> &^7 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME OF THE SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND GIVEN IN 1891 BY HENRY WILLIAMS SAGE Cornell University Library P 563.G47 Short manual of comparatlye philoloay fo 3 1924 026 455 174 Cornell University Library The original of tinis book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924026455174 SHOET MANUAL OF COMPAEATIVE PHILOLOGY SHORT MANUAL OF COMPAKATIYE PHILOLOGY FOR CLASSICAL STUDENTS BY P. GILES M.A. FELLOW AND LECTUKEB OF EMSIANUEL COLLEGE AND KEADEE IN COMPARATIVE PHILOLOQT IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE fj,ddos 5', &s jU^y vOp vytrjs, eipri^vos ^ittui Hon&on MACMILLAN AND CO. AND NEW YOEK 1895 [^All Rights reserved] CambttBgE : FEINTED B¥ J. AND i;. F. CLAY, AT THE UNIVEBSITT PEESS. PKEFACE. MORE than six years have passed since I undertook to write "A Short Manual of Comparative Phi- lology for Classical Students." Considerable progress had been made with the work and several sheets were already printed off when in 1890 and again in 1891 such large additions were made to my work as a teacher in the University that it was impossible for me to com- plete the book immediately. Hence the long delay between its first announcement and its appearance. The book is intended for the use of Classical students who, without being professed students of Comparative Philology, desire some acquaintance with its principles as applied to Latin and Greek. Accord- ingly Parts II and III are devoted to what is practically a comparative grammar of those languages. As the book is not intended for comparative philologists I have not adduced, except in a few instances, words from Sanskrit or other languages of which the reader was likely to know nothing. On the other hand it seemed worth while to cite, where possible, forms from English, or from other members of the group of lan- guages to which English belongs, when they have cog- nates in the classical languages. For the same reason VI PREFACE. — that it is better to proceed from the known to the unknown than vice versa — many of the illustrations m Part I are drawn from English. But though some account — necessarily incomplete — has been given of the different forms which the same word assumes in English and in the classical languages, no attempt has been made to treat English otherwise than as illustrative of Latin and Greek. I have endeavoured throughout to keep the needs of the learner before me. Hence, in not a few instances, the same point will be found discussed several times in different parts of the book, my design being to elucidate in this manner the different bearings of some important facts in the science. I have not aimed at originality, for it seemed to me that, in a subject of this nature, originality must frequently mean the propounding of hypotheses which the circumstances of the case or the limits of space would render it impossible to prove. Nothing is more objectionable in an elementary work on a comparatively new subject than to state dogmatically new theses, the truth or falsity of which the learner has no means of testing, while his belief in the results of the investigation as a whole may be rudely shaken by finding that what he has accepted as sound is pre- sently shown to be the contrary. On the other hand, even had it been advisable, it would have been im- possible, within the space at my disp(Dsal, to discuss all the various views of authorities on the many questions still unsettled with which the book deals. I have therefore put in the text what seemed to me after careful consideration to be the most plausible view in such cases, while in the footnotes I have given other views which seemed worthy of mention. Where no PREFACE. Vll existing explanation seemed to cover satisfactorily all the facts of the case, or where for other reasons no certain conclusion could be reached, I have indicated my doubts in the text or footnotes. The notes are intended neither to be a bibliography nor to give neces- .sarily the originator of the view which is mentioned, but only to indicate where a discussion of the subject in hand may be found. Advanced students will find a bibliography in Brugmann's Grundriss which, the Syn- tax excepted, has now been translated into English. Books or papers which have appeared since the comple- tion of Brugmann's Phonology and MorpJwlogy have been referred to more freely in the belief that the student would find such references useful. The first part of the book has been made as simple and as free of symbols as possible. In the other parts symbols were necessary and, in order not to confuse the learner, who, it may be hoped, will pass from this to larger works, I have employed those used by Professor Brugmann. His Grundriss is at present the standard book of reference and without a rival. It seemed better therefore to adopt his system of symbols though some- what complicated than to harass the serious student b}'- making him pass from one system to another. It was not without hesitation that I came to this conclusion. To the difference in terminology and symbols must be attributed, I think, the wide-spread belief in England that the New Philology represented by Brugmann and others is something different in its nature and results from the Old Philology that was taught by Curtius and Schleicher. There is no doubt a difference, but it is a difference not of character but of degree. The principles of the new school were recognised and enunci- Vlll PREFACE. ated by Curtius and Schleicher. The difference is that the older philologists applied these principles less rigidly than their successors. This difference in the application of the principles no doubt makes considerable differences here and there in the results. But there is no more reason to suppose the foundations of the science shaken on that account than there is to doubt the principles of Physical Science because the theory of the formation of dew which served as a model of scientific induction for many generations of hand-books on Logic has now given place to another. The Syntax of the Noun was already completed when Delbriick's large treatise (the continuation of Brugmann's Grundriss) appeared. My treatment of the subject was based, as any such treatment must neces- sarily be, on Delbriick's earlier books and papers, and I did not find it necessary to make any changes. Some of his new views are indicated in the footnotes, but, like several of his reviewers, I think that Delbriick's second thoughts, contrary to the proverb, are not always the wiser. For the extraordinarily difficult subject of the Com- parative Syntax of the Moods and Tenses there is, at present, no complete authoritative work in existence. I had therefore to do what I could avToStSaKTos, though for Greek and Sanskrit I had Delbruck's Siintdktische Foischungen to guide me. Here as elsewhere Latin is more difficult and has been less studied from the com- parative point of view than other languages. The syntactical examples I have borrowed freely from the ordinary grammars, chiefly however for Early Latin from Holtze's Si/iitnxis princorum scriptorum Latinorum and for Greek from Kriiger's excellent Griechische PREFACE. IX Sprachlehre. My arrangement is naturally different from theirs. The account of the Greek and Italic dialects and the specimens given will, it may be hoped, be useful to the beginner who has at present nothing of the kind accessible in English. References have been given to the authorities from whom the text is taken. For convenience the appendix is divided into sections like the rest of the book, the numbers running from 601 onwards. As regards my obligations to others, those which I owe to the books and lectures of my teacher Professor Brugmann are the greatest. Without the assistance of his great work Grundriss der verghichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen such a summary as the present would have hardly been possible. For the syntactical part Delbriick's treatises on Comparative Syntax have been equally useful. But I have read the literature of the subject for myself, so far as it was accessible to me, and have drawn my own conclusions. I have to thank many friends for their help in various parts of the work. Dr Peile, Master of Christ's College, my teacher and predecessor in the. same field, gave me advice at the beginning and read some parts in manuscript. Dr J. S. Reid of Gonville and Caius College, Mr Neil and Mr Whibley of Pembroke College read all the early part in the first proof. My friend and former tutor the Bev. E. S. Boberts gave me the advantage of his wide knowledge of the history of the Alphabet and of the Greek dialects. Above all I gratefully acknowledge the kindness of Dr Postgate of Trinity College, Professor Strachan of Owens College, Manchester, and Professor Streitberg of Fribourg, Switzer- PREFACE. land, who have undergone the drudgery of reading the whole book in the first proof and have greatly helped me in many ways. They have saved me from many mistakes, for those that remain I alone am responsible. In spite of the vigilance of so many eyes, to which in justice must be added those of the excellent reader of the Cambridge University Press, it was inevitable in a work of this kind that some misj)rints should escape notice. Those I have observed which are likely to cause confusion I have noted below (p. xxxviii) along with some important matters that have appeared since the parts of the book to which they relate have been printed off. P. G. Cambridge, April 15, 1895. NOTE. The numbering of Acts, Scenes and lines in references to Plautus are those of the Tauchnitz edition— the only complete text likely to be in the hands of yomig students. The passages quoted have been collated, however, with the most recent texts. The numbers in brackets refer to the plays edited by Fleckeisen in the Teubuer series or to the first ty^o fasciculi of Goetz and Sohoell's new text. The references to the Greek tragic poets are according to the numberincr of the lines in Dindorf's Poetae Scenici. ° TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAOE Table of Abbreviations xxxiii Addenda et Corrigenda ... .... xxxvlii PAET I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. CHAPTER I. Wliat is Philology ? SECTION 1 — 2. Inexactness of the name ....... 3 3. Other names suggested .4 4. Scope of Philology in this sense .5 5. Methods of studying Philology . . ,, CHAPTER II. What is an Indo-Germanic language ? 6 — 7. Indo-Germanic, Aryan, Indo-European, Indo-Keltic . 6 8. All Idg. languages descended from one original 9 — 10. Distinctions between languages Effects on English of borrowing .... 9 11. Effects on Armenian and Albanian of borrowing . . 11 12. Criteria of Idg. languages . ... 13. Importance of pronouns and numerals as criteria . 12 14. Identity of words having different sounds in diiierent languages .13 15. Classification of the Idg. languages . . . . 14 16. Original home of the Indo-Germans . . 18 17. Civilisation of the primitive Indo-Germans, ... 19 18. Connexion between different Idg. languages . . ,, 19. „ ,, Italic and Keltic dialects ... 21 Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS. chapter' III. Holo do Indo-Germanic languages differ from other languages ? SECTION PAGE 20. Latin equos and its cognates in other Idg. languages . 22 21. Latin xnduos ,, „ ,, ,, 22. Nominative suffix, stem-suffix, root . 23. Division of equos and viduos as above 24. Definition of a root. How words come to be roots 2.5. Latin mens and its cognates in other Idg. languages 26. Component parts of men^. Its related verb forms 27. Latin dos and do and their cognates . 28. Noun suffixes and Verb suffixes. Adaptation theory 29. Case suffixes and their uses .... 30. Loss of inflexions in English .... 31 — 2. Vowel-gradation in roots and suffixes 33. Distinction between Idg. and Isolating languages 34. ' ,, „ Agglutinative ,, 35. ,, ,, Semitic ,, 36. Are all these famiUes sprung from one original ? 23 24 27 28 29 30 31 33 36 37 CHAPTER IV. The Principles of modern Philology. 37 — 8. Prescientiflc attempts at etymology . . 38 39. Scientific study of language . . .39 Bopp, Eask, J. and W. Grimm 40. Pott, Curtius, Schleicher, MiiUer etc. . . .40 41. Ascoli's theory of two fc-sounds etc 42 42. Brugmann's theory of nasals. Vowels . . Verner's accent theory . . 40 43—4. Principles of modern philology and their authors . 44 45. Is Philology a science ? ^y 46. How Philology differs from the natural sciences ' g 47. Analogy ... . . • . . 49 48. Logical analogy 49. Proportional „ V, TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xlll SECTION 60 — 3. Formal analogy 64. Combination of logical and formal analogy 66. Analogy in gender 56 — 7. „ syntax 58. Semasiology 59 — 63. Borrowing of words . 64. Dialect and language 66. Continuous action of natural laws PAGE 51 CHAPTER V. Phonetics. bh 66. Definition of language .... 67. Physiology of language. Breath and voice 68. Mute consonants or stops 69. Spirants 70. Three classes of dental spirants 71. Greeli spiritus asper . 72. Breathed and voiced consonants 73. Aspirates : qh, sh ; kh, gh ; th, dh ; ph 74. Affricates : pf, U, kx ... 75. Change of Aspirates through affricates to spirants 76. Nasals : m, n, ng. How they differ from spirants and stops 77. Liquids : r, I and their different forms 78. Vowels 79. Classification of vowels : back, front ; high, mid, low close, open ; rounded, unrounded 80. Examples of vowels . 81. Syllabic and non-syllabic sounds Sonantnasals and liquids 82. Long and short sounds 83. Division of syllables. Diphthongs 84. Glides. On-glide and off-glide 85. Vowels with and without initial glide. 86. Final glide 87. Consonants with and without glides Table of the more important sounds. Spiritus lenis TABLE OF CONTENTS. SECTION 90, 91 92, 93 94 95, 96 97 CHAPTER VI. Accent. Accent used in two senses Stress-accent Pitch-accent Languages with pitch-accent Effects of pitch-accent , , stress-accent Accent of Idg. language Three degrees of pitch- and stress-accent Accent-points ... Kinds of pitch-accents Unaccented words PAGE 79 80 81 82 CHAPTER YII. Differences (1) between English and the Classical languages and (2) hetiveen English and other Oermanic languages. 99. Diiierences between the Germ, and other Idg. languages 100. Grimm's Law ...... 101. Idg. breathed aspirates in Germanic 102. Grassmann's Law ....... 103. Consonant combinations not affected by Grimm's Law 104. Veruer's Law ....... 105. Boots with bye-forms 106. Germanic changes of Idg. sonants 107. Change of Idg. accent in Germanic 108 — 9. Assimilation ; final sounds 110. English spelling ... 111. Value of early forms in philology 112. High German consonant change 83 84 85 87 n 88 89 TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV PART II. SOUNDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS. CHAPTER VIII. Indo-Germanic sounds. SECTION PAGE 113. Idg. consonants 95 114. Idg. sonants 96 115. Idg. diphthongs . ...... CHAPTER IX. Attic Greek alphabet and pronimciation. 116. Attic alphabet ... 97 117. Attic pronunciation. Btops 118. Pronunciation of f . 119. „ P • • 120. „ Greek nasals 121. Pronunciation of vowels . 122. Proper and improper diphthongs. Pronunciation of «, 1 History of at, et, 01, vi, 1^, rj, qi 100 CHAPTER X. Latin alphabet and pronunciation. 123. Alphabet 101 124. Pronunciation. Stops 102 125. Spirants : /, h, s, v, i (j) 103 126. Liquids „ 127. Nasals 104 128. Vowels 129. Diphthongs . . 105 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER XI. History of the original Indo-Ger manic sounds in Greek and Latin. SECTION PAGE 130. History of ^. English/ sometimes = Idg. k and t . 106 131. ,j h JJ 132. J, hli . 107 133. )j t. Idg. ti in Greek. Latin tl )» 134. J, d. Latin I sometimes = Idg. d . 108 135. ,, dh. In Latin = 6andd, butnot =/ medially )) 136. )i %. Two kinds of gutturals and their repre sentatiou ... ... . 109 137. >> 9 ■ ■ ... . 110 138. ,, gh. Latin peculiarities .... 111 189. " q. Idg. languages form two groups in treat ment of velars, q with and without labialisation Analogy . . . . . 112 140. ,, e, with and without labialisation 115 141. ,, Sh, with and without labiaUsation . 117 142. ,, 0. Gk. spiritas asper. Latin r = s . 118 143. ,, £..... . . 120 144. ,, 3> 145. Number of original liquids uncertain 121 146. History oil . ... 122 147. ,, )■ ...... . J» 148. ,, m 123 149. )> n . . . 150. ,, n and 79 . . , 124 151. Liquids as sonants . • , , . 152. History of 1 and n . . . . 153. )) r and p- . . . . _ 125 154. Long sonant liquids .... . , . 155. Nasals as sonants 126 156. History of 111 and mm . . 157. ,j n and iin 158. Long sonant nasals . . . . . 127 159. History of Vowels : a. Latin changes 128 TABLE OF CONTENTS. SECTION PAGE 160. History of Vowels : a . 129 161. e. Latin changes 162. ,, e . 130 163. ,, , d. Latin changes . 131 164. n < . 132 165. ,, , ^. Latin changes 166. ,, ) ^ 133 167. „ , 11. Latin changes „ 168. ,, , H 134 169. ,, > 9 tJ 170. Varying treatment of ' and u according to position 135 171. J and u preceding a sonant in the same syllable ,j 172. „ medially between vowels 136 173. ,, following a sonant in the same syllable 137 174. History of ai. Latin changes .... „ 175. .. «? 176. .. 0} , 138 177. „ au 139 178. «« ,, 179. ow 140 180. Changes in Latin owing to u 141 181. Diphthongs w ith long sonant . CHAPTER XII. On some Combinations of Consonants. 182. Cause of assimilation 142 183. Chronology. Different laws prevail at different times . 143 184. Formal analogy. Loss of consonants in combination. Logical analogy 144 185. Influence of suffix on final sound of root .... 145 186. New suffix formed of last sound of root + old suffix . 146 187. Double consonants. Their simplification . . . . „ 188. Groups of three or more consonants. Influence of s in simplifying groups 147 189. Initial combinations with s followed by stop simplified in Latin 148 G. P. b 149 154 155 156 157 158 XVIU TABLE OF CONTENTS. SECTION 190. Varying changes according as a consonant is followed by one or more consonants 191. Combinations of two consonants ... • u 192. „ two stops . 150 193. ,, stop + spirant, of stop + nasal 151 194. Latin -in- and -*i-. Origin of gerund . ,. 195. Latin -An- . . 152 196. Combinations of stop -1- liquid . . 153 197. ,, stop + t . • ,, 198. ,, stop + u- Grk- initial tu-, Latin ku- 199. Combinations where the first element is a spirant 200. si in Greek 201. su in Greek and Latin 202. Loss of s before nasals and liquids 203. sr in Greek and Latin initially . 204. ,, „ medially 205. Combinations where the first element is a nasal or hquid 206. 7nr in Greek and Latin 207. Nasals and liquids followed by -i- in Greek . 159 208. Combinations of H with j . ,, Tables of consonant combinations 160 — 5 CHAPTER XIII. On some other Sound Changes. 209. Contraction of vowels in Idg. period ; in suffixes of dat. sing., gen. pi., loc. sing.; contraction with augment. 166 210. Contractions in Greek and Latin . . .167 211. ,, by loss oft . . . . ,, 212. ,, „ u . . 168 218. ,, ,, -s- in Greek . . . ,, 214. ,, ,, -'i- in Latin . . . . „ Table of the chief vowel contractions. 215. Anaptyxis : in Latin -do-; in foreign words in Latin . 169 216. „ in Greek ,, 217. Compensatory lengthening of vowels . . 170 218—220. ,, ,, „ in Greek . 221—226. „ „ >, in Latin . 171 TABLE OF CONTENTS. xix PAGE Shortening of vowels ....... 172 Loss of a syllable. Syncope only in Latin. Loss of one of two similar syllables I73 229. Prothesis : only in Greek I74 230—3. Prothesis of a, ., 0, 234. Causes of prothesis 235. Phonetics of the sentence. Differences between spoken and written language I75 236. Consequences of the fusion of words in the sentence . 176 287 — 8. Words wrongly divided 239. wtpekito and dcjielXu ....... 177 240. Wrongly divided words in English ... . I78 241. Loss of final consonants ; assimilation ; i> i> 421—2. Thirty to ninety .... 347 423. Hundred 348 424. The hundreds .... „ 425. Thousand „ 426. Ordinal formed from cardinal numbers 349 427—485. First to tenth J, 436. Twentieth to hundredth 351 437. Ordinals beyond hundredth . It 438. 439. 440—2. 443. 444. THE VERB. CHAPTER XXIV. Verb Morphology. History of the Verb 352 Original Idg. Verb forms 353 History of original forms in Gk., Lat., and Germanic ,, Tendency to analysis in modern languages . . . 355 Characteristics of the Verb XXVI TABLE OF CONTENTS. SECTION 445. Augment .....••■ 446. Eeduplication. Difference between Greek and Latin 447. The voices of the Verb 448. Greek Passive 449. Latin ,, , originally only in 3rd person . 450. Personal endings of Active and Middle . 451. Scheme of personal endings .... 452. Difficulties in reconstructing original endings 453 — 461. Primary endings of Active voice . 462—464. Secondary ,,,,,, ,, 463—472. Primary ,, ,, Middle „ . 473—476. Secondary „ „ „ 477. Perfect „ .... PAGE 35.5 356 358 360 361 364 365 367 368 CHAPTER XXV. The Present Formations. 478. Present suffixes identical with those of Future and Aorist 369 479. Classification of present formations .... 370 480. I. Person suffixes added to root with or without thematic vowel ........ 371 (a) roots without them. v. and without reduplication ib., (6) roots in strong or weak form + them. v. p. 378, (c) roots redupli- cated but without them. v. ib., (d) roots reduplicated and with them. v. ib., (e) roots with reduplication in -e- p. 374, (/) roots with intensive reduplication ib., (g) roots with them. v. in weak form ib. 481. II. Boots with a formative suffix in -n- preceding the person suffix . . {a) -no- -n9- -n- ib., (b) -ne- -no- p. 375, (c) Greek -avo- (i) without, (ii) with nasal in root p. 376, (d) ' infixed ' nasal p. 377, (c) -nm- -nil-, -nu- -nu- p. 378, (/) -netfo- -nuo- p. 379. 482. III. Verb stems in -s-. Parallelism between noun and verb. Non-thematic and thematic forms . 483. IV. Verb stems in -sko- (a) without, (h) with redupli- cation 484. V. Verb stems in -to- (-t-) 374 379 381 382 TABLE OF CONTENTS. SECTION 485. 486. 487. 488. 489. 490. VI. Verb stems in -dh- and -d- . Other possible consonant suffixes VII. Verb stems in -to-. Suffix mainly secondary (a) -h- appended to (i) strong, (ii) weak form of root, (iii) long vowel p. 384, (6) root with intensive reduplication i (c) 'io- secondary ib., denominatives p. 385. Causatives and intensives in -gio- .... Greek desiderative verbs ..... Latin frequentative „ PAGE 383 386 388 CHAPTER XXVI. The Future. 491. Original future in -sio- doubtful 492. Greek future forms .... 493. Latin futures of three types . 389 390 CHAPTER XXVII. The Perfect. 494. Distinctive characteristics of the perfect 495. Greek perfects in -ica . 496. ,, aspirated perfects 497. Latin perfect ; confused with -s- aorist . 498. „ perfects in -ti? and -ui . ■in 392 393 394 CHAPTER XXVIII. Fast Formations. 499. Aorist, imperfect, pluperfect . 500. Strong aorist and imperfect identical. Gk. 2 Aor. Pass, 501. Latin imperfects in -6am 502. The -s- aorists .... 503. Thematic -s- aorists 504. Aorists in -es- and -9S- . 505. Pluperfect a late development 506. Greek pluperfect .... 507. Latin ,, .... 394 395 396 397 398 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXIX. The Moods. SECTION 508. Subjunctive and optative 509. Thematic subj. from non-thematic indie. 510. Subj. of thematic stems . 511. Analogy in forms of subj. 512. Optative suffix of two types . 513. Optative of -s- aorist 514. „ „ thematic stems 515. Latin imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives 516 — 523. Imperative PAGE 398 399 401 402 403 617 bare stem p. 404, 518 stem + dhi ib., 519 stem + tod p. 405, 520 Injunctive as Imper, ib., 521 later developments p. 406, 622 Imper. of Gk. Middle ib., 623 Latin Imper. Passive. CHAPTER XXX. Verbal Wouns. 525. Infinitives are noun cases. different cases 526. Greek dative Infinitives 527. ,, locative ,, 528. Latin Infinitives Active . 529. Latin Supines 530. ,, Infinitives Passive 531. ,, Gerund 532. Participles 533. ,, In -nt- . 534. Perfect participle active 535. Participles in -meno-, -mono- 536. ,, ,, -to-, -teuo-. 537. Latin participle in -turo- 538. „ gerundive participle Different languages affect 407 408 409 410 411 > J 412 TABLE OF CONTENTS. SECTION 539. 540—2. 540. 541. 542. 543—4. 545—555. 545. 546. 547. 648. 549. 550. 551. 552. 553. 554. 555. 556—567. 556. 557. 558. 559. 560. 561. 562. 563. 564. 565. CHAPTER XXXI. Uses of the Verb Forms. DifBculties of verb syntax Uses of the Voices Different methods of forming Passive . Transitive and intransitive meanings of Active The Middle Voice Verb-types. Durative and perfective verbs . Uses of the Tenses. ..... Durative and momentary forms in Greek Tenses a later development .... Present may express (i) action, (ii) process, (iii) (iv) present with adverb of time = past Imperfect ; narrative tense ; relation to aorist ; values Perfect ; an intensive present ; expresses a state Greek pluperfect .... Latin ,, .... Aorist ; (i) perfective, (ii) inceptive, (iii immediate past .... (v) of future .... Latin Passive aorist perfect . Future ...... Future perfect .... Uses of the Moods .... Different views regarding original meaning of subj, opt Chief difBculties of the guestion Subjunctive has three values Subjunctive of will ,, ,, interrogation . ,, ,, future (potential) Optative has three values Optative of wish .... „ ,, interrogation ,, „ future (potential) . present, state three iv) of . and XXX ■ TABLE OF CONTENTS. SECTION PAGE 566. Greek optative with and without ac . . . ■ . 443 567. Greelf indicative forms in unfulfilled wishes . 568 — 570. Latin subjunctive ■ 444 568. Latin imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive new forms 569. History of Lat. present and aorist perfect subj. 570. ,, „ „ imperfect and pluperfect „ . 445 APPENDIX. A. The Greek and Latin Alphabets. 601. Origin of Greek alphabet . . . . 447 602. Adaptation of Phoenician alphabet .... 448 603. Development of new Greek symbols . . . 449 604. Eastern and Western Greek alphabets . . 450 605. Origin of Latin and other Italic alphabets . 451 606. Alphabets of Central Italy fall into two groups . 452 607. Confusion of breathed and voiced stops . . ■ ,, 608. Oscan, XJmbrian, Faliscan alphabets. Etruscan influence ... 453 609. Adaptation of superfluous Greek symbols for numerals. B. The Geeek Di.a.lects. 610. Physical features of Greece encourage development of dialects ..... _ 455 611. Linguistic without racial changes . . . ^gg 612. The Dorian invasion ... 613. Three stocks : Achaean, Dorian, Attic-Ionic . . _ 457 614 — 6. Sources of our knowledge of dialects. Causes of corruption ... . _ ^gg 617 — 8. Arcadian with specimen . . . ^rq 619—620. Cyprian „ „ . ... ^gg TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXXI SECTION PAHE 621. Aeolio : comprehends three dialects 622. Sources for Aeolio ....... Fick's Homeric Aeolio 623. Thessalian with specimen 624. Lesbian and Aeolic of Asia Minor with specimens . 625. Boeotian with specimens ..... 626. Common characteristics of the three dialects . 627 — 631. Dialects of North-west Greece in three groups 628. Common characteristics of all three groups . 629. Loorian with specimen ...... 630. Phoolan including Delphian with specimen . 631. Aetolian etc., with specimen 632. Dialects of Achaea and Elis 633. Elean with specimens ...... 634. Doric ; where spoken ; sources .... 635. Common characteristics of all Doric dialects . 636. dialectus severior, dial, initis ..... 687. Laoonian with specimens ..... 638. Heraclean with specimen ..... 639. Messenian ........ 640. Dialect of Argolis and Aegina with specimen 641. „ „ Megara, Selinus, Byzantium, with specimen 642. „ ,, bucolic poets 643. ,, ,, Corinth, Corcyra, Syracuse, with specimens 644 — 5. ,, ,, Crete-(Gortyn) with specimen 646. ,, „ Melos, Thera, Gyrene, with specimens . 647. ,, ,, Bhodes, Gela, Agrigentum, with specimens 648. „ ,, Doric and Ionic contraction 649 — 656. Ionic with specimens 650. Ionic of Homer .... 651. ,, ,, lyric and elegiac poets 652. Divisions of Ionic .... 653. Common characteristics of all divisions 654. Characteristic differences of divisions 655. Ko- KTj- not found on inscriptions . 656. Eelations of Ionic and Attic Greek XXXll TABLE OF CONTENTS. The Italic Dialects. SECTION PAGE 657. Classification of dialects . 498 658. Oscan records 499 659. Umbrian „ . . . 500 660—1. Differences between Oscan and Umbrian jj 662—5. „ ,, these dialects Faliscan ... and Latin and 501 663. Differences in plionology )> 664. ,, „ inflexion of noun 502 665. 11 .1 !) .. verb 503 Specimens of Oscan . 504- -507 „ „ Umbrian 507- -508 INDICES. Index of Greek „ Italic „ Germanic „ subjects words 509 525 587 543 ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THE NAMES OF AUTHORS, ETC. REFERRED TO. A. J. P. =Amerioan Journal of Philology (in 16th volume). Arohiv [fur lateinisehen Lexicographie und Grammatik] (in 9th vol.). B. B.=Beitrage zur kunde der indogermanischen sprachen, herausgege- ben von Dr Ad. Bezzenberger und Dr W. Prellwitz (in 21st vol.). Bartholomae, Studien [zur indogermanischen Spraohgesohiohte]. 1890, 1891. Baunaok, Johannes und Theodor, Ins[ohrift] v[on] Gortyn. 1885. ,, ,, ,, Studien [auf dem Gebiete des grie- chisoheu und der arischen Sprachen]. 1886. Beohtel, Fritz, Hauptprobleme [der indogermanischen Lautlehre seit Scleicher]. 1892. Bechtel, I. I., = Insohriften des ionisehen dialekts. 1887. (In Ahhand- lungen der historisch-philologisohen Classe der koniglichen Gesell- schaft der Wissensohaften zu Gottingen : 34ter Band. ) Berichte d[er] k[onigliehen] s[achsischen] G[eseUsohaft] d[er] W[issen- schaften]. Blass' = Ueber die Aussprache des grieohischen von F. Blass (3rd edition). Bronisoh, G., Die oskischen i nnd e Vocale. 1892. Brugmann, K., Or. or GntjKJr. = Grundriss der vergleichenden Gram- matik der indogermanischen Sprachen von K. B. und B. Delbriick. 1886—. • (Brugmann's part, comprehending Phonology and Morphology, has been translated into English in four volumes; of Delbriick' s part, the Syntax of the Noun is all that is yet published.) Brugmann, K., Gr. G;-. = Griechisohe Grammatik, 2nd ed., 1889. (In Iwan Muller's Handbuoh der klassischen Altertums-Wisseuschaft, vol. 2.) G. P. C XXXIV ABBREVIATIONS. Buck, C. D., Vocalismus [der oskischen Sprache]. 1892. Bull[etin de la] Soo[iet6] Lmg[uistique]. 1869 — . C. I. G.= Corpus Inseriptionum Graeoarum. C. I. L. = Corpus lusoriptionum Latinarum. 0. B. or Class. Rev. = Classical Review (in 9th vol.). Cauer2=Deleotus inseriptionum Graeoarum propter dialeotum memora- bilium, iterum eomposuit P. Cauer. 1883. Caw. = Fouilles d'fepidaure par P. Cavvadias. Vol. i. 1893. Curtius, G., Greek Verb (English translation by Wilkins and England). 1880. Curtius, G., Studien [zur grieohisehen und lateiniscben Grammatik]. 10 vols. ; the last appeared in 1878. D. I. = Sammlung der grieehischen Dialekt-Inschriften, herausgegeben von Dr H. CoUitz und Dr F. Bechtel, 1885— (stiU unpublished). Delbrliok, B., A. L. I. = Ablativ Localis Instrumentalis. 1867. „ „ S. F. = SyntaktischePorsohungen. 5 vols. 1871-88. ,, ,, Syntax (in Brugmann and D.'s Gj-uniZms ; see Brugmann). Dittenberger, Guil., Sylloge inseriptionum Graecarum. 1883. Draeger, A., Hist[orisehe] Synt[ax der lateinischen Sprache]. 2 vols. 2nded. 1878. Fleckeisen's [Neue] Jahrbiicher [fur Philologie und Paedagogik]. In 152nd vol. Goodwin, W. W., [Syntax of the Greek] Moods and Tenses. New ed, 1889. Hermes, herausgegeben von G. Kaibel und C. Robert. In 30th vol. Hoffmann [0., Die grieehischen Dialekte in ihrem historisohen Zusam- menhange mit den wiohtigsten ihrer Quellen]. 1891 — . 2 vols. published. Hiibsohmann [H., Zur] Casuslehre. 1875. 1. F. = Indogermauisehe Forschungen: Zeitschrift ftir indogermanische Sprach- und Altertumskunde herausgegeben von K. Brugmann und W. Streitberg. (In 5th vol.) Insoriptiones Graeciae Septentrionalis i. ed. Dittenberger. 1892. ,, Graecae SiciUae et Italiae, ed. Kaibel. 1890. K. Z. = Zeitschrift fur vergleicheude Sprachforschung begriindet von A. Kuhn; herausgegeben von E. Kuhn und J.Schmidt. (In 33rd vol.) Kluge, F., D[eut3ohes] e[tymologisohes] W[6rterbuch]. (Now in 5th ed. The edition referred to is the 4th.) ABBREVIATIONS. XXXV Kriigei-, Dialekt. = Part ii. of K. W. Kriiger's Grieohische Sprachlehre. 5th ed. 1879. Kursohat, Lit. Gramm. = Grammatik der littauischen Sprache von Dr P. Kursohat. 1876. Lindsay, W. M., The Latin Language. 1894. M. U. = Morphologisohe Untersuohungen auf dem Gebeite der indoger- manisohen Spraohen von Dr H. Oethoff und Dr K. Brugmann. (5 vols.; complete.) Meisterhans2 = Grammatik der attisohen Insohriften von Dr K. Meister- hans. 2nd ed. 1888. Meringer, R., Beitrage [zur Gesohichte der indogermanischen Declina- tion]. 1891. Meyer, G., Gr. Gr. = Griechische Grammatik. 2nd ed. 1886. Meyer, L., Verg. Gramm. = Vergleichende Grammatik der griechischen und lateinischen Sprache von Leo Meyer. 2 vols. 1st vol. in 2nd ed. 1882-4. Monro, D. B., H. G.2=A Grammar of the Homeric Dialect. 2nd ed. 1891. Osthoff, 0., Psychologisches Moment = Das physiologische und psycholo- gisohe Moment in der spraohliohen Formenbildung. (Sammlung gemeinveratandlicher wissensehaftlioher Vortrage herausgegeben von R. Virchow und Fr. v. Holtzendorft. Heft 327.) P. u. B. Beitrage = Beitrage zur Gesohichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur, herausgegeben von H. Paul und W. Braune. (In 20th vol.) Paul's Grundriss = Grundriss der germanischen Philologie, herausgege- ben von H. Paul. I. Band. 1891. Persson, P., Wurzelerweiterung=Studien zur Lehre von der Wurzeler- weiterung und Wurzelvariation. 1891. von Planta, E., Grammatik der oskisoh-umbrischen Dialekte I. Band. 1892. Prellwitz, W., Etymologisches Worterbuch der griechischen Sprache. 1892. Bheinisches Museum [fiir Philologie], herausgegeben v. 0. Eibbeck und F. Biicheler. (In 50th vol.) Roby, H. J., Latin Grammar=A Grammar of the Latin Language from Plautus to Suetonius. 2 vols. 5th ed. 1887. Schmidt, J., Pluralbildungen [der indogermanischen Neutra]. 1889. Schweizer-Sidler, H., und Surber, A., Grammatik der lateinischen Sprache. Erster Teil. 1888. XXXVl ABBREVIATIONS. Seelmann=Die Aussprache des Latein von E. S. 1885. Sievers, E., G. d. G. P. = Phonetik in Paul's Grundriss, vol. i. ,, G. d. P. = Grundziige der Phonetik. (3rd ed. 1885. A 4th ed. has now appeared.) Skeat, W. W., Etym. Diet. = Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. 2nd ed. 1884. Skeat, W. W., Principles of English Etymology. First Series. The Native Element. 1887. Now in 2nd ed. Skutsch, ¥., Porschungen [zur lateinischen Grammatik und Metrik]. I. Band. 1892. Stolz- or Stolz, Lat. Gr. = Lateiuisehe Grammatik (Laut- und Formen- lehre) von Fr. S. 2nd ed. (In Iwan Miiller's Handbuch der klassisohen Altertums-Wissenschaft.) Sweet, H., Handbook [of Phonetics]. 1876. ,, „ H. of E. S. = History of English Sounds. (2nd ed. 1888.) Techmer's Zeitsebrift = Internationale Zeitschrift fiir allgemeine Spraeh- wissenschaft begrlindet und herausgegeben von P. Techmer. 1884 — . (5 vols., discontinued.) Torp, Den Grseske Nominalflexion sammenliguende fremstillet i sine Hovedtrajk af Dr Alf Torp. 1890. U. D. = Die unteritalischen Dialekte von Theodor Mommsen. 1850. Umbrica, interpretatus est F. Buecheler. 1883. Wharton, E. E., Some Greek Etymologies = Transactions of the Philo- logical Society, 1891-4, p. 329 ft. Whitney, W. D., Skt. Gr. = Sanskrit Grammar, by W. D. W. 2nd ed. 1889. Zvetaieff = Inscriptiones Italiae inferioris dialecticae; composuit loh. Z. 1886. ABBREVIATIONS. XXXVll SOME OTHEB COMMON ABBEEVIATIONS. Eng. = English. Indo-G.] 1 0. E. = Old English. or ^ = Indo-Germ! M.E. = Middle English. Idg. ! \ Goth. = Gothic. Lat. = Latin. Gk. = Greek. Lith. = Lithuanian. jle. = Icelandic. Osc. = Oscan. IN. = Norse. Skt. = Sanskrit. U. = Umbrian. An asterisk prefixed to a form indicates that the form is not actually found, but must he presupposed to account for existing forms : thus Greek ftards, Lat. visus presuppose a form " uidtd-s, from which both are descended. ADDENDA ET COEEIGENDA. p. 22 ff. The subject treated of in this chapter is dealt with very fully by F. Misteli in his GharakterisHk der hauptsachliclisten Typen des Sprachhaues 1893. p. 25. Brae is given by Murray {N. E. D. s.v.) as a special form of hrow. p. 52 § 50. Fee=pecu is obsolete, as has been shown by Mr Bradley (see N. E. D.): Modern usages come from Low Latin /eodiim. p. 75 § 81. The whole theory of sonant nasals and liquids has been again called in question recently by several eminent authorities — in a pamphlet by Fennell in 1891, by Bechtel in his Hauptprohleme in 1892, and by Johannes Schmidt in a paper read at the Oriental Congress of 1894. p. 85 § 104. For Gothic jiiggs read yuggs. p. 86 § 104. For *pa-toirTp6v read pdirrpov. p. 338 § 401 1. 1. After -o-wo- add ()j.vriij.buvvoi etc.). p. 339 note 2. For *a7-aos read *a7-aos. p. 342 § 405. Here add stems in -ou found e.g. in the numeral '''dud(u) § 408. p. 842 § 406. Before the Babylonians insert the sexagesimal system of. p. 375 note 1. J. Schmidt has shown (Festgruss an R. Roth p. 184) that in Skt. two classes of verbs have been confused viz. (1) verbs in -nd-, -nd-\ (2) verbs in -)ia(i)-, -nl-. A stem of the second class is to be found in the Umbrian persuimu (§ 665. 6 a). p. 392 note 1. Johansson {Beitrage zur griecMschen Sprachliunde p. 91 ff.) assumes a root-determinative -nf ?ri- introduction to Europe by English scholars ginai language, j-j^^ g-^, ^jniam Jones, Colebrooke and others, the conception was gained of a family of lan- guages not derived from one another but all returning like gradually converging lines to one centre point, to one mother language — the original Indo-Germanic. From that felicitous conception the whole of the modern science of Language may be said to have sprung. The similarity of Sanskrit to the classical languages and its wide geographical separation from them made scholars see that old notions such as that Latin was derived from a dialect of Greek must be given up. Men now realised clearly that the relation between Greek and Latin was not that of mother and daughter but of sisters. This led to eager investigation for the purpose of determining what other languages belonged to the same family. In some cases the investigation has been far from easy, lan- guages having occasionally lost the distinguishing charac- teristics which would clearly mark them out as members of the family. In some cases too it has been found very hard to decide whether an individual dialect was to be treated merely as a local variety of another dialect or whether it deserved to be classed as a separate language. 9. The distinguishing marks which would be looked How languages for are Very different in these two cases. In gutshedtromone Separating two languages the difficulty is on°*Engiih"'of often Occasioned by the mixture of words 1?mn'Vthe7Zf. borrowed from a neighbouring or a con- guages. quering nation and becoming at last so large a part of the vocabulary as to obscure the original cha- racter of the language. Thus in the English languao-e a — § 9] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 9 very large number of words in ordinary use are not of Germanic origin. A very large part of any English dic- tionary is taken up by words of Latin or Greek derivation which have been imported into English at different times and for different reasons. Some were borrowed in Anglo- Saxon times; these were more especially words con- nected with Christianity and the Christian Church, as bishop, priest and many others; a very large number were introduced because the country came for a time under the political control of the Normans. The words introduced at this time have not come directly from Latin but indirectly through the medium of the French. The influence here was much greater than in the previous case. The Anglo-Saxons borrowed words to express ideas which were new to them. Listead of translating eirta-Ko-n-os as they might have done by 'over- seer,' they preferred in this special and technical use to keep the foreign term for the office. These new words once introduced became part and parcel of the language and changed with its changes, hence the Greek eTrto-KOTros is metamorphosed in time into the modern English bishop. But the importations from Norman French affected the most ordinary things of common life, and hence it is that we use good Germanic words for common animals as cow, steer, sheep, swine, while for the flesh of these animals we employ words of French, i.e. Latin origin, beef, mutton, pork. A third period of importation was after the Renaissance when men in their enthusiasm for the new learning thought to improve their Saxon tongue by engrafting multitudes of classical words upon it. Hence we sometimes have (1) the same word appear- ing under two different forms, one being borrowed earlier than the other, as in the case of priest and presbyter, both 10 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 9 — through Latin presbyter from ■rrpea-ISvTepo';, or (2) besides difference in the time of borrowing one of the forms comes through another language, as blame and blaspheme. Both <5f these go back to /3Xa(rr]ix('iv through Latin blaspihe- mare, but the former has also passed through France on its way from Latium to England. The same is true of double forms like surface and superficies, frail and fra- gile, and a great many more'. In the later period when the literary sense had been awakened to the origin of many of these words, old importations were furbished up to look like new by giving them a more classical spelling than they had previously had. This has happened in the case of words like fault and doubt, earlier faut and doute. 10. But though so many words have been borrowed by English no one doubts that it is a Germanic lang-uage, for (1) such inflections as are still left to it are essentially Germanic and (2) though the majoritj^ of the words in our dictionaries are Latin and Greek, a very large number of them are not in everyday use, and in ordinary conver- sation words of Latin and Greek origin are in a ininority. It has been said that the common rustic uses as a rule scarcely more than 300 words ; and with a few exceptions, such as use, fact and some others, these 300 words are all 1 if Germanic origin. The statement however is not true ; the vocabulary of the rustic about ordinary things may be small, but he has a very large supply of technical terms ^ Owing to the difficulty which exists in English of forming new compound words we still fall back upon the classical languages for new terms for scientitio discoveries, in most cases without much regard to the proper rules for the formation of such compounds. From the classical standpoint, words like telegram, telephone, photograph, are absolute barbarisms. — § 12] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 11 — mostly too of Germanic origin — for his ordinary work. Of these a great number is always purely local and would be quite unintelligible to the ordinary English- man. The most common borrowed words are naturally substantives — names of wares, implements etc., and occasionally the verbs which express their function. But use a,nd fact do not come under this class, nor does take, a verb which has been borrowed from the Danish invaders of the Anglo-Saxon period and which has com- pletely ejected the Middle English words fangen (Old English ytim), and nimen (0. E. niman) from the literary language, though 'stow'n fangs,' i.e. 'stolen goods,' is a phrase still known in Scotland, and Byrom's poem of the Nimmers shows that 'let's nim a horse' was still intelligible in some dialect last century and may be even now. 11. But in some languages the history of borrow- ing and the relations of the neighbouring ■, J 1 . Armenian and tongues are not so clear as they are in Albanian only ■n T 1 1 , 1 j_i recently distin- liinglish ; hence some tongues, such as the guished as sepa- Armenian and the Albanian, are only even ™ ^ anguages. now asserting their right to a position in the ludo- Germanic family not as subordinate dialects but as independent languages. In the case of Albanian the problem has been complicated by the great variety of languages which have encroached upon its territory ; Slavonic, Turkish, Greek, Latin have all foisted some words into it. 12. Hard, however, as the problem of distinguish- ing nearly related languages is, it is far criteria of idg. surpassed in dif&culty by that of deciding languages, whether a language is Indo-Germanic or not. What 12 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 12— criteria can be laid down to guide the philologist in this investigation ? In order to assign a language to the Indo-Germanic family several things must be proved : (1) That the word-bases or roots of this language are prevailingly the same as those which appear in other Indo-Germanic languages, (2) that the manner in which nouns and verbs are formed from these bases is that which appears in other Indo-Germanic languages, (3) that the changes which words undergo to express various relations within the sentence are of the same kind as in other Indo-Germanic languages. Of these three (1) is the only condition which is indispensable ; (2) and (3) may be so obscured as prac- tically to disappear. In English the distinction between noun and verb and between both of these and roots has in many cases disappeared. Noun inflexion is now con- fined to a limited number of possessive and plural forms ; verb inflexion remains only in a very mutilated condition. 13. A fairly certain inference may be drawn from the identity of the pronouns and the nu- pronounf" md merals. Pronouns are so essential to the teiS!™" ^' """ life of a lang-uage that they are not likely to be given up in favour of others from a foreign source. But even these are not always certain authority for the connexions of a language. Perhaps the question does not' arise in the case of the Indo-Germanic languages, but in another family of languages — the Se- mitic — it presents a great difiiculty. The Coptic and 1 According to Gustav Meyer, however (Essays und Studien, p. 63), it is probable that Albanian has borrowed its article and some important pronouns from Latin. — § 14] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 13 the Semitic family are similar in their pronouns and numerals and in little else '. 14. In order that the word-bases of a language may be shown to be identical with those of the other Indo-Germanic languages it is not may have differ- ,-, , .1 7 1 • 1 ■ ent sounds in necessary that the sounds which appear m different lan- them should be the same. The b in the change of sound English bear corresponds to the /in the ™"^ ereguar. Latin fero, the 4> in the Greek cftipiti and the bk in the Sanskrit bhdrdmi ; the k in the English know cor- responds to the g in the Latin {g)nosco, the 7 in the Greek yi-yvoo-o-Kw, the z in the Lithuanian zinail and the ./ in the Sanskrit jd-na-mi ; but all philologists are agreed that b, f, (fi and bk in the one case and k, g, y, z, j in the other represent severally but one original sound — bh in the former and a ^-sound in the latter. And the repre- sentation of the original sound by the corresponding sound of the derived language is, with some intelligible exceptions, invariable. Thus all that is wanted is that some system be observable in the interchange of sounds among the connected languages. If we found that no such system existed, that in the same cir- cumstances in Greek was represented in English sometimes by m, sometimes by x, sometimes by r and occasionally disappeared altogether, we should have to conclude (1) that in these cases the philologists were connecting words together which ought not to be con- nected, and (2) if this prevailed also mth all sounds except in a few words which had the same meaning, we might be sure that Greek and English had no original connexion, and that such traces of inflexion as appear in English must have been borrowed from some Indo- 1 Eenan, Histoire des Langues Semitiques, pp. 84 — 85. 14 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 14 — Germanic language with which it had at some period come into very close contact. At the same time, we should have to admit that the borrowing of inflexion was of very rare occurrence. 15. Philologists proceeding upon these principles Classification have identified the following languages as gui^e^s. ^' *"' belonging to the Indo-Germanic family. (i) The Aryan Group. This includes (a) Sanskrit, the ancient language spoken by the Indo-Germanic invaders of the Punjab. The earliest literature in it is the Vedas, the oldest writings in any Indo-Germanic language preserved to us. The Vedas date from about 1500 B.C. and stand in somewhat the same relation to the classical language as Homer does to classical Greek. Sanskrit as a spoken language had died out before the Christian era ; it was succeeded by dialects derived from itself called Prakrit and Pali, which have also long been extinct in their original form and are now represented by Hindi and other modern dialects. The Gipsy dialect is a degraded branch of this family which has wandered to the West. (b) The Iranian dialects, — Zend, the language of the sacred books of the ancient Persians and the modern Parsis (which however also show variety of dialect), and Old Persian, the language of the cuneiform inscriptions which record the doings of the ancient Persian monarchs. The Zend sacred books are supposed to belong to various periods between 1100 B.C. and 600 B.C. ; of the Persian inscriptions the oldest date from King Darius 520 B.C. This group is characterised by having lost the original distinction between a, e and 0, all of which it represents by a, though the sound was probably different — § 15] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 15 from the original a sound. In Zend later changes appear in this a sound also. (ii) Armenian. This language, known from the fifth century a.d., has only recently been distinguished from the Iranian family. (iii) Greek. This language is known to us by an extensive literature and by numerous inscriptions which help us to distinguish clearly the characteristics of the numerous dialects into which the language was divided. An account of the leading dialects of Greek wiU be found in the Appendix. (iv) Albanian. This has no early literature and has been but lately added as a separate member to the Indo-Germanic family of languages. (v) Latin and the kindred Italic dialects Oscan, Umbrian and various minor branches. In Latin be- sides the extensive and varied literature there is a large mass of inscriptions, rare in the early period, exceedingly numerous under the Empire. The history of Latin and the other Italic dialects is extremely important and interesting for two reasons. (1) A strange parallelism is exhibited by Oscan as compared with Latin, and by Welsh as compared with Irish (see below), in the treatment of guttural sounds. In Oscan and Welsh p appears in many cases where qu or c occur in Latin and Irish. (2) The second and much more important point is that from Latin — not indeed in its literary form as we find it in the great Roman writers, but from the dialect of the common people — are descended the various Romance languages, French, Italian, Provencal, Spanish, Portu- guese, Wallachian, Rhaeto-Romanic. These form as it were a subordinate parallel to the 16 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 15 history of the Indo-Germanic family of languages. Nearly as many separate and mutually unintelligible dialects have sprung from Latin as there are branches of the gTeat Indo-Germanic family, but in the former case we possess what is for ever lost to us in the latter, the parent tongue from which they spring. We have the original Latin ; we can never hope to have, except by hypothetical restoration, the original Indo-Germanic. The origin of one dialect of Italy, the Etruscan, is shrouded in mystery. It has been classed by various scholars with almost every family of languages. At the present moment the prevalent tendency is to classify it with the Indo-Germanic stock and even to connect it closely with the other dialects of Italy. (vi) Keltic. This includes (1) the old Gaulish spoken in the time of Caesar, known to us by words preserved incidentally in Greek and Roman writers,— proper names, names of plants, etc. — and by a few in- scriptions and coins. (2) "Welsh, with an extensive literature beginning in the eleventh century. (3) Cornish, extinct since the beginning of the present century. (4) Breton, introduced into Brittany from Corn- wall 400—600 A.D. (5) Manx. (6) Irish, first in glosses of the eighth century ex- plaining words in Latin MSS. ; there is a large literature in its later stages known as Middle and Modern Irish. (7) Scotch Gaelic, closely connected vnth the Irish. Its earliest records — the charters of the Book of Deer — date from the eleventh and twelfth centuries. These dialects fall into two great divisions, the first § 15] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 17 four having certain points of similarity among themselves which sharply distinguish them from the last tliree'. (vii) Germanic or Teutonic. This group is divided into three great branches : (1) Gothic, preserved in the fragments of the West-Gothic version of the Bible made by bishop Ulfilas in the fourth century of our era for his people at that time settled on the northern bank of the Danube. (2) The Scandinavian branch represented by the Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish and Danish. The Runic inscriptions are the oldest remains of this branch and go back perhaps to the 5th century a.d. The Gothic and Scandinavian dialects are sometimes classed together as East Germanic. (3) The West Germanic dialects. In the earliest period these are Anglo-Saxon (i.e. Old English), Frisian, Old Saxon or Low German, Old High German, and Old Low Franconian, from which spring Dutch and Flemish. Of these dialects perhaps the oldest record is the Old English poem of Beowulf which, in its original form, may have been brought by the Saxon invaders of England from their continental home. (viii) The Letto-Slavonic group. As in the case of the Aryan, the Italic and the Keltic groups, this breaks up into two well-marked divisions : (1) Slavonic proper. This includes a great variety of dialects ; the old Bulgarian in which the early Chris- tian documents of the Slavs were written down (the earliest date from the 9th century), Bohemian, Polish, Russian in all its varieties, Servo-Croatian, Serbian and Slovenian. ' Some authorities malce three groups by separating Gaulish from Welsh, Cornish and Breton. G. P. 2 18 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 15 — (2) The Lettic or Lithuanian group consisting of three dialects, {a) Old Prussian, {h) Lettic, (c) Lithuanian. Old Prussian became extinct two centuries ago. Its only relics are a Catechism and a glossary, and neither of the other dialects have any literature properly so called. Lettic and Lithuanian are still spoken in the frontier district between Prussia and Eussia, Lettic being the more northern of the two dialects. They differ in ac- centuation, and the forms of Lettic are more broken down than those of Lithuanian '. i6. There is no doubt that these eight groups of dialects go back to one original language. Original home , ^ . !• _L^ £ ■ xl, of the indo-Ger- and from a comparison of the torms m these inans. various languages we are able to ascertain what the original form in the primitive Indo-Germanic language may have been. Unfortunately we cannot bring our induction to the test by comparing the hypo- thetical with the genuine form, for not one word of this primitive tongue has come down to us. Our knowledge of the original home of the people who spoke this lan- guage and of its civilisation is equally meagre, ilany have been the ingenious attempts of scholars to break through the darkness which encircles this part of the history of our race, and great would be the importance of their results not only for Philology but for Anthropo- logy had these attempts the slightest chance of success. Formerly, partly from a desire to follow the Biblical nar- rative, partly from a belief that the Aryan members of the family represented in all respects the most primitive form of the Indo-Germanic tongue preserved to us, the original seat of the primitive people was placed in the 1 For fuller details with regard to these languages ep. Sayce, Introduction to the Science of Language'^, vol. ii. p. 65 ff. — § 18] COMPAEATIVE PHILOLOGY. 19 uplands of Central Asia. Recent speculation has tended to remove it to the borders of Europe and Asia or even to the north of Europe. 17. From a study and comparison of the words used for common things by the various r T T 1 ^ ■ Civilisation branches 01 the Indo-Germanic stock at- of the primitive , , , , . Indo-Germans. tempts have also been made to ascertain the height virhich the primitive civilisation had reached. But here success is almost as hard of attainment, for it is n(5t enough to show that some or all of the Indo-Ger- manic peoples used a certain name for some object as a metal, a weapon, etc. To ascertain the character of the primitive civilisation it must be shown that the word means the same thing in all these languages, or, at all events, changes from the supposed original meaning must be proved by a chain of evidence of which in many cases important links are now and probably will ever be wanting. That the primitive Indo-Germanic people knew the most ordinary domestic animals, the cow, the sheep, the pig, is certain; the trees which they knew and the metals are very uncertain. For people when they change their abodes tend to apply the old names til new things and we have no means of determining how far one branch of the family may have borrowed names from another which was at some prehistoric time its neighbour. Perhaps no peoples have wandered so much to and fro upon the face of the earth as the Indo- Germans ; at the dawn of the historic period we find the ,Vryan, the Slavonic, the Germanic, the Keltic races in a state of active migration ; their wanderings in the thou- sands of years previous to that period who shall tell ? 18. Another subject on which there has been much learned discussion in recent years is the degree of 2—2 20 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 18 — inter-connexion among the Indo-Germanic languages. Various ingenious theories have been pro- twee™idg°"an- pounded which are named after some ana- K^agfs. logical feature in their structure, as the 'genealogical-tree' theory of Schleicher, the 'wave theory' of Johannes Schmidt, etc. Attempts have also been made to show a clear division between the Euro- pean and the Asiatic branches of the family on the ground that the European languages show a, e, o where the Asiatic members show only a. But this has failed because Armenian, which is an Asiatic branch', though probably not settled from an early period in Armenia, shows the t'-sound of the European tongues, and thus occupies an intermediate position. There are striking- similarities between various members of the family in individual points, as between the Italic and Lettic families in the tendency to change the form of the original declension of consonant stems into -/-stems, between Greek and Sanskrit in the treatment of certain nasal sounds and the formation of some verb stems, between the Aryan and the Letto-Slavonic branches in the treatment of guttural sounds, between the Germanic and the Slavonic in the insertion of t between s and r, as in English stream, Old Bulgarian o-strovii, 'island'.' Greek, the Italic and some Keltic dialects agree in representing a class of original ry-sounds by b, /SoCs, bos. Greek and Latin agree in changing an original in into n before ?/-sounds, as in /SatVw, ve/tio (S 140), and in both, the inflexion of the genitive plural of r7-stems in pro- nouns has infected r7-stems in nouns, rawv is-tdnim 1 Some, however, contend that Armenian has crossed from Europe into Asia, in which case this argument is not conchjsive. 2 Brugmann, Teclimer's Zeitschrift, i. p. 234. § 19] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 21 (originally tdsom), causing Oidwv, dedrmn to be formed. Again some forms of the verb seem to have been in- vented by both Greek and Latin at a late period, as 3 pi. imperative X^yovrw, legunto which is no part of the original inflexion of the verb. But these similarities are not great enough to show closer connexion between any two members of the family than any other two. Such changes of original forms often happen in languages quite independently. Thus some peculiarities of the Lettic dialects and the Ro- mance languages have exact parallels in the dialects descended from Sanskrit. Not in Greek and Latin only does the pronominal inflexion aifect the noun ; exact parallels to the phenomenon are to be found in Pali, and in Gothic other cases of the noun are affected than those which suffer in the classical languages. 19. The only members of the family which show such important coincidences as to make it prob- itaUcandKei- able that they stand in closer connexion '""i">i«<='s. with one another than with other members of the family are the Italic and the Keltic dialects. In both groups some branches show^ representing an original strongly guttural k, others .show c or qu. In both groups the passive is formed in the same manner', and a secondary imperfect and future appear in both from derivative verbs — the Latin -bam and -bo forms. There are some minor resemblances, but the similarities in the verb are so remarkable as almost to prove a more than ordinarily close connexion between the languages, especially when we consider that nowhere else can such passive and im- perfect and future forms be proved to exist. 1 Zimmer (KZ. 30, p. 240) considers this identity of form has another explanation. 22 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 20- iii. How do Indo-Germanic languages differ from oilier languages 1 20. Let us take some common word which appears Lat.f JIMS and i"^ ^ considerable number of Indo-Germanic oVher" Wg.°"ian- languages and compare the various forms guages. which it assumes. (1) Skt. dgvas. (2) Gk. iTTTTos (dialectic ikkos). (3) Lat. equos ("earlier form of equus). (4) («) 0. Irish ech. (b) Welsh ep, eb. (5) Goth. aUma-tundi (thorn-bush, lit. ' horse- thorn"). 0. Sax. elm. (6) Lith. aszvci (mare. The masc. afzvas is ex- tinct^). From Sanskrit, Latin, Gothic and Lithuanian it is easy to see that the word may be divided into two ' For the formation ep. /3oi/-Xi-|U/a, ^ov-^pao-Tn, English horse- laugh, horse-play. - For the survival of the fem. and the loss of the masc. form ep. English m.are = 0. E. mere fem. to J7i«ar7i horse, preserved only in the word marshal which English borrowed through Old French mareschal from the Low Latin mariscalcus of the Holy Eomau Empire, itself borrowed from 0. H. O. mara-scalh a derivative from marah and scalh, Gothic slialls ' servant.' The word has still the meaning of ' farrier' in French. The Teutons were great lovers of horses; the legendary leaders of the Saxon invasion— Hengist and Horsa — were both named from the animal. 0. E. heni/est we have lost (German keeps it as hengst); 0. E. hors, 0. H. G. hros, modern German ross we have retained and this has driven out mearh. In Gennan, pferd (=Low Latin paraveredus. Old French palefreie, Eng. palfrey) has taken the place of ross as the common word. In Lithuanian a;--S;?/s = plough-beast (from the same root as Lat. ar-are, Eng. earing) has driven out *aszvas. — § 23] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 23 syllables df-vas, eq-uos, mh-va, asz-va. Now we know from a long series of observations made upon these languages that the first part of these words, though now different in each, was in all originally the same. Every schoolboy also knows that in this class of words, whether we call them -o-stems or nouns of the second declension, s is the sign of the nominative in all masculine forms ; -s at the end of the word therefore we may mark off by itself, as a sign for a special purpose. 21. Now compare with equos another word, Lat. viduos. Taking the languages in the ^^t. viduos same order we find a result of the same ™nVin°°other WxiA. ^'^^' '""Stages. (1) Skt. vidhdvas. (2) Gk. -qideo^ (i.e. 7;Fi'^tFos). (3) Lat. viduos {viduus adj., vidua subst.). (4) (a) 0. Ir. fedb. (b) Welsh gweddw. (5) Goth, viduvo (fem. -o«-stem). (6) 0. Bulg. vldova (also feminine)'. 22. From the comparison we see that in these words there is, besides the nominative suffix, ^^ . ^. . Nominative another separable part, which appears m the suffix, stem-suf- classical languages in the form of -Fo- or -U0-. This is called the nominal, formative, or stem- suffix, i.e. the suffix by the addition of which the noun stem is formed from the still more primitive portion now left behind. This primitive portion is called the root. 23. Thus equos and viduos may be di- Division of Vlded into in^to their com- (1) -s, nominative case suffix. ponent parts. ^ Delbriiok (Die Indogermanischen Verwandtschaftsnamen, p. 64 ff.) considers the feminine forms of this stem to be the older, but in any case the formation of the suffix is the same. 24 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 23 (2) -w- or -HO-, noun-stem suffix. (3) eq- or ec-, and vid+ -, root. The sign + is put after vid because, as most of the languages show, there is another sound between the iirst syllable and the suffix -co-, which possibly is a sign that these forms come not directly from the root but from a verb stem '. 24. A root never appears by itself in an Indo- Deflnition of Germanic language; that is to say, it has iords come to no independent existence. A root is a con- taiicT ^ tithua- ventioual term used by grammarians to when everything formative is stripped off. The word root when so used is in itself a metaphor; and as all Indo-Germanic languages spring from one original or root language now lost, we ought properly, when we speak of roots, to give them in the form which we believe from a comparison of its various descendants they had in this original tongue. But not infrequently we have not material enough to form a satisfactory induction of this kind ; therefore practical convenience justifies us in speaking of the roots of an individual language, e.g. of Greek roots and Latin roots. For when we do so it is understood that we mean by the term not somethingwhich exists byitself in the language, but merely the fragment of the actual word which, is left behind when we have taken away all formative elements. From this point of view it is of small importance what the root itself may have been or whether a long history lies behind it also or not. In every language there is a residuum with which the philologist is unable to deal, because the forms seem to occur nowhere in the Indo- 1 Brugmann Gr. 11. § 64, p. 126. — § 24] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 25 Germanic area outside the particular language with which he is dealing. Such words may be whimsical formations as Van Helmont's gas, Reichenbach's ocl- force, which were attempts to form absolutely new words, or they may be formed from proper names, which them- selves belong to a different language. Thus in the English phrase 'to burke discussion,' which is a coinage of the present century, the verb has had a curious history. To elucidate the word we need to know that in Edinburgh in 1827—8 there was an Irish- man named Burke who supplied the anatomical schools with the bodies of victims whom he had suffocated. Hence comes the metaphor to burke or stifle discussion. We need to know further that Burke is not an Irish word but only the Irish pronunciation of the name De Burgh which was borne by certain Englishmen who settled in Ireland some centuries ago. Tracing the name farther we find that the word came to England from Nonnandy, and that though the people who thus came from Nor- mandy spoke a dialect of French, still the name is of Germanic origin, Germ, burg, Eng. borough. From the mediaeval Latin burgus, the Romance languages bor- rowed the word, Ital. borgo, French bourg, and it appears even in Irish in the guise of borg, ' city.'_ In its earlier history it is connected with berg, ' a hill.' From the same root come the Keltic word seen in the Scotch brae, and the Sanskrit adjective hfhdt, to say nothing oTproper names like the Germanic Burgzindy and the Keltic Brigantes. But to all intents and purposes burke is a root in English from which nouns and verbs may be formed. It is only accident which has preserved its early history in quite a different meaning. Another word which looks at first sight of indispu- 26 A SHOET MANUAL OF [§ 24 — tably English origin is talk. Yet Professor Skeat traces this through the Danish to the Lithuanian and says it is the only Lithuanian word in English. It seems, how- ever, to have come into Lithuanian from Old Bulgarian and is probably ultimately Turkish. If the early his- tory of the Germanic and Slavonic dialects had been as completely lost as the history of the original Indo- Germanic lang-uage or the early history of Latin, we should have had to acquiesce in calling talk an English word which seemed isolated, unless we had happened to guess that the German dolmetscher (interpreter) was related to it. This is really the case, dolmetscher being also of Turkish origin ; the Middle High German tolc (Dutch tolk) is the same as the English word. One curious example of a British name passing into another language may be given. In Lithuanian the ordinary word for pedlar is szdtas. If we did not know that in the middle ages most of the trade of Lithuania was done by Scotchmen we might probably have some difficulty in recognizing the word as ' Scot ' (through the German Schotte). Thus we see the meaning of a word may be attached to it more or less by accident; the word may be im- ported from another language in a meaning which it never had before in that language, but once it has been imported it sticks fast, and throws out a mass of new formations from itself. In other words it becomes a root in the language into which it has been newly planted. The people who now use it are unable to analyse it any further, but it may come to be treated as a native word and analysed in the same manner us some series of native words which it happens to re- semble. — § 26] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 27 Sometimes in nouns this part which defies analysis can be identified with a part similarly left in verbs, at other times it cannot. The eq- which is left in equotf we cannot certainly identify with the root of any verb, except of course verbs derived from the noun itself or from its derivatives, as equitare. 25. Now let us take another common word which appears in Latin as mens. The genitive Lat. mcKsand shows us that there was a t in the stem, othe™?dK.°Tan'^ and comparison of mentis with forms from 8™ses. other languages shows us that it belongs to the class called -ti- stems. Thus (1) Skt. matis, i.e. ma-ti-s. (2) Gk. jUaVrts. (3) Lat. mens = orig. form *men-ti-s. (4) [0. Ir. er-mlti-u, the latter part of whicli = Lat. menti-o in form.] (5) (a) Goth, ga-munds, (b) Old English fje- mynd, Eng. mind. (6) (ff) Lith. at-mintis, (b) 0. Bulg. pa-m(^t1.. 26. If we treat this in the same way as the pre- vious words and strip off first the s where it occurs at the end as the mark of the parts*^of''mra's* nominative and then the noun-suffix -ti-, "^l'^*"'^ ^^'''' we have left a syllable beginning in all cases with m and generally ending with n, though the intermediate vowel appears in a great variety of forms. The reason for this and for the variety of consonants representing the q of equos will be explained later (§§157, 136). At present it is sufficient to recognise the form the syllable takes in the different languages and to ob- serve the similarity between this and some verb forms. 28 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 26 — (1) Skt. mdn-ya-te {e in Skt. is a diphthong, here = ni), perf. participle passive ma-tds. (2) Gk. ixaiverai = jxav-ii-Tai (§ 83), fie-fJ-ov-a, plural fjil-fxa-fjiiv. (3) Lat. mon-eo, me-min-it = *me-mon-it, re-min- iscor = *re-men-iscor. (4) 0. Ir. do-moiniur, pres. dap. = Lat. puto in meaning. (5) Goth, ga-mun-an. (6) (a) Lith. min-iu, keep in mind. (6) 0. Bulg. mln-e-ti vofxt^eiv. Lat. d«? and ^7- In the same way compare the nfrions ta'other fo™i wliich appears in Latin as dds with idg. languages, ^j^g ^erb from which it comes. (1) Skt. ddti-vdras, he who loves giving : dd-dci-mi. (2) Gk. 'S(3-Tt-s U-hw-jXL. (3) Lat. dos = *dd-ti-s (cf. Hiew.s) fZy. (4) Lith. dU-ti-s. dU-mi 28. Thus we see that from the same root come both nouns and verbs, but that these differ Noun suffixes iji their sufSxes. This applies only to the and Verb suf- . „ . . , , fixes Adapta- finite Verb; the mnnitive and the partici- ples are really nouns in their inflexion and not verbs. In their usage these parts form the con- necting link between nouns and verbs. Sometimes one of these forms acts as a verb. Li Latin legimini, the nominative plural of the obsolete present participle (= Xeyo/icvot) is used for the 2nd person plural of the present and either the same form or one phonetically the same but equivalent to the old Greek infinitive Xeyiixivai for the corresponding form of the imperative. 1 The form is somewhat doubtful. — § 29] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 29 There are not wanting philologists who draw the con- nexion still closer and try to prove that all verb forms are noun stems or iroun cases'. There is a certain amount of plausibility in identifying the -ti of the 3rd sing, of the present as Skt. as-tl, Gk. ia-n, with the form of noun stem which we have seen in ^av-n-s, and which appears also by a regular phonetic change (§ 133) in -yev€-o-i-s, and in connecting the 3rd plural Doric cjiipovTi, Attic (jiepova-L, with the plural participle <^(.povTK. But the theory leaves as many difficulties as the more common one which connects the verb endings with the personal pronouns. 29. The next point to observe is the series of changes within the noun itself by which case suffises cases and numbers and, in most words, and their uses, genders also are distinguished, equos is a horse as sub- ject of some statement ; eqiiom a horse as object of some statement involving action which affects the noun; equl (gen.), equo (dat), equo (ablat.), express the idea contained in the word horse in various relations within the sentence, equl, i.e. equoi (pi.) expresses horses as the subject, eqiws horses as the object of a statement, and similarly with the other cases. Now we cannot doubt that these changes were not made at random, and may be assured that these different sounds by which horse in these various relations is expressed had once a very distinct meaning of their own. But this was at a period of which we know nothing and never can know anything, except from the appearance of similar phe- nomena in languages which remain as primitive in their formation at the present day as the Indo-Germanic in that far pre-historic age. There is little doubt that ' Sayce, Techmcr's Zeiischri/t, i. p. 222. 30 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 29 — tlie root was once a word in itself, and what we now call stem-suffix and case or jjerson-suffix were words added to it to define its meaning in particular ways. That stage was passed long before the Indo-European peoples separated, but in other languages we see the same thing still existing. In Chinese the root is even now a word in itself; there is no stem, no case or person suffix ; distinction in meaning turns very largely upon the accent and the position in the sentence. Turkish is still such a language as Indo-Germanic was in its second stage when it put two or more roots into close combina- tion with one another, but still knew the meaning of each, and could consciously separate them. The only family of languages which stands on the same footing as the Indo-Germanic in point of formation is the Semitic, the principal branches of which are the Hebrew, the Syriac and the Arabic; and even the Semitic languages differ from the Indo-Germanic in a variety of ways. 30. It is worth observing that in some cases ludo- Lossofinflex- Germanic languages have lost the greater ions in English. ^^^^^ ^f ^j^gj,. i,,flexion. Two of them in- deed have returned almost to the stage in which we find Chinese '. These are Persian and English. If I pro- nounce the word ' bear ' you cannot tell without context or reference to surrounding circumstances whether I mean a verb, a noun, or an adjective (bare). 1 Some good authorities regard Chinese as having passed through much the same stages as English. Thus the simplicity of the Chinese word would not be primitive hut due to the loss of inflexion. If so it is curious that it seems to be gradually regain- ing the power to make compounds, thus starting anew on the path to complete inflexion. — § 31] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 31 The only inflexion of substantives whicli remains in English besides the plural is a possessive here and there. Even with very common words the possessive has died out of use. When Byron says ' he sat him down at a pillar's base/ we recognize the possessive as a poetical licence, for in prose we should certainly say ' at the base of a pillar.' We still retain some inflexions in the personal pronouns and a few in the verb to mark some of the persons, the past tense and participle. In English the past tense is formed in two ways ; either -ed is added to the present form, as fill, fill-ed, or a variation appears in the root vowel as in sing, sang, sung; come, came, come. These we call irregular verbs, and we from time to time allow some of them to pass over to the so-called ' regular ' conjugation and to form a past tense with -ed. Hence the verbs which form a past with -ed, though originally few, have now become the great majority'. 