that a central school could readily secure would serve to keep the instruction in close accord with the technical require- ments of the workers. "With its staff of expert teachers, each a specialist in his! line, a central school should do much to maintain high standards of printing in New York City. With such a staff the school might effectively serve both the city and the industry as an experi- mental trade laboratory." In regard to the relation existing between a central school and day vocational courses the committee makes the following statements : "The vocational training of young persons who desire to enter the printing trade will represent a relatively small part of the total work of a central school of printing; but such a central school could contribute decidedly to the efficiency of such voca- tional work. The advantages of a central school in this connec- tion may be summarized as follows : "The facilities provided in a central school will be large enough to give boys a thorough training in the fundamental principles of the trade in modern, well equipped shops. The equipment now provided for the print shops in the vocational schools is inade- quate for this purpose. The committee appointed by the employ- ers' association emphasized the need of a modern, up-to-date equipment so as to give the pupils enrolled in the pre-employment classes an appreciation of a well equipped shop. "The number of pupils enrolled in a central school of printing would be large enough to permit grading them according to their previous school training. 102 Industrial Education Survey "This large number will make it possible to provide an organ- ization with special teachers for at least the following depart- ments : (1) Department of Typography. (2) Department of Presswork. (3) Department of Applied Art. (4) Department of Related Studies. "It is not economically practicable to secure such a differentia- tion in the printing departments of the vocational schools as at present organized. The organization in such schools, as a rule, is not large enough to differentiate even between the presswork and the composing room work. In the Murray Hill and Brooklyn Vocational Schools the instructors of printing teach both press- room and composing room work. It is still more difficult to develop special courses in design and other important allied sub- jects in printing departments where the total numbers enrolled are small." In dealing with the need for additional trade extension courses the committee makes the following points concerning the value of a central school for such work : "The committee appointed by the employers' associations and unions heartily recommend the establishment of evening trade extension classes for printers who are engaged during the day and afternoon trade extension classes for workers who are employed at night. This Committee believes that such classes present the largest opportunities for vocational education in the printing trade. There are 27,000 trade workers engaged in the composing and pressrooms in New York City. The printing trade is becoming more and more specialized, and as a result the trade is not self-instructing. An important part of the training of the workers must come through outside agencies. The advantages of a central school for this type of training may be summarized as follows : "1. An equipment large enough to offer both elementary and advanced shop courses. "2. Trade workers would attend who do not care to attend a school in which the equipment is not comparable in quality to that of the commercial shop. "3. A student body large enough to be graded according to previous trade experience. "4. Numbers which would make it possible to offer many courses not practicable at the present time. The Printing Trade 103 "5. The equipment and teaching stafif could be used for both afternoon and evening trade extension courses. This arrange- ment would demand a staff of expert trade teachers who would give full time for certain periods to teaching. "6. The men in the trade would have a personal interest in the central school of printing and the efficiency of the school would be increased by the exchange of ideas and social inter- course of a large group of trade workers. "7. The higher possibilities of the trade could be emphasized in such a school by lectures on trade processes, new machinery and allied subjects, and by exhibits of various types of printing showing the possibilities of quality printing. "8. Both employers and employees recommended the estab- lishment of part time classes for the first and second year appren- tices in the trade. This situation can be met adequately by a central school of printing. "9. Eighty-seven per cent, of the 27,000 composing and press- room employees work in the Borough of Manhattan. Most of these work in offices located below 44th Street. A central school of printing located at the lower end of Manhattan would be con- veniently located for these men and courses could be offered at hours to meet their needs." In summing up the situation the Committee quotes an em- ploying printer as follows : "The quality and effectiveness of printing depends to a large degree upon the ability of the workers. If New York City is to retain its leadership in the printing world steps must be taken to provide training for the workers in the trade. The compara- tively small investment required to give New York a thoroughly effective school of printing will bring substantial and constant benefits to the city." In the report of the advisory committee on day vocational schools the following paragraph concerning a central school for printing appears: "In regard to the school organization best fitted for such train- ing (pre-employment training) they (the committee) believe that in the case of printing the instruction should be given in a central school, for the reasons that more complete equipment and a more comprehensive teaching organization can be so secured, greater co-operation With the industry is possible and better control could be had over the numbers entering training in relation to the needs of the trade." PART II INSIDE ELECTRICAL WORK BRIEF HISTOEY OF THE ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIES The application of electricity to practical use is a development of less than four decades. Before that time its use was limited to telegraphy, electric bells, electric gas lighting, electro-plat- ing and medical batteries. Telegraphy had been widely intro- duced, but the other uses enumerated were of restricted applica- tion. Soon after the Centennial in 1876 the telephone began its commercial career. Within the next decade the dynamo was de- veloped and successfully applied to electric lighting. Later the electric motor was greatly improved and applied to power trans- mission and other uses. Coincident with the solution of the light- ing and transportation problems was the development of elec- trical power upon a large scale. The use of electricity in the chemical industries upon a commercial scale began during the nineties. The development of wireless telegraphy and telephony is a matter of recent date. In this short period of less than forty years one of the great- est of industries has been evolved and has attained an importance little short of marvelous. Not the least striking feature of this extraordinary development is the multitude of highly efficient workers that has arisen to deal with the new and intricate prob- lems involved. The various branches of the industry have become highly spe- cialized and each has developed a group of workers skilled to meet particular requirements. An example is afforded by the branch of the industry to which this survey is devoted, viz., that of inside wiring. Outline of thh Development of Wiring In the beginning electrical appliances and methods of wir- ing were necessarily crude, for example, the first incandescent light plant to be opearted by private individuals (that of the Steamship Columbia), was wired with No. 11 for the "lamp loops;" the wire being double cotton covered magnet wire "paraffined and painted over all." Sockets, cut-outs, rosettes, cleats switches, bases and the like were at this time composed of 105 106 Industrial Education Survey wood. Wires were supported on knobs and cleats of wood but many circuits were laid in plaster. Later, glass was utilized in the construction of some of these devices and was followed by porcelain, the material now generally employed for exposed work. The natural solution of the problem of safe installation was found in the employment of protecting conduits. The first form of conduit evolved was hard rubber composition tubing, then papier mache in rigid lengths which were coupled by means of squeeze connections, which in turn was followed by papier mache with brass covering, known as "brass armored tubing," The present form of installation is found in rigid steel, gal- vanized or enameled iron conduit which is used on practically all important concealed work in fireproof buildings and for con- siderable exposed work. This type of conduit, with some im- provements, is considered the most approved system of electrical installation. Only a few years ago circular loom tubing and attex wire came into use for concealed electrical installation in private houses, taking the place of knob and cleat work. This gave place to flexible conduit, which is now generally succeeded by the so-called "B X" system. This system, which consists of a conductor covered with rub- ber, braids and steel flexible armor, came into use on account of the facility with which it can be installed, but nothing has been brought into the market to take the place of the iron conduit as a mechanical standard for important buildings. On exposed work wood molding was employed until metal and wire molding came into the field. Today the standard methods of wiring are installation in rigid enamel iron conduit, or in metal and wire molding or the employment of steel armored conductors (B X). Definition of Inside Electric Wiring This survey is limited to a study of inside electrical work, as defined in the following paragraph : Inside electrical wiring, in contradistinction to outside wir- ing, is that branch of the subject that has to do with the instal- lation of conductors, from the exterior point to which the cen- tral station furnishes its mains. In other words, the term "in- side wiring" generally refers to those conductors which carry the electric current from the service mains to the various points of the building. The term has grown, however, to include ac- companying devices, such as panel boards and switches, elevator inside Electrical Worh 107 control apparatus, fans, motors, etc., connected to these conduits. In some instances, though the appliances are outside the building, they are included under the term "inside wiring," as illuminated signs, standards, etc. In general, the term "inside wiring" in- cludes all of the installation beyond that furnished and installed by the central station. The kinds of installation that are permissible under differ- ent conditions, the materials that may be employed, the manner of performing the work, are determined by the National Board of Fire Underwriters and the Department of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity of New York City. Before an installation may be put into service it must be inspected and passed by these authorities. IMPORTANCE OF THE TRADE The era of modern electrical development came with the introduction of the incandescent lamp. In the early days of electrical illumination only special buildings were wired for electricity, as it was considered a luxury, and illuminating gas continued to hold popular preference. There were very few electricians in the earlier stages of the trade. The records of the labor unions, for example, show that in 1890 approximately 100 men were organized, while today the several unions of electrical workers have a membership of 4,885 ; a growth of 27 years. By way of further explanation, it may be noted that in 1916 there were admitted into the electrical union of New York an approximate total of 375 new men and 40 ap- prentices, all raised to the status of helper. The importance of the trade of electric wiring in New York City may be gauged by the fact that during the year 1916, build- ings were equipped with inside wiring to supply electricity for 1,492,146 incandescent lights, 634 arc lamps, 98,513 horse power in electric motors and to convey 7,039 K. W. from dynamos in- stalled in isolated plants. The money value of the electrical contracts during the same year amounted to over f 6,000,000. The electrical contractors who installed this work employed 6,815 electrical workers, 3,180 of whom were journeymen, 2,940 helpers and 695 apprentices. The inspection department of the City received in the year 1916 a total of 90,451 applications for the approval of electric light and power equipments, representing an increase of 17,092 over the number of applications received during the preceding year. 108 Industrial Education Survey NATIONALITY OP WORKERS The only available data bearing upon the nationality of the workers in the electrical trades are the figures published in the U. S. Census Report for 1910, which groups, under the general heading "Electricians and Electric Engineers," the 15,512 work- ers employed in this field in the City of New York. This figure includes, indiscriminately, all kinds of workers connected with the electrical industry from designing and supervising engineers on the one hand, to laborers on the other. Of this number about a third were of native parentage, somewhat less than a third were foreign born, and about six thousand were of foreign or mixed parentage. TYPES OP ELECTRICAL CONTRACTING ESTABLISH- MENTS There are more than 1,600 electrical contractors and jobbers in Greater New York, ranging from the "one man shop" to the contractor with modern offices and shops employing from 5 to 350 men. They may be divided into the following classes : (1) The jobber and bell hanger doing locksmithing, bell hang- ing and unimportant installations and repairs. (2) The small electrical contractor who installs wiring in stores, lofts and offices, does light and bell wiring in flat and loft buildings, and repair work. (3) The large contractor, who installs complete electric wiring and electrical equipments, and repairs and maintains installa- tions in new and old buildings of all types and sizes from the one- family house to the 57-story building. He also sets up complete power plant installations. There are between 600 and 800 of the so-called "one-man shops" in the Greater City in which locksmithing is combined with bell hanging, repairing sewing machines, etc. In these shops the pro- prietor does the work and only hires helpers when there is a rush of work on hand. Of the small contractors there are between 500 and 600 who work on small contracts for wiring for light and bell systems in stores, lofts and offices, as well as wiring flat and apartment houses. There are 405 of the larger electrical contractors. These con- tractors install complete electrical equipments in government and Inside Electrical Work 109 public buildings, theatres, factories, hotels, private dwellings, apartment houses, ships, subways and bridges, and wire electric signs, amusement parks and other decorative and spectacular lighting. SPECIALIZATION There are many contractors, who, because of lack of capital, or experience, or because their knowledge of the trade is lim- ited, cannot secure a license, and therefore devote their time to some one special branch of the trade. These men specialize in bell wiring and do small repair jobs. Another class of contractors specialize in the wiring of new flat and apartment houses, as well as moving picture theatres, and take some of the larger repair jobs. There are contractors who take all kinds of wiring work, handling the small as well as the large contracts, and there are contractors who specialize entirely in large contracts. On the side of the workers there is the same tendency to specialization but this is counteracted to a large extent by the need of proficiency in a number of branches of the trade in order to secure continuous employment. Workers applying for admission to the union as journeymen are required to take an examination covering all the divisions of the trade. HOW INSIDE ELECTRICAL WORKERS ARE TRAINED In New York City nearly all of the large contractors have trade agreements with the union, providing for the length of ap- prenticeship, the number of apprentices that may be employed in each shop, the wages to be paid, and other details. The ap- prentice serves two years, followed by four years as a helper, before qualifying for a journeyman's status. A boy enters the shop of a union contractor through per- sonal application or by the contractor applying to the union for an apprentice. When an apprentice, not registered with the union, is taken on, the contractor gives the boy a letter to the union for the purpose of having him registered. In this letter he is required to state the number of men he has in his employ. Then if the contractor has not his full quota of ap- prentices, as allowed by agreement, the union registers the boy and issues a card to him. Under the union agreement one apprentice is permitted to each contractor and one additional for every 10 union men he employs. 110 Industrial Education Survey The apprentice, after serving two years at the trade, may apply to the union to become a helper. To accomplish this he must take an examination given by the board of examiners of the union who pass upon his qualifications for advancement to helper. The examination covers the practical information the helper should possess, and the average boy after two years' ex- perience at the trade usually passes it. No systematic training is provided in this trade and that which the apprentice receives is indefinite, depending largely upon the size of the establishment in which he is employed and the nature of the work done by it. In many of the large estab- lishments apprentices are called upon frequently to work with the men in the capacity of helpers. When so employed they do any work in the electrical line while assisting a journeyman, with the exception of connecting switches, panels and switch board fixtures. The advancement an apprentice makes is dependent upon his aptitude and quickness of perception. While running er- rands and in the tool room, he learns the names of tools, mate- rials, fittings and their uses. When working in the capacity of a helper, he cuts threads and couples conduits, helps to lay conduits in place, and sets, fastens and connects outlet boxes of the different types. He also bores beams and floors, runs, sets, fastens conduit and assists in "fishing" runs in conduits and the pulling in of wire. A bright, alert boy will pick up information from the men, and when ambitious he will take advantage of evening trade school classes. Many of the ap- prentices are attending evening schools. A real opportunity for training occurs after the apprentice has served his two years, and passes to the status of helper. He is then allowed to work at any and all branches of the trade. By shifting from one contractor to another, each doing different classes of work, he may acquire a general knowledge of the trade. After the boy has served four years as a helper, he may take the journeyman's examination and, if successful, he receives a journeyman's card and the union scale of wages. A study of the records of the union in Greater New York shows that there are employed by electrical contractors, and registered in the Electrical Workers' Union, 400 apprentices. These boys are working for electrical contractors employing 4,885 men, of whom 2,730 are foremen and journeymen, and Inside, Electrical Work 111 .1.775 helpers, all registered in the union. This data shows that there is approximately one apprentice employed to every twelve men. There are very few apprentices, known as such, in the non- union shops. The boys employed in these shops are usually called "shop boys," and there are no rules governing the num- ber employed, the length of training or the character of the work. SCALE OF WAGES The table below gives the union scale of daily wages for elec- trical workers; Journeymen $5.20 Helpers 2.50 Apprentices 1.00 Eight hours constitute a day's work and four hours on Saturday. The union scale provides for double pay for over- time and also for work on Saturday afternoons, Sundays and holidays. Below are shown the daily wages usually paid in union shops : Superintendents $6.00 to $10.00 Foremen 5.50 to 9.00 Assistant Foremen 5.20 to 7.00 Journeymen 5.20 to 5.50 Helper 2.50 to 3.00 Apprentice 1.00 to 2.00 Wages paid to foremen and assistant foremen vary accord- ing to their ability and the size of the work they are handling. Some foremen are paid on a basis of a yearly salary. The non-union rate of wages is generally lower than the union rate. EEGULARITY OP EMPLOYMENT Steadiness of employment in this industry, as in other build- ing trades, is governed by the weather conditions, the amount of material available, prices of materials, and, at present, the European War. In 1915 and 1916 the electrical industry entered on boom 11^ Industrial Education Survey times. The European war created the necessity for munition plants and factory buildings in which to make war materials. It created also an urgent demand for ships. In this work large numbers of electrical workers were employed and practically all union workers, and a very large proportion of non-union men, found employment because of the war conditions. During normal times the electrical industry employs quite steadily practically all of the union workers available and about three-fourths of the non-union men. The employment of union men in such large numbers is explained in part by the fact that the large contractors deal only with union labor. According to the union's agreement with contractors union men on a job are notified before its completion whether the con- tractor has other work on which to send them. If not, the men apply at once to other contractors and in this way they lose little time between jobs. LICENSES FOR CONTRACTORS AND ELECTRICIANS The Department of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity, of the City of New York, has a special board to determine the fitness of applicants for licenses to install electrical equipment in new and old buildings and to engage in alteration and repair work. This board consists of an officer of the department, a master electrician, a journeyman electrician, a member of the inspec- tion department of the New York Board of Fire Underwriters, an electrician in the employ of a public service corporation of the city, an architect, or builder, of at least five years' prac- tical experience, and a real estate owner. Three kinds of licenses are granted upon the fulfillment of the necessary requirements: License No. 1 is an authorization to engage generally in the business of installing, altering or repairing electric work. It is intended for electrical contractors and is issued to them yearly. The fee required in taking out this license is $10 for the first year and |5 for renewals. License No. 2 is an authorization to install, alter or repair electric work in any specified building, such as department stores, office buildings, factories, hotels, etc. This license is intended for a house electrician and the fee is ?1 for the first year and |1 for renewals. License No. 3 is a special permit and is an authorization to Inside Electrical Work 113 install, alter or repair electric work constituting a single job. The fee for each special permit is |1. The installation of electrical equipment must be inspected and passed before it can be put into service. To secure such authorization the work must be done in accordance with the re- quirements of the Department of Water Supply, Gas and Elec- tricity, and in accordance with the requirements of the New York Board of Fire Underwriters. TEADE ORGANIZATIONS Employers' Associations. — In Greater New York there are six associations representing the electrical contracting interests: 1. Electrical Contractors' Association of New York. 2. Independent Elec. Contractors' Association of New York. 3. Associated Electrical Contractors of New York. 4. Electrical Contractors' Association of Long Island. 5. Metropolitan Electrical Trade Association. 6. Lighting Fixture Contractors' Association of New York. On August 23rd, 1916, the first five of the above mentioned as- sociations combined to form a central body known as the Ad- visory Board of the Electrical Contractors of New York. The sixth association is an independent organization of contractors, who specialize in assembling and installing fixtures. In addition to the members of these regularly organized associations there are many contractors and jobbers not afQli- ated with any organization. The majority of these represent concerns which take the smaller contracts and repair work. The Electrical Contractors' Association, organized in 1892, is composed of the more important contractors and has a mem- bership of 45. A majority of its members are recognized aa among the largest electrical contractors in the United States. They have an agreement with the local organization of workers by which they bind themselves to employ members of this local organization. The Independent Contractors' Association of New York was organized in 1903 and today has a membership of 52, consisting of contractors who do less important work. A majority of the members of this body has a similar agreement with the local or- ganization of workers. The Electrical Contractors' Association of Long Island is 114 industrial Education Survei/ another organization formed by the contractors of Long Island, principally in Brooklyn, and has a membership of 79 electrical contractors and jobbers. The Metropolitan Electrical Trade Association has a mem- bership of 11, composed of electrical contractors making a spe- cialty of repair work, armature winding and motor installation. The Lighting Fixture Contractors' Association of New York has a membership of 7. It was organized by fixture installing contractors and assemblers as an independent association. Employees' Associations.— The electrical workers in Greater New York were not organized until the year 1888, when organi- tions were started by three groups of workers, each unaware of the others' existence. The House Wiremen's Union had 12 members, the Knights of Labor Assembly No. 5468, had 14 mem- bers, and the American Federation of Labor had a membership of 50. The existence of these three unions became known to each other in 1890 and they had joint conference committee meet- ings until 1891, when an amalgamation of the three unions was accomplished, adopting the name of Local 5468, American Fed- eration of Labor of New York and Vicinity. Shortly afterward this union affiliated with the National Brotherhood of Electrical Workers of America and was known as Local Union No. 3 of the N. B. E. W. with a membership of 350. The first agreement entered into with the electrical contract- ors was on July 6, 1893. In this agreement the formation of an examining board was set forth. This board consisted of two members of the union, two members of the contractors' asso- ciation, and a fifth member chosen by the four. This examining board was to pass upon the qualifications of all members who were in the union or who might come in after the date of the agreement. In 1895, at the convention in Cleveland, Ohio, this Local withdrew from the National Brotherhood, which latter became the International Brotherhood, and affiliated with the Knights of Labor, becoming known as Electrical Workers' Union No. 3. In 1901 the Local reaffiliated with the International Brother- hood of Electrical Workers, retaining the local designation of Electrical Workers' Union No. 3. It continued under this des- ignation until 1907, when it became the Inside Electrical Work- ers of Greater New York. Working agreements between the contractors and the union 'inside Electrical Worli 115 have developed co-operation between both parties that have averted labor troubles and increased wages. The Inside Elec- trical Workers of Greater New York has been able to deal with all transactions between contractors and workers harmoniously, and today has a new trade agreement which is entirely satis- factory to both parties. The membership of this union is now, approximately, 4,100. The scale of wages and hours of work showing the improve- ment in trade conditions from 1890 to 1917 follows: 1800-1891 $3.00 per day— 9 hours 1891-1894 3.00 1894-1895 3.50 1895-1908 4.00 1908-1914 4.50 1914-Oct., 1916 4.80 Oct., 1916- Apr. 1, 1917 5.00 Apr. 1, 1917 5.20 Saturday 8 hours " " 9 ' 8 ' " " 8 ' 4 " " " 8 ' 4 " " " 8 ' 4 " " " 8 ' 4 " " " 8 ' 4 " " " 8 ' 4 " The Inside Electrical Workers of Greater New York are not, strictly speaking, a building trades organization as they do not depend entirely upon the electrical installation in new and old buildings. There are many changes in electrical installation in old buildings, where wiring passed years ago is being modern- ized. The members of the organization also do a large amount of work in navy yards, marine work in the harbor of New York, and work in new and old power plants. TRAVELING CARDS Traveling cards are issued by the unions to members desirous of leaving the city to work elsewhere. A certain percentage of the "traveling card men" move about because they are attracted to other cities on account of higher wages, or by an increased demand for electrical workers, or by some large operation. Another class of men leave their home city on account of strikes, dissatisfaction, or other reasons, and take up the trade in another place. A third class who take out traveling cards are men who are employed by large concerns taking contracts all over the coun- tiy, and their men travel wherever their employers have con- tracts, returning to their homes and local unions on the com- pletion of an out-of-town contract. 116 Industrial Education Survey With the increasing demands by the trade for men of regu- lar habits, the "traveling card man" seems to be passing. Each year the number grows less and it would seem to be but a mat- ter of few years when the transient electrician will be unknown. It is difficult to determine what percentage of electricians com- ing to New York remain here, as some stay a few weeks, others leave after a few months, others stay permanently, while prac- tically all of the New York men leaving on traveling cards to work throughout the country, return here on completion of the contract. ANALYSIS OF THE TEADE In the following pages an attempt has been made to describe what the worker does in the principal divisions of inside wir- ing, the knowledge necessary to do the routine work, and that required for the full comprehension, necessary for intelligent mastery of the trade, or for promotion. STEEL ARMORED CONDUCTOR WORK Flexible steel armored conductors are made in two varieties, known to the trade as "BX" and "BXL". The former consists of insulated conductors surrounded by an armor covering com- posed of galvanized steel strips that are concave on one side and convex on the other. These strips are wound spirally upon each other, thereby rendering the whole flexible. "BXL" has, in addition, a lead sheath surrounding the insulated conductors and under the steel armor. The special field for the employment of "BX" is in the wiring of finished private houses and alterations, for which purpose it is especially adapted. Its use, however, is not confined to this class of work. It is employed extensively in the cheaper variety of apartment houses and stores and also other conditions where many of the runs are not easily accessible and must be "fished." The chief advantage of "BX" lies in the ease with which it can be installed and the consequent saving in labor expense. Be- ing small in diameter and flexible it can be conveniently "fished" in corners, behind walls, under floors, etc. The journeyman receives a plan or sketch of the installation to be made together with instruction from the foreman, or the contractor, and from these lays out his work. The positions where the outlets are to be cut or the floor raised, are determined Inside Electrical Work 117 by the location of the new and old outlets on the floor below. For this purpose the journeyman employs either of two meth- ods: First, he may take measurements from the outside walls of the building, or, Second, by boring a one-eighth inch hole at the outlet on the lower floor through the ceiling to the floor above until the tip of the gimlet appears. The location having been fixed, he next finds the position on the upper floor correspond- ing to any partitions there may be on the lower floor by meas- uring from the gimlet hole a distance equal to that from the downstair outlet to the partition. He removes base boards, cuts openings in walls and partitions for switches, receptacles and side outlets to the sizes of the boxes to be installed. With a flat, thin wood chisel and steel scraper blade, he cuts the tongue and raises flooring from outlet to the point where runs are to be "fished" under the floor. When parquet flooring is to be raised the process is the same, except that the floor is removed in squares and there is no tongue to be cut. This operation demands much skill. He then bores the beams to admit runs of steel armored con- ductors and cuts openings for the ceiling boxes. At these open- ings he fastens a board between two beams and to this screws the ceiling box. Side boxes may be set, either with plaster, or screwed to boards fastened between the studding, in a manner similar to ceiling boxes. Frequently it is found impossible to push the "BX" through the partitions in this way. In such cases the journeyman has to resort to "flshing" with a steel tape ("snake"), or cord and chain, known in trade parlance as a "mouse". The process of "flshing" frequently requires a considerable amount of skill, and much ingenuity is displayed in devising expedients to overcome obstacles. These present themselves, most frequently, in the form of obstructions due to bridging, nails and plaster between the studding. A cord with a short piece of sash chain attached is often used to find apertures. A mirror, held at an angle within a pocket, or opening, is some- times used to light the space behind partitions. In addition to ceiling, side, floor and receptacle boxes, the journeyman runs his conductors to panel boards, meter outlets and points of service boxes and connects to these boxes. To complete the installation of the system, the journeyman grounds the steel armor to the water, or gas pipes on the street side of meters. After the work of wiring is finished, the jour- 118 I)i(Jitstri(il Education Survey neyman replaces tlie flooring, base boards, etc., and patches with cement or plaster the various openings around the boxes else- where. In addition, he is frequently called upon to replace the carpet, wall covering, and the like. When installing "BX" in buildings in process of construction the necessity for repair and replacing floors, etc., is of course eliminated. In work in stores, the worker must also understand how to put up metal ceilings. CONDUIT WORK Eigid conduit represents the most advanced system of wir- ing. It is the most durable, as well as the safest from the point of view of fire hazard, and has the further advantage that the conductors can be changed after installation. If it should be found necessary at any time, larger wires can be substituted or additional conductors drawn into the conduit. In finishing a building where damage from carelessly driven nails is of more or less frequent occurrence, rigid conduit effectually pro- tects the conductors. Again, the fact that the conduit is im- pervious to dampness and gases is a safeguard against corro- sion. Eigid conduit lends itself particularly to the wiring of new buildings in the course of construction. Wiring with rigid conduit comprises two distinct operations : First, the installation of the conduit itself, and. Second, the pull- ing in of the wires. The former only is discussed below. The subsequent drawing in of the conductors into the conduit is treated under "Circuit and Feeder Pulling." The journeyman receives plans, or sketches, of the work which is assigned to him by the foreman or contractor, with whom he goes over the plans and layout. He prepares for the actual work of installing by marking out the positions of the various boxes. The journeyman then indicates to the helper, generally by mark- ing, where the latter is to cut holes or chases for the introduction of the conduit. He next lays out and measures the conduit to be cut and threaded by the helper, who sees that the burrs on the inside of the conduit, produced by cutting, are removed by a file or reamer, as otherwise the insulation of the conductors is liable to be scraped off by these sharp edges. With a bending machine, or in the case of small sizes of con- duit, with a "hickey," he elbows, bends, saddles and ofifsets the Inside Electrical Work 11!) conduit for the various runs. He has his helper couple the con- duit, put on lock nuts, and return the conduits to the outlet locations. Where concrete or tile flooring is used, he lays the conduit on top of the "I" beams, cinder filling or terra cotta brick. In vertical runs he hangs the conduit and temporarily fastens it in place for the bricklayers, or cement workers, to build into the wall. When the conduit is not built into the walls it is run in chases cut in the walls. In wooden buildings he makes the horizontal runs on top of or beneath the beams. In making the vertical runs, the jour- neyman places the conduit in notches in the ceiling and floor plates and bridges, and fastens it in place. The outlet boxes are made with circular spots in the metal shell upon which a blow with the hammer will produce a round "knockout" hole into which the conduit is connected. As many openings are made in each box as there are conduits to be con- nected. The conduits are made fast to the boxes by lock nuts and bushings. The boxes commonly used are panel, switch or receptacle, junction, pull, floor, ceiling, side telephone and watch- man's clock. If the building wall is up before the conduits are installed the journeyman, or helper, drop cement into all outlet openings to close them and hold the boxes in place. If, how- ever, the building wall is not up, he hangs the boxes and con- duit from the ceiling beams with tie wire. The journeyman "nipples out" and connects the conduits to boxes, plumbing and tying the latter in place for the bricklayer to buUd them into the walls or partitions. While the greater part of the journeyman's work consists of "circuit" wiring, he also installs the larger feeder conduits be- tween the panel, power or pull boxes from the basement to top floor of the building. After finishing the installation of the conduit, the journey- man completes his work, as far as the conduit is concerned, by grounding the conduit system throughout the building at the different panel boxes and at the service box, by means of ground clamps and copper wire, making the final ground connections to the water or gas pipe line on the street side of the water or gas meters. The knowledge the journeyman should possess to enable him to install rigid conduit is considerable as compared with some other classes of wiring. He should have a working knowledge of 120 Industrial Education Survey the tools used in his work and the materials employed. In this connection he should know how to use threading machines, the different styles of stocks and dies and how to use the "hickey" and bending machines. He should be able to make the various kinds of supports properly, should understand the operations of setting and fastening panel and other boxes, and how to connect conduit to them. He should know how to brick, concrete, and terra cotta floors and walls and to drill these materials. He must understand how to mix plaster and cement for use in fastening boxes and hangers in place and for enclosing apertures. For full understanding of his work the journeyman should, in addition to the preceding, know what size conductors will fit in the conduits. He should understand the reasons for the code ruUngs relating to conduit work. He should be familiar with two and three wire systems of wiring, the single pole, the double pole, triple pole, electrolier and three and four way switching systems. The scientific, mathematical and technical knowledge needed in common by all workers is summarized at the end of this section. FLEXIBLE CONDUIT WORK Unlike rigid conduit flexible conduit is not proof against water or other matter that can pass through the interstices be- tween the convolutions of the spiral steel covering. Cement, often almost liquid, may seep through this conduit forming ridges and points which harden and scarify the insulation of the con- ductors when they are drawn in. If a sufficient quantity of cement works through the covering it may completely block the tube against the introduction of the wires. The installation of flexible conduit differs from that of rigid conduit in two essential particulars : First, its flexibility permits of turning corners and fitting around angles without the neces- sity for elbows or bending, as in the case of rigid conduit. Second, the use of connectors for attaching one length of conduit to the next renders threading unnecessary. With the flexible conduit the journeyman places the runs in the same way as with rigid conduit, i. e., horizontal runs upon beams and the vertical runs in chases between studding or built in walls. The journeyman takes care to see that the bends are gradual and that in making bends he does not cause openings between Inside Electrical Work 121 the convolutions of the spirals. He makes all runs tight, leaving no slack that may buckle when the wires are pulled in. He pre- pares boxes for connection with the conduit in the same way as with rigid conduit, and sets and fastens them in the same man- ner. He attaches the conduit to the boxes by means of a connec- tor and lock-nut. In accordance with the Code he grounds the system to the water, or gas pipes, as with rigid conduit. Flexible conduit installation requires practically the same knowledge as for rigid conduit work, except in regard to the bending, cutting and threading of pipes. The journeyman should understand those particular sections of the Code that apply to flexible conduit. CIECUIT AND FEEDER PULLING Circuit Wires The journeyman consults plans and specifications he receives from his foreman, or contractor, to obtain the sizes and kinds of conductors to be drawn in and the runs to be made. He then obtains the necessary coils, or reels, of wire and makes pay-out reels on which he places the coils. This arrangement permits him to pay out the conductors without twisting. For pulling the wires into the conduits the journeyman em- ploys a steep tape called a "snake." Having succeeded in introducing the "snake," he attaches the ends of the wires to be drawn in. He then feeds the wires into the conduit, the helper assisting by pulling the "snake" at the other outlet. After the wires are pulled in, they are tested and tagged for identification. Feed Wire Pulling The journeyman learns from instructions, plans, lists, sketches or wiring diagrams the class, size and amount of wire to be installed. He cuts coils, or reels, of these wires of proper lengths for the lines to be pulled. These he mounts on pay-out reels as described under "Circuit Wire Pulling," using two or three reels, according to the needs of the installation. In drawing in feeder wires the workman introduces them into the conduit at the top of the building and draws them from outlets below. By this method he takes advantage of the weight of the feeder to assist him in drawing in. After the snake has been attached, he pulls in the feeders with the assistance of the helper. 132 Industrial Education Survey When the ends of the feeders have reached the second outlet, the journeyman pushes the "snake" through the conduit to the third box and repeats the operation of drawing in the wires, at each floor. By pulling feeders through in short runs in this manner the labor of pulling is diminished and there is less strain on the conductors. When pulling in large size feeders, the jour- neyman first passes his steel tape through the conduit and with it draws in a steel cable, or rope, which in turn he uses to pull in the feeders. Great care must be taken when pulling in large cables in long vertical runs as the weight of the wire tends to cause it to creep, or slide away, into the conduit. Should it drop into the conduit BO rapidly as to get beyond control and fall, great damage to the cable and the building may result. To guard against this damage a break is arranged on the feeder and reels to control the speed with which it feeds into the conduit. In vertical runs of this description, the workman makes the cable fast at the upper end by hanging it from insulators on "I" beams, or form supports, and at pull boxes on the different floors it is further held by clamp supports. The journeyman engaged in circuit and feeder pulling should be able to determine the sizes of wires by observation and by the use of the wire gauge and must be familiar with insulations and braids. He should know how to anneal and bend hooks in steel tapes and how to splice tapes and wires without the use of solder- ing. He should be able to tell when one tape comes in contact with another in a conduit and how to make them engage. He should know how to feed conductors into the conduit, and how to clean conduits of dirt or cement. He should be able to remove insulation from conductors without damaging the wire. He should know the sizes and numbers of wires that may be drawn into different sizes of conduits, and how long to leave the ends of the wires at various outlets, panels, switch boxes, etc. For feeder pulling the journeyman should know, in addition, how to make horses for heavy reels ; how to attach feeders to cable and rope and how to handle and manipulate heavy feeders and cables; and how to support and hang them in accordance with the requirements of the, inspection departments. This last involves a knowledge of the proper installation and fastening of insulator, insulator hangers and supports. In this work special skill is required to overcome obstructions in passing the "snake" through the conduit. Inside Electrical Work 123 METAL MOLDING When installing metal molding as an exposed work extension from a concealed conduit installation, the worker locates the electric light and switch outlets as desired, or follows plans and specifications. He provides the nearest conduit outlet with a split adapter plate, cuts the molding base to the length required with a lever hand shear or hacksaw, and punches a key hole slot at the end with a lever hand punch. In fireproof construction he locates the holes to be drilled in the concrete, brick or terra cotta ceilings or walls by setting the base temporarily in place and marking through the holes in the base with a pencil. He drills holes with star drills and plugs them with lead shields or inserts toggle bolts, after which he fastens the base with wood screws or toggle bolts. On metal or plastered ceilings and walls the worker uses toggle bolts and wood screws for supporting the base. The journeyman uses base couplings to extend the moldings, which are supplied in 81/^ ft. lengths. He employs 45* and 90* flat elbow fittings and external and internal elbow fittings for breaking around obstructions. Cross and "tee" fittings are at- tached by him to enclosed double branches, or taps, in wiring. On the bond screw and slot principle he fastens to the molding attachment plugs, combination fixtures, drop cords, receptacles and rosettes. The journeyman installs outlet boxes of various types, attach- ing them to the molding base with single and double clamp bush- ings. He encloses the wires in the base, at the same time clamp- ing the capping in full lengths over the base containing the wires. As the work of installation progresses he connects the wires to the devices he is installing. The journeyman should be familiar with the Electrical Code provisions governing the installation of metal moldings. He should know how to cut moldings and punch key hole slots in them; how to locate and set outlet fittings; drill holes in con- crete, brick walls and ceilings; how to plug these with lead shields, and attach moldings and fittings with screws and toggle bolts. He should be able to skin the wire, without damage, connect to the devices being installed, enclose these and snap the capping over the base. He should be able to make, solder and tape joints. 124 Industrial Educatio}t Survey OPEN WORK WIRING (KNOB AND CLEAT WORK) Exposed knob and cleat work, while one of the simplest forms of electric light installation, is unsightly and unsuitable for use in any place where neat appearance is a consideration. For elec- tric lighting and power, this method of wiring is consequently limited to lofts, factories and stores, and to the temporary and decorative lighting. In knob and cleat installation the journeyman screws or nails on walls, solid or split porcelain knobs to support the wires. He fastens the wires under tension to the knobs, using wires for the purpose when solid knobs are employed, or securing them in grooves in the knobs when split variety is used. When cleats are used, he nails, screws or bolts them in position and fastens the wires in the grooves between the cleats. He screws porcelain receptacles on surfaces where they are required, strips or "skins" insulation from "spots" on the wires, and fastens this bare part of the wire to the screw terminals of receptacles. He makes joints and taps, soldering, taping and painting over the tape and connects wires emerging from porcelain, molded mica, or black composition weatherproof sockets to bared circuit wires. On concrete and brick ceilings and side walls he drills holes with star drills, plugging the holes with expansion shields to provide points which will hold screws or nails. He sometimes attaches insulator supports to angle irons. He fastens cables to large insulators, using block and tackle when necessary to secure the required tension. He makes splices and taps cables, or joins cables with sleeves and connectors made for this purpose. He installs and sets cut-out and panel board boxes, runs feed- ers to them, and solders the feeders into their lugs. He runs cir- cuits to the panel board circuit switches, or cut-outs, strips the insulation from a portion of the wire and connects them under the screw terminals. He must know how to cross over gas, steam and water pipes, as well as wires of other circuits, or of opposite polarity, and how to "dead end" cleat and knob work properly. SETTING AND CONNECTING SWITCHES AND RECEPTACLES The journeyman "skins" the insulation from the circuit wire ends in the switch outlet boxes, and tests with bell and battery the circuit from the switch outlets to the light outlets. He makes twisted wire joints, solders and tapes them, presses them back Inside Electrical Work 125 into the switch box and connects the ends of the circuit wires to be controlled by the switch with the screw terminals. Pressing the porcelain cup containing the switch mechanism into the switch outlet boxes he makes the face flush with the plas- ter surface, places washers around supporting screws, and then screws the whole firmly into tapped switch outlet boxes. He in- stalls single pole, double pole, three and four way, two and three point electrolier switches of the snap and push button types, auto- matic door switches and momentary contact switches for remote control. He also sets flush switch plates and screws them to the lugs provided for the purpose on porcelain cups. He must know how to test out wires for single pole, double pole, three and four way, two and three point electrolier switches and momentary contact switches for remote control. He must know how to back out switches flush to the plaster surface, fasten the switches singly and in groups, and finish them with plates. He must be familiar with methods of installing receptacles in wall, base board and floor outlet boxes for portable lights and heating devices and un- derstand the Electrical Code provisions governing installation of switches and receptacles. INSTALLING PANEL BOARDS Testing and Connecting Circuit Wires The journeyman sets panel board or slate tablet, in the middle of the panel box, fastens it with screws, or stove bolts, and adjusts the slate gutter barriers with corner fittings, either screwing or bolting them. The barriers in the panel box are fitted around the panel board and the journeyman tests out the wires from the panel box to the first outlet with bell and battery, assisted by the helper stationed at the outlet. The journeyman "skins" the insulation from the wire ends; bends them around "clockwise" under the screw terminal nuts of the circuit switches and screws the nuts down tightly. Next he tests and joins the wires according to the loop system, 80 as to obtain a continuous wire from the panel board to the out- let terminating each circuit. He then solders or "sweats" the feeders into lugs and connects them to the bars of the panel board. Completing the work, he sets and fastens the trim of the panel box, consisting of door and frame. The journeyman should understand the Electrical Code r«- quirementB governing panel board installations. 126 Industrial Education Survey FIXTURE HANGING The journeyman installs straiglit electric and combination gas and electric fixtures on ceilings and side walls. When necessary he extends fixture studs, gas pipe or drop ells inside of outlet boxes, shortens them with hack-saw and stock and dies, or with outlet cutter or facing tool, and cuts new threads with wall die. He tests circuit wires with electric bell and battery, where this work is not done by the wireman, for connection of fixtures with single, double, three and four way, two and three circuit electroliers, and automatic door switches. He "skins" insulation from wires emerging at outlet and fix- ture, covers gas pipe, if any, with circular loom tubing, finishes gas pipe connection with sealing wax, white lead or asphaltum paint. After hanging or setting the fixture he connects the wires to outlet wires, making a twisted joint, solders and tapes the joint with rubber and "friction" tape, or applies an approved in- sulated connector. He assembles parts of large fixtures on the job and connects wires in side, repairs French fixtures, crystal electroliers and brackets. He should be familiar with the Code provisions covering fix- ture work, and should understand the construction and assembly of fixtures; methods of wiring and installing French and crystal fixtures; and the use of insulated connections. He should know the sizes and carrying capacities of wires. Furthermore, he should have skill in testing and assembling and installing fragile fix- tures. BELL SIGNAL WIRING For apartment hall bells the journeyman bores % inch holes straight down through floors and ceiling plates from the top floor to cellar. He bores holes through partitions and rough studding. With the assistance of a helper he draws weatherproof wires, or duplex office wires, through the holes down to the cel- lar, pulling out and leaving a loop at each bell and push button outlet. He draws a duplex wire from the push button outlet to the bell outlet on each floor, and twists wires around large nails at these outlets to hold until the plastering is finished. He draws wires through a rigid conduit, when going through brick or concrete walls or ceilings, and tapes wires together when they are in contact with brick walls. For vestibule entrance, dumb-waiter call bell and door open- Inside Electrical Work 127 ers in apartment houses, he draws weatherproof wires, or a du- plex office wire, from the outlets in the apartments to the cellar. With the aid of his helper he picks up and tests all wires in cel- lar, extending them covered with tape on the cellar ceiling to ves- tibule, to dumb-waiter shafts and to battery box, or bell-ringing transformer box. He "skins" insulation from wires at outlets, screws bells, buz- zers and push buttons to walls or door casings, makes joints, in- sulates with friction tape, screws wires under bell, buzzer and push button terminals. The wiring having been installed, he tests for the number of batteries or size of bell-ringing trans- former required. He then connects the bell and button battery wires to battery or transformer. If a transformer is used, he connects the primary terminals to electric light circuit, protected by a fused cutout. He connects automatic door opener and ad- justs the bells. He must be familiar with various systems of bell wiring and bell ringing, with different toned bells. He must understand method of calculating the capacity of batteries in ampere-hours; construction and properties of electro-magnets ; qualities of vari- ous types of batteries; methods of arranging batteries in series, parallel and multiple-series; polarization and its remedies; the construction of various types of electric bells and annunciators; the utility of three and four-point push buttons and strap keys ; and function of the relay in burglar and fire alarm systems. TEMPORAKY LIGHT AND POWER INSTALLATIONS FOR BUILDING OPERATIONS The journeyman must be an all around electrician as he is called on to install rheostats, regulators, flaming, open and closed arc lights, all classes of incandescent lamps and to repair mo- tors. He reads meters and makes tests for troubles on motor, power, light, beU and telephone equipment. All his work is ex- posed and liable to damage by the work of other tradesmen. The superintendent of the building and the electrician study the plans and pick out a location for the switch board room where it may remain longest without being disturbed. Some- times the whole service — switch board, shanty and wiring — must be changed to another location, an operation which must be ac- complished without interference with the supply of power and light. 128 Industrial Education Survey The foreman, with other electricians, builds a wooden switch- board to carry switches, meters and instruments necessary to handle the supply of current required. He sets up and connects to the service lines and meters the different switches and instru- ments on the board. If derricks and hod hoisting machines arrive, he runs ex- posed wires from the switchboard to machines, supporting the wires with porcelain knobs and tie wires fastened to the col- umns, beams, woodwork, or he may lay them on the ground. He connects wires to machines and controllers. As the build- ing construction advances different machines, such as concrete mixers, air compressors, cement gun compressors, tank pumps, riveting and drilling machines, floor polishing machines, buzz saw machines, and section pumps may arrive on the job. These machines he connects up as above described. He sets and fastens rheostats and regulators, and connects them, runs feed wires of suflBcient carrying capacity from switchboard to stair wells or shafts and to the highest point of the building. Having installed his feeder risers, he sets cutout boxes on the various floors and at different locations, connecting them to feed risers. He runs branch wires and streamers from these cutout boxes through the different halls, corridors and rooms or to whatever point called for by the different trade workers on the job. This wiring is run exposed and hung wherever convenient. The journeyman con- nects weatherproof sockets to the branch and streamer circuits at a distance of 20 to 30 feet. He makes up portables with rein- forced cord, weatherproof attachment plugs and weatherproof sockets. He installs flaming and enclosed arc lamps and incan- descent lamps, trims the former, replaces the latter as they burn out, or are broken, and makes all repairs. He maintains and repairs all the motors, rheostats and regulators. He must also remove wire when called upon to do so and must see that all lights are kept burning, preventing any delay or loss of time to the different trade workers. Helpers are not employed very much on this class of work as it requires experienced men. He should know how to estimate the current consumed by the various machines and the light and power required by the trade workers and calculate the wire sizes required. He should know the Code requirements relating to exposed wiring. He should know how to set motors and mount rheostats and regulators on walls, temporary partitions and shanties and be able to test, re- verse, adjust and repair motors. He should know how to hang, Inside Electrical Work 12!) support and connect flaming and enclosed arc lamps and to ad- just, trim and repair them. He should be familiar with the dif- ferent classes and sizes of fuses and be able to refill them. He should know how to set and connect volt and ampere meters and understand their principles. He should be able to transfer tem- porary light lines to permanent panels and know how to fuse and maintain permanent panels. In addition to the knowledge of electrical theory outlined on page 52, this worker requires a knowledge of electrical ma- chinery and appliances, such as motors, generators, rheostat, arc lamps and regulators, as well as telephones and measuring in- struments. He should understand the operating theory of mo- tors and generators and their construction. DECORATIVE LIGHT WIRING The journeyman screws, nails or bolts porcelain knobs and cleats, both solid and split, to wood or iron surfaces to support wires, fastens wires under tension to knobs with tie wires, when solid knobs are used, and in the grooves when split knobs or cleats are employed. He screws porcelain receptacles to sur- faces as required, strips or "skins" insulation from wires, fastens and solders bared wire to screw terminals or receptacles and paints them. He makes joints, splices or taps, soldering and taping them and painting over the tape. He installs strain, carrying or messenger wires for outline lights, on temporary amusement structures and in streets or parks for celebrations; attaches suspension cleats and suspends ready-wired porcelain, or mica, receptacles from cleats. He makes up festoons of electric lights with duplex stranded wire, strips the insulation from the wire, connects the wires emerging from molded mica or black composition, weatherproof sockets to duplex wires, staggering the joints, soldering, taping and painting over tape. These festoons he suspends from carry- ing wires. He installs approved cut-out or panel board boxes, sets the cut-outs or panel boards, runs feeders to and solders them into the lugs of the panel board or cut-outs, runs circuits to the panel board circuit switches, or cut-outs, strips the insula- tions from wires and connects them under screw terminals. The journeyman must know the Electrical Code rules cover- ing the installation of decorative lighting and open box wiring ; how to fasten split and solid porcelain knobs and cleats to wood and iron supports, and how to attach wires to knobs and cleats. 130 Industrial Education Survey He must know how to cross over gas, steam and wire pipes and wires of other circuits, or of opposite polarity, and how to "dead end" cleat and knob work properly. He must know how to in- stall cut-out and panel board boxes, set cut-outs and panel boards, connect wires to cut-out terminals and panel board circuit switch terminals, be able to "sweat" feeders into lugs, know how to make festoons, support strain, carrying or messenger wires and receptacles therefrom. ELECTRICAL SIGNS AND FLASHERS In the shop where signs are built the electrician sets the por- celain sign lamp receptacles into the holes punched out of the sheet iron and fastens them with brass screws. Following a wiring diagram he "skins" insulation from rubber-covered No. 12 or No. 14 gauge copper wires and fastens them with a screw driver under the screw terminals of the receptacles, being careful to keep the insulated wires from contact with the sheet iron sur- face or iron frame work of the sign. After the wires have been connected, he solders them to the screw terminals to insure permanent contact and paints wired connections with weatherproof paint to prevent corrosion. He then tapes all wires together into cables to remove excessive strain from receptacle terminals, and extends the circuit feeding wires from the inside of the sign through porcelain tubes or bush- ings to the outside, leaving the ends long enough for connection to outside and sign flashers. Before all parts of the sign are as- sembled he tests all wiring and connections by temporarily in- serting lamps in the receptacles. When the sign arrives at the point of installation it is erected by expert sign hangers or erectors. The electricians then firmly connects all leading-out wires to the terminals of the switch brush contacts of the sign flasher which he has previously in- stalled, enclosed in a sheet iron weatherproof box, near the sign. He runs all conduits and feeders from the power company serv- ice to the flasher and connects these to cut-outs on flasher box. When all connections are completed the electrician screws the lamps into receptacles, lubricates the flasher switch shoes and brushes, adjusts both so that they will make and break contact properly and avoid excessive sparking, oils the bearings of flasher and motor gear transmission bearings, and tests the entire equip- ment for grounds, open and short circuits. He corrects any de- fects before placing sign in commission for regular operation. Inside Electrical Work 131 He should be familiar with the Electrical Code requirements for sign and flasher installations; how to read blue print dia- grams and rough sketches; calculate the current consumption of signs; balance the load on the three-wire Edison system; and determine the size of wire to be used. He should know how to connect the receptacles in parallel and multiple series. He should know, furthermore, how to test the lamp bulbs while inserting them into the receptacles; how to lubricate and oil all parts of the flasher equipment; time the make and break of brushes on switch shoes ; and test the completed sign installa- tion and place it in commission. Finally, he should know how to repair signs and flashers and readjust shoes and brushes to secure the changeable and spectacular effects demanded in speci- fications. In addition to the knowledge of electrical theory outlined on page 52, this worker requires a knowledge of the design and con- struction of small motors and methods of detecting and correct- ing motor "troubles." He should also be familiar with the construction and opera- tion of various types of signs, changeable and spectacular sign effects and the different kinds of sign flashers, apparatus and control devices. POWEE PLANT INSTALLATION In the installation of large power plants, a consulting engineer is usually employed who is responsible for the work. He pre- pares the detailed plans and gives instructions concerning the installation of the equipment: machinists, carpenters, riggers and concrete workers as well as electricians are employed on large jobs. In the installation of small plants the electricians usually have full charge of the work and secure such assistance as may be necessary. In new power plant installation the generators are generally directly connected to shafts of engines. Here the foundations are built for the erection of combined engine and generators on one bed-plate. The generators are delivered completely assem- bled, or with assembled magnet frame and armature separate. If the generators are completely assembled he directs the coup- ling of the armature shaft to the engine shaft, but if they are in parts he directs the setting of the magnet frame in position on the bed-plate, supervises men using the hydraulic jack to force 132 Industrial Education Burvey the armature on the engine shaft, sees that the armature is thrust inside of the magnet frame, and the shaft connected to the en- gine. He bolts the generator to the engine bed-plate, levels and aligns both, and attaches brush holders to the studs on the brush holder rigging. He connects the shunt and series field leads to their respective terminals, and the armature leads from the brush holder studs to their proper terminals. He attaches the oil gauge cocks, or automatic oil feeder equipment. He erects balancing sets in conjunction with lighting systems, and the boosters for storage battery charging. Alternating current generators are installed in the same way as described in the foregoing, but require for their operation a separate source of direct current for field excitation. A small direct current generator, called an exciter, is provided for this purpose. The worker installs the exciter on a separate founda- tion and connects the pulley on its armature shaft by a belt to a pulley on the generator. In the best modem practice an engine or motor driven exciter, directly connected, is set upon a founda- tion, or the exciter is made a self-contained part of the alternat- ing current generator. Eotary converters and motor-generators are placed on foun- dations, in the same manner as for generators, and constant cur- rent and constant potential transformers required for operation in conjunction with alternating current power and lighting equipment are installed in similar manner. The worker also provides foundations for and sets the electric motors for driving exhaust and fresh air supply fans, vacuum cleaner apparatus, air compressors, water, oil and boiler feed pumps. The electrician receives detailed drawings for switchboard installation. As the slate or marble sections, equipped with switches, circuit-breakers and their bus-bars, arrive from the man- ufacturer, he assembles the sections on the frame work he has erected, and levels the entire switchboard. Those devices and bus-bars that are not mounted at the factory, he mounts on the front and back of the switchboard. These are usually the manual and automatic voltage regulators, oil brake switches, time limit relays, reverse current relays, lightning arresters, ammeter shunts, ground detectors, volt-meter switches, ammeters, volt- meters, frequency meters, power factor meters, speed indicators, synchroscopes watt-hour meters, potential transformers, current Inside Electrical Work 133 transformers, graphic meters and fixtures used for illumination of the switchboard and instruments. He consults the detailed drawings and makes all back con- nections of bus-bars, studs, nuts and bus-bar clamps provided to combine all sections into a complete switchboard; connects all switches, apparatus, devices and instruments mounted on the face of the switchboard to bus-bars ; connects the cables from the generators, rotary converters, transformers and storage batteries of proper switches, circuit breakers or fuse terminals, into the lugs of which the cables are soldered. In the same manner he connects power and lighting distribution and feeder cable to switches. He connects the motor leads and feeders to control the devices and apparatus mounted on separate switchboards. When installing storage batteries of the lead-lead type, the variety generally used in power plants, he carefully unpacks the elements and cleans off all foreign matter, assembles with sepa- rators and scrapes the extending straps of the positive and nega- tive elements with a file or knife, to provide good contact when cells are connected. The combined elements are then ready for placement in the jars or tanks. When the assembled plates are small and few in number he lifts them into the jars with the aid of canvas webbing 4 or 5 inches wide placed around the assembly. He withdraws the webbing when the plates are properly inserted. If the plates are larger and more numerous, two "S" shaped iron hooks, caught around an element and looped over a rod carried by two men, are used. In the case of very heavy plates, a travel- ing crane is employed for the lifting and lowering of elements into jars or tanks. In connecting the cells, the battery straps are fastened to each other with clamps or bolts, or by burning or welding them together with the aid of the hydrogen flame of a lead burning outfit. The cables from the switchboard are soldered into lead cov- ered lugs for connection at end cell points, and at both ends of the series of cells comprising the battery. The cables and con- nections are then coated with paraflln wax, or sulphuric-acid- proof paint, to prevent local corrosion. Until the plant is pre- pared to charge them, the cells are covered. Twelve to fifteen hours before this time the electrician pours, or syphons, the bat- tery solution or electrolyte into the jars or tanks. After all machines and control apparatus have been erected, mechanically and electrically connected, the electrician and chief engineer place the plant in operation for a trial run. During 134: Industrial Education Survey this period all necessary adjustments, such as changing the polarity of direct current generators for operation in parallel, adjusting the series field shunts so that each generator will take its proportional share of the load, adjusting the governors of the engines to make parallel alternating current generators operate in synchronism, and, if necessary, changing the battery cable con- nections on the back of the switchboards. If the trial run is sat- isfactory, the usual eflflciency tests called for in the specifications are made, in which the electrician assists. During this operation the entire power plant is tested to prove that it will do the work required by the specifications. For such work the electrician should understand the Elec- trical Code provisions covering power plant installation work, and those of the Building Code relating to stability of founda- tions. He should be able to interpret plans, detail drawings and specifications. He should know how to level and align gener- ators with engines, and other rotating machines and apparatus. He should understand the operation of direct and alternating current generators, motors and apparatus found in power plants, and he must be able to recognize and remedy the troubles of direct current generators, such as sparking at the brushes, heating of armature coils, field coils and bearings, noises, too high or too low speed, reversed residual magnetism, weak residual magnet- ism, short circuit in the machine, short circuit in the external cir- cuit, opposed field coils, open circuit, overload, excessive resist- ance of field rheostat, etc. He should also be able to recognize and remedy similar troubles in alternating current generators as well as in direct current motors. He should know the capacity of the battery being installed, the charging and discharging rate, the maximum and minimum voltage per cell on charge or discharge; the composition of the electrolyte, and how to take its specific gravity and temperature. He should be able to make the electrolyte when necessary. He should understand the maintenance and care of batteries and methods of locating and correcting troubles, and how to place a new battery in commission. The electrician should know how to start the plant, assist in eiBciency tests and have a suflScient general knowledge of tite apparatus and its operations to instruct the engineer employed to take charge of the completed plant. Inside Electrical Work 135 ELEVATOR SIGNALS (THE UP AND DOWN SYSTEM) Prom the plans and specifications furnished the worker learns what signals, telephones, megaphones, threshold illuminators, switchboards, position indicators and machine generators are to be installed and their locations in the shafts. From the riser list and specifications he obtains the meas- urements between floors from the basement up to the machine located on top of the building for the npriser, down riser and the push button riser lines, each of which is independent of the oth- ers. The conduit is then cut, threaded and coupled into lengths according to these measurements. He marks each coupled length with chalk to indicate its location in the shaft and on the floor, and hoists or carries and distributes the conduits to their re- spective shafts and floors. The conduit is then placed, hung and fastened to the "I" beams in shaft with specially made clips. A 4" gap is left between the end conduit lengths at each floor to provide for a 4" split "tee". These split "tees" are then attached after all the wires are pulled in and tested. At all the elevator landings, a V^" conduit is installed from the split "tee" gap of the push button riser to the push button location, and fastened with pipe straps and machine screws. At elevator landings over the doors, the worker installs dials, indicators, fixtures and very often he has to cut openings into the iron grill work, using a breast drill, electric drill or acetylene burner. After hanging a single sheave pulley over the top of the riser lines, he passes the ends of wire through the sheave and attaches a chain, for use as a weight, to ends. He drops the wires into the conduit riser until they emerge at the end of the basement. He then cuts the wire at the top and allows the end of the coil to drop down the shaft outside of the conduit to the bottom where it is connected by another worker with the end of the wire dropped into conduit. He makes the same connection at the top, thus providing a complete wire loop. He then uses this loop for pulling the other wires into the conduit riser. This endless drag line facilitates the rapid pulling of the separate wires, each being attached to drag loop as it reaches the top of the riser. The first wire to be pulled in from top to bottom is a No. 14 with a white covering to be used as a feed wire to lanterns. Another wire is attached to the drag loop and that is pulled in from top to bottom, this is the up wire of the first floor and is 136 Industrial Education Survey cut after allowing enough at both ends. Then one duplex wire is pulled in from the top to the second floor, top to third floor, top to fourth floor, until a duplex and the white covered feed wire emerge at each floor, and the wires are allowed to extend enough at each end for connection to lanterns and the signal machine. Then two extra duplex wires are pulled in from the top to the center of the shaft. These are for lights and signals in the car. Taps are then made to the feed wire and section wire, they are tested and pulled through to the lantern fixtures, and connected on 110-volt feeders. The split "tee" fitting is then clamped fast with machine screws over the riser lines and Yo" conduit run- ning to lantern outlet. The push button riser is installed the same as the up-and-down conduit riser. Only one conduit riser is installed for a set of adjoining shafts. This wire is connected to the control board after being tested. The electrician then in- stalls and connects the up-and-down fixture lanterns and the up- and-down push buttons. A five wire traveling cable is next fastened and dropped down from the center shaft, allowing enough for a loop at the bottom, fastened beneath the car platform and run up into the car. The electrician drills holes into the center of the secondary sheave shaft on the elevator machine, taps the holes and attaches a fric- tion stud and sprocket ; this, connected by means of a linked belt, drives the signal machine. The electrician then constructs an angle-iron frame, mounts the control board on it, runs the conduits between the control board, signal machine, motor generator, set and service panel. Wires are then pulled into these conduits. All individual wires are tested and tagged in order to identify the up wires and the down wires to the lanterns, push buttons and the car cable. The wires at the control board are connected to the control board switches and mercury pot magnets. The wires from the up-and-down lanterns are now connected to the signal machine and the contacts on it spaced and set for different floors. The electrician makes a general test to determine whether the wires are connected accurately and free from grounds or other defects. Finally, the fixtures are lamped, the current thrown on, and a trial trip made on elevator car to see that all is in proper run- ning order. When position indicator boards are installed, an- other signal machine of left-handed commutator type is installed Inside Electrical Work 137 at the bottom of the elevator shaft, the commutator is connected to a grooved pulley attached to the shaft of the signal machine by means of steel tape. Conduit from the signal machine at the bottom of the shaft to the starter's office is then installed. The position indicator board is set, No. 16 section wires for up-and-down movement of the car to each floor are pulled into the conduit and connected to proper contacts on the bottom signal machine and to connections on position indicator board, starter's control system desk and auto-motor generators located in the starter's office. The position indicator board is then lamped with miniature lamps numbered in rows representing the different cars and floors in each shaft. In addition to the general knowledge of an all around elec- trician, the journeyman employed upon this work must thor- oughly understand the operation of the signal systems in theory and practice and be able to interpret specifications and diagrams relating to the same. In addition to the knowledge of electrical theory outlined on page 52, this worker requires special knowledge as to the effects of corrosive action upon wires and conduits and methods of pre- venting the same. ELEVATOR CONTROL The work of installing electric elevators is usually done by men supplied by the manufacturer of the elevators. These men are usually trained electricians and mechanics who are able to do all the work necessary in connection with the installation of the elevator. In this work the journeyman installs the machinery that is built at the factory; comprising the car and counterweight guides, the under mounted drum, or over mounted traction ma- chinery and brake equipment, and the motor and controller. A blue print wiring diagram is generally furnished which shows the connections of the system of control. The workman installs all conduits in the elevator shaft, fasten- ing them from bottom to top to the structural iron work, using pipe straps and machine screws. At intervals of 125 feet up the shaft, he sets and fastens junction boxes containing connection blocks, designed for the purpose of relieving the strain on the wires. In addition to these he installs others wherever required 138 Industrial Education Survey to make connection with the operating cables and switching de- vices when necessary. He drills holes in the steel beams with an electric drill and taps these for fastening the conduits and boxes. After the conduits have been installed in the shafts, and the car has been assembled, a junction box is set and fastened be- neath the car platform. From this box a condiiit is run to the car switch, the safety switch and the gate contact boxes, as well as to the stopping switch on the top of the car, using special split threadless elbows, tees and boxes where bends and junctions are necessary. The conduits in the shafts are extended to the controller board and from there to the motor, magnetic brake and an additional car switch located in the motor room, and holes drilled and tapped for fastening straps with machine screws. When the conduits have been installed, the worker estimates the number and lengths of wires required to run from the con- troller board to the junction boxes and devices, slices and notches both ends of each wire for identification, and pulls the wires into the conduits with a "snake". He then strips the insulation from the ends of wires, turns the bared ends into rings, which are soldered so as to form a lug, and fastens them under washers and nuts at the proper screw terminals. This he does at every junction connecting block, on the governor switch, on the controller board, on the door contacts, if any are provided, on the car switch located in motor room, as well as on the emergency limit switches which he then places and sets at the bottom and top of the elevator shaft. All of the smaller wires now being in place and connected the feeder wires are installed from the main line switch to the main fuse terminals on the controller board, from the controller board to the safe lift throw over switch, and to the by-pass maxi- mum and minimum starting resistance. The armature and fleld- coil leads, the wires for the magnetic and auxiliary brakes and slack cable switch are pulled in, prepared and soldered into cop- per lugs and the lugs fastened to their proper terminals at both ends. The journeyman takes measurements for the car control cables, drops them into the shaft from the junction box halt way up the shaft and fastens the stranded wires to their proper screw terminals. This operation is repeated in the junction box be- Inside Electrical Work 139 neath the car platform, on the car switch, stopping switch, the switch mounted on safety plank and on gate contacts. AH of these wires are coded according to colors and combinations of letters and numbers, supplemented with polarity signs where direct current is used for power. After all the wiring has been installed, the electrician makes all tests required with test lamps to prove that connections are correctly and firmly made, and assists the engineers in conduct- ing the running and lifting tests. The skilled elevator electrician does all of the wiring and con- necting of the equipment, except the building of the controller, which is built and wired completely at the factory. He should know the "safety first" rules and how to observe them, and the Electrical Code requirements covering electric elevator equip- ments. He should know the color codes, combinations of letters and numbers supplemented with polarity signs, or he should be able to devise a code of notches and splices to identify the large num- ber of electric conductors. He should be familiar with the elementary principles of motor and magnet switch design to distinguish the symptoms of reversal of polarity, grounds, short and open circuits, and he should know how to remedy defects. In the event of the elevator failing to operate he should know how to make adjustments on elevator engine and brake, the car switch, stopping switch, upper and lower emergency limit switches, the governor switch, slack cable switch, safety switch, door contacts and variable resistance magnet switches on the con- troller and brushes on the motor, to prevent excessive sparking. In addition to the knowledge of electric theory outlined on page 52, this worker requires a knowledge of the theory of motor operation. He should be familiar with different types of mo- tors, types of speed control and types of electrical control used on elevators, such as non-reversible, semi-magnet, full magnet, push button, one speed and two speed. He should understand the factors that determine the horsepower of elevator motors, such as the unbalanced load to be lifted, the traveling speed of the car in feet per minute and the efficiency of the elevator system. He should understand the principles governing alternating current motors and their limitations for elevator drive and control, the principles, construction and operation of the solenoid, the magnet 1^0 Industrial Education Survey switch, and dynamic brake, fuses and circuit breakers, and the types of field and armature resistance used on controllers. MARINE INSTALLATION From plans, specifications, sketches and instructions received from the marine architect or an officer of the vessel, the jour- neyman on marine work learns what is required and lays out hia work accordingly. He cuts or drills holes through iron or steel decks or partitions, wherever conduit runs are to be installed by means of breast, or electric, drilling machine, or acetylene burn- ers. He bends the conduits so that the turns will be gradual and at the same time conform to the needs of construction. Very much of the work aboard vessels is exposed and the installation must be done neatly. When it is necessary to run conduits through decks, he cuts a long thread on the conduit and passes it through the bored holes in the deck, making the points of entry water tight by means of locknuts, lead washers and red lead. This matter is very important in all ship installation. In some parts of the vessel conduits concealed above deck ceilings are installed. All work is made waterproof by using marine fitting boxes, deck tubes and gaskets, and red leading all coupled joints on conduit runs. It may be necessary to run lead covered wire exposed beneath decks and on bulkheads from out- let to outlet and switch receptacles, to switch panel and switch- board, bending and curving it to fit. In fastening the wire at short distances, lead, iron or wood cleats are used. When con- duit runs are installed either lead covered or rubber covered double braid wire is pulled in as explained under the heading "Wire Pulling". The wireman installs all deck, pilot, signal, telegraph, staff, search, overhead and bulkhead light and fixtures, as well as automatic running and light indicators. He sets, fastens and connects water tight cut-out panel boxes and boards at different locations, and from these runs conduits and lead covered cables, concealed and exposed, to the switchboard in the engine room. He erects angle iron frame work in the engine room and on this sets and fastens the switchboard to which he connects all feed lines. He places, sets, fastens and connects up all dynamos, mo- tors, starters and regulators aboard the vessel, and runs double braid rubber covered and lead covered wire between different points for bells, signals, annunciators, telephones, telegraph and Inside Electrical Work 141 all instruments connected therewith. Finally, he tests, fuses and tries out all work before leaving the completed job. The journeyman should be able to read plans, specifications, lists, sketches and diagrams and to make measurements from these and lay out the work. He should know the names, place of installation and use of the different marine boxes, fittings, wires, fixtures, apparatus, devices, instruments and machines used in electrical equipment aboard vessels. He should understand the different ground, 2 and 3 wire systems and the different switching systems, such as single pole, double pole, triple pole, electrolier, 3 and 4 way, solenoid and remote control. He should know how to connect, charge and test all types of primary and storage bat- tery cells. He should be familiar with the generators used on signal work and should understand the setting and connecting of series, shunt and compound motors, of rheostats, of motor regulators, and of series, shunt and compound generators, as well as the single wire or ground return system of wiring commonly installed on foreign vessels. In addition to the knowledge of electrical theory outlined on page 52, this worker requires a special knowledge of electrical re- quirements for splicing and connecting switches, panels, recep- tacles, fixtures, fusing and finishing up of electrical work on board ship to the satisfaction of the Marine Insurance Companies and owners. He should also be familiar with the corrosive effects of salt air and sea water upon conductors and insulating mate- rials and the means used to prevent same. KNOWLEDGE EEQUIEED BY WOKKERS IN ALL BRANCHES Workers in all branches of the electrical trade can per- form their work more or less effectively if they possess the re- quired skill and understand trade methods and requirements. In order, however, to thoroughly understand their jobs and to pre- pare for advancement to foremen or other supervisory positions, or to other branches of the trade requiring an intelligent grasp of principles, a knowledge of the fundamentals of electrical science, together with certain elements of mathematics and drawing is essential. The extent of this need varies considerably in the dif- ferent branches analyzed above. The following elements, how- ever, are needed by all workers who expect to master their trade or prepare themselves for advancement. 14;2 Industrial Education Survey Mathematics Understanding of the processes of arithmetic through com- mon fractions with ability to compute readily with common frac- tions to 1/64 and with decimal fractions to 1/1000. Understanding of the simple algebraic equation as represent- ed by Ohm's Law and ability to transpose same so as to calculate the resistance and carrying capacity of conductors, whether in simple series or parallel circuits. Drawing To make simple freehand sketches for wiring diagrams, floor plans and constructive details; To make and read simple working drawings; To understand the standard symbols used on plans and dia- grams. Electrical Theory The practical units of current, voltage, and resistance; Ohm's Law; Measurement of current and voltage by means of ammeter and voltmeter; The measurement of resistance by means of ammeter and voltmeter, and by means of Wheatstone's bridge; The equivalent resistance of conductors in- series and parallel circuits, and how the current and voltage divides in such cir- cuits ; The meaning and use of circular mil and mil-foot; Computations of resistance of wires from their dimensions and specific resistances; The practical units of power; Measurements of power by means of ammeter and voltmeter and by watt meter; The use of watt-hour meter; The calculation of total power in a circuit, the power lost in line, and the relation of power loss to diameter of conductor. The current carrying capacities of conductors for different sizes and conditions; The theory and operation of the three wire system ; The operation of switching apparatus, including fuses, cir- cuit breakers, and remote control switching; Methods of using wire tables and hand books; The Electrical Code requirements. Inside Electrical Work 14;] SKILL REQUIRED FOR ALL WORKERS Expertness in handling the common tools employed in the trade, and such special tools called for by particular require- ments ; AU wiremen must be able to "skin" the insulation from wires without damaging the conductor, and make, solder and tape joints. They must be able to test out circuits for identification, and to locate grounds and open and short circuits. SUMMARY OF THE TRADE STUDY The findings indicate a comparatively new trade with a mod- erate number of workers (6815), distributed throughout the en- tire city in many small shops as well as in a number of large organizations; a trade constantly increasing in numbers and im- portance and characterized by frequent improvements in meth- ods and material. They show an industry in which standards set up by the build- ing code and the underwriters' rules enforce various technical requirements as to quality of work and materials employed and furthermore one in which an employer must obtain a city license granted only upon examination in order to conduct a business. They also indicate a trade with a working system of trade agreements providing for the settlement of disputes through a joint trade board organized by the employers' association and the union and one in which good wages are obtained and fairly steady employment is the rule. They indicate a situation where the workers' effectiveness de- pends, more, perhaps, than in any other trade, on knowledge rather than skill — ^in this case a knowledge of certain scientific facts and technical methods of procedure. They represent a trade with a well organized apprentice and helper system, receiving boys at 16 years of age in which both apprentices and helpers receive exceptionally good wages and in which advancement in grade is dependent on passing technical examinations conducted by a committee of the Electrical Workers' Union, They show a situation in which the road of advancement is open to the man of intelligence and ambition to the status of the small employer, who in this case requires comparatively small capital. The findings indicate clearly that in this trade the apprentice 144 Industrial Education Survey and helper cannot obtain in the ordinary practice of his work the scientific and technical knowledge needed to comprehend and intelligently perform the more responsible duties of the compe- tent journeyman. They also indicate that unless the apprentice and helper serve in a considerable number of shops it is not possible for them to secure a practical mastery of the various branches represented in the trade. In this connection it should be noted that the unions make an effort to insure this breadth of experience on the part of the apprentices and helpers as far as possible by super- vising their employment and by conducting the examinations referred to above. Because of the extent of scientific and technical information needed, the situation seems one in which pre-employment courses for boys before the age of 16 years would be of much assistance in preparing for effective entrance to the trade. For the same rea- son the industry appears to be one in which trade extension courses, arranged for the special needs of the apprentice, the helper and the journeyman, would be of particular value. OUTSIDE AGENCIES FOR THE TRAINING OF ELECTRICIANS SCHOOLS ESTABLISHED BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION Day Vocational Schools The Board of Education of the City of New York has estab- lished trade preparatory courses in electrical work in three voca- tional day schools. The courses are open to any boy fourteen years of age who either is a graduate of the elementary schools or who can show that he is prepared to take the work by success- fully passing an examination given by the principal of the school. The day school courses are two years in length. The pupils spend about one-half their time in shop work and the remaining time in related work in drawing, applied mathematics and science and general courses in English, history and industrial geog- raphy. At the time of the survey in March, 1917, there were 410 boys enrolled in the electrical courses in the three day vo- cational schools. Two hundred and twenty of these boys were registered at the Boys' Vocational School; 103 at Murray Hill Vocational School and 87 at Brooklyn Vocational School. Bora' Vocational School The shop work in the electrical department in this school la divided into five divisions, as follows: (1) bell, annunciator and burglar alarm work; (2) telephone work; (3) light wiring; (4) motors, dynamos, generators and storage batteries, and (5) flash sign operating. A boy spends a term in each of the first three divisions, a half of a term in the fourth division, and also half a term in the fifth division. The first term boys spend three periods a week in the wood shop and the third and fourth term boys spend two periods a week in the plumbing shop wiping joints and epKcing for lead and case work. The number enrolled in this department was large enough to make it possible to secure a satisfactory classification and grading of the pupils for the shop work, and for the work in drawing and related mathematics. It also permitted the school to secure 145 146 Industrial Education Survey specially trained teachers for the different branches of the trade. The equipment provided for the electrical department of this school was the most complete of any found in the day vocational schools. It was, however, not entirely satisfactory, from the standpoints of comprehensiveness and quality, for this kind of work. The shop work consisted largely of exercises and problems in bell, annunciator, burglar alarm work, telephone work, light wiring, storage batteries, motor, dynamo and generator work, and sign flash operation. The advanced boys performed the repair work in the school building. This work usually consists of re- pairing telephones, bell systems, lighting systems, motor con- nections and the installation of bell and light wiring systems. There were six teachers of electrical work employed in this school at the time of the survey. These men were all journeymen electricians and had had at least five years of successful exper- ience in electrical work. There were two instructors who devoted all their time to instruction in bell, annunciator and burglar alarm work. One instructor was assigned to telephone work, one instructor to light wiring, one instructor to motor work and one for sign flash operating. MuBRAT Hill Vocational School The electrical work in this school consisted largely of exer- cises in bell, annunciator and burglar alarm work, and the work- ing out of problems in light wiring. The very limited equipment provided made it impossible to offer shop courses in motor, djTiamo and generator work, telephone work or extensive work in sign flash operating. The boys in this department performed the electrical repair work in the school and installed the beU and light wiring in one of the annexes. At the time of the survey there were two teachers of electrical work. Both of these men were journeymen, and had had over five years experience as journeymen electricians. The number enrolled in the electrical department of this school is not large enough to warrant the employment of instruc- in \ % o m o < I? o t-H o h- ( O a as o Inside Electrical Woik 117 tors with special training in electrical work to teach the related work in drawing, shop mathematics and applied science. For these classes the boys in the electrical courses were grouped with boys from other trade departments, and as a result, the instruction was necessarily somewhat general in character. This is shown clearly in the course of study for mechanical drawing for electrical workers, given in the report of the survey of this school. Brooklyn Vocational School The number enrolled in this school in the electrical depart- ment was less than the number enrolled in the Murray EQll School. The shop work is practically the same as the -work de- scribed for the latter. The equipment, however, includes several motors and the boys were given instruction in this branch of the work. At the time of the survey, one instructor was em- ployed who had charge of two shops and the work was much handicapped by the size of the classes under his charge. The instructor was a journeyman electrician who had had over five years of practical experience at the trade. The organization of the related courses in this school was practically the same as that described of the Murray Hill School, and was conducted under the same limitations. EVENING TRADE SCHOOLS The Board of Education has established trade extension courses in electrical work in eight evening schools. Under & rule of the board which became effective in the fall of 1916, the attendance in the evening trade classes is limited to men and women who are employed in trades during the day. This rule, however, did not apply to those already registered in trade classes and these pupils were permitted to continue in the classes as long as they desired. The occupations as given by 487 of the men in the evening electrical classes are given below. 148 Industrial Education Survey Occupations of Men Attkndin Assiatant Engineers 1 Auto Engineers 3 Brush Makers 1 Clerks 49 Clothing Makers 4 Chauffeurs 3 Cutter* 1 Carpenters 3 Drivers 2 Draftsmen 1 Electricians — Journeymen 34 Helpers 220 Apprentices 60 Elec. Machinists 5 Elec. Supplies 2 Electro Platers 1 Elevator Operators 6 Elevator Repairers 6 Engineers 3 Errand Boys Expressmen Housemen Instrument Makers. Janitors Laborers Laundrymen Longshoremen G Electric Wiring Classes Machinists 12 Mechanics 9 Organ Builders 2 Packers 1 Perfumers 1 Photographers 1 Picture Framers 1 Piano Makers 2 Plumbers 1 Porters 5 Printers 6 Press Hands 1 Repair Men 1 Roofers 1 Salesmen 3 Shopworkers 1 Silversmiths 1 Stationary Engineers 4 Steam Engineers 1 Surgical Instrument Workers.. 1 Telephone Operators 6 Telephone Installation. Tinsmiths Trunk Manufacturers. . Typists Waiters Wiremen At the time of the survey, evening trade extension courses for electrical workers were offered in the following schools : Bushwick Evening Trade School Harlem Evening Trade School Long Island City Evening High and Trade School Murray Hill Evening Trade School Stuyvesant Evening Trade School Public School No. 67 (Manhattan) Public School No. 95 (Manhattan) Public School No. 5 (Brooklyn) On March 28th, 1917, 1286 men had registered in the eve- ning electrical classes. These men were distributed as follows : Total Number Name of Course Number Classes Registered Applied Electricity 5 171 Electrical Engineering 2 65 Electrical Wiring and Installation 25 1000 Municipal Electrical Theory 2 50 Inside Electrical Work 14!) The members of the survey staff visited twenty-flve evening classes in electrical work. As is pointed out in the description of the work in the evening trade school report, over 50 per cent of the students enrolled in these classes were nineteen years of age or under, and practically 50 per cent of the students had worked only one year or less at the trade. No one class visited was made up entirely of electricians, and no attempt had been made to put apprentices, helpers and journeymen in separate classes. One class in advanced electrical work was composed of eight clerks, one brush maker, one clothing maker, one chauffeur, one cutter, and eleven electricians. The occupations of the students in an- other class in electric installation were as follows: one piano maker, two house men, one plumber, three clerks, two organ builders, one shop worker, one stationary engineer, one garment worker, one mechanic and power house worker, one carpenter, one elevator operator and five electricians. The work in electrical wiring and installation consisted largely of working at simple problems in bell and light wiring. The equipment in most shops was very limited. In a number of instances, special rooms had been fitted up in the basement or in ordinary class rooms and were used for the work in elec- trical wiring and as a result it was necessary in a number of cases to remove the wiring boards and other equipment from the room at the end of each session. The instruction in electrical work was the farthest from real trade extension work of any of the work noted in the evening schools. This was partly due to the fact that a large percentage of the men were not engaged in electrical work and no attempt had been made to organize the evening electrical classes to meet the needs of definite groups of trade workers. At the time of the survey there was very little evidence of co- operation between the Unions or the Employers' Associations and the administration of the evening classes in electrical work. This lack of co-operation may explain in part the unsatisfactory organ- ization of this branch of the evening school work. SCHOOLS UNDEE PRIVATE AUSPICES The Baeon dh Hirsch Thadh School provides day courses in nine trades, including that of inside electrical wiring. Each course extends over five and one-half months; or a total of 820 working hours. Of this number 730 hours are devoted to prac- 150 Industrial Education Survey tical work and 90 hours to correlated work in mechanical draw- ing and shop arithmetic. Two classes are admitted each year. The average number of graduates in this subject for the past five years was 42.4 ; being the largest number of graduates in any of the trades taught in the school. The course includes instruction in wiring for bell and burglar alarm work, and for electric light and power circuits, the pur- pose being to give the pupil a sound working knowledge of the principles and practice of wiring in all its branches. The New York Trade School conducts three evening courses in electrical work: Course A. — Wiring for light and power, and plan work. Two terms of six months each. Course B. — Dynamos, motors and switchboards. Two terms of six months each. Course C. — General bell work, including bells, annunciators, burglar alarms, battery and magneto call telephones. One term of six months. The classes meet on Monday, Wednesday and Friday evening of each week, the hours of instruction being from 7 to 9:30 o'clock. The tuition fee is ?16 for each term of six months. The school furnishes all necessary tools and materials, except drawing instruments, which the student is expected to provide. These courses are intended for young men between seventeen and twenty-five years of age. RECOMMENDATIONS OF TRADE COMMITTEES When the findings of the survey were completed, they were Bubmitted to the conference committees appointed by the Elec- trical Contractors' Association, the Independent Electrical Con- tractors' Association and the Inside Electrical Workers' Union, and the following recommendations were adopted : 1. That the Board of Education establish two schools of the building trades and consolidated in these schools and the electrical equipment now used in the three day vocational schools and the evening trade schools. 2. That the Board of Education concentrates in the two schools of the building trades the day courses in electrical work now offered in the three day vocational schools. The committees further recommend that the attendance in the electrical classes be limited to 400 boys, i. e., 200 in each school. 3. That the Board of Education establish part-time trade extension classes for the apprentices in the electrical trade, and that courses be given in trade drawing, applied mathematics, electrical theory, and materials and tools. The employers' com- mittees will urge the members of their associations to send their apprentices to part-time trade extension classes for one-half day (4 hours) a week with pay. 4. That the Board of Education centralize in the two schools all the courses in electrical work now offered in the evening trade schools and organize special courses for helpers and journey- men. The committees recommended that the attendance at the electrical classes be limited to men and boys working in the trade. The following evening school courses are recommended: 1. Blue Print Beading 2. Elementary Trade Drawing 3. Advanced Trade Drawing 151 l''*^ Industrial Education Survey 4. Applied Mathematics 5. Cost Estimating 6. Electrical Theory for Helpers 7. Electrical Theory for Journeymen 8. Course in City and National Electrical Code Require- ments 9. Shop Course for Helpers 10. Courses for Journeymen in a. Low Tension Work b. High Tension Work c. A. C. Work d. D. C. Work e. Automatic Control f. Sign Flashers g. General House Wiring. 5. That the union require all helpers to attend the evening trade extension classes for two nights a week for two years. 6. That the Board of Education require a registration de- posit of 12.00 of all men who desire to take evening trade ex- tension courses; that such deposit shall be returned upon the completion of seventy-five per cent, of the course. 7. That the Board of Education appoint a special advisory committee of nine members to assist in developing the courses in electrical work, such advisory committee to be made up of four employers representing employers' associations, four em- ployees representing labor organizations, and these eight to nom- inate one additional member who shall be a layman. That the Board of Education consider the recommendations of this com- mittee on the following points : 1. Courses of Study 2. Character of Equipment 3. Number of Pupils to be Admitted to Schools 4. Requirements for Admission to Classes 5. Checking the Work of School to See That It Meets the Practical Needs of the Trade. REPORT OF ADVISORY COMMITTEES In the report of the advisory committee on day vocational schools, the following paragraphs, concerning instruction for the electrical trade, appear : "In the trade of inside electrical work the committee realizes that the following conditions are presented: First, it is difS- cult to duplicate practical trade conditions in a vocational school; second, there is a well organized apprenticeship plan in the trade and many young workers are taking evening courses of instruction that necessarily follow lines similar to those that must be dealt with in the day schools. They believe, however, that such classes are warranted if their scope is widened to in- clude other branches of electrical work. "The committee feels that instruction in carpentry and elec- trical work can most effectively be maintained in a central school for the building trades along with other courses in this field. While one such school would at first be all that is neces- sary, other schools of this type could be added as the need be- came apparent until each borough is provided." A specialized central school backed by the interests of the trade dealing in part-time and trade extension classes and stand- ing before the community as the headquarters of the trade, will present a situation much more likely to attract a group of pre- employment pupils who have already formed their desire to be trained for that particular trade than schools in which this trade course appears only as element among other courses. "The contact of pre-employment pupils in such a central school wittt the higher processes of the trade and with the workers in the trade will exercise a strong influence in retaining their at- tendance for the full course of pre-employment instruction." In the report of the advisory committee on evening schools appears the following: "This committee heartily endorses the recommendations of the committees appointed by the Allied Printing Trades Council and the Association of Employing Printers, for the establish- ment of a centralized school of printing and also the adoption of 153 154 Industrial Education Survey the courses of study suggested by these committees for evening trade extension classes in printing. This committee also has the firm conviction that it is advisable to bring together in one school, wherever practicable, aU classes in the same field of work in order that through this larger grouping pupils may be more readUy and carefuUy graded as to their previous training, expe- rience and ability. This plan will tend to improve the character of instruction and make possible much better and more far reaching results than are at present obtainable. This arrange- ment also makes possible a larger and more satisfactory eqmp- ment than can be had under the present plan of widely distrib- uted classes in the same subjects." PART III THE CARPENTRY AND JOINERY TRADE The evolution of the building trades in the City of New York is similar to that of other large cities in this country. A pioneer period of wood construction was followed by some brick con- struction. This brick construction finally asserted itself in the more densely populated portions of the city, entirely crowding out frame construction in the Borough of Manhattan. The in- creasing need for accommodating larger and larger numbers upon resti'icted areas brought in the steel construction period with its soaring skyscrapers. Paralleling th' evolution, especially in recent years, was the development of a code of fire prevention rules, which constantly tended to further restriction of in- flammable construction. These rules forbid the erection of frame structures within the Borough of Manhattan and encourage a constantly increasing use of fire trim and other details of fire- proof construction. All of these tendencies result in making less use of the services of the wood worker, especially in new buildings in the more densely settled parts of the city. Even in the suburbs there is relatively less frame construction than in previous periods, as exemplified by the erection of miles upon miles of two-storied brick houses. A large amount of the trim of these houses is stock trim, brought into the city from distant mills. The following table gives the number of frame structures erected in the four unrestricted boroughs during the past five years : 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 Queens 3,185 .8,129 3,130 2,848 2,126 Brooklyn 1,880 1,186 1,324 1,061 1,258 Richmond '. 756 758 857 1,058 928 Bronx 237 185 176 161 88 6,058 5,258 5,487 5,128 4,400 This table shows a marked decline in the number of frame structures. Another factor that lessens the opportunities for employment by the carpenter is the increasing amount of work 155 156 Industrial Education Survey that is being turned out already assembled by the factories or ready for assembling on the job. Later in this report attention will be drawn to the high degree of specialization that the mill has attained. IMPORTANCE OP THE TRADE For the year 1916 alone the total cost of building operations amounted to the sum of $198,451,702. Of the individual trades composing the building trades that of carpenters and joiners is still the most important as far as the number of workers is con- cerned. According to the United States Census Report for 1910, there were 41,442 listed as ' .rpenters in New York City, the age divisions showing that apprentices and helpers were included in this number. These were divided among the boroughs as follows : Manhattan 15,554 Brooklyn 15,441 Bronx 4,702 Queens 4,138 Richmond 1,607 41,442 There were also 15,000 listed as building contractors. It is perhaps safe to assume that about 3,500 of these may be listed as employing carpenters, making a total of more than 44,900 engaged in erecting work. There were, according to the 1913 New York State Industrial Directory, 10,219 men employed in the wood-working mills and cabinet shops of New York City. This number does not include the large number of workers employed in piano, furniture and other highly specialized wood-working factories. These figures indicate that there are approximately 55,000 men engaged in the carpentry and joinery trade in Greater New York, exclusive of those engaged in ship, dock, wharf, bridge and railroad work. It is impossible to secure information as to the value of the work done by these men. The value of all kinds of building construction and alterations for the year 1916 was |224,285,280. HOW WORKERS ARE OBTAINED Supply and Demand: In the 87 shops and jobs visited, the complaint was commonly made of the lack of competent men. Carpentry and Joinery 157 This complaint was particularly emphasized in shops and on jobs doing a high class of work, especially where the work was finch as to prevent specialization along narrow lines. In these latter shops were found, as a rule, men trained abroad, or products of an apprenticeship system in this country that tended toward an all-round training, with here and there an apt tool worker with little training. Such shops are able to get along fairly well under normal conditions, but when unusual activities compel them to add to their force they are put to much expense through being compelled to employ workers of insufficient ekill. These they use to an extent on specialized and minor processes. On the other hand, the number of shops devoted to machine wood working in New York is not keeping pace with the increase in population. This fact, together with the tendency toward specialization, to some extent offsets the difficulty of obtaining capable men. Apprentices: There are few apprentices to be found today in the wood-working trade. In the establishments and jobs visited there were 18 shop apprentices among the 1,000 workers, and out of 505 workers on erecting jobs there were but 13 apprentices. The term apprentice means little because of the lack of indenture and organized training of these workers. It is a common prac- tice to "lay off" an apprentice during the slack season in the same manner as journeymen. Consequently, these workers often take the opportunity of accepting other jobs that offer possible betterment either in salary or steadiness of employment. Survey visits have disclosed the fact that there is little desire on the part of the employers in the better shops to employ apprentices, although these may be obtained for one-quarter the wages paid to journeymen. The opinion was expressed repeatedly that the young apprentice was wasteful, produced but little work and of an inferior quality. For these reasons the number of apprentices allowed by the unions to a shop is seldom found. The average wood-working shop provides many minor jobs — such as cleaning the shop, caring for glue pots, simple nailing, gluing, sanding and planing — and there are few of the holding and tool chasing jobs that are common to other trades. The tool- using problems for bench hand's apprentices are simple and such as might be delegated to a low-grade mechanic. Survey visits show that little effort is being made to give the apprentices a sequential, thorough experience. New York wood-working shops 158 Industrial Education Survey are higkly specialized and afford but little chance for the young bench hand worker to acquire other than a narrow trade edu- cation. The sui-\'ey visits also showed that there were few apprentices being trained in the use of wood-working machines. As a rule the machine operators are I'ecruited from the ranks of so-called ''helpers"— men who stand at the back of a machine to "take away" and who are given such instruction at times as will enable them to become machine feeders. Beginning on the saws or boring machines, it does not take long for the worker to acquire enough experience to use the planers. A great deal of the work in a wood-working shop does not require extreme accuracy. So the semi-skilled worker may be used effectively. As the sharpening and care of tools is usually delegated to a special man, the use of a semi-skilled machine wood worker is entirely feasible. The great mass of work of most shops is done on the saws and planers, but the saw and planer operator with some natural ability is able to pick up enough information to enable him to set up and run special machines, such as the shaper, the moulder and the tenoner. The sharpening or forming of cutters for these takes longer to leaim, and in many shops is learned by "hit and miss" methods. What is true of the shops is also true of the erection division. There is a scarcity of learners and few apprentices. The union allowance of one to each ten men is not reached. Figures taken from the industrial census of 1910, as noted in another chapter, show but 2,373 of apprentice age out of a total of 41,441 em- ploj^ed, and survey visits indicate that as many as half of these younger workers are engaged in simple laboring jobs. On 57 jobs visited, where a total of 505 men were employed, there were but 13 apprentices and only 15 others that miglit be called helpers, exclusive of the number found who devoted their time to carrying material around the job. With the exception of work on suburban frame houses and on the better class of jobbing there is little chance for learners to get an all-round trade training. The conditions of employment in outside work are such that it is easy to see why so few young workers are .ittracted. Clean- ing and carrying take up most of the workers' time, and there is little opportunity for tool practice. In common with the other branches of the building trades there are few tool chasing and Carpentry and Joinery 150 holding jobs, and a sturdy coustltution is needed. For this reason it is seldom found advisable to hire workers under 18 years of age. The small number of helpers in job and erection work is also due to specialized operations. Men whose duties in the building trade represent little other than common laborers' work are grouped in different divisions or squads, each of which represents a special stage of work. For example, it is not uncommon to find men who, after working on the cutting and nailing of sheath- ing or for a few months on rough floors, have obtained employ- ment making concrete forms and then have passed to framing and the simpler floor laying. Cases were noted where this advancement was made within a period of a few months. NATIONALITY AND AGES OF WOEKERS Nationality: In the shops visited it was noted that of the 14 shop superintendents, 11 were trained in New York, two in Europe and one in America, outside of New York. Of the super- visory staff, that is, shop detailers, machine and bench foremen, of which there were 59, that 20 received their foundation training in Europe and 39 in New York. Of the 173 workers engaged as machine and bench helpers, or apprentices, in the shops visited, 21 were foreign, or foreign-trained workers. Of the 89 that could be classified as American born, few were of the type that would serve an apprenticeship. This force of helpers and apprentices is recruited from a class of boys or young men who are not inclined toward steady employment. It is a matter of record that in the shops visited about the full number are hired each year to maintain this group of helpers, showing that the average term of employment has been little more than one year. There are many reasons for this shifting of employment, chief among them being the small wage paid and the uncertainty of employment, causing these young men to constantly seek a change of position at a higher salary. Another reason is that such young men are kept on work that offers little hope for advancement. The surroundings in many shops are far from encouraging to the younger workers. Of the 845 workers on machines and on bench tools, there were, in the shops visited, 223 machine and 88 bench workers trained in this country, and for the most part in this city, whereas there were 99 machine and 435 bench operators trained 160 Industrial Education Survty abroad. This gives 83% of the bench hands as foreign born and 30% of the machine operators. Agea: The ages as given in the census of 1910 show as follows : Group Selected— No. 10-13 14-15 16-20 21-44 45 plu» 1, Semi-skilled machine op«ra- ton 837 2 22 121 483 208 3. Cabinetmakers and helpers 3,629 2 127 1,988 1,612 8. Sawyer* 789 2 5« 459 225 4. Oarpenterg and helpers.... 41,441 3 2,370 27,006 12,063 Questionnaires prepared for the purpose of the survey were arranged so as to tabulate workers from 14 to 15; those 16 to 18 and those over 18 who had been engaged during the year, as well as the minimum age of untrained beginners and the special age requirement set by any shop. Figures obtained show that of the 35 shops visited none hired boys less than 16 years of age. This was due, no doubt, to the laws concerning machine operation. For this reason it is hard to account for the figures given in groups (1) and (2) of the census figures. In these same shops none were found engaged as machine operators between the agea of 16 and 18, unless we consider the 18 shop and bench hand apprentices who were allowed at times to work on the adjacent machine tools. Bearing in mind the objections heard to the employment of young workers as machine operators, it seems safe to assume, therefore, that the 56 listed as sawyers in group (3) would be mostly of the ages between 18 and 20. No helpers or apprentice carpenters younger than 18 were found. An effort was made to determine the minimum age accepted for employment in each division. The statement given by the majority of employers was 16 as a beginning age. But few workers of this age, however, were found, and they were in shops where the work consisted of simple tool operations. REGULARITY AND CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT 1. Seasonal Fluctuations: Building construction is a sea- sonal occupation governed not only by the weather conditions but also by the seasonal demands of moving and renting. The daily weather condition also governs employment to a large extent in those divisions of carpentry and joinery whose per- Carpentry nnd Joinery 1(51 formance is carried out in the open. Even in partially finished structures extreme cold necessitates the lay-off of men because of the limited return from labor performed. Not only is( there fluctuation from month to month, but there is a pronounced fluctuation from year to year. In Greater New York in 1912, ^201,098,006 was spent for new buildings and ?16,944,872 for alterations and repairs, while in 1914 there was 1135,427,881 and $15,167,660, respectively, spent for such work. These figures are for all branches of the building trades, but the fluctuation of 33% may be assumed as applying with fair accuracy to the variation in the wood-working trade. The following tables, based on a report made by the New York State Department of Labor, give the per cent, of idleness in the building trades for a number of years. The report for the year 1913 presents a fairly accurate picture of the fluctua- tion in these trades. The figures for the years 1914, 1915 and 1916 show the influence of the war on the per cent, of idleness in these trades : CHART 1 BUILDING AND PAVINO TRADES — IDLENESS Tear Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June Jul? Aug. Sept. Oct. Not. Deo. 1913 . , .2T.9 27.7 27.1 19.2 17.4 21.1 21.7 20.4 19.5 23.5 28.0 40.4 1914 ..46.2 48.9 44.1 39.4 32.0 34.7 29.3 31.8 35.1 34.4 43.2 47.3 1915 ..50.9 51.3 45.2 40.5 35.4 38.0 34.9 33.4 29.3 23.7 23.3 S0.4 1916 ..34.6 35.5 37.6 27.8 28.0 29.2 ... • t • • • < • • • • • • • • • The percentage of idleness (Chart 2) in wood-working mills and furniture factories, as shown below, is on the average con- siderably below that in the building trades. CHART 2 WOOD WOBKING AND FTTENITUBE — IDLENEBS Tear Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nor. Dec. 1913 ..26.8 28.9 26.2 23.5 18.6 16.1 14.4 18.0 18.8 20.1 23.9 24.7 1914 ..35.2 41.3 41.4 32.5 28.8 25.9 31.2 31.7 31.9 27.5 29.5 31.7 1915 ..36.1 38.1 38.2 29.0 24.4 23.2 25.4 23.7 16.4 14.1 13.8 13.0 1916 ..15.4 18.4 17.7 12.8 20.5 25.6 2. Rush Jois: In order that buildings may be erected in a short space of time, so as to make them available for renting or sale at their best season as well as save the expense of ground rent and interest charges, every endeavor is made to hasten completion. 162 Industrial Educaiivii i^nrvey It is not unusual to find large groups of men employed but for a few weeks in order to expedite construction. For example, after the plaster is dry enough men are employed to cut and fit the wood parts of a ninety-room apartment house in about two weeks. These men are laid off when not needed, and, as a rule, lose time in having to look for employment elsewhere. 3. Specialisation: The list of divisions given below shows the great amount of specialization that prevails in the trade in New York City. There are numerous other divisions, but they are hardly of enough importance to be considered in detail. Among these are the weather-strip worker, the screen-door and window-screen fitter, the store-front erector, the hardware fitter, etc. This extreme specialization causes an unfortunate condition of employment. Although there are many men yet to be found who have an all-round training in carpentry and joinery and who engage in more than one of the divisions noted, the demand of today is for the specialist. On account of this demand it is found that carpentry and joinery is practised by many who have either never learned more than one division of the trade or who have worked in the same division for years. The liability to lack of steady employment due to this specialization is evident. 4. Laclc of Materials: New York City, on account of the higher wages, land values and hauling charges, is unable to compete with the smaller cities more favorably located as to raw materials, lessened land values and a cheaper labor source. For this reason it is rapidly becoming an erection rather than a wood trim manufacturing center. But a few years ago each builder had a shop of his own where his men, during dull seasons, prepared the materials for future erection. Employers now need only to maintain an oiBce and have their trim detail made and shipped in from out of town. Often delays in shipping compel employers to lay off men. SCALE OF WAGES The following is the union scale of wages for an eight-hour day: Outside Inside (Shop) Manhattan Borough $5.50 $4.50 Brooklyn Borough 5.00 4.50 Bronx Borough 5.00 4.50 Queens Borough 5.00 4.50 Richmond Borough 4.50 4.50 Carpeiitrij and .Joinvrij 163 Stair builders are paid the same rate for inside and outside work. The men work forty-eight hoiirs a week. Saturday after- noon work is allowed only in case of emergency and after a permit has been obtained. For such service, if allowed, the pay must be doubled for each hour. This is true for all overtime, Sunday and legal holiday work. When carpenters are sent to another borough, or to another city, the wages of the city or borough from which they are sen< must be paid, but the employers may, if they choose, emplo^i workmen in these boroughs to do the work. Mills that manufacture solely for the trade and do not them- iselves contract for erection have a trade agreement with the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners that fixes $18.00 as the minimum wage for a week of forty-four hours for mill workers. In the following table is shown the range of wages paid in the shops and on the jobs visited : Per Week Shop superintendent $36.00 to $50.00 Outside man 22,00 to 40.00 Shop detailer 15.00 to 27.00 Foreman— bench 27.50 to 38.00 Foreman— machine 20.00 to 35.00 Shop helper 6.00 to 22.00 Sander 7.00 to 15.00 Glue hand 11.00 to 18.00 Machine operator 10.00 to 24.75 Bench hand 9.00 to 24.75 Superintendent on job 36.00 to 60.00 Foreman on job 24.74 to 33.00 Journeyman joiner 16.50 to 27.50 Journeyman stair builder 24.00 to 27.50 Journeyman metal trimmer 27.50 Journeyman framer 20.50 to 27.50 Journeyman floor layer 16.50 to 28.10 Journeyman fixture assembler 22.00 to 27.50 Journeyman concrete form worker... 27.50 Concrete strippers 15.00 to 18.00 Under "joiner" are included many of the specialists erecting trim and details. The above shows the maximum and minimum wage noted on survey visits. Many answers were accepted with sonie doubt, and the result of the survey visits seem to indicate that there is a disregard of the union scale on work other than that on 164 Industrial Edvcution Survey completely miionized jobs. Only when the workers of the allied building trades or the Master Builders' Association control a job is a complete adoption of the union scale assured. The wage scale in some of the larger mills and cabinet shops is considerably less than the union scale. As these mills are classified as "unfair," their product is not handled in erection by union men. Much of this material is supplied to non-union jobs where a smaller wage is paid. The eight-hour day is commonly adopted, although some shops resort to a nine and ten-hour day during seasons of unusual activity. For this extra service a pro rata amount is paid. There were a few jobs noted where the nine or ten-hour day was the standard, but during the winter months this is reduced with a ^Dnsequent reduction in wages. ORGANIZATIONS Employers' Organizations: The Master Carpenters' Associa- tion is affiliated with the Building Trades Employers' Associa- tion, and comprises employers in all branches of the wood- working division of the building trades. The object of the association is "To foster trade, protect the members from unjust and unlawful exactions, diffuse accurate and reliable information among its members, as weU as provide harmony and justice between employer and employee." There are 15 manufacturing wood-working mills afSliated with this association, and of the 91 listed contractors who are members there are but 32 who maintain wood-working shops. Of the 91 employers there are 41 who are classified as general con- tractors. There are 964 independent contractors who have signed the agreement with the union to observe conditions specified by them, but there are a great many employing about one-half of the workers of the industry, who are subject to no jurisdiction. Employees' Organizations: The wood workers have an or- ganization called the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners. Affiliated with this is the Amalgamated Society of Woodworkers, an organization to which a larger rate of dues is paid, with consequent added benefits. In New York City these organizations are closely allied, and the making of agreements and the supervision of conditions of labor is left largely to the United Brotherhood. The objects of the United Brotherhood, as given in their constitution, are: (1) To discourage piecework; Varpentry and Joinery 165 (2) To encourage an apprenticeship training and a higher stand- ard of skill; (3) To cultivate feelings of friendship among the craft; (4) To assist each other to secure employment; (5) To reduce the hours of daily labor; (6) To secure adequate pay for the work; (7) To furnish aid in cases of death or permanent disability; (8) To elevate, by legal and proper means, the moral, intellectual and social condition of the members; (9) To improve the trade. The jurisdiction of the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners extends over the work enumerated below in so far as it is organized. "Milling, manufacturing, fashioning, joining, as- sembling, erecting, fastening or dismantling of all materials of wood, hollow metal or fibre, or of material composed in part of wood, and the erecting and dismantling of machinery, where the skill, knowledge and training of a carpenter is required, either through the operator of a machine or hand tools." The claim of jurisdiction extends over the following trades : Carpenters on house, ship, dock, wharf, bridge and railroad work; joinery on house, boat and car work. Under the latter division are included stair builders, trim joiners, cabinet makers, floor layers, bench hands, boxmakers, car builders, furniture workers, reed and rattan weavers, millwrights and operators of wood-working machinery. There are numerous divisions as to membership, each gov- erned with relation to age, dues and occupation. In general, a candidate is not admitted to full beneficial membership under 21 years or over 50 years of age, although provision is made for the admission of apprentices between the ages of 17 and 22 years, and for men over 50 years of age. Where there is no record of an apprenticeship having been served, or sponsors are not forthcoming, it is often necessary to examine candidates for admission, in which case they are given simple oral examinations, or possibly tool tests on bench joinery dealing with the specialized division in which they claim proficiency. An employer having two or more journeymen is allowed to have one apprentice, but this number may be added to by one for each ten men, the apprentices to be distributed between jobs. While there is provision made for the establishment of an apprentice wage scale, there seems to be no definite effort to enforce such a scale. 166 Iiidu.'slrial Edvcation Survey Members may engage in contiactiug, provided they observe the conditions imposed on other union wood-working employers, it being required that such contractors do not engage in piece- work, lump work or sub-contracting for another contracting carpenter, and provided that they do not affiliate with any employers' association. The United Brotherhood deals through delegates and officers with employers in establishing trade rules concerning hours of work and compensation, providing a job label and assigning a shop representative to the supervision of the conditions of work and the applying of the union label. A list of so-called "fair jobs" is made by the Brotherhood and distributed for the in- formation of members. The United Brotherhood of Carpenters and Joiners is affiliated with the other building trades in a council whose function is to enforce better union conditions on jobs representing highly specialized trade divisions. There are 17,000 registered union members in the city of New York. Of this number about 5,500 are engaged in mill and shop work. METHODS OF CONTRACTING Contractors for carpentry building work may be classified under four headings, i. e., the general contractor, the percentage contractor, the sub-contractor and the lumper. There are contractors who take comjplete charge of the de- signing as well as the construction of buildings, these being called contracting designers. Rarely does a wood worker take contracts in this way, an exception being the suburban joiner v/ith architectural ability who occasionally obtains contracts for minor jobs by doing also the architectural work. A wood-work- ing contractor generally works under a contracting designer in about the same manner as he works under a general contractor, with the exception that the contracting designer may furni.sh supervision to the contracting wood worker. The General Contractor takes complete charge of a job and when so equipped may furnish the shop and the finished material entering into completed structure. He figures jobs from the architectural details and specifications. Where his equipment does not allow him to do this he obtains estimates from sub- contractors, material men or lumpers for the various divisions of the work. To the sum of these estimates he adds his cost C(irpeiiti-jj and Ju\ncrij ICT of doiug busiuess, plus a margin for profit, arriving at a "bid" which he submits for the work. Often he gives much of the work to sub-contractors who are able to more economically conduct the work. He must have financial resources, dependent on the size of the job, and gov- erned largely by the methods and time for payment on completed work. The Percentage Contractor, a newer type, represents an effort to devise an equitable method of contracting, which has as its ob- ject the construction of a building at a cost dependent upon real construction value, plus an added per cent, commensurate with the cost and need of supervision in construction. Provision is made whereby the owner profits by all savings in time, and construc- tion and provisions are also made whereby the percentage con- tractor is encouraged and rewarded for making any savings. The percentage contractor does not have the financial responsi- bility of the general contractor because he is enabled by the methods of payment to handle jobs through financial co-operation with the owner. The Sub-contractor works under the direction of the contrac- tor, as noted above, the architect or owner. He receives blue- prints and specifications from which he estimates quantities of materials and costs of doing work. He may send these drawings to mills and material men or to some sub-contractor who may be called upon to submit bids covering their narrower division. As is true of the general contractor, he must add to this cost of doing business and supervising the work. His financial de- pendence is correspondingly less and has to do largely with pay- ment agreements he may make with the general contractor. As a rule he must maintain a shop and handle materials. The cost of maintaining this shop during slack season must be considered in the making of the contracts. The Lumper: A type of contractor called a "lumper" is com- monly met with in the construction of modern buildings of the speculative kind. When the large amount of speculative work being done in New York is considered, the important place of this type of contractor may be realized. The lumper simply estimates the time and cost required to erect material furnished by owners, general contractors, sub-con- tractors or speculators. He has no interest in cost other than that of time, his problem consisting in the erection of material as quickly as possible. His work must be erected neatly and 19t luduitrial Education Survey economically, any waste of material being checked by the con- tractor or owner interested in the supplying of this material. His financial dependence varies with the number of men em- ployed, but provision for payments is usually made by Ma employer in reference to this number. "Lumping" is, in a sense, piecework on a larger scale, and an effort is made by labor organizations to prevent their members from participating in this kind of work. The contractors for wood working are not conditioned by legal restrictions as are those in the electrical, plumbing and steamfitting trades, and individuals without any large amount of previous training or capital, and possessing only knowl- edge sufficient to estimate quantities or compile estimates and negotiate the purchasing of materials economically, may enter into contracting. In contrast with certain other trades, such as the printing trade, only a small number of the contractors in the carpentry trade are members of trade associations dealing with their em- ployees through trade agreements and representing advanced standards of work. To the great number of unaffiliated untrained building contractors in New York City employing shifting labor groups of specialists may be laid much of the demoralizing labor condition that exists. A small proportion of the contractors or sub-contractora possess their own mills or cabinet shops, but a large amount of the trim, sash, blinds and doors used comes from mills outside the city. The work in the mills as well as the work performed upon the job has reached an extreme degree of sub-division of labor, ajid the industry as a whole, except in the small jobbing shops, is employing specialists rather than all-around workmen. ANALYSIS OP THE TRADE An analysis of the trade of carpentry and joinery, as practiced in the City of New York, shows that the trade is divided into two quite distinct classes — mill and shop work, and erecting work. In the endeavor to classify, one is confronted with in- stances of overlapping and variations, and is, therefore, com- pelled to classify in general terms. If the words "inside" and "outside" were chosen to represent these two classes, the terms would have to be defined as meaning work done inside a mill Carpentry and Joinery 169 or fihop, and the wori done outside the mill or shop, although in the latter case most of the work would be done inside of the building being erected. Again, considerable of the work done under the heading of "erecting" is alteration and repair work. For the purposes of this survey this classification of "mill and shop work" and "erecting work" will be used. Mill and shop work will be first considered. MILL AND SHOP WORK By a mill is understood a plant turning out details of build- ing construttion such as doors, window frames, sash, trim, etc., in large quantities to be sold for builders' use. There are com- paratively few such establishments in this city. Great quanti- ties of such building materials are brought into the city from distant mills. But there are numerous shops, some of cod- Biderable proportions, where such details are turned out by the builders themselves for use upon their own contracts and to sell to other contractors. Small shops make use of the same kind of machines as are employed in the large mills, but whereas in the large mill the worker is often constantly employed in the operation of one machine, in the small shop he commonly spends but part of his time on any particular machine and the rest of his time on other work. In surveying the organization of a shop and analyzing its units it was found that there is no type or standard. The size of the shop and the kind of work done modifies its organization and methods of operation. The operations required for the finishing of the various parts are numerous and varied and call into requisition various machines and workers. As there is no standard practice as to specialization, each type unit of opera- tion will be considered by itself. In an analysis of the shop work the workers may be viewed in two groups — one composed of machine operators and the eecond of all other shop workers. This latter group will first be considered, beginning with the duties of the man in charge of the shop. It should be understood that no two shops follow exactly the same procedure in regard to the specific duties of Individuals. The Mill Superintendent, supervises the various departments of the mill and oversees the distribution of the work. The cost of production and its relation to contract price is 170 Industrial Education Survey the first of the shop problems of which the superintendent must be master, and, if necessary, he must be able to suggest improved methods to increase the job profit. Eesponsibility for the upkeep of the plant devolves upon the superintendent. He advises as to the use and efiicient placing of machines, as well as in regard to the introduction of newer machines or newer methods. The scope of the superintendent's equipment should include ability to read blueprints and specifications, to make working drawings and sketches, and to estimate costs and knowledge of the various qualities. He should be familiar with all types of construction in wood and have a thorough knowledge of details and methods of manufacture by machine and bench processes and of the time required on each job. Moreover, he should under- stand the principles of efScient shop management and be competent as an executive. There are at present about 84 wood- working shops in this city of such size as to employ a superintend- ent. Although a position of importance, the number of positions has decreased because of the loss to New York of much of the mill-work industry. On the other hand, it is clear that there will always be a demand for men of experience and ability to fill these positions. It is evident that such men possess the breadth of experience which fits them to become employers or contractors when possessing the necessary capital. Outside Man: After a study of the details of the architect's plan, the outside man goes on the unfinished job to obtain exact sizes for trim, fixtures, etc., and in this work he may have to suggest or devise constructions for some details not shown by the architect. He makes simple sketches, noting all the sizes, as well as sizes of the details which the work must fit. He notes also the kinds and qualities of the woods to be used, the finish desired, and whether materials and finishes selected are in agreement with the specifications and estimate. He takes the sketches and Information to the office, where he revises them, if necessary, to meet the needs of economy or to improve the construction. This information is checked by the shop superintendent or the fore- man. The sketches and description are turned over to the shoj) draftsman who prepares drawings when needed. An outside man is employed by all mills making building details. The larger mills employ as many as four or more men. Outside men are usually employed by the year even if it is necessary that they be used in the drafting or aho]) divisions during Carpentry and Joinery 171 slack season. If they have trade and shop experience, they may advance to the position of superintendent. Outside men in New York City are needed to obtain dimensions for all mills doing business for this city. The number, therefore, will increase with the volume of construction. The Shop Detailer receives the architect's details, or often only simple sketches made by the job man or "outside" man. He studies the details and specifications and from them makes shop drawings, showing the details of construction. The general practice followed is for the shop detailer to make full-size section drawings, with smaller drawings of eleva- tions to %-inch, 11/2-inch, or other scale, which are easy to read with the %-inch division rule common to the bench hand. These drawings show all detail dimensions, together with any special information that may be needed. The very nature of his work and its importance to the shop requires that the detailer possess a wide technical knowledge. He should first of all possess facility in making all kiuds of detail drawings of wood construction and be able to interpret drawings, sketches, specifications and verbal directions in terms of practical and economic methods of work. He should have a knowledge of shop and trade terms, know stock sizes of materials and how to best utilize them, and be familiar with the various kinds of wood, their properties, uses, qualities and costs. He should be acquainted with architectural styles in regard to de- tails and proportions, have some knowledge of the principles of strength of materials and a thorough familiarity with the uses and the fitting of hardware. There are about 350 men in the 621 shops in Greater New York devoting most of their time to this work. This work is very important, especially in shops doing a high class of work. The training these men receive makes them of value in architectural work. These men are, as a rule, em- ployed by the year, especially where they possess shop experience enabling them to do tool work during the slack season. They are often required to do the work of the outside man and are in direct line for promotion. On routine and the cheaper class of mill work a semi-skilled grade of detailer is employed and at a low rate of wage. These workers have little opportunity for advancement. The competent shop detailer must obtain the greater part of his knowledge of computation and drafting through outside agencies. 