Hand BooK'f the ^/[fiM Series 
 
 EDITED md. Ci!ali^ei^s MoRTorJ, 
 
 The live stock 
 
 OF THE 
 
 AKM 
 
 BY 
 
 Several Writers. 
 
 Bradbury Agnew^ Co aBouvERiES T. 
 
 LONDON 
 
McCoMBIE-AuLD 
 
 C O LLE CTIO N 
 
 NEW-YORK-STATE 
 COLLEGE o'AGRICULTURE 
 
The live-stock of the farm. 
 3 1924 003 069 378 
 
wWWl 
 
 
 Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of tliis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003069378 
 
HANDBOOK OF THE FAEM SEKIES. 
 
 Edited by J. CHALMEES MOETON, 
 
 EDITOK OF THE " AGEIOULTUEAL CY0LOP.SDU ; " THE " AGRIODLTCRAL GAZETTE ; 
 
 THE "farmer's calendar;" the "farmer's almanac;" 
 "handbook of the dairy;" "farm laboobee," etc. 
 
MESSRS, MACMILLAN & CO.'S 
 PUBLICATIONS, 
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLES OF AGRICULTURE, 
 
 By HENET TANBEE, P.C.8. 
 
 Professor of Agricultural Science, Univorsity College, Aberystwith ; Examiner in tlie 
 Principles of Agriculture, under the Government Department of Science. 
 
 18mo. Is. 
 
 " A manual whicTi ought to be in the hands of every farmer, and in use in eveiy school 
 in our agricultural districts. . . . It is clear, concise, exceedingly readable, but in- 
 tensely practical, and cramful of valuable and reliable facts." — Live Stock Jov/mal. 
 
 ELEMENTS OE AGEICULTTFEAL SCIENCE. 
 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 Fcap. 8vo. {Immediately. 
 
 THE ABBOTT'S FAEM; 
 
 OR, 
 
 PRACTICE WITH SCIENCE. 
 
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 Crown 8vo. 8s. M. 
 
 "The story is well told. . . . Professor Tanner gives valuable advice aa to the 
 growth of roots, the hest means of helping labourers, hints as to apprenticeship, &c. 
 which commend themselves to special notice." — T^e Field. 
 
 MACMILLAN & CO., LONDON, W.C. 
 
HANDBOOK OF THE FARM SERIES 
 
 Edited by J. CHALMERS MORTON. 
 TJHE 
 
 LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAKM. 
 
 W. T. CAREINGTON, G. GILBERT, J. C. MORTON, 
 GILBERT MURRAY, SANDERS SPENCER, 
 
 AND 
 
 J. WORTLEY-AXE. 
 
 LONDON: 
 BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO., 9, BOUYERIE STREET. 
 
 1882. 
 
The present Volume is the second of a series of five * — the others 
 discussing the Chemistry and the Crops of the Farm, the Soil 
 and its Tillage, and the Equipment of the Farm and the Estate. 
 Each book will be complete in itself, and the whole will form a 
 Handbook of the Farm adapted to the wants of the teacher and 
 the student of agriculture. The remaining volumes of the series 
 will appear as they are ready. Among the writers who are and 
 have been engaged on them are K. Waeington, W. T. Caeeington, 
 G. MuEEAY, T. BowiCK, G. GiLBEET, S. Spbkcee, W. Bueness, 
 J. C. MoETON, and others. 
 
 J. C. M. 
 
 * It is probable that, in order to tbe completeness o£ tbe scheme, so far as the 
 Principles of Agriculture are concerned, a sbctli volume may be added relating to 
 the Processes and Conditions of Animal and Yegetable Life. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The several chapters of this Handbook had been 
 undertaken by Mr. "W. T. Carrington, writing on 
 Cattle, the Dairy, and the Sheep — Mr. Gilbert 
 Murray on the Horse — and Mr. Sanders Spencer on 
 the Pig stock of the Farm. The lamented death of 
 Mr. Carrington before the preparations for the work 
 had been quite completed, made it necessary some- 
 what to supplement the origiaal arrangement. The 
 section on the Shorthorn accordingly has been 
 written by the Eev. George Gilbert; and that on the 
 Hereford, has been contributed mainly by Mr. J. 
 Hill, of Felhampton Court, Church Stretton. For 
 the paragraph on the Devon we are indebted to the 
 
vi • PREFACE. 
 
 Eev. W. J. Pope, of Godmanstone, Dorchester. Tlie 
 Chapter on the Dairy has been largely added to 
 by Mr. J. C. Morton ; that on Poultry has been 
 written by the Eev. G. Gilbert ; and for the con- 
 cluding chapter on Health and Age the reader is 
 indebted to Professor J. "Wortley-Axe, of the Eoyal 
 Veterinary College. 
 
 J. C. M. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 — • — 
 
 CHAP. PASK 
 
 I. — Bbeeds and Management op Cattle .... 1 
 
 II. — Dairy Management 41 
 
 III.— The House . . 64 
 
 IV. — The Sheep 86' 
 
 V. — Swine . . . 105 
 
 TI.— POTILTET 115 
 
 VII, — Health and Age 125 
 
 APPENDIX.— Memoeanda 149 
 
 INDEX 155 
 
THE 
 
 LIYE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 
 
 The Shorthorn Breed: Description^History — Herd Book — Extension — 
 Improvement of other Breeds — Milk and Meat Producing Capa- 
 bilities — Portraits. The Hereford Breed : History and Description- 
 Meat Producing Capabilities — Portraits — General Management. 
 Devon and Sussex Breeds: Eesemblance — Dairy Fitness — Early 
 Maturity. Foiled Angtis Breed : Characteristics — Performances. 
 Dairy Breeds: Longhoms — Welsh — Ayrshire — Norfolk Polled — 
 Channel Islanders — Meat-producing and Dairy Cattle. General 
 Management : Breeding — Calf Feeding — Young Beef — Grazing. 
 
 The latest agricultural returns show that the total 
 number of cattle of all ages, in Great Britain, is about six 
 millions. This number is made up, in very unequal pro- 
 portions, of nearly a dozen distinct breeds and of crosses 
 between them. These breeds differ so widely in appear- 
 ance, and in points of merit, that it seems hard to believe 
 that they can all have originated within the narrow space 
 of this island. Yet they all seem to have done so ! And 
 this fact bears witness to the great variety of our soil and 
 ■climate, and to the power which can be exercised by man 
 over animal life by continuous selections of breeding animals 
 in herds and flocks, through long periods, for some special 
 
2 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 properties. In naming here the leading breeds, in their 
 turn, some of the distinguishing characteristics of each 
 will be mentioned in detail. 
 
 1. The Shorthorn Breed. — Foremost among varieties 
 of our cattle must be placed a parti-coloured race, once 
 spoken of as Teeswater or Durham, but now almost uni- 
 versally called Shorthorns. It varies in colour from dense 
 red to pure white : and is found in all combinations of 
 these two colours. Its skin may be all red, or all 
 white, or red and white in separate patches, or the 
 colours may be blended together as roan, which itself 
 may either cover the whole body, or be distributed iu 
 markings on a white ground. In some districts — 
 notably in Lincolnshire — a whole red is still preferred ; 
 and large herds of Shorthorns may be seen there, which 
 are all red and the animal red all over. Although many 
 of the best Shorthorns have been white, this colour is not^ 
 commonly liked : and an endeavour is generally made to- 
 get away from white, and to produce roan by coupling- 
 any white parent with another of richer hue. Any appear- 
 ance of black or grey is held to indicate impurity of blood ; 
 yet it is certain that black noses do occasionally occur 
 even in herds of very fashionable breeding : whilst black 
 tipped horns are a not uncommon blemish. But the breeders 
 of Shorthorns are less bound by restrictions of colour than 
 are those of any other variety. Form and handling — that 
 is, the feel of the flesh in the hand as it is gripped 
 or pressed on rib or back — and the propensity to fatten 
 early and to produce a large supply of milk and meat, 
 have always been held to be of more importance than 
 uniformity of markings or of hue ; and this freedom 
 
BEEEDS AXD 3IANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 
 
 from artificial restrictions may perhaps have helped to 
 bring about the general usefulness of the breed. It is 
 this general usefulness which entitles the Shorthorn to 
 be noticed lirst. Its large number (probably equalling 
 those of all the other breeds put together) is only one 
 consequence of the wide recognition of this usefulness 
 The Shorthorn has extended itself further from its 
 native pastures than any other breed. Large herds of 
 it now exist in almost every county in the Island, however 
 good the original local varieties may be ; and the exportation 
 of Shorthorns — not only to the Continent, but to America 
 and Australia — has been, and continues to be, very much 
 larger than that which any other variet}^ has obtained. 
 