31 . If we look at a verb like SepKOfx-ai. we see the same vowel-change taking place. We see by a com- .,, ,, 1 , , / Vowel grada- JjariSOn with other verbs as ^cpo/iat, Tifi.aOfj.at tion in roots and etc. that we can strip off a personal ending and a vowel which appears as o in the 1st pers. sing, and the 1st and 3rd pL, but as e in SepK-e-rai, hipK-e-o-Oe, and in the old 2nd sing. 86pKt(o-)at. We remember that there is the same change of stem vowel in ifyep-0-iJ.ev, (f>ep-e-Te and that it is not confined to the verb, for it appears in the nouns already so often cited and in many others. We have tVir-o-s but t-rnr-e, equos but eque. So also yeV-os but gen. -)/€V-e(o-)-os, Lat. gen-us (for -os), gen. qcii-er-is in which r comes in regularly in Latin for s. This is what is called stem-gradation and will have to 1 Skeat, Principles of English Etymology, {First Series) § 139 S. 32 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 31 — be discussed more fully later on. But the phenomenon is not confined to the stem suffix. It appears also in the root, as we see when we compare SepK-o-jxai with Se-8opK-a and e-SpaK-ov. Forms like the perfect stem ap- pear also in nouns; 8opK-as 'gazelle' has the same form of the root as Sc'-SopK-a. We see also that forms with pa and A-a — weak forms as they are called — are not confined to aorists only but also appear in verbal adjectives which are really old passive participles of past time. Thus we have Spards or Saprds from Sipoi with, on the other hand, the noun Sopa. In Latin the weak forms have or or u?-, ol or id corresponding to the Greek ap pa, a\ Xa. Thus we have past participles like vorsug - *vort- tu-s while the present verto has the same vowel as <^epep-o-fjiev, t^cp-e-re; naTpuiv, TraTpacri, Trarepcs, and many others. In no family of languages other than the Indo-Germanic is there any- thing exactly corresponding to this. 33- The various characteristics which have been enumerated distinguish the Indo-Germanic Distinction be- languages from all others. o^he"langf|■a|eb^ (1) They are distinguished from the so-called Isolating languages — the class to which isolating lan- Chinese belongs — by (a) the changes that ^'^ses. appear in the root, which in the isolating languages is unalterable ; {b) by the possession of various suffixes of two kinds— (i) those which go to form the stems of the noun and verb respectively, and (ii) those which dis- tinguish the different cases in the noun and the different persons in the verb ; (c) by the clear distinction which can thus be drawn between different parts of speech. 34. (2) They are distinguished from the Ag- glutinative languages — the class to which m 1 . 1 , , / \ 1 1 ■ rn Distinction be- Turkisn belongs — (a) by having suffixes tween idg, and which cannot be consciously separated from Sguapfs.'^Ex- the root or stem and which have no exist- tinatfve" f^ma- ence as independent words. Thus no Greek *'™^' could divide olkol 'at home,' into oUo 'home' and i 'at,' though probably at some prehistoric period in the history of the Indo-Germanic languages such a division was quite possible '. The only traces however of the possibility 1 The fact that ol'/cei not oikoi was probably the earliest Greek form does not affect the matter in hand. G. P. 3 34 A SHORT MANUAL OF [| 34 of this division are that in certain Sanskrit stems, the locative ending / may be dropped at will in the early language and that before certain endings the laws of euphony prevail which otherwise aifect only the ends of words'. There is one great advantage in division of this kind : it permits of the plural having precisely the same endings as the singular for the different cases, the plural number being marked by an inserted syllable. Every one who has ever thought about language, or who has had long paradigms of forms to learn, must have wished that for the dual he might, by the help of some syllable which we may represent by 2, have such forms as Sing. Dual xv^om. equo-s equo-2-s Ace. equo-m equo-i-m. In the same way if we represent the plural by the usual symbol for unknown quantity -x- we might have Sing. Plural Nom. equo-s equo-x-s Ace. equo-m equo-x-m. and so on for other cases. This is precisely the principle of the Agglutinative languages. Thus in the Turkish word ev 'house' we have cases as in oTkos or domus. Sing. Plural Nom. ev = domus n-ler Gen. ev-in = domus ec-ler-in Dat. ev-e =domo ev-ler-e 1 Whitney, SU. Gr. § 425 c, § 166. The locative suffix is tlropped also in aUs 'always' as compared with aiel='alfe(r-i and in the Latin preposition penes. 34] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 35 Sing. Plural Acc. ev-l = domum ev-ler-i Loc. ee-de = domi ev-ler-de Abl. ev-den = domo ev-ler-den The form of the inserted syllable shows a process almost unknown in the Indo-Germanic tongues. It depends on the character of the root-syllable whether the plural suffix shall be -ler- or -lar- and there are similar and even more varied changes for the case suf- fixes. Apart from this law of vowel harmony there is only one declension, and in theory there is no limit to the cases except the limit of possible relations between objects, most of which English has now to indicate by prepositions. The tendency in all Indo-Germanic lan- guages has always been to lessen the number of cases and replace them .by prepositional phrases. In Greek and Latin, as we shall see, there are numerous fragments still surviving of obsolete cases. This process of adding and removing suffixes at will gives agglutinative languages a power unknown to other tongues. Thus, to take another example from Turkish, el is hand, el-im my hand, el-im-de in my hand, el-im- de-ki heing in my hand,_ from which again a genitive can be formed el-im-de-kin = tov \J.v\ i/xfj x^P>- ovtos. The same holds true in verbs ; ' We should like not to be able to be caused to love ' can all be easily expressed in one word. Another result of this power of combination is that these languages dispense with the inflexion of the ad- jective altogether unless when used substantivally like the Greek rd KaXd. Finnish is the only exception to this — it is supposed through the influence of the Swedish. 3—2 36 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 34 — (b) There are properly speaking no compound words in these languages, while compounds are extremely frequent in Indo-Germanic lang-uages. (c) There is in the lowest forms of the class but little difference between noun and verb. The ending for the first person is the suffix used in the noun to express 'my.' In Hungarian hal-unk is ' our fish,' vart-unli ' we have waited '.' In Turkish, which represents the highest grade of this class of languages and which some writers declare to be an inflexional language, the verb is formed mostly of a participle with the personal pronouns appended for the first and second persons, while the third is the participle alone. This is very like the Latin legiminl (§ 28) and the periphrastic future of classical Sanskrit ddtasmi 'I shall give,' really 'I am a giver;' while the 3rd sing, is data 'giver' with- out a verb^. 35. (3) The distinguishing characteristics of the Distinction two inflexional families — Indo-Germanic and ^^n.^^ Semitic-are, languages. ^^^ ^j^g vowel-gradation in Indo-Ger- manic roots and stems, (b) the peculiar form of the Semitic roots. Semitic roots with very few exceptions possess three consonants; within the root vowel-change appears, but it is different in character from the corresponding changes in Indo-Germanic. Words are formed from roots mainly by varying according to definite 'measures' or schemes the vowels attached to the consonants, partly by prefixes ' 0. Schrader, Sprachvergleichiing und Unicschichtc^ chap tii p. 413 ft. ^ Cp. with this the Lithuanian yra, an abstract substantive = ex- istentia, used for 3rd sing, and plural of the substantive verb. It is connected by some with the root of the English 'are,' etc. § 36] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 37 (fragments of pronouns e.g. ma = 'what' in ma-sjid 'place of worship' from a root sjd), and to a very small extent by suffixes. An interesting example is the root dm of the verb salima ' he has been at peace ' whence come the well-known words saldm (salaam) and Mam, both infinitives of the verb used as substantives, mw-slim (Moslem) properly a participle, Hellm and Soleyman. With regard to the ' measures.' the most notable point is the distinction between active and stative vowels as it appears in the verb, e.g. Arabic shnriif {-a) 'he was exalted,' ahnraf {-a) 'he overtopped, excelled;' and in general this distinction runs through the languages, e.g. malk will be 'king' (possessor), milh 'po,ssession.' The last mentioned change bears a certain resemblance to the Indo-Germanic vowel-gradation. As regards inflexion the verb, which alone is highly inflected, consists of noun and adjective forms combined with fragments of personal pronouns prefixed or afiixed. Compare with this the Hungarian forms mentioned above. The lack of the power of composition is compensated by a very close syntactical arrangement and in the older forms by simple appo.sition. The Semitic relative is a particle which being prefixed to a clause changes a demonstrative into a relative clause. There are no proper tenses but only perfect and imperfect actions. The 3rd pers. pronoun is generally used for a copula. You may say 'great John' for 'John is great;' if that is ambiguous you say ' great he John. ' 36. Each of these three great classes of lan- guages which have now been mentioned— Was there . A 1 • • 11^^ ongmal lan- the Isolating, tlie Aggiutmative and the guage from Inflexional — includes within it all languages families sprang? 38 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 36 — of that particular type without regard to any histo- rical connexion between the different members. So widely are members of the same class separated that historical connexion is a i^riori improbable, and we are left to suppose that the development has been inde- pendent but on the same lines. The question of the origin of language, and the equally abstruse question whether language spread from one single centre or from a number of independent centres, lie beyond our range. Some eminent scholars contend for a relation between the Semitic and the Indo-Germanic tongues, some even think they can trace an historical connexion between Hebrew and Chinese. At present the possibility of such con- nexion cannot be denied. Mankind has a very long history behind it ; the footprints of early man have in most cases been rudely obliterated by time, and the separation of Chinaman and Semite, of Semite and Indo- German, if it ever took place, dates from a period so remote that independent development has removed, it seems, most if not all traces of the original connexion. iv. The Principles of modern Philology. 37. Most nations manifest an interest in the etymo- ^ ..,. logy of their names, but as a rule this attempts at ety- mtcrest is uot according to knowledge, mology. 11' though auguries are drawn from the real or fancied derivation of a name. We remember the name given by the child's grandfather to the son of Laertes — 'OSuo-o-eiis — TToAXoicriv yap cyco yt oSva-o-a'/i€i/09 ToS' iKavoj. {Oil. XIX. 407) § 39] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 3[) and in Aeschylus the good-omened name of Aristides, ov yap SoKilv apiCTTOS dW elvai. Oi\u. (S. c. T. 579), and the terrible augury in the Agamemnon (689), eXtVas, tXavSpos, eAcTTToAis. It has been suggested, and perhaps with truth, that the name of Nicias the son of Niceratus, as well as his actions, commended him to the favour of the Athenians. Such plays on words are common everywhere. But it has been well remarked that when the ancients meddled with etymology they took leave of their usual sanity, and even when they hit upon an accurate deriva- tion it was merely a brilliant guess based on no scientific principles, and as unlike the systematic induction of modern philology as the methods of Democritus were unlike those of Darwin. 38. So late as last century, the etymologies com- monly proposed were so rash and so improbable that Swift ironically set up as a philologist with such deri- vations as ostler from oat stealer, and Voltaire re- marked with considerable justice that 'Etymology is a science in which the vowels count for nothing and the consonants for very little. ' 39. It was in the case of the consonants that this reproach began first to be wiped off. Since gcientiflostudv vowels changed, as we have seen, so fre- of language, quently in different forms of the same word, people paid little attention to them, as if indeed they had nothing to do with etymology. But the consonants appeared in the same form much more constantly, and hence scientific progress began with the careful investigation of the consonants. Franz Bopp (born 1791, died 1867) was the first great scientific writer on 40 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 39 — comparative i^hilology. However strongly Bopp may have desired to establish a systematic relation of sound- changes between different languages, he often allowed himself to be carried away by plausible derivations which set all laws of sound entirely at nought. The Germanic languages were first investigated by Bopp's contempo- raries, the Dane R. K. Rask (1787—1832), and the Jacob and wii- more famoxis brothers Jacob and Wilhelm helm Grimm. (.^.^^^ ^j^^^^ 1785— 1863, Wilhelm 1786— 1859). The first part of Jacob Grimm's 'Deutsche Gram- matik' appeared in 1819. In the second edition of this work, which appeared in 1822, were first clearly laid down the regular sound-changes which exist between the classic and the Germanic languages, and which make English words look so unlike their Latin and Greek equivalents (see § 100). The principle of the change had been seen by Rask at an earlier period and it was known perhaps even before him, but Grimm was the first to enuntiate it fully and scientifically. Hence this great generalisation has always been known in England as 'Grimm's Law.' 40. As has been hinted, Bopp was not so strong in ety- mology as in other departments of comparative philology. The first systematic book of derivations on a scientific basis was the ' Etymologische Forschuugen' of A. F. Pott (1802-1887) which appeared in two volumes in 1833-36. To him we owe a very large number of the recognised etymologies of Indo-Germanic Avords and the first tabulated comparison of sounds from the languages included in his investigation. He was followed by George Curtius (1820-1885) Curtius. -(vhose well known work 'The principles of Greek Etymology' (1858, 5th edition, 1879, 2nd — § 40] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 41 English edition 1886) comprehends a comparison of the Greek words with their Sanskrit, Zend, Latin, Germanic, Letto-Slavonic and Keltic equivalents. Here the sounds were discussed fully and systematically, and changes which apparently proceeded on no system were grouped together under the heading of ' sporadic change.' From 1850 to 1870 the efforts of the great philologists were devoted rather to organising and systematising the matter already acquired than to breaking new ground. Much was done in this period for individual languages of the Indo-Germanic family, but no great discoveries affecting the whole were made. August Schleicher (1821-1868), who has exercised on the history of philology even a greater in- , tluence than Curtius, resembled him in his power of organisation while he differed from him in his point of view. Curtius looked at language in its history; Schleicher, as himself a skilled scientist, viewed it from the stand-point of natural science. The next great landmark in the history of philology after the com- parative Grammar of Bopp (1833-52, 3rd ed. 1869-71) is the Compendium of Comparative Grammar by Schleicher (1861, 4th ed. 1876). Theodor Benfey (1809-1881) held an independent attitude and in later life concerned him- self more immediately with Sanskrit. Unvarying rules were not as yet laid down with regard to sound-change, but there was a general tendency to demand greater precision in the correspondence between words which were said to be related to one another. The general results of the scientific investigation of this period were made accessible to the public at large in Max Miiller's 'Lectures on the Science of Language' (1861 and 1864). 42 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 41 — 41. Ill 1870 the Italian scholar 6. I. Ascoli pointed Ascoii's tiieory out that the A-sound, modifications of which andTs dCTeiop- appear in such words as Skt. dgvas, Lat. "™*''- equus, Lith. aszvu (§ 20), was of a nature originally different from that which appears in Skt. nakti-, Lat. nocti-, Lith. nakil-s. The former sounds were called palatal, the latter velar gutturals (§§ 67-8). Besides these ^--sounds, original g and gh sounds were shown to exist of the same kind. In Sanskrit another class of guttural sounds appeared which are usuallj' represented by c, j and h. Ascoli observed that these gutturals were often followed by an /-sound, but he did not work out the theory in detail. In 1876 when the discussion of phonetic principles was most active and attention had been drawn anew to the vowels by Brugmann's discoveries (§ 42), a number of scholars in different Danish and German universities found out simultaneously and independently the cause of the variety in the Sanskrit gutturals. The results were fir.st published by Osthoff, Collitz and Johannes Schmidt in essays which appeared in 1878 and 1879. It has now been shown conclu.sively that this second class of gutturals €, j and h arose from the velar k, g and gh owing to the influence of a palatal sound behind them — i.e. an i or e sound (pronounce ee or eh). 42. This discovery, taken in connexion with certain Brugmann's discoverics of Karl Brugmann published in 1876 with regard to the nasal sounds of Indo-Germanic, entirely revolutionised the theory of the original vowels. In Sanskrit and in Gothic, two languages which Vowels. represent two main branches of the Indo- Germanic family there appear but three — § 42] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 4H simple vowels a, i and u. These, Grimm had accord- ingly assumed, represented the number and character of the original vowels. Bopp accepted Grimm's theory and it passed without demur into all succeeding works. The multiplicity of vowel sounds in such languages as Greek was taken as a later development, and the a, e, and o which appeared in such languages where Sanskrit had only a was explained by Curtius' theory of the 'splitting of the original a-sound.' Johannes Schmidt in a very learned work on the 'Vocahsm of the Indo-Germanic Languages' (1871 and 1875) had collected a mass of valuable material, but the explanation of many phenomena of this kind was only rendered possible by a remarkable discovery made by Karl Vemer in 1875. This scholar ,f^^j,„.^ ,,0- showed that certain exceptions to the sound- «<>"' *eory; changes known as Grimm's Law depended on the original accentuation of the Indo-Germanic languages. This dis- covery, and one made by the eminent mathematician and Sanskrit scholar H. Grassmann (1809—1877) with regard to the form which certain roots took in Sanskrit and Greek', finally removed all exceptions to Grimm's Law, thus strengthening the views which had been gradually gaining ground as to the strict observance of phonetic rules and the avoidance of everything known to the older philologists as 'sporadic change.' But Verner's discovery did much more than this. By settling once for all the character of the original Indo-Germanic accent he furnished a basis on which to found further investigation concerning the vowels as well as the con- sonants of the Indo-Germanic tongues. In the same 1 See § 102. 44 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 42 — way Brugmann's investigation of the 'sonant nasals' sonant nasals ; showed that various seemi ng inconsistencies sonant liquids.' jj^ ^j-^g different Indo-Germanic languages really depended on a law pervading the whole group, that e.g. the ace. ending in the singular of consonant stems, Gk. a (7roS-a), Lat. -mt (ped-em), Goth, -u (originally -um, *fot-um), Lith. -i (once nasalised) and 0. Bulg. -e all represented one original sound, viz. a nasal sound -m acting as a vowel and forming a syllable by itself. The ending of the ace. sing, was thus shown to be m ; if a vowel preceded, it was the ordinary con- sonant, eqiio-m, but if a consonant preceded, it had to form a syllable, ped-m, and in the different lang-uages this original sound was represented in different ways. On the same principle, the sounds which appear as a in the Skt. nia-th, as en in Lat. menti-, as -un in the Gothic and -in in the Lithuanian corresponding words (see § 25), were proved to represent an original n •standing between two consonants and thus having to make a syllable by itself, mwtis. Even before this Osthoff had shown that in all probability an original r appeared as a vowel in the same way, though in Sanskrit grammar indeed, an ;■ of this kind had always been recognised by the native grammarians. These new doctrines were excellently summarised by Ferdinand de Saussure in a work of great freshness ' M^moire sur le syst6me primitif des vo5relles dans les langues indo-europcennes ' (Leipzig, 1879). 43. Hand in hand ivitli these important discoveries ^ . went a more definite formulating of nhilo- Two great prin- ... o r cipies in modem logical principles. In theory philoloffists piiilologyi 111 1 ■ 1 , . ^ piionetic Law had always admitted the existence of pho- netic laws ; in other words they had recog- — § 43] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 45 nised more or less clearly that, though there might be a slight residuum which came under no rule, still in certain circumstances sounds changed in the same wa}'. In the making of etymologies phonetic laws were sup- posed to be more carefully observed than they had been by Bopp, though precept and practice did not always perfectly correspond. Philologists had also admitted in theory that the action of the mind influenced the forms of words in various ways. It had been recognised that, when a form was en-oneously connected in the mind of the speaker with other forms which did not really belong to it, this tended to counteract phonetic law. But the matter had not been carefully enquired into. Now, however, 'False Analogy',' as this effect of the action , , ^"^ . Analogy. of the mind was called, became recognised as a great factor in the history of language. Professor W. D. Whitney gave the impulse to this in 'Language and the Study of Language' ^'^^^' (1867) where he dwells on the tendency children mani- fest to make all verbs uniform; to say 'bringed' because they are taught to say 'loved,' or on the other hand to say 'brang' because they remember 'sang' (pp. 27-.S, 82, 85). W. Scherer (1841-1886) in his work 'On the History of the German Language' (1st ed. 1868) applied the principle of analogy on a larger scale. A decisive step was marked by the declaration in Professor A. Leskien's prize essay on 'Declension in Letto-Slavonic and Germanic' (1876) that phonetic laws had no exceptions. In the introduction to I As ' Philology ' is now largely used in the sense of ' Com- parative Philology,' BO ' Analogy ' alone is constantly employed to mean ' False Analogy.' 46 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 43 — tlie first volume of Ostlioff and Bmgmann's 'Morpho- Osthoffand logische Untersuchimgen ' (1878) the prin- Brugmann. cipigg of Leskien's adherents were definitely laid down. These principles were two (p. xiii). (1) Phonetic change proceeds according to laws which have no exceptions. In other words a sound changes uniformly over the whole area where a language is spoken, if the language is not split into a number of dialects. Different dialects may and do develop in different ways, (2) As it is obvious and admitted that in the modern forms of language analogy or form-association plays an important part in the history of words, so we are entitled to assume a similar part for it in the past history of language. 44. The older philologists had, as has been said, admitted a large part of this in theory; Discussion of , i i r- i i i • i 1 the modern the- they had formulated phonetic laws, they had admitted the working of analogy in lan- guage, but they were startled at the hard and fast application of these principles by the 'Young Gram- marians,' as the adherents of these ideas came to be called. During the following seven years a fierce con- troversy raged. Two books which appeared in 1880, Deibriick ■^^°'^- ^- Delbruck's 'Introduction to the study of language ' (Enghsh ed. 1882) and Prof H. Paul's 'Principles of the History of Language' (English ed. 1888) sketched the history of the science and formulated the new views Mith greater care and at greater length than had hitherto been done'. 1 Professor Paul's work is, however, much more than the philosophical representation of the new views; it is really a guide to the principles of language in general and is, apart altogether — § 45] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 47 Gustav Meyer's ' Griecliische Grammatik' which also appeared in 1880 treated Greek from the new stand-point. The controversy came to a head in 1885 when Curtius pubHshed a pamphlet in support of his views which was immediately answered by counter- pamphlets from Delbriick and from Brugmann and supported somewhat •'"s™"""- later by Hugo Schuchardt, while in the philological journals many others joined in the fray. The result was an undoubted triumph for the new ideas. Even philologists who stand aloof from the party of the ' Young Grammarians ' show in their writings the in- fluence of the party's hypotheses. Brugmann's great work Grundriss der Vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo-Germanischen Sprachen, now in course of pub- lication, though containing much more detail will stand in the same relation to the ' New Philology' as Schleicher's Compendium did to the old. 45. Though a great deal of extraneous matter was dragged in, the issue at the bottom of the is philology a whole controversy about phonetic law was ^™"''*''' 'Is or is not Comparative Philology a science?' Now, if we adopt Whewell's definition of a science as a 'body of knowledge,' comparative philology has always been a science. But if with Comte we affirm that science im- plies prevision, that, given certain circumstances and the result in one case, science can forecast for us the result in other cases, are we entitled to declare philological knowledge scientific? To this there can be but one answer. If e. g. an original sound resembling the Eng- lish w becomes in one Greek dialect under exactly the from the standpoint of the author, of the very highest value to every student of language. 48 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 45 — same circumstances, sometimes /8, sometimes the fipiritus as-per, and sometimes /j. at the beginning of words, while in the middle of words it disappears entirely or remains as v, it is absolutely impossible to foresee what form in any particular case this phonetic Proteus will take. Philologists may gather multitudes of in- stances where these strange phenomena occur, but ex- planation is as impracticable as it would be in chemistry if, when two simple elements were mixed together, the result might be indifferently water, or carbonic acid, or spirit of salt. The same causes under the same circum- stances must produce the same results, otherwise scien- tific knowledge is impossible. 46. It is at this point that philology parts company „ ,,., , with the natural sciences. If the chemist How philology differs trom the compounds two pure simple elements there natural sciences. ^ ^ can be but one result and no power of the chemist can prevent it. Bait, as has been said, the minds of men do act upon the sounds which they produce. The result is that, when this happens, the phonetic law which would have acted in the case is stopped, and this particular form enters on the same course of development as other forms to which it did not originally belong. The consequence is that a philologist must, in formulating phonetic laws, be careful to see that he is not including in his generalisation forms which have been brought by this psychological force to resemble other forms, but which are really fundamentally dif- ferent. The tracing of regular sound-changes and the search for the effects of analogy must go hand in hand. It is one of the hardest tasks of the philologist to duly apportion the share which these two great forces, pho- — § 48] COMPAEATIVE PHILOLOGY. 49 netic law and analogy, play in the history of words. In many cases the facts of the linguistic history are so scant that it would be rash to decide dogmatically till more knowledge has been obtained. By a free use of analogy where facts are few and speculation is easy, it is not difficult to reach conclusions which further inquiry at once renders ridiculous. 47- Writers on analogy generally class the various forms which it takes under three heads ; (i) logical, (ii) formal analogy, (iii) a combina- tion of (i) and (ii). 48. i. Logical analogy appears in those cases where particular forms of a word influence other forms ofthe same word. In the original Indo- /j^^'OKi"''^"^- Germanic word for 'foot' we have some reason to suppose that owing to the influence of accent, some cases had an -0- and others an -e- sound, that the accusative was *pod-m but the locative *ped-i. In Greek however the -o-cases have driven out the -e- cases, while in Latin the exact reverse has taken place. In Greek the only traces of the old inflexion are irtSa, the instrumental form now used as a prepo- sition, and such derivatives as ire^os = *ped-ios, and rpd- Trela; in Latin no trace is left of the -o-cases. In the same way iranjp had originally an ace. waTipa, a locative Traripi and a genitive Trarpo's : but the locative and ace. on the one hand affect the genitive and produce TraTt'/oos : the genitive on the other hand affects the locative (later used as dative) and produces -n-aTpi. In Latin the weaker have, in all the oblique cases, ousted the stronger forms ; hence patrem patre patris. On the other hand the long form of the nominative dator has been carried through all the cases, datorem for *datdrem, G. P. 4 50 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 48 — datore for *datere, datoris for *datris. For exactly the same reason later Greek has ycyoVa/tcv etc. after yiyova, instead of the correct Homeric form ycya/Ati/, and out of the Old English preterite inflexion Sing. Plur. 1 sang 2 sunge ■ sungon 3 sang we obtain the modern sang and sung used indifferently for singular or plural (see also § 31). The same thing also appears in French. According to the position of the accent in the Latin verb the corresponding old French parts take different forms': Sing. Plur. (1) aim = dmo amons = amdmus aimes = dmas amez = amdtis aimeit) = dmat aiment = dmant (2) lieve = lei}o levons = levdmus lieves = levas levez = levdtis lieve = levat lievent = levant. With the same number of parts in both cases to influence, analogy generalises the opposite forms — the longer forms in aimer, the shorter forms in lever. As the long forms in aimer are twice as numerous as the short ones, the result might be expected, but in lever the fewer forms triumph over the more numerous ^ 1 Osthoff, Psychologisches Moment, p. 29. Darmesteter, Im vie des Mots, p. 10. " It is, however, possible that we have partially formal analogy here, because many verbs as porter, etc. did not change their vowel character in any of the persons. — § 50] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 51 49. Sometimes the development of analogies of this kind may be represented by a proportion, a Proportional form being coined to stand in the same re- ™»'°Ky- lation to an already existing form as two other forms are to one another, legimini is the plural of a participle which has come to be used as the 2nd pers. plural pass, of lego; legebamini is merely a spurious imitation of this form, there being no participle of this kind. It arises in this way ; leg-or : leg-imini : : legebar : x, and x in this case is legebamini. An interesting example of the same kind occurs in some German dialects. Of the German personal pronouns those of the first and second persons have a special form for the dative distinct from the ace. : dat. mir, dir; ace. mich, dich. In the literary language sich is the sole form for dat. and ace. But by proportional analogy mich : mir^ . , , . , T e ■■ sich, : x dicn : air) and the form sir is actually used in several places at the present day. In other places, as there is no form sir, mir and dir have also been given up and mich and dich are used for the dative as well as for the accusative. 50. ii. Formal analogy appears where forms of one word influence forms of another which belongs to a different category. This pro- analogy, in the duces the irregular declension of nouns and genuine irregular verbs. In Old English foot and booh belong to the same class of nouns. Both form the plural by a change in the root vowel. Thus instead of books we ought to have *beek (like feet) for the plural. Book now follows the analogy of the majority of nouns, which have their plural in -s. In Greek '2,wKpa.Tri% has the same 4—2 52 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 50 — apparent ending in the nominative as 'AXxi^iaSrys, hence also the accusative SojKpanji'. kiwv is the same word as the Latin leo, but the genitive of the one is \cov-to?, of the other leon-is. The feminine A-eaiva shows that the inflexion was originally like tIktwv, tcktovo?, so that the Latin is nearer the original than the Greek. Xiov-ro<; has arisen from a confusion with participial stems in -vt- as irKiwv, pitiiv and noun stems like yipuiv, the nomina- tives in both cases being alike. In Latin there was a masculine and a neuter u- stem : {\)pectis corresponding to Skt. ;oaf&, masc. , {2) pecu, Skt. joafM, Goth, faihu, Eggnj/^ (cf. pecu-nia), neut. The masc. stem changed in two different ways ; (a) it became neuter and made its genitive pecoris after neuter stems like genus, pectus (where u represents an original o), instead of forming its cases like fructus or acus; (b) it became fem. and made a genitive in -d-, pecu-dis, pro- bably first *pecMis on the analogy of forms like incus, incudis. 51. Changes in the verb are very frequent. Formal ana- ^^ English, as has already been men- logy, m the verb, tioned (§ 30), many verbs have passed from the one conjugation to the other, the vast majority transferring themselves from the old system with ablaut to the later formation with -ed. Thus the verbs soiv, bake, climb, slit, creep and many others formed the preterite by a change in the vowel as sew, etc., and in various dialects they do so still'. Sev:, beuk, clamb, crap are still the preterites in Lowland Scotch, but in literary English all these verbs have long formed the preterite in -ed. The verb irear has reversed the process and become a strong verb though originally 1 Skeat, English Etymology (First Series), § 139 ff. ■^§ 52] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 53 weak, no doubt under the influence of hear and tear. These strong verbs occur now so rarely that the making of them comes within the province of the humourist; 'a smile he smole, and then a wink he wunk' etc. Oc- casionally, as in the case of cleave (split) a strong verb, and cleave (adhere) a weak verb, two verbs have become confused together in their forms. Sometimes such con- fusions are very old; in the oldest relics of the Norse and West Germanic dialects there is the same mixture of the forms of flee and fly as exists in modem English. It is probable that some parts formed from the roots dhe 'place' and do 'give' were confused even in the original language. In Attic Greek there is a tendency in verbs to pass over from the -/xt to the -<« conjugation; hence arise parallel forms SeU-vv-fJn SeiK-vv-a) etc. In Aeolic the tendency is in the contrary direction ; thus iu the con- tracted verbs we have i\.r]fj,i, yikaijii, SokI/jluiixi. and the like. In many Greek dialects the present and aorist infinitives end in -/j-ev, as in the Homeric e/^A'"', So/xcv, Gi/j-iv etc. In the inscriptions of Rhodes and some other islands there appear forms in -/xctv, dfmv, Oifiuv, S6fj.uv and many others. The diphthong is produced by the influence of the ordinary infinitives in -eiv\ 52. In Latin the whole of the original -mi verbs except sum have passed over to the -o conjugation, cp. jungo with ^ewyvu/xi, do with hi^u>fu etc. In late and corrupt Latin formal analogy plays a great part. In the classical period credo and 've7ido make their perfects credidi and vendidi: in late Latin pando makes pandidi as well. In early Latin steti {stiti) is a unique formation ; from the form with i comes 1 G. Meyer, Gr. Gr.'' § 596. 54 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 52 — the Italian stetti; diedi from dedi becomes on the analogy of this form detti; vendo, credo etc. follow the example of the simple verb, and ultimately there are 29 Italian perfects in -etti all springing from the influence of a single original form. 53. Another set of forms widely developed in the Romance languages is descended from participles which in late Latin followed the analogy of the few forms from verbs in -uo, imhutus, acutus etc. Ruptus was ousted in favour of rumputus, French ronipu; tonsus was replaced by tondutus, Fr. tondu; venditus by vendutus, Italian venduto, Fr. vendu; -etsus by vidutus, Ital. veduto, Fr. vu. 54. iii. It is possible also to have a combination of logical and formal analogy. A good ex- and formal ana- ample is the word Zcv? for *Z?;i)5 correspond- logy combined. . t j n • r * ?•-' a mg to an Indo-(jermanic torm *d?jus. Ac- cording to Greek phonetic laws this should have gen. Aifo's, dat. AlFl with ace. Z-rjv, which actually appears three times at the end of a line in the Iliad, viii. 206, xiv. 265, xxiv. 331. But through the influence of formal analogy the ordinary ending -a was appended — Z^va'. From this form, partly by logical, partly by formal analogy, Zrjvoi and ZrjVL were developed, and from these forms Plutarch makes even a plural Zrjve?. The inflexion of Tis follows exactly the same course, and as the original forms Ato's, Au still appear, so fragments of the old de- clension of Ti's remain in ri-a-i and in the compound ao-o-a or ctTxa in Attic ( = *a-Tj-a). 55. Analogy affects also the gender of substantives. AnaJogy in In ^^^ Indo-Germanic languages gender gender. ^^^ apparently at first purely grammatical ; > Meyer, Gr. Gr.^ § 324. — § 56] COMPAEATIVK PHILOLOGY. 55 it did not depend, as in English, upon the meaning but varied according to the nature of the ending which the word had. But one word soon affected another. 8p6- cros with a masculine ending became feminine be- cause ipa-Tj was feminine'; vr/a-os and -^irtipos with mas- culine endings followed the gender of yrj. In Latin, apparently because arbos was feminine, fagus, ornus etc. became feminine. Logical gender sometimes influenced the grammatical gender. Venus is properly a neuter noun like genus; when the quality 'beauty' becomes the goddess 'Beauty,' the word naturally changes to the feminine. Grammatical gender seems sometimes to have changed with the phonetic change in the form. If sedes and plebes are really the same words as ?8os and ttXtjOo's they are examples of this. As fides has connected with it a rare adjective fidm-tu-s^, it may have been originally a neuter word like genus, which, having in some way passed from *fid-us to fides in the nominative, con- sequently changed from the neuter gender to the gender of other words ending in -es^- 56. Analogy affects also the domain of Syntax. Little has been done as yet in this field*. One or two ' In Aeschyl. Agamemnon 561 — 2 Spbaot, is followed by ridivres. As it is preceded by Xei/j-dvLai (? -01) there is possibly some corruption, but it is deserving of notice that the word is not found in Homer. ^ The formation, if trustworthy (the word exists only as quoted by Festus), is parallel to venus-tus from Venus, vetus-tu-s from vetus, which was itself originally a substantive identical with the Greek ^os (Ffros), cp. § 138 note. 3 For an elaborate classification of the phenomena of analogy see Analogy and the scope of its application in language, by Benjamin Ide Wheeler, Ithaca (America), 1887. * A beginning made by H. Ziemer, ' Junggrammatische Streif- ziige im Gebiete der Syntax,' 2. ed., 1883, is followed up by G. Middleton, Analogy in Syntax, 1892. 5G A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 56 — examples may be cited to show the problems which call Analogy in ^°^ Solution. Ill the original Indo-Germanic Greek syntax, language there existed an ablative case, which indicated the starting-point of the action denoted by the verb. In most stems ablative and genitive are identical from a very early period, and consequently the use of the ablative without a preposition even in the Veda, the oldest literature of an Indo-Germanic lan- guage which we possess, is rare with verbs of going, coming and such like. In Homer verbs of this class never take the genitive unless when they are com- pounded with a preposition. But the old ablatival form which has become adverbial may be used with them without a preposition, KXuTLrjdev lova-a, oiKoOev riye. The Attic poets, however, do use the genitive alone (cp. Soph. Antigo-ne 417-8 x^°^°'^ ru^oj? acipas a-Krj-nTov), ex- tending the usage on the analogy of other verbs as in ■ratSos eSefaro etc. (see Monro's Homeric Grammar § 152). A parallel case is II. xvi. 811 SiSao-Ko/xcvos TroXiftoLo, the only instance of a genitive with this verb. It follows the analogy of ciSajs"^ which in this meaning regularly takes a genitive. The occasional occurrence of el with a subjunctive, of idv with an optative reaUy arises from a similar tendency, two independent constructions being confused together. 817A.0V on, and 018' on are so often used as meaning emdently and doubtless that ultimately they are treated quite as adverbs, cp. the ordinary use of SrjXoi/oTt in Aristotle and such constructions with 018' oTi as Plato Apol. Socr. 37 B ^x'^f-"-'- <"•' '" o'^' o^t xaxw^ OVTiiiVj =TOVT(JliV a €V otSa KQKa OVTa, ^ See Ameis-Heutze's commentary on the passage. Cp. also Monro, H. G. § 151 d. — § 58] COMPAEATIVE PHILOLOGY. 57 57* In Latin, Plautus lias many similar construc- tions. In Miles Gloriosm 371 we find quern Analogy in ^ol ego capitis perdam. The construction, ^''*™ syntax. which also occurs elsewhere, follows the analogy of dam- nare aliquem capitis. In the same play 619, the poet writes Facinora neque te decora neque tuis virtutibus. The construction of decorzts with the abl. is unparal- lelled, but it obviously arises from the use of the word in the sense of dignus. Terms, an ' improper ' preposition, governs the ablative on the analogy of the regular pre- positions; but it shows that, to some extent, it is still felt as the ace. of a noun by occasionally taking the genitive, germs terms ' as far as (literally, to the extent of) the knee.' In its prepositional usage however, we have o?-e terms 'up to the mouth,' etc. 58. With this phase of analogy Semasiology — the science which traces the development of , . . J . , , J Semasiology. the meaning 01 words — is closely connected. This science also is only in its infancy. The interest of the subject can easily be seen from the history of words like paganus, which originally denoted the in- habitant of a pagus or country district. As such people were late in receiving new ideas the modem notion of pagan developed out of the word. Literature has thrown even a greater slur on the villanus, first the dweller in the farm house, then, from the position of villani in the late Roman empire, villein a serf and lastly villain in its modern sense. Knave once meant only servant- boy. In English the word has deteriorated, in German knabe means boy still. On the other hand Jcnight, which also originally means boy, youth, appears in the 58 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 58 — sense of hero in both Old English and Old German: in the former it retains its nobler meaning, in the latter baiier-knecht now means farm servant. The word loon, which appears in the ballad of Chevy Chase as the opposite to lord, ' Thou shalt not yield to lord nor loon,' seems to have meant originally a ' base, low fellow ' ; in northern Lowland Scotch it is now the ordinary word for boy. Another word which has had a very interesting history is noon. This is the nona hora of the Romans and ought therefore to mean not midday but three o'clock in the afternoon. The cause for the change of meaning was a strange one. It was the custom of the pious in Early England to fast the whole day till three, at least on Wednesdays and Fridays. But though the spirit was willing, the flesh was weak and, by judiciously quickening the course of time, the holy fathers salved their consciences and enjoyed their meal three hours earlier '. Among the most extraordinary changes in signifi- cation which can be historically traced are those of the word Tripos, which is used in Cambridge University to mean the Examination for Honours. (1) The word is found as early as the middle of the sixteenth cen- tury, in the meaning of the three-legged stool (t/diVos) on which the Bachelor of Arts sat, who conducted the disputation for the University with the ' Questionists,' then to be admitted Bachelors. (2) The disputation presently degenerated into a farce, and the Bachelor was now expected to show his wit in personalities rather than ^ See Prof. Mayor's note on Bede iii. 5. — § 59] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 59 his wisdom in disputation ; the name is now applied not to the stool but to the Bachelor. (3) The next stage was that two Bachelors made speeches of a hu- morous character at the prior and latter acts of Bachelor's Commencement. When these Tripos-speeches were given up, (4) two sets of Tripos-verses had to be written by each of the two Tripos-Bachelors. This prac- tice of verse-writing still survives. About 1747-8 (5) the honour- lists began to be printed on the back of the sheet containing these verses, and from the honour-list the name has passed to (6) the honour-examination ^' Innumerable examples of similar changes might be given. These words are but a few samples of the store, but they fully confirm the observation of Lucretius (v. 832), ' Namque aliud putrescit et aevo debile languet, Porro aliud clarescit et e contemptibus exit.' 59. The last point to be mentioned in this connex- ion is that seeming violations of phonetic Borrowing of law may often be explained by the borrow- "^°^^- ing of forms from kindred dialects. The different relays, if we may call them so, of English words borrowed from Latin either directly or through the French, have already been mentioned (§ 9). Borrowing between dif- ferent dialects of the same language is often much harder to detect and, from the nature of the case, is likely to be much more frequent. Communication be- tween different sections of the same people is, in most cases, much easier than communication with distant peoples, who speak a language which, though possibly ^ Wordsworth's Scholae Academicae, pp. 17 — 21. 60 A SHOKT MANUAL OF [§ 59 — nearly allied, is nevertheless quite unintelligible without special training. Kindred dialects are likely to borrow from one another in all the ways in which languages borrow from one another. But they affect one another in their syntax to a degree which mutually unintelligible languages never do, except when the districts where they are spoken border on each other and many of the people on both sides of the frontier speak both languages. Dia- lectic syntax is likely to appear largely in literature, for literary men have always tended to be migratory, and in former times a court which patronised letters attracted people from all quarters. A great poet especially, if popular, is likely to have many imitators, who from their birth have spoken a dialect different from his, but who will repeat his words and constructions though strange to their dialect, merely because they are his. His influence may be so great that the dialect, in which he wrote, may become the standard or literary dialect for the future, and natives of other regions will be expected to conform to it. This they will seldom be able to do with exactness. Traces of their original dialect will remain. It has been remarked that some of the best Scotch writers as Hume and Adam Smith were never able to write correct English. " Hume is always idiomatic, but his idioms are constantly wrong ; many of his best passages are, on that account, curiously grating and puzzling ; you feel that they are very like what an Englishman would say, but yet that, after all, somehow or other, they are what he never would say ; there is a minute seasoning of imperceptible difference which distracts your attention, and which you are for ever stopping to analyse'." ' Walter Bagehot, Biographical Studies, p. 272. — § 61] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 61 It is well known that a foreigner, when once he has thoroughly mastered a language, will write or speak in it more idiomatically than a person who has been brought up to speak a kindred dialect, although this dialect may be, in the main, intelligible to the speakers of the language in question. The reason is that, in the second case, the similarities are so much more numerous than the differences, that the latter fail to be clearly felt. 60. An example of borrowing in poetry is the word loon just discussed. According to the regu- lar laws of phonetic change in English, this loan-words in word should appear as loun or lown, a form which sometimes occurs ; but when Coleridge makes the Wedding Guest address the Ancient Mariner as ' grey- beard loon' he employs a form which is not English', but is borrowed from the Scotch of the Border ballads, as in one of the Scotch versions of the battle of Otterburn, ' Ye lie, ye lie, ye traitor loon.' 61. Caxton gives an interesting account of the dif&culty of forming an English prose style in his time. " Common English that is spoken in one shire varieth much from another," he says and proceeds to tell a story of an English merchant sailing from the Thames, who was wind-bound at the Foreland, and going on land asked at a house for some eggs. " And the good wife answered that she could speak no French. And the merchant was angry, for he also could speak no Prench, but would have had eggs and she understood him not. And then at last another said he. would have eyren, then 1 In other words, the form does not belong to Mercian English, which is the basis of the modern literary dialect, but to Northumbrian English, of which Lowland Scotch is the descendant. 62 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 61 — the good wife said that she understood him well. Lo ! what should a man in these days now write, eggs or eyren? certainly it is hard to please every man by cause of diversity and change of language. For in these days every man that is in any reputation in his country will utter his communication and matters in such manners and terms that few men shall understand them\" Here there is more than a mixture of mutually intelligible dia- lects. The form egg had indeed by this time become in- corporated in an English dialect and, as it has happened, in that which has become the literary language, but it really is a Norse form introduced by the Banish invaders ; eyren is the lineal descendant of the Old English plural (hgru with a second plural ending added, as in childer-n. 62. The classical languages, as usual, have exact parallels to this interaction of dialects. It is loan-words in a well-known rule of Attic Greek that in the first declension the nominative ending after a vowel or p is u and not -q as when other letters precede. But this rule has some apparent exceptions, Kopiq stands for KopFyj so that the rule is not really broken; but ^6017, y}.6-q, d(J3vr] and a few others do transgress the rule^ Explanation is not easy in every instance, but of those cited 66y] is supposed to be a medical word taken by Plato from Hippocrates, who writes in Ionic Greek where rj is regular: x^<^V in the best period is only poetical, for the style of Plato, in whose prose it first appears, is on the border line between poetry and prose. Consequently, as we have seen (§ 59), it may have come from another dialect; a^u'ij is also an Ionic product, while -irvorj and j3oT^ stand respectively for irvoF-ij and jSoFrj. 1 Gaston's Preface to his Eneydos, p. 2. - Meyer Gr. Gr.'' § 48. x^^n too probably stands for x^'5/7). — § 64] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY, 63 63. In Latin some common words appear in forms which are most probably Oscan. Thus both bos and ovis are held by many philologists La^fn.""""'''*'" to contradict Latin phonetic laws. bos certainly does ; as venio corresponds to ^Saii/w and vordre to l3i-^p and d: (d) Similarly p and b have their correlatives in /, v and w, though / and V are not pure labials but labio-dentals, the lower lip being pressed against the teeth of the upper jaw. 70. Besides J) and ^ two other spirants correspond to t and d. These are s and z. The tongue position for these differs slightly from that of dental spU for jj and ^which are frequently interdental, while for s and z a groove is formed longitudinally iu the tongue. The difference between the two series is, however, small, and foreigners in attempting to pro- nounce J> and ^ often produce s and z (as in blaze) instead, or on the other hand t and d. Other sounds of a similar nature are sh and zh (the 2-sound heard in 70 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 70 — seizure), wbicli are generally classed as cerebrals, though their method of formation is somewhat obscure. 71. An unvoiced spirant produced in the glottis Greek spirit- itself is the Greek S2nritus asper '. Con- usasper. ^^.^^^ ^j^j^ ^.j^-^ ^j^^ ordinary A-sound (§ 85). 72. If, however,^ and b are produced by the same parts of the mouth and in the same way, voiced conso- how do they differ from one another? p and the corresponding sounds, t, h, q, are produced without voice, and with the breath alone; b and the corresponding sounds d, g, g, are produced with voice, i.e. in the production of these sounds the vocal chords are not only brought closer to one another but are also made to vibrate. Breathed and voiced sounds are also known by a number of other names, as ' Surds ' and ' Sonants,' 'Tenues' and 'Mediae,' 'Hard' and 'Soft' sounds, and of late as ' Fortes ' and ' Lenes,' a nomenclature derived from the strength or weakness of the exspiratory effort in their production. 73. From the spirants /, v, ]>, etc. (§§ 69, 70) we must carefully distinguish the aspirates. These have been already mentioned — qh,q/i, kh, gk, tk, dh, ph, bh. They are distinguished from the other stopped sounds by the breath which succeeds them before another sound is produced. Sounds of this nature are to be found in the vulgar Irish pronunciation of pig as p-hig, of water as wat-her etc. The ancient Greek x, ^, <^ were sounds of this kind. In imitation of the spiritus asper of Greek some phoneticians write these sounds h\ g', etc. 74. Another series of sounds which must be also distinguished from spirants and aspirates is the affri- — § 76] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 71 cates'. These consist of a stop followed by the cor- responding spirant when both belong to the same syllable, as in German pferd, zahn Affricates, (z = ts). kx appears in some Swiss dialects I 75. The Indo-Germanic aspirates soon changed their character in most languages. In the earliest Greek the Indo-Germanic voiced aspirates gh (gA, gh, § 113 i. b), dh, and bh had become breathed aspirates kh (x), th (6) and ph {). In modern Greek these breathed aspirates X, 0, (j) have become ch (as in loch), th (as in thin) and /; that is to say they are now spirants, and there is some evidence to show that in Greek as in many other languages the affricates formed an intermediate stage between aspirate and spirant °. The change from aspirate to affricate seems to have begun very early, for on in- scriptions we find x written as k-^, 6 as t6, and as 7r(^. Sometimes too a short vowel before these sounds is lengthened, as (^atoxiVwves {Choephoroe 1049). 76. If now we put the different parts of the mouth in the proper position to produce «, b, or t, 7 11 11 Nasals. d, or k, g, but leave the nasal passage open, we produce a new series of sounds m, n, ng (n palatal, w velar) — the nasals. As the nasal passage is open the nasal sounds resemble the spirants in being , ., , 1111 How nasals continuous, while on the other hand the differ from spi- corresponding stops (§ 66) break off abruptly. In other respects m, n, ng are produced precisely like b, d, g, the vocal chords vibrating in the formation of both series. 1 Sievers, G. d. G. P. p. 282. 2 N.B. X is not the English sound but the phonetic symbol for the velar spirant (§ 69 a). 3 G. Meyer, Gr. Gr? % 210. 72 A SHOET MANUAL OF [§ 77 — 77. Other sounds which resemble these in being continuous voiced' sounds are the Hquids "^''' ' r and I. I is produced by closing the centre of the mouth passage with the tip of the tongue, thus resembling d, but leaving an opening at either one or both sides. The sound varies according to the manner in which the stoppage is made and the part of the mouth which the tip of the tongue touches. The one symbol r is used to denote a considerable number of distinct sounds. Of these the most important are (1) the alveolar r pro- nounced, when trilled, by placing the tip of the tongue loosely against the sockets of the teeth and causing it to vibrate with a strong breath ; (2) the cerebral r (un- trilled) produced by the tip of the tongue turned back- wards against the palate, and (3) the trilled r produced by the uvula, the tip of the soft palate which hangs downwards. English r at the beginning of words is the untrilled alveolar; after t and d it is almost a spirant. Foreigners have at first some difficulty in distinguishing tried and chide. An unvoiced r is found in the com- bination pr as in pride", etc. Welsh II as in Llangollen is an unvoiced I, so is the English I in flat, help, etc. The nasal passage is closed in the production of the liquids. 78. In producing all the sounds which have been enumerated, the breath passage is to some Vowels. 1 , . extent obstructed, and consequently in the case of the stops there is a moment of absolute silence when the passage is entirely closed ; in the case of the ' Though these are the ordinary kind, it is possible to produce all of these sounds without voice. ^ Sievers, Grundzuge der Phonetik^, pp. 107 ff., Grundriss der Germ. Phil., p. 278. — § 79] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 73 spirants there is a distinct noise, as distinguished from a musical note, produced by the breath rubbing against the narrowed passage. In the ordinary nasals and liquids this noise is not observable, though it may be made evident by increasing the force of the exspiration and narrowing the breath passage. We come now to sounds which are purely ' voice modified by different configurations of the superglottal passages but without audible friction '.' These are the vowels. In producing the ordinary vowels, the nasal passage is closed ; when it is open, nasalised vowels are produced. The factors concerned in modifying the configuration of the mouth passage are the tongue, the lips and the cheeks. The tongue may be raised or lowered, drawn back, or pushed forward ; the lips and cheeks may be contracted so as to round the mouth, or their position may be changed in other obvious ways. 79. (a) Some vowels are back or guttural sounds, i.e. the voice is modified by the appro xi- ciaasffloation mation of the back of the tongue to the soft "'(™''back and palate as a", 0, u. Others are front or front vowels. palatal vowels, as d, e, i, il ; all of which are produced by approximating, to a greater or less extent, the upper surface of the tongue to the roof of the mouth. (b) Vowels may also be classified, according to the height to which the tongue is raised, as ^y j,;^}, „,y high, mid and low vowels. Thus i is higher ^°'" ™™'8. than e, u is higher than a. (c) Vowels are also divided into close or narrow 1 Sweet, History of English Sounds', p. 2. 2 These sounds are to be produced in the continental not in the English manner, thus a = ah, u=oo, i = ee etc. a is an inter- mediate stage between a and e, for ii see § 80. 74 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 79 — and open or wide vowels. If the surface of that part (c) close and 0^ the tongue with which the sound is open vowels, formed be made more convex than it is in its natural shape, the vowel is close or narrow. Thus in English the a oi father and the u of but are both back or guttural sounds, biit the former is an open, the latter a close sound. The vowel sounds in air and man are both front sounds, but the former is a close, the latter an open vowel. {d) Lastly, vowels may be rounded or unrounded, according to the position of the cheeks ((^ rounded i i . mi and unrounded and iips. The greatest rounding goes with V0W6ls. . CO the highest vowels. Hence there are three important degrees of rounding corresponding to the three degTees of high, mid and low vowels. For example, in pronouncing who, only a narrow opening is left between the lips, in no the opening is wider and broader, and in saw only the corners of the mouth are drawn together'. 8o. The vowels are often set in a pyramidal form vowefs.™"''^^ °' *° illustrate these characteristics. The line a, e, i represents the gradual raising of the tongue from the low to the high position ; the line a, o, u represents the successive stages from the unrounded to the fully rounded vowel. These five sounds of course only represent the most clearly marked vowel positions. The number of intermediate stages between these positions is infinite, because the positions which the tongue may assume are infinite; a limited but still a large number can be distinguished by the ear. Thus we might have a, a\ a", a^ d', o\ o etc. Some 1 Sweet, Handbook, p. 13. Sievers, G. d. Phonetik^, p. 93. — § 81] COMPAEATIVE PHILOLOGY. 75 phoneticians distinguish a few intermediate grades by such symbols as a", e" etc., the larger letter indicating that the sound approximates more to a or e and so on as the case may be. '6 is a rounded vowel like o with the tongue position of e. It is found in such words as the French pew and the German schiin. u bears a some- what similar relation to u and i. It appears in the French lune, the German iiber. " in Attic Greek and the vowel represented in Latin by i or u indifferently, as in optimus or optumus, were sounds of the same character. Following these principles the technical language of phoneticians describes the sound of a in English father as a mid-back-open unrounded vowel ; u in the French lune is a high-front-close rounded vowel. A neutral or indistinct vowel, that is, an unaccented vowel the formation of which is hard to define, is represented by the symbol 3, because on the whole the sound approaches most nearly to e. This vowel is represented in English by the initial vowel of words like against, and by obscure sounds such as the o and er of together when carelessly pronounced. 8i. The last important classification of sounds is into those which can form a syllable by themselves 76 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 81 — and those which cannot. This is the most important point historically in connexion with pho- non^syiiabiT netics. The discovery that, besides the ordi- nary vowels, certain other sounds could form syllables by themselves, has done much to revolutionise comparative philology. These other sounds are the Sonant nasals H^^^^ and nasals. Vowels, liquids and and liquids. nasals are classed together as sonants while the non-syllabic sounds retain their old name of conso- nants. Words like fathom, smitten, brittle, German bitter^ might as well be spelt fathm (as in Old English) smitw, brit^, bitr. There would be no difference in sound. The second syllable consists entirely of the sound of m, ?i, I, r respectively. Hence philologists represent these syllabic nasals and liquids by the ordinary symbols with a small circle below, m, n, I, f. As will be seen later on (§§ 151 — 158), these syllabic sounds have played a very important part in the history of the Indo-Germanic languages. 82. All sounds may vary in length according to the Long and short t™^ occupied in their production, and it sounds. jg important to observe that aU sonants appear in both long and short forms. Thus we have a, a etc. but also n, y etc. (cp. § 151 ff.). 83. The manner in which one syllable is divided Division of syi- ^o™ another is also important. Thus the labies. combination aia may be divided into (1) a-i-a, (2) ai-a, (3) a-ia, (4) ai-ia (§ 84). In every syllable there is one sound which is much more prominent than any other. That sound is the sonant of the syllable. Where two sonants seem to come together in the same syllable, one of them really becomes consonantal. Thus, ' In English there is no final sonant r. — § 83] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 77 in the combination ai-a, a and i, which are both ordinary sonants, come together in the same syllable, but if we pronounce the combination, it is evident that a plays a much larger part in it than i. In other words a remains a sonant while i becomes consonantal. Similarly in the combination a-ia pronounced a-ya, a is sonant and i consonant. Combinations of two sonants in the same syllable are called '" "^^' diphthongs. The term in English is commonly re- stricted to those combinations where the first element remains sonant and the second becomes consonantal, as ay ; but those where the first element is consonantal and the second sonant as ya have an equal right to the title. It is also to be observed that, though in English we apply the term only to combinations of the ordinary vowels a, e, i, o, u, it may be equally well applied to combinations with nasals and liquids. Any vowel may become consonantal in such combinations, but i and u do so most frequently, and are then known as consonant * and consonant u (written i, u). When the liquids and nasals, which are more frequently used as consonants, are employed as sonants they are distinguished by the names sonant liquids and sonant nasals. We shall see later (§§ 258, 259) that there is exactly the same rela- tion between en and n, etc. as between eu and u, etc., cp. irivOo'i and 7ra^£i(= TttlBu § 157) with vyri. The vowels, nasals and liquids are the ordinary sounds which can form syllables, s also may do so as in the ejaculation Pst! and attempts have been made recently to show that the corresponding voiced sound z really did often form syllables in the original Indo- Germanic language '. 1 Thurneyseia, K. Z. 30, p. 351. 78 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 84 — 84. In passing from one sound in a word to Glides On ^^lother, a transition-sound or glide is pro- giide and off- duced. In a combination like duo there ^' "■ is a transition sound which is produced, though not represented in writing, when the voice is passing from u to 0. Some languages do actually repre- sent these sounds very carefully in writing. In these we should probably find the word written duwo. w is here the 'off-glide' from u, the 'on-glide' to 0. Similarly there is a transition-sound produced between d and 11. Compare also ai-ia above (§ 83). 85. Vowels may have a glide to introduce them if the glottis is gradually narrowed through the Vowels with .. p, , ji- \. e and without in- positions tor breath and wliisper before voice 1 la g 1 e. ji^ produced. If the stress of the breath is changed from the vowel itself to this introductory sound, the aspirate (A) is produced, e.g. instead of the sound a the sound ha is heard. If the breath is kept back tiU the glottis is in the position to produce voice, the vowel is produced without a glide. If the glottis is completely closed so that voice cannot be produced till the closure is broken by a special impulse, an explosive sound or , ' stop ' may be heard just before the vowel. This sound, the result of the opening of the glottis, has been identified with the Greek spiritus lenis. 86. In the same way a vowel may finish abruptly while the glottis is still in the position to form voice, or it may die away through the successive stages of whisper and breath — the final glide. 87. All consonants have an on-glide and off-glide, Consonants except wheii two consonants come together with and with- . . . ° out glides. which are formed m precisely the same 0) O) CO CL (0 (0 CQ Tl (Q CD — § 96] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 81 ever we find syllables disappearing entirely we have reason to suppose that there stress-accent is at work. Thus the difference between the root vowels in €pii> and (fiopd, in Latin tego and toga, in English bind and band, originates in a difference of pitch ; the disappear- ance of a syllable as in the pronunciation of history as Mstry, or in the French frhre, the historical develop- ment of \&\xa. fratrem, is the result of stress-accent. 94. Both phenomena — the interchange of high and low pitched vowels and the disappearance 1 T 1 1 • Accent of the 01 syllables — can be traced back to the on- indo-Ger. lan- ginal Indo-Germanic language, and conse- quently we have a right to assume that in this original language, as in those derived from it, both forms of accent were active, though perhaps pitch and stress-accent were more equally balanced there than they have been in the later development of the Indo-Germanic languages. It may be that first one, then the other, was predominant. 95. In both pitch and stress-accent three degrees may be distinguished — the principal accent, Tlir66 cl.6Sir66S the secondary accent and the absence of ot pitch and . T 1 -n T 1 1 ,1 • stress-accent. accent, m a long English word there is really a different degree of stress-accent on each syl- lable, but the three degrees given above are all that it is necessary to distinguish. The secondary accent is as a rule removed from the principal accent by at least one intervening syllable. 96. In both kinds of accent, the syllable may have either one or two ' accent-points.' If the 11 1 1 1 1 , , . . , , Accent-points. syllable has but one stress-accent point, this indicates that the exspiration does not come in jerks, but either increases or decreases in energy uniformly, or else first increases and then decreases G. P. 6 82 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 96 — uniformly. If the syllable lias two ' stress- accent points' the exspiration in such a syllable is not uniform, but after a decrease of energy there is again an increase without the continuity of the sound being so far broken as to form two syllables'. Such double 'stress-accent points ' appear in English words like do, man, and may be indicated by the circumflex do, man. 97. In pitch or musical accent we have to distin- Kinds of pitch guish, besides the uniform tone or monotone, accents. (x) the falling \ (2) the rising ', (3) the rising-falling " and (4) the falling-rising " tones. (3) and (4) are generally combined with ' double- pointed' exspiration. Of this kind are the circumflex accent in Greek and the similar accent in Lithuanian. The Greek acute accent is the rising (2), the Greek grave the falling accent (1). 98. It is to be observed that individual words as Unaccented ^^^^ ^^ Syllables may be unaccented. words. These are called enclitics and proclitics, and in such cases the whole clause or sentence forms one word e.g. English at home, don't; Greek « tyjv ttoXlv, dire fior, Latin noctes-que, in urbe etc. In the original Indo-Germanic language this was carried to a much greater extent : vocatives were not accented except when standing at the beginning of a sentence, nor was the principal verb of the sentence accented. Interesting traces of this are left in the tendency which Greek shows to place the accent of the vocative and of the verb as far back as possible : thus TraTijp but TrdrEp, e-axov. In the latter example, as the augment was originally a separate adverb, the verb really still remains unaccented. In longer Greek words, however, such as it^ipojxida, > Sievers, G. d. G. P. p. 286. — § 100] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 83 owing to a peculiar Greek law which appeared at a mach later period and which forbade the accent to be placed farther from the end of the word than the third syllable, the original accentuation has been obliterated. vii. Differences (1) between English and the Clas- sical languages and (2) between English and other Ger- manic languages. 99. The discussion of accent has now cleared the way to explaining the reasons for the ■..p(, , , -n T 1 1 Differences be- seeming ditterences between iingnsh words tween the Ger- 1,1 1 • , 1 1 -11 manic and other and those words m the classical languages indo-Germ. lan- which philologists declare to be identically the same words or at any rate their congeners. 100. Changes in the primitive Germanic period and so affecting all the Germanic languages. 'Grimm's Law.' (A) Changes in Consonants (cp. §§ 130 — 141). i. The Indo-Germanic breathed stops k {q, h), t, p became breathed spirants h (xw, x), I?,/' ii. The Indo-Germanic voiced stops g (q, g), d, b became breathed stops k (qu), t, p : iii. The Indo-Germanic voiced aspirates gh (qh, gh), dh, bh became voiced spirants 3, d, t and then voiced stops, g, d, b. These changes are known as the Germanic 'sound- shifting' or 'Grimm's Law' (see § 39). Examples of the changes. Greek Lat. Germanic k KapS-ia cor(d) Gothic hairt-o Eng. heart t Tpeis tres i>reis three p TToM pes „ fot-us „ foot (gen. ?ro5-6s) (gen. ped-is) 6—2 84 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 100- Greek Lat. Germanic ii- g dyp-6s ager (ace. agr-uin) Gothic akr-s Eng. acre a dcLKp-v lacr-uma (dacruma) „ tag'' " tear lb Tip^-V turh-a ,, i>aurp thorp luhricus 0. E. slipor slipper-y iii. gh XV" anser Gothic gans goose dh [ti]-87I-ij.i fa[-cio\ do bh (p€p-UJ fer-o ,, hair -a hear loi. The Indo-Germanic breathed aspirates did not Tenuesaspi- V^^Y ^ large part, and their history is not ratae. yg^ known in detail. In Germanic they became, like other breathed stops, breathed spirants. In certain combinations, however, they became breathed stops. Exceptions to Grimm's Law. 102. (a) There are some seeming discrepancies ■ Grassmann's between the sounds of the original language ^'^''^■' as they appear in Greek and Sanskrit and their representation in Germanic. Thus to the root of irvvOdvonai, TrevO-, Skt. hodk-, the corresponding Gothic verb is biuda (1st pers. sing.) not * piuda as might have been expected. So Gothic hinda, English hind, is from the same root as invO^po-;, Skt. root bandh-. The explanation of this is that in the original Indo-Germanic language these roots both began and ended with an aspirate *bheudh- and *hlmndh-, and a phonetic law of Greek and Sanskrit forbade roots to begin and end with an aspirate. The explanation of the seeming anomaly is due to 1 In the original Indo-G. language h was a comparatively rare letter; hence examples of this sound change are rare and doubtful. — § 104] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 86 Hermann Grassmann and hence is known as 'Grassmann's Law' (see § 42). 