172 Industrial Education Survty BENCH HANDS AND SPECIAL WORKERS Foreman of Bench Hands: In shops employing a superin- tendent there is usually a foreman for the bench work and a foreman for the machine work. The foreman of bench hands receives working drawings from the shop detailer, or from the superintendent, these drawings having been made full size where necessary. He prepares a stock list from these which is sent to the machine foreman to get out the stock. The foreman's duties beyond this are con- fined to the interpretation of the drawings for the men, making sketches and giving verbal information about the construction. Where time permits he assists in bench work. The bench-hand foreman should be able to make and read working drawings and should thoroughly understand wood con- struction. He should be familiar with the proper methods of assembly as well as the costs and characteristics of dififerent woods, and should understand special processes, such as the arranging of jigs and templets. He should understand the possi- bilities of machine work, though not necessarily an expert in the use of machine tools, in order to suggest machine operations where possible instead of the slower hand processes. In shops specializing in producing store, of&ce, loft and other fixtures, the foreman receives a plan and elevations of the room in which the work is to be placed. He makes sketches and esti- mates, and, after they have been accepted, a full size layout, if the construction is difficult, or a complete scale drawing in the case of simpler construction. From these drawings the foreman makes multiple stock lists, giving the number of pieces, the length, width and thickness, with the kind of material to be used. The list is made so that each piece is check marked, and any special construction is shown in detail. The list is sent to the machine wood-working division where the materials are prepared. Ability to make working drawings as well as knowledge of the kinds, qualities and costs of materials, i. c, wood, glue, hard- ware, glass, etc., should be acquired by the competent foreman. He should know stock sizes, and his knowledge of wood should be so thorough as to enable him to plan his construction to over- come the tendencies of seasoning and drying, as well as to insure the use of the most economical and serviceable materials. In order that he may be able to plan his work satisfactorily he Carpentry and Joinery 173 should understand building construction in a general way and possess a thorough knowledge of the special construction of store and office fixtures. The State industrial report of 1913 shows there were 621 shops devoted to house trim and cabinet work. In many of these shops a great many foremen are required. On these men depend much of the success of the shop, and they are in line for advancement to the positions of superintendent and employer. They are invariably employed the year around, being used in the smaller shops on journeymen work during slack season. The competent shop foreman is qualified to supervise both machine and bench work. As the organization of large mills has developed specialization and the building of stock details in quantity, the services of the all-around foreman have decreased in importance. There are, however, many mills producing a high-class work in which there is still need of the broadly-trained foreman. Outside agencies may be of service in furnishing such a man instruction in detail drawing and cost estimating. The Dry Kiln Attendant : It was found that in the majority of the shops visited, the work of caring for the kiln drying of lumber was left to the foreman of either machine or bench work. The charging and emptying of the kiln is usually done by laborers at his direction. The attendant selects the kinds and sizes of materials from stock lists, noting whether they are properly air seasoned, suggests and supervises the method of stacking and notes whether heating and other devices are working so that the wood will be thoroughly seasoned. He fixes the time of the heat and supervises the emptying of the kiln. The attendant's knowledge, other than that obtained as a wood worker, should cover the use and care of the different types of kilns, methods of stacking material, terms used and their meaning in kiln drying, i. e., case hardening, honeycombing, checking, etc. He should have a general knowledge of the princi- ples of ventilation and ability to read the thermometer and hydrometer in determining seasoning conditions. He should be able to read stock lists and to keep records of time required to obtain eflScient seasoning results. The attendant should under- stand board measure and have a knowledge of the peculiarities of the different kinds of wood and the care needed before, during, and after seasoning in each case. The number employed is hard to estimate, as a dry kiln attendant is needed only in the larger shops. 174 Industrial Education Surve-j/ The Shop Laborer and Machine Helper obtains stock called for by the foreman and places it in the dry kiln, stacking it at the foreman's direction so that it will dry efficiently. When directed to do so, he carries this stock to the machine operators, following the routine of the shop in the distribution of the work. The worker must note that the pieces called for on the list are obtained and that each is properly check marked before delivery to the next worker. When the stock has been completely ma- chined he gathers the pieces for each job and delivers them, with attached stock lists, to the bench hands. In the majority of the shops he works also as a machine helper, standing back of the woodworking machine to receive pieces and pass them back for a re-cut. Among his other duties are those of caring for the glue pots, cleaning the shop, or if skillful, the sanding of stock. In the union shops, he is not allowed to handle tools of a catting, fastening, or layout nature. Where proficient the laborer is used on gluing operations generally as assistant to a bench hand. The Olue Hand prepares the glue and applies it in the assem- bly of wood parts. This assembly is mostly confined to the building up of material, veneering surfaces and the assembly of pieces that have to be remachined, i. e., counter tops, panels, pieced cores, etc. Rarely does he assemble the completely ma- chined ])rojects; this work, unless in a specialty shop, being assigned to the bench hands. The glue hand receives the stock from the machine hand, placing it in a heating receptacle, then arranging trestles, or other supports, he makes ready by thinning the glue to the consistency needed for the job. Taking the stock from the heater, he arranges it so as to receive the glue efficiently. He clamps the pieces, making note of their alignment, and sets them to harden. After the pieces have set he removes the clamps and sends the pieces to the machine hand for re-machining. One or more glue hands are needed in each shop. These posi- tions are important enough to assign high-grade men in shops devoted to first-class work but in the majority of cases a lower grade mechanic is employed. The Sandtr smooths straight or moulded wood surfaces. He chooses the grade of sandpaper, holding it on a block for flat surfaces, or in the hand for moiilded surfaces. His work may consist entirely of hand sandpapering, entirely of machine sand- Carpentry and Joinery 175 papering or of both. The machines for this work are of various types, some having a continuous belt of sandpaper, and other disks or cylinders covered with sandpaper. There are also ma- chines with moulded blocks, flitted with sandpaper, that oscilate to and fro. Rarely does the sander adjust these machines or apply new sandpaper to them, this work as a rule being done by a skilled workman or the foreman. The sander should know the various kinds and grades of sand- paper and should have a general knowledge of wood structure to understand the best methods of sanding various kinds. He should also know how to make and use the simple forms needed to hold the sandpaper in smoothing straight and curved sur- faces by hand. There are often three or more of these workers even in the smaller shops. Their work is relatively unimportant but on the sanding of high-grade work a sander with bench experi- ence is used. Such men generally work in other divisions and the necessary skill and knowledge is gained in the shop. The Bench Hand Cabinet. Maker: The bench hand receives the pieces the machine hands have prepared, together with the miU list with its sizes and check marks. He is given also the detailed drawings needed for assembling the pieces. This de- tailing, in most shops, includes a full size layout on heavy paper, with lengths, width and thickness shown in section draw- ings. Elevations drawn to scale are included where needed. The bench hand may check his work by laying it on the drawing. Arranging his stock so that it is accessible, and adjusting clamps or other holding devices to distances needed, he makes ready for assembly. He obtains glue, or other materials, and places his tools within easy access. When a job is complex a trial assembly is made so as to insure rapid work after the glue has been applied. If dowels are used, he glues and inserts them, care being taken that each is properly coated. Glue is applied to the joints, care being taken that it does not run on to panels or exposed surfaces from which it will be hard to remove during cleaning. The bench hand must also note that panels are given opportunity to adjust themselves to the ten- dencies to shrinkage and swelling. When the complete project is glued, assembled and clamped he allows it to stand until the glue sets. During this interval he may work on other parts of the same general job or on a different assembly. The bench hand uses automatic clamping devices for regular 176 Industrial Education Survey work, nailing the joints to hold them until the glue sets, after which he planes, scrapes and cleans surfaces or intersections. On work not requiring special care a sander may be used to sand- paper the surfaces. A great deal of the cleaning is done on machine sanders, hand work being needed for mouldings and joined parts only. The assembly of complex pieces may necessitate the re-cut of some of the members, because of the diflSculty in arriving at true lengths and forms. Mouldings, especially those that are raised above the surface, are applied after the machine cleaning. This work is done by the use of mitre boxes, or bench trimmers. Base or cap mouldings, pilasters and other forms are cut and fitted by hand, as it is seldom possible to cut them by machine economically to an accurate fit. After all tool work, such as the trimming of intersections and scraping out of corners is done, the work is given a final sanding and is ready for the wood finisher. After assembly and cleaning is finished, hardware is fitted, but may not be applied until the pieces have been stained and varnished. In the course of assembly the bench hand has often to use the simpler machine tools, such as the saw and joiner, particularly in a shop where the workmen do not specialize to a great degree, or where problems are not of a uniform nature. In using these machines he has often to devise jigs for the sake of greater speed and accuracy. Common among these are guide pieces, needed to cut duplicate lengths and angles. Devices for wedging and hold- ing are repeatedly made use of during assembly and the workman should be able to devise the simpler of these. Where no glue hand~ is employed the bench hand occasionally does the work of veneering. There are still many shops in this city manufacturing detail for high-class work that require the services of the all around bench hand in the construction of details of the better sort. These shops are enabled by the nature of their work to pay the union compensation and offer fairly steady employment. The all around bench hand, however, has been replaced to a large extent on quantity production by the bench hand specialist. Judging by the survey visits, the all-around man, when found, is generally the product of foreign trade training. Rarely were high-class workers found who were trained in this country. The specialist bench hand, of which there are large numbers, is easily trained in the shops in the course of regular work. There is no Gavpciitnj and Joinery 177 absolute standard and the quality of work in each mill and shop is characteristic of the class of construction to which it caters. Much of the work of the bench hand has been eliminated by ma- chines, as well as by introduction of metal fixtures, although workers with the experience of the bench hand, are employed upon the latter. The specialist bench hand, except in the unionized shop, is not as well paid as the all around worker and is less sure of steady employment. The great decrease in the number of apprentices and the fall- ing off in immigration from northern Europe'during recent years have both operated to decrease the supply of skilled men. Al- though all around men are preferred, employers make little effort to train them. The bench hand must change about from shop to shop in order to gain breadth of experience, but on account of the limited opportimity afforded by each shop, this process is not very effective. Outside agencies would be of assistance in affording instruction in bench work, technology of materials, machine operations, the reading of drawings and the laying out of simple details. The Bench Hand Specialist: The bench hand, in shops large enough to permit of specialization, is assigned, often for days at a time, to any one of the following divisions : assembling heated stock and gluing to its surfaces a veneer as noted; assembly of stock; trimming tenons; emitting ends by hand where needed to fit the shape of mortise made by the chain mortisers; fitting coped edges to intersect with moulded adjacent edges; trial as- sembly and placing stock in heating box; gluing and operating glue press; fastening, squaring stock, aligning it and setting it to dry. After gluing, the bench hand works on any one of the following steps: smoothing surfaces; scraping marks from sur- faces, or planing and scraping intersections; cutting and fitting mouldings; cutting joints by using a mitre box, a bench, foot, hand, or machine power trimmer ; nailing and setting mouldings ; sanding moulding intersections; assembling parts; putting to- gether the details and gluing, nailing or otherwise fastening them. The Bench Hand Wood Stair Builder receives from the shop foreman, or the machine hands, pieces to be assembled or made to suit marked detail. He either works on many of the machine tools himself or receives the machined stock from the machine hand. In the case of box newels, paneling, winders, waU strings, etc., he assembles and glues the machined stock which is set to ITS lndu>itiial Education S^iurveij harden, after which it is further machined, if needed, before the bench work is completed. The bench hand assembles the work in the shop as far as the job will allow. In each shop there is generally at least one man able to mould hand rail wreaths, the pattern for the square of which has been derived by the foreman. Such a man fastens curved and straight rail sections together, bolting and gluing them as a rule and smoothing the joints to a true intersection. Due to Building Code restrictions as well as the great number of large buildings erected, the work of the wood stair builder is decreasing. There is a great deal of small house work done in the suburbs, the stairs of which are made in large quantities and which permits specialization and the employment of a lower grade and lower paid workman. Rarely are stairs of complex details requiring expert workmanship needed except for a comparatively few high-class private houses. There are but few stair building shops in the city capable of executing high-class work and they depend to a large extent on out of town orders for their support. There is no apparent shortage of men in this branch and any surplus of stair builders readily finds employment in other divisions of the trade. For the thorough knowledge now rarely needed in the layout of staircase and hand rail parts out- side study of drawing and laying out is needed. MACHINE OPERATORS The second group in the shop to be considered is that of ma- chine operators. The following enumeration is made merely for convenience of analysis. Only in the larger shops are workers assigned to the continuous operation of but one machine. A worker generally uses one or more machines as the requirements of the job he is on may demand. There are many elements of knowledge and skill that are com- mon to the handling of the different machines. In order to avoid needless repetition in incorporating these common factors in the description of each operator's requirements they are summarized here. Each operator should understand the care and use of his machine as a whole and of each of its component parts and at- tachments, unless the shop provides for the care of the machine by some one besides the operator. Such care includes the sharp- ening of saws and cutters, and all cutter requirements. Varpentry and Joinery IfQ He should know how to read working sketches and the stock lists from which he works and should be familiar with the various kinds of woods and their peculiarities, particularly as affecting their manipulation. He should know the best methods for ar- ranging his stock for efficient handling, and how to pass stock through machines with grain in direction to produce best surface results, and should be able to lay out measurements to 1/16 of an inch with facility. 2'fte Foreman of Machine Hands: The duties of the machine foreman are many and have to do chiefly with getting out the stock, lists of which are given to him. He supervises the selection and preparation of the lumber in conformity with these lists. When, as is true in most shops, there is no dry kiln man he often supervises the operation of the kiln. After the stock has been seasoned it becomes his duty to assign its working to the several machine operators, advising and checking them when needed. When the operator is unable to do so, he arranges devices which help in machine production and checks on waste allowances as well as the working efficiency of each machine and its operator. He checks the progress of the stock and routes it by laborers for each machine operation. He receives partly assembled stock from the glue or bench hands and gives directions for its further machining, at times working on the machines himself. As a rule the machine foreman sets machines for the un- skilled and semi-skilled workers, instructing them in ways of starting, stopping and making adjustments. Where he does not assign others to do so he cares for the sharpening of the machine tools, their repair and upkeep. The foreman machine hand should have a thorough knowledge of all the machines over which he has supervision. He should be able to use them efficiently and, if necessary, repair them. He should be familiar with shop methods, efficient shop routing, details of construction, and the qualities of stock. He should understand the use of speed indicators, and other efficiency meas- uring devices. Finally, he should have a knowledge of various types of motive power and its transmission, and be able to make simple repairs and adjustments. Most shops employ a machine hand foreman, but as a rule, he is given little extra com- 180 Industrial Education l^urvep pensation and where no superintendent is employed works under the direction of the bench hand foreman. He is usually em- ployed the year round, being engaged during dull season on ma- chine tending and repairs. In shops doing work of a uniform nature and those large enough to employ two or more such fore- men the work calls for little knowledge other than required of the machine tenders. There is little chance for the machine hand foreman to advance unless he has bench experience. In specialty shops the required training can be gained through routine work, but where the work is varied the foreman has generally had ex- perience in different shops. The Stock Gutter receives the stock list from the foreman. On this there is given, usually in the following order, and in separate columns : 1 — a Job No. ; 2 — Kind of wood ; 3 — Number of pieces ; 4 — ^Lengths ; 5 — Width ; 6 — Thickness ; 7 — Special Information in regard to use of piece; 8 — Special information as regards accu- racy of length ; 9 — General remarks. Under this last heading is shown a sketch, if needed, which illustrates the final form of the piece, or the use of that piece, in the assembly of the job. From this list he proceeds to get out the material. As is noted the kind of wood and length is given first. This enables him to group his cutting operations in such a way that short stock is out last, eliminating much of the tendency to accumulate short pieces with the attendant waste. The stock cutter must make rapid mental calculations in estimating the most economical way of producing each size. This may mean that he not only esti- mates in length and width, but has constantly to estimate in thickness for resawing in order to economize on materials. By noting use of piece under heading No. 7, he may be able to select pieces for some special service. Much of the success of the final job depends on this selection. Examples of this are: the selec- tion of core stock, with its grain arranged to prevent distortion, and the cutting of pieces so that the grain on the finished surface matches. Noting construction from columns 6 and 8, and making the allowance noted in column 7, the stock cutter places the pieces and cuts them to length. Almost all shops are provided with swing saws suited for this purpose, the saw frame being hung in such a way that it may be swung across quite wide boards of varied thickness. The saw frames are, as a rule, weighted to swing back out of the way. The table upon which the stock to 'Carpe.ntrt] and Joinery 181 be cut is placed is provided witli dimensions usually to y^-\a.ch division, and with a stop gauge which the stock cutter sets when he wishes to cut similar lengths. In swinging the saw across the table, he must take care that the saw is not jammed by a too rapid advance, or by careless handling of stock on the bench. Unless the shop provides mechanical means of sharpening, or has a man who does this work, it is necessary that the stock cutter sharpen the saw frequently. Some of the smaller shops rough out the stock on a saw bench, so arranged that the work may be advanced againsi; the saw. This worker is the most im- portant in the machine division as the success of the final job depends on his knowledge in selecting materials. In cheaper work this knowledge is not as necessary but in all cases economical cutting out of stock is essential. As a stock cutter must be skilled in the individual shop usage, an effort is made to keep him stead- ily employed and he may be used on other machines during slack season. As newer woods, generally inferior in quality and more difficult of machining are introduced, the stock cutter must con- stantly extend his knowledge. Rarely does the stock cutter work on the moulder and shaper. In cases where he learns to set up and care for these machines, his chances of advancement are in- creased. The Rip Saw Operator receives the pieces from the stock cutter, noting the sizes called for by the marks on the surface. He measures the width of the stock, and where needed, straightens an irregular edge by ripping, ofttimes without the use of the gauge or fence. He then sets the gauge to the required width, measuring this distance with a rule if the saw bench is not pro- vided with a scale and passes the stock over the saw, keeping it tightly pressed against the gauge. The Jointer and Planer Operator: Before planing it to thick- ness in a surfacing machine, some stock has to be made true on one surface. It is also necessary to true one edge on most pieces before they are cut to exact widths, or otherwise milled. It is the duty, therefore, of the jointer-operator to take such pieces after they have been ripped to rough widths, and both surface and joint them. He adjusts the forward table of the machine by means of a hand wheel, raising or lowering it to allow the planer knives to project above it to the required size of cut. He notes the direction of the grain and passes the face of the piece over i^'-^ Industrial Education l:iurvet/ tlie knives, repeating tliis operation until the surtace is perfectly smooth and out of wind. This trued surface he places against the gauge and makes the edge square with it by passing over the knives. Occasionally, he removes the planer knives to have them ground, this grinding invariably being done by machine. He must whet the knives and, where they have been removed, must reset them even with the rear bed. The Surface Operator receives the pieces from the stock cutter, the jointer or the rip saw operator, on which he is to produce a smooth surface, or surfaces and a given thickness. The operator may work on a surfacing machine which planes only one surface, or one that planes both with the one operation. He first adjusts the amount of opening needed between the bed and the frame, doing this by means of a hand wheel attached to the frame. When feeding stock of uneven thickness, or on which a heavy cut is made, he must be alert to prevent stoppage, any tendency toward this being noted by the sound of the cylinder head slowing down. In case of stoppage, with the knives in the cut, he is put to a considerable loss of time needed to lower the bed and remove the stock. Occasionally he must adjust the feed rolls to suit the character of the stock he is surfacing, according to whether it be smooth, rough or of wet surface. The tSirw Bench Operulor cuts pieces of stock previously sawed, dressed and jointed, which he brings to accurate lengths and widths for the finished construction, allowing enough extra width for smoothing the edge. He works on a saw bench which is so arranged that the saw may be made to protrude to varied dis- tances above the bench top. Either a rip or cross-cut saw may be used as required. The worker receives a stock list as noted for other machine divisions. He sets the gauge to the width of stock called for, making allowance for any needed edge dressing, and passes the pieces over the sai\' table, keeping the smooth edge against tlie gauge. When it is necessary to square ends or cut them at an angle, he attaches a gauge which is arranged to slide. Where the table is adjustable he tilts it so that pieces may be rip-sawed to a bevelled edge. Wlien special cuts are to be made he often has occasion to devise holding devices, jigs, etc., in order that he be able to produce the required results. The Band Saw Operator cuts stock to curved outlines and Carpentry and Joinery jv^;{ other irregular forms which he lays out from patterns, wheu they are not laid out by the foreman or workmen. Occasionally he makes straight cuts, using, if possible, a gauge or fence which he attaches to the saw table and which he regulates to obtain uni- form widths. In sawing he endeavors to obtain a smooth and true cut by guiding his stock with the back of the saw. Where work is to be cut with a bevel edge he tilts the table top, clamping it in place at the angle needed, checking this angle by an indexed segment under the table top, or by making the top and saw side conform to a given bevel, or to marked stock. Where stock of irregular form is to be sawed he must attach clamps, or some other holding de- vice, so as to prevent disastrous rolling while cutting. The Moulder-Sticker Operator works on a machine called a moulder and sticker which produces mouldings and forms not possible to produce by other means. The competent man pre- pares cutters, needed to make these forms. Section details, or samples of the required shapes, are sent to him either by the oflQce or by the foreman, and he fashions them with the cutters which he has in stock, or with new cutters which he makes. Cutters are made so that the edge will hold well on the kind and amount of wood to be cut and backed so that the cut will be as smooth as possible. The cutter is tempered, ground and whetted. Cutters for stock sizes are often cut to milled forms and the operator need only sharpen them to the required bevel, backing them as noted above. The operator carefully balances his cutters on scales during the making. Balancing machines, allowing for proportional balancing, are sometimes available for producing cutters needed for very accurate work. After the cutters are formed and sharpened the operator fastens them by bolting to the cutter heads, or spindles, noting that they are properly aligned, bedded and fastened to guard against shifting, chatter- ing or flying. In operating the machine he arranges his stock and passes it through with the grain in such a direction as to produce best surface results, checking the piece run with the sample or detail, and making any necessary cutter or machine readjustment. The Shaper Operator works on a machine called a shaper, i-M Industrkil Educiilion Hurvey frazer or variety moulder, which moulds the edges and surfaces of straight and irregular stock. The shaper hand receives a section detail, or a sample of the shape required, together with the stock upon which it is to be cut. He may have to prepare knives, if such are not in stock. In doing this he works as does the moulder operator in grinding, tempering and whetting the edges to the shapes required. To make ready the shaper operator unbolts the spindle collars and inserts cutters in the grooves cut for them on these collars. He aligns the cutters by checking their projection and height from the table and bolts them tightly. The spindles are then raised to the height required for the cut. The operator regulates or adjusts the cutting guide, hold-down pieces, and safety guards to the thickness, width and shape of the material to be cut, and then turns on the power, usually by means of a tripper pedal. When the spindle has attained its full speed (5,000 to 6,000 revolu- tions a minute, noted by the sound of the revolving spindles) , the operator feeds his work into the cut. In feeding work to the machine he may have occasion to rest it against a stop, or guide, letting the knives enter gradually, and at a tangent, until the full cut is obtained. He then sUdes the work against and along the collars to the required distance, which is often measured by an adjustable stop piece. The Tenoning Machine Operator usually works from verbal directions, receiving stock milled to sizes. He may receive a stock list with a sketch in the margin which indicates the size of the tenon. The operator notes waste allowances, tenon thick- nesses and form, and adjusts the headstocks, by means of screws provided, to make the required cut. The power is turned on and a piece of stock is run. This piece is measured, or checked, for size of tenon and distance of tenon from the side. Headstocks may need independent adjustment, or the operator may move both by means of a screw provided for centering. Stock is tried by cutting until the tenon is placed, after which a cut-off saw attachment is adjusted for making it to length. The Operator on Special Machines: In many shops there are special machines such as hollow chisel mortisers, sash mortisers and relishers, reciprocating chisel mortisers, po«t borers, etc., the operation of which is comparatively simple. On this account Carpentry and Joinery 185 these machines may be operated by unskilled workers, the setting and adjusting being done by the shop foreman. The Shop Millwright, Machine Repairman and Sharpener is called upon to install machines, shafting, belting, guards, blowers, machine parts and accessories as well as make repairs. When possible he cares for the sharpening of the machines other than the moulder and shaper. In installing machines he may have to prepare concrete or other beds, set and align the machine and its accessories by leveling and squaring. He may be called upon to advise on the selection of machines, estimating the sizes and kinds of belts, pulleys, lengths and sizes of shafting, kinds and sizes of hangers, bearings, shifting devices, etc. It may be nec- essary that he devise as well as install safety guards. In sharpen- ing he may have recourse to machines for this purpose. Occa- sional repairs call for the brazing of band saws, the re-babbitting of bearings, the reblocking and tensioning of buckled saws, the boring, tapping and patching of machine castings, etc. Significance of the Occupation: There is at least one man in each shop to whom this work is delegated. In mills it is possible to divide this work into mill-wrighting and machine sharpening and repairs. The worker is usually drawn from the ranks of machine operators and can efficiently engage in that division if needed. The heavy work due to installation requires a strong physique. These workers are not only needed in all shops devoted to wood working, whether highly specialized or not, but are in demand for millwright work in all shops where power-driven machines are used. Although experi- ence as a wood worker would give knowledge in regard to machine installation, this information can be improved upon by the study of the principles of power transmission and power requirements and sizes of pulleys, and formulae for obtaining the lengths of belts and sizes of pulleys. Significance of the Machine Division, Other Than the Stock Gutter: The machine wood workers are not well organized and their wages show a great variation, as noted elsewhere. The ease with which men may be trained to set up and operate the saws, planers and boring machines does much to keep these workers in the ranks of the poorer paid. The operator of the shaper, the molder and tenoner who can also care for these ma- 186 Industrial Education Survey chines receives the maximum wage the shop affords and is retained longest. In the smaller shops this work is usually done by the foreman. In mills supplying trim to be erected on union jobs the union scale is paid. The machine wood worker suffers from the effect of slack season although not to the extent as is the case with the outside worker. Newer high speed moulding ma- chines with self-feed attachments tend to save hand labor. The New York machine wood worker is suffering severely from com- petition with the out of town mill with its cheaper material and labor supply. Although bench hands become expert machine wood workers, rarely does a machine hand become a bench hand. It is necessary that machine hands be physically strong and alert with good sight and hearing in order to detect dangerous and inac- curate adjustments. The loss of fingers or even sight of an eye does not necessarily incapacitate the worker. The non-specialized shop affords good trade training to the operator who seeks ex- perience on each machine. Many of the workers in this division are obtained from the highly specialized and lower paid piano, furniture, etc., shops. ERECTION WORK It has been noted that in the shops the cabinet maker has largely become a mere assembler of machined parts; so on the outside job the carpenter and joiner has become more or less an assembler and erector of details more or less completed in the shop. All trim, stairs, doors, sash and window frames, are turned out at the shop assembled and complete as far as possible so as to require a minimum of fitting on the job. These facts have an important bearing upon the status of the trade in New York City, inasmuch as they permit the employment of relatively unskilled workers in the erection of thousands 'of dwellings by speculative builders of the cheaper class. In these cases the con- tractor may have but the slightest technical knowledge of build- ing. He must know, however, how to buy his materials in the cheapest market and to hire more or less unskilled workers to erect his building. These workers are under constant pressure as to speed of work. A very large amount of this kind of work is done in New York and those so engaged, whether employer or employees, are generally not associated with trade organizations. Much of the wood material used comes from outside of the city. The products of the union shops and mills of the city on the other hand are used on the better class of buildings. Carpentry and Joinery 187 Under the classification of "erection work" will be considered all carpentry work connected with buildings that is performed outside of the shop. Here again will be found the strict special- ization that characterizes modern methods of manufacturing; a specialization that makes for the utilization of the worker who performs a limited and restricted task, as against the all around workman. After a consideration of the duties of the superintendent on a job, the requirements of the various foremen are taken up, These foremen are of five classes, all but one having to do with urban conditions. An analysis of the work of the various groups of journeymen completes this portion of the study. The Job Superintendent supervises the construction of a build- ing. As most erection work is performed by contractors the job superintendent must see to it that the various branches are co- ordinated and timed so as to be completed at the proper period. The superintendent is called upon to interpret the plans and specifications, and in many cases to make decisions, which in his judgment are for the best interests of the work. He must prevent defective workmanship or materials from entering into the con- struction. After approval by the various city departments having juris- diction, he lays out the lines of the building, in order that footings may be properly placed and leveled. He must pass on the value of each class of work in order to certify payments, and settle disputes between the different sub-contractors, occasionally arbitrating questions arising between co-ordinated trades. The job superintendent should have a thorough knowledge of building construction, the demands of which vary with the mag- nitude of the work. For fireproof buildings he should have a working knowledge of the strength of materials, so that the steel work in the building may not be subjected to erection stresses beyond their capacity, such as may be produced by overloading with building material or derricks. He should also have an understanding of mechanical prin- ciples as applied to machinery, elevators, hoists, pumps, and the like. He should be thoroughly familiar with the Building Code, and 188 Industrial Education Survey should have a knowledge of Workmen's Compensation Laws, and safety laws. He should understand rapid and economic methods of construction in order that the structure under his charge shall be erected in the shortest time and at the least cost. He should know the unit value on each class of work, and how to figure the amount in order to certify payments to sub-contractors. He should be conversant with rates of wages in the different trades and with trade conditions in general as relates to the supply of men and materials. There is a job superintendent employed on practically all new work and on alterations of any size. Smaller jobs may be taken care of by the occasional visit of the job superintendent but on larger buildings the superintendent is assigned for full time to its supervision. He is employed from the time of initial layout to the buildings completion, being engaged, as a rule, at a yearly salary. On the superintendent largely depends the success of the contractor and the job. This position is much sought for because it is an excellent preparation for contracting. Due to the great amount of cheaper speculative work there has come about the hiring of a less skilled and poorer paid superintendent. These men are, as a rule, without trade training and with little practical experience. It is the opinion of all of the employers questioned that the most successful superintendent is the product of a thorough trade training with the addition of technical study. The scarcity of this type of men has led to the employment of college men with architectural or engineering experience. There is a splendid opportunity in this, the best paid of the building trade positions, to the ambitious mechanic willing to apply him- self by outside study. Although trade experience may be obtained by a variety of work, many other things, such as the use of a level or transit, knowledge of strength of materials, principles of ma- chine and electrical installation, elementary mathematics and physics and the elements of architecture as related to design are needed to meet the requirements of this position. The Foreman on Wood Trim, with the assistance of a helper, checks the trim details as delivered on the job, and consults the drawings as to the places in which trim details are to be used. On large work he is assisted in this by check marks placed on much of the stock at the mill. He supervises the laborers in the distribution of the stock and supervises its erection. He may have occasion to establish height marks and interpret drawings for the men. He keeps a record of time, when no time- Carpentry and Joinery Igg keeper is employed, and hires or discharges men as needed. When time permits he assists in the erection of the trim. The Foreman on Metal Trim has similar duties to those of the foreman on wood trim, as concerns the distribution of materials, the establishing of bench marks and the interpretation of draw- ings. Where he supervises the erection of the work noted under Metal Trim, most of his duties have to do with forwarding the construction, but when in charge of the erection of door bucks, elevator tracks and doors, and the better class of metal covered details, his duties are more complex, as shown in the description of this work under Metal Trim Erector. On account of the great variety and the frequent lack of competent men to perform this work, it is necessary that the foreman have ability to work on all of the operations. The Foreman Joiner on Frame House Construction receives architect's details and specifications as well as lumber lists. While the masons are finishing the foundation work the foreman lays out the various pieces needed for the frame. When the foundations are ready the foreman supervises the placing of the sill^nd marks ofiE on it the spacings for studs, corner posts and other details. He lays off like distances on girth, ribbon and plate pieces needed for the placing of the studs at upper fioors. He designates and supervises the methods of covering the frame, placing bridging, laying the rough floors, placing and covering the roof, and assists the journeyman in locating positions for outside trim, cornices, covering, etc., making simple working drawings on boards or other materials, to assist in locating or checking distances. He advises as to methods of fitting around work of other trades, such as applying flashing, obtaining cuts, spacing of trim, sequence of operations, layout and erection of scaflEolds, application of covering on roofs and side walls, and the layout and erection of porches, bays, etc. When trim arrives he checks up the sizes and has it distributed, assembled and ap- plied. When not otherwise engaged he works on the cutting, fitting and erecting of materials. The foreman should be able to read blue prints and speci- fications and make simple full size details bearing on construc- tion problems. He should be familiar with the Building Code as concerns the carpenter ; have a knowledge of building routine, listing and ordering stock, with its gradings and sizes, the u»e 190 Industrial Education Survey and care of tools, as well as an understanding of all the other elements entering into frame house construction. The foreman should be able to lay out roofs, arches, simple trussed and braced forms and understand simple geometrical layout of angles and cuts for coverings, etc. He should be fa- miliar with the names, kinds, qualities, uses and values of wood, hardware, roof coverings, insulating materials and other building materials; be able to make simple estimations for quantities, and have a practical knowledge of the strength of beams, girders, trussed and braced forms to enable him to use and place material efficiently. It is desirable that he should be able to make ready use of the formulas in the wood-workers' hand-books. He should be able to handle men and have the work performed economically. The Foreman Framer orders materials and checks the sizes of material as delivered, grouping his men for carrying,- piling and cutting. By noting the sizes marked, or by scaling the floor plans, he notes that these agree with the Building Code, and making allowances for subsequent details, lathing distances, stair wells, chimney breasts, partition distances, etc., he arrives at dimensions and quantities of floor members needed for the work. The foreman marks off pattern pieces, denoting by a number on each the number required. He lays out on headers, trimmer, and girders the marks needed for special cuts. He must check the work of his men to see that they cut with- out undue weakening of the members. When metal framing accessories are not used, or required by law, he may have occa- sion to lay out mprtise and tenon, tusk and tenon, gained, notched, cogged or other joints, or insert ledge pieces, steel angles or other materials to carry adjacent members. The foreman lays out the pitched roof members to suit the detailed requirements, using some method, such as the steel square, to obtain lengths and cuts. He allows for the covering of the roof so that the material may be applied properly and he may have occasion to lay out and supervise the building of rough work to receive cornices or decorative details. As the work progresses he must make allowance for the work of the other building trades such as the plumber, the steamfltter, the elec- trician, etc. He should be able to read plans, elevations and specifications, estimate quantities, time and prices, make out stock lists and order materials. He should understand wood joinery that has to do with framing and the allowances for metal accessories, Carpentry and Joinery 191 such as straps, bolts, anchors, stirrups, etc. He should know how to lay out braces, shores, roof members, curved and irregular work, as well as to make allowances for the work of other trades and the code restrictions. He should understand the construction of mill framing, bridge, elevated structure and dock work, as well as the con- struction of trusses and heavy centering, and be able to rig hand power hoisting devices. A knowledge of geometry sufficient for the laying out of curves, angles and triangles is desirable, as well as an under- standing of common fractions, decimals, square root and simple formulas. The Concrete Form Foreman has charge of the construction of concrete forms. He receives from the contractor, floor plans and elevations, with special details where needed. On smaU jobs he may be required to lay out his own batter boards and building lines. On large work, with lines and bench marks laid out by the engineer, he obtains wall and pier loca- tions, also column centers. From section drawings he obtains the sizes of the footings and assigns men, usually in pairs, to the making of the forms. He specifies the materials to be used, also the method of construction, giving the men blue prints, or making sketches for their guidance. He plans the construction of forms so that they may be re- moved without damage and used over again on repeated details in upper floors. He checks his material to see that it is seasoned sufficiently so that it will not buckle, warp or twist when in contact with wet concrete. He considers the bulk of concrete, making his thickness of stock cleating, bracing and nailing so as to withstand the stresses brought on them by the liquid mass. In the construction of columns, he plans that the concrete may be strongly intersected with the girder and beams, and braces the forms to keep them plumb. When footings, columns, piers and side wall forms are finished, he has the forms for lintels, beams, girders and slabs made up and erected, noting that allowances are made for corbel, beam and panel finishes. He indicates the number, sizes and construction of struts under the beams, and introduces wedges for truing them. The Foreman — Erection Work : In buildings of any magnitude a foreman is employed for each branch of work. On smaller jobs, on routine work, and also on larger jobs under a general 192 Industrial Education Survey foreman, there are numerous minor supervisors called "straw bosses" or "snapper" foremen. Their work consists principally in keeping the men busy, solving minor construction problems and interpreting blue prints. The wages of these men are rarely more than those of the journeymen and they will not be con- sidered under this head. The foreman is, as a rule, employed throughout the year, being engaged when time permits or during slack season on journeyman work. His salary on union work varies from a minimum of fifty cents a day above the journey- man rate as specified in the trade agreement. The competent foreman is in line of advancement to the positions of superin- tendent or employer. Due to the great amount of speculation work and specialization, there is less demand for the competent foreman than formerly. His place is being taken to a consider- able degree, by the so-called "straw boss" and on "lumper" con- tractor work by the employer who acts as foreman. Only on the finishing of the finer private house and public buildings, as well as on the construction of the better class of suburban frame houses, are the services of the older type of foreman needed. Knowledge of blue print reading, estimating quantities and draw- ing, necessary for laying out, can best be gained through outside study, and study of the technology of wood and methods of building construction would also be of assistance. There is need for a great many competent foremen for concrete work, who require special instructio'n, as regards the properties of concrete and the materials entering into forms, the principles of concrete construction and form layout. A study of the special provisions in the Building Code is also desirable. The Trim Joiner on Private Houses and Work of the Better Class: In this work the joiner occasionlly does the work of the framer. He also nails grounds around door and window open- ings, making them plumb and true. After the plasterer has finished his work, which is trued by these grounds, and the plaster is dry, the joiner erects the trim. Sash, with glass set and with wood surface primed, is fitted into place. In houses of the better class the trim is placed before the floors are laid. The door jambs, made in the shop to size are assembled to be nailed into place with blocking to hold them and to receive screws for butts and lock strikes. In the trimming of windows the joiner nails the casings in the grooves of the box frame which was set when the walls were built; he fits the stools, and cuts reveal jambs to lengths; cuts Carpentry and Joinery iS8 dadoes in the reveal head jamb; nails jambs together, places tongues of same in the window frame casing groove, and fastens them in place by nailing. Panel backs are fitted and fastened. Such work as cutting and fastening window stops, cutting and fitting window jambs, setting door jambs, casing openings, scribing mantels, assembling and scribing dressers, cutting and nailing base, fitting and hanging doors, fitting and nailing saddles, fitting and hanging sash, etc., is generally divided so that a joiner often works in one division for days at a time. In fitting doors the joiner planes to widths and squares the door top from the side. After the floor is laid he fits the bottom and puts on butts and locks. The trim joiner should be able to read detail drawings. He should know the sizes and heights of counter tables, shelves, doors, etc., and the sizes and heights of plumbing, electrical and other fixtures for which he has to allow and have a knowledge of the Building Code as it concerns his work in relation to fire- proofing, stair construction spaces, door and window openings, sizes and widths of halls and entrances, swing of doors, etc. He should understand the technique of wood as concerns shrinkage and distortion and its proper disposition in building construc- tion. The joiner must be able to measure and mark distances quickly and accurately and use the tools common to his trade with skill. He must also be able to use some of the common tools of allied trades, as a drill for brick work, tinner's shears and hack saws. The Trim Joiner on Work of the Cheaper Class: In all of this work men are assigned to narrow divisions on which they specialize for days at a time. The trim joiner sets and straightens grounds before the lathing and plastering is done so that he may have a proper foundation for the trim. The worker is given door jambs, either knocked down or assembled, which are made to almost an exact size as to height, and the door head is dadoed to the sides the width of the opening required. The stops are fitted and fastened in place. Extension window jambs are made with tongued edge and are longer than needed so they may be cut and fitted on the job. Casings come, as a rule, put together, to suit the various sizes of door and window openings, although in some sections of the city this material is sent in lengths, made in pairs, with mitres out on ends. These pieces need only be cut to exact lengths. 191 Industrial Education Survey glued and nailed, with no reinforcement as is provided in shop made trim. Occasionally jambs are sent with one side of the trim fastened to it, but base, picture, and other mouldings are sent in stock lengths to be cut and fitted on the job. Windov? sills are sent cut to lengths with mouldings returned on the ends. Shelf cleats, shelves and other straight stock is sent in bundles, in lengths that allow for fitting as needed. Kitchen and closet wood work is sent from the shop as nearly completely assembled as is possible. As the work progresses some men are assigned to fitting sash and others to hanging it. The majority of trim joiners are specialists, and on the cheaper class of work, of foreign birth. Their success depends largely on speed in the assembly of trim details rather than accuracy. The work of a better class, though a small part of the total, calls for the em- ployment of workers with a fair degree of skill and knowledge of assembly of complex details. These latter positions are held as a rule, by men with an all-around training, and if of foreign birth, not of recent immigration. Survey visits indicate a short- age of the latter class. The trimmer on cheaper work suffers a great loss through unemployment, although many were found who worked at times as bench hands, jobbing carpenters on cheaper work and on fixture erection. For the cheaper class of trim work the job gives all the training required. For the work of a better class, a knowledge of blue print reading, sizes and con- struction of building details and the properties of wood is es- sential. The Carpenter and Joiner on Frame Houses of the Better Class : The carpenter- joiner on frame houses works usually with a partner or apprentice under the direction of a foreman. Such groups first saw to length and cut out the joints on all members needed for the frame of the house ; gains for joists, or other cuts are made as marked; girders or other heavy pieces are sawn to lengths noted; corner, and other posts are cut, to receive the various members and are placed in such position as to be easy of access in the process of erection. When braces are called for they are cut to the angles marked by the foreman. Eepeated members, such as studs, joists, rafters, etc., are marked and cut to patterns previously laid out in suf- ficient numbers to suit the amount called for on each pattern. Mortises are bored and cut. Tenons are sawn, chiseling being resorted to for trimming. Carpentry and Joinery 19S When the rough members of the building frame have been cut, some of the men are assigned to the job of erection. They place the sill and girders, noting their position by check marks, nailing splices and lapped corners. The assembly of side walls is ac- complished in sections, where possible, the parts being nailed together on the ground, and, when complete, erected to theJf proper position. Other walls are then erected and members that intersect are properly fastened and braced to be plumb and level. Mortise and tenons on headers, and tail joists, are as- sembled and nailed, stirrup irons or hangers being inserted at the trimmer to carry headers. The work proceeds to the placing of rafters, often at the expense of erecting special scaffolding. When the frame is up the men commence boarding in the side walls, covering same with matched, lapped or square edge boarding, as called for in the specifications, this sheathing often being put on at an angle in order to brace the frame. Eoofs are boarded, leaving spaces for ventilation of wood shingles, with strips at the proper distance to receive shingle nails. Bridging stock, sometimes cut at the mill to suit standard spacing, is stuck with nails and fastened at the top. Rough floors are laid in about the same manner, as the sides are boarded, but the job of face nailing is done at the one operation. Partitions are cut from patterns laid out by the foreman for the various studs. Sole and cap pieces are cut and laid out to suit lath sizes and openings. Bridging is cut and placed over the door openings, or to support partitions, while ceilings are furred and the under- side of the bridging nailed. Grounds are nailed and made straight. Insulating paper is placed on the outside walls and window and door frames are fitted, leveled and fastened. While the lathers are at work the men cut, fit and fasten outside trim, build on porches, etc. They cut and fasten siding, noting the spacing divisions, first sawing pieces to lengths and smoothing the ends by planing to fit trim where needed. Shingling of the side walls and roofs is often laid to a strip, rather than a chalk line, and spacing divisions are checked so that the completed surface shows a correct alignment. Flash- ings are inserted where needed, metal gutters and valleys are 196 Industrial Education l?urvey placed for shingling, and when the outside work becomes scarcer, some of the men are laid ofE until the plastering is completed and ready for trim. The men best suited for this work are re- tained and used on minor construction, such as the finishing of porches, making of cellar partitions, etc. The casing of doors and windows, the fitting and nailing of bases, the application of moulding to same, and the fitting and setting of special fix- tures, such as sash, mantels, cabinets, etc., as well as the fitting and hanging of doors, differs little from work described for the trim joiner. The carpenter- joiner often lays the tongue and grooved floor- ing in private houses, but parquet flooring is always laid in these houses by a specialist. After the floors are laid he fits and fastens the saddles, scribes and fits doors to them, cuts and fastens cleats and shelving, as well as other minor jobbing de- tails needed. Stair work is invariably the work of the specialist. The carpenter-joiner should be skilled in the use and care of the tools of the framer and joiner. He should understand build- ing frame types, methods of laying out joints, methods of brac- ing, bridging, trussing, etc., erection of scafi'olds, outside trim cut- ting, fitting and assembling and the handling of insulating ma- terials. He should understand the use and application of flash- ings, methods of fastening wood to other materials, the precau- tions to be observed concerning weather conditions as affecting gutters, construction of joints, setting of trim, priming of joints, etc. He should be able to make simple the geometrical layouts needed for the angle cuts of the frame, covering, flooring, trim, etc. The Carpenter-Joiner on Frame Houses of the Cheaper or Sjwc- vlative Class works under conditions requiring the erection of structures in the least possible time and with a minimum cost both of materials and labor. These conditions encourage the slighting of finish, accuracy and strength, but otherwise, the work is of much the same character as outlined for the carpenter- joiner on better class frame construction. So highly specialized has this speculative work become, that it is possible to build a row of houses in as short a time as twelve weeks, with a small force of men. A very large proportion of frame construction in the suburbs is of this class. As noted elsewhere, the construction of frame houses represents a considerable item in the work of this city. The remarks upon training and types of men under the trimmer apply also to the carpenter and joiner, but the nature Carpentry and Joinery 197 of much of the work on non-union jobs, even of the better class, enables the use of men little better than common laborers for carrying and placing joists and frame parts, sheathing and lay- ing rough floors, shingling, etc. A great deal of this work is of the highly specialized and speculative small house type and is not unionized. The wages on this work, especially during dull seasons, are found to be extremely low. Men classified as helpers, but doing rough carpentry, receiving but |10.50 a week were noted. The Wood Stair Builder on Houses of the Better Glass receives from the shop the various details needed to construct the stairs, i.e., carriage pieces, stringers, treads, risers, newels, hand rails, balusters, mouldings, material for landings, etc., together with the blue prints, shop and other details needed to erect the work. This stock usually comes completely machined, with an allow- ance for job fittings on ends of treads and risers, hand rails, newels, walls and other string pieces. As the methods of stair construction vary the assembler must carefully note by looking over his stock and details the type of construction and allowances for fitting. After the straight stock is assembled, he fits and places starting steps and newels, cuts and fits brackets, curb panels, hand rails and other parts, noting their alignment with work already set. He then inserts balus- ters, usually cut in their proper lengths, gluing and otherwise fastening them as is called for. The stair builder should understand the use and care of the stair erector's hand tools and be able to read blue prints and shop details. He should have a knowledge of the construction of stair wells as concerns studs, joists, headers, trimmers, etc., and should know how to fasten his work to wall materials such as brick, terra cotta, plaster and other partition stock as well as the proper means of bracing and holding during erection. He should know the rules, as to riser heights, pitch, head room, easements, line of travel, etc., as well as the restrictions of the Building Code cov- ering stair construction. The Wood Stair Builder on Speculative Work receives from shop, stair flights almost completely assembled, which he has simply to raise into place, level and fasten by nailing to the studs, after which he sets the newels in their fitted places and lays plat- form stock on framed landings. As the flights are fitted and fastened into place before the final coat of plaster is applied, the need for accurate joinery is, to an extent, eliminated. 