 -The date since which the Shorthorn has had a distinct 
 existence has been disputed. The foundations of the 
 breed were, assuredlj', laid many years before it obtained 
 any universal popularity. It certainly existed in the 
 valley of the Tees quite in the early years of last century, 
 if not before ; and visitors to Durham and Yorkshire, as 
 far back as 1700, brought back wonderful stories of the 
 size, weight, and yields of milk, obtained from Teeswater 
 cattle. The variety is believed to have been produced by 
 crossing a very large white breed (of whose origin there is 
 no very definite account, but which still lingers in places) 
 with some local cattle which the rich pastures, enjoyed 
 through many generations, along the banks of the Tees, 
 had caused to become unusually fine. And this very 
 excellence, and the notice it attracted from strangers, 
 probably caused the cattle-owners of the Teeswater district, 
 to be alive, sooner than was the case with breeders in other 
 counties, to the importance of mating only good speci- 
 mens together, and of excluding inferior animals. Any- 
 
 B 2. 
 
4 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM, 
 
 how, when, in the earlier years of the present century, 
 men, who had become interested in the Teeswaters, were 
 anxious to establish a Herd Book, it was found that 
 private registers, extending over more than a hundred 
 years, existed already in several families, distinguished for 
 possessing fine cattle. But the names of these improvers 
 are now but little recognised. As is commonly the case, 
 the real originators of a successful novelty of any kind are 
 quite unknown even in the early days of its public success. 
 And the names of the men, who were actually in posses- 
 sion of fine specimens of Teeswater cattle when public 
 attention was drawn to the variety, have overlaid and 
 hidden the names of their predecessors by whom the 
 progenitors of those fine specimens had been bred. 
 
 In this way, the names of the two brothers Robert and 
 Charles Colling have now become associated with the 
 reputation of the Shorthorn to the entire exclusion of older 
 breeders. Between 1800 and 1818, the large prices made 
 by these men (who seem to have dealt largely in breeding 
 animals of this variety) attracted general notice. They 
 had bought up, whenever they could get them, the finest 
 cattle of the Teeswater district : selecting the best of their 
 purchases to keep for themselves, and passing on the less 
 meritorious ones to their customers. Robert Colling had 
 long been a sheep-breeder, and had had for years an annual 
 sale, or letting, of tups, and pei'sons coming for these saw, 
 and became interested, in the cattle as well. An ox and a 
 heifer, bred by the Messrs. Colling, and sent to travel from 
 fair to fair throughout the United Kingdom, made their 
 names, and that of the cattle, familiar to everybody. Then 
 came the newspaper paragraphs of the wonderful averages 
 made at their sales ; and when, in 1820, a committee was 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 5 
 
 appointed to obtain pedigrees, witli a view to establish a 
 Herd Book, the committee accepted a connection ■with 
 Messrs, Collings' herd as being sufficient to establish the 
 position of any candidate for registration ; and compara- 
 tively iew pedigrees got inserted in the first volume which 
 do not trace to a cow bred by one of the Messrs. Colling, 
 or to an animal bought from them. Their names are 
 thus part and parcel of the pedigrees of the entire breed. 
 
 Yet it must not be assumed, from these remarks, that 
 it is believed that the credit assigned to these breeders, 
 although probably in excess of what they did, has been 
 at all unworthily bestowed. If the Messrs. Colling 
 profited by the labours of other men, they carried on 
 and confirmed the work of other men as only thorough 
 workmen can. If they did not originate the Shorthorn, by 
 common consent they greatly modified and improved it. 
 They found a huge, rather ungainly, animal, capable of pro- 
 ducing great weights of beef and large yields of milk ; yet 
 with the flesh unequally distributed upon a somewhat 
 rough carcase. The original Teeswater was probably a 
 very large consumer, with much offal. By choosing 
 the neater and more symmetrical specimens, and by care- 
 fully inbreeding these, Messrs. Colling established a 
 neater type than had hitherto existed, and one capable of 
 being turned out fat at an earlier age. They made the 
 variety more uniform in appearance and more pleasing to 
 the eye, without having sacrificed any of its valuable 
 properties. By so doing, they extended its reputation ; 
 and, with this, its value ; and they made its merits visible 
 to hundreds who, without some assistance from their skill 
 as breeders and men of business, would' have remained 
 all their lives ignorant of there being any breed in exist- 
 
6 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 ence superior to their own cattle. It ■would be unwise to 
 detract from the services rendered by the Messrs. Colling ; 
 although modern research completely upsets the popular 
 tradition that they founded the Shorthorn. The name of 
 Shorthorn seems to have been something of an acci- 
 dent, but it established itself everywhere through the dis- 
 tinction seen to exist between the new Teeswater and an 
 older variety previously made fashionable by Mr. Bake- 
 well, i.e., by comparison with an earlier favourite, now 
 called the Longhorh. It might be thought that the 
 length of horn was a matter of small importance ; yet 
 experience has shown that the increased necessity for 
 housing cattle, and keeping them within narrow space, 
 and, even more than this, the now universal practice of 
 forwarding cattle to market by train, has rendered very 
 long horns a serious objection to any breed. The smaller 
 horn of the Teeswater has been found convenient, whilst 
 the placid temper of the majority of the breed is another 
 recommendation. The more artificial the condition of the 
 country becomes, the more likely the Shorthorn is to 
 increase. . It is by no means fastidious either about 
 climate, soil, or lodging. It can with good management 
 be made to thrive anywhere : the sheds of town-milk 
 men are not too confined ; nor are the Cumberland 
 valleys too steep or too wet ; nor the extreme north too 
 cold. 
 
 It cannot be questioned that in 1822 (when the first 
 volume of the "Shorthorn Herd Book," with Mr. G. 
 Coates' name as Editor, appeared) the Teeswater had com- 
 paratively a small number of supporters, and that these 
 were, mainly, to be found in one or two English counties. 
 That volume contained the results of nearly half a century 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 7 
 
 of selections ; yet it did not cqntain quite 800 bulls, and 
 hardly so many females ; and the volume was not fol- 
 Jowed by a second until 1829 ; and, for some years after 
 that, the publication languished, and it seemed doubtful 
 if the experiment of registering cattle would ever take 
 firm root. Yet there is now published annually, by a 
 <;ommittee of the Shorthorn Society of not far from 1000 
 members, a volume of at least three times the size of the 
 £rst ; and its contributors are resident in all quarters of 
 the world. Whilst France and Ireland, America and 
 Australia, have long had herd books of their own, the 
 number of registered bulls in England already approaches 
 45,000 : and one American herd book alone, which in- 
 creases at a more rapid rate than our own, exceeded, in 
 its last issue, the limit of 41,000 bulls. When we con- 
 sider that these numbers do not approximate to the total 
 of even pure-bred Shorthorns — for the evidence of the Herd 
 Books themselves shows that hundreds of animals, whose 
 foirths are diily recorded, pass yearly into the hands of 
 men who breed from them yet do not register the produce 
 — the fertility of the race is very remarkable. The whole 
 of the breed, within a century, was confined to a small 
 <listrict. There is now hardly any part of the world, in 
 which Englishmen have found homes, into which the Short- 
 iiorn has not penetrated. 
 
 It is impossible to suppose that this universal acceptance 
 of the Shorthorn — over so long a period, and over such an 
 onormous range of territory — is the result of any accident. 
 Nothing can explain the steady, unchecked advance of the 
 breed, but the acknowledgment that no other variety has 
 yet been generally ascertained to be so serviceable. The 
 town and country dairyman, and the grazier of dry herds 
 
8 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 in the remotest pastoral districts, accept readily the pre- 
 tensions of a breed which is always useful and always 
 saleable. When in milk, the cows give a very large flow, 
 and for a long period ; and when dry they rapidly clothe 
 their frames with beef, which, if not of the first-class, is 
 always fit for consumption, and such as is in demand in 
 any market. Nor do the good qualities of the Shorthorn 
 end here. One of the most remarkable qualities of the 
 race is its ability to accommodate itself to circumstances j 
 and to cross, to their great benefit, any inferior breeds. 
 Originating in very fine grass land, it has long been bred 
 successfully on moors and wolds, in bush and prairie ; 
 and, whilst able to maintain itself in freedom, it submits 
 without deterioration to any amount of house feeding. 
 It, moreover, has been found that the coarsest of the 
 " scrub " cattle in America, and the best and worst of 
 home-breeds, accept as an improvement a cross with the 
 Shorthorn. The alliance, without impairing the good 
 points that other breeds may have had, is almost always 
 found to lend some new merit to the progeny. 
 
