EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEEDING BOOK FEEDING FOR - EGGS % RESULTS HENRY P. SCHWAB ^ RtYT/tYtVTYtVWYlVlVl'YtVlVTYl'r^WvlVT ALBERT R. MANN LIBRARY New York State Colleges OF Agriculture and Home Economics AT Cornell University Cornell University Liorary SF 494.S39 Everybodys standard poultry feed book 3 1924 003 125 907 The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003125907 ^^^SnX^MLrrJb-, EVERYBODYS STANDARD Poultry Feed Book BY HENRY P. SCHWAB Breeder, Judge and Editor I tfifi/ (; V FIEST EDITION t | f,| . fif / fT f (( f! Published by Everybodys Poultry Magazine Publishing Co. HANOVEIi, PA. 177679 Copyrighted, 1S20, by EVBRYBODYS POULTRY MAGAZINE PUBLISHING CO. All Rights Reserved .%' . - DEDICATED TO The Breeders and Interests of a Greater and More Successful Stand- ard Bred Poultry Industry. FOREWORD With due belief that there are none so wise but that they may still learn many things worth knowing from others we have used in this work some copy, tables, etc., written and compiled by experts which we wish to acknowledge in this way and would specially mention the works of William Adams Lippincott, A. B., B. S.; H. Arm- strong Roberts, Professor James Dryden, Professor B. F. Kaupp, M.S., D. V. M.; Professor T. E. Qulsenberry, Professor H. E. Lewis, Professor James E. Rice, Pro- fessor C. T. Patterson, Edward Brown, P. L. S. ; John H. Robinson, etc. We highly appreciate the aid received and the great value of the works referred to and feel that their use and reading has greatly aided in the preparation of this work. H. P. SCHWAB. PREFACE We have heard it said that where gain and progress was desired that there was as much in the feed and feeding as there was in the breed and breeding, and we can well agree with such ideas where the highest results in both quality of stock and the greatest results in production are desired. Both the right quality and quantity of food, along with regularity in feeding are equally necessary for best re- sults. The breeders should appreciate this plain state- ment fully and to regulate their system to conform with same. It should be well understood that no one rule, for feed- ing or for any purpose whatsoever, is infallible or that it will prove to be the best in all cases alike. There is a variance in food qualities and substance, and the method or ration that would prove successful at one time or place may fail in equal results for others, for this reason we herein quote other authors and give several different rations and mixtures all of which we believe to be about equally desirable and practical. The successful breeder in mating to produce the highest quality in birds, follows a method, but tries several ex- periments for improvement. The same well applies to feeding, for no single system of feeding or no one group of foods are apt to produce best universal results at all times. Read and study this book, follow its advice, digest its contents, know the values and purposes of the several staple foods and then experiment for a properly blended ration that is best for your conditions and your birds. It is a perfectly true saying that "Hens do not lay for the pleasure or amusement of laying" but because it is their nature, and when we consider that the hen of today produces from twenty to fifty times more eggs per year than the original of her kind didwe can then better appre- c ate the great work man has done in selecting, breeding, feeding and stimulating this instinct, capacity and quality into the hen of today. Surely to proper foods and feed- ing a great share of credit for these great results are due. The sole purpose of this book is to set forth the modern and correct principles of poultry feeding. We trust it may be found helpful and of advantage to its readers and the possible means to their greater poultry success. H. P. SCHWAB. Irondequoit, N. Y., June 1, 1920. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 13 CONXENXS Chapter. I. 11. 111. IV. V. VI. Vll. Vlll. IX. X. Chapter. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIll. BOOK ONE The Importance of Poultry . . . The Principles of Feeding . . . Standard Bred Poultry The Hen and Her Possibilities Breeding the Layers Basic Principles Governing Poultry Pro- duction Health and Vigor Egg Type The Construction of the Egg . . . The Composition of Poultry, Etc. BOOK TWO Feedstuffs Ground Grains, Meals and Mashes Green and Succulent Feeds Animal Foods and Milk Other Food Requirements Dry and Wet Mashes Cooked Foods Commercial Poultry Foods .... Page. 15 19 25 30 35 41 49 58 67 75 78 89 100 108 115 1 19 122 125 14 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK e Pullets BOOK THREE Chapter. XIX. Food Digestion XX. Feeding Chicks XXI. Feeding the Growing Chick XXII. Feeding the Broiler .... XXllI. Growing and Developing the XXIV. Feeding the Breeders XXV. Feeding the Layers XXVI. The Balanced Ration . XXVII. Feeding for Winter Eggs XXVIII. Fattening Poultry . . XXIX. Feeding Capons XXX. Feeding Ducks . . XXXI. Feeding Geese . XXXU. Feeding Turkeys .... XXXIII. Judging Fowls for Egg Production XXXIV. Foods and Feeding in General . . . XXXV. Exhibiting and Judging Eggs . . . . XXXVI. Preserving Eggs . 127 132 143 149 153 . 156 . 163 . 175 178 . 184 . 194 . 204 211 213 . 218 . 226 244 . 247 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 15 BOOK ONE CHAPTER I THE IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY Of late the several writers on poultry topics, editors, etc.,- have with much reason referred to the billion dollar Ameri- can poultry industry with much pride in its advancement and importance as one of the leading business institutions of our country. Great as is this value, we still believe they do not express the true values of the past and that at this time that amount will be increased by several hundreds of millions not alone for the cause of advanced prices, but also for the rea- son of there being so many more breeders and more poultry than ever in our past history. The 1911 report of the United States Secretary of Agri- culture places the national annual income from poultry products at $750,000,000. The state ranking first in poultry products on the farm is Rhode Island, where the average farm income from poultry is $267.70. The average state income from poultry products is $5,227,403, of which $1,536,194 is credited to poultry carcasses sold, and $3,691,239 is credited to eggs. The average annual farm income from eggs for all the farms in the United States is $60.5 7, while the income from carcasses is $31.82. Eggs are excellent human food, high in albuminous con- tent and high in digestibility. The demand for eggs is growing faster than the increase in output. In 1 899 the average farm price was 11.15 cents per dozen for the whole United States, while in 1 909 the average had advanced to 1 9.7 cents per dozen, and this year, 1 920, it is safe to say that it will far exceed this sum. 16 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK Live and dressed poultry have made a corresponding increase in values. In 1910 the United States census report gives over 88 per cent, of all farms in the United States as keeping poultry. At that time there was 295,876, 1 76 head, making an aver- age of 6,038,289 birdis for each state or 53 birds to each farm, with a value per bird of 52 cents. It is significant that nearly 54 per cent, of the total number is found in ten states. The volume'of poultry on farms in the United States has increased over 1 8 per cent, from 1 900 to 1910 and approxi- mately 29 percent, from 1 9 1 to 1920. The ten leading states in point of income from poultry are: Total income Rank State from poultry 1. Ohio *!>.,. lb:;, S161 2. Missouri l8,:i,^.:i.yso 3. Illniois IsJJ.^lJ.oOi 4. Iowa 17,594,4i2 G. Pennsyhania Iti,l^j-J.,lijn e. New York l:3,lul,114 ; 7. Indiana 14,fi35,4tt4 5. Kansas ll,G2o,SSl 9. Michigan 10,i9:;,4-l-< 10. California S,7;iO.'2s:i While eggs are the leading poultry product, the average state income from poultry products is $5,22 7,403, of which $1,536, 194 is the amount credited to poultry carcasses sold, and $3,691,239 is credited to eggs, or considerably over two-thirds of the total income. At the same time the average annual farm income from eggs for all the farms in the United States is $60.5 7, while the income from carcasses sold is $31.82, or slightly over half as much. The reason for this difference probably lies in the unique- ness of eggs among human foods, their high digestibility and general attractiveness. "Several investigations reported by Langworthy show that ninety-five per cent, of the dry matter of the edible portion of the egg is digested by man. In detail the digesti- bility of the various constituents of the edible portion was: EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 17 Protein, 90 to 98 per cent.; lecithin, 91 per cent.; neutral fat, 95 to 98 per cent.; ash, 70 per cent." The ten leading states showing the largest average farm incomes from poultry sold are: Average farm income Rank Stale from poultry 1. Rhode Island S2(i7.70 2. California iafi ti 3. New Jersey 221. 4!t 4. Massachusetts 215.16 .";. District of Columljia 199. Dl 6. Nevada 164.85 7. Arizona 156.103 5. Connecticut 143.25 9. Delaware 130.2."> 10. New Hampshire 124.91 The production of eggs is steadily growing, but not near as fast as is the demand which knows no bounds and which w^ill ever increase assuring price and values. The comparative rank of the first ten states with regard to the number of poultry kept, and their total value: Rank State No. kept Rank State Total value 1. Iowa 23,482,880 1. Iowa .H12, 270.000 ■2. Illinois 21,409,053 2. Missouri 11,871,000 3. Missouri 20,897,208 3. Illinois 11,6M7,000 4. Ohio 17,342,289 4. Ohio y,.J33,000 5. Kansas 16,736,038 5. New York 7,879,000 6. Indiana 13,789,109 6. Indiana 7,762,000 7. Texas 13,669,646 7. Pennsylvania 7,674,000 S. Pennsylvania 12,728,341 s. Kansas 7,377,000 9. Minnesota 10,697,076 9. Michigan 3,611,000 10. New York 10,678,836 10. Texas 4,807,000 The rank of these states with reference to numbers and value differs somewhat. The causes for this difference usually lie in the quality of the poultry, the distance from market, or both. No other class of livestock is so universally raised as is poultry whose flesh is not only highly nutritious and palata- ble but is also in the main relished by all people alike. In eggs we also have another very popular food, they are high in point of digestibility and are being used as a meat food more and more. Professor Kaupp, in his splendid book, says: "The prod- ucts of poultry rank next tq those of the dairy or to the ani- mals slaughtered for food. About one-sixth of the total value of animal products in the United States is credited to 18 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK poultry. The contribution to the nation's wealth is more than half a billion dollars. The value of poultry is equal to the total value of barley, rye, buckwheat, broom corn, rice, kaffir corn, flax, small fruit, grapes, orchard products, sugar cane and beets. The value of poultry is three times that of the wool crop. It is as great as the combined potato and oats crop. In all above tables and figures there is only included in those reports both poultry and eggs handled and shipped through markets as we understand and they do not include ■| A^i^^m^M^'^^: Courtesy Sahrlna Poultry Farm the poultry or eggs used at home or sold direct by the pro- ducer to the consumer, this amount if known would most likely run well over the hundred million dollar value alone. We consider it a very conservative estimate to say that the annual value and sales of poultry and eggs in the United States at this time ( 1920) is worth above one billion and a quarter of dollars. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK I'J CHAPTER II THE PRINCIPLES OF FEEDINU We feel reasonably assured that the readers well under- stand the purpose in feeding in the main such as to main- tain life, promote growth and assure results while the lead- ing objects are to transform vegetable, animal and mineral matter in forms not edible by man into finished products in the form of eggs and meat, which are edible, and to keep the body in a normal condition. The feeding of poultry is, with proper housing and accom- modation and with proper selection and breeding, one of the three important essentials of successful poultry keeping, for the very simple object to be attained is as stated, the conversion of so much food into both eggs and meat of quality and quantity, therefore it should be obvious that a proper system of feeding, with the other mentioned condi- tion rightly attended to, must have a very direct influence upon the results attained. From the abundance of proof and records at hand, we can readilv conclude that poultrv handled and fed rightly, will not only give the desired and increased results in both production and meat, but that it will also prove to be the most profitable of all livestock. Food, whether high or low in price, represents cash ex- pended and at no time, whatever its cost may be, should be wasted or fed in a manner that is not productive of best results. It should be fed with intelligence, should be made productive in yielding more than its ow^n value and paying handsome returns on its investment. That is simole busi- ness, the forerunner of success and progress and that is what we shall aim for in the following pages. Each and every animal requires food for several certain and distinct purposes. No one kind of food will supply all the bodily needs alike or in their desired proportions. Here is where the "Balanced Ration" proves its worth and where the values and analysis of food contents should be generally understood. Poultry requires food for animal warmth, for 20 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK growth and the replacing of waste tissues of the body, the supply of mineral materials for the bones and the saline sub- stances for the blood and also for the necessary supply of fat. The digestive organs of the fowl differ from those of higher animals. The fowls has a crop between the mouth and gizzard. The crop receives the food, which remains in this organ until it is softened and ready to pass into the gizzard. In passing from the crop to the gizzard the food passes through an enlargement just before entering the gizzard. This is the fowl's stomach. The stomach contains glands which secrete, the digestive fluids which pass into the gizzard with the food. If the food is eaten in large quanti- ties it passes through the stomach so fast that there are not enough digestive fluids mixed with the food to properly digest it. Therefore, it will be seen that it is much better for the fowl to eat a little at a time and eat often. It is a good plan to have feed hoppers containing dry mash where the fowls can eat any time they choose. Nutrients Every particle of food, and its constituent fed to a fowl, that can yield heat or energy or that can serve for the pro- duction of body tissue is called a nutrient. We find that all feeds are composed of one or more of the nutrients which are water, ash, proteins, carbohydrates and fats. Water is highly important for it is a constituent part of the body, 55 per cent., and of the contents of the eggs, 65 per cent. Ash is a term used to designate the mineral compounds in the food, the body or the egg. It varies from 1 . 1 per cent, (gluten feed) to 1 7.6 per cent, (meat scraps) and forms 3.4 per cent, of the live weight of a layer and 12.2 per cent, of the weight of a fresh egg. Protein designates the compounds found, both in th^ foods and the fowl's body and eggs, which contain nitrogen f-or the fact that nitrogen is an absolute necessity to animal life that the nitrogenous compounds are called protein. In e en. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK 21 the fowl's body the muscles, skin, feathers, tendons, blood and all internal organs are composed mainly of protein. Carbohydrates, while plentiful in plants, are scarcely found in the fowl's body or in the egg. As protein pre- dominates in the fowl's body so carbohydrates predominate in the structure of the plant. According to Atwater, carbo- hydrates form 2.4 per cent, of the total weight of the fowl's liver. Fats contain similar elements to carbohydrates, but in different proportions. Fat is present in about all grains. In corn and oats it forms' 5 per cent, while in wheat it forms but 2. 1 per cent. Mr. W. A. Lippincott, in his book "Poultry Production," gives the following interesting table of nutrients that form the rations of both wild and domestic birds: Nature provides: It supplies: Producer feeds : "Worms, grubs aud in- Protein Meat, scrap, milk, oil. sects Carbohydrate (protein meal, gluten, feed Seeds and fat) The grains and their by- Sprouts and grasses Succulence (water, car- products Gravel bohydrate, protein and Sprouted oats, mangel Water fat) beets, pasture, etc. Ash and grit Commercial grit, oyster Water s^hell, granulated bone, etc. Water Upon the food subject, Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, one of the early authorities, writes inost eloquently for its plainness, as follows: "in rearing fowls w^ith any prospect of profit, a correct system of feeding is of the first importance, and it is most desirable to enter thus early on the subject, especially as the scientific principles of feeding are so frequently ignored. "The purposes served by food when taken into the body are of several distinct kinds there is the production of animal warmth, the provision for the growth and waste of the body, the supply of mineral materials for the bones, and saline sub- stances for the blood, and, lastly, the supply of fat. "The warmth natural to living animals depends upon the consumption of a certain portion of the food in the process of breathing. The substances consumed in this manner are 22 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOCK chiefly these which contain a large quantity of carbon, which passes off in the breath, in the form of carbonic acid. "The most important warmth-giving foods are starch, sugar, gum, the softer fibres of plants, and oily or fatty sub- stances. As the natural warmth of an animal in health re- mains the same at all times, it necessarily foUcws that a larger supply of warmth-giving food is required in cold situations than in those which are warm. "To supply the materials required for the growth of young animals and for the formation of eggs, as well as those re- Growing stock on range with plenty of shade, good attention and proper feeding should come right along and give a good account of themselves. Sucli stock will mature early with a robust constitution that will enhance their w ortn and provide t-. safe foundation upon which to build your future prospects. quired to repair the w^aste arising from the movements of the living body, a second variety of food is required, for the starch and other substances before enumerated have been proved, by direct experiment, to have not the slightest action in supplying these wants. Substances possessing this power are termed flesh-forming foods. The most important are the gluten, and similar substances existing in variable quantities in different grains, in large proportion in EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 23 the varieties of pulse, as beans, peas, etc., and in the materials which form the solid parts of the flesh of animals, of eggs, of milk, etc. In consequence of these sub- stances containing the element nitrogen, which is wanting in the other varieties of food, they are frequently termed nitiogenous foods, whilst the fat-forming and warmth-giving are called carbonaceous foods. "The mineral and the saline substances contained in the bones, and in other parts of the bodies of animals, occur in larger proportion in the bran than in the inner part of the grain. A due supply of bone-making and saline materials is absolutely requisite to the growth of a healthy animal, as, if wanting in the food, the bones become soft, and the general health speedily fails. "With regard to those substances which supply the ma- terials for replacing the waste or the increase of fat, it is now well known that the starchy materials before spoken of as warmth-giving food are capable of being converted, by the living forces of the body, into fat, nevertheless it is unquestioned that where it is desired to fatten animals rapidly (or to supply fat to be consumed in generating w^armth, as is necessary in all cold regions) it is the absolute requisite that the food eaten should contain oily and fatty matters, w^hich can be' readily absorbed by the digestive organs, and either stored up or applied to the immediate wants of the body. "If we apply these principles to the examination of the various substances employed in feeding poultry, we shall arrive at a far more satisfactory knowledge of their real value for the purposes required than by acting on any em- pirical opinion as to this or that variety of food being more valuable." Most of the later day authors have either copied extracts from this or have mgide some slight changes in words used, but the fact remains Mr.'^Tegetmeier is generally considered an authority by all alike. For this reason we copy his work as originally written. 24 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK The Effects of Feeding With good strains of poultry, properly housed, the suc- cessful issue will depend upon the foods given, and the methods adopted. All stockmen know that in dealing with animals the personal equation is the crux of the whole mat- ter. Many fail through lack of appreciation of the import- ance of what may appear to be minor points. The most minute detail is essential, just as a minute screw or pin is an essential factor of the mechanism of a w^atch or motor car. Attention to details is the cardinal virtue among all success- ful stock breeders. Methodical and common-sense methods are those which lead to success, but these are founded on knowledge, not upon ignorance. It is not the man who is standing back to see what his neighbor is going to do before he acts who is winning in this day and age, but it is the man who is a good observer and a good listener, w^ho can look over a big field, then incor- porate the better ideas and systems of all. Cuurte-^y of the Homestead Cam;»i;ie Farm EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 25 CHAPTER III STANDARD BEED POULTRY All our reference to poultry in this book refers to stand- ard bred poultry, consistently we cannot acknowledge any other kind as we know of no feed formulas that would bene- fit a bird without breeding, surely none such could hope to compete with birds that have been bred to quality for a purpose. Every author of standing that we know of most heartily recommends the general use of standard bred poultry. Prof. T. E. Quisenberry says: "Do not keep mongrel poultry and expect to make the largest profit. It is both a surprising and discouraging fact that there are more farmers who are still harboring mongrel poultry than there are farmers who have banished the scrub and have begun to raise one of the pure bred varieties. Yet there is not a single reason why the farmer who is raising poultry, either for eggs or market, or for a combination of both, should keep mongrels or attempt to combine any two of the existing varieties. Any such attempt always results in the impairment of the good quali- ties which have required years of scientific mating and care- ful selection to produce. When two varieties are crossed, not only is the average size and number of eggs per hen reduced, but there is a greater variation in the size and color, and a larger proportion of the eggs grade 'seconds', thus bringing a lower price. The sooner our poultry raisers awake to this vitally important fact the sooner will they begin to make dollars where they now make dimes." Prof. Harry R. Lewis writes on this subject, "We hear a great deal these days about utility vs. fancy, which, analyzed means the production of eggs and meat vs. shape and plumage pattern. This agitation about the so-called utility possibilities has doubtless been brought about by the*i«sults secured at egg laying contests throughout the country and also -by some phenomenal records which have been made by some cross bred birds. As a general statement, it may be ■26 EVEPvYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK said that it is a mistake to attempt to produce eggs or poul- try continuously from cross bred stock. Considered over a period of years, birds which are continuously cross bred pro- duce no characteristics which are supplied by those pos- sessed by pure bred individuals. Cross bred birds shew no reliability in breedirg where egg production is the primary object. A larger egg production can be secured from typi- Courtesy of Mr, C. N. Myers. In the makings. A yard of quality Barred Plymouth Rock pullets that also show health and vigor. Proper feeding and growing is very evident here where results can surely be expected. Highest quality breeding with highest quality of productioi go hand in hand for poultry success. cal egg breeds than can be secured from crosses of the egg and dual purpose' type. Where meat production is the ob- ject, larger returns both in quantity and quality can be secured where the pure bred meat breeds E.re used. The use of standard bred birds, of a well established variety, results in a uniform flock, both as to general appearance, size, shape EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 27 and plumage pattern, which make them much more at- tractive and interesting. The eggs produced by pure bred individuals are uniform in size, shape and color, and bring a more uniform price on the market than mixed types. They cost no more to keep than a mongrel or a bird of mixed breed, for they consume no more food nor do thev require any more labor to care for them. Where pure bred birds are kept, often considerable revenue can bp secured from stock and eggs sold for breeding purposes. The additional revenue so secured is almost all clear profit. These factors should be given careful consideration before an attempt is made to produce eggs at a profit from a flock which has been pro- miscuously cross bred." Above are the statements and opinions of two noted educators on poultry subjects, we could give dozens of other similar opinions but believe these two will answer our pur- pose here fully where we only aim to advise the reader as best we can of our opinions and experience and at times to quote from others whose opinions are worth consideration. Keep and breed only the best standard bred stock you can get. What Variety The question of breed and variety is one of the simplest we have to deal with and its natural answer is — the variety you like best, the one that appeals strongest to your per- sonal tastes is the variety that will do best for you as your greater interest in them will surely cause you to do best by them. The question of egg production is not alone a ques- tion of either breed or variety, for any of the standard varie- ties can be so selected and bred for improved results that entire satisfaction will follo^v. The great problem lies really in selection and breeding, and for this cause mainly we ad- vise the keeping of the variety for which you have the great- est personal interest and whose characteristics are best known to you. The successful poultryman should be an observer and student combined, he should have ideas with a willingness to try and follow them, not alone in feeding, but also in the other many details connected w^ith poultry 28 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK keeping. A conscientious and careful application to the work is very desirable. Value of a Strain There is far greater value in the several "strains" of the different varieties of standard bred poultry than is usually given to them. A "strain" in poultry simply means a family of any one variety that has been bred for some years and whose characteristics for reproduction, for laying, etc., have been soundly established. Those breeders who year after year carefully select their birds, mating and breeding along standard lines and secure desired results and qualities that are firmly established in their flock, have not only created a strain, but also a line that with reasonable care will give the same results in the hands of other breeders. "It is a noticeable fact," writes Prof. Quisenberry, "that pens of the same breeding maintain about the same average egg production, whether the pen is in Storrs, Philadelphia or Mountain Grove, and all their methods of housing and feeding are entirely different. The breeding back of the birds makes them maintain about the same rate of produc- tion, no matter where they are being tried out. This holds true w^ith both good and bad pens. When I mentioned 'strain' and 'breeding' and 'selection' as the foundation of a flock of high egg producers a few years ago, some 'authori- ties' made light of such 'nonsense'. They claimed that you could take almost any old fow^l and by giving it the right feed and care, you could get equally as good results as the breeders who were leading in the egg laying contests. That is, they said there was nothing to 'strain' and that 'breeding' was not the secret of egg production. Of course, w^e know^ that without the proper feeding and care a hen will not lay many eggs no matter what strain she is from or how good her breeding may be. But when a breeder can make a con- sistent record in laying contests year after year and lead all competitors we will have to admit that he has a superior laying strain." How Many Varieties The keeping of but one variety is one of the best pieces EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 29 of advice that we can give. One variety, well handled, is plenty for any man on one place. It seems clear that where all your attention can be given to the one kind your chances for advancement would be best, you can know one variety much better than several, their care and wants are similar, less buildings are required and there is not the chance of inter-mingling. With but one variety on hand you would hatch to your limit and with more of the kind, have your greatest possible number to select from. Keep but one kind and grow all you can of them. ^ Courtesy of the Ilillview Farm 30 EVERYBCDYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK CHAPTER IV THE HEN AND HER POSSIBILITIES Mere man has much to his credit even to this stage of poultry production for he took the jungle fowl which origi- nally laid but a setting of eggs in a season, has bred and im- proved her until we now have hens producing well over 200 eggs per year and in some rare cases hens that have pro- duced over 300 eggs in one year's time an J a thousand eggs in their life time. Per last reports the average egg yield per hen in the United States was about 70 eggs per year, although we could question this average, as it does not include the eggs used at home and those otherwise unaccounted for, it would still be a short average of what the breeder of standard bred stock, could expect and get. We don't expect all hens to be 200 egg layers but we may w^ell demand from our poultry an average of from 150 to 160 eggs up per hen. These figures are most reasonable, they are consistent and they can be bettered by selection and breeding. No person -with a flock of hens that will average and lay up to 50 per cent, need ever look for a better investment. You wish your hens to lay to their capacity. You want best results, but you should also want to cause her to give her best, by giving her proper food, housing, care and sanitation. Rapid Growth and Early Maturity We have always found that those chicks that come right along and keep coming are the ones that not only prove the best in feather and quality but also in size and results. Ye=. they live longer and through Hfe are always a-doing and progressing. Where the foundation stock teems with vigor and hardiness and the chick right from the shell has proper care and food, we can expect it to grow and thrive and to mature much earlier than if (as we fear is usually the case) they are poorly started and carelessly attended to. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 31 One author claims that a Plymouth Rock cockerel bred from standard size and weight percentage, that was well hatched, properly brooded, correctly fed and given proper care should attain a weight of three pounds or more on the average at fourteen weeks old, and if they do not do this, there is something wrong somewhere. Personally we have never followed our chicks by weight and age, but we accept those statements w^ith much confi- It's just fun for the youngsters to aid "with the poultry chores, to feed and gather the I'ggs. ."larly lessons of this kind with some care imposed upon them will teach a lesson of value they will carry through life to their advantage. dence, they are reasonable and w^hat we ■would expect. Our aim should alw^ays be for the best, the best in quality, size, bone and weight, for the better they are grown, the earlier they will mature and the sooner production receipts will follow. 32 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK There is no wide difference in the opinions of most au- thorities upon the maturing age of the pullets which is gener- ally given at from five to seven months, about alike for all the standard varieties. But as you will note there is a differ- ence of two months in the time and that is a factor with bearing effects upon results. If you can get the average of your pullets to mature in six months, you are the gainer and the early results will much more than pay for the extras in care and food. Closely observe your flocks of chicks as they are coming and satisfy yourself whether or not they are progressing and making standard growth, it will pay well to keep an eye on such detail and your mind on some possible combination of food or some care or detail that wdll assure all your hopes in rapid grow^th and the earliest possible natural maturity. Late Moulting' Hens Are Best Layers The late moulting hens are the best layers. Repeated tests show that heavy producing hens usually moult late and moult rapidly. Many breeders and farmers have yearly discarded their late moulting hens thinking that the early moulters are the winter layers, when in fact they more often are the drones of the flock. Surely rapid growth and early maturity means reduced cost of production and quickly made gains are usually eco- nomical gains. With the quick maturing bird, egg produc- tion comes earlier and it is claimed to be more regular and persistent. Hens that have made the highest records at the laying contests have usually been very late moulters, they continue to lay into October, November and very often into Decem- ber before putting on their new coat of feathers. Keep the late and quick moulters and it is most reasonable to ex- pect them to be your best layers. Points on Selecting Layers The average breeder can easily select his layers if he will, some find it practical to install the trapnest, which is the simon pure method of selecting the layers. Others learn by EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 33 281 eggs in one year. 254 eggs in one year. All moulted after the 1st of November. Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station 34 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK observation and by tests along the following lines for it will pay every one who raises poultry to spend a little time dur- ing the fall and winter marking the laying hens and pullets. One good way is to buy leg bands. Every tw^o weeks take time enough to watch the flock, marking the hens that ap- parently are laying. There are several ways of choosing the layers. Those hens that are first off the roost in the morning and the last to go to roost at night, those that are found to be good feeders with full crops at night, those that are active and looking for feed and always seem to be busy, those that are bright eyed and go about singing are good layers. Good layers usually have full sized, red combs that are pliable and inclined to be slippery. The comb generally shrinks, becomes hard, light colored and rough when laying ceases. The skin on a laying hen is usually smooth, oily and pliable. The laying hen has a large abdomen, a wide pelvic arch and a good depth from keel to pelvis. The color of the shanks is also a very important consid- eration in selecting layers where the yellow skinned varieties are kept. A heavy laying hen lays the color out of her feet and shanks. Tlieir feet become pale or white in color. This varies with the breeding, vitality, feed and range. Orange colored shanks fade slowly, while light yellow shanks fade rapidly. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 35 CHAPTER V BREEDING THE LAYERS We have as much, or more, pleasure in writing upon this subject as we can find in any other one subject in this book for during all our years of experience in meeting and in con- versation with the thousands of breeders of this country and Canada, and particularly while visiting at their homes to inspect their stock, we found this the one foremost subject touched upon by about all alike. The breeding of layers and the production of eggs is the one favorite subject of the breeders and it is one w^orthy of comment and highest praise, it is all wrong to even think that the breeders who have produced the great winning birds at our national shows only have care for standard qualities in shape and color and a desire to win, have overlooked the practical and pro- ductive qualities of their birds, for such is not the truth. We have met them about all and could fill hundreds of pages with records and instances where requests to publish egg records of winners instead of the winnings was made. We are living in an age of the equal combination of quality and worth in our standard bred poultry, a combination that has upwards of twenty-five years of effort and breeding back of it and the only one for dependable results. The ability to lay eggs is inherited, and it requires careful and consistent selection to improve production. The heavi- est yearly producers lay a good number of eggs betw^een October and November, and these are the hens which should be selected as breeders. Spring production is of little value in determining the best producers. Heavy winter producers are the best breeders, providing they have good health and constitutional vigor. A laying hen should have plenty of width and depth of body, with a long breast bone or keel. In egg production constitutional vigor is just as important as it is for meat pro- duction. Type and constitution alone, however, will not 36 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK produce eggs. There are other factors of greater import- ance, and the ability of a hen to lay eggs depends upon her breeding. Better methods of feeding, housing and general management will do much towards increasing egg produc- tion in all breeds. Some breeds will lay better than others, when handled in exactly the same manner, and certain strains of the same breed or variety vifill produce more eggs than other strains. We must not only breed from good strains, but we must also try to improve further the laying abilities of those strains. The source of the egg is the hen, and since we cannot hope to produce large uniform eggs in liberal quantities w^ithout strong, healthy, vigorous hens, it follows that the logical place to begin the improvement of our market eggs is in the breeding pen w^hich is to produce our layers. This subject, complete, is so ably handled by Prof. H. R. Lewis in a booklet on poultry and egg production that we here publish it complete for the reader's benefit. "Breeding to Increase Egg Production. — During the last few^ years the poultry keepers have been awakened to the realization of the fact that there is a great difference in hens in their ability to lay eggs. We have learned that egg pro- duction is not so much a breed characteristic, as it is a character or trait of the particular strain of any breed, in other words, egg production is inherited in individuals, simi- lar to any other body characteristic, and if the poultryman is to continually improve the ability of his females to pro- duce a large number of eggs during the winter when the price is high, he must map out a definite scheme for breed- ing to increase production. Selection is, of course, the fun- damental requisite, however, when breeding for all purpose, but before one can select heavy egg producers, it is necessary to know the record of some of the hens. Investigations have shown us that egg production is inherited primarily through the male parent. For example, the cockerel inherits powers of transmitting high egg production from his mother, if she possessed it. He, in turn, transmits it to his daughters, hence, in order to breed high producing females from high producing females it is necessary to bring this through an EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 37 intervening generation of male birds. In practice, this means the separation . of ten to twenty females, which by trapnest records are known to have produced a goodly num- ber of eggs in the winter. This small number should be given ideal range condition, and during the late winter and early spring should be mated to strong, rugged cockerels. J ^^4 ¥ ■ *^^^^ ^ >:^m f- Bk. m m Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station Two Barred Plymouth Bock pullets — both hatched in the same incubator, fed the same feed, given the same care and raised in the same brooder. One was bred from immature stock and the other was bred from stock of proper breeding age. The result is one is much smaller, slow to feather and is lacking in vigor. From this special mating, all the cockerels which are to be used in the breeding flock should be produced. A small special breeding pen of this kind will do much to increase the profits from the average poultry farm. "The following facts should be laid down as definite aids 38 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK in selecting the breeding females. First, it is a recognized fact that if egg production is to be increased, one should breed only from the moderately heavy to heavy producing birds. It has been proven that the most persistent layers are those that lay early in the fall, usually in November, and lay with considerable regularity throughout the winter. All birds, with but few exceptions, will lay fairly good during March and April. The winter production on top of the spring and summer production is what makes the high yearly average. Only matured birds, both male and female, should be used when breeding for egg production. The matured individuals are more prepotent in reference to their characteristics, they lay larger eggs, and thus produce chicks of larger size and possessed of more vigor. Pullets should never be used for breeding. Observations have shown that early producing pullets are very desirable since it insures a good fall egg production. In the early fall it is a desirable characteristic to intensify in future pullets. Cornell Univer- sity has found by observation that the late moulting hens are usually those capable of the greatest production. It seems, upon careful analysis, that the moult is governed to a great extent by egg production and not egg production by the moult. For example, a bird laying heavily or moderately so in July or August utilizes a great part of the food material which she consumes to manufacture eggs, and thus does not have time to moult, and on the other hand, the hen which moults in July and August has not had to utilize her food for egg production, hence she has diverted it into the form of new feathers. The bird which moults quickly and com- pletely is usually a better producer than the one which ex- tends the moulting period. Birds which consume large quantities of food and exemplify a vigorous appetite should be selected in preference to those which are small feeders. The bird which does not eat freely cannot provide sufficient material for maintenance and production, and hence is bound to be unprofitable even though her cost for keep is less than the heavier eaters. When breeding for egg pro- duction, due regard for vigor and characteristics which de- note vigor should be considered with those previously enumerated." EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 39 Poultry will readily respond to proper breeding, care and food, the great records made by standajd bred exhibition quality birds the past three years at national egg laying contests are the complete answer to this and they well show what can and has been done in improving lines and varieties. Any breeder can in his own way select his one best layer, or his few best, hatch their eggs separately and in the course of a very few years have his own improved laying and pro- ducing line. The only bird fit to breed from is one that is in good health and thoroughly mature. Probably the best mating is a vigorous, well grown cockerel with year old hens, next to that a cock with mature pullets. A pullet should have laid out at least one litter before she is put into a breeding pen. There is no surer way of running out a flock than to breed from immature birds. Line Breeding and Inbreeding Neither of these subjects have any particular bearing upon the feed question, still we wish to shortly refer to them as they both are questions of such importance in their general bearing upon successful poultry production that these few words will not come amiss. Line breeding, according to Marshall (Breeding Farm Animals), "In really correct usage, inbreeding designates the union between brother and sister, or between offspring and parent in one or more generations. Popularly consid- ered, line breeding is applied to matings of a degree of con- sanguinity not included in the foregoing definition." In poultry breeding practice, line breeding usually refers to systematic inbreeding, or inbreeding according to a defi- nite plan and for a definite purpose, as contrasted with the promiscuous mating of relatives often occurring in and associated with mongrel flocks. Inbreeding is taken to mean the mating of individuals more or less closely related. The purpose of line breeding is to purify and render per- manent in the breed some highly desirable quality or quali- ties of an individual or family. 