103. (b) Certain combinations of consonants do not nnderffo complete 'sound-shifting.' .. . . - _ Combinations (1) s/c, st, sp remain unchanged: Lat. not affected by piscis, Goth, fislcs (but by a later change Eng. fish) : Lat. hostis, Goth, gasts, Eng. guest; Lat. can-spicio, 0. H. G. spekvn, Eng. spae-wife (fortune-teller). (ii) In the combinations kt and joi, t remains un- changed. oKTw, Lat. octo, Goth, alitmi: Lat. now (stem noct-), Goth, nahts: KKiin-q^j Goth, hli/tus, Eng. cattle- Uft-ing: Lat. captus, Goth, hafts. (iii) Original ^i became ]>t and later s.s; original *uit-to-s, f icr-To's, Goth, ga-wiss, 0. Eng. F W2.s. 104. (c) Verner's Law. In the middle of Ger- manic words if the immediately preceding sonant did not originally bear the principal Analogical ir- accent, original k (q, k), t,p, s are not repre- sented by h (hw), ]>,f,s but by g (gw), d, b, r, except in the combinations ht, hs, ft, fs, sh, st, sp. The historical order was (1) the ordinary change into breathed spirants, (2) a change to the voiced spirants 7, S;tr, z, and then (.3) from these into g, d, b, r. The position of the original accent is often shown by Greek, much more frequently by Sanskrit. Examples. Skt. Greek Lat. Germanic k. yuva^d-s : (=yxivyt;d-s) uaK-ivdo-s ■.juvencu-s : Goihic/iigg-s, Eng. young (=yuwy.x6-) t. i;at4m : e-Karov : centum : ,, himda-, „ hund-red ',/ p. limpami : {'I stick to, smear') XtTrap^oj : lippus „ bi-leiha, O.Eng. be-llfe = 'I remain' s. snusd : cuds : nurus : 0. Eng. snoru. «,„-,>.,..,,- 86 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 104 — As has already been mentioned, the accent varied in the singular and the plural of the Indo-Germanic Perfect. Hence the discovery by Karl Vemer of this law made it at once clear why in Old English seo\ian (seethe) had the singular of the perfect sea's but the plural sudon and the participle 1,e-soden (sodden), and w\\j for-leosan (= 'lose' in meaning) had in the perfect sing, for-leas, pi. forluroii, and in the participle forloren (forlorn). As the accent also varied in the different cases of the noun (cp. in Greek ttovs ttoS-os etc.) we have in German hase but in English hare, in Gothic auso but in English ear, each language having modelled the whole of its forms by analogy on one part of the original noun forms. Com- pare with this the o throughout in ttou's, the e throughout in pes, though o and e both appeared in the original declension (§ 48). Analogy has caused some other irregularities. Thus Eng. brother corresponds regularly to an original *bhrd- tor, but father and mother should have d instead of th, since they come from original *2}d-ter, *ma-tgr. The original accentuation of these words is represented accurately by Sanskrit only, which has hhrd-td{r),pi-td{r), md-ta{r); Greek keeps the accentuation correctly in 4>pa.T-qp {(fypdrap, the more regular philological form, is cited by the grammarians) and in Tranjp, but has changed it in t^i]Trjp. Old English had correctly feeder, mddor, brod'or, and according to Professor Skea,t\ father, mother with th hardly appear before 1500 a.d., the manuscripts of Chaucer having fader, moder, brother. In south-west Cumberland and elsewhere the regular forms appear, in northern Lowland Scotch the analogy has gone in a ' Principles of English Etymology (First Series) § 126. — § 107] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 87 direction exactly opposed to English and produced d in all three cases. 105. {d) Some few irregularities have arisen from the original root having a bye-form with a -g^^^^ ^;th different final consonant produced by assi- ^y-^""™^- milation to some suihx. Thus Goth. tdthiQ, (token) belongs to the verb teiha, BeiK-w-fn, dic-o, but comes from a bye-form with g for It. In the same way /x.t-yvu/i,t is from a root mik, and pango pepigi are forms from the same root as pax pjac-k. B. Changes in Sonants. 106. The main differences between the Germanic and the original Indo-Germanic sonants are „ . Germanic the following. changea of Indo- „ , ^ ■ rt . G. sonants. 1. Indo-G. became a m Germanic : o'ktoj, Lat. octo, Goth, ahtuu: Lat. hostis, Goth, gasts: oTSa, Goth. waif. ii. Indo-G. a became Germanic : t^paruip, fj.r]Tr]p, Lat, /rater, mater, 0. English brUSor, mddor. iii. Indo-G. sonant tn and sonant n (m, n) appear as U721 and icn : S-p-o- (= *smma), Lat. sem-el (= *smm-eT), Goth, sum-s. Negative particle : Greek a-, Lat. in, Goth. un, Indo-G. *n. ' o iv. Indo-G. sonant I and sonant r {I, r) appear as ul and ur (written aur in Gothic, or in some of the other Germanic dialects) : raX-as, O.Latin tulo (perf. tuli), Goth, \ul-a (dialectic Eng. thole, 'bear patiently'), all from *tll-, one form of the root tel-. Koipvos (Hesy- chius), Lat. cornu, Goth, haitrn (Eng. horn). 107. In the primitive Germanic period, as we have seen, the accent, although no longer a pitch but a 88 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 107 — stress-accent, was free to stand on any syllable as in the primitive Indo-Germanic period. But Germanic ac- soon a further change came in, by which the first syllable of all uncompounded words was accented. io8. Further causes of dissimilarity in appearance Assimilation; between English and classical words were final sounds. ^j^-j (jiggi-ent laws of assimilation of conso- nants : (2) different treatment of the final sounds of words. log. At an early period the Germanic languages lost a considerable part of their Noun In- Changes in ^ ^ English g flexion. What was left in English was largely changed to y; c i ■ i otoc7t. destroyed by the influence of the Danish invasion, and still more by that of the Norman conquest. Further dissimilarity was produced by English words being now spelt after the Norman fashion. Many other changes have occurred since then. Nearly every trace of inflexion has disappeared, and many vowel and consonantal changes too intricate to discuss here have taken placed One of those which help most to disguise English words is the change of g into the spirant y which took place in certain cases. Thus Gothic ga-, German ge-, becomes Middle English Ze, and in Shakespeare and Spenser we find it as 3/ in yclept, yhight. Final g in similar wise appears some- times as -dge, as in midge, 0. E. my eg, through the intermediate stage migge, sometimes as -gli as in borough, 0. E. hur{u)g. Final g first became gh, or h, burrh, and then passed into Z^ before e. Another change of the 1 For a full account of these changes see Skeat's Principles of E. Etym. (First Series), chap. xix. , and Sweet's History of English Sounds. — § 112] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 89 same kind is that of the 0. E. palatal A--sound in cild-re into the aifricate cli of child, etc. no. The spelling of modern English is little dif- ferent from that of Shakespeare's time, but EngUsh speii- the pronunciation has changed immensely '"^' in the intervaP. Hence our spelling, which now bears comparatively little relation to our pronunciation, is a help to the beginner in tracing the connexions between the words of English and those of other tongues, but is really a stumbling-block in tracing the history of the English language itself because, as the spelling is con- stant, the incessantly varying pronunciation has to be traced out laboriously from other sources. 111. It is this incessant change in the sounds and forms of words which makes comparative philologists always deal by preference with forms in phiio- the earliest accessible forms of any Ian- °^' guage, these being naturally less removed from the ori- ginal type than later forms which have undergone a number of further changes. Isolation and separate de- velopment make people of the same family speak a different dialect : the same causes make their descend- ants speak languages which are mutually unintelligible, and which at first sight bear no resemblance one to another. 112. Hence languages so nearly related as High German and English differ widely in both vowels and consonants. The most marked consonant cause of this was the second or High Ger- " ^^^^' man mutation of consonants, which appeared within his- ^ Besides Sweet's H. of B. S. compare also A. J. Ellis's great work Early English Pronunciation, the fifth and last volume of which appeared in ] 889. 90 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 112 torical times'. It began about 600 a.d. in tlie most southern districts of German}^ and spread gradually northwards, but never covered the whole German area. Nor were all the sounds affected everywhere. The centre of the change was in South Germany where the original population had been Keltic, and as the effect moved farther from the centre it became weaker and less marked. The northern districts were almost untouched by it. i. (a) t was first affected, becoming the affricate z (= fe) at the beginning of words : Eng. tooth, German zahi; Eng. tivo. Germ, zivid. In the middle and at the end of words it became a spirant z and is now a simple s-sound. Eng. foot, Germ, fuss ; Eng. let. Germ. lassen. At a later period other sounds were affected. (b) In the middle and at the end of a word Ger- manic k appears now as the spirant ck (x), after having passed through the stage of the affricate kch (kx)- Thus Eng. speak (0. E. also sprecan), Low Germ, sprel-en. H. Germ, sprechen: Low Germ, ik, H. Germ. ich. In most districts k at the beginning of words remained intact. (c) In the middle and at the end of words pi became /; Eng. sliee2}, Germ, schaf ; Eng. >:leep (Goth, slepan), Germ, schlafen. Initial j^ remained in some districts, but became 2}f in most. Eng. pound (0. E. piind), Germ, pfund''. ' For a brief but clear account of this see Wright's Old High German Primer, § 58 f. ^ This word is interesting as a Latin word — f)0)jrf«.s — borrowed at an early period in the history of both English and German and making the following changes exactly in the same way as the native words. § 112] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 91 ii. The voiced stops g, d, b ceased to be voiced at an early period, and hence became confused with h, t, p, from wliich they differed only in the smaller energy with which the exspiration was produced. Hence to the stranger, g, d, h as pronounced in South Germany sound in many cases exactly like k, t, p. Hence also the con- stant variation in spelling : Inns-prucJc, Inns-bruck, etc. d is almost invariably represented by t : Bug. daughter, H. G. tochter; Eng. deed, H. G. tat, etc. iii. Still later and independently the spirant th (]?) became d over the whole area. Eng. brother, Germ. bnider. PART II. SOUNDS AND THEIR COMBINATIONS. viii. Indo-Ger manic sounds. 113. Of the sounds discussed in Chapter v. the original Indo-Germanic language had the following : A. Consonants. 1. Stops : (rt) Breathed, p, ph ; t, th ; k, kh ; q, qh. (b) Voiced, b, bh ; d, dh ; g, gh ; g, qli. As the history of the original breathed aspirates ph, th, kh and qh is in many respects still obscure, these sounds will not be discussed here. 2. Spirants : (a) Breathed, s. (b) Voiced, z, w, y. Some authorities recognise also a guttural spirant to account for such equivalents as Skt. ha, Gk. yi ; Skt. aham, Gk. kyw. It is also suggested that besides s, there was an original sh (sy. Collitz finds this sound in Skt. kse-ti, Zd. sae-ii (3 sing.), Gk. kti-^m, Lat. si-no and possibly in Gk. ktc-Xo-; 'tame, quiet,' Lat. silere, Goth, silnu ' to be silent, keep quiet ' ; all from an Idg. 1 Collitz, B. B. XVIII. 201 ff. If this theory is correct probahly Skt. ksam-, Gk. x^'^" ought to be derived rather from an original root with initial §hs- than from a combination with original 2 as it is given by Bartholomae and Brugmann {Or. Gr.^ § 46). 96 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 113 — root *Jcsei. From two separate roots of identical form ghsei, he derives (1) Skt. ksdy-ati ' coTLimls (3 sing.), ksa-ird- 'lordship,' Zd. hsa-]>ra 'kingdom,' Gk. l-6l- /xos and possibly 4>6dv6eL; r, 6; k, x- ih) Voiced, P; 8; y. 2. Spirants : (a) Breathed, s (cr) : in conjunction with breathed consonants and when between sonants or final. (b) Voiced, o- : in conjunction with voiced con- sonants, as in o-yScVvv/xt {=zh-), Siocr-Soros {=°zd''). Greek represented u by f — a symbol lost in Attic and Ionic but preserved in other dialects, y is represented by 4 which has also other values ; i has in one or two dialects a symbol for itself; elsewhere in some positions it dis- appears, in others it becomes the spiritus asper ' (see § 170 ff.). 3. Liquids: A., p. 4. Nasals : /x, v, y (= n and w). 5. Vowels: a, c, t, o, v, -q, (11. In Attic Greek t] represents not only original e but also in many cases original a. The remaining letters of the Attic alphabet — ^ and- i/f — represent respectively a guttural + s and a labial + s. For the other symbols of the Attic alphabet, which have only a numerical value, see Appendix. ^ For the other Greek dialects and their alphabets see Ap- pendix. G. P. 7 98 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 116 — 6. Diphthongs : ai, ei, oi ; av, ev, ov ; vi. a, y, m at the end of words represent di, Si, di. Elsewhere diphthongs with a long sonant shortened the sonant before a following consonant. Hence only the series with a short sonant is preserved. But in some cases we can tell by comparison with other languages where an original diphthong with a long sonant stood, e.g. Zcu's = Skt. dydus, original *dieus ; LTnrofs = Skt. dgvdis, original ekuois (see § 181, 3). vt is a diphthong, which apparently did not belong to the original language, but arose in Greek through the loss of a consonant and subsequent contraction, e.g. iSwa represents an older fi8vio--ia. vlo's represents an original *su-io-s not *sui-o-s. Pronunciation. 117. 1. Stops. The breathed and voiced stops Ancient and present 110 difficulty, the pronunciation mincStion' ''™f being in the classical period approximately stops. |.j^g^^ q£ ^jj^g corresponding English sounds. In the popular dialect y at an early period became a spirant between vowels, and Plato the comic poet charged Hyperbolos the demagogue (murdered 411 B.C.) with pronouncing dXiyos as oAi'os, that is oliyos. On papyri there is often a confusion between g- and ^/-sounds, as in vyiyaii/i9 for vytaiVtis, but this did not occur in the speech of cultured Athenians. In modern Greek y, S, and P have all become spirants y, , ch (§ 73). For otherwise we could explain neither (a) the aspiration of tt, t, k before the rough breathing (c(/>' cS, avG" ov, ovx oTTios), nor (b) the representation of — § 121] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 99 the Greek aspirates in old Latin by breathed stops : e.g. Piliptis = ^i\nnro'i, tus = 6vo?, calx = xo-^i-^- ii8. 2. As already mentioned (§ 116, 2), s had two values — s and z. The Greek ^ did not pronunciation correspond to the English z but was pro- °^^- nounced as zd, whether it represented an original zd- or an earlier dz- sound formed from hi or y, as in Zeus and t,vy6v (see § 144). This is shown by the following facts. (a) SioVSoTos, ^co'o-SoTos etc. are found sometimes written Sio^otos, ^eo'^otos etc. even in the same dialect. So 'K6rivat,i is undoubtedly 'A^jyvas-Se 'Athens- ward.' {h) V disappears before t„ rj (for a;it^t, vviJLtfiri) oftheGk.nasals. appear. The pronunciation of -yv- in yiyvoiuu etc. is uncer- tain, but later the y-sound disappeared, as is shown by ytVo/iai, 121. 5. a was pronounced as ah. e was a close vowel approaching i ; this is shown by the ,,. r-i -IN- mi, Pronunciation contraction 01 ec into u as m ^lAeire. That of the vowels. at a very early period this vowel was not 7—2 100 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 121 — SO close is shown by the contraction of the augment with c into rj ; thus c + ea-Oiov becomes -ijcrdiov not «'- crOiov. o was also a close sound approaching u (= oo), whence the contraction of oo into ov as in SrjXovre, but it had once been more open, as is shown by the contraction with the augment into w : w^fXov not ov^nKov. In Attic V became at an early period u ; hence Attic Greek had, like French, to represent a pure M-sound by ou (ov). In the diphthongs av, ev, ov, however, v retained its original value of u. -q was an open sound, as is shown (1) by its often Of >iancl(u. ^ . T 1 representing the d or other dialects, as S^/itos = Doric Sdyiios ; (2) by the fact that ca contracts to rj (tuxt) =- T«xea) ; and (3) since by it the comic poets represented the cry of the sheep (o 8' ijXCdio^ wairep Trpofiarov jirj /3rj Xeywv /3a8iX«')- " waS also an Open sound. 122. 6. In Et and ov two different values have to Proper and ^^ distinguished : (1) the original or proper improper diph- diphthongs £6 and ov as in XeiVw, a-TTov&v- thongs. Pro- / t , • nunciation o£ « (2) the improper diphthongs which are the andov. ij. J- • result ot contraction, (jaXelTe, SrjAoBre. In the Attic inscriptions of the early period such words as Xu-n-u) and o-itovSt^ are always written with the diphthong, while the vowel-sound of contracted syllables is repre- sented by e and o only, not et and ov. Whether these two classes of sounds were still distinguished at the end of the fifth century B.C. or whether both proper and improper diphthongs were already pronounced as close e and ?7 respectively is much disputed'. In the diphthongs ai, ei, ot, vl there was a constant tendency to drop the consonantal i before vowels. 1 Blass^i § 10. Brugmann, Gr. Gr.^ p. 34. — § 123] COMPABATIVE PHILOLOGY. 101 Thus Tas T/jtiicrcas is cited by a grammarian from Thuc. VIII. 8 ; we have irAc'oi/ as well as History of ai, TrXctov ; TTouv as well as Troielv and oTos "' "'> "'• ToiovTos etc. scanned with a short first syllable ; in the fourth century B.C. vl6s is written almost uniformly u'o's though V is still scanned as long'. In the diphthongs a, y, w, which were always written in ancient times with t on the line — AI HI , ^ Pronunciation ni — the I ceased by the second century B.C. and history o£ to be sounded, y had apparently become ' a close e much earlier. The modern method of writing these diphthongs begins with manuscripts of the twelfth century of our era^ X. Latin alphabet and pronunciation. 123. To represent the Italic development of the original Indo-Germanic sounds Latin had ph'lj^|t^'^*'° *'' the following symbols. 1. Stops: (a) Breathed, p ;, t ; c, h, q. (b) Voiced, b; d ; g. 2. Spirants : {a) Breathed,/; s; h. {h) Voiced, v (=m), i, now written j (=«). 3. Liquids, I, r. 4. Nasals, m, n. 5. Vowels, a, e, i, o, ii. y and z were introduced from Greek in Cicero's time, y to represent v = u, z to represent C The symbol for z had existed in the original Roman alphabet, which was 1 Blass'l 14. 2 Blass3§ 13. 102 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 123 — borrowed from the Western Greek alphabet, but it had been dropped when the old Latin sound it represented disappeared (§ 125). x is merely the combination ks. 6. Diphthongs ai, ei, oi; au, eu, ou. These forms are the forms of the earliest inscriptions. In the Augustan period ai was represented mostly by ae, ei by I, oi by R and oe; an remained except in the vulgar dialect, where it appeared as o ; original eu appears only once in a doubtful fragment, becoming elsewhere always oil even in the earliest records. Before the Augustan period ou had become u (§ 179). The Indo-Germanic diphthongs with long sonant have all passed into other sounds (§ 181). Of later origin are the diphthongs eu and ui in seu, neuter, cui. Pronunciation. 124. 1. Stops. p and h were pronounced as in English, d w'as dental, not alveolar like English d (§ 68). In pro- modem pronun- nouncing t the blade of the tongue touched both teeth and gums. Hence at all periods of the language tl had a tendency to change into cl, there being an almost inappreciable diiference between them, when t was pronounced a little farther back and c a little farther forward in approximating to the position for /. c and k were pronounced alike, c having except in a few words taken the place of k (see Appendix), ti and ci never became a sibilant as in the English sedition, patrician but were pronounced separately, c was never pronounced as s, as in English circle. With very rare exceptions q occurred only along with «.. g was always a genuine stop, never the affricate j as in gibe, etc. In — § 126] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 103 some of the other dialects of Italy these voiced sounds seem to have been pronounced almost as breathed sounds. 125. 2. / was pronounced as in English. /* was not so strong probably as the corresponding pronunciation English sound but rather, like the Greek Latin'^'IpSits! ', represented a breath. Later it entirely /'*■»'">'(■''>■ disappeared. Hence the late forms anser, arena for earlier *hanser (not found in the literature), harena. s was always breathed. It never had the value of z. When combined with a voiced consonant, the consonant became breathed. Thus a Roman said apstineo even when he wrote ahf. In old Latin there was a voiced s (= :;), which between 450 and 350 B.C. changed into r, whence laharem (ace.) for older labosem, Furius for Fusius, etc. 1), which was the only symbol the Romans had for both the vowel u and the consonant v, was, when con- sonant, pronounced probably not so strongly as the English w, but more as the French ou in ouL In the same way i had both the vowel and the consonant value in ancient Rome ; J is a modern improvement on the Roman alphabet. The consonant value of i was that of the English y. The Romans objected to the combinations mm and ii. Hence they kept senos not seruus, for the nominative sing. ; cum, qiurni or even qum not quum ; the genitive singular of nouns in -ius in the best period was always contracted : Jluvl etc. ; the nominative plural of such words is found on inscriptions in -iei. Sometimes where i was written, i/i was pronounced, as in abicit = abyicit. 126. 3. / was pronounced by placing r^^g ^atin the tongue against the teeth and gums ; r i', Lat. / initially, h medially, Kelt, b, Eng. b, Letto-Slav. b. ipepu : Lat. fero : Eng. 6ea?' (ppd-Tiip : Lat. fra-ter : Eng. brother y6i/i-(po-s : Eng. co»i6, Germ. 4amm 0(a(/ii : Lat. amb-itu-s : 0. Eng. j/mft ' round. ' For <^ = original qh see under D (§ 141). B. Dental Stops. 133. Indo-G. if = Skt. t, Gk. t, Lat. t, Kelt, if, Eng. ipovepovTi. 1 The word originally meant 'to pierce;' the noun = ' hole' is preserved in nos-tril. 2 Cp. § 167 and note 3 there. 108 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 133 — But a considerable number of words are left which trans- gress the rule and have to be explained as owing their form to the analogy of other cases or of compound forms '. In Latin tl very early became cl, periclum, etc. (§ 124). 134- Indo-G. d = Skt. d, Gk. S, Lat. d, Kelt, d, Eng. t, Letto-Slav. d. Gk. Lat. Eng. 6uw : duo ; two ddK-fv-fu : dico (older deico) : teach (0. E. tcecean), token 6-5ovs : dcTis (weak stem = *rfgj-) : tooth (0. E. t6]> from *tan)>) Kapd-ia : cor{d) : heart. For Greek S = original q see under D (§ 140). In a few Latin words initial d before a vowel and Latin I = ori- medial d between vowels become I, lacruma, gmai d. SaKpv ; odor, but oleo ; sedeo, but solium, etc. This happens also to a certain extent in Sanskrit. The change is an easy one, the only difference between d and I being that in pronouncing I the breath escapes at one or both sides of the tongue, while in pronouncing d the mouth passage is entirely closed, though the tongue is otherwise in the same position as for I ^. 135. Indo-G. (?A = Skt. dh, Gk. 6, Lat. / (initially), h and d (medially), Kelt, d, Eng. d, Letto-Slav. d. 6vpa : Jj&t. foras ( = *dhuorans) : Eng. door (0. E. d«rw, dyre) l-8ri-K-a : Lat. fe-c-i : Eng. do e-pvd-p6-s : Lat. ruber (stem rub-ro-) : Eng. ruddy, red od$-ap : Lat. ub-er : Eng. udder (0. E. uder) Homeric /letro-os ( = '/ieS-io-s) : li&t. vied-ius : 'Eng. middle Homeric -qWeos : Lat. viduos : Eng. widow etc. (§ 21). 1 P. Kretschmer, KZ. 30, p. 589. - The variation between I and d seems to mark a dialectic dif- ference (Conway, Indogermanische Forschungen, vol. 11. p. 157 ff.). — § 136] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 109 For Gk. 6 = original qh see under D (§ 141). In Latin b appears for Indo-G. dh before and after original r, before I and possibly after m; in ong. dh=hat. all other cases Indo-G. dh probably changed * '''"^''■ medially to d. In Latin / sometimes appears to represent original dh in the middle of words, as in rufus, which Q^jg ^^^ „^^^ is akin to ruber. But rufus is borrowed Lat./mediaUy. from some one of the other Italic dialects in which dh was regularly represented by/ C. Palatal Stops. 136. Indo-G. k = Skt. g (Zend s), Gk. -, Lat. c, Kelt. c, Eng. /* (but see § 100 i.), medially under certain con- ditions g, Letto-Slav. ss in Lithuanian (pronounced sh), *■ in Lettic and Slavonic. It will be observed that while Greek, Latin and Keltic keep the hard A-sound (which is re- The two kinds presented in English by h according to the thfb*represent- regular change under Grimm's Law), the *''""• Iranian and Letto-Slavonic languages change it to some form of s. In consequence, these languages throw valu- able light upon the nature of the ^-sound in other languages where k, g, gk and q, g, qh have been fused together and are represented by the same symbol, as is the case occasionally in Greek, frequently in Latin, and always in Irish. The Italic dialects however and those branches of the Keltic languages which represent ori- ginal velars by labials (§ 15) also help us to ascertain the nature of the original gutturals. It is customary to represent a guttural, the nature of which (owing to the lack of cognates in other dialects) it has been found im- possible to determine, by the ordinary guttural symbol k, g, gh without any distinguishing mark. ,s 110 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 136- Skt. Gk. Lat. : cli-no eli-vus fDa{«) : Kvojv : canis^ daf^a : 5iKa : decern yuva-i :d-s ; : vd-K'LV ■Bos : juven-cu-t Eng. : lean (0. E. hISnan infinitive) : low in Lud-low etc. (O.E. hlww) : Litb. szly-ti : hound (O.E. hund) : ten (Goth. toft«?i = *te?J?i§ 148) : young (§ 104). Exception. Owing to the strong labial sound u which originally followed, Indo-6. h in *ekuos is represented in Greek by TT in HTTTos. So too in the word quoted by Pliny from Gallic epo-redia, and in the tutelary deity of horses Epona, a borrowed word in Latin. The aspirate in IVttos, which is not original, since the Skt. form is dfvas, the Latin equos, was possibly produced by an early fusion of the article 6 with the initial voweF. 137. Indo-G. g = Skt. j (Zend s), Gk. y, Lat. g, Kelt, g, Eng. k, Letto-Slav. z (in Lith.), z (in Lettic and Slavonic). As Skt. j represents not only g but also g before original palatal vowels, the Zend and Letto-Slavonic show best the nature of any gr-sound. Zend zantu ('family') zanva ('knees,' pi.' Gk. Lat. Eng. yi-yvul-CTKI^l ■ (g)no-sco . knoio (Lith. zinau ) ■ykv-os yi-yv-ofxat _ genm ) . Mn ■ gi-gn-o) yovu : genu : linee (Goth, kniu) d-/j.€\y-tij : mulg-e-0 ( = 'ml^-) : milk (Lith. melzu). ^ Canis was perhaps originally the feminine form (Schmidt, Pluralbildungen d. Indog. rieiitra, p. 61, 62 n.) ; ep. vulpes below (§ 169 c). ' Baunack, Sttidien, 1. p. 240 ff. — § 138] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. Ill 138. Indo-G. gh = Skt. h (Zend z) ; Gk. x ; Lat. initi- ally h and perhaps /, medially h and cj (when following n) or lost altogether; Kelt, g; Eng. g, y (later); Letto- Slav. I (in Lith.), z (in Lettic and Slavonic). From this it will be seen that in Zend, Keltic, Ger- manic; and Letto-Slavonic there is no longer any dis- tinction kept up between the original aspirated and unaspirated voiced sounds. Skt. liimd- Gk. Lat. Eng. xn" . anser (§ 125) : goose {O.B..G. gam) : Lith. zi^x'is 'XiLfXWf SlJ(7-X^flOS Xlp-apos I : kiemps {p euphonic) : gimmer'- .Xlimipa j thumus \ : bride-groom (Goth. XaiJ-al : Jhonw (0. L. henwS. guma) { —terraefilius) | : Lith. zmo-gus XCLivU ^ ^hi-sco) \hi-are) , iyawn{O.B.ganian { and glnan) XO.-(TKU) ) oxos^( = /oxo!) : veh-o , (weigh (wain (O.E. wregn) : Lith. vezU 6-fJ.LX-€-w'-' I mingo : 0. E. mlgan (Goth. maihstm 'urine'). ' Dialectic and Scandinavian = a lamb that has lived through one winter. Wether has a similar meaning, but comes from the same root as ^toj, Lat. vetus, vitulus (?) and so 'yearling.' Cp. the origin of bimus in Latin = 6i-7n'mMs 'two winters old.' ^ This word is not connected with ^x'^. which is in no way related to Lat. veh^. The aorist ^-cx-o-" shows that the root of ?xw is 'se§h- . For the change of meaning in E. weigh cp. '{Kku, which is also used of weighing. 2 For a similar root see under jft and Feist, Grundriss d. Goti- schen Etymologie, s.v. maihstus. 112 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 138 — Exception. Apparently x^'" (x^'^-<") 'X''^") must be connected with La^tin /undo, 0. E. geotan, dial, grow^ =' sluice ' in Lincolnshire (Goth, giutan), where / represents gh, and as yet no satisfactory explanation has been given of this irregularity'. Other words with initial / interchang- ing with h, as foliis or holus ' vegetable,' fariolus or kariolus, axe explained by the hypothesis that the forms with/, as rufus (§ 135), are not Latin but Sabine. h for original gh when between vowels or before { often disappears in Latin ; nemo = *ne-hemo, nil = nihil. So also major from *maMor ; aio from *ahid or *ahid ; meio from *7?mho\ D. Velar Stops. 139. Indo-G. q = Skt. k, c ; Gk. k, tt, t ; Lat. qu, c (Oscan and Umbrian/») ; Kelt. Irish etc. c, Welsh etc. js (§ 15 vi.) ; Eng. hw (written wli), h and, medially under certain conditions g ; Letto-Slav. k, retained in Lith., but passing into other sounds in Slavonic. Here and in velar sounds generally Greek, Latin, Keltic and Germanic follow one line of development, iBdo-G. Ian- Sanskrit and Letto-Slavonic another. In mi^^two ^oupl the first class very many words show that menfof''thfve: * Slight M- sound was developed after the '""■ velar. That it was not a strong sound is shown by the fact that it does not make strong position when combined with the guttural. Cp. 'ttttos = *eic- 1 Buck (A. J. P. XI. p. 215 f.) holds that / in fundo is due to the u following. It is too common a word, he says, to be Sabine. But English take is even more common and yet is Danish (§ 10). " Brugmann, Gruiidr. i. § 510. Stolz^ § 52. — I 139] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 113 uos with £7ro/iat = *seq'io-mai. Both are represented in Latin by qu. The reason for the parting of the Indo-G. languages into two groups in this matter re- mains still to be discovered'. Even languages which follow the same line of development, do not all show this M-sound in the same words. Even different dialects of the same language disagree. Thus the common Gk. form is iroVepos, the Ionic Korepos; to Attic tU the equi- valent form in Thessalian is kis. Osthoff argues that there were originally three series of guttural pojjjy tj,ree consonants, making the velars which are original series of not followed by u the third intermediate or ' palato-velar' series". i. With labialisation by u. (a) Before o-vowels, nasals and liquids whether sonant or consonant' : Gk. tt ; Lat. qu (c). Gk. Lat. Eng. TToS-aTTo'-s : quod : what {snf&x = -nqo-s) ?7r-o-,aai : sequ-o-r : see* (Goth, sailnoan, in- finitive) Xe(7r-w : linqu-o : 0. E. |K/ian* (Goth, lei- hwan) h-vew-e : i)i-sec-c ('say,' imperat.) : say (0. E. secgan for ( = *en-seq -e) *sagyan) oniM { = oir-fia) : oc-ulu-s •- ? eye (O.E 1 Bragm. Grundr. i. §§ 417, 424, 466, Gr. Gr^ § 35. 2 Morphologische Vntersuchungen, Vol. v. p. 63 note. More fuUy Bezzenberger, B.B. xvi. p. 284 ft., and Bechtel, Die Haupt- probleme der indogermaniscJien Lautlehre, p. 338 ff. Subdivision ii in §§ 139 — 141 corresponds to the new series. 3 Brngm. Grundr. i. § 427, Gr. Gr.^ § 35. ■• =' follow with the eye.' Wiedemann I. F. i. p. 257, denies the identity of see with sequor. ^ Hence are derived loan and lend. G. P. 8 114 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 139 — j-qirap ( = *ieqrt) : jecur 1 (rfTTciTos { = *ieqH-tos) : jecin-or-is] (b) Before dental (palatal) vowels : Gk. t ; Lat. qu. Gk. Lat. Eng. Ti-s ■ qui-s (Osoan pis) : wli- as in what above Terrapes quattuor : /ou)' (0. E. in compounds /(/ge)--) Tre^-Te : quinque : five {doth. Jimf). (c) In Greek, before v, which is itself probably occasioned by the labialisation : k. Gk. Lat. Eng. Xu/co-s : vulpes ^ : wolf, original form *ulqo-s vvKTOs (gen.) ': noctis (gen.) : night (0. E. neaht). ii. Without labialisation : Gk. « ; Lat. c. Gk. Lat. Eng. Kapmi : carpu (verb) : liarvest Ko\av6$ : collis { = *col-ni-s) : hill (and 0. E. heall 'rock') ., ) ■ i > . angle ' hook for angling. ' oyKos ) (uncus) ° "VVitliin the same word the consonant changes ac- cording to the following vowel. Hence iroS-aTro's, rts above ; noi-mj, Ti-jxri ; irdAos, TeXXco (cp. ireptreAAo/ieVajv IviavTQv with TTepmXofjLeviav iv.) from the same root as Lat. colo, inquilinus. Exceptions. (1) The force of analogy (§ 48) has changed many Influence of forms in Greek ; thus from XetVo) we should analogy. t^^^^ ^^^ j^^ ^^^ ^XQB&ut \ei7r-oj ^ Xeiir-Q-fiev XciT-ei! \elT-e-T( \elT-eL Xelir-o-vrL, In the numerals this is specially marked. Thus corresponding to Attic Terrape? Doric reropi'; and Ionic 1 A feminine form borrowed from a Sabine dialect, hence n for q. § 140] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 115 Teaa-epes, we find in Homer ■n-Ca-vpe's, in Lesbian 7re'o-(o-)vp€s, in Boeotian iriTTapK, the forms with initial t being levelled out. (2) In Latin original *penqe becomes by assimilation •quinque ; original *peqd (cp. iritTa-ui = *peq-i()) becomes ■coquo through *quequo. (3) In English *penqe should be represented by *finh, but we find by assimilation, as in Latin, 0. E. fif. In Latin and English the assimilation it will be observed has worked in opposite directions ; in Latin the first, in English the last consonant has changed. In the same way the word for 4 should have begun with h not/; in hoth numerals the change must have been very early as it is shared by all the Germanic dialects. So also Eng. ivolf corresponds more closely to the Sabine 'eulpes than to XlJKOS. 140. Indo-G. g = Skt. g, j ; Gr. y,l3,S; Lat. g, gu ■after n, lost before u; Kelt, g, b; Eng. qu, k; Letto- Slav. g, with later changes in Slavonic. i. With labialisation. (a) Before 0- vowels and nasals and liquids whether ■sonant or consonant : Gk. (3, Latin -y. Gk. Lat. Eng. ^ous : ftos' (an Osoan : cow word) jSaba : venio (§ 156) • corne (Goth, qiman) Bceotian ^aya^ 'woman' ; : queen {quean is ori- ginally the same word) a-ixel^-a : mlg-ra-re iari^u ( = * ^ ; Lat. h, f, g initially, b, gu, n medially, according to the character of the neighbouring sound ; Kelt, h, g ; Eng. w, g, or lost ; Letto-Slav. g, with later changes in Slavonic. i. With labialisation. {a) Before 0- vowels and nasals and liquids whether sonant or consonant, in Greek <^ : i'e} : ha.t. fendo. For a similar change within the same word compare ^etVo) with ^ovos and ^aros = *qhntos. Analogy some- times causes irregularities as 'i-6avov-*e-qhnn- where <^ might be expected. So also ^^'(^et for the regular (c) In combination with v, qli appears in Greek asx: fXaxi's : Lat. levis : ? Eng. light (adj.). 1 The latter part of kid-ney represents the same word, being a corruption of nere or neer; kid- is a corruption of an old word quitli 'the belly.' nere goes back to a primitive form *neShrun. 2 The English snoio and Gothic snaiws ( = Idg. *snoishud-s) exemplify Sievers' law (P. u. B. Beitrdge, v. p. 149) according to which a primitive Germanic 7 ( = Idg. gh, or k according to Verner's law) disappeared before w except when w was followed by u, as in Goth, magus ' servant,' but fem. mawi (Idg. *maq-, Celtic il/ac = 'son,' in proper names). 118 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 141 ii. Without labialisation ; x, Lat. h. Xa-vSavui : Lat. (pre-hendo : Eng. get Ipraeda { = *prae-heda) o/xlx^v ■ '■ Eng. mist • Lith. viigla (§ 138)- In Latin g appears before r as in gradior. II. Spirants. 142. Indo-G. s = Skt. s, s (= s/i) ; 6k. cr, s, ' (initially before sonants or u or i) or nil (medially between vowels and by assimilation) ; Lat. s, r (between vowels) and nil (by assimilation) ; Kelt, s or, in certain positions nil ; Eng. s and 7- according- to Verner's law (§ 104) ; Letto-Slav. s appearing sometimes as sz in Lith. and c/i in Slavonic. s initially and medially in combination with breathed stops or s remains : Gk. Lat. Eng. lyiraipoi : sper-no . sjyur-n^ spur o-Wfw : in-stig-are : s*('cJ; 'pierce' (§ 140). So also jSa-CTKOi, Horn. cTrecr-o-t, icTTi ; Lat. Jja-SCO, es-sem, est ; Final -s remains : Gk. Lat. oIko-s vieu-s yh-o^ : : gen-US ei7?s : sies 1 The meaning of the verb would be original!}' ' kick with the foot'; Latin and English have given it a metaphorical meaning. Another metaphorical sense 'track out' is developed in the German spilren, and Scotch speir ( = ask) 0. E. spyrian. 142] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 119 The Greek spiritits asper ' stands for (1) S-, Gk. Lat. Eng. a\-s sal sal-t •i-V-IJ.1. : se-ro sow ( = *si-se-mi) [ = -si-s.o) fi-iJ.a : se-men see-d (Goth. se]>s) 'i^oimi : sed-eo sit { = *sed-i-) 'qy-eofji.aL : sag-ire seek Tjdv^ : snavis : siveet (*sudd-us) ( = *suad-v -is) tSpws : sudor sweat { = *suid-) ( = *suoidur §179) VTTVOS : som-nus M. E. swefn (2) (weakest form of root { = *suep-no-s § 201) *suep § 253) (3) si- v-ixifv sua (verb) : seio. ( = *siu-) ( — *si^u-iu) As ■ was not written in the middle of words, o- entirely disappears in Greek between vowels ; in Latin s becomes in this case r : ( = *7ei/e{r-os) ( =*mus-os gen. ) Homeric ri-wv : (= *td-som gen. pi. fem. of article) Lat. gener-is ( = *genes-es) Lat. vmr-is ( = ^vius-es) Lat. is-td-rum O.E. mils O.E. )ja-ra. For changes brought about by assimilation see under Combinations of Sounds (§§ 188 ff.). Medial -a-- is sometimes restored by the force of analogy ; hence tXv-a-a because of €-Kotj/-a. influence of So modern Greek gives 4>ipi(Tai. 2 sing. Middle '^""'"gy- on the analogy of (jyipo/xai and cfyeperai (cp. § 48). 1 For i? see § 227. 120 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 142 — The reason for the appearance in Latin of s in a few words between two vowels, miser, nasus, etc., is not yet absolutely certain'. 143. Indo-G. z does not require much discussion. Treatment of I* apparently occurred originally only be- indo-G. s. fore voiced stops. It is represented in Greek by o- before (i and y as o-/3cvvu/it, TrpeV-yus (a dialectic form = irpe(7;8ws) ; ^ as already mentioned (§ 118) represents original zd. In Latin z disappeared before d and probably became r before g {mei-go). In English the voiced stops have become breathed and consequently z has become s in combination with them. In the classical languages the voiced aspirates be- came breathed aspirates and ultimately, in Latin, spirants ; hence we expect z, in all cases, to become s. In Germanic, as the voiced aspirates lost their aspiration, z remained and ultimately in some cases became r, in others dis- appeared. i'fu^ . sido ) nidus) : Eng. nest ( = ^iii-zd-os) oj'os • Goth, asts Zend mizda : fucrdos : Lat. ? miles''' : Eng. meed (0. E. med). IV and u. 144. These sounds seem to have been indistinguish- able from an early period. Recently an attempt has been ^ For the best discussion of the point see B. S. Conway, Verner's Law in Italy, ^887. 2 —"si-zd-O a reduplicated verb like iar-qixL, sisto; zd is the weakest form of the root 'sed-. ^ With the Latin change of d to i {§ 134). The meaning would be exactly that of 'soldier' — one who serves for money (solidi). But as Latin d here would represent Indo-G. dh, the phonetic change is doubtful. — § 145] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 121 made to show that a difference of treatment is discernible in Armenian, but the point is not finally decided'- It is possible that the difference between w and m (and be- tween y and i) was not that the one was a stronger spirant than the other, but that w and y were breathed while M and i were voiced. As no certain distinction can be drawn between w and u, the consideration of both sounds may be postponed till we reach the diphthongs (§ 173). y- Greek is the only language where a clear distinction is made between the treatment of original ii . . , . . , Difference be- and that of original i. In Greek original y tween orig j and is represented by C There are but a few certain examples, and these only at the beginning of words. f^u Eng. yeast ( = *tjes-6) I'vyov : Lat. jugum : Eng. yoke j;tfi.ri : Lat. JUS ('broth'). III. (a) Liquids as Consonants. 145. The number of liquids in the original language is not absolutely certain : two sounds, I and original liquids r, certainly existed, but there may have ""'^«''*'»™- been more. The difficulty of the question is increased by the fact that the Aryan languages sometimes have r where the other languages have uniformly I. 1 See H. D. Darbishire, Notes on the Spiritus Asper in Greek etymologically considered (Xransaotions of the Cambridge Philo- logical Society), Cambridge, 1888. 122 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 146- 146. Indo-G. 1= Skt. I and r\ Zend and Old Persian r, in all the other languages I. Skt. Gk. Lat. Eng. Jruc ' shine ' , \evK-6-s luc-em : light (0. E. Ie61it) ^i;ru 'hear' : kXv-to-s ■ in-clu-tii-s : 0. E. hlud (§ 133} KaX-eiv : cal-are : hale and hail wXefTj . ulna : ell JTreXAa (TreX^a ' s : pellis ■A fell 'skin' ole of shoe ' : Ifilm. 147. Indo-G. r - Skt. I and r, in all the other lan- guages r. Gk. Lat. Eng. 6-piyio : por-rigo reach and rack^ (pepoj : fero bear TTOpKO-S : porcu-s farroio ' litter of pigs' 0. E. fearh ' pig.' ^ The relations between I and r in Skt. and the development of the cerebral dentals from the original combination Z + dental have been discussed by P. Fortunator, B.B. vi. pp. 215 ff. and more recently by Bechtel, Haiiptprohleme der indog. LaiUlehrc, p. 380 ff. who, in the main, endorses F.'s conclusions. The results have been submitted to a searching investigation by Bartholomae (/. F. III. p. 157 fi.), whose criticism is mainly negative. The chief difficulties with regard to the history of I and r in the Aryan group of languages are these : (1) I occupies a very inconsiderable space in early Skt. ; where the classical language has I, the Eigveda has mostly r; (2) in the Avesta I does not occur at all; (3) the cuneiform symbol in Old Persian identified by Oppert as t occurs only in two foreign words ; (4) the modern L-anian dialects have I but do not agree in its use. On the other hand aU the European groups have an /-sound and agree in its use. The difficulty of distinguishing r and I is felt in our own time by the Chinese and Siamese. Christ in Chinese is KiUsetu ; a Siamese will pronounce "the flames rolled on" as "the frame loll on." ^ Some meanings of rack are apparently borrowed from the Dutch. -§ 149] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 12S Gk. Lat. Eng. epvff-p6-^ : ruher : ruddy ' red ' ' ijd-po-s^ : otter (0. E. otor) ay-p6-s : ar/er (from 'agros : acre (Goth. akrs). through the stage *ac, rs) IV. (a) Nasals as Consonants. 148. Indo-G. m appears as m in all the branches of the Indo-G. family. In Greek, Keltic, Germanic and Slavonic final m became n. Doric Gk. /xa~T7)p a-fieXyo} 6ep-ii6-s' ld6-/j.o-s r6-v Lat. : ma-ter : viulpeo : for-mu-s Eng. : mother (§ 104) : milk do-mu-s : timber* {(ierm. zivivier ' room') is-tu-m : Goth, jpan-a. 149. Indo-G. n appears as n in all the branches of the Indo-G. family. Lat. Gk. veos { = veJv-s) viui ' spin ' Dialectic oi-j-o'-s novus' ne-o U-'UU-S in^ {="01-110-3) Eng. new needle'' one, an, a'' in. 1 The English word has not the -ro- suffix. 2 Literally ' water beast. ' 3 The Greek word represents the f-form, the Latin and English the o-form of the root gher- (§ 141, i. 6). ^ Properly 'wood for building,' cp. Lat. tig-nu-m from tego. ' For Lat. = original e see § 180. * According to Kluge (D. E. W. .s. ■;;. nlihen), the root has been borrowed by one language from another, and so is not originally Germanic. Forms appear in other languages with an initial s. ' an and a are the unaccented forms. 8 Latin in for *en is according to Hoffmann {BB. xviii. p. 156) the unaccented form which changed e to I before the initial con- sonant of the following word. This form then ousted *en, which should have appeared in other combinations. 124 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 150 — 150. Indo-6. n appeared only before palatals, w be- fore velars. Gk. Lat. Eng. Ji a7xu : ango : ag- in agnail=0.^. ang ncegl 'a sore by the nail' n appeared originally in ludo-G. *pei3qe = irkvTe, quinque, five. (§ 139, exc. 2). B. Sonants. III. (b) Liquids as Sonants. 151. As sonant liquids and nasals appear in the weakest forms of many roots which have also stronger forms actually existent, different forms of the same root will often illustrate both sonant and consonant nasals and liquids, as 8epK-o/Aai, Si-SopK-a, t-SpaK-ov, Lat. pe^fo, 2')ulsus, where i-hpaK-ov and pulsus represent respectively original e-drk-om and pl-tu-s. 152. Indo-G. / = Skt. r, 6k. aX, \a, Lat. ol, {id), Keltic li, Germ, ul, lu, Letto-Slav. il. Before sonants Indo-G. I is followed by the corre- sponding consonant, hence Indo-G. II = Skt. ur, ir, Gk. ak, Lat. ol. (ul), Keltic al, Germanic and Letto-Slav. as above. KoXvTTu ■ Lat. oc-cultus : Eng. hole (Goth, hulundi ( = (cXA-) {c{. celare) 'hiding-place') ToXas : (Lat. tollo { = *tlnu) : Scotch thole (0. E. Jpolian (-til-) {O.'La.i.tulo Goth. t-iiZaii, 'suffer') [twXos]! : Ij&t. pullus ( = *'pl-nos) : Eng. /oaZ (Goth. /iiJa) TraX-Tos : Lat. pulsus" [ = *pl't6s), ^ Tire word, as is shown by the difference of meaning in Latin, had originally been used for any young animal. The Greek form shows the root in a different grade from that of the other languages. - In such words, s after I appears on the analogy of forms like vors-us = ''vrt-tus where s is according to a Latin phonetic rule (§ 191). — § 154] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 125 153- Indo-G. »-=Skt. r, Gk. ap, pa, Lat. or (ur), Keltic ri, Germanic tir {ru § 158), Letto-Slav. w. Indo-G. rr = Skt. ur, ir, Gk. ap, Lat. ol (til), Keltic ar, Germanic and Letto-Slav. as above. Skt. Gk. Lat. Eng. bhrti-s : [epa] : fors ( = *bhrti-s) : birth {O.'E. ge-lnjrd) ddp-a-t-s Goth. ga-haur\>s (from Se/j(j) porca 'balk be- : furrow, fur-long tween furrows' 0. E. furh Trpacro-j'^ *leek' : po^Tum{ = ''pi'-so-m). ovO-ap shows final rr ; er of Tiber probably arises in the same way as in ager, from *agrs, agros. 154. As regards the long sonant liquids much still remains to be done. According to Brag- ^^ng sonant mann^ it is certain that Indo-G. I, r are '"i""^*'- represented in Skt. by ur, ir, in Gk. by oX, op, Aw, pw, and at the end of words wp, in Lat. by al, ar and Id, rd ; in Keltic Id is found and apparently ar (in ard = Latin arduus), and in Germanic al and ar. But see § 158). oOXos 'curly' = *uI«o-s : Lat. lana — ulna. Skt. j;M)7i(J-s : iroWot { = *pl-n6-s) tXi7-tiSs (Doric rXci-ri-s) (TTpOl-TO-S tre-Trpuj-rai Lat. latus { = *ii-tos) Lat. strd-tus 'hat. pars ( = ''pfti-s cp. partim old accusative). 1 The reason for the double representation of the sonant liquids in Greek is a vexed question. According to Kretsohmer K. Z. 31, p. 390 ff.) ap appears if the later Greek accent falls on the syllable, pa. if the syllable remains unaccented. But cp. § 158. ^ Grundriss, i. § 306. 126 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 155- IV. (b) Nasals as Sonants. 155. The Indo-Germanic sonant nasals in Aryan „ . and Greek, when not standing immediately Various repre- ^ sentation of so- before i and probably u, or a sonant, are nant nasals in " -^ * • 1 • xi Greek and Latin represented by « and a respectively : m the according to po- ,, , .,, , ' ,. sition and ac- other languages, With Scarcely any exception, they are represented by the same sounds in all positions, these sounds being m and n respectively with a vowel which in Sanskrit and Greek is a, a, in Latin e, in Keltic originally e (for nn, an), in Germanic «, in Letto-Slav. i. 156. Indo-G. m = Skt. a, am, Gk. a, a/j.- (before a sonant), Latin em, Keltic e?n, am (cf. K. Z. 27, 450 n.), ■Germanic u?n, Letto-Slav. im. Similarly for the m-sounds Skt. a, an, Gk. a, av, etc. From the stem sem- seen in 6/j.o';, ev (= *sem), /j-ia (= *smia) we find a in d[-7r\6os = ''sm- : Lat. sim-plex Ace. suffix -m: 7r65-a -. hat. ped-em : Gofh. fot-u { = *fot-um). Before sonants afj.a = *smm- : Lat. sem-el : Goth. siim-§ = '*smm-o-s. Before i, m becomes av in Gk. en in Latin /Safcu (for */3a>'icj = *8)j.7o) : Lat. ranio : Eng. come. 157. Lido-G. M = Skt. a, an, Gk. a, av (before a sonant), Lat. en, Keltic (see K. Z. I. c), Germanic tin, Letto-Slav. in. Negative prefix Indo-G. '^n : Gk. a ; Lat. en {in) : Eng. iin. — § 158] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 127 Skt. sat- : Dialectic ^airo-a (fem.) : hat. prae-sens . [Eng. sooth^, ( = ^i-txiiTia) from the stronger form] di/6-/w.T-a. : Lat. cog-no-ment-a . Germanic suffix -mund { = -miit-) in Genaan leu-mund SaatJs : Lat. densus. Before sonants Tav6-y\ua-aos { = *tnnu-) : Lat. tenu-i-s : Eng. thin{ = *i>unnus) Before i fj-aii/erai (=miiietai) " of. Lat. genius : Eng. kin (stem *knio-)-. 158. The history of the long sonant nasals is even more obscure than that of the long sonant Lo„p. sonant liquids. In Greek d (Ionic and Attic v) "*™''' seems to represent m and n between consonants, while vd appears for initial n ; €/3r]Te = e-q^te, vrj--rrvTio^. In Latin nd appears for n in the middle of words, as in gndtus, an initially, anas, 'duck,' cp. Gk. vya-cra (= *^tia). Quite recently Osthoff has propounded a new treat- ment of the sonant nasals, recognising two ostuofrs new different forms in each of the Indo-Ger- t^ieory. 1 The meaning is 'truth' as in 'sooth to tell,' etc. The deri- vative satija in Skt. has the same meaning. The forms cited above are the present participle of the substantive verb *es-. 2 An accented sonant nasal or liquid, except as the result of analogy, is a contradiction in terms, these sounds being by defini- tion the result of the absence of expiratory accent on any given syllable. The forms supposed to be accented are now satis- factorily cleared up by Streitberg (I. F. i. p. 83). The sonant nasals, according to him, have only one representation in Gk. and Skt. just as in the other languages ; where Skt. am, an, Gk. av occur to represent these sounds, the form is a mixture between the genuine sonant a, a and the stronger grades with original e and 0. Thus ida-i. is a mixture of *i.a(n ( = i-iV-ti) and *(.ovn, ep. Lat. eunt. 128 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 158 — manic languages for each of these sounds'. Thus in Greek m, n are represented not only by a and av^, but also by /xa- and va-, in Latin by ma, na as well as by em, en, in Germanic by mu and nu as well as by um and un. It has always been recognised that I and r in Greek had each two representatiYes aX, ka ; ap, pa. OsthofF finds in Latin besides ol and or, la and ra, and in Germanic besides id and ur, bo and ru. Similarly the long sonant nasals and liquids are represented in the manner given above. Examples of the second set of representative sounds are jxanvia from the same root as fxeTaWdw. magnus=*r^gnos from root of /aeyas. vaim = *nsi6 (from the weakest form of the root in vocr-TO-s). nac-tus, Indo-G. root nefc^. V. Vowels. 159. Indo-G. a = Skt. a, Gk. a, Lat. a (in certain cases given below e, i, u), Kelt, a. Germ, a, Letto-Slav. 0, but at a later period a in the Lettic dialects. ay-pb-s : Lat. ager from agros : Eng. acre (Goth, akrs) through ''ag^s ap-bu : Lat. ar-o : Goth, aj-j/a ' I plough ' Bibl. E. earing 'ploughing season' avTl : Lat. ante (§ 165) : Eng. and, ansu-er. 1 Morphologische Untersuchungen, Vol. v. p. iv ff. ^ This is discounted by Streitberg's theory given in the previous note. ^ Sonant z is found by Thurneysen, K. Z. 30, 351 ff. in such words as xtXioi { = *ghzl-iio-), 4,piiyw, La.t. frigo, KpW-fi {=ghrzdhu) akin to Germ, gerste, Eng. grist. It may be mentioned here" that some philologists deny the existence of sonant liquids and nasals, — § 161] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 129 In Latin a when unaccented became (1) in open syllables u, the intermediate sound between i and «. This is represented some- Unaccented times by i, sometimes by u ; thus quatio, '" ^^*'''- concutio; salio, insulio; but pater, lup-piUr ; ago, adigo; (2) in close syllables, with rare exceptions, e; cam, concentus; cajno, acceptus (cp. accipio) ; facio, artifex, but artificis according to (1). Before I followed by another consonant a appears as u : conculco but calm (cp. § 273). i6o. Indo-Gr. a = Skt. a, Gk. d (t?), Lat. a, Kelt, a and a (when unaccented). Germ, o (§ 106. ii), Letto-Slav. originally a, which now appears as u in Lith., a, in Lett, and Old Prussian, and a in Slavonic. In Ionic Gk. d became t] everywhere, in Attic d appears at the end of words after another vowel and after p (§ 62) ; elsewhere Attic has »?. Doric Ma-T^p ) . ^^t ^(-^.(^^ . ^ rm-tlier (§ 104) Attic nr)-Trip ) Doric 0(x-76-s ) : "Lat. fagus . Eng. buck-ivheat''- Attic s : seed [ = ''se-\>i-s) : sow (0. E. sawanini.) ■so) : fa-ther (§ 104) : ate (Goth, et-um 'we ate'). In Latin films appears, not felius (connected with ^■^Aus etc.), possibly through influence of the i in the next syllable. 163. Indo-G. o = Skt. a and a (in open syllables^), Gk. o, Lat. 0, «, e, i, Kelt, o, Germ, a, Letto-Slav. 0, which in the Lettic dialects has become a. : Eng. eight (Goth, ahtdu) : Goth. brui>-faiys ' bridegroom ' : Eng. tliat : cp. Eng. day ( = *dhoghos) (Goth. dags) yivos : genus : cp. Germ, sieg, 0. E. sigor 'victory' ( = *sighos), Skt. sdhas Doric ip-o-vTi : fer-u-nt : Goth, hair-a-nd. In Latin of the classical period, u in final syllables has superseded except after u as in seruos, u, i, e in Latin equos (§ 125). " = °"^- "■ ^ The phonetically correct representative of this original form viz. /tefe is found in Ionic. 2 There is a difficulty here. Not every original in an open syllable becomes a in Skt. Cp. pcttis TrScns with jdn-a-s 76!'-o-s. This diflioulty is evaded by de Saussure and others by assuming two original o-sounds, one of which interchanges with e and is represented by a in Skt. , while the other remains constant as o, and is always represented in Skt. by a. Cp. now I. F. in. 364 ff. 9—2 Gk. Lat. OKTlb octo TrbcFiS potis ( = 'irbTis §133) t4 is-tud 56jnos domus 132 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 163 — u sometimes appears even in accented syllables as in huvc = hone, uncus = oyKos. i appears for o in ilUco = *in sloco (old form of locus) ' on the spot,' and possibly in agi-mus as compared with ayo-jxev. It is, however, possible that agi-mus by ana- logy follows agitis in its vowels. The genitive ending -is is not an example of this weakening ; -is in this case stands for -es, a grade of the suffix different from the Greek -os. Except as a final sound {sequere^'iTno), e appears in Latin for o probably only in unaccented close syllables, a case in which a also changes to e (§ 159); e.g. kosjyes, a compound oi host is 'guest, stranger,'^ and j90^/.5 'lord'; cp. on the other hand, compos, imjjos, later formations after the word had become an adjective. 164. Indo-Gr. o = Skt. «, Gk. w, Lat. 0, Keltic a, u in final syllables. Germ, o (originally), Letto-Slav. u (Lith. and Lett.), « Slavonic. vipLu : Lat. emo : Goth, nima^ iiSLop : : Goth. wat-O (an n-stem) ci'a 'border of a garment' : Lat. ora ' shore' : 0. E. dra eiSiis : Osc. sipus" : Goth. i0eit-uods. 165. Lido-G. « = Skt. i, Gk. t, Latin / (in final syllables and before r, e), Kelt. /, e (before a and 0), Germ, i, Letto-Slav. i. ^ This is the original meaning of the word; guest, Goth, gasts, is its philological equivalent. - In Goth, final o is always shortened and becomes a. In 0. E. final 6 appears as «, 0, and e. 3 So Johannes Schmidt (K.Z. 26, 373), who explains it as the weak form of the participle of *sepl the old perfect of sapio, cp. eid-ma, *f:ei5-vcr-ia. Others regard the suifix as original *uos. 167] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 133 Gk. ? Doric Ip-^v 'iuvenis' Lat. : vir ( = *uiroH) Bng. : worW^ (TTd-(7L-S : Jid-es : sta-ti-o : hid' (Goth, bidyan) : stead ( = ^sthd-ti-s ( = -'sthd-ti-s) fors { = *fortis from rt. *bher- §169) Urth ( = bhfti-s). ) For Latin i changing to e, cp. sero 'I sow' ==*si-sd (§ 142) with si-sto. Final i appears as e in the nomi- native of neuter noun stems in -i-, as mare for older mart, and in the ablative if, as is most probable, it represents the original locative; ped-e is then to be compared with ttoS-L 1 66. Indo-G. «=Skt. *, Gk. i, Lat. I, Kelt, t, Germ. I, Letto-Slav. Z (written y in Litli.). iTia = fiT^a : Lat. vi-ti-s : Eng. withy. Indo-G. suffix -mo- : dyxt(J'T-Li/os : Lat. su-lnu-s : Eng. $iv-ine, 0. E. sio-lii. Weaker form of optative suffix -ie- : eldeifiev : Lat. slmus 0. H. G. slni and sin { = *eld€(T-i-iiev) (strong form in siem) {O.'E. sien). 167. Indo-G. M = Skt. n, Gk. v, Lat. u {i or il before labials), Kelt. ■«, Germ, u, Letto-Slav. u. vi : Lat. nu-diu-s : Eng. jiow, 0. E. nft i'vydv : Lat. jugum Eng. yoke, Goth, yuk k\v-t6-s . Ijat. in-clii-tits . Genoa. {H)lud-ti>ip { = Leiois)^. ^ World originally means 'the age of man' (0. E. weorold), = saeculmn. ° In the English ' bid ' two separate original verbs are confused, corresponding respectively to Tnd-i(T6ai. and irvO-^crdai, the former in English originally meaning 'pray' as in 'bidding-prayer,' the latter ' command ' now the ordinary sense. ^ The English loud, 0. E. hlud, comes from a bye-form of this original participle *klu-ti}-s. 134 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 167— For Latin i or u (the intermediate sound between i and u, cp. optimus and optumus), we have an example in libet, by-form of lubet from a root *lubh-. Compare also Ihnpa or lumpa, later by reason of false derivation from Greek, lympha. This variation is very frequent in the dative and ablative plural of «f-stems, as in geni-bus as well as c/cnu-bus from gen-u. i68. Indo-G. u = u in the first stages of all the separate languages. jUUS Lat. mus : 0. E. Jims (mouse) u-s Lat. su-s : O.E su (for *su-z) SOID TTV-dw Lat. pu-te-o . O.E. ful {foul). i6g. Indo-6. 3 'schwa' or the neutral vowel = Skt. i (a before j'-vowels), Gk. a, (e, o), Lat. a, (i, Orig.aistreat- , „ , ^ t r^, t ed in the same u), Kelt, a, Germ, a, Letto-Slav. a. In with which each these languages it suffers all the later guage identifies changes which the sound with which it is identified undergoes ; thus in Latin it ap- pears as i in animus, cp. accipio (§ 159). Li Greek it occurs frequently as the weakest form of a syllable, and then, except when influenced by analogy, always as ". Orig. form *p9-ter. Skt. pi-td{r) : xa-xTjp : Lat. pa-ter : Goth, fa-dar. Orig. form *sth9-ti-s. Skt. stld-ti-s : aTa-at-s : Lat. sta-ti-o : Eng. stead (§ 104), dv-e-fios : Lat. an-i-mus Skt.vam-i-iiti ; /V^-^-u. The -0- form appears in Gk. in o/jl-o-tt]^ and similar words. The reason for the variation between « and o in — § 171] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 135 the syllable succeeding a root, when c and o represent original 9, is not known'. i and u. 170. i and m remain in many positions in all the Indo-Gr. languages, though in some they have been strengthened to spirants, or have be- ment of i and « . , 111.- 1x1 -r-i according to po- come voiceless and labio-dental, as ni Irisli sition iu the r ( > * " T X • word. jer man = *mros, Lat. Tir. These sounds are most important in two positions (a) preceding a sonant in the same syllable as ve-Fo-i, no-vo-s, (b) following a sonant in the same syllable as ai, ou. In the former position i and u are naturally often also preceded by sonants as in the example given, but consonants also frequently precede, as ^eVfos, Attic feVos, = *crT£A.(OD. In the latter position i and u may similarly be followed by either sonants or consonants. 171. («) Preceding a sonant in the same syllable. 1. Initially : i is represented in Greek by the spirltus asper ; u regularly disappears in Attic, though sometimes by a kind of ' cockney ' pronunciation, which in the fourth century B.C. was very frequent, the spiritus asper occurs. In many other dialects it was retained as f. 1 For dti-e-//.o-s, iix-i-w and other forms of the same kind, Pick's theory of disyllabic roots supplies a better explanation. There is nothing to prevent -e- and -0- grades having a weak grade in d. 136 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 171- Gk. Lat. Bng. i vaK-ivBos : juvencus : young (§ 104) i;/j,€is (Aeolic ajj-fie : . Goth, yus = *iu-sme) A-ria : vi-ti-s : loith-y (§ 166) rt. iietih- ' ^^"^ ( veho : loain. (o'xos S 172. 2. Medially : i between vowels disappeared early everywhere in Greek except when preceded by v. In this case some dialects, as Cyprian and Lesbian (cp. § 122), retained it down to the historic period. In Latin also, j between vowels has disappeared before the historical time. For i with sonant nasals see § 156. Gk. Lat. ^ (ani-o =amd-id Ttad-oj 1 " .. ,,„..,, , , \motie-o = mone-jo (hi\4-o} }■ had all originally -loj'- : so also < „ . „ . . J,, " ]fim-o =fini-io ' \statU--o = statu-w '' ( opt. in Theocritus : fu-at = *bhri-i-. or -a\ ar€fiji-u>, a-crTe/j.(^-7;s. The difference in the form of the root Trijy-vv-fjii, as compared with 7rr;/<-ro-s, is one caused purely by the fact that in the former case a voiced, in the latter a breathed sound follows. Compare also ypaxj)-ui with ypd/S-Srjv and ypaTT-To-g. In pe-2ng-i as compared with pdc-is, the difference had the same origin (cp. 2Mngo). In the same way Spa^-M and Spdy-f^a ' handful ' are derivatives from the same root, for the SpaxM'?' is the handful of six copper nails, or obols, which were the primitive medium of exchange '. 1 Eidgeway, Origin of Currency and Weight Standards, p. 310. G. P. 10 146 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 186 — i86. In some cases the final sound of a root or New suffix preceding suffix becomes attached to the lasTsoundofthl P^rt which foUows and the suffix is after- w°tiian°oTd'"ut wi^i'ds used iu this form (§ 286). Thus -.«- fl^- appears very often in front of -lo- and -no-. Hence the difference between nuc-leus and vil-la, the latter representing not *vic-la but *vic-sla. Compare with this te-la {=*tex-ld), u-la {=*ax-la), which is connected with a^-wv, ax-is and the rest, lu-na stands not for *hK-iia which, as is shown by dlgnus {=*dec-no-s from the same root as dec-us), would become *lugna, but for *louc-sna (cp. illustris = *il-luc-stris). So also alnus 'alder tree' is no exception to the rule for the assimilation of n to a preceding I, since it represents '^als-no-s. 187. In both languages the doubling of a consonant Double conso- '^Gry rarely represents an original doubling, nants. ,pj^g Homeric li.ai, vo'o-Tos), *o-faT-o--/xEi'os (a participial form from *suad-, the root of iJSiJS and sudvis, -8- becoming -t- before -a--), *€cnreva-iJLai, ^i^fxrjvos, *ir(.v6-(Tfi.a (root of English hind), *c-a-jr€VT-cra (-S- of cnriv^w becoming -t- before -U-), *7raX- 0--T0 (an S-Aorist), *7rp€iroi'Tia whence *7rpeirovcrcra, irpe- TTOvcra, TrpeTTOTJcra. Even with stops, s breaks up the combination ; com- (ii) containing pare 8iSa(TK(o (= *8(SaK-a-K(o) with disco only stops. ^ _ *di-tc-sco for *di-dc-sco, a reduplicated inceptive with the weakest form of the root). In the Homeric aorist Xck-to (= *XeK-o--To), -o-- itself has disap- peared and so also in eVros ' sixth,' as we see by com- parison with the Latin sextus. 189. At the beginning of initial combinations of Initial combi- Consonants, s- generally remains in Greek, nations jjf -.j. j^ followed by a stop, crirXriv, crrpw- To'?, (TKXripoi. In Latin, combinations where the third simplified in element is r remain, spi-etus, stratus, screare, ^'^^™- but in other cases the third member of the combination is alone retained. Thus to o-ttXi^v cor- responds lien, and the old Latin stlls and stlocus become Us and locus through the intermediate stage oi slls (once or twice found on inscriptions) and *slocus; cp. the adverb tlico ' on the spot,' which is really an adverbial phrase *in sloco. Brugmann thinks' that cldvis, claws, Greek kAtjco, kXijl';, ' key ' represent an original sH- which 1 Ch-iindr. 1. §§ 425, 528 note. — § 191] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 149 is simplified to si- in the English, sluice (Gennan schlies- sen, Old Saxon slutil 'key' etc.). 190. Sometimes the change which a combination of two sounds undergoes, when they stand . between two vowels, is different from that i?es in a conso- 1 . 1 , 1 ,, . , . nant according wriicn riappens when they are m combma- as it is followed tion with other consonants. Thus in Latin, ^ °"'* °^ ^''^^' original -tt- became -ss- : *urt-to-s Lat. vorsus ; '^p9t-t6-s Lat. passiis etc. But in the combination -ttr- the change is not to -ssr- but to -str- ; pedestris represents an original *pedet-tris. The same is true of the original combination -nttr- thus tonstr'ma (= *tont-trma from the root of tondeo), defenstrix { = * defent-trix from de-fend-oY. 191. Of the combinations of two elements, those which consist entirely of stops call for ,. mi • 1 Combinations little remark. Their numbers are not very of two conso- large and, of those which can be cited, a considerable proportion are compounds with prepositions. These, by themselves, are unsafe guides, because such combinations are so late, comparatively, that the original rule may have been quite different. From the root *keudh- found in n^id-w, a derivative by means of the root determinative -dh- was made apparently in the primitive Indo-Germanic period. From the beginning the combination -dh + dh- was simplified to -d + dh-, which is represented in Greek by xuVSo?, in Latin by custos, in Gothic by huzd'. But later combinations of d with dh do not change in this way. In Latin, original dh is represented initially by/, medially by d or b, but af-ficio 1 It is possible that in these combinations the change was first to -sr-, and that -t- was then inserted between s and r as in English stream from rt. "srew- and sister ( = ''suesr-). ^ Brugm. Grundr, 1. § 469, 5. 150 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 191 — { = ad-dh-) and ad-do' (where dh- has one of its medial forms) would be altogether misleading guides for the history of the earlier combination. 192. Combinations of stops unless assimilated are so difficult to pronounce that frequent tions *^o™ '"wo changes may be expected. The combina- '*°''^' tion pt remains in Greek, but initially loses 2:1 in Latin ; hence TrreA.™ but tilia. In 2}ro-{p)tervus, p is dropped, apparently because the word is a com- pound, for ajitus, saeptus and other forms show that -2)t- is a quite possible combination in the middle of a Latin word. In tUtw there is an interesting example of transposition. The root is t€k- and the form of the redu- plicated present should be *ti-tk-w (cp. Tri-TTT-M from TrtT-). It may be that, as is generally held, the analogy of verbs like TTiKTw, xaXeTTTU) brought about the change ; it is at least as likely that the rareness of the combination and its Difficulty ot difficulty were the causes. It is not, how- pronu.iciation. ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^jj ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^g found a difficult combination. Dialects of the same language vary from one another. Thus the ordinary Greek ^('(/jos is in Lesbian o-kic^os ; at^i appears in S}rra- cusan as t/'e. The English ask, ivasp appear in Old English both as dscian, ivcesp, and as cicdan, ivwps ; in the Scotch dialects the combination -rs- is much em- ployed, cp. English grass, Northern Scotch girs (0. Eng. gwrs). Christian (as female proj^er name) with the com- mon Scotch form represented in Mrs Oliphant's Kirsteen. In all combinations of two dentals -it-, -dd-, -ddh- there seems to have been a very early change towards a 1 ad-do, con-do aud some other compounds of do represent not the origmal root *du- in Si-Sw-yUt etc. but *dhe-, the root oi ri-O-q-ixi, 8(jj-fi6-s etc. — § 194] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 151 spirant sound, so that, in time, one or both elements is reduced to -s- ; Greek io-to's, kv(t6o% etc., combinations Latin v'lsus, custos etc. Hence Brugmann °f 'J™'*'^. writes these combinations -ft-, -dj'd-, -d^dh-. 193. Much more change occurs in the combinations of stops with spirants, nasals and liquids, combinations The combinations with s- have already been a'fouSwSg'spi- described. The initial combinations ji + s, ™"*' ^ + s in {l/rj\aa6-, x&- in Greek, where an equivalent to Greek words with these initial sounds appears in Sanskrit with ks-; ktcivco is paralleled by the Sanskrit ksan-, x^"" by ksd{m), c^^i-vw by kfi-na-ti, tcktov- by taksan-. This has led to the suggestion that there was an sk (s) sound (§ 113, 2) in the original language distinct from the ordinary s. No certain conclusion can as yet be arrived at. In Latin, according to Osthoff, super as compared with vrcp and Sanskrit upaiH has s as the weak form of ex. The com- binations of stops with nasals and liquids (jji) a following present more variety. In both languages a "''^'^'' labial is assimilated to a following jb. Latin avoids the combination of a dental with m in any position, while it changes -cm- into -gm- (segmentiim but secure). Combi- nations of a stop with n present no difficulty in Greek ; velar gutturals follow the changes of the sounds into which they have passed whether labials or dentals. Initial ^v- (=*g«-) becomes fj-v-; iJ.va.ofj.aL 'I woo' is the verb to /3ava ' woman ' (§ 140, i). tpe/A-vos is from the root of tpt/3-os (=*req-, root of English reek). 194. In Latin, the development of dentals followed by a nasal presents great difficulties. The history of 152 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 194 — -tn-, in particular, lias given rise to much discussion in recent years ; not only do different philolo- -?^n- in Latin. . i i i t/./. i • i , .t. gists hold diiierent theories, but even the same philologist has more than once held different theo- ries at different times on this question, which is of especial interest as concerning the history of the Latin gerund and gerundive participle. After all that has been written on the subject, it seems most probable that -tn- becomes -dii- and then metathesis takes place ; hence -nd-. Thurneysen, who originated the discussion \ regarded tendo as a reduplicated verb, from the root of ten-eo, *te-tn-o became *te-dn-o, *tendno, tendo. The example may be disputed, but there can hardly be any doubt that pando is from the same root as pat-eo and there- fore represents an original * pat-no. As regards the treatment of original -dn- in Latin, there is also much doubt. The old identification of the second part of 'AA.ocr-w8-i'77 with unda seems plau- sible ; if correct, metathesis has also occurred here. How then are mercennarius {= *merced-ndrius) and the Plautine dispennite (= dispendite) to be explained? For the former, it is possible to assume that the suffix was not -nd- but -snd- ; if so, the first stage was by assimi- lation of d to .s, *mercet-sndrius whence *mercesnd}-hts, mercennarius as penna comes from *pet-snd. The Plautine form can be easily explained as a vulgar assimi- lation (§ 182). 195. The treatment of original kn in Latin is curious. Initially the guttural disappears {mdoi-=*cmdor, 1 In K. Z. 26, p. 301 ft. Most of the supporters of this theory, including its author, have now given it up. Brugmann, after accepting it to explain the origin of the gerund {A. J. P. viii. p. 441 ft.), has now discarded it (Grundriss, Verb-flexion, § 1103). — § 197] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 153 probably through the intermediate stage *gmdor), medi- ally the breathed sound becomes voiced and the vowel also is affected. Thus from *dec-no-s (cp. dec-et, dec-us) comes dignus (pro- nounced diranus § 127 n.); tignum may represent *tec- no-m (from root of rexTov- etc.), but it is equally probable that the Romans themselves were right in connecting it with tego directly. Thus, according to the definition of the jurist Gaius, tignum is 'wood for building,' while lignum is 'wood for gathering,' 'firewood' from lego. 196. Of the combinations of stops with a following /, Greek presents a great variety. It combinations seems probable that initial dl- in Greek be- {'/v)'aToiiowi^g came yA.- in yXu/cv's as compared with the '"imti- Latin didcis. Latin changed medial -tl- into -cl- and -dhl- into -bl- in the suffixes -do- {-cido-) and -hlo- (-bulo-) respectively. Medial -g- disappeared in Latin before -/- without leaving any trace, the preceding vowel not even being lengthened, stilus without doubt is from the root of ]?-) ; compare A.to-- 154 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 197 — (TOfiai with A.m;', ocra-e with OCulus, [j-icrcro^ (later /xecros) with meditis, iXaa-awv with tXax^s. 8t and yt become f : Zeus (§ 181, 5) and ctti'^m (§ 140, i). pi became -tt: hence TTToXis, TrToA.€/j,os, whlch sBBm to have arisen from a dialectic pronunciation; compare the American pronun- ciation of car as cyar. In verbs (xaXeVTO) etc.), -tt- for -joi- is regular throughout Greek. It is a question what was the original form of the Latin suffix -bus in the dative and ablative plural. In Sanskrit the cor- responding form is -hhyas which may represent an original *-bhios or *-bhioms. It seems therefore pro- bable that Latin -bus should represent the same original form. But the Gaulish fiarpe^o {=matribus), the suffix of which goes closely with the Latin, is against the identification. 198. One or two of the combinations of stops with -II- present difficulties. That which is still most in doubt is the treatment in Greek of initial tu-. Medially -tu- becomes -a-cr- (-tt-) ; thus Teaa-apK = *qetu-. It seems probable that txi- initially also became o--; Initial u- in hence T^i acc. of the second personal pro- ^''''''^- noun becomes o-e and from this or some similar case form, the nominative r]$, sedibug = *sedes-bh-. But other explanations of the forms are possible ; sedes etc. are influenced by -i- stems. 200. In combination with a following i, the s sound in a Greek word became weakened or assimilated. Hence from -osio the old genitive of -o- stems we obtain first -oio as in Homer, next, by dropping i, -oo, which has to be restored, e.g. in 'l\iov ■irpoTra.poi.de {II. XV. 66) which will not scan, and lastly by ordinary contraction, -m in the severer Doric, -ov in the milder Doric, Attic and Ionic dialects. 156 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 201 — 201. The treatment of cru whetlier initial or medial presents the same kind of difficulties as tm- su in Greek. . i ■ i v above. What is the relation between us and trijs? We must suppose that both words are of the same origin. How then can we explain the existence of two different forms under the same circumstances? It is conjectured that, while -Js is the legitimate represen- tative of original *s«s (§ 168), the form criJs has de- veloped from a genitive form *a-F-o% where o- was regularly retained. But if so, why does cKupos Lat. socer represent an original su- merely by the rough breathing? Here there is a difficulty which has not as yet been satisfac- torily solved. It is supposed that medial -y are rare and uncertain. In Latin medial -sr- always becomes -br-. Of this there are many examples : ^svesrhios ' sister's child' 'cousin' hecomes sobrhius ; cerebrum is'*ceres-ro-m (see § 188); fimebris is *ftmes-ri-s. The adverb temere literally 'in the dark' has connected with it the sub- stantive tenebrae {=*temsrae) but the cause of the change of m to n in tenebrae is not clear. 1 M. U. V. p. 62 e. " Solmsen, A'. Z. 29, p. 348. 158 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 205 — 205. In the^ Greek medial-combinations -yu-o--, -vo--, -u- Combinations was assimilated to -/X-, -V-. Aeolic Greek elements (ii)^^ remained at this stage, but Attic lengthened nasal or liquid, ^j^g previous vowel and used only one con- sonant (§ 219). Thus, from the original aorist forms *i-veiJ.-cra, 'ijxtv-a-a come in Aeolic evefifxa, (.jxivva^ in Attic ei'ei/ia, (.jxtiva, where -£i- is not a diphthong (§ 122). The history of the final combinations is different. Here -5 remains and the nasal disappears, with or without com- pensatory lengthening of the vowel (§ 248) : n^as (for Tifj-avs § 218), oLKovs, «is (es) for eV-s etc. Medial -per- -Acr- remained (§ 184) but -per- was changed in pure Attic to -pp- : apcrrjv (apprjv) etc. In both Latin and Greek, m whether sonant or consonant becomes u before i (cp. /Jai'vo), venio = * qmid ; koivo's for *Ko/x-ps' connected with Latin cum 'with' ; and quoniam for quom jam). 206. In Greek initial mr- becomes fip- ; cp. PpoTo'i from the same root as mortuus and the Corcyraean jBapva-jx^vo's (= *l3pava-) the par- ticiple to p.dpvaiM.1. Medially in Greek -mr- remains, inserting however /3 between p, and p; a-p./3poTo-9 etc. The history of this combination in Latin mr in Latin. . .-,. n t ^ t ■/> IS still a matter 01 dispute. Osthoft con- tends^ that initial mr- is represented by fr- in fremo (=^pc'/mo), /return akin to /Bpaa-aay, j'rutex to /^pvu>, fragor to ^Ppaxe; medial -mr- he finds in lubernos = *X«'Ai.-p'.i'os which could stand to the ordinary x^'-p-epn'os as fX€o-rifx/3pLv6s does to yjjj.epLv6<;. The first stage of change would be from *hrimrinos to *Kibrinus which becomes hibernus exactly as *.se-crino becomes se-cerno. tuber Osthoff considers akin to tu-meo etc. and to Skt. ' For the epenthesis see below (§ 207). - M. U. V. p. 85 ff. — § 208] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 159 tu-m-ras. This theory, which is, in some respects, a return to an old view, may be regarded as still sub judice. 207. The treatment of nasals and liquids in Greek when followed by i is also deserving of notice in another respect. Except with quids followed A., t produces epenthesis, by which is meant ^ * ' that the t following the nasal or liquid disappears but an j-sound is introduced into the preceding syllable. The process by which this takes place is in two stages ; (1) the nasal or liquid sound is weakened through the influence of the following i and (2) in turn acts upon the vowel before it. The sonant and consonant forms of the nasals and liquids are treated exactly alike : compare a-jrdpw l*sper-id) with (nraipu) (= *sprid) ; jiaivia with KOLVO^ (§ 205), KTiivOi {*KTeV-l(l)) wlth TeKTOtva (*T€KT|Zm). If there is a group of consonants, it is simplified ; hence Secr-TToiva (= *8ccr-7roTvt-a). On the other hand, medial -\+i- becomes -A.X-; cp. o-tcXXco {*a-T€k-iM) with /SaXkw 208. Combinations of u with i occur in a small number of words; KXyw 'shut' =K\dF-tM whence KAdi-fw, KXau), kXtju). In Latin cap-tivus may possibly have a suffix representing original -teuio-s Skt. -tavya-. ' The attempt of Johannes Schmidt {Pluralbildungen der Iclg. neutra, p. 198) to connect Eng. liver and its cognates in other Germanic languages with Skt. ijdkrt, Gk. rjirap, Jjat. jecur, by postu- lating an original initial combination U- ia extremely doubtful. d c3 o o '^ ^ O P4 ^ o F-< CD Tl o ^ 0^ S "v* 4^'" rn m o ce 0^ +2 TS O) t— H o 1 — 1 S 1 •I-l-l o be (=1 o 1 !5 -1^ C-1 o o o .s <1 CD O ^ o o CD O c5 > - ^ -1-3 ^ rt 4^ hn 0^ c o O ^ fl ;^ t+i^ c^ __fj o (S o r^ 'TTi p: ^ C3 CD n 1— ( Cli O^l ^H OJ ^ O o T3 ts 3 3 ^ «M ^'V be g" -u'3 =• . — , c3 ,i.5 ,S o CJ--C <£ o 5'o J- tC^ *^K «'«3 -s dC i<4; o « K -\u O —' ^^ ""^ o 13 3 3 ■?i — ^ -s-c= ^ s 11 III bo he -S* ?