 As evidence of the material advantages to be gained by 
 crossing native breeds with this variety, it has been said 
 that, since the introduction into Aberdeenshire of the 
 Shorthorn, the annual draft of cattle of that county goes- 
 out fat a year sooner than it did before. The Teeswater 
 found its way over to Ireland, and more than half of the 
 Irish cattle are now equal to the best Durham breed. 
 Shorthorns have been, since 1817, freely exported over the 
 Atlantic ; and thus, ninety-nine hundredths of the fine 
 American oxen, which have been recently introduced into 
 English markets, have inherited so much Shorthorn blood 
 as to look like good English Shorthorns. This is a history 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 9 
 
 to which no other variety that ever existed can show the 
 like. The reputation of the Teeswater is so long established, 
 so wide, and has been tested in so many different ways, that 
 a breed, which owns it, needs no other recommendation to 
 public notice than a mere narrative of facts. Yet the Short- 
 horn has one other ciirious inheritance. Of late years a 
 very great deal has been heard and read of the enoi-mous 
 prices for which favoured specimens of this variety have 
 been sold. The inferences are many, of which a large 
 proportion are mere guesses ; but the incident is a fact. 
 It cannot be explained away. It may be said that mere 
 price, in a rich country, is a very inconclusive test of 
 merit. This is true ; yet selling-price is a test by no means 
 without its value. When in 1810, Charles Colling sold his 
 bull Comet for a thousand guineas, the story proved a con- 
 venient form of advertising the whole breed which has 
 hardly yet ceased to operate. And of late years above 
 four times the sum paid for Comet has been paid in 
 England for both bulls and cows ; whilst, in America, far 
 larger prices, even than these, have been repeatedly offered 
 and taken. There has sprung up, within the last few 
 years, a demand in England for the best specimens bred 
 in America ; and in America for the best specimens bred 
 in England. This desire for exchange foretells a trade at 
 rates even higher than any yet realised. The question is 
 not now, " What will the richest breeder in England give 
 for a coveted specimen of a favourite tribe ? " but, " To 
 what limit will the emulation of the wealthiest cattle- 
 owners of the two wealthiest nations, which ever have 
 existed, carry them when the object is to become possessed 
 of what is mutually agreed to be the pick of the market 1 " 
 How far this artificial demand will run no one can foresee ; 
 
10 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 yet that it has existed since the century began, and 
 continues to make itself felt to an increasing extent, is a 
 fact in connection with the Shorthorn breed, which is as 
 much part of its history as is its early connection with the 
 Tees, its parti-coloured coat and its shortened horns. 
 
 This part of the history of the Shorthorn has intention- 
 ally been kept apart from the ordinary account of it ; 
 because, admitting the statement to be true, it does not 
 seem to be the Shorthorn's best claim to notice. As was 
 said at the outset it is its general usefulness, which is its 
 strongest recommendation. The better specimens of this 
 breed rarely come into any public market. They are 
 sold, either by private contract, or at public auction, 
 advertised to take place on the breeder's premises; 
 and many wealthy owners have such sales periodically ; 
 where the brotherhood of the pursuit are invited and 
 liberally entertained. At Yarm Fair and Darlington 
 markets, good average specimens, without much certainty 
 of their pedigree, are regularly on sale. At Bingley Hall 
 (Birmingham), at the Royal Dublin Show, and at some of 
 the Scotch spring and autumn sales, large numbers of 
 young bulls, of the very best strains, are offered every 
 year by their breeders, who take great pains to compete 
 for the prizes offered; although the main object of these 
 gatherings, is to obtain customers for the supernumerary 
 bulls. The traffic in pedigree Shorthorns is a business of 
 no small importance. In the number of a circular — issued 
 •quarterly by Mr. Thornton, the prominent auctioneer of 
 pedigree cattle — which appeared in the spring of 187C, 
 it was stated that, — without taking into account any 
 private transactions, of which there are very many every 
 season, — the total sum paid, at Shorthorn sales, during 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 11 
 
 the previous year, amounted to not far from a quarter of a 
 million of money. Yet this was but a very small part of 
 the annual results of the contribution to the national 
 prosperity which has been effected by this remarkable 
 variety of cattle. Its real triumph is to be estimated 
 when one notices the extraordinary extent to which the 
 type established by the Messrs. Colling has encroached 
 upon every other. In all the dairy counties in England, 
 even in the west and southern counties, a very large 
 majority of the cattle visible are virtually Shorthorns. 
 This too is the case with more than half the cattle sent 
 for sale to the fairs and markets for winter-grazing beasts. 
 Even the pastures of Normandy, and of many other French 
 departments, show the same stamp of cattle. And, in the 
 United States and Canada, no less than Australia, the 
 demand for Shorthorn bulls — to use for crossing inferior 
 races in order to furnish cattle for exportation back to 
 this country — exceeds the supply ; although the number, 
 produced in these countries yearly, is in excess of the 
 numbers which are reared in England. 
 
 It is proper to give, here, some of the records of large 
 produce from Shorthorn cattle. Instances are chosen 
 which have been handed down upon sufificient evidence. 
 Mr. Lakin (of Powyke, Worcestershire, who died about 
 1848), is stated to have been an exceedingly careful 
 observer, and a man recognised as an authority among his 
 neighbours. He reported that, after many trials, he could 
 find no cattle so profitable, as milkers, as the pedigree 
 Shorthorns. He published a return of the yield of milk 
 in his daily, taken over many years. From this, it ap- 
 peared that a cow, called Strawberry (which lived to be 
 twenty-seven years old, and is registered in the "Herd 
 
12 
 
 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 Book " ) gave an average of 1050 gallons a year for fifteen 
 consecutive years ; and that another prime Shorthorn 
 cow, named Novice, yielded 1040 gallons a year for five 
 years. A cow, called Barforth, is reported by Mr. 
 Whitaker of Burley (to whose exertions, and influence 
 among breeders, the origin of the Herd Book, edited by 
 
 Mr. Coates, is 
 mainly due) to 
 have yielded 36 
 gallons of milk 
 per day for two 
 successive weeks ; 
 from which was 
 produced 16 lbs. 
 of butter (of 24 
 ounces to the 
 pound) within 
 the week. 
 
 This instance 
 could hardly 
 have been within 
 Mr. Whitaker's 
 own knowledge ; 
 for the cow Barforth's descendants, in the second and 
 third generation, are entered in the Herd Book as having 
 been born prior to 1780. But possibly he may have 
 known the following. Chiltona (a cow the property of 
 and bred by Mr. C. Mason, of Chilton, one of his Poi-tia 
 tribe), is reported to have given 263 ounces of butter 
 within the week; and one of Mr. Bates' Duchess tribe is 
 said to have given 294 ounces within the same time ; 
 whilst a cow, of Mr. T. Booth's Christen tribe, is " credibly 
 
 HEAD OF SHORTHOBS BULL. 
 
BEKEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 
 
 13 
 
 affirmed to have given four average pailfuls of milk, within 
 
 the day." Of course, all these are exceptional cases ; yet 
 
 it should be said that instances of pure Shorthorn cows 
 
 giving 6 to 7 gallons of milk in the day are by no means 
 
 uncommon ; nor are cases of animals which yield a large 
 
 daily flow, from the time of one calving to the next 
 
 without ever being dry, by 
 
 any means rare. Mr. E. C. 
 
 Tisdall, of the Holland Park 
 
 Dairy, Kensington, who has 
 
 long cultivated a Shorthorn 
 
 dairy herd, reports, among 
 
 the records of many years' 
 
 experience, an average of 
 
 885 gallons apiece yielded 
 
 by twenty-five cows of this 
 
 breed during the ten or 
 
 eleven months of the year 
 
 when they were in milk. 
 
 And ten selected cows had 
 
 yielded as much as over 
 
 1200 gallons apiece in the 
 
 same time. The yield of 
 
 butter by the Shorthorn has been exceeded by that of 
 
 other breeds ; but the returns of milk and butter together 
 
 have not. Nor are the returns in beef less remarkable. 
 
 Mr. Whitaker speaks of a barren heifer which at four 
 
 years old fetched £65 from a butcher. Mr. Hutchinson 
 
 reports that the four quarters of a twin-heifer, slaughtered 
 
 on the day she became three years old, weighed 70 stones 
 
 of 14 lb. to the stone ; that an ox, three years old, weighed, 
 
 off the pasture, " without cover or cape," 95 stones ; and 
 
 HEAD OF SHOllTnOKN COW. 
 