40 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK In somewhat the same way that the continued use or standard bred males raises the average quality of a flock or mixed breeding by fixing standard bred qualities, the con- tinued mating of an unusually excellent breeder with off- spring of his or her ow^n get, or even a more indirect intro- duction of that individual's blood, tends to raise the quality of further offspring to as high grade of excellence as either of the original parent w^hose blood is most desired. That veteran breeder of pure bred poultry, I. fC. Felch, has to say of line breeding: "Deterioration commences the moment there is no change in the blood proportion in the chick with that sire and dam. It is possible to raise a thou- sand chickens from a single pair, retaining their health and vigor and egg production inherited by the original pair by Ccireful selection and mating of the progeny." The whole art of line breeding is to not make mistakes, and to keep each strain or family alone and to each year create a new reservoir of blood. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 41 CHAPTER Vi BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR GOVERNIXG POULTRY PRODUCTION The basic principles governing poultry production are most clearly given by Prof. Lewis in the following ten basic principles which determine not only efficient production, but also profitable poultry production and poultry products. 1 . A personal liking for and a working knowledge of the poultry business. 2. Stock which is fundamentally healthy and vigorous. 3. Houses which economically provide a suitable en- vironment. 4. Careful sanitary precaution as prevention against disease. 5. Properly balanced rations and a correct feeding practice. 6. A systematic effort to breed for vigor, egg produc- tion and body conformation. 7. The use of proper methods in hatching and rearing. 8. Insuring a high quality in the market products pro- duced. 9. Special care and attention to the manner of mar- keting. 1 0. Business management in all branches of the work. The poultry business is no different than any other line of manufacturing, mercantile or commercial enterprise. The man and the brains at the head of the business are really responsible for the success or failure of the enterprise. The poultry business, more than most other lines of agriculture, is essentially a business of small details. The poultryman to succeed must then be capable of close application to details. A lack of this one quality more than any other one will re- 42 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK suit in a failure. The poultryman must be a good student and a good observer. Much of the knowledge relative to birds can be secured by becoming intimately associated with them. A careful and conscientious application to the work The open front colony houye vsuie view; snowing the cioublH varding sys- tem which insures a contimions "green food" yard when space is limited \u green feeds are cheap feeds when the results are considered. is very requisite. The successful poultry keeper of today must be a good mixer in a similar business and must be able to profit by the experience of others. In studying the birds, their habits, etc., individuals should be made as much as EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 43 possible a unit of study. Recent findings in the breeding and feeding of fowls indicate that the individual must be used, if continued improvement is to be secured. It is a fundamental principle of any business that success can only be continually secured where the one operating same has a general aptitude and liking for the occupation. With this natural interest for the work and with a good practical train- ing, backed by as much theoretical knowledge as can be secured, the commercial production of market poultry and eggs, will bring a good living to the poultryman and satis- factory returns on the money invested. Exceptionally high or phenomenal prices cannot be secured nor should they be expected. A yearly net profit per bird of from $1.00 to $2.00 is on the average a safe estimate. The actual returns will depend largely upon market conditions and upon the quality of the product produced. Where greater profits are realized than those above enumerated, the increase will usually come from the sale of eggs for hatching and from the sale of adult birds for breeding or laying purposes. Sex Element in Egg Production One of the most interesting questions before the poultry- man is "Why Do Hens Lay?" If he can answer this ques- tion intelligently he is in a position to then proceed cor- rectly and systematically with egg production, if not, or has not given this question thought, he is in no condition to ob- tain a large and uniform egg yield. It is evident to the most casual observer that hens do not lay for their own amusement — for the fun it gives them. Any one who has ever watched a hen straining to discharge the egg, or who has taken an egg out of a nest blood stained from some internal hemorrhage, must realize that the pass- age of an egg by a hen is not for her altogether an agreeable operation. No, hens do not lay for fun or to add to the bank account of their owner, they lay for an altogether dif- ferent purpose. Implanted in the core and center of every living thing is the desire to reproduce its kind. It seems to be the design of nature that the species shall be perpetuated at any cost. "Multiply and replenish the earth" is a command addressed 44 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK to planets, animals and birds, as well as to man. So im- perious is this instinct of reproduction, so irresistible, that some of the lower orders propagate at the cost of their own lives. The hen lays to gratify the imperious instinct of reproduc- tion. In her wild state the hen lays from six to ten eggs a year. She lays them in some secluded nook in the jungle, that she may rear her little brood. If it were not for this instinct of reproduction the hen would never lay. We have taken this instinct of reproduction, stimulated it so that the domestic fowl now lays from ten to twentyfold as many eggs as her aboriginal ancestress, but have largely forgotten, if we ever knew, that it is the presence of this instinct that makes egg production possible. Condition of Reproduction There are five leading conditions for reproduction, as follows: 1 . Maturity. — The animal, bird or plant must be in the intermediate state between growth and decay. The desire for reproduction is greater at the beginning of this inter- mediate state, and steadily declines toward its end. This is why a fow^l will lay more eggs the first year after coming to maturity than in any subsequent year of her life. 2. Vitality. — Reproduction draws upon the vital forces as does no other act. This is why the bird feels a desire to incubate after her litter is completed — she needs rest. The broody hen should be treated with great consideration, and not ruthlessly abused, as is too often the case. 3. — Nutrition. The animal, bird or plant must be well fed. Darwin makes nutrition the principal factor in repro- duction. He says: "With hardly an exception our domesti- cated animals, which have long been habituated to a regular and copious supply of food, without the labor of searching for it, are more fertile than the corresponding wild animals. The amount of food affects the fertility of even the same individual, thus sheep, w^hich on mountains never produce more than one lamb to a birth, when brought down to low- land pastures, frequently bear twins." As Mr. Dixon has remarked: "High feeding, care and moderate warmth in- EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 45 duce a habit of profligacy which becomes in some measure hereditary." 4. Sanitation — Sanitation profoundly affects vitality, and without sanitation the other conditions cannot produce their full effect. The hen house should be kept perfectly clean and the birds free from parasites, they should not be crow^ded, and should be supplied with everything necessary to comfort and health. 5. Sex. — In the very lowest forms of life reproduction is sexual — that is, the new life is produced not by the coming together of male and female, but by fission or cleavage from A fine type oJ house used by many poultrymen. Placed where there is suffit-ient shade and run makes it most desirable. the parent organism. But all higher animals and plants are represented by distinct male and female forms, and the more completely each form is sexed the greater its power of reproducing its kind. The importance of the sex element in reproduction has never been fully understood. Splendid work is being done at experiment stations and by independent investigators in the study of the domestic fowl. The trapnest has enabled us to select the hens that lay the most eggs, and to breed from them. Nutrition has been studied, until we can feed 46 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK with almost mathematical certainty, but the study of sex has been neglected. Food Consumption Per Hen Bulletin No. 345, of the Cornell (N. Y.) Station, gives most interesting tables and information relating to the amount of food required per hen per year. The total food nutrients consumed and the cost of producing eggs which we publish here for the general information they give. FOOD COXSUIIFTIOX PER HEN (In Pounds) (1910) Pen Average number of hens Total quantity of food Total quantity of food excluding srit and shell Total quantity of food excluding grit, shell and green food Total whole and ground grain .... Total whole grain Total ground grain Total meat scrap Total grit and shell Total green cut bone Total green food Percentage of whole grain in total food excluding grit, shell and green food Percentage of ground grain in total food excluding grit, shell and green food Percentage of meat scrap in total food excluding grit, shell and green food Percentage of grit and shell in total food excluding green food Yearling hens ' Pullets Strong I Weak Strong vVeak IStrong i Weak I 76 5.17 84.46 62.42 66.33 43.63 12.70 3.79 1.78 2.30 20.26 69.9 20.3 6.1 77 22 23 5.70 25.00 , 24.67 B9.76 78.64 174.64 69 j 20.00 78.87 85.96 76.34 I 71.37 75.68 67.92 60.21 42.32 I 17.89 6.61 3.80 : 2.20 i 18.03 I 66.48 68.18 39.82 18.36 6.63 3.20 2.67 8.86 62.3 I 69.! 61.97 56.09 41.11 13.98 4.18 3.27 2.70 9.40 66.52 67.46 38.66 18.81 5.66 3.29 2.41 10.06 70 19.90 71.80 69.00 68.91 51.65 36.91 14.74 4.84 2.80 2.42 10.09 66.3 59.0 02.7 26.3 I 27.6 122.6 23.7 i26.0 8.1 8.5 5.3 I 4.6 6.7 I 8.6 6.0 I 4.8 TOTAL FOOD NUTRIENTS CONSUMED PER HEN (1910) Yearling hens Str I Pullets ng I Weak IStroiig Weak Strong Pen j 76 Dry matter (pounds) '59.26 Protein (pounds) ] 8.94 Carbohydrates (pounds) ! 39.73 Pat (pounds) < 2.41 Ash, including grit and shell I (pounds) I 1.86 Food value of carbohydrates and fat in comparison with jirotein. . 5.06 77 22 63.73 10.61 41.26 2.75 60.29 10.21 37.86 2.62 2.04 1.94 4.61 4.28 23 56.46 8. 87 37.62 2.33 1.77 4.82 60 60.68 10.15 38.33 2.61 1.93 4.36 Weak 70 63.83 8.45 36.03 2.32 1.72 4.76 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 47 The analyses used in computing this table are the same as were used in Bulletin 3 1 8, and are as follows: Food Corn Wheat Oats Buckwheat .... Corn meal Wheat bran . . . Wheat middlings Oil meal Alfalfa meal . . . Meat scrap . . . . Blood meal .... Beets Cabbage Turnips Green bone . . . Oysti'r shell . . . Grit Sprouted oats . . Dry matter 89.4 89.5 89.0 87.4 88.0 S8.1 87.9 90.8 91.6 88.3 91.6 9.1 15.3 9.5 66.8 100.0 100.0 26.1 rriiteiu 7.9 10.2 I 9.2 7.7 7.9 12.2 12.8 29.3 11.0 66.2 84.4 1.1 1.8 0.7 18.0 0.0 0.0 3.5 Carbo- 1 hydrate. 66.7 ' 69.2 47.3 49.2 65.3 39.2 53.0 32.7 39.6 0.3 0.0 6.4 8.2 5.3 43.0 0.0 0.0 16.2 Pat 4.3 1.7 4.2 1.S 2.9 2.7 3.4 7.0 1.2 13.7 2.S 0.1 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.1 Ash 1,6 L.'i 3.0 2.0 1.4 5.8 3.3 6.7 7.4 4.1 4.7 1.1 1.4 0.8 11.6 100.0 100.0 1.6 The quantity of fat is multiplied by 2 !/4 in computing the food value. COST OF PRODUCING EGGS PER HEN (1910) Pullets Weak Strong 69 $0,096 Pen Cost of total food for each dozen eggs laid Cost of total food minus value of gain in weight for each dozen eggs laid Pounds of total food consumed for each dozen eggs laid Yearling hens Strong Weak Strong 76 77 22 $0,138 $0,093 $0,104 0.136 0.090 0.096 10.151 6.723 6.932 23 $0,118 0.111' 0.087 7.966 1.491 Weak 70 $0,124 0,112 8.409 Feeding in its Relation to Food Value In regard to the influence of food on the color of the flesh, it is said that animal food, as meat meal, scraps, etc., tend to make it darker, and it seems fair to say that this may be true of any food rich in nitrogen. At the Cornell Station two similar lots of chickens were fed, one a nitrogenous ration of wheat and skim milk, the other a carbonaceous ration of Indian corn. When they were killed the flesh of the first lot appeared darker, more tender and juicy than the second, which, however, contained larger masses of fat. 48 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK On the other hand, a ration of yellow corn used at the Ontario Agricultural College and Experimental Farms pro- duced "dark yellow" flesh, while oats, buckwheat, and milk gave a "creamy white" color. In later experiments the presence of a considerable amount of corn meal in the ration with ground buckwheat and pearl oat dust produced a cream colored flesh. From these somewhat conflicting statements it will be seen that although the food eaten apparently has an effect on the color of the flesh, our actual knowledge of the subject is as yet very uncertain. It is commonly believed in the United States that the fat fowls with yellow skin which are wanted can be secured most cheaply by feeding a grain ration composed largely of Indian corn for two or three weeks before the fowls are slaughtered. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 49 CHAPTER VII HEALTH AND VIGOR Whatever your purpose in breeding, be it general or special, for plumage and exhibition, for shape or for meat or for eggs, it is vitally important that the breeding and parent stock approach perfection in health, vigor and consti- tution. Truly no other one question in successful poultry production is of greater importance and the necessity of eliminating all birds from the breeding pens that do not measure up to a high standard of health and physical strength should be evident to all alike. The foundation of all improvements in poultry is good health combined with vigor, and both males and females intended for breeders should be selected with this in view. Without vitality the chick cannot be properly grown and matured. Without vitality the fowl cannot make an eco- nomical use of its food or a satisfactory amount of meat produced. High vitality is necessary for high and strong fertility in both sexes also for producing the greatest number of eggs. A female of low vitality cannot lay an egg that will produce a good strong and robust chick. The fowl's actions indicate to a considerable extent its physical condition, a ■weak bird is usually rather inactive and droopy, it does not exercise or forage actively, it just sort of hangs around for some easy pickings, surely it does not lay to speak of, and if it did it would be a mistake to try and hatch eggs of that kind. The signs of health and vigor in poultry are equally noted in the loudness and frequency of the crow of the male and the constant cackle and song of the busy female. Their bright red combs and wattles, large, strong, clear eyes and quality and brilliancy of their plumage, they have a good appetite, a large crop and are consistent and regular layers and carry that inherent quality of even more improvement. There is a saying that "A chick well hatched is half raised" and vfe believe in that creed, for the well hatched chick has 50 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK --■r ■" " ■ J " I" rm r^fmf^ EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 51 the inherited vigor that is so very essential in keeping them growing and coming to maturity and for results ever after. Professor T. E. Quisenberry sums up the causes of loss of vigor as follows: First. — Inbreeding, without knowledge of the principles of breeding. There is a distinction between line breeding and inbreeding. Second. — Use of pullets and immature male birds. As a rule our females lay more eggs as pullets than as hens, yet it has been proven by experiment that the chicks from hens are larger when hatched and that they mature more quickly and produce stronger and more vigorous specimens than those hatched from pullets. A half-grown cockerel should never be used in your breeding yards. Third. — Increased egg production. Forcing fowls to lay by continuously feeding heavy, rich foods, and a large egg yield, tell upon the health of the females and often injure their breeding qualities. Fourth. — Crowding. Poultrymen make the mistake too often of crowding a great number of birds into small quar- ters and then expect the best results from their flock. Fifth. — Lack of exercise. If we expect strong, healthy chicks, the fowls in the breeding yard must be required to exercise by forcing them to scratch for their feed in litter, or be given free range. Sixth. — Care of eggs for hatching. Eggs for hatching are sometimes kept in places that are too cool or else in places that are too hot, and the eggs are partially incubated before they are set. We should provide nice, clean nests, gather the eggs daily, keep them in a temperature of from 50 to 60 degrees and not hold them more than tw^o w^eeks before being set. Seventh. — Improper incubation. Why buy a cheap incu- bator which cannot be regulated with any degree of satis- faction, which lacks the proper provision for both ventila- tion and moisture, which is first too hot and then too cool; the germ is weakened so that it cannot free itself from the -shell, and those chicks which are hatched are poor, sickly. 52 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK scrawny things which die in less than two weeks after hatch- ing and those which do Hve are low in constitutional vigor? Eighth. — Unsanitary quarters. We allow the poultry house to become filled with filth, lice and mites, which suck all the life blood from the fowls, and we then expect to raise strong chickens under such conditions and amid such sur- roundings. Ninth. — Inferior breeding stock. You cannot afford to attempt to raise chickens from a lot of drones, from birds that are not true to type, from weak, sickly poultry, or from birds that have ever been sick with any -disease, and then expect to be successful in the poultry business. These things can all be avoided, and you should strive to eliminate them. Tenth. — Breeding from a flock indiscriminately. Many flocks contain a great many birds which lay only during the spring season. Breeding should be done with birds w^hich are known to be good winter layers. A breeder who is careless about his matings and who does not carefully study the good and bad points of the males and females from w^hich he is to breed can never build up a permanent or paying business in pure bred poultry. The breeders w^ho give proper attention and thought to their matings for any single season make considerable progress toward perfecting their strain and toward fixing more firmly those characteristics of beauty and productiveness which you may have been a life time in establishing. Even to the very best which most of us know how to do, we are still defying nature more or less at all times, and the hen cannot withstand mistreatment and ^vrong methods and be a good producer, and keep it up, unless she has vitality coursing through every vein of her body. More is required of the modern hen, in proportion to her w^eight, than any other class of farm animals. The destiny of the chick is largely determined before the egg is laid. Most of the lack of fertility and low hatching power of the egg, and the weakness and high mortality among the chickens, is due to lack of vigor in the parent stock. This very fact has brought about the failure of many poultry enterprises. You EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 53 can never produce a high laying strain, you can never get that rich, brilliant lustre which you so much desire on the plumage of your show birds, if those birds are out of condi- tion or lacking in vitality. This, then is a question of equal importance to the fancier and the farmer. Consider the following "rules in selection and breeding" when mating your pens: 1 . Breed only from stock of high vitality which has never been seriously sick with any disease. 2. Breed from mature males and females. By using mature cockerels on yearling hens, or cock birds on mature pullets, we usually get the best and strongest chicks. 3. Avoid disqualifications. 4. Breed from birds as near ideal in shape and color as possible. A "good all around" bird is better to use as a breeder than a bird exceptionally good in one point and exceptionally poor in others. Let the male be strong in points in which the females are weakest, and vice versa. 5. Mate your birds early and hatch at least a few early chicks. This will insure you early show birds w^hen others do not have them, and will insure you w^inter eggs when market prices are highest. 6. Instead of buying ten cheap males and thus getting very ordinary males to head your flock, it is much better to get one good male at $15.00 to $25.00 and mate him in a separate pen to ten or twelve of your very choicest females. Then no males need be kept with the 90 laying hens on the outside, and you are marketing infertile eggs from those. This insures you the highest market price for your market eggs. 7. Use only pullets in your breeding pens that matured and began to lay early. Use only hens and pullets which lay during November, December and January. By breeding from early maturing pullets and hens and pullets which lay in winter months you can rest assured that you are breeding from your best layers, even though you do not use a trapnest. 54 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK , o ° — 5^ ^ C^ o j^ u a — -- *w (H ;J3- 1 ' - o ^ i; ■ '^ w ^ ^ ' rj « a) J2 j ■" g- o a) M !> B cS ^- ^ O ^ ^ ° 01 ^ - S a aj *^ o i o) a o ^ — _aj j3 £ «:■ ' E - i c .S EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 55 8. The only certain method of eliminating all the bad points in your flock is by the use of a trapnest and by pedi- greeing your chicks. If you cannot use the trapnest the year around, it will pay you to trapnest at least one pen of breed- ers in November, December and January and in the early spring months. The remainder of the season the nests can be discarded. To do this does not require much labor, and you cannot ever attain a high degree of success in any line without at least some w^ork and thought. 9. A common error made by practically all farmers and by most poultrymen who use hens for setting is that of using the first hens and pullets which go broody in the late winter and early spring to hatch chicks with. These hens and pullets have usually laid well all winter and go broody, and then when spring comes on their winter layers are set- ting and they are using eggs to go under them from hens and pullets which are drones and from those which have w^aited until the w^arm weather of spring has forced them to lay. He who can come nearest eliminating broodiness from his flock and who hatches eggs from winter layers will come nearest perfecting a strain of good producers. 1 0. Use males from hens which you know positively to be good producers. If the male is from a hen which laid 200 or more eggs, so much the better. Sanitation a Factor in Egg Production Cleanliness and proper sanitation are very important factors to vigor, health and results and should at all times receive proper consideration. Keep the houses clean, bright and sweet. There are splendid preparations on sale for all three purposes that can be used with confidence for results' Your hens cannot lay at their best unless they are in perfect physical condition, nor can you expect your chicks to grow as they should if the coops and houses are unclean, dark and full of lice and vermin. The dropping boards should be cleaned regularly and sprinkled with sand or ashes or a mixture of both. 56 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK The floor litter should have equal consideration with the droppings. Coarse litter is always best, when broken up and pulverized it cakes, becomes musty and unfit for further use. The nest boxes also should have regular attention, they are the lice breeding places and lice with poultry success will never combine to a profitable stage. A regular general cleaning should be given frequently. Dropping boards, etc., should have daily attention. Deep clean floor litter is advisable for all times and seasons especi- ally for the winter season as it helps for warmth and sup- plies the necessary exercise for the birds. To Improve Fertility To obtain the best possible average in fertility it is neces- sary to have all conditions about equally right. Among the positive essentials are maturity, vitality, food in variety, per- fect digestion, cleanliness and comfort, some extras may be added to advantage, but those are the important items for further consideration. The general conditions should be such as to promote the maximum vitality, an immature male or a comfortless house, vermin ridden birds, inbreeding and the lack of exercise all tend to poor fertility and weak chicks. Food has a very important effect upon fertility and unless every element needed for the embryo is supplied, the egg is most liable to be infertile. When fertile eggs are wanted it does not pay to force the hen for eggs, feed her a good \ariety of wholesome foods, a share of them in a manner to make her exercise, give plenty of cut clover, alfalfa or sprouted oats, fresh water and comfortable quarters and she will respond. Some authors claim that there are some kinds of food to stimulate the genital organs and promote sexual activity, with this they usually mention chopped raw onions fed twice a week. Our readers can take this on their say so, onions are a splendid feed at any time and we advise their use as feed whenever they can be procured, they are apt to do EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 57 more good than harm, in fact there is no harm in them. We much prefer our birds constitutionally strong and robust and natural fertility for the best quality of chicks. It very often pays to alternate males where high fertility is desired, allowing three males for two pens, keeping two in active service and the third shut up to rest. Cocks have their favorites, and where one male runs with a flock some hens are neglectd, but where males are alternated all are likely to be served. Many eggs fail to hatch because they are not properly cared for. It takes but little to kill the germ. One reason farmers get such poor results in ■winter is that they are not careful to gather their eggs several times a day. The opinion is common among them that an egg must be frozen hard enough to crack the shell before it is unfit to put under a hen. Eggs should be gathered w^hen warm and kept in a tempera- ture of from 50 to 60 degrees. In shipping eggs to cus- tomers they should be moved in the middle of the day and protected from extremes of temperature as much as possible. 58 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK CHAPTER VIII EGG TYI'lO One of the most frequent questions met with at the poul- try shows, at poultry meetings and wherever breeders hap- pen to congregate, particularly the younger or new breeders and upon which there is even today some difference of opinion is: "Is There An Egg Type" in poultry, and, if so, give us an idea of same, how to distinguish it, etc. ? We can well imagine where the lead to this rather popu- lar question comes from, its interest and its purpose, and w^e are always pleased and thank the person for asking us the question for it is a satisfaction to answer same in our ov/n way as often as possible. Yes! there positively is an egg type, a special one in every breed, one for every variety and one in every stand- ard bred bird that tests up high in standard shape. Buy, own and study the American Standard of Perfection, know the standard requirements of shape and you will then know the real egg type with the quality and value of each bird you own or see. How simple it all is. The standard form is the natural form of each and every breed, the form with which nature endowed it and a bird in its natural form with its standard qualifications surely is the one to back for production and results. Always breed to shape, look for it, insist upon it, for the form natural conditions gave to each breed is the only de- pendable one for best results, for re-production of like and quality and for further improvement as well. If your birds measure up well in standard shape and size and you are not getting expected results, you may feel assured that there is some other fault, it may be poor vitality primarily, or it may be close inbreeding, improper growing or feeding or a dozen other causes or reasons such as housing conditions, etc. Surely there are always some points in standard shape EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 59 that are of first importance where consistent laying is the first result demanded of any female and next to health and vigor with an abundance of vitality we would want the bird to stand strong snd robust on legs well set and with proper length, breadth, depth and fullness of body, all the standard will allow on each variety in question. One author for whose opinions we have great respect states (1915) "that about all the great layers he has seen were birds under standard weight from half pound to a pound and a half each." First note that that statement was A back-yard flock of quality birds should be a part of every home. Success with poultry does not depend upon numbers only, but mainly upon quality. This pen of seven females produced 7.3 eggs in two weeks, 66 of which sold for hatching for $30. Enough to pay their feed bill for two years. During 1919 they laid a total of 12s.") eggs, giving a net profit of $62.50. Has any- one a better proposition than back-yard poultry keeping to offer! nnade five years ago and we have no doubt of its truth. Second, the weight of the birds was taken in the midst of their work, while under forced feed and conditions for rec- ords and when we naturally would expect them to be trained down to w^orking conditions and not in the best flesh for general purpose. He mentions one case, that of "Lady Showyou" the great White Rock hen that laid 281 eggs in one year at the Missouri State Egg Laying Contest and mak- 60 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK ing a world's record, that she was one and one-half pounds under weight. Three months later w^e saw and handled this famous beauty at her owner's home (Mr. John G. Poor- man, Tinley Park, 111.) where she was keeping up a very high record, was in splendid flesh and of as near standard weight as we could guess, besides being a model in standard form. Now let us consider other and modern records. The White Orpington hen "Princess Pat" (Morris Farms) that laid 303 eggs and was the champion hen at the late Ameri- can Egg Laying Contest. The White Rock hen "Prolific Queen" (Wilburtha Farms) that laid 301 eggs and led all the Plymouth Rocks at the Vineland Egg Laying Contest. Here were two more birds of standard size or over and of ideal standard shape. Lately we have also seen the pens of Barred Rocks (H. L. Ober) that for three years have led all others in winter egg records at the Vineland Contest, and they were above standard w^eight, of proper type and their young regular huskies, big in bone, strong in vitality and well show the productiveness bred into them and ex- pected of them. We have no great interest in one special bird or in one record alone, her form alone don't make the egg type only for herself, if she proves good, or perhaps a wonder as a layer, that alone gives no proof that her type and size must be bred for results, for perhaps no other female would pro- duce just like her even if similar in form. Breed for standard shape, bring your flock up to as near perfection as is possible and you will find more regular and consistent layers, a greater flock average, a hundred per cent, nearer reproduction and the ever welcome egg type for best results. Egg Value and Production The importance of the egg industry in the United States has been increasing so rapidly that we have but little faith in the estimates at hand, for in the main they only include the eggs handled through the markets, still these figures tell us that in 1900 1,294,000,000 dozens of eggs were produced EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 61 in this country, or seventeen dozen per capita. No doubt but that this amount has been greatly increased yearly and we regret even the absence of estimated figures for the past few years. Regarding egg imports we can safely accept the govern- ment figures, and we find that in 1912 we paid foreign breeders $151,603 for eggs; in 1914, $1,693,783; in 1916, $6,754,238 and in 1918, $4,541,043. The reduc- tion in 1918 probably was caused by the shortage in the foreign countries. It seems reasonable to expect that our breeders and far- mers should be able to produce the required eggs here at home, the yearly amounts paid others would make nice business for a few extra thousand breeders and we here have the land and opportunities and I hope the willing breeders to extend our annual production to supply our own wants and to become strong exporters as well. Egg production is undoubtedly the most promising and profitable branch of the poultry industries. The chief rea- son that this is true is to be found in the fact that the most difficult feature in chicken growing is the rearing of young stock through the brooding period. Now, as the eggs laid by a hen are w^orth several times the value of her carcass, it stands to reason that once vfe succeed in rearing pullets, egg farming must be the most profitable business to en- gage in. The egg crop represents about two-thirds of the value of all poultry products, and the demand for the high grade goods has never been satisfied. Egg farming cannot easily be over done, w^hereas any other type of poultry production must compete with the cockerels and hens that are a by- product of egg farming. When one begins to give special attention to the pro- duction of eggs, they must work for quality as well as for quantity, otherwise he gets but a part of the benefit of his efforts. Producing eggs in quantity and of good quality, he must market them to the best advantage. Perhaps no article of diet of animal origin is more com- 62 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK monly eaten in all countries or served in a greater variety of ways than eggs. Hens' eggs are most common, although the eggs of ducks, geese and guinea fowls are used to a greater or less extent, guinea eggs being prized for their delicate flavor. More rarely turkey eggs are eaten, but they are generally of greater value for hatching. In South Africa, where ostrich raising is an important industry, the eggs are used to some extent and are said to be of excel- lent quality for cooking. Their food value is also rec- ognized in those regions in the United States where ostriches are raised. Sprouted rat^ ari- a splendid green f<'fM] during ail ^na^ons. They are sperially ret ommende 12.1(i 97 ■ u 7i White of egg sii 2 li':! 11,2 ii r. Yolk 49.5 1.-, 7 II , 333 Dry matter in hen lS.m .^ 6 .'is f) Dry matter in entire egg 3:i.3 3.5.6 2ri 9 Dry matter in entire ejjg, asuli' from shell . . . . : 49, s 3.5 T{« 6 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 79 For general convenience we classify the several poultry feedstuffs under special chapters. Grain Feeds Wheat. — Wheat is most generally considered as the best of the grains for poultry feeding, it contains more protein and ash than corn and less fibre than oats, and if fed alone is nearer a balanced ration than corn. No grain should be used as a steady diet for poultry, a combination of several will give much better results. To quote Brown, the amount of protein available for chickens found in 100 pounds of wheat is 9.69 pounds, while the amount found in 100 pounds of corn is 9.27, or but 0.42 pounds less. At the same time, wheat contains less than one-third as much digestible fat as corn and slightly less nitrogen free extract. Brown further reports digestive disturbances when fowls were fed on a pure wheat diet, accompanied by loss of appetite and bodily depression. Changing to a diet of oats and corn stopped the trouble. The amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of wheat as determined by digestion experiments with chickens are i8.9 pounds of protein, 1 . 1 pounds of fat, and 62.6 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 1.8 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio for chickens of 1 to 7.3. The crude fibre content is 1 .8 pounds. Wheat Screenings. — These are the refuse of the better wheat, their feeding value depends wholly upon their qual- ity for they usually contain many weed seeds of no value whatever. COMPOSITION AND VALUES OF WHEAT AND WHEAT PRODUCTS rches' Pats I Nuti-ient:P*^°?L lies m ct. Pet. Ratio ! 1 oz. Wheat (plump) . . Wheat (shrunken or screenincs) . Low grade Flour . Wheat Middlings . Wheat Bran Mixed Feed Stale Bread IVater Fiber Ash Protein Pet. Pet. Pet. Pet. 1.05 1 s 1.8 11.9 11.6 4.9 2.9 12.5 12.4 0.9 0.7 10.0 12,1 4.6 3.3 l.T.e 11.9 0.9 .■i.8 16.4 10.6 9.7 3.6 12.0 31.2 71.9 , 2.1 1;6.3 66.1 3.0 1 75.0 1 1.0 1 60.4 1 4.0 1 53.9 I 4.0 1 59.9 I 4.2 1 44.2 0.5 1 6.8 97 7.7 101 4.7 98 4.1 90 5.8 94 6.6 61 80 EVERYBCDYS STANDARD POTjLIRY FEED BOOK Com-tesj of J. \\\ Parks The above Barred Rock Hen, ■'Miss Graduate," lia^ to tier credit a sworn record of .313 ess? in 365 days, made at State Collese, Pa. under Prof, GrundhoefT^er, EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 81 Corn. — Corn is the best liked feed fed to poultry, it is an excellent feed and wfien fed in proper proportion forms a good share of the bulk in well mixed feeds. There are two varieties of corn, the flint and the dent in different col- ors, as white, yellow and red. Corn being rich in starch and oil, its chief function in the body should be the production of heat and fat. The amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of corn as determined by digestion experiments with chick- ens are 8.4 pounds of protein, 4.4 pounds of fat and 64.29 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 1.5 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 8.8 for chickens. I he crude fiber content is 2.2 pounds. The digestive experiments made by Bartlett, Brown, and others show that corn is a most valuable grain for poultry. Its palatability and high digestibility has brought it into much favor with all pouitrymen. It cannot of course, be fed alone, as it is too concentrated a feed and is also deficient in protein, but when combined with feeds rich in protein and some bulky material, as cut clover, it makes a most desirable ration. The Cornell Experiment Station records the fact that chickens fed an exclusive corn diet failed to develop satis- factorily. This was especially true of the feathers, which are largely protein. An exclusive corn diet induced slug- gishness and caused the laying on of masses of internal fat. Cracked Corn — This is a form more easily assimilated than whole corn and better results usually follow its use. CHEMICAL C()MPO>fENTS OF POl-LTRY. EUGS ANli CORX (Per Ohiu ) Water Ash ^rotein Fat ■ Carbo- Hy.lrates Comi,o,-.ition of the H;n .".S.^ ' S S 21 6 17 ' C'.miinvition rfthe E ; T M ."> 12'- H * 8.9 I...... A Vprv Fat Fowl . . .'. 41.0 .3.7 19.4 I .33.9 ... .1. Cimi.oMtioii of Corn 10 1.5 1 10.3 .5.0 ' 00 S2 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK COMPOSITION AND VALUES OF CORN AND CORN PRODUCTS Water Fil.er Pet. P BUCKWHEAT PRODUCTS AVater Fiber Ash Pet. Pet. Pet. Protein Starehesj Pat Nutrient Pet. Pet. I Pet. Ratio Calor- ies in 1 oz. Wheat BueVwheat Bncl<\vheat Groats Bucliwheat Bran . Bueliwheat il i d- d 1 i u g ^^ 10 .-> 12.6 10.6 14.0 13.2 1 S , 0.3 |l4.7 4.1 1 S 2 0.6 3 4 11.9 10.0 4.8 17.1 28.9 71.9 64.5 !-3 1 46.4 41.9 2.1 2.2 0.6 4 4 1:6.3 1:7 1:17 1:3 ;.i 102 S3 103 85 101 Millet. — Millet has more flesh forming substance than any of the larger grains — more, even than oatmeal, and is highly recommended for chick feeding. Millet is similar in EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 85 composition to oats. It is supposed to have a beneficial action upon the kidneys. Probably because it glistens it makes it one of the first grains that a newly hatched chick will pick up. The amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of millet as determined by digestion experiments with chick- ens are 6.8 pounds of protein, 3 pounds of fat, and 61.59 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 2.8 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 1 for chickens. The crude fiber content is 8. 1 pounds. Kaffir Corn. — Is very similar to sorghum although it has less fat and more protein and carbohydrate. It makes a very good poultry feed. According to data, kaffir corn and kaffir meal yield about two per cent, less total digestible matter than corn and cornmeal. It contains the same amount of ash as corn, a little less protein, more nitrogen free extract, less crude fiber, and a little over half as much fat. Its nutritive ratio for animals other than poultry is I to 8.8. The crude fiber content is 2.7 pounds in one hundred, and the ash content is 1 .6 pounds. Sorghum Seed. — Those who have used it speak highly of its worth as a poultry food and commend it for egg pro- duction. Broom Corn Seed. — When hulled makes a good food and tests about equal with wheat. Sunflower Seed. — Few poultry keepers really appreciate the true worth of the sunflower. It is very easily grown and produces food of a rich and nutritious quality. When fed properly to fowls it promotes laying and produces a lustre upon the plumage and otherwise benefits the bird. When fowls learn to eat the seeds they become very fond of them, and I have found them excellent mixed and fed with oats. The high fat content (21 per cent.) of sunflower seeds makes them highly prized for feeding birds intended for 86 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK exhibition. They produce a desirable gloss on the feathers that is much sought. Their high fiber content (nearly 30 per cent.) and the prevailing high prices render them unprofitable for feeding except for the purpose noted above. Rice. — Probably on account of its cost has not come into general use as a poultry food. Rice is classed as a fattening feed because of its large proportion of carbo- hydrate, nevertheless it is considered an excellent feed for little chicks because of its regulating effect on the bowels. It is usually fed in the grain portion of the ration. In the case of a tendency toward bowel trouble, however, it is frequently boiled. The amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of rice as determined by digestion experiments with other animals are 6.4 pounds of protein, 0.4 pounds of fat, and 79.2 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 0.4 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio of I to 1.25 for the larger animals. The crude fiber content is 0.2 pound. CfJMPOSITIOX .\ND VALUKS OF RICE .VND RICE PRODUCTS Water Fiber Ash Proteinj Starches Fat Nutrient Calor Pet Pet. Pot. Pot. Pet. 1 Pet. Ratio 1 OJ Whoat . . . 10 5 1.8 0.2 9. .5 35.7 6.3 1 .H 0.4 10.0 13.2 6.7 11.9 7.4 12.1 3.6 11.7 71.9 79.2 49,9 3,S.6 68.0 2.1 0.4 8 S 0.7 7.3 1:6 3 1:10.9 l:.'i.9 1:11.2 ; 1:6.5 102 102 96 48 80 Rite .1 12 4 Rice Bran . . . . Rice Hulls Rice Flour . . . . . ,1 9.7 . . ,1 8.2 . . 1 10. n Cow Peas. — Are very rich in protein and low in fat. Peas as well as other leguminous seeds, contain a large amcunt of protein. They are little used as a poultry feed because of their scarcity and high price. The amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of peas as determined by digestion experiments with chick- ens are 1 7.8 pounds of protein, 1.2 pounds of fat, and 47.7 pounds of nitrogen free extract. They contain 3.2 pounds EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 87 of ash and have a nutritive ratio of 1 to 2.8 for chickens. The crude fiber content is 3.9 pounds. Soy Beans. — Are richer in protein than cow peas, carry- ing 29.6 per cent, and 14.4 per cent, fat or oil, while it con- tains only 22.3 per cent, carbohydrates. Where soy bean meal can be purchased reasonable it could enter the making of the dry mash. Flaxseed. — Flaxseed and its products are rather expen- sive for poultry feeding. The seeds are high in protein and fat, containing 20.6 per cent, of the former and 2.9 per cent, of the latter. It is low in carbohydrates, containing only 1 7. 1 per cent. CdJlPOSITION AND VALUES OP MISCELLANKOUS SEEDS Water Fiber Ash Prottin starrlics Pet. Pit. Pet. Pet. I Pet. Wheat Chicken C rn . . Chinese Corn . . . Durra Kafir Corn Egyptian Corn Millet Hempseed Rapeseed Sunflower Seed . Peas Cowpeas Pea Meal AVhite Field Beans Navy Beans Soy Beans Soy Bean Meal .... Flaxseed Ground Linseed ... Linseed Meal (old process) Linseed Meal {new process) Cotton Seed Cotton-seed Meal . . Cotton-seed Hulls . . Cotton-seed Feed . . Sorghum-seed Meal . Sorghum-seed Meal. Broom corn seed' Meal Broom-corn Seed . . 