198 InduslrUtl Education kiurvey Little time can be spent on careful fitting or in instructing a helper, when a man is required to erect straight stairs often at the rate of about six in one day, assisted by a laborer for the lift- ing. It is often required that the stair builder trim three flights of stairs, with outside panels, hand rails, balusters and facia boards, where such are needed, in about twelve hours, as well as fasten the cellar stairs in place and cut and nail a simple hand rail and newel to them. The assembler on this work needs little knowledge other than that relating to the use and care of hand tools, with methods of leveling and holding work. He should understand the construc- tion of well holes for stairs, so that he may make proper fasten- ings. He should be able to read simple sketches, denoting sizes and position of work. As has before been pointed out, the work of the wood stair builder in other than the suburbs is very limited. What has been said of the carpenter and joiner applies to a large extent to the stair builder. These men work between shop and job where time allows. The nature of their work does not induce crossing over into other divisions. Their slack season is naturally that of the carpenter and joiner. The wood stair builder of the better class must rely upon outside study to obtain much of the technical knowledge needed for laying out his work. For work of the second class little more than a knowledge of blue-print reading is required. The Metal Trim Erector and Bronze Worker who erects cala- mined doors, special trim, etc., receives stock which has been assembled in the shop to as complete a stage as possible. This may consist of doors made to size with door casings and joints cut to the lengths required for fitting. In the case of door pedi- ments, etc., this stock is almost completely assembled in the shops. Back bands, corner moulds, etc., are sent in lengths to be cut on the job by hand and fitted into place. With this stock comes a list of sizes, if needed, and a layout. The erector consults the detailed drawings, makes a layout rod, if required, and commences assembly. He sets his jambs, or other foundation pieces, accurately, making them plumb and level when needed, and fastens same in place so that the fasten- ings are covered with subsequent trim when possible. He cuts this trim to required lengths using the tools noted for the metal trim joiner. He should be able to read blue prints and full-size layouts. He Carpentrji and Joinery 199 should understand construction details adjacent to his work, i.e., jambs, partition, steel frame work, as well as the methods and materials used in fireproof construction. The Metal Trim Joiner receives metal, or metal covered mould- ings, needed for chair rails, picture mouldings, casings, etc. He marks lengths and cuts the pieces, using a hack, or panel saw, designed to cut metal. He nails these mouldings into place. In case of hollow steel or other thick metal, he has to bore these with metal cutting bits to permit of nailing or other fastening. He may have occasion to file metal intersections. Metal bucks or jambs have to be bored and tapped to receive the screws for butts. The metal trim joiner should have a knowledge of metal cut- ting tools as needed for metal trim. He should also understand the methods of wood joinery as related to trim, i.e., butt, coped, mitred, scribed and other joints. He should be familiar with building construction in relation to his trim, should understand the reading of blue prints of simple trim details, and be able to arrange simple jigs and devices for holding, cutting and measur- ing. On account of the Code requirements relating to fire-proofed buildings, this work is rapidly extending, although confined as yet to the larger and more important structures. As most of these buildings are erected under union conditions the union scale is paid. For work of the better class a skilled mechanic is employed. On account of the comparative newness of this work the all-around highly skilled wood trim joiner with some metal working experience is apt to be preferred. Specialists, however, are being developed who bid fair to do most of this work because of their special effectiveness and more rapid work. Although the routine work of the trim joiner is rather limited, it aflfords a train- ing which allows the more apt workers, after acquiring experience in layout, blue-print reading and methods of instruction to ad- vance to the better work where good workmanship rather than speed is required. The Journeyman Framer arranges floor beams in piles so the foreman can lay off dimensions, cuts, lengths, etc., on same. After pieces for each floor are cut he assists in carrying the pieces to their positions. For more eflScient performance of this work he may be called upon to rig a hoist. He sets brick centers, usually made in the shop, braces and levels them. He sets and braces window frames, making them plumb and level. He sets wood lintels or may simply cut same to length, leaving the setting to 200 Industrial Edttoalion Purvey the mason. After floor beams are laid he is called upon to lay the under floor. From this floor the masons work to erect the walls to the next height of floor beams, where the process de- scribed is repeated. The rafters and roof beams are placed and sawed and covered in the same manner by the framer. When two or more floors have been finished, partitions are laid out, pieces cut and erected. After the main studs have been fastened in place and the partition aligned, the framer sets his door studs. When a ceiling is furred the framer nails pieces of 1-inch by 2-inch spruce, or other cheap wood, to the under side of the floor beams. The framer should understand the use and care of the com- mon tools used in the work, the meaning and value of the Building Code regulations as regards cuts of beams, methods of fastenings, sizes of openings, etc. He should understand methods of con- structing simple hoisting apparatus, such as the block and tackle and the principles involved. He should know various ways of tying knots and splicing of ropes and beams. He should be familiar with methods used to overcome or minimize the sagging and twisting of beams. He should understand the layout and making of framing joints, i.e., the mortise and tenon, the ledge, the gain, the housed, etc., and should know the methods for framing stirrups, bridle irons, hangers, strap anc7iors, etc. Much of the suburban work is not unionized and a scale of wages lower that the union scale is paid. Much of this work is done by foreign born workmen. When work is dull framers often engage in the simpler kinds of concrete form making. There are also many who take up the laying of tongue and grooved flooring. In Manhattan Borough there has been a lessened demand for framing of late years, but this has been more than compensated for by tlie erection of apartment houses in the other boroughs. The tool technique of this work is simple, accurate cuts not being essential. A strong physique and skill in walking with heavy loads across narrow walls and planking at dangerous heights is a prime requisite. For this reason many ex-sailors are employed at this work. Outside experience in joinery is of assistance in enabling the specialist framer to engage in other branches when his particular work is dull. A knowledge of construction and the reading of blue prints is needed by at least one in each four of each gang of framers. The Floor Layer lays finish floors of various woods suitable for the purpose. These woods are laid straight or to a varied design, often with an insert of another kind of wood. Where Carpentry and Joinery 301 a border is required on fireproof construction, it is necessary, as a rule, to have the floor layer lay the sleepers needed for the nailing of the floor in place. The finish flooring is sent from the mill in varied lengths, often bundled. This is hoisted, or other- wise passed to the various floors, being distributed by the men at the foreman's direction and placed in such position as to need little rehandling. This stock is, as a rule, %-inch thick and a uniform width for each kind of wood on the job, with a tongue and groove joint on edges and ends. The standard widths vary, being usually less than 3^^ inches. The floor layer receives direc- tions from the foreman as to the design, quality of the job and sometimes as to the process of laying. He cleans ofiE the sleepers and lays building paper if needed. In the case of a border he lays his pieces against the walls scribing them to fit the base set by the joiner. After the border is laid he places his center, selecting his lengths so that joints will not come adjacent to one another and laying the pieces selected in a way to reduce the waste from end cutting to a minimum. In nailing he drives the cut nail in such way that it does not split the board, toeing the nail so that it will draw the board up to make a tight joint with the last board laid. Floors are smoothed by means of a device called a scraper which is manipulated from a kneeling position. For the truing of surfaces requiring considerable removal of wood a plane may be used. There are numerous scraping devices having heavy blades and long handles attached which can be worked from a standing position. Sand papering is usually done by hand, with the paper placed on a block or on a handled weighted device which enables the worker to sand the floor from a standing position. There are numerous electrical driven devices that sand paper the surface true and smooth at the one operation. On most work, however, hand surfacing is done. The floor layer should understand the various woods as to working and warping. He must know how to make simple geometric patterns with straight flooring material and how to lay out the angles needed for his designs. On fire- proof construction, where he must lay sleepers, the floor layer must know the use of bench marks, methods of truing and level- ing sleepers and how to fasten them. The Parquet Floor Layer receives from the flooring shop pieces pf tongue and grooved stock made in short lengths and of such shapes as to fit a design laid out by the shop draftsman. These 202 Industrial Education Survey pieces are tongued and grooved on the ends as well as the edges and for other than wood carpet they are about 13/16-inch thick. Borders may be of long stock of the same thickness or of 5/16-inch strips assembled to some geometrical design, built up on a %-inch base. The floorlayer receives a shop drawing for the assembly of work of a better sort but verbal directions and simple sketches only are given for common work. He lays a thickness of buUding paper over the under floor, makes a layout and begins assembly by laying borders, toe nailing tongue and grooved stock. He may cut joints to a herring bone, or other design, but borders of a design peculiar to parquetry need only be cut and fitted, being faced nailed into place. The floor layer fastens starting pieces, cutting a groove and gluing and inserting a tongue by hand, where one is not provided. He continues the assembly from these built up pieces with stock of a machined length which need be nailed only. He cuts grooves on ends that must be cut to fit as he approaches the other side of the room, gluing and inserting tongues into these adjacent grooves. After the floor is laid he sets all face nails to allow for puttying after surfacing. The floor layer should understand the reading of parquet floor layout details, know the kinds of woods used for floors and their qualities. He should know the different methods of floor laying, e.g., tongue and grooved, parquet, parquetry and fireproof types of floors and understand methods of truing and testing surfaces, as weU as the use and care of the tools of the trade, with special knowledge as to hand and machine scrapers, sand- paper and sanding devices. He should also possess a knowledge of wood finishing as concerns flooring. Almost all of this work is done by specialists. The work of laying simple tongue and grooved stock is quite easily learned, whereas the laying and finishing of parquet floors requires much of skill and experience. On account of the arduous nature of the work a slight increase over the union scale is paid. A few non-union jobs were visited where this was not the fact. There is an increased demand for floor layers, especially those able to do parquet work, due largely to the fact that only men with particularly strong physique re- main steadily at this work. Rarely does the worker on simple floor laying acquire a skill that enables him to engage in other lines. Where the worker wishes to change to more skilled work he must acquire tool practice outside. The Fixture Assembler erects partitions and other hard-wood fixtures. He receives from the shop the pnrtition, or other fix- Carpentry and Joinery 203 tures, partly assembled, with surface finished With the material there come drawings to scale, often with key numbers correspond- ing to numbers on the work. From the figures or scale dimensions on these drawings, the required distances are laid out on the floor. A trial assembly is made, door openings and pilaster places are check marked and holes are bored in the floor which is often of concrete. Such holes are filled with a wood plug, into which nails may be driven in fastening the partition. Metal dowels set into drilled and cemented holes may be substituted for this method. After the pilasters, base, cap and other parts are assembled pieces are scribed by the worker to fit the walls and ceilings, frames or other head pieces being scribed around beams and girders. He then cuts the base and base moulding, cornice and pilaster mould to lengths, scribing, fitting and fastening them securely into place. The fixture assembler should be able to read drawings and layout scale, figure distances from them, and divide spaces pro- portionately. He should be able to arrange jigs when needed to hold work during assembly. He should have a knowledge of the hardware needed for office fixtures, understand its application and know the methods of boring walls and floors to insert fasten- ing devices. There is a cheaper class of fixture joiner, who as a rule works with soft wood, making work-table, bins, shelving, and similar fix- tures needed, for example in work-rooms in loft buildings. He works from simple sketches or verbal directions given by the foreman, or owner. Often sketches are made in chalk on the floors denoting the plan size of the fixture. As a rule, the material for such work is delivered at the job in lengths and finished by hand to the sizes needed, widths often having to be ripped and edges planed. Few cuts other than those needed for a butt joint are made as the shelves are, as a rule, supported on cleats, or by nailing, dado or other joints being made in the shop. Table tops, bin covers, etc., are made up of tongue and grooved stock with battens nailed or screwed to the back and ends of shelves are roughly scribed to the walls, the worker being as- sisted by a fellow workman in their erection. The joiner plugs the wall or floors where needed, or inserts special bolts, or other fast- ening devices. The loft joiner must be able to estimate and measure lengths of stock, mark and cut them to sizes quickly, to use the tools of 204 Iiidustriiil Education Survey his division dexterously, particularly in sawing and planing pieces to size and nailing them together where needed, in fastening cleats, and in scribing and fitting pieces to the walls or floor in a fairly accurate way. He should understand the practice of fire- proofing bins and material around heating devices and the methods of fastening his material to brick and other walls, using toggle, expansion and other bolts in this work. This is a division employing a large number of workers and the work shows a wide variation in the technique required. Many of the workers do not belong to the union and there is, therefore, great difference in the wages paid. For the erection of fixtures of the better class a highly skilled worker is employed becaiise of the accuracy needed in fitting and erecting the parts. Such workers often engage as bench hands in shop construction and also as joiners on wood trim. Although there is a decrease in the number of local shops devoted to the production of these details, there is an increased demand for erectors because of the increased use of partitions. There is no shortage, however, in workers because trim joiners seek this less strenuous work. On the simpler details oral direc- tions and the following of guiding numbers are all that is required. On more complicated work reading of blue prints or details and skill in layout is essential. The Johiing and Alteration Carpenter engages in practically all of the divisions of carpentry and joinery, making repairs and alterations. Earely does he have anything to do with metal trim or concrete forms. He may be called upon to cut and alter the house frame, cut through brick walls, set studs and partitions, lay or patch floors, insert new stair treads, repair or make doors and windows, glazing and puttying them if needed. The jobber may make and hang screen doors or repair and adjust locks, door checks or hardware and, if occasion arises, lay out and construct wood store fronts, repair furniture, insert new sash cords, and put up shelving or other fixtures. In suburban sections this routine may be varied by repairs or construction of outside steps, fences, blinds and sheds, as well as the weather-proofing of roofs and walls with shingles or other materials. The jobbing and alteration carpenter must be an all-around man, having ability to make and read simple construction and al- teration details. Occasionally he must make simple drawings showing the elevations and details of work under consideration. He should be able to make simple estimates of material, figure Carpentry and Joinery 205 costs and make out stock lists for ordinary material. He must have a general knowledge of all types of building construction. He should be familiar with the more common kinds of wood, understanding enough of their quality, technology and care to enable him to use them intelligently. He should know how to lay out and construct the common joints, and be familiar with the stock sizes of materials, i.e., wood, hardware, sash, doors, glass, etc. He should understand enough of framing to enable him to lay out and build simple structures, inserting bridging, trusses, or strengthening parts intelligently. He should have some knowl- edge of the construction of doors, from the simple batten to the occasional panel door not purchasable from stock. It is important that he know the standard sizes and heights of common fixtures, such as tables, chairs, counters, shelving, etc., as well as understood methods of weather proofing, weather boarding, and composition roofing. He should be skilled in the use of all of the wood-worker's tools and be able to use plow and rabbet planes to produce work ordinarily done by machine tools. A great variety of workers are employed in jobbing shops ranging in ability from the semi- skilled handy man to the all-around mechanic. Workers in such shops do not often belong to the unions and their wages vary considerably. For the better class of jobbing a skilled and well- informed worker is needed. The demands upon him are such that he must be able to perform practically any kind of carpentry, although he rarely possesses the speed of the specialist. Although fireproof structures eliminate much of the jobbers' work, there is still a very considerable demand for work of this kind. A jobbing helper has the opportunity in many shops of obtaining excellent tool experience, but such work as drawing and esti- mating with a fuller knowledge of construction, must be obtained by outside study. The Concrete Form Joiner is assigned, usually with a partner, to the making of the forms needed to receive the liquid concrete and hold it to the required shape until it hardens. He works on rough and dressed stock of various sizes, from yg-inch to 2-inch thickness, for forms and braces, and from 1-inch by 3-inch to about 3-inch by 4-inch for struts, standards, etc., North Carolina pine and spruce wood being commonly used. Form for footings are roughed out and nailed together, bracing and holding them in places noted on the blue prints by using pieces driven into the ground. The forms for walls, col- 206 Industrial Education Survey umns, piers, beams and girders are built by sawing stock to lengths, cleating and fastening it to unit forms that may be used over again on repeated parts. The form joiner saws clean-cut space pieces in column bases, arranging them so that they may be inserted and fastened before the concrete is poured. He saws out and assembles struts, braces and cross pieces, inserting wedg- ing and footing pieces to allow for the truing of beams and girders. He constructs boxing for corbels. To prevent column forms from spreading when filled with concrete he assembles milled stock to form yokes, or makes yokes from wood pieces with wedger or bolted corners. The form worker inserts and fastens into place nailing blocks, socket pieces, shaft hanger, electric, steam and sprinkler fasten- ings, so that they will be embedded in the concrete. Where needed he cuts and fastens wood pieces into forms to produce pocket spaces for beams, window and door rabbets, expansion joints, flashing spacing, etc. He must erect scaffolding to enable him to assemble girders and beams, in doing which he fits and nails ledger pieces, cuts and fastens joists and lagging, chamfering corners on surfaces next to the concrete so they will release easily, making the assembly so that it can be removed readily and used over again. Where continuous walls are built the worker constructs slotted or movable standards, arranged for re-erecting strips, bores for and inserts wires, ties or bolts, which he tightens to hold forms to the required position. In the construction of stair forms he lays out stringer pieces, obtaining the run and rise as noted in stair building. He builds forms for landings where these were not made when other details were erected, builds soffit panels, cuts and places beams and shoring, erecting stringers and soffit pieces so as to allow for concrete thicknesses. The worker cuts, places and fastens risers, builds stair curb boxes, inserting and temporarily fastening hardware, such as sockets needed for railings which are to remain imhedded in the concrete. Often, wood and metal trim is inserted as part of the forms so that when the concrete is poured and hardens, they are firmly imbedded. Cornices and ornamental detail forms are built of stock delivered in milled shapes and random lengths. The worker saws, fits and fastens this in about the same way as a joiner builds wood cornices. One of each pair of concrete joiners should be able to read blue prints and sketches, but each form joiner should fully un- Carpentry and Joinery 207 derstand the methods of making, erecting, tying, bracing and shoring forms, as well as bringing them into alignment. He should know how to lay out and make yokes, simple centers, stair strings, braces and struts, and understand the use of wedges to hold, strengthen and align work. He should also know something of the fixtures imbedded in the work so as to place them properly. The number employed upon this work is con- siderable and most of the work is unionized. Men trained only in this branch find it diflScult to engage in other divisions of the trade. This type of work is increasing in importance and the demand is particularly felt for those skilled in ornamental work and the construction of complex details. The work needs a good physique as it is performed in damp surroundings and requires much heavy lifting. Often work has to be done at dangerous heights. The Concrete Form Stripper works under the direction of the foreman, greasing the forms before the concrete is poured into them, stripping the forms from the walls and other details after the concrete sets. He works with a ripping chisel, wrench, hammer and hatchet, and arranges slings and tying devices to enable him to raise and remove the forms from their designated places. He is checked with reference to the time and removal of these forms, so that braces shall be allowed to remain until beams and other concrete parts have obtained the required bear- ing strength. The concrete stripper would not be considered in the finding were it not for the fact that many of the form makers are obtained from this group. These workers by changing em- ployment now and then pick up enough training to enable them to obtain a job as form builder. SUMMAEY OF THE TEADE FINDINGS The trade of carpentry and joinery represents some 55,000 workers in Greater New York, distributed among a large number of small jobbing shops, a small number of large factories, and those finding a shifting employment with contractors who often- times possess no shop at all. They show a trade where fair wages obtain in union shops and a trade that is largely affected by seasonal demands. The past twenty years has witnessed the decline of carpentry and joinery as a trade from one of the best among the building trades, considered from the standpoint of regularity of employ- ment and relative wages, to one of the poorest. The all-around 208 Industrial Education Survey man able to engage in any of the divisions of wood working, who was formerly so essential, has become a great extent a thing of the past. Although as shown by the study of specialized divisions, there is need for a large number of highly skilled men in this industry, yet in comparison with the total workers employed, this number is very small. The demand in this industry is for the specialist whose success depends often on the quantity rather than the quality of work he performs. The skill required in many of these divisions is most elementary and the labor supply is greater than the demand, yet in some of them, because of the speed element, the wages demanded are relatively high. As has been noted the strong tendency in New York City is to limit carpentry work in new construction to assembly and erec- tion of details prepared in mills largely outside the city. Many shops in the city that formerly used the dull season to prepare standard trim and window frames have abandoned the practice, thereby increasing the unbalanced labor conditions and further emphasizing the seasonal character of the trade. The Carpenters' and Joiners' Union seemingly anxious, not only to protect their membership, but insure a supply of com- petent workers, have been compelled with the changed conditions and methods of construction to accept more and more limited requirements for admission to membership. Apprenticeship is practically a thing of the past, the workers being recruited either from helpers in the various branches who are rarely engaged under eighteen years of age or from mature workers coming into the city from the outside. Although it was the opinion of the large majority of the em- ployers questioned that the specialist was best when trained as an all-around man, yet questions asked of the workmen brought out the statement that employment is based invariably on pre- vious experience in a particular line, and that little considera- tion is given to breadth of training. What are the needs of such a trade as regards instruction? For the typical worker — the specialist — it is evident that the range of skill and knowledge required is comparatively narrow and that both, in most branches, can be largely picked up in the practice of the trade. In a few branches there would appear to be a need of short technical courses for those working at the trade which could be supplied by evening classes. For pre-employment classes taking boys from fourteen to six- Carpentry and Johienj l!09 teen years of 5ge, there would seem to be but little place. Both the specialized character of the industry and the lack of an ap- prenticeship system represent conditions that oflfer little reward for attendance in such courses. It would seem that the office of such classes could only be to instruct a few boys who, by virtue of superior breadth of train- ing, would have an added chance of becoming foremen, super- visors or high-grade workmen, and who would find openings with employers who engage apprentices or young workers at sixteen years of age, especially if they are of strong physique. It may be noted that such classes would also serve to train for the furni- ture trade in which a considerable number of young workers are employed. OUTSIDE AGENCIES FOR THE TRAINING OF CARPENTERS AND JOINERS Classes Established by the Board of Education The Board of Education has established three trade prepara- tory courses in woodworking in the three vocational day schools and trade extension classes in carpentry and cabinet making in seven evening trade schools. The following paragraphs describe very briefly the work carried on in these schools. Additional in- formation concerning these classes is given in part five of the report. Day School Courses: The courses offered in the three day vocational schools are open to any boy fourteen years of age who is a graduate of the elementary school or who can show that he is prepared to take the work by successfully passing an examination given by the principal of the school. The courses are two years in length and the boy spends one-half of his time in the woodworking shop and the remainder of his time in drawing, mathematics, science and other subjects. The courses in woodworking do not attract large numbers of boys. In March, 1917, there were sixty-five boys in attendance in the woodworking classes in the three vocational schools. Thirty-two of these boys were in woodworking courses at the Brooklyn Vocational School, nineteen at the Boys' Vocational School and fourteen at the Murray Hill Vocational Schools. Five teachers were employed for these classes. The courses ofifered at the three schools are not imiform in character. The boys in the Boys' Vocational School spend one- third of their time in each of the following departments ; cabinet work, house construction and mill work. Considerable em- phasis is placed on manufacturing a commercial product for the Board of Education. The work in house construction consists of building a small house and working out special problems in framing. This type of work was not found in the other voca- tional schools. The woodworking course at the Murray Hill Vocational School was greatly handicapped by lack of room and equipment. The work consisted of hand tool work as there were no machines provided for this school. The work at the Brooklyn Vocational 210 O (4 o o <1 o M O f> I o c c c o <1 Carpentry and Joinery 311 School consisted of hand and machine work. The work in this school consisted largely of making small pieces of furniture which the boys took home. Evening Trade School Courses: There were seven trade exten- sion courses in carpentry and joinery and four classes in cabinet making in the evening trade schools at the time of the survey. In three of the classes visited the students were working on problems in stair building and framing. In other classes the pupils were engaged in building furniture or making small pieces of cabinet work to take home. The membership of one class was made up almost entirely of carpenters, but in the other classes a small per cent, of the pupils were engaged in carpentry work. At the time of the survey there were 176 enrolled in the classes in carpentry and joinery and cabinet making. The occupations of these men and the number enrolled in each school are given below: Murray Hill Evening Trade School: There were two classes in carpentry and joinery in this school at the time of the survey. In December, twenty-nine men in attendance in these classes filled out questionnaires giving their occupations as follows: Carpenters 16 Porters 2 Clerks 2 Box maker 1 Mill hand 1 Bench work 1 Picture framer 1 Draftsman 1 Waiter 1 Milkman 1 Assistant superintendent , 1 Leather worker 1 29 212 Industrial Education Survey Harlem Evening Trade School: The men iu attendance in the class in carpentry and cabinet making in this school gave their occupations as follows : Carpenters 4 Waiter 1 Upholsterer 1 Elevator operator 1 Piano manufacturer 1 Furniture Worker 1 Porter 1 Telephone worker 1 Printer 1 12 Brooklyn Evening Trade School: Two courses in woodworking were offered in this school, one for cabinet makers and one for carpenters. The pupils in attendance in these classes gave their occupations as follows: CABINET MAKING CLASS OABPENTBY CLASS Wood workers 5 Carpenters 10 Carpenters 3 Laborer 1 Cabinet makers 3 Clerks 2 11 Machinists 2 Tool maker 1 Shipwright 1 17 Long Island Evening High and Trade School: There were fifteen men in attendance in the class in cabinet making at the time of the survey in January. They gave their occupations as follows: Shop teachers 4 Cabinet makers 3 Carpenters 2 Machinists 1 Piano makers 1 Clerk 1 Pattern maker 1 Auto mechanic 1 Draftsman 1 15 Stuyvesant Evening Trade School: There were two classes in cabinet making and one class in carpentry and joinery in this Carpentry and Joinpvy 213 school. There were twenty-two men in attendance in the car- pentry and joinery classes and twenty-five men enrolled in the two classes in cabinet making. They gave their occupations as follows : CABINET MAKING CLASSES Woodworkers 9 Boat builders. . . Cabinet makers. Carpenters . . . . Piano makers. . . Printers Ladies' wear. . . . Salesman Upholsterer . . . . Clerk Basket maker. . . CARPENTRY AND JOINERY CLASS Carpenters 9 Porters 5 Piano makers 3 Cabinet makers 1! Clerk 1 Upholsterer 1 Mechanic 1 22 25 Bushwich Evening Trade School: There was one class in car- pentry and joinery and one class in cabinet making in this school at the time of the survey in February. The occupations of the men in attendance in these classes were as follows: CABINET MAKING Clerks Cabinet makers Machinists Printers Shipwright Baby carriage manufacturer . . , Bookbinder Telephone repairman Blue Printer , Insurance CARPENTRY AND JOINERY 3 Carpenters 3 Electrician 2 Pipe maker 2 Tinsmith 1 Photo engraver 1 Salesman 1 Houseman J Fireman 1 Pen manufacturer 1 Lithographer 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 21 13 .Tottenville Evening Trade School: There was one class in trade carpentry in this school. The occupations of the men in fhis class were given as follows : Ship carpenters 4 Copper workers 2 Furniture worker 1 Florist 1 Export business 1 No occupation 2 11 214 Industriul Eduvatioii. Swrvey Courses Maintained Under Peivatb Auspices Pratt Institute conducts a two-year evening course in carpen- try and building designed to afford practical instruction for foremen, journeymen and apprentices. The class meets on three evenings a week for a season of six months. A certificate is awarded to those who complete satisfactorily the entire two-season course. The class enrollment during the past year was 37. The day class in carpentry at Pratt Institute which was in operation for many years was discontinued at the end of the school year 1916, on account of the limited number of young men applying. The Baron de Eirsoh Trade School provides courses in nine trades, including a course in woodworking. Each course requires five and one-half months for its completion, or 820 working hours. Of this number 730 hours are devoted to practical shop work, with the remaining 90 hours to correlated work in mechanical drawing and shop arithmetic. Two classes are admitted each year. Instruction is confined to day classes. There are seven pupils in the present carpentry class. This school has also experienced a very small demand for woodworking, the number in the class averaging ten or less for a number of years. The NeiD York Trade School maintained day trade classes in carpentry for many years but ga^'e them up at the end of the school year, 1915-16, on account of the small numbers applying. RECOMMENDATIONS OF TRADE COMMITTEES When the findings of the survey were completed they were submitted to the conference committees appointd by the Master Carpenters' Association and the United Brotherhood of Carpen- ters and Joiners, and the following resolutions were adopted by the committees: 1. This committee recommends that the Board of Education establish one or more schools for the building trades and con- solidate in these schools the equipment now used for carpentry and joinery work in the three day vocational schools for boys. The committee suggests that it might be possible to offer courses in these schools in the following building trades : 1. Carpentry and Joinery 2. Plumbing 3. Sheet metal work 4. Electrical work 5. Marble and tile work 6. Brick laying 7. Stone cutting 8. Painting, decorating and paper hanging 9. Ornamental iron and bronze work 10. Steam and hot water fitting. 2, That the Board of Education continue the two-year day vocational courses in carpentry and joinery for boys 14 to 16 years of age who desire to enter the trade. The committee, appointed by Master Carpenters' Association, assured the director of the survey that under normal trade conditions the members of the association would employ the graduates of these courses. 3. The committee heartily recommends the establishment of evening trade extension courses for the men employed in the carpentry and joinery trade. The following courses were sug- gested : 215 ^1^ Inclustridl Educiiiion Survey I. Courses in lines, levels and measurements for foremen, superintendents and journeymen carpenters. This course to include the use of tapes, levels, plumb bobs, the steel square and transit. 2. Elementary trade drawing ■J. Advanced trade drawing for carpenters 4. Short course in freehand sketching 5. Short course in the Building Code requirements. 6. Course in properties and strength of materials 7. Course in mill work 8. Practical course in framing 9. Practical course in stair construction 10. Course in elementary cabinet work II. Course in advanced cabinet work 12. Course in plan reading and estimating 13. Courses in period design for detailers, shop foremen and superintendents. 4. The committees recommend that an advisory committee of nine members be appointed to assist the Board of Education in developing the courses in carpentry and joinery. That such committee be made up of four members representing employers' associations, four members representing employees' associations and one other member. That the recommendations of this com- mittee to be considered in the following : 1. Equipment 2. Courses of study 3. Length of courses 4. Eequirements for teachers 5. Number of pupils admitted to day classes. 5. The committees recommend that a registration fee of |2.00 be required of all pupils who attend the evening classes in carpentry and joinery. That such fee be returned if the pupil satisfactorily completes 75% of the course. REPORT OF ADVISORY COMMITTEE In the report of the advisory committee on day vocational schools the following paragraphs concerning instruction for the carpentry trade appear : "With the conditions existing in the carpentry trade, it is evident that there is not the opportunity for young workers of 16 or 17 years of age to enter the trade with the chance for advancement to high grade work that is present in the case of printing and machine work. Such openings are limited to the mills and shops dealing with high grade work and to the com- paratively few opportunities presentedfbr after advancement to foremen and other supervisory positions in both inside and out- side work. These opportunities, however, seem sufficient to war- rant the maintenance of pre-employment classes of limited size in this trade. "The committee feels that instruction in carpentry and elec- trical work could most effectively be maintained in a central school for the building trades along with other courses in this field. While one such school would, at first, be all that is necessary, other schools could be added as the need became apparent until each borough is provided. "A specialized central school backed by the interests of the trade dealing in part-time and trade extension classes and stand- ing before the community as the headquarters of the trade, will present a situation much more likely to attract a group of pre- employment pupils who have already formed their desire to be trained for that particular trade than schools in which this trade course appears only as element among other courses. "The contact of pre-employment pupils in such a central school with the higher processes of the trade and with the workers in the trade wiU exercise a strong influence in retaining their at- tendance for the full course of pre-employment instruction." In the report of the advisory committee on evening schools ap- pears the following : "This committee heartily endorses the recommendations of the committees appointed by the Allied Printing Trades Council and the Association of Employing Printers, for the establishment 217 218 Indufiiriul Education Sufvey of a centralized school of printing and also the adoption of the courses of study suggested by these committees for evening trade extension classes in printing. This committee also has the firm conviction that it is advisable to bring together in one school wherever practicable, all evening classes in the same field of work in order that through this larger grouping pupils may be more readily and carefully graded as to their previous train- ing, experience and ability. This plan will tend to improve the character of instruction and make possible much better and more far reaching results than are at present obtainable. This arrange- ment also makes possible a larger and more satisfactory equip- ment than can be had under the present plan of widely distributed classes in the same subjects." PART IV THE MACHINIST TRADE HISTOEICAL SKETCH Machinery building is the greatest manufacturing industry in the United States. Our present day civilization with its com- fort and leisure rests upon the continued building and upkeep of the machinery of production. Both in the number of workers employed and in the "value added by manufacture" the indus- tries embracing the trade of machinist outrank all others. Included in it are the making of implements for producing our food, the means of transportation in all its varied forms — auto- mobiles, railroad trains, ships — the machinery for the production of power, mining equipment in all its variety, the machinery for making clothing, shoes and all other articles of wearing apparel, huge machines for fabricating our buildings and bridges and, in fact, the mechanical means for putting into useable form all the great resources of the natural world. Obviously, the art of machinery building began with the invention and development of machinery for manufacture which is usually placed between the years 1750 and 1800 — the half century which produced the spinning machine, power loom and steam engine. To build these machines it was necessary to have other machines — those that we today call machine tools — and in briefly sketching the invention and development of machine tools we can survey the development of the machinist's trade. There are four basic machine tools and an almost innumerable number of adaptations of them. These four are the lathe, drilling machine, planer and miller. The lathe in a crude form for working wood was well known 219 220 Industrial Education Survey and widely used long before the building of manufacturing ma- chinery. But the essential principle upon which all metal turning lathes are now constructed is credited to an Englishman, Henry Maudslay, and the date of his invention is placed at about 1797. At that time he brought out the slide rest for his screw-cutting lathe — the invention which is usually ranked as second only to the steam engine in its effect upon the trend of civilization. From that beginning the lathe has had a development along lines that have given us at one extreme the small, accurate bench lathe used for making the parts of watches and similar precision work, and at the other the huge machines used for turning the shafts of steam engines and turbines and for making the tubes and sleeves of 16-inch guns. Another line of development has given us the hand and automatic turret lathes for repetition work, and the hand and automatic screw machines for making small parts in quantities of thousands or even millions. The drilling machine, like the lathe, also existed in a crude form even in the hands of savages. Its development into the modern machine tool cannot be traced as accurately as for the lathe, but in its present form it ranges from the small, sensitive bench machine used for drilling holes only a very few thousandths of an inch in diameter, up to huge radial machines for drilling locomotive frames and casings of steam turbines. Other develop- ments have given us special drilling machines of many kinds — such as are found in automobile building shops — and even ma- chines for automatic drilling. The metal planer goes back to the beginning of that period which has given us manufacturing machinery. One of the best known early examples was made by a French mechanic, Nicholas Forq, who in 1751 produced a machine for planing the pump barrels for the pumps used to supply water to the numerous and exceedingly beautiful fountains at the palace of Versailles. From such a beginning we have today the small hand planers for The Machinist Trade 221 special tool work, and huge machines for finishing our largest cast-iron and steel castings with openings between the housings 12 feet square or even larger. Unlike the other fundamental machine tools the miUing machine Is an American development. The invention of the plain miUer is credited to Eli Whitney— of cotton gin fame— in a shop in New Haven, Connecticut, where he was producing musketti for the United States government. The year was 1818. The universal machine did not come until forty-four years later, when Joseph R. Brown of the Brown & Sharpe Manufacturing Company produced a machine in 1862 for milling the flutes in twist drills. Like the other machines, the miller has had a wonderful development, espe- cially for particular operations as hobbing gears, milling gears, milling threads and for automatic and continuous milling. It is impossible to cover in a small space all of the various types of machine tools which have been produced to meet the ever increasing demands of machinery builders. But one other ma- chine must be referred to — the grinder. This was originally built for precision work only, mainly for making tools. Later its pos- sibility as a manufacturing machine was realized and it is now the backbone of the machinery for finishing precision metal parts. Mr. Henry M. Leland, president of the Cadillac Motor Company, is authority for the statement that the modem automobile could never have been built had it not been for the precision grinding machine tool. This brief outline of the development of machine tools gives us a hint as to the corresponding and parallel development of the machinists' trade. At first the machinist was largely a hand worker, who chipped, filed and scraped to produce the surfaces on machine parts. Later he became the skilled mechanic who operated the earlier types of machine tools and possessed a wide- spread knowledge permitting him to do any kind of work in an accurate and expeditious manner. Still later, and now coming down to the period embracing the last twenty years, the speciali- zation of machine tools and the inability to obtain a sufficient number of skilled machinists brought about the development of the machine operator — ^that is, one who with a very limited degree of skill and experience can handle one machine tool successfully. 222 Industrial Education Survey The pressure of war has hastened this changing process and today thousands and thousands of women are entering our machine shops to do even precision work in the manufacture of war mate- rials. Had it not been for the intensive development and speciali- zation of machine tools, the efforts of these women and of thou- sands of unskUled men who are beside them could never have been utilized. With the coming of the machine operator came the need for refined cutting tools and small tools — ^jigs, fixtures, gauges — and especially skillful men became tool makers, usually the highest paid men in the shop. So today in the machinists' trade we find tool-makers, all round machinists and machine operators. The degrees of skill are so wide that there is a place for almost every one who wishes to work at machinery building. Local Landmarks. New York has never been a large machine production center. With the invention of the steamboat, marine engine building was centered in New York, but by the time large vessels became com- mercial possibilities England had come to be the great ship- builder and the subsequent large development of shipbuilding in this country took place at seaboard points other than New York, and on the Great Lakes. Such well-known marine concerns as Quintard, Fletcher, Delamater and Allaire, however, developea early to meet the demands of the industry. It was at the Dela- mater Iron Works that Ericsson's Monitor was built and during the Civil War other vessels of the same tj'pe were turned out at this plant, the working force then running as high as 2,500 men. The works were located on the North River at the foot of Thir- teenth street, the site today being covered with thirty feet of water at low tide. The Delamater Works is also to be credited with building the first successful submarine. Makers of printing presses have been long represented in New York by the well-known Hoe plant. As to makers of machine tools. New York can own to only one sizable machine tool builder of long standing, the Garvin Machine Co., which sold its first machine in 1865 to the Singer Mfg. Co., then in Mott street. With the rapid growth of railroad building with its great The Machinist Trade 223 demand for mechanical equipment, numerous machinery and metal-working companies were started along the harbor front in 1870 or thereabouts. Many shops were established in the Man- hattan district centering around Broome and Centre streets, along the lower East Eiver. But even forty years ago land values and crowding markets compelled Mays & Bliss, the predecessor of the E. W. Bliss Co., to abandon a plan to build on Broome street and to choose its Brooklyn site instead. While not favorable soil for an industry requiring large floor space and storage room, Manhattan Island was, nevertheless, the birthplace of some companies now large and famous in their line. Here were the early struggles of the predecessor companies of the IngersoU-Rand Co., well-known maker of pneumatic tools; the Watson-Stillman Co., designer and producer of many types of hydraulic machinery, and others. There still exist on the island many shops in lofts, but the construction of bridges open- ing up the undeveloped areas of Long Island City and Queens, has been followed by the upbuilding in these localities of com- munities of machine shops which go far to serve the automobile and repair needs of the metropolis. Of the machine shops established long ago that have survived, Brooklyn has afforded a far more permanent haven than Man- hattan and notable age and distinction have been attained by such as the E. W. Bliss Co., maker of stamping presses, etc.; the Lidgerwood Mfg. Co., hoisting equipment; J. H. William & Co., drop forgings and small tools, and Henry K. Worthington, pioneer pump manufacturer. At the present time, war and its enormous demand for manu- factures is compelling plant extension wherever factory sites permit. This pressure is causing a rapid growth in airplane and other war specialty works in Queens and Brooklyn and dotting the shore-line with new shipyards. Manhattan's loft shops are during the emergency engaged to their capacity on the produc- tion of gauges, jigs, dies and small tools urgently in demand by the great munition works of the country. Meanwhile much of the engineering designing and executive skill of the nation is con- centrated on lower Manhattan, making it one of the greatest machinery markets of the world. 224 Industrial Education Sv/rvey IMPORTANCE OF THE TRADE The 1910 Census of the United States, under the heading of "Manufacturing and Mechanical Industries," gives 25,159 as the number of "machinists, millwrights and toolmakers" in the City of New York, of which number 450 are designated as "tool- makers, die setters and sinkers." It further shows that the largest number of workers in any one trade is in the garment industries, and the second largest number in the building trades. In this latter group the number of "carpenters" is given as 41,442, of "painters and glaziers" as 32,065, and of "plumbers and gas and steam fitters" as 19,564. "Electricians and electrical engi- neers" number 15,512 and the printing industries include 16,826 compositors, linotypers and typesetters," and 2,668 "pressmen." These figures show that as far as numbers employed are con- cerned the machinist trade ranks with the first half dozen indus- tries in the city. It is interesting to note that both the State and City of New York lead all other states and cities in the number of machinists employed. The following tables compiled from the census report of 1910 show the figures for states employing over 15,000 ma- chinists and for cities employing over 5,400 machinists. NUMBER OF MACHINISTS, MILLWRIGHTS AND TOOLMAKERS State Oity New York 66,360 New York 25,159 Pennsylvania 63,360 Chicago 23,422 Ohio 43.955 Philadelphia 19,771 Massachusetts 39,723 Detroit 11,798 Illinois 38,880 Cleveland 11,558 Michigan 30,005 Buffalo 6,856 New Jersey 23,724 Milwaukee 6,524 Indiana 17,540 Boston 6,175 Connecticut 16,880 Pittsburgh 5,429 Wisconsin 15,472 In spite of the very large numbers of machinists in New York indicated in the above table, the city is not a machine manufac- turing center, but is on the other hand a great repair district in which a vast amount of work is constantly being done in the repair of marine engines, street car, subway and elevated equip- ment, elevators, motor vehicles and central power plants and also upon the upkeep of the great numbers of machines used in the industries of the city such as the printing and clothing trades. The Machinist Trade 225 NUMBERS ENGAGED IN TRADE From the data gathered by the survey, it would appear that there are now approximately 1,000 machine shops in New York City, employing 31,000 general machinists, tool and die makers, specialists, helpers and apprentices. According to the best available information these workers are distributed as follows: General Machinists 12,000 Tool, Jig and Die Makers 1,300 Helpers and Specialists 16,425 Apprentices 1,275 31,000 There are 9,373 members in the local unions and 384 regis- tered apprentices. On this basis of distribution of machinists' helpers, specialists and apprentices there are 41 apprentices to each 1,000 machinists, specialists and helpers. NATIONALITY OF THE WORKERS The last published U. S. Census Report shows that the work- ers are almost evenly divided between foreign and native bom, and that of the native born a little less than half are of foreign and mixed parentage. HOW MACHINISTS ARE TRAINED A study of the records of several hundred men shows that approximately 35 per cent, received their training outside of the city. In the marine shops a large number of the workers were trained in Ireland and Scotland, and in the other lines many of the men received their training in Germany and Sweden. Many of the men in the shops pick up their knowledge of the trade in a more or less haphazard way. Most shops will afford the brighter and more ambitious helper an opportimity to work on the machines, and by shifting from shop to shop such a worker acquires a knowledge of different tools. Again, the worker on one tool may attend an evening school in machine shop practice and so add to his trade knowledge. Of definite training of apprentices there is little, and what there is, is largely confined to the large establishments. The survey revealed only four establishments having regular inden- tured apprentices. In eleven other large establishments visited, employing 4,477 machinists and machinists' helpers, there were only 164 apprentices or boys who were being more or less thor- oughly trained in the trade. 226 Industrial Education Survey The apprenticeship agreement entered into between the firms and the apprentice is a printed form signed by the contracting parties, which include parents or guardians acting for minors. The boy must be at least 16 years of age, physically sound, of good moral character and have received a fair education. The educational requirement is stated definitely by one firm as at least four years' schooling, and another firm requires graduation from the public schools, which requirement may be waived in special cases. The period of apprenticeship is in each case four years, with a probationary period of eight weeks in one case, and twelve in another. The rate of pay varied in each of the four forms of agreement as follows: Per hour Per toeek First six months 7c. 8c. 7c. $4.00 Second six months 8c. 10c. 7c. 4.00 Second year 13c. 12-14c. 10c. 5.00 Third year 18e. 16-18c. 13c. 7.00 Fourth year 22c. 20-22c. 16c. 9.00 One firm gives the apprentice who completes his four years $200 as a bonus, and another gives a bonus of $100. Still another firm deducts 25 cents per week from the boy's wage and returns it to him in a lump sum when he has served his time, together with 25 cents for each week in which he has lost no time. The purpose of the above plans is, of course, to develop a further incentive for the boy to serve his full time. One company specifies in its agreement the kind of work it will give the apprentice, as follows : First six months: Weighing material and general helping Second " " Work on centering machine, facing nuts, cutting-ofif, drilling and work of similar character Third " " Small lathe Fourth " " Shaper and small planer Fifth " " Lathe Sixth " " Connecting rod work, bench and vise work Seventh " " On whatever machine tool the foreman may designate Eighth " " In the erecting shop Another company promises broadly to "instruct apprentices in the machinist's art and trade in its shops during the term of apprenticeship." The Machinist Trade 227 Yet another company is a little more specific in promising "to give thorough instruction on lathe, boring mills, milling machine, planer, vise, assembling and erecting." One company conducts an evening school for its apprentices, giving instruction in English, workshop mathematics, mechanical drafting and applied mechanics. The apprentice attends the school either two or three evenings a week during the winter for the four years of his apprenticeship. Another company specifies in its agreement that "all appren- tices are required to attend the school course four hours a week for thirty-nine weeks per year." The instruction is given on Saturday afternoons to four groups, each group dividing its time into two hours of mechanical drafting, one hour of mathe- matics and one hour of shop instruction. One large machine shop that has no signed agreement with its apprentices required that they attend the public night schools. The same firm has five apprentices employed on the co-operative plan outlined elsewhere in this report. The Brooklyn Navy Yard has an excellent course for the training of machinists. This is a civilian branch of the work at the yard, but the men trained there are apt to continue in government service and so afifect but little the commercial side of the. trade. EEGULAEITY OP EMPLOYMENT The war has brought about an unprecedented and abnormal state in the machinists' trade. The engines of warfare, both on land and sea are almost wholly the product of this trade and the enormous demand for delivery of huge quantities of weapons, munitions, etc., with least possible delay, has glutted the demand market far beyond the supply. This demand has resulted in the ready employment of anyone having the slightest knowledge of operating a machine tool. The unions report that in normal times about 20% of the workers in this trade may be unemployed. There are, in general, no marked dull seasons in the trade, em- ployment being quite regular throughout the year. The machinists employed in marine repair work are mostly engaged upon work on the vessels themselves, and are laid oflf upon the completion of a job and re-engaged when another develops. 228 Industrial Education Survey SCALE OP WAGES Union: — The district lodge establishes the minimum rate of wages in its locality. The minimum and maximum rates pre- vailing in New York City of June 30, 1917, are as follows : Machinists : Per day Marine shops ?4.00-?5.60 General manufacturing 4.00- 5.20 Automobile repairing 4.50 and up General repair shops 4.50- 5.20 Toohnakers 5.20 and up Erectors 6.00- 7.00 Specialists 1.75- 4.00 Helpers 2.50- 3.50 Apprentices 1.00 and up In marine work the men receive double pay for the first four hours of overtime and triple pay for each additional four hours of overtime. In manufacturing shops the rate for overtime work is one and one-half of regular pay for first three hours and double pay after that. Erectors receive double pay for overtime work. The terms machinist, specialist, helper and apprentice, are defined by the union in its constitution, as follows : — Machinists include persons who can, with the aid of tools, with or without drawings, make, repair, erect, assemble or dismantle machinery, or parts thereof. Specialists include persons who are employed at some branch or subdivision or who perform some line or class of work com- monly recognized as work connected with the machinist trade or metal industry, and requiring but a portion of the skUl that is usually exacted from a machinist. Helpers are not clearly defined in the Constitution of the Machinist Helpers' Organization, but their status may be implied from the requirement for admission to the Lodge which reads as follows : — "Any man who has had one month's experience as a machin- ist's helper and competent to command the minimum rate of wages paid in his locality, and who is not eligible to membership as a specialist." Helpers include persons who fetch tools preliminary to start- ing a job and return them to their proper places when finished; The Machinist Trade 229 who assist in lifting and moving parts of a job; clean work; paint parts ; remove turnings, and otherwise assist the machinists. Apprentice: — Any boy engaging himself for four years to learn the trade of machinist. He may not begin his apprentice- ship until he is sixteen years old, nor after he is twenty-one years of age. Non-Union : — The maximum non-union wages correspond with the union rates. TYPES OF MACHINE SHOPS There are two broad divisions into which the machine shops of the city inay be grouped; the manufacturing shop and the repair shop. There are some shops doing both manufacturing and repair work, but in general, the division holds. The manufacturing shop may be divided into the following groups : The manufacture of heavy machinery, such as engines, pumps, hoisting machinery, refrigerating machinery, grinding and mixing machines, and large printing presses. The manufacture of special machinery, such as the linotype, printing machinery, bottling machines, stabilizing machinery, water meters, typewriters, weighing and packing machines, cigar and cigarette machines, carpentry machinery, machine shop tools, dies, jigs and fixtures. Automobile construction. Marine construction. The repair shop as a distinctive group is generally limited to repairs upon a particular kind of machine or work, as an elevator repair shop, marine repair shop, automobile repair shop, or rail- way repair shop. Small independent machine shops are often spoken of as repair shops, but many of them are also engaged in construction work. For the purposes of this survey, the following grouping of types of shops is made: No. 1. Construction Shops: — a. Heavy machinery b. Special machinery c. Automobile d. Marine e. General 230 Industrial Education Survey No. 2. Repair Shops:— a. Railway b. Marine c. Automobile d. Elevator e. Special machines f. General Group No. la. There are but few shops of this class in the city. These shops are equipped with huge machine tools for machining large castings and forgings, and powerful traveling cranes for handling heavy parts. This is the old line type of large machine shop and little or no attempt is made at specializing. One firm in this group whose product is limited to oil engines and refrigerating machinery employs 300 machinists, 200 helpers and 50 apprentices, and another specializing in hoisting machin- ery employs 290 machinists, 90 helpers and 7 apprentices. Group No. 1-b. The distinctive feature of this group is the manufacture of machines to perform some special function, as the setting of type, the sealing of bottles, the weighing and packing of commodities, the making of cigarettes, printing, etc., and also the making of tools, dies, etc. This group includes the larger part of the constructive machine work done in the city. The largest single unit in this group is the making of printing presses, one firm alone employing 910 machinists, 169 helpers and 55 ap- prentices. This type of shop shows the recent development of the ma- chinists' industry and the tendency of the modern shop to specialize not only its product but also in its help. In one shop the machinery is organized in departments and the general machinists almost entirely eliminated. A standard article is manufactured and all work is expected to be inter- changeable ; that is, of the hundred pieces manufactured, all must be of exact size so as to fit any machine to which they may be adjusted. Here the toolmaker is the keynote to the plant. Jigs and fixtures are designed and manufactured in the tool room. The machine tools are shaped and kept sharp, and the particular machine set up for its various operations by the floor or gang boss. The specialist is merely a machine tender. In another shop it was found that while the work was highly specialized and interchangeable parts were made, a high order of skill was required to perform the necessary machine operations. The Machinist Trade 231 Lathe hands, planer hands, milling machine hands, etc., were grouped in departments, but each had to understand the funda- mentals of the trade and be particularly proficient in skiU and technical knowledge relating to the machine he operated. In the ten shops of the general manufacturing type surveyed, there were 7,836 employees working at aU branches of the machine industry. In one shop the employer found it profitable to hire and sys- tematize the training of apprentices ; in another the employer said his shop was gradually getting away from hiring boys who were less than 18 yeats of age. Group No. 1-c. There is relatively Uttle automobile manufac- turing done in the city. There is one firm manufacturing an ex- pensive, high grade car and two firms making automobile trucks. Several of the well-known manufacturers of cars have assembling plants within the city. In the case of the low-priced car these plants employ mechanics for the assembling of parts, as such work does not require a skilled machinist. Group No. 1-d. With the exception of the Brooklyn Navy Yard, little marine construction work is carried on in this city during normal times. There is promise of a considerable exten- sion in this line in the near future. Group No. 1-e. There are shops in the city which do consider- able miscellaneous construction work. One such shop visited in this survey employs 75 machinists. At the time of the visit the shop was constructing 50 machine tools of one type on a single order. At other times similar bulk orders are filled, but the shop differs from those of Group No. 1-b in that the work is not confined to the making of one special line of machines. Much of the work of a shop of this kind is the construction of models for inventors and the making of special tools, dies, jigs, etc. Group No. 2-a. The railway work of the machinist is all repair work. The machinists' part of the work of repairs on the subway, elevated and surface cars of the city is largely confined to the trucks. The truck bearing the motor is termed the motor truck and the other the trailer. On both trucks there is consid- erable repair work to be done on the axle and wheels. The axle and the wheel castings are received at the shop in a condition re- quiring finishing. The axle is turned down to proper dimensions and the wheel is finished to receive the axle. The two are fastened together by forced fitting. This requires a hydraulic wheel press, which is a special tool for the purpose and found only in shops 232 Industrial Education Survey of this type. The faces of wheels require turning down, which is done on special wheel lathes. The rest of the work on the trucks is putting on new brakes shoes, and general overhauling. As the trucks are put together with bolts and nuts, the principal tools employed are wrenches, hammers and bars. The repairs on the motors are mainly electrical work, though machine tools are used in some instances, as in turning down the face of commutators. Considerable air-brake repairing and overhauling is done at the 14:8th Street shops of the Interborough Railroad Co. This is bench work and is largely confined to hand tools. Cars are periodically overhauled, therefore employment is regular. Group No. 2-b. There are two groups of marine repair ma- chinists; inside or shop men and outside men. The inside man is required to be a general hand, that is, if the job requires lathe work, planer operation work, or work on other tools, he must perform all those operations and fit and file when required. He must have also a knowledge of shrink fits and press fits, and possess a general skill not required of a me- chanic. Sometimes, in small shops, he will be required to do outside work. His job is fairly regular because machine work is generally on hand in the shop to tide him over slack periods. This type of machinist will, including overtime, earn wages reach- ing to |70 weekly. Outside men are usually migratory workers. When a ship is docked and about to be repaired they line up before the shop door. The foremen pick the men for each gang and they are sent aboard the ship. The work is stripped and sent to the shop, except wheel propellers which are usually rebored and slotted on the dock. Such workers make up all pipe joints, drill flanges, take out broken studs, fit manhole covers, insert gaskets, install deck parts, boat davits, port lights, wireless rigs, gearing and shafting for mechanical operation of ventilators, steering gear, and checks on boilers, overhaul main, tail and auxiliary shafting, the deck aux- iliary anchor engines, emergency pumps, and in fact deal with all mechanical contrivances about the ship. These outside men usually stay aboard ship, working day and night until the job is completed and then move to another job. Group No. 2-c. While there are numerous so-called automobile repair shops throughout the city, there are but few of such shops The Machinist Trade 233 that employ a highly skilled machinist or have even the usual machine shop equipment. The repairing done in such shops usually consists in dismantling a part or parts of the car, clean- ing and putting together. Very few service garages have a ma- chine shop attached. The Automobile Club of America has a well- equipped shop employing a dozen machinists. One of the large service garages visited in the survey had a machine shop with five machinists, while another well-known service garage of about equal size had neither shop nor machinist. Group No. 2-d. There is constant call for repair work on ele- vators necessitating the retention of a considerable group of ma- chinists for this special work. In the repair shop of one large elevator building concern there are employed 35 machinists, 75 helpers and 8 apprentices. Group No. 2-e. This is an important group and includes a large proportion of the men engaged in repair work. Every large manufacturing concern employing machines requires the services of one or more machinists to keep the machines in repair. The manufacturer of typewriters and computing machines main- tain repair shops employing the service of a large number of ma- chinists. Newspaper and other large printing establishments employ machinists as a part of their permanent staff. Establish- ments using a large number of sewing machines require the ser- vices of machinists. The list might be extended throughout the many industries employing power-driven machinery. Group No. 2-f . This type of shop handles all classes and kinds of repairs, and usually employs from one to five machinists. The equipment may consist of two or three lathes of an anti- quated type ranging in size from 12" to 36" swing. In addition, there is generally a speed lathe, a spindle or radial drill press and a shaper. Sometimes such a shop will have a planer. There will also be a store of countless bolts, nuts, clamps, and blocks, with boring bars, and bushings for special jobs lying about the shop in bins. Much of the work of such establishments is done outside the shop, such as the reboring of cylinder valve parts, putting on elevator cables, repairs to laundry machinery and pumps. There are about 50 of these shops in Greater New York. SPECIALIZATION The machinists of the city specialize, in general, along the lines indicated in the groupings of the types of shops. Again, there are groups of machinists who specialize in small tool making, 234 Industrial Education Survey or in die making or die sinking. Another group are assemblers and another are erectors. The operators or specialists are found in the following sub- divisions of the trade and are usually familiar with the operation of but one type of machine: 1. Lathe work a — bench b — engine c — ^turret 2. Milling machine work 3. Shaper work 4. Planer work 5. Drilling machine work 6. Other special machine work a — horizontal b — vertical 7. Centering machine work 8. Grinding machine work 9. Slotter work 10 . Key seating machine work 11 . Automatic screw machine work, TRADE ORGANIZATIONS Employers' Associations: — The two associations of employers utilizing the services of machinists in New York City and vicinity are: The National Metal Trades Association and the New York and New Jersey Dry Dock Association. The local branch of the former association, ofi&cially designated as the New York and New Jersey Branch, comprises 54 corporations and firms. The latter association comprises 20 corporations and firms controlling all of the ship yards in the port of New York. Employees' Organizations: — The organized machinists of the City of New York and Hudson County, N. J., compose District No. 15 of the International Association of Machinists. The dis- trict organization is subdivided into 20 locals. In general the composition of individual locals is based upon trade divisions and not localities. The local subdivision is used in those branches of the trade having a large enrollment, as in marine and railroad work. About 15 per cent of the members avail themselves of a locality affiliation regardless of the division of the branch of the The Machinist Trade 235 trade they work in. There are two locals based on nationality; Scandinavian and Hungarian, though a large number of the former nationality are scattered through other locals. The machinists of the Navy Yard Local are not under the direct supervision of District No. 15, but co-operate with it. The various locals are divided as follows : — Kind of work . No. of Locals Memlerahip Marine 6 2830 Railroad 3 642 Municipal Employees 1 96 Printing Machinery 1 2428 Automobiles 2 960 Erectors 1 226 Special Machinery 1 672 Toolmakera 1 620 Apprentices 1 384 Helpers 1 180 Scandinavian 1 175 Hungarian 1 160 Totals 20 9373 ANALYSIS OF THE TKADE The machinist makes use of various power-driven tools that group according to function. He also makes use of various hand tools that have a wide application. The operations performed by power-driven machines are turn- ing, planing, drilling, boring, slotting, milling, and grinding. These different operations are performed on special machines. Turning is done upon a lathe, planing upon a planer or shaper, and the other operations upon machines bearing characteristic names. In the following pages the analysis of the trade is made upon the basis of the work performed on the principal machines, and the knowledge required by the worker to operate a particular machine. The description of the work of each operator is based upon the assumption that he should possess a full knowledge of the machine upon which he works and of proper methods of per- forming the work. In practice, especially in large shops, the man who actually operates the machine may be quite unskilled as a machinist. All the work of laying out and preparing the material for operation is in many cases performed by a skilled machinist 236 Industrial Education Survey and the operator's work is limited to merely tending the machine. In the terminology of the unions this man is known as a "spe- cialist." The specialization demanded by modern methods often tends to limit the work of the individual workman within very narrow boundaries, generally to tending a single machine. Should the workman desire a knowledge of the operation of different machines he may be compelled to seek work in various shops, and so grad- ually build up a broader experience. The broadly trained machinist should be able to perform every operation required in transforming the raw material of his trade into the finished product. A large amount of ingenuity is some- times required in determining the best method of procedure with a particular job and the ordinary workman in the shop is often afforded scant opportunity for acquiring the exacting knowledge which the skilled machinist possesses in this connection. This condition presents an exceptional need for instruction outside the shop both of a practical and theoretical nature. BEQUIKEMENTS FOR THE MACHINIST The skill required of the machine worker is of a different nature from that required of the worker with hand tools. It is mainly a matter of making the requisite adjustments for the machine tool to operate properly when the power is turned on. The requirements, in general, comprise the following : skill in lay- ing out the work ; skill in making the various adjustments as to speed and feed with quickness and accuracy; skill in mounting the work securely; skill in setting the cutting tool properly and' quickly ; skill in advancing the tool to the exact required depth of cut; skill in feeding by hand when necessary; delicate skill of touch in using the calipers and micrometer. In addition, every machinist is required to possess a certain amount of skill with the file, chipping and cape-chisels and scraper, although the highest grade of work in the difflcult art of scraping is reserved for the expert. The machinist should know, first of all, the names and uses of the following tools in common use in a machine shop : — ^ham- mers, chisels, screw drivers, steel rule, square, center punch, scriber, dividers, protractor, tramriiels, various gauges — surface, depth, center, taper, thread, and drill; various calipers— inside, outside, hermaphrodite, vernier, and bar ; pliers, hack-saw, level, The Machinist Trade 237 bevel, files, taps, scratch awl, combination set, and micrometers — ^inside, outside and thread. He should be familiar with the different adjustments required on the special tool he is to operate. He should understand the proper shape and angles of cutting tools needed for different metals and different conditions of cut and feed and should know how to grind and temper same (although cutting tools are com- monly supplied from the tool room ready for operation) and should know when tool needs regrinding. He should understand factory regulations, regarding safety appliance, sanitation, and rendering aid in case of injury. He should know the requirements as to time cards and tool check- ing. He should know how to add, subtract, multiply and divide with figures up to 100 and to use simple fractions and decimals. He should be able to read and comprehend the blue prints from which he works and to make simple free-hand shop sketches. To be equipped for high grade work and opportunities for advancement the machinist should possess, in addition to the above, a knowledge of the following : He should know the uses and possibilities of all varieties of machine tools and be able to operate them. He should understand the theory of cutting tools, proper angles of clearance and rake ; and the effect of spring in the tool. He should know the relation between cutting speed and the speed of work, both as regards ordinary carbon steel tools and those made of high speed steel; speeds for roughing and finishing cuts; the effect of kind of metal on cutting speed and the factors limil ing cutting speeds; the influence of diameters on resistance it cuts; computation of cutting speeds; and the relation betweei feed and the material being cut. He should understand the various screw thread systems and kinds of threads ; also standard tapera. His knowledge of belts and pulleys should include : rules gov- erning transmission by belts, ropes, and chains, how to determine the lengths of open and crossed belts; velocity ratio of pulleys; speed cones ; horse power transmitted by belts ; and the care and use of different kinds of belting, including lacing, splicing, and glueing. He should know the proper lubricant to use for each requirement and method of applying and understand the con- struction of different forms of bearings in use and the advantages and limitations of each. 238 Industrial Education Survey He should know how to install machinery, including fastening to foundations, leveling, setting up of machines; placing and lining-up of hangers, line and counter shafting ; the determination of the size of shafts, belting, etc., and how to arrange machines for eflScient routing of material through factory. He should be familiar with those properties of the various metals with which he deals that effect their use or machining. He should know how to apply his knowledge of arithmetic to determining cutting speeds and feeds ; pulley sizes ; feed and gear ratios; indexing; thread measurements and computations; and taper computations and should understand the elements of mechanism as involved in crank and connecting rods, ratchets, cams and gears. His knowledge of geometry should comprise an understanding of the mathematics of the various geometric forms met with in his work; the measurement of angles; and the solution of right triangles. His knowledge of applied mechanics should include the laws of simple machines, and methods of calculating power. He should also understand the action of heat in expanding and contract- ing metals, and the elementary principles of hydraulics and pneu- matics. He should know how to make a simple mechanical drawing and shop sketches; and to understand from the reading of a blue-print how to select castings, order stock, determine what operations are necessary, and what jigs required. In some shops one or more men are regularly employed in what is termed: Laying out work: This work consists of placing upon the stock material, castings, forgings, or partially finished surfaces such marks or lines as will show the exact location and nature of the operations to be performed as specified in the drawing. Some- times the worker inspects and tests the finished or partly finished work, though in some shops this is the special function of the inspector. Such a worker should know how to determine whether or not the casting or forging has the required amount of stock; how to use prick punch, hammer, surface scriber, level, square, dividers, trammels, plumb line, surface plate and table, straight edge, and templates, in making the different kinds of lay outs. He should have a thorough knowledge of machine processes. The Machinist Trade 239 ASSEMBLER The component parts of any piece of machinery are made separately and it is the work of the assembler to bring together these parts into the assembled whole. The work is divided into bench work and floor work. Upon the bench a complete small machine or instrument may be put together, or some part of a larger machine. That is, in the manufacture of an automobile, the engine is assembled on a bench and the complete machine is assembled on the floor. The term erector is also used to designate one engaged in assembling of large machines, engines, conveying machinery, etc., in permanent installation. In the assembling of standardized machines made in large quantities the knowledge required is often very small, as the work is extremely specialized, as in the assembling of an automobile, and may require of a worker merely the fastening of a bolt or two. But the assembler's work may range from this minimum to the careful finishing and fitting of the parts as assembled. To fulfill the requirements for the latter work the worker must be a skilled machinist. The assembling of larger machines calls for an additional knowledge of methods of blocking up the work and of handling the parts with the aid of various forms of hoists and cranes. EEECTOES Kind of work performed: The worker handles, erects, assem- bles, dismantles and repairs all kinds and classes of machinery in new and old buildings, and buildings in process of erection, or wherever machinery may be installed, and controls and operates same until accepted by the purchaser. Some of the machinery handled and erected by the worker follows : Newspaper printing presses ; steam turbines ; corliss engines ; refrigerating machinery ; hydraulic pumps; electrical machinery; elevating and lowering machinery, by power or gravity ; conveying machinery, such as belt and slat conveyors, for dry or wet materials, coal, ash, ore and cement conveyors; weighing machinery; paint and dye machin- ery, etc. Such a worker should know how to run lines with surveyor's instruments, and to level, line and square the position of all kinds of engines and other machines. He should know how to locate foundations, set templates, and understand the proper mixture of eoncreta for foundations. 