1-4 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 that a bull, in his fifth year, which was " put up to feed " 
 for four months only, weighed 122 stones, with 12 stones 
 of loose fat. These instances, taken without preference 
 from a few of the most noted breeders, show the standard 
 attained, in the early years of this century. There has 
 certainly not been any falling off since. Hundreds of 
 steers are turned out yearly, weighing from 60 to 70 stones 
 of 14 lbs. before they are 24 months old ; whilst very many 
 are sold ripe-fat at remunerative rates six to eight months 
 younger than this. The Shorthorn variety far exceeds 
 every other, in the weights attained by its females. 
 There are several well-authenticated instances of cows 
 which have yielded above 90 stones of carcase. It is a 
 curious fact that, in no instances does the value of the 
 Shorthorn blood — in producing early maturity — show 
 itself so much as in the Cross-breeds produced from it. 
 These, especially from cows of the larger varieties of polled 
 cattle, have a greater weight recorded than even the 
 offspring of pure-bred cows. Of course the figures here 
 given of the yield, whether of meat or milk, are far beyond 
 the ordinary experience. What the average experience 
 is will be referred to hereafter. 
 
 It is not possible to give in these small pages any 
 engraving, which should do justice to the massive frame 
 of a well-bred Shorthorn, well covered, as it is when fat,, 
 over rib and loin and round, where the meat is of the best 
 quality. We must be satisfied with portraits of the head 
 of bull and cow. The heads selected are those of the 
 " Duke of Wetherby 5th," bred by Colonel Gunter, and 
 long used in the Holker herd — and Mr. Holford's; 
 "Baroness Oxford 3rd," — both of them fairly character- 
 istic of the breed in one of its best families. 
 
EKEEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 1.5 
 
 2. The Hereford breed of cattle is famous for pro- 
 ducing beef of fine quality and for its hardiness, the cattle 
 of this breed lying unsheltered in the fields through most 
 of the j'ear, but it is not noteworthy for its dairy merits. 
 Although the Herefords are in general of smaller size than 
 the Shorthorns, they will, when well fed from birth, attain 
 quite as great a weight at an early age. Herefords are 
 vei-y generally bred in the county from which they take 
 their name, in Shropshire, and in some parts of Wales ; a 
 few herds are also kept in adjoining counties. Probably 
 in no county in England is the average merit of the cattle 
 so high as in Herefordshire. Large numbers of the 
 bullocks and draft cows and heifers are bought for feeding 
 in other parts of England. Hereford October fair has for 
 the last 100 years been one of the best displays of cattle 
 for sale in England. The great numbers exhibited for 
 sale, the general excellence of the cattle, and their uni- 
 form red colour with white face, " the red line tipped with 
 white," combine to make this fair most interesting to all 
 lovers of good cattle. 
 
 Although the " Hereford Herd Book " was first pub- 
 lished only in 1845, these cattle have been most care- 
 fully bred for more than 100 years. Fashion has not 
 however, with this breed, as with the Shorthorn, attached 
 a value, in some measure artificial, to special families, 
 apart from individual merit ; and, to the fact that breeders 
 have not been hampered by the claims of fashion, may be 
 attributed much of the uniformity and general excellence 
 of the breed. The almost universal colour of pure-bred 
 cattle is red, with white face, mane and throat. A few 
 light grey and mottle-faced animals are, however, still 
 found. The beef of Hereford cattle is peculiarly tender 
 
16 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 and fine-grained ; but the cattle are often a little deficient 
 in the quantity of internal fat, and are thus not what are 
 called good butchers' beasts. 
 
 Herefords have been exported, and are now bred in 
 America and Australia. They are found specially suited 
 for crossing with the native cattle which graze on the 
 prairies of the Western States of America, and an active 
 ■export demand has sprung up for young bulls of this 
 breed. Hereford cows generally suckle their own calves, 
 which get all their milk for six months, thus obtaining an 
 excellent start in growth, the benefit of which continues. 
 'The uniform excellence of cattle of this breed is due 
 somewhat to the advantage of this good rearing. 
 
 The chief points to be looked for in a good Hereford 
 are, first, that the colour should be a distinct red, not too 
 dark or too light ; white face and mane, also white breast 
 and belly — end to tail — and white legs as far as the knee 
 a,nd hock, sometimes running up the flank. The bull 
 should have a good masculine head, not too long, broad 
 between the eyes, which latter should be large and pro- 
 minent, with a mild look, denoting docility of temper ; the 
 horn should be of moderate length, springing straight from 
 -the head. The cow's head should be much the same, but 
 finer, and her horns should have a mane and turn upwards 
 slightly ; they should be in both cases of a waxy white, 
 although they are occasionally found tipped with black ; the 
 nose should be a pure white or flesh colour. The bull should 
 have a good rise of crest, deep sloping shoulders, well- 
 developed brisket, straight back and belly line, wide loin, 
 good springing ribs, moderately broad hips, tail well set 
 on and falling in a plumb line to the hocks. The hind- 
 quarters should be long from the hip backwards ; the 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 17 
 
 thighs, which are a very important point, should be lai'ge 
 and full, showing plenty of width across when you stand 
 behind, and they should be well meated to the hocks ; the 
 whole carcase should be set square on good short legs 
 standing well apart, and be covered with firm flesh of 
 good quality, and a mellow hide of soft but not too fine 
 hair, giving the impression when you touch it that it will 
 stretch to any extent. The test of ' touch ' is, however, 
 extremely difiicult to describe, and can only be learnt by 
 practice. 
 
 Hereford cattle are a distinct and pure breed of great 
 antiquity. Their early history is uncertain ; but it is 
 generally allowed that there has been a breed of cattle 
 red and mostly with white face and markings for at least 
 200 years in the county of Hereford and the neighbouring 
 counties. It is asserted that Lord Scudamore, who died 
 in 1671, introduced cows of the red with white face breed 
 from Flanders. There was also a breed of cattle known 
 in Herefordshire that were ' white with red ears,' and so 
 far back as the tenth century it is recorded that there 
 was a law of fixed compensation to be paid for injury 
 done by one prince to another at 100 white cows with red 
 ears and a bull of the same colour. And it may be fairly 
 considered to be proved that the Herefords of to-day have 
 sprung directly from the old breeds of the district, the old 
 grey Hereford coming from the white cattle with red ears, 
 an occasional Avhite Hereford cropping up as an additional 
 proof of this. 
 
 There used to be three distinct kinds of Herefords: 
 the mottle-faced, the grey, and the red with white faces. 
 The first-mentioned were usually the largest, but with 
 great quality and good touch ; the grey were good feeders. 
 
18 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 and of a medium size ; while the red with white face 
 usually were the smaller cattle, finer in the bone, and 
 altogether more taking to the eye ; and these by degrees 
 excluded the others, and now reign triumphant. 
 
 There is rather a prejudice against cattle of the light 
 red colour; although the light red, as a rule, are of a 
 better quality and feed quicker than the dark red ones. 
 The late Lord Berwick's cattle were usually of this light 
 red colour, and they were always, as their descendants 
 now are, celebrated for their quality and aptitude to lay 
 on flesh. The early records of the breed show that they 
 were carefully bred in 1766 by Mr. Tomkins and others. 
 At the first meeting of the Smithfield Club, in 1799, the 
 1st prize was won with a Hereford ox by Mr. Westcar. 
 and this gentleman took the 1st prize with an ox of this 
 breed for twenty years in succession at the London cattle 
 show, which was open to all breeds. The Herefords of 
 that period were of great size, and usually kept for working 
 on the land and fed off afterwards. The Smithfield record 
 shows that from the year 1799 to 1834, Hereford bullocks 
 had taken eighty-eight premiums at the London fat stock 
 show, moi'e than double the number of any other breed of 
 cattle in the same period. The sales of Mr. Westcar's oxen 
 are worthy of note. In the course of eleven years he sold 
 twenty oxen for £2123, averaging £106 6s. each. The 
 early recorded sales show that they were most highly 
 esteemed. In 1819, fifty-two head of Mr. Tomkins' cattle 
 made £4673 14s. ; twenty-three of them were steers ; the 
 breeding stock averaged £145. Again, in 1816, a herd 
 of 116 head of Mr. Price's cattle made £6724 4s. 6d., 
 which brought an average of £57 19s. 4<d. This includes 
 twenty-seven yearling heifers and twenty-one 2-year-olds. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 19 
 
 Oae of the first who set to work to improve the Here- 
 ford type, and get them to mature earlier, was the late 
 Mr. Knight, of Downtou Castle. The Downton herd 
 sprang from three of the best herds of that day — Mr. 
 Tully's, Mr. Tomkins', and Mr. Skryme's. The last-named 
 was characterised by the light red colour mentioned before 
 as being usually the colour of Lord Berwick's tribe of 
 cattle, which is descended in a distinct line from the 
 Knight herd. The darker colour and signs of the old tick 
 face come from the Tomkins blood, as his cattle were 
 usually mottle-faced ; and the TuUy cross gave the greys 
 for which Downton was so celebrated. 
 