10.5 14, .s 7.9 7.6 9.3 12.6 13. .5 S.d 13. S 8.0 13.4 14.8 10.5 15.0 1-2.4 10. b 10.4 11.8 8.1 1.8 8.7 1.8 1 5 1.4 1.9 9.5 14.0 10.0 •28.5 6.4 4.1 14.4 3 i V.2 4.8 2.6 7.9 7.3 9.2 I 8.! 10.1 9.9 8 2 10.4 6.9 12.8 13.2 13.5 14.1 H.5 22.6 5.6 44.4 21.57 2.6 l.S 6.9 7.1 1.8 4.3 1.5 1.7 1.5 1.9 3.0 2.0 3.9 3.0 2.4 3.2 2.6 3.1 3.7 4.7 5.1 3.4 4.7 4.7 7 2 2.6 4.4 2 1 1.6 2 1 2 11, M 1(1, n 9.6 9.0 9.9 9,H 12.7 10.0 19.4 13.0 22.4 20.8 20.2 20 4 2 2.2 34.0 36.(1 21,7 21.6 32.9 33.2 19.4 42.3 4.0 23.9 9.1 8,3 9.7 9.6 76 74.9 69.7 58.0 4.-..0 10.4 23.9 52.6 65.7 51.1 56.7 5 3.1 28 8 27.0 19.6 27.9 35 4 38.4 23.9 23.6 36.6 37.5 70.0 71.3 64.2 64.7 Fat Pet. 2.1 2 7 3.7 4.2 3 3 9 I 3.3 21.11 42,.". 23,6 3,0 1.4 1.2 1.6 ' 1.4 16.9 18.9 35,6 30.4 7.9 3.0 19.5 13.1 2.0 6.8 3.6 Calor- I 3.6 3,5 1,'6.3 1:6,2 1:8 8 1:9 6 1-83 1 1:,^ 1:.-|.3 1:9.7 i 1:6.3 i 1:6.3 1 1:2.4 I 1:2,8 1:2,6 1:3 1:2,5 1:2.1 1:2.6 1:5 1:4,8 1:1.7 1:1.4 1:3.5 1:1.3 1:10.1 1:2.3 1:8.6 1:9.2 1:7.3 ' 1:7.0 1(12 8 7 1(18 110 106 103 82 119 147 105 80 93 90 117 123 141 137 99 91 101 111 102 102 95 95 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK -HOWINl.; GRAIN FEEDS ARRAXliED IN ORDER OF DIGESTIBLE CONTENT IN 100 POUNDS Dry i^h or ^ Carbo- Nutritive Manurial Mineral Protein , , , „ . i Value Matter jij,tter hydrates Ratio ^qq n,g Flaxseed 90.8 Peas 90 Sunflower Seed y2 5 Wheat 90 Rye SS Wheat Screening- Sy.4 Oats Si) Millet 86 Barley S9 Corn S:-t Buckwheat s7 Kaffir Corn 84.8 Broom Corn I 85.9 Sorghum Seed 87.2 Rice 87 7 4.3 20.6 82. 3 1:4 0657c. 2.0 16. S .33.4 1:3.2 0548c. 2 'i 12.1 85.8 1:7 1 042^c. 1 ^ 10.2 73 1:7.2 0420c. 1.9 '.J.9 7n 1:7 1 03 29c, 2.U 9.8 55. !i 1:5 0462c, 3 9.2 5 s 1:6 2 0378c, 3.;i 8.9 5 2.2 1:5.8 3 05c 2.4 8.7 00 2 1:7.9 028Sc 1.5 7.!) 70. 4 1:9.7 0326c. 7 7 5 3 . 3 1:6.9 0247<'. 1.5 7.8 63.2 1:8-1 . 3,4 7.4 54.8 1:7 4 n281c. 2 1 7 5 9.1 1:8.4 0281c. 0.4 4 2 72.9 1:15.2 0175c. EVEEYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 89 CHAPTER XII GROUND GRAINS, MEALS AND MASHES Ground and crushed grains and seeds as they come from the mill should not be held long in storage, as, owing to the destruction of the germs and various cells, it is apt to fer- ment. Commercial ground feeds and mashes are properly processed to keep for nriost any length of time. Wheat Bran. — Bran is the outer covering of wheat, separated from the Hour in the process of milling. Wheat bran is richer in protein than whole wheat, and has con- siderable ash or mineral matter other than lime. Investiga- tions have shown bran to be low in digestibility, but never- theless it is one of the most popular of poultry foods. There is no cereal by-product more universally used by poultry feeders than bran. Practical experience long ago demon- strated its high value for poultry, especially for egg pro- duction. For fattening it has not the same value. Its high feeding value for egg production and for growing chickens is undoubtedly due to its high mineral content, as well as protein content. It contains also more fat than either wheat or barley. These facts, added to its relative cheapness, make it an economical feed. Bran is made up almost wholly of the three outer layers, with some of the aleurone and finer particles of flour which has escaped into the by-products in its manufacture. Bran alone is rarely fed to fowls .though some poultry keepers give their fowls free access to a dish of bran, wet or dry, and think it an advantage to supplement the regular meals of heavy laying hens in this way. The price of wheat bran seldom goes so high that there is anything to gain by using substitutes. Of bran, Lippincott says, "Wheat bran is a by-product of flour manufacture and consists of the outer layer of the wheat kernel. It is one of the most popular means of add- ing bulk to the mash. Its chaffy character has seemed to 90 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 91 make it particularly well suited for mixing with some of the heavier concentrates, as corn meal, oil meal, middlings, and gluten feed. It is also said to have a cooling effect upon ths digestive tract and be slightly laxative in character. It fre- quently forms 50 per cent of the constituents of a mash in- tended for mature stock and is just as frequently kept con- stantly before very young chicks without addition of other feedstuffs." The only data as to its digestibility available represent three experiments by Bartlett which uniformly show a de- cidedly low digestibility of the organic matter. He further found that a mixture of equal parts of fine cut clover and corn meal was sufficiently bulky to feed with concentrates and was more digestible and, fdr the East at least, a more economical feed than bran. It may be that bran, like succulence, will continue to be fed for its physiological effect rather than its feed value. There is need of further light upon its exact value as a constituent for mashes. The amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of wheat bran as determined by digestion experiments with chickens are 1 1 pounds of protein, 1.48 pounds of fat, and 24.79 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 5.8 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 2.5 for chick- ens. The crude fiber content is 9 pounds. Wheat Middlings — Middlings and shorts are practically the same substances, they are a mill product between flour and bran, both these by-products depend for quality upon the process used in milling. Middlings being rich in glutin- ous matter are most valuable when used with corn meal in the mashes. Middlings are more finely ground than either bran or shorts, and run lower in crude fiber, ash, and pro- tein, but higher in carbohydrates and fats. They are fre- quently only a good grade of shorts, but should more nearly approach low grade flour. They will usually contain more gluten than most of the grain by-products, and because of their finely ground, heavy character should be mixed with bulkier feeds. 92 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK The average amount of digestible nutrients found in ] 00 pounds of middlings, as determined by digestion experi- ments with other animals, are 16.9 pounds of protein, 4.1 pounds of fat, and 52.4 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 3.2 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 3.6 for the larger animals. The crude fiber content is 3.2 pounds. Shorts are composed mainly of the outer portions of the wheat kernel which lie nearer the starch. The average amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of shorts as determined by digestion experiments with other animals are 12.3 pounds of protein, 4.5 pounds of fat, and 48.9 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 4.4 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 4.8 for the larger animals. The crude fiber content is 6.2 pounds. Cornmeal. — Cornmeal consists of the finely ground whole grain and usually forms from one-fourth to one-half of the millstuffs used in the mash and may be fed plain, scalded or cooked, also as well baked johnny cake. Cornmeal is valuable for fattening rations. The bolted cornmeal, which has much of the bran removed, differs somewhat from corn in the amount of digestible nutrients it contains. On the basis of 100 pounds, it contains 6.9 pounds of protein, 3.3 pounds of fat, 59.1 pounds of nitrogen free extract, and 1.4 pounds of ash. The nutritive ratio for chickens is 1 to 9.8. The crude fiber content is 1 .9 pounds. Hominy Chop. — Is an excellent poultry food that runs about the same as the w^hole grain (corn) in protein and carbohydrates, but is higher in ash and fat. The average amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of hominy chop as determined by digestion experiments with other animals are 6.8 pounds of protein, 7.4 pounds of fat, and 5 7.2 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 2.7 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 10.8 for the larger animals. The crude fiber content is 4.9 pounds. Corn and Cob Meal — The entire ear — that, is corn and cob — is sometinnes ground together, when it is sold as corn and cob meal. It is rather difficult to reduce the cob to fine- EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 93 ness, so that such meal usually contains more or less larger pieces of cob. The water in an ear of corn will vary from I to 20 per cent. After maturing it undergoes a shrinkage. This shrinkage in weight will amount to 6 to 10 per cent of its total weight. There are several by-products of corn that are of interest in poultry feeding. Some of these are as follows: Corn bran, which consists of the outer two coats or cover- ings of the grain. After the skin or outer layers are re- moved there is found a layer rich in protein. The germ is near the attached portion of the grain. The germ contains oil, ash and protein. The body of the grain consists entirely of starch. Corn and cob meal contains more digestible matter than the other straight corn products, but still has digestible ele- ments in nearly the same proportion. Gluten feed constitutes the by-products of the corn grain in the manufacture of starch. Gluten feed is rich in fats or oils and protein and can well form one of the in- gredients of the dry mash. Gluten meal does not contain the germ or the hulls. Of gluten feed Lippincott gives more detail than others so we quote him fully: "In the manufacture of glucose and corn storch, the kernels of corn are soaked and separated into germ, hull, gluten and starch. The gluten is dried and ground and was formerly sold as gluten meal, containing about 35 per cent, protein and 3 per cent. fat. Because of its high concentration it has so frequently produced a bad effect on animals when used by inexperienced feeders, and also to provide a market for corn bran, it is now mixed with corn bran and marketed as gluten feed." The bran increases the bulk and reduces the fat and pro- tein content. The proportion of meal to bran is about 5 3 per cent, to 45 per cent. The protein content of gluten feed varies so much that it should always be purchased on a guaranteed analysis. 94 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK Gluten feed is a valuable source of protein, as it appears to be readily digested and palatable. It should never be used to entirely displace protein feeds from animal sources and should be accompanied by bone meal. The average amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of gluten feed as determined by digestion experi- ments with other animals are 21.3 pounds of protein, 2.9 pounds of fat, and 47.6 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 2 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 2.5 for the larger animals. The crude fiber content is 6.8 pounds. Hulled oats make a cheap and rather poor feed for poul- try, they are a by-product in the manufacture of oatmeal. From mills there may be obtained oat dust, which ranks close to the grain in composition and could be used in dry mash. Oat shorts, another good constituent for mash, is higher in nutrients, containing 12.5 per cent, protein, 46.9 per cent, carbohydrates, and 2.8 per cent. fat. The form in which oats is most often fed is as follows: whole oats, either clipped or undipped, constitute a part of the morning and evening scratch feed, rolled oats and pin- head oats for baby chicks, hulled oats for broiler size chicks, sprouted oats for succulent feed. Rolled oats and oatmeal, though sometimes highly recommended for young chicks, are little used by poultry- men. A few use one or the other of them freely for the first week or ten days, and a very few continue their use occa- sionally after that period. They are costly feeds, still a wonderfully good food and are worth their price for young and growing chicks when used in right and rather limited portions. Barley meal has very near the same properties as wheat middlings. Ground barley is an excellent material to use in a mash, but great care must be taken in preparing it. It is necessary either to have the entire grain evsnly ground or sift it before using, or the hulls cause trouble in the chicken's crop, especially when dry mash is used. Care must be exer- cised in the sifting or a considerable part of the nutritious EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 95 bran will be discarded with the hulls, causing unnecessary waste. Where barley meal can be purchased at a reasonable price it is an excellent addition to a fattening ration as well as to a mash. Brewers' Grains. — In a dried state brewers' grains have excellent keeping qualities and are light in weight, thus en- abling them to be shipped to distant markets. Because of their high protein and fat content, together with their light, chaffy nature, they make a valuable addition to the mash portion of the ration and form a good supplementary food to cornmeal and wheat middlings. The amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of dried brewers' grains as determined by digestion trials with ruminants are 20 pounds of protein, 6.03 pounds of fat, and 25.38 pounds of nitrogen free extract. They con- tain 3.7 pounds of ash and have a nutritive ratio for rumi- nants of 1 to 1.9. The crude fiber content is 13.6 pounds. There is no reason why dried brewers' grain or malt sprouts should not form a part of the dry mash for poultry feeding. Barley contains 8.7 per cent, protein, ranking with corn, while malt sprouts contain 18.6 per cent, and dried brew^- ers' grain 15.7 per cent. In fact, barley contains 1.6 per cent, malt sprouts 1 . 7 per cent, and dried brewers' grain 5.1 per cent. Barley carries 65.6 per cent, carbohydrates, while the malt sprouts carry 37.1 per cent, and the dried brew^ers' grain 36.3 per cent. Buckwheat Middlings. — Are the richest in albuminous matter of all the mill stuff from grains. They are high in protein and fat, and are oftentimes used in fattening rations to produce white flesh. When buckwheat feeds of any kind, either whole grain or ground, are fed they have a ten- dency to lighten ihe color of the yolks of the eggs. The amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of buckwheat middlings as determined by digestion experi- ments with ruminants are 22.7 pounds of protein, 6.1 pounds of fat, and 36.74 pounds of nitrogen free extract. They contain 5 pounds of ash, and have a nutritive ratio of 96 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK I to 2.2 for ruminants. The crude fiber content is 4.4 poundsT Cottonseed Meal. — There is a difference of opinion re- garding cottonseed meal as a poultry food. Kaupp says: "Investigations by the author in the feeding of cottonseed meal has shown good results in dry 'mash, where the cottonseed meal content did not exceed 1 per cent, of the mash. This test was carried on in 19 flocks of egg pro- ducers for a period of six months. There is a possibility that birds will eat a larger quantity of cottonseed meal where it is given in dry mash with morning and evening scratch feeds, but the poisonous properties of cottonseed meal exerts a damaging effect upon the normal physiologic func- tions of delicate eaters and birds of rather weak constitu- tion." While Lippincott writes: "The evidence relative to the value of cottonseed meal as a source of protein for poultry is somewhat contradictory." Morrison found "That cotton- seed meal used as a chief source of protein is palatable to fowls" and further, "that as far as can be determined (after a six month's trial) the general condition of the cottonseed meal fed fowls seems just as good as the condition of those on beef scrap." Bittenbender and Lippincott found in crate fattening trials that cottonseed meal could be success- fully substituted for meat scrap, that it produced flesh of fine flavor and texture, and was more palatable when added to a basal ration of ground oatmeal than oil meal, mutton tallow, beef fat, barley meal or molasses. It was excelled in this particular only by cornmeal." Hartwell and Lichtenthaeler, as the result of a rather extensive comparison of cottonseed meal and meat scrap, concluded that, "If the constituents of bone are supplied, there appears to be no reason why cottonseed meal may not be used to furnish a considerable portion of the protein required by chicks, especially if a moderate consumption of food is satisfactory to the feeder." Jeffrey, however, reports that in experiments including Barred and Buff Plymouth Rock and Buff Orpington pullets, cottonseed meal was not relished and the birds ate sparingly EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 97 of mash containing it. The pullets were slower in develop- ing and coming into laying when the main source of protein was cottonseed meal than when it was meat meal. Bolte reports that cottonseed meal is only 47 per cent, as efficient as a source of protein as animal meal. There is further evi- dence bearing out Jeffrey's results, and the general opinion among poultry feeders is that cottonseed is not a desirable feed. The amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of cottonseed meal as determined by digestion experiments i^=^ B^^mHR^^^/ ^Ik ^^Bl wB^^^Kj^S^f* - ^^HUi mlm ite*'"' ' i''il^S! jH P^' ^Mfr r Freshly sprouted oats should be «■ portion of every hen's rations. with ruminants are 37.6 pounds of protein, 9.6 pounds of fat, and 19.2 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 6.6 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ration of 1 to 1.1 for ruminants. The crude fiber content is 6.3 pounds. Linseed Meal (Oil Meal). — This meal of flaxseed from which the oil has been largely extracted in the process of manufacture of linseed oil is largely used as a poultry food. Old process meal contains more oil than the new process meal, and on that account is more valuable. Linseed meal 98 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK has also a high percentage of the mineral compounds of phosphorous, iron, sulphur and magnesium. It is a rich food and can only be used in limited quantities. If it can be purchased at a reasonable price, or on the basis of its pro- tein content, it may well be used profitably as a part of a laying ration. The old process meal is of greater value as a food be- cause it contains a much larger percentage of fat than new process meal, and is also rich in protein. It makes a good feed for moulting hens, as its oil, being readily assimilated, assists in the formation of new feathers. It also has a bene- ficial physiological effect upon the digestive system and seems to aid in the assimilation of concentrated rations. Because of its laxative tendencies, however, it should not form over 1 per cent, of the ration. It is undesirable for use in wet mashes because it tends to gum up the mash, making it difficult for the fowls to eat. The amount of digestible nutrients found in I 00 pounds of old process oil meal, as determined by digestion experi- ments with ruminants, are 29.1 pounds of protein, 6.9 pounds of fat, and 30.3 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 5.5 pounds of ash, and has a nutritive ratio of I to 1.6 for ruminants. The crude fiber content is 7.3 pounds. Cow Peas. — Ground, could be fed with profit as a con- stituent of the mash. Rice Bran. — Consists of the outer portion of the rice grain with some of the germ. It contains 5.3 per cent, pro- tein, 5 7.3 per cent, fat, and 45.1 per cent, carbohydrates. Another by-product is rich polish, which is a dust like powder rich in nutrients. It could well form a part of the dry mash in localities where it can be purchased at a reason- able price. It contains 9.0 per cent, protein, 6.5 per cent, fat, and 56.4 per cent, digestible carbohydrates. Alfalfa Meal. — Alfalfa meal, if of good quality, is a sub- stitute to some extent for wheat bran as it tests high in pro- tein, ash and fat. But be sure of the quality. A large pro- portion of fiber would indicate that the meal was ground chiefly from stocks which have but little feeding value. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 99 rather than the leaves, which contain most of the nutrients. Alfalfa meal has the same composition as does the best quality of alfalfa hay. In protein content it is ahead of that reported for bran or middlings, but the total food value of the latter is greater because they contain comparatively little fiber (average 5 per cent.) as compared with alfalfa meal (over 26 per cent.). The amount of digestible nutrients found in 100 pounds of alfalfa hay or meal, as determined by digestion experi- ments with ruminants, are 10.5 pounds of protein, 0.9 pounds of fat, and 26.9 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 8.8 pounds of ash, and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 2.8 when fed to ruminants. This ratio disregards the crude fiber digested by ruminants. The crude fiber content is 28.9 pounds. COMPOSITION AND VALUES OF MIXED MILL FEEDS Wheat Corn and Oat Chop (equal parts) . . . Corn (8 parts) and Bran (5 parts) Peed Provender (corn 4.' lbs., oats 126 Ihs., bran 100 lbs.) . . Corn, Rye and Oats (equal parts) . . . Water Pet. Fiber Pet. 1.8 Ash [protein Pet. Pet. 108 •2.2 10.5 11.9 11.5 .... I 2.7 9.4 i:0.4 ! 3.1 10.4 I ... .1 1.0 1.3 9.6 10.6 13 10.6 Starches Fat Pet. Pet. 71.9 2.1 71.9 4.4 71. i 4.0 68. S 5.3 73.7 .3.4 Nu- trient Ratio Calor- ies in 1 oz. 1:6.3 102 1:8.6 106 1:7.6 IDB 1 1:6.5 ' 97 1:7.4 i 106 100 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK CHAPTER XIII GREEN AND SUCCULENT FEEDS TTie greatest value of green food for poultry in the daily ration is found in the fact that it lightens up the ration and makes it possible for the gastric juices to permeate every particle of food making it very much more digestible. Green food should form a portion of the daily bill of fare, either in the mash or fed separately. Relating to the value of such cured foods, Laurie says, "Cured fodders are quite as digestible, if properly cured, as was the original green fodder when it was cut. A com- mon but bad practice, due to greed, is to allow green crops to ripen, so that a he^vy yield may be secured. This gain in weight is frequently, if not always, at the expense of qual- ity, and therefore of food value. The cured forms — hay, etc. — are of great economic value ,as a supply of valuable food may be stored for long periods for use when no green food is available or for conveyance to other parts, as is- the case with grain, seeds, etc." The chemical actions which take place in the process of curing often materially add to the food value of cured fodder as compared with the same when in the green state. Certain proteins may undergo change, and their place may be taken by other forms, and aromatic compounds; starches change into sugars, and so on. In both the green and the cured forms various vegetable grow^ths have a high food value for poultry, and are gener- ally cheap. Par more vegetable foods should be used than is the practice among poultry breeders. The most import- ant characteristic of vegetable foods is their high mineral content. Various salts are essential to the well being of animals, and their importance and value is unfortunately often dis- regarded. Animals, especially poultry, derive but partial benefit from the ingestion of inorganic salts, but the organ- EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK 101 ized forms found in vegetation are at once available and of the highest value. Poultry and pigs are the two classes of domestic animals which suffer most from a deficiency in mineral salts. This can be easily and profitably overcome by feeding largely upon suitable vegetable foods. Clover. — It is very desirable that both clover and alfalfa be cut while immature and very succulent so that the green color be preserved as much as possible, the second cutting is generally considered the best for poultry. Clover is just as valuable and desirable as alfalfa but they can hardly be considered among the forms of succulence for winter feeding as sprouted oats, cabbage, mangles, etc. Strained cut clover makes a splendid winter succulence. The amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of early cut clover hay based on digestion experiments with chickens are 8.68 pounds of protein, 2.77 pounds of fat, and 31.77 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 6.2 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 4.4 for chick- ens. The crude fiber content is 24.8 pounds. Alfalfa. — Green cured alfalfa hay, like clover, furnishes an excellent substitute for succulence w^hen strained, either also furnish the very finest pasturage for fowls. The hay when cured has a delightful aroma and should be light brown in color with a silky mixture. The amount of digesti- ble nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of green alfalfa, as deter- mined by digestion experiments with ruminants, are 3.6 pounds of protein, 0.4 pounds of fat, and 8.9 pounds of nitrogen free extract. It contains 2.7 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 2.7 when fed to ruminants. The crude fiber content is 7.4 pounds. COMPOSITION AND VALUES OF HAY (DRY) Water Pet. Fiber Pet. Ash Pet. Piotein Pot. Starches Pet. Fat Pet. Nutrient Ratio Calor- ies in 1 oz. Wheat Red Clover White OlovCT Alfalfa .10.8 15. S 9.7 1.8 24. S 24.1 26.0 1.8 8.2 S.3 7.4 11.9 12.? n.3 71.9 38.1 39.3 42.7 2.1 3.3 2.9 2.2 1:6.8 1:3.7 1:2.9 1:3.4 102 67 71 71 102 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK Sprouted Oats, — The sprouting of grains, particularly of oats, as a poultry feed is a very old practice and a very good one. The fact that poultry ravenously eat both the grain and sprouts, and further, that they are very beneficial, used in proper moderation, is proof that at least some of the proteins are of distinct food value. The necessary conditions to the proper sprouting of oats are moisture and warmth. Take the amount of oats you wish to sprout, put them into a clean vessel and cover with warm water, as hot as the hand will stand. Let them soak Here's where they lay " 'em" Good quarters mean healthy hens, therefore, lots of eggs. over night, then drain and spread them out in racks from one-half to one inch deep, or on the floor, if of concrete, and keep the temperature at from 60 to 65 degrees. They should be well sprinkled with w^arm water daily. To prevent mould. Rice and Rogers recommend that the oats be treated with formalin. "One pint of formalin should be added to thirty bushels of oats. The liquid should be sprinkled over the grain and thoroughly mixed with it. Suc- cess will depend largely upon the thoroughness of mixing. The pile of wet grain should be covered with blankets and allowed to remain twelve hours. The blankets should then EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 103 be removed and the grain stirred twice a day until dry, re- quiring usually about two days. It should then be bagged in sacks which have been sprayed thoroughly with the formalin mixture each time they are used." When the top sprouts are two' or three inches long, the root sprouts vfiW be found to have become closely inter- woven so that the whole tray of oats may be picked up like a rug and thrown over the shoulder. Tear off as much for the birds as they will entirely clean up in twenty minutes to half an hour. Jaffa gives the composition of oats sprouted five days, water 5 1 .46 per cent., ash 2. 1 8 per cent., protein 4.77 per cent., nitrogen free extract 32.58 per cent., crude fiber 7.46 percent., fat 1.55 per cent. No data concerning digestible nutrients are available. Bulletin No. 1 , of the Massachusetts Agriculture College, gives the following valuable information upon this subject, "On account of many letters received asking information regarding the value of sprouted oats as a poultry food, we concluded to make an analysis of whole oats and of sprouted oats, to see whether there was a loss or gain through sprout- ing. A sample of whole oats was taken, and another sample from the same lot was sprouted in the usual way. When the sprouts w^ere one and one-half inches long a sample w^as analyzed and compared with the analysis of the original sample. The comparison is shown in this chart. ANALYSIS OP WHOLE OATS AND SPROUTED OATS (per cent.) Name of ingredient Whole oats Sprouted oats Protein 15 05 15.24 Albuminoids ■ 1.3. SI 12.22 Amides 1.24 3.02 Fat S.SO 8.91 Nitrogen free extract 62. .10 60.49 Piber 10.36 12.31 Ash 3 29 3.06 Soluble sugars (dextrose) 1.33 6.78 "It can be seen that the sprouting of these oats made very little difference in their nutritive value. There was a slight decrease in the amount of ash and a very perceptible in- crease in the amount of soluble sugars, i. e., some of the starch in the oats was changed to sugar in the form of dex- trose. That sprouted oats are very palatable is a well known fact among poultrymen, and the changing of some of the 104 EVERYBODY?. STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK starch to sugar no doubt accounts for this. We conclude, therefore, that the sprouting of oats does not decrease their actual nutritive value, and that we gain considerable in palatability and also in having a green food." Lawn Clippings — The clippings from a well kept lawn where the grass is regularly cut make a most desirable green food for poultry. They should be dried in the shade and then bagged until used. There being no stems the hens will eat it up clean. Other Green Foods. — Green corn leaves and stalks, green wheat, barley, oats, rye, etc., may be used beneficially for green food when finely cut so the fowls may eat it. COMPOSITION AND VALUES OF GREEN GRASSES, ETC. Wheat 10.5 Gruss (clipiiings) i 7(j.4 Clover, Red . . . . ' 70.8 Alfalfa SO.O Alfilari- I 80.1) Barlev 79-0 Corn" I 79.3 Cabbage 90.6 Lettuce ' 9.5.9 Spinach !r2.4 Beet Top^ . . . . »U.O Rape i 86.0 Onion Tops . . . 91.0 VEGETABLE PEED.S Ul Red Clover (green) CabbaKe Mangel.; (beets) Turni]is Potatoes Fiber Ash Protein 3tarche.s Fat Nutrient f alor- Prt Pet. Pet Pet. Pet. Ratio ies in 1 oz. 1 K 1.8 11.9 71.!) 2.1 1:6.3 10 2 4.1 2.4 2.8 13.8 1,0 1:7 15 8.1 2.1 4.4 13.5 1 1 1:3.7 23 4.7 1.7 4.9 7.9 0.7 1:1.9 17 4.7 1.7 2.,^ 9 8 0.9 1:4.3 17 7.9 ,s 8 2.7 8.0 0.6 1:3.5 14 :') 1.2 1.8 12.2 (1.5 1:7.5 18 l.r, 1.4 2.4 3.0 0.4 1:2 8 5 8 1 1.6 0.2 1:2.1 4 0.7 1.9 2 1 2 4 O.S 1:1.7 6 0.1 1.3 2.3 0.3 1:2.3 5 2 1 r, 8 6 1:5.4 12 11. 1 0.8 3.0 0.2 1:2.7 S ED FOR POULTRY. DIGESTIVE CONTENT IN 100 POUNDS Dry Ash 'p Carbo- Nutritive Mutter 29 ir. 2.1 l.t 2.9 1 ^ hydrates 16.4 9.1 Ratio 1-5 6 5 1 13 1.1 1 1 10.4 5.1 9.5 0.8 l 1 7 05 7.7 . 21 1 ■) 16.5 18.3 Ensilage. — Soma writers recommend ensilage, particularly that of green cut rye and oats, as a valuable winter food for poultry. One author says, "One of the easiest ways of pro- viding green and succulent food for the poultry during the EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 105 winter time is to feed them ensilage, and the birds thrive so well upon it that their egg producing capacities are increased nearly ten per cent. The hens eat the ensilage greedily, and it acts as a fair substitute for green grass and vegetables which cannot be obtained in the winter. The importance of this preserved food for poultry has not been fully appre- ciated by farmers. Where the ensilage is kept for cattle a little of it thrown in the poultry yard would hardly be missed, and very appreciable results will be apparent in the egg basket. The ensilage for hens can be composed of al- most any green food if it is cut and packed away properly." Rape. — Rape is a splendid poultry food and w^hen sown in drills and not cut below the crown, may be gathered sev- eral times during the summer, and fed to birds confined in limited bare spaces. Vegetable Foods Cabbage. — Cabbage is considered an excellent green food but has not as high a feeding value as turnips, beets, etc. Onions. — Both onions and onion tops are relished by old and young stock alike, they form a splendid variety for the diet and have a beneficial digestive effect. Some authors claim where onions are fed raw they impart their taste to both the flesh and eggs. Fed in moderation, as is usually the case on account of their price, they would have no effects of this kind. We have always fed onions when pro- curable. Beets and Mangels. — These vary in composition and if properly stored w^ill increase their sugar content. They average about 90 per cent, water and about 1 per cent, protein with only a trace of fat and less than 1 per cent, carbohydrates. They may be sliced or pulped and mixed in the cooked mash, or the roots fed whole or in half hung up in the pens. They are among the most convenient forms of succulence for winter feeding, all things considered, They are easily and cheaply raised and are good keepers. They should not be fed in large quantities in the early fall, as they have a tendency to cause scours. In the winter they may be fed raw at about the rate of 25 pounds per 1 00 hens 106 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK per day. A good way to feed them is to split them in halves lengthwise and stick on nails driven in the walls of the pen, about eighteen inches from the floor, allowing the hens to pick at them. As mangels are practically 90 per cent, water, they have a Ibw^ feeding value except as a succulence. Their dry matter, however, contains a large percentage of ash. The by-products of beets are now attracting a great deal of attention as poultry feed, but they have not been used long enough to prove how they can be fed to greatest ad- vantage. Turnips — Turnips can be fed either raw or cooked in mashes. They do not keep as well as mangels and no vege- tables should ever be used that are not perfectly sound. Potatoes. — In cooked mashes potatoes are readily eaten and liked by poultry. They should, however, be fed moder- ately at not over a 1 to 15 per cent, particularly when much corn is fed. Carrots, Etc. — Carrots, parsnips and other similar roots are all considered as substantial poultry foods when cooked. We have always had a special liking for carrots, both raw and cooked and believe they add lustre to the plumage, are an important conditioning food and a wholesome one. COMPOSITION AND VALUES OF ROOTS AND ROOT BY-PRODUCTS Water Filler, Ash , Protein Starohe.s' Fat Nutrient I 9*^°.''' Pet. Pet. Pet.' Pet. j Pet. I Pet.: Ratio j '|%'° Wheat ! 10.6 Potatoes (white) . . 7s. 9 Potatoes (sweet) . . , 71.1 Beets (mange^■i^■ur-j zel) 90.9 Beets (red) 88.5 Beets (sugar) . . . . ' S6.5 Beet Pulp (fresh) . , 90.0 Beet Pulp (silage) 88.9 Beet Mola'.ses 25.7 Turnips 90.6 Rutabaga s.s,6 Carrots 8s 6 Parsnips Sl.O Onions 87.6 Artichokes 79.5 1.8 1.8 11.9 719 2.1 1;6.3 102 0.6 1.0 2 1 17 3 U.l 1:8.3 22 1.3 1.0 1 6 2i.r 0.4 1:17,1 31 0.9 11 1.4 5 6 0.2 1:4.3 8 0.9 1.0 1.5 8.0 11.1 1:5.5 11 0,9 0.9 1.8 9.^ 0.1 1:5.5 13 2.1 4 1.2 6,2 0.1 l:,-..4 9 3.6 0.6 1 6 5.4 11 2 1:4 8 8.8 7.3 58,2 1:S 75 1.2' 0.8 1.1 (i 2 '02 ' 1 :6 8 1.3 1.2 1.2 7.6 0.2 1 :6.6 10 1.3 1.0 1.1 7.0 0.4 1:7.8 11 6.3 1.0 1.6 s.o 1.6 1:7.8 16 0.7 0.6 1.4 9.4 0.3 1:7.2 13 0.8 1.0 2.0 15. 'J 0.2 1:6 22 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 107 Fruits All fruits, berries, etc., are eaten by poultry with a relish, the apple specially contributes substantially to their nourish- ment. COMPOSITION AJSID VALUES OF FRUITS WatiT Fiber Pet. ' Pet. Ash Wheat j 10,1 Apples Tomatoes Cucumbers Pumpkin (flesh) . Pumpkin (seeds and stringy part) Pie Melons Watermelons Grapes Peaches I'ears Plums ,S4.1 '1 'i I'C.'I vi.'j S.2 4 77.4 f- ;j . 4 sit.:i 1.8 1.9 l>.7 0.7 1.0 4.3 3.0 1.5 l.S 0.2 0.7 0.5 0.6 1.5 4 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.5 Protein Pet. 1 0.9 (1.0 o,,s 0.4 1.3 0.7 1.0 1.0 Starches Pet. 71.9 14.3 5.8 l.S 4 S 2.0 1.7 14 9 5.8 1.-..7 ■iO.l Fat Nutrient Calrr- Pet. Ratio les in 1 01. ; •! 1 1:6.3 10 2 (1 3 1:7.5 17 0.5 1:7 9 2 1:2.8 3 0.1 1: l.'i 6 0.2 1.6 1 0.5 1 :2 ] :4 1:5 1:14.2 1:8.6 1:17 J :20 n 7 11 :o 24 Whey There is but very little food value to Whey beyond a small per cent, of animal food. If one has it, it will pay to feed it. COMPOSITION AND VALUES OP MILK AND MILK BY-PRODUCTS Wheat Whole Milk Skim Milk (rai.^ed) , Skim Milk (separat ed) Buttermilk Whey Cheese Milk Albumin . . . I Water'Fiber Pet, jPct. 10..-, h7 it 90.4 Ash I Pet. r./leii Pet, 90.6 90. 1 93.8 34.4 24.8 ■ U.4 . . . . : 3.4 3.5 i 8.9 0.6 23.7 10.9 IStarehes i Pet. I 71.9 4 8 4.7 4.0 6.1 1.7 5U.9 Fat Nutrient ."^ '''' '"" Ratio : '",'■ '" 1 oz. Pet. 2 1 3.7 O.b 1:0.; 1:4 1:2 3 ,1:2 1.0 1 1:1 6 0.1 1:8.5 '',:> 9 ■ 1:4 .; I 1:4 4 10 2 Is 11 M 11 7 '[ill 83 108 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK CHAPTER XIV AXIMAL FOODS AND MILK The baby chick as well as the growing and matured fowl is a meat eater and animal foods are considered to be an absolute necessity for both health and results. Prof. Dry- den, considered an able authority, sums up this question as follows: "The hen is a meat eater. Animal food of some kind is necessary for fow^ls to maintain their health and vigor, and to make them productive either in meat or eggs. A knowledge of this fact has done more to increase the poultryman's profits than any other one thing in poultry feeding. The scarcity of eggs in winter is largely due to a lack of animal food. The fact that chickens when given the liberty of the fields in summer find animal food in the form of bugs, angleworms, grasshoppers, etc., escapes the notice of the farmer, and in winter he does not see the necessity of feeding it. In most parts of the country, during the winter chickens are unable to obtain animal food in the fields, especially in sections where snow covers the ground. In sections with mild and open winters, they find many angleworms, especially during the rainy season. But in most sections, if not in all, fowls must be liberally fed with some kind of animal food to obtain best results. "There are a number of forms in which animal food may be fed. Fresh, lean meat is undoubtedly the best kind of animal food. It is the lean meat that furnishes the protein, but there is no objection to having the lean mixed with a little fat, this may be an advantage at times. Fresh meat scraps or cut bone from the butcher's stalls are an excellent egg maker. Some butchers keep a bone cutter and sell the meat and bones all ready ground or cut up. When one has a sufficient number of hens, say 25 or more, it will pay to buy a good bone cutter and cut the bones. The scraps con- tain a large proportion of bone, and the fowls eat these very greedily, as well as the meat. They furnish the mineral matter necessary for bone making and for egg shell making." EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 109 Another authority (Roberts) says: "We cannot escape the fact that chickens are scavengers. They are meat eaters, naturally. Witness their eagerness for worms and insects, or for dead animal matter, if they find it. Apparently they crave meat in some form, hence it behooves the feeder to furnish it. "Important feeding experiments have shown that protein and fats are more digestible when supplied from animal sources than from vegetable sources. Chicks and ducklings fed on rations containing animal food consume greater quan- tities of food and make faster gains in growth. Pullets are brought to maturity, and older hens lay more eggs when fed animal protein. It might be said that animal food is essential to economical production — an absolute necessity. No other food constituent stimulates the ovaries into activity in such a brief space of time. Because of this stimulation, however, animal foods must be used judiciously or ill effects will result." Meat Scrap. — Generally known as beef scrap, when of a good quality, is a most excellent and desirable feed and perhaps is the most generally used source of animal protein and is usually fed from 1 to 15 per cent. If fowls are over fed with meat they are apt to refuse the mash contain- ing it. Tankage, dried blood and similar packing house by- products are not usually relished by poultry. Stewart and Atw^ood report that when the same amount of protein was furnished by beef scrap, milk albumen and fresh meat scrap, respectively, to three pens of twenty White Leghorns each, ten of which were pullets and ten hens, the hens receiving beef scrap laid 386 eggs in 1 20 days, the ones receiving milk albumen laid 228 eggs during the same period, while the hens receiving the fresh meat and ground bone laid 2 79 eggs. This test began November 1, and at the end of 120 days the pens were shifted so that the beef scrap pen re- ceived the fresh meat, the milk albumen pen received beef scrap, and the fresh meat pen received milk albumen. Dur- ing the I 20 day period following, the pen receiving fresh 110 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK meat laid 947 eggs, the one receiving beef scrap 987 eggs, while the one receiving milk albumen laid 935 eggs. Philips reports results in which three pens of Leghorns were fed corn, wheat, oats, bran and shorts in the same proportion. To the ration of pen No. I was added 1 per cent, meat scraps. To pen No. 2 was added enough skim milk to equalize the amount of protein contained in the meat scrap of pen No. 1 . He makes note of the fact that this was about all the milk the chickens would drink. In pen No. 3 no animal food of any kind was given. As the result of two year's work, the following average egg production was secured : Meat scrap iien 18."). eggs Skim milk pen 133.5 e^gs No animal food pen 36.0 eggs It is sometimes claimed that liberal feeding of meat scrap injures the fertility of eggs, but so far no definite data on the matter has found its vsray into experimental reports. The amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of meat scraps of good quality, as determined by digestion experiments with chickens, are 65.9 pounds of protein, 13.01 pounds of fat, and pounds of nitrogen free ex- tract. It contains 4. 1 pounds of ash, and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 0.44 for chickens. It contains no crude fiber. Green Cut Bone — Six very careful, separate, recent tests to compare the nutritive value of beef scrap or meat meal and cut green bones showed in favor of the beef scrap three times and in favor of cut green bones three times. This indicates that the difference in value is a negligible quantity. Green cut bone is a nutritious and palatable food contain- ing a high percentage of ash in the bone and easily digestible proteids in the meat, it is especially good for egg production. The fowls are more fond of meat in this form than in any other, and when fresh cut and not fed to excess will surely prove one of the very best of animal foods. Personally we have fed and recommended green cut bone for many years believing it promotes growth, development and best general results. Ground Dry Bone. — And cut green bone make excellent EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK 111 animal protein, furnishing at the same time much needed mineral naatter, the mineral matter is principally calcium. The young and developing chick rapidly undergoes bone expansion and development requiring much calcium. COMPOSITION AND VALU] 5S OF 1 Pro- HEAT BY-PROI )UCTS Nutrient Water Fiber Ash Starches Pat Calor- Pet. Pet. 1 Pet. tein Pot. Pet. Pet. Ratio ies in 1 oz. Wheat 10.5 1.8 ' 1.8 11.9 71.9 2.1 1:6.3 102 Green Bones .... H.9 24. .1 22.3 16.6 1:1.8 69 Beef Scrap 1.3 8.0 68.0 32.9 1:1.4 164 Pork Scrap .... 0.8 2.2 57.4 39.6 1:1.7 170 Dried Blood .... 0.7 6.6 66.1 6.3 16,3 1:0.6 124 Blood Meal ;>.6 2.2 3.8 74.1 S.8 2.1 1:0.2 103 Fish Scrap. — While poultry is naturally fond of fresh and cooked fresh fish, they also seem to create an appetite for fish scrap when of good quality, properly cured. A good clean fish scrap makes an excellent poultry feed and corre- sponds very closely to meat scrap. COMPOSITION AND VALUES OP PISH AND PISH SCRAP Water|Fiber Ash Protein starches Fat Pet. ! Pet. ! Pct.l Pet. ' Pet. Pet. Nutrient Ratio 1:6.3 1:0.4 1:0.5 Calor- ies :n 1 oz Wheat 10 5 1.8 1.8 ! 11.9 1 71.9 2.1 42.0 ' 1.0 10.6 2.6 102 Presh Fish (general average) 44.0 18 66 Milk. — Milk in any form, either fresh, sour, skimmed or buttermilk are wholesome poultry feeds that should be used regularly whenever possible, as milk is considered as one of the most economical of foods, as all are valuable animal protein poultry foods. Skimmed or separator milk from which the butter fat has been removed, is better for poultry than the w^hole milk. The fat of milk is not of great importance unless the other foods used are deficient therein. Separator milk contains 4 per cent, protein, 2 per cent, fat, 47 per cent, carbohydrates (sugar), 8 per cent, salts, and 90 per cent, water. It will be seen that its food value 112 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK is very good. For use in fattening table poultry, milk is essential to success, and one cannot find an effective substi- tute. It is used in mixing the mash and pastes, and is excep- tionally valuable when the cramming machine is used. Sour milk is preferable to sweet milk, so long as the degree of acidity is slight but pronounced. In warm climates, especi- ally, due care must be exercised, otherw^ise milk decomposes and is not fit for use. The action of sour milk is held to inhabit the growth of many bacteria which inhabit the diges- tive tract. The albumins of milk are prepared by precipitation and after drying are sold in the form of white powder. The preparations are coming into general use in some countries. Some are made from skim milk, others from the whey. Experiments at the West Virginia Experiment Station, by Atwood, showed that milk was worth about one cent a pound when fed to laying hens. Milk fed to laying hens or growing chicks makes better returns than when fed to pigs. Sweet Skim Milk. — Is considered of greater value than all other for poultry feeding, either for drink or in the mixed wet mash, but milk as a drink will not wholly take the place of water, laying hens require a daily amount of protein far greater than what they get from the milk. For reference, we quote Philips who found in adding it to a ration of corn, wheat, oats, bran and shorts, and giving practically all the hens would drink, that for every thirty cents invested in the purchase of I 00 pounds of skim milk, $1 .73 was returned in the value of the extra eggs laid. Stewart and Atwood found as the result of several tests that the feeding of 802 quarts of skim milk resulted in an increased egg production of 702 eggs, where the rations of two groups of birds were exactly the same with the exception of the milk. Anderson found that the addition of skim milk to a ration increased the consumption of other food. Nixon found that during the first eight weeks Leghorn chicks grew faster when sour skim milk was used for moistening the mash than when the mash was fed without milk. The fsed value in this case was $6.60 per 100 pounds. Sour skim milk was EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 113 found to have no harmful effect on the chicks, even when fed from the first meal. Milk is essential to success and may be fed either sweet or sour, but should be fed one way or the other continually, for changing from one to the other frequently causes diges- tive troubles. Unless the precaution of frequent scalding is taken there will be an accumulation of solids which will putrify and are likely to cause nervous troubles as limber- neck and the like. Milk furnishes a valuable source of ash and protein and the carbohydrates present are mainly in the form of milk sugar and easily assimilated. ^^^^^^^^^^H ^••■"^i^B ^^^^^H ft 'g^^^^m^^if- m ^^ ^^^^WmM^ ^^jjpi^*- W^0m^:m^X h :^i0'''^'^. i Courtesy of Homestead Campine Farm The amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of skimmilk (separator) as determined by digestion experi- ments with the larger animals are 3 pounds of protein, 0.3 pounds of fat and 5.2 pounds of nitrogen-free extract. it contains 0. 