240 Industrial Education Survey He should have a knowledge of the strength of ropes and chains, the reaving of blocks, and the proper adjustment of rigging so that no accidents occur in the handling and placing of material which ranges from a few pounds in weight to fifty or more tons per piece. He should be able to meet the various con- ditions arising in the buildings or other places where work is being installed and where various other trades may be pursuing their work at the same time. Dust and dirt, which are inimical to machinery, must be dealt with and excluded from all moving parts and bearings. If in charge of a job he should possess executive ability in order to conserve the interests of his employer in relation to the purchaser, and be able to effectively control the men under him. His responsibility is considerable, as not alone must he assemble the installation, but he must often also operatq same to the satis- faction of the purchaser. The major part of the knowledge necessary to be an efficient erecting machinist is acquired by actual experience by those possessing the ground work of a general machinist. TOOLMAKBR A tool may be broadly defined as any device, appliance or machine for transforming raw material into a finished product or that aid in performing some part of this transformation. In machine shop parlance tool making is limited to the produc- tion of small general tools, such as taps, dies, reamers, miUing cutters, and of special tools, such as jigs and implements used in the production of duplicate work. Most of these small tools used in a machine shop are purchased from manufacturers who specialize in their production, thereby limiting the work of the tool maker in a shop to the making of special tools differing in size or design from standard or commer- cial tools and jigs, fixtures, and dies for duplicate production. The making of cutting tools requires expert skill and knowledge. It represents one of the highest developments of the machinists' trade and calls for thorough command of all small machine tools, particularly the miUing machine and grinding machine. The making of dies requires a high degree of skill and generally forms a separate division of tool-making, the workers being known as die sinkers and die makeri. The Machinist Trade 241 BENCH WOEKER Kind of work performed : Bench work, as the term is generally used in a machine shop, comprises chipping, filing, scraping, drilling, tapping, hand-reaming, and soldering, done upon a bench. Benches are provided with a vise into which work is clamped for filing, chipping, tapping, and scraping. Much of the work for- merly done on the bench is now done on machines or by power- driven tools, yet no work in the shop demands a greater amount of skiU than the higher requirements of bench work. BENCH LATHE WORKER A single form of lathe, termed a bench lathe, is often built with short legs to permit its placing upon bench. It is largely employed in instrument making and smaU turning. Its functions are similar to those of the engine lathe with the limitations en- tailed by its simpler construction and smaller size. The detailed knowledge necessary to do the work is similar to that described below for the engine lathe worker. ENGINE LATHE WORKER The engine lathe is a power-driven machine used for turning on centers and mandrel, chuck and face-plate work, facing, drilling, boring, reaming, thread-cutting, taper turning, knurling, filing and polishing (See Fig. 1). In turning plane cylindrical surfaces, the worker should know how to locate centers, using dividers, calipers, center squares, and the various center punches. He should understand the ways of holding work between centers, lubricating centers and the use of lathe dogs. He should be familiar with the care and shapes of centers and how to grind and Une them up and keep them true. He should understand the different forces at play when a cutting tool is in action, and the influence of bent-taUed dog in springing the work. He should know the correct methods of driving the work and the proper adjustment to prevent errors; the setting of the tool for rough and finishing cut, squaring ends, taper turn- ing ; the use of steady rest and follower rest. He should under- stand and be able to make a sliding fit, shrink fit, forced fit and driving fit, and be skilled in the use of both ordinary and microm- eter calipers, the types, uses, and care of mandrels. He should know the use of files, emery, and polishing stick in turning, the speed required in their use ; and the fijiishing of polished surfaced. 242 Industrial Education Survey a « ,. o a ^ t. p 5 OS ao ^ oj to O tj'O o d cS u iv . . d u :t Ho) o .a ta J a IS « fc. q g ■0 6- r^ J a ■CO 0) a y ■oE'og i « c « ''I ^£3 o o o •oil 5-g2 e I ■B 03 u o O 1.3 "O ,^ as §1 gg si B» I Pmit Adminigtration 285 Non-Vocational Industrial Work: Chart 3 (p. 38) relates to what may be termed "Non-vocational industrial work." This con- sists of manual training and of the shop work in the schools organized on the Ettinger and Gary plans. These forms of indus- trial work are not truly vocational because they do not have for their controlling principle the direct preparation of the pupils for money-earning occupations. Their work is general in character. It has for its object the making of a contribution to the all-round education of the boys and girls. This distinction as to the essen- tial character of the work is one of the reasons for showing the organization in a separate chart. There is in addition a second reason and this is to be found in the difference between the kind of control exercised over the trade schools and classes entering into Chart 2 and that exercised over the work of the non-vocational industrial classes shown in Chart 3. In the former case the trade schools involved are en- tirely under the jurisdiction of the different officials appearing in the chart and hence their powers are those of direction and con- trol. In the case of the non-vocational classes appearing in Chart 3 the different officials exercise powers of supervision and advice but not direction and control. Since the work of these classes contributes to general educa- tion rather than to strictly vocational education, and since the function of the different officials is supervisory rather than direc- tive, it has been deemed wise to make a separate chart and to indicate the line of authority and responsibility as running up to the associate superintendent in charge of elementary education rather than to the associate superintendent in charge of voca- tional education. It must be recognized, however, that for reasons of immediate efficiency and convenience of administration it might be found advisable to place the manual training classes and the shop work in the schools run on the Ettinger and Gary plans under the same general direction as that controlling the strictly vocational industrial schools. In this case Chart 3 would be added to the right-hand end of Chart 2 as an extension, and all of this work would be made subsidiary to the associate superintendent in charge of vocational education. In order to insure the essential co-operation of the trades and industries in the administration of industrial education it is further recommended that advisory committees consisting of em- ployers and employees be appointed by the Board of Education 286 Industrial Education Survey CHART 3 ORGANIZATION CHART FOR NON-VOCATIONAL INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE CITY OP NEW YORK (ADVISORY COMMITTEE) Asacclate in ccjuzo of uesdntary uucatlcn AMiatant Dlroctor of Prevocatloial 'ork aipsrvltor oX Stiap TJort In Ectinaw Sotiool* ^flrrlaor of Flu Seliwlt Gary Flu Seliw Administratioii 28f for each of the trades of printing, carpentry, machine work and electrical work. The functions of such committees cannot legally be those of control or veto. It is clear, however, that if they are accorded specific advisory powers and definite provision be made for the consideration of their recommendations the way will be opened for the exertion of a very real and important influence on their part. The relations of such advisory committees should be with the officer in charge of vocational education and this officer should be instructed, before action is taken upon such matters, to invite the recommendations of the committees as to the establishment of new industrial schools and classes ; the selec- tion of equipment; the content and length of courses of study; the requirements for graduation and certification; the number of pupils admitted to day vocational schools. (Signed) Leonard P. ATBia, C. A. Prosshb, David Snbddbn. LICENSING AND EMPLOYMENT OF TEAOHEKS Board of Examinees As has been previously noted both by provisions in the charter and in the new education law a board of examiners is designated for the City of New York. It is the duty of this board to hold examinations whenever necessary, to examine all applicants who are required to be licensed or to have their names placed upon eligible lists for appointment in the schools in such city, except examiners, and to prepare all necessary eligible lists. The board may employ temporary assistants at a compensation fixed by the board of education. Under the above positions the board of examiners is granted the power of selecting all of the teachers for the public schools of the City of New York. The table given below shows that the number of examinations given to those desiring to teach in voca- tional and pre-vocational schools was very small compared to the total number of examinations given by the board. The require- ments for pre-vocational shop teachers are the same as those for vocational shop teachers. TABLE SHOWING THE TOTAL NUMBER OF LICENSES GRANTED AND REFUSED DURING THE YEARS 1914, 1915 AND 1916 AND THE NUMBER OF LICENSES GRANTED AND REFUSED TO TEACHERS IN VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS. 1914 1915 1916 ^iJ CO 4_) CQ ^J OH OPh HOf^HOPHH Exams, given ... 14,232 6,258 20,490 14,7686,24821,016 9,2703,38912,559 Teachers in Voca- tional Schools.. 3 14 6 5 11 139 512 651 To examine over 21,000 people in a year intensively and exten- sively is a task so great that it is impossible for an outsider to comprehend its magnitude. In order that the board of examiners might supply the best type of teachers, "keeping out as many as possible of the relatively unfit and as few as possible of the rela- tively fit," the board is organized into 30 committees, each 289 290 Industrial Education Survey committee representing a different type of license. The chair- manBhip of the several committees passes in rotation each year from one examiner to another, so that each member of the board influences each phase of the work of the school system. The only part of the work of the board that is described in this report ia that dealing with the examination of the teachers of industrial subjects. Requirements for Eligibility for Vocational Licenses: The requirements for eligibility for vocational licenses have been deter- mined by the Board of Education and incorporated in the by- laws. These requirements, summarized below, give the educa- tional and trade requirements for eligibility for the various grades of licenses : 1. To be eligible for a license as a principal of a vocational or trade school, the applicant must have one of the following qualifications : — "(a) Graduation from a college or university recognized by the Regents of the University of the State of New York, together with ten years' satisfactory experience in the practice of a trade and in teaching or supervision, provided that no less than two years of such ten years' experience shall have been in the practice of a trade. "(b) Graduation from a college or university recognized by the Regents of the University of the State of New York, together with ten years' satisfactory experience in teaching or supervision, provided that not lesa than two years of such experience shall have been in teaching, supervision or investigation in vocational education." 2. A substitute teacher of a vocational or trade subject in a vocational school for boys must have five years' successful ex- perience as a journeyman wage earner, or in a higher position, and a general education satisfactory to the board of examiners. 3. A regular teacher of a vocational or trade subject in a voca- tional school for boys must have in addition to the above require- ments a year's satisfactory service in teaching the same vocation. 4. A teacher of sewing (both regular and substitute) must have a high school education or its equivalent, together with the completion of a two-year course in domestic art in an approved institution. 5. A substitute female feacher-clerk must have had three years' satisfactory experience in office work. 6. A substitute assistant female teacher-clerk must have had two years' satisfactory experience in office work. 7. A substitute trade-order teacher must have had three years' satisfactory experience in the special branch of the vocation, the substitute assistant trade-order teacher must have had two years' experience. Licensing of Teachers 291 8. A substitute vocational helper must have completed one year's course in a girls' vocational or trade school. 9. A placement and investigation teacher must have three years' satisfactory experience in placement and industrial work. 10. A license as teacher in a vocational or trade school shaU qualify the holder to teach his subject in a vocational or trade school or in an evening trade school. 11. A supervisor or substitute supervisor of continuation classes must have a high school education and five years' experi- ence in teaching or three years' experience in fommercial or tech- nical occupations, together with two years' experience in teaching. Frequency of Examinations : When new positions are created by the board of superintendents or when vacancies occur the board of examiners are notified and eligible lists are prepared from which to select teachers to fill the positions. The claim is made by members of the board of examiners that it has not been possible for them to ascertain sufficiently far in advance the needs of the vocational schools. The vocational lists are good for three years. They are re- newed except where something unsatisfactory appears in the record of the candidate during the first three years. The license of a man who has an unsatisfactory record as a substitute during the first three years may not be renewed. Hoto Examinations are Advertised : The vocational examina- tions are advertised as follows: 1. Copies of the circulars announcing the vocational examina- tions are sent to the New York daily newspapers. One news- paper publishes the circulars in full and several other papers publish a synopsis of the announcement. 2. The circulars are sent to aU the institutions east of the Mississippi River that train men for vocational work. These in- stitutions include technical institutions such as the ShefQeld School, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stevens Insti- tute, etc. 3. The announcements are sent to the headquarters of the trades unions in the respective branches covered by the examina- tions. The list used for this purpose is found in the Eagle Almanac. 4. The circulars are sent to the superintendents of schools In the large cities east of the Mississippi River. Order of Examinations : The written examination is the first given to a candidate for a regular license to teach in a vocational school. If the candidate passes this examination he is permitted 292 Industrial Education Survey to take the practical and oral examinations which are usually given on the same day. A candidate who passes successfully these examinations is given the physical examination and if he passes it his name is placed on the eligible list. Second Examination: If the candidate fails in either the prac- tical or the oral examinations or both, he is, upon appeal, given within a few months another test before another set of examiners. This is true in all examinations whether vocational or academic. Written Examination: The purpose of the written examina- tion is to ascertain whether the candidate is quaUfled to explain in writing the details of his work, the methods of shop processes, the operations of machines, etc., and to show how he would present certain points in lessons. The questions are intended to be not academic but practical, so that practical men who speak good English and have a reasonably good command of language may pass the examination. Questions for the written examination are submitted by vari- ous experts to the board of examiners who take these questions and put them in the final form for the examination. When considered necessary, outside help is secured in determining the questions to be used. The written examination counts 20 points out of the 100 points. The passing mark is 60% of the 20 points or 12 points. This examination is what might be called a pass examination and not strictly a competitive examination, the margin of difference being only eight points out of 100 points between the candidate who passes the examination and the one who gets the maximum credit of 20 points. If a candidate fails on the written examination he is not allowed to take the practical examination. Practical Examination: The second part of the examination of the candidate for a vocational license is the practical test to determine the candidate's ability as a trade worker. Until about six months ago nearly all of the practical tests were given in the school shops. During the past few months the board of examiners have made an effort to hold the practical examinations in shops outside the school where the equipment is typical of commercial practice. The last examinations in printing, book- binding, sheet metal and automobile repairing were held in out- side shops. Mr. O'Connell of the board of examiners has stated Licensing of Teachers 293 that "no more practical examinations will be held in school shops if we can possibly avoid it." The practical tests are usually from one hour and a half to three hours in length and consist in working out one or two practical problems. Oral Examination: The oral examination is usually held in connection with the practical test and lasts approximately from fifteen to twenty minutes. This examination is given by one of the members of the board of examiners. The purpose of this examination is to eliminate those who are unfit because of defec- tive English, unsatisfactory personality or inability to explain simple matters about which inquiries might be made by pupils in the school. Set questions are not asked in this examination. A marking slip is used and the salient points of the candidate's answers and the remarks of the examiner are indicated on this slip. Physical Examination: A physical examination is given by one of the regular physicians of the Board of Education to deter- mine the candidate's physical condition. Teaching Eayperience: A candidate for a regular license to teach in a vocational school must have at least one year's satis- factory service in teaching the vocation in which he desires a license. Passing Marks: The table below shows the passing marks and the weighting for the different parts of the examination for vocational teachers: TABLE SHOWINO PASSING MARKS FOE VOCATIONAL SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS. Maximum. Minimum. Written Examination 20 12 (60%) Practical Experience 10 7 (70%) Teaching Experience 20 14 (70%) Practical Test 30 21 (70% ) Personality 20 14 (70%) Substitute Licenses: The examination for a substitute's license to teach shop work in a day vocational school includes the writ- ten, oral and practical tests described above. This examination is less difiicult than the examination for a regular license and is 294 Industrial Education Survey aimed to determine in a general way a candidate's fitness to teach. A substitute's license is good for one year, but may be renewed annually by tbe superintendent of schools. Evening Trade School Licenses: An applicant for a license to teach a trade subject in an evening school may qualify under any of the following requirements: (a) Graduation from an approved college or university recog- nized by the Regents of the University of the State of New York. (b) Eligibility for license as teacher in day high school, (c) A high school education or its equivalent, and the comple- tion of a satisfactory course of at least one year in the special subject or in lieu of such course, two years' experience in day or evening schools teaching the special subject. (d) Four years' satisfactory experience in the practice of the subject for which the applicant seeks a license. The examination for a regular license to teach shop work consists of a written, practical and oral examination. The license is renewable from year to year upon recommendation of the prin- cipal of the school and the district superintendent in charge of the school. In case of emergency, substitute licenses are issued to candi- dates who meet the requirements described above. Credit for Trade Experience: A candidate who has had a longer trade training that is required for eligibility to take the examination (.i.e, for five years' experience in the trade) may be given a credit of one year for each three years' practical experi- ence up to an allowance of three years. This method has not been satisfactory due to the fact that it does not sufiQciently at- tract the experienced trade workers. As a result of the above condition the board of examiners often make exceptions and give allowances which will cause the first year's salary to be the equivalent of what the men actually earn in the trade. The board are revising the rules so as to make the allowances for outside training more attractive. Credit for Teaching Experience: The allowance for outaide teaching experience is more generous than for trade experience. The board of examiners allow for outside teaching experience in excess of the year of experience required for eligibility, at the rate of one year of credit for each two years of teaching experi- ence up to ^ maximum allowance of three years for teaching exi)erience or trade experience, or both. Licensing of Teachers 295 Numier of Candidates Examined : The table on page 41 pre- pared by the board of examiners shows the number of candidates examined, the number of licenses granted, the number of candi- dates who failed and the reasons for the failures of those exam- ined during the year 1916. The chart shows that a large number, 512 out of 651, failed to pass the examination. The figures pre- sented would indicate that 323 candidates failed on the written examination, which is intended by the board of examiners to be not academic but practical so that practical men who speak good English and have a reasonably good command of language may pass the examination. CHART NO. 4 RESULTS OF EXAMINATIONS OF 1916 FOR LICENSES TO TEACH VOCATIONAL SUBJECTS. (N.B. — ^The figures given under the reasouB for refusals cannot be totaled with respect to each subject, inasmuch ai some candidates were refused llcensea for two or possibly three of the reasons listed.) Refused on Accoiint of ■ 3 Power Machine Operating 14 Sheet Metal Work 13 Electric Installation and Practice. &'!■ Agrieulture 8 Novelty Work 10 Sewing and Dressmaking 54 Woodworking 56 Tile Laying 10 Applied Science 5 Women's Garment Designing 5 Art Weaving 1 Architectural Drawing 68 Bookbinding 14 Millinery 36 Mechanical Drawing 17 Sign Painting 15 Machine Shop Practice 75 Printing 61 Modeling 11 Plumbing 79 Automobile Bepairing 15 Trade Drawing (June, 1916).... 14 Trade Drawing (2d in Oct., 1916) 18 1 a a 1 J '5 wS u 1 Withdrawal Medical 4 8 , . . , I 2 • 7 , , 2 . , 1 la 11 11 11 7 e 4 4 1 7 a 4 . 3 4 1 2 . 22 17 3 3 3 11 1 11 85 6 4 6 2 3 1 1 2 1 1 . 2 3 , , , 1 , 44 3 6 1 4 11 1 20 6 3 3 1 7 1 2 fi 3 2 1 . 4 3 2 1 1 1 1 11 44 7 11 3 , 12 23 5 7 3 4 2 . 4 4 , , . 1 , 5 56 3 9 . , 1 7 5 14 1 1 • 1 ■ 1 14 1 1 2 1 296 Industrial Education Survey Assistant Examiners : Chart No. 5 prepared by the board of examiners gives a list of the vocational examinations held during the year 1916-1917 and the names of the assistants in the written, practical and oral examination. This list shows that in a number of cases certain individuals assisted in conducting examinations in trades of widely varying character who could not have had extended practical experience in the trade. OlIART NO. 5 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION The City of New York Office of the Boaed of Bxaminebs 500 Park Avenue Assistant Examiners employed in 1916-1917 examinations in Vocational Subjects. Readers of Written Assistants in Oral and Subject Papers Practical Tests Bookbinding Novelty Work Agriculture Sign Painting Clay Modeling Art Weaving Woodworking Electric Wiring Sheet Metal Work Trade Drawing Power Mach. Operating MUlinery Dressmaking Adeline E. Simpson M. L. Hutchinson Morris E. Siegel Morris E. Siegel James P. Haney Mattie M. Schilling George F. Stahl Chris. A. Kassenbrock Charles B. Howe John T. Robinson Morris E. Siegel John E. Wade Florence M. Marshall Mrs. Annie L. Jessup Miss Minnie L. Hutchinson Mrs. Annie L. Jessup Miss Minnie L. Hutchinson Adeline E. Simpson James Strang Morris E. Siegel Annie B. Moriarty Morris E. Siegel Messrs. Patterson, Otter- bein and A. J. Gude Ernest Yalden John E. Wade Leon W. Goldrich Morris E. Siegel George F. Stahl A. W. Garrett George J. Loewy Chris. J. Kassenbrock Charles W. Mitchell Charles B. Howe M. J. Harrison John E. Wade George F. Stahl Morris E. Siegel Annie B. Moriarity Minnie L. Hutchinson Annie B. Moriarity Mary B. Dickman Mrs. Annie L. Jessup Florence Willard Licensing of Teachers 297 Readers of Written Assistants in Oral and Subject Report Practical Tests Plumbing James M. Joyce George J. Loewy Michael F. Oonlon Robert W. Rodman Mach. Shop PracUee Stanley A. Gage Stanley A. Gage Betram A. Lenfest Betrara A. Lenfeit Printing Hobart H. Todd Morris £}. Siegel Oliver Q. Andrus Leon W. Goldrich Charles E. Fitchett Applied Science Biobert W. Fuller George J. Loewy Robert W. Fuller Mechanical Drawing T. Harry Knox Frank Gardner Charles B. Howe Arch. Drawing A. B. Greenberg George J. Loewy B. 0. Zabriskie Morris Greenberg Tile Laying Charles B. Howe (Not yet held) Automobile Repairing H. 0. Brokaw Mr. Breckenbridge (57th St. T, M. 0. A.) '■'T : John Cave Designing of Women's Morris B. Siegel Morris "E. Siegel Cloaks and Suita ,Max Meyer Trade Drawing Adolph 3. Grubman John B. Wade Attitude of Board of Examiners: That the board of exam- iners devote much thought to the means necessary to secure the best type of instructors for trade classes in spite of the many diflBculties they have to overcome is shown in the report of Exam- iner O'Connell for 1915 to Superintendent Maxwell: "The number of applicants for vocational school licenses is very large and the variety of subjects taught in the vocational schools and classes extensive. To enable the system to obtain the best applicants requires unusual care and much time. I fear that the proper amount of attention and investigation cannot be given to the applicants unless the board of examiners gets proper assistance. It is true that in the past we have, as occasion re- quired, employed in an advisory or examining capacity certain high school first assistants and others skilled in the trades. This assistance, though given cheerfully, must of necessity be hurried, as well as intermittent and often done under unsatisfactory con- ditions. The selecting of trade teachers has become a matter re- quiring the greatest skill and care and because of the number ol applicants and of subjects to be taught it will hereafter take a vast amount of time and labor even under favorable circum- stances." 298 Industrial Education Survey In writing about evening school licenses Mr. O'Connell says: — ^"The board has endeavored to make all tests as practical as possible. This idea is carried to the extreme in the examinations for trade subjects in evening high schools. In bookbinding, black- smithing, costume design, jewelry design, mural decoration, etc., the applicants were required to do a piece of practical work or to submit for inspection attested practical work (or photographs thereof). In the oral examination which followed the test or accompanied the inspection of the attested work, considerable weight was given to the applicants' evidence of successful prac- tical experience." Attitude of Those in Charge of Day and Evening Vocational Courses Toward Methods of Licensing Teachers. — The associate superintendent in charge of vocational training in reply to a questionnaire submitted to him stated that he considered the chief defects in the present methods of securing and licensing of teach- ers of vocational schools to be: — (a) "A false conception of what is desired in a trade teacher. (b) "Methods employed in examining. (c) "Methods employed in rating examinations." In reply to the question "What changes would you suggest that would tend to procure better teachers ?" he recommended : — "1. Taking the examination of trade teachers out of the hands of the board of examiners, and placing it in the hands of a committee composed of a member of the board of examiners, a principal of a vocational school, two representatives of the trade, in which the candidate seeks a license, and an employer of the trade. "2. Examinations should extend over a longer period and take into account a man's practical experience at the trade to an extent that is not being done at present. "3. More latitude should be given the principals in the choice of teachers. The mere standing of a candidate of any eligible list should not hamper the work of a school." In a questionnaire submitted to the district superintendent in charge of evening schools a number of questions were asked relative to the training and certification of evening teachers of trade subjects. The questions submitted and the answers are given below: Qu^s. Who selects the teachers for the evening trade classes? Ans. Teachers for evening trade classes are selected in order of merit from the eligible lists. These eligible lists have been formed under the law according to the charter Licensing of Teachers 299 by the board of examiners. The examination is mostly oral plus practical test. Practical test is conducted by some acknowledged expert assigned by the board of examiners and the practical test is held either in a shop or preferably in one of the evening trade schools. Ques. Who is assigned by the board of examiners to give the examinations to candidates desiring to teach trade subjects ? Ans. Answered in preceding question partly. The oral examination is held usually by a committee of three, the chairman of the evening school department of board of examiners, at present Mr. O'Connell; the district superintendent in charge of evening schools, at present Mr. Henry E. Jenkins, and a selected trade expert. The two non-trade experts merely judge the man from the pedagogic side, from his manner and ability to expound and explain. In other words, judgment of his probable teaching ability. The expert judges as I stated in a preceding question, by the selected expert. Ques. Would you recommend the establishment of evening normal courses for mechanics desiring to teach in evening trade schools? Ans. I would not recommend normal courses in evening schools. I have already removed such as were in our even- ing schools and we had a number. Evening schools were made for the distinct purpose of teaching those who through unfortuitous or other circumstances are not able to attend school in the day time. The ideal trade school would be the type of the mechanical school where the workman left his employment at day at the expense of the shop. At present this work is of course voluntary. I should under no circum- stances desire to have us establish normal courses. Ques. To what extent could such a course take the place of the examination for a license to teach in evening trade schools? Ans. No course should ever take the place of examina- tion. The course is a recommendation and should assist in raising the rating of the individual and his position on the eligible list, but I do not believe in any applicant for a license to teach anything, being exempt from examination. Ques. Would you rather select your evening school teach- ers from the ranks of the day school teachers or from the trade workers? Why? Ans. This question has practically been answered in other answers, nor could I answer this categorically because I should desire to select from a properly prepared eligible list. I should like them from the ranks of day school teach- ers of vocational subjects who have been skilled workmen in trades and I certainly should prefer those to taking the skilled workmen out of the ranks who had had no training 30*^ Industrial Education Survey or experience in teaching pupils. At the same time I shotild prefer a well informed intelligent man directly from the ranks of the trade worker rather than an ordinary day school teacher with a theoretical knowledge only and no proper amount of direct contact through work in a shop. To be epecific, we need for teachers in evening trade claseea men who are fine representatives of practical trade workers, leaders in their trades who have had ambiti9n enough themselves vj attend courses in recognized institutes where preparation for teaching trades is made the epecific object. The type of man possessing the practical plus the pedagogical training and having had ambition and intelli- gence enough to look for both, would be the best type of trade teacher and I am glad to say that in time the teachers on our eligible list for evening trade schools would come in that class. I consider that the manner in which the board of exam- iners has handled this delicate and new form of problem ia extremely gratifying. I believe that no other city has so large a number of well equipped and well trained teachers of evening trade classes as has our evening school system of the City of New York. BEPOBT OP THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON LICENSING AND EMPLOYMENT OF TEACHERS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. The board of examiners was constituted in 1898 for the pur- pose of removing the certificating and appointment of teachers of all kinds and grades from politics — a duty which the board has undoubtedly performed in a most commendable way. At the same time, this strong desire on the part of the board to protect the schools from the evils of partisan politics forced the adoption of a more or less rigid system of examining appli- cants with the written test as the chief, and in most instances almost the sole, means of determining fitness to teach. This sys- tem has seemed to work satisfactorily — at least it has served as well or better than almost any other scheme would have done — in the selection of an eligible list of instructors in the BO-caUed regular or academic subjects. It has not, however, served satisfactorily in the case of teach- ers of practical or technical subjects where manual skill or the ability to use knowledge in a practical way has come to be regarded as absolutely necessary to the success of the teacher. The board has already recognized the need for greater flexibility in dealing with instructors in industrial or trade Bchoola by Licensing of TeacJiers 301 ■abBtituting a practical for a written test of the applicant's skill in shop processes — this test usually being given by the assistant principal or some instructor in the particular trade employed by one of the vocational schools of the city. The number of teachers in vocational schools who have thus far been examined is so small, comparatively speaking, that the tests thus far given should hardly be regarded as more than experiments. Out of a total of 73,661 persons seeking licenses during the years 1912 to 1915, inclusive, only 77 applied for positions in the vocational schools. It ia evident from the report that the board looks upon the whole question of licensing teachers of shop and related shop subjects as being a new, a diflBcult and as yet unsolved problem. While it recognizes the need for flexibility in dealing with such teachers, the board is at the same time very jealous, and properly BO, of the freedom of the schools from partisan politics which it has labored so successfully to establish. What the members of the board desire most of all is some scheme for licensing teachers of vocational subjects which will test in an effective way the ability of the applicant to teach the subject successfully and will at the same time safeguard the whole process of certificating and selecting these teachers from party and personal influence. It is with entire sympathy with this aim of the board that the recommendations given below are made. We recommend that the board appoint a special committee for every distinctive trade for which there is a need of teachers in either shop or related shop subjects. The members of the committee should be appointed for one year and should be reap- pointed as long as their services are satisfactory and they are willing to serve. There should be three members, one of whom should be a member of the examining board in order to correlate the work of the board and its special committee ; and two of whom should be trade education experts who are experienced in their knowl- edge of the trade and of education for the trad6. The two lay members of the committee should be paid a per diem for the actual time given to the duties assigned to them as herein de- scribed, which need not, in our opinion, be more than five day« annually. The special committee on the certification of teachers for any given trade should be regarded and legally could be only an 302 Industrial Education Survey agency used by the board to assist it in the difficult and highly specialized task of obtaining competent instructors for the schools in the shop and related shop subjects of that trade. The board would, of course, establish such general standards and such gen- eral rules and regulations for the guidance of the work of the committee as it found advisable from time to time. It should not, however, make these so detailed or so rigid as to prevent the committee from being of the largest possible helpfulness in passing upon applicants. All authority to pass finally upon the case of any applicant rests and should rest with the board. The duty of the committee should be that of recommendations to the board on the case, based on a complete handling of the case, and a filing with the board of all the papers regarding the appli- cant which the board should treat as the credentials on record in the case. The special committee should avail itself of our different ele- ments in examining teachers of trade subjects ; written examina- tions, credentials, personal interviews and practical demon- stration. The efficacy of written examinations as the sole means of testing the general education of teachers has probably been greatly overestimated. Nevertheless, its long established use in connection with the certification of regular school teachers is certain to cause its employment for industrial school purposes. The written examination can aid in some measure in estab- lishing a presumption of fitness to teach. But this is true only if the examination is limited to a test of such knowledge as general schooling, technical and teaching equipment. Written examinations are of very little value in testing the trade ability and personal equipment of candidates. So far as the trade instructors are concerned, it is also true that their general schooling and knowledge of trade matters can best be determined by proper credentials, practical demonstrations, and personal interviews. Proper credentials should be given an important place in determining the fitness of an applicant. By credentials is meant evidence which may be accepted as bearing upon any feature of the qualifications of candidates for certification. Statements as to trade standing and skill furnished by employers and fellow- workers, diplomas, certificates, school records, correspondence school work; personal statements of former teachers; magazine articles or books written by the candidates; statements as to Licensing of Teachers 303 teaching ability based on previous service as instructor of appren- tices or as a teacher, should all be considered as credentials in this connection. Those credentials are a most important device in certificating because they admit of flexibility in dealing with the case of any teacher. They can be made to represent the judgment of many persons from many dififerent points of view. They furnish first hand information of a very real character as to the candidate's ability to do certain definite things and they have a bearing upon every feature of probable fitness for the work. The personal interview is absolutely necessary to properly estimate the qualifications of the applicant in such matters as appearance, personality, health, adaptability and saneness of social and economic points of view. It also has an important use, supplementary to the written examination and credentials, in furnishing additional information concerning teaching equip- ment and trade experience. Such interviews should be conducted only by persons having both adequate knowledge and experience on the one hand and official responsibility on the other. The practical demonstration may be used to supplement other tests. After all these devices have been employed, if any doubt exists as to the trade qualifications or teaching ability of the candidates they may well be required to perform a practical task of some kind, either in a commercial or school shop. All the information of every kind concerning the applicant should be before the special committee in passing on the case. All this material together with recommendation of the committee should be presented to the board for final action. Any plan for the certification of teachers of vocational schools should be based on a distinct classification of such teachers ac- cording to the kind of subjects to be taught and the status of the teacher in the service. Three distinct types of teachers will be needed : — teachers of shop subjects such as machine shop prac- tice or composition work in printing ; teachers of related technical subjects such as drawing, mathematics and science ; and teachers of non-vocational subjects such as English and civics. The law also requires that all new employees of the Board of Education, including all members of the teaching and supervising staff, shall be appointed in the first instance for a probationary period of not less than one year and not to exceed three years ; such period to be fixed by the Board of Education at its discretion. At the expiration of this probationary period, teachers shall, when rec- 304 Industrial Education Survey ommended for permanent appointment by the board of superin- tendents, be entitled to hold their respective positions during good behavior and eflScient and competent service. This gives the ex- amining board the duty of dealing with two classes of teachers within every classification of teachers made on the basis of sub- jects taught — probationary teachers and regular teachers. In dealing with standards for teachers in vocational schools therefore it is necessary to consider the following six classes: probationary and regular teachers of shop subjects ; probationary and regular teachers of related technical subjects; probationary and regular teachers of non-vocational subjects. In suggesting certain definite standards for these teachers, the committee have had in mind only minimum requirements — the least qualifications which we believe the board of examiners should establish as a basis for the work of the special commit- tees appointed to aid in passing upon applicants as above re- quired. It is, of course, highly desirable that applicants should possess higher qualifications than those suggested. Male applicants should be not less than 25, not more than 40 years of age; and in the case of women not less than 21 nor more than 40. The difference in the minimum age for men and women is made because, as is well known, the latter mature at an earlier age and because a smaller number of years is required to learn most of the women's trades. We believe, also, that appli- cants over 40 should not be accepted because they have reached the period when a certain fixity of mind and a shorter expectancy of Life does not promise large returns in efQcient teaching service to a school system. This, of course, applies only to beginners in the teaching work and should not operate in the case of a suc- cessful teacher over 40 desiring to enter the service in New York. Three factors should be taken into consideration in passing upon the applicant: trade knowledge and skill, teaching ability and general education. The Probationary Teacher of Shop Subjects: The applicant should, if a man, present evidence of at least five years of ap- proved and successful experience or its equivalent in the shop work which he desires to teach. In the case of a woman, the applicant should present evidence of two years' successful ex- perience in the trade or occupation approved by the committee or its equivalent. Licensing of Teachers 305 The teacher of shop subjects should have at least a common school education or its equivalent. The Regular Teacher of Shop Subjects : As has already been pointed out, a probationary teacher may, after a period of not less than one or more than three years of service as such, be appointed as a permanent or regular teacher in the position upon the recommendation of the board of superintendents. We recom- mend that the probationary teacher, when he can be promoted to the position of a regular teacher in the same subject, present evi- dence of two years of satisfactory teaching experience in his sub- ject in the New Yoi-k schools. Attention is called to the fact that under this plan while any applicant from outside New York can meet the requirements for the probationary teacher, it will be necessary, whatever may be his previous trade and teaching experience, to serve two years as a probationary teacher of his subject in the New York schools before becoming a regular teacher. We believe this plan to be good as a means of obtaining and promoting good teachers if the salary schedule for the probationary teacher be made such as will make the work of a beginner desirable to promising men from outside as well as inside Greater New York. In the case of women teachers, we recommend that the proba- tionary teacher who began with a minimum of two years of trade experience, as what is known as a substitute or probationary junior teacher, be, after one year of satisfactory experience as a teacher of a trade subject, promoted to be a probationary second assistant; after a second year of such service, to be a probation- ary first assistant; and after a third year of such service to be a regular teacher of the subject. The Probationary Teacher of Related Technical Subjects : The applicant should at least have a high school education or its equivalent. He should have, in addition as a minimum, 300 hours of additional instruction in the technical subject he desires to teach, or an experience in the subject accepted as an equivalent, or an equivalent in preparation and experience. In order that he may be able to apply his subject to the trade or occupation to which it is related, he should have had at least one year of actual experience in the trade or occupation concerned or one year of approved practical contact in some capacity with the trade or occupation. 306 Industrial Education Survey Regular Teachers of Belated Techmcal Suhjects : As in the case of shop subjects, the probationary teacher of a related technical subject should after two years' satisfactory service be promoted to the position of a regular teacher in the same position. Probationary Teachers of Non-Vocational Subjects. These posi- tions are difficult to fill. At present they are obtained by trans- ferring elementary school teachers. Teachers of non-vocational subjects in an industrial school enter a field where few precedents exist. The vocational aim of the school demands a concrete and practical presentation of the non-vocational subjects such as is not common in our regular schools. Teachers of these subjects cannot expect to use in the industrial school the same subject matter or exactly the same methods commonly employed in the high school. They must be able to draw their material for the teaching of civics, economics, industrial history and English, from the work of the world. To do this, successfully, they do not need to have actual trade experi- ence, desirable as such experience is, but they do need a layman's knowledge of the machines used and the trade processes taught in the school. They ought also to have a keen appreciation of the conditions and problems of modern industry and a sympa- thetic insight into the needs of the workers. A man or woman with some natural mechanical ability and interest in industry, is more likely to succeed in such work than one whose tastes are entirely academic. The general education, personal qualifications and teaching equipment of teachers of non-vocational subjects should at least be equal to those of technical teachers. Regular Teachers of Non-Yocational Subjects : These should be obtained by promoting the probationary teacher of such a sub- ject after two years of satisfactory service. Teachers of Industrial Evening Schools : All the foregoing ap- plies only to teachers of regular day vocational schools. We do not see our way clear to recommend at this time the formal cer- tification of teachers of evening industrial schools. It is alto- gether likely that the attempt to do this would not only interfere with the prompt employment of such instructors when needed but prevent the schools from securing some very competent teachers who now teach as an incident to their regular business. Licensing of Teachers ■ 307 The committee, however, desire to point out certain things which need to be taken into consideration in establishing stand- ards for the employment of instructors in evening classes. The qualifications of trade teachers for day industrial schools outlined above are equally desirable for trade teachers in the evening schools. In the case of these teachers, however, there are certain reasons why these standards must be slightly modified. For some time to come the trade teaching in the evening indus- trial school will probably have to be done by men and women who regard this work as incidental to their regular business. The short term of evening employment and the comparatively small wage make this inevitable. Instructors from the all-day industrial schools will constitute a small number of these teachers but the majority must be secured from the local industries. To persuade competent men and women in industry to undertake a teaching job in addition to their day's work is already sufflciently difficult. For this reason the qualifications of trade teachers, and especially those who are employed for short periods on special work, should be limited to only the most essential requirements. The function of the evening industrial school is to give the worker an opportunity to secure further knowledge of his trade. It should deal for the most part with men and women who are presumed to have some knowledge of the trade in which they wish instruction. The prime requisite of evening trade teachers is, therefore, a thorough knowledge of their trade, or, in special instances, the specific branch of it they may be engaged to teach. Their skill, technical knowledge and trade standing must be such as will give them prestige in the eyes of their pupils. It is necessary that they have sufficient teaching ability to organize their subject matter and present it convincingly to their classes. They should have at least suflScient elementary school training to enable them to speak and write ordinary English. A good per- sonality and ability to deal with men and women are also impor- tant assets. (Signed) C. A. Prossbb Aethuk D. Dean Samuel S. Edmands DAY VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS The Board of Education has established four day vocational schools to train boys and girls to enter industry. Of these four, the Boys' Vocational School was opened in September, 1909. A year later the Manhattan Trade School for Girls, up to that time a private philanthropic institution, was taken over by the Board of Education. The Murray Hill Vocational School for Boys and the Brooklyn Vocational School for Boys were opened in March, 1914, and June, 1915, respectively. In the three vocational schools for boys electric wiring, drafting, printing, woodwork, machine shop practice, plumbing, sheet metal, sign painting, modeling, commercial and garment design are the trades offered. The first four listed are taught in all three schools and the last three are taught in only one school. One third of all the boys registered in the three schools are studying electric wiring and ninety percent of all of the boys are in the four trade courses of electric wiring, machine shop practice, drafting and print- ing. In the Manhattan Trade School for Girls seventy percent of the girls are learning dressmaking. The remaining thirty percent are divided between machine operating, millinery, novelty and sample mounting. During the year 1915, a total of over 1190,000 was expended by the Board of Education for these four schools. The purpose of the survey has been to determine how well each school is equipped to furnish efficient trade instruc- tion; how well each is meeting the demands made upon it and in the light of the experience of these four schools what changes or extensions, if any, are desirable to be made. So far as it has been possible the investigation has been kept to things that could be measured objectively, the expression of mere personal opinion has been avoided, and due allowance has been made for conditions which have been temporary in their nature. BOYS' VOCATIONAL SCHOOL The first public Vocational School for Boys established in the City of New York is located on 138th Street, Manhattan, and was opened on September 8th, 1909. 309 310 Industrial Education Survey In the 1910 report of the city superintendent of schools is given an account of the opening of this school and the policy which the Board of Education adopted in regard to the pupils for whom the school was provided: "There remained, however, the opportunity to do something for that enormous class of chil- dren who leave school at fourteen years of age, though still far from completing the elementary school course, and who have been going out and are stiU going out into life with no adequate preparation for its work and its trials. In establishing the Voca- tional School for Boys a direct attempt has been made to provide suitable training for this very class. The terms of admission to the school are that a boy shall have reached the age of four- teen years and shall be able to pass an examination not more difficult than that required to obtain an employment certificate." Trade Subjects: During this first year instruction was offered in the following trade courses : — 1. Woodwork, which included house carpentry, cabinet mak- ing, wood trimming, pattern making and the use of wood milling machinery. 2. Metal work, including machine shop practice, sheet metal work, forging, plumbing and electric wiring and installation. 3. Printing, including composition and press work. 4. Bookbinding. 5. Drawing, including mechanical, freehand, industrial de- sign and the making and reading of blue prints. In 1911 a class in architectural drawing was started ; in 1918 four new activities— automobile repairing, cornice and sheet metal work, tile laying and plaster modeling, were added. The new trades added in 1914 were linotype operating and sign painting, and in 1914 an instructor in monotype operating was added. During 1916 the class in tile laying, which from the first had been very small, was discontinued. Classification of Pupils for the Several Trades: The report of this school for the year 1913-1914 stated that "Upon entering, a pupil selects the trade he wishes to study. If there be no obvious reason for disagreeing with the pupil's choice he is per- mitted to follow his bent. Subsequently, it may be advisable, or necessary, for him to make a change in his work. Provision is made for such a contingency." Day Vocational Schools 311 In March, 1917, the monthly report of this school gave the distribution of the boys for the several trade groups as follows: Machine shop practice 224 Electric wiring 220 Architectural drawing 66 Printing 52 Commercial design 40 Mechanical drawing 29 Wood turning ~. 10 Plumbing 9 Sheet metal 9 Woodwork 9 Modeling 7 Holding Power of the School: A table is given below which shows the total number of pupils registered each year in this school since it was first opened and the average daily attendance for each of these years. This table shows that in general the average daily attendance each year since the school was opened has been about half as large as the total enrollment for that year. 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 1915-16 There are many difflculties of organization connected with a school that has a yearly enrollment so much larger than the daily attendance unless the class sections are kept so small that individual work can be done in each class. If this cannot be done, those who enter late must either be put in classes with pupils who have been in school from the opening of the term, or new classes must be formed for their benefit. The number of admissions and discharges month by month for the last two years is given in the table following : Total enrollment for the year Average daily attendance 109 821 266 821 421 892 427 1047 557 1274 662 1279 672 312 Industrial Education Survey Admis- Dis- Gradu- Admia- Dis- Gradu- sions charges ates eiona charges atei -1915 1916- January 38 18 30 63 February 191 40 204 38 2 March 40 52 6 28 70 15 AprU 24 69 11 13 47 13 May 18 91 2 11 41 6 June 42 52 10 63 16 July 89 83 25 1 September 211 C5 17 73 18 4 October 53 155 5 43 52 1 November 24 91 11 20 140 23 December 7 21 2 11 34 Total 757 644 54 525 591 89 In order to determine just how long a boy who entered the Bchool was likely to remain after he entered, a study was made of the attendance of the first hundred boys registered in the admis- sion book on February 1st, 1915, and the first hundred boys registered July 1st of that same year, February and July being the months when the largest groups of pupils enter. Ninety percent of each group were elementary school graduates, five percent had finished only the sixth grade and the remaining five percent were either in the seventh or eighth grade when they entered the vocational school. As shown on Chart 6, pagft 05 at the end of the fourth month, 70 of the February group and 75 of the July group were still in the school. During the next two months the February group of one hundred lost fourteen aa compared to a loss of only four from the July class. In each study of this kind that was made in each of the vocational schools the loss of pupils during the first summer was very much greater than during an equal number of months at any other time. At the end of the first year 52 of the February hundred and 63 of the July hundred were still in the school. At the end of the two-year period for the February group, 32 of the hundred boys were still in school ready for placement in industry. The July group had 46 of the original number in school at the end of the 16th month. The tendency in recent years in all four of the vocational schools has been to discourage the entrance of "That enormous class of children who leave school at fourteen years of age though still far from completing the elementary school course," and limit the attendance to those who are elementary school gradnatea. Day Vocational Schools 313 CHART 6. lOO 90 80 70 GO 50 AO 30 ZO lO \ ^ <., z c '^'■A h ■tn K.^ 0) K >*/, ^ '^ '<^; ^-.1 ->. N m C Aa S£ s NT Tfr] ^ *'G \ \ \ \ o -n ••^ "1 :a ■)-) 'IS S ^-. ._. V N — _^ , c r -J M O N T H s O F T H E Y E .J A R O I 2 3 4 S 6 7 6 d 10 11 IZI3I4IS16 17 I&I920ZIZ£ BOYS VOCATIONAL SCHOOL This chart shows the enrollment month by month of two groups of one hundred pupils each who entered the Boys Voca- tional School February 1st, 1915, and July 1st, 1915. It reads as follows: Of the class of 100 entering February 1st, 88 re- mained more than one month, 83 remained more than two months, 79 remained more than three months, etc. 314 Industrial Education Survey For this reason a study was made of the record of two groups of boys who entered this school after finishing the sixth grade only of the elementary school. It was necessary to go back to the year 1914 to find enough boys of this class entering in any one month to make a large enough group to study. For the first year the sixth grade boys remained in the school about as well as the group made up of boys, 90 percent of whom were eighth grade graduates, but a much smaller number remained to the end of the two year course. The vacation period, especially for the class entering in February, marked a large falling off in attendance. Whether this was due to the fact that the work was arranged for boys who had finished the ele- mentary school and so was too difficult for those who had only finished the sixth grade or due to other causes we have no means of knowing. Chart No. 7 on page 67 gives the record month by month for each of these groups. Size of Classes: The Boys' Vocational School is the only one of the four day vocational schools that has not filled the position of teachers of non-vocational subjects with teachers who have been transferred from the elementary school. By a rule of the Board of Education, if elementary school teachers are transferred their hours are not increased from the five hour day of the ele- mentary school to the seven hour day of the vocational school, but their salary is increased f200 over the salary received in the elementary school. When the teachers transferred from the elementary school to the vocational school have been near the top of the salary schedule (and most of them have been) the short hours and high salary have forced the school to make the aca- demic classes large in order to keep the per capita-per-hour cost within reasonable limits. In this school the teachers of academic subjects are employed the same number of hours a day as the trade teachers and in gen- eral their classes are no larger than the shop classes. So it is possible so far as the size of the class is concerned, to have the aca- demic instruction as individual in character as in the trade classes. Seventy-five per cent of all the classes at the time of the survey had a registration of between 18 and 22 pupils to the class. In the academic work only two classes of over 35 pupils were noted and the smallest class had 16 enrolled. The small regis- tration in modeling, plumbing, sheet metal, woodwork and wood turning (each having less than ten pupils) has made it necessary to have many small classes in these trade courses. Day Vocational Schools 315 CHAET7. uw 30 1 ;n eo 70 so so 30 20 10 \ ^5 >.i v z c \ \ "^e 'i 0) c, ^5 N K \ m ?3 ft '^4 y p •-^ ^6 "^ ■n 'ft'... 'V ^i \ ^^ ~.^ \ TJ "^ N X \ ^x C 5 <: ^ \ — .., r "«>* amtm r N T H s F T H E Y E A R c > 1 < s . 5 * 1- ! 54 5- r < J *. » 1 01 1 G & 1: sy 41! s» &r 7 11 BY 9t 01 Its, BOYS' VOCATIONAL SCHOOL This chart gives the same data described above for two groups of boys who entered the Boys Vocational School, having com- pleted the sixth grade of the elementary school. It reads as follows : Of the class of 100 entering February 1st, 1914, 92 re- mained more than one month, 86 remained more than two months, etc. 316 Industrial Education Survey Courses of Study: The members of tlie survey stafE were unable to secure any courses of study in this school either for the academic courses or the trade courses. The reason was given that the instruction was largely individual in its nature and a course of study would be a hindrance rather than a benefit. Only two of the young men teaching academic courses had had any trade training and but two had more than a year of public school teaching experience before being assigned to work in .this school Each of the teachers, who was asked about a course of study, stated that on undertaking the work of teaching in this school he had found no course, or outline, that had been used by the previous teacher and that the outline he was following was one he had made himself. Many of the teachers interviewed ex- pressed the need of help in organizing their teaching material so as to be of most benefit to the boys of each trade group. In February, the superintendent in charge of vocational ac- tivities was told of the difficulties in securing these couracB and on May 18th mailed the director of the survey courses of study in automobile work and gas engine mechanics, business English and industrial history including the municipal activities of the City of New York and the industries of New York City. The Relation Between Academic and Trade Instruction: In spite of the fact that the academic classes were kept almost as small as the shop classes, only two trade courses, electric wiring and machine shop practice, enrolled enough pupils to make it possible to have only the boys of the same term of the same trade in the one class. The program of each academic teacher is such as to require that he spend two periods each day in some one of the shops in order that he may see what the boys are actually doing in their work. Time was not available to determine definitely just how eflS- ciently the teachers of these mixed classes were able to carry out group instruction in such a manner as to correlate the academic work with the trade work. One science class noted was made up of first, third and fourth term boys in architectural drawing and boys from all four terms in plumbing. The first term archi- tects were studying forces while the third and fourth term archi- tects were determining heat calories. The first and second term plumbers were studying the action of pumps and the third and fourth term plumbers were learning the properties of acids. In Day Vocational Schools 317 an English class made up of boys from the third and fourth term of electric wiring, the pupils spent the period copying the form for a postal money order into their note books. In another Eng- lish class visited, one boy was reading aloud from a book on con- tracts and after each paragraph was read the class was quizzed as to its meaning. The teachers of trade mathematics have had several years of trade experience as well as teaching experience and there semed to be a much closer correlation between the shop work and mathematics than in the teaching of any other of the subjects observed in the school. Organisation of Shop Courses: The organization of the shop courses in this school is different from that in the Murray Hill and the Brooklyn Vocational School. A brief description of the organization of the work in each department follows : In the printing department, the boy spends the first year and a half in the composing room and the press room and a short period in the bookbinding room. At the end of that period of time, he is allowed to specialize in hand composition, press work, linotype operating, monotype operating, or stone work. The boy in this department spends twenty-three hours a week in the shop, while the boy registered in other departments spends twenty hours a week in shop work. The boy in the printing department has work in English for five periods, in drawing three periods, and in science two periods a week, while the boy in the other trade departments has work in English for three periods, in draw- ing six periods and in science three periods a week. The work in the electrical department is divided into five divisions, as follows: (1) beU, communicator and burglar alarm, (2) telephone, (3) light wiring, (4) motors (dynamo and gene- rator) and storage batteries, and (5) flash sign operating. A boy in this department spends a term in each of the first three divisions, half a term in the fourth division and also a half term in the fifth division. First term boys spend three periods a week in the wood shop and third and fourth term boys spend two periods a week in the plumbing shop, wiping joints and splicing for lead and case work. The boy who enters the machine department spends three- sevenths of his shop time for the first term in the machine shop, two-sevenths of his shop time in the forge shop and the remainder of his time is equally divided between the sheet metal shop and pattern making. During the second term he spends four-sevenths 318 Industrial Education Survey of his time in the machiae shop and three-sevenths of his time in the forge shop. The second year he is allowed to specialize in machine shop work or auto-machine work. The work in the woodworking department is divided into three divisions: cabinet making, house construction and mill work. The boy spends one-third of his time in each of the three shops. The student in the pattern making department devotes his entire shop time for the two years to the work in wood turning and pattern making. The boy studying plumbing spends his entire shop time for the two years in the plumbing shop. The student in the architectural drafting department gives twelve periods a week to the drawing room, two periods to clay modeling, three periods to electrical work, three periods to plumb- ing and four i)eriods to woodworking, two periods to sign paint- ing and the remainder of his time to academic work. The boy specializing in mechanical drawing spends fourteen periods a week in the drafting room and twelve periods a week in the machine shop, auto-machine shop, the sheet metal shop, the press room, and the remaining fourteen periods in academic work. The distribution in the different trade subjects of the forty periods into which each week is divided is shown in the accom- panying table: P. .9 .9 J!| Ills-sain Shop Work 23 20 20 20 20 20 20 14 12 Drawing 3 6 6 6 « 6 6 12 14 Mathematics 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 English 5 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Science 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 History 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Physical Training. ..333333333 Study .' 11111111 Character of the Instruction (Shop) : There is a great differ- ence in the character of the instruction in the various depart- ments. In the printing, woodworking and sheet metal depart- ments considerable commercial work is produced, while in the other departments practically all of the work, outside of repairs for the school and the equipment, consists of exercises. The work of the printing department, where six shop teachers Day Vocational Schools 319 are engaged and fifty-two boys enrolled, consists largely of print- ing forms, blanks and circulars for the Board of Education. The value of the product of this department amounts to about ?1,000 a month. The fourth term boys are allowed to specialize in linotype, or monotype operating. It may be noted that to allow boys of such limited composing room experience to specialize on machine composition is contrary to the established practice in the trade where boys are not allowed to work on machines until the fifth, or probationary year, and in the schools maintained by the manufacturers of type-setting machines the attendance is usually limited to those who have considerable trade experience. Outside of the necessary electrical repairs for the school building and its equipment, the work in the electrical depart- ment consists largely of exercises. The number of pupils en- rolled in this department makes it possible to secure a careful classification and grading of the pupils and permits the school to secure specially trained men to teach the different branches of the trade. In the auto-machine shop the boys secure a very thorough training in the overhauling and repairing of many different types of cars. In the regular machine shop the work consists largely of exercises in classes that are so large that two boys are assigned to each machine or bench job. The machines are driven by alter- nating current motors with which it is difficult to secure a vari- able speed control which is desirable for this kind of work. In the sheet metal shop the boy spends part of his time mak- ing supplies for the Board of Education and a part of his time in developing problems in sheet metal work. The correlated draw- ing is taught in the shop and consists of making full scale draw- ings for the shop projects. In the plumbing department the time is about equally divided between lead work and the installation of fixtures. The boys also spend some time in pipe fitting. The plumbing repair work in the building is done by the boys of this department. The work in the other departments is largely individual in- struction. The classes are small and the teachers can give each boy considerable attention. The drawing for the boys specializ- ing in the different trades does not seem to be closely correlated with the shop work. In several of the trade departments, the shop men teaching the drawing necessary for the working out of the shop problems and in such cases it was much more closely corre- 320 Industrial Education Survey Jated with the work of the trade than when the drawing was taught by the regular teachers of drafting. The Teaching Staff: The rules of the Board of Education con- cerning the teachers in the vocational schools have been sub- jected to several changes taking place while this survey wer being made. The salary schedule for regular teachers of voca- tional subjects in vocational schools for boya grants fl,500 for the first year with an annual increase of f 125 until a maximum of |2,500 is reached. Teachers assigned by the board of superin- tendents from the elementary school where the maximum ealaiy is $2,400 to teach non-vocational Bubjecta (Engliah, history and geography) in a vocational or trade school receive |200 a year as additional compensation. The aabstitute teachers of voca- tional subjects in these schools are given f5.00 a day and the substitute teachers of the non-vocational subjects receive |0.60 an hour. At the time of making the survey there were 17 regular teach- ers and 31 substitute teachers in this school. Of the 17 regular teachers, 12 were teachers of shop courses, three were teachers of trade mathematics and two taught mechanical drawing. Of these 17 regular teachers, 14 had been teaching in this school for four or more years. This continuity of service is not found, however, among the Bubstitute teachers who make up two-thirds of the teaching force. Tn the printing shop nine different men served as substitute teachers during the two years of 1915 and 1916. Only one of these men taught all of both years. There were ten substitute teachers of electric wiring during the same two years, only three of whom taught the two years. There were four substitute teachers of tile laying during these two years, three diflferent men in 1916 with terms of service ranging from a single month to six months, although there were no pupils reported for this trade any month of the entire year. During the year of 1916 two substitute teach- ers were employed to teach sign painting (one from March to December, the other from May to December), although the monthly report of the school gave no pupils registered for this trade for any one of these months. English is taught by substitute teachers who have changed so frequently that of the seven different men employed since January, 1915, to teach this subject only two have been there continuously for the two years. Eight different men have acted Day Vocational Schools 821 as substitute teachers of drawing, not one remaining the full two years. Only one of the substitute science teachers and but one of the teachers of history was in the school two years ago. The teachers of academic subjects as well as the teachera of trade subjects in this school are employed seven hours a day and eleven months a year. Building: The Boys' Vocational School is located in the larg- est building devoted exclusively to vocational work in the city. The building, originally a 48-room high school annex, is a six- story brick and stone structure. The students have made many alterations in the building, such as removing partitions, changing the lighting fixtures, laying floors, as well as plastering and paint- ing. As a result of these alterations, the shops with one or two exceptions, are located in large, well lighted and well ventilated rooms. The boys and teachers of this school also planned and erected a large fireproof auto-machine shop on an adjoining vacant lot. This shop is about 70x80 feet and is large enough to house fifteen automobiles and the necessary machines for repair work. Equipment: The Board of Education has expended |63,797 for the equipment in this school. It is impossible to give in this limited report a list of all the equipment, but the following brief statement of the types of machines and tools provided for the printing department, automobile shop and the machine shop will give a general idea of its scope. In the printing department are several job presses, a cylinder press, power paper cutter, six linotypes, one monotype and the necessary composing room furniture. In the automobile shop are thirteen foreign and domestic auto- mobiles of various types, two lathes and the necessary bench and hand tools. The equipment in the machine shop consists of nine engine lathes, three large drill presses, four spindle drills, one hand milling machine, one plane milling machine, one planer, two shap- ers, one universal grinder, three speed lathes and tool grinders and the necessary tool and bench equipment. These machines are driven by alternating current motors with which it is difficult to secure variable speed control. Records and Reports: The usual school records in regard to attendance and progress of the pupils are kept in this school. 