- o j- Hi ^cJ - . ?^ ■ «5 O Id '^ S =: Si f=lTs^ ■-' "^ — •— -.^ '- ;i-^ o 'ia ;^ ;^ o O d o sr- P- -d to a -< CO t -E d Id N « — ' ■"-■ ■"-^ ■"' =1 ^-- ii ^ ^e o CD.W -0 — cn.^ -3 3 £ vrTS I/, ^ ^ ■=" 3 t;"z: o — ^ ^ 'St II ■4g c: "— ' o ^ o3 ^-^ Cl^ o ■ _ -? '^ (/. S o t- *- 2 U. K — ^o-^ -^ ^0 ,S "> S . u 3 ^1 :5 ^- — • ■ — ■ o ' — -— ' ""^ t/- i. .— ^ - S3 ^^-T, ^ s ttat ^a 3 A few « id f=" — -^ "^ ^-^ ^— ' ^ - -M -c u y-v (U as w Si Zi-— «. JL^og '1 ^<^s^ ^ t ,bl|S I'll- -— -O O Q O . £• bbs.sgg' ;=, a •E ^ |¥ ^ "v'S s ^3 ,_^ t' ^& tc Ii —. .^ lit ^S !^0 t3 5i- -t IS % =^ ?- "-< ^^ -w "-^ ^^ b i 1^5 |o S *^ tc'vw -oja 3 .'^^ II i"? A ^,r;g". N »■ w II ^£ — D rt M h > 1- ,1 il? I P< ig I o ti e3 ti S b i, ^ o3 " O .5 S^.^li ■»£.£ f:-th tE l^i-^ ^«o «-::• £^ie S •3 2. ■■5 s -?ii-r- a ^^ TS ^ 6C •3'S C fc > is ia o 3 :=^tj- o ^ V.^-^'W ^-' ■^ "^ S ti a. _ . - (B ii ^ ^ ?^ ill ll 3 o « o « « co"o'= C^ >r.S-cl rt -8 S -=S C3 b "^ b.i ^g a BC^ G- := is S'SSJS — •-' i: c- ^-^ "—' "^-' -4J 5. § S ,|.oaE,bJ r 7 i s -a d xx: w c- •^ -^ s^ o -^ — ^-^ "*-' ft b ca "^ «S3 -3- a a II II If ■W N_/ ^^ ^^ '^ -^ - q O^O 1^ at, i a t ss o - « S' Si ti t, ;i M o 2 3^ "= - ■§ i < a 3-S'e r.r f;S.2i o o ■ o te ' ^ (p n_ -■ p, wg ■9- 0.-3- a-i b = i §TS 2 -S a «J M ■< r-^ '-^ --^ 'T "c" llfi 1, '-^ i h fij 1^ a' "£§■19 fllili s^ ■*- ' >— ' -«-' — ' "O ■-^ > — NW N— ' ^ - II is „ Iftl _L_ g 0'6c:s •W ^— ' *— ' ■*— ' ■■— ' "— ' ■— ' N-' r ■2-7 rill c 1 ' — ^ 2»i pa,.? 3 ■ ' '"' ^^ ■— ' ^^ ^^ O- ' '-^ L^O S"~ g ifll ■ O S3 0. 1=1 B 1' = fill -^ -^ ■"* ' — ' ^^ '^ _g X o * ^ Q» h:; fl O j; s< •^2 30„a ■Sllfglf O GO II O ? 1- fc 3 C ^ o^£ ta 3 ^•^rs 3 pcCL-o^oS ^'5" ^— ' ■*-' "-' N— - -W ^— ' "^^ "— ' ^ •52 m i: ®'~M 3e i H P 3 1 ^ t, »^ I. ?■ 3-S i ^^ -_/ "-' ^-^ ^-' "— ' O ^ to '?'m>5 IN b;| g- jjji » , — ' — 1 0?' lill 3 ^i ^^ -_^ •^ s_^ ^^ '-'^— ' S_^N^ '3 - ^_^ " i 5 i '[^ £■' Eifi O ^1 ^ i «» -O"- ' ^ "tr b- lllll :?|li li lit II o -^ o o W^' ■■C, 1^ ^ ^ ft-^ i« S" s _a . »- «- 1 J »|9 f-i ;£ 3 p o 22 12 " Hilt |s:l ^5 3 u a§s Ifp xtisi _s id- o C- w i5!=. 3 8 & s '•;> "7? "^ s r b B ~ 3 ic ^ U. I' ^ "^ 2 1 i?-s& lla 1= .is -6»e M ■— ' '^-' V -w j^ ^ '!=■ II -C- o ffi (h g a a a 8 ,3 II S a 2 l|?a| lis a? irrs.a li •e-3 f^ ^ ^ /-«. ■^ "-^ ^^ ^-^ "-^ ^-' Hi II ^3: 11 n i «oa /-^ ^ St ll'lll i o i '-^ ■'-' "— ' ^^ ^-^ "— ' .-c JLr a „2, .g 1ia§ i o S io . 1 S II •== =s S « 3 S ■s'c tl -<««■*» «* o a* ■StC ^'^■"■'d'rf «-<-<& " .— «, e^ ^_^ -^ %_/ ^-' ■^ '*-' ^-^ ^-' ■*-* ? i ? 3 ^ 1 11 -^ aj _ »; 1 ^ 1 Q. N_^ V H-a .-.S.2 iltll r-i Jh ^la'-^d^ ■— ' •— •^ -^ ^^ - — ^^ ^^ s— >w 'J3 a 1 « 1 - »-l —c cc 166 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 209 — xiii. Oii some other Sound Changes. 1. Contraction of vowels. 209. The certain contractions which go back to the original Indo-Germanic language are few in Contractions . . , „ , intheindo-Ger- number and, in some cases, tlie nature 01 the manic period. , , • ,1 1. j.- ■ component elements m the contraction is not easy to ascertain. The best authenticated original contractions are those of stems ending in a vowel with a case suffix beginning ^^ith a vowel, because the original vowel of the suffix can be dis- Contraction i i • • ^ in the Dative covered wliere it appears with consonant steins. Thus from *ekua + ai came the dative form *ekudi of the feminine *ekud 'mare,' whence the Latin equae (§ 181, 1) ; from the stem *ekuo+ai came the dative form *e/cudi of the masculine *ek-iw-s. That the original dative ending was -«/ is sho^M-i by such survivals as the old Greek infinitives 8o'/i£vai and Sovvat, which represent the dative of original -men- and -uen- stems, *do-men-ai and *do-uen-ai. Similarly *elcud + es and ^elcuo+es of the nominative plural were contracted into *ekuds and *ekuds originally. These forms have no representatives in Greek and Latin, but the Sanskrit and the forms of the Oscau and Umbrian, Gothic and (for the feminine) the Lithuanian show that these were the original forms replaced in Greek and Latin by the endings ai, ot ; ae, 1 (oe) respectively. The nature of the original ending is shown by the ending of the masculine and feminine consonant stems 7rot-/icV-f5, etc." ' The long e of homines is a later development (§ 223). — I 211] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 167 The combination of o with another o is illustrated by the genitive plural of o-stems ekuo+dm = contraction ekmm, tTTTrajv dimmi\ The locatives oIku, p}u^fand"ioc™ otKOi, Lat. vici, represent the old combination *'™- of the e : stems with the locative sufSx -i seen in ttoS-i, Lat. ped-e (§ 165) etc. The augment with verb forms illustrates the combi- nation of e with a and e. e-^ag- becomes eg-, Attic rjyov ; e+ed- becomes ed-, Attic with the aug- v\fx-6iov from the root of Latin ed-o (cp. Lat. es-t for *ed-ty. e+ei- became ei-, whence Gk. ^a 'I went' from cT/u.t'. 210. The contractions in Greek and Latin need not detain us long. The ordinary contractions „ , . • ,1 !■ 11 • ,11 Contractions ot vowels are given m the lollowing table, in Greek and Those which arise by the loss of an original consonantal sound between the vowels deserve somewhat more attention. The number of such contractions seems to be greater in Greek than in Latin, because in Greek the number of important consonantal elements certainly lost between vowels is greater. But as the history of Latin is so imperfectly known to us in this matter, as in so many others, it is impossible to give the same details as for Greek. 211. In both languages the most frequent source of such contractions is the loss of i ; rpcZs, tres both go back to an original *treies; com- pare also TT-oXiK, oves = *iro\-ei-es, *ov-ei-es. So also, in ^ equorum has a different origin (§ 319). ^ The Latin perfects egi, edi are more probably formed like cepi, sedi than examples of augmented types 4 + ag-, e + ed-. 3 For further and more doubtful examples of these early com- binations see Brugm. Grundr. i. § 111 fl. 168 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 211 — the verb, (jn^m, moneo represent *<^tXe-w>, mone-io, tijmw and a7}id represent *rijj.a.-id and *amd-id. According to the most recent authority the 1st person sing, in such cases is formed with the -io- suffix, but other persons' are made directly from the noun stem plantd-s etc.' In classical Greek this tendency is still going on; hence the scansion of toioBtos, irow3 with the first syllable short. The second part of the diphthong, however, is not lost here, but in pronunciation the word seems to be divided, not as TOL-ovTo% etc., but as to-iovtos etc. (§ 245). 212. In Homeric Greek the loss of the u- sound represented by F was so recent that hiatus Loss of w. ^ ^ . • , . ■ 1 • generally marks its ongmal position and m many dialects it survived throughout the classical period. The F was altogether lost in Attic Greek, and contraction takes place, in the verb, between the augment and the vowel sound which was originally preceded by the digamma. This contraction could not have been early, otherwise we should have found not d-, which is the contraction e.g. in eIX-kov ( = *e-u6lqom), but ■>?-, as in yjcr-Biov. KoiXos is possibly for KoT-t-Xo?, cp. Latin cav-uni. In Latin the absolute loss of u is rare, but latrina- *ki,vatrina'^. 213. In Greek SavXo's 'shaggy' is cited as an ex- Loss of -tr- in ample of contraction after loss of -o--, cp. «'•''<'''• SatroJs. But this is doubtful. 214. In Latin not a few contractions arise from the Loss of -h- in lo^s of li between similar vowels ; hence nihil Latin. becomes nil(cTp. English not^ ne-ichit), *ne- kemo becomes nemo, *bi-himus 'two winters old' blmus etc. ' Brugmann, Grundr. 11. § 487 {but cp. above, § 172 n.). - Sohweizer-Sidler, Gramm. d. Lat. Sprache (1888) § 31. m ^, O 1—) H c3 O ,~~. < o 1- -r Vi c -7l H XJ X^ 2i Oj M o ■"^ o ^- rt C h^ f^ =; w C !>: a I— I o o rg = =1: CD o <^ += 11 g*V II -^-4- :^ ^-1- §■ 3 to " 6 ^ II « Oj (Doric ( = co ud in o o ',3 -"o ■'J> o a ^3 ■- '^ o =3 ^ '^ o ^ ^ to P^ o 5 O M3 ^ to a (O CJ to _ IC — l; 3 o II N II II II II 11 . — -Tl II II CD a <3 ^a iS a <^:a o ^ ^ 'C .S i a a -f + ■^ ^^ >-? > II _ 'C '-ti -^ K a c^^ 3 ■^ S ~^ 1 — 3 ^1 a. rt a o 55 'O -^ h c-. ^ t>. C-- N r-.. - let irt e o 3 ir; ID C6 c3 II II II II II II II nr: oj 10^ o lO a + 4- -H + -1- -1- -1- 'it; ts e8 03 )it; ca C3 CO wo QJ a -^ ° y a — § 216] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 169 2. Anaptyxis. 215. By this term is meant the development of a vowel between two consonants. The first of the two consonants is generally a stop, the second a nasal or liquid. Anaptyxis occurs in both Latin and Greek, in Latin being especially frequent between c Anaptyxis in and I. To this is due the vowel between c ^**'" '"'■'''■ and I in such words as saeculum, periculum, poculum. But it has been recently proved' that in this case a con- fusion has arisen between -do- the Latin development of -tlo- (§ 196) and the double suffix -co-lo-, and that this confusion belongs to the classical period, for in Plautus -do- which represents -tlo- is always scanned as a mono- syllable. Apart from this series of exam- , J. ■ • T X- i Anaptyxis in pJes, anaptyxis m Latin appears most com- foreign words monly in foreign words; drachuma (8pa- )(P-v), Alcmnena {'AXKfiTjvrj), techina {r^x^r]), mina (t^vS), Patricoles (JiaTpoKX-rji), Aesculapius ('Aa-KXrjTrm^). With r, anaptyxis occurs in several genuine Latin words, ager, cerno, sacerdos, the er being developed out . . . . ^ Anaptyxis m of an earlier r (§ 147) ; with I, apart from native words in ° ' '^ . Latin. the suffix -do- above, the most common in- stances are the suffix -bio- which appears as -bulo- {sta-bulum etc.), and occasional variants like discipulina and extempulo. The history of smn, sumtis, humus and colup is not clear ^. 216. Many of the Greek instances are also un- certain, it being possible in many cases Anaptyxis in that the vowel was developed before the *^'^<^''- ^ By W. M. Lindsay, Classical Review vi. p. 87. - For further examples see Schweizer-Sidler, Qravun. d. Lat. Sprache § 47. sum has probably a thematic vowel — *s-o-m (§ 453). 170 A SHOHT MAXUAL OF [| 216 — separate life of Greek began'. As examples the follow- ing may be cited. With A.; ydXa beside yXaKTo^ayos, a.\€yeiv6 "■pajSv'kai (quoted by Hesychius) beside dpfivXai. The examples with nasals are less certain. e/3So/x-o-; is supposed by some to represent an original '"^septm-o-s; o.<^(.vo? ( = original -a), the vowel of the accusative plural must have been -a-, as otherwise we must have had *rnx.y]% not TL/j.di". a-njXrj, in other dialects a-TaXXd and o-raAd, shows compensatory leng-thening for the loss of the second consonant, which itself came probably from an earlier -vd suffix *o-raA-T'd. KdXo's in Homer has the lengthening, because it repre- 1 Brugmann Gr. Gi:- § 29. ■' For further examples see G. Meyer Gr. Gr.^ §§ 94 — 97. ' The Greek rule on this point was that a vowel before a nasal or a liquid or j or n followed by an explosive or .? became short {§ 227). — § 222] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 171 sents an earlier *Ka\-io-<;. In this case Attic has no lengthening, kHXo^. Compare with this aXXos (=*aX- to-5), the -XX- of which was apparently later since Cyprian has atXos. 219. f. The lengthening arising from the loss of consonants is written after 403 B.C. as u. Lengthening iViLfia for ^ivefjio-a, t/xeiva for *e/xevo-a', °^'' Ta6eiai for *Ta6€i/Ta-L, eh for *sem-S (but Sco-TTOTi;? for ♦Seyu-s-TTOTiys § 188), ek for £i/-s (§ 246). The cause of the lengthening in /jlcl^wv, Kpuaaav is not certain. Attic feVos (Ionic ^civos is used in Attic poetry) shows no compensation for the loss of F in the combination -vF-. 220. o. exova-L for exovTi (3 pi. of present) and *iXOVT-(TL (dat. pi. of participle), ^xovo-a for Lengthening *€;;(OVT(,a, /jLovaa for *iJiovTLa (Doric /xwo-a), " iTTTrovs for iVttovs. Homeric yowo'?, Sovpo's represent *yovf-os, *Sopf-os, Kovpo^ = *KopFo-'s, but in Attic opos ' boundary ' = Corc3rrean opf 05 ; jSovXofiai apparently re- presents * PoX-vo-fiat (cp. § 140 i J). Some lengthenings, dOdvaro^, i-mj^oXos, ovvofxa., seem to be used for metrical reasons only. {b) Lengthening of vowels in Latin. 221. Cicero tells us that -ns and -nf always made a preceding vowel long. Priscian adds that Latin vowels -gn- had the same effect, but his statement '^f'ZL^A is not borne out by the history of the combinations. Romance languages. 222. a. hdlare is said to represent an older *an- sld-re from the root of an-imu-s, qudlimi Lengthening 'work basket' is for *quas-lo-m, scala for ofi^^fna. 1 For i (§ 138); d- <^eXos (§ 239); no example of prothetic before f, unless perhaps the name of the Cretan to^vn "Oa^os. 233. d. Prothesis of i: l-x^v's (original form un- certain ; cp. £-x^« alongside of x^«) ; l-ktl's (alongside of KTiSei; 'weasel-skin helmet' in Homer); t-o-^t 'be.' 234. The causes of prothesis are by no means Possible causes certain, but it seems probable that more of prothesis; than One cause has been at Work, p repre- senting original r is never found at the beginning of — § 235] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 175 a word in Greek ; where p begins a word it represents original sr- or uv- as in plyo? (§ 203) and difficulty of pro- ptfa. Original initial r is always preceded lunciatlon; in Greek by one or other of these prothetic vowels. This seems to indicate a difficulty which the Greeks felt in pronouncing r; cp. French esjjrit for Latin spi- rit us (§ 249 n.). But why should the vowel vary ? Why should we not have uniformly a, or e, or o instead of all three ? G. Meyer suggests that the nature of this vowel was generally determined by the character of the vowel in the next sjdlable, thus introducing a principle some- what of the same sort as the law of vowel harmony in the Turanian languages (§ 34), a principle which has been more prominently brought forward recently'. But we must search for further causes, for we can hardly suppose that the Greek found a difficulty in pronouncing X and /A as well as p and F. It is notice- nasals and li- able that p, \ and /^ are sounds which ap- ^d'1^ToS+' pear as both sonants and consonants; con- '=°"*°"'»'''; sequently it is possible that after a preceding consonant they were pronounced as rr-, II-, mm- respectively, whence would come ap-, aX-, and a/j.-. ^^g^g division There are other possibilities — the wrong "f"°'''**- division of words (§ 238), the existence of prefixed particles (§ 239) as in a-Xiyoi which has been explained as ''n.-lego', and disyllabic roots. 7. The phonetics of the sentence. 235. In the making of a sentence the individual words pronounced during a breath are not Difference be- kept carefully separate, as they appear in an^" ^tten writing, but are run into one another, the ^'i'^^'^- 1 By Johannes Schmidt, KZ. 32, p. 321 ff. ^ By E. K. Wharton {Some Greek Etymologies, p. 4). 176 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 235 — final consonant of the preceding word being assimilated to the first of the following word, and vowels contracting or disappearing, precisely as in the case of the individual word. Hence in Sanskrit, the language of the most acute grammarians the world has ever seen, we some- times find a series of words run into one whole which ends only with the end of the sentence or with Examples of ^ome other natural break. The form in this difference. y,Y^ic\i we write the words of our own lan- guage or of Latin and Greek is that which the words would have when no other sound followed. Thus we write Tov \6yov, but what the Greek said, and what he not unfrequently wrote, was roXAdyov : the variations in Latin kaud, hant, liau, point to assimilations of the same nature, and, though in English we write at all, we actually combine the sounds of these two words exactly as we do in a tall man. 236. Among the consequences we may deduce from Consequences these facts are the foUomng ; (a) words are words *'in°" he likely to be wrongly divided, thus giving sentence, j.jgg ^q ^^t^j forms ; {h) final and initial con- sonants will be assimilated and one or other may dis- appear, thus again giving rise to new forms ; (c) final vowels may either disappear or become consonantal before the initial vowel of a following word, and, if the consonantal form of the vowel affects the previous con- sonant, may give rise to new forms ; {d) if the forms originated in these three ways continue to subsist side by side, they may be specialised in different usages, and may no longer be felt as at all connected, or one dialect may keep one of the forms and another another. 237. {a) This generally arises from the similarity of the case ending of the article or some such word — § 239] COMPAEATIVE PHILOLOGY. 177 to the initial sound of the word which is affected. Thus in Greek ras-o-Teyas is divided ras Tfyas and words wrong- hence a byeform arises rcyos, reyif and the ''' 'iiv"'ed. verb Tcyo) by the side of the older uTf.yo'i, o-reyT/, o-reyo)'. So also Toijs jjiiKpov^, Tovi /xEp8aA.£ovs, etc. lead to Toy's (TfxiKpov's, Toy's o-/x€p8aXe'ovs and ultimately to a complete set of forms with initial s, which had been lost earlier by a general Greek law (§ 202). The pronoun 6 Sdva ' a certain one ' is supposed to be a wrong division of o&e + another pronominal element''. If any further change takes place in the form of an initial combination of consonants, the byeform may be widely separated from its parent. If we could be certain of the identification, a good example of such difference would be found in piyos = *srlgos, whence iu Latin both frlgus (§ 203) and rigor^. 238. This wrong division of words is probably one of the origins of prothesis. Thus 6fj.6py- vy/xi by the side of ixopywfii probably arises from a wrong division of d.wo-p.6pywp.i, and the same may be true of o-puo-o-to and 6-ki.a-Odvw. 239. The cognate words w-4>eXi(a and 6cf>uXeXo's seem to owe their initial o and its two ^^1^4^ and forms to a somewhat different cause. In °*"'^"- the prehistoric period of Greek there seems to have been a preposition *(u (=Skt. a) meaning 'round about.' This still survives in lOKtavo';, originally a participle from 1 This interchange goes back to Indo-G. times, the Germanic languages (Eng. thatch) showing a form without s-, for initial st- would remain unchanged (§ 103 i). - Baunack Studien i. p. 46, Solmsen KZ. 31, p. 475 S. But compare Persson I. F. 11. p. 228 ff. 3 So Pedersen I.F. u. p. 325 n. G. P. 12 178 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 239 — the same root as K6t-/iai and indicating the river ' lying round' the world'. The stem of wekiw etc. is ap- parently the same as that in Skt. phal-a-m ' fruit, gain.' If *oj could be used with the same meaning of greatness as Trepi in TTfpUXvTo^ etc. it is not hard to arrive at the meaning of wi^cXe'co. "When the old preposition died out, a confusion arose with the augmented w forms of the imperfect and aorist. Hence in o'^ctAo) the present was written with o by mistake for co, and oe^eXo? followed its verb'''. It may be conjectured that a still further stage is to be seen in cpe'i^co as compared with its substantives opo(/)os, oporj, the verb changing its initial o to e parallel to the regular change of its root vowel. 240. The number of such wrongly divided words in English is considerable; as examples may vided words in be cited npron akin to napery originating in the wrong division an apron instead of a napron, an orange for a norange, a nickname for an eke name, a newt with the byeform an eft 'the water beast ' from the root of Lat. aqua, the n in the last two cases being added to the original word, whereas in the first two cases the n which originally began the word has been lost'. 241. (h) The loss of final consonants is probably mostly due to assimilation. To this majr be attributed = See V. Fierlinger, KZ. 27 p. 477 fl. 2 Moulton, A. J. P. VIII. p. 209. ^ In the Keltic languages this has resulted rather in the change of the initial consonant of the second than of the final consonant of the first word. The speakers of the old Gaulish language, when they adopted Latin as their speech, kept the old manner of pro- nunciation, a pronunciation still traceable in the curious 'sentence phonetics' of French, cp. i} a with a-t-iU and the pronunciation of ave:-vous i with that of the same words in vous avez. — § 243] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 179 the total loss of final stops in Greek. Double conso- nants arising by assimilation at the end of a Assimilation word were reduced at the end of the clause i" t^e sentence, or sentence to a simple sound; hence vco-tijs, novi-ias with final -s, -s for -o-s, -ss by assimilation from -t?, -ts the original stem being *neuo-tdt-. The V ecficAKva-TiKov, whether at the end of a verb form as €ep€-v, or of a noun form like nrTroio-i-v, was not originally merely an arbitrary means of avoiding hiatus, but was extended from cases where it had originally a meaning and syntactical value to other cases where it had not. Parallel to this is the confusion of of and on in Shakspearian English' and in modern dialects. The unaccented form of both prepositions became simply a neutral vowel sound written o (cp. a-bed where a is the unaccented form of the older an = on, and a, an the articles, really unaccented forms of ane, one). Hence on came to be used for of and vice versa. In the modern Northumberland dialect on has, in consequence, developed largely at the expense of of. 242. The frequent loss of final s after a short syllable in early and popular Latin was j^^^^ „f ^^^ ^ owing to a weak pronunciation of the s and ™ ■'^''''"■ partly, perhaps, also to assimilation. But to the Roman \witers it was merely a metrical device and the elision occurs before all consonants with equal impartiality. 243- (c) The contraction of a final vowel with the initial vowel of the following word has ^^^.^ already been discussed. The loss of a final vowel before a succeeding initial vowel leads in Greek to various dialectic forms of the prepositions dv, aV, kut etc., which were then used before consonants and some- ' Abbott, Shakspearian Grammar § 182. 12—2 180 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 243 — times assimilated, as is the case with war before ir to tt — Kair ireSwv (Homer), before /3 to /J — Ka^/SaXe (Homer), and so on'. 244. In Latin et represents the same original as Latin et, ac, '^'- *^^^ ^1 ^^^^ regular change of final i in atque. Latin to e (§ 165) became *ete and the final e was dropped before a following vowel as in animal, calca/r etc. which are neuter z'-stems. So also ac is merely a byeform of at-qiie (itself only ad+que 'and besides '), the e- sound being lost by a kind of syncope (§ 228 i) before a following consonant and t being assimi- lated to c {qu) exactly as in siccus from *slt-co-s°. In the popular pronunciation which we find in Plautus this dropping of final e was carried much further, as we learn from the scansion, than the representation of the language in writing shows. 245. The peculiar scansion of Homer is also in a Scansion of large measure due to the change of the tore^'voweis *'in second part of a diphthong into a conso- Homer. Txwii beginning the next syllable, the so- nant part of the diphthong being then treated as short ; in other words -ai a- (see § 83) is now scanned as -a. w.-. Hence, in the line aXkv dpumvuv koI virupo-^ov e/x/xevai oXKwv, the latter part is to be scanned ko. nj-n-eipo^^ov 'iftfUiva laXKuiv. In caSCS of erases like Kairi, Kara the grammars lay down the rule that a is to be written only when I is part of the second element in the combination. This rule finds an explanation in this principle ; in xa-Trt I disappears as it does in -n-oui for ttoku and oroa for older o-Toid, while in Kara the 1 of Ara still survives. 1 G. Meyer Gr. Gr? § 309. 2 Skutsoh, Forscliungen z. Lat. Gramm. p. 52. — § 248] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 181 246. (d) A good example of the double forms produced when a final vowel becomes con- - ^^^^ sonantal is seen in ■rrpo';. This is the form "'"''• which irpoTL takes before a following vowel. Thus the primitive Greek forms would have been *-!rpoTt-8iScoTt but *7rpoTie8(oK€ whence *'n-pocro--€Sa)Ke. This when isolated was written Trpos and remained the only form in Attic Greek, although irpoTi survived and Trpo'; disappeared in other dialects. 247. The s in forms like i^ {=iK-';), ek (=*iv-s), X<«P'-s etc. is of uncertain origin. As Trapos (gen.) Trapa (instr.) Tr^.pi (loc), Trapat (dat.), seem to belong to one noun paradigm, it is possible that -s in ^K-s is the weak form of the genitive suffix, (h and ev have been specialised in Attic in different senses. In some dialects, however, Iv is the only form, governing alike dative and accusative just as Lat. in governs the ablative and accusative. 248. The forms once ending in. -vs which show com- pensatory lengthening of the vowel are survival of only one of two sets of forms which existed ^'^^'^'^ forms, as the effect of the following word upon the previous one. At the end of the sentence or before a following vowel the forms with long vowel were developed — n/xas, 6is i^'kv-i), ^€ovs; before a following consonant the vowel showed no lengthening although the -v- was dropped as before — rt/xas, «?, 6'eos. So too Secr-7roTr;s 'house lord' for *S6/xs-5roTijs, where *S€/xs is a genitive of an old stem from the same root as Soyu-0-5 and Se/i-w. This accounts for the variants cts and £5 and for the short forms of the accusative plural which are sometimes found in poetry ; cp. Hesiod, Works cmd days 675 koi ■)(€ip.wv l-n-iovTa, Noroio T6 Seivas ajfras : Shield 302 TOt S' WKUTToSas Xayos 182 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 248 — TJptvv. These short forms, however, have generally been overpowered by those which show the compensatory lengtheninff. xiv. Accent. • 249. It has already been pointed out that in the Pitcii and Original Indo-Germanic language there stress accent. ^ygj,g ^^q kinds of Accont — pitch accent and stress accent (§§ 92 — 3). It was also observed that the effects produced by these accents were of different kinds. The effect of pitch accent would be to influence the nature of a sound, a high-pitched sound naturally going with the high pitch accent and conversely. The main effect of stress accent is that it emphasizes one syllable at the expense of its neighbours; the syllables before and after are likely either to lose their separate existence altogether or to have their vowel reduced to a neutral sound. This happened extensively in Latin, and in the development of the Romance languages from Latin. In Latin compounds, in instances where there was no counteracting cause, the a, e, or sound of the simple word was reduced to the neutral / or u sound (§ 272); compare desilio, insulto with salio; adimo, iwo- tiniis with emo and tenus ; ilico ( = *in sloco), sedidus (formed from se dolo 'without guile') with locus and dolus. In the late Latin, from which the Romance languages sprang, the stress accent was stronger appa- rently than it had been at an earlier period ; hence, in cases where no other law crossed its effect, the loss of unaccented syllables preceding or following the syllable which had the main stress. Thus the Italian Bimini, storia are the representatives of the Latin Ariminum, — § 251] COMPARATIVE PIHLOLOGY. 183 historiam ; the French Gilles, frere, aimahle, esprit^ of the Latin Egilius (a byeform of Egidius, Cic. De Orat. 11. (>^),fratrem. (§ 93), amabilem, spiritum. 250. It is necessary to discuss (1) the remains of the original Indo-Germanic accent which „ ^ ^ , , , Two systems are still found in the history of the indivi- ot accentuation •^ . to be discussea, dual languages and (2) the changes m the original system of accentuation which took place in the separate history of Greek and Latin. 1. The Indo-Germanic Accent. Ablaut. 251. The most important relic of the original ac- centuation and the only one which requires vowei grada- consideration here is the vowel gradation or *'""• ablaut, which the majority of philologists still attribute to the influence of pitch accents It is contended that there was a change of vowel according to the position of the highest pitch, for example e interchanges interchange with 0, e as a higher pitched vowel appear- °' " ™'* "' ing in the syllable with the chief accent, in the syllable which had not the chief accent. Thus we have rightly <^eppr]v, iv-Trd-Tiop, ev-t^pwv, liomo, -ttov's, pes, etc., tO the shorter forms tra-Tep-a, V '■ 'There is One above.' In many rural districts the reluctance of wives to refer to their husbands by name leads practically to the use of the pronoun he in the sense of mt/ husband. In some languages the exact reverse is true ; the word for husband, lord or master comes to be used as an emphatic pronoun. Thus in Lithuanian pats (older patis), which means husband or lord and is identical with the Greek ■n-oa-is, Skt. patis and Latin 2}otis (no longer a substantive), is often used simply as the emphatic pronoun avrds, and its feminine 2Xlfl as avTrj '. The Latin form of this word — potts — gives us an from snbstan- example of a Substantive coming to be used tive to adjective, ^g g^-^ adjective and actually forming a com- parative as well as changing into an adverb. In the verb possum, a corruption of 2Mtis sum, the original sense ' I am master ' has faded into the vaguer ' I am able.' Possideo 'I sit as master, hold the mastery of retains the meaning better, although to the Romans themselves the derivation was probably equally obscure. It is this change from substantive -in- apposition to adjective which according to Delbrtick is the explanation of the numerous Greek adjectives in -o- that have no separate form for the feminine, at any rate in the early period of the language '. He thus explains forms like rjiJ.epo<;, eKrjXos and TJa-vxo<; and compares with these words 1 Kurschat, Lit. Gr. § 906. ^ Syntaktische Forschungen, iv. p. 65. — § 278] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 207 which have entirely passed into adjectives such phrases as o-Tuc^Aos 8e yij Koi x^po-o's (Soph. Antigone 250), where X^pTo<; is in the transition stage. 278. The readiness with which adjectives in most languages pass into adverbs is known to . _ Adverbs. every one and requires no illustration. But many adverbs are (1) actual case forms of substantives, (2) relics of lost cases, or (3) prepositional phrases ; com- pare Latin /orfe 'by chance,' an ablatival form from/ors', with partim the old accusative of the stem represented by pm-s, or again with ex-templo or ilico (= *in sloco ' on the spot '). Other adverbs again are parts of verbs, licet^, ml, or whole clauses such as forsitan just cited, scilicet and the English may be. Adverbs so formed are subject to the influence of analogy and occasionally take the form of adverbs derived from other origins. For ex- ample, Ka\(5s is explained as the old abla- • 1 p p \ ' 1-1 11 Analogy in tival form of KaXo5, which would appear the formation of • • n 41 X «c\ A 1' /-\ t adverbs. originally as *KaAM8. According to Ureek phonetic laws the final 8 is dropped (§ 241) and a final -s is added, the origin of which is not clearly known, cp. X<3pi and x<^P'-'^> ™'^" ^^^ avtv-s in different Greek dia- lects. On the analogy of KaXm the Greeks invented KpetTToVos, although properly the ablative of an -n stem ought to be formed quite differently (§ 309). It would not be surprising if the members of a phrase like vovv 1 Found declined in Fors Fortuna, the name of the goddess, and in the nominative in various phrases as forsitan, i.e. fors sit an, which itself is also used as an adverb. ' licet and vel might be more properly described as conjunc- tions, but the line of separation between adverb and conjunction is not easy to draw. Conjunctions seem best regarded as a subdivision of adverbs. 208 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 278 — ex^iv which occurs so frequently in Greek were to run together into one word just as animuni advertere has become animadnertere in Latin. But the influence of analogy is so strong that Isocrates can venture to make an adverb vowexovrius and Plato still more boldly e5 koI if^ov-rwi vovv '. In the later Greek we find also an adjec- tive vowcx^'s and a new substantive derived from it — 279. In no language can this principle be carried . , . to a greater extent in the formation of ad- Analogy in . ^ the formation of jectives and adverbs than in English, but tives and ad- as we often allow the words which we use in this way to stand apart from one another, the working of the principle is not always obvious at first sight. In a phrase like ' a penny wise and pound foolish policy,' all the words except the first and last form, as it were, one huge adjective. Analogy affects English exactly as it affected Greek. One curious example may be given. In the English Universities it is customary to distinguish as " Close " and " Opeir " those Scholarships for which competition is restricted and free re,spectively. The two words ' Open Scholarship ' make, as it were, one substantive, and from this again has been formed a new substantive ' Open Scholar,' a combination in wliich, if treated as two words, ' open ' has no intelligible meaning. One or two other curious examples of word-making may be cited from our own language because here we 1 Isocr. 83 e. Plato, Lnjos 686 E. In both eases it is to be noticed that another adverb is used at the same time. It is erroneous to say that the adverb is derived from vowexh^- In Isocrates, Blasa prints vovv exivrus as two separate words, but in the new edition of Kiihner's GriccMsche Grammatik as one word. — § 279] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 209 can trace the history of the development in a manner which is impossible for any of the so-called dead lan- guages. The first is an example of a borrowed suffix. In many words which have come into English directly or indirectly from Latin the suffix -able oc- . IT- ,■:-,. n ■ Suffix -a6!«. curs, representing the Latm suffix found m such words as amahilis, irremeabilis. This suffix was confused with the word able which comes from the accu- sative form of habilis through the French. Hence it has come to be supposed that -able might be used as a suffix to make an adjective from any English word or even phrase, cp. understandable, get-at-able. A second example may be taken from Saxon English. In the earliest English there was a feminine suffix -estre corresponding in meaning to the masculine -er as a noun of agency: thus 0. E. bwcestre, preserved . X -a ^ Ix, c ■ Suffix -sier. m the proper name Baxter, was the femi- nine of baker. But in process of time these forms came to be regarded as only more emphatic varieties of the forms in -er, and most of them became masculine. At present spinster, properly the feminine of spinner, is the only remaining feminine word of this form". Indeed so completely was the original meaning forgotten that a new feminine was formed in some cases, e.g. songstress, seamstress. Further, when the forms mostly became masculine a special meaning was attached to the suffix and it is henceforth used contemptuously as in punster, trickster', etc. Changes of the nature of this last specialisation of -ster are not uncommon in many languages. In Latin 1 Morris, Hist. Outlines of English Accidence, p. 89. - Possibly this special meaning may have been iniiuenoed by the Latin suffix -aster, which has a similar value. G. P. 14 210 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 279 — and the Germanic languages, for instance, the suffix -vo- has become identified specially with words of colour : fid-vu-s, gil-vu-s, fla-vu-s, etc., English yellow, sallow, blue, grey, all originally -uo- stems'. 280. The history of such developments seems to he that the original signification of the sufSx opmeiit in such is forgotten and, if the suffix happens to formations. „ , , . . -, . . , occur frequently m some special meanmg, it comes to be regarded as connected with that meaning and is accordingly further extended in that sense. This is true not only of the noun but also of the verb sufiixes. Legebamini has been already cited (§ 49). It is now commonly held that the first Aorist Passive in Greek Greek Aorist i-^o-B-^-v, etc., which has no exact parallel Passive. j^^ other languages, was formed by a mis- taken extension of the ending -^r?s in the second person singular (§ 474 b). The second aorist passive, i^Kxvrjv etc., in Greek, which is an independent development in the separate history of this language, is also supposed to be formed on the pattern of intransitive forms like ip-qv, which belong to the active voice. There is moreover some reason for believing that many verb forms are really compounds. In Greek Xey^a-Oai has recently been analysed into *A.cy£;, an old locative form (§ 312), and *-6aL a dative form from the root of TLOrjfjLL^. In Latin it is possible to analyse many subjunctive forms in a similar fashion into locative stems followed by some part of the substantive verb; for in- 1 Brugmann, Grundr. 11. § 64. Bloomfield, A. J. P. xii. p. 25. - According to the common grammatical arrangement Xiyeadai and other infinitives are ranked amongst verb forms. Strictly speaking however all infinitives, whether simple or compound, are cases of a substantive. — § 281] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 211 stance legis-sem is possibly such a locative *leges, followed by a possible form (sem = *siem) of the sub- . . /T)i , \ "■ i- 1 • ■ ha.t. legis-sem. junctive stem (rlautus) or sim, which is m reality the ancient optative. These however are as yet only possibilities ; the forms of the verb have hitherto presented graver difficulties to the philologist than those which occur in the analysis of noun forms. As the noun and verb forms differ in most respects, although at some points, as has already been shown (§ 49), they do overlap, it will be more convenient to discuss the formation of substantives, adjectives and pronouns and the development of their forms and uses separately from those of the verb. xvi. ]^ou7i Morphology. 281. All nouns are either simple or compound. In other words they come from one stem or from two or more stems. Adyos for example is a simple noun, Sta- Xoyos, o-TTcpjiioAdyos are compound nouns. Every noun consists of a stem, and, in general, it has suffixes added to indicate various case rela- partsinanoun tions. The stem again may in many in- *^°''"' stances be analysed into a root and a formative sufiix. But this is not true in all cases. /Jov-s, Lat. res, are stems which it is impossible to analyse further ; that is to say, root and stem are indistinguishable'. Xdyo-s consists of the stem A.oy-o- and the case-sufhx -s; Xoy-o- again of Aoy- a form of the root (cp. the form A.ey- in the verb Acy-o)) and a stem suffix which appears sometimes as -o- and sometimes as -e (vocative Ady-c)^. On the 1 Compare § 181 note. ^ Compare, however, the note following § 265. 14—2 212 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 281 — other hand, a word like rep-ixa or Lat. ter-7nen can be analysed into a root *ter- and a suffix *-men, in its weak form *-'mn (§ 157). But here there is no case suffix at all in the nominative, accusative or vocative Singular, although such suffixes are to be found in other cases. When the suffix is not added to a root but to an al- ready existing stem which contains a suffix, mary, second- the suffix added is called a secondary suffix. Even if more than a second suffix is added, although we ought properly to have a new name, tertiary, etc., for each, additional suffix, it is found more conve- nient to distinguish only a primary and a secondary series, the latter including all which are not primar}'. In many books primary and secondary derivatives are treated separately. This however is not necessary. If there are no secondary derivatives^ formed by means of a suffix, this fact generally indicates that the use of the suffix to form new words has ceased in that particular language. 282. In words, however, like Sia'-Xo-yo-s and -u) and Tpoov-o-^, etc., is far the most common. In the formation of the cases we find the same influence at work. This has already been pointed out (§ 50). In English, book which originally belonged to the same declension as foot ought to form its plural beek. The analogy of the majority of nouns has led to the formation of the plural books. In Latin we have a constant interchange between forms of the second and forms of the fourth declension, — doini and domus, senati (early) and senatus ; in Greek ^wKparTj and irregularly 'S,(DKpdTr}v (§ 50). 283. Thus far examples have been taken where it is possible to draw the line distinctly be- . , , , Second part of tween simple noun stems and compound compound stem T, , -, , . 1 becoming suffix. noun stems. But it sometimes happens 214 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 283 — that one part of a compound is so mutilated that it really becomes a formative suffix. A good example of this is the English suffix -ly in man-ly, trvAy, like-ly, etc. This suffix was originally a substantive, English -«?/. . ,, , , J ' .. meaning body and sometimes corpse, the latter signification being preserved in such forms as Lich-field, lych-gate and lyke-ivake (the wake or watch for the dead). Thus man-ly originally meant man-like, i.e. 'having the body or form of a man.' In Homeric Greek we find the first beginnings of a similar construc- tion in the phrase, four times repeated, jxapvavTo Sefxa? TTupos alOojxivoLo, where Se/ias is exactly the English ' like flaming fire.' From this simple form we pass to tru:-ly i.e. 'having the form or semblance of truth.' Finally the meaning is so entirely forgotten that we actually compound the word with itself and make the strange form like-ly which, though far removed in meaning, is etymologically equivalent to 'body-body.' In Latin, as Dr Autenrieth long ago pointed out', the adverbial suffix -iter is really the sub- Latin -iter. . . . • , , stantive iter and breviter is but breve iter ' short-ways.' From its frequent use with adjectives whose neuter ended in -e (earlier -i § 165) -iter passed to other stems. Hence we find forms like firmiter, audacter and many others from -o- stems and consonant stems, although perhaps at every period the suffix was most common with -i- stems. 284. In most of the forms which have been cited, 1 In Eos, ii. Jahrgang (1866) p. 514. See a note in Archiv fur latein. Lexicographie v. 276. Osthoff had taken the same view independently in vol. iv. of the Archiv p. 455. Delbrtlck {Grundr. Syntax § 264) rejects this theory and holds that the entire series is made on the analogy of inter. — § 285] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 215 only the second member of the compound has had a case suffix, the first member appearing mere- Case forms in ly as a stem. In Ov-ft-o-fiopo-'s, 6v/jlo- is the '"*™''™° stem of 6v-fi6-'s but it is not a case form of Ov-jj.o-'s. In many compounds, however, there is a syntactical relation between the parts of the compound and the first mem- ber is a genuine .case form. Thus Aioo-Kovpoi is only Aios Kovpoi ' sons of Zeus,' SioVSotos is Aios Soros ' given of Zeus,' a form preserving a very old syntactical con- struction. In Latin the most probable explanation of words like iudex and mndew is that they are compounds the first part of which is an accusative, ius, vim. They are therefore of the form represented by /xoyoo-To'Kos, an epithet of the goddess Eileithyia = /aoyovs-roVos (§ 248). In late Latin proper names were sometimes thus formed, e.g. Adeodatus ' Given by God,' the name of St Augus- tine's son. Cp. our own Puritanical names Praise-God Barebones, etc. Sometimes the form might as well be given as two words ; Kripea-a-Lcl>6prjTos ' urged on by the Fates' is a verbal preceded by the old locative used here in the sense of agency. So also oVo/ia/cAwTos might be equally well divided ovofm kAuto's ' famous of name,' ovop-a being the accusative. Thus it will be seen that in some cases it is hard to tell where juxtaposition ends and composition begins. 285. Three means of distinction have been formu- lated by Brugmann'. ,,\rni T f> J. r ±.1 Three criteria (1) The ending 01 one part 01 the com- to distinguish pound passes into words where it would not from'"juxteposi- appear in the simple form; ^eoVSoTos fol- lows the analogy of StoVSoros. ' Orundr. 11. p. 5. 216 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 285 — (2) The first member of the compound no longer stands in the same syntactical relation to the second. dprji-(^iko% ' dear to Ares,' apr;t-<^aTos, dpyjL-KTafji.evo's ' slain in war ' have the proper sjmtactical meaning ; dpeiOvaa- vos, an epithet applied by Aeschylus to a doughty warrior, has not. (3) The meaning of the compound is changed from that which the two words have when merely placed in juxtaposition. A blach bird is not necessarily a black- bird and there is no relation in meaning between siveet bread and sweetbread, between a hog's head and a hogs- head^. In English the change from two words to one is often marked by a change in accent. 286. Sometimes the speakers of a language cease Mistaken di- to recognise the dividing line between the pounds °a,nd°its parts of a compound. Thus the Greeks resultsinGreek, ^^^^ ^^^^ ^j^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^.^ ^^^ .^^^^ ^ masculine form (KaKo-epyos) KaKovpyos ' evildoer.' This they mentally analysed as KaK-oCpyo? and next made Travowpyos upon this analogy. From the form aAAoS-aTrd-s, which is formed with the neuter stem *aAXo8 and the suffix found as -inqico- in Latin hng-inquo-s, prop-inquo-s (§ 139 i.), a new suflix -Sa-n-os is made and in this way TrafT-o-SaTTos arises. In Latin, a mistaken sufifix of the same kind viz. -lento- Latin, ^* found in a certain number of words, lutu- lentus 'muddy,' opu-lentus (for o/)«-) 'rich,' tem-u-lentus 'drunken.' This suffix seems to have arisen from a combination of the suffixes -ili- (or -uli-), -ent- so frequent in participles and -0-. It may possibly have 1 That such words have not their original form (see Skeat's Dictionary s. v. and Kluge ». Oxhoft) does not affect the point. Popular etymology connected hogshead with hog's head. — § 287] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 217 begun with the single form graci-lentn-s, but this cannot be proved. In the Germanic languages also the same phenome- non may be observed. By a wrong analysis ^^^ ^^^ g^^_ of the parts of a word, the final consonant ""anic lan- of the root has been taken as part of the suffix and then a series of new words has been made with this spurious suffix as their final element. The suffix -keit used in Modern German to form abstract substantives has arisen from the combination of the ordinary suffix -heit (English -hood) with a ^ at the end of the previous part of the word. Thus in Middle High German arose the form miltec-heit or miltekeit and on the analogy of this form many others have been made, gerechtigkeit 'righteousness,' dankbarkeit 'thankfulness,' etc. ' So too the English suffix -ling has arisen from the addition of the suffix -ing to an -^stem and an ensuing mistaken division of the component parts. It seems that from a few old English words — lyteling ' little child,' cetheling 'nobleman's son, prince' preserved in the name Eadgar the Aetheling, all the later forms nestling, youngling, darling, etc., have sprung. 287. It is to be remembered that these processes do not belong to a past time only ; they Living and \vere not perfected in a day to remain un- dead suffixes, changeable for ever afterwards. Just as sound change is perpetually in progress, so too the constant gTowth and decay of suffixes is an ever present factor in the history of language. Some suffixes gradually die out and are no longer used in the making of new words, others again increase in importance and new words are continually being made by means of them. Such suffixes in English ^ Paul's Frincipien der Sprachgeschichte, chap. xix. p. 295. 218 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 287 — are -er for nouns expressing the agent, -ation for abstract substantives'. On the other hand the sufiix which is seen in tru-th, bir-th and many other words, and which corresponds to the -rt- (-o-t-) of such Greek substantives as ©c'-rt-s, 8ap-cn-s (§ 133), has ceased to make new words in English. In Latin also this suffix, which appears in a mutilated form in mors, pars etc. and in its full form in vi-ti-s, cu-ti-s etc. had ceased before the classical period to form new words, its place being usurped by -tion- as in men-ti-o, co-ven-ti-o etc. 288. Besides the two methods of forming new sub- ,, , stantives which have been mentioned, viz. Four methods ^ „ . jv, of forming new (J) the addition 01 a formative sumx or substantives. ^ ' i / i 1 • * suffixes to a root and (2) the combination of (a) two stems or {b) two words in actual case relation- ship to one another, other two methods also occur, but need not detain us long. The first of these is (3) Reduplication. This although 1 A curious example of the development of a suffix in a new meaning is the use in School and University slang of the suf&x -er as in footer for football, bedder for bedmaher, etc. This ap- parently senseless and whimsical change began, it is said, at Harrow, where ' ducker ' was used for ' duck pond.' From Harrow it spread to other schools and to the Universities, where in com- mon parlance Rugger and Socker have taken the place with the players of Eugby and Association football of those terms 'respec- tively, while fresher bids fair to usurp the place of freshman. This is not uncommon in language ; the slang of one generation creeps into the literary dialect of the next. The hybrid word starvation, with its English root and Latin suffix, was for long a byeword, and supplied a nickname to its inventor, who was ever after known as Starvation Dundas. Why the suffix -er should have been so generalised is hard to see. It has been ingeniously suggested that English objects to spondaic words and so a lighter termination was used. — § 288] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 219 perhaps existing in every Indo-Germanic language is at no time common, and for obvious reasons. It comes into existence for the purpose of expressing emphasis. As a child says a 'big, big house' to indicate a very big house, so language seems to have occasionally caught up such forms and perpetuated them in a more or less com- plete shape in such words as Pap-fia.p-o-'s, Lat. hal-h-u-s 'babbling". The last method of forming new words is by the use of (4) Vowel Gradation or Ablaut. Whatever the origin of this phenomenon it certainly did not at first indicate difference of meaning ^, but at a later period was utilised for this purpose, and so words of particular forms take to themselves vowels of a particular grade. Thus words like A.oy-o-s of the masculine gender affect the o-vowel in the root; neuter words like ycVos affect the e- vowel, although to both rules there are exceptions. If the difference was originally one of pitch accent as many philologists think (§ 92), there is a curious parallel in the modern English application of stress in a similar way ; i)xas, progress (svLhs.ia.nt\Yei), progress (verb), subject (substantive), subject (verb), or again content (substan- tive), content (adjective)'. 1 Eeduplication in the verb will be discussed later (§ 446). 2 Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 7. ' See the interesting letter of Dr Murray in the Academy for 1891, Tol. II. p. 456, who finds that, out of 341 correspondents, 150 always accent the second syllable of content, 100 always the first syllable, and the others vary according to the meaning. 220 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 289 — xvii. Classification of Nouns. A. Root Nouns. 289, Root nouns are those in which the case suffixes are attached to something which it is impossible to analyse further, in other words to a root (§ 24). Such nouns are not very numerous in any language, and a large proportion of them seems to have descended from the primitive Indo-Germanic period. Latin has developed more of them independently than any other language, except perhaps Sanskrit. Some do and others do not show traces of gradation in their vowel system \ (a) Root nouns without gradation : Gk. aX-s ?-s fxvs vav-s u-s (b) Root nouns with gradation : Gk. Lat. Eng. /3o0-s (§ 181) : bos (§ 63) : cow TTOIJ-S (Doric TTcis) = P^-' -■ foot(0.-&.fot) Zei5-s) Jov-is etc Lat. Eng. sal : sal-t' vis mm : mouse (0. E. mus nav-em ^ sus : sow (0. E. su) Z^-4 (§'"') = die-,n ] ■ ^-e^'J-y)' 1 It is a common mistake to suppose that all monosyllabic nouns are root nouns. This is by no means the case. ^ -£ is a further suffix which may possibly have also once be- longed to the Latin word, if the verb sallo represents an earlier *sal-d-o. ' This original root word has passed over in Latin to the i- declension in the nom. niiv-is. HU!)-em = Ionic vij-a { = ''nuu-m). ^ Tuesday = Tj2o-f;s-da3, or the day of Tin; Times is the genitive. — § 290] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 221 For an explanation of the origin of these forms see note (ii) after § 265. B. Nouns with formative suffixes. 290. As far as can at present be ascertained, the number of suffixes originally used in the ^ . ■' , -r, , Noun suffixes. lormation 01 nouns was not very large. J3ut from the earliest period their number has been con- tinually added to by combinations of two or more suffixes, (ros a feminine word. 6vfit.o/Sdpo^ is also properly a substantive ' soul devourer,' but when made to agree with a neuter substantive like ■n-rjfi.a, it takes the form dvfiofiopov. When the -s-stems are used in this way they form a new nominative and accusative. Thus, /J.EVOS is a neuter word, but from the same stem we have Evfjiivrj's a masculine name, and the same form used adjec- tivally for the feminine as well as masculine, with the form ev/xeve-; for the neuter. 293. As has been said, -o-forms go hand in hand with -a-forms. Even before the separation ^g^i^^^^i ^^^ of the Indo-Germanic peoples, -o-forms had ^^ ento""**' been used to indicate masculine and neuter stems, while -a-forms indicated cognate feminines. But this purely grammatical gender was crossed by the influ- ence of natural gender or by that of other words of 1 Delbriick, S. F. iv. p. 12, and Grmidr. Syntax § 198. 224 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 293 — cognate meaning, rpoc^os is properly a word of mascu- line form and, since TraiSaycoyo's is not an early word, was once applicable to such a guardian as Phoenix was to Achilles. But, in later times, rpo4>6'; indicates duties more frequently discharged by women and becomes feminine, while a new masculine form Tpo<^€us begins to appear. All the while a feminine word Tpocfyrj has been used to indicate that which the Tpo0o5 supplies. To express another idea arising from Tpofiov or in the plural Tpo4)a,a, the return made by the child for the Tpo4,ij which he has received. This word is in the neuter and is formed by adding another suf&x to that already existing. Some -a- (in Greek most frequently -td-) stems . become masculine and, when they do so. Masculine -c- . i i c stems in Greek generally take final -s m Greek and form and Latin. ° ... , , „ the genitive m -ov, ttoAi-ttj-s, ttom-tov. some stems of this kind in Homer are said to be crystallised vocative forms ' and have no final -s, l-n-TroTo, etc. In Latin scriba, agricola etc. are masculine. In only one or two instances in old Latin does a final -s appear, paricidas. „, . , . , These words are said to have been (1) Their history. _ _ * ' original abstracts, next (2) collectives, and finally (3) specialised for individuals. Compare English yotith and t7-utk which are (1) abstracts, the state of 1 This is Brugmann's view, Curtius' Studien ix. p. 259 ff. But Schmidt from dpioira Zeus argues for a different origin {Pluralbil- dungen d. idg. Neutra, p. 400 ff.). According to Schmidt, eipioTra ' wide-eye ' is a neuter substantive in apposition to Zei's (cp. origin of Lat. vetus). As evpvoira was used unchanged with vocative as well as ace. and nom., genuine vocative forms like ix-qrlera were also used for the nominative, and new forms were made on the same analogy. — § 294] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 225 being youug and true respectively, (2) collectives, ' the youth of a country' etc., (3) specific, 'many youths,' 'mathematical truths' etc. So ttoXUtt]-^ would be (1) citizenship (abstract), (2) the body of citizens (collec- tive), (3) a citizen (specific). 294. When -a-stems change to masculines, when such words as rpodo's become feminines, we ^ , . . '^ ' ' Gender m words have examples of the influence of natural indicating ob- ■^ . jects without sex upon grammatical gender. 4'rjy6^s Lat. sex. fagu-s and other names of trees are feminine for another reason. As it happens, in both languages the generic words for tree, 8pC-s, arbos, are feminine. Accordingly the generic word draws over the words indicating the individual species to its own gender^ Hence the rule that independently of the character of the suffix all names of trees in both Greek and Latin are feminine (§ 55). But now we are face to face with a difficult question. Why should the generic word for a tree be feminine ? Why should not everything which has no natural sex be also of the neuter gender in grammar ? To this question there is at present no satisfactory reply. The older philologists relied upon the ' personifying tendencies ' of primitive man. The existence of such tendencies is denied by some of the greatest of recent scholars ^ But there are certainly traces of such personification in the language of English sailors, who talk of a ship as ' she.' And if it be true that the ideas of primitive man stand 1 In Greek, according to Delbriiok, the generic word follows the special words, S. F. iv. p. 6. Delbrvick now is more doubtful (Grundr. Syntax § 3). ^ For instance, by Brugmann in Techmer's Zeitschrift iv. p. 100 ff. G. P. 15 226 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 294 — in the same relation to modern thought as the child stands to the grown man, such tendencies to personifica- tion will not seem at all wonderful. To the child every- thing is alive, and deserving of reward or punishment even as he himself is. The two reasons assigned, viz. (1) the influence of natural sex and (2) the influence of the gender of cognate words, will explain a large number but very far from the whole of the phenomena of gender. Why oTkos and victis should be masculine while So'/xos is masculine in Greek and dotnus feminine in Latin, we do not know. Even if we assign the change of gender to the working of analogy, it is not easy to suggest the model, imitation of which caused the change. Gender. 295. The Indo-Germanic noun is characterised as such by the possession of special features to mark the possession of Gender, of Number and of Case. But the distinguishing marks of all of these need not co-exist in any one word. In -0- stems, the sufiix -s in the nominative generally Gender in -0- marks a masculiue, occasionally a feminine stems; word; -III (changed to -v in Greek) in the nominative marks the neuter. The -s at the end of the m -i- and -u- nominative in an -/- or -u- stem indicates stems: ^-j^^^ ^YiQ word is either of the masculine or of the feminine gender, the absence of any sufiix that such a stem is neuter, -d-stems (§ 291) and -1- {-ie-) in -ff and -I- stems are in the Indo-Germanic languages (■!e-) stems; generally feminine and have originally no nominative sufiix in the singular. Nasal and liquid — § 296] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 227 stems as a rule have no -s-suffix in the nominative, whatever their gender may be. Neuter i„ „asai and u- gender is, however, generally indicated by luid stems; the appearance of the stem suffix in its weak grade as a long or short sonant nasal or liquid ; cp. rep-fj-a, Lat. termmi (neuter) with rep-fimv, Lat. ter-mo (masculine); ■rJTr-ap,jec-ur (r)', cTKojp (r?), calcar, with ira-i-qp, pater, Soj- rwp, da-tor, etc. In -s stems, nouns of the neuter gender end in -os -6s or -as in (jreek, if/eCSos, \beuih, f . / -. . / . , . T ■ in -s stems ; yepas, m -OS (-US) or -is (gen. -ens) m Latm, those in -is, however, havilig as a rule changed their gen- der before the historical period, while those correspond- ing to the type of the Greek -e? have disappeared. Thus forms like gen-us alone survive in perfection. The mas- culines and feminines of -s stems appear in Greek as -«)s and -i?s, aiS-ios, ivyiv-ri'i, in Latin as -os or -or, honos {honor), arbos (arbor). The type corresponding to the Greek -17s is represented only by the fragment ' de-gener. Mute stems, except those which end in -nt-^, mark mas- culine or feminine gender by the addition of -s ; when the gender is neuter, the stem is left without suffijc, the stem-ending or some part of it also disappearing if the phonetic laws of the language so require (cp. ydXa with yaA,aKT-os, Latin lac with lact-is). Number. 296. The original Indo-Germanic language distin- guished three numbers, the Singular, the Dual and the 1 The Sanskrit form yakrt may, as some authorities hold, have an additional sufEx -t. If the -t is original, ^tr-ap, jec-ur represent an original *ieqrt. On the question of long sonant nasals etc. cp. § 158 note 3. 2 See § 306 note. 15—2 228 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 296 — Plural. The different numbers in the noun are each characterised by their own suffixes (cp. § 34). Some kinds of substantives, as abstracts, collectives Plural in Ab- ^^^ Houns of material, may be expected to stract nouns. gccur Only in the singular. But in all languages such words frequently occur in the plural. Thus in English we speak not only of sugar and wine, but also of sugars and wines, meaning thereby different forms or kinds of the material. So in Latin, plurals like vina, carries; veritates, avaritiae occur '- 297. Other words may be expected to occur only in the dual, Svui, aij.u>. But nevertheless such words are often inflected as plurals. It may indeed be conjectured that the Dual is merely a specialisation of one out of many original forms of the Plural. Be that as it may, the earliest historical use of the Dual which we can trace seems to have been to ex- press things which occur (a) naturally in pairs, as the eyes, the ears, the hands etc., or (5) artificially in pairs, as the two horses of a chariot. Later the Dual is used for a combination of any two things. In the first sense Its earliest i^s use is quite distinct from that of the usage. Plural. But as soon as the Dual comes to be applied to any two things without regard to their being naturally a pair and without any emphasis being laid on the idea of duality, it becomes a grammatical luxury ; it has no sense separate from that of the Plural and consequently it speedily dies out. When things are thought of in pairs, every pair may be regarded as a unity and be followed by a singular verb, though this construction is not very common. It ^ See Draeger, Historische Syntax der lateiiiischen Spracke^ §§ 4-8. — § 298] COMPAEATIVE PHILOLOGY. 229 is worth observing that the Dual in Greek is rarely used without SvM unless when the objects referred to are a natural or artificial pair', and this agrees with the use of the Dual in Vedic Sanskrit. In Latin duo and umbo are the only surviving dual forms and these are inflected in the oblique puai lost in cases as plurals. ■^'''"'• 298. The use of the Plural which calls most for remark is that in Greek and the Aryan languages a neuter noun in the plural is followed by a verb in the Singular. The reason for this is that things -[f^^^g^ pi^ai which make a class or set bv themselves ^"*{; singular verb. may be treated as a unity. But in the his- torical period they are so treated only when the word is neuter, although it may be conjectured that all plural forms were originally collective. An ingenious theory has been recently revived'' which endeavours to prove that the nominative plural neuter is no genuine plural at all, but a collective singular. It is argued by another writer^ that in many cases where a plural verb is put with a neuter plural in Homer, this arises from a later corrup- tion; thus the earlier reading in Iliad ii. 135, accord- ing to this theory, was cnrapTo. XiXHrai for the ordinary a-TrdpTa XeXwrai. The Converse of this usage, the use of a singular verb with a masculine or feminine substantive in the plural, usually known as the Schema Pindaricum, has an entirely different explanation. Here the verb always precedes the subject. Consequently, it is argued, the writer or speaker changed his mind as to the form 1 Cp. Monro H. G." § 173. - By Johannes Schmidt, Pluralbildungen der indog. Neutra (1889), pp. 1 ff. 3 J. Waokernagel, K. Z. 30, p. 308. 230 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 298 — of his sentence while he was in the act of writing or speaking it ; hence the illogical sequence of a singular verb and a plural noun. 2gg. The theory which explains the neuter plural „, . nominative as a collective singular is sup- Theory to ex- . plain this con- ported not Only (1) by its occurrence with struction. '^ i Vi i a singular verb in the Greek and Aryan lan- guages, but also (2) by the fact that frequently a neuter plural is formed to a masculine or feminine singular — d (tXto^ but rd a-lra, -q KeXevOo'S but in Homer vypd Ki\ev6a ; Latin locus but loca, sibibis hut sibila' etc. ; while, on the other hand, a masculine or feminine plural to a neuter singular hardly occurs at all. It has also been observed by various writers that when a masculine or feminine and a neuter plural both appear in the same word, the neuter plural has generally a collective meaning^. As the personal pronouns of the plural number were origi- nally inflected in the singular and passed over to the plural inflexion at a later period (§ 327), so it is con- tended that the original genitive oijugd was *jiigds, not *jugum, but that later it took the same inflexion as the masculines because the neuters and masculines had most cases the same in the other numbers. Since in other numbers the neuter has the same form for nominative and accusative, in the plural jugd, originally only nomi- native, comes to be used also as accusative. (3) It is also urged that many languages do use collective singu- ' Sohmidt, Pluralb. p. 5. ^ Cp. with this what has happened in the development of Latin into the Eomance languages. As in Latin nom. and aco. pi. neut. are the same in form as the nom. sing, fern., neuter nouns whose plural has a collective sense became feminine, thus folium ' leaf,' /oHa ' leafage,' but /o!n oi foliae 'leaves.' — § 299] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 231 lar forms instead of the neuter plurals. Homer uses Trpo- ^atris for Trpo/Sara (Od. ii. 75), HerodotuS SepaTrrjirj for OepdirovTa (v. 21). Latin has jwvetitus, English ^/om^A, for juvenes and young men respectively (§ 293), and the same appears in other Indo-Germanic languages. (4) A fur- ther support is found for the theory in the fact that in the same language the same word has both a neuter and a feminine form, or that kindred languages show, one the plural, the other the feminine form. Thus we find hpiira- vov and Speiravr], vevpov and vevprj, Homeric ra 5;via, but Attic i; ijvia pi. rjviai, vX-j (post-Homeric) ; Latin caenientum and caementa, labium and labea; 0. H. G. ndma n. but 0. E. nam t, 0. Saxon gi-lagu n. pi. but 0. E. lagu i. sing, 'law.' (5) A plural is often used in the predicate where only a single object is in question, as in Homer 8(3pa 8e rot Scoa-co KaXbv dpovov, acjiOiTOV aet, ^pvcreov (7Z. xiv. 238), KCLVO'S dvr]p.,,a.v6i, kvvwv p.(.\-7rr)6pa yivoLTo {II. xiii. 233) ; Latin nemo me lacrmnis decoret neque funera fletu faxit (Ennius' Epitaph), per clipeum Vvlcani, dona parentis (Virg. Aen. viii. 729); compare the frequent use of colla, guttura, ora, pectora where only one object of the kind is meant. (6) These collec- tives come to be used for individual members of the class, because they express originally the nature or characteristic which the members of the class have in common; hence a-vyyivna, signifying first kinship then kinsfolk, is used of a single person (Eur. Orest. 733); Latin custodia is used in the same way (Ovid Met. viii. 684); in German state, originally the same as English stud, (of horses), has come to mean steed and finally mare, and frausnzimmer , literally 'women's chamber,' gynae- ceum, became first a collective word for 'women' and since the seventeenth century has been used for ' a 232 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 299— woman ' '. From truth an abstract quality we pass in English, to the comparative concreteness of ' mathemati- cal truths,' a development parallel to that of youth which has been so often cited (cp. § 293). Noun Cases. 300. In the original Indo-Germanic language the noun possessed at least seven cases: Nominative, Ac- cusative, Genitive, Ablative, Dative, Locative . and Instrumental. In the Instrumental some authorities have discovered traces of an amalgamation of two origi- Weretwosepa- nally separate cases — an Instrumental pro- 'usedlnThe^in- perly SO Called and a Comitative or Sociative strumentai? ^^^^^ g^^ ^j^g existence of such an original distinction is very doubtful, and any observable differ- ence of meaning may be attributed to the fact that inanimate objects as a rule must be spoken of as instru- ments, animate objects as companions or helpers. 301. The relations expressed by these seven cases indo-Germau- ^-re not, however, all that could have been i^sJ^''*™com- indicated by means of cases. Some lan- piete. guages, such as Finnish, have a much larger number of cases and by this means express greater defi- niteness of relation than it is possible to express by the seven Indo-Germanic cases, which cannot distinguish, for example, between rest in and rest on, motion into and motion towards, motion from and motion from out of, notions all of which are distinguished by the more complex Finnish case system. 302. In the enumeration of cases, the vocative The vocative ^^ not reckoned as a case. Among noun not a case. forms — especially in the -o-stems— the 1 Schmidt, Pluralb. p. 25. — § 303] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 233 vocative of the Singular stands apart, precisely as the Singular of the Imperative stands apart — especially in the -o-verbs. Xo'ye in the noun, Ae'ye in the verb are simply stem-forms without anything to mark them as belonging to a paradigm of forms. Neither has any suffix besides that which marks the stem ; Xoyc has nothing to mark a case relation, Xc'ye nothing to mark a person of the verb. In some stems, and always in the neuter gender, the nominative serves for the vocative in the Singular; in the Plural the nomi- native discharges the function of the vocative in all stems. 303. Cases originally existed in all three Numbers, Singular, Dual and Plural. But in the Dual and Plural, separate forms for each of forms for some the cases were apparently not found neces- sary. This is true at any rate for the dative and abla- tive Plural. The Dual forms vary so much in different languages, and the whole system is already so rapidly decaying even in the earliest historical period, that it is impossible to restore with certainty the Dual paradigm except in the forms which served indifferently for nomi- native, vocative and accusative. In the Singular there are separate endings for the individual cases. In all stems, however, except the -o-stems, there is but one form from the earliest period for genitive and ablative. Stems ending in nasals, liquids, -a- or -i-{-ie-) have no case ending for the nominative, which in masculine or feminine forms of nasal or liquid stems is expressed by a difference of gradation in the stem suffix (§ 354 ff.). Neuter forms except in the -o-stems have no sufSx in the nominative, vocative and accusative Singular, all of which are indicated by the same form in all neuter 284 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 303— stems. In the -o-stems, the nominative of the neuter has the same form as the accusative of the masculine (op. Ci'yo-") jugu-in, with oIkq-v vicu-m) : whether there was any original connexion in meaning between the two has still to be proved. 304. As regards the origin of case suffixes in the „ . . , Indo-Germanic languages we know nothing. Ongm of cases. 00 ^ ^ o They exist from the earliest historical period as an integral part of the noun form, and therefore are beyond the reach of Comparative Philology. Various theories, based mainly on the analogy of other languages where the noun remains in a more primitive stage of development, have been propounded. Some authorities hold that the suffixes are pronominal in origin, others that they are of the nature of post-positions. The whole question is too speculative to be discussed here. It is enough to say that the reasoning is largely a priori and therefore uncertain ; but the probability is that the BndiriKs pro- nominative suffix is deictic or pronominal, nominal and fhe same may be said but with morehesita- post-positional. _ -^ _ tion of the accusative suffix, while in the other cases it seems more likely that the suffixes are post-positions indicating originally some kind of local relation. In German books it is customary to divide the Grammatical cases into 'grammatical' and 'local.' To and local cases, ^t^q latter group belong such as the abla- tive and locative, which distinctly show a local mean- ing ; to the former are assigned those cases, such as the genitive and dative, where the local meaning, if ever existent, has been in process of time obscured. But to call a case ' grammatical ' is no aid to the elucidation of its history, and all that we know of language goes to show that the vague usages ranked under this indefoiite — § 305] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 235 heading are in all probability developed from earlier simple and concrete local uses\ 305. In the later history of the separate languages, there is a constant tendency to reduce the „, ■; Three causes number of case forms. This tendency may of syncretism in ^ •' cases. arise from one or all of several causes : (i.) phonetic, as when -dis, the suffix of the instru- mental plural of -o-stems, becomes confused in Greek with that of the locative -ois{i) in otxots and oiKoto-t, or as when in Latin the ablative singular of -o-stems by losing its final -d- becomes confused with the instrumental ivicod and vied) ; (ii.) syntactic, when one case extends the area of its usage at the expense of another. Such extensions of usage are analogical. There is a doubtful margin where either case might be legitimately used ; for some cause the one case becomes more prevalent than the other with- in this borderland and afterwards gradually encroaches on the proper domain of its vanquished opponent. The confusion between ' rest in ' and ' motion towards,' which we find exemplified in the English usage ' Come here ' for ' Come hither,' is widely developed in case usages in ^ Cp. "Whitney (Transactions of the American Philological Association, vol. xiii. p. 92) : ' There is no such thing in lan- guage as an originally grammatical case or form of any kind.' The same writer in reviewing Delbrttck's Altindische Syntax says [A. J. P. XIII. 285) : 'To pronounce a case originally grammatical is simply equivalent to saying that its ultimate character lies beyond our discovery; and the statement might much better be made in the latter form. For to postulate such a value at the very beginning is to deny the whole known history of language, which shows that all forms begin with something material, ap- prehensible by the senses, palpable Such an explanation simply betrays a false philosophy of language.' 236 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 305 — other languages. The cases could express relationship only in a very general way. Hence arose the use of adverbs to go with cases in order to make the meaning more specific. These adverbs, which we now call pre- positions, in time become the constant concomitants of some cases ; and when this has happened, there is an ever-increasing tendency to find the important part of the meaning in the preposition and not in the case ending. (iii.) A third cause may be found in the less frequent use of some cases. The smaller number of separate forms for plural use, and the greater tendency to confusion in plural as compared with singular forms, seems to be owing to the fact that plural forms are less needed and are in less frequent use than singular forms. The Dual is less used than either the Singular or the Plural and its forms are more corrupted. The following table will show the degree and manner of confusion which has affected at the earliest period the original cases in Latin, Greek and the Germanic languages'. Idg. Dat. Loo. Instr. Abl. Gen. Lat. Dat. ^ ^ Gen.» Abl. Gk. Dat. (Loc.) Gen. Germ. ^ J Dat. "- Gen. ^ Cp. Hiibsohmann, Casmlehre, p. 87. 