7 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio of I to 114 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK 1 .9. Gravity skim milk will contain a greater per cent, of fat. It contains no crude fiber. Sour Milk. — Many breeders use sour milk with much success particularly in wet mashes. Sour milk appears to have a wholesome influence upon the digestive tract of fowls and to act in a limited way as a check upon white diarrhoea in little chicks and blackheads (infectious entero- hepatitis) in turkeys. Butter Milk. — Buttermilk is a splendid fattening food and is largely used for that purpose for mixing the mash. In the feeding of small chicks it has special value as a pre- ventive of white diarrhoea. It is also profitably used in the laying ration. The mash may be mixed with it and the fowls also given all they will drink of it. At the Ontario Agricultural College, Professor Graham has used it success- fully as a substitute for other forms of animal food. The amount of digestible nutrients found in 1 00 pounds of buttermilk, as estimated from digestion experiments with skim milk with swine, are 3.84 pounds of protein, 1.05 pounds of fat, and 3.92 pounds of nitrogen-free extract. It contains 0.7 pounds of ash and has a nutritive ratio of 1 to 1.6 It contains no crude fiber. Milk Albumen. — Tests with milk albumen for fowls in place of beef scrap or beef meal showed that the albumen was not as effective as the meat feeds. The price at which it is sold makes it too costly to be profitable as long as beef scrap can be obtained almost anywhere. Milk albumen is a by-product from the manufacture of milk sugar. Some breeders use it for their chicks. It is largely casein and lime, ground to a meal, and contains no crude fiber. Granulated Milk. — Is another product of this kind, ex- cept that in whole milk evaporated and crystallized. Some- times it is spoken of as powdered milk. It is useful for chick feeding for the first few weeks, but its cost is high, therefore prohibitive for general use. Whey. — There is but very little food value to whey beyond a small per cent, of animal food. If one has it, it will pay to feed it. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK 115 CHAPTER XV OTHER POOD EEQUIEEMENTS Water. — Hens when left to their own inclinations would not be found very particular as to their food and water and while the barnyard would suit them best, it would not be conducive to best quality and best results. A plentiful sup- ply of fresh, clean water should at all times be had in con- venient places, it is one of the great necessities for comfort and health, and by many considered the best "succulent" over all others. The hen herself is about 55 per cent, water and an egg 65 per cent, and the layers are always thirsty and want to drink as they eat, bit by bit. Mineral Matter. — All poultry should have an abundant supply of grit, oyster shells, charcoal and ground bone at all times, mineral matter is an essential for the growing chick and laying hen alike. Of mineral matter Roberts says, "As will be noted from the analysis of different grains and feeds, practically all foodstuffs contain a certain per- centage of mineral substances or ash. Mineral matter may be said to determine the efficiency of a ration, in that it in- creases the digestibility of all the other nutrients, especially protein. Besides, it is required for the upbuilding of hons and in the formation of egg shells, not to mention many other uses throughout the body. "Mineral matter should be supplied in two forms, that which is quickly available as such, and in a hard form, not so easily assimilable, but for use in the gizzard for the pur- pose of crushing and grinding the other feeds. A diet con- sisting of a well-balanced mash, scratch feed and an abun- dance of green food will supply the first-named sort of mineral matter, especially if the mash contains either gran- ulated bone, bone meal, meat scrap or green cut bone. The second kind of mineral matter, the hard variety, is supplied by grit and oyster shells. No pen of poultry should be with- out these two products." Oyster Shells. — Also other kinds of sea shells, crushed 116 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK to small particles, are rich in carbonate of lime, so necessary for the formation of egg shells. They are quickly dissolved by the action of the gizzard, hence they will not answer the purpose of grit. Some writers seem to doubt the necessity of oyster shells to permit the hens to obtain the lime that form egg shells. One says, "This claim has never been supported fully, for it is well known that thousands of hens are never given anything of the kind, yet they have no difficulty in securing the needed lime. The matter depends more upon the food than upon supplying substitutes. Grain is deficient in lime \\ hiK' tins little f.inciin- and back-yard breeder loves all her rhoiee Buff \\'>andottes tqaally -\\l11, sie us.ually has a choice extra bite for her bi;; rooster A\'ho is no more afraid tiian ''Eleanor'' is. and abounds in starch, hence, hens that are fed almost wholly upon grain will produce eggs with soft shells at times, but if the lens can supply themselves with grass, and have a variety, they will secure all the lime desired from the food, and the lime will be in a soluble condition. If lime ic to be provided in any shape, however, there is no better source than bones, which are phosphate of lim=, and also soluble after being eaten, which is doubtful in the case of oyster rhells. Bones and clover will provide hens With all the lime required, w^hile bran, linseed-meal r>nd middlings are also excellent in that respect. The farmer EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 117 who is careful to give his hens a variety and keeps them on a range, will seldom have his hens lay eggs with soft shells. There is plenty of lime in the food. Oyster shells serve more as gritty matter than as a composition of the eggs, although to a certain extent they may partially assist in that respect also, but if fowls are properly fed there will be no necessity for feeding lime in any form. When hens lay soft-shell eggs, or do not lay well, it is not for want of lime, but generally because the hens are too fat, which obstructs the process of egg laying." About all the later day writers look upon oyster shells as a poultry necessity and we can best agree with them for the amount the poultry consume is evidence that they are desired and a necessity at least for some purpose. COMPOSITION OF OYSTER SHELLS Per Cent. Carbonate of Lime 93.71 Carbonate of Magnesia 1.39 Phosphate of Lime 0.76 Organic Matter 4.24 Grit. — The function of grit is to act as teeth or grinders for the fowls. It should be very hard, sharp and angular, and preferably bright to attract the fowls. Grit contains very little lime, and very little of the other mineral substances in soluble form; its chief function is as stated a mechanical one — grinding. Grit is usually made from crushed granite, quarts or phosphate rock and come:i in various sizes. We do not agree with those writers who state that fowls on range do not require grit. Grit should be fed in plenty at all times and under all conditions, it is the cheapest of all poultry requirements. The stones, glass, etc., that the hens will pick up will perhaps answer their purpose after some fashion, but not as grit w^ould. Charcoal. — Charcoal is an alterative tonic and should be within reach at all times. Charcoal has great absorptive power for gases, impurities and acids, and thus acts as a corrective when the stomach is sour or the digestion impaired. 118 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK Hen-E-Ta. — We note with interest that several author- ities highly recommend Hen-E-Ta Bone Grits as a grit food. According to analysis made at Cornell Laboratory they contain 33.43 per cent, bone ash or phosphate of lime. Salt. — Salt should be fed with caution, it adds to the palatability of the diet the same as it does in human, it also aids digest'on. Authorities recommead the use of four ounces of salt to each hundred malur^ fovi'ls, and none to chicks under ten weeks old. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 119 CHAPTER XVI DRY AND WET MASHES We are rather partial to mash feeding and we specially like it for several reasons, mainly for the results that are usually obtained by the average breeder and for the extra little bite the birds can get when the grain feed does not fully satisfj' their hunger and demands. Some hens are more timid than others. Some are slow eaters or are apt to be crowded out and fail to get their share and consequently go hungry often only to fail in results. Dry mash hopper feeding eliminates all such con- ditions and all birds are at liberty to eat all they desire. Some experiments seem to indicate that dry mashes are preferable to wet mashes, still both give good results and we advise the dry mash to be fed in hoppers and to be within reach of the birds at all times, also the feeding of wet (not sloppy) mashes in the morning whenever con- venient. The wet mash is greatly improved when boiled vegetables, such as potatoes, carrots, turnips, onions, celery, clover or alfalfa, etc., are a part of same. The vegetables are to be boiled, drained and mashed when the dry mash is added, enough to thicken. Wet mashes are greatly improved by the use of milk. There is always a right and wrong way to feed fowls for whatever purpose you have in mind, and the poultry- man -who does not feed according to scientific methods will never produce the best or most profitable results. Science is only the facts which experience has brought out arrayed in an orderly manner, and science makes it possible for the beginner to profit by the experience of others and avoid the mistakes made by others. The Dry-Mash Method Dry feeding, as the name implies, is feeding all of the food in a dry condition. The marked distinction between the dry-feeding method and that of feeding the mash wet. 120 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK or cooked, is that the "dry mash" is kept before the birds, in hoppers, all the time, whereas by the wet-mash method of feeding the wet mash is one of the three separate feeds fed each day. An objection sometimes offered to the dry-mash method of feeding the laying stock is that if the food is always before the birds they will overeat, get lazy and may not take sufficient exercise to keep them in good health. Those who offer this objection do not realize what the dry-feeding method really is; they make the not unnatural mistake of thinking that by this method of feeding all the feed is kept before the birds all the time, which is not the case. We call this method of feeding the "dry-mash method," which would differentiate it from the "wet-mash method" and would more accurately describe what it is. It is only If \ Wl- / " 1 B J ^t > .,■ H i Courtesy of Whatglen Farms the dry mash which is kept before the birds all the time, and in feeding in deep litter the grain part of the ration lies the key to inducing exercise. The dry-mash mixture serves to balance up the ration and in the dry mash the animal protein part of the ration (meat scrap, which is the egg- making element) is found. The Wet or Cooked-Mash Method The wet or "cooked-mash" method of feeding fowls consists in preparing a mash or "dough" of mixed meals, wet up with water or milk which is cold in summer and hot EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 121 in winter, mixing the ingredients thoroughly, till it is about as stiff as it can be made — till it is a "crumbly" mash rather than wet or moist. Frequently cooked vegetables, such as refuse potatoes, turnips, beets, etc., are boiled till soft, then msshed fine, then the liquid in which they have been boiled is poured back and then the mixed meals are stirred in till it is as stiff as you can make it. Often, and really best of all, cut clover or alfalfa, freshened by having boiling water poured upon it and then covered to secure the steam and let stand for a half hour or more, or all night, is made the basis of this mash. This wet or cooked mash is for the fowls' breakfast and usually is fed the first thing in the morning. Feeding this wet or cooked mash necessitates having feed troughs and these should be cleaned and hung up out of the w^ay after the birds have eaten the mash. If any mash is left uneaten an hour after feeding, it should be taken away, and, as it will soon sour in warm weather, this waste can be fed to the pigs or otherwise disposed of. 122 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK CHAPTER XVII COOKED FOODS While cooked foods as a rule don't seem to meet with special favor with a great many breeders, particularly the larger breeders of both poultry and water fowl, both cooked foods and wet mashes whether cooked or scalded mean some extra work and where conditions are conven- ient and time is had, we would advise their use at least every other day for the savings in costs will well balance the extra time required. Of cooked foods "Henry" says: "In 1854 Professor Mapes voiced the sentiment of the times when he wrote: "Raw food is not in condition to be approximated to the tissues of animal life. The experiment often tried has proved that 18 or 19 pounds of cooked corn are equal to 30 pounds of raw corn for hog feed." A book could be filled with similar statements made in the earlier times. At the New York (Geneva) Station, Ladd determined artificially the digestibility of the crude protein in several common feeds, before and after cooking, with the results show^n below: Uncooked Cooked Fresh Corn Meal US i; per cent. 60.5 per cent. Old Corn Meal 72.6 per cent. 6.3.2 per cent. Clover Hay 67.7 per cent. .53.3 per cent. Cotton-seed Meal 87 7 per cent. 7:5 ? per cent. In each case cooking lowered the digestibility of the protein. In his opinion Prof. Dryden says, "It does not pay usually to cook feeds. Most feeds give better results when fed raw. Starchy feeds, such as potatoes, are improved by cooking, but usually it is better not to cook feeds. In feeding raw meat foods, there is some danger of the fowls contracting disease. If liver or lights are fed, they should be boiled to kill any disease germs there may be in them. Digestion experiments at Geneva (New York Report, EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 123 1885), show that the digestibility of the protein in several of the common stock feeds was injured by cooking." Mr. Edward Brown, the English authority, writes as fol- lows of cooked foods: "One of the effects of cooking is in certain instances to decrease the percentage of digestible nitrogenious matter, but only a small proportion is affected in that direction. Cooking with the majority of foods is beneficial, especially is this the case with feeding-stuffs that contain a large proportion of fibre. If such foods are cooked before they are fed, the small loss in the percentage of digestible albuminoids is more than compensated by the greater ease with which the other constituents are acted upon by the digestive juices. In any case, whether cooked or uncooked, ■wet mashes should always be fed •warm, and not cold. That is most of all important in cold weather. With a cold wet mash a certain amount of body-heat is utilized for raising the contents of the digestive tract to the same temperature as the body itself. This body-heat is utilized for raising the contents of the digestive tract to the same temperature as the body itself. This body-heat is supplied by the food, and therefore, when a cold -wet mash is fed, a certain proportion of the food is wasted." In the following statement by "Robinson" we find the subject w^ell and completely handled: Some feeders cook the mash, some scald (half-cook) it, some merely wet it. It is commonly supposed that cooked food is more diges- tible. As to that, there is no conclusive evidence. A sig- nificant pointer is that the leading duck raisers have changed from cooked to wet food for their ducklings. An objection to wet uncooked food is that it sours quickly. If given in the first stages of fermentation, it does no harm, but too often the feeder, unwilling to throw it out, takes long chances on very sour or mouldy food. Cooked food remains sweet much longer, and is therefore preferable when enough for several feeds is to be prepared at one time. While good results are undoubtedly obtained with raw and partly cooked foods, general opinion and practice favor the thorough cooking of mashes for both fo'wls and chicks, and of the baked cakes many use for chicks. Whole 124 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK grains should be cooked only occasionally, by way of variety. For this a fibrous grain, as oats, not palatable in its natural state, should be selected. Cooked grain is, to all intents and purposes, a "soft" food. Too much soft food in a ration impairs, through partial disuse, the digestive organs, which in the fowl are specially adapted to grinding dry, whole grain. When the digestion goes wrong every- thing begins to go wrong. Cooking is a part of the prepar- tion of commercial foods. Fresh meat may be fed either cooked or ra"w, when cooked, the water in which it was cooked should be used in the mash." A large amount of valuable material may be utilized if cooked, vegetables of all kinds fed to fowls will furnish a cheap nutritious diet, potatoes, turnips, carrots, etc., par- ticularly when mixed with sour or skimmed milk are a val- uable food. Fowls should have plenty of bulky food if they are to be profitable and under ordinary conditions they will lay more eggs than when an exclusive grain diet is given. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 125 CHAPTER XVIII COMMEEOIAL POULTRY FEEDS There are several brands and mixtures of whole and cracked grains and ground (mash) feeds put upon the market commercially by several large milling concerns and grain dealers that we wish to call your attention to, mainly for the fact that in those foods of staple concerns you get a properly blended mixture scientifically proportioned that meets the general demand for a balanced ration that may be fed with confidence. We have found after years of their use most satisfying results and fully believe they have the merit to warrant their still greater popularity. Regarding the commercial chick feeds, Wittman says: "The greatest merit of commercial chick feeds, however, is that they furnish the easiest and safest one feed on which to raise small chicks. Perhaps it might even be added to start them with. With a good, free range they ordinarily supply everything the chick needs to make a splendid growth. They are a safe feed too in that the danger of over-eating of them while chicks are under ten days, is small. They are safe in the sense that they are dry and do not sour and taint, and they do not gather unto themselves dirt or filth for the chick to swallow^, and are highly adapted to feeding in litter. They are easy to feed in that they are always ready." The same opinions may also w^ell refer to commercial mash fees, they are of the same order, complete and de- pendable offering the feeder the least amount of labor, the greatest variety and the best results. But few authors touch upon this subject, in some cases perhaps for the reason that they have some pet formulas to popularize. We also herein will give many formulas for the breeders consideration and trial, but w^e also want them to give the consideration due to the commercial foods that have given universal satisfaction and that are today being 126 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK used altogether by many of the largest poultry plants, ex- periment farms and egg laying contests. In most localities it is usually difficult to buy a variety of grains, whole or cracked as wanted. The same condi- tion, only in a greater extent is found in the ground grains, sJid as no ration is complete unless fully filled to balance, the reader will appreciate more fully our recommend of the commercial poultry foods. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 127 BOOK THREE CHAPTER XIX FOOD DIGESTION We have before stated that foods must contain due pro- portions of certain constituents which aid in the production of flesh, bone, fat, feathers, etc., and also in maintaining the various required vital functions of life and body in gen- eral. Let us here follow the discription given by "Laurie" in a very plain and able manner. Digestion. — When food is consumed by some . animals part of the work of converting it to its various uses is per- formed by mastication, which is a process of finely dividing the bulk into small particles and mixing the whole evenly with the saliva. This may be done by chewing, or by the action of powerful muscles, as in the gizzards of poultry (here, of course, no saliva is mixed with the food, other than what was added during the act of swallowing) . Saliva. — Saliva is secreted by glands having ducts which open into the mouth. To some extent the nature of the food serves as a stimulant to the glandular action, increas- ing the secretions. The amount of saliva secreted by the glands is large in sheep and cattle, but very small in birds. Saliva is a dilute clear liquid of faintly alkaline action. The bulk is water, but there is also secreted, by some of the glands, a slimy substance called mucin, which aids the process of swallowing. The most important constituent, however, is a diatase, or ferment, called ptyalin, which acts upon the starch in the food and converts it into maltose, a form of sugar. This may be tested by holding a few drops of starch paste in the mouth for a few^ minutes, when a faintly sweet taste will develop. Gastric Juice. — The food then passes into the stomach directly with some animals, indirectly with others, and also in the case of birds. In the stomach the food is acted 128 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK Courtesy of J. W. Piirks "Miss Smarty," whose record of 325 eggs in 346 consecutive davs is sworn and subscribed to hy Mr. James A. Morteusen, Phoenix, Ariz. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 129 upon by the gastric juice which is secreted and poured in. Gastric juice contains free hydrochloric acid and various salts, such as the phosphates and chlorides of potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium. Ferments — Gastric juice contains two enzymes or fer- ments. One, pepsin, acts upon the food, in the stomach, and converts the insoluble proteins into the soluble album- oses and peptones, which in this form are diffusible and can be utilized. The other enzyme is rennet, which has the property of coagulating casein (a constituent of milk). In the stomach the action is acid; the muscular move- ments of the walls of the stomach (very active and power- ful in the gizzards of birds), knead, grind, and incorporate the food with the gastric juice, and form a pulpy mass known as chume. During the process the greater portion of the proteins are, as stated, converted into soluble forms, and, in addition, the fat is acted upon mechanically and also has its cell walls broken down. Pancreatic Juice. — The acid mass now passes into the intestines, and is subjected to the action of two alkaline fluids which neutralise the acids. The pancreas, which lies in the loop of the duodenum, secretes pancreatic juice, which is a viscid, alkaloid liquid, and, in man, contains four distinct digestive ferments, viz: 1 . Trypsin, which acts in an alkaline medium and is a proteolytic ferment converting albumin, fibjin, etc., into peptones, but digests egg-white very slowly. 2. Amylopsin, a diatase, which acts rapidly on starch, and converts it into dextrin, maltose, and dextrose. 3. Steapsin, a lipolytic (fat-splitting) ferment, which emulsifies fats, converting them into glycerol and free fatty acids. 4. Rennin, a milk-curdling ferment, which converts casein into a form of peptone. Bile. — The food in the intestine is further acted upon 130 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK by bile, which is a greenish liquid in herbivora, and of a reddish colour in carnivora. Bile contains mineral matter, soaps, fats, salts of bile acids, pigments; the latter are also found in the shells (tinted or coloured) of the eggs of some birds. Bile acts upon the fats and has an antiseptic effect upon the con- tents of the intestines; it is largely reabsorbed in the intestines. Bacterial Action. — In addition to the chemical and enzyme (or fermentive) -action, which takes place in the alimenVary canal, other changes are due lo bacteria, which Seeing Baby Chicks icfumg is a reminaer of several pleasing facts amoni: which we would mention their evident health, that they are iirogressing and are evidently led to their liking. Keep the chicks growing every hour of every day to maturity. From the day you set the eggs plan and work for best results. break duwn the proteins, carbohydrates, etc. It is to this action that the formation of chemical substances such as indol aiid skatol which impart to the faeces their disagree- able smell, is due. Bacterial action also results in the decomposition, in part at least, of the crude fibre which is not attacked by the digestive fluids. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 131 It will be noted that digestion is due to the combined action of several organs, and while it is true that the work of one can be taken over, wholly or in part, by another, yet such action, if through errors in feeding, is generally pro- ductive of serious digestive disturbance. Much depends upon the first process of digestion; this applies not only to mammals with their large supply of saliva, but also to birds, which secrete but small quantities. The undigested remains of the food pass from the animal as excreta. In birds there is no separate discharge of urine — the ureters from the kidney discharge the thick urine into the cloaca, whence it is voided with the faeces. 132 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK CHAPTER XX FEEDING CHICKS With a general knowledge of food values and food con- stituents the breeder is no-w capable of planning a system of feeding, or if convenient, when several broods are had at about the same time to arrange for two or more systems to prove by test which is best suited and which gives the best results. The feeding and growing of chicks as will be noted is no great complicated affair. Use common sense, be observant and be regular and you have mastered half the conditions necessary to successful growing. The other half is found in proper foods, variety and plenty without over-feeding and cleanliness at all stages and ages. There are no great and hidden secrets or system, all is simple and practical and your arrangements can so be made that all will be easy care as well. True, there are about as many different methods of feeding and as many diflFerent formulas as there are breeders, and we approve this condition and advise it for the reason that each breeder should know^ the regular feed formulas known as Standard and then experiment to im- prove upon them and to best fit them for their own special conditions. There is much more to this than some will appreciate at first reading and as grains and all feeds differ, some according to quality, condition, etc., it is very desir- able to have the breeders try more than the one way to improve upon results. Again we say, aim for the best and keep trying for it until it is obtained. Following we give several feed formulas that we have used and that are to our liking, others are those used at the Experimental Stations and still others are the pet rations of some of our most successful breeders. There is a variety to select from, all are Standard, still one, probably with some slight change will prove best for you. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 133 The First Feed Not until the chicks are at least 36 hours old should they receive their first feed. Nature has provided for them by the absorption of the egg yolk into the chicks abdomen just previous to its hatching and it is essential that this feed should be digested and assimilated before any other food is given them. Some breeders prefer not to feed the chicks until they are 48 hours old, and some authorities advise this, as it takes the chick from 36 to 60 hours to fully digest the yolk. Feeding too early or too much is very apt to cause bowel trouble and result in stunting the chicks to begin with or in death. Observe «nd let action be your guide for the first feed. When they are 36 hours old test them, first with a few pinches of fine sifted chick-grit and charcoal dropped in little pinch piles upon a board, next with a few pinches of fine alfalfa or clover and then with a little dry bran for them to pick at. Give water or sour skim milk to drink. The usual first regular feed for chicks is to chop fine a hard boiled egg, shell and all and to mix this well with three to five times the amount of dry bread crumbs that have been soaked in milk and squeezed real dry and fine. This also to be fed on a board with a spoonful to each little pile. Repeat this after about two hours time. After the second feed has been given we would omit the chopped egg and just feed the dry bread or cracker (if not salted) crumbs. Use either whole milk or skim-milk, the latter preferred. Whatever your method of feeding may be, the first food should contain grit, charcoal and granulated bone of very small size and can be mixed with the other foods used, either mash or grain. This feeding can be followed for three days or a week if necessary, but we like variety and aim to get them upon a staple diet as soon as possible. Beginning with the third day we feed fine bran in little trays, and in another one of the several brands of fine chick grain (commercial). Avoid over-feeding by feeding little at a time and often. 134 EVERYBCDYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK After the chicks are a week old the commercial chick grain and chick mash is fed regularly five times daily. Now w^e also advise a w^et mash feed once a day that was mixed with skim milk to a crumbly state. In mixing this we use the regular commercial chick mash and add one part of fine sifted beef-scrap and one part fine alfalfa (this can be doubled after a day or two if your mash seems to be de- ficient in these ingredients) end when convenient a little l'ro],'cr methods will tend to miike a \\-eak chu-k strong and a strong chick Ptroni;er.' Imin-oi)cr methods u-ill assnre rexerse result!?. boiled rice and fine cut onion tops. Variety is appreciated and if you want the chicks to keep coming along, feed the necessities regularly and variety in some extras in small portions such as green cut bone, etc. The Cornell (N. Y. State College) rations have become both famous and popular for their results and we publish them complete as follows: Cornell Ration for Chick Feeding This ration will not give the best results unless the chicks be given range on fresh sod and have provision for shade. THE RATTdN GRAIN MIXTUKK No. 1. MASH MIXTURE No 1 (Formviia -11)2). (Formula 20:)). !i pounds cracked corn (fine). 2 pounds wheat bran. .3 iiounds era, ked wheat. 1 i.ounrl wheat middling,?. 2 pounds iiinhead oafs or oat flake-. 1 jjcund corn meal nr hominy. 1 pound sifted ground oats. 1 pound sifted Tieat scrap (Ijest grade) EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 135 GRAIN MIXTURE No. 2. MASH MIXTURE No. 2. (Formula 204). (Formula 205). 6 pounds cracked corn (medium). 2 pounds wheat bran. 4 pounds wheat. 1 pound wheat middlings. 1 pound corn meal or hominy. ] pound ground oats. 1 pound meat scrap, GRAIN MIXTURE No. 3. MASH MIXTURE No. 3. (Formula 200). (Formula 201). .500 pounds cracked corn. 100 pounds wheat bran. 200 pounds barley. 100 pounds wheat middlings. 200 pounds wheat. 100 pounds corn meal, loo pounds heavy oats. 100 pounds ground oats. loo pounds meat scrap. 3 pounds salt. The Method 1 Day to 2 Weeks. — Grain mixture No. 1 fed in litter three times a day. Mash mixture No. 1 moistened with sour skimmed milk fed twice a day. Combine chopped green food with the mash. 2 to 6 Weeks. — Grain mixture No. 1 fed in litter twice a day. Mash mixture No. 1 moistened with sour skimmed milk fed once a day. Mash mixture No. 1 (dry) available one-half day. 6 to 1 2 Weeks. — Grain mixture No. 2 fed in litter three times a day. Dry mash (mixture No. 2) always available. 1 2 Weeks to Maturity. — Grain mixture No. 3 fed in litter twice a day. Mash mixture No. 3 hopper fed. One meal moist mash if it is desired to hasten development. Further Directions 1 . Skimmed milk is considered indispensable for chicks during the first week. In order to insure that all chicks get the milk it is advisable to dip the chick's beak in milk before it gets any other food. (This can best be done When removing chicks from the incubator). Give milk to drink as long as it is available. 2. Feed the grain mixture with bran and grit in a trough on the first day. Afterward feed grain along in the litter. 136 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 3. Do Not Overfeed. — The chickens should always be waiting and ready when the next feeding time comes. 4. Promote health by inducing the chicks to exercise and keep busy. 3. Provide fine grit and charcoal from the start. 6. Keep the water fresh and clean. 7. Make all changes gradually. 8. Give grass range or plenty of green food. 9. Get the chicks out of doors as soon as possible. 1 0. If the chicks fill up on dry mash, do not exercise and are not hungry for the grain feeding, remove the mash part of the time. 1 ] . Feed moist mash sparingly. 1 2. Feed only good grade, wholesome feeds. The following chick rations are recommended by Prof. Kaupp : "The baby chicks are not fed for three days after they are hatched, to allow^ of the absorption of the yolk-sac, and. are then fed the following for five days": Rolled oat'i N liart^< Rrfiul crumlis S part ^ Sif ,m1 li,.pf scrr. . 2 part. Bone meal .1 part Nutritive Ratio, 1:3.3. This mixture is mixed with sour milk and is fed five times a day. From the fifth to the fifteenth day the following mixture may be given: (/racked wheat 3 part.s t'r;u-ked coTn (fine) 2 part.s riu-head oatmeal 1 part Natritive Ratio, 1:7.4. This feed is to be scattered in a litter morning and evening. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 137 The following mixture is to be given, mixed with sour milk, three times a day, in addition to the above. At the end of fifteen days it is fed only twice a day: Wheat bran 3 parts Corn meal H part i Wheat middlings o parts Beef scrap 3 parts Bone meal 1 part Nutritive Ratio, ] :2.4. After the chicks are thirty days old give moist mash once a day, and also keep same mash in dry hoppers before them at all times. Give the following in litter morning and evening: Whole wheat 3 parts Cracked corn 2 parts Hnlled oats ■ L part Nutritive Katio. 1:7.0. After the chicks are six weeks old continue the dry mash as above, and give whole wheat and cracked corn, equal parts, in hopper. Small-sized grit and charcoal must be kept before them at all times. The rations recommended by the N. J. State Experiment Station is as follows: First Eighteen Hours in Brooder. — Grit, shell and water, with short-cut alfalfa and sand on the brooder floor. The Day Following. — Pin-head oats or oatmeal, three feedings. The Next Five Days. — Feed the following cracked grain ration, on the brooder floor, five times daily, feeding what they w^ill clean up between feedings: 40 pounds cracked corn; 40 pounds cracked wheat; 20 pounds pin-head oats. 'Supplemental to this ration, hard-boiled eggs once daily, sprouted oat tops, twice daily (small amounts) may be fed. Seventh Day. — Start feeding wheat bran in small hop- pers, leaving it before the chicks two hours, and omit the noon grain feeding. Eighth to Fourteenth Day. — Bran all the time in hopper;, and cracked grain four times daily. 138 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK Second to Eighth Week. — Keep the following dry mash always before them and feed cracked grain three times — morning, noon and night. CHICK DRY JrA-S^H Kinds (if Food. Amount. M'heat la-an .50 pounds. Gluten feed 10 pounds. Corn meal 10 pounds. Ground oats 10 pounds. Beef scrap 10 pounds. Granulate'! bone 10 pounds. Total 100 pounds. The Oregon Station method as given by Prof. Dryden is as follows: STARTIX(; FOOD GRAIX JUXTCRK MASH JITXTURE Bran mixed rrumbly 1 llj. tracl^ed A\lipat. ?< lbs. wheat bnn. with s,.ft-boiled e;^^; 1 lb. cracked corn. 1 lb. wheat middlings or stale bread squeezed or shorts, dry out of milk. 1 lb. corn raeal. Pinch of ■ ait added when mixing. First Feeding Time (24 to 36 Hours of Age) First Week. — Starting food twice a day ; grain mixture three times a day on clean sand; after two or three days, grain in litter; clean w^ater; grit, charcoal, cracked bone, in separate dishes; green food. One to Three Weeks. — One feed a day of moist mash, what they will clean up in an hour; grain mixture in litter two or three times a day; grit, charcoal, cracked bone, and beef scrap in hoppers; water; green food. Three to Six Weeks. — Morning feed of moist mash; two feeds of grain mixture; dry middlings in a hopper, if signs of diarrhoea appear; hopper-fed beef scrap; water, grit, charcoal, cracked bone, always available; milk to drink; green food. After Six Weeks or On Range. — Morning meal of moist mash; two feeds of grain mixture; milk (or beef scrap), charcoal, grit, bone, water. Oats may be added to the grain mixture, if desired; the proportion of wheat may be increased or decreased as it becomes lower or higher in price than corn. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 139 Maine Station Method STARTING FOOD. 4 ;iounds wheat bi-u'^. 3^/2 pounds corn meal. 2 pounds screenerl beef scmiJ. 1 pound alfalfa meal. % pound linseed meal. MASH MIXTURE No. 1. 2 pounds wheat liraii. 3 pounds corn meal. 1 pound Paisjy flour (or other grade Hour. 1 pound ferreoTied beef scrap. Vz pound linseed meal. low- I GRAIN MTXTIRK ]jounds cracked wlii'a:.. pounds pin li, jid oatmeal, pounds fine crackc-l loni. jjounds fine cra'-ked peas, ]iounds broken lice. iicuuds cl'ick pnt. pounds charcoal. MASH MIXTURE No. 2. pound wheat br.m. uoiMids corn nicai. pound wheat middlings. pound beef scrap. First Feeding Tiir.e (36 to 48 Hours) To Three Weeks. — Two feeds of starting food, scalded and mixed with rolled oats, two parts of oats to six of Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station. Infertile eggs boiled hard and then crushed or ground and mixed with rolled cats or dry bread crumbs makes a s])lendid food for the young chicks. mixture; two feeds of grain mixture in light litter; green food ; fine grit, charcoal, cracked bone, and clean water always before the chicks. Three to Six Weeks. — Substitute mash mixture No. 1 (m:ist) for the starting food; otherwise as above. On Rarge. (After six or eight weeks). — Constant 140 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK supply of wheat, cracked corn, beef scrap, cracked bone, oyster shell and grit in separate troughs or hoppers; hopper- fed mash mixture No. 2. Ontario Agricultural College Ration STARTINa POOD. GRAIN MIXTURE. HASH MIXTURE. 4 lbs. liread crumbp 30 lbs. crackerl ■\-'heat. 30 lbs. wheat bran. 1 lb. hard boiled egg. 30 lbs. granulated oat- 10 lbs. shorts. Fed dry. meal. ID lbs. corn meal. iJO lbs. iino cracked 3 lbs. animal meal. eorii. IC lbs. small grit. First Feeding Time (24 to 48 Hours) First Two Days. — Starting food, fed five times a day; lukewarm water to drink. After Two Days. — Three feeds of grain mixture, with one of bread and milk, and one of whole wheat; or with two feeds of moist mash; fresh boiled liver twice a week, if obtainable — in that case, animal meal omitted from the mash; for chicks on range with the hens, the grain mixture may be hopper-fed. After Eight Weeks. — Moist mash in the morning; grain noon and night. An increase in the proportion of animal food will hasten the development of the chicks. Indiana State Method SCRATCH GRAINS. DRY MASH. Pounds Pounds. Cracked corn (sifted) 10 Wlieat Uan 10 Wheat (cracked) 10 Middlings 10 Oats 10 Corn meal 6 Meat scrap 5 Charcoal 2.5 Plenty of sour milk or buttermilk to drink. If milk is not available, the meat scrap may be increased to 1 5 pounds in the mash. Scratch grains are fed in litter from the first. The mash is supplied in a hopper when the chicks are five to seven days old. The Wisconsin Station Bulletin No. 261 gives their method as follows: "Chicks are given sour skim milk in a small metal dish EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 141 when they are twenty-four hours old. This is kept before them until they are about seventy-two hours old, when they are given good, sweet chick feed in a litter of chopped clover or alfalfa. This chick feed is scattered over the litter at least five times a day. The following day, and the day after, they are given a very light feed of moist mash made up of equal parts of corn meal, rolled oats, bran and middlings. This is moistened with sour milk. Any mash that is not eaten after fifteen or twenty minutes is removed. This method of feeding is continued until the chicks are three •weeks old when the rolled oats are grad- ually dropped from the ration. At about this time whole wheat and medium cracked corn is added to the chick feed. The amount of cracked corn and wheat is increased as rapidly as the chicks learn to eat it. As soon as the chicks show a willingness to eat the coarser feed the fine feed is omitted." If you consider the remarkable growth made by the chicks during their first month you will better appreciate the necessity of giving them proper feed and regular attention. The chick should double its weight in the first five or six days and under normal conditions it should be made to weigh two and a half pounds in three months, which is more than twenty-five times its original weight. Let me here add that personally 1 am especially fond of feeding the chicks all the dry bran they will eat and keep a separate tray of bran set in a special place for them at all times. Rice usually is rather expensive, still it is a wonderful food and makes a splendid variety food. My chicks get a feed of boiled rice every day or two mixed with a small portion of finely chopped lean meat or fine green cut bone. Deep Litter Feedmg Early hatched chicks and all those that are raised in- doors to some extent should be fed their grain food in pens 142 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK with from five to eight inches of short cut litter upon the floor. Deep litter feeding is generally recommended for the exercise it affords. We have noted its results personally and advise it for this plan of work-or-go-hungry is the best stimulent for a sturdy chick that can be given. One breeder who has followed this plan for years, said that deep litter fed chicks grow a longer body, sturdier frame and legs, are better feathered, are healthier and possess greater vitality. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 143 CHAPTER XXI FEEDING THE GROWING CHICK From the beginning of chick feeding your aim should be to induce a continuous growth, to keep them coming right along without a stop or setback due to improper feeding or care which would result in irregular maturity and a great lack of uniformity, both of which would result in very un- satisfactory results. When the chicks are placed upon range their proper growing is a comparatively easy task, for with your system arranged and regularly followed, they will come surpris- ingly fast, but where chicks are yarded more care is required and all the little extras supplied, and a w^atchful eye kept on them to avoid setbacks that are apt to come. When the chicks have range they will naturally take all the required exercise needed and their feeding is not a com- plicated question. They should have food before them all the time so they may balance their own rations. Feed them a well balanced dry mash in self-feeding hoppers and sup- plement the mash with a liberal cracked grain ration that can be scattered about the range. A splendid dry mash ration for this purpose is as follows: "Wheat bran 50 pounds. Gluten feed 10 pounds. Corn meal 10 pounds. Ground oats 10 pounds. Beef scraps 10 pounds. Granulated bone 10 pounds. The cracked grain ration should be equal parts of cracked com and whole wheat. Of this ration which is recom- mended by Prof. Lewis he says: "This method of feeding will allow the chicks to balance their own rations and ■will give the w^eaker ones a constant supply to which they can have access w^hen they are crowded away at grain feeding time by the larger ones. Dry mash in self-feeding hoppers will tend to equalize growth and produce a more uniform flock at maturity, while the feeding of cracked grains en- tirely will tend to exaggerate and constantly increase any 144 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK difference in size which may exist. Large self-feeding hop- pers, holding from 200 to 300 pounds of mash, can be constructed and placed at frequent intervals around the range. This will facilitate the feeding and make the mash available to all the chicks. Care at Maturity. — Where possible, it is a good practice to place the pullets in their laying quarters at least one month before the flock is expected to gain maturity, for tw^o reasons: First. — Birds are especially susceptible to changes of environment. By giving them time to get acquainted with their future home, retardation in growth is avoided. Second. — If for any reason a maturity is delayed, it is quite possible, by having the birds closely under observa- Cjartesv u- the tlillvt'W Fii lu A oornfieUl makes a splendid range for young and throwing siu( k. ufl'erin.; both shade and piuietiiuu tion, to hasten or retard their ultimate maturity by the feed- ing of forcing or retarding mashes. In this way it is possible to bring late hatched birds to maturity from three to five weeks earlier." EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK 145 In connection with this let me call attention to the New York State formula No. 3 (in previous chapter) which is for this same purpose. It is a nearer balanced ration and to our idea, with excellent promise. Either of those dry mashes mixed with milk or water to a crumbly state would make an excellent change and one of advantage in results. The addition of fine cut clover or alfalfa and of cooked vegetables w^ould also show results. In one section East we found several breeders feeding cracked corn that had been soaked ten to fifteen hours in skim milk to their growing stock, this was in addition to dry mash feeding and was the only grain fed and we must admit that for size and weight, with health and vitality they were as fine as any we have ever seen grown for market purposes. It also is a regular habit with many breeders to feed green cut bone to the growing stock once or twice weekly. Tlie feeds are light and limited and in this way are com- mended and are productive of results. Chicks that are c;rcwn in yards require an added amount of green foods, plei.ty of grit and shells and charcoal, they want all the little extras and as much variety as can be procured. We consider the experience Prof. Quisenberry has had in growing stock and feeding layers and know him to be a safe man to follow, so we will here give his formula and advice as follows: "When the chicks have reached the age of six weeks we then place a dry mash before them com- posed of two parts bran, one part shorts and one part corn-meal. This is placed in a hopper. It is also a good idea to mix a little fine charcoal in this ground feed, also a half pound of fine salt to every 1 00 pounds of the mix- ture. This mash is used until they are fully matured. From the time the chicks are six weeks old until maturity you can feed them equal parts cracked corn and wheat, fed in hoppers. If you cannot furnish your chicks with the sour milk or buttermilk it may be necessary for you to add one- half part of high grade dry beef scraps to the dry mash if 146 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK your chicks haven't free range and do not get a liberal supply of bugs and worms. "Look out for lice and mites. Keep the coops, hovers and houses clean. Don't let the drinking pans go dry. Keep the chicks active and growing. There is no better place on a farm to grow them than along the edge of the cornfield. Pull your coops and colony houses there this season and give it a trial. The chicks will follow the culti- vators across the field, consume many injurious insects and worms, and will grow strong and husky. "There are many other ways of feeding baby chicks and growing stock. Some feed all they will eat from the day they are hatched and have good success. Some put enough feed on the bottom of the brooder to last the chicks ten days. They bury the feed in a litter of alfalfa and grit and let the chicks dig it out as they need it. Others feed nothing but corn chop or cracked corn. Others do not give a thing to drink for ten days- — simply moisten a mash and the chicks are compelled to do v/ithout water or milk. Others give a big feed of grit at the very beginning and let the chicks fill up on that first. Other things equally as radical are practiced by farmers and poultry raisers, and some of them succeed with such methods, but they are not safe or practical for the average person. If you can suc- ceed with any method of starting and feeding baby chicks, you can succeed with the method which we have outlined and recommended above. Don't let someone lead you off on some impractical theory." Most of the feed manufacturers realized long ago that there was a demand for a growing feed and have supplied this in both grains and mash. The grain is in size between the chick and regular scratch food size and is very con- venient and dependable for use. For those who prefer to mix their own growing feeds we suggest this additional formula: 2IIII ]iounils red wlieat, 2(1(1 pounds coarsi' cracked corn. 200 jiniuids hulled oats. 50 rounds cf-arse beef .scraps. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 147 Red wheat is considered superior to soft white wheat and only old wheat should be used for chicks. Hulled oat3 are a most valuable food to grow large, big-framed chick- ens. When the variety can be obtained the following will show fine results: 200 pounds old wheat. 100 pounds cracked corn. 100 pounds kaffir corn. 100 pounds hulled oats. .'>0 pounds whole oats. r>0 pounds buckwheat. 50 pounds coarse beef scrap.s. Feeding additional beef scraps if they show a disposition for it or feeding beef scraps separately in hoppers. For a dry mash the formula is as follows: 300 pounds corn meal. 200 pounds middlings. 100 pounds gluten meal. 200 pounds bran. 100 pounds alfalfa meal. 100 pounds beef scraps. Regarding a special wet mash for growing chicks "Wit- man" says: "A lot of large husky chicks will make love to a surprising amount of a wet mash they like." The formula for this is: 200 pounds finely ground oats. 200 pounds middlings. 300 pounds bran. 100 pounds fine or screened beef si ra]». Mixed with boiling water and allowed to cool, the mixing of this mash is made part of the routine of the morning w^ork. Mixed with either hot or cold skim milk will add to its value. Hopper Feeding The use of hoppers for feeding both grain and dry mash after the chicks are six weeks old is a good practice. By this time they are usually placed out on free range in coops or colony houses provided for that purpose. If you continue to feed the chicks by hand when you open the house each morning to let them out, they ■will wait and follow^ you and beg you to feed them. They fill up on grain or feed you give them. They then sit around and wait until the noon feed, and just so at night again. The result is that they follow around after you every time you 148 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK come in sight, and they are never satisfied or contented and do not hustle and get the exercise or develop as they should. But if you place the feed all in hoppers when you turn them out of the coops and hovers each morning, they pay no more attention to you than if you were not there. They rush by you and on by the hoppers containing the feed and out into the clover or cornfield or orchard in search of worms, bugs, etc. They soon learn that the food is always there when they w^ant it, and they also learn that the "early bird catches the worm," and they go in search of them first. They then come back to the hoppers and fill up on grain and dry mash. But if you hand-feed, unless you are an expert, the chicks fill up on your feed and then sit in the shade of a tree until they see you coming in sight again. The chicks know more about their wants than does the average inexperienced person who attempts to raise poultry. For this reason we think your results will be far more satisfactory if you feed the ration recommended above for growing stock, and feed it in a hopper and allow the chicks to help themselves after they are six weeks old. By actual test they do not eat any more where they are hopper-fed than where they are hand-fed. Here just let me add — feed sprouted oats as often and as long as you can. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK 149 CHAPTER XXII FEEDING THE BROILER Chickens intended for broilers are reared with the rest of the chickens until a short time before they are marketed. Under proper management the chickens will grow rapidly. When they weigh about one pound each they should be put into small yards or pens, though care should be taken to avoid over-crowding. Where a large number of broilers are being fattened, they may be put in fattening crates. At this age they will tend to grow more than to fatten, but a little fattening food while in confinement will produce more meat and the quality will be improved. The first feed given after they are confined should be their growing ration while on range. This should be gradually changed to a more fattening ration. A good ration con- sists of equal parts oatmeal feed, cornmeal and ground buckwheat, to w^hich has been added ten per cent, of beef scraps; that is, the ration would contain: Oatmeal feed 30 pound-;. Ground buckwheat 30 pounds. Beef scraps 10 pounds. Total 100 pounds. These ground grains should be thoroughly mixed and then moistened with sour milk. The wet mash is fed in troughs twice each day, giving the broilers all they will eat at each feeding. If sour skim-milk is not available, water may be used. Low grade flour or wheat middlings may be substituted for the ground buckw^heat. It usually takes from fourteen to perhaps eighteen days to finish a broiler properly when rather closely penned and well fed on a soft mash of the consistency of pancake batter. Clean out the pen leaving no litter on the floor and remove the dry mash hopper but supply hopper with beef scrap and grit. The mash feed can be some com- mercial brand, the one given above or a home mixed one as follows: 150 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK Corn meal 300 pounds. Middlings 100 pounds. Cut clover or alfalfa 25 pounds. Meat scrap 25 pounds. Charcoal 10 pounds. Buttermilk seems to have the preference among the breeders for fattening purposes and is especially com- mended in finishing broilers, to be mixed with either of the above rations. Next sour skim milk is preferred but care should be taken not to have it too sour. A very successful breeder has this to say regarding the finishing of broilers: "A fat broiler is quite a rarity; the best that can be done, in general, is to have it plump, for the natural tendency of the chick is to use all nutriment for growth and development. When the birds are nearly large enough for the market they should be given all the fattening feed they will eat, and for this purpose corn in various forms should be fed freely. They will digest more feed if fed ground than if whole or cracked. A moistened maeh consisting of about tw^o-thirds cornmeal and one-third bran by bulk is good. Cooked potatoes are good, and milk, with a little sugar added, will hasten fattening. Broilers may be sold alive or dressed according to the demands of the market to which they are to be shipped. Feeding Fryers and Rcasters A fryer is a chicken somewhat older than a large broiler and weighing usually from two and one-half to three and one-half pounds dressed. It has more meat in proportion to the total body weight than a broiler and is suitable for frying. Their summer treatment is much the same as for broilers. The great bulk of surplus stock is sold as roasters, and this is the staple trade for farmers. A roaster is a matured chicken from above five to twelve months old, which, when properly fattened and finished, weighs from four and one-half to six pounds dressed. The general utility breeds, such as the Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, Wyandottes, Orpingtons, Etc., are very suitable for the production of roasters. If large EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK 151 roasters are desired the Light Brahma could be used. With good care and plenty of food Brahma chickens will attain great size, though as a rule they will not mature as quickly as the general utility breeds. Chickens intended for roasters are reared with the rest of the chickens until the fall of the year, giving proper con- sideration to the separation of the chicks according to age and sex. If White Leghorns or similar breeds are being kept it will doubtless be more profitable to dispose of all surplus cockerels and pullets as broilers rather than to il^ven in winter time when the snow is deep its just fun for the "kiddies'' to gather the eggs from Daddies well-bred layers, keep them for roasters, since egg-laying breeds do not fatten well. The majority of farmers, how^ever, are keep- ing a general utility breed, and it is w^ise to keep all surplus stock to fatten when matured. For roasting, a young fow^l about full grown, but still soft meated, is used, and to roast satisfactorily it must be moderately fat. Roasters are roughly classed as "small roasters" and "large roasters." The greatest demand is for small roasters weighing 4 or 5 pounds each, though the demand for large roasters w^eighing 8 or 9 pounds each is 152 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK steadily increasing. Yellow skin and yellow legs are more generally demanded than a white skin and dark legs. If the chickens have been properly grown and are in good healthy condition, about ten or twelve days confine- ment in a pen and small yard, with fattening feed, will put them in as good condition as is desirable. They should then be dressed and packed according to market demands. The growing and marketing of roasters is an important business in some parts of the country, especially in the vicinity of large cities. Near Boston, in what is known as the "South Shore" district, the production of roasters en- gages the attention of many people, several of whom make it an exclusive business. The New Jersey Station recommends the following formula for finishing the roaster, capon and fowl. Kinds of f'od. Amount. Corn meal -10 piind?. "Wlifat middlirg. JO Donnd^. Ground oats 2 ijounds. Beef scrap lio i>ounds. 1\ tal 100 pounds. This mash should be mixed very moist, wth skim milk if possible, if not, water will answer, and fed in pans or watertight troughs. No water should be given to drink during the fattening or finishing period, the mash being mixed wet enough to supply all that is necessary. Clean feeding is very essential where wet mashes are used, as they are apt to remain in the feeding vessel and become sour in which condition they act very unfavorably upon the digestive system. A liberal quantity of meat and bone in poultry rations for all purposes and when fed to all ages, is indispensable. These mashes should be fed three times daily and all the birds v^rill eat up clean in half an hour at each feed. After the birds have been fattened for ten days or two weeks in this way they will have put on a very economical weight and the meat will be of a much better quality. They are now ready to kill and dress. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 153 CHAPTER XXIII GROWING AND DEVELOPING THE PULLETS Pullets intended for breeders and layers should have every possible attention and care from chick-hood to ma- turity and ever after. They should be so grown to combine in highest form the qualities necessary for quality produc- tion, and to attain this their rearing should be along natural lines to insure a robust constitution, greatest possible vitality and a sturdy body to conform with the demands to be made upon them. Just bear in mind that your future hopes and expecta- tions rest with these pullets, not in their possible production of eggs alone, but also in the improved layer and breeder as well. The person who is not improving and getting ahead every day of their life, are not giving proper attention to their own welfare and interests. To properly develop the pullets, the chicks should be moved to colony coops on the range -when they are about eight weeks old, arrange the numbers according to the size of your coops, usually from fifty to seventy-five or a hun- dred to each colony. The floor of the coop should be covered well with dry loam or sand and then several inches of fine cut straw, chaff or other similar material. Here they should be supplied with plenty of fresh water, also with milk if had and a variety of foods as already stated. Hopper feed a regular growing dry mash. Make some additions gradually to the beef-scrap ration, or the additions of a few weekly feeds of cut green bone. Hopper feed your mixed cracked grain ration or scatter it over the range. The crumbly wet mash, milk mixed, with the ad- dition of cooked vegetables make an appetizing feed greatly relished and sprouted oats regardless of the abund- ance of other green feeds, is a ration that should be lib- erally fed. The cockerels should be separated from the pullets when three months old, and for best results, they also 154 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK should be grown with the same care as the pullets. If, as we presume, they are quality birds to be reared for breeding, their growing is just as important as is that of the pullets. Neither the cockerels or pullets should be forced to maturity, let them come natural, grow their frame and fully develop their bodies, such stock is always worth your price. By the time the pullets begin to lay they can be moved to the breeding or laying houses and when accus- tomed to their new quarters the results will follow. There is no other animal which is affected more noticeably by changes from one home to another than the hen. If pullets Tlie Missouri State Exjierimcnt Station ri'commends I'tiual parts of whole wheat and cracked corn as the most economical food for gro^A-ins; chicks after they are six weeks old. Feed a well balanced dry mash in addition, are allow^ed to start their production on the range and then later moved to their winter quarters, you will note this change will result in a check upon their egg production. If desired, it is possible by study and careful feeding to retard the development of early matured birds two or three w^eeks without injury to their vigor or constitution. This can be done by withholding concentrated protein feeds, such as beef scrap, and to make the birds work more for their whole ori cracked grains. On the other hand, in- creasing the amount of nitrogenous feeds, such as meat EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 155 scrap, will hasten the maturity of late hatched birds. Too much attention cannot be devoted to this question of time of maturity coupled with vigor and good size. After placing in the laying house they should be given plenty of room, not less than six square feet per bird. The house should be so constructed that plenty of ventilation is afforded, the open front, muslin curtain type being superior. The winter house should have an outside run connected with it. It need not be exceptionally large, simply an area to give the birds an outdoor run for exercise in suitable weather. 156 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK CHAPTER XXIV FEEDING THE BREEDERS The poultryman's greatest concern naturally lies in his breeding birds, there his whole dependence rests both upon the amount and quality of their production. The hopes are that like will not only produce like, but will also pro- duce a healthy per cent, of improvement and to attain that the average breeder is willing to work and try. To keep the breeding stock in the best of health, in com- fortable quarters with ventilation and all the fresh air pos- sible and to regularly feed wholesome foods in proper proportions and variety, are among the important essen- tials necessary for results. With well grown, fully ma- tured birds under right conditions there is every reason for their hopes to come true. It must be publically admitted that it is our opinion that very many breeders don't appreciate the values of the so-called small details in poultry production, they don't know that there is a purpose in every one of them and look upon them as unnecessary time and labor. Truly such ideas do not stand for advancement and we would rather that people with such ideas or with no special liking for poultry or interests in same would not try at all than to start and meet the failure sure to follow. Look well to the little things, learn your conditions and then profit thereby. It is greatly preferred that the breeding birds have a grass run or range for plenty of out-of-door exercise with regular rations of sprouted oats, clover or alfalfa. The range offers the ideal opportunities, still where several matings are kept a nice yard or run gives very satisfactory results, when the necessities are well looked after. The breeding stock (females) should be fed moderately during the breeding season, not over-fed and not force-fed, at the same time don't under-feed, give them plenty for EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 157 their needs in a variety and in a way to keep them mov- ing early to late. It is well to hopper feed a dry-mash and to feed the grain in deep litter or scattered over the range to induce plenty of exercise. Make them work and rough it as much as possible, and to live out-doors, such arrange- ments will result in a larger per cent, of fertility and the chick will hatch better and prove to be strong, husky little fellows to live and grow. The breeders should not be forced to Fall or Winter laying . as that would most likely reduce the Spring egg yield and to lower the vitality of the germs. "Laurie" handles this question as follows: "There is no more im- portant consideration than the foods and methods of feeding as applied to breeding stock. Long experience has accentuated this fact, and was primarily the reason which led me to write this treatise. It is common experience that the scientific breeder found a high-class strain of birds, etc., and the unskilled feeder ruins them and their progeny in a short time. When the subjects of feeding for egg production and fattening chickens were discussed, the objects in view did not influence the progeny, as there Wc-s none. "The whole question of feeding is treated in too gen- eral a manner by the average breeder. With him it is largely a question of bulk. Let the needs of the present suffice, and let the future look after its own problems. This is the general feeling among a large number of breeders, and probably accounts for most of the failures. Breeding stock must be regarded as the media through which future generations must come. Improper methods of feeding, unsuitable food, and unsanitary surroundings will not only impair the health of breeding stock, and limit production, but they will also seriously affect fertility and will ruin the constitutions of the progeny. The progeny will be inher- ently weak, and, in my opinion, will receive from their parents organs which are deficient in their ability to per- form their proper functions. "In urging the importance of proper feeding, I am aware that some may think the views I have expressed in 158 EVERIBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK "Scientific Breeding" and other publications are changing This is not so. I am the more firmly convinced of the truth of the modern conceptions of the laws of breeding. That feeding and foods are intimately concerned in the whole system of enzyme action in our body is so sure to my mind that 1 look for the announcement of discoveries in the near future confirming this view. While we can readily eluci- date many of the lav^rs of breeding by the aid of poultry, it is in working v/ith plant life that we are struck with the peculiarities w^hich can only be due to feeding, nutrition, and the accumulated effects of cultivation or neglect and starvation. "It must be assumed that the breeder who feeds on scientific lines will select stock only w^hich are of the highest quality and with vigorous constitutions. 1 cannot here indicate the most approved methods of selection. But 1 will say that just as we know Nature's methods are inflexibly rigid in eliminating the unfit, so also must be the methods of the breeder if he is to succeed." In Bulletin No. 1 of the Massachusetts Station, Prof. J. C. Graham writes as follows: "In feeding breeders 1 would not use the same methods by any means, as used for feeding the layers. As previously stated, the main object in feeding layers is to get the highest number of eggs pos- sible for the amount of grain fed, so they should be pushed to the limit. On the other hand, we are feeding breeders for an entirely different object. We want to get from them not merely eggs to be used as human food, but eggs containing strong, vigorous germs that will hatch well, chicks that will not only live, but grow^ rapidly to maturity. We, therefore, must feed especially for vigor. The breeders should be separated in the Fall from the layers, kept by themselves, and fed on dry mash and whole and cracked grains, given in deep litter. We do not want them to lay too many eggs in the Fall and early Winter because we believe this saps their vitality to a certain extent before the breeding season is on. If they are eating too much or laying too niany eggs it is well to close the mash hopper during the forenoon and leave -t EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 159 open only afternoons. This will cause them to work harder for the feed, and keep them in much better condi- tion for the breeding season. They should not be fed an excessive amount of animal food, as it has been found to be detrimental to the hatching ability of the eggs and to the growth of the chicks. The best kind of animal food for breeders is skim milk or buttermilk, which can be fed in large quantities without injuring them in any way." DATA SHOWING EFFECT OF VARIOUS ANIMAL FEEDS UPON PER- CENTAGE OF EGGS HATCHED Pen No. Animal Food Used Butter- Milk .10 Per Ct. ibeef scrap I in d r y I mash .... Beef scrap in hopper. i No animalj food ... I Green cut bone .... Whole grain (lbs.) Dry mash (lbs.) Animal food (lbs.) Total cost $18.16 Tin 233 1,453 840 337 34 19.B.5 900 216 141% 22.21 900 224 17,99 900 196 127% •21 3 7 Total eggs laid Cost per dozen egRs (Cts,) Pet. eggs hatched 2,040 l$10.6S 55.0 1,670 14.28 1,664 1,496 1.3.84 12.69 Cost per chick (Cts.) $1.61 :,0.o i ■')! 33.0 4.00 59. .5 I 1.76 l,0r>4 15.45 40.5 3 IS "This chart shows the results of an experiment carried on at Guelph, Can., by .Prof. W. R. Graham, head of the poultry department at that station. The best results were obtained, on the whole, from feeding skim milk, and the poorest results from feeding green cut bone and beef scrap in a separate hopper. This experiment covered a period from October to March, and all of the eggs laid by each pen, which contained 23 hens, were incubated. "From this and data from other experiment stations it is evident that in feeding breeders we should not feed too much animal food, unless in the form of milk, and not push them for high egg production during the Fall and early Winter, but give them plenty of exercise, free range if possible, and all the green food they want." Feeding the Male Many breeders, especially the older ones make it a practice to specially feed the male during breeding .season, 160 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 161 a practice which we would commencl to all to follow. We generally note the more vigorous the male is, the more gallant he is, he will call the hens and stand aside for them to eat and himself go to roost with an empty crop. It is a good plan to have a cup of food nailed up in each pen above the reach of the females for the males sole purpose, also to feed him after roosting time if his crop proves to be empty. During the breeding season the male is in fact half the pen or flock and every care should be taken to see that he received sufficient food, by a little effort he may be taught to jump up and feed upon the dropping board where he may be fed. Feeding for Fertility The breeder w^ho has strong healthy stock kept under proper conditions with natural requirements supplied will have but little cause to worry over fertility. Fresh air, wholesome food and plenty of exercise are natural con- ditions that no flock should lack and no breeder can afFord to fail in supplying them. Fertility can be improved to some extent in all flocks by some extra feeding and by the use of some reliable condi- ments, egg-foods, tonics, etc. Green foods such as sprouted oats, cut alfalfa or clover in both the dry and wet mashes are specially recommended. One great breeder whose lead we have followed and whose reputation is well established feeds his breeders morning and night liberally of mixed wheat, oats and corn in deep litter and at noon feeds a wet mash containing about sixty per cent, of cut alfalfa or clover, sprouted oats are also fed daily while dry-mash, grit, shells and charcoal are always within reach of the birds. The wet mash should be mixed very dry, when fertile eggs are wanted, and later when the eggs are intended for market or home use, the usual amount of beef scrap can be doubled. SCEATCH GRAIN 200 pounds cracked corn, 200 pounds barley. 200 pounds wheat. 100 pounds heavy oats. Fed morning and afternoon in deep straw litter. 162 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK MASH MIXTURE 100 pounds u'heat bran. 100 pounds wheat middlings. liU) pounds corn meal. 100 pounds ground oats or barley. r»0 pounds cut alfalfa or clovpr. 50 pounds meat seraj). 2 pounds salt. Fed dry in hoppers and at noon mixed with an additional 25 to 50 per cent, of alfalfa or clover into a moist mash, mixed very dry. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 163 CHAPTER XXV PEEPING THE LAYERS Where eggs are the result wanted there are two main questions involved that are first in importance for consid- eration. First — to expect eggs you must have females of such quality from which you can hope for results. Stand- ard-bred quality has always proven best, and it always will, therefore, to secure a good proportion of eggs it is necessary to have a good quality of stock that has been bred and selected for this purpose. We have before re- ferred to early maturing pullets, late moulting hens, early risers, heavy eaters, etc., all qualities that go to make the dependable layers. The second question is the food and feeding. Here again let me state, that no one ration has proven best of all for all alike, so we advise that the breeders study the following rations, try them and also ex- periment 'to improve them with the hope of finding the one best suited to their flock and conditions. Regarding the use of Standard-bred poultry Prof. Kaupp says: "It pays to keep pure-bred poultry because they are more reliable in breeding. They are greater egg pro- ducers, superior in meat quality. With pure bred one should secure better results in feeding, better hatching quality, less broodiness, more attractive appearance, and a more uniform egg in size, shape, and color. Breeding stock can be sold at a higher price than butcher stuff. In order to build up a greater egg-laying strain trap nests are resorted to, and those showing a high egg-laying record are used to breed from. Male birds from these high-laying strains should be used, as inheritance of high- egg-producers is also transmitted to the offsprings of the male." To keep the hens happy they should have about a foot of wheat or oat straw in the bottom of the house, into which the scratch feed should be thrown. It is necessary 164 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK to keep the birds free of lice and chiggers. Vermin weaken birds and lay them open to attacks of disease, and are in- directly the cause of more loss from death, egg production, and flesh than any other one cause. The birds should not be frightened by strangers and dogs, etc., entering the premises. For laying hens the following feeding program should be carried out: The first scratch feed should consist of clipped oats and wheat, of each equal parts, and should be given at about 7 o'clock in the morning and thrown in the litter, so they will have to scratch for it. The second scratch feed should consist of clipped oats, wheat, and the coarse par- ticles of cracked corn, equal parts, and should be given at about 3 o'clock in the afternoon and placed in the straw. Dry mash should be kept in slatted hoppers in such a way that they cannot throw it out, and this feed should be kept before them at all times. This dry mash should con- sist of the following: Wheat bran 2 iiarts Wheat middlings 2 parts. Ground oats 2 parts. Corn meal . 1 part. Cottonseed meal 1 part. Meat scrai» 1 part. Ground alfalfa 1 part. Thoroughly mixed. In addition to this, skimmed milk, clabber, or buttermilk may be given. It has been found that milk will, at least to a certain extent, take the place of the meat scrap. New^ York State College of Agriculture at Cornell Univer- sity recommends the following formulas which have met approval and have been adopted by many successful breeders. Cornell Ration for Laying Hens SCRATCI-I GRAIN" MASH MIXTURE (Formula 200) (Formula 201) .500 pound.s oraekeil corn. lOil pound.s wheat bran. 200 pounds barley. 100 pounds wheat middlings, 2IMI pounds wheat. liil) pounds corn meal. 100 pounds heavy oats 100 pounds ground oats or ground Fed by hand morning and after- barley, uoon in deep straw litter 100 pounds meat scrap. 3 pounds salt. Fed dry in hoppers. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 165 Feeding Methods and Practice Amount. — Feed according to the appetite of the birds, no definite rule can be given. Feed scantily of grain in the morning and give all the grain they will eat in the afternoon in time to find it before dark. There should be no grain in the litter at noon, when found, it indicates feeding too much in the morning. In general, feed by weight 2-3 parts of grain to 2 parts of mash. When the birds are laying heavily they should consume a larger amount of mash. Litter. — Induce exercise by feeding all grain in dry, clean straw litter, 6 to 8 inches deep. The common straws, in their order of desirability, are wheat, oats, barley, rye and buckwheat; shredded or cut corn stalks, shavings or leaves may be used where straw^ is not available. All feed and litter should be strictly clean and free from mustiness, mold or decay. Serious losses frequently occur from thece sources due to the spores which may develop into fungus molds in the lungs or intestines. Green Feed. — A green range of alfalfa, clover or grass furnishes the ideal condition. When these are not available it is necessary to give the birds some kind of succulent food. Mangel beets, cabbage, sprouted oats or green clover are usually considered and best green feeds. If these are not obtainable, apples and potatoes make a valuable addition to the ration. Feed at noon in such amounts as the birds will clean up before night. This will require about 35 to 40 pounds per week for 1 00 hens. Decayed or frozen feeds should not be used as they are a common source of diges- tive disorders. Grit and Oyster Shell. — Hard, sharp grit is necessary for grinding feed ; oyster shell to supply lime for egg shells. Neither will replace the other. Water. — One dozen eggs contains about one pint of water. Clean, pure water should be kept constantly before the hens and should be renewed at least once daily. Moist Mash. — Rcommended only to hasten the develop- 166 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK C O O eS 9 = to EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 167 ment of late hatched pullets or to help in keeping an egg production of hens in late summer, especially those hens which are not to be used for breeders the following spring. Breeds. — This ration is recommended for all breeds but it is to be varied as to the method of feeding. In the case of heavier varieties, feed more scantily of grain in the morning and so encourage exercise. Substitutes and Additions. — All substitutions or changes in the ration should be made gradually. Shrunken or feed wheat is recommended in place of milling wheat because the latter is needed for human con- sumption. In nutrient value, feed wheat is between wheat and wheat screenings. Wheat screenings are often loaded w^ith weed seeds and dirt, but good screenings may be used if the price is low enough. Mustiness in feed wheat, wheat screenings or any feed may be detected by taste or odor. The odor is made more apparent by the application of moist heat. Hold the sample in the closed hand for a few minutes or pour hot water on the sample. Musty feeds are dangerous. Buttermilk or skimmed milk may be used in place of meat scrap, allowing about 12 to 14 quarts per 100 hens per day. Green cut bone is a very stimulating feed and should be used with care. It is not safe to feed unless it is fresh. If fed in amounts of about one-half ounce per hen per day, it may be used to replace half of the meat scrap. Clover chaff, either dry or steamed, is relished by the hens and may be advantageously used to add variety to the ration. The following feeding formulas were used in four of the Storrs, Connecticut, Laying Contests: 168 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK srHATCH GRAINS Crarked corn . . . Wheat Heavy oar- Barley Kaffir corn .... Buckwheat ... Coarse beef scriqi Pounds 60 60 40 20 10 10 10 DRY MASH Pounds M'heat bran 200 Corn meal 100 uiuten feed 100 Ground oat.s 100 MiddlinK^ 75 Beef M-rap 60 Low grade flour 25 In the fifth contest the formulas were simplified, as follows: S<.'RATCH GRAINS Whe,,t Cracked c< r.n Pounds . . . .100 . . . .100 DRY MASH Pounds Wheat bran 100 (.'■ rn meal 100 (Ground oats 100 Middlings 100 p'ish MTuji 50 Beef scrap 50 Feeding Rations for Laying Hens recommended by the New Jersey Experiment Station: Dry Mash Mixture (Winter) KIND OF PEED \VlieaI bran . QU.VN Pounds TITY Q uarts :i 8 \\'heat middling ; 200 240 . . . . 200 200 . . . . 100 . . . . 100 Meat scrap (high g Alfalfa (short cut) rade) . . . . . 100 . . . . 100 86 200 Total . . . . 1000 12S1 Niitrituc Ratio. 1:? i.0 2. Dry Mash Mixture (Summer) KIND OF FEED AVhcat Ijran .... AVheat middlings (.iround oats .... *)lutr]i meal .... j\Ieaf i^trap (high ;rade) QUANTITY >unds Quarts lIMI 1-^0 loo llMl ;'jO 4(1 2."i 21 Total . . . Nutriti\e Ratio, .22. For Leghorns and other egg breeds the feed hoppers are kept open all day. For the heavier breeds, which are prone to put on too much fat, the hoppers are kept open in the afternoon only. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 169 Scratch Grain Mixture (Morning) Five Pounds to 100 Birds Fed in Deep Litter KIND OP PEED Wheat QUANTITY Pounds Quarts .... 100 .■;» Oats 101) QS Total -200 l.jl Nutritive Katio, l:li.6. Scratch Grain Mixture (Evening) Ten Pounds to 100 Birds KIND OP PEED QUANTITY Pounds Quarts 120 Wheat 1>)0 53 Oats , . iDO oe Total 500 3:37 Nutritive Ratio, 1 :7.S. The above is intended for cold weather feeding. In the Summer half the cracked corn is used, and barley is substi- tuted for the buckwheat. Two Dry Mash Formulas Recommended by California Experiment Station Bran Quarts 6.0 0.5 0.5 li.S 1.0 . 1.5 . 1.0 0.5 Pounds 3.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.75 2.25 1.6 1.0 Bran Q;i;irts 4 Pounc 2 ^liddlings Linseed meal (o. p.) Gluten feed Alfalfa meal . . . Corn meal Shorts . . . 1.11 . . . 1.0 . . 2.0 0,5 1.6 1.') Ground oats Corn meal Beef scrap Bone meal Barley meal . . . Ground beans . . Beef scrap .... Bone meal .... . . . 1.0 . . . 1.0 . . . 1.0 , . . 0.5 1.1 1.1 0.5 1.0 The above rations are calculated for 1 00 hens a day, to be fed in conjunction with from 9 to I 2 pounds of scratch grains and sufficient green stuffs. Feeding Rations for Laying Hens Recommended by Indiana Experirrent Station Cracked SCRATCH CRAI: Pounds . . . . 10 DRY MASH Pou-K 5 Wheat . . . . 10 Middlings r, Oat, . . . . . 5 Meat R'_rap . . . 3.( A light feeding of the scratch grains is given in the morning, and all the birds will clean up at night. Dry mash is kept before the light breeds all the time, and for the 170 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK heavier breeds from noon on. Succulent food is supplied in the form of sprouted oats, cabbage or mangels. The fol- lowing variations are suggested: (1). Replace the beef scrap with 62 pounds of skim milk. (2). Drop the w^heat and increase the corn and oats. (3). Give fowls abundant range and cut dow^n a portion of the mash. The above, all Standard formulas, cover a wide and most unlimited range for effort and experiment, they are rations that have produced results and in most cases will be found adaptable. In order to give our readers the greatest possible informa- tion on this important subject w^e here reproduce an article on feeding the layers written by Prof. M. A. Jull, B. S. A., of the Macdonald College, P. Q. Canada. "Good sound stock is absolutely necessary for egg pro- duction. Every bird in the flock should be healthy, vigor- ous and in prime condition when put into the laying pen in the Fall of the year. Diseased birds or birds low in vitality should not be kept, as they are a source of loss. Usually a bird lays the largest number of eggs in her first laying year, so that pullets are more profitable than older birds. On the other hand, it is wise for every farmer to keep a few yearlings on hand to be used as breeders. The largest part of the flock should consist of pullets and these should be well matured. If a bird is to lay well throughout the Winter months she should start laying the first of No- vember just as cold weather is approaching. All the pul- lets should be put into their laying pen about the middle of the month in order that they may be accustomed to their new place and changed conditions by the first of November. Unless the birds are fully matured, eggs cannot be expected in any number before the first of the year. Well matured pullets of good health and vitality should be the first con- sideration in building up a laying stock. Best results are obtained if the yearlings and pullets are kept separate. This, however, is not often practicable on the average farm. A flock of one hundred birds would be composed of about twenty-five yearlings and about seventy- EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 171 five pullets, the yearlings being kept primarily for breeding purposes in the Spring of the year, while the pullets would be maintained for Winter egg production. Naturally the pullets will be fed rather heavily to secure a large egg pro- duction, but such heavy feeding is not desirable in the case of the yearlings, as it affects the fertility of the eggs during the breeding season. Maximum egg production is largely controlled by the method of feeding as well as by the nature of the foods given. One of the prime factors in feeding is to compel the birds to take plenty of exercise. The litter in the house should be eight or ten inches deep, and the grain should be scattered in this whenever it is fed. It is a good practice to stir up the litter frequently with a fork. This will prevent the straw, or whatever is used for litter, from becoming packed down solid, and will also compel the birds to scratch for the grain. The diet of the hen may be simple, but it should be wholesome. The hen must be given plenty of food and as much variety as possible. All foods serve various purposes in the production of eggs. Part of the food a hen receives furnishes energy to carry on the various functions of the body; part furnishes energy to keep the body warm; another part serves to build up the tissues and organs and keep them in repair; still another part supplies material for egg production. The amount of food over and above the maintenance ration constitutes the egg-producing ration. For this purpose those foods must be given which are know^n to be egg-producers. The practice at Macdonald College is to feed a whole grain ration of two parts wheat, two parts corn and one part oats or buckwheat, during the Winter months. If the corn is cracked it will give the hens more exercise than when fed whole. This grain mixture is scattered in the litter morning and evening, and the litter is kept in such a condition that considerable scratching is necessary. Enough grain is fed in the morning to keep the hens busy for several hours. In the evening they are given practically all the grain they will pick up before going to roost. There are 172 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK many poultrymen who are not able to feed their flock the proper amount of grain from time to time. On the other hand, there are some poultrymen who believe in feeding a Ouurtesv Moins Poulti-y Farm "Princess Pat" with her official record of 303 eggs in one year at the American Egg Laying Contost, Leavenworth, Kan , Ik just one more ijit of evidence that the highest standard quality is the only kind to hank on for regular and consistent results. definite quantity of grain at each feeding. it is far better to feed the birds the amount they need from time to time, and as they will eat more at one feeding than another, it is EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 173 practically impossible to state definitely any specific amount which the flock should be given for each feeding. Whole grain alone is not sufficient, since the birds must balance the ration with ground grains, to which can be added concentrated foods. The ground grains are chiefly wheat bran, crushed oats, cornmeal and middlings. To these ground grains may be added linseed meal, gluten meal, beef scraps or fish scraps. These are concentrated foods and supply the fowls with protein, , which is largely lacking in the whole and ground grains. Considerable protein is necessary for the manufacture of eggs. It is not necessary to use all of the materials mentioned in preparing a mash. At the same time the larger the variety the better the fowls like the mash and the better it serves its purpose. A good mash mixture is composed of the following: Wheat bran, 200 pounds; crushed oats, 120 pounds; cornmeal, 100 pounds; middlings, 100 pounds; beef scrap, 60 pounds, and charcoal, 20 pounds. This makes a mash which is quite palatable and which the birds relish. In place of crushed oats it may be ■well to use oatmeal feed, which is a by-product of the oatmeal industry and contains practically no hulls. This mash may be fed in two ways; as a wet mash or as a dry mash. The wet mash consists of ground grains thor- oughly mixed and moistened with water or sour milk. The mash is fed in V-shaped troughs at definite times. The object in wet mash feeding is really to stimulate egg production. The troughs should be kept strictly clean, and it is wise not to over-feed with wet mash. Just give the birds as much as they will clean up in a few minutes. The best time to feed a wet mash is about noon or shortly after. When wet mash is fed, table scraps, potatoes and other waste products can be mixed with it to good advantage. Beef scraps have been suggested as a form of animal food. In some localities ground green bone can be obtained at a reasonable price. Where such is the case the quantity of beef scrap in the mash ration may be greatly reduced. 