322 Industrial Education Survey Each teacher of the school is assigned a certain number of pupils with whose home conditions he becomes familiar and no boy who leaves the school is marked discharged until his teacher reports upon why he is leaving and whether he intends to return. Since it takes considerable time for the teachers to secure this informa- tion, (all of which must be done outside of school hours and with- out any extra compensation) many boys are kept on the register for days and ^veeks after they have left school. As was shown in the section dealing with the holding power of the school, some of the pupils who entered in February and July left the school the same month they entered. Month by month others dropped out while some remained to the end of the two-year course. Of these four groups presented graphically in Charts No. 6 and No. 7, the attendance record of the first fifty of each group that left school was checked to deter- mine the difference between the last day each boy was in school and the date that he was discharged and his name taken oflf the register. The record for one of these groups of fifty boys is tabulated below : Total number of months of actual attendance of the 50 boya 172 Total number of months on the register for the 50 boys 301 Average number of months of actual attendance for each boy 3.4 Average number of months each boy's name was on the register 6 Discharged in less than one month after leaving 3 Discharged between one and two months after leaving 7 Discharged between two and three months after leaving 23 Discharged between three and four months after leaving 7 Discharged between four and five months after leaving 6 Discharged between five and six months after leaving 2 Discharged between six and seven months after leaving 2 Seven of the fifty boys did not return to the school at all after the first day in which they enrolled. It took two months to get three of these names ofif of the register during which time they were counted as members of the school. A month later another of the seven was marked discharged, two more were discharged the next month and one was discharged five months after he had left the school. The most extreme case found in any one of the four groups studied was that of a boy who was marked present on his report card on 18 days and marked absent on 332 days. Although he was actually in school less than an average month he was counted as a member of the school for a year and a half. Day Vocational Schools 323 In the other vocational schools the pupils' names were kept on the register not more than a few days after they left school. Analysis of Costs: There are so many different methods of determining school costs because of the many different factors to be considered that it is difQcult to make any statement regarding the costs of instruction that is not open to criticism. The finan- cial report of the Board of Education shows the annual per capita costs for the past five years of the Boys' Vocational School to be as given in the table below : INSTRUCTION COSTS— BOYS' VOCATIONAL SCHOOL Average Total Daily Cost Per Net Cost Year Cost Attendance Capita Per Capita 1911 $31,403.08 327 96.03 90.81 1912 36,196.67 416 87.01 76.91 1913 41,079.98 475 86.48 73.57 1914 62,780.19 608 103.25 80.15 1915 70,001.84 676 103.55 72.68 The difference between the cost per capita and the net cost per capita is due to the allowance by valuation that is made for the manufactured product that is used within the school system. While the gross cost per capita has increased |17.07 above what it was the year the cost was the lowest, the net per capita cost has decreased |18.1B from that of the year it was the highest. The annual per capita cost for the high schools of New York City for the year 1915 was |100.68. The annual financial report also gives the cost on what is called a per capita-per-hour basis which is the average cost for each of the aggregate hours of instruction in the school. The gross and net per capita-per-hour cost for this school for the past five years, compared with the per capita-per-hour cost for the ele- mentary schools for the same period is given in the following table : Year 1911 ... Gross Per Capita-Per Hour .066 Net Cost Per Capita-Per Hour .062 Net Cost Per Capita-Per Hour for Elemen- tary School .037 1912 ... 1913 ... 1914 ... 1915 ... .057 .057 .069 .071 .051 .047 .053 .05 .043 .044 .046 .045 324 Industrial Education Survey The net per capita-per-hour costs are susceptible of compari- son with the other schools and with other types of educational activities, which is not true of the annual per capita cost. In order to show the relation between the over head expense, the cost of instruction in the non-vocational subjects and in the trade subjects, a table is given below showing these costs dis- tributed on a per capita-per-hour basis. It will be noted that the cost of the non-vocational work increased greatly each year. This was due to the fact that the associate superintendent at present in charge of vocational activities desired that the aca- demic instruction in this school should be emphasized more strongly than it had been before he took charge of the voca- tional work. PER CAPITA-PEai-HOUK CASH DISTRIBUTION FOR SALARIES ONLY Year Other Than Teachers Teachers ol Non- vocational Subjects Teachers of Vocational Subjects Total Per-Oapita- Per Hour for Salaries 1914 ... .0057 .0034 .0401 .0492 1915 ... .005 .0051 .0492 .0593 1916 ... .0057 .0129 .0495 .0681 The data are not available from which it would be possible to make an accurate distribution of the costs of the various items which go to make up the annual per capita costs of 1103.55 but in round numbers the chief items would be about as follows: trade instruction, |57.00; academic instruction, f 20.00; supplies, f 17.00; supervision of the principal, |6.00. This leaves f3.55 not covered by these five items. There is also much difference in the cost for the several trades in which instruction is offered. Woodwork, which includes car- pentry, pattern making and the use of wood milling machiaery, has had an average monthly register since last July of 25 boys. The cost for salaries of the three trade teachers of woodwork is 15,875. Printing, including bookbinding, linotype and monotype instruction as well as composition and press work, has had since last July an average of 53 boys enrolled in the department. The cost for salaries of the six teachers who give all of their time to the boys registered for printing is $8,000. The average registra- tion in plumbing was 14 boys. Nine boys on the average were registered for the course in modeling, ten for sheet metal and none at all for sign painting and yet a trade teacher is employed Day Vocational Schools 325 for each of these groups. The annual per capita cost is kept as low as it is (1) because two trades, electric wiring and machine shop practice, have an average monthly register of over 200 pupils in each trade and the lower cost of trade instruction in these two trades brings down the average for them all, and (2) because some of the trade teachers, as in woodwork, plumbing, sheet metal, sign painting, and modeling devote part of their time to teaching boys from other trade groups. SUMMARY: 1. Only architectural drawing, electric wiring, machine shop practice and commercial design register more than thirty pupils for each course. Modeling, plumbing and sheet metal were taught with less than a dozen pupils for each trade. 2. The Boys' Vocational School holds a larger percentage of the pupils to the end of the two-yeadr course than is the case in the other vocational schools. 3. Neither the shop classes nor the academic classes were too large for efScient trade teaching. 4. Few of the teachers were following a definite course of study and as a rule a new teacher made up his own course with little help from his superiors or his predecessors. 5. Two-thirds of the teachers in the school were on the sub- stitute list at ¥5.00 a day. The substitute teachers in the school both of trade and acadamic subjects changed so fre- quently that less than 20 per cent, remained as long as two years, and 40 per cent, remained less than sue months. 6. With this constant change of teachers there was little correlation between the academic and trade subjects. 7. The daily register of pupils was much larger than the at- tendance as pupils' names were kept on the records two to three months after they had left the school. 8. The small enrollment in over half of the trade courses offered has greatly increased the cost of trade instruction. MURRAY HILL VOCATIONAL SCHOOL Location: The Murray Hill Vocational School, which was opened March 31, 1914, is located on 37th and 38th streets. The school is within a few minutes' walk of the subway, the 2nd Avenue elevated and the 8rd Avenue elevated. Classification of Pupils for the Several Trades: In this school the choice of the boy is almost always the deciding factor as to the trade to be studied. A boy who enters a vocational school 326 Industrial Education Swvey usually does so because he has made up his mind that he wants to learn a certain trade, and if there is room in that department, he is given a chance to see how closely anticipation and realiza- tion are correlated. If he shows "exceptional proficiency in the first trade chosen, he is permitted to confine his work to that trade," otherwise he selects different trades from different dis- tinct trade groups until he finds the trade where he can do the most satisfactory work. The trade subjects offered in this school as given in the 1914-15 annual report and the distribution of the students in the several trade subjects for the month of March, 1917, as stated in the principal's monthly report to the superintendent, are given in the table below: 1. Wood work — 14 4. Drafting — 62 1. Joinery 1. Mechanical drawing — 58 2. Cabinet making and finishing 2. Architectural drawing — 4 3. House carpentry 3. Making and reading blue 2. Metal Work— 99 prints 1. Plumbing and gas fitting — 34 5. Advertising — 9 2. Automobile repair — 65 1. Sign painting — 9 3. Electrical work — 103 2. Display and show cards 1. Electric wiring installation — 6. Printing — 39 103 1. Composition 2. Instrument making 2. Imposition 3. Electrical signs 3. Press work 4. Electro-plating 4. Proofreading Holding Power of the School: The school report for the year 1914-1915 shows an average daily register for the year of 209 pupils, an average daily attendance of 180, a percentage of at- tendance of 86. For the year 1915-1916, the corresponding figures were 237 register, 217 attendance, or a percentage of 91.5. It is possible to conceive of a school with an enrollment of one hun- dred pupils that discharged five pupils and admits five new pupils each school day. At the end of the month, although all of the original hundred pupils had left, the school would have an average daily attendance of one hundred and consequently the school could show an attendance record of one hundred per cent. It is also possible to conceive a school with an enrollment of one hundred pupils, each one of the hundred attending every day for the month. This school that lost no pupils and gained none would also have an attendance record of one hundred per cent. At the end of a school year of ten months our first school would have Q I— ( t> O oi m M H 1-1 )— t o < h- ( ai P O H M O O ^ O tu , S) o ^a O P5 M O O o 02 I-:! <1 •A O H <1 O O l> :^ Day Vocational Schools 327 registered one thousand different pupils each for only a month's instruction, although the attendance record would still be per- fect. The second school that kept its original hundred in daily attendance for a year would have given a year's instruction to each one of the hundred while keeping its attendance record at one hundred per cent. In other words, the holding power of the school cannot be determined simply by figures showing percen- tage of attendance. The constant procession of boys entering and leaving this school is clearly shown by the number of admis- sions and discharges month by month and is given in the table below : 1915 .1916 Admissions Discharges Admissions Discharges January 11 10 2 6 February , 136 25 102 24 March 22 21 11 23 April 6 25 5 35 May 11 23 24 32 June , 6 63* 6 24 July 81 28 52 29 September 44 54 44 19 October 17 31 39 52 November 9 15 16 17 December 2 3 2 16 Total 345 298 303 277 The holding power of a school may be determined by taking the records of each pupil who enrolled as a student and finding out how long he attended or where this is impractical because of the large number of pupils enrolled, by taking a representative group of pupils who enter the school and seeing how long each one of the group remains. Both methods were used in this school. The Murray Hill School receives the largest increases during the months of February and July, respectively. The at- tendance records of the first hundred pupils registered in the admission book for February, 1915, and also for July, 1915, were tabulated. Of the July group half of the hundred had left school at the end of the first three months, while of the February group one-half were gone at the end of June and two-thirds of them had quit before the end of July. Chart No. 8 shows the number remaining each month out of the first hundred pupils who entered the school for the months *58 pupils sent to the Brooklyn Vocational School. 46 graduates included in discharges up to July, 1916. 328 Industrial Education Survey CHART 8 90 70 60 SO 40 30 ^ \ z c I \ \ t \ 00 \ ^1 v ] \ \ % ir ^ II u 1 1: SI' I'M (M 1 n f If in 9ti »XI \M MURRAY HILL VOCATIONAL SCHOOL This chart shows the enrollment month by month of groups of one hundred pupils each that entered this school in February and July, 1915. It reads as follows : Of the class entering July 1, 1915, 82 remained more than one month, 57 remained more than two months. Day Vocational Schools 329 studied. The total enrollment of the Murray Hill Vocational School from the time it was opened under the control of the Board of Education to February 1, 1915, was 396 pupils. Of this num- ber 58 were registered as members of the Brooklyn Vocational School and were transferred to that school when it was organized in June, 1915. This leaves 338 pupils as the register of the Murray Hill School up to February 1, 1915. Of this number 89 completed the course and graduated some time between February 1, 1915, and February 1, 1917, or 26.3 per cent. It is interesting to note that there is only about two per cent. difiEerence between the records of the two groups of one hundred pupils and the rec- ord of all the pupils who entered the school. Attendance of Pupils: A study of the attendance of these same two groups of pupils shows that one-third of the pupils who remained more than a month in the school had a perfect record for attendance. An additional third averaged 17 or more days attendance for each month they were in the school, while the third that were poorest in attendance were present about two-thirds of the time. Progress of Pupils: Kegularity of attendance and a correct attitude toward his work in the shop and class room are the chief standards set up by the school for measuring the progress of the pupils. Since the seven-hour day provides time for study, recitation and shop work and the teachers of the academic sub- jects are all skilled, experienced teachers there is little need for formal examinations to determine how well a pupil is doing his work. Size of Classes: The daily programs which the teachers of this school made out for the survey staff show a wide range in the size of the classes. The smallest was in sign painting where for eleven periods a week an instructor gave lessons to one pupil, the only member of the class. To give this pupil instruction for three hours a day, the cost for the teacher's salary alone is a little over $8.50 a week. The largest classes were in non-vocational subjects. An Eng- lish class of 50 pupils, a geography class of 47, a science class of 46 were the largest sections noted in the school. The classes in mechanical drawing ranged in size from 7 pupils to 37; in electric wiring from 10 to 39 pupils; in English from 10 to 50 pupils ; mathematics from 11 to 42 ; sign painting from 1 to 18 ; 330 Industrial Education Survey printing from 9 to 17. The greatest difference in the size of the several sections is due to the great difference in the number of boys registered for each trade subject. While the school had an average daily register in 1915-1916 of 106 pupils in electric wir- ing, the average daily register for the year in sign painting was only 13 and in woodwork only 8. These small trade groups are further divided between the four terms of the course and also divided between shop courses and academic courses. To care for these small groups, without prohibitive cost, either (1) the boys of one trade must be grouped together, irrespective of whether some are just beginning the course and others are just finishing it, or (2) the boys must be classified according to the time they have been in school, thus putting the boys studying several dif- ferent trades into the same class, or (3) boys of different terms and of different trades are all put together in one section. All of these combinations are found in some of the academic classes. Course of Study : The members of the survey staff realize that conclusions in regard to teaching methods and the relative value of the subject matter taught cannot be determined by simply visiting the class rooms and trade shops a limited number of times. For this reason an earnest effort was made not only to secure from each teacher the course of study he was following but also to discuss with him his methods and the results he was securing. The principal refused to give out copies of the courses of study the reason given being that the school had been so recently es- tablished that courses were in a state of transition. Some months later the superintendent in charge of vocational activi- ties sent courses of study in all courses except plumbing, wood- working, printing, automobile repairing and science. Relalioii Bcttcrrv Academic and Trade Instruction: English, history and geography are considered non- vocational subjects and the courses in these three subjects are general in their nature. Geography and history are taught from an industrial point of view and the aim of the work in English is to give facility in the use of both the spoken and the written language. The literature required to be read included Stevenson's "Treasure Island," Franklin's Autobiographj', Irving's "Sketch Book," Poe's "Tales and Poems," Lamb's "Tales," Shakespeare's "As You Like It." The time allowance for trade mathematics is the same for all trade subjects. Since the amount of mathematics required in Day Vocational Schools 331 the trade for printers, plumbers and sign painters is slight as compared to the amount of mathematics the electrician and ma- chinist must know, the course for the first group of trade workers is largely general mathematics in order to make it extend over the time devoted to this subject. In general, however, it may be stated the opinion of the survey staff that the trade mathematics is as closely correlated with each trade subject as is possible un- der such adverse conditions as are necessary by trying to give the boys in all trades the same amount of mathematics and the further difficulty of having boys of different terms and different trades in the same class. The difficulties confronting the teacher of trade mathematics also apply to the teacher in science. The course of study, giving the amount of time in hours per week that are allotted to each subject taught in the school and showing the amount of time devoted to the trade instruction com- pared to the amount of time devoted to the academic instruction, is shown in the table which was taken from the 1914-15 annual report of this school. COURSE OP STUDY FOR TWO TEARS (FOUR TERMS) Hours per Week Subject First Second Third Fourth Total Term Term Term Term Hourg English 3 3 3 4 13 Drawing, Mechanical and Freehand 4 4 4 4 16 Trade Mathematics 2 2 3 3 10 History and Civics 2 2 .. .. 4 Industrial Geography 2 . . . . . . 2 Applied Science 2 3 2 7 Physical Training and Hygiene 1 1 1 1 4 Assembly-^Music 1 1 1 1 4 Study : 2 hours — English 2 hours — Mathematics 1 hour — Use of Library 5 5 5 5 20 Total hours academic work per week 20 20 20 20 Total hours trade work per week 15 15 15 15 Total hours of work per week 35 35 35 35 Trade Instruction : The very poor equipment and rooms pro- vided and the fact that a large percentage of the boys leave BO soon after they enter the school necessarily influences the character of the trade instruction in the school. The boys in the wood shop work on projects to take home 332 Industrial Education Survey and pieces of furniture for the school. The instructor states that he attempts to give the boys a thorough training in hand tool work to prepare them to go into cabinet and furniture shops as bench workers. As was stated in describing the equipment, there is no machinery in this shop and the room is so small that the work is limited to the usual manual training exercises. The cabinet drafting is carried on in the shop room. The instructor usually makes the designs for the large pieces and the boys work from the full scale drawings. In the plumbing department instruction is given in lead work and installation of fixtures. The space provided for this shop is so limited that the instructor has to work out many of the installation problems in an open court adjoining the shop. Tha out of door work depends to a large degree upon favorable weather conditions. Very little attempt is made to work upon the equipment needed for the school, although the school needs many things that could be made in the shops and would furnish "live" prob- lems for the boys to develop. For example — there is a need for a number of mechanical drawing tables for the drafting depart- ments, where the work is greatly handicapped by the lack of adequate equipment. The trade drawing for the boys specializing in trade work is largely general in its nature and is not definitely related to the shop work. Most of the drawing necessary, to work out the shop problems is taught by the trade teachers. The following state- ment is taken from the course of study in mechanical and free- hand drawing for the Murray Hill and Brooklyn Vocational Schools : "Pupils are taught the use of T-squares, triangles, scales, instruments, etc., the general principles of mechanical draw- ing are derived through the following series of exercises: "Working drawings; two views of series of prisms, pyra- mids and cylinders, showing various modifications; working drawings of rectangular blocks ; three views. Simple solids and elementary geometrical problems. This work is followed by exercises in lettering, dimensioning and conventional hatch- ings, after which a brief course in development is given in- volving the forms previously drawn. "The freehand drawing work consists of the principles of perspective, proportion, and the technique of sketching. The foregoing fundamental principles are taught to the students of all trades. Differentiation only takes place after these principles have been thoroughly mastered." Ph P^ P Eh Day Vocational Schools 333 Mechanical and freehand drawing is done chiefly from models from which dimensioned sketches are made. Mechani- cal drawings are then made from these sketches, all necessary dimensions being shown. Perspective sketches are also made of these same objects. To gain practice in interpretation of Patent Office drawings, working drawings are made from perspectives. Inking in and tracing are included in the above. The practical models mentioned under the different trade departments are distributed among the type problems. These models illustrate the general principles. They are not grouped for use at the end of the course. They have been arranged so for convenience only. The practical models mentioned under the electrical and wood- work departments follow : Electric Wiring : Wiring Diagrams Porcelain Insulator Fuse Plug Battery Binding Post Floor Push One-Point Switch Conventional Threads Flat Push Button Plate Strap Key Annunciator Knife Switch Lightning Connector Buzzer Telephone (general drawing and details) Automatic Drop Bell (general drawings and details) Standard Writing Symbols Plan Reading Layout of Shop Problem Woodworking: Principal joints used in wood work taken in progressive order Drawings of wood working tools and details of furni- ture such as: Book Rack Tabouret Umbrella Stand Foot Stool Dining Room Chair (straight back) Library Table Morris Chair Rocker China Cabinet Dressing Table Writing Table Desk Plan Reading Layouts of Shop Problems Architectural Perspective The Teaching Staff: The teaching staff is composed of 14 teachers for full time and one teacher of physical education for half time. Of these the teachers of geography, history, mathe- matics, English and one of the two teachers of mechanical draw- ing are regular teachers and the others are on the substitute list. The teachers of the first four subjects mentioned are all col- 334 Industrial Education Survey lege graduates and each has done considerable post graduate work. They have had several years' experience in elementary school teaching and were selected and transferred to this school when it was first established because of their ability to teach as shown by their previous work. Each one of the teachers of the academic subjects has had some trade training. There has been little change in the corps of regular teachers since the opening of the school. Three of the live teachers of academic subjects are receiving the maximum salary paid ele- mentary school teachers, $2,400, plus an additional |200 which, under the rules of the Board of Education, is granted to elemen- tary school teachers transferred to teach in vocational schools. For teachers so transferred, there is no increase in the hours nor lengthening of the school years over what was required in the elementary school- This means that the work of the teacher of academic subjects is so arranged that he either has the privi- lege of coming to school two hours later than is required of the trade teacher, or he is permitted to leave two hours before the trade teacher finishes his day's work. Trade Teachers: When this school was first established the teachers of trade subjects were selected from the substitute list and at the time of the survey were still sul)stitutes and were teaching seven hours a day for a salary of fS.OO a day. The academic teachers, who, in some cases, receive almost three times the salary of the trade teachers, teach 100 hours a month, while the trade teachers must put in 140 hours a month. In other words, the teacher of a trade subject, as printing, plumbing, electric wiring, etc., receives 71 cents an hour for teaching a shop class, while the teacher of history, science or English receives |2.G0 an hour. The trade teachers were selected largely by the principal of the school. His method has been to find a man in the trade whom he considered would make a good teacher and per- suade him to try the examination given to substitute trade teach- ers. If the man was successful in securing a substitute license he was given a position in the school. Buildings : The quarters provided for this school are the most unsatisfactox-y for vocational work of any found in the city of New York, and it is doubted that any equally unsatisfactory exist elsewhere in the state. The school plant is made up of a number of old buildings, a four-story elementary school structure facing Day Vocational Schools 335 on 37th street, an annex, midway between 37th and 38th, and a number of old brick houses facing on 38th street. A vocational school requires large, well lighted shops with floors capable of sustaining the weight of heavy machinery. In no respect does this building meet these requirements as the rooms are small, poorly lighted and poorly ventilated and the floors are not strong enough to sustain the weight of heavy equipment. Several of the shops located in the basement are so poorly lighted that it is necessary to use artificial light. The ceilings in these basement shops are low and the ventilation is so poor that the pupils have to work in an atmosphere that is dangerous to their health. In the plumbing shop, for example, when the pupils are working with lead the fumes do not have a chance to escape properly and thus the health of the pupils and teachers is endangered. The Board of Education has recommended that this building be remodeled. Equipment : The total investment in equipment in this school would not be sufficient to provide for one good vocational wood- working shop. Many villages and small cities in the state provide much better equipment. The difficulties of accomplishing satis- factory work with the facilities provided in this school, are evi- dent. The woodworking shop which is located in a low basement is so small that there is no space for the installation of machinery or the working out of problems in house framing, stair building or the construction of large pieces of cabinet work. The equipment consists of fifteen small manual training benches, fifteen sets of hand tools, a few special tools, clamps and glue pots. The print shop, which is also located in a dark basement room, is the best equipped shop in the school. This equipment consists of fifteen cases, two small job presses, one automatic job press, a paper cutter, imposing stone, stitcher and other small furniture. The drawing rooms are also small and poorly lighted. In one of them regular class room desks are used, the other has freehand drawing tables. Records and Reports: The school records of each boy who enrolls in the school are full and complete up to the time he leaves to go to work. There is a separate folder for each pupil in which is kept his complete school history. His attendance, communica- tions with and from his parents, the reports of his teachers are all filed in the one place. In addition a complete card catalog system with numerous cross references is kept up to date and 226 Industrial Education Survey used as a means of training the fourth term boys in ofQce prac- tice. The records of the boys after they have left school is far from complete and little is known of what has become of the boys who failed to complete the course which is about three-fourths of those who have enrolled. Analysis of Costs: The financial report of the Board of Education shows that the cost per capita, based on daily average attendance for the year 1915, was |141.35. This is only exceeded by the cost for the training schools where the per capita cost for the same year was $160.38. The per capita cost for the high schools was $100.68. This same report also gives the per capita- per-hour cost. For the Murray Hill Vocational School this per capita-per-hour cost was 9.6 cents; for the training schools 16.8 and for the high schools 10.7 cents. To give the per capita-per-hour cost is a much more accurate method than to give the per capita-per-year cost, but a further analysis of the above costs is enlightening. The table below shows the relation between the overhead ex- pense and the cost of instruction in the non-vocational subjects and in the trade subjects. The per capita-per-hour basis of dis- tribution makes it possible to compare the three boys vocational schools. Teachers Teachers Total per Other Than of of Capita per Teachers Non- Vocational Vocational Hour for Year Subjects Subjects Salaries 1915 0167 .0280 .0379 .0826 1916 0154 .0268 .0374 .0796 As near as can be determined without consulting the data which are not easily secured, the distribution of the annual per capita cost $141.35, would be about as follows: Supplies $24, supervision of the principal $11, academic instruction $55, trade instruction $45, leaving $6.35 not included in these four items. Although the average cost for all the trades taught is about $45 for trade instruction, there is much difference in the cost for the several trades in which instruction is offered. Electric wiring that is taught to large sections of from 19 to 34 boys in a section, costs but $22 per capita-per-year for trade instruction, and auto repairing costs $26. At the other end of the scale are woodwork where less than a dozen pupils are registered and sign painting where a trade teacher devotes six-sevenths of his time to six pupils. a §•2 O -3 o ^ 1^ & N a <1 Pi « a; ^ S a i a ^ n 1— 1 a g s P T3 1-1 13 M .Q a 3 W O, 02 «l J3 Day Vocational Schoolt 337 SUMMARY: 1. The school records for attendance show that the school does not hold its pupils. Half of the pupils who enter the school remain less than five months and only a third of the pupils remain as long as a year. 2. The academic classes are excessively large and made up of pupils from several trades and different terms in the school. Because of their mixed character and size, correlation with the shop work is practically impossible. 3. The equipment in the school is so poor and the facilities for trade instruction are so inadequate as perhaps to account in part for the large pupil mortality in this school. It would be impossible to give some of the trade courses offered, even if there were boys registered for the course. 4. The shop instruction is largely exercise work and little attempt is made to work out practical constructive prob- lems. 5. The academic teachers who were transferred from the ele- mentary schools have a five-hour day and receive |2,600 for a year of ten months. The trade teachers from the opening of the school until March, 1917, were on a substi- tute teacher basis and received $5 for a seven-hour day. The trade teachers have a year of eleven months. 6. The building in which this school is conducted is in every way unsatisfactory for vocational school work. The shops are small, poorly lighted and furnished with almost no equipment that meets trade standards. 7. No record is kept of the boys after they have left the school if they leave without completing the course. This means that no record is kept of almost three-fourths of the boys who have been in the school. 8. Trade instruction in woodworking and sign painting, be- cause of the small enrollment in each, is more than twice as expensive per capita as for the other trades taught in the school. BEOOEXYN VOCATIONAL SCHOOL FOE BOYS The Brooklyn Vocational School for Boys, which was opened in the summer of 1915 under the supervision of the principal of the Murray Hill Vocational School, has a similar organiza- tion. The school is located on the seventh floor of the Gary Build- ing, which has approximately a floor area of 13,000 square feet. The layout of this space is planned to utilize to the greatest advantage every particle of light and every square foot of floor area. 338 Industrial Education Survey Classification of Pupils for the Trade : As in the Murray Hill School, each boy is permitted to enter the trade of his choice and given a try out period in that trade. If his work is not excep- tionally good he is shifted from trade to trade until he finds him- self, or proves that he does not care to follow any of the trades offered by the school. The distribution of the boys for the dif- ferent trades taught was as follows in March, 1917 : Wood work — 32 -i. Drafting — 55 1. Joinery 1. Mechanical — 55 2. Cabinet making and finishing 2. Architectural 3. House carpentry 3. Making and reading blue Metal work — 79 prints 1. Machine shop practice .", Garment design — 24 2. Tool and die making 1. Cutting 3. Sheet metal work 2. Designing Electric work — 87 6. Printing — 46 1. Electric wiring and instal- 1. Composition lation 2. Imposition 2. Instrument making 3. Proof reading 3. Electric signs 4. Press work 4. Electro-plating Holding Power of the School : Since the school was not opened until June, 1915, its holding power for the full two-year course has not yet been demonstrated. The 1915-16 report of this school gives the average daily register for the school year as 237, the average daily attendance as 217 and from these two numbers the percentage of attendance is figured as 91.5. Since an average of ten percent of the enrollment leave each month to be replaced by new boys who are admitted, the 91.5 percent of attendance does not present a true picture of the real at- tendance. The record of the first hundred pupils who entered the school exclusive of those transferred from the Murray Hill School, is shown in Chart No. 9. For a basis of comparison with the July class in this school, as well as with the February and July classes in the other vocational schools, a study was made of the first hun dred pupils who entered the school in February, 1916. The two groups show practically the same loss from month to month. At the end of the third month 28 per cent, of the July class had quit and 31 per cent, of the February class. At the end of the first year there remained in the school 51 per cent, of the July class and 46 per cent, of the February class. It seem* Day Vocational Schools 339 CHART 9 BROOKLYN VOCATIONAL SCHOOL FOR BOYS lOO so 70 60 so AO 30 20 lO \ 1 1 \ z c \ 1 \ 0) >»., \ \ V m Ci '^s, »if 'TE N o ■n ' / ^fi \ -: \ h»iK C C) AS 5 E riTi :r.I MO JU ^. i>l »I5 5 r 0) M O N T H S O F T H B V E A F^ Z348«7 89 10|| IXi3l4SS 1^17 l&tdlOZm This chart shows the enrollment month by month of two groups of one hundred pupils each who entered this school in February and July, 1916. It reads as follows : Of the class en- tering in July 89 remained more than one month, 75 remained more than two months, etc. 340 Industrial Education Survey reasonable to assume, therefore, that something like 50 per cent, of the pupils who enter this school will remain to the end of the first year and between 25 and 35 per cent, will finish the two-year course. The admissions and discharges month by month since this school opened are shown below : 1915 1916 1917 January . February March ... April .... May .... June .... July September October . . Noyember December idmis- Dig- Admis- Di3- Admia- Dli- sions charges sions charges sious charges 6 11 99 48 111 19 15 20 11 12 7 20 7 16 3 10 150 6 16 95 1 86 36 71 26 48 25 15 18 16 46 2 9 11 13 9 4 4 5 TOTAl 342 58 309 209 121 88 It was not until January, 1917, that any of the "discharges" were due to the fact that the boys had finished the two-year course. Twenty-three of those who left in January were gradu- ates and three more graduated in March. The boys who gradu- ated before the school had been open two years were boys who had had part of the course at either the Murray Hill or the Boys' Vocational School. Attendance of Pupils: The pupils show an excellent record for attendance as long as they remain in school, which speaks well for the spirit of this school. One-half of the pupils were almost perfect in attendance. An additional fourth of the group were present 17 or more days each month and less than 4 per cent, pt the whole group were absent one-third of the time. Size of Classes : The limited quarters arranged for this school and the great demand on the part of pupils for a chance to enter has enabled the school authorities to secure a more even dis- tribution of pupils, as far as the trade classes are concerned, than is found in the other schools. When certain of the more popular trades as electric wiring, mechanical drawing and machine shop Day Vocational Schools 341 practice registered pupils up to their maximum capacity, some boys have been willing to enter other trades rather than not be permitted to enter the school at all. On the other hand the small total enrollment has brought up many difficulties in regard to the organization of the academic classes. The sections in mathematics, English, history and science range in size from 11 to 61 pupils. In order to get all of the trade sections into the academic classes various combinations of trade groups have been made which have tended to nullify any correlation which might otherwise have been made between the trade work and the academic work. It has also been impossible to put pupils of the different terms in different sections. Exajnples taken from the organization of the classes in trade mathematics which recite three times a week will illustrate the problem of arranging the classes in a trade school that has a small enrollment. Nine of the eleven groups have forty or more pupils in the class, one group 61. The pupils taking garment design are in two groups, one group having in it pupils of the first and second terms, the other group having the pupils of the third and fourth terms. On Tuesday, one of these groups recites mathematics with a group of printers also made up of pupils from two differ- ent terms. On Wednesday they have their mathematics with the drawing pupils of all four terms. On Friday they have the teacher and period to themselves. Woodworkers, printers and garment designers, six different term groups, go to make up one section in mathematics and there is no section where the pupilti of one term of one trade recite mathematics by themselves. The trade classes in garment design, woodwork and sheet metal range from 12 to 18 pupils. The printing and machine shop classes enrolled from 24 to 25 pupils. In electric wiring and mechanical drawing where vacancies in the corps of teachers had not been filled at the time the survey was made, the classes had from 40 to 50 pupils. Courses of Study: What was stated under this head in de- scribing the Murray Hill School also applies to the Brooklyn Vocational School, the two being under the supervision of the same principal. The title page of the eight courses of study which the survey staff were able to receive (history, garment de- sign, electric wiring, machine shop work, English, trade mathe- matics, trade drawing, mechanical drawing), stated that they were made for both schools. 342 Industrial Education Survey The Relation Between Academic and Trade Instruction : The general scheme of work for the Brooklyn Vocational School is the same as for the Murray Hill School. This gives a total of 20 hours a week to the academic work and 15 hours a week to the trade work. As was pointed out in describing the size of the sections in the academic work, the teachers of these subjects are greatly handicapped not only by the excessive size of the class room unit but also by the mixture of boys of different trades and different terms of different trades in the same class. It was not uncommon for a teacher to hear a part of a class recite and then assign to them a study lesson, next hear a second group recite and assign to them a study lesson and then devote the remainder of the class period to a third group. In some recitations the instruction was directed to the middle term groups. This gave the boys of the fourth term work that they had already had and left the boys of the first term perplexed at what they could not understand. Another plan was to present matter that was only new to all of the different divisions in the class but was so general in its nature that it was equally adapted to each division. In all the classes the spirit shown between the teacher and the pupils was excellent. The boys showed by their attitude that they liked and respected their teachers. There was good attention in class at all times without anything approaching the military type of discipline. Shop Instruction: The character of the instruction in this school is practically the same as the instruction in the Murray Hill Vocational School. The work consists largely of graded ex ercises similar to those found in many high school manual train- ing departments. Very little attempt is made to introduce prac- tical constructive problems. The work is also seriously handi- capped by lack of equipment and room. For example, in the ma- chine shop there are 24 boys in one section and 25 in the other. The equipment provided will permit only 14 boys to work on machines at one time and as a result part of the class has to work at the bench or two boys have to be assigned to one machine. In the print shop the sections are made up of 25 and 24 boys re- spectively. The equipment and quarters are not large enough to accommodate this number and the difiSculties of instruction are greatly increased by the overcrowding. The work in the electrical Day Vocational Schools 343 department was also greatly handicapped at the time of the sur- vey by large classes and by lack of teachers. At that time one instructor was employed who had charge of two shops, with two sections each day of forty-six boys. The work of the drawing department at the time of the survey was general in its character due to the fact that one instructor was teaching sections of 50, 46, 42 and 16 boys. The Teaching Staff : The teaching stafif was composed of eleven teachers for full time and one teacher of physical training for half time. The teachers of history, English, science, mathematics and mechanical drawing were regular teachers and the other teachers of the trade subjects were substitutes. As in the Murray Hill School, the teachers of science, history and English are excep- tionally well educated men. They were graded as excellent teach- ers in the elementary school and were selected to teach in this vocational school when it first opened because of their proven ability. No one of the three has had trade or technical training or experience. All three of these teachers were receiving the maximum salary in the elementary school and with the |200 additional salary paid elementary school teachers on being transferred to a voca- tional school, they are now receiving $2,600 a year. The length of the school day for these teachers who were transferred from the elementary school is the same as it was there — five hours a day. Trade Teachers: Of the trade teachers all were substitutes at the time of making the survey except one of the teachers in mechanical drawing. One of the trade teachers is a high school graduate, another completed two years of high school work and most of the others have taken evening courses in Cooper Union, the Polytechnic Institute or evening trade schools. All have had considerable trade experience, the average for the group being 16 years. The salary each was earning just before entering the school as a teacher was in most cases the union scale for that trade, |27.50, $30.00 or $35.00 a week. As they were all substi- tutes each received the regular pay for substitute teachers, $5.00 a day for each day the school was in session. Each of the trade teachers teaches seven hours a day. Building: At the time of the survey there were seven shops and five class rooms located on the fioor of the loft building where the school is located. The shops are very small and the work of 344 Industrial Education Survey the school is seriously limited by lack of room. The shops are well laid out and every available square foot of floor space is used to the best advantage. The lighting in most of the shops is very satisfactory and the ventilation good. The elevator serv- ice in the building is very unsatisfactory because of the great delays in getting the pupils in and out of the school. The principal of this school points out in his annual report that the present arrangement is but a makeshift and recommends that a special building be designed and erected for vocational work in the Borough of Brooklyn. Records and Reports: In practically all respects these were identical with those of the Murray Hill School. Analysis of Costs: As this school was not organized until June 21, 1915, the annual per capita cost of $111.21 given in the financial report of the Board of Education is for only the re- mainder of the school year. The cost per capita-per-hour for the six months of that year that the school was in session was 16.27 cents. The fact that this was twice the per capita-per-hour cost in the other vocational schools was due in large measure to the fact that the cost for supplies was almost as much as the cost for instruction. Since much of this was spent for material that will be used several years such as textbooks, charts, etc., the per capita cost for 1916 was probably much less. The exact figures were not available at the time of writing this report. The relation between the cost for overhead expense and the salaries for academic and trade instruction is shown in the table below. Since the school was being organized during the year 1915 the costs for the two years are not comparable. PER CAPITA-PBR HOUR CASH DISTRIBUTION FOR SALARIES ONLY Teachers Teachers Total per Other than of of Capita-per- Year Teachers Non- Vocational Vocational Hours fot Subjects Subjects Salaries 1915 0242 .0023 .0656 .0921 1916 0043 .0258 .0309 .0608 The smallest register for any trade course for the month of March, 1917, was 24 pupils. The Boys' Vocational School had five trade courses that month that had ten or less pupils regis- tered and the Murray Hill Vocational School had one with lesi Day Vocational Schools 345 than ten registered. As pointed out before, it is the small trade class that causes the cost to become excessive. The diflference in the salary of the academic teachers and trade teachers is very noticeable. Three teachers of academic subjects received a total of |780 a month for a total of 300 hours of teaching. Eight trade teachers receive a total of $800 a month for a total of 1,120 hours of instruction. The per capita-per- hour cost for the academic instruction is kept down in spite of the high salary and short school day of the teachers of these subjects, by registering excessively large classes in these subjects. As was pointed out in the paragraph describing the size ot classes, this lower cost has been secured at the expense of corre- lation between the shop course and the trade, efficiency of the academic work has been sacrificed in order to lower the cost. SUMMARY: 1. The school is located on the seventh floor of a loft build- ing and has very poor elevator service. The quarters are so small that a very limited number of boys can be accomo- dated. 2. The boys are more evenly distributed among the trades taught than in the other vocational schools. The smallest registration for any trade course at the time of making the survey was 24 in garment design; woodwork, the next to the smallest, had 32. 3. The school has not been organized long enough to determine with accuracy how many of its pupils will re- main to the end of the two-year course. 4. The academic classes are large and mixed. Boys of dif- ferent trades and different terms of the same or different trades being in the same class. 5. Trade classes of over 46 pupils both in drawing and elec- trical work and 24 in machine shop practice and printing were taught in small shops that were equipped for a much smaller number of pupils. Contrary to the practice in the other vocational schools there were no trade classes so small as to make the per capita cost unduly expensive. 6. As in the Murray Hill Vocational School the overcrowded academic classes prevented close correlation between the academic and the shop instruction; the shop instruction was mainly exercise work and the academic teachers re- ceived a much larger salary for teaching a five-hour day than that received by the trade teachers for a seven-hour day. 7. The records are the same in the two schools, giving a com- plete record of each pupil's time in school, but little history of what happens to those who fail to complete the course. 346 Industrial Education Survey DISTRIBUTION OP PUPILS AND TEACHERS IN THE THREE VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS FOR BOYS The accompanying table gives the number of trades taught in each of the boys' vocational schools, the number of pupils regis- tered for each trade at three months intervals since June, 1915, and the number of teachers employed for each trade subject. The first impression one gets from examining the table is that there is little relationship between the number of boys registered for a trade course and the number of teachers employed. Neither does there seem to be any unilormity of practice between the different schools in this respect. Each of the months for which the data are given shows this very clearly. In tls^ IJoys' Vociition:il School six teachers are employed in the printing department for very few more boys than are handled by one teacher in each of the other schools. For woodwork in the Boys' Vocational School three teachers at salaries of |2,250, |2,125, and !i?l,500, respectively, are employed to teach woodwork, where only about half as many boys are registered as are registered in the woodworking course in the Brooklyn Vocational School, where they are taught by one sub- stitute teacher who receives 15.00 a day. Sign painting has re- quired at times three teachers and still employs two teachers for a register of nine pupils. The fact that the sign painter at the Boys' Vocational School gives lessons in lettering to printers in- creases the wonder as to why six printers need this assistance when in the Brooklyn Vocational School one printer is able to teach almost as many pupils without such assistance. The more the table is studied the more clearly it is seen that the attempt to teach the same trade in all schools means a great waste of money and energy. All the pupils registered for sign painting are in the Murray Hill School. Day Yocational Schools U7 Totals for March, 1917 Brooklyn Voc, Murray Hill Boys' Voc. Brooklyn Voc, Murray Hill Boys' Voo. Brooklyn Voc. Slurray Hill Boys' Voc. Brooklyn Voc. Murray Hill Boys' Voc. Brooklyn Voc. Murray Hill Boys' Voc. Brooklyn Voc. Murray Hill Boys' Voc. Brooklyn Voc. Murray Hill Boys' Voc. Brooklyn Voc. Murray Hill Boys' Voc. ^^ rtlfl * * Cl ^ C^ rH . . rHlOiHt-HW • ■iHtDrtCO • .i-l(M i-l»«< lO 00 •*.. Tti n • ■ M (!| e^NINCO • tH-*!-!© • •iH«r-l-* <» o ■ • CO n • • th H • • • • Mlg^OOlfflMHrtOSttXNrHOSrH •MOSrtt- • -r-l© • • 05 IM M in -r-l . . rj( . . IN IM ■ .... rt05lHt-iHlO . -rHOrH-* . .r-ICO r-IM CO 00 «■• ■* m ■ ■ n (N iMO(Mt-I • •HOrHCO • -HtDTHOO ■*05--IMiM-- CO^t-INlOCqiHr-ICDlOTHOSM .COOJrHOl • .tHOS • • eOOOJrH'* -tH ..cm.. (N iH . .... i-tOrHOrHOi • -iHOiTHlD • •rH'<*l tHC\ TtH O CO.. CO Ttl.. CO t S( m- wow vi- w m- ,^j^ 6i9-»9-«i»te-te- «6- 2Q S" 3 30 1 2 1 6 1 97 6 5 8 I 72 'a 1 2 22 1 1 36 2 2 5 34 2 s 1 2 1 3 14 3 4 3 1 4 5 3 2 6 5 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 4 1 i 10 4 34 7 128 3 90 2 31 42 6 87 2 4 1 2 1 3 18 2i) Cominercial Product: Four-fifths of the trade school program is devoted to trade practice. This means that it is necessary for the school to provide a large amount of material and it results in the school having a considerable manufactured product each year. Day Vocational Schools 357 marketable product in order that the girls may have the same standard set before them in the school that they will meet in the commercial world outside and also that the girls may be furnished with material that in both quantity and quality will furnish the highest type of training. From January, 1916, to December 31, 1916, the school used material in their shops costing $11,848.29. This material when sold as a manufactured, product produced $19,112.63, giving the school a profit of $7,264.34. The amount gained from these sales is used to purchase supplies and equip- ment for the school. SUMMAEY : 1. Seventy per cent, of the girls who enter this school take up dressmaking. Lack of eqiupment keeps the classes in power operating smaller than they would be if all of the girls who desire to learn this trade could be accommodated. 2. Many girls who enter the school do so to get a start in some factory, and leave as soon as there is an opening. About a third of those who register in the school remain to the end of the course. 3. The academic work is mainly that which is developed in the trade taught and so is very closely correlated with the trade instruction. 4. The trade instruction is definite and well graded so that the completion of one operation or process leads directly to one slightly more complicated and difficult. 5. The standard of the commercial shop is the standard of the school shop both for quality of work and speed on the part of the worker. 6. Most of the teachers of the school are serving as substi- tutes on a per diem salary schedule. There is little change in the teaching force compared with the change of substi- tute teachers in the vocational school for boys. Two-thirds of the substitute teachers have been connected with the Manhattan Trade School for five or more years. 7. The present building is totally inadequate and a large building is now being erected for this school. 8. The records of the pupils, both while in school and after they have left, graduates and non-graduates, are extensive and well kept. REPORT OP THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON DAY VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS After studying the findings of the survey of the day vocational schools and the surveys of the trades of printing, machine work, carpentry, and inside electrical work, and visiting the three trade schools for boys, your committee submits the following report : 858 Industrial Education Survey The committee believe that conditions in the above-mentioned trades, as revealed by the various surveys, make it advisable for the City of New York to maintain day vocational schools giving instruction that shall prepare young persons to enter these trades at 16 or 17 years of age. In this connection, and for the sake of clearness, the com- mittee would record their definition of such schools : By vocational schools the advisory committee has in mind schools giving full-time day industrial training in the period b^?- tween elementary general education and pre-vocational training on the one hand, and the period of employment on the other. The function of the day vocational schools is regarded as that of giving pre-employment training. In the printing and machine trades, the committee believes that there is not only a lack of ideas as to materials and methods, that in part at least can be taught effectively to boys in a pre- employment school, but that each of these trades is capable of absorbing each year a considerable number of boys of IC or 17 years of age whose chances of advancement to high-grade posi- tions would be materially assisted by training in such schools. On the side of the trade, such schools should furnish a supply of well prepared boys who have passed through an extended selective training and whose chances of success in the trade would be greater than those who have not had such preparatory train- ing. If maintained in close co-operation with the industries, such schools should serve a helpful office in adjusting the supply of young workers to the needs of the trades. With the conditions existing in the carpentry trade, it is evident that there is not the opportunity for young workers of 16 or 17 years of age to enter the trade with the chance for ad- vancement to high-grade work that is present in the case of printing and machine work. Such openings are limited to the mills and shops dealing with high-grade work and to the com- paratively few opportunities presented for after advancement to foremen and other supervisory positions in both inside and outside work. These opportunities, however, seem sufficient to warrant the maintenance of pre-employment classes of limited size in this trade. In the trade of inside electrical work, the committee realize that the following conditions are present: first, it is difficult to duplicate practical trade conditions in a vocational school; sec- Day Vocational Schools S59 ond, there is a well organized apprenticeship plan in the trade and many young workers are taking evening courses of instruc- tion that necessarily follow lines similar to those that must be dealt with in the day schools. They believe, however, that such classes are warranted if their scope is widened to include other branches of electrical work. In regard to the school organization best fitted for such training, they believe that in the case of printing, the instruction should be given in a central school, for the reasons that more complete equipment and a more comprehensive teaching organi- zation can be secured, greater co-operation v/ith the industry is possible and better control could be had over the numbers enter- ing training in relation to the needs of the trade. The extensive and differentiated equipment of such a school would also be of great value in serving other phases of instruc- tion, such as evening classes for journeymen and apprentices and part-time classes for the younger apprentices. The same considerations obtain in regard to a central school for the machine trades. The committee feel that instruction in carpentry and electrical work could most effectively be maintained in a central school for the building trades along with other courses in this field. While one such school would, at first, be all that is necessary, other schools could be added as the need became apparent until each borough is provided. In order to furnish effective vocational training, it is essen- tial that the training shall be given to a group of individuals who have already determined that they wish to be trained for that particular trade or occupation. A specialized central school backed by the interests of the trade dealing in part-time and trade extension classes and stand- ing before the community as the headquarters of the trade, will present a situation much more likely to attract a group of pre- employment pupils who have already formed their desire to be trained for that particular trade than schools in which this course appears only as an element among other courses. The contact of pre-employment pupils in such a central school with the higher processes of the trade and with the workers in the trade will exercise a strong influence in retaining their at- tendance for the full course of pre-employment instruction. The committee recommends that pupils admitted to these schools shall be at least 14 years of age and have completed at 360 Industrial Education Survey least the sixth grade of school. They should be required to pass a physical examination based on the particular needs of the trade in question. At the end of the first term all pupils should be rated carefully as to their hand skill and industrial intelli- gence, and those who fail to give satisfactory promise of success as trade workers should be dropped from the school.. The num- bers admitted should not exceed the point where the number of graduates will be greater than experience indicates can be ab- sorbed by the trade. When the demand for admission to these schools exceeds the numbers so determined, competitive exami- nations aimed to test manipulative skill and general intelligence should be used as a basis of selection. Courses provided in the day schools should include shop train- ing, directly related technical instruction, instruction desirable for citizenship and elements of general education. Material for courses of instruction in shop work and in related subjects are indicated in the analysis of the trades as given in the different surveys. The committee recommend the organization of courses of instruction on a basis that will require two years for completion as at present. They favor at the same time providing shorter unit courses in machine shop work that will allow pupils who cannot remain for two years to enter the trade as machine hands or operators. In the matter of the length of school day, the committee feel that this should approach the length of the usual industrial day as nearly as the physical development of the pupil will ad- rait, considerations being had of the time required for traveling back and forth between home and school. They make no recom- mendation to change the present time of seven hours. The com- mittee believe that there should be provision for this type of training for practically the entire calendar year. The committee recommended that the number of pupils as- signed to one teacher of shop work shall not exceed 16. In regard to the character of the shop work, the committee recommend that in the schools devoted to the printing trades, machine trades, and building trades, there shall be a certain amount of produc- tive work, not for the sake of production, but because in their judgment, experience in productive work is the only fully effi- cient method of trade instruction. They believe that in many in- stances such productive work can with advantage be supple- mented by technical exercises of the laboratory type. Day Yocational Schoolt 381 In the case of the electrical trade, the work would, of necee- sity, be practically all of the latter type. The committee recommend that before any further classes in day vocational schools are opened, that equipment should be provided that is suflBcient in extent to meet all the needs of the numbers under instruction and of a character and quality that conform to the requirements of modern trade practice. The committee further submit the following plan to carry the above recommendations into effect: The establishment of a central school for the printing trades; the establishment of a central school for the machine trades; reorganization of the vocational school at 138th Street, Manhattan, as a school for the building trades; discontinuation of the Murray Hill Vocational School; reorganization of the Brooklyn Vocational School as a school for the building trades. Signed, Charles R. Allen, Francis H. Wing, E. E. MacNarTj L. H. Carris. EVENING TRADE SCHOOLS The Brooklyn Evening Technical and Trade School and the Long Island City Evening High and Trade School were opened during the school year of 1905-1906 and three years later a third, the Stuyvesant Evening Trade School, was added. The large increase in the number of evening trade schools came during the years between 1911 and 1914. In 1911-12 the Harlem Evening Trade School was opened ; in 1912-1913 the Murray Hill, the Tot- tenville and the Manhattan Evening Trade School for Girls were opened and in 1913-1914 the New York Evening School of Indus- trial Arts and the Bushwick Evening School were added. The number during the school year 1916-1917 is the same as in 1913-1914. These nine schools give instruction in the men's trades with the exception of the Manhattan Evening Trade School which is for women and the New York Evening Trade School of Industrial Arts which is for both men and women. The names of the schools with their distribution by boroughs is given below : TABLE SHOWING NUMBER AND DISTRIBUTION OF EVENING TRADE SCHOOLS BY BOROUGHS Borough of Manhattan Evening School of Industrial Arts Harlem Evening Trade School Manhattan Evening Trade School Murray Hill Evening Trade School Stuyvesant Evening Trade School Borough of Brooklyn Brooklyn Evening Technical and Trade School Bushwick Evening Trade School Borough of Queens Long Island City Evening High and Trade School Borough of Richmond Tottenville Evening Trade School Trade extension courses are also offered in the following evening elementary and high schools : Borough of Manhattan East Side Evening High School Harlem Evening High School for Women 363 3 2 years 11 10 to 15 years 3 3 years 10 15 to 20 years 2 i years 10 20 to 25 years 1 5 years 4 WEEKLY WAGES $5.00 to $7.50 4 $17.50 to $20 6 7.50 to 10.00 17 20.00 to 22.50 10.00 to 12.50 7 22.50 to 25.00 12.50 to 15.00 11 25.00 to 27.50 15.00 to 17.50 3 LENGTH OP ATTENDANCE 5 to 10 nights 1 20 to 40 nights 20 10 to 15 nights 8 40 to 50 nights 40 15 to 20 nights 6 50 nights or over 1 20 to 30 nights CHARACTER OF SHOP INSTRUCTION Electrical Work: The members of the survey staff visited twenty-five evening classes in electrical work. Of this number eighteen were classes in electrical wiring and installation, five were classes in the theory of electrical work and two were classes in motor work. As was pointed out in the description of the work of the even- ing electrical classes, over 50 percent of the men enrolled in these classes were 19 years of age or under, and practically 50 percent of them had worked one year or less at the trade. Not one class visited was made up entirely of electricians and no attempt was made to put apprentices, helpers and journeymen in separate classes. One class in advanced electrical wiring that was visited was made up of 8 clerks, 1 brush maker, 11 elec- tricians, 2 engineers, 1 electrical operator and 1 waiter. Another class, one in electrical installation, was made up of 1 piano maker, 2 housemen, 1 plumber, 1 clothing maker, 1 mechanic in power house, 1 carpenter, 3 clerks, 1 wireman, 1 elevator operator, 4 electricians, 2 organ builders, 1 stationary engineer, 1 shop worker. The work in electric wiring and installation consisted largely of working out simple problems in bell and light wiring. The instructors usually had a definite set of problems that the 396 Industriul Education Survey pupils followed and they also gave lectures on materials, the theory of electrical problems, and the Board of Underwriters' requirements. The work was largely individual in character, due to the fact that the previous experience of the pupil was so varied. Several of the classes could not be considered trade extension classes. The classes in electrical theory were made up of men from several occupations. One class visited registered 11 electricians, 3 electrical machinists, 1 clerk, 1 steam fitter, one salesman, I driver, 1 auditor, 1 leather worker and 1 engineer. The courses were general in character and not planned to meet the practical need of special groups of trade workers. The instruction in electrical shop work was the farthest removed from real trade extension of any of the shop instruction noted in the evening trade schools. This was due to the fact that it is impossible to do much construction work in a school laboratory or shop as well as to the fact the classes were poorly organized and that a large percent of the pupils enrolled in the classes had worked a year or less at the trade. Plumbing: Ninety-seven per cent of the men in attendance in the twelve plumbing classes visited were working at the plumbing trade during the day. Nearly all of these men attended the evening classes to learn how to wipe joints. The instruction was individual and an attempt was made to give each man the kind of work he wanted. AH the instructors gave lectures on the theory of plumbing, building code requirements and materials. In two classes it was noted that the instructors were teaching the pupils how to read blue prints. One instructor had worked out forty lesson sheets which were given to the men to study at home. Machine Shop Practice and Theory: Twenty-one classes in machine shop practice and theory were visited by members of the survey staff. Pour of these classes were in the theory of machine shop work and seventeen in machine shop practice. Approximately ninety percent of the men enrolled in these classes were working at machine or allied trades during the day. All the instruction in machine shop practice was individual in character and planned to meet the individual needs of the pupils. This was necessarily modified where the equipment was Evening Trade Schools 397 limited. Large numbers of pupils desired instruction in milling machine work, but the limited equipment prevented the schools from accommodating all of the applicants. In nearly all the classes visited the men were working from blue prints or free- hand sketches and usually worked out the mathematics con- nected with their problems. In one school the pupils were build- ing a lathe, in the other schools the work consisted largely of exercises. Many men were interviewed as to the value of the evening school work and nearly every man stated that the work was very helpful. The only men who were not satisfied were those in the elementary machine shop who were waiting for an opportunity to get into the advanced machine shop. The courses in the theory of machine shop work consisted of lectures on machines, materials, shop methods and processes, and allied subjects. The men were also given some work in related mathematics and in blue print reading. The instructors were spending part of their time taking up the individual prob- lems of the men and using them for class problems. The courses were well planned and the men took an active interest in the work. There were no machines or materials available in these classes for demonstration purposes. Carpentry and Joinery: There were 90 men in attendance in the seven classes in carpentry and joinery at the time of the survey. Of the number that gave information concerning their occupation there were 36 carpenters, 3 cabinet makers, 2 ship carpenters, 3 piano makers and 28 men engaged in 18 other occu- pations. In three classes visited a few pupils were working on problems at stair building and framing; the other pupils were working on cabinet work or making pieces of furniture. In the four other classes visited the work consisted largely of making furniture to be taken home. Mechanical Drawing: The twenty classes in mechanical draw- ing in the evening trade schools were visited by members of the survey staff. As pointed out in another part of this report, over fifty percent of the 464 pupils in attendance in the mechan- ical drawing classes, at the time of the survey, were under 19 years of age, and over half of the pupils were working the first year at their trade. 