2 In -0- and -a- stems represented by the locative. — § 306] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 237 xviii. Case suffixes. A. In the Singular. 306. i a. Stems which end in -0- -i- (including -ei- § 365 ff.), -u- (including -eu-), or a mute consonant, and possibly all root words made originally uominativ the nominative singular of masculine and feminine forms in -s : oTko-s vicu-s, ot-s ovi-s, -^j^jj .j. ^^^. ijSv'-s manu-s ^acrtXev-s, dmpa.^ audax, t-s ™^' vi-s etc. All others have the stem suffix only, -d- stems when they become masculine in Greek add the -s, veayias etc. (§ 293). There are also one or .without -s- two examples in Latin as paricida-s. In ®"'*'"b- stems which end in nasals or liquids it seems that the final nasal or liquid was either always dropped or there were double forms with and without the final nasal or liquid, the use of which depended on the phonetics of the sentence (cp. § 235 ff.). Compare rep/xuiv with Lat. termo, Skt. pa with kvcov, Skt. pita with iraTrjp Lat. pater. The lengthened strong form is regular for the nominative of such stems (cp. Trariyp with Trarip-a etc.). i b. In the -o-stems the neuter is formed by adding -m (Greek -v § 148) : i,vy6.v Lat. jugu-m. In ^^^_ ^^^^^^ all other stems the neuter has no suffix, but the stem suffix, if it has gradation, appears in the weak grade'. '' In words of whatever gender, phonetic changes according to the regular laws of the language take place in the ending, &af for 'dvaKT-s, Lat. rex for ''reg-s. Gk. (pipuv for *bheront-s is ex- ceptional compared with ddois for *odont-s and is not yet satis- factorily explained. So also in neuters yiXa for ''yaXaKT, Lat. lac for *lact{e). 238 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 307 — 307. ii. The vocative is originally a stem form (§ 302). Hence the vocative proper has no case suffix : oXkc, Tt-dXi, lx6v, ava (=*avaKT), Zcv. In stems without a nominative suffix the vocative has a Vocative. . . , different grade from the nominative : wixtfirj {-a), VOC. vviJ.a (Homer) ; Traryp VOC. TTOLTep, iroi/Ai/v VOC. ■n-oifniv. Except in -o-stems, Latin has replaced the separate vocative form by the nominative, or the forms have become phonetically indistinguishable. Neuters have no vocative form separate from the nominative form. 308. iii. The suffix of the accusative is -m, which is sonant after a consonant, consonant after Accusative. _ ., a sonants Hence *ped-m sonant, *uoiko-m consonant. Greek has thus otKo-i/, ot-v, tJSiI-v, T-v, B^d-v, ■n-oTvia-v (originally an -'i- (-ie-) stem § 374), Latin vicu-m, securi-m, manu-m, vi-m, dea-m, luxurie-ni (an -l- stem) in all of which the consonant sound appears. On the other hand Greek irarep-a, 7rotju,eV-a, atSco ( = *atSoV-a), 6(upaK-a, (f>epovT-a, Latin patr-em, homin-em, arbor-em, audac-em, ferent-em show the sounds which represent original -in. In the neuter the accusative is the same as the nominative. 309. iv. The suffix of the genitive appears as -es, Gradation in "''*) "■5 '"'i^h gradation. Consonant stem genitive suffix, foj-j^y -^yith gradation appear in their weak grade in the genitive. In the -0- stems the suffix is -os- io (-es-io), apparently the same suffix as in other stems ^ This is practically accurate. No doubt originally *pedm kept the consonant -m when the following word began with a sonant, but the separate languages did not keep up the consequent double forms. — § 309] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 239 with a pronominal element -io added'. In the -a- and -t- {-ie-) stems there is seemingly a contraction between the stem and the suffix ; otherwise it is difficult to ex- plain the difference of accentuation between nfir], opyvia in the nominative and ti/ai??, opyuias in the genitive^. In Greek, the -os form is kept in the later period with all consonant stems including also root words like ttovi, Zeus etc. : TraTp-o's, ■rroi.niv-0%, ttoS-o's etc. -s appears in the primitive genitival form Se?- ( = *Se/x-s) in Secr-TroTTjs 'house-lord.' In Latin, -es which becomes phonetically -is (§ 161) is generalised in all consonant stems exactly as -OS is in Greek. In early inscriptions a few traces of the -OS suffix are found, Vener-us etc. The case suffix which in Greek is contracted with -77 (-a) is presumably -es ; if -OS, we should have expected the genitive to appear as -ms not -i?s (-"?). -s is the suffix in Latin ovi-s, manii-s etc. but there is in ovi-s apparently a con- fusion with -is for earlier -es, since in -i- and -M-stems the original genitive form seems to have ended in either -ei-s (-oi-s), -eu-s (-ou-s) or -i-es {-i-os), -u-es {-u-osf. manii-s may represent an older *'manou-s whether as an original form or as the Latin phonetic representative of original *maneu-s'' (§ 178). Strong forms of the stem appear also in Greek : 5?8e-os ( = *7;Sef-os) Homeric /3aa-iXyj{F)-o';, Attic /JacrtXe'ios by metathesis of quantity, Ionic ^acriAeos ; Tragic iroAeos etc. = ^TroXet-os '. 1 Hirt, Idg. Forschungen 11. p. 130 ff. ^ Hirt, Idg. Forschungen i. p. 11. According to Streitberg's explanation (ep. § 271 n.) the ending was -so originally. " Brugm. Grundr. 11. §§ 231—2. ■• The form in -eu- is not required by any language; -ou- will explain all the forms which occur. ^ The Attic irdX^ws (from irdXijos) seems formed on the analogy . 240 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ SOS- Ill Latin the original genitive of -o-, -a-, and -«- {-ie) , . . , stems has disappeared. Of -os-io there is Loss of original . „ , . _r ■!■ i. Renitiveinsome no trace ; -ds IS lound in paterjamilias etc. Latin stems. ; . _ ,, . , , The genitive ending -i oi the -o-stems m Latin is probably the old locative ending, vici thus corresponds either to otKct the variant form of oIkoi or to otKoi itself (§ 176). -ae of the -a- stems may represent the older disyllabic -dl still found in the poets {Bomdl etc.) which was formed on the analogy of the -2 in the -o-stems and may have begun with the masculines in -a, scriba etc' luccuriei etc. of the -I- stems are also analogical forms. The dative probably influenced both -ae and -ei. The suffix -Tos in Greek -m-stems is not original. Gk. suffix in Many explanations of this suffix have been -'"'^- offered. The best seems to be that -tos in 6vd;u.a-Tos instead of *ovo/xi'-os is taken from the adverbial -TOS in CK-TOS, ev-Tos^. 310. V. As already mentioned, the only steins .. , ^. . which have a separate form for the Ablative Ablative has ^ separate form ^re the -0- stems, where the ending is -d only in -o-stems; in- i ■ preceded by some vowel. Since this vowel contracts with the preceding -e- or -o- of the stem, its nature cannot be ascertained. Greek has lost the abla- tive in the -o-stems, the genitive in them as in others discharging ablatival functions. In Latin the loss of is confused in ^^^ ^na[ -d of the ablative, which took s^trumeSai' ani pl^ce in the second century B.C., led to a locative. confusion between the ablative and the in- of /SaffiX^ws, an analogy which seems also to have kept the poetic 7r6\eos from contracting to *7ro\oiis. Brugm. Grundr. ii. § 231 c. 1 Brugm. Grundr. ii. § 229. 2 Fick, B. B. XII. p. 7; Brugm. Grundr. ii. § 244. Cp. Bar- tholomae I. F. i. p. 300 ft. — § 312] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 241 strumental. At a period preceding the separation of the Italic dialects from one another the -d of the ablative had been extended to other stems : hence in old Latin praidad 'from booty,' airid 'from copper' etc. The other ablative forms patre, homine, pede etc. are not genuine ablatives but either locative or instrumental forms (see under vii and viii). 311. vi. The original dative ended in -ai. This suffix is retained in the Greek infinitive Dative is eon- forms 8d;a€v-at, Sovvai ( = Sof cV-ac) etc.; else- gk^'^stims wi?h where consonant stems, -i- and -u- stems '°''**'™- and root words in Greek have replaced the dative by the locative, Trarlp-i, TTOi/xtv-i, 6u>paK-i, TrdXe-t, 1)(6v-l, 7ro8-t etc. In the -0- and -«- stems the suffix is contracted with the vowel of the stem : oikw, rt/iij, deS.. In Latin the suffix is regular throughout : patr-i (in older Latin occasionally -ei), homin-'i, audac-l, ped-'i; vied (§ 181, 3), older Numasioi, poploe {=populo), deae (cp. Matuta on inscriptions with ■y/ca), ov-i, manu-'i (for '^manou-ai § 174). 312. vii. The original locative had two forms, according as the ending -i was or was not ^^^^^^^^^^-^ added to the stem. The stem, if graded, ap- ^nd^ without peared in a strong form. The suffixless form was probably not locative fr'om the beginning, but in time was thus specialised. In Greek and Latin there are but few traces of the suffixless locative. So'^uei/ the Homeric infinitive is an example frorci a -men stem (§ 359) ; it seems probable that the type <^(.p^iv (if =*(l>epe(rev) is also a locative: ate's is an example from an -s stem (aif-e5 cp. Lat. aev-om) of which aUt {=*alF-ea-i) seems the locative with the -i suffix '. In \iyecr-6ai the same loca- 1 This is doubtful on account of the accent ; an original form *aiu-esi ought to become alu in Greek. G. P. 16 242 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 312 — tive has been traced (§ 280). Latin presents even fewer examples. The preposition peties from the same stem as the substantive pemis stands alone, unless legis-sem etc. (§ 280) form a parallel to Xcyea--6ai. 313. The locative in the Greek consonant, -*- and ^ , . , -u- stems, has taken the place of the dative Extension of ' ^ . . , . the use of the (gge under vi). In the -o-stems it is doubt- locativem Gk.i ^ ' ful whether the -ei and -01 forms of the locative are coeval or whether the -ei forms are the earlier. The former hypothesis is more probable. The -ei forms in Greek are very rare ; in a noun stem, oiKEt is the only form found in the literature. Other- wise the locatives are of the type represented by oLkoi 'lo-d^ol etc. Cp. also Xi.vkoiy^vri'i ' born at Pylos ' parallel to which is ®y]l3aiy€vij<;'^ 'born at Thebes.' Elsewhere the forms of the locative of -a-stems in Greek have been absorbed in the dative. In -t'-stems, -t was added to a stem form in -ei or -e^ ; hence the Homeric TrdArjt ; from the ordinary stem -ei- + -i comes •jj-oA.ei, Homeric irTokd. The -u- stems are similar: jiaa-iXrjF-i, yjhil (Homer), Attic . - ^. ■nSei. ln\j&\xa.vici, deae(sexx.),luxuriei w& m Latin. ' _ _ ' \o i> ^ locative in form ; for the meaning compare dmni, Romae. The ablative in other steins is either locative, or arises from a confusion of locative and instru- mental. In the former case patre, Iwmine, genere, pede 1 In tragedy this form has generally been emended by editors into Q-q^ayev-q?, an emendation which destroys an interesting historical record. In Homer the town is 'tiroSri^ai {Iliad 11. 505), and GiJjS?) is certainly the original form {II. iv. 378) of which 6^(3ai is the locative, this locative being later treated as & nominative plural. The same is probably true of 'ASijeai and other plural names of towns. The same explanation has been given of German names such as Sachsen, Xanten. ' Brugm. Grundr. 11. § 260. — § 314] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 243 etc. represent older forms ending in -i (§ 165), in the latter also forms containing the instrumental ending (see viii). rnanu may represent an earlier *manou-e. 314. viii. The suffixes of the instrumental were (1) either -e or -os', and (2) -hhi. Two suffixes (1) In both Greek and Latin the in- """"t^-^eitoi- strumental of the first tjrpe has ceased to be a separate case. In Greek its functions have been taken over by the dative, in Latin by the ablative. Those who hold that -a was the instrumental suffix find it in such adver- bial forms as /acto, TreSa, ajua, Tra/Da, f(.KO. (in eve/ca), iva, Latin aere, pede etc. (2) The suffix -bhi appears in Greek as -paa-im Pindar, the phonetically correct form for Attic ^pc, *TOVTW for *Tr]VUiS, *TODT(o8. iv. In forms for the ablative, dative and locative, a suffix -sm- is frequently found. This suffix gy^j. .j^. ;„ is identified with Skt. sma, which is also p'"o"°'i"s. found as a separate particle. The locative ends in either -i or -in: cp. the personal pronouns in Lesbian vyu,ju.i or v/j-ixLv, where -/x/u.- represents -sm- (§ 329). This -sm- suffix is also found, as Brugmann conjectures", in the dative (locative) form o-tl/jli ( = *Tt-o-/i-i) from Gortyn in 1 J. H. Kirkland, Class. Rev. vi. 433. This explanation seems slightly simpler than Brugmann's {Grundr. ii. § 419), which assumes a combination of an interrogative with a demonstrative stem : quoiei = quo an adverbial case form + eei (from is). Such combina- tions must, however, be admitted for other Italic dialects. Another but still less probable explanation is that of Buck, Vocalismus der oskischen Sprache p. 151, who identifies quoiu-s with Gk. ttoio-s and supposes the genitive and dative to arise from a confusion in the use of the adjective, the value of which was practically genitival. 2 Grundr. ii. § 423. 256 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 326 — Crete. In Latin, the suffix appears in the strengthened forms memet, temet, ipseniet. Forms with -sm- are more widely developed in Sanskrit. V. The pronoun had a separate instrumental form Pronominal '^^ '*'*> ^till found in Greek l-va. Many instrumental, adverbial forms from pronominal stems are possibly old instrumentals in -m: nl-i-m, istinc { = ist-i- m + ce) etc. On the analogy of these forms, helped by old accusative forms like partim, statim', others were made from stems of many other kinds : gradatim, pedetentini etc. vi. The genitive Plural of the pronoun ends in Pronominal *-sdm. In the masculine and neuter forms gen. PI. ^j^jg ^g^g jQg^ jjj Ijq^Jj Q-j-ggjj and Latin, but in Latin was restored later from the noun forms after the suffix had been extended to them (§ 319). This is proved by the fact that the pronominal stem originally appeared in a diphthongal form before the suffix : *foi-sdm, whence in classical Latin only *is-thrum not is-torum could be de- veloped. The diphthongal form of the stem arose from the -i as mark of i-^nioQ of -/, a mark of the Plural (§326 \d), Plural. with the original stem, and seems to have been carried through all the cases of the Plural. The -oi- of the locative Plural in nouns (§ 322) may have been derived from the pronominal forms : *toisi ekuosi being changed later into *tois! ekiioisi' 1 Cp. now Delbriick {Grundriss, Syntax § 255). It may, however, be pointed out that these Latin forms have exact Slavonic parallels in Old Bulgarian instrumentals like pa-t'i-vii, final -i being here, as frequently, lost in Latin. • Cp. Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 430. — § 328] COMPAKATIVE PHILOLOGY. 257 2. Personal Pronouns. 327. The personal pronouns — i.e. the forms to express /, thou, we, you and the reflexive self, selves — are an extremely old formation, in several respects more primitive than any other part of the Indo-Germanic declension. They do not distinguish gender, and there are forms in the oblique cases which have no clear case ending, €/i,€ Lat. me etc. The forms for the Plural were originally inflected as singulars, the stem for originally no the Plural in the pronouns of the first and jPfng^fQ^ 'Jj^^J second persons being different from that for '^'^^^■ the Singular. But even in the Singular of the pronoun of the first person two entirely different stems have to be distinguished : iyu>, Lat. ego, Eng. / (0. Eng. Ic), is a different stem from e-/x,e, Lat. me, Eng. me. As in the noun, different grades of the stem appear in different cases. Case usages are not in all instances clearly defined : e.g. the original form *moi, Gk. /xot, Lat. mi, resembles a locative and is used in Sanskrit as a genitive, in Greek and Latin as a dative. 328. A. i. The original form in the nominative Singu- lar of the pronoun of the first person is hard to determine. The relationship between Gk. ™' °™^' cyw, Lat. ego, and Skt. ahdm, like that between Gk. ye and Skt. lia, has not yet been satisfactorily explained. Some Gk. (iialects have the form iymv which apparently shows the same ending as Skt. ahdm. The nominative of the Indo-G. form for thou was tu. tv is found in Doric Greek : Attic o-v cannot come phonetically from tv, but G. P. 17 258 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 328 — arises from the ace. i-fe". As in Greek and Latin, the reflexive had originally no nominative. ii. In the accusative the original forms seem to have been *me, *tue (*te) and in the reflexive *smI {*se), whence in 6k. /x£ and e-/i€ (pos- sibly from the influence of c-yoj), re Attic o-e, I: Lat. me, te, se: Eng. me, thee. iii. The genitive in Greek is formed as in nominal Genitive and "0-stems with -ctlo, whence Homeric cyucio possessive ( = *efx.e-(TLo), Ifxio, Attic ift-ov : Homeric o-eio, cre'o, Attic (Tov : Homeric eto, lo, Attic ol. Such forms in Homer as rcoto ' thine ' can come only from the possessive adjective, from which also the Latin forms mei, tui, sui, can alone be derived. As in the case of cuius and cuium, there is a constant interchange between the forms of the possessive adjective and of the pronoun proper. The Doric forms eftoi)?, reols, eoCs are monstrosities arising from a confusion with the genitive suifix in -s of noun stems. iv. For the ablative, Greek must use the genitive forms, or those forms with an adverbial suffix which, though originally ablatival, do duty for either case (§ 326 iii). In Latin, the old forms med, ted, sed, when compared with the Skt. mat, teat and Latin sed ' but ' (if it really comes from this stem), show a change of quantity. This arises from a confusion with the accusative forms, me, te, se, which are sometimes found with -d appended. V. In Greek e/u.ot (fioC), i, a--(j>iv etc. ii. The ace. was originally like the nom. in Gk. as well as in Latin. w°^i> v/ji.d'; are analogical /» ,. Ti « .^ Accusative. formations like r/;u,€ts. ^ In Sanskrit the corresponding forms are genitives. ^ You is less certain than us. 17—2 260 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 329— iii. Since the plural pronoun was originally in- Genitive fleeted as a singular, the forms ly/xcuv, vfitSv, forms. a-cfiwv, as the genitive appears in Attic, must be a new formation, nostrum (nostri), vostrum (vostri), like the singular forms (§ 328 iii), come from the posses- sive adjective. iv. The remaining cases are inextricably entangled Forms for together. ijiJ.lv, vjxiv, found frequently also other cases. T,^'ii\x X, are locatives like the Cretan o-ti/m (§ 326 iv). vwiv (viov) of the Dual is also locative. In nobis, vobis, apparently for '"nozblus, *vuzbhts, we can recognise the same suffix as in the singular tibi, sibi Possessive Adjectives. 330. From the stems of e/ie me: rfe te: e se, are formed the pronominal adjectives : Homeric cjuds, rcfd?, kp6-f]-p.i), ' say L' ^a-ri (Attic (l>y)-(Ti), Lat. inqui-t, ' says he.' But in many usages greater — § 332] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 261 precision was necessary, and a substantive or pronoun was added in apposition to give the meaning that defi- niteness which was required. This substantive or pro- noun is commonly called the subject and the nominative is its case. This apposition may, however, be expressed by other cases, cp. Lat. dedecori est and modern English It's me. 332. The vocative, as already pointed out, is properly no part of the sentence and is not j; ,^-^^^ ^^^_ a case. In Homer (and also in Sanskrit) *'™- when a vocative and a nominative occur together they are connected by a conjunction : 'ArpeiS?;, a-v Se vave. II. i. 282. When one invocation was followed by a second, it seems to have been the rule from the earliest period to put the second in the nominative : ZA irarep, "Ih-q&ev /AcSctoi/, KijStoTt, fxiyifTTi, \ 'HcXtos 6\ OS TTavT iopa.<; xai TravT ETraKOiJEts. II, ni. 276 . The occurrence of the vocative in the predicate arises by an analogical attraction. A genuine vocative always appears in the sentence and causes the attrac- tion. oX/8ie, Kovpi, yivoio Theocr. xvii. 66. Matutine pater sen, lane libentius audis Hor. Sat. ii. 6. 20. Cp. Milton's imitation of the construction {Paradise Lost, iii. 1 ff.). "Hail, holy Light, offspring of Heaven first born... Or hear'st thou rather pure ethereal stream." 1 The order is sometimes reversed, ya/x^pbs ^/xis diyarip re, TWea6' opofi' Stti. xev efirw Od. xix. 406. Some Mss however read evyarrip. Cp. also c3 7r6Xcs uai S^p.€, Aristoph. Knights 273. 262 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 333 333. " The accusative brought the noun into a iii The ao- aLcrTov iKave So/jlov ©e'tis apyvpoVe^a 77. xviii. 369. To Hephaestus' home came silver-footed Thetis. Nunc domum propero Plautus, Persa, ii. 4. 1. At present I'm hurrying home. Compare with these usages of place the usage of person. C. fj.vqoTtjpa'S d(j)LKeTO Sla yvfaLKwv Od. xvi. 414. To the wooers came the fair lady. 1 Brugmann Gr. Gr.- § 178 p. 203. ^ Naturally, as the usages of the case develope, this simple test becomes too vague. § 333] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 263 d. Vaguer usages are not common in Greek — To'8' iKctvo) ' to this I am come ' is practically the only construction. In Latin the construction most similar is the accusative of an abstract substantive which is called the supine — spectatum veniunt etc. Closely akin to the accusative with verbs of motion towards, are the accusatives of time and space. (2) The accusative of time. TipTTOVTaL /jLaKapes 6eoi rj/xaTa Travra Od. vi. 46. The blessed gods take their pleasure at all times. annos multos filias meas celavistis clam me Plaut. Poenulus, v. 4. 83. Many years have you concealed my daughters from me. (3) The accusative of space. MijpioFijS XeiVcTO Sovpos iporqv Jl, xxiii. 529. M. was a spear's throw behind. nomina insunt cubitum longis litteris Plaut. Poenulus, iv. 2. 15. The names are in letters a cubit long. (4) The accusative of content. This comprises the constructions known as (a) the cognate, and (b) the quasi-cognate accusatives, the latter being only an analogical extension of the former. The cognate accusative expresses merely the same idea as is contained in the verb, it being the accusative of a substantive from the same root. The quasi-cognate accusative has the same effect, but though verb and noun convey the same idea, they are not formed from the same root. 264 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 333 a. /^"-XV^ fi-dx^crdai.. pugnam pugnare. To fight a fight. b. ^0J"S dyadov jiiov Od. XV. 491. Thou livest a good life. ut profecto vivas aetatem miser Plaut. Amjjh. iv. 2. .3 (1023). That you may indeed live your time in wretchedness. Cp. also, kXvU) cr iyia ixijx-qvoT ov UfxiKpav votrov Aeschylus, P. V. 977. I hear that thou art maddened with no small disease. This construction is restricted within very narrow limits in early Latin, but as time goes on, it is more widely extended, till in the Imperial period we find such loose constructions as grammaticus non erubescit soloecismum, si scieiis facit Seneca, Epp. 95. 8. The scholar does not blush for a mistake in grammar, if he makes it wittingly. (5) Accusative with transitive verbs. a. When the verb is changed to the passive tliis accusative becomes the nominative. €7ratl/0> TOI/0€ TOV dvOpiitTTOV hunc hominem laudo I praise this person. In the passive oSe 6 dvOpwTro^ cTraivetrai hie homo laudatur This person is being praised. § 333] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 265 b. This construction is extended to verbs which are intransitive. TriTTovOiv ola koI ere kcli Travra? jxevii Euripides, Frag. 651. He hath suffered such things as wait thee and all men. cives meum casimi luctumque doluerunt Cic. p. Sestio, 145. The citizens mourned my mischance and grief. c. Two accusatives with one verb^ These accusatives may be (a) in apposition, (/3) of different types, (y) of the same type, but one ace. of the person, the other of things. a. Ilaiav' v/ivovcri toV Aarous yovov Euripides, ff. F. 687. Paean they praise, Leto's son. Ciceronem consulem creare To make Cicero Consul. p. TTjv fjid^^v Tovs Papjidpovs iviKTjaav They defeated the foreigners in the fight. Multa deos venerati stmt In many ways they worshipped the gods. y. tJ^ovij Ti^ yvvaL^l ixrjSiv uytes dX.\i]\ai \iyuv Eur. Phoen. 200. Women have a certain pleasure in reviling one another. Tribunus me sententiam rogavit The tribune asked me my opinion. Sometimes a transitive verb and its accusative to- 1 There may be of course more complicated oonstruotious where one or more accusatives depend on another accusative. Cp. Dominus me boves mercatum Eretriam misit Plaut. Persa, ii. 5. 21, My master sent me to Eretria to buy cattle. 266 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 333 gether are equivalent to another verbal notion, and govern a second accusative. 6iol . . .'IXlov Oopai...\(/-ijov<; W^vto ( — iif/r]L(TavTo) Aesch. Agam. 815. The gods voted the wreck of Troy. lianc edictionem nisi animum advortetis omnes Plant. Psezid. i. 2. 10 (143). Unless you all attend to this notice. (6) Accusative with substantives and adjectives. The substantives which take this accusative are mostly verbal. Originally all verbal substantives had the same power of governing a case as their verb. In Sanskrit a noun of the agent regularly does so, giving such constructions as, if existing in Latin, would be represented by the tjrpe dator divitias. All noun forms called infinitives, supines and gerunds, retain this power ; other forms have, for the most part, lost it. (a) eo-Ti Tis SwKparijs to. fueTiuipa cl>povTLanji Plato, Apol. 2 b. One Socrates a student of the heavenly bodies. iitsta sum wator'' datus Plavitus, Amph. Prol. 34. I am appointed ambassador for justice. In these constructions the noun of the agent with a verb expresses the same meaning as the verb : 2. t. p.. povTL^u : ut iusta ararem ; compare tv piv Trpwrd a-oi p.op-rjv Ix") { = iJ.^pop.aL) Eur. Or. 1069. Cp. also T(3 OVTl TTJpaVTOS Tl3 OVTt SouXoS TttS p€yi(TTa'S Ounruai xai ^lovXeia'; Plato Rep. 579 D. ' The real tyrant is a real slave in respect of the greatest flatteries and slavery.' 1 The only example in Latin with a noun of the agent. Goetz and Schoell read iuste in the new Teubner text. § 333] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 267 In Latin the construction remains more extended than in Greek. Reditus Bomam Cic. Phil. ii. 108. The return to Rome. Quid tibi istum tactio est ? Plaut. Cure. v. 2. 27 (626). What right have you to touch him ? b. With verbal nouns (Gerunds). ola-riov rijv tvxtjv Eur. Ion, 1260. We must bear our lot. (The construction is not Homeric.) Poenas in morte timendum est Lucr. i. 111. We must fear punishments in death. Cp. vitabund.us castra Livy, xxv. 13. Avoiding the camp. c. With adjectives. aya^os Po-qv : ovo/ua kXvto's (Homeric). 01 ^£01 ayaOoi eicri irairav ap^rqv Plato, Legg. 900 d. The gods are good in respect of every virtue. qui manus gramor siet Plaut. Pseud, iii. 1. 19 (785). Who would be heavier of hand. The ' accusative of the part affected ' is more largely developed in Greek than elsewhere, and is supposed to have come from Greek into Latin. Hence o/ijuara koX Kecf>aXrjv txeXos Au', II. ii. 478, is the model for such constructions as os iimerosque deo similis, Virg. Aen. i. 589. 268 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 333 (7) Adverbial accusative. The process by which accusative forms crystallise into adverbs can be very clearly seen in the historical development of most languages. In Greek it is very marked, the number of adverbial accusatives, except from adjectives and pronouns, being very limited in the early period. Thus in Homer we find /^^ya Travraiv Apyeioiv K/oareei : ExTopa aanrep-^i'; K\oviu>v l^eir wkws 'AxtA-Xcvs : and more rarely neuter plurals, v/Acts oixcVt Ka\a fiedUre OovpiSoi; uXk^s : tlixtjv XeAdy^acrtv To- a Oioicnv. But the adverbial accusatives from .substantives, StKijy, x^-P'-^ etc., do not occur in Homer, with the ex- ception of TTpoipaarw {II. xix. 262), Styiias four times in the phrase 8e/ias Trupos aWo/jievoio (cp. § 283) and one or two others. There are three classes of adverbial accusatives : (a) the neuter of adjectives both Singular and Plural, (b) the accusative feminine of adjectives with a substantive understood, (c) the accusative Singular of substantives. The course of development is in many cases not hard to trace, as (i) from ace. of content, 6$€a KiKXrjym, ttjv ra.xi(TTr)v TropevecrOai' (where d8dv is easily supplied); (ii) from ace. of time, TrpujTov, cvv^jaap; (iii) from an ace. defining the extent of action of the verb, eJpos, /j-eye^os, ovo/xa, x'^P'-"' ^'■'^V^ etc. This includes the ace. in appo- sition to the sentence, a usage in which x^'p'" is found m II. XV. 744, x°-P'-^ "Ekto/dos drpuVai/Tos, where x'^P'-'' means ' as the pleasure ' (of Hector). In Latin these usages are more frequent in late than in early Latin, for many adverbial forms in Plautus usually called accusatives are probably to be explained otherwise. ' Cp. English keep to the right. § 333] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 269 a. i(TTL)(6(l)VT0 SeiVOV &€pK6/JLiVOl II. \\\. 342. They stalked with furious look. (OS alyvTrioX fjLeyaXa K\dt,ovTC fiO^uivTat II. xvi. 429. As vultures shrieking loudly fight. ego nil moror Plaut. Persa, v. i. 15. I care nothing. acerha tuens... serpens Lucr. v. 33. A snake glaring fiercely. b. oo ov jxaKpav avea-Tiv dWa TrX-qalov. Eur. Phoen. 906. To this construction belong the Latin forms in -fariam, bi-, tri-, quadri- fariam. Otherwise it is rare ; aetermim, supremum, and some others occur in the poets. C. Siopeav TTapd toC Si^/itov eKafie to )(mpLov Lysias, vii. 4. He got the place from the people gratis. For corresponding uses in Latin compare partim and tenus (§ 57). (8) Accusative with prepositions. The usages with prepositions are more frequent in the accusative than in any other case. This may be partly owing to the vagueness of its meaning, for prepo- sitions which spring from older adverbs are first used in those cases where the meaning of the case by itself is too vague to express the precise intention of the speaker'. (See § 340 ff.) ' The use of us as a preposition in Greek is curious because it ia found only with the aco. of persons. It is explained by Eidge- 270 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 334 334. The accusative in most of its relations is iv. Thegeni- closely Connected with the verb; the geni- tive- tive is similarly connected with the noun. As far as its functions are concerned, the genitive closely resembles an adjective. But they are not of the same origin, the old belief that such an adjectival stem as Srjfjioa-io- was identical with the old genitive 877/ioio being erroneous. There was however to some extent confusion between genitival and adjectival forms, cuius in Latin being also declined as an adjective. Compare also the constant interchange between the genitive of the personal pronouns and the possessive adjectives. When connected with verbs the genitive "expresses partial control by the verb of that which is contained in the Object, while the Accusative expresses complete control' " : aprov £<^ay€ ' he ate the loaf,' aprov e6fjLi(fi/naTos ovhi 6epev; Od. vii. 118 'neither in winter nor in summer.' Brugmann' regards these as develop- ments of the partitive genitive, to which also he refers the Homeric construction of ' space within which,' Su- ■n-prja-a-ov -rreSioio 'they made their way over the plain,' etc. (always with forms in -oio^). (8) The genitive with prepositions is probably in no case original. In Greek it is only the genitive of place that takes prepositions — c-n-l, Trepl and /xcrdi. But in Homer their usages are limited, and yu.6Ta occurs only five times. In both Greek and Latin, as in other languages, some nominal forms (such as dvTtov in Greek, te7iii.s in Latin), which have become quasi-prepositions, take a genitive because their adjectival or substantival force still survives. 335- The ablative was distinguishable from the V. The abia- genitive only in the -o- stems. Hence it *"^- is supposed that the separate ablatival form in the -o- stems was borrowed at a very early period from the ablative of the pronouns. As its name implies, it originally indicated motion from, or separation. With this went comparison, ' he is taller than me ' being, it 1 Gr. Gr.^ p. 206. = Monro H. G.- § 149. — I 335] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 277 seems, conceived in the original Indogermanic language as ' lie is taller from me.' The smaller of the two objects compared is taken as the standard of comparison. (1) In ablatival sense. a. With verbs with and without a preposition prefixed : cTke, Aios 6vyaT€p, TroXe/J-ov Koi Sijiot^tos II. V. 348. Withdraw from the war and the contest. nTj6i(3vos f/Jas Soph. 0. B. 152. Thou earnest from Pytho (cp. liaOpinv 'iaradQi ib. 142). (rare) Aegypto advenio Plant. Most. ii. 2. 10. Kyjp a,^€0% fiiOirjKa II. XVll. 539. I set my heart free from anguish. si diu afueris domo Plaut. Stick iv. 1. 18 (523). If you have been long from home. In Classical Greek, verbs of depriving frequently take two accusatives, though, as in Homer, many traces of the original construction survive. T^v piy deKoVTOS aTnjvpuyv H. i. 430. Whom they reft by force from him against his will. dotSoi' MoCcra o^Qakfx&v p-iv ap.epv avTe Aios yeverj ■trorafiolo rervKrac R xxi. 191. The race of Zeus is better than a river (for 'a river's race'). sermo promptus et Isaeo torrentior Juvenal iii. 73. His language ready and more rapid than Isaeus (instead of Isad sermone). c. Words and plirases with a meaning resembhng the comparative take the same construction. TuIvSe TO. erepa Troiieiv Herod, iv. 126. To do things different from these. species alias veris Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 208. Ideas other than the true. iiullus hoc metuculosiis aeque Plant. Amph. i. 1. 142 (293). Nobody so nervous as he. The Latin construction with aeque may, however, be instrumental (§ 338, 2). — § 336] COMPAEATIVE PHILOLOGY. 281 336. The Greek dative, as has been already shown, is a mixture of three original cases — the , , . ,11 • 11- 1 "i- The dative. dative, the locative and the instrumental. Latin retains the dative intact. " The true Dative expresses the person to or for whom something is done, or who is regarded as chiefly affected or interested'." (1) The dative with verbs expressing (a) giving, (b) addressing, including commanding, (c) obeying, (d) helping, favouring, etc., (e) anger, (/) belief, (g) yielding, (h) motion towards (rare) ; (^) with the substantive verb. a. 7; fjLiopla StSmo-iv dvOpM-n-OL's Ka/ca Menand. Sent. 224. Folly gives men troubles. illi perniciem dabo Enn. Medea, Fr. 5 (Merry). To him I will bring ruin. Sometimes an object to some extent personified ap- pears in the dative instead of a person. •nj y^ Savtt^iLV Kpelrrov icrriv tj /JpoTOis Philem. Fr. li. c. Lending to the land is better than to men. debemur morti nos nostraque Hor. A. P. 63. We and ours are a debt due to death. ^ Monro H. G.^ § 143. In practice the dative is not confined to persons, as several of the following examples show, but the majority of its usages are concerned with persona or with things personified. The old and somewhat vague inclinatio rei is the only definition which will cover all the uses of the dative. 282 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 336 h. This dative in Greek is a genuine dative of interest, irpo's rtva being used of mere address. ti (TV ix.rj ToS' ci'voeis, €yu) Xeyo , H. xi. . 58, ' who was honoured among the Trojans as a god in the land.' Compare also the phrases at the beginning of a speech Toto-i 8' dvio-TT] ' among them up rose he/ Toto-t 8c fivduiv rjpxe. ' among them he took up his tale.' (4) The locative of persons with verbs was found commonly with («) verbs of ruling, (6) taking delight in and the like. In Latin this construction is probably retained with potior and with some verbs of the 6-class, the preposition in which is so frequently used with them seeming to show their locative sense. The Homeric construction with Se)(Of^a.i — ©i/xia-Ti S« KaXXmapyiw Sc'kto ScTTas, II. XV. 88, 'From Themis the fair-cheeked re- G. p. 19 290 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 337 ceived she the cup' — seems better taken (with Monro') as a genuine dative than (with Delbriick^) as a locative, although similar locative constructions are found in Sanskrit. In this construction Sixofiai means to receive as a favour or to take as an attendant does^ ; in its ordinary meaning it takes the ablatival genitive. a. OiolcTL Koi avOpunrOLiJi dvdaafL II. U. 669. Over (among) gods and men he rules. ■iroXXfi(Tiv vrjcroLO-L kol "ApyeL ttoh'tI dvaacreiv II. ii. 108. To be king over many islands, and Argos all. midtis locis potiri* Sail. Jug. 92. 4. To be master in many places. b. ii.r)MO. yap oiov ifiuva TfTapirofxevos TeKeetrcrti' KOvpiSirj T aXd^u} koi Krrj/j.aa-LV Od. xiv. 244. For but one month I abode delighted with my children, my lady wife and possessions. Cp. in virtute recte gloriamur Cic. X D. iii. 87. In virtue do we rightly pride ourselves. (5) The locative is found also with {a) substantives and (b) adjectives. In Latin this construction is absorbed in the genitive, traces remaining only in such phrases as tieger nnimi ■etc. 1 H. G.-' § 143, 2. ^ Ahl. Loc. Instr. p. 40; S. F. iv. p. 56. 2 Monro, H. G.- loc. cit. * Delbi-iick, A. L. I. p. 65 calls this the iustrumeutal. § 337] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 291 a. Tpcoa 'Epi)(6ovios TtKero Tpweacnv avaKra II. XX. 230. Brichthonius begat Tros, the king among the Trojans. Cp. ®r]liai(TLV titWots ava^ Bur. Plwen. 17. King in Thebes famed for .steeds. T(ov Toi /xaraitav avSpdai povq)jia,TMv ■q yXuMTcr' dXrjdrj? ytyi/crai /caTJjyopos. Ae,sch. S. c. T. 438. Verily of vain imaginings among men the tongue becometh infallible accuser. dpnrpiiria TpiSeacn II. vi. 477. Illustrious among the Trojans. (6) The locative of motion towards. English has the same construction. KXrjpov KVVfrj /3aA.E 11. vil. 187. The lot he threw in the helmet. Xap-al l3dXi SeV8p«a II. ix. 541. He threw the trees on the gTound. procumbit kumi' bos Virg. Aen. v. 481. The ox falls on the ground. toto proiectus corpore terrae Virg. Aen. xi. 87. Cast at his length on the earth. (7) The prepositions with the locative in Greek are a'/ti^i, ai/a, Iv, ctti, ^era, irapd, vepl, irpoi (irpoTi) and viro, of which a//.(/)i, 61/, eVt, Trepl and 77-po9 are themselves old locatives. The Latin prepositions are in, sub, super, stcbter, coram. i According to Draeger, Hist. Sijnt. i.- p. 573 not found before Cicero, terrae not before Virgil. 19—2 292 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 337 (8) From the locative a considerable number of adverbial forms are made. Besides the prepositions mentioned may be cited alu (ak's § 312), iripvcri. 'last year/ aVri ante, penes (§312), pron. ttoi ; Old Lat. qui, etc. 338. The instrumental is the case of the person, viii. The in- object or circumstance accompanying, or strumentai. acting as ageut, instrument or cause. The transition from the idea of association to that of instru- ment is easy and can be observed in many languages. Thus in modern English with is first a preposition of association : The man with the child, the man jrith the sicord. From the latter usage comes without difficulty with the sword he slew them, the earlier form of which would be : he had a sword and he slew them. (1) The sociative instrumental, whether (a) person or (b) circumstance. a. aXu>jX(.vo% vrji tc kol irdpoicrL Od. xi. 161. Wandering with a ship and with comrades. si aedificabis, operis iumeutis materia adiucabunt Cato, R. B. i. If you build, they will assist you with workmen, beasts of burden and wood. Tots dyaOoL'; avfJ-fJutrye, KaKOicn Se /j.rj woO' o/xaprct Theognis, 1165. Mix with the good and company never with the bad. ipse uno graditur comitatus Achate Virg. Aeii. i. 312. Himself stalks forward attended by Achates only. b. Tpwes laxy la-av II. xvii. 266. The Trojans marched on with a shout. — § 338] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 293 non dicam dolo Plaut. Men. ii. 1. 3. I will not speak with, guile. With non-personal substantives in Homer avVo's is frequently combined : airois d/SeXoto-tv, Od. xiv. 77, ' skewers and all.' The construction appears also in classical prose : ft-iav Se [i/aCi/] airois dvBpda-iv tiAov, Thuc. ii. 90. 6, ' One ship they took, men and all'.' The accompanying circumstance has frequently an adjective with it, a construction very extensively developed in Latin. d-yxi/xoXov &i ri\ff '^Kd^ij tctiijoti Ovfiw II. xxiv. 283. And near to them came Hecuba with anguish-stricken heart. utinam ne imquam...cupido corde pedem extidisses' Ennius. Would that you had never set forth with your covetous heart. Hence comes the frequent descriptive ablative in Latin. (2) The instrumental of likeness and equality. The place of this construction has generally been usurped by the dative or by usages with prepositions. Ocoi.v /iT^cTTwp ara'Aai/Tos H. vii. 366. A counsellor equal with the gods. (Cp. also lo-os, oyaoio;, OjU,oi(u etc.) Compare with this nullust hoc metuculosus aeque, cited in § 335, 2 c. The construction, which is not 1 For an explanation of the effect of airb^ in this phrase see Monro, H. G.^ § 144 note. 2 Draeger, Hist. Synt. i.^ p. 538. 294 A SHOET MANUAL OF [§ 338 common in Latin, falls within the border-land between ablative and instrumental. (3) Instrumental of cause. Not of persons in early Latin'. (uc^eXes avTO^' oXidOai., avSpi Sa/Acis Kpartpm II. iii. 429. Would that thou hadst perished here, slain by a stout warrior. ■fj 8' lQ(.(.v jSopirj avifiM Od. xiv. 299. The ship sped on with the north wind. (rare) iacent suis tesiihus Cic. p. Mil. 47. They lose their case by reason of their own witnesses. (4) Instrumental of means. Very common. Straov eyco S-vva/xaL f^ipaiv re Trouiv re koI crdevei II. XX. 360. As far as I am able with hands and feet and strength. si sumvio lovi probo argento sacruficassem Plant. Most. i. 3. 84. If I had made a sacrifice to Jove almighty with good money. (5) Instrumental with verbs. This very common construction requires illustration only in the case of verbs of (a) price, (b) fulness. a. irpiaTO [jixe] KTeaTecrcTiv loiaiv Od. XV. 483. He bought me with his own wealth. quattuor minis ego istanc emi Plaut. Men. i. 3. 22. I bought her with (for) four minae. ' Draeger, Hist. Synt.- § 229. § 338] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY, 295 b. (rare) tw 8e ol ocro-e SaKpv6i, ■rrXTjcruei' R xvii. 696. His two eyes were filled witli tears. telis complebantur corpora Plaut. Amph. i. 1. 95 (251). Their bodies were filled with darts. Both of these classes also take a genitive. The genitive of price is probably predicative. It occurs in both languages with substantive verbs. The genitive of fulness is no doubt partitive (§ 334, 5). (6) Instrumental with (a) substantives, (&) adjec- tives, and (c) numerals to express the thing in respect of which a predication about the subject is made. a. (rare) vo/j.L^e yqft.a'i SovAos etvai tuS /Ji'm Gnom. 77. Marry and think yourself a slave as regards your life. natura tu illi pater es consiliis ego Ter. Ad. i. 2. 46 (126). By birth you're his father, in schemes I am. b. OTrXoVaTos ya>eyi<^iv H. ix. 58. Youngest in point of birth. hie mews amicus illi generest proximus Ter. Ad. iv. 5. 17 (651). My friend is nearest to her in respect of kin. ivpvTipo's wp-oKTi^ 7/. iii. 194. Broader in respect of shoulders. ' In Greek this construction disappears before the ' accusative of the part affected.' In Latin however it is the regular construc- tion ; the accusative is a Graecism for the most part. 296 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 338— mm pernix manibus, pedibits mohilis Plaut. M. G. iii. 1. 36 (630). I am active with my hands, agile with my feet. c. TToXXoL dpiOfjiiS Herodotus [dpLBfiov in Homer]. Many in number. mille numero navium Cic. Verr. ii. 1. 48. A thousand ships in number. (7) Instrumental of measure with comparatives and superlatives. Of words of quantity Homer uses the accusative (jroXv, ji-iya. etc.), but Tts o8' eo-Tiv /xeiwv jxkv K^aXfj ' hyaji.ijj.vovo% 'ArpciSao ; II. iii. 193. Who is this less by a head than Agamemnon ? ne pilo quidem minus te amabo Cic. ad Quint. Fr. ii. 15. I shan't love you a hair the less. (8) The instrumental of place disappeared in Greek except in such pronominal words as irrj; 'by which way?' (9) The instrumental of time is possibly found in XpoVo)' 'with time, in time.' Both types are possibly extant in Latin. Delbriick' cites from Caesar omnibus viis semitisque essedarios ex slMs emittebat ' by all roads and bye-paths he sent out chariot fighters from the woods' ; quod iniquo loco atque imparl congressi numero quinque horis proelium sustinuissent, B. C. i. 47, ' for five hours.' But this time usage is indistinguishable from the locative. 1 Brug. Gr. Gr." § 187. ' A. L.'I. p. 54. — § 339] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 297 (10) Adverbial. Adverbial forms from the instrumental are common in both Greek and Latin. If the instrumental had for one of its endings -a (or m), many particles such as Iva, jutra, TTtSa and adverbial forms such as Ta^a, mko may be referred to the instrumental. T-^t, XiKpi-i'-9 are probably of the same origin (§§ 314, 323). In Latin, forms like cito, niodo are instrumental?. (11) With prepositions. In Greek avv and a^^a seem to have been originally used with the instrumental'. In Latin cum is the only instrumental preposition. Absolute Cases. 339- In all branches of the Indo-Germanic family of languages there are case-forms used mainly with partici- ples and referring to some person or thing other than the subject of the sentence, while at the same time they are dependent on no other word. Such forms are said to be in an absolute case. But the Indo-Germanic languages do not all use the same case for gu'^es havVdif'- this purpose. Sanskrit uses regularly the ^g™' absolute locative, occasionally the instrumental and the genitive, Greek uses the genitive and, in certain cases, the accusative, Latin the ablative, which may represent an original locative or instrumental, Old English the dative, which represents either the original locative or instrumental, and the Slavonic languages the dative. The separate languages seem therefore to have ■■ Delbruok, S. F. iv. p. 133 ; fxeTo. (ibid. p. 132) was originally need with the locative. 298 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 339 — developed the construction independently' and from somewhat different points of view. In Greek lute case is Ken. the Construction is a real genitive and not '"'*■ an ablative. It probably arose in Greek out of the genitive of time' (§ 334, 7). The ablative Latin abso- absolute in Latin more probably represents lute case is ^j^g original instrumental than the locative, sibiy loc. for in the early Latin the preposition cum occasionally appears in such constructions : cmn divis volentibus, Cato, B.R. 141. Some usages, especially those of time, may equally well be derived from the original locative. While therefore the Homeric -jeXiov dFtovros taken literally is 'within the time when the sun rises,' the Latin sole oriente is ' at the time when the sun rises ' or ' along with the rising of the sun.' Corresponding to Greek sentences without expressed subject'', such as e^ean the absolute parti- Special forms . -, ^ , . ■, mi • of absolute con- ciple i^ov appears in the ace. This construc- tion, however, is not Homeric. In Cicero and the later Latin the participle appears in the ablative (1) without an accompan3dng substantive : auspicato, nee opinato, etc. or (2) with a clause in place of the sub- stantive : tei'ga dantihits qui modo seciifi erant (= ttecu- toribus), Liv. xxxi. 37. 7. ^ No doubt various usages of the locative and instrumental bordered upon this construction from the earliest period, but the use of one case for this meaning was not yet fixed. 2 Monro, H. G.^ % 246. '■' More accurately, without a substantive in the nom. in appo- sition (§ 331). — § 341] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 299 xxi. Fragments of cases. Adverbs, prepositions and conjunctions. 340. Between adverbs and prepositions no distinct line can be drawn. When a case ending was . Prepositions found too vague to express the meaning used to define case-meaning. intended, another word was added m order to convey greater definiteness. ofi/jidTuiv airo with ana- strophe is therefore no exception but the original type. So (TTrjOtarcri rripi ' oil the breast round about ' would precede irepi crTr'iOtcrcn 'round about the breast' The more local the meaning of a case is, the more preposi- tions it requires to convey definiteness of meaning. Hence the cases which are most widely construed with prepositions are the accusative, locative and ablative ; the instrumental needs fewer and the genitive and dative none. The preposition therefore is only an adverb specialised to define a case usage. What then of aTrofiaLva, avicrxov and other verb forms which are combined with words such as ac- company noun cases ? Here the adverbial (adverbs) with meaning is still retained — v^m dirojiaLvu ' from the ship he goe's off,' x^ 'pas dvecrxov ' they raised their hands up.' In Homer these adverbial forms are still frequently separated from the verb with which they go. In the later history of the language, the combination of adverb and verb becomes more constant. 341. In the early history of all languages there are probably few adverbs which are not nominal or pronominal forms ; adverbs formed from art'^Teiie^'^'^'f verbs are late and always rare (§ 278). Ad- c'l™';^^''^ '*''" verbs ending in -0 ; diro, irpb, mro cannot be 300 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 341 — identified with any known case ; ai/' ( = aTr-?) Lat aps {ab), i^ (=€K-s) Lat. ex may however be genitives; d/i0i Lat. amb- in amb-itus etc., a.vT-1 Lat. ante, ctt-i cp. Lat. oV loca- tives with the -i suffix, h (also €i'-i) Lat. a?;, a-Tip (cp. arap) Eng. a-sunder {=*snter), v-jrip, Lat. s««j9«r i=s-u2}er^) probably suffixless locatives, av-a, Kar-a, /xer-a, 8i-a possi- bly instrumentals, if the original suffix of the instru- mental is -a (§ 314). In io--Tcpo5, an old adverb *ud (Skt. ud, Eng. out) is concealed by phonetic changes. va-repo's represents the comparative stem found in the English utteo: Sometimes a whole group of ad- verbial or prepositional forms seem to come from one original stem, vrapos (gen.), Trapai (dat.) Lat. prae, -n-ip-l (loc.) -n-ap-a (instr.), to which are akin ■^po':, nipav, iripa. Latin de and Old Latin se (sed) in se fraude ' without deceit ' are apparently ablatives for *ded, sed''. The history of ^vu and a-vv, which are said to be originally different ■■, and of Latin cum (from *kom- root of koivo'? = *Koyu,-io-s) is not clear. Of other forms which have certaiulj^ a case origin may be mentioned dXXa, the proclitic form of aXXa ace 1 With variant grade (Brugmann, Gr. Gr? p. 219). 2 s- in super, sub as compared with vrip, virb, Skt. upari, upa is explained as the weak grade of ex (Osthoff, M. V. iv. pp. 156, 266). ^ Buck, Vocalismus dcr oslsischen Sprache, p. 31, takes de as the instr. of an -o-stem, a view which receives support from the fact that the corresponding form in Old Irish di produces aspira- tion and cannot have originally ended in a consonant. * Kretschmer K. Z. xxxi. pp. 415 ft. identifies ^dii and trdu, sup- posing I- to change to ir- as in Latin s-tiper. The double forms date from Indo-Germanie times and hence a bye-form w is found in Cyprian and Pamphylian. This form he identifies with the Lithuanian sa Old Bulgarian sit ' with.' — § 342] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 301 plural (cp. Lat. ceterum) ; ajxa (= *smm-a) probably instru- mental ; o/xw-s, from the same root as u/aa but with different grade, ablative. 342. Some conjunctions have certainly descended from the primitive period and cannot be certainly ana- lysed. Such are tI Lat. que, yi, /j.-^, vv, vv-v and vvv Lat. num, (.t-i Lat. et, ov possibly Latin ]iau-, hau-t, hau-d. The great majority of conjunctions are certainly or probably of pronominal origin. Such are in Greek o, a-re. accusative forms of the pronominal stem 10- (§ 325 iv) ov genitive, ol locative, -^-^and i'-va probably instrumen- tals, Toi ethic dative 'mark you ! ' e«s, which in Homer must be scanned -^os (= ^id-po^ cp. Skt. yd-vat with a different suffix). koL is explained as a neuter plural = Lat. quae. Latin forms are quod, quia accusative, ntei (ut), ubei (uhi) locative, quo ablative and instrumental. quin is the locative qui with the abbreviated negative ne added. Many other forms of obviously pronominal origin have not yet been satisfactorily explained. Such are quam, cum {quom), iani. The 'if particles in both Greek and Latin present many difficulties. «i and Doric at were formerly explained as being the same as Lat. sei {si) and Oscan svai. But the loss of aspiration is not easily accounted for, and Brugmann ' conjectures that d is the locative of an -o-stem, at of an -a-stem from the prono- minal stem 0- (§ 325 viii) found in the Skt. genitive a^sya etc. sei and svai may also be taken as masculine and feminine locatives from the pronominal stem suo- (§ 328 ii)^ 1 Gr. Gr" p. 225. 2 For a full account of such adverbial case-forms see Delbriick, Grundriss, Syntax, chapters xiv. and xv. 302 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 343- xxii. Stem formation in the noun. 343. Those nouns which are formed directly from the root with or without the addition of case suffixes have abeady been discussed. It remains now to classify the elements that are employed in the languages with which we have to deal, in order to build up the stem in those noun forms which are not made directly from the root. The suf5x attached to a stem or a class of stems may Simple and be either simple or complex. A simple complex suffixes, g^fgx is that which we cannot analyse into further component parts, e.g. the -0- in the stem syllable of oTk-o-s, the -u- of vic-U'S. A complex suffix is one which can be analysed into component parts, e.g. EA.a;(-ior-To-9 pos-tu-mu-s, where the superlative suifix in each case can be analysed into two suffixes which have a separate and independent vitality of their own. 344. The suflixes used in stem formation may be most easily classified according to the sounds of which they are composed. We thus have six series of suffixes Classification Corresponding to the six classes into which of suffixes. sounds were divided (^ 113—5). There may be stems ending (1) in stops whether voiced, breathed, or aspirated, (2) in spirants whether voiced or breathed, (3) in nasals and (4) in liquids in either case whether consonant or sonant (§ 81), (5) in vowels or (6) in diphthongs. But all six classes are not equally well represented in language. Stems ending in stops — § 344] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 303 are comparatively rare, those in spirants, nasals and liquids of few types but widely developed, those in vowels commonest and most widely developed of all'. From vowel stems it is impossible to separate diph- thongal stems, for, as we have seen, in various ablaut series the weak grade of a diphthong is a simple vowel (§ 252). It i.s also to be remembered that the uniformity in stem suffixes, which most langriages present to us throughout all the cases of the noun, is not the original state of things, but the result of a great variety of changes both phonetic and analogical, extending over a great period of time during which many external forces may have been brought to bear upon the elements of language. The philologist in dealing with this part of language is somewhat in the position of the historian viewing an ancient battlefield or the ruins of some early fortress. The historian sees earthworks, or the outlines of a camp on the battlefield, he may trace the course of the moat round the castle and make out where some of the principal buildings stood. But without other aids he can advance no farther. The earthworks will not tell him how the battle swayed this way or that, the ruins will not reveal to him the date or number of the sieges they have endured. And so it is in language. An errant form here and there shows that in former days the uniformity which is now to be found did not always exist. But to trace the causes and course of the changes is, in most instances, more than is at present possible. We do know, however, that the Latin uniformity which 1 Torp, Den Graske Nominaljiexion {Christiania 1890) p. 10 ff., contends that the consonant stems are contracted out of o- stems *ersono-s becoming *ersdn-s [dpa-tjv) ; *nero-s becoming ^iiir-s {a-v-rip). Cp. also note after § 265 p. 193 f. 304 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 344 — carries -tor through all the cases of da-tor is not original (§ 48), and we have good reason also to doubt whether -o- in -o-stems did originally appear in all cases except the vocative and possibly the locative (§ 251). 345. One main factor in causing diversity in stems was accent, one main cause of uniformity which affect was analogy. Most of the suffixes which we can assign with certainty to the original Indo-Germanic language show traces of gradation ; few if any have escaped the working of analogy. And analogy affects not merely the form of words when they have once come into existence. New words are made by analogy. Only grammarians and educated people re- cognise the elements of which their words are made. The great majority of the human race make a new word by adding to a word already known that which they imagine to contain the meaning they wish to ex- press by the new word. If lytel-ing means child, then young-ling may be formed in the same way, and so on (§ 286). Every child makes its new words for itself by analogy : hence mouses as the plural of mouse, oxes of ox, etc. The forms mouses, oxes show good reasoning, but defective knowledge of the history of language. 346. Stems in stops are but poorly developed in the Indo-Germanic languages. Those which are found come mostly from dental and guttural suffixes, and all or nearly all of them have forms ending in -0- parallel to them. Labial root nouns like kXioi// (cp. kAotto-?), Opi^f/, 4>^i'p, Lat. daps, caelebs have developed in the separate languages, and Labial stems. , , , i • i • i i have no exact etymological equivalents else- where, (ji^if may represent *bhleq-s. — § 348] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 305 347- Stems in -t-. Pew seem to reach back to the Indo-Germanic period, although Greek I T j_' 1 1 c • 1 c Dental stems. ana I/atin nave each a fair number of forms. v-ui, {pi)KT-6s) : Lat. nox {noct-is) : Eng. night (Goth, naht-s gen.). Compare also Oiji, Xe/3?js, ayvujs : Latin locu-ple-s, sacer-dos { = *iiacro-dot-s tlirough *saci--dus)\ Greek has no par- allel to such Latin forms as com-es (from rt. / ' go ') gen. aim-i-t-i-s, seges gen. sege-t-is. Greek moreover has changed many such stems into -d- stems, possibly because in some cases both series have the same changes of -t- form of assimilation. Hence parallel to ^''^™^ '" Greek, the Latin nepos neputis 'descendant' 'grandson,' Greek has vtVoScs {dXocrv^vq-;). Here a confusion has taken place between the original stem *nepdt- '*nepot- and a Greek negative form from ttous, v^ttos (cp. rpt-Tros) 'foot- less,' because in Odyssey iv. 404, where the phrase ' children of Halosydne ' occurs, the creatures indicated are seals, to whom the epithet *vj;7roS£s would be equally applicable I Sanskrit and other languages prove that Latin has kept the original form. Other words which have passed in Greek from -t- to -d- in the suffix are the numeral substantives StKas, ■jrcvra's etc., which in other languages show a -t- stem. For the suffixes in -nt see § 362 ff. 348. Stems in -d-. These are more numerous in Greek and in Latin than in any other language. Greek has by far the greater number, many of which, however, as in some cases above, can be shown to be analogical 1 -t- in compounds probably is, as Streitberg contends, a relic of the common sufBx -to- (§ 378). « Cp. now Johannson (I. F. rv. p. 144). G. P. 20 306 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 348 modifications of other stems. Secondary formations from this stem are to be found in the adjectives in -(iSr]<; -cu8e5 (TToi-tuSr;? ' grassy' etc.) which are often confused with compounds ending in -eiSrjs, the signification being almost identical. The -S- in c'pi-s, £pi-S-os and some others is obviously late, for the ace. tp-iv to an -•.- stem is also found. The -8- in Greek is preceded only by -a- and -t- : <^wya?, eATrt's'. Latin makes no such distinction. Latin unaccented -a- and -e- would be confused with -i- (§§ 159, 161), but we find besides -i- which arises in this way in cuspi-s, lapis etc., -e- in nierces, -u- in 2>ecu-d-is (gen. § 50), -tt- Yn palu-d-is. 349. Stems in -h- (-k- and -q-). In all cases there is some authority for an -0- stem beside Guttural stems. , ,, / > the consonant stem. Compare akm-n-q^ (stem *ldp>el(,-) with Skt. lopd^d-s", fj-etpa^ (stem *meriaq-) with Skt. maryahl-s, Lat. senex (stem *seneq-) with Skt. sanakd-s. Lat. cervix is presumably for *cer-mC'S and being thus from a root in -It has no -k- suffix. 350. Stems in -g- {-g- and -g-). These are very doubtful in apira^ and Tnipv^. The latter is supposed by some^ to be developed from a neuter nom. suffix in -g-, cp. Skt. asrg ' blood ' : the origin of the forms in -ng- in Greek is not clear : ^aA.a-yf, a-aXtr-iy^, Kap-vyt This suffix has been specialised in Greek for words conveying "the notion of hoUowness," at any ' i\Trls is ii modification of an original -?-stem. Cp. ace. of compound eiekin-v and Old Latin volup (neut. of -(- stem for ^volupG). 2 See however Darbishire, Proceedings of Cambridge Philological Society for 1893, p. 3. ' Cp. Meringer, Beitriige tur GeschicJite der indogermanisclien Declination, p. 6. — § 351] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 307 rate in the forms -ty^ and -vy^, o-Cpiyf ' pipe,' a-irqXvy^ ' cave." 351. ii. Stems in spirants. Here only stems which end in -s need be considered. The sufilxes with -s play an important part in the Indo-Germanic languages. The varying forms of the simple '*' ^ ''™^' -s- suffix may all be explained as ablaut forms of one stem, but in practice different grades have been specialised in different significations. (1) The forms -os, -es have been specialised for the masculine and feminine forms of the nominative, while -os, -es are found as neuters. Compare ai8pa-T-np\ (ppd-Ti^p) dvyd-Trip : : daugh-ter ? ^-op^ : soT'Or : sis- ter Sa-rjp^ . le-v-ir : O.E. ta-eo?- (husband's brother). 1 In the Germanic languages this class has disappeared, the English -er as in gardener representing the same sulfix as the Latin -drio-. " Explained by Hesychius as dvydrrip, ave^ths. Brugmann (Grundr. ii. § 122) takes this as the vocative form. The nomi- native would be iu}p = ''sues-or, to which also corresponds the Latin soror {§ 201); sister is borrowed by English from the Norse systir and has replaced the Old Eng. sweos-t-or. In this word the -t- is not original. Where s and r came together, the Germanic languages inserted -t- between them: cp. stream from the same root as p4ui (srey,-). The original Germanic nominative would thus have been ^svesSr, gen. *svestr-s. 3 From an original stem *daiuer- with various ablaut forms ; 312 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 356 — 356. iv. Nasal suffixes are found in -n- only ; tliere are no -m- suffixes used to form new words, and the only words originally ending in -m- are the Indo-G. words for earth and snow represented in Greek by xOwv and x""" respectively. Final -m regularly becomes -v in Greek, and -v- is then carried throughout the declension. For -m in these words cp. x6a.iJi.ak6<; kum-u-s ; x^iix-iav, x^^l^-"-, hiemps (with euphonic -jo-) gen. Mem-is. Just as in the -r- and -s- stems, gradation plays a large part, and the syllable containing -n- appears as en, on, en, on, n, n, and possibly w according to circumstances. As in the -s- stems, there are various kindred suffixes, -men-, -ien-, -uen-, with their numerous gxaded forms. Closely con- nected with the last mentioned are the suffixes in -uent-, and by the side of -en-, -on- are numerous fonns in -ent- and -out-. All of these forms had apparently at one time a complete system of gradation, the details of which are in some respects hard to determine, but which, at all events, was built up on the same principle as the gradation of the -s- and -r- stems'. It is not necessary to suppose that each of these -n- suffixes had an in- dependent origin. Some of them may have arisen by a confusion of the final sound of the root with the suffixal element, as happens occasionally in modern languages levir is an instance of popular analogy, the second syllable of the word being erroneously connected with vir. The number of names of relationships which go back to the Indo-Germanic period is strikingly large and has been the subject of investigation by Delbriick in a treatise entitled Die VerwandtscJiaftsnamen in den indogermanischen Sprachen. ' I see no probability in Bartholomae's view that the participle of the present had originally no gradation, A". Z. 29, p. 487 ff. — § 357] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 313 (§ 286). But at any rate this confusion, if such it be, dates from the Indo-Germanic period. 357- As in the -s- and -r- stems, so here the different gradations of the stem suffix are specialised in different meanings. Neuters S'""'"ditoon? appear in -n and possibly -n, but there is """""'«'■ no distinction parallel to that between ipevSijs, f^vSk and i/'€58o;. The -n- suffixes have a considerable variety of meanings, the most characteristic uses being as nomina agentls (forms in -en- -on-), jiomina actionis {-men-, -mon-), feminine abstracts {-ten-, -ion-), active participles {-nt-) and descriptive adjectives {-uent-). It is noticeable that comparatively few -n- stems are found in both Greek and Latin. Latin developed a large number of new -n- stems, especially in the form -tion-, a suffix which replaced the older and extinct -ti- (§ 368) ; cp. yi/(3-o-t-s (=*yv(o-Ti-s) with no-ti-0, /3a-crt-s { = *qm-ti-s) with con-ven-ti-o etc. With the suffixes -men-, -mon- and -uent- Latin combines the suffix -to-, thus forming the suffixes -mento- (in cogno-men-tu-m etc.) and -*uent-to- *-uenso- -ansa- -vso- (in formongus, formvsus). -, ^. ^ ^ '^ / Latin -onso- The suffix always appears as -uso- without ■''•«'•• regard to the nature of the stem-ending to which it is affixed, whether e.g. -a- as in forma, -5- as in verbu-m, -n- as in fuligo {fuliginosits). Other forms which are much affected by Latin are those formed by adding -on- to stems ending in -g- or -d-, whether such stems are simple or complex : marg-o ' brink ' (gen. margin-is), calt-g-o 'mist' (gen. call-g-in-is) ; card-o 'hinge' (gen. card-ill-is), testu-do 'tortoise' (gen. testu-din-is). But the new combinations are treated as themselves suffixes (cp. -ling in the Germanic languages § 286) and make new words : plumb-d-g-o from plumbu-m, lan-u-g-o from 314 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 357 — lana ; alti-tudo from altu-s etc. The form of the original stem is disregarded in these secondary forma- tions. A probable parallel to such forms are the Greek (mostly poetical) abstracts axO-yj-^-wv, T-rjK-e-S-wv, which have sometimes derivatives again as c^ay-c-Saiva, a de- rivative in -la from a possible *<^ay-e-S-(ijv. 358. In forms of the type o-Tpa/?-u)i/, K7](j>-rjv the strong form is carried throughout the declension. In Greek the stem -pr]v- in ■rroXvpprjVi.'; appears in its weakest form in the simple substantive gen. api'-ds (= *urn-), which has this weak form in all its existing cases. Latin has only one word with the weakest stem in the genitive, viz. caro ' flesh ' cam-is. That, however, these weak forms did exist in the primitive Italic period is shown by other dialects : cp. Umbrian gen. no-mn-er (with final rhotacism) with Lat. no-min-is ( = *no-nin-es). In all -11- stems Latin -in- being unaccented may re- present either -on- or -en-. In old Lat. Im'ino makes its accusative hemonem or homonem. The suffix -en- is apparently to be found in the Gk. infinitive of the type 4>€puv, now generally recognised as a suffixless locative parallel to the Skt. -s-an-i. If so, an -n- suffix is added to an -.s- stem, *^p-ea--(v, whence *<^ep-e-€v, <^ip-uv (Lesbian cf>ip-r]v). 35g. -men-, -mon-, -mn-, -mn- (neuter). Tip-}xuv : ter-mo I r^p-fxa : tcniien j Kpi-na : crimen Imperat. ) „ . ^ T fl -t ^\eye-iJ.eii-ai: (e(;(-)n!»-i (Passive Imperat.). In Greek and Latin some forms k(.v6-jxu>v, ser-mo etc. carry the long form throughout. The number of parallel § 360] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 315 forms Tip-ixmv, rep-fia etc. suggests that both forms had originally belonged to one paradigm, and that the forms by mvitual levelling had made two separate paradigms. Cp. TrdOoi and TreVSos, /Jafio? and ySe'i'^os etc. The infinitives of the type -^cF-ai are obviously old dative forms from -men- stems. Like various other noun forms which are used in the verb paradigm, they have nothing in themselves to characterise them as either active or passive, and hence each language is free to specialise them in its own way. If the identification of Xcye'/Aevai and legimini given above from Wackernagel be correct, this form must be carefully distinguished from legimini= XeyofxevoL of the Present Indie. Passive, although the use of the former as the 2nd pers. Plural must have been occasioned by the latter. The neuters of this series have frequently in Latin byeforms with Latin byetorms the additional suffix -to- ; cogno-men : cogno- '" -»»««■*''-■ men-tu-m. With this may be compared ovo/xa and its plural ovo/iara : but whether the -t- forms from this w-stem were occasioned by the existence of a byeform with a -to- suffix, or whether from a new-formed ablatival genitive sing. oVo^a-ro9 the -t- was carried throughout, is still a vexed question (cp. § 309). 360. -'ten-, -ion-, -In-, -in- {-it}-)- The form -in- is found only in Sanskrit words Kke balin- ' strong,' in which -in- is generalised for all cases. The weak grade of the -ten- suffix which survives in Greek is -in-, a form which according to Brugmann' is still found in SeAc^-fs (gen. 8eA.<^-rv-os), Ak-t-U (gen. cLKT-lv-o's) and others with nom. in -15 or -Iv. In some words the ordinary feminine suffix -d- (-■>;-) has been added. Brugmann compares Sw-t-Iv-tj by the side of 1 Grundr. 11. § 115. 316 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 360— S(u-rt-? (cp. § 27) with Lat. da-tio by the side of das. In Latin the form -ion- is carried throughout the declension except in the river-name Anio ; Oscan and Umbrian, however, preserve the weaker form in the declension. In neither Greek nor Latin is the suffix -toiv, Lat. -ion-, very common. In Latin there are many more words with this suffix in ordinary use than there are in Greek, but, notwithstanding, -tion- overshadows Meaningof-Jo«- t^e morc simple form. In Greek the com- stems 111 Greek honest words with this suffix indicate 'dwellers in' or 'descendants of: ou'pav-tW-e?, Kpov-iuii', ' dwellers in heaven,' ' son of Kronos.' There are also a few words of a diminutive or contemptuous meaning (iuaAa/<-tW' 'weakling' Aristoph. Eccl. 1058) parallel to Latin forms like homunc-io pumil-io etc. In Latin the and Latin sufiix is of more general signification. Be- sides the diminutives above mentioned, forms in -ion- are found as ordinary masculine substan- tives : resti-o ' rope-maker ' (resti-s), centuri-o etc. There are also feminine collectives or abstracts : leg-io, opin-io ; cp. reg-io ' a stretch of country.' Some have a parallel neuter form in -to- in use: contag-io : contag-ium; obsid-io : obsid-ium. The suffix -tion- is very common. It has ousted the old -ti- suffix (§ 368) and is freely used to form new abstracts : cp. stati-m from a nomi- native *stati-s with station-em. The beginnings of tliis must date very far back because by the side of the old ace. parti-m later part-emi stands a stem with a differ- ent root-grade, por-ti-o, ace. por-ti-on-em. 361. -uen-, -uon-, -Hn-, -un- (-tin-). The forms of this suffix are parallel to those of -ien- 1 Both this and 5ei\aKp-ioiv (Arist. Pa.x 193) are probably comic patronymics ; cp. son of a gun, son of a sea-cook. — § 362] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 317 stems. The suffix is rare in the classical languages. In Greek, apart from a few forms like almv {=ai-Fv cp. Lat. ae-vo-m), m-iav ' fat ' (cp. Skt. p't-van-), it survives possibly only in the infinitive forms Sovvai etc. (=80- Fev-ai which is found in the Cyprian dialect : Skt. dd- van-gy. Brugmann finds the weak form -un- in (jipidra, ireppara (= *(^pri-ca-Ta, Hom. (bpnara, *rr€p- _ ^a-ra, torms With extended stems ; cp. oVo- fi-a-Ta^ Lat. cognomen-ta, § 359). 362. -ent-, -mit-, -nt-. This suffix has always formed all active participles except those of the perfect. In Greek such passive participles as are formed on the analogy of active forms, viz. 1st and 2nd aor. passive, also take this suffix ; Xv-6-ei/T-, (pav-evT-. There are also some nominal forms of the same type, Gk. oSov?, yep-wv, Lat. de7is. In Greek the only forms which retain the exact phonetic repre- sentation of the original suffix -otit-s are oSovs, and participles like Sovs : the ordinary participial and nominal form of the nominative seen in 4>^pwv, yipwv etc. must by some analogical method be borrowed from the -en-, -on- stems". That there was a close connexion between the two series is shown by the trans- interchange ference of stems from the one series to stems, the other, cp. Xiwv, Xiovr-o-; with Lat. ho, leon-is and with the fern. Xiaiva (= *leuilia), OepaTnav, 6tpaTrovTO? ■ Brugmann's derivation of the substantives avSpuv 'men's chamber,' i-n-Trtliv ' stable ' from this suffix, and his identification of -vv- in ciidiiva seem somewhat improbable {Grundr. 11. § 116). Even some of the forms given above are doubtful. In al/iiv and aevo-m, u may possibly belong to the root. Fick holds that in Sbfevai, u was part of the root in the ludo-G. period, comparing Latin duam etc. 2 Brugm. Grundr. n. § 198. 318 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 362 — with depawaLva. In Latin, with rare exceptions, weak forms (in -?i-) or -en- forms have been carried throughout the declension ; but iem, gen. eunt-is {-*iient-s, *eiiont- es). The neuter of the participle and adjective in Latin presents some difficulty, f evens ingens (neut.) cannot Neuter of Latin ^^^^^ tt© uom. -.s- suf&x. Thumeyseu's ex- -»<- participles, pianation' is that in Latin final -nt became -ns. Where final -nt is found as in the verb ferunt etc. it, according to this theory, represents -nti. 363. The ablaut variations are well preserved in Gradations in Sanskrit. In the classical languages much -nt- stems. more levelling has taken place, so that only a few relics of the original system are preserved. In Greek beside wv, ovtos we find in Doric evTes=*sent-es and the feminine iaa-a-a and possibly Homeric /xeVacro-ai^, where -aa-a-a = *snt-ia ; in Latin, besides lens euntis, we have apparently in sons and praesens two different gTades of the participle of the substantive verb^ Presumably as in -r- stems the original declension ran in the simple and compound forms thus : Nom. *sents *prat-sonts Gen. *snt-es *pral-snt-os. The English participle is of the same origin : ^f.p- OVT-: 0. E. her-end-. The suffix in the participle berende etc. is found changed to -inge first in Layamon in the beginning of the 13th century. ' Archiv fi'ir lateinischen Lexicographie v. p. 576, following as regards final -nt Bugge in K.Z. 22, p. 385 ft. ^ Glaanical Review, in. p. 4. ' For this explanation which does away with the diiBculty of an 'accented sonant nasal' (cp. § 157, n. 2) see Streitberg, I. F. 1. p. 93. — § 365] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 319 364. -unit-, -mt-. This suffix is found only in the Aryan, Greek and Itahc groups of the Indo-Germanic languages. It is used as an adjectival suffix to indicate ' possessing, endowed with,' as in xapt-ets ' endowed with charm.' In Latin, as already mentioned, it appears only in com- hination with -to- in the adjectives ending in -osus. The Greek masculine form as in x"P'-^'5 represents by -tis original -uent-s. The feminine xapt-fo-o-a represents origi- nal -unt-io. which should appear as -aaa-a, Gradation in but throu"gh the influence of the mascuUne ■«™'=- ''«°'*'- the vowel has been changed to -e-. The stem gradation in the oblique cases has also disappeared except in the locative (dative) plural xapL-ea-i {=*-unt-s-i) which has however changed its vowel like the other cases'. With this change of vowel compare Troi-yueVi for *Troi-/iao-t, pe(TL for (fipacri (found once in Pindar). 