 Such is an outline of Hereford history from the latter 
 half of the last century up to about 1844. Most of the 
 Hereford breeders of the present day follow the type set 
 by Lord Berwick and Mr. Knight, and endeavour to get 
 their cattle deep bodied, heavy fleshed, on short legs, and 
 small bone. 
 
 The Herefords are considered eminently qualified 
 for crossing purposes for beef making, and although 
 dairying is not the practice of the county, Hereford dairy 
 herds are not unknown ; and at the Agricultural College 
 in Ontario, a cross of the Hereford bull, on a common 
 cow, gave the best practical result of all breeds for the 
 production of butter. For dairy purposes a cow should be 
 milked regularly and stripped quite clean, and no doubt 
 this has much to do in forming good milking tribes of 
 cattle. Where calves are allowed to suck in the open 
 field, as is the practice in Hereford, this cannot be at- 
 tended to, and is one great cause of the Herefords not giving 
 so much milk as they would under other circumstances. 
 
 As beef-makers they are quite at the top of the 
 
 c 2 
 
20 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 ixiarket, as market quotations record best Scots and Here- 
 fords as being usually quoted together. And for quantity 
 as well as quality of meat they are not excelled. The 
 capability of the breed as quick feeders and economical 
 producers of meat is unquestionable. The records of the 
 Smithfield Club in any year may be quoted for this pur- 
 
 HEAD OF HEREFORD BULL. 
 
 pose. We have those of 1879 before us ; and we find 
 that six Hereford steers exhibited at the Agricultural 
 Hall that year, averaging 2 years 4 months old, weighed 
 alive 14 cwt. 2 qrs. 4 lbs. apiece ; and that seven, averaging 
 3 years and 8 months old, weighed 17 cwt. 2 qrs. 4 lbs. each, 
 thus making (supposing them to have been the same 
 weight as the others at the j-^ounger age) 66 lbs. of live 
 weight monthly during the year, which under the circum- 
 stances must have been almost wholly profitable flesh. 
 Ten shillings a week increase of value as the result of 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 
 
 21 
 
 liberal treatment of a well-bred ox is not unknown in other 
 breeds, but it is remai-kable, when true, of a two-year-old. 
 
 Breeders of Herefords claim for their favourites that 
 they are among the most hardy of all breeds of cattle, and 
 thus are particularly adapted for countries where it is 
 impossible to take special care of cattle through the 
 winter. Evidence from America shows that they stand 
 the rough usage they get 
 there better than any 
 other cattle that have yet 
 been tried.* 
 
 The two illustrative 
 portraits represent re- 
 spectively Mr. A. Rogers' 
 Hereford bull, "Thought- 
 ful," and Mrs. S. Ed- 
 wardes' Hereford heifer, 
 "Leonora." They fairly 
 illustrate and represent 
 the breed. The former 
 suffers somewhat from 
 the distortion consequent 
 
 on foreshoi'tening before the photographic lens, and its 
 muzzle is really finer than it thus appears to be. The 
 latter, shown also in full profile on p. 28, is not only a 
 remarkably characteristic specimen of the Hereford breed, 
 but, taken as a model of perfect form for a meat-producing 
 animal, she was the champion cow of England during her 
 life. Anything more extraordinary in its nearness to the very 
 ideal of perfection in this respect was probably never seen. 
 
 * We have to thank Mr. J. Hill, of Felhampton Court, Church Strettou, 
 for the above description and historical account of the breed. 
 
 HEAD Of HEKEFORD COW. 
 
22 
 
 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 3. Devons are mostly bred in their own county and 
 its neighbourhood. They are generally a small breed of 
 red cattle with fine bones. There are, however, two types 
 of the breed — those bred in North Devon being smaller 
 than the animals which feed on the rich lands of Somer- 
 set. A few breeding herds are kept in other parts of the 
 South of England, notably one at the royal farm at 
 
 Windsor. The 
 oxen of this 
 breed were 
 at one time 
 much used 
 until over five 
 years old for 
 draught pur- 
 pose, for which 
 their activity 
 specially adap- 
 ted them. Ox 
 labour is, how- 
 ever, now al- 
 most a thing 
 of the past. 
 From the earliest records of this breed, going back quite 
 150 years, the true Devon colour has been red, varying 
 from dark to chestnut, and often beautifully mottled. 
 The lighter shades of colour are not so highly esteemed as 
 the other, which is supposed to indicate greater hardiness. 
 They are very neat and level, with a firm touch ; when 
 well fed they have small carcases of the primest beef. 
 They have rather better dairy qualities than Herefords, 
 and thrive well on the somewhat poor and hilly land of 
 
 HEAD OF DBTON BULL. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 
 
 23 
 
 their native districts. And in Dorsetshire, where milk 
 and cheese are of great account, there are several herds of 
 large red cows of the Devon blood, which answer the 
 dairyman's purpose, and satisfy the grazier and the 
 butcher afterwards. A white nose, full eye, and fine horns, 
 are points well considered by Devon breeders. Their herd 
 book was commenced in 1851. 
 
 The Sussex breed of cattle are in colour and general 
 character similar to the 
 Devon, but with more size. 
 They have fine lengthy 
 frames, are well adapted for 
 beef production, and are 
 growing in favour in the 
 southern and eastern coun- 
 ties. The Sussex cattle, 
 like the pure breeds, have 
 improved by careful selec- 
 tion. There are several 
 breeders whose herds have 
 occupied the same meadows 
 for generations, and they 
 have known no cross with any other breed. In com- 
 paring this breed with the Devon, Mr. Youatt said, 
 " the main point of difference is at the shoulder, and this 
 is the principal defect in Sussex cattle." The rest of his 
 criticism is worth quoting ; he adds, " there is more breadth 
 and roundness on the withers — it is a straighter line from 
 the summit of the withers towards the back — there is no 
 projecting point of the shoulder when the animal is looked 
 at from behind, but the whole of the fore-quarter is thickly 
 
 HEAD OP DEVON COW. 
 
24 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 covered with flesh, giving too much weight to the coarser 
 and less profitable parts. This is certainly a defect, but it 
 is counterbalanced by many admirable points. If there is 
 more weight in front, the fore legs are necessarily wider 
 apart, straighter, and more perpendicular than in the 
 Devon ; they are placed more under the body, rather than 
 seeming to be attached to the sides. The forearm is large 
 and muscular, but the legs, although coarser than those of 
 the Devon, are small and fine downwards, and particularly 
 below the fetlock." 
 
 He then describes the round deep barrel, straight back, 
 big belly, and great capacity of the regions containing the 
 heart, lungs, and digestive organs, the Avide loins and 
 " spread out " hip bones. The bullocks are well ribbed 
 up, and have fine thin tails set on rather lower than in the 
 Devon. This was written fifty years ago in. Cattle, their 
 Breeds, Management, and Diseases. Since then great 
 pains have been taken to improve the quality by breeding 
 from the smallest bone and the greatest amount and ex- 
 iCellence of flesh ; and now the Sussex breed is admirably 
 adapted for the modern system of fattening under cover 
 at an early age ; and in the classes for young steers, at our 
 Christmas fat stock shows, surprising evidence of early 
 maturity is shown in the entries of this breed. 
 
 The Polled Angus, black or red, the Galloway black, 
 and the West Highland dun or yellow, are excellent 
 breeds for beef, and are very hardy, thriving in bleak and 
 cold situations. They are largely bred in the north of 
 Scotland. The former, pure or crossed with the Short- 
 horn, when well fattened and sent to the London market, 
 either as live animals or dead meat, command the top 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 25 
 
 price of the market. The late William McCombie at the 
 Paris International Exhibition, 1878, won the premier 
 prize for " cattle of any breed for beef production " with 
 his Polled Scots, and at the sale of his breeding stock in 
 1880 high prices were realised. 
 
 As described by an enthusiastic cultivator of the breed, 
 they are " fine in the bone, with tail like a rat, not ewe 
 necked ; short on the legs ; with small, well put on head, 
 prominent eye ; a skin not too thick nor too thin, covered 
 with fine silky hair ; straight back, well ribbed up and 
 home ; hook bones not too wide apart — level from the 
 hook to the tail ; free from patchiness ; deep thighs ; well 
 fleshed in the breast, with equal covering of fine flesh all 
 over the carcase." 
 