174 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK Care should be exercised in feeding ground green bone, as one-half ounce per bird per day is heavy feeding. The green bone should always be in the very best condition. Sour milk is also an excellent animal food ; it is one of the best poultry foods we have, and should be used more ex- tensively. It is low in cost, and in addition to being a val- uable egg producer it tends to keep the hens in good health. One of the most profitable ways in which sour milk may be used is in feding it to laying hens. While the birds are confined during the Winter months some form of green food is absolutely necessary for best results. Give the birds mangels, turnips, or sprouted oats. Alfalfa or clover hay, if well cured, may be fed. Mangels are cheap and are easily grown, and the birds will consume large quantities of them. Sprouted oats also makes an ex- cellent form of green food. Some form of green food should be supplied the birds every day. In feeding man- gels it is a good practice to drive a spike in the wall about sixteen inches above the floor, on w^hich the mangels can he placed. Oyster shells and grit should be kept before the birds at all times. Grit seems to aid digestion, and oyster shells supply the fowls with material from w^hich they make egg shells. The egg shell is largely composed of lime, which is secured from oyster shells. Clean w^ater is also necessary. It is very important to see that the birds are never without water, for an insufficient supply often causes a serious decrease in egg production. Where sour milk is available it should be used, and it will largely take the place of water. It should be given in a (thick condition. Finally, it should be borne in mind always that apart from the kind and quality of foods given, the method of feeding has much to do with egg production. The laying Ihen must be kept as busy as possible. It is the busy hen that lays best. Exercice means eggs. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 175 CHAPTER XXVI THE BALANCKD RATION Most everywhere and on all sides we hear of the Bal- anced Ration which is in general favor and which under ordinary conditions should give splendid and uniform results for the purpose intended. A balanced ration is a ration in which all the elements required to meet the needs of the animal are present in right proportion. The following balanced ration given is one intended for egg production and not one for all purposes as there are none of such. A ration like the following correctly bal- anced for the layer, is not balanced for the growing chick, fattened stock, etc., it is simply one that should assure satis- factory results when fed to the laying birds, you v/ill note other formulas for all other purposes elsewhere. The egg is made or manufactured piece by piece. The yolk is first made, then the white or albumen is placed around it and then the shell, which completes the egg. If you would feed your hens a ration which would make fifty yolks, twenty-five whites and a hundred shells, all they would be able to produce would be twenty-five eggs. Such hens so fed would prove to be very poor producers regard- less of their breeding or any other quality for it would be simply impossible for the greatest layer that ever lived to do better. Hens fed a balanced ration that would make a hundred yolks, a hundred whites and a hundred shells w^ould produce all the eggs it is possible for them to produce. It has been found by experience that the ratio 1.2 (one part protein to two parts carbohydrates) is about right for chicks; the ratio 1 .4 is about right for laying stock, and the ratio 1.6 is about right for fattening. In making up the ration the ingredients are weighed, not measured, and the fat is multiplied by 2.25 (or 2'/^) to reduce it to carbohydrates. 176 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK A wide ration is one in which the protein is largely ex- ceeded by the carbohydrates; a narrow ration is one in which the protein and carbohydrates are more nearly equal. As a matter of fact, anything exceeding 1.6 would be called a wide ration, and anything under it a narrow one. A ration that would be correctly balanced for one day would (lot be balanced for the next. For instance, on a very cold day in Winter we burn twice as much coal to keep warm as on a mild day, and on the same day the flock would require a much wider ration (more carbohydrates or warm- ing up food) than on a mild day or in midsummer. Fortunately the hen has considerable power of adjust- ment, and so survives our well-meaning but bungling and imperfect efforts to feed her scientifically. If we do not feed enough, she draws upon her reserve, and if we feed too much she has the power of passing the excess through the body unassimilated. The following table gives the value of different poultry feeds in terms of yolks and whites instead of carbohydrates and protein. Yolks Whites ■130111 Kaffir Corn Wheat .... Cowpeas Oats Barley .... Buckwheat 2 43 .l.S!) .195 .203 .17s 13 4 11 :, 1S2 30.n 155 14r. 12 s 201; MILL PRODUCTS Yolks Whit Sunflower seed 233 MEAT FOOD Yolks Whites Beet scraps 106 1,107 Fish scraps '^7 yoii Dried blood 19 .^71 Fresh cut bone 196 336- GREEN FORAGE Yolks Whites Alfalfa 46 67 Clover . . . .■ ri4 4.S Corn fodder (green) ... 42 16 Cabbage 40 H Bape 56 11 LIQUIDS Yolks Whites Whole milk 44 60 Skimmed milk 22 52 Buttermilk 22 65 Wheat bran 155 Middlings 2i^') Corn meal 260 Ground oats l'f.3 Gluten meal 230 Alfalfa meal 133 O. P. oil meal 160 Cottonseed meal 14S 13:-. I,-..-, .-.00 620 DRY FORAGE Yolks Whites Corn fodder (dry) 133 41 Alfalfa hay 140 Iso Clover hay 132 113 Timothy hay LSS 46 Cowpea hay 114 71 Wheat straw 121 7 VEGETABLES, ROOTS, ETC. Yolks Wh.tes Apples 62 12 Mangel beets I'l l.s Mangel beet leaves . . 2.S 16 Onions 11 25 Potatoes 5 5 15 Turnips 2 6 16 Pumpkins 22 23 Corn silago 42 15 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 177 The above table assumes that one pound of carbohy- drates will make 3 1-3 yolks and one pound of protein will make 1 6 2-3 whites. This is above maintaining the body where hens are feu all they want. Ground lime rock or oyster shell should be before the hens at all times. One pound of fine table salt should be used in each one hundred pounds of mash. The ration used in the National Egg Laying Contest is as follows: Balanced Ration. Yolks ■\N'liites 100 ]>ounds corn 2."i,j 1 s^ ino pounds wheat 243 112 20 pounds oats 39 81 20 pounds bran 31 41 2(1 i^ounds shorts 41 44 20 ]>ounds corn meal .'lO 2 7 2i) pounds heef srrai)s 21 221 Tula's li^O USO 178 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK CHAPTER XXVIT FKEDIXO FOR WINTER EG<;S The production of Fall, Winter and early Spring eggs is probably one of the most profitable branches of the poultry industry, prices are naturally high and with a general scar- city a greater demand is created which assures an increased and profitable selling price that should be catered to. Pullets that mature from September to December and hens, usually those that moulted late in October and No- vember will as a rule prove to be the best Winter layers. Pullets that mature too early in the Fall will lay for a time and then moult, after which they in the main, will prove rather unreliable layers during their first Winter. A liberal portion of corn is a very desirable Winter feed and also is the most economical grain for poultry feeding, but corn, nor any other single grain should form an ex- clusive diet. Corn is deficient in both protein and ash, properties that must be supplied in other grains. Wheat is an excellent food and may be used in most any proportion. Oats are not considered an economical feed, mainly on ac- count of the hulls, but they are a most excellent feed and when steamed will prove to be one of the very best. Buck- wheat is quite similar to corn in composition and is much less likely to make the fowls over-fat. Some authorities claim that barley is an excellent substi- tute for either oats or wheat, but give me the oats and wheat with a fair portion of barley and I should feel best satisfied. Here again let me refer to the commercial "Mixed Grains" or "Scratch Grains" which offer all grains in splen- did proportion and that can be bought to advantage. We prefer a mixed ration for every feed over the alternating feeding of different grains, variety is not only more palat- able, but it also offers a more balanced ration in contents. Regarding feeding for Winter Eggs the Pennsylvania State College circular No. ] 1 says: "Whatever whole EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK 179 grains are used, better results will generally be secured by giving a part of the ration in the form of ground grains, fed either wet or dry, and known as the "Mash." It is com- monly believed that fowls are not able to assimilate a suf- ficient amount of v^fhole grain to secure best results, either in growth or egg production. The mash also makes the ration more palatable and reduces the cost of feeding by utilizing by-products. Generally, it will be consumed more freely if moistened and for that reason the wet mash is the \:SP^ 1 ^SIS0fl^.:^^ In after years these fanciers will remember their early efforts and particu- larly the day they drew "Sister" with her basket of eggs safely to the house over deep snow banks. basis of feeding for forced growth of egg production. When a surplus has been fed, it should be removed as soon as the hens are through eating. On account of the labor and dif- ficulty associated with feeding wet mash, many prefer to feed it dry. In this condition it is kept before the hens all the time, with considerable saving in labor. The objection to dry mash is that, frequently, there is an insufficient amount consumed and more whole grains and meat scraps must be fed making a more expensive ration. It is an open question whether one method is more efficient than the 180 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK other, but there is no question about the fact that, under many conditions, the mash may be fed dry with satisfactory results and with much economy in time and labor. The dry mash is particularly valuable w^hen hens are kept in very large flocks. It should be fed in a hopper or in open boxes, which should be about a foot deep and large enough to hold a sufficient supply for one or more weeks. A standard mixture for mash, either wet or dry, is: Two parts wheat bran, one part middlings, one part cornmeal, one part meat scraps, and one-fourth part oil meal. To this mixture may be added, if fed wet, as much steamed cut clover, alfalfa or alfalfa leaves as is found to be palatable to the hens. The mash may be simplified, but not im- proved, by the omission of cornmeal and oil meal. If fed wet, it should be mixed with w^arm water or milk. It should be moist enough to stock together but should not be sloppy. It is not very important whether it is fed morning, noon or night. "Animal Food. — In ordinary feeding, protein from veg- etable sources does not give as good results as from animal sources. At least one-third of the total protein should be from animal sources. There is no good reason for con- cluding that one form of animal matter is much better than another, except in the matter of palatability. Green cut bone, if it can be secured at a reasonable cost and kept in good condition, is an excellent source. Butcher's scraps or other cheap meat may often be boiled and fed in this con- dition very economically. Poultrymen, however, find com- mercial meat scraps the most convenient. Milk is a partial substitute for meat. It may be fed in mash or given to drink in limited quantities. When heavily fed, it is likely to cause diarrhoea. This is particularly the case when it is fed sweet and sour alternately. When used, the most scrupulous cleanliness should be observed as the dishes in which it is fed rapidly become tainted. "Green Feed and Grit. — It is important that some kind of green food should be supplied when the hens are con- fined. Almost anything succulent will serve the purpose. It is not desirable to depend entirely on clover and alfalfa EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 181 in Winter. Cabbage, rape, mangels, potatoes, turnips or even ensilage should be provided for variety. In Winter, or when in confinement, grit in some form should be sup- plied. Lime is also needed for shell material. For this purpose oyster shell is excellent and answers the purpose of grit as well. "How To Feed. — It is not possible to lay down definite rules as to the amount of feed which should be given or the proportions in which different feed stuffs should be combined for best results. Breed, age, season, egg pro- duction and price of feeds all have an important bearing on this. While it is true that egg production is governed quite largely by feed consumption, fowls usually keep in better condition if fed somewhat less than they seem to demand. In a general way, it may be stated that 4 ounces a day is sufficient for the average hen w^hen laying well. Merely as a guide to correct feeding, the following plan is suggested for a flock of average fowls laying or about to begin. The feeder must learn for himself just what mod- ifications are desirable from time to time. "Morning: — Feed one ounce of wheat for each hen or one handful to two hens. "Noon: — Feed all wet mash hens will clean up promptly. "Evening: — Feed one and one-half to two ounces corn to each hen or approximately one handful. "If dry mash is fed, fowls may be given access to hop- per throughout day, unless mash consumption exceeds one- third of total feed consumed, in which case it is better to leave mash hopper open only during latter half of day." A Winter Laying bill-of-fare is here suggested for trial: Corn (cracked preferred) 200 pounds Wheat 100 pounds Buckwheat 5 pounds Oats 100 pounds Barley 50 pounds To be fed in deep litter morning and night, the evening feed to be liberal. Dry mash as above stated in hoppers open all day. Wet mash fed at noon daily (or at least four times weekly.) 182 BVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK Feeding During Moult While the process of moulting is a natural one, it is nevertheless a severe strain on the body and during its period the fowls require special care and should be care- fully attended to. At this period their weaknesses, if any, show plainly and such birds should be fatted and marketed. You can hasten the moult or bring it on earlier by reduc- ing the feed given from one to two-thirds and when the (.'rate fur large individual received right. -liipment of eggs. Send them out right and they will be feathers begin to shed freely to again feed full rations. This method is practiced by the breeders wishing to exhibit at the early shows and having the birds in their new^ dress, but, such methods are not productive to future egg production. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK 183 Moulting hens should haye an abundance of green food and plenty of animal food such as meat scrap and green cut bone. It is also considered good practice to furnish the moulting hens an extra amount of oily feeds such as old-process oil meal, sunflower seeds, etc. Regarding moulting hens Mr. Edward Brown wrote: "The time during which birds are moulting is a somewhat critical period, its nature depending very much upon the stamina and constitution of the breed. There is a consid- erable amount of difference in the way the various breeds come through the moult. Some of the hardier varieties pass through it both rapidly and easily, whilst others find it most protracted ard difficult. The usual period of moulting for a strong bird in its first or second year is six to eight weeks, in which time the old feathers are com- pletely cast, and new ones occupy their place; but it is no uncommon thing to find weak or old birds taking three months, with the result that Winter arrives before they get through it, and they do not recommence laying until the following Spring, so that several months are lost, and when the product is most valuable. All that is necessary for healthy birds is to give warm food once a day, mixing in it some seasoning pow^der, and lean meat with a little grain, such as buckw^heat and hempseed, in the middle of the day. In the drinking water put a little sulphate of iron and sulphuric acid — say two pieces of the former, the size of nuts, and ten drops of -the latter, to a gallon of water, and, of course, this must be renew^ed every day, as fresh water is most important. 184 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK CHAPTER XXVIII FATTENING POULTRY The fattening of poultry for market purposes has been and is today one of the particularly interesting subjects for the breeder, still we believe that the old time breeders gave much more attention to this subject and took more personal pride in their success than do the breeders of today, but be this as it may, we can't say that their success was greater or their methods better than these in use now, still it is very evident that w^here proper attention is given to this subject and fowls marketed at their best in both weight and con- dition, the breeder is sure to gain thereby. It is to the breeders interest to produce quality in all he has to sell, in eggs and market poultry this is no great undertaking and but little extra w^ork or care is required, so we w^ould urge all to well consider this question end to ever aim for the best in quality and the best in price. Both eggs and market poultry, like every other product has a high and low price at all seasons, and the high price is never more than the quality is worth or more than the breeder who supplies it is entitled to receive. Long years ago, about 1581, Mascal wrote: "For the fattening of bigge chickens in the coope or penne, — they doe ccmmonlye give them steeped breade in ale." Later, in 1640, Markham wrote: "If you will have fat cramm'd chickens, you shall coope them up when the dame for- saketh them; and the best crammes for them are wheate- meale and milke, made into dough, and then the crammes cteeped in milke, and so thrust down their throats; but in any case let the crams be small and well wet, for choaking. Fourteen days will feede a chicken sufficiently." Some later, Bradley wrote: "To fatten chickens, the best way and quickly, is to put them into coops as usual and feed them with barley meal, but in particular to put a small quantity of brick-dust in their water, which they should EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 185 never be without. This last will give them an appetite for their meat, and fatten them very soon." In his book of 1847 W. B. Dickson writes: "In his extensive establishment near Liverpool, Mr. Wakefield fat- tened with steamed or roasted potatoes given warm, which is indispensable, three or four times a day. The fowls were taken in good condition from the yard, confined in dry, well ventilated coops, and covered in, so as to prevent the entrance of too much light. This method was attended with the greatest success. At North Chapel, in Sussex, Mr. Turner, a tenant of Lord Egremont's, was wont to fatten about two hundred chickens annually, to a size and perfection not elsewhere known. The food given them was ground oats made into gruel, mixed with hog's grease, sugar, pot-liquor, and milk, or ground oats, treacle, and suet, also sheep's pluck, etc., and they were kept very wiarm. They were always crammed in the morning and at night. The pot-liquor was mixed with a few handfuls of oatmeal, then boiled up, taken off the fire, and meal made therewith into a paste, and divided into rolls for cramming. The fowls are put into coops a few days before they begin to cram them, which is done in a fortnight, and then they are sold to the higglers." These few of the many odd and similar receipts found in the older books will give some ideas of the greater in- terest taken in the fattening subject in years gone by, an interest that surely should be re-created, but not in the same w^ay as our modern methods are undoubtedly far superior and more practical. Fowls intended for market should be confined rather closely in pens or coops (so-called Fattening Crates) for from ten days to three weeks w^hen they should be prop- erly finished. Following we give the rations, methods and instructions supplied by the New York State College which is considered most excellent and is in general use on many large plants. 186 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK CORNELL RATION FOR FATTENING POULTRY RATION WITH MILK RATION "WITH MEAT SCRAP .'■0 pounds corn meal. 50 pounds rorn mpal. 20 pounds white wheat middlings. 20 pounds white wheat middlioi^s 10 pounds ground heavy oats. 10 pounds ground heavy oats Mi.Ked to a hatter tresh at eaell 20 pounds meat scrap, feeding with buttermilk or skim milk. Mixed to a hatter fresh at each Will require approximately 1 quart feeding with water. (2 Ihs.) milk to 1 quart (1 Hi. I feed. Will require approximately 1% quarts (3 lbs.) water to 2 quarts (2 lbs ) teed. Methods and Practice The Stock. — Rations recommended for both young and old stock. Birds "off condition" or of lew vitality can- not be profitably fattened. Before putting in crates, grease for lice below vent and under wings with equal parts of vaseline and "one-third strength blue ointment" (buy at drug store). The Quarters. — Clean, mite-free quarters are necessary to insure fatlerirg. Crate Fattening Construct the crates 36 inches by 20 inches high of slats, using false bottoms of one-inch mesh v^ire poultry netting and suspend through outside. The capacity of this crate is 6 to 8 fowls or 1 to 12 broilers, determined by the number that can eat from the trough at once. Locate crates in comfortable temperature — outside in shade or open shed for Summer use, and in reasonably warm house for Fall and Winter. Pen Fattening For best results limit flock to 20 or 30 birds, allowing 2 square feet of floor space per bird. To prevent dirt and waste, feed in troughs so built that the birds cannot walk in them. The Method. — The milk ration is to be preferred where milk is available or can be bought at a price not to exceed 45c. per 40-quart can (55c. per cwt.) Feed all they will clean up readily twice daily for about EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 187 two weeks, which is usually as long as fowls will "stand up ' under such heavy feeding. Broilers may be held longer, especially in the case of pen-fattening, when they should be fed grain in the litter at noon. Birds should not be fed for the first 24 hours so they will eat the new ration greedily. Omit one feeding if at any time birds go "off feed," clean pails and troughs will help to avoid this. Grit, shell, green feed and water are unnecessary except in hot weather when milk or w^ater may be given at noon. The Results. — Well fattened birds are worth 1 to 2 cents per pound more than range stock due to the improved quality of flesh. This increase in price together with the increase in weight make it decidedly profitable to fatten surplus stock before selling. To get top prices, label as "Milk-fed" or "Crate-fattened." EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AT CORNELL, 1916 Market Class No. of i Wt. at Wt Begin I End i Gam Lbs. I Lbs. Lbs. Bird.? ' „, . , I Gain „ , Cost Total I ,,„,. I p,.t Feed y^^^i Main V'.J^.'^-pcrU.. "-'"'^ , Gam Lbs. Fowls I 357 I 111.5.0,1342.5 1 227. G Broilers (Leghorns) I 131 ' 300.8 404.6 | 104.3 per Bird Gam 0.64 1 20.4 , .'■■.43 , ic !)n. O.SO ': 34.7 4,42 8.5c. Just what may be accomplished in fattening depends msinly on the quality of stock and largely upon the feed, regularity and the personal interest of the care taken. Lip- pincott gives the following table showing the results of milk feeding under packing-house conditions: >^umber of Days Head 'Fed Gain per Lb. of Grain 43,944 188 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK Number of Heads 2.068 10,360 11,S78 16,731 3,907 43,944 Cost of Labor per Cost of Peed per Pound of Gain. ' Pound of (.fain Total Cost per Pound of Gain. High Ct.s. 1.95 2.09 1 86 2.31 2.81 2.81 Low Cts. 1.43 0.99 0.92 0.8S 0.98 88 Ave. Cts. High Cts. 1.67 10.37 1.63 1.39 1.17 1.73 9.95 8.68 8.78 10.39 1.40 10.37 Low Cts. 5.81 4.97 4.23 3.71 4.17 Ave. Cts. High Cts. 7.84 12.32 6.88 11.77 10.12 11.09 13.14 6.64 6.42 7.-2X 3.71 6.45 13.14 Ave. < cts. Ots. 7.24 9.61 5.96 8.39 6.16 8.03 4.61 6.69 6.16 9.01 4.61 7.86 The Pennsylvania State College in circular No. 47 gives the following receipts and advice: "Most fowls from farms are put on the market in poor condition when fat- tened birds will find better sale, and bring greater profits. Strong, vigorous growing birds of the general purpose breeds will make a gain of 30 to 50 per cent, in two weeks when properly fattened. Best gains are made when birds are confined to fattening crates, 6 to a compartment, and fed twice a day from a mixture of 60 pounds cornmeal, 40 pounds wheat middlings or buckwheat middlings, and 5 pounds beef scrap, mixed -with sour milk to the consistency of batter. If no milk is available, use ten pounds of beef scrap and mix with water. No drinking water should be given. One disadvantage in this method of fattening is that the flesh of the bird becomes so tender, and the bones so brittle that they will not stand shipment alive without considerable loss. Old stock is best confined in restricted pens and fed plenty of corn." Let me here quote Mr. Edward Brown as follows: "In fattening poultry, or in fact, any other animals, two things are absolutely necessary. First, that the food supplied shall tend to the production of flesh, and, second, that the con- ditions under which fowls are kept shall eliminate as little of the oil or heat fuel as possible. It may be well here to explain that, although the term "fattening" is employed, merely laying on an excessive quantity of fat or oil is not meant, such as was at one time the case with cattle and sheep, the addition of the fat is necessary, in that, as already explained it softens and ripens the flesh. The reason why the flesh of a ripened fowl is finer in flavor and more diges- EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 189 tible is that fat takes the place of water in the tissues. This, when cooked, melts and softens the flesh, whereas water evaporates and leaves it dry and harder." Crate Fattening Upon this subject Prof. D. F Laurie, an authority, writes: "For Flesh Production. — To sonae extent the nature of the food influences the color of the flesh and skin, a point of some importance where high quality is demanded. Thus Pourtesv Missouri lOvper'meiit Stat n-i Cockerels the proper size fcr caponizing. in America the demand is for yellow-skinned table poultry, and although milk deposits no yellow pigment in the fat, the alteration is not important. In England and in other markets, where white skin and white flesh are highly es- teemed, the use of maize (corn) often imparts a decided creamy or yellow tirt. For the best markets quality is the main object in fattening fowls. Birds of medium size and of good finish are in demand in all markets. Although a 190 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK limited number of very large, heavily fatted chickens bring extreme prices, it pays better to fatten and market the birds in prime condition at a much earlier age. "Where only small numbers are to be dealt with, an ordinary crate, supplied with an outside food trough, w^ill answer the purpose. The most sanitary crates are made of galvanized iron with false bottoms of '/2-inch mesh wire netting tightly stretched a few inches above a movable pan. Courtesy WiBsouri E.vperiraent Station The same cockcTtls, shown on preceding page, as fully matured capons. which w^ill catch the droppings. Such an arrangement is sanitary, and the bird's feet are always clean. The bird nseds no more room than just suffices for it to turn round. The crates should be placed in d quiet spot, warm in Win- ter and cool in Summer. "Meal, mixed with milk, is the best food. Fine meal ii better than grain coarsely crushed. Ground oats, oatmeal and cat flour, mixed with ground barley, and thsn mois- EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 191 tened with milk, are excellent for the production of fine white flesh. Where color of flesh is of no importance a good proportion of ground maize mil assist the fattening process, although maize deposits an oily fat which largely disappears during cooking. Good results accrue from making the maize meal first into porridge (boiled) and then adding to the mixture of other meals and milk. Pea- meal and bean meal are flesh-making, but are very deficient in fat; this may be remedied by using oats or maize, or soy beans. The latter are excellent for fattening, used with other meals and milk. "Milk is essential to success — it may be either sour or sweet, but should always be the same, not sour one day and sweet the next. It should just be sour, not decomposing. "The consistency of the fattening mixtures varies amorg feeders. A good plan for the novice is to note the consis- tency preferred by the birds. Some like the food fairly firm, and others prefer it of the consistency of thick gruel. Twice a day is often enough to feed, although some feeders give three meals. The food should be placed in a trough, in front of the crate, and when the bird has eaten its fill the balance, if any, should be placed in a trough, in front of the crate, and when the bird has eaten its fill the balance, if any, should be removed. On no account should food be allowed to remain and become sour and tainted. A supply of coarse grit, sand, and charcoal grit should be kept in a hopper. This aids digestion. In hot weather it may be necessary to give the birds an occasional drink of milk or water." Hand Creumning Hand cramming may be practised by those who keep poultry as a hobby, or where labor is cheap. By this method, after the birds have eaten as much as they can from the trough, they are removed from the crate and crammed with pellets of food, of a dough-like consistency. The pellets are about 2 inches long and J/2 inch wide. The bird to be crammed is held firmly and his beak opened; a pellet is dipped in milk or water, placed at the back of the mouth, the beak released, and the pellet is then stroked 192 FVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK with the finger down the oesophagus into the crop, and so on, until the crop is well filled. Another method of hand cramming is performed with the aid of a small metal funnel, with a specially rounded shank — this is pushed down the gullet. The food is then made of the consistency of thin cream and poured into the bird's crop. Force feeding is the most expeditious and satisfactory method of feeding large numbers of fattening chickens. Cramming machines are made in various patterns, but the essentials are a bucket-like reservoir to contain the food mixture, which is of the consistency of moderately thick cream; a pump or piston connected w^ith the reservoir; and a flexible rubber tube, about 9 inches long. This is inserted into the bird's gullet and pushed down into the crop. There are various methods of holding the bird during the process. The first tw^o or three feeds should be limited so that the bird may become accustomed to the method. With practice a large number of birds can be fed in an hour. For convenience in handling large numbers, two assistants are desirable — one to pass fresh birds and the other to remove and re-pen those which are fed. Any bird which has not digested the previous meal should be put aside in a spare coop and not treated again until the crop is empty. Should there be no improvement, the bird should be placed in a run for a few weeks until it recovers its tone. A little carbonate of soda may be administered in such cases. Not only is there a great gain in weight by this method of feeding, but the general appearance (finish) of properly crammed chickens is vastly superior to that obtainable by any other method. The gain in weight is achieved at a moderate cost, and the economic value of a fowl is greatly increased by a course of systematic fattening. Those accustomed to properly fattened poultry find little pleasure in consuming ordinary farm sorts, even if they carry a fair amount of flesh. The chickens fed as described carry a large amount of flesh on the back, and EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 193 in parts generally covered by skin only. The quality of the flesh is vastly superior owing to the good food, the milk, and the admixture, due to this method of feeding, of fat and flesh. From a business point of view the quality alw^ays commands top prices, and consumers are willing to pay well and repeat orders. It is really extravagant to use half-fatted fowls. It costs a certain amount, from 1 s. to Is. 3d., to raise a large-framed chicken to the age of twelve to fourteen weeks. If sold in the rough state and weighing, say 3!/2 pounds, it will bring perhaps 2s. 6d. After three weeks' fattening, at a cost of, say, 8d., the same chicken will weigh at least 5 pounds, and sell for 4s. or more. Some breeds or crosses are more profitable when crammed than are others. There is a happy medium in the fattening of chickens. Many buyers w^ould object to a mass of fat — just as they w^ould reject a half-starved specimen. A well-fattened fowl should carry abundance of flesh, and only a moderate quantity of fat. 194 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK CHAPTER XXIX FEEDIXU CAPONS Having had but a limited experience with capons we prefer to here give in part Bulletin No. 25 7 of the U. S. Dep>artment of Agriculture, "A capon is a castrated male bird. After being caponized the bird becomes more quiet, is more readily fattened, the comb and wattles cease to grow, the plumage becomes heavy and glossy. Capons neither crow nor fight and are despised by other fowls. They often show a great fondness for little chicks, and instances are not uncommon where they have been utilized in rearing broods of chickens. "Fowls hatched early in the Spring can be caponized before hot weather comes, which is an advantage, although no ill results should follow the operation at any time of the year if it is properly done. Generally speaking, the bird should be from 2 to 3 months old and weigh about 2 pounds, depending largely on its development. A good set of tools is indispensable and can be purchased, a complete set of instructions is furnished with each set, it is unneces- sary to go into details here. The beginner should, how- ever, operate on several dead cockerels before attempting to operate on a live one. "After caponizing, the bird should be given plenty of soft feed and should have plenty of water to drink. The capon begins to eat almost immediately after the operation is performed, and no one w^ould suppose that a radical change had taken place in his nature. Leave him to him- self, as for the time being he is his own doctor. It is well, however, to look him over two or three days after the oper- ation has been performed, for sometimes air gets under the skin, causing a slight swelling or "wind puff." This can be relieved by pricking through the skin at one side of the swelling with a sharp needle and gently pressing out the EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 195 air with the hands. The wounds will heal -within ten days from the operation. The capons should be fed nourishing but not fattening feed, the object being to keep them growing. They should be allowed to grow until about a year old, depending of course largely on their maturity, some breeds maturing much more rapidly than others. "About three weeks before marketing place the fowls in small yards and feed them three or four times a day, giv- ing plenty of corn and other feed, or fatten them in one of the ways indicated in the section following on fat- tening poultry. Corn meal and ground oats, equal parts by w^eight, moistened w^ith water or milk, makes a good mash for fattening capons. "In dressing capons leave the head and hackle feathers, the feathers on the wings to the second joint, the tail feathers including those a little way up the back, and the feathers on the legs halfway up the thigh. These feathers serve to distinguish capons from other fowls in the market. Do not cut the head off, for this is also a distinguishing feature of the capon, on account of the undeveloped comb and wattles." At the Ohio Station Feeding Experiments were made and their report follows: "The object of this experiment was to compare the efficiency of a ration made up of corn, ground corn and beef scrap with that of a ration made up of corn, wheat, oats, ground corn, bran and beef scrap. This included a study of the amounts of the various feeds selected by the fowls w^hen they had free access to each of the different feeds. Four lots of capons were used in this experiment. Lots I and 3 received the ration made up of the greater variety of feeds while Lots 2 and 4 received the ration composed of corn and beef scrap. "Description of Capons. — The capons used to make up Lots 1 and 3 were strong, vigorous birds, hatched June 6, 196 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 1911, and caponized October 6, 1911. Those used in lots 2 and 4 were hatched between May 23 and June 22, 1911, and caponized October 25. There was more varia- tion in size of birds and less constitutional vigor in Lots 2 and 4 than in Lots land 3. The birds were Barred Plymouth Rocks. "Housing. — Each lot occupied half of a 1 by 12-foot shed-roof house similar to the one shown on page 542 of this bulletin. During the early part of the experiment the capons were allowed access, during the day, to yards con- taining about one-fifth of an acre. These yards, however, furnished very little, if any green feed. After January 1 1 , the weather was so severe that the birds were confined to the houses. "Manner of Feeding and Watering. — In order to allow the birds to eat of the various feeds as they desired, the different feeds were kept in separate divisions of a feeder. The birds had access to grit, charcoal and oyster shells at all times, and to water during the day time. "Manner of Weighing Birds and Feed. — The birds which were to make up Lots 1 and 2 -were weighed on December 9 and divided into tw^o lots of as nearly equal ■weights as possible. They were also started on the experimental rations on the above date. 1 he average of three weights taken December 11, 12 and 1 3 was used as the initial wfeight of the experiment. The birds used in Lots 3 and 4 were weighed and divided into two lots on December I 2, when they w^ere started on the experimental rations. The initial weights are the average of three weights taken on December 25, 26 and 27. The final weights of Lots 1 and 2 were secured on February 6, 7 and 8, and of Lots 3 and 4 on February 5, 6 and 7. The birds were also weighed once each week to note the progress they were making. They were weighed individually each time. They were weighed in the morning before they were given access to feed and water, which had been withheld since the night EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 197 previous. The feed remaining in the hoppers when the weekly weights of the birds were taken, was weighed, thus making it possible to determine the weekly consumption of feed. Grit, charcoal and oyster shells were not calculated on a weekly basis, but the total amount consumed during the entire experiment was calculated. "Mortality. — During the experiment one bird in Lot 4 and two in Lot 3 died. As no diseased condition of the bodies was revealed by a post mortem examination, the cause of these deaths is not known." TABLE IX FEED CONSUMED No Lot in Lot 1 13 2 1.S 3 17 4 17 "^o^'i Corn iwheat| Oats 'Grou; Test I Lbs. I Lbs. Lbs. ^" Days i I I J-'Os. Oats 'Ground gran Beef ' Total i Grit rZV ^°'^"" , . Corn Scrap _ , : ^ , ; J'"^, coal Lbs. ,. , Lbs. I , , Lbs. Lbs. i Shell Lbs. ' Lbs. : I Lbs I^bs. 57 I 147. S 73.15 3.96 57 181.2 42 I 66.4 I 122.90 7.20 42 I 166.6 I 29.06 76.35 38.30 71.96 2.20 I 9.20! 271.35 .80 | 2.3 , 1.40 . . . . I 8.70 266.25 .85 ' 2.5 1.65 2.35 10. 30i 246.45 sTi 2.7 1.70 9,10! 247.65 3.05 i 1.3 3.20 1 . Total does not include grit, oyster shells and charcoal. 2. One capon died at end of 3rd week and one at end of 4th week. 3. One capon died at end of 5th week. Table IX gives the amounts of the various feeds and other materials consumed by the different lots during the experiment. Table X shows the feed consumed per bird by weekly periods. It is interesting to note that in both cases the lots receiving the greater variety of feeds con- sumed slightly more beef scrap than did those that received only corn and ground corn in addition to the beef scrap. It will also be observed that the birds in Lot 1 consumed 147.8 pounds of corn and 79.15 pounds of wheat while those in Lot 3 consumed only 65.4 pounds of corn and 122.9 pounds of wheat. 198 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK TABLE X _ _ _ AVERAGE FEED CdNKI'MHI) PER CAPON BY WEEKLY PERIODS Dec Dec. Deo. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. 1-2-lS .... li-2S . . . . 2(i-Jan. 1 2-S 9-l.S . . . . 10-22 . . . 23-2il . . . . 30-Peb. 6 Lot 1 Ration: Corn, jj^oq^ wheat, oats, igju^^j ground corn, g^ „ ^ bran and beef ■^craj.. Lbs. Lot 2 ^ Ration : Corn, „,jieat. corn ground n e e f ■ [Scrap. 3.104 2.750 2.642 2.562 2.623 2.465 2.212 2.515 3.169 2. SCO 2.56X 2.108 2.712 2.464 2.204 2.477 bran beef scrap Lbs. i Lot Corn, . oats. Ration, corn, gro'JiKl and"* "d scra]L Lb Corn, corn beef 2 615 2.706 2.647 2.5 2. s 2.360 2.343 2.4(r, 2.6 3.-. 2.632 2 274 2.312 2.3H1 One Ending February 5th. Table XI shows the cost of the various feeds consumed, with prices for feeds as given on other page. It will be noted that the cost of feed in both cases was lower with the lots receiving the ration made up of corn, ground corn and beef scraps. This difference is greater in the case of Lots 3 and 4, because Lot 3 consumed a considerably larger amount of wheat than did Lot 1 . With wheat and corn charged at more nearly the same price per hundred weight, this difference would not be so great. TABLE XI ^ ^ COST OF PEED CONSUMED Lot! Corn Wheat Oatk Ground Corn Bran §>'<'' Scrap Grit Oyster Shells 1.47.S 1 ,>-12 65 4 1 666 Ifl.l^^V ' i.'.K44' .044 .f .316 .S32 .417 .7,^4 $.029 $ .253 ,' '.031 .'2S3 250 1^ (106 .006 .006 .008 a .017 .019 .020 .010 Char- coal Total .032, ^;3,36 .037' 2 96 038 3,37 .072, 2.79 Table XII gives the initial and final w^eight, gain in weight and percentage gain of each bird. It will be noted that there was considerable variation in the gain in weight and percentage gain of the different birds. Attention is called to capon No. 1019 in Lot 2 which gained 3.817 pounds or 82.69 per cent, as compared with No. 1024 in the same lot, which gained 1.45 pounds or 26.53 per cent. Table XIII shows the weight and gain of each lot by EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 199 weekly periods. While there was a great irregularity in the gains from week, to week, it will be observed that the gains become much lower during the latter part of the experiment. — Various Feed TABLE XII Lot 2-- Dorn an( Ave. 1 Beef S craps--." Lot 1 s — 57 Days. 7 Days Ave. Ave. Ave. Capon, Initial Pinal Grain Gain Capou No. Initial Final Ave. Gain No. Weight: Weight Lbs. Pet. Weight'Weight Gain Pet. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 1003 5.300 S.316 3.016 56.91 1000 5.050 7.683 2.633 52.14 1004 5.883 8.516 2.633 44.76 1001 4.366 6.483 2.117 4S.49 1005 5.533 . 8.550 3.017 54.53 1 1002 4.250 6.483 2.233 .V2 5 4 1006 4.683 7.016 2.333 49.82 1 1007 .5.433 7.633 2.I.-1O 39.21 1008 4.616 6.133 1.517 32.86 1009 8.833 7.700 1.867 32.01 1012 3.366 5.150 1.784 53.00 1010 5.200 7.433 2.233 42.94 1014 5.300 8.083 2.783 52.51 1011 4.050 6 366 2.316 57.18 1015 4.116 6.166 2.050 49.80 1013 4.350 6.383 2.033 46.74 1016 4.583 6.600 2.017 44.01 1017 4.566 7..i33 2.967 64.98 1018 4.983 6.916 1.933 38.79 1019 4.616 S.433 3.817 82.69 1020 4.350 6.666 2.316 .