365. Suffixes in .vowels and diphthongs are much the most numerous class. They may be stems in vowels divided according to the vowel by means of ''"d diphthongs, which they are formed into (1) -fstems, (2) -«<-stems, (3) -i- i-ie-) stems, (4) -a-stems, (5) -o-stems. Of these the -o-stems are present in much the greatest variety of combination, hardly any consonant stem being without its counterpart formed by suffixing -0- to the consonant element. So also, beside -i- and -11- stems there are others in -to- and -uo-- Moreover / and u may repre- sent reduced gTades of such diphthongs as ei, eu. Here an important difference between vowel stems and con- sonant stems is to be observed. In the consonant stems the longest form of the suffix appears in the nominative singular, while the weakest grade is represented in the 1 *X'^P''-f^vT-pv-^. ''"■' ^'^"^■ The form of the genitive in Greek -u- stems seems to vary according to the quantity of the -v- ; hence Tnfp^eos (replaced in Attic by ttt/xems) but opBos. The Attic forms in;x€(os acTTecus are analogical. Homer has only the genitive in -tos, which is preserved in Attic in the adjectives — jJSeos etc. In Latin many -u- stems vary 1 An attempt has been made recently to treat these forms as an amalgamation of suffixes (Meringer, Beitrdge, p. 3). " Br^al's view, that the plural omnes is homines in the weak grade and with the aspirate lost, is improbable. 21—2 324 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 371 — in the dative and ablative plural between -u- and -i- forms, the syllable being unaccented. The relation be- tween yovv and Lat. genu is difficult to explain '. 372. Of the suffixes composed of a consonant and -U-, -til- is the most important. It is com- ■tu- stems. . , 'nil • • 1 1 parativeiy rare m (ireek, but is widely developed in Latin in the form -dtu- to make abstract substantives, especially in the sense of function or office ; consulatus, principatus etc. The infinitive forms called supines are cases of -tu- substantives formed from verb stems {§ 529). The ordinary Latin substantives in -tu- are all masculine ; the corresponding Greek forms such as lipta-Tv-%, cS-17-TiJ-s etc. are all feminine. The neuter forms a'o--Tv, <^t-Tv have no parallel in Latin. Forms in -tu- rarely occur from the same roots in Greek and Latin. Compare however t-ru-s (=ft-Ti)-s), Lat. vi-tu-s ; ap-Tw-s, Lat. ar-tu-s. 373. Brugmann cites as other -««-suffixes -nu- (Xty- Other-«-suf- "'^-5. Lat. pl-nu-s), -ru- (SaK-pu, haKpv-fxa, flies. La^^^ lacri-ma for *dacru-ma') and -lu- {Orj-Xv-'i from dhe ' suck/ Lat. fe-l-are). 374. (3) The suffix -7- and -ie- was largely used to form feminines from existing masculine -?-(-iV-) stems. ™, . . , „ /. 1 stems. The original form 01 the suffix and the relations between the -J- and -ie- forms are by no means clear, and though much has been written on the ^ Johannes Schmidt (Pluralhildungen, p. 50) contends that final short -u was dropped in Latin lite final short -i, and that the long -U is introduced later hy using the collective plural instead of the singular. ' The reading dacrumis for lacrnmis in Ennius' epitaph nemo me dacrumis decoret has no ancient authority, but is an emendation made hy Bergk. — § 375] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 325 subject in recent years no certain conclusion has as yet been reached. The suffix appears in the nominative in Sanskrit as -I (devl ' goddess ' fem. to deva-s, Lat. dlvu-s, Indo-G. *deiuo-s), but in Greek as -la. : -ijSua, Otpdnawa, ovaa, Soreipa, aX-qOua. representing respectively *5yS€F-ia, *Oepawv-ia., *sont-ia, *8oTcp-ita, *dX-)j6'€(r-ja. In Latin it appears in the great majority of the forms of the fifth declension : ac-ie-s, spec-ie-s etc. But here the restora- tion of the original form is complicated (1) by the fact that these stems have assumed a final -s on the analogy of such stems as are included in the third declension, ab-ies etc. ; and (2) because a number of such words have byeforms in -ia, the regular representation of original -id, cp. luxur-ie-s and luscur-ia etc. But as the suffix -io- seems to stand in ablaut relation to the suffix -i-, so -id- may possibly like -ie- have a weak grade of the form -'i-. Forms with long -i- in Latin are found only when another suffix follows, as in vic-tri-x fem. to vic-tor ; cp. So-Tijp and So-rctjoa. Some suppose that -la. in the Greek nominative may have come from the accusative form -tav and supplanted the older -l-\ others consider -m the older form, et adhuc sub judice lis est. In the adjectives Latin has added -s to the feminine forms, which thus become confused with other -i- stems. Thus suavi-s is properly the etymological equivalent of T^Seia, although it comes to be treated as an -2'-stem and used as such in all genders (§ 367). 375- (4, 5) The -o- and -a- stems cannot be sepa- rated, the -d forms having been used as .„. ^nd -»- feminines to the -o- stems from the proethnic '*^™^' period (§ 291), although in all probability the suffix -d had originally nothing to do with gender. These suffixes 1 Brugm. Grundr. ii. § 109. 326 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 375 — are more frequent than any others. The -o-suffix is, indeed, so widely extended that the question has often been raised whether it ought not more properly to be treated as part of the root than as a sufiix. And, as has already been mentioned, there seems to be no consonant suffix which has not an -o-form by the side of it, and even root nouns have parallel -o-forms. According to Torp's theory' the forms with -o- are the earlier. Thus from an original *pedo-s (cp. Skt. padd-m neut.) there came a form *pMs, Lat. pes with a " sentence-doublet " *pod-s Doric irw'? ; from an original *lego-s (cp. Gk. Xoyo-s) *leg-s, Lat. lex; from an original *bhero-s (Skt. -bJiard-, Gk. -4)opo-s) *bMr-s, Gk. 4>uip ; from participial forms *dhe-to-s, *bheuto-s came "^dhSt-s, bheut-s, Gk. 0ri*Srsdn-s Ace. *ersono-m >*erson-m Gen. ^rseno-s Plur. Nom. *ersono-es >*grson-es Ace. *ersoiio-ms >*erson-ms Gren. *rsenom Dual Nom. k. ^ Den GrtEske Nominalflexion, pp. 1 — 18, (see § 344, note). - Torp, op. cit. p. 14. The same theory with certain modi- fications is held by other writers, and is the foundation of the article by Streitberg already mentioned (Die Entstehung der Dehn- stufe, I. F. HI. pp. 305—416). — § 378] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 327 376. Apart from the distinction between -0- and -a-stems to indicate gender, a distinction uses of -0- and which as we have seen (§ 293) is not fully """ ^*^™''- preserved in the classical languages, the most common values of -o-stems are (1) as class names (common nouns), (2) as adjectives ; the most common of -a-stems as root abstracts. Gk. Lat. Eng. (1) ol/c-o-s : vic-M-s (§ 176 n.) : -joicJ; (borrowed from Latin). (^1)7-6-5 : fag-u-s : fieccft (cp. § 160, n. 1). ^117-6-!' . jug-u-m : yoke (pvy-V : fug-a (2) i^^-o-s] : inov-u-s (§ 180) vi-o-v > ■ j nov-u-m : new vi-a j : \nov-a 377. The combinations of -0- with a consonant may be taken in the same order as the consonant stems. Original -bh + 0- is found developed to a small extent in Skt. and Greek, much more widely in m • ITT- -1 1 • "*'*<'" stems. Letto-Slavonic. With the possible exception of mor-bu-s^ it is not found in Latin. In Skt. and Greek this suffix is mostly confined to names of animals ; Gk. (.ka-(j>o-% (where a = n), epi.<^o-<;, Ki^oL^-q 'fox^' Com- pare however KoXa-i^o-s 'weal,' Kpora-t^o-^ 'temples,' Kopv-ri 'top' and the adjective apyv-^o-s 'bright' with a byeform oipyv-e-oi. 378. The suffix -t + 0- is very common, especially in participial formations. In English, -ed as the suffix of the weak past participle is of this origin. 1 Brugmann, Grundr. 11. § 78. ^ For this adaptation of the suffix cp. Bloomfield, A. J. P. xii. p. 24 f. 328 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 378— Gk. Lat. Eng. /cXu-t6-s : in-clu-tu-s : loud (§ 167 n.) d-ypa-TO-s : i-gno-tu-s : un-couth (Scotch 'unco') o-peK-rS-i : rec-tu-s : right As the last example shows, this participle passes easily into adjectival uses. But the suffix can also be added directly to substantival stems, as in a-yepacr-To-s ' unhonoured,' and in Lat. in-hones-tu-s from the weak stem of honor (cp. § 351). Greek and Uses of -to- ^ . . ,. \, " .' . ^, stems in Greek Latin speciause the meaning oi tne -to- forms from verb stems in somewhat different ways. In Greek the meaning corresponds rather to that of the Latin gerundive participle, while in Latin, as in English, the meaning is that of a past participle mainly passive ; exceptions to the passive value are such as potus ' a drunken man.' Forms in -to- are also used as substantives; ve-ro'-s 'rain,' (J>v-t6-v 'plant,' lipov-rq (from ^pe/n-w) 'thunder'; Lat. legd-tu-s 'envoy,' dk-tu-m ' phrase,' mul-ta ' fine.' Gk. Lat. Eng. x6p-To-s : hor-tu-s : yard (O.E. geard). 379. The suffix -to- is also found in combination with -is- the weak form of -ies- in the superlative suffix -isto- (§ 352) and with -m??,- and -m- the weak forms of -men- and -uen- (§§ 359, 361). 380. A suffix -do- possibly found in Greek in , ^ Kopv-So-s 'crested lark' (koou-s), and in -do-stems. '^ . , . adverbs like o-toi^'^-So-v 'in rows' etc., is widely developed in Latin as an adjectival suffix, timi- du-s, stupi-du-s, soli-du-s, flor-i-du-s etc. Parallel forms in Skt. in -da- seem to show that these words are compound forms, the second component being the stem — § 382] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 329 of the verb ' give.' ' Whether -do- in the Latin gerund and gerundive participle is of this origin or not is still uncertain. None of the numerous theories propounded in recent years to explain these forms is at all con- vincing ^ The Greek patronymics in -iSr;-s, -laS??-? etc. (ECpiayu.-tSij-s, Bo/Dca'-Sij-s) and the forms in -iSto's (-iSoCs) as aSeXt^-iSoCs are no doubt of the same origin as the -(Po- sterns. 381. The suffix in -ko- is certain for the Skt. yuva-^d-s, represented in Greek possibly by .j.^,. and sko- va.K-wBo-'s (§ 104), in Latin by juvencu-s, ""ffl™^- English young. Combined with -s- as -sko- it occurs in a few words where it is obviously identical with the -sho- suffix of verbs' seen in (io-uKU), pa-sco-r etc. Gk. (3o-^-li.r] : fama. The suffix is fairly frequent in Greek, sometimes in combination with -t- (as in cpe-T/id-s, ' oar ') and -6- {a-Ta-6fi.6-s, ' station ') ^ In Latin the feminine -ma occurs, in a few words as a primary suffix, ru-ma, spu-ma, secondary in lacri-ma, or by adaptation after spu-ma^. 1 In Chaucer 'lap, bosom.' These three similar derivatives from the same root as (pep-w are an interesting example of the de- velopment of meaning; har-m apparently as if 'bearer, support,' for-ma like the English 'bearing' whence 'figure, beauty' (cp. formosus); (pop/jid-s (1) 'a basket for carrying,' (2) 'basket-work, wicker.' The Eomance languages however postulate /or-ma which renders the etymology doubtful. ' The --^y-ivo-'s : Lat. fag-hiu-s : cp. Eng. beech-en, but in (jreek words of time as iap-L-vo-s may possibly be a new formation from the loca- tive ca/Dt ' in the spring '. For a similar origin of other stems compare iyKtofiiov, literally what is said iv kw/jlui, and Lat. aborigines, the inhabitants ab origine. 399. The form -ino- is common as a secondary suffix in the classical languages generally to make names of living beings, or adjec- tives connected with them I In the Germanic languages it is also so used, and more widely as , the suffix for adjectives derived from 'nouns of material.' In Latin the feminine of the adjectives in -mo- is commonly used of the flesh of the animal (sc. caro) ; capr-ma, ' goat's flesh,' etc., although it has other values as pisc-ma, 'fish-tank,' sal-mae, 'salt-pits.' ^ Brugmann's explanation of donum as a contraction of this suffix with the root vowel is not at all probable (Grundr. 11. § 67 c). 2 Wanton means properly 'without teaching, education.' The simple word wan is of a different origin (Skeat, Etym. Diet. s.v.). ^ The order of development seems to be that -ino- first made an adjective from the simple stem, the masc. or fem. of which was next made a substantive. Some forms as vicinus peregrinus may be developed from a loc. as possibly in Greek okeios (p. 340 n. 1). G. P. 22 338 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 399 — -ijio- as ordinary adj. d7X'(rT-rco-s \ jvic-inu~s:cp.Goth.aiweins TTpofurriaT-ivo-s^ ' [peregr-inu-s [(eternal) ■Ino- as subst.i KopaK-tvo-s : cp. sobr-inu-s : cp. maiden ( = * sosr-ino-s) SeKipcLK-ivt] : cp. reg-ina -ino- as adj. of^animals : su-lnu-s * swine 400. The forms -meiio-, -mono- (not found in Greek an}' where, but postulated for some participial forms in Sanskrit) and -mno- stand in ablaut relations to one another. Some Greek forms in -avo- after a consonant, as o-T€'<^-avo-s, could phonetically represent -mno-. The suffix is mostly used to form participles of the middle voice, though some forms are ordinary substantives, these last occurring most fre- quently when a substantive in -men- -mon- is also present ; cp. piXe-ixvo-v, ' missile,' a-Tpw-ixvyj, ' couch ' { ''■«'^", ""eu^w. The origin of the forms is disputed. The most plausible explana- tion' is that they are diphthongal stems in -oi, final -i being lost phonetically in the nom. and restored later from the voc. in -oi, a case which in proper names naturally plays a large part. On this theory these stems are identified with a few Skt. stems of which sakhd ' friend ' ace. sakhdyam is the type. xxiii. The Nimierals. 406. The Indo-Germanic system of numeration is from the outset decimal. At points it is crossed by a duodecimal system, traces of which remain in the dozen Decimal and and the gross. A combination of the decimal duodecimal sys- 1 i i . i , ■ o i • , 1 tems. and duodecimal S3-stem is found m the "long hundred" (=12x10), but the material at our disposal seems to give scarcely gTound enough for the ingeniofis theory, propounded by Johannes Schmidt, that the duodecimal elements in the Indo-Germanic system of numeration were borrowed from the Babylonians, and that consequently the original seat of the former people must have been in Asia and in the neighbourhood of Babylonl Pronouns and numerals are amongst the most stable elements of language, and the Indo-Germanic peoples are more harmonious in their use of numerals 1 Given by Johannes Schmidt, K.Z. 27. p. 374 ff. and by others. - Die Urheimath der Indogermanen mid das europdische Zahl- system (1890), cp. H. Hirt, Die TJrheimath der Indogermanen I.F. I. p. 464 ff. — § 409] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 343 than in their use of pronouns. But the forms for individual numbers in the separate languages often are different from those which by a comparison of other languages we should theoretically expect. The truth is that the numerals are as much in a series as forms in the paradigm of a noun or a verb, and that consequently analogical changes are continually arising. For example, the series in the Latin names of months, September, , November, December, naturally leads to the formation of an Octember, which is actually found, although it did not permanently survive. A. Cardinal Numbers. 407. One. A root *oi- with various sufltxes is used for this numeral by most languages : Lat. u-nu-s (=*oi-7io-s) ; Eng. one (0. E. an). Greek preserves this in ot-vo-?, ol-vT] ' one on dice,' but has replaced it in ordinary use by eh, /wa, iv (=*sem-s, *sm-ia, *sem). ol-os ' alone ' represents original *oi-uo-s. 408. Two. Indo-G. (1) *dud SAii dudu, (2) ^duuu; in compounds, (3) *dm- : Gk. (2) Svui : (1) Su-StKa (8f w-) : Lat. (2) duo : Eng. (1) two (0. E. twd fem. and neut. ; twegen masc. with a further sufhx ; hence twain). 8vo, the only form for which there is inscriptional authority in Attic, is not clear. Brugmann conjectures that it was the original neuter^ *dui- is found in Greek 8t-s Si-irovs, Lat. bis bi-den-s {=*dui-s, cp. bomos § 397) : Eng. twice (O.E. twi-es), twi-s-t, ' something made of two strands.' 409. Three. Indo-G. *trei-es, neuter probably *tn (cp. § 317 b), the plural of an -2-stem. Gk. rpeis (=*trei- 1 Grundr. 11. § 166. Kretsohmer (K.Z. 31 p. 451 n.) holds that Sio is simply the uninfleeted stem. 344 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 409 — es), rpl-a ; Lat. tres (cp. oves, § 317 a), tri-a, Eng. three (0. E. Sri masc, Sreo fern, and neut.). 410. Four. Original form not certain, probably a stem *qetuor- with all possible gradations in both syllables. From the stronger grades come the various forms of the numeral in Greek rcVopes, rcWapts etc. (§ 139, Bxc. 1). rpd-ire^a is said to be derived from a weak form *qtur-, which, it may be safely averred, never existed in that form. This like the preceding three numerals was originally inflected. Latin has dropped the inflexion and changed the vowel sound of the first syllable from -e- to -a-, according to most authorities on the analogy of the ordinal quartus, which obtains its -ar- according to the received explanation from a long sonant r (-r-). For the change in the initial sound in the English numeral (/- where wh- might be expected) cp. § 139, Exc. 3. 411. Five. IwAo-Qi. *pe7iqe : Greek Trevrc (§ 139, 16), Lat. quinque with assimilation of initial sound (§ 139, Exc. 2) and -e- changing to -i- before a guttural nasal (§ 161) ; Eng. five (0. E. flf) with assimilation of con- sonant in the second syllable (§ 139, Exc. 3). 412. Six. Here different languages seem to postu- late different original forms : *suek-s and *seks will explain the forms in all Indo-G. languages except Armenian and Old Prussian, which require *iieks^. Gk. ii = *.sueks, for f cf and its compounds are found in several dialects. Lat. sex, Eng. six = *seh. 413. Seven. Indo-G. septm : Greek e^Ta : Lat. septem. The Germanic forms, Goth, sibun, Eng. seven etc., show the numeral without any sound corresponding to the original -t-, a peculiarity for which several explana- ^ Brugmann, Grundr. 11. § 170. — § 417] COMPAEATIVE PHILOLOGY. 345 tions have been ^offered. It seems most likely to arise, before the action of Grimm's Law begins, from some form ■of assimilation of *septiff, into *sepm, whether in the ordinal *septmo- as Brugmann, or in the cardinal as Kluge and others contend. The accent must have changed to the last syllable at a very early period. 414. Eight. Indo-Gr. *ohtou *oktu ; in form a dual. 6k. oKTO) : Lat. octo : Bng. eight (0. E. eakfa ; primitive Germanic form *aktau). Pick conjectures that the word originally meant ' the two tips ' (of the hands) and derives from a rt. ok- seen in oxpis etc. 415. Nine. Indo-G. two forms ; (1) *enun and (2) *'neun. Gk. (1) cVa-ro-s (= *€y^w-To-9, cp. ^eVos, § 403), (2) iv-v€a explained' as "nine in all' with the original Gk. preposition iv in the sense of the later « in such phrases as h rpU, e? ttcVtc vaCs etc. Lat. (2) novem with m after decern, for non-us shows -n. Eng. nine (0. E. nigon out of *nemm). 416. Ten. Indo-G. *dehn : Gk. ScKa : Lat. decern : Eng. ten (0. E. tmi). Kluge contends that the original form was *dekmt^. 417. Eleven to Nineteen. These seem to have been in Indo-G. generally expressed by copulative compounds which are retained in Latin throughout : undecim {-im in an unaccented syllable), octodecim etc. and in Greek in ev-ScKa, 8usundi, Eng. tliousand, seems to have been originally a vague abstract substantive meaning ' many hundreds.' 0. N. yiisiind is used like Gk. ixvpCoi^. B. Ordinals. 426. The ordinals are adjectival forms derived in most cases from the same stem as the cardinals. The suffixes of the numerals vary, some ending in -mo-, others in -to- and some in -mo-. These three suffixes and combinations of them are found in different lan- guages even "with one root. 427. First. Indo-G. root *per-, Gk. Trpcoros (Doric Trparos) for *7rpa)-f-a-T0-s) : Lat. pr'i-mu-s {=* p7'is-mu-S, § 394) : 0. E. fyrst -with suffix -isto-. 428. Second. In each language an independent formation. Gk. Sev-repo-^ according to some from a strong form of the root seen in Sv-w, according to Brug- mann from Sev-o-juai and thus meaning ' coming short of Lat. sec'undiis from seqicor has practically the same meaning ; al-tpr which is often used in the same way is from the same root as al-ius. In al-ter as in Eng. otlwr (0. E. (jSer from an Indo-G. dn-tero-s) the meaning ' one of two, second ' arises from the comparative suffix. 429. Third. Here also different formations appear, but all from the stem *tri- or *ter-, Gk. rpi-To-s, Horn. TpiT-aro-s : Lat. ter-tms (cp. Lesbian rep-To-s) : 0. E. "Sridda (North, ^ridda) may represent *tre-tio-s or *tri-tio-s. 430. Fourth. Formed from different grades of the stem of four in Greek, Latin and English with a -to- ' Kluge (after Vigfusson) in Paul's Gi'undriss, i. p. 406. 350 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 430 — or - in the modern representatives of the classi- analysis in mod- cal languages, thus leading to the loss of the early future and perfect in both the Greek and the Romance dialects. Latin had already lost all distinction between subjunctive and optative. Hellenistic Greek is almost in the same condition ; the optative occurs but once in St Matthew's Gospel, and the later Atticists use it rarely and then often wrongly, thus showing that it had disappeared from the language of the people. 444. The special characteristics of the verb are (i) its augment, (ii) its reduplication, which characteristics however we have found to a small extent o^fieVerb. in the noun, (iii) its distinctions of voice, mood and tense, and (iv) its endings for active and middle or passive in the three persons of the three numbers. Apart from these peculiarities the verb-stem cannot in many cases be distinguished from the corresponding noun-stem, the suffixes of the stem in both verb and noun being frequently identical. 445. (i) The augment is properly no part of the verb. It seems to have been originally an ^^^ Augment. adverbial particle, on to which the enclitic verb threw its accent (§ 98). It accompanies only forms with secondary endings, and seems to have the power of attaching to such forms the notion of past time, for without this element, as we shall see later, forms with secondary endings are found in other meanings than that of past time. The augment which in the original language was e- is found only in the Aryan group, in 23—2 356 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 445 — Armenian and in Greek. When another element besides the augment is prefixed to the verb, the augment comes between it and the verb, e.g. KaT-i-fiaXov, unless the compound is used in so specific a meaning as to be felt as one whole. In such a case the augment precedes the preposition, e.g. KaOi^ofiai, iKaOe^oixrjv. Sometimes the augment in such cases is doubled, being placed before the preposition and also before the verb, dv-exo/nai. Two strata of augmented forms can be recognised in Greek when the root begins with e-. Those in which the vowel is the original initial sound of the root combine with the augment into e-{rj), while those roots which have lost an initial consonant generally make the augmented forms in «-. Thus d/xi (= *io--ixi) makes •^a (1st per. sing.) = *e + es-m, but eVo^uai (rt. seq-) makes eiTrdjuijv (= *i-cr€ir6fjLr]v) with the rough breathing of the present. eXko) (root in two forms in diiferent languages *smlq- and *uelq-) makes dXKov ; iftyd^ofML makes in Attic both dpyail,6ix-qv and rjpyatpix-qv. In some forms, however, the vowels originally separated by a consonant remain uncontracted even in Attic : caXwv, iwBovv, iwvovjxrjv. In roots which begin with t or v the vowel is sometimes lengthened to indicate an augmented tense. This lengthening arises not by contraction with the augment, but on the analogy of augmented forms ; hence such forms as iKiTiva-a, vtfrqva. The inferior forms ■^/neAXov, 5;8iimyiir)v, rjPovkojx-qv do not show a long form of the augment, as is sometimes supposed, but are formed on the analogy of rjBeXov from i6i\.w. 446- (ii) In the verb three kinds of reduphcation Reduplication. ^'^^ ^^'^'^^ ^ (1) ^^^^^ t^i® '^'O^^l of the redu- plication in -«■-, (2) with the vowel of the — § 446] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 357 reduplication in -e-, (3) with the whole syllable redupli- cated. The first form is as a rule confined to the reduplicated present, the second is specially characteristic of the perfect, the third is confined to a small number of verbs. In Latin the reduplicated perfect sometimes assimilates the vowel of the reduplication to the vowel of the root : mordeo, momordi for *memordi ; tondeo, totondi for *tetondi. Gk. Lat. (1) 'i-nra-ixev si-Hti-mus 'i-€-/j.ev se-ri-mus { = *si-Sd-mos) (2) r^-TXa-fiev cp. te-tul-i Tri-iraK-Tai op. pe-pul-it U-Sui-[Ka] op. de-d-i. (3) fiof)-ii6fi-u) cp. mur-mur-o Forms of type (3) are more numerous in Greek than in Latin (cp. § 480/). Greek has a type peculiar to itself in forms like -n-ai-TraXku), Sai-8aA.A.(o, iroi-<^vcr<7u>, the origin of which is not clear. A difference between Greek and Latin is to be observed in the treatment of roots which Difference be- begin with s- followed by a stop-consonant, SfnredupS^ when reduplication is required. From the *'°"' root std- Greek makes a reduplicated form si-std- (Attic i-cTTTj-) for the present, which is found also in Latin sisto, but in all other cases Latin puts both consonants at the beginning of the reduplication and only the second at the beginning of the root : ste-t-'t, spo-pond-l. In such cases Greek begins the reduplication with -fx.i, 8i-8o-/i,ai etc., although in the Verb, just as in the Noun, there are some forms which show no gradation, Bi-^rj-ixai, Kel-fjiai ; (2) that verbs with stem- suffixes as -neu-, -nd-, and probably others, show weak forms of the suffix in the middle : ifU-vv-fxi (§ 481 e), hiLK-vv-jx-ai ; cp. Trip-vrj-fii with fx-ap-va-ixai, 448. The passive voice not being an original voice The Passive in IS made by each language in its own way. Greek. j^^ Greek the only new forms distinct from the middle are (i) the 2nd aorist in --qv, i-(j>dv-r]v etc. (§ 480 «) ; (ii) the 1st aorist in ~6rjv, which seems to be a purely analogical formation from the secondary ending of the 2nd person singular of the middle (§ 474 b) ; (iii) the future passive, which is a late development from the stem found in the 1st aorist i-rifjuq-drj-v, njxrj-dyj-a-ofjLai ; i-XeL-6riv, Xeicf)-6i]-aofji.ai. In some verbs the future middle has a passive sense, e.g. rijuij-o-ojuai. 449. In Latin the passive is made in the same way The Passive in s-s in Keltic, by the addition of a suffix in ^°'*'" -r added after the old personal endings. This formation is peculiar to the languages of the ItaHc and Keltic groups. Its origin is still to some extent — § 449] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 359 uncertain, though nrach light has been thrown upon its history by recent researches. The whole paradigm seems not to have originated at once, but to have begun with the third person, like venitur in the sense of ' one comes,' capitur ' one takes,' the subject of the sentence being left vague, dicitur is thus originally exactly parallel to the French on dit. A plural . . , p . . , 11. • • 1 originally only lorm IS not required, and this original state in the 3rd per- of things is shown in the frequent Virgilian and Livian construction itwr ad siham and the like, where itur may refer to any person singular or plural. Such forms made from transitive verbs naturally re- quired an accusative, a type which is preserved in the so-called deponent verbs. Here the question arises as to whether the -u- which precedes -r is to go with -r or with the -t- preceding. As such verbs in both the Italic and the Keltic groups make their perfect forms with a passive participle in -to- and the substantive verb', it seems likely that we ought to take -tu- as representing the original middle ending -to, to which -r is then added. It is easy to see how a plural form veniuntur etc., is made to the original venitiir. From this we pass to a fu.rther stage where the passive sense is fully developed, and this development calls into being a com- plete paradigm by adding -r after a vowel-ending : rego-r, and by replacing -m and -s endings by -r : rega-r, regere-r ; regi-mu-r, rega-mu-r, regere-mu-r. It is to be observed that the 2nd persons of the present, both singular and plural, are of a different origin, seqiiere (§474a) corresponding to €7r€(cr)o (sequeris is a new forma- 1 Thurneysen in Brugmami's Grundriss, ii. § 1080 n. 1. There is no substantive verb in the Keltic passive forms; ep. Lat. ftisi hostes etc. , so frequent as complete sentences in Livy. 360 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 449— tion), and sequimini being a participle. The 2nd persons in other tenses are formed on this analogy. The history of these changes cannot be traced in detail, because they took place at a period long preceding any literature we possess, and most probably before the Italic and Keltic languages had separated from one another' 450. (iv) For the persons of the active and middle Personal end- voiccs there are distinct series of personal if b°ottr°acSve endings. Within each series there are and middle. again two distinct groups, (1) primary and (2) secondary endings. This distinction, however, is not found in all languages. In Latin there is no trace of its existence, the whole of the endings being of one type. These primary and secondary endings are thus distributed in both the active and the passive voice. Primary : present and future indicative, subjunc- tive throughout. Secondary : imperfect, aorist and pluperfect in- dicative, optative throughout. The perfect indicative active had an independent , series of endings, at least in the singular. Separate end- ^ - ^ . i . ings of perfect in the tirst person of the present mdica- active. . . tive active, the ending, if attached to the root directly, is -mi ; if attached after a thematic vowel, the ending and this vowel appear contracted together as -0 from the earliest period. Hence the nature of the original suffix in this case cannot be determined. 451. The following is a scheme of the endings Scheme of per- which existed in the original active and sonai endings, middle, in both their primary and their ^ The greatest part of this explanation comes from an article by Zimmer in K. Z. 30, p. 224 £f., but with considerable modifica- tions from Brugmann (Gi-undriss, n. § 1079 — § 1083). — § 453] COMPABATIVE PHILOLOGY. 361 secondary forms. The variations from this scheme, which are found in the languages to be dealt with, will be discussed later. Active Middle Primary Secondary Primary Second- ary 1 Sing. -mi (non-thematic) -m) /~,\_.' 9 -5 (thematic) -(m)a} 2 Siug. •si -s -sai {?-sH) ■so -thes 3 Sing. ■ti -t ■tai (l-tdi) -to 1 Dual -ij,es-i (-uos-i) -ue {-uo) ■uedhai(? -nedhdi) -uedh9 2 Dual -thes {-thos) -torn 9 ? 3 Dual l-tes -tdm ? ? 1 Plural ■mes-i (-mos-i) -vie {-mo) -medh9i -medh? 2 Plural ? -the ■te '>-dh + -dh-i- 3 Plural -nti) -^ti\ ■nt} ( -Titai (? -ntdi) -nto) \ -ntai l-psij -yto.j 452. In the list of forms just given it will be observed that one form in the active (2nd Difficulties in Plural) and several forma in the middle ^^^rn^a^'ln^d- are marked as doubtful. The reasons for '°^^' this are (1) either the forms occur so rarely that Com- parative Philology can hardly hope to establish the original form as a certainty, or (2) the forms, though found in several languages, differ so much from one another that it is doubtful whether they can be referred to one original. Endings of the Active Voice. 453. The thematic verbs, it -will be noticed, differ fc in from the non-thematic. but in one person (1st sing. pres. indie, act.) Endings of the The classification Active Voice. 362 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 453 — is convenient, but it grows continually more probable , that the difference between thematic and Thematic and non-thematic non-thematic forms is a difference rather verbs. . . „ . ._ _ . m roots than m stem-formation \ InLatm the difference has practically disappeared. The sole remnants are the forms sum and inquam, of which the former shows traces of a thematic origin in its vowel : sum = *s-o-m from the weak form of the root es-. In Attic Greek the difference is preserved in the types <^i?-/u.i and ipta (ipri^, 4>ipr,, and the recasting of the original form *bkere-si, *bhere-ti. 455- In Latin the endings throughout are second- Secondary end- ary", but this might arise through the loss ings in Latin, ^f ^^^^ _■ according to phonetic laws. In 1 Compare Streitberg's remarks in his article on the accented sonant nasal [IF. i. 90 ff.), which has been already referred to, and his more recent article IF. iii. 305 ff. If Thurneyseu's theory already referred to (p. 318 n. 1) is right, the Latin endings are all primary with final -i lost, final -nt becoming -ns. — § 459] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 363 the verb just cited the second and third persons are made without thematic vowel, fers, fert, a formation to which Skt. supplies an exact parallel ; agis and agit, however, represent the ordinary type. So in English the oldest endings are -is or -es for the second person, and for the third -e5 from an earlier -f?S, phonetically corresponding to the original -e-ti. This second person is still found in the North of England and in Scotland — "Thou lifts thy unassuming head" (Burns) — its place elsewhere being usurped by a new formation -est. The original third person is represented by the (now only literary) form heareth. The common form hears with an -es suffix is a Northumbrian new formation. 456. The first person of the dual is preserved only in the Aryan and Letto-Slavonic groups, Personal end- _._,,. o jr ) ings of the Dual. and m Gothic. Ist Person. 457. The second person has in Skt. a suffix -thas, which is now supposed to be also preserved , T • •/•/■■ • • 2nd Person, m the Latm -tis (m jer-tis, ag-i-tis etc.) and has therefore replaced the proper 2nd person of the plural. The form of the original suffix is not quite certain ; but -thes, with a possible variant -thos, seems most probable. 458. The ending of the third person is in Skt. -tas, which may represent an original -tes. Greek 11111 1 3rd Person. has replaced both the 2nd and the 3rd person by the secondary form of the second person. 459. In the plural the 1st person seems to have originally ended in -mes-{i) and -mos-{i). The former is still found in the Doric ings ot the piu- ipo-[t.t^, the latter in the Latin feri-mus. The Attic ^ipo-ii^v seems to be a modification of the secondary ending. In neither language is there any 364 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 459 — trace of the longer form with appended -i which is found in Skt. and elsewhere. The final -i, however, may be merely a deictic particle. 460. The form of the 2nd plural is doubtful. The Aryan branch shows a suffix which requires 2nd Person. 7 mi r-t i us to postulate -trie. The Ureek -re may be borrowed from the secondary endings. The Latin -tis is apparently a dual form (§ 457). 461. The ending of the 3rd person plural is un- doubtedly -nti : Doric ri-v; but -a if -ni is sonant : ISci^-a. In the optative ^'ipoi-ft.L has a presen- tial ending. One or two secondary forms found in Euripides, rpi^ow, a/xaproiv, are formed on the analogy of the other persons. The secondary endings are illus- trated in Latin by the imperfects mone-bam etc., -ham being a secondary tense from the stem of ipo-ix€v, ipoi.-fi.ev, e8ei'^a-/A«v ' , have the so- called V €<^cXkVep€-(raL becomes 4>^pri 1 This form is difficult. It seems better to explain the -a- as an analogical insertion than to assume with Osthoff a suffix ■ilimen. 366 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 466— then ipo-ii.ai gives 4>ep(-(Tat etc. 467. The original ending of the 3rd 3rd Person Sing. . . ,, , person was -tat or -t^t ; nt^c-Tat, e^epe-rat. 468. The 1st person of the Greek dual has nothing parallel to it in other languages. It occurs altogether in the classical literature only three times (once in Homer and twice in Sojihocles"). Hence it canhardly have been used in the spoken language. 469. The forms of the 2nd and 3rd persons are 2nd and 3rd equally obscure. The Greek forms are Persons Dual, probably not old, and are possibly a modi- fication of the 2nd person plural in -aOe, under the influence of the active -tov ; TiOe-a-Oov, (l>ep-t-a-dov. 470. The 1st person of the plural in Greek corre- ist Person sponds apparently to the Skt. secondary Plural. ending -mahi. i€p6-ij.f0a is then more original than <^^p6-p.Sa, just as i€po-p,e-v in the active is more original than 4'^po-p.(.-v (§ 459). The poetical forms in -fi-ea-da may arise either under the influence of -a-Bi or in imitation of the -/u-ts form in the active. 1 G. Meyer, Gr. Gr? % 466. 2 The forms are ■n-epidd/j.cOov Iliad xxiii. 485, XeXel/i/ieBov Electra 950, and op/iui/j-cdov Philoctetes 1079. In every case there is some authority for the 1st plural in -/ieda and in no case is -/leffov requu'ed by the metre. It is no doubt a creation on the analogy of the 2nd person, but of what date is doubtful. Hence it is hardly safe to attribute the form to the grammarians and read -^f^a wherever it occurs (cp. Jebb's Philoctetes 1079 note). — § 474] COMPARATIVK PHILOLOGY. 367 471. The 2nd person was no doubt originally connected with the Skt. form -dhve, but gnd Person seems to have been re-cast under the influ- p'"™'- ence of the active ending -tc In any case it is probable that the -o-- in -crdi was originally no part of the suffix, but came in phonetically in such forms as Tre-rrcLor-Oe, whence it was generalised everywhere. Some think the ending -aOov of the dual corresponds to the Skt. second- ary ending in -dhvam. It was then transferred from plural to dual under the influence of -tov, and -o-^e was a new formation after -te'. 472. The 3rd person originally ended in -ntai or -ntH, the -n- in the suffix becoming a sonant 3rd Person after a preceding consonant. Hence the p'"*^'- perfect forms yeypa^aTat, T(.Tivya.Ta.i. etc. , where -a- in the penultimate syllable represents -n-. (Cp. secondary ererax-aTo etc.). The suflfix appears analogically in /3el3X.rjaTai etc. The subjunctive follows the indicative closely throughout. 473. As in the active, the secondary Secondary J- • u xi-i.ii J. Endings of the endmgs require but little comment. Middle voice. In Greek the ending of the 1st person is -/Jidv, Attic -/ji.rjv, which has no parallel elsewhere. ist Person. 474. a. The ending of the 2nd person was origin- ally -so, which is preserved in many languages. Latin retains it in the suffix -re of the 2nd person: cp. Epic i-n-fo {=*seqe-so) with Lat. seque-re^. The -0-- between vowels is irregularly restored in cSiSo-o-o ' Brugmann, Gritndr. 11. § 1063. ^ The other form in the Indicative sequeris is a new formation which gradually usurps the place of the -re form. 368 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 474 — etc. (cp. § 466), but regular forms as irWov (for iTiOe-a-o) are sometimes found in the literature. b. Besides this ending there was another which Development seems to have been originally in -thes (Skt. pii^fvl'' ^from -tkds). From such forms as iM-dr)^, accord- suffix -a< s. j^g ^Q g^jj ingenious theory of Wackemagel ', Greek constructed the new forms iho-O-qv, i86-6ri etc., thus making a complete new aorist out of a single form. 475. According to Brugmann'' the secondary end- 3rd Person Sing, ings of the 3rd persons sing, and plural and Plural in . ° ^ Latin. are to be seen m the Lat. agi-tu-r, agu-ntu-r. 475. In the Greek dual, -a-dov and -cr^di/ (Attic Greek Dual "O'^'?'') are influenced by the active forms, Endings. although -aOov may be the original form for the 2nd person plural (§471). In the middle, the optative takes secondary endings throughout. Ths Perfect Endings. 477. Greek preserves separate endings feet Endings in for the perfect only in the three persons of the singular active. In other respects the perfect inflexion is identified with the primary forms found in other tenses. In Latin the perfect is a curious medley of original perfect and aorist inflexion combined in one paradigm. 1 A'. Z. 30, p. 307. V. Henry (Bull. Soc. Ling. vii. p. xxix) made the same suggestion independently. Henry successfully explains the forms in -adrjs by supposing that the type began in the -s- Aorist : e7i'u)(7^7;s = Skt. djUdsthds. 2 Gnmdriss, 11. §§ 1057, 1069. — § 478] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 369 The ending of the 1st person is -a : 6k. oT8-a, el\T]Xov6-a. Latin, as has been already men- .. 1 . ■ , ,, 1st Person. tioned, IS supposed to have taken a middle form in the 1st person (§ 465). The 2nd person ended in -t/iM, preserved in Greek only in ola-da. (phonetically = oiS-^a) and 2nd. Person the old perfect rjcr-6a now used as im- perfect. From the later use of ^cr-6a as an imperfect the suffix is extended to other imperfects, €ov as compared with eSpaKov, i^aXov, ISpa/toi/ etc. is obviously an aorist form, which has crept into the present or, to speak more correctly, is a present of a type of which few specimens survive in Greek. In Attic Greek all noun and verb forms are alike from this weak form of the root, but elsewhere ypdc^os, ypoc^crs are found, just like Spo/ji.o'; and 8po/xeus etc. This question will arise again in con- nexion with the difference of signification between present and aorist (§ 545). II. Between the root and the person suffixes there appears some form of a formative suffix in -m-. III. Presents with a formative suffix in -s-. IV. Presents with a formative suffix in -sk-. V. Presents with a formative suffix in -dk- or -d-. VI. Presents with a formative suffix in -t-. VII. Presents with a formative suffix in -io-. Classes II. to VII. may have forms of different grades and with reduplication, but their numbers, except in Class VII., are much smaller than those in the first class. Latin throughout shows much less variety than Greek. 480. I. The person suffixes are added to the root with or without a thematic vowel. (a) Roots without a thematic vowel and without reduplication. 24—2 372 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 480 Gk. Lat Doric ipa-Ti Attic a-iJ.iv (where the accent of the singular cannot be original). So also il-fx-i but l-jxev (for ^l-fiiv). In some verbs how- verbs without ^ver the vowel remains unchanged, e.g. in gradation. i-^p6i-v,i-liy)-v{J)0VVit-j3a-v);i-/ !. Eeduphcated retain the vowel unchanged, e.g. Si-Q-n-aai, roots without XT- 1 • gradation. (contrast i-o-ra-z^ai). Latm cannot be satis- factorily compared with these verbs as it has given up the non-thematic type of formation. (d) Roots reduplicated and with thematic vowel. In both Greek and Latin the root syllable appears in its weakest form. Gk. Lat. yi-yv-i-fieSa : gi-gn-i-mus I'f-o-jaEi' {§ 143) : sld-i-rmis 374 A SHORT MANUAL OF [| 480 — Compare also ix.i-fx.v-ui (fxev-w), iri-nT-u> {iriT-o-ixxu), TL-KT-u) for *Ti-TK-m {i-T€K-o-v) , i-o-x-w {=*si-zgk-d from root of €xm). Tlie Latin sisto and sero (= si-s-o, § 142) belong properly to (c). (e) Besides the forms in (c) and (d) with the -i- reduplication, generally called the present reduplication, ,. , .^, there is another series of forms with -e- Verbs with reduplication in reduplication, generally called the perfect reduplication. Such forms are preserved to a small extent in Greek ; in Latin there are few traces of them. Examples of non-thematic forms are k€-kXv-6i, ri-rXa-Oi and dira {=*e-ue-uq-m); examples of thematic forms are €-Tre-v-o-v, e-a-ir-e-ro, u-rr-o-v. In Latin tendo possibly represents *ie-tn-o, a reduplicated form from the root of Un-e-o (cp. § 194). (/) A still stronger form of reduplication, which is Verbs with in- generally called intensive reduplication, is tensive redupU- ° , . , , , ... cation. lound m such verbs as rjv-eyK-a and the rare forms ipvKaKOV, riviTraTrov, (g) The thematic vowel appears in its weak form. To this type belong the Greek ifx.-i-m, Skt. vam-i-mi, -(.- and -i- respectively representing -9-. In the Greek middle voice this weakened vowel appears as a ; Kplfia- /tat, a.ya-jia.1 etc' 481. II.' Roots with a formative suffix in -n- preceding the person-suffix. Of these verb stems in -n- there are several varieties, (a) The suffix appears in its strong form as -nd- 1 If the second vowel of eixiu was originally 5, we should expect it to appear as o, just as in the middle. The vowel however may have been -e- in the sing, , -3- in the plural, or it may have been assimilated to the -e- of the root syllable according to Schmidt's theory (K. Z. 32, p. 321 ff.). — § 481] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 875 with weaker grades -n- and probably -n9-. The root syllable appears in a weak form and no 11 ■ • 11 1 IV ■ 1 . Verbs with doubt originally the sumx varied in grade suflix in -nn-, in different numbers in the same way as the root varies in Class I. In nearly all Greek verbs the vowel of the root appears as -t- ; thus Kip-vq-ix.i but Kepdw, wLX-va-iJLai but TTcXa'o) etc. The most plausible explana- tion of this curious difference, for which no phonetic reason can be assigned, is that it originates in the parallel forms (TKiS-vrj-fJu and o-KcSao), which come from different roots, the former being the weak form of the root found also in the Latin scindo and in its stronger form in caedo. mT-vrj-ixL, wIt-vui and im-vi-ui probably have their -t- vowel from the synonymous iriTTTui-. 8a'/n- vyj-jxi and irep-vfj-fXL keep the original vowel ; Sv-va-/jiai carries the suffix through all its parts. It is noticeable that a large number of the roots which make their present with the -nd- suffix have also forms with a suffix in -neu- {-vv- e ii. below) ; thus Kipavvvp-i, a-KtSavKu/xi, ■n-travvvixi. In Latin these non-thematic forms disap- peared before the thematic. (b) -n- stems with a thematic vowel giving the forms -^0- -ne-. The root is (i) sometimes strong, (ii) some- times weak. (i) With strong form of root. 1 The forms with -n?- are postulated by Brugmann for the Middle fidp-m-nai etc. This is most probable, as forms with -ms- are found in Skt., but it is possible to explain the Gk. forms as having like iSd^aiJ-iv a form of the personal suffix with -mm-. But even in eSel^aixiv the explanation of -a- as coming by analogy from the 1st person sing, seems preferable. - This is J. H. Moulton's explanation {A. J. P. x. p. 284 f.). 376 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 481 Gk. Lat. T^/i-va : tem-no ttIt-vu (op. a above) : op. sper-no [■w'iK-va-(ii\ . pello { = *pel-no) ? Kpi-pii: (cp. § 487 c) : [cer-no weak form] (ii) With weak form of root. Greek SaK-vw {=*di^k-nd from the same root as in Bng. tongs, the original meaning of which is therefore = pincers), Kd.ix.-viii : cp. Lat. tol-lo (=*tl-nd), li-no, si-no. (c) The verbs found in Greek with the suffix -avo- Greek verbs in ^^^> though practically non-existent in "°''°" Latin, well developed in several other branches of the Indo-Germanic family, are probably only a subdivision of the former class ; the suffix -nno- being a variant form of the other exactly as it was in the noun (§ 395). This longer form of a suffix is regu- larly found if the root syllable is long whether by vowel quantity or by position. In this series of verbs there is no exception to the rule, but the verbs fall into two groups according as this length (i) belongs originally to the root or (ii) is the result of inserting a nasal before its final consonant. (i) The series where the root is long consists to a with long root large extent of verbs obviously derived from syllable, nouns and having shorter verb forms by their side : cp. K(.v6-a.vm (kcw^-m), X-rjO-dvw {X.-qd-u>), 6-qy-a.vui [driy-ta, cp. 6r{y-a.vo-v and Bajy-avri), av^-dvu) (av^-w) where both forms as compared with the Latin aug-e-o have already been expanded by means of an -s- suffix. (ii) The forms with an 'infixed' nasal are very with 'infixed' COmmon : Xtt-/A-/3-avu), Xa-y-T(-av Grundr. ii. §§ 617, 622. 378 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 481 — and e-xa.S-0-v (-xj'S-). We may therefore conjecture, as in the last series, that the nasalisation helonged origin- ally to a few words and was gradually extended to many others. {e) Non-thematic suffixes in -neu, -nu-, -nu-, -nu-. This type, though lost in Latin, is well developed Verbs with elsewhere, especially in Sanskrit and Greek. suffli -neu- in The Sanskrit forms in the singular always various grades. ^ ^ ^ show the diphthongal form of the suffix, the Greek never. It seems however most probable that the Sanskrit forms are nearest the original type and that the Greek -vv- is a recent formation taking the place of earlier -vev- by the side of -vv- on the analogy of the collateral forms in -fd- and -va-. The root frequently appears in its weak form. In Greek the non- thematic are disappearing before the thematic forms. i. Verbs with root in strong form : op-w-fjn, 8etK- vv-ixi, 6-fjiopy-vv-fx.i, 6-piy-vv-fj.i. ii. Verbs with root in weak form : ap-w-fiaL, vrap- vv-fjLai, rd-vv-Tai (= *tn-nu-) in Homer, but ravvw is more frequent. Throughout this series the strong form of the suffix is found in the three persons singular of the indicative while the dual and plural and the middle throughout have the weak forms. iK3.vm and kcx^vcd stand apparently for *iK-avf-ii> and *Ki-)(-avF-ui respectively. According to Dindorf the Attic poets always wrote KiyxS-va. Some ten or twelve forms occurring in classical Greek appear with a suffix -v-w/jli, the previous vowel being (a) short as in Ivw-ixi, a-ftevw-ixi, (b) long as in C and the shorter '(rx, the verb thus originally resembling in meaning the English under-take. The shorter form -nuo- is found in (f>6a.vo) (= ^Oavpay), Solmsen, K. Z. 30, p. 600 f. — § 483] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 381 who runs up (to help),' and in the Enghsh horse, literally ' courser.' The reduplicated forms of this class, which in Skt. make the desiderative verbs, are not found elsewhere except in Keltic'. 483. IV. Verb stems in -sko-. These are the verbs generally called Inceptive verbs. Thev are formed with a suffix which we •' Inceptive verbs. have already lound used scantily as a noun suffix (§ 381). Brugmann treats this class as a com- bination of the -s- {-es-) of the previous class and the suffixes -Ao- and -qo-^. He holds that besides the forms with -h- there were also in the original language forms with -kh-. But this requires further investigation. In this class there are two types, {a) those in which the suffix is added to the simple root, (b) those in which the root has reduplication. The second type is found only in Greek and Latin. (a) This t3rpe is common in both Greek and Latin. Gk. : pd-aKUi, (pd-cTKui, p6-(TKia, Xa-crKco (for *A.aK-crK(i) cp. l-AttK-o-v), Ovrj-fTKia better authenticated as dvya-Kw with a suihx -lo-Ko- found in evp-la-Kw etc. The origin of this bye-form is not clear. It cannot, however, be separated from the ending found in substantives : oik-6o-ko-5, TTaiS-la-K-r] etc. Latin : hi-sco, sci-sco, pa-sco-r, po-sco (= *porc-sco ; -or- representing -r- and the root being the weak grade of that found in prec-o-r, proc-u-s : cp. German for-schen). misceo stands for *mic-sc-eio ; cp. fjiia-yu) for */aik-o-k(u, -y- appearing through the influence of iji.ty-vv-ij.1. In English wash (= *uat-skd from the root in water) and wish (§ 381) are examples of this for- mation. 1 Brugmann, Grundr. 11. § 668. " Gnmdr. 11. § 669. 382 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 483— In both languages a number of inceptive forms are .. , found by the side of simpler verb forms, in Inceptive by •' . ™ . the side of which case the inceptive surnx is generally simple verbs. rr c i • i • added to the suffix found in the simple verb. Specially noticeable in this connexion are the inceptive imperfect and aorist forms found in Homer and Herodotus. i(jKi ' he was,' cp. 0. Lat. escit (= est) in the Frag- ments of the Xn. Tables ; Sta(f>6upea-Kov, evyta-KOv, XdfSio-Kov. These forms are never augmented. In Latin we have forms like albe-sc-ere by the side of albe-re, turge-sc-ere by the side of turge-re, obdormi-sc-ere by the side of dorml-re. The vowel preceding -.\ey-e-6w, Tvprj-dm, hr-dio (and l(T-6iu> ; root ed- in Lat. ed-o, Eng. eat) ; i-o-)(i-6o-v, i-Kia-Oo-v. In Latin gaud-e-o is apparently the same as yq-Bi-w {=*yaf-i-0-eui'''). In Greek e\-8-ofMi compared with iX-ir-i^w shows a -d- suffix (cp. iiXSwp ' hope '). In Latin sallo ' salt ' represents *saldu and corresponds exactly to the English word. 486. A number of other consonant suffixes might be postulated, as for example in Gk. gh (x) in a-Trep-x-o-fj-ai ; Tpv-xu>, cp. Tpv-u), i/'i;-x<", cp. \j/dw etc. But none occupy such an important position as those already mentioned, nor as a rule is the suffix confined to the present, though some verbs, on the other hand, show nothing but presential forms. 487. VII. Verb stems in -io-. This is a wide-reaching series including a considerable variety of types. As in the noun formation , , 1 . . Verbs with -jU}- we saw that -to- was the great adjective- suffix mainly forming suffix, so in the verb it is the great denominative-forming suffix. It thus is pre-eminently a ' Brugmann, Grundr. 11. § 679. ^ Persson, Wurzelerweiterung, p. 46 f. ^ Persson, loc. cit. 384 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 487 secondary suffix in both noun and verb. In the noun however there were primary forms which contained this suffix (§ 402) ; in the verb also it has a primary value. In the verb as in the noun the suffix has gradation, cp. Lat. cap-iunt and cap-it. (a) The suffix is appended directly to the root which Primary -io- ^1*7 appear in (i) a strong or (ii) a weak stems. form. There are also some roots which (iii) end in a long vowel (cp. Class I a). Gk. Lat. (i) Xci/trcrw ( = *Xei;/c-tw) ddvo!^ ( = *ghen-id) (ii) x^^pw ( = *X»-i") §aivw ( = *Sm-id) (iii) dpd-u cp. -spec-io cp. fer-io hor-ior venio cp. no (inf. nd-re) {b) There are a few forms with intensive redupli- Eeduplicated Catiou aS dt, p,i6vu> ; y8acriA.€iJU), vop,€V(i> ; from -0-stems <^tA.€-a), KuKAe'-u) and many corresponding forms ; from -a-stems TTupd-o), Tipd-ia and a large number of others. As in the noun, so in the verb, analogy plays a large part, and most suffixes are occasionally or even frequently attached to stems, to which they do not originally belong. The -o-verbs by the side of -e-verbs in such double forms as TroXc/xco) and TToAe/io'o), with a distinction of meaning, seem to have arisen in Greece itself. In Latin the -w-verbs are less disguised and therefore more easily traced : saep-io ; custod-io ; Denominatives mur-io ' cry like a mouse'; aper-io ; nutri-o ""i^^'"- (cp. nutri-x) ; siti-o, poti-or ; metu-o ; albe-o ; turh-o, delir-o. The -io- type in Latin, though possessing a consider- able number of forms, shows but little variety when G. P. 25 386 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 487— compared with Greek. Apart from root verbs like rapio, nearly the whole of the Latin -io-stems fall into a few categories. A large number of those which have the infinitive in -tre are denominatives from -«-stems, a second large series are onomatopoetic words expressing sounds : gloclre, blat'ire etc., and nearly all the rest are desideratives, none of which except esurlre and partu- rire are common and old. Words corresponding to the Greek type seen in <^iXe-a) are comparatively rare. The root verbs in -io~ which make the infinitive in -ere (some 25 in number) it may be observed have always a short root syllable : fug-io, mor-ior, jac-io, quat-io, sap-io. The causes of the difference in treatment between these and the verbs which make the infinitive in -Ire are hard to discover. The simplest explanation seems to be that, apart from denominatives from -i-stems, only those verbs belonged originally to the so-called fourth conju- gation, which had a long root syllable, the suffix in that case appearing as -iio-. The number of verbs which conform exactly to the type of audio, and yet have a short syllable in the root, is very small, and most of them can be easily explained as arising through the analogy of forms akin to them in meaning. 488. id) We come finally to a series of forms which in all Indo-G. languages except Sanskrit are indistin- guishable from the -io- stems already mentioned as coming from -0- stems. These are the Causatives „ . and intensives lorms used Sometimes as causatives, some- times as intensives or frequentatives'- The form of the suffix is -eio- with the accent on the first 1 Delbriick points out (I. F. iv. p. 132 f.) that in the Aryan languages causatives have regulai-ly a long root vowel, iteratives a short one. — § 488] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 387 element, while in the denominatives already mentioned the accent is upon the -io- syllable. Whether the suffix is or is not connected with the suffix in denominatives is hard to decide, but, at any rate, no hard and fast line can be drawn between the two classes. The intensive or frequentative meaning often shades off into the mean- ing of the simple verb, because it is a constant tendency in language to employ emphatic forms where emphasis is not necessary, and consequently to lower emphatic forms to the level of the ordinary term : cp. Lat. volare and volitare etc. Apart from the original accent pre- served by Sanskrit, there is no difference in form be- tween the presents of intensives and denominatives, although where the causative meaning exists they can be distinguished by signification. The intensives how- ever carried their suffix throughout in some form (cp. Lat. mon-i-iu-s), while in the denominatives it was purely presential. But this distinction was soon ob- literated. Examples of this formation with causative meaning are in Greek : op-((0 to <^ip-u>, cp. <^opo-s ; rpoTr-eo) to Tp€7r-(D, cp. T/DOTTo-s ; cTKoirio) with its future o-Kti/'o/iai from the simple verb, cp. o-kotto'-s; Latin spond-eo cp. o-ttei/Su); tond-eo cp. reVSto 'gnaw^.' Substantives are not found by the side of such verbs in Latin, the interchange of -e- and -o- forms between verb and noun being, except in a few instances, obliterated. ' Brugmann, Grundr. ii. § 802. 25—2 388 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 488 — In the examples cited, the root syllable appears with root in always in the -o- grade, but the root is weak grade. occasionally found in its weak form. Brug- manu cites ' Kv-iw Lat. qiieo (op. part, in-ci-ens = *in-cu- iens) and Lat. ci-eo ' call, fetch,' a causative to the form found in ki-m. In the Greek poets it is often hard to decide between forms in -co and forms in -ceo, e.g. between Confused in ^ , / < / i t ^ i Greekwitliother ttltvw and ttitvuo, ptTrro) and. piimw, the difference in Attic being only one of accent, TTITVU) or TTtTVU), TTLTV^IV Or TriTVilv etC. 489. In conclusion it may be observed that in each language new categories not represented in the original language come to the front. An entirely new formation in Greek is the small New forma- gToup of forms Called desideratives and tions. ending in -o-eio). The Latin forms in -urio (§ 487 c. ii.) cannot be directly connected with the Greek. The most recent explanation is that of Wackernagel* who holds that the verbs in -o-etio arise through the Greek desidera- running together of a dative case and a tives. participle in such forms as oi/^etoi/Tes (= o\^u lovTf.'i) ' going for a view,' which precede in time the present forms. Other forms of the desiderative occur in -law, fj.a6r]Tid-6^croixat etc.) is not found in >■ Cp. B. W. Hopkins in A. J. P. xiii. p. 1 ff. 390 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 492 — Homer. It is closely connected with the development of the passive aorist in -Otj-v (§ 474 b), which is also peculiar to Greek. The forms iSofnaL, 7rto/u.at, xe'w, which are used as futures, are probably subjunctives of a presential (or second aorist) stem. Greek developed independently a future from the perfect stem in a few instances : ia-nj^w, TfOvijiu). It occurs most frequently in the middle. 493. In Latin, apart from old forms like dixo, faxo, ^, ^ . ^ the future is made up of a strange medley The Latin fu- . . turesareofthree of elements from many sources, (i) ero is no doubt the old subjunctive of the root es-, parallel to the Homeric ew. The future perfect forms arise from other verbs in a similar way. Thus videro is parallel to f ciSem (= *ueidesd) ; the special mean- ing of the future perfect is attached to the form after the separation of the Italic group from the original stock, (ii) As has been already mentioned, the derivative con- jugations form their futures in Latin by composition with forms from the root bhu- ; amd-bo, mone-bo, sci-bo. (iii) The history of the future of root verbs, legam, leges, leget etc. , is more difiS.cult. The prevalent view at present is that this future is made up of subjunctive forms with two different sufiixes, the 1st person with -d- and the other persons with -e-^. An older view, more plausible in some respects but hardly tenable on phonetic grounds, was that the forms with -e- in Latin represented the original optative : fer-es = c^epois etc., cp. pomerium (§ 176). But the change of -oi- to -e- is hardly defen- sible in the verb. ' Brugmann, Grundr. 11. §§ 924, 926. — § 494] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 391 xxvii. The Perfect. 494. The notion of recently completed action was not attached to the perfect forms in the primitive period. The meaning was originally merely that of an intensive or iterative present, a signification which in Greek it has frequently retained: pip-q-Ka, lin-q-Ka. etc., cp. Lat. memini, novi etc. The perfect is distinguished from other presential forms (1) by its reduplication, (2) by its vowel grade, (3) by its peculiar personal suffixes, characteristics As we have seen (§ 477), the distinction in suffixes tends to disappear, and the other characteristics are not present in every case. Thus oiSa Lat. vidl Skt. veda, Eng. wot, has at no time any trace of reduplication. Perfects like Lat. cepi sedi with a long vowel and no re- duplication seem to go back to the primitive language. Distinctions in vowel grade also are not always present'. Thus we have yi-yv-o-/xai : ye-yoi/-a, ye-ya-;u,ev ; fxaiv-o-ixai : fueixova, jxi-jxa-fXiv ; KTctVo) : i-KTOV-a (not in Homer), c-Kra- fniv (where the augment replaces the reduplication and confuses the forms with the strong aorist) ; 7ru6-u> -. ttc- ■n-oid-a, Tri-mO-fiev, where such distinctions still remain although the weak plurals are, even in the Homeric period, being levelled out. But the majority of Greek verbs in the classical (though not in the Homeric period) make the perfect .with a suffix -Ka (-xa) of uncertain origin and disregard the original difference of grade. Thus T€tVu) makes ri-ra-Ka ; cl>Oupu>, e6ap-Ka as well as e-(ji6opa ; vi/xo), ve-ve/xfj-Ka ; reXiw, TeriXeKa ; Tret'^w, ire- TTiLKa; etc. The Germanic forms (§ 48) seem to show ' Latin is of no value for this distinction, its vowels in unaccented syllables being reduced throughout to -i-. 392 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 494 — that not only the plural forms but also the 2nd person, singular was weak, but this is not supported by the classical languages. 495. The attempts to find a satisfactory explanation Greek perfects 0^ """ i^ the Greek perfect have all proved "'"'""■ abortive'. It might most naturally be ex- pected to begin with verbs whose roots end in -k, e.g. oXwXeK-a from oXcK-u) by the side of SXwX-a from ok-Xv-fii^ but there is not sufficient basis for such an explanation. In Homer the twelve simple verbs which form this perfect all end in a vowel, a liquid or a nasal, e.g. t-o-r?;- Ka, Tri-fjiv-Ka, l3i-(ii)-Ka, Ki-Kjxy)-Ka, Ti-Ovq-Ka, fii-fiXri-Ka, (ii-Ppui-Ka. In Homer the number of forms from se- condary formations is also very small, but in Attic all secondary verbs make the perfect in -Ka. Along with the perfect forms in -Ka must be considered the aorist forms e-6rj-Ka, e-8a)-Ka, yj-Ka^. The Latin fe-c-l seems to form an exact parallel to i-6-q-Ka, and hence Brugmann would attribute the formation to a root- determinative in the primitive speech, the working of which developed greatly in Greek after its separation from the original stock ^ 496. The aspirated perfects with <^, x, from stems Greek aspira- ending in a breathed or voiced stop of the ted perfects. game nature, are not found in Homer, and in the early classical period only TreVo/i^a and Terpoipa. In the 4th century B.C. they become more common ^ Osthoff, having argued at great length in his book on the Perfect for the identification of the suffix with the particle Kev, Doric Ka, soon gave up this explanation and connected it with Latin ce in ce-do etc. [Berliner phil. Wochenschrift, 1885, col. 1610). " ijfeyKa, which is often mentioned along with these three, owes its -K- to the root. 3 Grundr. 11. § 864. — § 497] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 393 SiSrj)(a, lvi]vo)(a, KiK\o<^a, pifiXatjia. They are obviously analogical formations, e.g. the perfect ofrpecfxii influencing that of TpcVo) and changing it from *Te-TpoTr-a to re-rpo^-a. Such middle forms as Ttrpa^arai (3 pi.) occur even in Homer, but must also be analogical', forms like yiypajjLjxai from ypd(j>u> influencing T£Tpa/x/x,at from rptVo) in the 3rd plural by the proportional analogy yiypafifiai : TiTpafx/jLai = yeypar]-v and t-^fj-v. They are therefore by origin really members of the active voice. 501. In Latin all imperfects are made by a suffix -bam. This suffix is now generally recog- L^jin imper- nised as being derived from the root bhu- ^'^"^^ '" ''"""■ (bheu-), although its phonetic history is not without difficulty. It seems better to recognise in it with Thurneysen' an old aorist *bh,udum which became in the primitive period *bham, Italic *fa,in, whence medially -bam, than to find with Brugmann^ the root determinative -d- in the form. The first part of the form is an infinitive are-bam, 0. Lat. scl-bam, on the analogy of which amd-bam etc. were formed, scie-bam is a later formation than scl-bam, on the analogy of -e- verbs. Lat. eram is not the phonetic representative of *es-m, Gk. (.a. augmented ■^a ; -am appears in er-am (= ^es-em) on the analogy of -bam ". • B. B. VIII. p. 285 ff. But even in this form the -a- is hard to explain. 2 Grundr. 11. § 583. 2 According to Bartholomae {Studien z. idg. Sprachgeschichte, 396 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 502 — 502. The -s- aorists play an important part in the The -s- aorists i^i^tory of the Aryan, Greek and Slavonic groups ; in the other languages such forms as occur are obscured by intermixture (as in Latin) with forms originally distinct. The -s- element, which appears also as -es- and -0s-, is apparently the same as exists in Group III. of the present formations (§ 482). The indicative is generally augmented and in Greek is for the most part an historical tense. As in the present formations with -s-, the aorist has History of the both thematic and non-thematic forms, i^'the tnd'cl* The latter owing to the weak form of the *'™' suffix in the singular of the indicative might be expected to show a long vowel or diphthong in the root syllable, and such forms are actually found in Sanskrit. Greek, however, has ceased to make any such distinction, although in Latin rexi, texi etc. may be relics of it. From the root *deik- the original forms of the singular and plural would on this theory be as follows : *deilcs-m "diks-me (op. § 464) *deiks-s *diks-te *deiks-t *diks-6nt. From this Greek has constructed its paradigm ISei^a etc., losing the long diphthongs phonetically, levelling out the weak forms of the plural and extending the -a of the 1st person singular to the other persons. cSet^as for *l8€i| and eSei^e for *iSu^ {-kst becoming -ks phonetic- II. p. 63 ff.) eram etc. are developments of original aorist forms in -ai-, with a weaker grade -aj- which became -1-. Hence Lat. -has would represent *-6ftuo/s, -bat *bhuait, -i- disappearing in long diphthongs (§ 181 note). 0. Lat. fuds, fuat etc. come from a bye- form *bhuudis, *bhuuait with loss of -;'-. — § 505] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 897 ally) were no doubt brought into being by the influence of the perfect forms. In forms like larqa-a, iriiJi-qcTa etc. -o-- was retained by the force of analogy from such forms as erpci/'a, iTrefjL\j/a etc. (cp. § 322), where -cr- is phonetic- ally retained, *e-ueidesm however having no presential form ; but olSa was isolated and the form passed into *c-f£t8€a, ^'Sea, ■^'Sry. The Homeric aorists SexTo, tfxiKTo etc. are -s- aorists, and represent Six-cr-To, €ju.ik-o--to etc., -0-- phonetically disappearing between two stop con- sonants'. 503. The thematic forms are regularly found in the subjunctive : Sei'fw etc., and in some imperatives : ota-e ' bring ' (cp. fut. oio-w), as well as in the Homeric ' mixed ' aorist Kare/JiyVsTo, iSva-^ro and the like, the meaning of which is often that of the imjierfect^. Greek develops many aorist forms to types which should be presential only. Thus iupwa, iSiSa^a, covo'/Ar/va, rjpTraa-a as well as -rjpTra^a (dp-rray-) etc. 504. The stronger form of the suffix -es- is found in ■{jSea mentioned above, in iKopia-d-qi and Aorist stems other forms of these two t3rpes, while -9s- '" "*'" """^ ■"'■■ appears in i(TKeSdcr-9ri'; etc. (§ 474 6)^ and commonly in Sanskrit. Brugmann* postulates for Latin mdis-tis etc. an aorist in -Is- ; but this seems doubtful. 505. The remaining preterite forms are develop- ments within the separate history of the individual ^ A new theory of these aorist forms has been propounded by Mr F. W. Walker (Class. Rev. vii. 289 £f.), who holds that -s-forms of a non- thematic subj. and future combined with an -s- optative and -s- infinitive produced in ' Graeco-Italian ' the -s- indicative with the personal endings of the perfect. ^ Monro's Homeric Grammar', § 41. 3 Brugmann, Grundr. 11. §§ 836, 840. * Orundr. 11. § 841. 398 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 505 — languages. In the original language there was appa- rently no such form as a pluperfect. 506. The Greek pluperfect forms arise, no doubt, Greek piuper- through the influence of ^Sta by the side of feet forms. ^^g^^^ fj-Qj^ ^j^g addition of the aorist suffix -es- to the perfect stem. Hence e-7re7roi^-€((r)-a, e-ireiroidr) (the ending in good Attic is -rj) ; eireTrot'^eas, limcoWy)>; ; eircTTOt^ee, £7re?roi^£t(v). The plural should be in *-€0--/i6i/, *-eo--T£, -€cr-av (as in the aorist), but from the 3rd plural new forms in -efj.ev, -ctc are made for the other persons'. The long forms of the singular lead to a confusion in the later Attic, so that -£t/xev, -eirc, -cio-av are introduced in the plural, and -eiv in the 1st person singular '^ 507. The Latin pluperfect forms are parallel to the Latin piuper- Greek development ; videram being an feet forms. obvious Counterpart to i^Sea. The form of the ending -am is difficult. The simplest explanation seems to be that it comes by proportional analogy from eram ; ero : videro = erain : videram^. The future perfect forms in Latin have already been discussed (§ 493). xxix. The Moods. 508. From the primitive period there existed, apart from the formations already considered, two sets of forms having separate formative suffixes, and in the one ^ Brugmann, Grundr. 11. § 836. 2 Cp. Rutherford, New Phi-yniohus, p. 229 ff. Wackernagel (K. Z. 29, p. 126) holds that the plural became phonetically rj5eiiJ.€v, *fi5e€pris, *4>^pr] which become, on the analogy of the indica- tive, ^pyi, 4'^py etc.) with -5- interchanging : (jiip-ui-fiev. There are however many other views, perhaps the most prevalent being that the type (^epijs is the original one, and that /eras is a form whose -d- is borrowed from some other type such as -bam, -bds etc.' But this analogy seems unlikely to influence the subjunctive. In the long vowels of these forms it seems as likely^ that we have to recognise an Indo-Germanic contraction of a vowel suffix with the thematic vowel precisely as we have seen it in such case forms as the ablative and dative singular (§§ 310-11). No analysis of the forms can at present claim to be final. The 3rd plural of both active and middle keeps its long vowel through the analogy of the other persons ; phonetically, 4>epoivn (whence Attic t^epmo-i) and cj>epwvTai. should shorten the vowel before the double consonant. 1 Gnmdr. ii. § 918. 2 Thurneysen, B. B. viii. 269 fi. Wackernagel [K. Z. 25, 267) holds that the -a- forms begin with such as ster-na-nxus, si-std-mus, "which are paralleled by the Doric d6-va.-fj.ai., Arcadian IVrd-rat. 3 J. H. Moultou (A. J. P. s. p. 285 f.) holds that there was but one mood-sign in the subj. -a-. The formations were anterior to contraction, and in non-thematic formations the subj. having always a thematic vowel before -a- preserved only types like '*ueid-o-mos (perf.), *leiqs-e-the (s- aorist), "tij.-niu-o-nti (pres.), the unaccented mood-sign having vanished altogether. In thematic verbs with accent on the thematic vowel we have *uid6-d-mos, *uide-d-the, whence *uidomos, *uidethe, fiSwfiev, fidTyre ; with accent on root, -a- kept its own accent, whence *bhero-a-mos, *bhere-a-the ; *bheramos, *hherdthe. — § 513] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 401 511. In the Greek subjunctive many analogical forms appear. Thus in Homer we find Analogy in (1) (TT-^-o-ixiv, pXri-t-rai, Tpa7n/-o-/x£^ etc., f<>™sofSubj. where the suffix is added as in e8-o-/Aat, Tri-o-ixai instead of contracting with the root vowel, (2) the long form of the suffix added to the long vowel of the root 6^x1, yvu>r)%, yviMicn, Sa/jLijy;, (3) forms in -w-, where owing to the suffix vowel a different form might be expected, ivvw/JLai, iiri(TTwjji,aL instead of Swa/ittt, tTri(TTo.jxa.i (in Attic 512. The special suffix of the optative appears in two different forms ; (1) as -ie- strong, -t- ^^^ ovi&Uve \veak with stems where there is no thematic ^^ix of two types. vowel, (2) as -i- with thematic forms. Hence with the weak form of the root which is regular in the optative of non-thematic stems ; Sing. opt. of non- ""s-ie-m from the root es-, *st9-ie-in from the *''«'°='"'' '"='"^- root std- ; Plural *s-'i-me, *stdi-me: Greek &f)v (for *es-ie-m with the strong form of the root), pi. Ari\i.e.v on the analogy of the singular ; a-Tairjv, pi. a-raiixev ; Lat. stem (Plautus) = *siiem, pi. s-l-mus ; stem, pi. stemus. It seems most probable that amem, amemus etc. are made analogically after such forms as stem, stemus. dem can hardly be the phonetic representative of the Greek Sooji/ ; this ought rather to be found in the old form du-im for *du-em, like sim for *siem, ed-im for *ed-iem etc. 513. The forms from -s- aorists are preserved in their original shape in a few instances by optative of -s- both Latin and Greek ; ciSetV (= */^ci8eo-- '""^*- tr;-v), Lat. mderlm. But the ordinary Greek aorist optative, such as Sti^ai/xt, is a new formation, as is shown 1 G. Meyer, Qr. Gr? § 580 ff. G. P. 26 402 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 513 — (1) by its primary ending, and (2) by its having the diphthong at, which is obviously borrowed from the a (= m) of the 1st person singular of the indicative. The so-called Aeolic aorist forms Set^tias, Sei^eie, 3 pi. hii^uav may be a late formation corresponding to the Skt. -sis- aorist, which arises by a reduplication of the -s- element ; Self €iav = *8etKo-e(cr)mv. The other persons are probably analogical. The Old Latin dixim etc. represent more accurately the original type. The only Greek optatives of the perfect which preserve the original type are such as reOvairjv, ka-Tairjv, where the root ends in a vowel'. 514. The Thematic tjq^e -i- combines with the Opt. of the- thematic vowel -0- into a diphthong -oi-. matic' stems. rpj^g q,^^^^ original type is ct^ep-o-L-a (-a for m), (jiip-oL-s, e-p-oL etc. (ftipoL/xi and €poiev (for *epoivT) are new formations. This type occurs in all thematic forms of the present ; in the future Trava-oipLi., ■Kavfroiix.-qv etc., which are, however, formations within the separate his- tory of Greek ; and generally in the perfect when the optative is not formed by a periphrasis as in TreTravKuis ur)v etc. 515. In Latin there still remain two series of forms Latin imper- to be discussed — the imperfect subjunc- fert ""'subjunc- tives turbdrem, viderem, legerem, audirem *^^''- etc. and the pluperfect subjunctives tur- bassem (and turbavissem), cidissem, legissem, audissem and audivissem etc. There are also some old forms tiir- hassit and the like. Of the origin of these forms nothing can be said to be definitely known, (i) Brugmann holds that they are fragments of the -s- aorist with the sub- ^ Only roots ending in a vowel with the exception of one or two forms Hke htjc, ciSeiviv preserve the unthematic forms intact. The others change to the thematic type. — § 516] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 403 junctive -e-suffix'. In vide-re-m, according to this theory, -e- appears first as a formative „, . Threeviewsof sumx mOrS- and next as a subjunctive suffix, their develop- -se- becoming -re- ; in vidis-sem we have the same subjunctive suffix appended to the aorist stem: dixissem arises from a transference of the ending of vidissem to dixim^ ; turbassim is formed on the analogy oifaxim etc. (ii) Stolz' attempts to grapple with these difficult forms by starting from sta-rem for the imperfect subj., which he identifies with {Tja-T-qa-a and takes as an injunctive in meaning (cp. § 520). Upon its analogy he supposes other forms to be made. Such forms as dixissem according to him correspond to the Skt. aorists in -sis- where the -s- suffix is apparently reduplicated. But such Skt. forms are rare and late, so that the Latin forms ought to be an independent development, (iii) Another possible explanation of these forms is that they are formed of a noun in the locative or instrumental, with the optative of the substantive verb in its short form *siem, whence -sem''. If so vide-rem, es-sem, legis- sem (with -e- after leg'i) are the original types on the analogy of which other forms are built up ; vide- is the infinitive form found in vide-bmn etc., legis- the suffix- less substantive found in the infinitive leger-e (= *leges-i § 280). This explanation also, however, has some pho- netic difficulties. 