 The average weight of the best Polled Aberdeens at 
 London Christmas market, as consigned by the late 
 Mr. M'Combie, Mr. K H. Harris, of Earnhill ; Mr. Keid, 
 Greystone ; Mr. Skinner, Drumin, &c., is about 11 cwt. ;. 
 ■while much heavier weights frequently occur. Mr. 
 M'Combie was accustomed to realise up to £55 per head 
 for commercial bullocks at the various English markets, 
 while his noted Champion oxen at Paris, Poissy, Smith- 
 field, &c., have been described as veritable " mammoth "■ 
 oxen. And it is said that, bulk for bulk, the black weighs, 
 more than other breeds. 
 
 At the Paris Exhibition, "open to the world," the group 
 of animals that won, out of the host of categories repre- 
 sented, the "grand prix " of 2500 fr., 'for animals for breed- 
 ing purposes, at the same time as they won the " prix d'ap- 
 titude" of 2500 fr. for animals for beef-producing pur- 
 poses — two purposes difiicult sometimes to be obtained in 
 one animal — were a group of 2-year-old Polled Angus. 
 
26 
 
 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAKM. 
 
 cattle, " as even, plump, and ripe as a cherry," and the 
 youngest prized animals in the ground. 
 
 As to general prolificuess of the breed, we quote the 
 following : — Mr. M'Combie had one season twenty-seven 
 heifers served, three of which were yearlings, twenty-one 
 of which produced calves the following spring. 
 
 During the last few years the Polled cattle have 
 continually increased in favour, obtaining every day new 
 
 and valuable 
 supporters, 
 making bettei 
 appearances 
 at shows, and 
 extending far 
 beyond its pre- 
 sent bound- 
 aries ia every 
 direction, with 
 a greater de- 
 mand for ani- 
 mals for the 
 South of Scot- 
 land, Eng- 
 land, and the 
 colonies. 
 Dairy Breeds. — Among special dairy breeds, the Long- 
 horned was in high repute for dairy purposes in the 
 midland counties 100 years ago, and high prices were 
 then paid for animals of this breed. It has been sup- 
 planted by the Shorthorn, but an attempt is now being 
 made, with some degree of success, to improve and bring 
 it back into public favour. 
 
 HEAD OF LONGHORN BULL. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 
 
 27 
 
 The black Welsh cattle are very hardy, thrive well 
 on poor land, and some of them are very good for the dairy. 
 Though somewhat slow feeders, when fully ripe the best of 
 them are prime beef, and prove well for the butcher. 
 
 The Ayrshh-e is an excellent dairy breed almost uni- 
 versally kept in the dairy districts of Scotland. Many 
 cows of this breed are imported into English dairies, but 
 the produce of few of them is kept pure, as they are 
 often crossed with a 
 Shorthorn bull. Ayr- 
 shires are in colour red 
 •or brown and white, 
 mixed often in large 
 patches. They are 
 rather small, standing 
 on short legs, with a 
 light neck, straight up- 
 standing horns of rather 
 ■over medium length, and 
 a good shaped capacious 
 udder. The Ayrshire 
 is, in fact, a "model" 
 
 breed in both senses of the word — for it gives you the 
 ideal form of a cow, and it is the cow rather too much 
 lin miniature to be satisfactory to an outsider. It is 
 hardly so large as the Devon. Seen in profile, the 
 •body lies between two straight lines, the upper one 
 horizontal, the lower sloping downwards, from the 
 ibosom towards the udder, which does not fall below it. 
 It is the belly line and the form and character of the 
 udder which, after all, are the main points which deter- 
 inine the award of merit here. Ayrshire cows become 
 
 HEAD OF LONGHOEN COW. 
 
28 
 
 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 often rather large bellied, the result of consuming quan- 
 tities of inferior food. They thrive well on poor land, are 
 capital milkers ; when bred on rich land in England they 
 are said to lose some of their natural characteristics. 
 
 The red Norfolk Polled cattle are a distinct dairy breed, 
 cultivated to a small extent in the Eastern Counties. The 
 two Channel Island breeds, the pale red or yellow and white 
 
 IIEKEFOBD HEIFEB. 
 
 Guernsey, and the smaller deer-like Jersey, fawn or dun 
 in colour with black points, are specially adapted to pro- 
 duce milk, cream, and butter of fine quality and colour. 
 They have been largely imported, and are now bred in 
 some numbers in the South of England in butter dairies. 
 They thrive best in a warm situation and climate ; 
 giving a fair quantity of very rich milk, and generally calving 
 at about two years old. The Jerseys are light-fleshed. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 
 
 29 
 
 and their frames not well-adapted for beef productiot^. 
 The Guernseys have more size and flesh with almost equal 
 dairy merits. The Kerry is a small black or red breed, 
 hardy, producing a rich milk, and valuable for its fitness 
 to certain localities in Ireland. 
 
 Before, however, proceeding farther, reference should be 
 made to the different external conformation of the meat and 
 
 lAtl^ 
 
 AYBSHIBE COW. 
 
 milk producing breeds. The engravings, from photographs, 
 of Mrs. Edwardes' Hereford heifer, " Leonora," which took 
 the first prize at all the shows at which she was exhibited, 
 and Mr. Alex. Cassell's Ayrshire cow, "Jeanie," apart 
 from a certain amount of distortion due to the photo- 
 graphic process, very fairly represent the distinctive 
 characteristics of the two sorts. In the former you have 
 an almost perfectly cylindrical body with short thick neck 
 
30 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 — heavy ends, both rump and brisket — the thigh and 
 bosom being both extraordinarily developed, and the 
 whole body, flat at top, with ribs spreading almost hori- 
 zontally, providing a framework on which the best meat 
 on the carcase is thickly and abundantly spread. In the 
 other you have an almost wedge-shaped body, the whole 
 framework developing towards the hind -quarters, the belly 
 line and the back not parallel, but with an interval 
 gradually diminishing towards the front, where the brisket 
 is comparatively narrow and the neck slender ; the whole 
 animal much narrower, which is not shown in the en- 
 graving. In the case of the Hereford represented the 
 width of the bosom and the distance between the forelegs 
 was extraordinary. The drawings are not only instruc- 
 tive as to the differences between the cow which will spend 
 its food in the production of milk, and one whose food 
 will most of it go to the production of meat. They are 
 also very good illustrations of the two breeds which may 
 be taken as being more characteristically than any other 
 the typical cattle of the dairyman and grazier respectively. 
 Of the breeds which have been named, then, it will 
 understood that the Shorthorns and the Longhorns 
 among the larger breeds, and the Norfolk, the Ayrshire, 
 and the two Channel Island breeds among the smaller — 
 are distinctly and especially dairy cattle. The Herefords, 
 on the other hand, the Sussex and the Devons, the Polled 
 Angus, the Galloway, the black cattle of Wales and the 
 rough cattle of the Highlands, are especially meat-pro- 
 ducing breeds. But it is the great merit of the Shorthorn 
 that it holds the very foremost place in both of these 
 classes. The exceptional aptitude of the Shorthorn cow 
 to lay on flesh whenever, whether by accident or age, she 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 31 
 
 has become no longer adapted for the dairy, is a very 
 great addition ia the eyes of the dairy farmer to her 
 merit as a mere milk producer. And the unusual power 
 of the Shorthorn bull to confer this character upon hiS' 
 offspring of other breeds is rapidly giving a Shorfchorn 
 character to the dairy cattle of those counties where 
 Welsh, Glamorganshire, Longhorn, and other less im- 
 portant local breeds, now almost lost in their purity, once 
 prevailed. It has thus come to pass that while the 
 number of so-called pure-bred, or Herd Book Shorthorn 
 cows in the country is still perhaps smaller than the 
 number which would be pronounced pure of some other 
 breeds, — the Ayrshire, for example — yet the great bulk 
 of the cattle in our English dairy districts are year by year 
 exhibiting a constantly increasing Shorthorn character. 
 