398 Industrial Education Hurvey Very little attempt seems to have been made to group the men of one trade together. In one school with three Monday and Wednesday night classes in mechanical drawing, there were twenty-nine machinists registered in one class, seven machinists in another and nine in the third class. There were twenty-seven other students, representing fourteen other occupations in these three classes. In another school with three classes in mechanical drawing on Tuesday and Thursday nights there were thirty-six machinists in attendance in the three classes. Eighteen machin- ists were in one class, fourteen were in another and four in the third section. Twenty three students representing twelve other occupations were in attendance in these classes. In still another school one instructor was teaching a class made up of 20 machin- ists, 5 clerks, 2 auto mechanics, 2 draftsmen, 1 laborer, 1 pattern maker, 1 jeweler and 1 sheet metal worker. The smallest number of occupations represented in any one class in mechanical drawing at the time of the survey was five, the largest ten. The organization of these classes made it diffi- cult for the instructors to plan the work to meet the needs of all the pupils. The work in mechanical drawing was so varied in content and method that it is difficult to describe. In some classes the pupils were making free-hand sketches from models and developing mechanical drawings from the sketches; in other classes the pupils were copying drawings from blue prints and books, and in still other classes the boys were working from blackboard sketches. Industrial Science: The classes in chemistry, physics and mathematics, including such as are called industrial chemistry, applied physics and shop mathematics or trade mathematics, are all called industrial science. Classes in these subjects are organized in the Stuyvesant, Brooklyn and Bushwick Evening Trade Schools. The problems confronting the teacher of any of these subjects in an evening school are so many and so difficult that it is small wonder that the work is unsatisfactory to the teacher, the pupil, the principal of the school or the chance visitor. A physics class visited had 49 pupils present on the night the work was inspected, one-third of whom were less than 16 years of age. Fourteen of the class stated that they were clerks, eight were machinists' apprentices, or helpers, eight were electricians' helpers and apprentices and the remaining 19 represented eight different occupations. The instructor was using a regular high Evening Trade Schools 399 school text book in physics and was drilling the class in the mean- ing of amperes, volts and ohms. Half of the class attended less than 15 nights. A chemistry class that had ten on register, out of a total enrollment of 37 pupils, had two machinists, two dye workers, two clerks, a newsdealer, a house man, a clothing salesman and a pencil maker remaining in the class. The pupils were doing individual work. As a whole the teachers in trade mathematics were more successful in attacking the problems than were the other teachers of industrial science. Most of them had sets of problems ranging from very simple to quite difficult, a set for each of the trades represented in the class and each pupil who was a trade worker was provided with problems related to his occupation. The great difficulty there as in all the classes in industrial science was the large number of pupils in the class who were going to be trade workers and who should have been in an arithmetic class in an evening elementary school. BUILDING AND EQUIPMENT Harlem Evening Trade School: The Harlem Evening Trade School, located in the Boys' Vocational School, uses for the evening trade classes the equipment provided for the day voca- tional classes. This building and equipment are described in the report of the day vocational schools. Murray Hill Evening Trade School: This school is located in the Murray Hill Vocational School. As pointed out in the day vocational school report, this building is the poorest used for vocational work in the city of New York. The building and equipment used for day classes in vocational work is described in the day school report. Besides the equipment used by the day classes, the principal of this school has been able to secure from manufacturers, employers' association and unions the equipment necessary to offer courses in baking, player piano mechanics, motion picture mechanics, offset press work and lithography. The equipment loaned and donated to this school by the manu- facturers, employers' associations and unions is valued at about fl6,000. The equipment provided by the Board of Education is valued at approximately |4,000. The building is so poor that it 400 Industrial Education Survey was necessary to place the most expensive machine in the school, an offset press worth several thousand dollars, in a corner of a low, poorly lighted and poorly ventilated basement room. This one machine is worth more than the entire equipment provided by the Board of Education for both the day and evening voca- tional work in this school. In most of the evening trade schools, Bome trade classes have been organized without adequate equip- ment to carry on the work. This is illustrated in the organiza- tion of a class in commercial photography in this school. The instructor paid for the advertisements in the "Want Column" of a daily newspaper; purchased the necessary material for a dark room; provided the camera, plate holders and chemicals. Nearly forty photographers registered for this course, but the equipment was so meagre that many gave up the work after a few evenings. The co-operation of the employers and employees in providing eqi 'pment for this evening school is due largely to the efforts of the principal, who has been able, in spite of the physical handi- caps, to develop one of the largest and most successful evening trade schools in the City of New York. iyo»^ Island City Sigh and Trade School: This evening school is located in Bryant High School. The day school equip- meJit for machine shop work, woodworking and drafting is used for the trade extension work. Two additional shops have been provided in the basement, one for lead work for plumbers and the other for a class in automobile repairing. Stuyvesant Evening Trade School: The equipment used for both day and evening courses, such as machine shop work, forg- ing, pattern making, carpentry and joinery, is ample, but the equipment provided for evening courses that are not offered in the day school is not sufficient to do work of a practical nature. This was particularly true in the elementary classes in electric wiring where the equipment consisted of a few boards that were laid on the tops of the desks or placed against the walls, and bells, batteries, wire and the necessary hand tools. The class in commercial photography had practically no equipment with which to work. Bushwich Evening Trade School: The regular high school Evening Trade ScJwols 401 equipment for the courses in machine shop work, pattern making, forging, woodworking, is used for the evening trade classes in these subjects. Additional shops have been equipped in the base- ment for classes in electric wiring, plumbing, sheet metal work and automobile mechanics. The equipment for sheet metal work is limited, consisting of a few sets of hand tools. The equipment provided for the work in automobile mechanics was limited to two engines and a few special tools. Brooklyn Evening Trade School: The regular day school manual training equipment is used in this school for all courses except those in electric wiring and linotype operating. The equip- ment provided for electrical classes consisted of bells, wire, hand tools and one or two motors. Tottenville Evening Trade School: The rooms and equipment provided for the courses in plumbing, terra cotta modeling, and gas engine mechanics are located in the basement and are used only for evening trade school work. Most of the equipment has been donated to the school by manufacturers, and is limited in quantity and variety. Manhattan Evening Trade School: The building and equip- ment provided for this school is described in the day school report. Evening School of Industrial Arts : The work of the Evening School of Industrial Arts is seriously handicapped by lack of equipment and suitable quarters. The work is carried on in an elementary school building and most of the classes are conducted in the regular class room. A special room has been fitted up for the class in jewelry design, and a play room in the attic is used for the class in mural decoration. One class in costume design was conducted in the domestic science room. It is diflS- cult for adults to sit at elementary desks and do satisfactory work in design. DISTEIBUTIOlSr OF STUDENTS BY SUBJECTS The following chart shows the number of classes, the total register and the number of pupils on register March 28, 1917, 402 Industrial Education Survey in the nine evening trade schools distributed by trade groups and trades: Drawing and Design: Architectural Drawing . . Blue Print Reading Commercial Design Free-hand Drawing Garment Design Industrial Design Ladies Garment Design . Mechanical Drawing . . . . Plan Reading Ship Drafting Structural Steel Drafting Terra Cotta Design Trade Drafting CHAKT 11. Number Total Reg- Number on Classes ister to Register March 28, March 28, 1917. 1917. 7 246 137 1 121 41 74 235 34 325 29 1 20 2 37 4 125 1 25 6 133 20 1070 263 31 41 472 7 142 1 21 ... 1 18 . . . . 1 27 64 22 2 49 54 2572 1230 Dressmaking and Millinery : Dressmaking Millinery 96 28 74 25 124 99 I'HecMcal Work : Applied Electricity . . . Electrical Engineering Electrical Wiring and Installation Municipal Electric Theory 5 171 71 2 65 31 7 236 102 25 1000 570 2 50 31 34 1286 703 Gas Engine : Gas Engine Mechanic* and Auto Repair . 14 686 382 Evening Trade Schools 403 Special Trades : I ndusirial Science : Chemistry Physics Shop Arithmetic Trade Mathmatics Lithography : Offset Press Work Litho-Photography Litho-Transfer Metal Trades : Machine Shop Blacksmithing — Forging Tool Making Sheet Metal Plumbing : Printing Trades : Kelly Press Operating .... Linotype Operating Monotype Operating Printing Proofreading Baking Commercial Photography . Interior Decoration Motion Picture Mechanics. Player Piano Mechanics . . Sign Painting Steam Engineering Surveying Terra Cotta Modeling Wireless Total Reg- Number on ister to Register Number March 28, March 28, Classes 1917 1917 6 193 101 3 175 75 2 74 29 1 51 25 12 21 19 493 137 986 692 230 2 60 36 2 55 41 1 22 13 90 567 6 263 127 4 153 86 31 1402 780 W 614 302 2 76 38 4 122 87 2 42 31 8 369 180 3 83 55 391 2 42 27 3 84 44 1 21 12 2 62 32 1 35 15 2 52 23 2 80 20 1 24 13 1 20 20 1 17 17 16 437 223 404 Industrial Education Survey Special Trades : Woodworking Trades : Cabinet Making Carpentry and Joinery Pattern Making Evening Bohool of Industrial Arts : Book Illustration Costume Design Jewelry Design Mural Decoration Plastic Design Poster Design Stained Glass Design Textile Design Total Reg- Number on ister to Register Number March 28, March 28, Classes 1917 1917 5 163 98 8 221 150 3 117 64 16 501 312 142 72 187 115 23 11 72 44 22 16 89 22 14 8 22 13 (1) Manhattan Evening Trade School for Girls : Drafting and Pattern Cutting. Waist Draping Garment Operating Straw Machine Operating .... Embroidery Operating Lamp Shades and Novelty Work 15 671 27 301 2 150 45 2 02 47 4 348 90 2 91 89 2 79 86 20 13 (1) Short courses ranging from 5 to 30 nighta. 787 277 SUMMAEY : 1. The evening trade classes represent the largest field of industrial education in New York City, both in numbers enrolled and in variety of trades represented. 2. The super\'ision of the evening trade classes is left almost entirely in the hands of the principals of the schools. This lack of centralized control is shown in the content of the courses of study ; the different kinds of instruction offered in classes having the same titles; the requirements for admission of pupils to trade classes; and the teaching methods employed. •3. Very little attempt has been made to secure the co-opera- tion of employers' associations and unions in developing the evening trade classes. Such co-operation as has been secured has been the work of individual principals and Evening Trade Schools 405 has been of little value in developing the evening trade classes as a whole. 4. Very few classes have been organized to meet the needs of special groups of workers. Not one class made up entirely of apprentices was found in the evening trade classes. In many classes men representing five or six trades were found in the same class. 5. The principal, and in many cases the individual teacher, advertises the evening trade classes. No broad, compre- hensive campaign has been developed for advertising the evening trade classes. REPORT OF ADVISORY COMMITTEE OF EVENING TRADE SCHOOLS Resting upon the findings of fact developed by the present survey, the committee feel that evening trade schools consisting of trade extension classes whose members are employed during the day in occupations to which the instruction offered is strictly related, represent the most important need for industrial educa- tion presented in the city and that provision for such schoola should be made on a corresponding scale. The survey shows that evening classes are needed for the fol- lowing reasons: (a) In order to provide opportunity for better all-round train- ing for the worker. Such opportunity is lacking in the proper training of apprentices in most manufacturing establishments where the work is usually of a more or less highly specialized character. (b) The rank and file of industrial workers leave school at so early an age that development of initiative and ability is apt to be very slow, if not lost entirely. The evening trade extension class offers opportunity to the individual to find himself. (c) The demand is so great at the present for skilled work- men, gang bosses and foremen, that it is extremely essential that properly organized trade extension classes give the opportunity and help to men in the trades in preparing themselves for the better positions or places in industry which are waiting for them. (d) Industries are changing in character and it is frequently necessary for the worker to obtain instruction along other than his accustomed lines of work in order that he may keep abreast with modern industrial development, methods and processes. Trade extension classes operating on the unit course plan may be of invaluable aid to such men. Inasmuch as the state law requires that pupils in evening trade or homemaking classes, receiving state aid shall be 16 years 406 Industrial Education Survey of age or over, and inasmuch as employers, as a rule, will not accept boys under 16 as apprentices, the committee are of the opinion that 16 years should be, as at present, the minimum age of pupils admitted to evening trade extension classes. A study of the survey report shows that large numbers of pupils are admitted to evening trade extension classes who are not employed in industrial or trade pursuits during the day. The committee recommends that applicants for admission to trade extension classes should not be accepted as members of the class unless employed during the day in an occupation recognized as a part of the trade in which instruction is offered. The survey shows that one of the serious weaknesses in carry ing forward evening trade classes is the large falling off in attend- ance mainly brought about by the tendency of many persons to register and drop out after a few nights in the class. In order to insure seriousness of purpose in those registering for these classes, the committee recommends that a nominal deposit be required in each course of all pupils registering in evening trade extension classes, this deposit to be returned to those students maintaining an average attendance of at least 75 per cent, of their class sessions. This fee should be large enough to cover the cost of any texts, materials, and supplies lent the pupil in order that he may feel the responsibility of the return to the school, when it is necessary for him to do so, of all such material in satisfactory condition. In regard to organization, the committee recommend that all evening trade schools should be under the final authority of the person having in charge the direction of all-day vocational or trade schools. Many of the problems of the evening trade schools are similar to those of the all-day schools giving intensive instruc- tion in trade work: Men of practical experience teaching in the day schools are available for work in evening schools. Investigations or surveys should be made to determine the need of certain kinds or phases of trade instruction by the head of the entire system. The equipment in said schools should be made available for evening trade school purposes. The organization of classes, in the judgment of the committee, should follow the present plan which offers two nights per week Evening Trade Schools 407 for a definite number of weeks in any course of instruction in any specific trade subject, but not exceeding thirty weeks a year for any special unit. Students, however, with the consent of the director of industrial education, should be given the opportunity to attend a second class in a related trade subject. In regard to the size of classes, the committee are of the opinion that shop classes should not exceed 16 and that classes in trade drawing, shop mathematics and trade science should not exceed 20 to 24. Men and boys in trade classes differ extremely as far as ability, trade experience and previous school training are concerned. Instruction of necessity must be largely indi- vidual. With the class in session barely two hours, the teacher can spend less than ten minutes with the individual if the num- ber exceeds twelve in the class. To those having experience in evening classes it is obvious that the personal contact between teacher and pupil give the most satisfactory result. When students are enrolled it is highly desirable that teachers should register students for their own classes. The personal interview, which cannot be satisfactorily accomplished by the principal alone, helps very much in ascei'taining the needs of the applicant and in placing or classifying him with the group where he belongs. This committee heartily endorses the recommendations of the committees appointed by the Allied Printing Trades Council and the Association of Employing Printers, for the establishment of a central school of printing and also the adoption of the courses of study suggested by these committees for evening trade exten- sion classes in printing. This committee also has the firm conviction that it is advis- able to bring together in one school wherever practicable all evening classes in the same field of work in order that through this larger grouping, students may be more readily and carefully graded as to their previous training, experience and ability. This plan will tend to improve the character of instruction and make possible much better and more far reaching results than are at present obtainable. This arrangement also makes possible a larger and more satisfactory equipment than can be had under the present plan of widely distributed classes in the same sub- jects. The committee are of the opinion that a judiciously planned system of advertising will enable the evening trade classes to more 408 Industrial Education Survey effectively reach the workers most prepared to benefit through such instruction. All advertising of evening trade extension classes should be controlled by a central source of publicity which should always in its advertising emphasize courses offered and opportunties available for the worker, rather than to accel- erate the numbers in attendance therein. General publicity may be given through newspaper and bulletin board advertising but a special appeal stating opportunities offered to workers in each trade, should be made by means of circulars advertising courses of interest to each group. These circulars to be distributed to labor unions, employers and other interested parties. Lantern elides showing school activities can be shown in moving picture houses together with announcements of opportunities offered. Display advertisements in the "Want" columns of newspapers are very effective in calling attention to the school. A study of the survey report indicates very clearly the lack of adequate supervision of these classes. The immense amount of routine clerical reports and work connected with them gives the principal of the school little opportunity to supervise properly the classes in his charge. The committee recommends that suf- ficient clerical help be provided to take care of all routine work and records in order that the principals may devote practically their whole time to visiting classes in their charge and that the teachers may devote their whole time to instruction. The survey indicates the need of special supervisors for the work of many classes. For instance, there are 1,286 students enrolled in 34 classes in electrical work. No attempt has been made to standardize or even outline logical and systematic cijurses of instruction for all of these classes. This is prac- tically true of all the other courses in the trade classes. This committee wishes to emphasize this lack of proper supervision and recommends that special supervisors be appointed to look after all classes in the special subjects under consideration by the survey committee. The duties of these supervisors may be outlined somewhat as follows : (a) To determine from consultation with employers and em- ployees the special needs that the instruction offered shall meet. (b) To meet with and instruct teachers as to the needs of pupils, methods of teaching and assist in the working out of details of courses. (c) To supervise carefully and check up the work of indi- vidual teachers. livening Trade Schools 409 (d) To make recommendations as to needed equipment and supplies. (e) To determine tlie type of pupils who may enter various trade classes. (f) To arouse interest in evening school work among labor unions and employers associations. (g) To standardize courses of instruction and assist the board of examiners in the selection of teachers for classes under this supervision. The committee recommends that a careful study be made of the various reports of the survey committee and from the informa- tion there given concerning the details of the different occupa- tions investigated, courses of instruction be carefully outlined by a group of people thoroughly conversant with the needs of the workers and also competent to intelligently plan such courses. Such courses once thoroughly worked out can be readily followed by properly selected teachers, who, with the assistance of competent supervisors, can keep these courses of instruction in line, and abreast of, the demands of modem industry. In regard to the short unit course referred to in the findings, the committee feel that it is very important that certain funda- mental facts should be recognized : (1) The short unit course of instruction in evening schools has its special value for adult workers who have not the habit or inclination to attend school courses of any length and who would be drawn to the evening school only to obtain assistance for some direct and particular need which arises in their imme- diate practical experience. (2) For the young men between 16 and 21 years of age who attend evening courses, it is far better in the judgment of the committee to offer courses of a year, two years and even three years in length composed of matter that relates directly to trade needs and in which the instruction is differentiated to the fullest degree. It would be a great mistake in the judgment of the com- mittee to emphasize solely to these young men in the developing period of life, and whose exact place in their industrial future is not yet defined, the idea of the short unit course, and place the educational emphasis only upon a brief fractional part of a single subject of instruction. Signed Feank E. Mathbwson, 0. R. DOOLBT, O. B. FUBNHT. THE CO-OPERATIVE CLASSES IN THE NEW YORK CITY HIGH SCHOOLS. The history of the movement for the establishment of co-oper- ative classes in New York City is practically the same as that which resulted in the establishment of the continuation classes. The classes were started under the direct supervision of the late Dr. J. H. Haaren, associate superintendent of schools, with Dean Herman Schneider, of the University of Cincinnati, acting in an advisory capacity. The necessary authorization for the work was passed by the Board of Education September 16, 1914. The following definition of the "Co-operative System" is taken from Dean Schneider's report (1911) to the Committee on School Inquiry of the Board of Estimate and Apportionment : The Co-operative System: "The co-operative system is based on an agreement between a group of manufacturers and a school system whereby the manufacturers agreed to institute and carry on a thorough and comprehensive apprentice course in their par- ticular trades; and in which the school agrees to give both gen- eral and specialized instruction to the apprentices. The course of work which the student receives in the shop is scheduled by the shop and must be approved by the school authorities. In most cases the amount of school instruction is equal to the amount of shop work. The apprentices are usually divided in two sections, that alternate with each other, for example, by weeks, so that when one section is at the shop and the other is at the school, both the shop and school, therefore, are always fully manned. The apprentices are paid for their work in the shop on the regular apprenticeship scale of their own particular trade. The Co-ordinator: "In order that the work of the school may be definitely co-ordinated with the work of the shop, a separate set of teachers is sometimes employed. These may be called co- ordinators. A shop coordinator is a teacher well versed in shop practice. His function is to make a direct co-ordination of the work of the shop with the instruction of the schools." The Co-operation of the High School Principals: The Presi- dent of the Board of Education sent to the high school princi- pals of the city a letter describing the proposed plan of co-opera- 411 4:12 hidustrial Education Survey tion between the schools and the employers, and, at a meeting of the principals, Dr. Schneider outlined the plan of co-operative work. Each of the principals who expressed an interest was vis- ited by the associate superintendent in charge of the co-operating work and if he expressed a readiness to try the experiment in his school he was asked to name a member of his corps of teachers to act as coordinator. Before the plan could be started it was necessary to secure the co-operation of the parents. This was done in many ways. Public meetings were held where the superintendent in charge of this work, the principal of the school, or the coordinator ex- plained the plan to the parents who were present. The following statements are extracts taken from circulars describing the co/ operative plan which were sent to parents : "Co-operation is established only with such business houses as provide thorough training under favorable conditions in occu- pations leading to a competence, self-respect and development. In short, this plan means not getting a job but starting on a career. "Full school credit will probably be given for the work done in the shop, store and office, so that the student under the co-oper- ative plan may complete his course in the usual time. "All boys and girls over the age of sixteen who have success- fully passed in at least one year's work in any of the established high school courses and who obtain the consent of their parents, or guardians, to take this course, are eligible." The Co-operation of Employers: In other cities where the co- operative plan has been introduced it has been at the request of the employers either as individuals or through their associations. Here the employers needed to be educated to appreciate the value of the plan to them as well as to the students. Much of this work had to be done by the coordinators who made individual visits to offices of many firms in an endeavor to interest them in the plan. The following statements are extracts taken from circulars, de- scribing the co-operative plan sent to employing firms. They are presented here because they furnish a standard by which the work of the classes can be judged : "The work of the students in the industry follows a predeter- mined sequence (the office as shop syllabus) in order that the students may become familiar with the relations of the various processes to each other, as well as with the processes themselves. Co-operative Classes 413 "The work in the school is related to the work in the industry by the coordinators (employed by the Board of Education) who study the pupils and their work for the purposes of: (a) Discov- ering defects in the work and habits of students that may be cor- rected in school; (b) Finding how the school work may supple- ment the industrial work." Beginning the Work: As soon as schools, pupils, parents and employers began to be interested in the cooperative plan and ex- pressed a willingness to undertake it, the work was started. Five schools (Curtis, Bushwick, Manual Training, Newtown, and Julia Bichman) began work February 1, 1915. The Bryant started a week later. Stuyvesant began the work on February 22, the Com- mercial on March 8, and the Washington Irving on March 22. The Erasmus Hall School started on May 10. The table below gives the number of pairs of workers and the number of co-oper- ating firms on the opening date for each school : TABLE SHOWING SCHOOLS, DATE OF ORGANIZATION OP WORK, NUMBER OF PUPILS, AND FIRMS 00-OPERATING. Pairi Co-operating Firm* School Date Beginning Pupils Co-operating Curtii Feb. 1, 1915 6 8 Bushwick Com Feb. 1,1915 5 1 Bushwick Tech Feb. 1, 1915 8 3 Manual Training Feb. 1, 1915 10 3 Newtown Feb. 1,1915 12 3 Julia Kichman Feb. 1,1915 1 1 Bryant Feb. 8, 1915 1 1 Stuyvesant Feb. 22, 1915 4 1 Commercial Mar. 8,1915 1 1 Washington Irving Mar. 22, 1915 7 2 Erasmus Hall May 10, 1915 2 2 During the half year, from February 1, 1915, to July 31, 1915, there were 63 different firms that co-operated in this work, em- ploying a total of 103 boys in 19 different occupations and 65 girls in six occupations. Of the 103 boys, 42 were employed in machine shop work and 22 in clerical work; the remaining 39 were distributed in 17 different occupations. Of the girls, 31 were engaged in clerical work, 15 in salesmanship, 15 in dress- making, two in art work and two in corset making. 414: Industrial Ediication Survey Development of the Co-operative Classes: The report for the week ending January 20, ItilT, showed that the eleven high schools engaged in the co-operative work had 386 pupils in these classes and had been able to secure the co-operation of 90 firms. The distribution of these pupils by schools, the number of firms and the nature of the occupation of the pupils is shown in the table below : Number of School Pupils Boys Girls Bushwiek — Industrial 37 Bushwick — Commercial 105 Bryant 9 Commercial 67 Curtis 7 Julia Richman 8 Morris 3 27 Manual Training 42 Stuyvesant 8 Newtown 21 28 Washington Irving. . . . Number of Nature of Firms Work. 12 Industrial 15 Clerical 4 Industrial 1! Clerical 4 Industrial 3 Clerical 5 Clerical and Salesmanship 12 Industrial 7 Industrial 15 Clerical and Salesmanship 7 Industrial 194 192 90 Re-organization of Co-operative Work: In February, 1917, four weeks before this survey of the co-operative classes was started, the Committee on Industrial Schools and Vocational Activities of the Board of Education, secured the services of Dean Schneider for a week's time, to advise with those in charge of the co-operative classes concerning the re-organization, of the work. The purpose of this re-organization was to take advantage of the experience gained in the two years that the co-operative classes had been in operation to reduce the expense and make the work more efficient by centralizing various types of classes in certain schools adapted by location and equipment for that work. As a result the classes were distributed as follows: Manual Training High School — industrial work for boys, Washington Irving High School — industrial work for girls, Bushwiek High School— commercial work for girls. Commercial High School — commercial work for boys, Morris High School — commercial work for boys and girls, Co-operative Glasses 4l5 Newtown High School — commercial and mercantile work for boys and girls, Julia Richman High School — commercial work for girls. The direction of the co-operative classes was placed in the hands of the associate superintendent in charge of vocational ac- tivities who was already in charge of the prevocational schools, the day vocational schools and the part-time industrial and con- tinuation classes. Distribution of Pupils in Co-operative Work: For the week ending March 24, 1917, in the seven high schools, 474 different pupils were engaged in co-operative work for 122 firms. In order that the reader may see the nature and difficulty of the problem with which the coordinators were contending, tables are given for each school which show the names of the firms co-operating, the number of students, the nature of the work the pupil worker does, and the aggregate weekly wages earned. STATEMENT SHOWING HIGH SCHOOLS HAVING CO-OPEKATIVE COURSES, NUMBERS ENROLLED, THE NAMES OP FIRMS CO-OPERATING, THE NATURE OF THE WORK AND AGGREGATE WEEKLY EARNINGS— WEEK ENDING MARCH 24, 1917 BUSHWICK HIGH SCHOOL Number Name of Firm of Students Total Nature of Work Boya Girla American Book Company 6 6 Office Work Bell Tailors 4 4 Office Work Flemish Linn Phonograph Co 2 2 Steno. & Type. Independent Magazine Office Work H. H. IngersoU & Bro . 22 22 Office Work Liggitts 2 2 Clerical Merchants' Association 2 2 Steno. & Type. Montgomery, Ward & Co . 33 33 Clerical Oppenheim & Collins Co 4 4 Clerical Portland Consolidated Copper Co. . 1 1 Steno. & Type. Remington Typewriter Co 4 4 Clerical Review of Reviews . 17 17 Clerical Triangle Electric Trading Co 1 1 Steno. & Type. Western Union Telegraph Co 1 1 Clerical . . 100 100 Aggregate weekly earnings for half of the pupils — $279.29. 4:16 Industrial Education Survey COMMERCIAL HIGH SCHOOL Number Name ot Firm of Students Total Nature of Work Boys Girls Broome & Newman 1 .. 1 Clerical Corn Products Refining Co 2 .. 2 Clerical Frugong-Balleto & Bellegattl 1 .. 1 CoUecting Accts. Johnson & Higgins 2 .. 2 Office Work Remington Typewriter Co 18 . . 18 Clerical William B. Grace & Co 13 . . 13 Clerical Federal Reserve Bank 5 ■ . S Mercantile Public Bank ol New York 2 .. 2 Banking The Texas Company 4 . . 4 Banking 8 . . 8 Office Work 66 .. 56 Aggregate weekly earnings for half of the pupils- -$241.89. JULIA BICHMAN HIGH SCHOOL Number Name ot Firm of Students Total Boys Girls CoUiers 2 2 Funk & Wagnalli 8 8 Lord & Taylor 8 8 R. H. Macy & Co 4 4 Western Union Telegraph Co 1 1 Nature of Work Clerical Clerical Clerical Office Work Clerical ..23 23 Average aggregate weekly earnings for half of the pupils — $61.00. MORRIS HIGH SCHOOL Number Name of Firm of Students Total Nature of Work Boys Girls B. Altman A Co 1 1 Clerical Lord & Taylor 8 8 Salesmanship B. H. Macy & Co 16 16 Cler.& Sales. R. H. Macy & Co 2 . . 2 Mercantile McOlure's Magazine 2 2 Clerical Peierls, Buhler Co 2 . . 2 Clerical 27 31 Aggregate weekly earnings for half of the pupils — $71.50. Co-operative Classes 417 MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SOHOOU Number Name of Firm of Studenta Total Nature of Work BcJys Giria American Ever Ready Co 2 . . 2 Drafting B. Altman & Co 2 ., 2 Power Plant American International Co 4 . . 4 Clerical Amer, Machine & Foundry Co 6 . . 5 Machine Shop Beckers Aniline & Chem. Works. . 4 . . 4 Chemical Work £}. W. Bliss & Co 1 .. 1 Machine Shop Brady-Murray Motor Corp 2 . . 2 Auto Repairs Doebler Die Casting Co 4 . . 4 Die Casting Electric Bond & Share Co 2 .. 2 Clerical Robert Gair Co 7 .. 7 Printing X B. Hoecker & Co 1 . . 1 Lens Grinding Intertype Corporation 1 .. 1 Machine Shop Isaac Blanchard Press 3 .. 3 Printing Lehn & Fink 2 .. 2 Mercantile R. H. Macy & Co.. 1 .. 1 Power Plant Mergenthaler Linotype Co 17 . . 17 Machine Shop Metropolitan Engineering Co 4 .. 4 Manufacturing Richmond Light & R. R. Co 1 .. 1 Power Plant Richmond Light & R. R. Co 2 .. 2 Power Plant Sears Cross & Co 2 .. 2 Machine Shop Western Union Telegraph Co 10 . . 10 Telegraphing ~77 T7 ~77 Aggregate weekly earnings for half of the pupils — $233.33. NEWTOWN HIGH SCHOOL Number Name of Firm of Students Total Nature of Work Boys Girls Abraham & Strauss 4 4 Clerical B. Altman & Co .. 3 3 Clerical Amoskeag 4 .. 4 Office Work Isaac Blanchard Press 1 . . 1 Printing Boy Scouts of America Q . . Office Work Oammeyer Shoe Co 1 1 Salesmanship Ever Ready Co 4 .. 4 Clerical Funk & Wagnalla 8 3 Clerical Lord & Taylor 5 5 Salesmanship R. H. Macy & Co 3 14 17 Salesmanship McClure's 4 4 Office Work New York Times 1 .. 1 Office Work Peierls Buhler Co. 2 2 4 Clerical Rogers, Peet Co 1 .. 1 Salesmanship Slater Shoe Co 2 . . 2 Salesmanship U. S. Silver Fox 2 2 Clerical Western Union Telegraph Co 1 .. 1 Clerical A. Winfheimer 2 . . 2 Clerical Dommerich 1 .. 1 Office Work "27 ~38 ~65 Aggregate weekly earnings for half of the pupils — $222.85. 418 Industrial Education Survey Name of Firm Miss Smith WASHINGTON IRVING HIGH SCHOOL (Co-operating with Industrial Firms) Number of Students Total Boys Girls 4 4 Miss Finch o 2 Quality Shop 2 2 Mood Co 8 8 Uop 4 4 B. Gordon 2 2 \.Iperstein & Wittenberg 4 4 J'Donovan 4 4 Miss S. Finkelstein 2 2 Rohn & Rienzi 14 14 G. A. Simpson 8 8 P. F. McGowen Co 4 4 Helen Sheppard 4 4 Nature of WorK Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial Industrial . . 62 62 Aggregate weekly earnings for half of the pupils — $174 (Co-operating with City Departments) Number Name of Dept. of Students Total Boys Girls Dr. Robinson, City College 2 2 Secretary, Board of Education 6 fi Director of Janitors, Mr. Maguire 2 2 Associate Supt. Dr. McAndrew 2 2 Associate Supt. Dr. Shallow 2 2 Associate Supt. Dr. Ettinger 2 2 Bureau of Statistics 2 2 District Supt. Dr. Stitt 2 2 Mr. Foster 2 2 Miss Farrell 2 2 Dr. Haney 2 2 Mrs. Wilcox 2 2 Mr. Jenkins 2 2 Physical Training Department 2 2 Miss Moscript 2 2 Bureau of Attendance 6 6 P. S. No. 40, Dr. Van Denburgh 2 2 Bureau of Recreation 4 4 Mr. Mills 4 4 Mr. Dobbins 4 4 Employment Dept., Wash. Irv. H. S. . . 2 2 Co-ordinator's Office, Wash. Irv. H. S. . . 2 2 Dr. Byrnes 2 2 ,00. Nature of Work Cler: Cleri Cleri Cler Cler: Cler: Cler: Cleri Cler: Cleri Cler: Cleri Cler: Cler: Cleri Cler Cler: Cleri Cler: Cler: Cler: Cleri Cler cal cal cal cal cal cal cal cal cal ical ^cal cal cal cal cal cal cal cal cal .cal cal cal cal Pupils worked without pay 60 60 * Up to February, 1917, no co-operative pupils who were not being paid for the time they spent out of the school were reported. Beginning March 12, it was decided to count the pupils in the commercial department of Washington Irving High School who were working for city departments and received no pay as co-operative students. Cooperative Classes 419 SUMMARY FOR THE WEEK Total aggregate earnings for half of the pupils $1,283.86 Total number of pupils co-operating 474 Total number of firms co-operating 122 Total number of high schools co-operating 7 lAmits of the Survey: This survey was limited to those schools ( Manual Training, Morris, Newtown and Washington Irv- ing) that were training pupils for the industries and salesman- ship which represented about one-third of the co-operative work organized at the time of the survey. The trades at which the pupils were working and the number of pupils from each of these four high schools who were preparing for each trade is shown in the table on this page. As indicated in the table on page 167, three other high schools (Bush wick, Julia Bichman and Commer- cial) were working under the co-operative plan, but as they were training exclusively for commercial work and not for industrial work or salesmanship, they are not considered in this part of the report. STATEMENT SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS IN INDUSTRIAL AND SALESMANSHIP CO-OPERATIVE CLASSES BY SCHOOLS AND OCCUPATIONS ON MARCH 24, 1917. Manual Training Morris Newtown Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Automobile Repairing 2 Chemical 4 Drafting 2 Dressmaking Die Casting 4 Lens Grinding 1 Manufacturing 4 Machine Shop 20 Printing 10 Power Plant Operating ... 6 Salesmanship Wash. Irving Boys Girls 62 24 6 20 Totals 59 24 20 62 420 Industrial Education Survey CO-OPERATIVE INDUSTRIAL COURSE FOR BOYS IN THE MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL Organization: After the re-organization of the co-operative classes in February, 1917, the industrial work for boys was dis- continued in the Bushwick, Bryant, and Curtis High Schools and centralized in the Manual Training High School of Brooklyn. At the time of the survey in March, 1917, this school had an enroll- ment of 3500 boys, 59 of whom were enrolled in the industrial co-operative course. Practically all of the boys in this course were in separate classes for all subjects but because of the limited number of boys registered for any of the trades except machine shop practice, they were not grouped or divided according to trades or occupations. The classes were taught by regular high school teachers, no one of whom spent all of his time in co-oper- ative work. Character o/ the Instruction-' In almost all classes the in- struction was found to be of a general industrial nature with as close correlation to the shop work of the boys as was possible where pupils working at several different trades were in the same class. The one class that was an exception to this was in chem- istry which was taught as a pure science with little practical ap- plication or correlation with industry. In this particular case the need seemed to be apparent for more authority on the part of the co-ordinator so that he might bring about some adjustment in such cases as this. In English the classics (except "Henry VIII" and "Idylls of the King") had been dropped from the co-operative course. Much emphasis was placed on current events, conversa- tional English, oral expression, spelling, and letter writing. In mathematics certain propositions were chosen that had a prac- tical bearing on trade problems. A thorough drill was given in the use of the slide rule and logarithms. Applications of rules and formulae for belting, speeds and gearing were given in the course. In physics the emphasis was placed on mechanics, power machines, electricity, electrical testing, steam and gas engines. The course in history was made up of industrial history, Ameri- can history, civics, economics and the biography of inventors. The shop work was largely of the usual manual training type with only slight modifications to meet the needs of the pupils in the co-operative work. Since pupils studying several different trades were in the same shop class (for instance, pupils in print- ing were in the forge shop) the school shop work was correlated Go-operative Classes 421 with the factory work only in the case of those boys who hap- pened to be employed in the same line of work outside. Course of Study: The plan of studies for this school is given as an illustration of what has been done to adjust the regular high school course of study to the needs of the boys in the co- operative classes. In some cases students began work under the co-operative plan in the second year, in which case the number of points per term for the school subjects is one-half the number here given and 12 points are given for the work in industry as in the third year. MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL BROOKLYN Plan ol Studies Industrial Co-operative Course rirrt Year : Hours per Week Points per Term Bnglish 5 6 Expression 1 1 Algebra 5 C General Science B B Drawing F. H. Mech. 2 4 2 iShopwork — Materials 7 8% Music 1 i4 Physical Training 2 1 30 23 Second Year : Hours per Week Points per Term English 3 3 Geometry 5 5 Chemistry 5 5 Industrial History 3 3 Drawing F. H. Mech. 2 4 2 SKopwork and Materials 7 3% Music 1 ^ Physical Training 2 1 30 23 Third Year : Hours per Week Points per Term English 5 2% Mathematics 5 254 Physics 5 ^V^ Commercial Law or Economics 4 2 Mechanical Drawing B 1 Shop Work- Machine Shop Materials 6 ^V' 30 12 Time In Industry 48 12 24 points *22 Industrial Education Survey MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL Industrial Co-operation Course Fourth Tear : Hours per Week Points per Term English 5 aj^ Business Practice and Bookkeeping 4 2 Physics (Electricity) 5 2% American History and Civics 5 2^4 Mechanical Drawing 5 l Machine Shop 6 li/^ 30 12 Time in Industry 48 12 24 points Points required for graduation 150 points Records of Pupils: During February and March, 1915, there were id boys from this school who started on the co-operative plan of work. In February, 1917, they were distributed as fol- lows: Still working in the co-operative course 18 Transferred to other schools 3 Transferred to regular manual training course 3 At work 11 In military service 1 Unknown 4 Total 40 There were six boys who graduated from the co-operative course in June, 1917. Attitude of Employers Toward Co-operative Pupils: The methods of measuring the outside work by the school authorities are chiefly through the reports given on the boys' work by the foremen and superintendents of the shops and the work of the coordinator who checks up these reports by personal visits to the boys at work. Each boy also makes a report the first day of his return to school. All of the employers of the boys who were doing industrial co-operative work stated that they favored the plan of co-opera- tion between the school and the industry, although there was a wide difference in their methods of handling the boys that worked for them. This may be shown by comparing two firms in the same line of business. The first firm had about 250 employees, of whom 24 were boys. Co-operative Classes 423 two of them working on the co-operative plan. Thi« firm desired to have the boys spend from six months to one year running errands for which they would receive |6.00 a week, and then for another year they were to distribute leads and learn the case, receiving |7.00 per week. One difficulty with the scheme was that none of the boys would stay to complete the errand boy period. The foremen stated there had been an aggregation of twelve boys sent to this iirm, most of them staying only about three months. One stayed a year spending eight months as errand boy and four months on the monotype. The foreman said that the boys were a nuisance coming in one week and out the next, and, although he admitted that they were of a good grade, he complained that they expected to set type or run a press as soon as they started to work. The boys objected strenuously to the long errand period. With their own apprentices the firm was quite liberal. They sent the boys to the apprentice school, paying the fees and their wages for the time spent there. The other firm when visited in April, 1917, had seven boys who were doing co-operative work and would have been glad to have had ten more. The firm had started this plan one and a half years before this and had had a total of twenty-two boys from the schools. Of this number, twelve divided their time be- tween the firm and the school ; four were with them as full time workers, and six had left, three to enter office work and three to go with other printing establishments. Although the foremen were opposed to the scheme at first, later they favored it heartily. The foreman of the press room said: "They are absolutely the best boys we ever had." He said furthermore that as soon as the apprentices in the shop had finished their apprenticeship the firm would put in co-operating boys exclusively. Plans had also been worked out so that the boys could go into the color department and the lithographing department. The schedule for these boys in the press room was three months as "fly boys" and helpers and nine months as press tenders and assistant feeders at $7.00 per week. After one additional year as feeder a boy could go in as a pressman, working up as opportunity offered to the more skilled and better paid positions.* These employers expressed them- selves as perfectly satisfied with the results of the co-operative *The opportunities for advancement in the press room are shown in detail in the printing report. 424 Industrial Education Survey scheme and ehowed a willingness to work more closely with the school authorities and to follow a more definite scheme. A manufacturing concern which can be taken as a type of those employing boys in machine shop work, started to co-oper- ate with the Manual Training High School in February, 1915. At the time of the survey they had 18 boys co-operating, four of whom had been with them for the two years. The coordinator and superintendent had worked out a regular shop schedule for the boys. The factory was divided into nine departments, each pair of boys working for three months in each department which gave each boy six weeks of actual shop work in each. These de- partments were: (1) Engineering and shop repair; (2) Brass foundry; (3) Tool room and machine repair; (4) Brass working; (5) Pattern making, both wood and metal; (6) Nickel plating; (7) Blacksmithing ; (8) Light manufacturing; (9) Tool making The co-ordinator was given entire power to change the boys to other departments. The wages paid were ?5.00 per week at the beginning, after which they were paid what the foreman thought they were worth. This firm had 40 apprentices in the tool room. Their schedule of pay was the same as the co-operative boys. The assistant superintendent of the factory kept an exact record of the progress of the co-operative boys, being much interested in this experiment. All the boys interviewed stated positively that they would not have been in school at this time if it had not been for the co-operative plan. AU expressed themselves as being pleased vrith the opportunity of going to school and at the same time doing practical work and earning money. At the beginning of the experiment the superintendent and foreman were very much in favor of the plan, but at the time of the survey the foreman was not so strongly in favor of it. They felt that the boys did not stay long enough in one department, each boy being in one department only six weeks of actual work- ing time. It is impossible to give a detailed account of all the factories co-operating, but it can readily be seen from the above instances that every firm presented its own peculiar problems. At the time of the reorganization of the co-operative work in February the pupils from the Bushwick and Bryant High Schools who were co-operating with industrial firms were transferred to the Manual Training High School and combined with the co-oper- ative classes there. The table on the page following shows the Co-operative Glasses 426 firms that were co-operating with each school on January 20th before the consolidation of the two groups, with the number of pupils each firm employed and shows the results of the consolida- tion as far as the number of pupils and number of firms are con- cerned. The table also shows that practically all of the firms that were co-operating with the Manual Training High School in industrial work in February, 1917, were also co-operating in June and employing about the same number of boys. This is in marked contrast with the firms that were co-operating with the schools in dressmaking and in salesmanship: 426 Industrial Education Survey Ha I Ol2iH * ■ • 1 1* .g 05 St- air-l .... iT6I '03 -nsr •JX •UBM " ....■* iI6T 'OZ 'niT OOOOtibll -oo 2 H 'F-l -r-t M W -fH .rH .M ""• 1:4 a I? . J fc) X or.' j|ir«lll /s'lgr Go-operative Classes 427 CO-OPEBATIVB INDUSTRIAL COURSE FOR GIRLS IN THE WASHINGTON IRVING HIGH SCHOOL. Organieations: The organization of the school work for the co-operative girls has been in some respects less difficult than the organization of similar courses for boys. "While the boys in co-operative courses in the Manual Training High School were engaged in many different occupations with only a small number of boys in any one occupation, practically all of the girls in the co-operative classes in the Washington Irving High School were employed in the one occupation of dressmaking, a trade for which the girls had had special preparation In school. This rendered it unnecessary to have a special teacher, or teachers, for the girls who were co-operating, although to a large extent the girls in this course were in separate classes. There were seventeen of these special classes and four classes where pupils in this course had been put with pupils doing regular work. At the time of the re-organization of the co-operative classes in February, the Washington Irving School had 24 girls co-oper- ating with seven firms. Four of these girls were employed in the manufacture of lamp shades and the others were engaged in dressmaking establishments. The following table shows how difficult is the organization of co-operative classes in such a seasonal trade as dressmaking and how much of the time of the co-ordinator was spent in securing firms with whom to co-operate. It will be noted that three firms employed pupil-workers continuously from February 24, 1917, to June 2, 1917, each firm having a single pair of girls. Six firms furnished employment continuously from March 24 to June 2, employing eleven pairs of girls. Twenty pairs of girls were employed continuously for a month or less by the firm with which they were working. Character of Work of Co-ordinator: The special needs of each position are investigated and by a study of the personality of the girl and her record in school, an effort is made to find the right kind of a girl for each position. Every care is taken to pro- tect the girl; close supervision is made of her work and when un- desirable conditions developed that can not be adjusted, she is withdrawn. 428 Industrial Education Survey FIRMS AND NUMBER OP PUPILS CO-OPERATING WITH WASHINGTON IRVING HIGH SCHOOL FROM FEBRUARY TO JUNE, 1917: Apr. May May 21 5 19 F< b 24 4 2 4 Firm OccupitiMij Grace Daggett Lamp Shades. . Miss Finch Dressmaking. . Barnard Studios. . . .Dressmalting. . B. Gordon Dressmaking. . 2 Harry Collins Dressmaking. . 4 Little Dress Co Dressmaking.. ■^loe Dressmaking. . Quality Shop Dressmaking.. :.' Miss Smith Dressmaking . . 1 Mood Co Dressmaking. . Alperstein & Witten- berg Dressmaking. . O'Donovan Dressmaking. . Mss P. Finklestein.. Dressmaking. . Rohn & Rienzi Dressmalnng. . G. A. Simpson Dressmaking.. P. F. McGowen Dressmaking. . Helen Sheppard Dressmaking. . M. St. Ledger Hackett Dressmaking. . B. Altman Dressmaking. . Anna McNalley Dressmaking. . Kerkow, Inc Dressmaking. . Mrs. Hilda Moburg. Dressmaking. . R. H. Macy & Co. . .Dressmaking. . Mar. 10 2 2 Mar. 24 Api. 7 4 8 4 4 •> 14 s 4 t 4 16 4 4 2 12 8 4 4 4 4 8 4 4 4 4 THE June 2 2 2 2 o 4 8 12 14 14 4 4 4 4 4 O u 2 2 12 4 8 4 1 2 4 8 4 1 2 Total pupils. 20 62 76 72 51 53 53 The seasonal character of dressmaking with the constant change in materials and styles made it diflScult to adjust the school program to the trade needs. The busy months are March, April, May, October, November, December. The Easter rush was just beginning to be felt in this school when the survey was made. One interesting feature of the work in this course was the vocational value of French in the dressmakers' shops. To meet this situation a special syllabus was worked out by the French teacher and approved by the Board of Education. This school was no longer co-operating with firms in the white goods trade because the girls were kept too long in one type of work. Some dressmaking firms had decided preference for cer- Co-operative Classeti .429 tain nationalities and decided objections to others. The Irish and French girls seemed to be the favorites. Some firms specified that the girls must be good looking and dress well. Record of Pupils: From the time the co-operative work started on March 31, 1915, up to June 26, 1915, twenty girls entered this course. In February, 1917, they were distributed as follows : Number of girls now employed 15 Number of girls at home 2 Number of girls in school 3 Total 2(1 The fifteen girls employed were working at the following occupations : Dressmaking 7 Private dressmaking 1 Sketching 1 Clerical work 3 Salesmanship in dressmaking establishments 3 Total .- 15 CO-OPERATIVE SALESMANSHIP COURSE FOR BOYS AND GIRLS IN THE MORRIS AXD NEWTOWN HIGH SCHOOLS. Since the co-operative classes in salesiuiinship in these two high schools were under the same co-ordinator wliose time was divided between the two, the salesmanship course will not be described separately for each school. Since February, 1917, all of the pupils co-operating in sale.smansliip have been in one o( these two schools. Course of Study: Considerable time has been devoted by the school authorities and representatives from some of the mercan- tile establishments of the city to the development of a course of study in salesmanship. This course as adopted by the schools is given below : 4:30 Industrial Education Survey, NEWTOWN HIGH SCHOOL First Year Qeneral Course. Second Year Btndents attend idiool full time. Co-operatiTQ Course BngUsh B Commercial Arithmetic Bookkeeping S Penmanship Local Institutions and Industries 8 General Science S Drawing , 2 Music 1 Physical Training 2 Elocution 1 29 Third Year Students spend one week in store and one week in school. English, letter writing, saleslips B Bookkeeping .......,, B Penmanship 2 Arithmetic 8 Merchandising — Textiles, non-textiles B Spelling 8 Drawing — Color and Design 2 Music , 1 Physical Training ( Store Hygiene) 3 Commercial Law •. Elocution 2 29 Fourth Year Students spend one week in store and one week in school, BngUsh- Advertising 8 Industrial History Salesmanship and Business Organization 5 Arithmetic 8 Spelling 2 Economics ° Peimianship , • •••• " Drawing — Color and Design 2 Physical Training (Personal Hygiene) 2 Blocution • ^ 80 Co-operative Classes 43I Results of Salesmanship Courses: The results accomplished in salesmanship have not been entirely satisfactory to either the Bchool authorities or the firms with whom the schools have been co-operating. The table below shows what was accomplished during the half year from January to June, 1917, It will be noted that at the end of this period only three firms were co- operating with the schools in salesmanship and that of the 30 pupils so employed, 24 of them were with one firm: NUMBER OF FIRMS AND THE NUMBER OF PUPILS EMPLQTED BT BACH FIRM IN SALESMANSHIP, JANUARY TO JUNE, 1917: (1917) Jan. Feb. Feb. Mar. Mar. Apr. Apr. May May Juna Newtown High: 20 10 24 10 24 7 21 6 19 2 Cammeyer Shoe Oo 1 1 1 1 1 Rogera Peet & Co 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Gimbel Bros 14 K. H. Macy&Oo 3 16 14 17 17 14 9 10 10 11 Slater Shoe Co ;5222222223 Lord & Taylor 3 6 5 6 2 2 2 3 Abraham & Strauss 4 B. Altman 3 Morris High : R. H. Macy & Co 18 . . 14 16 16 16 16 12 . . IS Lord & Taylor 4 8 8 6 2 2 2 3 Gimbel Broa 6 45 20 46 60 60 44 32 28 16 80 THE STUTVESANT HIGH SCHOOL. It was felt that valuable information might be obtained from the study of the records of the co-operative classes in the Stuy- vesant High School. There have been two distinct systems of co- operative work at this school: (i) Fourth-year boys co-operating in technical work, but receiving no pay for it. This work was started in September, 1914, and has continued up to the present time with a considerable degree of success. (2) Co-operation with industrial firms by students who did receive pay for their work. The latter plan began on February 1, 1915, and was dis- continued under the re-organization of February 1, 1917. This school at the time of the survey was co-operating with three private firms and four city departments. The boys received 432 Industrial Education Survey no pay for their work and those in charge of the co-operative work at this school felt that it was successful largely because of this fact. They felt, too, that the no-pay plan gave the teachers an opportunity to insist that the boys should be shifted to other work when it was considered necessary for the good of the boy. The outside work of the boys, which in general was a practical laboratory course supplementing their regular class instruction consisted of assisting in architectural drawing, mechanical laboratories, surveying, power -plant operating, structural engi- neering, and industrial chemistry. Several reasons were given by those who had charge of the regular co-operative classes in the Stuyvesant High School for its lack of success. These were: (1) The difficulty of getting the boys to enter the co-operative course when they found out that it would not be accepted for college entrance; (2) The difliculty of arrang- ing equal pairs; this caused objections from the foremen who were responsible for a certain output of product; (3) That when younger boys got good positions they left school; (4) The co- operative work caused the boys to have a divided allegiance be- tween school and shop; (5) That many employers failed to see Ihat the scheme was educational in intent and desired to use the boys as cheap help; (6) The difficulty in making orderly progress of classes by terms fits the needs of the outside shop work; (7) The difficulty in selecting the right pair of boys for the right job at the right time and adjusting school courses to supplement their outside work. Permanency of the Industrial Co-operative Work. It is too soon since the co-operative work was first started in New York City to determine its permanent character. The 1914-1.") annual report of the part-time co operative classes lists 27 firms that had co-operated with the schools in industrial work. At the time of the survey eight of these firms were employing boys on the co-operative plan. This same report lists eight firms co-operating with the high schools in dressmaking and five firms co-operating in salesmanship. Not one of these firms in either dressmaking or salesmanship was co-operating with the schools at the time of the survey. The annual report for the year 1915-16 of the co-operative classes does not list the firms with whom the schools co-operated that year. However, through the courtesy of those in charge of Co-operative Glasses 433 the co-operative classes, the semi-monthly reports of the co-or- dinators for the period from January 8 to December 9, 1916, were secured and a list was made of the firms co-operating in indus- trial work and salesmanship. There were 40 industrial firms during the year which had one or more pairs of boys. Out of twenty-four firms that were co-operating in September, 1916, thir- teen were co-operating at the time of the survey in March, 1917. Of the thirty-seven firms that employed girls from the co-oper- ative classes between January 8, 1916, and December 9, 1916, for industrial work in dressmaking or the making of novelties or lamp shades, twelve firms co-operated for one month, nine for two months, six for three months, three for four months, five for five months, and two for over six months. On December 8, 1916, six- teen of these thirty-seven firms were employing girls from the co-operative classes. -The attitude of the pupils is also a factor that must affect the permanency of the work. Several of the coordinators stated that the difficulty of securing a sufficient number of pupils to enter the co-operative course was one of the greatest problems. The annual report of the co-operative classes for the year 1915-16 shows that 88 pupils left the course during the first term and 80 abandoned the course during the second term. Of the first group, one-half of the number or 44 entered employment and 38 of the second group entered employment, eight with the co-operating firms. The Cost of the Co-operative Work. The question of the cost of the co-operative work has had con- siderable discussion and the annual report for the year 1915-16 devotes several pages to this subject. Included in this statement of cost are the salaries of the co-ordinators and the proportional salaries of the teachers, the supervision and the text books and supplies that were given to the co-operative pupils. The per capita cost for each pupil, based on the average attendance for the term, ranged from $36.03 at the Newtown high school with an average attendance of 75 pupils, to $109.60 at the Erasmus Hall High School that had 12 pupils in average attendance. In the other schools it was also true that the cost was high where the average number of pupils was small. The centering of the work in seven high schools has lowered the cost so that it is probably no more than for the regular high school work, but the exact figures were not available when this report was written. 43-4 Industrial Education Survey The following table prepared by the school authorities shows the cost of the co-operative work for the first term of the 1916-17 school year : COST OF CO-OPERATIVE EDUCATION FOB BACH HIGH SCHOOL FOR THE TERM SEPTEMBER, 1916-FEBBUABY, 1917 sll . I II I It -^ •g tj g -i C^, So o, S a « Julia Bichman (15/100) $199.00 $294.00 $15.00 $30.00 10 $53.80 Stuyvesant* (1/2) 787.00 532.11 12.35 5.00 19 70.63 Washington Irving... (1/2) 437.50 1720.00 25.00 37.60 50 44.40 BuBhwick* (1/2) 787.50 2979.00 17.04 82.80 46 84.00 Bushwick (1/2) 587.50 2031.04 80.44 128.81 103 27.45 Commercial (All) 1325.00 1166.00 50.00 105.60 66 40.10 Manual Training (45/100) 596.00 2470.00 35.25 35.25 47 67.23 Bryant* (30/100) 397.50 287.00 24.50 28.00 14 52.64 Newtown (1/2) 662.50 1395.00 30.00 38.50 60 35.43 Morris O (1/2) 662.50 1395.00 20.00 30.00 40 52.64 Curtis* (1/2) 600.00 669.51 27.85 20.00 12 09.78 Average per capita cost for the term, $58.01. *Work discontinued in February, 1917. SUMMARY, The findings of the survey of the industrial co-operative classes show the following: 1. That on March 24, 1917, there were 172 pupils enrolled in the industrial co-operative classes in four high schools. These pupils were distributed as follows : Industrial Work (Boys) 60 Dressmaking (Girls) 62 Salesmanship (Boys and Girls) 50 2. That the numbers enrolled in the industrial co-operative classes were so small and the occupations represented so diversi- fied that the schools had not organized the school work so as to have it supplement the outside work of the pupil. 3. That 32 of the 40 firms co-operating in industrial work and salesmanship in 1914-1915 were not co-operating at the time of the survey in March, 1917. Co-operative Classes 435 4, That much of the time of the co-ordinator was spent in se- curing new firms to co-operate with the school and in persuading pupils to take this course. 6. That few of the pupils enrolled in the co-operative course in dressmaking have continuous employment for as long as three months with one firm. RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON COOPERATIVE INDUSTRIAL CLASSES. After carefully weighing the information obtained by the sur- vey committee, and after visiting the co-operative industrial i now in operation in this city, your advisory committee is (iuvinced that the city should maintain such co-operative classes with certain modifications as noted, at least for a period of sev- eral years to come when the question as to the value of such classes can be more fully determined. Your committee makes this recommendation with a full reali- eation that not many high school students can be counted upon to enter manual occupations in the industries. The ideals of the homes from which come the large body of high school students are directed distinctly away from such occupations for their sons and daughters and it is evident that the contribution of the high school to the field of industry must be found in supplying young men with well trained minds who are fitted after a further period of practical experience to attain to positions of at least subor- dinate leadership. Such positions have been termed the non- commissioned oflQcers of industry and include draftsmen, in- spectors, testers, designers and in general all positions of the supervising and foreman type. Prom this analysis it is evident that the co-operative indus- trial classes in the high schools cannot be expected to teach large numbers and the critical question that ultimately must be faced is whether the return for such work is in proportion to its ex- pense. The industrial co-operative work should be organized as to trades and each trade should be centralized in one buUding or school. This centralization of the work is necessary to secure groups of sufficient size to allow the formation of classes of indi- viduals with similar trade interests. The committee believes that the most satisfactory division of iSa ludustriul Educution Survey time for the co-operative industrial classes is half-time in shop and half-time in school as at present. The co-operative industrial class should be in every sense on an apprenticeship basis. It should never be entered into unless there is a definite agreement with the employer specifying a pro- gram of shop experience with the hours of labor and wages. This agreement should be signed by the school authorities, the parent representing the boy and the employer. Without such an agree- ment it is impossible to serve adequately the needs of the state, the individual and the employer. Co-operative industrial classes should be limited in so far as practicable to those industries in which at least thirty students are available for a closely related trade group that can be super- vised effectively by one co-ordinator. The co-ordinators should be selected on the basis of the re- quirements of the particular trade for which the co-operative in- dustrial class is to train. That is, the coordinator for co-oper- ative industrial classes in machine shop work should be a man with a thorough understanding of the machine trade. This same principle should be applied to the selection of all other co-ordin- ators. Each co-ordinator should be at the same time the teacher of related drawing, mathematics, and science for a double platoon group in the school and the supervisor of the work of the student.