516. As already mentioned (§ 302) the original im- perative, like the vocative, was the stem ,^^g impera- without any suffix. But from the primitive *'™' 1 Grundr. 11. § 926. ^ Qrundr. 11. § 841. 3 Lat. Gr.^ § 112. * P. Giles, Transactions of Cambridge Philological Society, 1890, p. 126 n. 26—2 404 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 516 — period certain particles were suffixed to this stem, for otherwise the sameness of development in widely sepa- rated languages could hardly be explained. But besides these early forms most languages have attached an imperative signification to other forms not only verbal Five stages of t)ut also nominal. Thus in the classical development, languages we find at least five strata of imperative formations. 517. (i) The stem whether (a) without, or {b) with a thematic vowel. This distinction hardly i. Tbe Impera- . _ . , , ,, tive is the bare applies m Latin, where almost all verbs stem. 11 1 have become thematic. (a) i-crrq, KprjfJL-vrj, 7rijj.--n-pr], S(iK-vv. Forms like tWu, t«, StSov are formed on the analogy of stems with a thematic vowel. Lat. es 'be' possibly belongs to this category ; Lat. « ' go ' = *ei. (b) 4>^pe, ay£, i8c" etc. Lat. fer, age, lege etc. In forms like rape, cape we seem to have the reduced form of the -io- suffix becoming e (cp. mare ' sea' for *mari), and with these must be compared sarcl,farcl, audi etc. (§ 487). The history of the types ama, tide is doubtful; they may represent *amaie, *videie or be original non- thematic forms from the tjrpes *amd-mi, *vide-mi (cp. § 480 n. 2). The latter seems more probable. 518. (ii) With a suffix *-d/ii. Such imperatives ii. The Impera- ^^^ found in the Aryan, Greek and Letto- tliemati?^ stem Slavonic gToups only, and there with none +dhi. ^)^J3 non-thematic stems. This suffix was probably an adverb originally^. Examples are common. 1 The accent of the five oxytone imperatives eiirf, i\0i, evpi, IS4, Xa^^ is that wliich such imperatives originally had at the beginning of the sentence (Brugm. Grundr. 11. § 958). 2 Brugm. Gruiidr. 11. § 959 after Thurneysen. — § 520] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 405 kXv-9i., k€-kXv-6lj ri-rXa-di, (jTrj-6t, yv(S-6i, t-Oi but c^-ei (Aristoph. Clotids 633'), ca-dL (=*fi8-6't), taOi. 'be' = *cr-6L'', Zend z-di, Sl-8to-6i, 'IX-q-BL, op-w-di, etc. From second aorists like rpaTr-q-Bi, (jia-yrj-Oi it is attached to the new 1st aorist passive with dissimilation of -6- into -t- after the preceding aspirate : X€i^pe-T0L> fer~to, engrafts itself permanently as the form for the 3rd person, and tlirough its influence the dual of the injunctive is modified in Greek from €p€-T-qv to €pi-Tuiv (a very rare type). In the plural 4>fp6vTOiv — the only good Attic form till Aristotle's time — seems to arise from an injunctive *4>^pov, followed by the -Tci) suffix and with the ending of the 3rd plural added on again, thus making, as it were, a plural to the form (f>epe-T(D. The Latin fer-unto represents a corre- sponding form without final -n. The 2nd plurals ag'i- to-te etc. in Latin show how the -tod suffix had become fixed in the paradigm. The later Attic type <^iph-w-a-av is a pluralising of the singular (jxpiru, by the suffix -a-av, which at this time began to encroach also on other areas, as in the Hellenistic iXdfioaav for ekalSov. 522. The middle forms of Greek are somewhat more ' Grundr. 11. § 505 and § 958 n. fer on this theory is the regular phonetic representative of original *bher-s through the stage fers by assimilation, while Lat. fers 2 sing. pres. is a new formation on the analogy of other 2nd persons ending in -s. Cp. however, Solmsen Studien z. d. lat. Sprache 5, 185. — § 525] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 407 difficult, (^cpecr^w seems to arise from the analogy of act. ct,€piT€ and €pe€- forms of the Im- pea-daia-av are made from the singular in the same way as (jt^povrmv. The Greek forms for the 2nd person singular of the -s- aorist, both active and middle (Sei^oi/, Seliai), are not yet explained. Both seem noun forms (infinitives). 523. The Latin forms of the 3rd person in the passive seem to be merely the active form J^^^^,^ Passive with the passive sign appended : ferto-r, imperatives. agito-1- ; ferunto-r, agunto-r. The 2nd plural legimini etc. is now generally explained as being an infinitive used in an imperative sense, as so often in Greek ; if so, legimini is identical with Homeric infinitives in -/ierai, \tyi-lj.f.vai, and is not the same as the 2nd plural of the present, which is a participle = Aeyo'/xcvoi. The singular form in -mind {prae-f amino etc.), found in old Latin, seems an analogical formation founded on this. XXX. Verbal Nouiif. 524. Although the formation of the verbal nouns — the infinitives and participles — has already been dis- cussed in its proper place under the stem formation of the Noun, it will be according to custom and at the same time convenient to briefly enumerate here the forms which are found in the classical languages. The Infinitive. 525. The infinitive is merely a crystallised noun form which, ceasing to be connected with infinitives are the other noun forms of the type to which '^^'^ '°™^- 408 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 525 — it belongs, is gradually extended to other uses than those which originally belonged to it as a noun form. In the various Indo-Germanic languages practically any case including the nominative can be used as an infinitive. The classical languages however restrict themselves to a few cases. Greek affects the dative and locative, Latiu the accusative, dative and locative. In Latin the accu- sative forms are called supines, but they differ from other infinitives only in the limitation of their use to accomjiany verbs of motion (cp. § 333, (1) d). The in- finitive, by its origin, can have nothing to do with the distinction between active, middle and passive, and the specialisation of particular forms to particular voices must be therefore comparatively late. 526. The Greek dative forms are ah infinitives Greek dative which end in -ai ; (i) from non-thematic Inflmtives. stems like 'urrd-vai, <^a-i'ai, SoCvai (= So-fcv- at), from the last of which (a -iien- stem) and its like the t3rpe seems to have arisen when the f had disap- peared and to have been carried on to other forms', including the perfects yeyov-iuai, weiravK-evai etc.; (ii) forms from -yu,cv- stems as in the Homeric infinitives in -/x£vai, So/xevai ; (iii) from -s- stems as in the first aorist Set^aL etc. The middle and passive forms belong either to (i) if passive aorists : chavrji'ai, Xui^d^vai, or have a separate form (iv) ending in -OaL or a--6aL ; tara-cr-dai, kemea-dai, SeiKW-a-Oai -J Xvo-a-cr-^at, XiJo-e-cr-^ai ; irerfxiv-Oai, TiTpd^-Oai etc. The simplest explanation of the forms in -o-Oai is Bartholomae's", that forms like Xlyca-dat are 1 G. Meyer, Gr. Gr.' § 597. In do/evai, Cypr. evFapoi the /may, as Hoffmann thinks, belong to the root. 2 Rheinisches Museum, xlt. p. 151 S. Brugmann explains these forme somewhat differently, supposing that the type begins — § 528] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 409 really compounds, Xc-ycs- being the locative without suffix and -6ai a dative from a root noun identical with the root of Ti-O-q-ni. 527. (v) In Homer forms of the type Zo-fxiv are locatives without suffix, (vi) The ordinary Greek locative infinitive in -eiv is difficult. It is appa- i"*"""™^- rently a contraction of the thematic vowel -e- with the -e- vowel of a suffix, but whether this suffix was -mn or -sen is not clear. The latter is, however, more probable, for the suffix could then be identified with the Skt. infinitive suffix -san-i, and there is less difficulty in the early contraction of the vowels. 528. (i) The Latin present infinitive active ends in -re, and is the original locative of an ^ajin inftnj. -s-stem, regere in the verb being exactly t'^es Active. parallel to genere (= *genes-i) in the substantive, (ii) The history of the perfect infinitive is not clear. Old forms such as dixe^ may possibly represent the same type as the Greek Set^at, but the history of such forms as legisse, rexisse, vidisse, amasse and amavisse, audivisse etc. is as obscure as that of the corresponding forms of the pluperfect subjunctive, (iii) With regard to the forms of the future infinitive active there has been much dispute. Till recently the received explanation was that the so-called future participle was a derivative from the -tor stems found in the noun, that e.g. recturus was a derivative from rector. It was however recognised that the phonetic change of -ur into -m-- was insuffi- ciently supported by the parallel between iap and fur, and various other attempts at explanation were made. with the stem eiSes- in dSeir-Bai. and is then extended to other forms as -cr«ai (Grundr. 11. § 1093, 8). 1 For -e (instead of -?) op. now Solmsen /. F. iv. p. 240 ff. 410 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 528 — Dr Postgate' points out that the infinitive with the indeclinable form -turiim is earlier than that with the declinable participle, and argues that such a form as facturum arises from a combination of factu with an Infinitive in -mn from the substantive verb which, though no longer found in Latin, is still found in Oscan and Umbrian. This infinitive *es-om becomes according to the Latin rhotacism *er-om, *er-um, and contracts with the preceding word (which ends in a vowel) into one word. 529. (iv) To this hypothetical Latin infinitive, Latin Supines, wliicli would be the accusative of an -0- stem, we have a living parallel in the so-called supine, " which is the accusative of a -tu- stem, the locative case of which (v) is used with adjectives of certain classes, facile dictu literally ' easy in the telling ' etc. As in the case of the other infinitives, the supine in -urn has nothing characteristic of the active voice, the supine in -u nothing characteristic of the jjassive. Eo ambulatiim is literally ' L go walking,' facile dictu, passes without difficulty from ' easy in the telling ' to ' easy to tell ' and ' easy to be told.' 530. (vi) The present infinitive of the passive is Latin inflni- ^i^ old dative case : agl = *ag-ai. The tives Passive. present infinitive in all conjugations has the same suffix, although in the derivative verbs it seems like the active suffix in -re to be added by analogy. The relation between this infinitive and the passive infinitive in -ier, amariei- etc. is uncertain. The most plausible explanation is that the infinitive in -ier is a mixture of the infinitives in -I and in -ere, the latter ' I. F. IV. p. 252, an elaboration of earlier papers in Class. Bev. V. p. 301 and elsewhere. — I 533] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 411 being curtailed to -er. This, which is the view of Stolz', is however not generally accepted. The other passive infinitives in Latin are periphrastic : esse with the per- fect participle passive, and for the future the accusative supine with the present infinitive passive of eo, actum iri etc. This form, however, occurs but rarely. (vii) According to most recent authorities, legimini the 2nd person plural of the imperative is an infinitive (§ 523). 531. (viii) Amongst the verbal nouns must also be reckoned the gerund. Whether this noun Latin Gerund, form was the original from which the gerundive participle was developed, agendum, for example, being changed into agend-us, -a, -um, or whether the gerund is but the neuter of the participle crystallised into a substantive is still sub judice. The difficulties of the formation have already been referred to (§ 194). Participles. 532. Participles in the various Indo-Germanic lan- guages are made from a considerable number of different stems. In the formation of participles Latin and Greek are more closely akin than usual. 533- (i) The most frequent suflftx for active parti- ciples is -lit-. The stem had originally Participles in gradation, but this has in both languages '"'"■ almost disappeared (§ 363). The formation of the pre- sent participle in both the classical languages is alike ; (j>fpovTa : ferentem = iroSa : pedem. Latin has of course 1 Lat. Gr." § 117. Brugmann holds the somewhat improbable theory that -er in such forms is the unaccented preposition ar (in ar-vorsum, ar-fuere, ar-hiter) appended to the infinitive as in the Germanic languages to is set before it. 412 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 533 — no aorist and no future participle of the types found in the Greek Xwas and \va-wv. The Greek passive participles of the types <^avtis and \v6u<; are like the rest of the formation a special Greek development. 534- (ii) The suffix of the perfect participle active Perfect parti- ^^^^ Originally in -uos- with gradation cipie act. ^g 353)^ rp^g jg g^jjf preserved in Greek ciSco's, eiSvta, but confused with a -t- formation in the oblique cases of the Masc. and Neut. eiSoVa, eiSoVos etc. The perfect participle active is entirely lost in Latin but preserved in Oscan (§ 353). 535. (iii) The suffix of all middle participles in Participles in Greek is -/xti'o- (§ 400). This suffix or its ■meno-, -mono-, byg.fgrm -mono- is found in the form used for the 2nd person plural of the present passive in Latin, on the analogy of which other forms are made (§ 49). 536. (iv) The forms in -to-, which survive in Latin Participles in ^s the regular perfect participle passive, -lo-mA-teuo-. jiave Originally nothing to do with the perfect. Greek keeps many forms with the same sense as the Latin gerundive, but in both languages some old forms such as kXuto's, incUtus, and others are purely adjectival. Closely akin in meaning to the -to- form in Greek are the forms in -TiFo- (§ 403), with which again the isolated form in Latin mortuus may be connected. 537- ('^) The forms for the future participle Latin partici- active in Latin acturus etc are probably pie in -titrus. developed from the future infinitive. 538. (vi) The gerundive participle in Latin in Latin eerun- -ndo- has been already discussed (§ 194). dive participle, j^-g formation and history are still wrapped in the greatest obscurity". ' An excellent collection of material for the study of the — § 540] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 413 xxxi. Uses of the Verb forms. 539. It has already been pointed out (§ 438) that the forms of the verb present more morphological diffi- culties than those of the noun. They also present more syntactical difficulties, partly because the verb system of the different languages has been so much recast that comparison is less easy, partly because the sense of the verb forms is more subtle than that of noun forms. From the nature of the case, we cannot expect to find in the verb the straightforward simplicity of the local cases of the noun, but, as we shall see, the signification of different tenses and moods overlaps in a manner which makes it almost impossible to draw distinguishing lines between them. 1. Uses of the voices. 540. The passive (§ 448) has been developed in each language separately and is therefore, different strictly speaking, outside the hmits of methods of form- J ir at ]j^g the Passive comparative syntax. In Greek, as we have in indo-G. lan- seen, it is developed out of the middle with the addition of some new forms containing the syllable -6-q-, in Latin it is developed from active or middle forms by means of a suffix -r {-ur) added after the per- sonal ending, but apparently existing originally only in the 3rd person singular (§ 449). In Sanskrit the passive history of Gerund and Gerundive will be found in the Introduction to Vol. II. of Eoby's Latin Gravimar. The commentary, however, is in some respects antiquated. The most recent of the many views lately propounded on these forms is that of L. Horton Smith (A. J. P. XV. 194 ff.) and Lindsay (Latin Language, p. 544) who consider the first element an aocusatival infinitive followed by the suffix -do- of luci-du-s etc. 414 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 540 — is a -io- stem, distinguishable only from the ordinary type by the fact that the -io- suffix is always accented. Some languages, as Lithuanian, avoid passive construc- tions. In the rare instances where such constructions occur, Lithuanian forms them by means of the substan- tive verb and a participle as in English'. Lithuanian has also lost the original middle and replaced it by reflexive forms constructed from the active with a reflexive pronoun suffixed — a method of formation which the early philologists assumed for the Latin passive^. 541. The distinction between the transitive and intransitive meanings of the active voice depends upon the nature of the root in each case. 542. The middle is possibly a later formation than The Middle ^^^ active^. As regards the meaning of Voice. ^|-^g j;Qi(j(3^]e voice there seems to be no better explanation than that it has some sort of reflexive sense, the action of the verb being directed towards the agent, although the agent is rarely the direct object". Thus Xovfiai ' I wash myself is really rather the excep- tion than the typical example. From the reflexive meaning it is in some cases easy to trace the develop- ment of an intransitive sense ; cp. irau'w ' check,' -n-avofiai 'check myself, cease'; <^atV(D 'show,' <^aivo/iat 'show myself, appear.' It is noticeable that iu both Greek and Sanskrit, verbs of thought and feeling are mostly in the middle voice, as, from the definition, might be expected. ^ Eurschat, Lit. Gravim. § 1131. - This assumption fell to the ground when it was proved that Keltic and Italic passive formations were identical, for in Keltic s does not pass into r. 3 Brugmann, Gr. Gr? § 150. * Monro, H. G? § 8. — § 543] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 415 2. Verb-types. 543. It seems that in the original Indo-Germanic language there were two types of verb p^ative and clearly distinguishable from the syntactical peri«««™ ^'b^- point of view. In the one series, the idea expressed by the root implied duration over a perceptible period of time, in the other the idea was that of something occur- ring instantaneously. Naturally a verb which expresses continuity of action cannot be made in the present from a root which expresses instantaneous action. On the other hand no root expressing continuous action can occur in an aorist. Hence arise (1) the series of defec- tive verbs which have presents but no aorists or aorists but no presents', (2) the series of compounds with pre- positions which have the meaning of a simple verb in a somewhat different signification from the uncompounded form. This series is developed separately by the different languages, the prepositional meaning being still unde- veloped at the time when the primitive community broke up (cp. § 340). Thus of the first series we find in both Greek and Latin that .r^v 'I was becoming' with eyev6i/.r]v ' I became ' (was). 544. The second series seems less widely developed in Greek, though in Attic Prose, while we have ridvi^Ka never *a.TroTt6v7]Ka, we must always, on the other hand, have a.Trodvrj(TKu> not dvya-Kia. The reason for the use of the compound in this particular case seems to be to counteract the inceptive force of the suffix. Cp. also (f>evyuv ' flee,' and KaTa€vyeiv ' escape,' Latin sequi and consequi\ For the classical languages this subject is not fully worked out". These double types are best preserved in the Slavonic languages, where they are kept apart in two separate and complete verb formations. In these languages when the verb-idea is not accom- panied by the subsidiary notion of completion the verbs are called " Imperfective," and may be of two kinds : {a) simply durative. Old Bulgarian hiti 'to strike,' {h) iterative, bivati 'to strike repeatedly.' If on the other hand the verb-idea is accompanied by the sub- sidiary notion of completion, the verbs are called "Per- fective," and may be of two kinds : (a) simply perfective u-biti 'to kill by a blow,' (6) iterative perfective u-bi- vati 'to kill by a blow repeatedly' (used of several objects or subjects^). In the early history of the Ger- 1 Brugmann, Gr. Gr." p. 179. - Mutzbaner, starting from Curtius' comparison of the present to a line, of the aorist to a point, has partially worked it out for Homeric Greek in his Grundlagen der griechischen Tempuslehre (Triibner, 1893). ' Leskien, Handbuch der aUhulgarischen Sprache", § 149. — § 545] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 417 manic languages the same phenomenon is obvious', and we still preserve it to some extent in modern English by making a durative present by means of a periphrasis : ' I am writing ' etc. , while we keep a perfective sense in the ordinary present. In the Slavonic languages this perfective form expressing momentary action is often used for a future ; with which we may compare the English "He said, / go, but went not," where / go is equivalent to a future, and exactly parallel to the ordinary Greek use of el/At as a future. 3. Uses of the Tenses. 545. The above discussion has thrown some light upon the relation between present and „ ^- a ^ ^ ^ ^ Durative and aorist. It is now clear that when present momentary ^ forms in Greek. and aorist are found in the same verb, the former is the durative, the latter the perfective or mo- mentary form. The relation between aorist and future is also clear. Whilfe iu-Qiw and irL-vio are durative forms, tS-o-ftai and 7rt-o-/u,ai are ' perfective ' or aorist forms which are utilised for the future. In Greek, unlike Slavonic, we hardly find durative and perfective presents from the same verb by the side of one another, though ypciw and the bye-form rpairtu for the present are examples of the corresponding aorist forms transferred to the present. A possible example of durative and perfective forms making separate verbs is to be seen in Ipx-o-yuai and apX-0-ju.ai, the meanings of which are related precisely as 1 Cp. Streitberg, Perfective u. imperfective Actionsart im Ger- manuchen (reprint from Paul u. Braune's Beitrage). G. P. 27 418 A SHORT MANUAL OF [| 545 — those of /Sai'vw and e/3rjv in the Homeric /Srj S" livac ' he started to go'.' 546. In the examination of tense usages, we must be careful to observe that tenses in the Tenses are a . , . , . , . , later develop- sense m whicli the word is now used are of comparatively late development and that e.g. the pluperfect in Greek does not in the Homeric period express relative time as the Latin pluperfect does. The pluperfect sense when wanted is generally expressed by an aorist form : 'Apvaios S' ovo/x.' Io-ke- to yap BiTo TTOTvia Mrrjp {Odyssey xviii. 5) 'Arnaeus was his name, for that name had his lady mother given him' ; Tj (nTji/eAoTreia) 8' ovT aOprjcrai ivvar dvTirj ovre voijcrai | ttJ yap 'A6rjvairj voov erpaTrev (OdySS. xix. 478-9) 'she waS not able... for Athene had turned....' The imperfect of a compound with ' perfective ' meaning may be used in the same way ; xai 01 Iwv iv vrjvalv iweTpeTrev otKOv aTravra {Od. ii. 226), ' And he had put all his house in his charge.' The Greek pluperfect is simply an aoristic form developed from the perfect stem. The so-called future perfect in Greek has only the meaning of an ordinary future", though it is possible with the help of the context to translate it occasionally like the Latin future perfect. The idea of relative time, the idea 1 The variant form to Ipxa/J-a-i and apx" is found in opx"/^"' (Homer) ' a leader.' ^ Such forms of course take the same shade of meaning as the stem from which they come ; fie/u'ricroij.ai ' I shall remember,' SiaireTToXfiaiJtreTai 'the war will be over' etc., with the idea of the state contained in the perfect (§ 549). The future passive is developed after Homer as a parallel to the passive aorist : l-Tiixi)6T)-v, Ti/ni) 9TJ-tro,aai etc. There is hardly a trace of a similar difference in the active ; ?|w is the presential future to ^x"^! ax'fi'rw the aorist future to l-(7xoy- Cp. Kiihner-Blass, Griech. Gram. 11. § 229. 2 n. 3. — § 547] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 419 that the time of an action is to depend on the time of some other action whether in the past or in the future is entirely foreign to the early history of the Indo- Germanic languages. Nor can we assert of any forms, whether presential or preterite, that they had originally a distinct reference to time. 547. The present in Greek may be either perfective or durative, as we have already seen. This ^ , The present perfective or momentary value, which is ™ay express (i) ^ "^ , an action, (n) a properly expressed by the Greek aorist, must process, (iii) a not be confused with' another value that some presents have which express a state rather than a process or action. These presents have the same value as many perfects. yKu> and otxo/xai exemplify well this perfect meaning in Greek. Apart from verbs like sum it is hard to find simple perfect presents in Latin, though compounds, as advenio, in a perfect sense are common. In Greek there are some other verbs which express a state whose meaning is that of a perfect: vikS, KparSi, ^TTWfjiaL. The original present seems to have had three values', being used (i) of values of the that which was true at all times, (ii) as a future, (iii) instead of an historical tense (the historic present). (i) OVK dpeTo. KaKo. epya. Od. viii. 329. Ill deeds ne'er prosper. Quod sibi volunt, dum id impetrant, honi sunt. Plaut. Gapt. ii. 1. 37 (234). As long as they get what they want, they are good. ' Bi'ugmann, Berichte der kdnigl. sdchs. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, 1883, p. 169 ff., an article from which several of the following Greek examples are taken. 27—2 420 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 547 (ii) lu Homer the future use of the present is found with eT/x,i, veofjiat, and one or two other verbs, but is much rarer than in Attic'. ov yap B-rjv fjivqcrTrjpe'S aVeo'o-oi'Tat /xeydpoto, dkXa. /xak' Tjpi viovrai. OdySS. XX. 155. Not for long will the suitors be absent from the hall, but they will certainly come in the morning. Thuc. vi. 91. If this city shall be taken, the whole of Sicily is in their possession. Quam mox imvigo in Ephesum 1 Plant. Bacch. iv. 6. 6 (775). How soon do I sail to Ephesus ? qtiae volo simul imjMixibo : poste continuo exeo. Ter. Eim. iii. 2. 40 (493). At the same time I'll demand what I want ; imme- diately after that I'm off. (iii) The historic present is not found in Homer, though frequent later in both prose and verse. Why Homer does not use it is hard to discover, for the con- struction is widely developed elsewhere and is almost certainly Indo-Germanic^ KiXiviL irc/xi//ai avSpas k.t.X. ThuC. i. 91. He bids them send men. ' A subdivision of this future is the use in oracles or prophecies, as in Herodotus vii. 140 oilre ri — XeiweTai, dW al5-i]\a ir^Xei' Kara, yap ixLV ipelTTei irup re /cat (i^i)s''Ap7;s. Compare Campbell's LochieVs Warning, "And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight" etc., the seer beholding the events of the future passing before him. 2 Brugm. Gr. Gr.'' % 156. § 547] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 421 KtLVY] fJLtV Oi\e(7tV VIV «S T^pOLOV T aycL. Eur. Hecuba 266, She ruined him and took (lit. takes) him to Troy {vCTTtpOV TTpOTipOv). The example from Euripides shows that the historical present and a genuine past tense can be used in the same construction. Compare with this the inscription on the tomb of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, consul B.C. 298, Taurasia{m) Cisauna{m) Samnio cepit subigit oinne{m) Loucanam opsidesque abdoucit. accedo ad pedisequas. quae sit rogo. sororem esse aiunt Chrysidis. Ter. Andr. i. 1. 96 (123). I go up to the attendants. I ask who she is. They say she is Chrysis' sister. (iv) Homer and later Greek writers often use the present with an adverb of time instead of a past tense, a construction which has an exact parallel in Sanskrit and which is therefore supposed to be Indo-Germanic. alSoirj T« (^t'Ar; re ; irapos ye p-iv ov ti 6apit,ii%. n. xviii. 386. Why Thetis with trailing robe comest thou to our house, revered and beloved ; in former days thou wert no frequent guest ? Cp. Kpii. mirov, tl /xot uiSf Sio. cnreos e(Ti7vo p.-)]\(av VCTUTOS ', ov Tl irapos ye XeXeippevo^ epical otioi'. Od. ix. 448. The only difference between present and imperfect in this construction is that the latter expressly "brings 422 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 547 — the time of the action into connexion with the speaker'." The two are used in conjunction in Iliad xiii. 228 f. aXKa. @6av, Ka\ yap to Troipos /xeviBrjiO'; rja-Oa, OTpvvwi Si Koi a/VAov, 061. jXiBiivra toijat. 548. The imperfect is pre-eminently the tense of „, . . narration. In form it cannot be distin- The imperfect . , , , the narrative guished from the strong aonst and m mean- ing also aorist and imperfect overlap to some extent. In Greek, aorist and imperfect from the same verb are often found in precisely the same relation in the same passage, so that it is futile to draw any Its relation tK) distinction between them'. The imperfect the aonst. qJ' ygj-^jg gf saying and commanding is frequently used as an aorist. IkXvov (an aorist in formation) is regularly so used in Homer, as is shown (1) by its gnomic use in os k€ ^cois iTmreiOrjTai, /xaA.a T skXvov avTov, II. i. 218, ' whoso obeys the gods, to him they attentively give ear,' and (2) by its combination with the aorist toC jUaXa fxiv kXvov -^Si ttlOovto, H. XIV. ' Brugmann in the article cited above. ■■^ For example in Iliad vii. 303 Hector Su/ce fii^os apyvpbriKov, while in 305 Ajax ^oKTTTJpa diSov. Monro, in his edition, explains Sidov as 'gave at the same time,' 'gave in return.' Goodwin's remark (Moods and Tenses, 1889, § 57) is worth quoting. "The fundamental distinction of the tenses, which was inherent in the form, remained ; only it happened that either of the two distinct forms expressed the meaning which was here needed equally well... The Greeks, like other workmen, did not care to use their finest tools on every occasion." The truth of this is well illustrated by Iliad ii. 42 — 46, where it is said that Agamemnon ivSvve x'^wca, and pdWero (papos, but eSrjaaTo icaXa ir^SiXa, which was presumably a more tedious operation than those given in the imperfect. Probably metrical convenience decided the usages here. — § 548] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 423 133 'him they heard and obeyed.' The Latin im- perfect in the main is like the Greek. (i) The imperfect as an historical tense of con- tinuous action. evda Si TToXXov /nev fiidv vivfTO, ttoWo. Si /x^\a t(r(l>a^ov ■Trapa 6tva k.t.X. Od. IX. 45. There was much wine drunk and many sheep they slaughtered by the shore. In tonstrina ut sedebam, me infit percontarier. Plant. Asin. ii. 2. 76 (343). As I was sitting in the barber's shop, he begins to inquire of me. It is noteworthy that in narration Plautus promptly changes, as here {infit), to the historical present. For long narratives in the historical present see Ampkitruo i. 1. 50 (205) ff., Ourculio ii. 3. 50 (329) ff. With these it is worth while to contrast the management of a long narrative in Homer, as in Od. ix. (ii) When the present of a verb is the equivalent of a perfect as a.p)(ii>, vikw, Lat. regno etc., the imperfect has a corresponding meaning rjpx'^ ' was archon,' eviVa 'had conquered,' regnabat 'was king.' So ^/ce 'had come,' (ux^To 'had gone.' Contrast the aorists rjp^a etc., which are often inceptive (§ 552 ii)'. (iii) The imperfect frequently expresses the attempt to do something, a notion which arises out of the general 1 In the Attic inscriptions a date is given by the imperfect : \{avbt.ovU iirpvTapeue, ^AyOppw? KoXXurei)? iypafifidreve, EiJ/cXefS?;? fpxe, KaXXias 'ilaOev iTrea-rdrei, but a reference to such matters as past events is in the aorist : xp^'">''t o"'"" ^Kaffros rip^iv (377 B.C.), oi ^ovKevral koXujs Kai dtKaidis ij3o^\GV(Tav Kal ^irpvTdvexjaav {287 B.C.). Meisterhans, Gram. d. att. Inschr.- § 86, 2. 424 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 548 — progressive meaning of the tense. In Greek this sense is specially common in cSiSovi/ ' I offered, tried to give,' and 'iirnOov 'tried to persuade.' (3s Tpi€T€s jxiv tXrjOov iyia Kol iirndov 'Ai^aiovs. Od. xix. 151. Thus for three years lay I hid and tried to per- suade the Achaeans. in exilium qiwm iret reduxi domuni ; nam ihat exulatum. Plant. Merc. v. 4. 19 (980). When he was going into exile, I brought him home again ; for he was trying to go. 549. The perfect was originally, as far as syntax is The perfect Concerned, merely a special kind of present. an intensive Jt was an intensive form and had nothing present. ^ ^ ^ to do with time, i. The perfect is distinguished from the presents of Tiie perfect ex- Continuous action by expressing a state, an presses a state, j^jgg^ ham which the notion of the perfect as the tense of completed action easily developes'. oTSa ' I know ' (cp. Lat. novi), used only of the state of knowing, is thus distinguished from yiyi'Mo-KO), which indicates the process of coming to know. In the same way Ovya-Ku ' he is dying ' is distinguished from TedvrjKc ' he is dead ' (hence Tc^i/aiTjs in Homer ' mays't thou lie 1 The English perfect in have expresses the present result of a past action : ' I have bought a book ' = I bought a book and I have it. The connexion of the two ideas in one predicate gives by implication the notion of the immediate past, a notion which seems the earliest meaning of the aorist (§ 552 iv). The old English perfects satig, rang etc. have passed into an aoristio meaning, which they share with the later past formation in -ed : loved etc. ; while the continuous imperfect is now expressed by loas and a present participle : ' he was singing ' etc. — § 549] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 425 dead ') ; compare liijivda-KiD ' I remind,' fi^iixv-qiiai ' I have reminded myself, remember' (Lat. memini), KTao/xai. 'I acquire,' KiKT-qfiai ' I possess,' etc. o\r] 6 Xapfx.iSyj's, ctAXa l3e(3ovXiviJ.e6a. Plato, Charmides, 176 C. ' What are you planning to do ? ' ' Nothing. The planning is over.' Nunc ilhid est, quom mefidsse quam esse nimio mavelm. Plant. Capt. iii. 3. 1 (516). This is a moment when I'd rather have been (i.e. be now dead) than be. ii. It is noticeable that in Homer the perfect is frequently intransitive, corresponding in meaning to the present middle, while the present active forms some sort of causative verb ; cp. lo-Ta/iai, Icr-njKa ' I stand,' 'ia-TrjjXi ' I set, cause to stand ' ; apapLa-Kui ' I fit,' apijpe ' is fixed,' opvvfxL ' I raise, cause to rise,' opape ' it arises.' 'AXe^dv&poio civcKa vtiKOS oprnpev. II. iii. 87. For Alexander's sake the strife is stirred. 550. The Greek pluperfect is simply the augmented The pluperfect P^^t to presents of the perfect type. In m Greek. Homer it is used like the imperfect as a narrative tense. At all times this is the value of the 1 Monro, H. G.- § 28. — § 551] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 427 augmented tenses of present-perfects : oTSa, novi, ' I know'; ^8?;, noveram, 'I knew.' As we have already seen (§ 606 f.), the pluperfect forms are etymologicaUy closely connected with aorist forms. The Greek forms, occurring only in the 3rd person, which are sometimes represented' as a link between the perfect itself and the imperfect and aorist can be otherwise explained. They are yiytovt, avqvoOi and eirev-qvoOi. The last two are identified by Curtius^ with the reduplicated type i/jt-ifi-r]- Kov, with which must also go iyiywve (II. xiv. 469) if genuine, yeyoove is found four times as a perfect in form, but always in the same phrase ocro-ov re ycymi/c ySoifo-as. An aorist in the same construction would be defensible, and no passage renders it necessary to read iyeywvet as a pluperfect, while some passages seem to show that ye'ywvc and iyiyu>v€ are the same form differing only by the presence or absence of the augment ; cp. a-ixepSaXiov &' i/36r)cr(, yeywvk tc Tratri Otolai. Od, viii. 305. 551. The Latin pluperfect is etymologicaUy an aorist form (§ 507), and some traces of its The pluperfect original value seem still to be found in the '" ■''''*'°' interchange of perfect and pluperfect, the Latin perfect being in part also of aorist origin {§ 497). The use of pluperfect for perfect forms is, according to Draeger", earlier than the converse, being found in Plautus, while perfect for pluperfect begins only in the classical period*. 1 As by Kriiger (Dialekt. 53, 3, 4). 2 In his Greek Verb (p. 429, English edition). ■* Historische Syntax, 1.^ p. 258. * According to Blase {Geschichte des Plusquamperfekts im Lateinischen), whose views do not convince me, all such usages of the plpf. as an absolute tense are late and begin with fueram, which is by confusion so used, since in some instances fui and eram are identical. This view seems tenable only if it could be 428 A SHORT MANUAL OF [§ 551 — Nempe obloqui me iusseras. Plaut. Cure. i. 1. 42. Why sure you ordered me to contradict. Quosquefors ohtulit {=ohtulerat), irati interfecere. Livy XXV. 29. 9. Those that chance had thrown in their way, they slew in their wrath. Compare Propertius' nan sum ego qui fueram (i. 12. 11) with Horace's non sum qualis eram (Od. iv. i. 3). In the passage from Livy, the pluperfect meaniog arises from the context as in the Greek use of the aorist as pluperfect (§ 546). 552. As we have already seen (§§ 500, 502), there are The aorist has two types of aorist. The forms which end two types. j^ ^^g g^p^-^g q£ ^l^g (jj.gglj. ^gy|3 jj^ .„^ are, etymologically considered, only augmented tenses of perfective presents. The forms which contain a suffix in -,?- are of different origin, have a diiferent inflexion and might be expected to show differences of meaning. Investigation, however, has not yet succeeded in discovering any such difference of signification be- tween them and the strong forms. (i) The aorist meaning best recognised, because Perfective ao- ^0^''' widely developed, is that of simple "^'- occurrence in the past. But the aorist, except in the indicative, shows no past meaning other than that which may be derived from the context, and the injunctive forms of Greek ((tx«s etc.), Latin {vel, § 520) and Sanskrit show that the idea of past time must be contained in the augment and not in the verb-form shown that the Latin plpf. is not a descendant from the original language but an invention within Latin itself to express relative time. — § 552] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 429 proper. In Greek even the presence of the augment is not able m all cases to attach a past meaning to the verb, for the gnomic aorist which expresses that which is true at all times is generally found with an augment : piX^lv 8e re vt^Vios lyvu)^. A similar aorist is in almost every case^ found in Homeric similes except when it is desired to express duration. (ii) When the present of a verb expresses a state, its aorist generally expresses the idea of inceptive ao- entrance into that state, ap^w, ' I am '''^'■ archon ' ; -qpia, ' I became archon, came into office ' ; /Sao-tXtvei, ' he is king ' ; eftacTLXevcre, ' he became king ' ; Oapcrel, ' he is brave ' ; i6a.p(TrifX€d' ottcos Itrrai rdSe epya. Od. xvii. 274. But come now let us take thought how these things shall be. In conditional clauses this construction is well marked. el ifiol ov Ti(Tov(TL /ioiov i-TTLUKe' a.ixoLJ3riv, Svcro/xaL £ts 'AtSao Koi iv veKveCTcri auvui, Od. xii. 382. If they will not pay satisfactory recompense for my oxen, I will (subj.) sink into Hades and make light among the dead. The negative form of the first person as has been said is rare. /XT/ ere, yepov, Koikyfriv iyia irapd vrjvtrl Kip(€t(u. II. i. 26. Don't let me find you, old man, near the hollow ships. The af&rmative form of the subjunctive of will is very rare in the 2nd and 3rd persons. That it must once have existed in the 2nd person is proved by its ordinary negative form, the subjunctive with p.rj, and the 3rd person is quotable without doubt as to the reading. €p , 0) TeKvov, vvv Kol TO Trj'; VTjaov fj.ddrj';. Soph. P)ul. 300. Come, my child, learn now also the nature of the isle. TO &k \^d<^i(rfi.a to yeyovop (xtto rdp /SwXa/D . . . avare^a iv TO lapov T(o Aiop T<3 'OXvp-mu) '. Elean inscrip. Cauer^ 264, Collitz 1172. Let the resolution passed by the council be dedicated in the temple of Olympian Zeus. 1 Delbriick, S. F. iv. p. 117, who gives up the passage in — § 560] COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY. 439 Some passages where k€v or av is usually read border closely upon the 2nd person of this type. 17 K€V t/i(3 VTTO SoVpl TV7r£lS ttTTO OvflOV oXctrCJJS. II. xi. 433. Smitten under my spear shalt thou lose thy life\ The ordinary aorist construction of the 2nd person with fj-T] requires no illustration. It can hardly be doubted that this usage is older than the development of the aorist imperative. The rule that a present imperative and an aorist subjunctive must be used in negative commands seems to prevail in Old Latin as in Greek, ne time, iJ-rj t^eirye ; ne dixeris, jxrj Xe'lTjs^. The third person has a very emphatic force in such passages as ovK t(r6' ovTos avTQp ouS' tcrereTai ovoi ■yei'ip-at. Od. xvi. 437. There is not such a man, nor mil nor can there be'. 560. ii. The interrogative subjunctive is commonest with the 1st person in both prose and poetry, (u jjLoi €yu), Tt irdOu} ; II. Xl. 404, Woe is me, what shall I do ? (= what is to become of me ?) Sophocles on the ground that the text generally is untrustworthy. It is probably one of Sophocles' frequent experiments in language, on the analogy of ; TL 8c 8p(3 ; ri Se ju,ifo-(o/xat ; Aesch. S. c. T. 1057 with Tt TTadm ; Ti 8c ft-ria-oixai ; Soph. Track. 973. If the future is the old aorist subjunctive, iJ-ria-Mixai and ix-qcrojiai are of course merely different formations from the same aorist stem. The only example of the 2nd person in this con- struction (tms ovv It ctTTTjs oTi ^s, r/yepiovevrj's. II. XV. 45. (6) Kat 8' av TOis aXXotcrtv cyto TrapafJLvOrjaal/xrjv oiKaS' aTTOTrXet'civ. J7. ix. 417. Monro, in his edition of the Iliad, translates the optative in (a) by ' I am ready to advise,' as expressing a concession ; in (b) by ' I should advise.' The con- struction in other clauses however shows no concessive meaning : ov n KaKourcpov aXXo TrdOoi/jLi, II. xix. 321, ' I could not suffer aught worse ' ; xV/^'^^'°'' Xa/Sc, o ov Svo y avSpe (j)ipoL€v, II. v. 302, 'which two men could not carry.' 567. The application in Attic Greek of indicative forms to express wishes or conditions that can no longer be fulfilled is in the Homeric period not yet fully developed. Forms of wc^eXoi/ are alone used for wishes ' Wecklein's emendation \6yoi. the busy com- mercial towns like Miletus made rapid improvements in the alphabet as handed down to them. 604. There were amongst the Greeks ^ two distinct alphabets, resembling one another in most respects, but differing in the representation of |, ^ f^od xj^ or rather in the value which they attach to the symbols X and Y. Of the one type the Greek alphabet as usually written is the de- scendant, the Latin alphabet and through it the alphabets of Western Europe^ generally are the representatives of the other. These alphabets are generally distinguished as the Eastern and the Western. The Western alphabet was used in Euboea and the whole of continental Greece except Attica, the north-east coast of the Peloponnese and the colonies like Corcyra and Syracuse which sprang wholly or partly from that area. The Western colonies with the exceptions mentioned above also used this alphabet. The Eastern alphabet was employed in Asia Minor and in most of the islands of the Aegean ; Crete, Melos and Thera alone retaining for a long period a more primitive and less complete alphabet. The 1 One branch of the Greek family — the Cyprian — did not use an alphabet but a syllabary of the same nature as that in which the cuneiform inscriptiona of many Asiatic nations are written. This syllabary did not distinguish between breathed stops, voiced stops and aspirates; hence the two symbols to-te may mean rdre, ToSc, Tu5e, Sore, SoSrj, rb dii, etc. Another very primitive method of writing has been discovered in Crete by Mr A. J. Evans (Journal of Hellenic Studies xiv. p. 270 ff.). •* The Russian alphabet is a modification of the Greek alphabet as it appeared in the 9th century a.d. Some symbols had to be added to the Greek alphabet owing to the greater number of sounds in Slavonic which had to be represented. THE GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS. 451 Western alphabet, as Latin shows, placed x after V iy) and used as its symbol X which in the Eastern alphabet was used for X- S' or a local form \i/ was used for x- The combination TTo- was generally left without a symbol, although in Arcadia and Locris a new symbol is invented by adding a perpen- dicular line in the middle of the symbol X. In the Eastern alphabet as here described there were still some variations from the present Greek alphabet. 'H was still used to represent not r) but the spiritus asper; E re- presented e, rj, and the 'improper' diphthong ei which arises by contraction (§ 122); O after the introduction of a re- mained the symbol for o and for the non-diphthongal ov. The lonians of the mainland lost the aspirate very early and employed H, no longer necessary in this value, as the equi- valent of t). The complete Ionic alphabet, which is the alphabet now in use, was first officially adopted at Athens in 403 B.C., although it is clear that the alphabet was in ordinary use at Athens considerably earlier^. 605. From the alphabet of the Greeks settled in Magna (iraeoia came the alphabets used by the Etruscans, Romans, Oscans, Umbrians, and the smaller tribes of the same stock. There seems to be little doubt that the Etruscans were the first to adopt the ali^habet and handed it on to the Oscans and Umbrians. The shape of the Latin letters, which is in many respects very different from the Greek to which we are accustomed, is almost entirely an inheritance from the Greek alphabet of the Chalcidic colonies, in which letters exactly corresponding to those of Latin can be found except in the ' It may be mentioned that, apart from the great divisions of the alphabet which are discussed here, there were a large number of minor local peculiarities which enable scholars to assign with great definiteness the earlier inscriptions to their original home. This becomes increasingly difficult after the introduction of the Ionic alphabet. We have then to rely on the local dialectic forms, but with the appearance of the koiv^i (§ 64) these tend more and more to disappear. 29—2 452 APPENDIX. case of P and G. In the oldest Latin, however, P is P as in Chalcidic, and it seems probable that G was introduced instead of the useless f by Appius Claudius Caecus in 312 B.C. The borrowing of the alphabet must have been at a com- paratively early period since in all the dialects the earliest writing is from right to left. 606. The alphabets of Central Italy fall into two groups, of which one is formed by the Latin and Faliscan, the other by the Etruscan, Oscan and Umbrian. The main distinction between the two groups is that in the former the sound of / is represented by the ancient Vau (F), while in the latter it is represented by a symbol more or less closely resembling the figure 8. The history of this diflerence is not clear. In the earliest Latin inscription, which is on a fibula found at Praeneste and published in 1887, we find FHEFHAKED written for the later fefacid. FH for the sound / seems to show that at the period of writing (probably in the sixth century B.C.) F still retained its ancient value as u and that the aspirate was added to show that the sound was not voiced but breathed as in the Corcyrean FH for p (§ 119). But as V was used for both the consonant u and the vowel u, F came to be used alone with its modern value. It is contended by many authorities that the other group made its new symbol for / from the second member of the group FH at a time when H had still its ancient closed form 3, for an artistic stonemason might readily alter the two rectangles into two diamond-shaped or circular figures^. 607. The main argument for deriving even the Latin alphabet from the Chalcidic through the intermediate stage of the Etruscan, is the confusion in symbols between breathed and voiced stops, which Etruscan did not distinguish. The balance of evidence is against this theory, though it would ex- plain how the Greek rounded y (C) came to have in Latin 1 In Umbrian this closed H is retained with its usual value in the shape 0. THE GREEK AND LATIN ALPHABETS. 453 the same value as K and to oust it from all except a few forms stereotyped in the official style. 608. The Umbrian, Oscan and Faliscan alphabets show similar but more numerous traces of Etruscan influence. Faliscan like Etruscan has no symbol for B. Etruscan had no D; neither has Umbrian, and the Oscan fonn q is obviously a restoration from the form for r with which the form for d had become confused. A still more important resemblance to Etruscan is that neither Oscan nor Umbrian has a symbol for n originally, V representing both original o and original a sounds. At a later period O.scan distinguished forms by placing a dot between the arms of the V; V- I* also distinguished i-sounds which came from original e by a separate symbol \- 1. Umbrian has two further symbols ; (1) '^ used to denote a peculiar pronunciation of original d which is represented in Umbrian monuments written in the Latin alphabet by rs, and (2) j, used for the palatal pro- nunciation of k before e and i, which is represented in Latin writing by s. They are now often transliterated by f or ct, and f. 609. The symbols for the aspirates were not required by the Italic alphabets although Umbrian keeps 6 in the form O. Some of the Roman numeral symbols were however derived from them; M = 1000, which appears in early inscriptions as CD with many variants produced by opening the side curves^, there can be little doubt is 0, while half the symbol ( d) is used for 500. We may gather from Etruscan that e was the earlier form out of which the Latin C = 100 developed ^ These symbols when they appear in small type ai'e generally printed rf, I. They are represented with greater clearness by u, 1, the latter introduced by Mommsen, the former by Prof. E. S. Conway. - The symbol M, according to Mommsen [Hermes xxii. p. 601), is used by the Eomans only as an abbreviation for mille, milia, never as a number. Hence it is a mistake to write MM = 2000. 454 APPENDIX. by assimilation to the initial letter of centum when the original value was forgotten. The Chalcidic Xi '^'iz- ^, had its side limbs made horizontal J_ L and was used for 50. X = 10 is found in Etruscan, Umbrian and Osoan as well as Latin; whether it was the Chalcidic | — as a letter, :c is found only in Latin and Faliscan — is uncertain. Whatever its origin V — 5 is obviously meant for the half of it. B. The Greek Dialects. [The chief collections of materials are the volumes of the Corpus Inscriptionum Oraecarmn, the collection of dialect in- scriptions edited by CoUitz with the help of many other scholars and still unfinished (Sammlung der griechischen Dialekt-In- schriften), Cauer's Delectus Inscriptionum Graecarum propter dialectum memorabilium^, 1883 and Bechtel's Inschriften des ionischen Dialehtes. Among the most important treatises may be mentioned (1) Meister's Die griechischen Dialekte, of which two volumes founded on Ahrens' treatise De Graecae linguae Dialectis have appeared, the first (1882) containing Aeolio (as defined in § 621), the second (1889), Elean, Arcadian and Cyprian ; (2) Hoffmann's Die griechischen Dialekte (2 vols., 1891, 1893), covering even more fully the same ground except Elean and Boeotian; (3) H. W. Smyth's The Greek Dialects (Ionic only), 1894. A useful summarj' of the main facts of Doric is given in Boisacq's handy compilation, Les dialectes doriens, 1891. The dialects of North Greece are treated by H. W. Smyth {A. J. P. vii. pp. 421 — 445). An excellent resumi of all the dialects is given in Pezzi's Lingua Greca Antica, 1888, to which I am much indebted.] 610. The physical features of Greece are such as to en- courage the growth and maintenance of many separate dialects. Lofty mountain ridges divide valley from valley, thus rendering possible the existence of a large number of small communities politically independent and each in fre- quent conflict with its nearest neighbours. Separate societies 456 APPENDIX. under one political government tend to become more homo- geneous in language ; when a single society is broken into two parts under different political governments the parts tend to gTadually diverge in language as in institutions (cp. § 64). 611. The racial origin of a people need not throw any light upon the language it speaks, for many causes may lead in time to the loss of the ancestral language and the ac- ceptance of another. The Norse settlers in Normandy adopted a dialect of French instead of their native tongue; after their settlement in England they gradually resigned their French in favour of English. English itself is encroach- ing more and more upon the area in which Keltic dialects used to be spoken. It is therefore clear that a people may remain ethnologically almost pure and yet from political circumstances or self-interest change its language. But although history will not supply a trustworthy key to the facts of language, nevertheless history and language will frequently corroborate one another. 612. The Greeks of the Peloponnese and of Phthiotis in Thessaly who formed the expedition to Troy are known to Homer as Achaeans. The peoj^les who play a great part in later times, Dorians, Aeolians, Ionians,-are to Homer little more than names. According to Greek tradition, it was some eighty years after the Trojan war that the Peloponnese was invaded and conquered by a people from the north or north- west — the Dorians. The invaders, like the Normans in England, established themselves as a conquering caste, but in the countries under their authority the conquered Achaeans still survived partly as freemen without political rights, partly as slaves. According to Herodotus (viii. 73) the people in the centre of the Peloponnese — the Arcadians — had remained in their mountain fastnesses undisturbed by this invasion. In Arcadia then, if anywhere, we may look for the dialect of the ancient Achaeans. Cyprus was colonised from the Pelopon- nese and more especially from Arcadia, and inscriptions show the dialects to be closely akin. The branch of the race settled in Phthiotis also spread eastward to Asia ilinor, and we find THE GREEK DIALECTS. 457 two great dialect areas with a form of language very similar, viz. Thessaly in Northern Greece and Aeolis in the north- west of Asia Minor. In Boeotia a similar dialect is found, crossed, however, with many Doric peculiarities. Ancient legend hints at some such mixture by a story that the Boeotians dislodged from Arne in Thessaly poured down into the Cadmeian land. These Boeotians must have been Dorians, and Doris the land from which they derive their name is in the heart of the mountainous region between Thessaly and Boeotia. We might therefore expect to find resemblances between the dialects of North-west Greece and those of the Dorians of the Peloponnese. Our documents, however, leave us with a long gap of some centuries between the time of the legendary separation of the Peloponnesian Dorians from the northern Dorians and existing records. There was no direct communication between the tribes thus separated and hence many differences between the dialects of North-west Greece and of the Peloponnese have had time to grow up. So great are these difl'erences that some of the best authorities separate these dialects into two distinct groups. The northern Eleans according to Herodotus were Aetolians and therefore members broken off at a later time from the main stock which re- mained to the north of the Gulf of Corinth. The Athenians boasted that they and their ancestors had lived through all time in Attica. They were known as lonians and identified themselves in origin with tribes living in Euboea, in some of the islands and in a large district on the coast of Asia Minor. 613. There are thus three main stocks, (i) the Achaean, consisting of Arcadians and Cyprians on the one hand and Aeoliaus of Asia Minor and Lesbos, Thessalians and Boeotians (partly) on the other, (ii) the Dorian, originally resident north of the Gulf of Corinth but most powerfully represented by its warlike emigrants to Sparta, Argolis and Corinth, and (iii) the Attic-Ionic. These stocks in process of time sent out off- shoots which planted the shores of the Black Sea, the north coast of Africa and the western Mediterranean on the 458 APPENDIX. European side with numerous colonies, some as Cumae in Italy dating back to the legendary era soon after the Trojan war, others as Amphipolis in Thrace or Thurii in Southern Italy belonging to the middle of the historical period. 614. For knowledge of any dialect we are indebted to three sources, all of which in some cases may not be available. These sources are (i) literature, (ii) grammarians and lexico- graphers, (iii) inscriptions. Neither of the first two sources can be trusted by itself. For («) before the invention of printing, when scribes had to copy the works of authors, there was a constant liability to error in matters of dialect, since the scribe was likely to write inadvertently the forms of his own dialect in place of those in the manuscript before him or to mistake the reading of forms with which he was not familiar. When a manuscript thus incorrectly written was itself copied, the number of errors in matters of dialect was likely to be greatly increased. Hence sometimes, as in some works of Archimedes the Syracusan mathematician, the almost total disappearance of the dialectical element; hence too the occasional occurrence of two widely divergent copies of the same work. For example, the treatise by Ocellus Lucanus De Rerum Natura is preserved in Attic, although Stobaeus quotes it in Doric. Owing to the same cause the exact treatment of Ionic in the hands of Herodotus is still to some extent a matter of dispute, the manuscripts varying greatly as to the contraction of vowels and the like. 615. (b) There is however a more subtle source of error. Much of the Greek dialect literature is in poetry, and it is hard to tell in many cases how far corruption of dialect is due to the poet himself or to his transcriber. A later Greek poet might be reasonably expected to be influenced by Homeric diction ; he might use a borrowed word which suited his verse better or, even though well acquainted with the dialect, he might use a conventional form which was not actually spoken^. That the dialect writing of Theocritus ' To take a modern instance, Burns does not write pure Scotch although born and bred a Sootohman. Even in what THE GREEK DIALECTS. 459 was conventional ia admitted by every one ; how far the early writers of lyrics use a conventional language and how far the dialect of their native cities, is a vexed question. 616. The grammarians are no more trustworthy, for they often worked on insufficient data and put down forms as belonging to particular dialects without certain evidence. The works of the ancient grammarians, moreover, are subject to the same dangers in copying as works of literature. The only trustworthy evidence to be obtained with regard to any dialect is from the records of the dialect engraved on some permanent material, such as stone or metal, by the people themselves and still preserved. Even here the material at our disposal is not always to be relied on and the genuine- ness, authenticity and decipherment of inscriptions must be investigated by the canons according to which such matters are tested in the case of literar}' works. Arcadian. 617. Our information regarding this dialect is derived from (i) inscriptions, (ii) glosses containing Arcadian words. Most of the inscriptions in the dialect are short or consist merely of proper names. From Tegea there are two longer inscriptions, one dealing with a building contract first pub- lished in 1860, the other regarding the right to pasture in the neighbourhood of the temple of Athena Alea first pub- lished in 1888. The latter to judge by the alphabet, which is in the transition stage between the native and the Ionic alphabet, is somewhat older, belonging probably to the early might be supposed his most characteristieally national poem (Scots wha hae, of these three words wha and hae are only conventional changes of English words, for Scotch uses not the interrogative toho but that as the relative, and the plural of have ends in -s, the genuine Scotch phonetically written really being Scots 'at hiz. 460 APPENDIX. part of the fourth century B.C. The former, however, al- though written in the Ionic alphabet presents more character- istic features of the alphabet in less space and part of it is therefore given here. 618. The main characteristics of the dialect most of which it shares with Cyprian are these : i. (a) -K!- in the preposition i^ is reduced to s before a following consonant : eirdorrjpes. (b) -vTi. becomes -viri. which remains : Kpivwvai. Cp. iepa/i- vap^ovuL dat. pi. (c) Original J is represented by f and 5 the pronuncia- tion of which is uncertain : ^ipedpov, iaSiWoyres. Cp. Attic p6.pa.8- pov, /SdXXovTcs. (d) e before v became l in the preposition Iv. (e) Final o became v : cnrij. The old genitive ending ao also becomes av. (/) -01 appears for -at in the 3rd sing, middle : flvriToi. etc. Spitzer's explanation of -roi as influenced by ordinary secondary ending seems most probable. ii. (a) Some stems in -tjs show a strong form of the root syllable where Attic has the weak : Sw-kp^tt/s, while Attic Su-k/kxt?;! has -J--. (6) Stems in -tjs, whether -s-stems or -eu-stems as iep^s ( = ie/)eus), are inflected like stems in -ij (cp. § 50). (c) The old genitive of masculine stems in -a, Homeric 'ArpeiSao, appears as -av and is followed through analogy by the fern. (T-stems oidav, etc. (d) The ' contracting ' verbs in doi, 4oi, 6u are of the /j.i.- conjugation, which is perhaps more original than the -w type : («) The locative has taken the place of the dative : Ipyoi.. dTTi) and c| accompany the locative, iTr-h = i7ri^ takes the genitive, iros=*7roT-s and Iv take both locative and accusative (cp. Latin in). THE GREEK DIALECTS. 461 €1 K av TL yivrjroL rots epyajvats vols Iv rot avrol €pyoLy oa-a nepl to €pyov aTTv4o-{6)6opK0iis TO. epyOy Xa(jivpo7r€0} et K &v K€\fvaLV€v fie TOfi ^oXop-evov eVi rot r)p,'i (c) fas = Attie yijs, (d) to{v)(n ( = *e(cr)o('Ti), («) ■yivoiTv and many proper names. There is no example of a middle optative ending in -toi.. Cyprian has how- ever other peculiarities which are not shared by Arcadian. (a) Between i and i; and a following vowel it indicates the glide (§ 84) UaTripap, KaTcaKe{'f{ = u)affc. There is a converse change in eifprp-dcarv for e/p — . (6) V did not change to it as in Attic, for in the glosses it interchanges with o : t^oxo^^/ivxo!. (c) Such forms as pa ta for Trdvra seem to show that the vowel was nasalised as in French. THE GREEK DIALECTS. 463 (l)''Ore Ta{v) tttoXlv 'HfiaXtoi/ KariFopyov MaSoi kcls KeTLTJFes, l{v) Tfot ^iXoKvirpoiv feVet rat 'Opaa-ay6\pavj ^aa-tXevs 2rao-i- KVTTpos KQs d TTToXis ^HSaXi^/cff civcayov ^Ova(Tikov rov *Ovaa'i' KV7r\p fiLo-Oatv Ko. d(v)TL rd v^r}pa)v hoFivai e^ Ton \ Folkcoi tcol ^acriX^Fos Kas e^ rat tttoKlFl dpyvpct>{v) Td\\avTov'\ | rd[Xai'roz/]* rj BvFdvoi vv d(i/)ri TQ> I dpyvpojv rwfie rw TdKd{v)T(i>v (SaaiXevs Kas d TTToKis ^Ovaa-iXan Kas tols KaailyvrjTois aTTv rat ^di rat ^ao-iXrjFos rd l{v) tS> Iptovi Twi *AXa(/i.j7rpi/drat t6{v) ;^w/30I' [ top l{v) tS>l eXct t6{v) )(pav6ii€vov ' 0(y)Ka{v)TOs aXfa;(/ia] *H[5d- Xiay rj 8oiKoi vv ^aaiXevs Kas d tttoXis Ovac'i — | (2) -Xo)i d(i')ri ra dpyvpa>{y) rcoBe dnv rat fat rdt (SatnXijFos rd l(v) MaXai/i?*a|t rat Trebijai t6{v) )(a>pov t6{v) xp^^'^C^ixevov ^AfXT^vija oXfo), Kas TdT€p\)(yiJa Ta €7rtd(v)ra 7rd(i')ra, T6(r) Troe^oixcvov ttos t6{v) p6Fo(v) 7-0(1^) Apvfiiov Kas 7r6\\s top Upr^F'ijav Tas *A6dvas, Kas t6(v) KdiTOV tov l{v) '2lp.{p)ibos dpovpa\L, t6(v) Atfet'^e/xi? o 'App,dv€vs rf)(€ aXF(v) naiSav ol na\'i8fs e^o(v) lpS>vi rmi HdaKiijFi i{v)(TL. Hoffmann's text (vol. i. p. 69). Cp. D. I. No. 60. Kds = Kal. iK/m/iii'os (aoc. pi.) 'hit.' ixflP'^" (gen. fern. ) = ein- Xffpou, V probably = "ud op. va-repos. faJ = 717. aXfoi (acc.) threshing-floor (H.). T^px''i-jci = VTd. vFais ^av meaning uncer- tain, perhaps ' for ever.' Trdcrei = Attic reitrei. foaXaXKr/i^i-a perf. pass. part, from ehaklveiv 'written thereon.' The pronominal forms Trai (enclitic particle), oVi, ai.^ ( = "!) may be noticed. [N.B. Here as in other inscriptions curved brackets indicate doubtful or worn letters, square brackets letters illegible or lost and restored by the editor.] The following passage from Fick's edition of the Iliad (i. I — 16) is an attempted restoration of the Aeolio of the Homeric period (.see § 650). Fick has now published a slightly diiferent recension in B. B. xxi. p. 23 ff. yiavLv «ft5e, Bia, TlriXrfiaba A)(^L\rjos oWofiivaVy & fivpi 'A;^aiota'' ciXye edrjKe, iroWats d^l(pdip.ots ylrv)(ats ' Afidt 7rpoiayj/i 7Jpd>atv, avTOis de F€X6eis vov(T(rov dvd aTpdrov apae KaKavy oXeKovro fie \doit oivveKa Tov Xpvai^v dTLna(Te aparrjpa 'ATpftdas' o yap rj\6e $6ais eVl vdas A^aloiv XufTo/xevos re dvyarpa (pepcov r anepeao't anoiva^ CTTfTTTraT^ e;^wv eV x^P^^ FeKa/3oXa) AmroWoivos Xpvo-eatt av aKdnTpioi Ka\ FXltra-eTO navTas AxatoiSy 'Arpetda 6e p.d\i(TTa 8ia, KotrjirjTope \daiv. G. P. 30 466 appendix. 1. Thessalian. 623. The extract given is a reply of the people of Larissa to a letter of Philip V. king of Macedon. The original document first published in 1882 is of considerable length, containing two letters of the king and two replies as well as a long list of signatories at the end. The date is soon after Philip's second letter, which was written B.C. 214. The alphabet is Ionic. The older inscriptions are much smaller. In this inscription the king's letters are in the koivt], the replies in the local dialect. i. (a) In the 3rd pi. middle -vto appears as -vdo : iyhovdo (cp. Boeotian). [h) Original o (w) appears as ou : x°^P°-^f iravrovv^ oiis, [c] Original e {ij) appears as ei : ^acrtXeios, XP^^'^^^^^^ (d) at in verb terminations appears as -ei : ^iWeirci ( = /3oi5X77Tat), icra^eiv), dTnxrrAXacros ( = d7ro(rTCiX-). Compare Kvppov = *Kvpipv. ii. (a) All infinitives end in -v -. SedSaOav, efxp.ey. (6) As a demonstrative 6-ce = Attic Soe, but both elements are declined : Todi/veow. (c) Instead of the genitive the locative is used in o-stems : (d) p.a (perhaps = ''mg) is used =5^. It seems to occur also with a variant grade in ixiawoSi { = lui$), which is probably to be analysed into ixea-iroS-t, -jroi being rather the pronoun (Lat. quod) than the same stem as in veid etc. THE GREEK DIALECTS. 467 TLavdfXfjLOL ra ckto ctt iKaSt (rvvKkcLTOS y€vo}X€vaSy dyopapofX€VTOvv tovv rayovv ndv- -Tovv, ^CkiTTTTOi Tol ^acTtXelos ypa/J./xara nifx^avros ttot tos Tayos K.a\ rav ttoXlv, St[e]Kt UeTpalos koI AvdyKiTTTros K.a\ 'AptoTWooff, ous dr rds 7rpe(.o"/3[ei]as' iyivovdoj €V€(f>avt(T(ro€v aVTOVy TTOKKL KOi & dflfliovv TToXlS Sie TO? TToXe/XOS" TTO- -TcBeero ttXclovovv tovv KaTotKeLaovTovv fxecnrodi. k€ ovv koI iripos €7r LVO€L(Tovfxev a^ios tol nap ap,p.€ TroXiTcvfiaTos, ct roT irapeovTos Kpevvifiev '\lAa(pi^do-B€Lv dp.pi, o({i)? K€ Tols KaT0LKevT€(TO-i TTap dp-fjie ner^[a-] 'Xovv Kol TOVV aXXovv *EX[\]avouv doOcl d TroXtreta — Toiveos yap (TVVTeXeorOevTos nal avvixevvavTovv ndv- -Tovv 8l€ Ta (PiXdvOpovTra Tmreio-Teiv aXXa re TroXXa tovv Xp£t(TLp.ovv etrcrecrdeiv koI e(a)uro{i koX to, ttoXi Kot rav ^ovpav jjloKXov e^epyaadeio-icrOeiv — , iy^dtpto-Tst to. TroXiTcia TT patrae p.ev nep Tovvveovv, 6s), eiralvriaat,, 6\iyo^, rerdy/xefos etc., every word being barytone, for the long monosyllables oxytone in other dialects are here circumflexed : ZeCs, tttuI, etc. The second point — 'f/lXams — is the total loss of the spiritus asper, a loss which, however, is equally certain for the Ionic of Asia Minor. (c) The Digamma is not found in inscriptions after the adoption of the Ionic alphabet. It seems, however, to have dis- appeared early in the middle of words but had, to judge from the grammarians, survived initially, /appearing as (3: /SpdKeii = Attic f)6.K-n, Ppl^a = pl^a etc. "When a consonant followed, f passed into a diphthong with the previous vowel: 5et/u = Attic 5^oi { = *Sev Kplvvio, dfa77AXaj, x^PP^^ { = *'X^P!'^^^ 'worse'); ^ivvo^, irippara (Horn. irelpaTa = -pF-). (/) The later assimilation of final -vs and non-original ■yf produces in the preceding syllable a pseudo-diphthong : ai, ei, 01 : Tais 7pd0ais (ace. pi.), eis prep, very frequent ( = *£>-$), ffeois (ace. pi.); nom. masc. of particiijles =-nts: aKovuais, Selxffeis. THE GREEK DIALECTS. 469 (1) Decree of Mytilene : Ilfpi oi>v ol (TTporayoL ttpotlQckti tt po(TTa^ai(ras T(a.)s [^oX-] [-XJas- Kal ol TTpecrlSeis ol aTTOo-ToXevTcs els Airto[XiW] [d]7rayyeXXota"t kol Sdy/za 7JviK.av nap tw kolvco Atr[a>Xa>i/] [7r]fpl Tas otKT/toraros' Kal ras (ptXtas, a>s kc diafj.€v[(ji(TL] {€)ls Tov navra xpovov kcli p.r)d€is firjTe AirwXcot' /^i?[Te] [rjoii/ KaTOLKTjVToyv iv hlrioKiai p,r)hiva '^vTikr^vdav n\yrj\ fj,7]8dfjLo6ev 6pfidfji.€vos firjTe Kar dppvcnov p-rjTe npos [*AjLt-] [_- lJktvovlkov P''f]T€ TT pos oWo e'/KXijfjt.a fjLrjdev Sefio^^at tw 8d- [-/xjco €7ralvT]dvci) KaT ovofiaros, on twv re 7ro[X]irai' Tivas Td€v, TrpoOvfiaiS. To be ■\//'a0tcrjU,a tovto kqI to Trap Atra)Xa)[i'] (y^pdyp-avTUs toI(s) i^erdo-rais ft(s') aToXXav 6ip.evat els to lpo\vj rw ^AcKXaTrlo}, tov Be Tafxlav tov eVl Tas dtoiKea-tos So/j.£- -vaL avrotCTLy to re dvdXo}(Tav els rols alxp-aXoiTots Kal els tp[a] hpd-)(_p-ais TpiaKoa-lais *AXe^avbpetais, to de dvdXcofia tovtI^o"] [e'^fifMevai els ttoXlos o-(OT7}piav. "Eypayp-e ^aeo-ras 'Evo-dp.eio{s). Hoffmann's text (vol. ii. p. 61). 470 APPENDIX. iitl/OiS {= -o-VTs) ; -ntili) : (fiaiai ( = 0ao-f), TporldeLdi, ^oiai., ypd(ponui (subj.). iraiira ( = *7raj'rici), iJ.ois- dydda rvxa e-^dcj)icr6af | enei Kf o-WTfXe?) d ;;(f'XX?;(rrvs | Tols deoia-t ra Ipa, hihav avTia icat I cKyovoia-i [Sipoipia]v Km a-dpKO nivrdlfivawv dw[y tS> /3]dos tS avop.evai tS) \ Ai Ta> 2a)[T?;pi], i'ms Kf ^a>a> (rvvTikia-iravTa to. ipa Tols I BfOUTi Kar tov vopov koi ras ;(fX|X77cm;os fwtpeXrjdevTa d^lo}S Hoffmann ii. p. 73 ; D. I. No. 276. From Orchomenus. ' ApxovTOs eV 'Epxop.evv Swapx^o peL\v6s *AXaXKO/ievia), ev 5e FeXaTiTj Me\voiTao 'ApxeXda peivos npara, 6/io|Xoy[i]a EvjiaXv FeXaTijjv KTj TTJ TrdXi 'Ep|;(o/iei'i'a)i'- eViSet KfKopUTTr] E4'j3a)||Xof Trap Tas TroXtos to ddvetov dirav | Kar rds opoXoylas rds re^etVaff Qv\vdpxa> ripxovTos fieivos OeiXovdla, \ k^ ovt 6(j)fi\(T7] avTV en ovoev nap rav | ttoKlv, dXX dir^x^ ndvTa nepl navTos II ktj otto- dfdoavdi Trj TrdXt rv e;^oi/reff | rds opoXoylas- eLp.ev nondedopilvov Xpovov Ev/3ci)Xu €TTivop.las Fena | nirrapa ^oveaui (Tovv imrvs diaKa\TLr]s Fi-KaTi, Trpo^drvs (tovv rjyvs x^^W^h^' "PX' '^^ XP^^^ 6 fviavTos 6 perd | Qvvapxov dpxovra ^'Epxopevlvs. 'Ano\ypd~ cj)€cr67j §€ EiJ/3ft)Xo7/ Kar eviavrov \ eKaoTov nap tov Tapiav ktj tov vop-oi\vav Ta t€ Kavpara tcov npo^drav ktj \\ rdi' rjyaiv ktj Tav ^ovaiv KTJ Tav lirntav ktj | Ka nva dcrap^ 'IcovOc kt] to irXeldos- p.€t I dnoypa(p4(T0ci3 fie TrXiova Tav yeypap\fX£vo>v iv ttj 0"Ouy;^a>- pfiai. *H 5e Ka tis [7r|pdrTei]r7; to (vvopLov 'Ev(3d- appears instead of -vt- in verb suffixes; irapayLv^jidvdf) { = Trapayiypo:PTai), da/xcwpdoj {=: ^7)fj.toui>Twi' 3 pi. imperat. from fj)^i6u) with the final f absent as frequently in Doric inscriptions ; a.TroR€d6ai>di (perfect). 626. The three dialects agree in the following respects : (a) Instead of giving the father's name in the genitive as in Attic official designations (^yiixoadivrj^ Arip^oirdhovs, etc.), they frequently make an adjective from the father's name, except when it ends in -5as ; hence Mfaaiyeveios but AwcrKoptSao ; but in Thes- salian 'Hpa/cXe^Satos etc. (b) The perfect participle ends in -«>/. (c) In the consonant stems, the dative plural ends in -eirin. The Dialects of North- West Greece. 627. Here may be distinguished (1) Locrian, (2) Phocian including the dialect of Delphi, and (3) the dialect of Acar- nania, of the Aenianes, of Aetolia, Epirus and Phthiotis. 628. The following points are characteristic of all three groups : (a) The consonant stems make their dat. plural in -ois on the analogy of -o- stems : d-ywi/ots, tlvols { = Ti(Ti), dpx^vToiSj viKedvTot^ (verb in -^w not -dw), ct^ols TeTTdpoi^, Such datives are found THE GREEK DIALECTS. 473 eKacTas Kara [xe^va \ [cKao-Jroi', ky) cfXTrpaKTOS eorco Ei'/3g)[Xu II & TToXtff] TCOV ^'Ep^OIX€VL(t>V. Cauer2, No. 298 ; D. I. No. 489 c. TJyvs-=atyoLs, Attic al^t 'goats.' t'oif^t = ^oji^rt, Attic wo-t. From Tanagra. NtKt'ao ap^ovTos fxeivos ^A\a\K0fji€ViQ3 fK[rT^] amovros, | cVe- \l/d(f)tdd€ EvKTelfxoiv, QiOTTOfXTTOS Euvd/iQ) eXe^e, 5e|5o;^^r^ ri) Sa/nv npo^evQiS €ifx€v Krj evepyeras rds vroXto? [ Tai/aypijoJi/ ^LkoKpdrrjv ZooiXo), O-qpap-ivY^v Aap-arpio}, \] ^A7roWo(f>dvrjv^A0avob6TQ> Avrio- ^^elas Ta>v nod Ad(f)v7], avT(i>s \ kt] eV-ydvo)?, kt} €ip.€v avTvs yds kt} FvKias eTTTvao'iv ktj \ pKxoTcKiav ky) d(T<^akiav kt) daovXiav ktj TToXejLtoj I KY) Ipdvas taxra? ky} Kara yav kt] Kara BdXarrav, kyj TO. I ahXa Tvdvra Kaddnep tvs oXXv? Tcpo^ivvs kyj €V€py€\\TY]i. Cauer2, No. 370 ; D. I. No. 952. TrbS Ad(pV7) = Trbr A-. ^■mra(nv = ep.-. ^wcras Attic oiicTTjs. Locrian inscrix^tion from Naupactus (last part). Z. I Tovs i7rifoL<)ovs iv T^iavnaKTOv rdv hiKav Tvpo^i^ov kapia- rai TTOTOvs SjiKaorepas-, hapeo-rai Km d6p.€v iv 'OTrdeirt Kara F€{t)os avTap.ap6v. Aog\pnv tov IIvTroKvap.Lhlov TrpoaraTav Kara- {TTacrai, tov Aoc^pov roTrtf ||ot9o kol tov iiTLfoicfov to Ao^^q, hovrwis Ka •\77taTe(revTtjxot€cr\. — H. ^ocrcrlris" k dirokLTre Trardpa Kai to piipos tov )(p€p.dTOv to TTaTplj cTTft K* | aTToyivcTaij e^e^fiev d7ro\a)(€lv tov iTrlfotqov iv ISlavTraKTov. \ — 0. HocraTH Ka ra ffFa6e9dro 8ial.(ov koI KXt^tco, avvevdoKcovlros tov vlov ^rpdrtotos, TO) ^ATToXXaji/t tS IlvBico crmfxa \\ avSpclov ta ovofia Swcros-, to yevos KamrddoKay rip^as dp\yvplov pvdv rptwv, Ka$o>s 67rt(rreu(7f SaJCTOs- tS Beat rav \ wvdvy i(j>* <^T€ eXevBepos eifxev koX dv€(f>a7rTos dno I TrdvTtov tov irdvTa )(p6vov, Be^aitori^p koto, tov v6p.ov kcll Kajra to avfi^oXov ^l\6^€vos AcopoBeov ^Ap.<})i(r(T€vs. A 5e 7rpo\\T€pacrla oava 6. yfvofieva 2&)0"ou ro) 'ATToXXwi't cttI apxov\TOS eV AeX^otff Qpl^ajavKXeos Koi to. iv to. wva Troriyeypa/i/xe'li/a, aicr(TT€ 7rapafi€7vai ^oxrov irapa Te'Xcoi'a koX KXt^toj as \ Ka ^axovTLy drcXijs- Kai dpp.iva €(tto>. MdpTvpot at Upels | tov ^ATroXXtoroff npa^iasy ^AvdpovLKOS kol 6 apx<*iv Xivp\\plas ^Apx^Xdov koI *A/i- 0tv\ov, \ UoXvKpiTos, 'AptcrroSa/xoff KaXXt- K\€0St 'Ev6vbap,os lIo\\vKpLTOv^ Awpodeos Tifxaa-iov, AijfxrjTpLOS MovlfjLov. Tav \ oivav v\d(r(rovTt ol t€ Upels TLpa^las /cat ^Avdp6\viKos Kai * AfJiLO-(r€7s IIoXuKptros, [Xapi]fei'[os] ll 'Ekc- (bvXov. Cauer^ No. 219. From Delphi, which after 293 B.C. was under Aetolian influence. ^TpaTayiovTos Tifxaiov efio^e to7s \ AtrwXots* p.rj64va Ta>v ev A€\S koI ol XoiTTol (TVVOlKOi. Cauer^ No. 235 ; D. I. No. 1409. 478 APPENDIX. Elis. 633. The dialect of Elis, frequently treated as entirely isolated, owes its peculiar characteristics to the mixed nature of its population and to the fact that, with a large element of the dialect more purely represented by Arcadian and Cyprian, ingredients from the Doric of the North- West as well as from the Doric of the Peloponnese have been intermingled. The dialect is not uniform throughout Elis. i. (a) Original e-sounds whether (1) short or (2) long were pronounced very open in Elean. e was represented by a not , merely before p as in Loerian, but also sporadically in other positions ; e appears as a : (1) pdpyov, (pdp-qv {(p^peLv), (rK^vdctiv { = {rKCviiOv), d-TrSTLvoiav, cuaa^^oL { = evae^olTj) ; (2) fpdrpa {~p7}Tpa.)^ TrKadiovra, xpct^^ot ( = xP^^°0' /3aa"tXaes, tpaivarat, Sodal {~5ody), ^a (&) 5 even at the date of the earliest inscriptions seems to have become a spirant {#) which is generally represented by f though 5 is sometimes retained: fetfiis { = ei5us), fi/caia, f^Ka, ^dp.oi' { = Sfjp.oi'). On the other hand the primitive Greek sound represented in Attio by f appears in Elean as in Boeotian and various Doric dialects as 5: Si/cdSoi (SiKa^oi), etc. (c) Final s becomes p. The intermediate stage was no doubt the inevitable voicing of final s before a following voiced consonant. Thus Tois 5^ must be pronounced tohde. The change of final -s to -p is found in other dialects as Laconian (Dorian). After the pronunciation changed -s was still occasionally written : Tolp fdXeioLs. {d) Medial s between vowels disappears: iwolrja ( = e7ro/i; 'exact' { = *kua-id). 