 There were in eight of the western counties of Scotland, 
 in June 1880, 157,223 "cows or heifers in-calf or in- 
 milk," and perhaps 120,000 of these, taking into account 
 also the number of Ayrshire herds in other parts of the 
 island, may fairly be taken to represent the whole number 
 of the Ayrshire breed of dairy cattle. In Hereford and 
 Shropshire there were together 77,235, and perhaps 
 60,000 may be the total number of cows in the whole 
 country of that large meat-carrying kind. It is not so 
 easy to judge of the number of the less noteworthy local 
 sorts, as of breeds like that of Galloway or Noifolk, which 
 can only be held to occupy parts of counties ; but of the 
 Polled Angus there may not be more than 25,000 cows ; 
 of Sussex cattle not more than 6000 or 7000 ; of Devons, 
 large and small — ^for there are two styles, the former of 
 which may rather be designated Dorsets — there are 
 probably as many as 60,000. No doubt the number of 
 
32 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 COWS of the Shorthorn breed, as pure bred as many of 
 those already named, is largely in excess of any number 
 here quoted, for all the northern and midland counties of 
 England are full of tljem ; but, judging from the entries 
 in recent volumes of the Shorthorn Herdbook, and from 
 the numbers disposed of at the annual sales of Shorthorn 
 auctioneers, the entire number of females of this breed 
 which could claim registry in the Herd Book is probably 
 mot more than 20,000. Adding to these the herds of 
 pure-bred Highland cattle, of the Channel . Islanders, the 
 Welsh and Longhorn breeds, and some other sorts of less 
 importance, which should not be excluded, the whole 
 mumber of pure-bred "cows and heifers in-milk or in- 
 calf" each June, of the breeds that have been named, 
 •can hardly much exceed half-a-million. In addition to 
 these there are more than three times as many large- 
 framed dairy cows in this country, all of which have 
 received more or less strongly the impress of the Short- 
 horn cross. The dairy districts of Lancashire, Derbyshire, 
 Staffordshire, and Warwickshire, where Longhorns once 
 prevailed, have thus all more or less a Shorthorn cha- 
 racter : the dairy districts of Cheshire, where Welsh and 
 Irish cattle once prevailed, are now almost wholly Short- 
 horn ; and the same may be said of the dairy counties of 
 Gloucestershire, Leicestershire, Somersetshire, Wiltshire, 
 Berkshire, Bucks, &c., where cattle of local breeds formerly 
 'were prevalent. On the other hand, in the grazing dis- 
 tricts of Yorkshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, 
 Lincolnshire and Buckinghamshire, &c., excepting im- 
 ported Hereford, Welsh, and Irish cattle (which, however, 
 are now also mostly Shorthorns) one will hardly see any 
 other sort. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 33 
 
 General Management.— Wliere cattle of valuable pedi- 
 gree are bred/ economy of rearing is not much studied, the 
 object being to obtain awell-grown animal without regard to 
 «ost. Amplebox and yard accommodation is provided, and the 
 •calves run with their dams on the pastures in fine weather, 
 or are kept in boxes and turned with them for half an hour 
 several times a day. The calves are early taught to eat 
 linseed cake and bean meal, with hay or grass and cut 
 roots. They are weaned at from 6 to 8 months old, and 
 in winter are kept in boxes or yards partially covered, and 
 fed with hay or chopped straw, and pulped or cut roots, 
 "with 3 or 4 lb. daily of linseed cake or other similar extra 
 food. In the following summer they run on the pastures, 
 shelter against sun and rain being accessible to them, and 
 <3xtra food provided if the pastures be scanty. Exercise 
 is very necessary for the healthy development of young 
 a,nimals intended for breeding purposes. Valuable heifers 
 •were formerly rarely bred from until they were 3 years 
 old. Many are now served to produce the first calf at 
 2 to 2| years old. Where well kept they are more sure 
 "breeders, and likely to prove better milkers, when breeding 
 -thus early, than if allowed to get too fat before having 
 -their first calves. 
 
 On some farms in arable districts a number of calves 
 iire reared annually to be fattened as young beef under 
 5 years old. They are suckled, or fed from the pail with 
 milk and boiled linseed or oatmeal, the bull calves being 
 castrated at 2 or 8 weeks old. They are early taught 
 to eat linseed cake and other food. They are kept 
 entirely under cover, in boxes, four or five together, the 
 milk being gradually discontinued at 4 to 6 months old, 
 and the cake and meal gradually increased, the aim being 
 
34 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 to keep the young animal constantly improving. The 
 large amount of valuable manure made under cover by 
 cake-fed animals is the special advantage of this system ; 
 imder which young cattle of good quality, either Short- 
 horns or other improved breeds, can be fattened to a value 
 often over£20 under 18 months old, thus paying 7s. perweek 
 for their keep, a sum quite equal to the cost, reckoning 
 the manure as clear profit. New buildings are not needed 
 for this purpose : old-fashioned barns, not now required 
 for their original purpose, can be readily converted into 
 boxes for cattle-feeding and manure-making. An 
 estimate by Mr. T. Bowick of the cost of rearing a young 
 bullock for early beef, taken from the Royal Agricultural 
 Society's Journal, vol. 14, is here given. 
 
 Purcliase of calf £2 O 
 
 Four weeks' new milk, 6 qts. daily, at 2r7. . . . 18 
 
 Eight weeks' skimmed milk, 6 qts. dailj', at jfZ. per qt., and 
 
 2 lb. meal at l\d. per lb 1 5 S 
 
 Seventeen weeks, 2 lb. linseed cake, 2 lb. bean meal daily, with 
 
 mangel, hay, &c., 4s. M. perweek 3 19 4- 
 
 Twenty-six weeks, 5 lb. cake and meal daily, J bush, of roots, 
 
 hay and straw, 6s. 3('. per week . . . . . 6 16 6 
 
 Sixteen weeks, 8 lbs. cake and meal daily, grass, clover, &c. , 
 
 7s. 2fd per week .... 
 Attendance, 71 weeks at 6d. . . . 
 Insurance, interest, and rent of shed . 
 
 5 15 
 
 S 
 
 . 1 15 
 
 S 
 
 . 1 5 
 
 
 
 £24 6 
 
 S 
 
 Upon mixed arable and grass farms, where cattle are 
 reared for beef purposes, it is not usual to fatten them at 
 so early an age, or entirely under cover. A small breed- 
 ing herd of cows is kept, the calves of which, by a pure- 
 bred bull of good quality, are all reared, and a number of 
 extra young calves are purchased from the dairy districts 
 
BREEDS AND lUNAGEJIENT OF CATTLE. 35 
 
 at from £1 tp £3 each. — Many calves are sent from the 
 dairy districts into counties where they are wanted for 
 rearing, either in horse-boxes, six or under being charged 
 as one horse, or if not exceeding 90 lb., tied up in bags, 
 packed -with straw, leaving the head out, per passenger 
 van ; they thus travel safely and quickly at moderate 
 cost. — ^The calves, which are kept in pens near the cattle 
 shed, are suckled twice a day, two on each cow — the 
 calves being early taught to eat extra food.s. Strong 
 calves are at 6 weeks old only allowed to suck once a day, 
 and at 3 months old are weaned entirely from milk, other 
 calves taking their places. On some farms the cows are 
 milked by hand, and a number of calves reared upon the 
 milk, either pure or skimmed, with the addition of gruel 
 made of boiled linseed or oatmeal, and a little cattle spice. 
 By either of these means four or five calves may with 
 care be reared fairly well, in the course of one season, with 
 the milk of one cow. 
 
 The yearling calves, being well supplied in yards or 
 boxes with good fodder and 2 or 3 lb. per head of cake 
 and meal, are turned out in May upon the clover or 
 pastures, either with or without a small daily feed of 
 naixed linseed and cotton cake, until the following 
 October, when they are taken up into sheds or yards 
 and fed upon roots and straw or hay, with an allowance 
 of cake and meal, begining at 4 lb. each daily, and in- 
 creasing gradually until for the last two months 10 lb. tO' 
 12 lb. is given daily, the young beasts being saleable fat 
 in June at from 2 to 2J years old at nearly £30 each. 
 
 Where heifer calves are reared for keeping up the 
 numbers of the dairy, they are not generally allowed to- 
 suck, but are fed from the pail, having from 4 to 8 quarts; 
 
 D 2 
 
36 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 of tiew milk daily for three or four weeks, and then skim 
 milk with the addition of boiled linseed, &c., for six or 
 eight weeks longer. They are turned out to grass in the 
 summer and autumn, 1 lb. per day apiece of pure linseed 
 cake being continued to them. This quantity is increased 
 to 2 lb. in the following winter, or 1 lb. of decorticated 
 cotton cake is added ; the calves being either kept in sheds 
 or yards, or, in grass land districts, on the pastures with 
 some hay, and perhaps a shed for shelter. The practice 
 of giving cake to young store cattle is found beneficial 
 and is increasing. 
 
 Success in breeding cattle depends very much upon 
 the selection of parents of good blood and quality. As 
 one male animal may become the sire of a large number 
 of calves, special care should be taken to secure one of 
 the desired quality and hereditary qualifications, all un- 
 sound or delicate animals being rejected. Some of the 
 ■chief obstacles to the profitable breeding of cattle are 
 barrenness, abortion, and the loss from disease. Cows not 
 unfrequently fail to breed regularly. In this case, unless 
 they are of special value, they may be fattened without the 
 owner suffering loss. High-bred cattle are specially subject 
 to barrenness, whether from being too closely in-bred or 
 from being kept artificially and in too high condition. 
 