-,3.24 1023 0.516 7.716 2.200 39.88 1021 5.033 7.900 2.867 66.96 1024 5.466 6.916 1.460 26.53 1022 5.850 8.283 94.300 2.433 SO. 700 —42 D 41.59 1025 Total Lot 4-- 4.983 7.416 2.433 80.450 3erap--4 4S.S3 Total 63.600 48.27 »ys. 63.730 94.180 47.78 Lot 3- — Varioii s Feeds Ave. Corn an Ave. i Beef 2 Dayr< Ave. Ave. Gapon No. Initial Final Gain Gain Capon Initial Final Ave. Gain Weight Weight Lbs. Pet. No. Weight Weight Gain Pet. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 903 7.116 8.866 1.750 24.59 901 5.600 7.383 1.783 31.84 904 5.633 7.083 1.450 26.74 902 5.916 7.900 1.984 3 3 .-i4 907 5.000 6.150 1.140 23.00 905 4.883 6.600 1.717 3 5.16 909 6.483 7.266 0.783 12.08 P06 5.183 6.760 1.567 30.23 910 5.766 6.600 0.834 14 46 903 7.016 8.233 1.217 17.35 911 6.683 7.716 2.033 35.77 1.12 5.066 6.733 1.667 32.91 916 5.633 7.083 1.450 25.74 915 3.616 4.860 1.334 37.94 918 4.433 5.883 1.450 32.71 013 6.950 8.316 1.366 19.65 920 4.366 5.800 1.434 32.84 917 5.483 6.533 1.050 19.15 921 6.350 7.600 1,250 19.69 919 6.583 6.500 0.917 16.42 925 4.966 6.016 1.050 21.14 922 4.600 6.666 2.066 44.91 926 5.416 6.250 0.834 15.40 92;; 6.166 7.800 1.634 26.50 929 7.166 8.966 1.800 25.12 'jii 4. 583 6.083 1.500 32.73 930 6.133 7.600 1.467 23.92 ! 927 6.250 7.783 1.633 24.53 932 5.250 7.716 2.466 46.97 928 5.266 7.050 1.784 33.88 934 4.883 5.700 0.817 16,63 1 44.41 1 25.36 931 4.338 5.283 0.950 21.92 935 4.616 6.666 118.970 2.050 24.070 933 Total 6.700 93.100 8.650 1.960 26.020 29.10 Total 94.900 119.120 27.95 1. ] n test 5 8 days. 2. ] n test 21 days 3. 1 n test i5 days. 200 EVERiBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK TABLE XIII -W EEKLY WEIGHTS AND GAINS Lot 1. Various Feeds — 13 Capons. Weight Weekly Gain Dale. Total ^l- ^e'' Total A}; Vcc Capon - T^ Capon Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot 2. Corn and Beef Scraj IH Capons. Weight Weekly Gain Total A;;- P-"^ Total ^v^per Capnn ^, Capon Lbs. ,. ' i Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. P.-i Der -Tan. '.2 Jan. !) Jan In . Jan. 2.3 Jan. .SO Feb. 6, V 11,12,1.3 19 . fi:i.60 69.15 7.5.0(1 MI.O.'. ,s4.20 ,s H . 5 ;'} 90.10 02.40 94.30 4 , M) 2 .-, 319 .'j,769 6.1.5,S 6.477 6.6.58 6.931 7.108 '.254 5 0,5 4.15 2.35 3.5.-I 2.30 1.90 427 .4,50 , .3 .>< S .319 .181 .273 .177 .146 63.73 69. ,^.5 75.60 79 05 S3 13 .^6,C0 89.95 91 70 94.18 4.902 5.373 5 808 6.0M 6 396 6.661 6.919 7.054 7.245 6.12 5.6.5 3.55 4.10 3 45 3.35 1.7 5 2.48 .471 .436 .273 .316 .266 .268 .135 .191 Lot 3- \'arious Feeds — 17 Capons. Weight Weekly Cain Date. Total Lbs. \v. Per Total. ^^-I" Capon Lbs. Lbs Capon Lbs. Corn and Beef Scrap 17 Capons. Weight Total Lbs. Av Per Capon Lbs. Weekly Gain Total Lbs. Av.Per Capon Lbs. Dec. 25.26.27 94.90 5. 582 J,'m. 2 ! 99.50 5.853 Jan. 9 . . Jan. 16 . Jan. 23 Jan 3(1 . Feb. 5, (i. 106.40 111.00 108.60 103.05 105,12 .258 6 529 6.781 6.870 7.008 4.60 6.90 4.60 3.75 2.15 2.07 .271 .4(15 271 .236 .143 .138 93.10 476 98.16 6.774 104 15 108.20 113,06 116.7 5 111.22 6.126 6.365 6.650 6.868 6.95 1 5.06 6.00 4.05 4.85 3.70 2.37 29 8 ,352 .239 .285 .218 .148 1. This gain is for eight oays. 2. No. 926 taken out January 16, weight 6,25 pounds, 3. No. 921 taken out January 23, weight 7,6 pounds. 4. Xo. 902 taken out January 30, Aveight 7.9 pounds. Table XIV gives a summary of the experiment. Very little difference is shown in the gains produced by the two rations. Lots 1 and 2 made almost exactly the same gain, while Lot 4, getting corn, ground com and beef scrap, gained approximately 2 pounds or 8. 1 per cent, more than Lot 3, which received the greatest variety of feed.*!. Lot EVERYBCDYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 201 TABLE XIV. SUMMARY. Peed T-'eed cost of Con- Consumed Cost p^ed Per Ration Gain , gumg^ Per Lb. ot-Peed, ^^^ g^j^ T . Gain Lbs. Lbs, ■ Lents Lbs. loorn, wheat, oats, ground, 30.70 | 271. 36i S,S3 , $3.36 i lU.il* corn, bran and beef scrap . | ! Corn, ground corn, beef scrap 30.45 266.25 8.74 2.95 i 37 Corn, wheat, oats, ground i corn, bran and beef L!4.07 246.45 10.24 3.37 14.02 Corn, ground corn, beef scrap 20.02 . 247.65 9.17 2.79 10,71 The feed consumed per pound of gain by Lots I and 2 was almost the same, but Lot 3 consumed sHghtly over a pound more feed per pound of gain than did Lot 4. The more important difference in this experiment is in the cost of feed per pound of gain, on account of some of the feeds which Lots 1 and 3 received, being higher priced, under unusual market conditions, than is corn, which con- stituted the chief part of the ration that was fed to Lots 2 and 4. The last column in Table XIV shows the difference in cost of feed per pound of gain. It will be noted that the cost per pound of gain with Lot I , receiving the variety of feeds, was slightly more than 1 J/4 cents higher than with Lot 2, fed corn and beef scrap, while the gain pro- duced by Lot 3 cost nearly 3 I -3 cents per pound more than did that produced by Lot 4. The higher cost of pro- duction with Lots 3 and 4 than with Lots I and 2, respec- tively, is probably due, in part at least, to the fact that the birds in Lots 3 and 4 were less vigorous than those in Lots I and 2. The reasons for the greater variation in feed cost per unit of gain between Lots 1 and 3 than between Lots 2 and 4 is not apparent. Government Bulletin No. 452 gives the following advice and directions: Care of Fowls After the Operation Upon being released from the operating table the capons are usually put in a closed yard where they can find ■shelter, food and water, and can be kept quiet. No roosts 202 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK are provided, as the less flying and jumping they do the sooner will the wound heal. The capons seem to be very little inconvenienced by the operation, and water and soft feed mixed with sweet skim milk can be given immediately. Some feeders give this in unlimited quantity, while others feed more sparingly for a time. Some growers observe no precautions whatever, giving the birds their full liberty immediately after the operation and allowing them to have any sort of feed. For a week or ten days the newly made capons should be carefully observed to see whether they become "wind puffed." This is a condition caused by air gathering under and puffing out the skin near the -wound. When observed it can be readily relieved by pricking the skin with a needle or knife and pressing out the air. In about ten days or two weeks the incision into the body should be entirely healed, and, although no special antiseptic methods are employed in the operation, blood poisoning or any other trouble seldom results. Feeding Capons Capons are usually kept till they are about 1 months old. At this time the market is at its best and the birds have made most profitable gains. The feeds used and the methods of feeding vary greatly, so much so, indeed, that it is futile to try to give specific directions. For several months after the operation a good growing ration and not a fattening ration is required. It may consist of whole grains, ground grains, or a combination of the two, as each feeder finds most profitable and best suited to his locality. As with other poultry, variety must be given for best results. Late in the Fall, when the capons have no pasture, green feed, such as cut clover or vegetables should be provided. A somewhat more fattening ration than that required for laying hens seems to give good results. As capons are not usually marketed before Christmas or the first of January they have to be housed during the late Fall and early Winter. Because of their quiet disposition they stand crowding quite well and have been successfully EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 203 housed with only 2 or 3 square feet of floor space to a fowl. It is better, however, to allow^ 4 or 5 feet if possible. During the last month or month and a half before market- ing, the corn in the ration should be gradually increased until the fowls are on a full fattening ration. For the last two or three weeks it is desirable to shut them up and feed them in crates, for every possible ounce at this stage adds to the appearance and profit. Machine cramming is some- times practiced the last week with excellent results. 204 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK CHAPTER XXX FEEDING DUCKS Although Ducks have been known and bred for several thousands of years, their production on a large scale and their importance as an industry dates back only about fifty years. The fanciers of water fowl find in ducks a most in- teresting subject. They are easy to rear, are uncommonly hardy, subject to but few^ diseases and when their feeding and growing is understood assure a substantial gain and profit. One of the early writers on duck feeding — W. B. Dickson (London 1847), gives the following instructions for their rearing: "Ducklings can do without a mother as soon as they are excluded. Their food, for the first days, may be crumbled bread sopped in milk, and a little ale, or cider. Some days after, a paste may be made for them with a bunch of nettle leaves, boiled tender, chopped up very small, and of a third of the flour of maize, buckwheat or barley. "As soon as they have a little strength, a good deal of pot-herbs may be given them, raw and chopped up, mixed with a little bran soaked in water, barley, mashed acorns, boiled potatoes, beaten up with a little fish, when it can be had. All these equally agree with ducklings, which de- vour the different substances they meet with, and show, from their most tender age, a voracity which they always retain. To strengthen the young ones before they take to the water, they must be secured under coops, during eight or ten days and taking care to put a little water under the coops." It is hardly necessary for me to mention that ducks are not fed in that manner now-a-days, that methods have changed and that modern methods assure best results. The rearing of ducks is in fact a very simple matter and Mr. Twining, whom we consider an able authority, in his book, "Poultry Truths," says: "It is the common opinion EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 205 that ducks are hard to hatch and easy to raise. We run our machines at 102 first two weeks, 102J/2 third week, and 1 03 the last week up to hatch, when it reaches 1 04 or 1 05. Eggs are turned once a day till first test (seventh day), then twice daily till they pip. We then place all the pips up and close the machine until the hatch is over. A three- sixty hen egg machine will accommodate two-eighty-eight duck eggs, and if you average 150 good ducklings per hatch throughout the season you are doing well. "After we remove the egg shells ducklings are left in the machine until thoroughly dry. They are then taken to the duck nursery, whre there are pens 1 2 by 4 with brooders 4 by 2. Overhead hot-water heat is used. Pens are heavily bedded with straw. Temperature of brooders is 90 and we endeavor to maintain absolutely even heat. There is water and coarse sand put before the ducklings right away and' is left there till night, when they are fas- tened close to the brooder. They get their first food the next morning, which is Spratt's Patent No. 5, which, though an expensive food, we find well worth using. They are fed on this food five times a day for four dayf, then we gradually wean them onto a mash of (by bulk), six parts bran, two parts corn meal, two parts middlings, one part low grade flour, five parts cut green, 1 per cent, beef scrap, sand, grit and oyster shell, all they will eat up clean. They are fed this until eight weeks of age, when they are grad- ually changed to the fattening food, consisting of four parts corn meal, two parts low grade flour, one part bran, 1 2 per cent, beef scrap, add a little cut greens to make it tasty, also sand, shell and grit for the digestion. "Many feed good food but fail to provide proper grinders to digest it. The cut greens are either lawn clip- pings, cut green clover, corn fodder, dwarf Essex rape or wheat. "At ten weeks they are in the best condition to kill. If they have been carefully fed and attended to they will aver- age ten pounds to the pair or over. Now if they are properly prepared for market they will command a price that makes production profitable. 206 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 207 "Different breeders have different methods and we find the method in general use is for the first feed to contain by measure (not weight) fifty per cent, each of bread crumbs and of rolled oats with about five per cent, of fine sharp sand well mixed together, then moistened with either milk or water, (milk greatly preferred) not enough to make the mixture sloppy, but just enough to moisten the particles. Ducklings like chicks should not be fed until they are from 36 to 48 hours old, after that they should be fed all they will eat up clean four or five times a day. "On about the third day the food mixture can be changed to advantage by the addition of bran and corn meal. Your mixture should be equal parts of bread crumbs, rolled oats, bran and corn meal all by measure, mixed as above with milk or water to a crumbly state, not sticky or sloppy. The sharp sand to be included, its proportion can be slightly increased as the ducks age. Some breeders from the fifth to eighth day on, instead of increasing the amount of sand, add a small portion of fine sifted grit or oys- ter shells. "When the ducklings are eight to ten days old you may dispense with the bread crumbs and rolled oats, if neces- sary, and substitute some cheap low-grade flour. At this age also green stuff and beef-scrap is added. To sum- marize, then, prepare the food as follows: Equal parts of bran and corn meal, ten per cent, of low-grade flour and ten per cent of green stuff, such as green grass or rye or millet (■which has been chopped up in a cutting machine or by hand in a pail), beef scraps five per cent., grit one per cent. The scraps if too coarse should be screened, the fine part being used for the small birds and the coarse part for the older ones." The noted Duck grower, Mr. James Rankin, gives the following directions in feeding ducklings: "When first hatched out they should feed on one part hard boiled eggs (chopped fine) to four parts of bread crumbs, into which a little coarse sand has been mixed. When a few days old green stuff should be fed to them. They should be fed four times a day till six weeks old, then three times. Gradually the quantity of meal is increased as the birds 208 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK grow older. At eight weeks they should be fed three- fourths corn meal and a little more scraps while fattening. If they are of good stock and well fattened they may be depended upon to dress twelve pounds per pair at ten weeks old." Note: — The eggs above referred to are infertile eggs tested out on the fifth day and when wanted are hard boiled and chopped fine, shell and egg together. Mr. H. E. Moss does not approve to feeding of hard boiled eggs. Here is his formula and his objection to eggs boiled. "The nursery feed consists of one measure of cracker or stale bread crumbs, one measure of middlings, one-half measure of bran, five per cent, of grit, w^et with water or milk to a dry crumbly state. Keep hands off of hEord boiled eggs. 1 fail to see why any one should recom- mend them, unless they assume that because the yolk is the first food supplied by nature to start them in life, then the entire egg boiled hard must be an ideal food. There is a vast difference between the digestibility of a raw yolk and the hard boiled albumen or yolk. The one can be safely eaten by an invalid v\fhere the other might kill him. Keep it a-way from ducklings. Some might survive it. They might also survive a moderate dose of poison, but that is no argu- ment v^hy we should feed it to them. Be particular to keep the drinking vessels clean. Rinse them out at each feeding. Keep the pens dry." Mr. Moss also gives the following ration for a growing feed: "At the end of five weeks your ducklings can be moved into unheated buildings or sheds where they can be protected from storms. They must be kept dry until they are fairly well feathered, v/hich w^ill be at seven weeks. "After they leave the nursery they are fed the growing feed four times a day, composed as follows: Four TTieasures of bran. Three measures of middlings. One measure < f corn meal. Three measures of cut green rye or two of cut clover, scalded. Five per cent, sharp sand. Five per cent, scrap. "Wet this with water, but do not make it sloppy. You EVE^YBODiS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 209 will notice the small percentage of corn meal. We have little use for it until we are ready to fatten. Thousands of ducklings die every year from its injudicious use. We are now feeding for a large frame. "At the end of seven weeks we move them into the fat- tening sheds and here com meal is the principal element of diet. The ration then consists of: Two measures of corn meal. Two measures of middlings. One measure bran. One measure of green stuif. Ten per cent, scrap. Five per cent. sand. Wet with water to a dry, crumbly state Fattening Ducks The fattening of ducks for killing begins when they are eight weeks old. They then should be fed three times daily. Feed a mixture of corn meal, low-grade flour, beef scraps, oyster shells and grit, and green stuff. Mix the food in these proportions: Three parts of corn meal, one part of low-grade flour, three-quarters of a part of beef scraps with about three per cent, of oyster shells and grit mixed equally, then one part of green stuff. The duck- lings like the looks of the mixture better and eat more of it when the green stuff is in it to give it color. This food is given until the ducklings are ten or eleven weeks old, when they are killed. The secret of- feeding properly this fattening mixture three times a day is to feed just what will be eaten up clean in fifteen minutes. If there is any left over after the ducks have eaten briskly for fifteen minutes, the food board should be scraped entirely clean. When you get skillful at feeding from practice you will know just how much to feed. The idea is not to give these fattening ducks too much food, for if you do they will not keep fat. You must keep their appetites eager. Make the morr.ing feeding light. Make the noon feed- ing light. At night be more liberal. Then give them the feed good and strong. This w^ill last them through the night. 210 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK Always water ducks before feeding, plenty of fresh water should be given at least five times daily. Feeding the Breeders The breeding ducks should have a grass range with shade, and if not convenient to a stream or pond should be watered from five to eight times daily as water is an im- portant factor in their growing. Breeders should be fed twice daily. A good ration is (measure), vegetables, ten parts; green stuff, either cut clover or alfalfa, ten parts; beef scrap ten parts; low-grade flour and bran, each twenty parts; corn meal thirty parts. In addition one per cent, each of grit and oyster shells and a pinch of salt should be added. Once or tw^ice a week it is advisable to use one per cent, portion of ground charcoal w^hich cor- rects any acidity and cleans and sweetens the stomach. All the food ingredients should first be thoroughly mixed dry, then milk or water added until the mixture becomes lumpy, but not sloppy. Feeding the Breeders When feeding ducks for a greater egg production the change in food should be made gradually, particularly that of beef scrap or bowel trouble is likely to result. The following ration fed twice daily is recommended : Five quarts bran. Five quarts corn chop. Two quarts middlings. One and a half of beef scrap. Three quarts boiled vegetables. Three quarts cut green stuff. Five per cent, sharp sand. Wet this as usual to a crumbly state. Keep a box of sand and one of oyster shells in each pen and plenty of fresh water. EVERYBODiS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 211 CHAPTER XXXI FEEDING GEESE The breeder or farmer who has range, orchard or pasture and does not raise geese is missing a profitable opportunity. Geese are easily raised and kept, cheaply fed and only ask for room to roam and grow and to forage for themselves. They are the most persistent grazers of any kind of poultry and they will sustain themselves on most any kind or quality of land. Feeding the Young The early feeding of Geese should be in the direction of building a large frarfie upon w^hich the meat is to be laid. Much of this depends upon the early feeding. Brown (Eng- land) advises that the best food for goslings from the first is barley meal and wheat. The whole wheat to be scalded and dried up by mixing with the meal. He also says that variations may be made by giving ground oats, or by boil- ing potatoes and drying them up with the meal. The goose and her brood should be housed in a sheltered place on grass preferred, the mother confined for the first week. For their first meal, egg corn bread is recommended, give them all they w^ill eat up clean and feed often. After a few days give them rolled or cut cats and chick food, if kept on grass they will eat their own supply of green food, if not you will have to supply it. After ten days old they will eat about anything given them. One breeder, who has made a success of raising geese, writes: "After the young are from twenty-four to thirty- six hours old feed them a elightly moi-t mash three times daily and let them have all the w^ater they will drink, but not to bathe in until they are of fair age and the weather is warm. Geese also require grit and after two or three weeks old will eat grains of all kinds. Be sure they always have access to plenty of green food." 212 EVERYBODiS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK Feeding the Breeders Matured geese are easy feeders and but very little care at any season. During the breeding season it is advisable to feed them regular twice daily what grain they will eat up clean. A mixed ration same as fed to the fowls is best. Green foods and an abundance of water is always necessary. Fattening Geese Geese to be fattened should be placed in pens and given an abundance of green food and water. The morning and night meals should be a moist mash of corn meal (yellow preferred) and ten per cent, of beef scrap. At noon they should have a liberal feeding of whole or cracked corn. For the mash food another breeder recommends the use of half corn meal, one quarter each of bran and middlings and ten per cent, of beef scrap. We like this formula for its variety best. Milk for the wet mashes is always preferable. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 213 CHAPTER XXXII FEEDING TURKEYS In turkeys we find one of the most interesting of all domesticated fowls and as they are high in popular favor for the table tKere is no sound reason why they should not be bred to a far greater extent. To our notion the poultry- man and farmer have no complete plant with chickens alone, a flock of ducks or geese and some turkeys will com- plete it and give them the variety of food they also desire. Either of these, or all of them can well be kept to advantage in conjunction with poultry, generally to an advantage in feeding, housing, etc. While it is true that young turkeys at a certain stage are rather delicate and require some special care, it is also true, that when these conditions are understood and suitable arrangements prepared, it is no great chore to bring them safely through and start them on their way through life with excellent results for the breeder. Most of the difficulties we hear of in turkey raising is simply hearsay, they are sus- ceptible to exposure, to cold and dampness, but with proper care they can be raised with success. Feeding the Young It is generally agreed that dry foods are greatly preferred in feeding the young, on this subject one authority says: "On the second day the chicks may receive their first meal. On one point all turkey growers agree, no 'sloppy' food must be given the young birds. In a natural state, turkey chicks feed largely upon flies, spiders, grasshoppers, grubs, snails, slugs, ^vorms, ant eggs, etc., and if watched on a bright day will be seen to be constantly chasing flies, etc., about the meadows and woods. Berries, seeds, etc., make the variation. The first meal should be hard boiled eggs (boiled twenty minutes) and stale wheat bread dipped in hot milk, the milk squeezed out and both crumbled fine and seasoned with a very little black pepper. This feed may be continued for two or three weeks, with now^ and then a 214 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK variation to thick clabbered milk, or Dutch cheese in place of the egg. Let it be known that the egg is a substitute for insects, which the young turkey has in its wild state, so, as opportunities open for the chicks to get insects, the egg should be omitted. Dry meal must not be given them, nor wet meal insufficiently swelled. If the meal swells in their crops death is almost certain. The best way to feed Indian meal is in the form of corn bread or 'Johnny cake'. After the young birds are three weeks old, omit the eggs and give meat scraps and ground bone. Clean water or milk must be before them all the time. For runs, the best are three fourteen-inch boards set on edge so as to form a tri- angle with the coop in one corner, or shorter boards over one corner, for shelter from the sun by day and dews by night. Every day or two, move two of these boards so as to form another triangle adjacent to the site of the old one. By the time the chicks are old enough to jump over the boards, they may be allowed to wander about with their mother, after the morning dew is off. After that time three feedings a day are sufficient, and when they are weaned, feeding at morning and night only is enough. With a good range over wheat stubble, which they can have in the western states, and plenty of grasshoppers, no other feed- ing is necessary after they are educated to come home to roost." The young chicks must have green food. If they cannot obtain plenty of grass, give chopped lettuce, dandelions, onion tops (these last sparingly), turnip tops, etc. Buck- wheat, cracked corn and wheat may be given at night, after they get large enough. Do net leave food around. Feed each time only so much as will be eaten up clean. After the first two weeks give sour milk frfely. After they can get insects, no other meat than tlie milk will be neces- sary. The particular enemies of the young turkeys are lice and diarrhoea, but both may be conquered. During the feathering period, the chicks must have plenty of bone and feather-forming material. This is supplied best in the form of finely chopped meat and green bones. A good bone mill or cutter is indispensable when much poul- EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 215 try is kept. See that they have grit, in the form of pounded crockery, oyster shells and clean gravel. Edward Brown (England) in his book "Poultry Hus- bandry" gives the following methods of turkey feeding: "Young turkeys are first fed on hard boiled egg, chopped fine, with boiled rice and soaked stale bread, or rice sim- mered in milk. The rice should be mixed w^hen quite soft with sifted oatmeal, Spratts meal, or ground oats, until it is crumbly moist. They should be fed five or six times in the day, the first feed to be as soon as possible after daylight, and the last about six o'clock in the evening. When a week or ten days old, gradually change the food, introducing barley meal or ground oats mixed with middlings, also buckwheat or wheat (the latter should be boiled) and — most important of all — plenty of young onions chopped fine. Any kind of tender green food is useful, but onions are most valuable. Young clover, or lettuce, or dandelion or nettles, can all be used with advantage. As soon as the birds have 'shot the red,' they may be fed upon green oats, wheat, buckwheat and barley, varied with boiled wheat, dried off with barley meal. The great requisites for success- ful turkey-rearing are ( I ) a dry, comfortable house and run, and (2) good and proper feeding. On cold or wet days mix a little seasoning in the soft food, and give every day for the first three months a little chopped meat or Spratts crissel. Bone-meal or fresh bones should be mixed with the food, and there should be a plentiful supply of grit. It is necessary to move the coop every day, or the ground will become tainted. When the young birds are about a fortnight old, let the hen out of the coop for about an hour a day, which may be gradually extended in time." Feeding the Breeders In feeding your breeders bear in mind that you are not fattening them. Do not overfeed or starve your flock. The natural food of the turkey, in its wild state, consists of in- sects, w^orms, grass, berries and seeds. You can approxi- mate that diet with your domesticated birds by the use of meat scraps, grain and soft feed. The best breakfast then is a hot mush, made of wheat screenings, corn meal. 216 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK cropped onions or other vegetable matter, as turnip tops — which grow on the turnips in the cellar — or mashed pota- toes, all mixed with boiling water. Two or three times a week season this with cayenne or black pepper. A little salt now^ and then may not be objectionable, but that is less esser.tial. Here is a mixture for the birds breakfast: One part by measure of corn meal, two parts wheat screenings, one part chopped onions (or two parts mashed boiled po- tatoes, or two parts raw chopped sw^eet apples) , and one part meat scraps, mixed with boiling water to the consis- tency of thick dough. Let it stand, covered until the meal is thoroughly swelled. Fifteen minutes is long enough. Feed ^vhat they can eat up clean. Then throw a little grain broadcast over the litter on the floor, and let them scratch for it. Keep clean water in clean vessels before them all the time, also grit. Feed chopped row^en or clover occasion- ally. Keep crushed or granulated oyster shells before them always, also charcoal. Throw them some grain at noon. Then just before sun- down, give them all the whole grain they can eat. You may heat it in dripping pans in the stove oven, or put the grain into an iron kettle over the fire and fill with hot water. Let it ccme to a boil, or until you know every kernel is hot. Then scatter the hot grain well over the floor, and let the turkeys fill their crops, or until they cease calling for more. A long winter night of fourteen or fifteen hours is before them, during which they cannot eat, so a full crop of whole grain stands them in need. The breeders should have a well balanced ration and be kept in good bodily condition to insure fertility. We advise the feeding of a portion of oats with corn and wheat also meat scrap, green cut bone and a goodly supply of green stuffs. Fallening Tmrkeys It is well to issue extra rations to turkeys about October first when the supply of insects and other natural foods be- comes rare. Late in October separate those you intend to market, but do not confine them in small pens, bear in mind the nature of the birds requires liberty, rather confine EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 217 those which you wish to keep over. Turkeys having full liberty will devour much food and take on fat readily. Fat- tening turkeys will not wander so much, as after being put on full feed they will be more content to remain nearer home. Give the fattening turkeys all they can eat four times a day, from the time when you commence full feeding unt 1 twenty-four hours before killing time. The first three of the daily meals should be of cooked potatoes and corn meal, or of corn meal scalded with milk or water, and the last of whole corn, varied with wheat or buckwheat. Always use corn a year old, new corn causes much trouble and may kill them. Give the first meal as soon as possible after day- light, and the last just before dark. Feed each time all they will eat up clean, but leave no food by them. Feed them pounded charcoal occasionally, and keep a supply of gravel where they can help themselves. 218 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK CHAPTER XXXIII JUDGING FOWLS FOR EGG PRODUCTION As formulated at the judging school held at Cornell Uni- versity, Ithaca, N. Y., July 1 to 6, 1918 and approved by the American Association of Instructors and Investigators in Poultry Husbandry. Revised July 5 to 12, 1919. In order to lay well a bird must have a sound body. As a first consideration a bird must be vigorous and healthy if it is to be able to lay well. Vigor and health are shown by a bright, clear eye, a well set body, a comparatively active disposition and a good circulation. Further, the bird must be free from physical defects such as crooked beak, excessively long toe nails, eyelids that over-hang so that the bird cannot see well, scaly leg or anything else that would keep the bird from seeing or getting an abundance of food. Age, conditions and range should be considered in cull- ing a flock. Loss of Fat Ehie to Laying Color or pigmentation changes. (These should be ob- served by daylight. A laying fowl used up the surplus fat in the body, esper cially it removed the fat from the skin. In yellow skinned breeds this loss of fat can readily be seen by the loss of the yellow color. The different parts of the body tend to be- come white, according to the amount of fat stored in the body and the amount of circulation of blood through those parts. The changes occur in the following order: The vent changes very quickly with egg production so that a white or pink vent on a yellow skinned bird generally means that the bird is laying, while a yellow vent means a bird is not laying. It should be recognized that all yellow EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 219 color changes are dependent on the feed, coarseness of skia and size of bird. A heavy bird fed on an abundance of green feed or other material that will color the fat deep yellow will not bleach out nearly as quickly as a smaller or paler colored bird. The eye ring, that is, the inner edges of the eyelids, bleaches but a trifle slower than the vent. The ear lobes on Leghorns and Anconas bleach but a little slower than the eye ring, so that a bleached ear lobe means a little longer or greater production than a bleached vent or eyelid. The color goes out of the beak beginning at the base and gradually disappears until it finally leaves the front part of the upper beak. The lower beak bleaches faster than the upper but may be used where the upper is obscured by horn or black. On the average colored, yellow-skinned bird, a bleached beak, means heavy production for at least the past four to six weeks. The shanks are the slowest to bleach out and hence indi- cate a much longer period of production than the other parts. The yellow goes out from the scales on the front of the shanks first and finally from the scales on the rear. The scales on the heel of the shank are the last to bleach out and may generally be used as an index as to the natural depth of yellow color of the bird. A bleached out shank usually indicates fairly heavy production for at least fifteen to twenty weeks. The yellow color comes back into the vent, eye ring, ear lobes, beak and shanks in the same order that it went out, but the color returns much more quickly than it goes out. A vacation or rest period can sometimes be determined by the outer end of the beak being bleached and the base' being yellow. Body Changes Due to Laying A laying hen has a large, moist vent showing a dilated condition and looseness as compared with the hard, puck- ered vent of a non-laying hen. The whole abdomen as well as the vent is dilated so that the pelvic arches are widespread and the keel is forced 220 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK HIOH PKODUCKR FULL LAYING Full, bright, stiff, waxy comb and wattles. Thin face. Pale color of beak, eyering, ear- lobes, face- Pull earloho. bright, lound eye. LOW PHODUCER NOT LAYING Small, hard, dried, scale-covered corab and wattles. Fat face. Yellow color of beak, eyering, ear- lobes, face. Wrinkled, shrunken earlobe. Dull, snaky eye. See Cornell Extension Bulletin 21: ■'How to Select Laving Hens" and Descriptive Statement ■'A Method of Judging Fowls for Egg Production" as formulated by the Cornell Judging School and approved by the American Association of Instructors and Investi- gators in Poultry Husbandry. Head Parts. Same as above. Same as above. (To he applied at the end of the laving year.) EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 221 A GOOD LAYER 1. Pale color of beak, eyering, 1. earlobes, face, shanks. 2. Old, unmolted, rugged plum- 2. age. 3. 8. Full, bright, w a.^cy coiflii. 4. Pull earlobes. 4. 0. Deep abdomen. 5. a. Intelligent ht^ad. 6. A POOR LAYER Yellow color of head, shanks and plumage. New plumage. Small, hard, dried, scale- covered comb. Wrinkled earlobes. Tucked up abdomen. Full face. 203 Eggs 36 Eggs See Coraell Intension Bulletin 21, "How to Select Laying Heus.' Head Parts. 1. Full earlobe. 1. 2. Thin face. 2. 3. Pale color of beak, eyering S. and face. (To be applied at the end of the laying year) Wrinkled earlobe. Full face. Face, eyering and beak yel- low. 222 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK EGG PRODUCTION INDICATED BY THE LENGTH OP TIME CiF MOULTING AS DETERMINED BY THE SHEDDING OP THE PRIMARY FEATHERS It takes about six weeks to completely renew the primary feather (P) next to the axial feather (A) and an additional two weeks for each subsequent primary feather (P). Photograph taken on December 4. D337 — 2nd year record 186 eggs D377 — 2nd year record 164 eggs A SIX-WEEK MOULT (Primary feather next to axial feather renew id). Estimated date s*.opp5d laying, October 23. AN EIGHT-WEEK MOULT (Two feathers completely re- newed) . Estimated date stopped laying, October 9. Department of Poultry Husbandry. N. Y. State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. D1325 — 2nd year record 121 eggs D1265 — 2nd year record 75 eggs A TEN-WEEK MOULT (Three feathers complcTOly re- newed) . Estimated date stopped laying, September 25. A TWENTY-POUR WEEK MOULT (Ten feathers completely re- newed). Estimated date stopped laying, June 2d. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 223 GOOD LAYERS IN LAYING CONDITION 1. Vent pale, large, full and moist. 2. Pelvic bones widespread. 3. Skin soft and flabby. POOB LAYERS IN NON-LAYINr, CONDITION 1 Vent yellow, small, hard and piiclce-ed. '^. Distance between blunt pelvic bones short, 3. Body full, hard and plump-. See Descriptive Statement "A Method of Judging Fowls for Egg Productlou" as rormuiated at the Cornell Judging School and approved by the American Association of Instructors and Investigators In Poultry Husbandry. 1. Shanks pale. 2. Shanks thin, and soft in the back. 1. Shan-ks yellow. 2. S'^inks full, hard, round in the hai-k. (To be applied at the end of the laving period.) 224 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK down, away from the pelvic arches so as to give large capacity. The more eggs a bird is going to lay the follow- ing w^eek the greater will be the size of the abdomen. The actual size of the abdomen is, of course, influenced bj' the size of eggs laid and by the size of the bird. A sagging abdomen is undesirable. Heavy production is shown by the quality of the skin and the thickness and stiffness of the pelvic arches. Fat goes out from the skin and body with production so that the heavy producers have a soft, velvety skin that is not underlaid by layers of hard fat. The abdomen in particular is soft and pliable. The sternal processes are very promi- nent and are generally bent outward. The thicker and blunter the pelvic arches and the greater the amount of hard fat in the abdomen the less the production or the longer the time since production. One of the finer indications, but yet one of the most val- uable in picking the high layer is the fineness of the head and the closeness and dryness of feathering. The head of a high layer is fine. The wattles and earlobes fit close to the beak and are not loose and flabby. The face is clean-cut. The eye is full, round and prominent, especially when seen from the front. The high layer is trimmer, that is, the feathers lie closer to the body and after heavy production the oil does not keep the plumage relatively as sleek and glossy but the plumage becomes worn and threadbare. Type In order to make a record a hen must not only lay long but heavily. In order to lay heavily she must have sufficient body capacity to digest large amounts of food rapidly. Large capacity in a laying hen is shown by a body that is deeper at the rear end of the keel than at the front end. The under line should be fairly straight, and the back should be comparatively horizontal. A small capacity hen stands erectly. The body is either very shallow, or, in the case of beefy individuals, the ab- domen shows a pronounced sagging at rear of keel. A small capacity hen generally possesses a hump on the back. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 225 The down generally has sharp, narrow points with the blade pointing up. A general body conformation of a heavy producer con- forms very closely to a rectangle with pronounced angles rather than smooth curves. A male shows the same general characteristics except that the abdomen is not so deep. The keel bone should be long and the body relatively deep in proportion to weight or length. Changes in Secondary Sexual Characters The comb, wattles and earlobes enlarge or contract, de- pending on the ovary. If the comb, wattles and earlobes are large, full and smooth, or hard and waxy, the bird is laying heavily. If the comb is limp the bird is only laying slightly but is not laying at all when the comb is dried down, especially at moulting time. If the comb is warm it is an indication that the bird is coming back into production. Moulting When a bird stops laying in the Summer she usually starts moulting. The later a hen lays in the Summer or the longer the period over which she lays, the greater will be her production, so that the high producer is the late layer and hence the later moulter. The length of the time that a hen has been moulting, or has stopped laying can be de- termined by the moulting of the primary feathers. It takes about six weeks to completely renew the primary feathers next to the axial feathers and an additional two weeks for each subsequent primary to be renewed. Temperament and Activity A good layer is more active and nervous and yet more easily handled than a poor layer. A high layer shows more friendliness and yet elusiveness than a poor bird. A low producer is shy and stays on the edge of the flock and will squawk when caught. While the characters discussed have dealt specifically w^ith the current year's production it should be borne in mind that a high producer one year is, generally speaking, a high producer in all other years. 226 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK CHAPTER XXXIV FOODS AND FEEDING IN GENERAL Our readers now have had our opinion and advice gen- erally mingled with those of others whom we look upon as reliable authorities, and in order to give the widest pos- sible range of experience to this subject we here publish an article by Mr Tom Newman (England) Editor of "Eggs," written for The National Utility Poultry Society Year Book and Register 1920. Someone has defined Science as "organized common- sense. If w^e accept this definition and apply it to our knowledge of Foods and Feeding, we shall be scientific enough for our purpose. The most scientific feeder is not he who burns the mid- night oil pouring over tables of analysis laboriously working out ratios to a decimal point, but he who can show us a flock of birds reared to healthy maturity and production at a min- imum of cost and loss. Nevertheless it w^ill be admitted that a knowledge of the chemistry of foods is an advantage, for food is the all-per- vading influence with all organisms, large or small. It ex- ercises a controlling effect upon the quality of germinal matter produced as it does upon its quantity, and upon the maximum and minimum development of the body. It has been well said that constitutional vigor is a heritage whose seat is in the germ from which it is developed. Such a germ can only be produced by a healthy, well-nourished parent. If the constitution of the parent is weakened or its vitality lowered, it must of necessity detrimentally affect the quality of the germinal matter produced, and the constitutional vigor of its descendants. I think too many of us are satisfied with the knowledge that the feeding ratio should be I part albuminoids to 4 or 5 parts carbo-hydrates, and are altogether too ignorant of the composition of foods. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 227 It is deplorable that such should be the case. I estimate that the average poultry-keeper in this country (England) spends 3 shillings per bird per year more on food than is necessary — (please note 1 say average) — and at the same time is often seriously underfeeding his flock partly through his ignorance of the composition of foods and through his inability to distinguish between good and bad samples. Then we have to consider the enormous losses incurred by bad feeding, from infertility, dead-in-shell, and rearing. 1 do not wish to assert that these are entirely due to feeding but in a great measure they are. First let us have a definition of Food. Something that satisfies hunger will not do. Perhaps the best and most comprehensive is: Any substance which when introduced into the body is capable of repairing the waste of its tissue, building it up and supplying it with heat and energy. If we were to analyze the body of a 'fowl, we should find it composed of protein, fats, carbo-hydrate, mineral matter and water. These then are the substances which we have to introduce into the body with the object of repairing its waste, building it up, and supplying it with heat and energy. We will deal first w^ith the proteins or albuminoids, or, as they are sometimes called, nitrogenous foods. These supply blood, bone, lean flesh, feathers and muscle. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen with nitrogen and sulphur. As the first three of these are to be found in the carbo-hydrates and fats, the proteins combine in themselves to that extent the properties of both, and can to a certain extent replace them, but it is not possible for the carbo-hydrates to replace the proteins. It will perhaps be as well to remark here on the compar- ative value of animal and vegetable protein. The former is easily and almost immediately absorbed, but the latter is usually encased in an indigestible envelope of cellulose, and is therefore incapable of being utilized to its fullest extent. Experiments have proved that of animal protein, less than 3 per cent, is wasted, while with beans and peas 1 228 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK per cent, is wasted, and with potatoes over one-third. So that although we may easily obtain an albuminoid ratio of 1 to 4 or 5 without the aid of animal food, by its use we are supplying the necessary protein in a more easily assim- ilable and much more economic form. The carbo-hydrates supply heat, vitality, energy and fat- ness. They are composed chieHy of starches and sugars, and are essentially vegetable products. Fats as food are considered as highly concentrated carbo-hydrates. Mineral Salts are commonly summed up in the tables of analysis under the heading of Ash. They cannot be re- garded as a food in the sense that they nourish the system, but they play a most important part in animal economy, and many of the diseases of poultry may be traced to a de- ficiency of these salts, sodium, lime, potassium, magnesia, phosphorus, iron, sulphur and chlorine are the most es- sential mineral constituents in food. Lime, magnesium and phosphorus are mostly to be found in the bones. They are also used up in the body, so that if the food does not contain sufficient to make up for that lost in the excreta, the animal has to draw upon its own skeleton. Fibre is mainly indigestible. It, however, aids in the efficiency of digestion by increasing the bulk of the food up to the proportion best suited to the capacity of the stomach and intestines. Experiments have proved that fowls digest fibre very badly, and this fact should be born in mind, as it may result in serious underfeeding and digestive dis- turbance. We have heard so much of bulky foods of late years that a word of caution may not be out of place. Where the bulk consists of too much fibre, the appetite is too often satiated without the bird being able to consume enough food to derive sufficient nourishment from it. A well known writer has remarked that "the question of bulk, i. e., fibre, must not be forgotten." Now I consider this a mistaken idea entirely. Fibre and bulk are not nec- ssarily the same thing. We might for example take two samples of clover meal, one cut before flowering, and the EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 229 other when the flower heads have lost their color. In the latter there will be a greatly increased amount of fibre, therefore its nutritive value is less. Flaked cereals are a bulky food with a very low percentage of fibre, in fact less than 2 per cent. It is a mistaken idea that fibre is rendered more diges- tible by cooking. Now, as 1 have mentioned cooking, it will perhaps be as well to offer some remarks on the re- spective merit of the cooked and the dry mash. We have certainly had many discussions on the subject during the past few years without arriving at any satisfactory con- clusion, and I am pleased to hear that the N. U. P. S. pro- pose to test the matter at their next laying competition. The advocates of the cooked mash claim: (I ) that it is more digestible; that the birds lay larger eggs, grow more rapidly; that it is far more economical. They assert that the dry mash causes small eggs, increased broodiness, in- fertility, and dead-in— shell. 1 have even seen it asserted that it causes Favus. First let us consider digestibility, how will it be effected by cooking. As far as the proteins are concerned they are rendered less digestible by cooking, for they all agree in one particular — heat causes them to coagulate; we want no better example of this than the white of an egg. With the case of the carbo-hydrates it is different; heat causes the starch grains to swell up and rupture the cellulose envelope with which they are surrounded, so that they are rendered more digestible. Generally speaking it is a mistake to cook food. It should be simply covered w^ith boiling water and allowed to stand in a covered vessel until the water is absorbed. There is one thing which is strongly in favor of the cooked mash — it is undoubtedly more palatable, and palatability we know^ has a great influence upon digestibility. One of the dan- gers of the wet mash is that it is too often fed in a sloppy condition. When this is the case the food is not so well utilized owing to the digestive juices being more dilute. If sloppy food is continually fed then the tissues become soft and flabby owing to the storage of fluid in them. We may 230 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK dismiss as idle the assertion that smaller eggs, infertility, dead-in-shell, increased broodiness, etc., are due to dry mash. I have had considerable experience of both methods of feeding, and must admit a prejudice against the dry mash which was difficult to overcome, but I have given it a thorough test during the past four years and am convinced that if the mash is well balanced and all things are equal, there is little to choose between the two systems except as regards economy of labor. I recently had two letters in one week, one asking if cooked mashes caused soft-shelled eggs, and the other if they were due to dry mashes. The first had never had a soft-shelled egg until he began using the cooked mash, the second w^as emphatic in his opinion that the dry mashes were the cause. Now^ it is to such assertions as these, made vjrithout due consideration, that a great many of the prejudices which exist amongst poultry keepers ow^e their origin. A little enquiry revealed that the cooked mash gentleman was using a mash composed of 50 per cent, potatoes, 15 per cent, turnips, 25 per cent, middlings and bran, and 10 per cent, fish meal. The dry mash man was using a mixed meal which consisted largely of damaged flour, barley meal, malt culms, and the sweepings from an oil cake factory. Both consisted principally of foods which vfere greatly deficient in lime, and we have no reason therefore to be surprised at the number oi soft-shelled eggs. In speaking of lime, one may mention how very neces- sary it is for prolific egg production, and what false econ- omy it is to neglect to supply it. An experiment proved that when oyster shell was supplied hens laid 1 pound of eggs for 2-6 ounces of dry food they ate. When it was withheld it required 3-9 of dry matter in the food consumed to produce the 1 pound of eggs. The conditions affecting feeding require almost as much consideration as the composition of the ration itself. Of the first importance is exercise. In a state of nature birds are compelled to take such an amount of exercise in their search of food that they use up all the surplus carbo-hy- EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 231 drates and fats, and rarely accumulate fat to such an extent that vitality of any function is impaired. With our domestic fowl the case is different. Exercise is imperative if we are to maintain the physical vigor of the flock. We cannot keep the birds in perfect health and pro- duction by limiting the quantities of fat-producing foods. 1 firmly believe the most economical method of feeding poultry and one which is most conducive to health, vigor and production, is to supply them with a rich, dry mash to which they always have access, and compel them to keep themselves in condition by exercise. I believe it to be a very serious mistake to withhold energy-producing foods under the false impression that we are better able to keep the birds in condition. Experiments have proved that a wide ration gives better results as far as egg-production is concerned than a narrow. It is especially well to remember this with the light breeds in the winter months, but it would be unsafe to feed a wide ration if the birds were not compelled to take sufficient exercise. It may be safely said that much of the nonsense that has been w^ritten of certain foods causing liver and other dis- eases is due to the fact that exercise has not been provided or they have been fed in excess. The effect of feeding in relation to fertility and hatch- ability, I think it will be agreed, has not been sufficiently investigated. There is little reason to doubt that these two factors are inherited, but that does not alter the fact that they are very largely influenced by feeding. Infertility is generally caused by over- feeding, and this is especially the case with females. As a rule it results in fatty degeneration of the essential sexual organs. But the effect upon the hatchability of an egg is largely a matter of its composition. We must remember that it is upon the contents of the egg that the embryo depends for its nourishment. The scientific theory is that the primary use of food con- stituents is the ossification of gristle by the absorption of 232 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK minerals and salts. Now let us keep this theory in mind, and turn our attention to these salts again. Lime, phos- phorus and magnesia, as before mentioned, are found in the greatest quantity in the bones; we can therefore easily understand their value in building up the frame of the chick — if the foods are deficient in these we have nothing to build with. It would be as well then to know what of foodstuffs are deficient in them. All grains and their by-products, the brans and meal, malt culms, and all roots are deficient in lime. On the other hand many of the foods which are rich in lime are the clovers, lucerne, many of the legumens, fish meal, blood, meat meal, green bone, and, as green vegetables, savoy cabbage, the leaves of swedes, carrots, turnips, mangel. Now it will be noted in the early part of the breeding season that hatchability is as a rule at its worst, and it is more than probable that it is due to the deficiency of foods containing a sufficient quantity of lime salts. Animal food in one form or another does something to supply them, but for obvious reasons w^e are unable to use them in quantities sufficient for our purpose. We cannot find what we w^ant in the roots; clover meal is of great assistance; but if we are to get the hatchable egg we must supply green vegetables which are rich in lime, phosphoric acid and magnesium, all the cereal grains and their by-products, malt culms, brewers' grains, flesh and fish by-products, are rich in phosphoric acid, so that our principal difficulty is to supply lime in sufficient quantities in the early months of the year. One word on the folly of using potatoes as a food for breeding stock. This vegetable is deficient in magnesium, phosphoric acid and lime, in fact everything that goes to build up frame. Potatoes are generally condemned as a poultry food because of the quantity of starch which they contain. It is not what they contain, but what they are deficient in, that makes them so worthless as a poultry food, except for purposes of fattening. In very many cases during the past two years when some of us have had to rely largely on potatoes as a poultry food. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 233 we have overwhelming evidence that the unhatchable egg was largely due to their too free use. We might apply much of what I have said on this sub- ject to cases of leg weakness and crooked breast bones. 1 consider too much is made of overheated brooders and wooden floors as the cause of the one, and too early perch- ing as the cause of the other. I don't want to minimize them as a cause, but they ■wiW be reduced to a minimum in the case of the former if plenty of green vegetables are supplied. It will be generally remarked that leg weakness is more prevalent in the early months of the year, when these foods are scarce. I do not believe in the inheritance of crooked breast bones. There may be a tendency to it, but provided the stamina of the birds is right, and the growing stock is ration- ally fed, we have nothing to fear on this score. The question as to which is the best grain is one which frequently crops up. In three different works of poultry which I have read lately I have seen claims made for oats, wheat, and maize (corn) respectively, and 1 have also seen each in its turn wholeheartedly condemned. If I may say so, I do not think this is a very profitable question. Each of these grains is of distinct value to the poultry keeper, and the silly prejudice which existed for years against maize has been proved by experience to be but prejudice — one of the many due to our ignorance of the most elementary laws of feeding. The following experiment undertaken by Dr. W. P- Brookes is of interest. With your permission I will quote the report: "Wide versus relatively narrow nutritive rations were compared. This experiment being repeated 36 times. It resolved itself largely into a comparison of rations rich in maize with those rich in wheat, the latter grain at the time the experiments were tried costing much more than the former. These proved quite conclusively that maize as a grain for egg production has been undervalued, that the fowls receiving rations in which maize and maize meal were 234 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK abundant gave as many or rather more eggs than those re- ceiving wheat, that they maintained their live vsfeight better and mounted earHer, and that the cost per head on the food consumed was materially less on maize." Now^ we have another interesting test, carried out by the New^ Zealand Department of Agriculture which extends over two years, the object of which was to ascertain what results could be obtained if wheat was withheld from the ration. Wheat offals, pollard and bran were, however, in- cluded. Four pens of birds, six to the pen, were used in the test. Nos. 1 and 3 were White Leghorns, 2 and 4 Brown Leghorns; one pen of each were given wheat in the ration, the others oats. In the first year, the wheat fed pens averaged 239 and 243 per bird, while those which had no v^^heat averaged 238 and 241 eggs per bird. In the second year the w^heat fed birds, pens 1 and 3, received the same rations as before, but pens 2 and 4, which were given oats as grain, had lucerne meal substituted for pollard. The result was that the wheat fed pens aver- aged 159 and 179 eggs per bird, while those which had oats averaged I 73 and 201 eggs per bird. This proves pretty conclusively that neither wheat nor wheat offal are absolutely essential to heavy egg produc- tion. The pen giving the best result in the second year re- ceived neither wheat nor pollard, the actual mash being lucerne meal 1101 pounds, bran 40 pounds, maize meal 36 pounds, crushed oats 77 pounds, meat and bone meal 48 pounds, and they also consumed 1 1 pounds of oats. One writer has stated that the digestibility of foodstuffs has no practical importance as far as poultry are concerned, but with this view I cannot agree. The productive value of a food depends upon the digestible nutrients it contains, and as these vary very considerably it seems to me it must be of great importance to us. When we speak of a nutrient we mean every constituent of a food which can yield heat or energy, but only the di- EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 235 236 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK gested portion of the food wfiich passes into the blood sys- tem will give the energy required. If food is difficult to digest it means an expenditure of energy. It must be quite clear that the amount of energy expended in the act of digestion must be closely connected with the hardness and digestibility of the food and that which determines the hardness and digestibility is in the first place crude fibre. Now it should be understood that an increased expendi- ture of energy has a tendency to depress the action of other foods and to prevent their being utilized to their full value. It has been proved that foods which are rich in crude fibre are rendered very much more digestible by grinding. Let us take clover — we have it mealed, chafled, chaff dust sold as clover meal, and also the shudes or flowers. In its mealed form a good sample of clover is a really valuable food. Chaffed, its value would be at least 50 per cent. less. The chaff dust I need not refer to, merely re- marking that a certain firm who advertised clover and alfalfa meal in the Poultry Papers have also an advertise- ment in the Agricultural Papers addressed to farmers, offer- ing to take any quantity of chaff dust, good prices paid, and that they obtain it I have sufficient proof in some of the samples sent to me. One of my correspondents informed me the other day that in the bags of so-called clover meal he purchased, in- structions (which had evidently been overlooked when the meal was sent out) were inserted to add 50 pounds of dust in each bag. The shudes or flowers are of little or no feeding value, the percentage of fibre being very high. Generally they can be had on farms for the asking, but 1 know one enter- prising firm which sells them by the bushel and manages to extract 33 per cent, from the pockets of the poor innocent poultry keeper. To return to digestibility. Tests have proved that maize, buckwheat, barley, peas and beans, greatly increase in food value when kibbled. While only 7.7 per cent, of the dry EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK 237 matter of whole maize was digested, nearly 90 per cent, was digested when it was kibbled; or, to put it in another light, nearly 1 4 per cent, more of the whole maize would be needed to increase the body weight by 1 pound than if it was kibbled. All experiments with con'diments and spices prove that they have not the slightest power to increase the digesti- bility of food and in no way improve its effect, but an un- palatable ration may be rendered more digestible by the addition of something which will tempt the appetite — ani- seed for example. We have had many discussions as to the advisability of using salt. Many people contend that it is an avian poison, and are easily able to produce proof of their contention. In excess, of course it is a poison — we have proof of that in some of the commoner brands of fish meal — but there are times when I believe it to be of real value in the diet, especially this being the case during heavy egg pro- duction, as it will replace the chlorine taken away in the egg. It is claimed that in the United States, during one win- ter, hens fed with a salted mash laid nearly twice as many eggs as the same number kept under similar circumstances except that no salt w^as mixed in the food. But 1 think we must accept this statement with a grain of salt. There were probably other factors v^hich were not taken into con-sideration. In the Australian Laying Competition it is the practice to mix 22 ounces of salt to every 100 pounds of mash, the salt being dissolved in the water with which the mash is mixed. It may be said for it that it makes many foodstuffs palatable which would not be readily eaten without. It increases the flow of the digestive juices and promotes ac- tivity of the circulation. Perhaps one of the questions most frequently asked by the novice is as to the quantity of food a hen requires. This is not so simple a question to answ^er as it appears at first sight. Roughly, we may say, 4 ounces per day, but it is much a matter of observation, requirements varying with 238 EVERYBODi'S STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK breeds, seasons, individuals, age of birds, laying or not laying. A poor layer may easily get along on three-and- ahalf ounces per day, she needs but a maintenance ration; but we are out for production, a really good layer would require far more. It is the poor layer which is overfed. The White Leghorn hen. Lady Cornell, which laid 257 eggs in her pullet year, consumed 1 1 pounds of food, al- though her body w^eight was only 3 pounds 2 ounces, whilst the Belle of Jersey, another White Leghorn hen, which laid 246 eggs and weighed 3 J/2 pounds consumed 1 1 8 pounds of food. TKus it will be seen that the former consumed 4 J/2 ounces and the latter nearly 5, although their body weight was comparatively small. All prolific layers have big appetites, and the weight of food they require would depend to a great extent on the amount of nutriment they can extract from it. No two hens w^ould extract the same amount. 1 am no believer in feeding by weight, those who do so develop into the worst of all feeders — the purely mechanical one. An observant feeder always knows vvrhen to increase or decrease the quantity of food. Frequently after a heavy bout of laying, eggs have a tendency to become smaller. It is one of the most certain signs that more food is wanted. I am well aware that in many cases it is ascribed to over- fatness, but a hen which has been laying heavily is in little danger of becoming over-fat; in the majority of cases it is because we are not feeding up to the layer's requirements. I have hinted that, in my opinion, too much importance is attached by poultry keepers to the albuminoid ratio, without due regard to the nutritive value. I will try and show you what I mean by a comparison of tw^o mashes: 4 bran. 4 bran. IV2 maize meal. 1 maize meal. 1 middlings. 1 middlings. 1 clover. 3 clover. The albuminoid ratio is almost exactly the same but the nutritive value is widely different. In each case the amount of fibre is excessive, but in the second mash it is very much so, the bulk is too great to allow the birds to derive suf- EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK 239 ficient nourishment from it, and a very large percentage would never be digested. I will give two more: 5 bran. 6 bran. 2 middlings. 2 middlings. 1 clover. 1 clover. % malt culms. 1 malt culms. Here again we have two mashes of almost exactly the same ratio, both containing an excessive amount of fibre, both highly indigestible and poor in nutrient value. Un- fortunately very many people are under the impression that by working out ratios to a decimal point they are providing their hens with a balanced ration. They could not make a greater mistake. What do we understand by a balanced ration? Generally 1 think, it is believed to be the proper percentage of albuminoids to carbo-hydrates. But this we obviously cannot accept, for a ration may have the proper percentage and carry too much fibre, or be deficient in mineral salts. By a balanced ration we mean one in which all the properties affecting nutrition and results are in their proper proportion. The recognized method of comparing the various feeding stuffs as regards total nourishment which should be obtained from each is to ascertain the number of what is called 'food units" which they contain. It is said that a high total of food units indicate that a high value of nourishment will be extracted from it by the animal. The calculation is based on the principle that for feed- ing value each unit of digestible albuminoids or digestible fat is equal to two-and-a-half times the value of each unit of digestible carbo-hydrates. The food unit figure is ar- rived at by multiplying the percentage of digestible albumi- noids and oil by lYl and adding to the digestible carbo- hydrates. Well, this is very scientific, but 1 think the practical poul- try keeper will say that the value of the nourishment ex- tracted from a particular foodstuff depends more than any- thing upon the quality of the sample we are feeding, and it far more is to his advantage to be able to distinguish be- tween a good and bad sample than it is to be able to cal- 240 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK culate the food units in his day's ration, which may after all exist to a great extent only in the Table of Analysis. And now that we have mentioned samples, let us con- sider a few^ foodstuffs, commencing with bran. We know what a high value was placed on broad wheat bran in pre- war days, and rightly so, it was a really valuable and eco- nomical food. Now we have an American writer declaring: "1 have little use for bran. The little food value it contains is ob- tained at tremendous exertion of the digestive organs. The hull of the kernel is made for the protection of the inside contents and not for nourishment." Thus w^e travel from one extreme to another. But there is no doubt that much of the present day bran is almost devoid of nourishment and consists largely of w^oody fibre, which is wholly indi- gestible, and the fact should be seriously considered when vfe are preparing dry mashes, in which w^e are in the habit of using bran. Perhaps one of the most adulterated foods upon the market is fish meal. Only recently a case was tried in the Midlands in which the Analyst's report showed that the sample consisted very largely of oat offals. This sample was supposed to have caused the death of a large number of fowls owing to the excessive salt it contained, but as there was no expert evidence that salt viras injurious to poultry, the case was dismissed. Many of the low g^ade brands of fish meal are heavily adulterated, frequently with cotton seed waste which is most injurious to poultry. The best meat meal is that obtained from firms who make the meat extract. Much is made from carcases of animals which died a natural death. Owing to the method by ■which it is prepared it is of very inferior feeding value. We have some fearful and wonderful concoctions sold as ground oats. Perhaps that most frequently substituted is the refuse from the preparation of groats and other food from oats. This consists of the ends of the grain, particles of flour and the plant hairs. Of barley meal it is said that 50 per cent, of the consign- ments contain foreign substances, and a case is cited in EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 241 •which 70 per cent, of the so-called barley meal consisted of oats offals and 30 per cent, powdered chalk, with not a trace of barley meal. We have now "ground oats feeding meal"; "ground barley feeding meal"; "fish feeding meal." These are only traps for the unwary and we shpuld be unwise to be caught by them. 1 have mentioned clover meal and can only say that not 1 per cent, of that advertised is the genuine article. Palm kernel meal varies greatly in quality. , Much de- pends upon whether we use that from which the oil is ex- pressed by crushing or that chemically extracted. The former is a first-class food, equal in value to fine sharps; the latter is not only of poor feeding value but injurious to poultry. A good sample of the former should be lightish grey in color, the latter is about the color of a milk biscuit. If fed in a wet mash it should not be moistened long be- fore use, as it soon goes rancid. Questions as to the quantity of animal food to be used are very frequent, and there always seems to be a fear of forcing. There can be no arbitrary rule. It must be regulated by the other constituents of the mash. It is generally advised not to give more than 1 per cent, fish meal in a mash, but it must be remembered that many vegetables are deficient in protein. As an example we might take potatoes and rice. The chief constituent of these two foods is starch, and if starch is used to the extent that the ration is one-sided, it is apt to depress the action of other foods, and an increased amount of animal protein w^ould minimize the effects of the starch. If 30 per cent, potatoes were used in a mash, then 20 per cent, animal protein would not be too much. Sex The question of sex in relation to nutrition is certainly worth investigation. 1 do not suggest it as a solution of the production of surplus cockerels. We all have theories as to what causes determine sex. You know most of them — 242 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK the mating of second year males to pullets; the mating of one male to a large number of hens; running the male two or three days a week with hens; the position of the germ in the egg; the position of the air cell; that every alternate egg is a male ; that the female determines the sex. This latter has been disproved by records of different matings of indi- vidual birds. Thus we have a Houdan mated once with Houdans, once with Light Brahmas, once with Brown Leg- horns, and once with Barred Rocks, producing regularly five pullets out of six chickens; and another of a Plymouth Rock cockerel which regularly produced five pullets and one cockerel. There is some reason to believe that foods exercise a con- trolling influence upon sex. It w^ould be absurd to dogma- tize but there is certainly some evidence that with full feed we get a higher percentage of females. We have Young's experiment -with Tadpoles. He ex- perimented v/ith three broods. The first brood under nat- ural conditions developed 54 per cent, females, but when freely fed w^ith beef, 78 per cent. In the second brood fed generously on fish, the percentage of females was increased from 6 1 per cent, to 8 I per cent. The third, under natural conditions, gave 56 per cent, females, and when fed freely on frog's flesh gave 92 per cent. Observations in relation to plant lice prove that during the warm summer months, when vegetables are plentiful, these creatures produce parthenogenetically generation after generation, and only females, but in the cold autumn weather, with decreased food supply, males reappear and sexual reproduction is resumed. In the artificial environ- ment of a greenhouse, equivalent to a perpetual summer of warmth, and abundant food, the parthenogenetic succession of females has been experimentally observed for four years. It is asserted that males may be produced at any time by letting the plant dry up. We have also Professor Giron's experiment with 300 ewes. These were divided into two flocks, one was scantily fed, and the other extremely well fed. The former pro- duced only 40 per cent, females, the latter 60 per cent. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 243 But we can make no hard and fast rules as to feeding. It is all a matter of observation and commonsense. The me- chanical feeder is certain to fail. There are one or two points w^hich we can bear in mind: ( 1 ) . That two mashes having the same albuminoid ration have not necessarily the same feeding value. (2). That fowls are notoriously bad digesters of fibre. (3). That a far smaller percentage of vegetable protein is digestible than is that of animal protein. (4). That palatibility exercises a great effect upon di- gestion, and any one ingredient in the mash to which the birds object from some caUse or other may seriously affect its feeding value. ( 5 ) . That the feeding value of maize, buckwheat, peas and beans is considerably increased if kibbled or crushed. It has been estimated that the digestibility of maize is in- creased 14 per cent, when kibbled. (6). That if a mash is deficient in bulk, the appetite may not be satiated; on the other hand, if it is excessively bulky, the appetite is satiated w^ithout sufficient nutriment being derived from it. (7). That in severe weather the light breeds will ben- efit considerably if a wider ratio is fed, and that if sufficient exercise is provided a ratio of one to six will be none too wide. (8). That the value of a mash is determined by the digestible nutrients of the various foodstuffs used in its com- position, and that the corn merchant is a bigger factor in determining these than the table of analysis. 244 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK CHAPTER XXXV KXHIBITING AND JUDGING EGGS Prof. T. E. Quisenberry in his booklet, "Production and Handling of Eggs," says: All poultry show officers, egg dealers, breeders, farmers and others vv^ho are interested in good eggs should en- courage the exhibition of eggs at poultry shows, county fairs and similar public exhibitions. Everyone knows more or less about eggs, and there are few w^ho do not appreciate an exhibit of clean, fresh eggs. An exhibition of this kind helps to interest everyone in the hen and in poultry in general. Poultry show associations would do w^ell to include a class for eggs in their premium lists. Nothing about the show will attract more attention than a well arranged dis- play of fresh eggs from different varieties of poultry. In arranging classes for eggs and in judging them one breed should not be compelled to compete against another — that is, Plymouth Rock eggs should compete against Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes against Wyandottes, Leg- horns against Leghorns, and so on. If you want the breeds to compete against each other, it should be only for sweep- stake prizes. One of the best methods of displaying eggs is in paper boxes or paper box lids one inch deep and 7x10 inches in size. Place bran in the box to hold the eggs in position. Arrange all eggs so that the small end of the eggs all point in the same direction preferably toward you as you look at the exhibit. If the square boxes cannot be secured, then paper or wooden pie plates the proper size will answer. The plates should be sufficiently large so that they will hold one dozen eggs without piling them up. In this case, put three eggs in the center and point all the smaller ends of the remainder of the eggs to the center of the plate. Cover the table on which the eggs are to be shown with a dark green cloth and place the display boxes or plates of eggs on this and you have a most attractive exhibit. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 245 The eggs should be shown in dozens and there should be a card on each dozen to show the variety it represents. The following score card and explanation of score card was patterned somewhat after the score card for eggs recom- mended by the poultry department of Purdue University. Theirs was improved and re-arranged to meet our ideas as to what the card should really be. The American Poultry Association has just adopted a standard for market poultry and eggs. It has also been approved by the National Car Lot Shippers Association. They have a standard score card and these can be secured from the secretary of the association, and we recommend their use. 246 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK SCORE CARD FOR EGGS Furnished by the MISSOURI STATE POULTRY EXPERIMENT STATION, MOUNTAIN GROVE, MO. Show . . . Exhibitor Variety . Entry No Standard Points. 20 ^v"eio;ht Shape 5 Uniformity of size and shape. . 5 Cleanline-ss of shell 10 Shell texture 10 Uniformity of color 5 Points determined by candling Size nf air cell 15 Quality of white 10 Quality of yolk 20 Totals 100 Dale Address Color . AVeight , Cuts. Oz. Remarks. Score. .Judge. Secretary. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY PEED BOOK 247 CHAPTER XXXVI PRESERVING EGGS During the Fall and Winter months of the year there is a scarcity of fresh eggs. The yearling stock usually passes through the moulting period in the late Summer and the pullets, which have been raised during the season, do not begin to lay until late in the Fall or early in Winter. To make up for the shortage of eggs at this time it is advisable to preserve a quantity of spring eggs. April and May eggs are produced cheaply and cost little to preserve, and even on the farm it will pay to use these preserved eggs in place of new-laid Fall eggs which command a good price. In preserving it is essential to use fresh eggs only, and it has been found that April and May eggs are best for this purpose. Eggs may be preserved by the lime-water method or by the water-glass method, both of which have been found satisfactory. In the lime-water method good results have been ob- tained by using one pound of lime to five gallons of water. Slake the pound of lime in a small quantity of water and then stir this milk of lime into five gallons of water. After the mixture has been kept stirred for a few hours it is al- lowed to settle and the liquid above the lime is called lime- water. This is drawn off and is poured over the eggs, w^hich have been carefully placed in a crock or other w^ater- tight vessel. The eggs must be completely immersed at all times and the top of the crock or container should be covered. Instead of a cover a layer of sweet oil may be poured on the top of the solution of lime-w^ater. Should there be any precipitation of the lime the lime-water should be draw^n off and replaced with a fresh supply. In preserving eggs with water-glass practically the same method of procedure is adopted as with lime-water. Boil ten quarts of clean water and allow^ it to cool, then add 248 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK one quart of water-glass (sodium silicate). This solution is poured over the eggs, which are placed in crocks or glazed jars, and the top layer of eggs should be immersed for a depth of two inches at least. A layer of melted par- affin poured over the top of the solution will exclude the air, but this is not necessary. Under ordinary condition the 1 to 1 ratio is the best, still we have found that a ratio of 1 2 quarts of boiled water to one quart of water-glass has answered every pur- pose well. EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 249 INDEX A Page Air Chainlier *'i' Albumen ^9 Albumen, Milk 113, 114 Alfalfa 1(11 Alfalfa Meal !■!'. 1"! Analyses ff Foods 47 Animal Foods 108 Apples 107 Artichokes 106 B Balanced Rations 17.S Balanced Ration Tables . . . 176. 177 Barley . ^;;. u^S Barley Meal b'A, 94 Barley Screenings &3 Basic Princijiles 41 Beans ^7 Beans, Soy S7 Beef, Composition of 77 Beef Scrap lOii. 110 Beets and Mangels 1";'.. 106 Blood Meal Ill Bone, Dry 110 Bone, Green 110 Bran, Buckwheat 84 Bran, Oat 82 Bran, Rice ^6 Bran, Rye 8 4 Bran, Wheat 79, 89 Breeders, Feeding the 156 Breeders, Matured "8 Breeding, Line and In 39 Breeding the Layers 35 Bre\\'e^l^' Grains >•■--. 95 Broiler Feeding 149 Broom Corn >•''■ ^7, bS Buckwheat 84, 88 Buckwheat Groats 84 Buckwheat Middlings 84, 95 Buttermilk 114 C Page Cabbafie 104. lO", California Station Ratirn ...... lOit Capon Feeding 194, 202 Carbohydrates , . ■ ■ 21 Carrots 106 Charcoal 117 Cliemical Components of Eggs 7s, 81 Chemical Components of Poul- try 7S, 81 Chuk Feeding 132 Chick Grf.wing 143 Clover 101 Commercial Poultry Foods 125 Composition of Beef 77 Composition of Duck 76 Composition of Eggs 74 Composition of Fish 77 Composition of Flour 77 Composition of Fowl 78 Composition of Geese 7 6 Composition of Grains 79, s^s Composition of Green Feeds . . . 104 Composition of Guineas 76 Composition of Meal Feeds . . s2, 87 Composition of Mixed Feeds ... 87 Composition of Oyster Shells ... 115 Composition of Pheasants "6 Composition of Pigeon 76 Composition of Poultry 75 Composition of Squabs 76 Composition ci Turkey 7 5 Composition of Vegetables 105 Condition of Reproduction 44 Connecticut Laying Rations .... 168 Construtcion ff the Egg 67 Cooked Foods 122 Cooked Mashes 120 Cooked Vegetables 123 Cooked vs. Uncooked 120 Costs of Producing Eggs 47 Corn 81. 82, 8s 250 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK Page Corn Bran 9:; Corn, Broom S7 Corn, Cracked Si, 82 Corn, Kafir 87 Corn Meal 92 Corn, Swget 82 Cornell Fattening Ration 1S6 Cornell Ration 134 Cotton Seed S7, 96 Cow Peas 86, S7 Cramming 191 Grate Fattening ISO, 189 Cut Bone, Green 110 Deep Litter Feeding 141 Developing the Pullets 153 Digestible Nutrients 79, 82, S3, 86, 91, 95 Digestion of Food 127 Ducks, Composition of 76 Ducks, Fattening 209 Ducks, Feeding 204 Ducks, Feeding the Breeders . . . 2l0 Ducks, Feeding the Layers .... 210 Dried Blood Ill Dry Bone 110 Dry Mashes 11 'J Early Maturity 30 Effects of Feeding 24 Eggs, Chemical Components.. 78, 81 Egg Producing Flocks 64 Egg Type 58 Egg Value-^ and Production .... 60 Egg, Sex Element 43 Eggs, Composition of 74 Eggs, Construction of 67 Eggs, Gost of Producing 47 Eggs, Exhibiting and Judging. . 244 Eggs, Imports 61 Eggs, Preserving 247 Embryo 69 Ensilage 104 Fats 21 Fattening Crate 186, 189 Page Fattening Durks 209 Fattening G-eese 212 Fattening Pen 186 Fattening Poultry 184 Fattening Turkeys 216 Feed Formula.s, Growing , . 146, 147 Feed Formulas, Indiana 140 Ffed Formulas. Maine 139 Feed Formulas, New Jersey .... 137 Feed Formulas, New York 134 Feed Formulas, Ontario 140 Feed Formulas. Oregon 138 Feed Formulas, Wisconsin 140 Feed Hoppers 147 Feeding Breeders . . ._ 156 Feeding Broilers 149 Feeding Capons 194 Feeding Chicks 132 Feeding in Deep Litter 141 Feeding Ducks 204 Feeding. Effects of 24 Feeding for Fertility 161 Feeding Fryers 150 Feeding Geese 21l Feeding. General 226 Feeding Growing Chicks l4o Feeding Layers 163 Feeding Methods 365 Feeding Males 159 Feeding Principles 19 Feeiling Relation to A'alues .... 47 Feeding Roasters 150 Feeding Turkeys 213 Feeding, Winter Eggs 178 Feeding During Moult 182 Feeds, Commercial 125 Fee.l.s, Grain 79, 88 Feeds, Mixed Mill 99 Feedstuffs 78 Fertility 56 Fish, Composition of 77 Fisli Scrap HI Flaxseed 87 Flour 77 Food Analyses 46 Food, Animal 108 Food Consumption 46 Food Consumption, Table 46 Food, Cooked I'^'l EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 251 Page Pood Digestion 127 Food. Green 100 Pood Nutrients 47 Food Requirements 115 Pood Vahie 47 Fowl, Composition of lb. 81 Fruit 107 Fryers and Roasters 150 G Gee^e, Feeding Breeders 212 G-eese, Fattening 212 Geese, Feeding 211 Geese, Feeding Young 211 General Feeding -20 Germ OS Germinal Disc 68 Gluten Meal .^2, 93, 94 Goose, Composition of 76 Grass 104 Green Cut Bone 110 Green Feeds 100 Grit 117 Ground Grains S9 Growing Chicks 143 Growing Feed Formulas . . . 146, 147 Growing Pullets 153 Growth and Maturity 30 Guinea, . .Composition of 76 H Hand Cramming 191 Health and Vigor 49 Hemp Seed 87 Hen-e-ta 118 Hen, Food Consumption 46 Hen, Her Possibilities 30 Hominy Chop 92 Hominy Meal 82 Hopper Feeding 147 How Many Varieties 28 Hulled Oats 94 I Importance of Poultry 15 Imports, Egg 61 Improve Fertility 56 In-Breeding 39 Indiana Layer Ration 169 Indiana State Ration 140 J Page Judging Eggs 244 Judging Fowls for Egg Produc- tion 21S K Kaffir Corn hTj. 87 Kaupp's Ration, Prof 130 L Late Moulting Hens 32 Lawn Clippings 104 Layers, Breeding the 35 Layers, Feeding 163 Layers' Rations 164 Layers* Rations, Calif ornia .... 109 Layers' Rations, Connecticut . . . 167 Layers' Rations, Indiana 169 Layers' Rations, New Jersey . . 16s Layers' Rations, New York . . . 164 Layers, Selecting 32 Leading Poultry States 16 Lice and Mites 146 Lime "Water 2 47 Line Breeding 39 Linseed Meal S7, 97 Litter Feeding 141 M Maine Station Rations 139 Male, Feeding the 1"'9 Malt Sprouts 83 Mangels . 105 Mashes S9. 105 Mashes, Cooked 120 Mashes, Dry 119 Mashes, ^Vet . 120 Matured Stock 37 Maturity 44 Maturity. Early 30 Meals 89 Meal. Barley 94 Meal, Corn 92 Meat 1"^, 109 Meat Scrap 109 Methods and Practices 165 Middlings, Buckwheat 84 Middlings, Oats 82 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 111. Middlings. Wheat Milk 77, 111, 112 Milk Albumen 113 Milk. Butter Milk, Granulated Milk. .Skim Milk, Sour Millet Mineral Matter Mites and Lice Mixed Feed ^loult, Feeding Ditring Moulting Hens N .'age 7 'J 113 114 114 114 312 . . . . 114 4, S7. Si 115 146 99 l-<2 32 New -Tcrsey Layers' Rations . . . IfiS New Jersey State Ration 137 New York State Ration 134 Nutrients 20 Nutrients Consumed 46 Nutrition 44 O S2 Oat Feed 82 Oat Meal S2 94 Oat Middlings 82 Oats 82. S.s Oats. Composition of . S2 Oats Hulled . 94 Oats. Rolled 82, 94 Oats. SlJrouted 102 ID.i 140 Oregon Ration 13S Other Foods 115 Oyster Shells 11.5 Peas S6, SS Peas, Cow 87. 88 Pea Meal 8 7 Pen Fattening 186 Pheasants. Composition of 76 Pigeon, Composition of 76 Pork .Scrcp Ill Possibilities of the Hen , . . 30 Potatoes 106 Poultry Chemical Components 78, 81 Poultry Composition 75 Poultry Fattening 184 Poultry, It.s Importance 15 Poultry, Preserved 76 Poultry, Standard Bred 25 Preserving Eggs 247 Principles of Feeding 19 Princijjles Ouverning Production. 41 Producing Eggs, Cost of 47 Production and Values 60 Prolific Producing Flock 64 Proteins 20 Pullets, Developing 153 Pumpkin 107 E Rape Seed 87 Rapid Growth 80 Rations, Balanced 175 Rations. Fattening 186 Rations, Growing Chick . . . 146, 147 Rations, Indiana Experiment Sta- tion liO, 146, 147 Rations, Maine Exjieriment Sta- tion 139 Rations. New Jersev Experiment Station 137 Rations. New York Experiment Station 134 Rations. Ontario Experiment Sta- tion 140 Rations. Oregon Experiment Sta- tion 138 Rations. V.^iuter 181 Rations, Wisconsin Experiment Station 140 Reproduction. Condition of .... 44 Ki<-e 86, S.s Rice Bran 86, 98 Rice Flour 86 Rice Hulls 86 Roasters and Fr>'ers 150 Rolled Oats 94 Rules for Breeding 63 Rules for Selecting 53 Rutabaga 106 Rye 83, 84 Rye Bran 84 EVERYBODYS STANDARD POULTRY FEED BOOK 253 Sanitation 45 Salt lis Scrap, Pish Ill Scrap, Meat 109 Selecting and Breeding 53 Selecting Layers 32 Sex 46 Sex Element 43 Shells 69 Shell Membrane 69 Shells. Oyster 115 Shorts 92 Skim Milk Ill Sorghum Seed Sn. Hi, 88 Soy Beans 87 Sprouted Oats 102 Squab, Composition of 76 Standard Bred Poultry 25 States Leading in Production 16, 17 Strain, Value ot' a 28 Succulent Feeds 100 Sunfljiver Seed S'>, 87 T Tables, Pood 46, 47 Tankage 109 Tomatoes 107 Turkey, Composition of 75 Turkey Breeders 215 Turkey Fattening 216 Turkey Feeding 213 Turkey;,, Feeding Young 213 Page TurniiJR 106 Ty|)e, Egg 58 U Uncooked vs. Cooked Feeds .... 122 V Value of a Strain 2'( A'arieties, How Many 2S Variety, What 27 Vegetables lO.i Vegetables, Cooked 122 Vigor and Health 49 Vitality 44 W Water 20, 115 Water Glass 347 Wet Mashes I'O What Variety 27 Wheat T9, 57 Wheat Bran 79, 89 Wheat Flour 79 Wheat Middlings 79, 91 Wheat Screenings 79, ■^s Whey 114 Wild Birds' Eggs 62 Wisconsin Experiment Station Ration 140 Winter Eggs, Feeding for 178 Winter Rations 181 Y Yolk OS