480 APPENDIX. ii. (a) The nom. plural of consonant stems is used for the accusative, as in Delphian and Achaean : irXdovep, xapinp. (h) Similarly the consonant stems form the dat. plural in -OI.S : xP'O/^'^TOts, ayiivoip. Similar forms are found (on one inscrip- tion) for the gen. and dat. dual ; virabvyioloLS { = viro^vyloLv but text doubtful), avToioip ( = 015x011'), -ois being added to the dual suffix. Doric. 634. The Doric dialects occupy all the Peloponnese (ex- cept Arcadia, Elis and Achaia), and some of the islands, as Melos and Thera, Cos, Rhodes in the Aegean. The longest Greek inscription in existence is in the Doric dialect of Gortyn in Crete. Doric is also represented in many colonies ; Gyrene from Thera (while Thera according to the legend was colonised from Laconia); Corcyra, Syracuse and its offshoots from Corinth ; Tarentum and Heraclea, its offshoot, from Laconia ; Megara Hyblaea and Selinus, its offshoot, from Megara ; Gela and Agrigentum from Rhodes. The literary records are as we have already seen untrust- worthy for the dialect. The Doric in the choruses of Attic tragedy is purely conventional, and consists mostly in keeping original d instead of changing it as usually in Attic to rj. 635. Some characteristics are universal throughout Doric : (i) the 1st pers. plural of the active ends in -fj.(s; (ii) the suffixes of the active are used for the future passive ; (iii) ac- cording to the grammarians Doric had a system of accentua- tion different from either Attic or Aeolic. The chief variations in accent seem to have been: {a) that monosyllables were accented with the acute where Attic had a circumflex, (b) that final -ai, -oi, were treated as long syllables, (c) that the 3rd pers. plural of active preterite tenses was accented on the penultimate, probably by analogy from other persons; thus cXva-afj-fv, eXvo-are, ekva-av with the accent throughout on the same syllable, {d) that in a number of cases analogy main- tained an acute where Attic had a circumflex : naibes, yvvaUes, KoKas (adverb, cp. xaXds) while in others analogy brings in the final circumflex where Attic keeps an acute on an earlier syllable : nmSSiv, navrav. But our information, even if cor- THE GREEK DIALECTS. 481 From Olympia. Date about 500 B.C. 'A Fparpa Toip Fd^flois Koi toTs Ei\Faoiois. 2i)i'/ia;(ia k f(t)a eKarov Ferea, [ ap-j(oi di Ka Tot. At hi Ti Scot aire Feiros aire F\apyov, and r) respectively in the former and ov and ei in the latter, and (2) on the compensatory lengthening in , belongs to a later period if we may trust the inscriptions. If this characteristic is late it must be to the copyists that we owe tw aiCi auixaro^ ( = toC diov diixaros) in Thucydides v. 77, and the same change in Alcman and Aristophanes Lysistrata. (c) The -f- of Attic is represented by -55- : ■yvfwaSdo/j.ai. (d) From Hesychius we may gather that Laconian Uke Boeotian had preserved v = u: l^ovyavep { = t^iyaves). This word shows the rhotacism which later Laconian shares with Elean. Many of the late Laconian inscriptions are not to be trusted to give the genuine forms of the dialect, for under the Romans an archaising tendency set in. Foreign influence is shown still earlier by the substitution of -fiev for -fies as the ending of the 1st pers. plural, by the contraction of o + a into w not a: old Laconian tt/jStos = TpHros ; and by other changes towards Attic forms. THE GREEK DIALECTS. 483 From Tegea. Date earlier than that of the following docu- ment. Ficks holds it to be not Laconian but Achaean. Slovdla 7rapKa(6)d€Ka to ^i\axa\lo r^erpaKarLai fxvai dpyvplo. Et fi\€V Ka ^oe, avTos dveXiirdo^ at d4 K\a /xe fdc, rot (')uto£ dveXocrdo To\ yveWtTLOLf eVei Ka {')el3d(rovTt irevre feVeja* el be Ka p,€ fwrt, Toi dvyarepes j [d]i/eXocr^o raX yvea-lai' el 84 Ka fie j f[o]i'Ti, Toi v66oi dveXoo-Oo' el Be Ka j fie v66ol fovrt, roX ciaa-taTa TToBiKWes dveX6a-6o' el de k* dv(f)ik€yovT\{tj t)o\ Teyedrai 8iayv6vTO Ka(T) Tov Sedfxov. Cauer^, No. 10 b. The general drift of the above is as follows, X. a Spartan had deposited in the temple of Athene 400 minae of silver, which if he lives he may recover. Failing him his legitimate sons may recover it five years after they reach puberty, whom failing the legitimate daughters, whom failing the illegitimate sons, whom failing the next of kin. Arbitration in case of dispute is left to the people of Tegea. Dedication by Damonon in gratitude for his unparalleled successes in the chariot races. Aafiovov I dv£deKe{i') 'A^ava/a[t] | JJoXiaxo viKahas I ravrd ar ovdes \\ ireiroKa tov vvv. \ Tabe iviKahe Aa/i.[ovov]* | to avTo Te6pi7nTo\i\ avTos dvioxlov \ ev VaLaF6)(o T€TpdKL\y\ \\ koX ^A.6dvaia Ter[paKti'] | KekevhvvLa T6'r[paKii']* I KoX Uohoibata Aap.6vo[v^ eviKe "^EXet, Ka\ 6 K€k\e^ \ flju]a, avTOS avioxtov |1 evhe^ohais ittttoli,' \ eiTTaKiv €K tov avro | 'iTTTTOv KCK TO av[T]b t7r7r[o]* I Kal HohoLbaLa Aafxovov \ [ejviKe Qevpia 0KTa[K]i[i'] |! avTos ctvioxlov ev\hefi6hais lttttols \ €k tov avTO iTTTTOv \ KeK TO avTo LTTTTO' | Kev ^AptovTLas iviKe II Aafiovov OKTaKiv I avTos dvLOxlov \ evhe^ohaLsiTTTTOis \ eV Tav avToiTrTrov \ KeK TO avTO iTTTTO, KOi || 6 KeXe^ eviKe \ap.a\- Ka\ ^'EXevhvvia Aap\6vov\ I ev'iKe avTos dviO)(iov \ evhe^ohais 'Imrois \ TeTpaKtv.W Tdbe ivUahe. [The rest is fragmentary and unintelligible.] Cauer2, No. 17 b, 31—2 484 APPENDIX. 2. Heraclea. 638. The Heraclean tables were found in the bed of a Lucanian stream in the year 1732. They are two in number, of bronze, and contain minute details with regard to the letting of certain lands belonging to the local temple. They probably date from about the end of the fourth century B.C. The dialect is not pure and the alphabet is Ionic although it has a symbol for f which is not, however, used medially. The numerals appear sometimes in Doric, sometimes in Hellenistic, forms. The most noticeable points are : i. Arbitrary use of the spiritus asper : IVos, o'lffofTi, oktw, hvia (under the iDfluence of ejrrct). ii. (a) The dative plural of participles in -nt appears as -fratro't: TrpaffffbvTaaaL, ^vraaai (from a variant plurallj/Tes = o^Tes). (6) The perfect active makes its infinitive in -rj/iev : wev- TevKTiixev. In the contraction of vowels the dialect belongs to the dialectiis severior. 3. Messenia. 639. From Andania in Messenia there is a long inscrip- tion dealing with sacrificial rites in honom' of the Kabeiri, but it is too late (first century B.C.) to be of value for the dialect. The treaty from Phigalea which belongs to the third century B.C. shows Aetolian influence. The contraction of vowels is still true to the Doric type. The most characteristic features are : (a) The 3rd plural of subjunctives in -tjvtl not -upti : wpon- Otjvti^ irpoypatpTJifTi. (6) The particles dp and xa are both used in the Andanian inscription. THE GREEK DIALECTS. 485 From first Heraclean table. Toi Be yLurBuxTaiifvoi Kapncva-ovrai top del ^povov, Ss K.a irpayyvMs 7roTdyo>v\Ti Kol to p.L fejlrfos Ka\ to dp.7Td>XTjfj.a toIs re TToXiavofWLS Kal Tols a-iTayipTats Tols del eVt rw FeT€os, oo'a-a Ka j pxiovos dpp.ia-6codrj Trap nevTC FeTtj Ta npaTa^ qti Ka reXe'^et ^a(^iixaTi, Kal Ta iv Ta ya 7Te(pvT€vp€va Kal otKodopn^peva | TrdvTa Tag noXios eV(70Z/Tat. Kaibel, Liscrr. Siciliae et Italiae, No. 645 ; Cauer^, No. 40. The passage given above is from near the beginning of a lease of the ' sacred lands of Dionysus ' granted according to a decree of the Heracleans by the state and certain magis- trates called woXiavop-oL. The lease is for life. The lessees are to have the crops so long as they produce sureties and pay the rent annually on the first of Panamus (September). If the lessees thresh out before, they are to bring to the public granary (Lat. rogus) and measure out with the state measure before the officials appointed for the year, the required amount of good pure barley such as the land produces. The sureties must be produced every five years before the officials to be accepted or rejected at their dis- cretion. If the lessees sublet, or mortgage, or sell the crop, the new tenant or mortgagee or purchaser of the crop is to take the responsibilities of the original tenant. If a lessee fails to produce sureties or to pay his rent, he is fined double a year's rent and a fine on reletting fixed by the popular vote in proportion to the decrease in the new rent obtained (the land being supposed to be run out and therefore at first fetching less rent on reletting) for the first five years. Everything planted or built upon the estate by the defaulting lessee is to fall to the state. 486 APPENDIX. 4. Argolis and Aegina. 640. Argolis included besides Argos other important towns : Mycenae, Troezen, Tiryns, Hermione and Epidaurus. From the temple of Aesculapius at Epidaurus a large number of interesting inscriptions have been obtained in recent years. The earliest Argolic inscriptions are too short to be of much value for the dialect, but we can see that F was still retained : iirolFehe, a form which shows the same comparatively late change of intervocalic -. ii. (a) Verbs of the Attic type -fw make the aorist in -iraa : (b) At Epidaurus trvvrlBriin occurs as a 2nd person. (c) From Epidaurus comes the infinitive ^inffrii' = iiriditvcLi.. 5. MeGARA and its colonies SeLINUS AND Byzantium. 641. The inscriptions are not old, and Aristophanes' Megarian in the Acharnians 729—835 is not to be trusted. There was a close connexion between Boeotia and Megara which has influenced the Megarian dialect at least in Aego- sthena. o-a fidv; in the Acharnians 757 shows a plural *ri-a (§ 197 ».). THE GREEK DIALECTS. 487 From the temple of Aesculapius at Epidaurus. Avrjp Tovs Tas XVP^^ duKTvXovs aKparels e;^wv nXav \ ivos d\\iKfTO TTol Tov Bcov LKiTas. QeMpoiv 8e TOVS iv rail iapm \ [TrJiVaKo? aTTioret rots idfiaa-iv Koi V7robi€(rvp€ ra e7rt'ypa/x/ia[[r]a. EyKadevdojv Be byp-tv ecSe* edoKet vtto Ta>i vami d(rTpayaXL^ov\[rjos avroii koi peWovTOS /3aXXetv rcijt dcrrpayaXcoL eTritjiavevTa \ [r]ov Beov iipakeo-Oai cttI rav XHP^ ^^^ iKreivai ov tovs baKTv\\X]ovs, Q)S 6* aTTO^alr}, BokcIv o-vyKapyjfas rdv XVP^ ko^' eva iKTCiveiv | [r]ci)i' daKTvXcoVj eVet fie Trdvras c^evdvvai^ eVepwrfyv vlv tov Scop, \\ [ejt ert aTrio-TTjcrot rols €7riypdppa(rt toIs €tt\ Tap irivaKOiv Tcov I [KJara to [ijepov, aiiros S* ov f^dpcv on toIvvv epTrpoo'Sev dnLO-TfLS j [a]i'To[i]s" o[uk] iovo-iv dnia-Tots, to Xoittov coto) rot (f>dpcVj aTTLOTOs I [d oi//-t?]. 'Apepas 6e yevopivas vyir}S e^^X^c. — ^Ap^poo-ia e^ *ABavdv \ [arepo]7rr[t]XXoff. Avra Ik4t[is^ rjkQc TTol roi' Oeov. Ti.epupirovo'a Be \ \^KaTa t^o \ia\p6v tcov lapdT(ov Ttvd BieyiXa i>s dTTiOava Ka\ dbvva\^a eovjra ;^a)Xoi)ff koi Tv(f)Xovs vyi€LS ytv€(T6aL ivvirviov lb6v\\Tas po\vov, ''EyKaScvdovo'a Be oyjfiv etSc iBoKCL ol 6 Seos inKXTas \ [etTretv], OT[i\ vyirj pev viv TTOfqaol, pia-dop pdvroi vlv Bctjo-o'l dv\[d€p€v e]is to iapov vv dpyvpeov, vTropvapa rds dpadias' et7rav|[ra Be (I) TavTo] avtrp^iVtrat ov TOV otttlXXov tov voaovvTa kol (lidpp[a\\K6v tl eyX^]^'* '■A./iepa? Be yevopevas [y]yi'T)S e^rjXBe. B. I. No. 3339. Cp. Cavvadias, Fouilles d^Epidaure^ p. 25. Prellwitz in D. I. accents ttoI but irol seems preferable. After JitTKTTos Caw. reads ©^[0/i.a]. From Megara. Date, 3rd century B.C. 'ETretfij) ^ AyaQoKXrjS * Ap^^Bapov \ Botwrtos- evvovs icav Bia- TeXei I Kttl evepyiras tov Bdpov rov | Meyap4(ov, dyaOdt rvp^at, BeBoWx^at rat ^ovXdi koI ran. Bdpa>i \ Trpo^evov avrov elpey koi €K\y6vovs avrov rds ttoXios rds \ Meyapccoy Karrov vopov eipev \ Be avroJi koi olKias epTratriv || kol irpoeBpiav ep Trdcri rols dycola-iv ols d TToXis TtOrjTL. * Ayy pa^j/-d\Ta} Be to Boypa roBe 6 ypappa\T€vs TOV Bdpov iv frrdXat Xidilvai, koi dvderaj els ro OXvpTrieXov, \\ 'BaaiXevs IlacridBas' ea-rpardlyovv Alovvo-ios UvppLBaj Aap€\as MarpoKXeos, ^AvrL/, Syracusan iiprla^, etc. = #iXT(or. (d) Sicilian also transposed the initial sounds of (TovTai. in Archimedes. THE GREEK DIALECTS. 489 From Corinth. AFeifla ToSe [o"a/ia], tov oXetre ttovtos avai\p4s]. Cauer^, No. 71 ; D. I. No. 3114. Affi/ia the same root as in Attic Aeivias. Observe the quantity of the middle syllable. From Corcyra. (a) ^afia rode ^Apvidda Xaponos' tov d*oK€\(T€v Apes ^apvdfifvov napa vavo-\\v eV* ^ ApdOdoio phoFaiiTL noW6\v dptcTevlFlovTa Kara (TT0v6l-e(r{(r)av aFvrdv. Cauer2, No. 84 ; D. 1. No. 3189. fiapva/ievov, § 206. Blass in D. I. reads dpiareirovTa, sup- posing the second t a mistake. Date probably 4th century b.o. (6) TJpvTavis ^Tpdroiv, \ p.e\s '^vbpevs, dpipa relrapra CTrt Scko, TT pofTrdras ] TvdSios 2o>Kpareuy. il Jlp6^evov ttoci d oKla \ Aiovv- s e-)(ei.v. Aiovvaiov II ^pvvlxov \ ^A6r)vaiov. Cauer^, No. 89 ; D. I. No. 3199. From Syracuse. Found at Olympia. Hiapov 6 Aeivofieveos | Koi Toi SvpaKocrioi \ t§ Ai Tvp(^p)av' OTTO Kvfias. Cauer^, No. 95 ; D. I. No. 3228. 490 appendix. 7. Crete. 644. Of all the Doric dialects that exemplified in the early Cretan of the great Gortyn inscription is the most peculiar. The date is uncertain, but probably not later than the fifth century B.C. Other Cretan inscriptions are later and less characteristic. There are a few marked similarities in the Gortyn dialect to the Arcado-Cyprian which may be the result of dialect mixture. As early as the date of the Odyssey (xix. 175 S.) there were different elements in the population of Crete : aXXr; 8' (iWav ykwa-tra fiefiiyfiivr]- iv ji.(V A-xcitoi, eV S' 'EreoKpT/Tef /ieyaXijropfs eV Se KijScoi'fy, AccpUes re Tpt)^d(.K€s Siot re Tlfkaayot. 645. i. (a) -Ti- is represented medially by -tt- as in Attic, Thessaliau and Boeotian: o-Trirroi {owdaoi), IdrTq. ( = *e-snt-iSi) dative of present participle of elfxi. But -vtl- became -y. Gortyn, p. 102. The general drift of the passage is as follows : The father is to have control over his children and property with regard to its division among them, the mother is to have control over her own property. In the parents' lifetime a division is not to be necessary, but if one (of the children) be fined he is to receive his share according as it is written. When there is a death, houses in the city and all that is in them, those houses excepted in which a, Voikeus (an adscn'phis glehae) lives who is on the estate, and sheep and cattle, those be- longing to a Voikeus excepted, shall belong to the sons ; all other property shall be divided honourably, the sons to get each two shares, the daughters one share each. If the mother's property [be divided] on her death, the same rules as for the father's must be observed. If there be no other property but a house, the daughters are to get their statutory 492 APPENDIX. (g) e in Cretan, as also in some other Dorian dialects, appears as i before another vowel: SvoSeKaperla, o/xo\oytovTi (subj.), KoKlov (part.), Trpa^lo/xev (fut.). ii. (a) The aoc. plural of consonant stems is made in -ai>s on the analogy of vowel stems: /lainjpaps { = iidpTvpas), evifiaXKbvTav^, etc. (6) Other Cretan inscriptions sometimes show -ev for -es in the nom. plural aKoiKravrev, afxiv ('we'). (c) Some subjunctives carry an -a vowel throughout : divd/iai, 8. Melos and Thera with its colony Gyrene. 646. The earliest inscriptions from Melos and Thera are written in an alphabet without separate symbols for tp, Xj ^> I which are therefore written rrh, kK or <}/«, wa-, ktro7rAijXo (genitive). IlpaK(TtXaT]p.l. Qhapv- [ia(}hos €7roU. There is also a long and interesting inscription from Thera ^the testamentum Epictetae — but it is too late to show strong dialectic peculiarities. From Camirus in Rhodes. Date before Alexander the Great. E8o^e Ka/itpfiJo"t' rai KTolvas ras ^ap-ipiutv ras \ €V ra vdfrd) KOt ras €v ra aireipio dvaypdyj/at rrddas \ Km €^$€fieiv is to hpov Tcis Adavaias e{y) oraXa | \i6lva xa>p\s XaX/ci/f f^fjpfiv Se icai XoKKrjTms II dvaypacj^Tipdv, at Ka )(^pr]^aivTi., eXeaBai 8e avSpas ) Tp€ts avTLKa p^aKa, OLTtves entfieXrjdTjo-evvTt Tav]Tas Tas irpd^ios wff rdx'-o'Ta kol dnodoxrevvTai | r« XPvC^^'^'- i^axi-O'Tov irapa- ax^LV rav ardXav j kol ras KToivas dvaypd'^ai kol iyKoKdyj/at iv TO. iTTd\\Ka Km aTaa-ai iv ra Up^ ras 'AOdvas Koi nept- /3oXt/3a)|(rat as exjl o}s la-xvpoTara kol KaXXtorra* to 8e re|Xeujueva €s ravTa ndvra tov raplav napex^^v. Cauer^, No. 176 (part). From Agrigentum. Found at Dodona. [Geoff] Tv;^a dyadd, \ ['Etti n-Jpoo-rdra A€v|[;(]dpov, d(jii.Kop,(vm\v 'Itr- iroa-dcvfos, Tei|[o-io]r, "Eppavos, 2e\l\vws, eSo- ^f Tols I MoXotrcroiy 7rpo\^(viav 86pfW | Toir 'AKpayavril I""'?- Cauer^ No. 200. 494 APPENDIX. Ionic. 649. This dialect it is unnecessary to discuss at length because its characteristics are more familiar than those of less literary dialects, and because a more detailed account than it is possible to give here is accessible in English i. The literary records of this dialect far outweigh its inscriptions in importance. 650. It is generally said that Homer is written in old Ionic, but the Epic dialect as handed down to us is certainly the artificial product of a literary school and no exact repre- sentative of the spoken dialect of any one period. (1) No spoken dialect could have at the same time, for example, three forms of the genitive of -o- stems in use : -oio, -oo, and -nv, which represent three different stages of development. (2) The actual forms handed down to us frequently transgress the rules of metre, thus showing that they are later trans- literations of older and obsolete forms. Thus eas and reas should be written in Homer, as the verse generally demands, Tios (cp. Doric as) and -rfjos; 8ei8ia represents Sc'Sfia ; ddo^iev, uT^iofifv are erroneous forms for 6r)ojj.^v, or^o/Liev. (3) It is by no means certain that the original laj'S of which Homer is apparently a redaction were in Ionic at aU. Fick holds with considerable show of reason that these poems were originally in Aeolic, and that when Ionia became the literary centre the poems were transliterated into Ionic, forms of Aeolic which differed in quantity from the Ionic being left untouched. A parallel to this may be found in Old English literature where the Northumbrian poets Caedmon and Cynewoilf are found only in a West-Saxon transliteration. 651. Between Homer and the later Ionic of Herodotas, Hippocrates and their contemporaries, comes the Ionic of the ^ In the introduction to Professor Strachan's edition of Herodotus, Book vi, where everything necessary for the ordinary classical student is collected. The advanced student has now the opportunity of referring to the elaborate treatise on this dialect by H. W. Smyth (Clarendon Press, 1894). THE GREEK DIALECTS. 495 (1) From Miletus. A fragment found in the ruins of the ancient theatre. VTCou, Xa/iPdveiv Sf ra Sepiiara <{ai] to. aXKa yepea. Hv fv 6\yr]'\TaLf \a[^^€]rat yXaKrlaav, 6a(pvVj daaeav, iSpTjv. 7Jv di TrXcat dvrjTatf Xai/^erat air' CKatTTOv oa"0v[i/, | daarflav nal y\5)fT(Tav Kai KtaX^v jitav airo navToyv. koL t5>v aXXcoi/ 6eii>v TOiv I [eV]re/iei/ta)i/, oirwv Uparat o lepioys, Xai/^erat ra yepea ra avra Koi KaXrjv ai'Tl||[T]^f &pV^t VF M ^iC'Xei'S Xapjiavrji. 'Hv 8c evo'TOv Bvjjt 7} TToXty, Xai//'eTat y\(iifT\(Tav ^ 6(T<^vVy datreav, aprjv. *Hv ^evos hponotrji tSu 'An-oXXwvt, irpoupdadat rcc>\v'\{ a(TTS>v ov av 6i\r)i 6 leVof, 8i8di/ai hi rai Upei ra y€pea anep "q TrdXiy bihoi 7r[ai^|ra] xiapXs bepp,a.T(ii\y\ n\\riv'\ Tois 'AiroWmviois.... Bechtel, I. I. No. 100. Beohtel explains apr] as m/iOTrXai-T; and quotes a scholiast on Odyssey xii. 89 : tovs "lavas Xeycti/ (pad ttjv kcoXPiv oiprjv Kal oypalav. (2) From the ancient Keos, modern Tzia. Date, near end of 5th century B.C. 0(8e i'd[/i]ot nepl rwy Kar[a](^^i[^€]j^(u[v • Kara f rajSe ^a[7rr]cv tov Oavovra' ev \ €p\_aT]lol^Ls Tp\i](T\ \evKOis, frrpw- fiari Ka\ ivhvp-ari [kcli \ e\m^\ep.aTi — i^evai 8e Kai iv €X[d](r[(r]ocr[i — ji\\^'\ irXeoi/or a^iois rois rpicri fK[aro]i' 8[pal;(]- uimv. e)(v Kal eXatov /xe 7rX[£']o[i»] €[i/]d[t, ra Sc II dylycia d7ro(p€p€a-dai. tov dav6[y']Ta [8e (pepev j K'jaTa- K€Ka\vfJip.4vov a"ia)7rJ7t /ie[;^]pi [eVt to j cr]^/ia. 7rpo(T(jiayi(oi lx]pea-6lai. KlaTa [rja 7r[drpi|a- T-Jijy KXivrjv otto to[C] a-[i)/i]a- [T-]o[f K]ai r[a] (r[rp(i)|/i]aTa e(7(pfpeii eV8do-f. T^t 8c tia-7-fpai[7;i St||a]ppaii'6i/ Tijj/ oIkItjv [c]Xcv[^]cpoi' 5aX[do-(n)|t] irpwTov, eweiTa [dX]u[K](»T[mt] o[|c]i', TrjlXov (TT\d]vTa- cnr/v S( SiapavBrft, Ka6- aprjv evai ttjv oiKlrjv, koi 6vr) 6vtv e0[i(ma]. | Tas yvvaiKas Tas \i\ov(T[a\s [c]ti to Krjb\os \ a\iTUvai nporipas Tmv . . dvSpmv tiTro [tov II (rlTjpaTos. eVi Ttot davovTt TpirjKoalria pe | 7r]otei'. pe vnoTi6evai kvXikq vno Tfriy kXi'Ii/]?;!/, pede to vSa)p eK)(ev, /ifSe Ta KaXXi[(rpa^\Ta (pepev fVi to (rrjpa. Sttov av [djavrji, 496 APPENDIX. poets, Archiloohus of Paros, Simouides of Amorgos, Hipponax of Ephesus, Anacreon of Teos, Mimnermus and Xenophanes of Colophon. It seems probable that these poets kept on the whole closely to the dialect of their native towns although not without a certain admixture of Epic forms in elegiac poetry. 652. According to Herodotus (i. 142) there were four divisions of Eastern or Asiatic Ionic. But there is not enough evidence preserved to us to confirm the distinction thus drawn. Ionic may therefore be distinguished geo- graphically into (1) the Ionic of Asia Minor spoken in the great centres Miletus, Ephesus, Chios, Samos and the other Ionic settlements and their colonies, (2) the Ionic of the Cyclades : Naxos, Keos, Delos, Paros, Thasos, Siphnos, Andros, los, Myconos, and (3) the Ionic of Euboea. 653. It is characteristic of all Ionic (a) to change every original a into e (i;), (b) to drop, except in a few sporadic instances, the digamma. 654. Eastern Ionic has entirely lost the spiritus asper. Eastern Ionic and the Ionic of the Cyclades agree in con- tracting -KKirfs into -Kkrjs, and in making the genitive of -i- stems in -los not -tSof. The Ionic of the Cyclades and of Euboea agree in retaining the spiritus asper, but in Euboea -KXetjs is still written and the genitive of -t- stems is in -tSoj, both features being also characteristic of Attic. Euboea is peculiar in having rhotacism in the dialect of Eretria : onopai, TrapafSaivapiv, etc. 655. The curious phenomenon not yet fully explained whereby Ionic presents forms in ko-, ktj- from the Indo- Germanic stem qo-, qa-, while other dialects give forms in 770-, TTT]-, is confined to the literature, no example of a form in KO- or KT)- having yet been discovered on an inscription. 656. The relations in literature between the Ionic dialect and Attic Greek have often been misunderstood. The forms which the tragedians and Thucydides share with Ionic, e.g. -a-cr- where Aristophanes, Plato and the Orators have -tt- are horrowed from Ionic, which previous to the rise of Athens to preeminence was the specially literary dialect. Attic Greek never possessed forms in -ua-^ which it changed later to -tt-. THE GREEK DIALECTS. 497 eln^v f]j^fve;(6Et, /xe Uvai yvvaiKas 7r[po]s t[iJi/ 0i]||Ki7;i/ aXKas e ras luaivofievas' \)ji\ia\ivea-6\a\i de firjripa Km yvvaiKa kol d8e[X0€af /c]a]i [ff\vyaT€pas, np\o\s Se TavT\a]is /if [wXeoK TrlejiTE yvvaiKmv, naiSas 8e \8io, 6]fiy[aTepas \ a]ve-\(nav, aXKov Se mW^C'"]"' [tJoit [>i]ta[ij'o/i«'||i'Ous] \ov(Tapivo\ys^ n[^epl navra Tov xpaara | uSarjoff [x]^*'"' Ka\^&ap']ovs evai c j ri . vv , , , . T . . . . I T -- Dittenberger's text, Sylloge Inscriptionum Oraeearum, p. 654. Cp. /. /. No. 43. H is used for original a, E for original e and for the spurious diphthong, but note the diphthongs Bdvrji. and bia- pavOfji, where -et might be expected. (3) From Oropus. In the dialect of Eretria. Date is be- tween 411 and 402 B.C. or 387 and 377 b.c, the only periods in the age to which it belongs when Oropus was an independent state. QsoL. \ Tbv lepia tov ^Kfi^iapdov (poirdv eli to Up6\v iirubav ^et/jiav 7rap4\d€L pi^pi dpoTov copies, firj irXiov StaXetTroira rj Tpds rjpepas, Kai \\ peveiv ev Toi iepol firj eXaTTOv ^ SeKO T]pepa\s TOV prjvbs iKaaTov, Kal eiravayKa^eiv tov v\€03ii6pov Toil Te Upov eiripeXela-daL KOTO. t6\u VOpOV Kal Tav dV cls TO Up6v,\ Av 5e TLS dStKet eu Tol icpol tj ^ivos rj St/^otIItjs, ^rjpLovrai 6 Upevs p^XP'' "^^VTC dpaxp^oiv \ Kvpiats, koX evi^vpa \ap^av4T TOV e^r]pL(i>p\evov hv 8' eKTLvei to dpyvpiov, napeovTos tov j iepeos €pj3aK(\)4TO} els tov Orjaavpov. AiKa^eiv 8e tov Upea, av Tis Ibici dbiKrjBei f/ tS>v ^€\\v(iiv fj Tav 8r)poTeiiiv iv To'i Upoi, /Jf'xP' TpiStv | hpa^peav, to St pi^ova, rjxoi €Kd(rTOLS at 8tK|at €v Tois vopois etpT^rat, €VTov6a ytvifrdtov, Upoa-KaXeio-dai. Se Kal avOrjpepov irepi tcov €\v toi Upol dbiKiQ>v^ av hi 6 avTihiKOs pfj a-vvxWcopfl, (Is ttjv io'Teprjv rj hlio) TeXeta-da. 'Enap\)(fjv §€ diSovv Top peXXovra BfpaTrevecrdm ii|7r6 tov Oeov pfj eXaTTov (vvfo^oXov doKipov dpy\vpL0v Kal ep^dXXetv els TOV Orja-avpov 7rap€\6vTos tov veaKOpov KaTev^eo-dai Se tcov Upav Ka\ eV|l tov ^apov eVirt^elv, OTav napelj tov lepia, \ ^Tav 8e prj irapet, tov dvovTa, koI ret 6v(rUi d|iiroi' eavTo't KaTev^eadai cKaaTov, Tav Se Srjpopiiov TOV lepea k.t.X. Inscrr. Oraec. Septentrionalis I. No. 236; /. /. No. 18. " ~ 32 c. The Italic Dialects. [The standard Vork on Oacan 13 Mommsen's Unteritalisehe Dialekte (1850) ; a more recent and accessible collection is Zvetaieff's Inscriptiones Italiae inferioris (1886). The older grammatical works are out of date. Eeceut treatises on Oscan are Bronisch's Die oskischen i U7id e Vocale, and Buck's Der Vocalismus der oskischen Spraclu. The best accounts of Umbrian at present are to be found in Br^al's Les Tables Euguhines (1875) and Bticheler's Umbrica (1883). In Umbrian, even where the forms are clear, interpretation is largely guess-work. A complete account of all the Italic dialects and of their existing records is promised by von Planta in his Grammatik der oskisch-umbrischen Dialekte of which one volume (Phonology) was pubhshed in 1892, and by Prof. R. S. Conway in a volume soon to be published. The distinguishing characteristics given below will be found discussed at much greater length in von Planta's introductory chapter. The Italic "words are collected in Bticheler's Lexicon Italicum (1881). In the following account of the characteristics of Oscan and Umbrian, the usual practice has been followed of printing forms found in the native alphabets in ordinary type, forms found in the Latin alphabet in italics.] 657. The principal dialects of Italy which belong to the same stock as Latin are Oscan and Umbrian. Oscau in the widest sense of the term was the language spoken by various peoples of Samnite origin, monuments of whom have been found over a vast area extending from the borders of Latium southward to Bruttium and northern Apulia. On the northern frontier of this territory lived several tribes, Paeligni, ]\Iarru- oini, Marsi, Vestini, Volsci, Sabini, of whose dialects some scanty remnants have survived. The Umbrians inhabited THE ITALIC DIALECTS. 499 the great district called by their name, which extends from the shore of the Adriatic westwards across the Apennines to the border of Etruria, and is bounded on the north by the territory of the Gauls, on the south by that of the Sabini and Vestini. 658. The records of these dialects, except isolated words or place-names, are entirely in the form of inscriptions. The most important of the Oscan inscriptions are : (1) The Tabula Bantina from Bantia which lies some distance to the S.E. of Venusia. It diflers from the Oscan of other districts by changing -ti- into -«-, di- into 2- ; hence Bantia appears as Bansa; zicolo- a diminutive from dies = a Latin *dieculo-. The document is of considerable length and deals with cer- tain questions of local law. (2) The Gippus A hellanus which contains a treaty regarding the privileges of the people of Abella and the people of Nola in the use of a shrine of Heracles. The Oscan of this monument is the most accurately written which we possess. (3) The Tabula Agnonends found some way to the N.E. of the ancient Bovianum in 1848. This is a bronze plate originally fixed up in the neighbourhood of a temple and containing on its two sides a long list of names of deities who had statues and altars there. (4) Two lead tablets from Capua containing curses invoked on enemies. Although the general drift is clear, much doubt still exists with regard to the interpretation of individual words and phrases. A considerable number of other inscriptions have been discovered at Capua in recent years and published most accessibly as yet in the Rheinisches Museum. (5) Prom Pompeii come a, certain number of short inscriptions which, being mostly of an ephemeral character, probably date from the last years of the city before its destruction in 79 a.d. The date of the other documents is much disputed, the authorities differing in some cases as much as two hundred years. Most of the inscriptions from Capua, however, date from before 211 B.C. when that city, for having revolted to Hannibal, was deprived of self-government, and the local magistrate or meddiv tuticus ceased to exist. The Tabula Bantina probably 82—2 500 APPENDIX. belongs to the early part of the first century B.C., or the end of the preceding century. This Tabula Bantina is written in the Latin alphabet, the others mentioned are in the native alphabet. There are also some small inscriptions from the south of Italy and Sicily in the Greek alphabet. 659. The Umbrian records are much more e.\tensive than those of any other dialect. By far the most important are the Euguhine Tables from the ancient Iguvium. These tables are seven in number, all except iii and iv engraved on both sides. The first four and the fifth to the seventh line of the reverse side are in the ancient Umbrian alphabet, the rest of Table v and Tables vi and vii are in the Latin alphabet. The date is uncertain. The tables in the Umbrian alphabet are no doubt older than those in the Latin alphabet. Tables vi and vii deal with the same subject as Table i, viz. the purification of the fortress of Iguvium, but in much greater detail. Bucheler places the first four tables about a century before, the Umbrian part of v immediately before the time of the Gracchi. He would assign the parts in the Latin alphabet to the period between the Gracchi and Sulla, while Breal places them as late as the time of Augustus. The whole of these tables deal with a sacrificial ritual and belonged originally to the priestly brotherhood of the Atiedii at Iguvium. Other records of Umbrian are small and unimportant. 660. Oscan and Umbrian and the other small dialects form a unity distinguished from Latin and Faliscan by a con- siderable number of characteristics in phonology, inflexion and syntax. There are some real but less important differences between Oscan and Umbrian themselves. The different appearance of the forms of Umbrian as compared with Oscan turns mostly upon the following changes in Umbrian : (1) change of all diphthongs into monophthongs, (2) change of medial -s- between vowels and of final -s to -r, (3) change of -d- between vowels into a sound represented in the Umbrian alphabet by ^ (»•, given by Bucheler as S), in the Latin by rs, (4) palatalisation of gutturals in combination with e and i k into a sound represented in the Umbrian alphabet by d( = c) THE ITALIC DIALECTS. 501 in the Roman by ^ or s, ff into a y-sound : tagez ( = tacitus) (jvcaw {Hmo) from the same pronominal stem as the Latin ci-s, ci-tra; muietu (participle) cp. mugatu (imperat.), and later liuvinu- ( = Iguvino-) where earlier Umbrian represents k hj g: Ikuvins ; (5) changes in combinations of (a) stops, -ft- (representing in some oases original -pt-) becoming -ht- while -kt- changes to -ht-, and (6) of stops and spirants, -ps- becoming -ss- (or -s-): osatu {=*opsdtd) Latin operato, while in the combination of l + t, the liquid is silent: motar= *mt)ZnmMs. {d) -rs- in Osoan becomes -rr-, or -r- with compensatory lengthening of the previous vowel, in Umbrian it appears as -rs- and -»/-. Osc. teer[um] once, Kerrf ; Umbr. turdtu, serfe. 6. Treatment of final -ns and -nts. Indo-G. -?is=Osc. -ss, Umbr. -/.• Oso. viass = vias, Umbr. avif ( = *avi-ns) 'birds,' nerf ( = *'>ier-ns) 'men.' Osc. nom. sing. nittml=*oitio7is, an analogical formation with final -s, from a stem in -Hon-; Umbr. zeret =sedens {-nts). -ns, however, in the 3 pi. with secondary ending ( = -la) and -ns, which arises by syncope of a vowel between -n- and -s, remain ; coisatens ' curaverunt,' Banthu = Bantinus. 7. Original a appears as 6 : Osc. viii cp. via ; Umbr. pro- seseto, cp. pro-secta. B. Inflexio:^. 664. i. In the Noun : 1. The consonant stems retain the original nom. pi. in -es, for otherwise the vowel could not disappear by syncope : Osc. humuns = *homones, meddiss — 'nwddwes, censtur = censores, Umbr. frateer =fratres. 2. Where Latin generalises analogically the strong form of a consonant stem, Oscan and Umbrian generalise the weak form. Thus from a stem *tangion- we find Osc. ace. tangin- om, abl. tangin-nd, Umbr. natine = rea«ioMe. But in the nom. Osc. lilttiuf and also statif. Cp. also Umbr. uhtr-etie with Lat. auctor-itas. 3. The -0- and -«-stems retain the original form of the nom. and gen. pi. (the «-stems also the old gen. sing.), and following a course exactly the reverse of Latin have extended these forms of the pUu'al to the pronoun. Osc. ata.tos = stati ; THE ITALIC DIALECTS. 503 moltas, Umbr. motar=multae; Osc. smftas = scriptae. Osc. pds=jm, Umbr. eroni—*is-om 'eorum.' 4. The locative of -o- stems survives as a distinct case in -ei, Osc. miiinikei terei ' in communi territorio ' etc. .5. New analogical formations : (a) in case-endings of consonant stems after -o-stems Osc. tangin-om (ace), ta7igin-ud (abl.); Umbr. arsferturo — ad- fertorem. But the Umbr. abl. like the Latin ends in -e: natine ; (6) -eis the gen. of -i-stems is extended to consonant and -o-stems : Osc. Appelluneis (4jooZZmis),medikeis(»iec?rfim), tangineis ; Umbr. nomiur, matrer ; Osc. Niumsieis (^raaeriV), Pumpaiianels (Pompeiani) : Umbr. popler (populi). 665. ii. In the Verb ; 1. Secondary endings in -d occur for the sing., in -ns for the plural, -d is found in old Latin also. Cp. the forms of the perfect below (4). 2. The future instead of being as in Latin in -b- is in -s- ; Osc. deiuast 'iurabit,' Ximhr. pn-u-pehast 'principio piabit.' 3. All future perfects active are made from the perfect participle (lost in Latin) and the substantive verb : Osc. per-emust 'peremerit,' Umbr. en-telv^t {=*en-tend-liut an ana- logical formation from a stem *en-tend-lo-) 'intenderit.' 4. When Latin has perfects in -«-, Oscan and Umbrian show a great variety of forms : (a) in -/- : Osc. aa-man-affed ' faciundum curavit.' (6) in -<- : Osc. dadikatted ' dedicavit.' (c) Osc. uupseus from a stem *op-sd- with 3 pi. secondary ending ' operaverunt,' Umbr. portitst from a stem porta-. {d) In Umbrian only appear perfects in -I- and -nh-, entelust ' intenderit,' combifiaiui ' nuntiaverit ' ; ? Osc. Xioxa- 5. The infinitive ends in -om: Osc. defk-um 'dicere,' ao-um ' agere ' ; Umbr. a{n)-fer-o{m) ' circumferre.' 6. Imperatives are found : {a) in -mod. Pass. -mor. Osc. ceiisamur 'censemino,' 504 APPENDIX. Umbr. persuimu ' precamino.' The origin of these forms is iincertain ; von Planta conjectures that -m- in the suffix may represent original -mn- by assimilation. (6) In Umbr. the Plural of the Imperative is found in -totd, -momd. There is no example in Oscan. 7. In the Passive -er is found as the suffix by the side of ■or and in Umbrian -ur. Osc. sakarater = Lat. sacratur. 8. The perf. conj. and 2nd future play a large part in the passive : Osc. sakrafir ' let one dedicate,' Umbr. pihafei{r) ' let one purify ' ; Osc. comparascuster [ioc egmo\ ' ea res consul ta erit.' 9. Verbs in -a- make their participles in -eto- ; cp. Late Latin rogXtiis, probihis. A. Oscan. (1) The Cippus Abellanus. The text is Zvetaieff's, the interlinear translation Blicheler's. Maiiiii Vestirikiiui Mai. Sir. | prupukid sverrunei Maio Vestricio Mai{filius) Sir. kvaistulref Abellaniif Im'm Maiiiip] | Iiivkittf Mai. Puka- quaestori Ahellano et Maio lovicio Mai{f.) Puca- latiif I medlkei deketasiui Nuvl[a|nui] inim ligatuis Abel- - lata medici Nolano et legatis Abel- l[anuis] I I'ni'm hgatiiis Nuvlaniiis | pus senateis tanginiid | lanis et legatis Solanis, qui senati sententia suveis puturuspid lfgat[us] | fufans ekss kiimbened | sakara- sui utrique legati erant, ita convenit : Sa- kliim Herekleis | slaagid piid ist im'm teer[iim] | pud up crum Herculis e regione quod est et territoritim quod apud eisiid sakarakliid [fst] | piid anter teremnfss eh... | ist pai id sacrum est quod inter terminos ex. . . est, quue THE ITALIC DIALECTS. 505 tereinenniumu[fnlkad] | tanginud priiftiiset r[ehtud] amniid termina communi sententiaprohatasunt recto circuitu, puz fdfk sakara[klum] | I'nfm Idi'k terum muini[kum] | miif- ut id sacrum et id territorium commune incom- nlkel terei fusld [fnim] | efsei's sakaraklefa i[nim] \ terels muni territorio esset, et eius sacri et territorii fruktatiuf fr[ukta|tiuf] miiin&ii putilm[mp£d | fus]M. avt fructus fructus communis utrorumqiie esset. Nolani Nuvlanu... I ...Herekleis fi'f[sn... | ...] iispld Niivlan... | iipv autem Herculis fan lisatl... I I ekkum [sva£ pid hereset] | trlibarak- Item si quid volent aedificare [aviim teref pud] | liimf tu[m] term[. . . puis] | Hereklefe ffisnii in territorio quod limitum quibus Herculis fammi mefi[u] I fst ehtrad fefliuss pu[8] | Herekleis fli'snam amfrjet medium est, extra fines qui Herciilis fanum amhiunt, pert vfam pusstfst | pa{ fp fst pustin slaglm | senatefs suvels trans viam post est quae ihi est, pro regione senati sui tangi|niid trfbarakavum K|kftud. inim ink tribalrakkiuf pam sententia aedificare lioeto. Et id aedificium, qtcod Niivlanus | trfbarakattuset inira. \ lifttiuf Niivlanum estud. | Nolani aedificaverint, et usus Nolanorum esto. ekkum svaf pld Abellanus | trfbarakattuset fiik trilbarakkiuf Item si quid Abellani aedificaverint id aedificium infm lifttiuf | Abellaniim estud. avt | pust fefhiifs piis ffsnani et usus Ahellanorum esto. At post fines, qxd fanum am[fret efsef teref nep Abel[lanus nep Nuvlanus pf- ambiunt, in eo territorio neque Abellani neque Nolani quid- dum I trfbarakattfns. avt thejsavrum piid esef teref quam aedificaverint. At thesaurum quod in eo territorio fst I piin patensfns : mufnfkad ta[n]igiDud patensins fm'm est quom aperirent : communi sententia aperirent et pfd e[sef] I thesavref piikkapfd eh[stft 1 ajfttfum alttram quidquid in eo thesauro qiiandoque exstat portionum alteram alttr[\is I h]errfns. avt anter slagfm I [A]bellanam fnfm alteri caperent. At inter regionem Abellanam et 506 APPENDIX. Niivlanam | [p]ullad vi'ii uruvii 1st tedur | [ejlsaf viai mefiai Nolanam qua via fiexa est in ea via media teremen|[n]iu statet. termina stant. prupukid =pi'o pace (Biich.); if so it must be a different grade like cjiw-vfi and fa-ma. sverrunei, apparently some sort of title, deketasiiil according to Bronisch = (iecentarjo from decern. (2) The third of the six surviving clauses of the Tabula Bantina. The text and translation are Bucheler's as given by Mommsen in Bruns' Pontes luris Romani Antiqui (6th ed.), p. 51. Svaepis pru meddixud altrei castrovs avti eituas | zicolom Siquis pro niagistratu alteri fundi aut pecuniae diem dicust, izic comono ni hipid ne pen op tovtad peti- dixerit, is comitia ne hahuerit nisi cum apudpopulum qua- rupert urust sipus perum dolom | mallom, in trutum ter oraverit sciens sine dolo malo et definitum zico[lom] tovto peremust petiropert. Neip mais pomtis diem populus percepent quater. Neve magis quinquies com preivatud actud | pruter pam medicatinom didest, in cimi privato agito prius quam iudicationem dabit, et pen posmom con preivatud urust, eisucen ziculud | zicolom cum postremum cum privato oraverit, ah eo die diem XXX nesimum comonom ni hipid. Svaepis contrud exeic XXX proximum coynitia ne habuerit. Siquis contra hoc fefacust, ionc svaepis | herest meddis moltaum hcitud, am- fecerit, eum siquis volet magi.ttratiis multare liceto, dum- pert mistreis aeteis eituas licitud. taxat minoris partis pecnmiae liceto. hipid, subj. from perfect stem = *heped. trutum according to Bugge = 4th, from a weak stem ^qtra-to-. If urust is from the same root as Lat. oro, (1) it must be borrowed from Latin or (2) neither word can be connected with Lat. os, there being no rhotacism in Oscan. op (=Lat. oh) governs the ablative. THE ITALIC DIALECTS. 507 (3) From Pompeii. Now in the Museum at Naples (Zvetaieff, p. 51, Mommsen U. D. p. 183). V. Aadirans V. eftiuvampaamj vereiiafPumpaiianai Vibius A diranus V. {f.)pecuniam quam eivitati Pompeianae tristaalmentud deded, efsak eitiuvad | V. Vii'nikifs Mr. testameivto dedit, ea pecwnia V. Vinicius Marae {f.) kvalsstur Piimp|aiians trilbum ekak kumbenjnieis tanginud qimestor Pompeianus aedificium hoc conventui sententia lipsannam | deded, Isfdum prufatted. operandicm dedit; idem prohavit. B. Umbeian. The text and translation of both passages are Bucheler's {Umbrica, 1883). 1. In the Latin alphabet, from Table vi a ; part of the directions for purifying the citadel of Iguvium. Verfale pufe arsfertur trebeit ocrer peihaner, erse stah- Templum uhi flamen versatur arois piandae, id sta- mito eso tuderato est: angluto | hondomu, porsei nesimei tivum sic finitum est: ah angulo imo qui proxume asa deveia est, anglome somo, porsei nesimei vapersus ah ara divorum est, ad angnlum, smnmnm qui proxume ab sellis aviehcleir | est, eine angluto somo vapefe aviehclu tod- auguralihus est, et ah angulo summo ad sellas augurales ad come tuder, angluto hondomu asame deveia todcome | urhicum finem, ab angido inw ad aram divorum ad urbicum tuder. eine todceir tuderus seipodruhpei seritu. finem. et urbicis finibus utroque vorsum servato. 508 APPENDIX. 2. In the Umbrian alphabet ; from Table ii a. ( Umbrica, p. 138.) Asama kuvertu. asaku vinu sevakni tagez per- Ad aram revertito. ap%id aram vino sollemni tacitus sup- snihmu. | esuf piisme herter, erus kuveitu tefJ-tu. vinu plicato. ipse quern oportet, erus congerito dato. vinum pune teittu. | struhglas fiklas sufafias kumaltu. kapiJe poscam dato. struiculae fitillae suffafiae commolito. capide punes vepuratu. | antakres kumates persnihmu. amparihmu, poscaerestinguito. integris cominoUtis supplicato. surgito statita subahtu. esimu purtitu futu. katel asaku statuta demittito. sacrum porrectum esto. catulus apud aram pelsans futu. | Kvestretie usa^e svesu vuvgi stite- pelsandus esto. Quaestu7-ae annuae suum votum stite- teies. rint. The most noticeable point in these extracts is the large number of post-positions: anglu-to ; a7iglmn-e{n), afam-e(n), todcom-e(n), etc.; asani-a(d); asa-ku(m). In erse, ^'orsci = id-i, j?od-i an enclitic appears, vapersus v. Flanta conjectures = lapidibus with I changing to u. erus occurs 23 times ; meaning and derivation are uncertain. It may be connected (1) \vith ais- a root found in most of the Italic dialects, Umbr. esono- (esunu below) = (ii'ymns, (2) with root of German cTire 'honour,' acs-fi)nafio. Knveita^ convehito. pelsans means sepeliendus (Biich.). The meaning of usape is very un- certain. vuv(;i possibly parallel to a Latin *vovicius. INDICES OF WOKDS. The references are to sections unless p. is prefixed. Where several references occur, they are separated by commas ; a point between two num- bers, as 337. 8, indicates that the second number is a sub-section. d- (neg.) 106 iii, 157 &yaixa.i 480 g dye 517 iyelpo/xev (subj.) 509 7>i7e;' {ay €iy) 629 b &yipa(TTos 378 dy^Tu 519 dyios 402 ayKwv 139 ii d-yvcis 347 ayvuTos 378 ayofjLEv 480 b d76s 261 ti7pios 402 Aypdv 386 Ayp6s 100, 147, 159 iyx^TT^os 166, 399 dyxit> 150 dyu, 261 iyay6s p. 193 dyibvoi,p 633 ii 6 dyiiKois (dat. pi. ) 628 a dyihvaavs 640 i a ddeXtpidoOs 380 d5eX06s 140 i 6 d5iic^vTo 618 ii d aepaa 230 A^jxpiivSas 625 i c I. Greek Index. dddvaros 220 'AS'^^'afe 118 a ■ASi;i'ai313 n. 1 'AeiivqaL 322 ai 325 ii a; (if) 342 XiyLvaiav^ 640 i a alSSi 308 aiSiis 295, 351 aid p. 34 n., 312, 337. 8 alhv- 34 n., 312,337.8 aiflos 174 ai'^o) 261 arXos 218 aiXwc (gen. pi.) 620 i d alaaa 487 6 Alffxii^os 268 aiiix 172, 361 dKep(TeK6fnjs 184 d/coiiirais (nom. ptop.) 624 i/ aKovaavrei' (nom. pi.) 645 ii6 ^ AKpdyavra 273 okt/s 133, 360 aKTutp 355 aXyeii'is 216 dKyria-ere (subj.) 609 dXSalva 485 dXSofxaL 485 dXeyetfij 216 dX^w 234 dXef^u 230 d\-/)eeia 374 dXealvui 485 d\6ofj.ai 485 dXXd 341 d\Xo5air6s 286, 326 i d'XXos 187, 218 dXoo-Mi'T; 194, 354 d'Xs 142, 289 dXcros 184 aXuiTTT}^ 349 d>a 106 iii, 156, 259 iv, 314, 338. 11, 341 d^aXdOvctJ 485 d^iaXds 230 dp.apdi' (ii/jiepCn') 629 i« d^idpTOLv 462 dM^Xi/s 230 d/j-PpoTos 206 d/ie(^u 140 i a, 230 dij^i-ferai (subj.) 509 a^iXyu 137, 148, 230 diiiv 645 ii 6 djiix^ 329 510 INDICES OF WORDS. a/i/i€s 624 i e d/j-fios 330 d//i'osp.ll5n.2, 180n. 1, 396 dficpL 132, 337. 7, 341 dfx^Uyvvfii 481 e (ifX(pts 823 d/xipope^s 228 aM0w 297, 829 dv 243 a»'559, 562, 566, 639 & dua 307 ai/d 337. 7, 841 dvayy4X\t>j 624 i e dvayeypdcpovrat 643 ii apaXros 485 dVaf 306 n. 1 dva^ (Tpibeaatv) 337. 5 a dvd\aL 216 dpyv^eos 377 dpyv^os 377 dpetdvaavos 285 dp7JLKTdfJ.€V0S 285 dp7]i(paTvs 285 dpT]iipL\os 285 a/)7;pe 549 ii dpt-crrepos 387 dpiffre^fovra 643 i Z> dpLffTos 894 dpTOs (gen.) 858 dpvvfiai 481 e dpoTTjp 355 dporpov 388 dpooj 159 dpira^ 350 dppTjv 205 d'po-Tji/ 205, 375 aprt 133 dpTiJs 372 ctpx^} 382 dpxiKos 382 dpxofxai 545 dpxovrois 628 a apxw 552 ii ds ( = ^ws) 650 d(rfX€vos 188 dtrcra 54 d(TT€/x(py}s 185 doTeojs (gen.) 371 dart/cos 382 d(7ru 372, 382 drdp 341 dre 342 dr^fM^o^ai 481 (Z drep 341 drfi-qv 369 n. 1 drra 54 ai)/cuo»'a (d\/ctJoi/a) 645 i/ at'^dyw 177, 481c a^tc^ 481 c, 482 ;j aSuos (dXuos) 645 i/ avToioip { = avTOiv) 683ii ?* aOrots (d;'5pd(rti') 338. 1 & aihoio-t 624 i a auTo/Aaros 259 v ayroy (subst.) 277 aiJrds 325 ii a£Sw 261 dtpevo^ 216 d0^a//ca 260 d0t (d/A(/>0 120 dipvcLos 216 d^iJ?; 62 dx^'qSi^v 357 dxXiJw 487 c a> 341 /3di9os 359 /3aii/wl8, 63, 140ia, 156, 205, 207,487 a, 545 ^dWu) 140 i 6, 207 /3aX(j (fut.) 492 jSamUOia, 193, 291 ^dpayxos 216 ^dpadpov 140 i b l3dpj3apos 131, 288 (iapva/xevos 206 ^acTiXdes 633 i a ^aaiXeTos (gen.) 623 i c (Sao-iX^os 309 ^aa 496 ^e^Xrjarai 472 /3^/3X77^a 495 ^€(3ovXeO ^iXefxvov 400 ^4XX€iT€L (3 s. subj.) 623 i tZ ^^XXo/xai 140 i i) ^eXWw*/ 133 I. GREEK INDEX. 511 phSos 359 Pv pij 121 j3i|3piiffftcii' 63 /3i(3/3i6(r/(u 483 b pios 140 ic ^Xiif 230 p\a(T'os 163 n. 2, 251, 259 v 761-1; 137, 371 70W(5s 220 ypdpdrjv 185 ypa^^iariddoi/TOS 625 i / ypairrbs 185 7pd(/>ais (aco. pi.) 624 i/ ypd(pOfj.€v 480 6 7pd0u 185, 496, 545 ypd(pojc(n 624 i/ ypo(f>€vs 479 7p60os 479 yvfMvdSSofjLaL 637 i c 7ui'af/fes 635 7W1J 140 i c 5a^p 355 SatSdXXo; 446 daLSdao-eadaL 178 Sa(u 484 ddxyo) 481 6 Sd^pu 100, 134, 373 5dKpvfj.a 373 5a/x^^s 511 Sap-iuivBu (3 pi. imperat.) 625 ii bdixvqjii. 481 a SSjuo! (S^MOs) 121 Sd^-os 264 Sdpo-is 153, 287 daprbi 31 Sacrus 157 darioixai 484 5auX6s 213 dedi^onai (fut.) 555 5^S7)Xa 496 SeSoixw 643 ii d^SopKo. 31, 32 Se56(r9ei»' 623 ii rt 5e5vKeiv (inf.) 643 ii S^SwKci 446 ddSia 650 Se/Kj-u 517 deLKvvf/.ai 447 deUi'v/M 51, 105, 134, 447, 453, 481 e deiKwadat 526 buKvifw 51, 453 BeiXaKpiav 360 n. 1 SelXofiai. 140 i i 6 Scii-a 237, 325 ii Setj/as 248 dei^ai (imper.) 522 5ei|ai (inf.) 526, 528 Sei^aLfj.1 513 dei^etav 513 dei^eias 513 Sei^eie 513 S«|oc 522 Septal 492, 503 5eix^€is 624 i/ 512 INDICES OF WORDS. SiKo. 136, 161, 416 d^Ka eirrd 418 Sexdfw 487 c a^/cas 347, 419 SiKar^Topes (acc.) 630 lib 6^/faTos 435 dhro 502 5AXw 140 i 6 5e\h 360 5eX0tis 140 i & 5^/ias( = like) 283 5^^w 148 Sipedpov 140 i 6 5ipK€ai 31 d^pK€(r$e 31 d^pKeraL 31 S^pKo/xat 31, 32 S^ptu 31 dicnroiva 207 Seo-TTiri)! 188, 219, 248, 309 SeiVepos 428 5eiyw 624 i c dixofM<- (with dat.) 387. 4 SiJXo/xai 140 i ft ST^Xofirt 56 dTjXoure 121, S7;X6u 172 Sid 341 6idXo70s 281, 122 282 5ia7re7roXe/i?J(reTai 546 n. 2 dia(p&€lp€<7Kou 483 a Sidda-Kui 188, 483 6 SiSojuai 447 SWoMe;' 480 c dLddvai 543 SiSocai 466 SiSou 517 SiSudc 518 5«a>Mi 27, 52, 191 n. 1, 264, 447, 480 c 6i^623ie Ai/I 54 Aifds 54 Sifwf 1 447, 480 c 5i/(a55«;' (inf.) 645 it diKcidoL 633 i Z' SlKaios p. 340 n. 1 5iKacr7r6Xos 188 5t/feic 381 blK7}v 333. 7 5i6foTos 118 Aio:'U(roe 625 i d di.6crdoTos 116. 2 6, 118 a, 284, 285 AioaKopidao 626 a AidaKovpot 284 SlTTOll! 408 SlTTV^ p. 194 5i! 408 SiiT/fos 381 SL(j>po$ 259 vi So/^i-oi 361, 526 n. 1 Soeai(5oey) 633 ia boijjv 512 5oKlfj.oip.L 51 56Mei>' (inf.) 51, 647 ii a 5^6;- 51, 312, 527 ddixei^ai 209, 311, 526 ddfios 148, 163, 294 56ta 351, 384 5o6s (fw6s) 645 i b 5opd 31 dopKas 31 36s 520 56Tei/)a 374 SoT-Jip 264, 355, 374 doTds 264 5oO\os (with acc.) 333. 6 a doOvcu 209, 311, 361, 526, 543 dovpds 220 dovs 362 dpdypia 185 Spards 31 Spax/J-r} 185 3/Ddu 487 a dpeTdvT} 299 Spiwavov 299 Spoytiei^s 479 SpA^os 479 SpAcroy 55 SpCj 294 Su/apoi 526 n. 1 SOvap-ai 481 a dvvdp.ai (subj.) 510 u. 2, 511, 645 iic Si^i/w^at 511 Sio 408 dvodeKaferla 645 i g' SucTjuefeis (as acc.) 318 Sv6/j.Tjv 543 iyKaToirTpi^aaai (inf.) 640 i 6 ^yKdipA.ov 898 ^yvw 552 i cyvwad-q! p. 368 n. 1 iypafpov 479 iypacpae 648 i a I. GREEK INDEX. 513 ilii, 113. 2, 161, 327, 328 iyihv 328 i iSuia 462, 482 a, 502 iU^aiuv 464 #Sei|as 502 J5«|€ 502 ^5i;5iis]62 iSiiTii 372 iSiSofo 503 ^5iWo 474 iUSow 648 iii iSkaaaav 640 ii a ^56«j; 474 me-qv 280, 474 ^5685)s 474 (SoixM 492, 509, 511, 545 «5os 55, 366 iBoiKaefi {=lSaKai') 623 i« %aico>' 31, 32, 151, 479 UpaiJ.ov 479 ^Spw 480 a ma^Ta 503 ?Jw/c(i 495 kSva. 231 ielKotrc 231 «X5wp 485 ^^/)trj) 231 ^/bs 330 gfo/iai 142 ?fu 259 i iBavov 141 i 6 i66.jxri)(!e 552 ii ?97)/ta 135, 495 d 325 viii, 342 elM'qv 513 elbetfxev 166 eMOT^m 526 n. 2 elSoi- 543 eiUra 534 eW^TO! (gen.) 352, 534 dSma. 534 dSiXKLov 390 e(Siis 164, 353, 534 eilij/iep 512 dT]v 512 eifT,! 142 dmiTL 315, 420 dKocrris 437 eftiiXoufla 179, 477 eJ\7)0a 185 G. P. erXKOK 212, 445 et/x.ei;' (inf.) 51, 647 ii a eiM^;- 184 el/j.1 184 cImi 480 a, 544, 547 ii e'ifufu 481 e eJo 328 iii e?7ro 480 e dwi 517 n. 1 eXirri (interrog.) 560 etwris (interrog.) 560 eiTTj/cri ( = fut.) 561 dir6p.7]v 445 erTTo;" 480 « elfyya^6fiT]V 445 els 205, 219, 247, 248, 624 i/ erj 219, 259 iv, 407 d(ni80a ddKoi 483 6 eifris 325 vi ^/c323 ^Kaffetif-v 445 f/caTii- 104, 423 iKec 325 v, 325 viii ^Keivos 325 v ^/ceAcra 184 ixepaa. 184 ?/<:j)Xos 277 ^Kia^of 485 IkXvov 548 ?K^i)i/os 188 '4Kov(jav {^x^^^^'^) ^45 i a, c iKdpecra 481 e iKopiiTd-qs 504 ^Kpiva 503 ^KTafJ.€V 494 lKT-qii.a.1. 446, 552 ii iKTTjffdfj.Tju 552 ii ^KTova 494 ^KTos 188, 431 ^«t6s 309, 354 ^Kupis 201 aaiSoi/ 185 Ad/Soircu' 521 l\aK0i' 483 a Ado-iroi'oj (gen.) 352 iXaatroi (ace.) 352 Ado-irw;' 197 aa0os 377 eXcixiiJ-Tos 343, 352 ^XaxiJs 141 i c, 197, 231' IXdo/iai. 485 *Xe70i/ 479 iXdipe-qv 448 A^iTTw (iXiudu) 629 i c iXeiidepof 386 ^Xevd^povs 645 ic i\eO0epo5 231 Aeuffo/xai 179 Afl^ 517 n. 1 Afiri;./480a ^Xixoc 479 eXXd 390| ATTifu 485 AttIs 348 ^Xwa 142 ^Xvaav 635 6^^ 327, 328 ii ^Aiewa 184, 205, 219 ipi.eLo 328 iii ^^ei-^a 205, 624 ie i/xio 328 iii ipL^u, 169, 480^ ^^KTO 502 ^fj./x€v 51, 623 ii a ^/ioi 328 V ^/xos 330 e/ioO 328 iii ^,uo5s 328 iii fi- 149, 247, 337. 7, 341 ^v ( = cis)628c ■^p 156, 407 ^i-ttros 415, 434 ^vSeKa 417 ^^-ei/ia 184, 205, 219 (vefif^a 205, 624 i e ivevijKOVTa 422 ^vepoL 386 ivecpavhffoev 623 i e evrivoxo. 496 ^cffa 314 n. 1 fy^ei' 314 n. 1 ecffi^ (aScii') 643 i c M 341 ei'Iita 548 ii ivvia 416 ei'j'^a 638 i ivi/cn-e 139 i a ivvvp.!. 481 e 33 514 INDICES OF WORDS. ivTaa-iTi 638 ii a ^vrepov 387 ^y-rf J 363 hrbs 309, 326 iii, 354 ii 247, 323, 341, 412 ?|ei 518 i^elTTw 559 a ^^r/Koi'Ta 422 i^dv (ace. absol.) 339 f'w 546 n. 2 ^0 328 iii ^op 355 eoOs 328 iii iiraivTjaai 624 ia i-n-eLdov 548 iii ^TTf^i/'a 502 iir^v-qvode 550 Jireo 163, 474, 520 iTiTTidfiev 259 ii (ireTroWa(v) 506 iircTToidTj 506 e7reTro£^T?s 506 ^ir^s 618 ii e iiriairevae 645 i c ?7re' 629 i (Z eTTiBriv (inf.) 640 iic ^TTiffo;/ 253 iirlKovpo^ 482 6 iTTi/jii'Keadov 624 ii c eirlffKOTTOs 9 ^TrfuTw^at 511 iiroLija 633 i d ^TTo^at 139 ^irou 520 eirrd 130, 413 ^P7oi 618 ii e ^peflos 193 ipe/j.vbs 193 iperfMos 393 ipeOyoficLL 231 ep^^w 231, 239 i-pts 348 ^pi0os 877 ^ppeoj- 204 epprjyeTa 353 n. 2 Sppiya, 549 i Jpiro' 624 i e 'ipcT] 55 ?pcri;y 375 epv$p6u (ace.) 386 fpuSpAs 135, 147, 231 ip^KCLKOV 480/ ^pxofJ-ai 545 ^s 248, 520 ^cTiSt).- 480 a iffSiWovTCi 618 i c iaSoTrjpe^ 618 i a ^(r(?iu 485, 545 Haffu, 485 lir/ce 483 a iaKe5cLpoiv 258 eOu 178 ^i/idi'Tjj' 280, 448 iipepe 462 ?0epe-i/ 241 iipipere 464 i4>ep6iJ.eea 98, 470 4(p4pofjiEV 464 €(pipo^e^ 464 icpepoy 325 viii, 462 ?0epo)/ (3 pi.) 464 f^i?!/ 462, 479, 500 ScpVirSa 477 i4>8apKa 494 f06lopa 494 ^X'^^ov 481 d ^XCKa 138, 624 i c exBaipui 487 c ex«^5 233 ^XottTi 625 i/ Jxo(>')'118,144,167,p.l94, 303, 306, 376 fi;/i7) 144 t^ilivvviu 481 c ^325i T? (adv.) 342 5a 181 (2), 209, 445, 501 il§ov\b^y)v 445 r}y4oiiai 142 ^701- 209 TJ'Sea 478, 482 a, 502, 504, 506 i)5h 313 ^5et 313 riSeia 367, 374 ySei/j.ei' 506 n. 2 ^5«s 317 r,5^os 309, 365, 371 fJSi; 502, 550 y^Sovi} 397 ^5ii!/ 308 r]dvydfji,7]v 445 ^5i5s 142, 160, 306, 365, 367 ijOeXof 445 iji (de() 625 i e ijWeos 21, 135 ^Kd 495 iJkc 548 ii T/Kw 547 riXeov 216 iJXueoi' 216 rjfjLa 142, 162, 260 -^/zas 329 ijfieis 329 ijIMeWov 445 Tjfxcpivbs 206 TjVepos 277 rjiilrepos 330, 387 •^/xii' 329 r]ixiaia.s 122 ■r]iJ.^v 338. 2 Bepdiraiva 362, 374 Bepa-n-nh 299 Bcpdiroji' 362 6'epM'5s 141 i ft, 148, 393 »^s 520 «^ 487 c K-qip-qv 358 /ci7X'^^'»' ^91 e m5(i0?; 377 Kifxivas 625 i e Klpvriixi 481 a a:(s 1,39, 623 i/ KLxd-vu) 481 e Kix^loi (subj.) 559 Kiu 488 jcXdw 482 6 /cX^TTTijs 103 ii xXg^/Do.- 196, 389 Kkri'is 189 kXi7w 189, 208 K\iva 136, 487 c kX6«s 370 /cXo7r6y 346 kXOSi 518 (cXuTis 133, 146, 167, 378, 536 Kkdf 346 Ko- (Ionie = 7ro-) 655 Koipavos 625 i d Koia 180 jco?Xos 212 Koi!/6s 205, 207 K6Xa0os377 KoXoivbs 139 ii KovicraaXoi 201 /coj'/u 487 c KopaAos 399 KopivvvpA, 481 e /f6/)7) 62 K6pcr7) 188, 351, 403 Kdpvdos 380 Kopdaaco 487 c Kopvri 377 Kdrepos 139 Kovpoi 220 Kpaivtii 487 c KpdcTTedov 351 KparG) 547 Kp^as 351 Kpeiauwv 219 Kpetrrdvios 278 Kp^ixafxai 480 (/ KpeiJ.dvvvp.1 481 6 Kpetxara {xp^p-a-ra) 645 i tZ Kpivvefxev 623 i f/ Kp-qp-vT} 517 k-piffT) 158 n. 3 Kpipa 359 Kpivvoy 624 i c /cpfi-w 389, 481 6, 487 c Kpivwvcn 618 i 6 Kpovltav 360 Kp6!'os397, 487 c Kpdratpos 377 KTdop.ai 549 i, 552 ii fcrefj-u 193, 207, 494 KTiS^T? 233 /cWfw 113. 2 ktlKos 113. 2 KU^M 488 /cu/cX^w 487 c KtJj'e 315 mc6s 254 /cuz/w^a p. 193 Kvppov 623 i(7 KiiirSos 191, 192 (ctfwi/ 136, 254, 306 Xa(3^ 517 n. 1 Xd^eaicov 483 a Xd^oi' (imperat.) 643 i d Xa76s (ace. pi.) 248 Xa7X(i''w 481 c Xaiis 174, 403 \a/x^dyu 481 c \avddvoi 481 c X(ipi;7| 350 Xdcr/cw 483 a \ioiiva 50, 362 X^;37,s 347 X^7e 302 \iy€i.v (with 2 acc.) 333. 5c Xe7^^crai 28, 359, 400 X^7eo 325 n. 1 \iyeaeai. 280, 312, 526 X^70i (fut.) 565 \cy6pfvot. 28, 359, 400 \eybvT(j3 18 XelTreadaL 526 Xeltroi 122, 139 i a \ei6rivai 526 'k€L6riaop.ai 492 Xi7i't}s 373 Xt/(pi0(s 323, 338. 10 XiVa 230 \iirapiu 104 Xiffdop.tiL 197 XiO-v 630 ii c fiacrHi^oj 487 c jiare^oj 158 Atdrr^p 148, 365 /i^ 328 ii /i^7as 158 n. 3 /ieSi^w 487 c /xeifoi/os (gen.) 352 liei^oiv 219 M/ieiJios 643 i 6 yuetpaj 349, 383 ;H€is 162 n. 1 /xefre 625 i 6 nfK-n-rtBpa. ( = sing.) 299 (6) lj.ip.aiJ.ev 26, 31, 494 pL^paTOj 519 lj,ip,vrip.aL 549 i p.epvi]p6s 141 i a j-^w (' spin') 149 veuv 227 x^a (ace.) 289 n. 3 VrjTTIJTLO^ 168 j'^o'os 66 vTjaaa 158 viKebvroLS 628 a i/t/cw 547 xix 325 iii viffaopai 188 vfc/ia 141 i a vopevoj 487 c j'i/ios 259 iv vovvix^'-'^ 2"^® vovvexTji 278 I'oui'exii'Tws 278 xiJ 167, 342 vvkt6s 139 i c, 334. 7 vvprpa (voc.) 307 1/171/ 342 j/w 342 vvvdrai 645 ii c xilf 347 H/As 104 i/U(/)7; (vijp(pri) 120 ./u. 329 i/(3i 329 vujtv 329 vbjirepo^ 330 i/u./ 329 Sai/ffci 405 fex/bs 403 ^eicos 219 J^>/j/os 624 i e (ivos 170, 219, 403 fi0o! 192, 193 {i)x 341 I. GREEK INDEX. 519 (i 629 i 6 6 325 i, 326 i "Oafos 232 6^e\6s 140 i b d^oUs 140 i b dydoriKoPTa 422 87500s 433 dyddxovTa 422 07/cos 139 ii, 163 87/ios p. 193, 261 dddl 322 SSe 325 ii (i5e\6s 140 i h dSfL-li 393 n. 2 6«6s 251 65oi)s 134, 306 n. 1, 362 dSovffL 322 dduvrjpis 386 'OSiJo'ireiJs 37 (iSt^Suo'Tat 549 i «fos 143 oi 325 ii of (dat.) 328 v of (adv.) 342 olda 106 i, 477, 494, 502, 506, 543, 549 i, 550 olde 176, 477 oTSe;/ (with gen.) 334. 4 old' oTL 56 oies 317 n. 2 oto 307 o?«:ei 34 n., 209, 309, 313 okeiosp.340n.l,399n.3 olda p. 340 B. 1 oUiav 618 ii c oIkI(Tkos 483 a okoi 34, 209, 309, 313, 317 otKOis 176, 181 (3), 227, 305 QtKOKTL 305, 321 oIkov 303, 308 o&os 142, 294, 306, 343, 376 otKovs 205 otKifi 181 (3), 311 Siv 308 olvr; 407 oTtos ('ace') 149,176, 396, 407 oros 122, 407 Sis 172, 306, 366 olo-e 503 orafla 477 dlaovTi 638 i olariav (with aco.) 333. 66 ofo-u 503 oCxo/j-ai 547 ifxpis 370, 414 6ktJi 103 ii, 106 i, 163, 414 6/crtj 638 i bXeepos 389 ciW/co) 495 iiXi7os 117, 232 6X170S 624 i a dXuredvu 232, 238 SWvfii 187, 495 6\u>\a 495, 549 i 6\dj\eKa 495 oAiaXAs 370, 390 dn^x^a 138, 232 d/xlx^V 141 ii «MMa 139 i a 6/jLo\oyiovn (Bubj.) 645 ig d/Mpyvv/xi 238, 481 e 6/i6s 156, 259 iv 6fi6T7i$ 169 ofj-ws 341 Sj- (d^'d) 624 i g 6vop.a 359 dvo/Jtaifu 487 c 6vo^dK\vTos 284 ii/^MaTa 157, 359, 861 6i'oVa7-os 309, 359 bvv/xa. 624 i ^ oirdpac ( = 67r6(7ai) 654 oirorra (oTroo'a) 625 i ^ OTTOTTOL ( = 67r6(7oi) 645 i a 6Trvi.i{d)eai. 645 i d oirwira 263 diruiprjs 334. 7 6pdw 543 opyvta 309 (5/)7i'ias 309 dp^yvvfu 481 e ^ 361 TrXa^iJOira 633 itf irXeiovep (aCG.) 633 ii a irXdovs (acc. pi.) 352 ■ ifKiov (TrXeioy) 122 ttX^wp (part.) 50 ttX^^os 55, 366 ir\T}(Tp.ov7} 400 TTfOTJ 62 7r(35a 42, 156, p. 194, 258, 259 i 7ro5a7r6s 139 ia, 326 i 7r65es 317 TToSi 165, 209, 311 TToSotJ/ 316 7ro56? 309 TToei;' (TToteip) 122 TToivru) 618 ii d 7roi7a(7(Tat(7roiT;o'ao'^a() 633 ie TTO'^crtJO'ii' (interrog.) 560 7r6^e»' 325 vi, 326 iii 7ro?325 vi, 337.8 irOI.€Vpi,€VOS 648 TTotfxaivd} 487 c iroipJv 307 GEEEK INDEX. 521 iroifiiva 308 ■a-ot/iivei 209, 317 TTOifi^VL 311 TTOlfiivOS 309 TTOifi^cri. 322, 364 TTOi^riv 359 TTOivr] 139 irofos 326 ii n. 1 TTOLCplJCffUJ 446 TTOtu) 211 TTOtibS-qS 348 ir6X« 311, 313 TToXeis 211 TTo\e/iiu 487 c iroXeiww 487 c TToXeos 309 TToXetrt 322 TToXeMS (gen.) 267, 309, 365 7ro\7/t 313 ■TToXi/os 365 TTOXI 307 TToXtos (gen.) 365 IloXiou^eyos 625 i a TTo'Xis 365 TToXttrt 322 7roX£ri;s 293 TToXfrou 293 TToXXci/cts 325 V iroXXoi 164 TToXos 139 TToXd^ptjves 358 TTOpKOS 147 ■jrop(pOpo) 487 & •n-is 618 ii e TTOffi 187 TToffis 133, 163, p. 192, 277 TToaai 322 TTorepov 387 iroTcpos 139 TTOTviav 308 jToO 325 vi TTous 100, 104, 258, 289 TTOUJ 245 •jrpaKrios 403 Trpa^lofiei/ {int.) 645 i (/ Tpdaof 153 irpauffovTacrffi 638 ii a TrpoTo! 427, 637 i d TTp^TTOvaa 188 x/i^(r/3us 143 Trpea^Orepos 9 irp^cryus 143 Trpr/du 485 npM/xidvf 380 7r/?6 341 irpo^aats 299 Trpoypa 488 o-TT^p/ia 282 ffir^pixoKoyoi 281, 282 (TTripxopiat- 486 (r7rei55w 179 o*7r?5Xu7^ 350 ctttXi;!' 189 ffTTovSri 122, 179 522 INDICES OF WORDS. ffrad/xos 393 (XTairjv 512 ffrai^ev 512 ordXa 218 ardWa 218 (ttU/xiov 262 ffracris 165, 169, 262 ffr^yTj 237 (rT^70s 202, 237 ffTf-yu 140 ii, 237 (JTciofx^v 650 (TreixoJ 175 o-raAw 170, 207 are^^iji 185 arkpy-qOpov 389 (TTk(pavos 400 aTe6,vwp.i 624 ii a o-TTjSi 518 iTTTJXt) 218 (TT7)ofj.ev 511 (TTlyixa. 140 i a <7Tifu 140 i a, 142, 197 (TT-oa 245 ffrota 245 (TuX^oi'Tes 630 ii c ff^fiaros 637 i & ffi);' 338.11, 341 avvTlB-qa-i (2 sing.) 640 ii 6 <7upLy^ 350 o-Os 201 (Tfpayeis (with gen.) 334.1 a(payiov 402 (r06 192, 329 cr{p'£T€pos 330 (7077^ 199 ciplyya 481 d o-0(// 329 (Trfios 330 (r0ii 329 (Tipwlrepo^ 330 tr^wi' 329 T^u 325 vi t/? 198, 328 i ry]Kidihv 357 ttjXLkos 370 T^^/a (Ztjto) 645 16 TT]vu>8e 826 iii r^os 650 ri 325 vi, 826 i ri^ei 517 rfSeMo' 480 c riSeo-ai 466 TieeaBov 469 T/9erai 467 T(«7)Mt 100, 191 II. 1, 260, 480 c rWijo-i 133 Tie-qTi. 183 rkrw 192, 480 d TtX (ris) 645 i e Tt/j.6. 315 Ti^ai 815, 817 Ti.ixi.vt 645 i c Tifido/iai. 31 Tifids 205, 218, 248, 318 Ti/icts 248 Ti/Mdio 172, 211, 487 c nfi-j^ 139 ii, 271, 309 TLHy 311 TLpi,TiffifiaoiJ,at. 448, 546 n. 2 ri/i7}s (gen.) 271, 309 TLfx-^aofxai 448 tI/uos 402 TLfj.oOvres 647 ii c Tiyois ( = ™r/) 628 a Ti.viiJ.evos 481/ Wcu 481/ Tioiixa 625 ia ri's54, 139, 139i6,325vi TiVi (dat. pi.) 54 Tlai ( = relaei.) 625 i e This 133 TLTiffKofxat. 483 6 rXij^ai 543 tXt/tAs 154, 196 t6 163, 325 ii, 326 i Tol 176, 325 ii Tol (adv.) 342 TOio 326 ii ToiouTos 122, 211 Tolp (rois) 633 i c T6\}xa 269 vii ToKfxav 543 ri!- 148 T6ySe 118 6 rics 640 i a t6s (aco. pi. ) 645 i c Tov (interrog.) 325 vi Tovvveovv 623 ii h TovTU}6e 326 iii Tpdirefa 48, 410 TpdiTTjOi. 518 Tpairijoixev 511 Tpdiroj 545 rpets 100, 211, 409 rpeis /cai 5^/ca 418 T/3^/tw 478 rp^irw 253, 488, 496 Tp^(pocv 462 r/9^(/>« p. 212 n. 1, 496 rpiu 204, 478, 482 b Tpripojv 204 I. GREEK INDEX. TpLa 409 TptaKOVTa 421 Tpiraros 429 Tplros 429 TpoTria 488 TpiTTos 253, 488 Tpotpda 293 Tpo(peLov p. 212 n. 1, 293 Tpo(peis 293 rpo^ij p. 212 n. 1, 293 T/)o06s p. 212 n. 1, 293, 294 rpi^x" 486 Tpiiji 486 Tr^ra (Z^^a) 645 i h Ti 328 i T\)yx'i.v<^ 481 c TlJp^T; 100 tOs (tois) 625 i d ™ 326 i T(P (interrog.) 325 vi viKiv0o5 104, 136, 171, 381 vyLaivets 117 iiSaros (gen.) 354 iidpos 147 iiSwp 164, 354 iicTds 378 I'to^'s 640 i a vl6s 116. 6 L'yUas 329 u/icis 171 vp.^Tepos 330 i'^tJ;' 142 u/i?;' 329 iifiixe 171, 329 iilj.p.i(v) 326 iv Cl^jUos 330 u^wp 329 vv 341 n. 4 Ws (i;i6s) 122 OTraSvytoLois 633 ii & vir&pxOKTa 624 i/ UTT^p 193, 341 {jTTKTxv^ofxai 481/ Uttvos 142, 396 i.x6 337. 7, 341 'Twoerj^M 313 n. 1 5s 168, 201, 289 523 ii(rT€pos 341 {}tf)r]va 445 tfi/'ois (nom. ptop.) 624 i/ 4>ay45aLva 357 fpaeivds 396 (paelvoi (subj.) 559 ipdevvos 624 i e (palvaTai. 633 i a (palvotxai 542 tpaivw 542 (/^aioxiruives 75 0ai(Tt (3 pi.) 624 i/ 0^Xa7l 350 0a/i^^ 262, 480 a 0a/i( 262, 331 (/idi/ai 626 (^wels 362, 533 (pdvTjdi 518 (pavTJvaL 526 0dipi;y {(pipuv) 633 i a (pdcTKU 483 a 0ari 331, 480 a 0ar6s 141 i J ipop.ai. 488 0^/5c 617 0^ioei (3 sing. prea. act.) 454 ipipei (2 sing. pres. mid.) 466 •pip^Lv 312, 358 (pepeis 454 ' 358 0^pj)s 454, 510 0^poi 514 524 ipoii^i 462, 514 ^popi.es 459, 480 6 €pbvTU3V 521 ^^powi 28, 133, 461 eipu 118. 2, 193, 481 /• (pedri 62 ^lAeire 121. 122, 175 i\7)p.L 51 't'lXr^'os p. 338 n. 1 ^iXLTTiros 117 tfrfas 643 i c (piTV 372 (pXeyieoi 485 <;6X4 346 op^w 259 i, 488 (pop/u.6s 259 vi, 393 ipopSs 259 vi 06/505 488 pha p. 192, 258, 259 v rppecri 364 (ppw p. 192, 258 (ppovTLaTTjs (with ace.) 333. 6 a (ppo6pLov 268 n. 1 (ppOycij 158 n. 3 ipvyif 181 (1) tpvyds 348 0i'77c£j'w 481 c vyn 88, 376 ^livj (opt.) 172 (pvi-n (opt.) 172 ^uXafi 322 (pvXij 299 0CXoj/ 299 ipvTdv 378 ^wi/Tj 262 0c6p p. 193, 375, 528 (piis 375 Xa/i'W 138 Xa/pw 487 a Xo-Mtttoi 192, 197, 487 c XaA^f 117 xancii 138, 387. 6 Xo.vSdvw 141 ii, 481 c Xapiei-t 364 Xa.pU Go. 176 bake 51 baker 279 band 93 barm (bosom) 893 bauerkneoht G. 58 Baxter 279 bead 259 iii bear (vb.) 14, 100, 132, 147, 161 bear 30 beareth 133, 455 bearing 363 bearm 259 vi beam (bairn) 259 vi bears (3 sing, pres.) 455 b§d 263 bedder 287 n. 1 bedmaker 287 n. 1 beech 160 n. 1, 376 beechen 398 beef 9 belife 104 beodan 259 iii beran O.H.G. 161 beran 259 vi beraS 461 berende 363 berg G. 24 beuk (past of bake) So. 51 bid 165, 175 bidyan Go. 165 bileiba Go. 104 bind 93, 102 binda Go. 102 birth 153, 165, 287 bishop 9 bitter G. 81 biuda Go. 102 blackbird 285 blame 9 blaspheme 9 blue 279, 403 boetreo(w) 160 book 50, 282 books 60, 282 borough 24, 109 both 329 bounden 397 boycott (vb.) 276 brae 24 bridegroom 138 brittle 81 538 INDICES OF WORDS. brother 104, 112 iii, 132, 133, 355 bro«or 104, 106 ii, 259 vi bruder G. 112 iii bruKat'S Go. 163 buckwheat 160 budon 259 iii burg G. 24 bur(u)g 109 Burgundy 24 Burke 24 burke (vb.) 24 burrh 109 but 79, 277 calf 140 i b came 30 ceas 259 iii o^nnan 259 v oeosan 178, 259 iii child 109 childish 381 children 61 chin 161 ehind O.H.G. 259 v choose 178 Christian 192 cildre 109 citizenship 369 n. 1 clamb So. 51 cleave (adhere) 51 cleave (split) 51 climb 51 comb 132 come (part.) 30 come 30, 140 i a, 156 content (adj.) 288 content (subst.) 288 cow 9, 140 i a, 289 crane 140 ii crap (vb.) So. 51 creep 51 cwelan p. 116 n. 1 oynn 259 v dSd 260 dags Go. 163 dankbarkeit G. 286 darling 286 daughter 112 ii, 355 day 163 deed 112 ii dioh G. 49 dir G. 49 do 96, 100, 135, 260 dolmetsoher G. 24 dom 260 door 135 doubt 9 doute 9 ducker 287 n. 1 eage 139 id eahta 414 ear 104 earing 20 n. 2, 159 eat 485 eft 240 eggs 61 ehu O.S. 20 eight 163, 414 eke 177 ell 146 etum Go. 162 ewe 172, 366 eye 139 i a eyren 61 fact 10 fadar Go. 169 fader 104 fadrs (gen.) Go. 259 vi fadrum (dat. pi.) Go. 259 vi feeder 104, 259 vi fcegen 397 fagan O.L.G. 397 faihu Go. 50 fain 397 fall 488 fallow 403 fangen 10 fangs Sc. 10 farrow 147 father 79, 80, 104, 130, 162, 355 fathom 81 fault 9 faut9 faws Go. 177 fearh 147 feoht So. 484 fee 50 feet 50 fell (subst.) 146 fell 488 felt (subst.) 390 feor'Sa 430 feowertig 421 few 130, 177 fidwor Go. 130 fif 139, 411 fifta 431 fiftig 421 fight 484 fill 30 filled (past) 30 film 146 fimf Go. 139 i b fish 103 i fisks Go. 103 i five 139 1 b, 150, 411 flat 77 flechten G. 484 flee 51, 130 fliehen G. 130 fly (vb.) 51 foal 152 fon 10 foot 50, 100, 112 i a, 282, 289 football 287 n. 1 footer 287 n. 1 foremost 394 forleas 104 forleosan 104 forloren 104 forluron 104 forsohen G. 483 a fot 289 fotu Go. 156 fotus Go. 100 four 130, 139 i b fragile 9 frail 9 frauenzimmer G. 299 fresher 287 n. 1 freshman 287 n. 1 fill (foul) 168 furh 153 III. GERMANIC INDEX. 539 furlong 153 furrow 153 further 387 fuss G. 112 i a fyrst 427 fySer-139i6 gabaurj>s Go. 153 g£ers 192 gamunds Go. 25 ganian 138 gans Go. 100, 138 gardener 355 n. 1 gas 24 gasts Go. 103 i, 106 i, p. 132 n. 1 gaut Go. 179 gawies Go. 103 iii geard 378 geboren 259 vi gebyrd 153 gecoren 259 iii gemynd 25, 259 v genumen 259 iv geotan 138 gereohtigkeit G. 286 gerate G. 158 n. 3 jesoden 104 get 141 ii get-at-able 279 gibai Go. 181 (1) gilagu O.S. 299 gimmer 138 ginan 138 girs So. 192 giutan Go. 138 go 544 goose 100, 138 gowt 138 grass 192 greenish 381 grey 279, 403 grist 158 n. 3 guest 103 i, p. 132 n. 1 guma Go. 138 hafts Go. 103 ii hail 146 hairto Go. 100 hale (vb. ) 146 hare 104 harvest 139 ii base G. 104 haiirn Go. 106 iv He (subst.) 277 heall 139 ii heart 100, 134 heavy 382 help 77 hengest 20 n. 2 hengst G. 20 n. 2 hiU 139 ii him 325 v hindmost 394 history 93 hither 325 v hlSnan 136 hlSw 136 hliftus Go. 103 ii hlM 133, 146, 167 n. 3 (H)ludwig G. 167 hogshead 285 hole 152 horn 106 iv, 351 hors 20 n. 2 horse 482 6 horselaugh 20 n. 1 horseplay 20 n. 1 hound 136 hros O.H.G. 20 n. 2 hulundi Go. 152 bund 136 hund( = 100)423 hundred 104, 419 hundteontig 423 huzd Go. 191 I 161, 327 IcB27 ich H.G. 112 i 6 idel (idle) 261 idle 174 ik L.G. 112 1 6, 161 in 149 Innsbruck 112 ii Innspruok 112 ii is 161 ist Go. G. 161 kamm G. 132 kidney 141 a n. 1 kin 137, 157 kinnus Go. 161 Kirsteen 192 kiusan Go. 178 knabe G. 58 knave 58 knee 137 knight 58 kniu Go. 137 know 14, 137 laohter So. 388 lagu 299 lassen G. 112 i a lean (vb.) 136 leihwan Go. 139 i a lend p. 113 n. 5 leoht 146 let 112 i a leumund G. 157 Lichfield 283 [cattle-] lifting 103 ii lifts {2 sing, pres.) 455 light (adj.) 141 ic light (subst.) 146 lihan 139 i a like 283 likely 283 liver 207 n. 1 Llangollen 77 loan p. 113 n. 5 loch 75 loon Sc. 58, 60 loud 133, 167 n. 3, 378 loun 60 loved 442, 549 n. 1 low (subst.) 136, 403 lowu 60 Ludlow 136 lychgate 283 lykewake 283 lyteling 286, 345 magus Go. 141 i a n. 2 maiden 399 maihstus Go. 138 man 79, 96 manhood 369 n. 1 manlike 283 540 INDICES OF WORDS. manly 283 marascaUi 0. H. G. 20 n. 2 mare 20 n. 2 marshal 20 n. 2 mawi Go. 141 i a n. 2 may be 278 me 327, 328 ii mearh 20 n. 2 med (meed) 143 mena Go. 162 menotis Go. 162 mere ( = mare) 20 n. 2 mioh G. 49 middle 135 midge 109 migan 138 migge 109 mild 485 milk (vb.) 137, 148 miltecheit M.H.G. 286 miltekeit M.H.G. 286 mind 25 mir G. 49 mist 141 ii moder 104 modor 104, 106 ii moua 162 month 162 moon 162 mother 104, 148, 160, 355 mils (mouse) 142, 168, 289 mutton 9 mycg 109 nahisto O.H.G. 352 nahts Go. 103 ii uahts (gen.) Go. 347 nam (vb.) 259 iv nam (aubst.) 299 nama O.H.G. 299 napery 240 neaht 139 i c nebel G. 390 nebul O.H.G. 390 needle 149 nere 141 i a nest 143, 199, 259 i nestling 286 new 149, 376 newt 240 next 352 nickname 240 night 139 i c, 347 nigou 415 nim 10 nima 161 nima Go. 164 niman 10, 259 iv nimen 10 nine 415 no 79 noon 58 not 214 now 167 o'241 od-force 24 of 241 on 241 one 149, 176, 396, 407 One (subst. ) 277 'oo' Sc. 176 n. 2 'oon' So. 176 n. 2 open (Scholar) 279 ora 164 orange 240 other 428 otor 147 otter 147 o«er 428 out 341 over 386 oxhoft G. p. 216 n. 1 pagan 58 palfrey 20 n. 2 pferd G. 20 u. 2, 74 pfund G. 112 i c photograph 9 n. 1 pillar's 30 poetaster 392 pork 9 pound 112 i c Praise-God (Barebones) 284 presbyter 9 pride 77 priest 9 progress (subst.) 288 progress (vb.) 288 Pst! 83 pund 112 ic punster 279 qiman Go. 140 i a qius Go. 140 i c quail 140 i b quean 140 i a queen 140 i a quell 140 i 6 quick 140 i c rack (vb.) 147 rafter 388 raihts Go. 161 n. 1 rang 31, 529 n. 1 rauds Go. 179 reach 147 red 135 reek 193 right 378 ross G. 20 n. 2 ruddy 135, 147 Rugger 287 n. 1 Sjichsen G. 313 n. 1 Sffid 260 saihwan Go. 139 i a sallow 279, 403 salt 142, 289 same 259 iv sang 30, 31, 32, 48, 442, 549 n. 1 satyan Go. 259 i saw 79 sawan 162 say 139 i a schaf G. 112 i c schlafen G. 112 i c schliessen G. 189 aehon G. 80 seamstress 279 sear (sere) 261 sea« 104 secgau 139 i a see 139 id seed 142, 162 III. GERMANIC INDEX. 541 seek 142 seojiau 104 set 259 i, 488 settle (subst.) 390 sebs Go. 142 seven 130, 418 sew (past of sow) So. 51 sew 142 sham Sc. 354 she 325 i sheep 9, 112 ic sibun Go. 130, 413 sieh G. 49 sieg G. 163 sien 166 siexta 431 sigor 163 silan Go. 113, 2 Sim O.H.G. 166 sin O.H.G. 166 sing 30, 31, 442 sir G. 49 sister 190 n. 1, 355 sit 142, 259 i, 488 six 412 stalks Go. 20 n. 2 skarn N. 354 sleep 112 i c slepan Go. 112 ic slipor 100 slippery 100, 131 slit 51 slow 174, 403 sluice 189 slutil O.S. 189 smart 202 smitten 81 sn&iws Go. 141 i a, n. 2 snoru 104 snow 141 ia Socker 287 n. 1 soldier 148 n. 3 some 259 iv songstress 279 sooth 157 sow (vb.) 51, 142, 162 sow (subst.) 289 spaewife 108 i speak 112 i b spehon O.H.G. 103 i speir Sc. 142 n. spinner 279 spinster 279 spreoan ] 12 i 6 sprechen H.G. 112 i 6 spreken L.G. 112 i 6 spur 142 spiiren G. 142 n. spurn 142 spyrian 142 n. stSBgr 175 sta3« 262 stair 175 starvation 287 n. 1 stead 165, 169 steed 299 stick (vb.) 140 i a, 142 stigan 175 stol 262 stream 18, 190 n. 1, 203 stud (of horses) 299 stute G. 299 sty 175 su (sow) 168, 289 subject (subst.) 288 subject (vb.) 288 sudon 104 sugars 296 sums Go. 106 iii, 156 sung (ptcp.) 30, 48 sung (past) 31, 32 sunge 48 sungon 48 superficies 9 surface 9 sweat 142 sweet 142, 160 sweetbread 285 swefn 142, 396 sweostor 355 n. 2 swine 9, 166, 399 systir N. 855 n. 2 tacor 355 tsecean 134 tagr Go. 100 taihun Go. 136 taihuntehund Go. 423 taikns Go. 105 take 10 talk 24 tat H.G. 112 ii teach 134 tear (subst.) 100 teiha Go. 105 telegram 9 n. 1 telephone 9 n. 1 ten 136, 161, 416 thak Sc. 140 ii thane 396 that 168, 325 ii thatch 140 ii, 237 n. 1 thee 328 ii thin 75, 183, 157 thole (vb.) 106 iv, 152 thorp 100 thousand 425 three 100, 409 thrill 133 tien 416 timber 148 tiuhan Go. 178 tochter G. 112 ii together 80 token 134 tolc M.H.G. 24 tolk Du. 24 tongs 481 b tooth 112 i a, 134 t6)> 134 tow (vb.) 178 trickster 279 Tripos 58 truly 288 truth 287 truths 299 Tuesday 289 twa 408 twa-ltes-twentig 418 twain 408 twalif Go. 417 twegen 408 twentig 420 twenty 420 twenty-four 418 twice 408 twies 408 twist 408 two 112 i a, 134, 408 542 INDICES OF WORDS. >ana Go. 148 >ara 142 baurp 100 heccan 140 ii >egn 396 )>olian 152, 259 vii >reis Go. 100 «reo 409 «ri 409 «ridda 429 -Sritig 421 J>ula Go. 106 iv hulan Go. 152 busund N. 425 fiber G. 80 udder 135 uder 135 un- (neg.) Go. 106 iii, 157 unco Sc. 878 uncouth 378 understandable 279 us 329 use 10 utter (adj.) 341 viduvo Go. 21 villain 58 villein 58 Wffign 138 wseps 192 WEBSp 192 ■wain 138, 171 wait Go. 106 i, 176 wan 397 n. 2 wanhope 397 wanton 397 warm 141 i 6, 148, 393 wash (vb.) 483 a wasp 192 wat (wot) 259 ii water 354, 483 a watins (gen.) Go. 354 wato Go. 164 we 829 wear 51 weigh 188 weitwods Go. 164 were (subj.) 442 wether p. Ill n. 1 what 139 i a, 325 vi whether 887 who 79 -wick 376 wide 420 widow 135 wines 296 wish (subst.) 381 wish (vb.) 483 a witan 259 ii with 420 withy 166, 171 wolf 139 ic world 165 worth (vb. ) 484 wot 176, 494 wiisc 381 Xanten G. 813 n. 1 yard 378 yawn 138 yclept 109 yeast 144 yellow 279, 403 yhight 109 ymb 132 yoke 144, 167, 876 you 829 young 104, 136, 171, 381 youngling 286, 345 youth 299 yuggs Go. 104 yuk Go. 167 yus Go. 171 ywis 103 iii zahn G. 74, 112 ia zimmer G. 148 zwei G. 112 i a INDEX OF SUBJECTS. The details of each heading will be found in the Table of Contents. The references are to sections. Accent : Degrees of 95 ; of original Idg. language 94 ; Greek 266—271 ; Latin 266, 272—4; pitch-accent 88, 90 ff, 249 ; effects of pitch 92 ; kinds of pitch-accent 97 ; stress- accent 88—9, 91 ff, 249, 288, effects of stress-accent 93; accent-points 96 ; words without accent 98 ; vowel-gradation 31—2, 251—265, 288. Adverbs : Formation of 278, 340 ff. AlpnaDet 601—609 : Attic 116,-Latin 123. Analogy: A psychological force 46; classi- fication of types of a. 47; combi- nation of types of a. 54; crosses Germanic sound changes 104 ; For- mal a. 50 — 53; Logical a. 48, 184 ; Proportional a. 49 ; relation to Se- masiology 58 Analogy in gender 55, 294 ; in Syntax 56 — 7 ; in formation of ad- verbs 278 ff, of adjectives 279, of verb 280; in noun-formation 282, 286; declension 293, 306, neuter 299; suffix of gen. sing. 309, of instrumental 314, of Lat. nom. pi. 317, of nom. pi. neuter 317 ; of gen. pi. 319; of Gk. dat. pi. 322—4; in stem suffixes 345 ; in Latin names of months 406. Analogy in verb-formation 480 a, 487 c iii ; in re- verbs 481 c ii, d, e ; inpft. 496— 7— 8; in aorist 502— 3; in plupft. 506—7 ; in subj . 510—511; in opt. 512 — 5 ; imperat. 521 — 3 ; infin. 530. Conjunctions 278, 342. Dialects (see Language) : Gk. dialects 610—656, Italic dia- lects 657—665. Gender (see Analogy) 291 — 5. Language : Adaptation in 28 ; borrowing in 1. 9—11, 59—61; definition of spoken 1. 66 ; influence of dialects in language 59 — 65 ; isolation as an influence in 1. Ill; race andl. 611. Science of I. : does it exist ? 45 ; history of 39—44. Languages : Comparison of 5; Indo-Germanic 6 ; original Idg. language and civi- lization 16 — 7; characteristics of Idg. 1. 12—4; list of Idg. 1. 15; interrelation of Idg. 1. 18 — 9 ; dif- ferences between Idg. and other languages 20 ff (Isolating 1. 33, Agglutinative 1. 34, Semitic 1. 35). Noun (see Accent, Analogy): Simple 281; compound 281, 284 ff ; root nouns 289 ; n. with form- ative suffixes 290—4; verbal nouna 534—538; reduplication in, 288, vowel-gradation in, 288; indistin- guishable from verb in form 30, 277; loss of inflexion in English n. 109 ; relation of subst. and adj. 277. Cases 300— 305; original Idg. 300; instrumental possibly = two ih, : more numerous in other languages 301, 303; vocative not a case 302; origin of cases 304, grammatical 304, local 304, syncretism 305. ?7ses of noun cases : 331 — 8 ; ab- solute cases 339. Number 296: Words in dual only 297 ; plural nouns with vb. in singular 298 S ; theory of this construction 299. Numerals 406—437: Permanency of in language 13 ; cardinal 407—425; ordinal 426— 437. Phonetic Laws : Different at different times 183, without exceptions 43. 544 INDEX OF SUBJECTS. Prepositions 340 — 1 : With ace. 333. 8 ; with abl. 335. 1 d; with loc. 337. 7; with instr. 338. H. Pronoun : Declension 324 — 330 ; differences in decl. between noun and pron. 326 ; permanency of pron. in lan- guage 13; personal pron. 327 ff ; possessive adj. 330; relation be- tween pron. and noun 277; pron. stems which distinguish gender 326. Semasiology 58. Sentence : Formation of 275 & ; phonetics of 235—248. Sounds : Organs which produce language- sounds 67 ; breathed and voiced 67, 72; alveolar, cerebral, dental, la- bial, palatal, velar 67 ; syllabic 81 ; glide 84 — 7 ; relation of spelling to s. 110; pronunciation of Attic 117, of Latin 124. Consonants : mute stops 68 ; spi- rants 69, 70; aspirates 73; affricates 74; nasals 76; Uquids 77. Diph- thongs 83: Idg. 115; Attic 122; Latin 129; history of Idg. d. 173— 181. Sonants : definition of 81 ; liquid 81 — 3 ; nasal 81 — 3 ; changes in Germanic 106 ft ; Idg. sonants 42, 114 ; history of Idg. s. 151—181, of short hquid s. 151 — 3, of long liquid s. 154, of short nasal s. 155 — 7, of long nasal s. 158. Vowels: definition of 78 ; classification of v. 79 ; examples of v. 80 ; anaptyxis of V. 215 — 6 ; compensatory lengthen- ing of V. 217 — 226 ; contraction of 209 — 214 ; effects of position in sentence on v. 239 ff ; history of Idg. V. 159—169; loss of v. 228; neutral v. 80 ; pronunciation of Attic V. 121—2, of Latin v. 128—9 ; prothesis 229—234, 238; shorten- ing of V. 227. Suffixes: Noun : of cases 20 ff ; in sing. 306—314, dual 315—6, plural 317— 323 ; of stems 20 ff, 281 ff, primary 281, secondary 281; arising from decayed stem 283 ; obsolete 287, 290 — 4 ; simple and complex 343 ; accent in 345 ; history of 346 — 405. Verb: of moods 509 — 531; of per- sons 26 ff, 450 ff ; active (except perfect) 453—464; middle 465— 476 ; passive 448 — 9 ; perfect active 477; of stems 26 ff; aorist 502—4, future 491—3 ; imperfect 500—1 ; perfect 494—8 ; pluperfect 505—7; present 479—490. Syntax (see Noun, Verb). v^ Vert) : <> Augment 445; characteristics of V. 444; definition of 'v. 277; for- mation of V. 276, 438 ff. ; history of Idg. V. 438 — 9; gains and losses in Greek 440, in Latin 441, in Ger- manic 442, in modem languages 443; V. indistinguishable from noun in form 30, 276 ; distinct in meaning 277; relation of v. to noun 482—3, 487 c, 488—490. Indicative: present formations 478—490; fut. 491—3; pft. 494— 8 ; impft. 500—1 ; aor. 502—4 ; plpft. 505 — 7. Injunctive 520. Moodji 508—531; subj. 509—511; opt. 512 — 515; imper. 510—523; inf. 525—531. Participles 532— 538. Persons of v. 450—452; act. 453—464; mid. 465—476; perfect 477. Eeduphcation 446. Voices 447 ; passive 448 — 9. Uses of Verb-forms 539—570; voices 540 — 2; types 543 — 4; tenses 545 — 555; moods 556— 570. Word-formation (see Languages, Noun, Verb) : case-suflixes 23, 29 ; principles of w. f. 275 ff. ; root 22 — 4 ; root-words 24 ; nouns and verbs from same root 26 — 8 ; stem 22 — 3. CAMBKIDGB : PBINTED BY J. AND C. F. CLAT, AT THE UNIVERSITY PKESS.