^ of this group in the commercial establishments. Such a plan would permit both the interests of economy and efBciency to be realized. The coordinator should have authority granted by the em- ployer to see that the program to be followed by the boy in the shop is carried out. The character of the instruction in drawing, mathematics and science should be such as to secure the greatest possible degree of relation to the trade or occupation in which the student is em- ployed. It must be kept constantly in mind that the co-operative indus- trial course is not a college preparatory course, but that it is a course, the predominant purpose of which is to train the student for advantageous entrance into a specific industry. In addition to the related work instruction should be provided as far as practicable in those subjects which make for intellec- tual, social and civic development. Inasmuch as the co-operative industrial classes have many Go-Operative Glasses 437 aspects in common with the part-time industrial classes, it is recommended that both types be placed in charge of a common assistant director responsible to the director of industrial edu- cation. In the opinion of the advisory committee the entrance require- ments for the industrial co-operative classes should be based upon age rather than the completion of the first year of the high school course. B. O. Small^ E. A. COOLEY, M. B. King. PART-TIME INDUSTRIAL CLASSES. It should be understood that two distinct kinds of part-time or continuation classes exist at the present time. One is that created by the provisions of the so-called Wilmot Law which makes it possible for any city in the state to organize day con- tinuation classes and to compel working children under 16 years of age who have not completed the eighth grade to attend not less than four nor more than eight hours per week. This law aims to further the general education of children who have left school before completing the grammar school by providing opportimities for instruction in the day time instead of in the evening. The other type of part-time class is that in which instruction is given in the trades and industrial, agricultural, salesmanship and homemaking subjects with the object of increasing efficiency and wage earning power, to pupils over 14 (now 15) years of age who are employed during the day. Inasmuch as very few boys under 16 years of age are employed in skilled trades, attendance in these classes is largely voluntary. Voluntary part-time classes are also organized for workers over 16 years of age. The present survey deals with the second type. It may help to an understanding of the general situation in regard to part-time classes if some account is given of the condi- tions under which they came into existence in New York City. The following statement as to the development of the contin- uation work is taken from the report of the City Superintendent of Schools for 1915-16 : "Continuation classes as now conducted in New York City are a natural outgrowth of the evening school work. It has been found by long experience that evening school instruction is not very profitable for working children under 16 years of age. At the same time it is evident that this large group of young workers is very much in need of further education. The Wilmot Law, passed in 1913, makes it possible for any city in the state to or- ganize day continuation classes and to compel working children under 16 years of age who have not completed the eighth grade to attend not less than four nor more than eight hours per week. Before making the law effective in this city, it seemed wise to see what could be done on a voluntary basis, that is, with the consent of employers and employees. This gave an opportunity to start in 439 440 Industrial Education Survey a small way, and to develop an organization gradually and on the basis of experience, instead of attempting to work out in advance a theoretical organization and then apply it as might be possible. It also gave opportunity to accustom employers to the aims and purposes of continuation classes before compelling the attendance of young workers for a certain number of hours per week. "Even before any continuation classes were established for working children 14 to 16 years of age, steps were taken which led to the organization of such classes for older workers. The first step was the organization of evening classes in the establishments of the employers. For example, in 1913, an evening class in Eng- lish to foreigners was authorized by the Board of Education in the Hotel Aster, at the request of the management. It was more convenient and more satisfactory to conduct the class in the hotel as an annex of evening school 17, Manhattan, than in the school itself. The next logical step, which was soon taken, was to open day classes for workers in their places of employment, conducted during such hours as the employees could most conveniently be excused from work. "Prom these two movements, both growing out of the evening schools, in connection with the growing interest in vocational education, have come the day continuation classes now carried on in the City of New York. "The first day continuation class authorized by the Board of Education was in the department store of Abraham & Straus, Brooklyn, in 1913. The second class was in the department store of Bloomingdale Bros., Manhattan. This was authorized January 28, 1914, and opened the same week. During the following month classes were authorized in the department stores of Frederick Loeser & Company, and A. D. Matthews' Sons, in Brooklyn. Be- fore January 1, 1915, arrangements were made with ten depart- ment stores, three hotels, two candy factories, and three or four large manufacturing plants and repair shops for the opening of similar classes. For various reasons classes were not organized in all these establishments, but in nearly all. The growth has continued steadily. During the school year ending June 30, 1916, the largest number of classes in operation at one time was 38." The Board of Education passed resolutions September 16, 1914, authorizing the organization of co-operative and part-time industrial classes, appointing Associate City Superintendent Dr. J. G. Haaren to take charge of the work of organizing and super- vising these classes. In October, 1914, Dr. Schneider was ap- pointed to act in an advisory capacity to Dr. Haaren, on the understanding that he should spend one week each month in New York City. At a conference with the executive officers of the city government and Board of Education "It was determined that the amount of $236,500 be set aside for the inauguration of Part-Time Industrial Classes 441 vocational courses, and that this money should be released by the Board of Estimate when plans for its distribution had been approved by the Board of Education." Of this sum "It was agreed that a sum not to exceed $100,000 was to be used for the particular experiment inaugurated with the advice of Dean Schneider," i. e., co-operative and part-time industrial classes. In a report made August 20, 1915, Dean Schneider says: "There are three things essential to success in co-operative and continuation school work — a desire on the part of the school men really to do it; a thorough understanding of the basic principles and a carefully planned organization." Aims, Types, Definitions: The following definition of contin nation schools is quoted from Dean Schneider's report to the committee on school inquiry: '-Under the continuation system the employer releases his employees of school age for a period of time (i. e., one-half day or a wJiole day) per week to attend the public school for definite mental instruction." The following statement is from the report on continuation and co-operative classes presented by Dr. Haaren to the Board of Education November 10, 1915: "Continuation classes are con- cerned with persons who are iu iiidu.stry and who have con- sequently left school. Continuation classes are of various kinds. Some classes receive instruction designed to increase the skill of workers in the industry, while others receive instruction planned to remedy defects in early education. A machinist's apprentice may need instruction in shop mathematics, or mechanical draw- ing, while a young man or woman engaged in a department store in a minor capacity may require greater skill in the three R'&. It may be that a machinist, as well as a department store em- ployee, or one in a hotel, needs to learn elementary English. To supply what is needed to increase civic and industrial eflSciency, particularly of the lower paid v\'orkers, is the fimction of the con- tinuation class. Continuation classes are not intended solely for the benefit of the industry. Classes with such an aim should be organized and conducted by the industry itself." As the State of New York provides liberal state aid for part- time industrial classes, we must take into consideration the stated aims, definitions and requirements, as set up by the state. The following is quoted from Bulletin 542, of the State Education Department: "Part-time or continuation schools are those in which instruction is given in the trades and industrial, agricul- tural and homemaking subjects to pupils over 14 years of age 442 Industrial Education Survey who are regularly and lawfully employed during part of the day in any useful employment or service, and the subject of the in- struction must be supplementary to the practical work carried on in such employment or service." This definition has been inter- preted to include continuation classes in which salesmanship is taught. Continuation and Part-Time Industrial Classes: The follow- ing table shows the total number of the continuation and part- time industrial classes under the Board of Education for the week ending April 21st, 1917: REPORT OF CONTINUATION CLASSES— WEEK ENDING APRIL 21, 1917 Voluntary Classes ^^% §"■ „» £« S.ri 2I a_o S as o oi SZ P-" la f "^ ^^ ^^ i^ Abraham & Straus Girls, women 1 Com. Br. 20 lyi Bloomingdale Bros Girls, women 1 Com. Br. 20 5 F. Loeser & Son Girls, women, boys 2 Com. Br. (4) 42 4 A. I. Namm & Sons Girls, women 2 Com. Br. (13) 40 5 R. H. Macy & Co Girls, women 1 Com. Br. 23 10 Greenhut & Co Girls, boys 2 Com. Br. (19) 37 5 H. 0. F. Koch Girls, women 2 Com. Br. 39 4 Lord & Taylor Girls, women, boys 2 Com. Br. 38 5 Gimbel Bros Girls, women 1 Com. Br. 21 5 James McCreery & Son.. Girla 1 Com. Br. 22 5 Oppenheim Collins & Co. Girls, women 1 Com. Br. 20 8 (Manhattan) Oppenheim Collins & Co . Girls, women 1 Com. Br. 22 8 (Brooklyn) Floersheimer & Co Girls, women 1 Com. Br. 18 4 J. Kayser & Co Girls 1 Com. Br. (2) 23 4 G. Bamberger & Co Girla 1 Com. Br. (2) 20 2 Educational Alliance Men, women, girls, boys 3 Eng. to For. 61 10-8 P. S. No. 4, Bronx Women, men 1 Bng. to For. 17 8 Bronx House Women 2 Eng. to For. 42 10 Kops Bros Women, girls 1 Eng. to For. 15 5 Long Island B. B. Co Boys, men 2 Trade 27 4 Richmond L't & B.R. Co. Men 2 Trade 29 4 Baltimore & Ohio B. B..Boy8 1 Trade 6 3 General Electric Co Boys, men 1 Commercial 14 5 MetropoUtan Eng. Co. . .Boys, men 4 Trade 55 3 Bklyn Navy Yard, Bklyn. Boys, men 9 Trade 195 8 46 866 Part-Time Industrial Classes 443 Compulsory Oontinuation Classes SB'S "S SOS -g ^ . " •" a p. S. No. 7 Boys, girls 8 Com. Br. P. S. No. 7 Boys, girls 7 Prevocational P. S. No. 65 Boys, girls 7 Com. Br. Bernard ITllman Co Girls, boys 1 Com. Br. Jas. A. Heam & Son Girls 3 Com. Br. a a a. 4-1 631 403 27 68 ^^ £P^ K 4 4 4 26 1129 Continuation Classes City Employees City Employees 1 Ele. Algebra 15 5 City Employees 1 Plane Geometry 12 5 City Employees 2 Bookkeeping 22 3 City Employees 1 Ele. Typewriting 37 4 City Employees 1 Adv.Type.&Sten. 28 2 City Employees 1 Elemcnt'ry Sten. 41 2 City Employees 1 Int. Stenography 34 2 City Employees 2 Eng. Comp. 1, 11 26 2 10 215 . . Grand Total 2210 Scope of Survey : The survey of continuation classes was lim- ited to such classes as might be eligible for state aid, i. e., part- time industrial classes, including salesmanship classes. The pro- visions made for state aid state definitely that "The subjects of the instruction must be supplementary to the practical work car- ried on in such employment or service." The state law does not provide special aid for the general continuation work. The following list of firms having part-time industrial classes coming under the above definition was furnished by Dr. Wm. L. Ettinger, Associate City Superintendent in charge of vocational work: Baltimore & Ohio K. R. Shops, Clifton, S. I. Long Island R. R. Shops, Morris Park, L. I. Metropolitan Engineering Co., Brooklyn, N. T. Brooklyn Navy Yard, Brooklyn, N. Y. Richmond Light & B. B. Co., Livingston, S. I. All the classes studied are listed as voluntary classes by the Board of Education because the pupils enrolled in these classes 444 Industrial Education Survey are above the compulsory school age. In all of them, except one, however, the employer compels certain employees to attend. PART-TIME INDUSTRIAL CLASSES AT THE BROOKLYN NAVY YARD. Organization ■' The part-time industrial classes, at the Brook- lyn Navy Yard were started February 26, 1917. These classes were visited by members of the survey six weeks after the work was organized. There are 227 boys enrolled. Their ages range from 15 to 22 years. Of these boys none had graduated from high school, 45 had attended high school, 64 had done no work beyond the eighth grade, 118 had not completed the work of the eighth grade. Of the total number of boys 59 had attended night school and two had taken correspondence courses. Every boy in the classes is regularly apprenticed to some spe- cific trade in the Navy Yard. The apprenticeship term is from three to four years, depending on the ability of the boy ; about 30 per cent finish their apprenticeship in three years. The appren- tices are given a semi-yearly examination by the officers of the Navy Yard and the part-time industrial teachers. If the boy does not do satisfactory work in the examination or in the shops he is dismissed or held back. The Navy Department officials compel all the apprentices to attend the -part-time industrial classes, eight hours a week from one o'clock to five o'clock on two days of the week and they are paid the regular wage for the time spent in the class. The classes are under the direct supervision of an officer of the Navy Yard assigned for the purpose. A petty ofiicer is present continuously during the sessions of the classes and is responsible for the attendance and to some extent the discipline. For the purpose of the part-time industrial class work the 227 boys were organized into the three groups called ''A", "B" and "C" groups, representing the ship construction, machinery divi- sion and woodworking trades. Classes in each group are arranged so that only one-third of the boys are out of the shops at one time. It is the aim of those in charge to group the apprentices in the classes as far as possible, according to their year of appren- ticeship. This has been done in classes No. 2 and No. 3 and par- tially in the other class. The table showing the distribution of Part-Time Industrial Classes 445 the boys in regard to groups, classes and trades was made up from a report dated February 26th, 1917, of the supervisor in charge. TABLE SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF I'UPILS BY CLASSES AND TRADES IN THE BROOKLYN NAVY YARD PART-TIME INDUSTRIAL CLASSES Group A: ^'"'"^ ^'^"^'1- ^-''-«2. Ch.ss .S. ToTalf 1. Shlpfitter 12 27 17 56 2. Chipping and caulking 4 2 6 3. Sheet metal working 8 5 q jq -t. Shipsmi'th — ship blacksmith -^ 1 8 12 5. Plumber 3 g 3 8 6. Boilermaker 3 j ^ Class Totals 29 40 30 99 Group B : 7. Boatbuilder 4 13 12 29 8. Joiner 5 2 7 9. Shipwright 2 1 5 g 10. Patternmaker 2 2 11. Painter 2 2 4 12. Sfiilmaker (j 2 2 Class Totals 15 20 17 52 Group : 13. Machinist 9 15 5 29 14. Electrician 16 14 7 37 15. Coppersmith 1 1 1 3 16. Die sinker 2 2 17. Moulder 1 2 2 5 Class Totals 29 32 15 76 An important element in the success of part-time industrial work and one which is emphasized by the rules of the State Education Department in order to secure state aid is that the school work of the class shall be directly related to the shop work. This can be done, most successfully only when a specific trade is taken as the organizing unit. When it is necessary to group apprentices from two or more trades together the classes should be small enough so that the instruction can be individual. A study of the above table will show that neither of these prin- ciples is present in the organization of most of these classes. 44G Industrial Education Survey Courses of Study : The subjects taught are mechanical draw- ing, mathematics, mechanics and English, one and one-quarter hours being given to each subject with five minutes between classes. On account of the short time that these classes have been in existence no definite course of study has been adopted. Relation Betfween School Work and Shop Work: In the mechanical drawing classes the work observed consists of geomet- rical exercise drawing. In the mechanics and English (same period and teacher) the work observed consisted of a formal lec- ture on some formula of mechanics or some phase of metallurgy, and the EngUsh work dealt with a written summary of the lec- ture. One lesson observed in this class was on the blast furnace, a topic full of possibilities for interesting correlations. During the entire lesson the instructor used no demonstration materials, models, blue prints, lantern slides, blackboard drawings nor did he make any reference to the several cupolas in the Navy Yard. In mathematics the work observed consisted of review exercises and demonstrations of the fundamental operations. No text books were used in any of the classes. In the teaching observed there was very little correlation between the class work and the daily work of the boys, and none at all with the specific trade to which the boy was apprenticed. The methods used were largely those of formal teaching with a very few practical applications brought in afterwards as incidental. It seems surprising that in such a rich environment as the Navy Yard, with such hearty co-operation on the part of the officials, that so little endeavor was made to use the environment and the experiences of the boys as part of the teaching process. At the time of the survey none of the teachers had visited the shops or talked to the foremen Jn the shops, or visited the boys at work, except one who is regu- larly employed in the Navy Yard. Teachers: There are three teachers employed by the Board of Education for the part-time industrial work in the Navy Yard They are rated as substitute teachers and teach at the Navy Yard four hours per day. They are paid at the rate of $6.00 for the four hours. All are fully occupied at other business in the mornings. One teaches two mornings each week for the Board of Education in other part-time industrial classes and works four mornings in a machine shop. Another is regularly employed at the Navy Yard. The third is temporarily employed at civil Part-Time Industrial Glasses 44f engineering work. Two teachers have engineers' degrees, the other has completed three years' work toward the bachelors' degree. All three teachers have had practical experience in the industries and at present are occupied part of the time in prac- tical work. The supervisor from the Board of Education visits the classes twice a week, holding conferences with the teachers and observing the work of the classes. Building Equipment, Supplies: All the classes are held in the large social hall of the Navy Yard. This makes the teaching somewhat difiScult as the attention of the students is being con- tinually distracted by the other classes, This condition is soon to be remedied by installing movable partitions. The equipment is satisfactory in most respects and is being added to and improved continually by the officials of the Navy Yard. All supplies for these classes are obtained from the Navy Yard stores, so that these teachers avoid the delay usually attendant upon obtaining supplies from the Board of Education store room. Attitude of Employers : The classes are visited every day by the naval officer in charge, another subordiuate officer being present most of the time. The Navy Yard officials are very enthusiastic about the part-time industrial classes, and are willing to co-operate in every way to make the work a success. Personal interviews were held with the four officials directly concerned; one of them expressed himself as feeling that the teachers were not yet in touch with the real problems and needs of the boys in the classes ; another one said, "Everything in the Navy Yard is at the disposal of these classes and their teachers. They can go anywhere and use anything in the yard." THE PART-TIME INDUSTRIAL CLASSES AT THE LONG ISLAND RAILROAD SHOPS, MORRIS PARK, L. I. Organization: The part-time industrial work was organized in these shops on June 14th, 1915. There are two separate classes, one from eight to ten, Monday and Wednesday mornings, the other from ten to twelve on the same days. The classes are conducted fifty weeks in the year. One class of twelve boys was composed of machine shop apprentices, the other class of thirteen boys included electricians, blacksmiths and pattern-makers' ap- 448 industrial Education Survey prentices. The apprentices attending these classes are employed in the general repair shops of the railroad and are given a splendid opportunity to secure a broad shop training. The boys are compelled by the employer to attend these classes and are paid their regular wages for the time spent in class. The previous education of the boys in these classes ranges from the sixth grade to the second year in high school. They were from 15 to 22 years of age. Course of Study : An attempt was made to secure a course of study from the teacher but one could not be obtained. Three subjects were taught by nne teacher to all classes; mechanical drawing and blue print reading one period each week, mathe- matics one-half period per week and English one-half period per week. Instruction in mechanics was also being given at intervals. Relation Between School WwJc and Shop Work : The work in mechanical drawing was largely individual owing to the varying rate of progress of the pupils. The larger part of the work was being done from blackboard sketches and other drawings. There was very little evidence of drawings of shop models, tools or machines, and none of locomotive parts. In the work in mathematics the difference in the previous education of the boys showed up strongly. To many of them the work was simj)ly a review of what they had done in school; to others it was far too diflBcult. There was very little individual teaching. On the day that the writer visited this shop a lecture had just been given in the mechanics class on the theory of the gas engine. On inquiry it was found that no gas engines were used or built in the shops. The English work was given at the same time as that in mechanics and consisted of note book work and drill in oral expression. The same tearher has been employed for these classes for the past six months. Up to the date of the survey he had not visited the shops, or the boys at work, the superintendent or the fore- man. He is employed by the Board of Education for the work, two mornings each week, from 8 to 12 for which he is paid |6.00 per morning. He is also employed by the board every afternoon, teaching other part-time industrial classes, his other mornings being spent in machine shop work. He has had ten years' prac- tical experience as draftsman, engineer and machinist. Although I'urt-Tinie Indu.siriul Vlantft'S 449 the classes have been in operation for two years, a system of tests and reports to the shop superintendent has only just been started. This was done at the urgent request of the shop superintendent, who made this request because of his impression that the com- pany was not deriving the benefit that it should from the class work. Rooms and Equipment : The room provided for these classes is unsuited for school purposes, being a portion of a paint shop, dark, dirty and noisy with a very disagreeable odor of paint. The benches on which the drawing is done were decidedly shaky, it being practically impossible to do good work on them. Attitude of Employers: Interviews were lield with the super- intendent of the shop and with the foreman of the machine shop. Both expressed an earnest desire to make the work of the part-time industrial classes more successful. The superintendent expressed himself as not being entirely satisfied with the work of the class. He expressed a desire to liave it more thoroughly organized in the direction of systems of testing, grading and promotion which should measure tlie progress of the boys. Both foreman and superintendent felt that the work thus far had not been of much value to them in a practical way due in part to the fact that the boys did not remain long with the firm. THE PART-TIME INDUSTRIAL CLASS OF THE BALTL MORE AND OHIO R. R. SHOPS, CLIFTON, S. I. Organization: This class was organized September, 1914. The sessions are from 7:15 to 8:15 every morning in the week, making a total of six hours per week for all apprentices. The enrollment was low at the time of the survey on account of abnormal trade conditions, it being diificult to get boys to start the four years' apprenticeship coiivse at the beginning wage. Classification of Pupils : All the boys are regularly appren- ticed to specific trades in the shops. They are compelled to attend by the company and are paid their regular wage while attending class. Of the eight apprentices at present in the class, six were machinists' apprentices, one a carpenters' and one a boiler makers' apprentice. 450 Industrial Education Survey Courses of Study: Mechanical drawing is taught on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays, mathematics on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays. Relation Between School Work and Shop Work : In mechan- ical drawing the work of the class is closely related to the specific trade of the boy, the machinists' apprentices drawing machines, engines and parts; the carpenter apprentices drawing frames for buildings, construction work, etc., the boUermakers' appren- tices drawing parts of locomotive boilers and developing pat- terns, the drawings being made almost entirely from parts bor- rowed from the shops. The work in mathematics is of a practi- cal character and related to the trade, the method being to develop the practical use and need, show methods of solving, then state the formula and develop short cuts, with use of tables. The work in both classes is entirely individual and the standards of work are high. The books used as reference books in the mathe- matics class are: "Shop Mathematics," Holton; "Practical Ap- plied Mathematics," Hale; "Mathematics for Machinists," Burn- ham; "Shop Problems in Mathematics," Breckenbridge, and the texts of the Baltimore and Ohio apprentice course of Mt. Clair, Md. Teachers: Two teachers are employed for this work by the Board of Education, one for mathematics and one for mechanical drawing, both teach three hours per week. They regularly visit the shops, are well acquainted with all the foremen and know what each boy is doing in the shop. Both have had some prac- tical experience in the trades and are regularly employed during the day by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company; one is chief clerk to the master mechanic, the other is draftsman in the same department. Each has worked out a course of study to meet the needs of the boys, their chief aid being the apprentice courses from the Baltimore and Ohio Apprentice School at Mt. Clair. On the other hand neither of these teachers has ever at- tended ary conference of part-time industrial class teachers or visited any other part-time industrial classes. Equipment: The classes are held in an ordinary passenger car which stands on a convenient side track. Drawing tables are fitted over the backs of the seats and the car is well lighted, heated and ventilated. The company furnishes all the blue- Part-Time Industrial Classes 451 prints, tracing paper, blue-print paper and tracing cloth. The Board of Education furnish drawing boards, paper and instru- ments. The teachers are given any extra time necessary to pre- pare material for the class and are allowed to use any part of the shop equipment or material desired. These teachers have visited evening classes at Pratt Institute, Murray Hill Evening Trade School and the Dickinson High School. Attitude of Employers: The master mechanic and foremen visit the class regularly and know what each boy is doing; the representative of the Board of Education visits the class once about every three weeks. The company gives prizes of books for good work and pays the expenses of a trip to their other plant at Mt. Clair, Maryland, for the best boys. The attitude of the repre- sentatives of the company was all that could be desired. They visit the class regularly, giving encouragement, substantial help and constructive criticism. They expressed themselves as being perfectly satisfied with their teachers and with the work which they were doing. They would be glad to start classes in industrial chemistry and applied physics. THE PART-TIME INDUSTRIAL CLASSES OP THE RICH- MOND LIGHT & RAILROAD CO., LIVINGSTON, S. I. Organization: These classes were established by the Board of Education, November 10, 1914. The hours are from 7 to 9 Mon- day, Wednesday, Thursday and Saturday mornings. Student: The students are all over nineteen years of age and attendance in the class is voluntary, the class being open to any employee who cares to come. The firm pays the regular wage for the time spent in class, the estimated average wage being about 30 cents per hour. The total number of employees is 150, the aver- age number enrolled in the continuation class is 38, with an aver- age attendance in each class of 15. The trades represented in each class are electricians, machinists, pipe fitters, riggers, repair men, construction men and meter men, with oilers and helpers of vari- ous kinds. Courses of Study: Elementary mechanical drawing is given on Monday; advanced mechanical drawing and blueprint reading, cost and quantity estimating on Wednesday; mathematics on Thursday; elements of steam and electricity on Saturday. J:5^ Industrial Education Survey Relation Between School Work and Shop Work: The teaching in both classes in mechanical drawing was entirely individual, each student being given what he needs and wants, and advancing as rapidly as his ability allows. The purpose of the class is not to make draftsmen, but to enable them to make freehand mechau ical sketches; to read drawings and blue prints; to figure quanti- ties and to estimate costs. Some were working on the simple orthographic projections, others on machine drawings, others on building plans and still others were estimating costs and quanti- ties; all in the same class. No text books were used, samples being taken from the daily work and the operations of the plant. In mathematics the work was partly class work and partly indi- vidual, fundamental algebraic operations and simple equations were demonstrated and applied immediately to practical prob- lems. The work in elements of steam and electricity is given in the same way. The chief reference books in these two classes were "Mathematics for Machinists," Burnham; "Elements of Elec- tricity," Timbie. Teachers: Two teachers are employed by the Board of Educa- tion, one for the mechanical drawing, four hours per week, one for the mathematics and elements of steam and electricity, four hours per week; both are ranked as substitute teachers and are paid |1.50 per hour. Both are regular employees of the company, one as chief operating engineer, the other a draftsman having charge of the construction work. Rooms and Equipment: Two rooms in the office building are used for the continuation class work. They are roughly furnished, but seem to be entirely satisfactory for the purpose of the class work. The lecture room equipment consists of one small black- board and several rough board benches, with a set of shelves for storing demonstration material. The mechanical drawing room equipment consists of several rough board tables for drawing, one table for the teacher and a set of small shelves for demonstration models. Both rooms are well lighted and ventilated. Attitude of Employers: The employers are very favorable to the continuation class idea, and if for any reason the classes de- crease in size the superintendent and foreman go around the shops and urge the men and boys to attend. The teachers are allowed all the extra time they need to prepare for their class work and Pait-Time Industrial Classes 453 the services of other employees is freely given to prepare any material needed. The classes are supervised very closely by the employers, being visited nearly every day by some official or their representative and the teacher holds daily conferences with the superintendent. The representative of the Board of Education visits the class about once every two weeks. PART-TIME INDUSTRIAL CLASSES OF THE METROPOLI- TAN ENGINEERING COMPANY, BROOKLYN. N. Y. Organization: The Metropolitan Engineering Company, of Brooklyn, has four continuation classes, the hours being from 4 to 5: 30, two classes meeting on Monday and Wednesday, and the other two on Tuesday and Thursday. The classes were organized September 13, 1915, and the boys are required by the company to attend them. Most of the boys work on piece work, but are paid a flat rate for two-thirds of the time spent in class. This rate of compensation varies from fourteen to twenty-five cents per hour. The company makes a very extensive line of electrical parts for use in construction work. The classes have an average attendance of seventy-eight and the boys' ages vary from sixteen to twenty-two years. They are not learning any specific trade, but are doing routine work requiring a considerable degree of manual dexterity, for which they receive good wages. Most of the boys were working at semi-skilled work. Their job can in no way be looked upon as a trade and it offers very little opportunity for advancement to skilled work with this firm, or any other firm. Neither can it be looked upon as a suitable occu- pation for adults. This makes the problem of related work quite difficult. It also raises the question as to whether the instruction can be considered as trade extension work. Courses of Study: The class work consists of mechanical draw- ing one and one-half hours per week ; shop arithmetic three quar- ters of an hour per week ; English three-quarters of an hour per week. Complete syllabi for these courses have been worked out by the supervisor in charge of these classes. Relation Between Class Work and Shop Work: The type of work the boys perform in the shop makes it difficult to relate the class work very closely to the shop work. In the mechanical drawing class, however, an attempt was being made to make the work practical and related to the shop work. The models used 454 Industrial Education Survey were largely those that the boys were working with in the shops. There was no geometrical drawing, but plenty of freehand ortho- graphic sketches. A few drawings were made that were copies of other drawings. In the shop arithmetic class the work was pri- marily a review of the regular work pursued in the grammar grades. Very little evidence could be seen of any correlation with the work of the boys, or of the products of the firm. The English was to an extent correlated with the daily work of the boys. Teachers: At the time of the first visit to these classes two new teachers were being installed, one class having had three different teachers in the previous four weeks. There had been an entire new force of teachers in the previous two weeks. At pres- ent there are two teachers employed six hours each per week by the Board of Education for these classes. They are paid |1.50 per hour for this teaching. They teach in other schools during the remainder of the day. Room and Equipment: The room assigned to the class is sat- isfactory for the purpose, it being the best in aU the part-time industrial schools visited. It is suitably equipped with chairs, drawing tables, blackboards, and cases. A partition is to be built in the middle of the room, making it into two separate rooms. Attitude of Employers: The ofiScials of the company inter- viewed, the superintendent and the foreman are aU very enthusi- astic about the part-time industrial work. The classes were or- ganized at their request. When advertising for help they make a statement that they conduct a part-time industrial class and that the quality of the applicants for positions had improved very much since the classes were started. They expressed an entire willingness to do anything to improve the work of the classes. They feel that the Board of Education is not properly supporting the work, in that they have failed to supply competent teachers who understand the part-time industrial class. They expressed a willingness to pay the entire salary for the teachers themselves, if good ones could be obtained ; also to employ them regularly in the factory or ofiBce for full time, if that would assure good teach- ing. They are willing to start two more classes, if the Board of Education will supply good teachers. They favor the establish- ment of courses in related elementary electricity, correlated phy- sics and chemistry and a course in the study of material. They advocate not more than ten boys to one teacher, as they feel that Part-Time Industrial Classes 455 this limitation is necessary to obtain good results in this type of work. The company supplies to the classes complete files of the "American Machinist," "Electrical World" and "Iron Age"; but 80 far the teachers have made no use of the magazines in the class room. The classes are visited nearly every day by a representative of the firm and about five times a month by a representative of the Board of Education. SUMMARY. The findings of the survey of the part-time industrial classes show the following : 1. That the part-time industrial work represents but a small part of industrial instruction offered in New York City. The re- port for the continuation classes for the week ending March 3i, 1917, shows that there are 344 students enrolled in the part-time industrial classes. This number is about 16 per cent of the total number of pupils in continuation classes. 2. That certain conditions in this work arising from the fact that many classes are made up of pupils from different trades or branches of the trade make it difQcult to correlate intimately the instruction with the shop experience of the pupils. 3. That the teachers of these classes receive practically no spe- cific preparation for the special problems of this type of teaching. 4. That the salary and assignment of work render it difficult to obtain men with special training for these classes. 5. That the teachers who are employed in the shops of the en- tablishments offering courses have uniformly acquainted them- selves with the shop work of the pupils. At the time of the sur- vey, few of the other teachers, however, had visited the shops, or the boys at work. 6. That the employers favor the part-time industrial classes and are working for their improvement. 7. That the contribution of the employers in apprentice wages and cost of materials amounts to more than that spent by the Board of Education for salaries and materials. REPORT OF THE ADVISORY COMMITTEE OF PART-TIME INDUSTRIAL CLASSES Part-time industrial classes, as conducted in New York City, may be considered, under two heads: (1) Compulsory classes organized under the provisions of the Wilmot law for children who have been granted working papers but who have not grad- uated from the elementary school, and (2) voluntary classes for those who have fulfilled the compulsory school requirements and who are employed in occupations for which it is possible and desirable to give specific supplementary training, calculated to better fit the employees for the positions in which they are now employed, and for advancement to better positions. While the report of the survey which was submitted to the committee has dealt with but the second class of young workers mentioned above, your committee nevertheless feels it to be de- sirable at this time to emphasize the great need for providing a scheme of continued education for all boys and girls between the ages of IJ- and IS years wlio leave school and go to work. No comprehensive or fully adequate system of education can permit thousands of young people who, at I.t years of age, have reached but the end of sixth grade, or who are merely 14 years of age though having finished the eighth grade, to go out into industry upon a single program of mere employment. The fact is deserving of great emphasis that young people, even under the most favorable circumstances, cannot be suf- ficiently well educated and otherwise developed so that by the end of their thirteenth year, or during their fourteenth year, they may be permitted in large numbers to enter industry upon the terms of opportunity that industry now offers without grave danger to themselves and to society. Legal restrictions upon hours of labor of children afford some protection. A few further legal restrictions afford a measure of protection from physical accident and minimize the moral hazard. And yet some of these beneficient restrictions serve to increase the educational hazard in that they narrow the field of choice of work of these boys and girls to the educationally "denatured" juvenile jobs so frequently described as "dead end" or "blind alley." 4.56 Part-Time Industrial Classes 457 These juvenile jobs are not, as a rule, beyond the strength and capacity of boys and girls to master. They are of kind where youth is an asset. They are frequently relatively well paid. The danger lies in the fact that, with rare exceptions, they do not provide an experience that is useful as a preparation for better paid adult positions, which these young people must later enter if they are to be adequately self-supporting, and that, on the other hand, as a rule they make no demands upon the education with which the boys and girls come to them. As a result, the very elementary education — the minimum essentials of which have been provided at great expense by the community — is sloughed off to an alarming extent during these first years out of school. If valid and necessary to make this investment in education, in the first place, it is imperative that steps be taken to con- serve the investment in the second. Another serious defect to be remedied arises from the fact that, during the years spent in the kind of employment of which we are speaking, neither parents nor employers are doing any- thing, except in special instances, to stimulate the young people to adopt a forward-looking program for themselves, and indeed often unintelligently and even selfishly oppose their efforts, when, by chance, they make the effort. The community has undoubtedly the right to fix the terms upon which minors may enter industry. The community just as surely is under obligations to provide further part-time edu- cational opportunity and guidance during this most critical and formative period between the ages of 14 and 18 years. It requires no elaboration to convince anyone of intelligence that the initial entrance into industry, made at a period which coincides with the otherwise most critical period in the lives of boys and girls, is no time for the educational machinery to aban- don them to their own devices and the blind forces of industry. Legislation, and the public school alone, can deal adequately with the problem, and therefore upon the public school authori- ties devolves a great responsibility. To fail to act would be most inconsistent with the social claims of the modern school system, and would fall far short of educational statesmanship. The schools for the masses must not cease where those for the favored lew begin. The arguments for this work are by no means exhausted. Attention might be called to the fact that thousands of the boys and girls for whom it is asked that this part-time Instruction 458 Industrial Education Survey shall be provided, are entitled to sit five days a week in the public school and have the public pay the bill. Instead, they are at work earning millions of dollars yearly, which money they take into the homes of the most needy, where it both helps to support the families and to pay the taxes. They are also making their contribution to the industry, and must not be regarded as a burden upon industry, for, while we most often think of employers paying wages to employees, it is quite as correct to speak of employees paying a profit to employers. Every consideration of justice, every prompting of generosity, every demand of efficiency in its best sense, requires that the problem of providing adequately for the continued education of the thousands of boys and girls leaving school at 15 years of age be met promptly and courageously, particularly in all of our large cities. Turning to the second or voluntary group with which the report of the survey has to do the advisory committee is con- vinced that the city should maintain part-time industrial classes for these young people. While the arguments set forth in regard to the necessity for further education of the first group apply equally well to the second, other factors set forth below influenced your committee in reaching its conclusions with regard to part-time industrial classes. The individuals in the second group have definitely started upon an industrial career. The degree of success which will come to any of these individuals depends largely upon the degree of intelligence that they develop concerning the methods and activi- ties of the trade in which they are engaged, that is, upon their knowledge of the mathematics bearing upon trade processes, upon the elementary scientific principles involved, upon their compre- hension of technical processes, their acquaintance with the quali- ties and properties of materials used and upon their ability to deal with correlated factors, such as reading and making draw- ings and the interpretation of shop orders and reports. As the industries are organized at present, there is little or no chance for an individual to secure systematic training in any- thing other than the manipulative side of the trade unless it be given by instructors employed for the purpose, and at a time definitely set aside. A few employers are willing to go to the trouble and expense to provide such instruction, the majority are not. Because of this it has become the duty of the public to Part-Time Industrial Classes 459 ]irovide facilities for such instruction through the maintenance of part-time industrial classes. This can be done economically and efficiently only through the agency now organized to care for public instruction. Any program which has to do with part-time industrial classes for minors employed in occupations for which it is possible to give specific supplementary training should be based upon the principle that there are three parties to be considered— the State, the individual and the employer. The instruction in part-time industrial classes should consist in part of subjects such as drawing, mathematics, and science related to the industrial needs of the occupations in which the workers are employed, and in part of subjects which will con- tribute to the employee's intellectual, social and civic develop- ment. It should also be noted that the development and advance- ment of the employee will depend fully as much upon the extent to which he is given the opportunity for breadth and scope of training inside the establishment as upon outside instruction. The administration of the part-time industrial classes should be placed in the hands of the public school authorities, and should center in a director of industrial education who should have an assistant in specific charge of these classes. This assistant should have power of initiative in all matters relating to the part-time industrial classes, such as courses of instruction, location of classes, training and selection of teachers, equipment and sup- plies. Such a plan would clothe those who administer the work with sufficient power to meet the many exigencies which are sure to arise in connection with part-time instruction and fix respon- sibility for results. From the reports submitted to your committee and from such observation as the committee has made, it feels that certain weak- nesses of the part-time instruction as it exists at present is largely due to the lack of such centralized authority. All part-time industrial classes should be organized as to trades and not as to time served in industry or educational quali- fications or age of pupils. Because of the inevitable variations in age and previous school experience there should not be more than twenty students enrolled in a class at any one time. By limiting the number to this extent individual instruction which is essential can be provided. To secure the maximum amount of benefit for the individuals 460 Industrial Education Survey in a part-time industrial class it is essential that workers from one industry, trade or occupation be grouped together, rather than a number of workers from a variety of industries, trades, or occupations. The workers in a machine shop should be grouped together, workers from a woodworking shop should be grouped together. Workers from a woodworking shop and workers from an electrical shop should not be grouped together. While the investigations of the survey and the report of your committee have been largely directed towards the few part-time industrial classes now in existence, your committee feels that the policy of the Board of Education should be to extend these classes wherever favorable opportunities can be found. The development of part-time classes in the absence of com- pulsory legislative enactment is a matter of slow growth in our individualistic communities. If this work is to be extended, steps should be first taken in industries representing large numbers of young workers and where there exists great need of trade extension instruction. The consent of some sympathetically dis- posed employer for the beginning of part-time classes with his employees should be secured. After such a beginning, efforts should be made through employers, associations and otherwise to secure the consent of all employers in the trade or industry in which the work has bjen started to release their employees for such instruction during a portion of the working day. Finally it is obvious that part-time industrial classes cannot always be conducted in commercial establishments, but must be provided for in part at least in school buildings or rooms other- wise secured for the purpose. Signed, R. O. SmalLj E. A. COOLET, M. B. King. RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SURVEY COMMITTEE. Administration. Based upon the foregoing findings, it is recommended : That the administration of industrial education in the public schools of the city center in a director of industrial education responsible to the city superintendent of schools and the board of superintendents. That the field covered by the director of industrial education be confined to such schools as meet the requirements for state aid and shall not include pre-vocational work, manual training and compulsory continuation school work. That the director of industrial education be entrusted with as large authority and responsibility as is practicable in the administration of his work. The committee feel that the Board of Education, the city superintendent and the board of superintendents should recognize that their relation to the director of industrial education would be different in character from their relations with directors of academic branches. While school superin- tendents have experience and authority in the academic branches, they are usually without experience or special knowledge with respect to industrial education. They should therefore allow a more free-hand to the director of industrial education than they might be willing to grant to the supervisor of high schools or of branches of the work in elementary schools. That four assistant directors be provided to assist the director of industrial education as follows : An assistant director of day vocational schools for boys; an assistant director of evening trade classes for boys and men ; an assistant director of co-opera- tive and voluntary part-time classes; and an assistant director of vocational work for girls. That according to the terms of the accompanying chart the assistant director of day vocational schools for boys shall deal with the principals of such schools, the principals with the de- partment heads and the department heads with the teachers. That the assistant director of evening trade schools for boys and men shall deal with the principals of such schools, and the principals with the teachers. 461 462 Industrial Education Survey ij < M P5 &H m P Q Z HH M ;?^ R^ R W H !^ K £^ 1^ ^ S :?! S3 M Fi O Z w fe, M M «2 P <1 <1 H ■ ' K < O O P ^ a O H h-i R ■< N 1— I ^ S J SS 5 '"as * 1 .5 s 1 I Recommendations of Survey Committee 463 That the assistant director of co-operative and voluntary part- time classes shall deal with the coordinators of co-operative classes and the supervisors of part-time classes and these with the respective teachers. That the assistant director of vocational work for girls shall deal with the principals of day vocational schools for girls which are or may be established; and with the principals of evening trade schools for girls, the principals of day schools with depart- ment heads, these department heads and the principals of evening schools with the teachers. That in order to insure the essential co-operation of the trades and industries in the administration of industrial education advisory committees, consisting of employers and employees be appointed by the Board of Education for each of the trades of printing, carpentry, machine work and electrical work, such com- mittees to consist of seven persons each, three of whom shall be selected from trade employers associations, three from labor organizations, and that these six shall nominate one additional member who shall be a layman. In the first instance two mem- bers from each of the above trade groups shall be appointed for a term of one year, two for a term of two years and two for a term of three years, and the lay member for a term of three years. Thereafter as the term of such members shall expire, the vacan- cies caused thereby shall be filled for a full term of three years. It is clear that the function of such committees cannot legally be those of control or veto, but it also seems clear that if they are accorded very specific advisory powers and definite provision be made for the con- sideration of their recommendations the way will be opened for the exer- tion of a very real and important influence on their part. That the relations of such advisory committees should be with the director of industrial education, and this offlcer should be instructed before action is taken upon such matters, to invite the recommendations of the committees as to the establishment of new industrial schools and classes; the selection of equipment; the content and length of the courses of study ; the requirements for graduation and certification ; the number of pupils admitted to day vocational schools. Furthermore, where questions of policy are concerned the committee believe it is highly desirable that the Board of Education obtain the advice of these committees as the only means of guarding itself against the danger of losing touch with the changing conditions of the trade. ^64 Industrial Education Survey Employment and Licensing op Teachers in Vocational Schools. The committee recommends: That the board of examiners appoint a special committee for each distinctive trade for which there is need of teachers in either shop or related shop subjects, the members of the committee to be appointed for one year and to be re-appointed as long as their services are satisfactory and they are willing to serve. That each committee consists of three members, one of whom should be a member of the examining board in order to correlate the work of the board and its special committee and two of whom should be persons experienced in their knowledge of the trade and of education for the trade. That the two lay members of the committee be paid a per diem rate for the actual time given to the duties assigned them as herein described. It is the conviction of the survey connnittee that the special commit- tee on the certification of teachers for any given trade should be regarded only as an agency used by the board to assist it in the difficult and highly specialized task of obtaining competent instructors for the schools in the shop and related shop subjects of that trade and that all authority to pass finally upon the case of any applicant rests and should rest with the board of examiners. Furthermore, that the function of the committee should be to advise as to the conduct and standards of the examinations and recommendations in rating of applicants. All the papers regarding the applicant should be filed with the board. That male applicants for licenses for teaching shop subjects should not be less than 25 years of age nor more than 40, and women applicants not less than 2.3 nor more than 40 years, which is the present regulation of the Board of Education for regular teachers, but that the proviso be made that this requirement should not apply to substitute teachers already in the service or to a successful teacher over 40 years of age desiring to enter the service in New York. That the applicant should, if a man, present evidence of at least five years of approved and successful experience in indus- trial work subsequent to the period of his apprenticeship in the shop work which he desires to teach. That in the case of a woman, the applicant should present evidence of two years' suc- cessful experience in the trade or occupation approved by the committee or its equivalent; and demonstrate as the committee may determine her trade skill or knowledge. That the teacher of a shop subject should be required to have at least a common school education, or its equivalent. Recommendations of Survey Committee 465 That three factors should be taken into consideration in passing upon the applicant; trade knowledge and skill, teaching ability, and general education. That in examining applicants, the committee should avail itself of four different elements: written examinations, creden- tials, personal interviews, and practical demonstration. Written examinations in the judgment of the committee are of rela- tively little value in testing the abiUty and the personal equipment of candidates. Such examinations can aid in determining the fitness of candidates to teach, but mainly to the extent that such examinations are limited to tests of general and trade knowledge. Proper credentials should be given an important place in determining the fitness of an applicant. Affidavits as to trade standing and skill furnished by employers and fellow workers, diplomas, certificates, school records, correspondence school work, personal statements of former teachers, examples or records of actual work done, magazine articles or books written by the candidates; statements as to teaching ability based on previous service as instructor of apprentices or as a teacher, should all be acceptable as credentials. A personal interview is' necessary in estimating the qualifications of the applicant in such matters as appearance, personality, health, general intelligence and of social and economic outlook. It has also an important use supplementary to the written examinations and credentials in furnish- ing additional information concerning trade and teaching experience. Practical demonstratfon. should be used to supplement other tests whenever doubt exists as to either the trade qualifications or teaching ability of the candidate. That all teachers of shop work employed on the basis later recommended who have not completed at least 120 hours in an approved teachers' training course be required to meet this mini- mum during the first three years of service. That provision for such instruction be made by the public school authorities. That the pay of all male teachers of shop work in day voca- tional schools be made seven dollars (|7) a day for the first year of service, and that such teachers, upon the recommendation of the principal of the school and the director of industrial educa- tion, shall r;eceive an annual increase in the per diem rate to be determined by the Board of Education, which shall make the annual earnings of such teachers not less than that provided by the present salary schedule for shop teachers in day vocational schools. The present salary schedule for male shop teachers begins at $1500 and progresses with an annual increase of $125 until a maximum of $2500 is reached. "^66 Industrial Education Survey That in the case of women teachers, as under the existing regulations of the Board of Education the probationary teacher who begins with a minimum of two years of trade experience, as what is known as a substitute or probationary junior teacher, be, after one j'ear of satisfactory experience as a teacher of a trade subject, promoted to be a probationary second assistant; after a second year of such service, to be a probationary first assistant and after a third year of such service to be a regular teacher of the subject. That the present schedule as given below in regard to salaries for these vocational teachers in schools for girls be approved : Substitute head teacher (female), |6.00 per day. Substitute placement and investigation teacher (female), ,*5.00 per day. Substitute department vocational teacher (female), $6.00 per day. Substitute first assistant teacher of vocational or trade sub- jects, |4.50 per day. Substitute second assistant teacher of vocational or trade subjects, 13.50 per day. Substitute junior assistant teacher of vocational or trade sub- jects, |2.50 per day. Substitute teacher of sewing, 14.00 per day. Substitute in non-vocational subjects (female), |0.50 per hour. Substitute female teacher-clerk, |4.50 per day. Substitute trade-order teacher (female), lifS.SO per day. Substitute assistant trade-order teacher (female), |2.50 per day. Substitute assistant female teacher-clerk, |3.50 per day. Substitute vocational or trade helper (female), fl.OO per day. That the Board of Education shall, upon recommendation of the advisory committee and the director of industrial educa- tion, authorize any shop teacher in a day vocational school to 3'eturn to the practice of the trade for a period not to exceed six months, and for such experience as the advisory committee and the director of industrial education shall indicate, without loss of compensation. Teacher of Related Siihjects: That the applicant should at least have a high school education or its equivalent. He should have in addition as a minimum, 300 hours of additional instruc- tion in the technical subject he desires to teach or an experience in the subject accepted as an equivalent. In order that he may Recommendations of Survey Committee 467 be able to apply his subject to the trade or occupation to which it is related, he should have had at least one year of actual experi- ence in the trade or occupation concerned or one year of ap- proved practical contact in some capacity with the trade or occupation. That applicants who can meet the requirements set up for teachers of shop subjects or teachers of related technical sub- jects and can present evidence of at least one year of successful teaching experience in the subject for which a license is sought, may be appointed as regular teachers, subject to the regular pro- bationary period. Principal of a Vocational School: That to be eligible for a license as principal of a vocational or trade school, the appli- cant must have one of the following qualifications : (a) "Graduation from a college or university recognized by the Eegents of the University of the State of New York together with ten years' satisfactory experience in the practice of a trade and in teaching and supervision, provided that not less than two years of such ten years' experience shall have been in the practice of a trade, represented in the school. Five years of approved practical contact with the industry involved shall be considered as equivalent to two years in the practice of the trade." (b) "Graduation from a college or university recognized by the Regents of the University of the State of New York, together with ten years' satisfactory experience in teaching or supervision, provided that not less than five years of such experience shall have been in teaching, supervision or investigation in vocational education in the field represented by the school." Central Schools. The Committee recommends: The establishment of a Central School of Printing which shall provide trade extension courses for journeymen and advanced apprentices, part-time classes for younger apprentices and all-day pre-employment courses, and that such courses take the place of the instruction in printing at present carried on in the day voca- tional schools and evening trade schools. That a Central School for the Metal Trades be established to include trade extension courses for advanced apprentices and journeymen, part-time classes for younger apprentices and pre- employment all-day courses, these courses to take the place of the instruction now given in the day vocational schools and evening classes maintained by the City. 468 Industrial Education Survey That there be established one or two schools for the building trades; that trade extension courses for advanced apprentices and journeymen and part-time classes for younger apprentices be provided as well as all-day pre-employment courses, and that the work now done in the three vocational schools be concen- trated in one or two schools, to be located as the demand shall indicate. Day Vocational Schools. It is recommended : That pupils admitted to these schools shall be at least 14 years of age and have completed at least the 6th grade of school. That they should be required to pass a physical examination based on the particular needs of the trade in question before entering the school. That the numbers admitted should not exceed the point at which the number of graduates will be greater than experience indicates can be absorbed by the trade. That when the demand for admission to these schools exceeds the number so determined, competitive examinations aimed to test manipulative skill and general intelligence should be used as a basis of selection. That courses provided in the day schools include shop train- ing, directly related technical instruction, instruction desirable for citizenship and elements of general education. Material for courses of instruction in shop work and in related subjects are indicated in the analysis of the trades as given in the different surveys. That the organization of courses of instruction remain on a basis that will require two years for completion as at present. That the length of the school day be as at present, seven liours. That the entire school training of shop and academic instruction be continued for eleven months of the year. That the number of pupils assigned to one teacher of shop work shall not exceed sixteen. That in the schools devoted to the printing trades, machine trades and building trades, there shall be a certain amount of productive work, not for the sake of production, but because in the judgment of the committee experience in productive work is the only fully efficient method of trade instruction ; that any pro- ductive work be limited to the needs of the vocational school system ; that the recommendations of the advisory trade com- mittees be particularly sought in regard to the character and Recommendations of Survey Committee 469 quality of this work ; that such productive work should be supple- mented by technical exercises of the laboratory type. That before any further classes in day vocational schools are opened, equipment should be provided that is sufflcient in extent to meet all the needs of the numbers under instruction and of a character and quality that conform to the requirements of modern trade practice. Evening Trade Classes. The committee recommends: That the city continue the maintenance of the evening trade schools which deal with trade extension classes whose members are employed during the day in occupations to which the instruc- tion offered in these classes is distinctly related. That sixteen years be the minimum age of pupils admitted to evening trade extension classes. That applicants for admission to trade extension classes be not accepted unless employed during the day in an industrial occupation approved by the trade advisory committee as directly connected with the trade in which trade extension instruction is offered. That a nominal deposit be required in each course by all pupils registered in evening trade extension classes and that this deposit shall be returned to those pupils who complete at least 75 per cent of all sessions of the classes of which they are members. That all evening trade schools be under the general direction of the person in charge of the entire system of industrial education. That the organization of the trade extension courses follow the present plan which offers two nights per week for a definite number of weeks in any course of instruction in any specific trade subject, but not exceeding thirty weeks a year for any special unit, and that pupils should be given an opportunity to attend a second class in a related trade subject, with the consent of the director of industrial education. That the minimum number of pupils in all trade extension classes be fixed at ten, and that the maximum number in shop classes be twenty, and in classes in trade drawing, shop mathe- matics and trade science be twenty-four. That the advertising of evening trade extension classes be 470 Industrial Education Survey controlled from the office of the director of industrial education and that all such advertising should emphasize courses and oppor- tunities available for the worker rather than some special school for the purpose of accelerating the numbers in attendance therein. That sufficient clerical help be provided to take care of the routine work and records in order that the principals of evening trade schools may devote practically their whole time to visiting classes in their charge and that instructors may devote their whole time to instruction. That the Board of Education require the director of indus- trial education to formulate courses of instruction for the evening trade schools and in this connection to commend to his attention the material gathered in respect to the trades of printing, machine work, inside electrical work, and carpentry and joinery by this survey. The committee records its conviction that the short unit course of instruction in evening schools has its special value for adult workers in the trades who have not the habit or inclination to arttend school courses of any length and who would be drawn to the evening school only to obtain assistance for some direct and particular need which arises in their immediate practical experience. For such men and such needs, short unit courses of four to twelve weeks in length may be of service. For the young men between 16 and 21 years of age, who form the large bulk of evening trade extension students, It is far better in the judgment of the committee to offer courses of a year, two years and even three years in length, composed of matter that relates directly to trade needs, and in which instruction the later stages is differentiated to the fullest extent. It would be a great mistake in the judgment of the committee to emphasize solely to these young men in the developing period of life, whose success depends to a large extent upon their equipment gained through outside study, the idea of the short unit course and to give prominence only to a plan for brief phases of instruction. Voluntary Part-Time Industrial Classes. The committee recommends: That the instruction in voluntary part-time industrial classes should consist for the most part of subjects such as drawing, mathematics, and science related to the industrial needs of the occupations in which the workers are employed, and in part of subjects which will contribute to the employees social and civic development. That all part-time industrial classes wherever practicable should be organized as to trades and not as to time served in industry or educational qualifications or age of pupils. Because Recommendations of Survey Committee 471 of the inevitable variations in age and previous school experience, there should not be more than twenty students registered in a class at any one time. By limiting the number to this extent small group and individual instruction which is essential can be provided. Part-time industrial classes canuot always be conducted in commercial establishments, but must be provided for in part at least in school buildings or rooms otherwise secured for the purpose. That the policy of the Board of Education be to extend volun- tary part-time industrial classes wherever favorable opportuni- ties can be found. In the judgment of the committee the development of the part-time classes in the absence of compulsory legislative enactment must be a matter of slow growth in our individualistic communities. If this work is to he extended, steps should be first taken in industries representing large numbers of young workers and where there exists great need of trade extension instruction. The consent of some sympathetically disposed employer for the beginning of part-time classes with his employees should be secured. After such a beginning, efforts should be made through employers' associations and labor organizations to secure the consent of all employers in the trade or industry in which the work has been started to release their employees for such instruction during a portion of the working day. It is the judgment of the committee that the only competent solution of the problem of part-time vocational instruction appears to lie with the State Legislature,— that shall make compulsory the attendance in such classes of all male minors from 16 to 18 years of age who are legally em- ployed, and that shall at the same time compel employers, under appro- priate penalties, to grant opportunities to such minors to attend these classes during a portion of the working day. Co-operative Classes. The committee recommends: That the City continue to maintain co-operative industrial classes with certain modifications as noted below at least for a period of several years to come in order that the value of such work may be more definitely determined. The committee makes this recommendation with the full realization that not many high school students can be counted upon to enter manual occupations in the industries. The ideas of the homes from which come the large body of high school students are directed distinctly away from such occupations for their sons and daughters and it is evident that the contribution of the high school to the field of industry must be found in supplying young men with well-trained minds who are fitted after a further period of practical experience to attain to positions of at least subordinate leadership. Such positions have been termed the non- 472 Industrial Education Survey commissioned officers of industry and include draftsmen, inspectors, testers, designers, and in general all positions of tile supervising and foreman type. From this analysis, it is evident that the co-operative classes in the high schools cannot be expected to reach large numbers and the critical questions that ultimately must be faced is whether the return for such work justifies its expense to the city. On the other hand, the committee is convinced that the co-operative industrial course should not be regarded as a college preparatory course, but as a course which has for its predominant purpose to train the student for advantageous entrance into specific industry. That the industrial co-operative work should be organized as to trades and each trade should be centralized in one building or school. Such centralization of the work appears to be necessary to secure groups of sufficient size to allow the formation of classes of individuals with similar trade interests. That the division of time for the co-operative industrial classes remain as at present — half-time in shop and half-time in school. That co-operative industrial classes should not be organized unless there is a definite agreement with the employer specifying a program of shop experiences with the hours of labor and wages. This agreement should be signed by the school authori- ties, the parent representing the boy, and the employer. With- out such an agreement, it seems impossible to serve adequately the needs of the state, the boy and the employer. That co-oprative industrial classes be limited in so far as practicable to those industries in which at least thirty students are available for a closely related trade group that can be super- vised effectively by one co-ordinator. That the co-ordinator be selected on the basis of the require- ments of the particular trade for which the co-operative indus- trial class is to train. That is, the co-ordinator for a co-operative industrial class in machine shop work shoxild be a man with a thorough understanding of the machine trade. This same prin- ciple should be applied to the selection of all other co-ordinators. That each co-ordinator be at the same time the teacher of related drawing, mathematics, and science for a double platoon group in the school and the supervisor of the work of the students of this group in the commercial establishments. Such a plan would permit both the interests of economy and efficiency to be realized. That the character of the instruction in drawing, mathe- Recommendations of Survey Committee 473 matics and science be such as to secure the greatest possible degree of relation to the trade or occupation in which the student is employed. That in addition to the related work instruction be provided as far as practicable in those subjects which make for social and civic development. That inasmuch as the co-operative industrial classes have many aspects in common with the part-time industrial classes, both types be placed in charge of a common assistant director responsible to the director of industrial education. That the entrance requirements for the industrial co-operative classes be based upon age rather than the completion of the first year of the high school course, and boys should be allowed to enter such classes at the age of 16 years. Furtherance of Subvbt. For the comprehensive future development of a program of industrial education it is recommended that provision be made for the study of other important trades and industries, and for the further study, at appropriate intervals, of the trades included in this survey. It is the conviction of the committee that facilities should be placed at the disposal of the director of industrial edu- cation to conduct such studies. It is also recommended that the Board of Education appoint advisory committees for all trades at present represented in the day vocational or evening trade schools upon the same basis as those already recommended by this committee. The committee further recommends that the director of in- dustrial education, in co-operation with the trade advisory committees, make every effort to develop trade agreements with employers associations and labor organizations in regard to the following matters : 1. Credit on apprenticeship time for the graduates of pre- employment schools. 2. Compulsory attendance of apprentices or young workers in part-time and evening classes. 3. The development of dull-season classes.