 The average period of gestation is forty weeks, but in- 
 dividual cows vary considerably. When cows exceed 
 their ordinary time, there is a much greater probability 
 of male produce. Great disappointment arises to many 
 breeders from their cows slipping their calves at various 
 stages of pregnancy. It is often impossible to trace the 
 cause. Some pastures infested with ergot are said to 
 produce it; mouldy or flooded hay, frosted or decayed 
 
BREEDS AXD MAXAGEJIENT OF CATTLE. 37 
 
 roots, foul water, contact and sympathy with other cattle 
 which have lately ahorted, sudden fright or rough usage 
 — all these causes account for a large number of cases. 
 It sometimes occurs, with the most careful management, 
 to cows iu every vaiiety of condition. It is seldom 
 dangerous to the cows, and they will often fatten quickly 
 after its occurrence ; or, if it occurs at a late stage of 
 pregnancy, and the after-birth be not retained, if stimu- 
 lating food be given freely without delay, dairy cattle will 
 often give an abundant supply of milk. Cows which 
 have once aboi-ted are more liable to do so again, though 
 they not unfrequently overcome the habit. 
 
 From April to October cattle are fattened on pas- 
 tures, the best land being reserved for this purpose. One 
 large beast per acre may be fattened on the very best 
 land. The practice of giving extra food w^ith grass is 
 increasing. A mixture of equal parts of linseed cake and 
 decorticated cotton cake is very suitable for grass feeding, 
 and from 4 to 6 lb. per day may be given at from 2s. 6c?. 
 to 3s. 6d. per week, the cattle fattening more quickly and 
 greatly improving the land. Even half the above amount 
 at a cost of Is. 6d. per week is often of marked benefit 
 to the fattening of the cattle. There is often a glut of 
 half-meated cattle in October which are sold at a price 
 leaving very small profit to the feeder, and the use of 
 cake enables the feeder to bring his stock to an earlier 
 and better market. A very large number of well-bred 
 Irish store cattle are imported every spring, and pur- 
 chased for grazing in this way on English pastures. 
 
 A certain amount of shelter is desirable for cattle even 
 in the summer months in the changeable climate of the 
 British Isles. Hedges between pasture fields should not 
 
38 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 therefore be kept too low, especially in exposed situations. 
 The profits of purely grazing farms are dependent upon 
 the price at which store cattle can be bought in spring, 
 the abundance of grass, the suitability of the season for 
 the thriving of stock, and the demand for beef in the 
 summer and autumn. In winter the fattening of cattle 
 is principally in the arable districts, where the straw and 
 loots require conversion into manure. A liberal allow- 
 ance of cake or meal is generally given with roots or 
 chopped straw or clover. Excepting for the value of the 
 manure made by these well-fed animals, this winter fat- 
 tening is i-arely profitable, the cost of food, bedding, and 
 attendance being heavy. The manure thus made under 
 cover by animals freely consuming cake is, however, of 
 great value to the farm. The immense and increasing 
 imports of American fat cattle and dead meat have 
 lessened the price of beef and greatly reduced the profits 
 of British graziers. Breeding or dairy cattle when dried 
 for two or three months previous to calving do not 
 require a forcing diet, and are kept in the winter months 
 on straw and roots or coarse hay. 
 
 Cows over 4 years old, if in high condition at the 
 time of calviug, are liable to parturient apoplexy, com- 
 monly called milk fever — a very fatal malady, which 
 occurs within a week or generally within three days of 
 calving. The risk of loss from this disease is lessened by 
 reducing the keep before calving, and giving one or two 
 doses of 1 lb. of Epsom salts and 1 oz. of ginger just before 
 calving. In cases where the udder is very full, the cow 
 .should be milked occasionally previous to calving. At- 
 tention to these precautionary measures would generally 
 prevent losses from this cause. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF CATTLE. 39 
 
 Young calves when fed with the pail, crowded together in 
 pens, and not kept sweet, or when the cows are kept on very 
 1 ich and scouring food, are often affected with diarrhoea, the 
 ■" white scour;" a very sparing diet is necessary, with various 
 medicinal remedies. If not checked the disease is rapidly 
 fatal — The hoose, which is due to the presence in the 
 bronchial tubes and windpipe of small threadlike worms, 
 attacks calves or yearlings in the early autumn when 
 _grazing upon some pastures. The continual coughing to 
 expel these worms exhausts the calf. Doses of two table- 
 spoonfuls of turpentine, mixed with as much linseed oil, 
 given every alternate day, are useful to kill the worms ; 
 and liberal keep to maintain the strength of the calf is neces- 
 sary. The fatality from this disease is much greater in some 
 seasons, and in some localities. It is especially dangerous 
 on this account to turn calves on pastures recently flooded. 
 
 Cattle reared entirely under cover never suffer from this 
 disease, and but rarely from black quarter, which is very 
 fatal on some farms. It Ls a blood disease which rarely 
 attacks cattle over 18 months old. It is practically in- 
 curable. The calf is struck suddenly, a swelling being 
 often observable on limb or back, which, on pressure by 
 the finger, gives a peculiar rustling sound. Setoning the 
 dewlap at 3 to 6 months old, and periodical saline doses 
 are preventives which are said to be effectual. The 
 setoning should always be done on those farms where the 
 disease has been prevalent. Eegularand good keep, avoiding 
 sudden changes, too forcing diet, or exposure to very cold 
 -winds, is also desirable. The regular use of a moderate 
 allowance of linseed cake is a safeguard, this extra food 
 being safer for cattle under 15 months old than cotton 
 cake or any kind of corn meal. 
 
40 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 Diseases of the digestive organs are not unfrequent. 
 The clogging of the first stomach -with undigested food, 
 and the consequent formation of gas which cannot find 
 escape, often causes an alarming distension threatening 
 rupture. In this case the use of the probang, a fiexible 
 tube passed down the throat, may give relief. The treat- 
 ment of disease is not, however, capable of discussion in 
 these few pages. The reader is referred to our last chapter 
 for a statement of the main principles on which the pre- 
 servation of health depends. 
 
 The two diseases of foreign origin, pi euro-pneumonia 
 and foot-and-mouth disease, have in past years caused 
 incalculable loss to the British farmer, but we may hope 
 that the continued enforcement of measures regulating the 
 cattle traffic will prevent the frequent recurrence of them. 
 The former disease may remain dormant in an animal 
 many weeks, but when detected, should always be dealt 
 with by prompt slaughter of the infected animal. 
 
 Foot-and-mouth disease shows itself in from two to 
 seven days after infection. It is not commonly fatal, 
 except to young sucking animals, and requires little 
 treatment except good nursing. Purchasers of cattle 
 which have been exposed, on travel or in markets and 
 fairs, to risk of infection, should as far as possible keep 
 them isolated from other stock until they are proved to 
 be healthy. The evidence in favour of the beneficial 
 effect of sanitary regulations in preventing the spread of 
 these diseases is unimpeachabJe, but recent outbreaks 
 have been clearly traceable to the import of live animals, 
 and it is evident that no absolute safety of our home stock 
 can be obtained until a foreign dead meat trade is substi- 
 tuted for the import of live animals. 
 
CHAPTEE II. 
 
 DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Statistics^fi'cneraZ Jlanngemcnt : Food — Shelter — Trea ment — Milking. 
 Milk Production : The Milk Trade — Qviality of Milk. Cheese-making ■ 
 Cheddar — Cheshire — Derbyshire — Gloucester — Leicester — Lancashire 
 Stilton — Bath — Cream Cheese. Butter-making : Processes — Setting 
 MQk — Churning — Making — Salting. 
 
 The milk produce of Great Britain has been estimated 
 at about 1,000,000,000 gallons annually, the produce of 
 rather more than 2,000,000 of cows and heifers, which are 
 returned in our agricultural statistics as in milk or in calf 
 in June of each year. The quantity of milk consumed iu 
 rearing and fattening calves has been variously estimated 
 at from one-sixth to one-eighth of the above produce. 
 We think the former estimate nearest the mark. 
 
 We have no accurate statistics to guide us as to the 
 amount consumed in the form of milk by our population, 
 but it has been estimated at 1,000,000 of imperial gallons 
 per day, being at the rate of one quarter of a pint daily 
 per head of the population. The quantity thus consumed 
 is yearly increasing with improved facilities of delivery 
 and distribution ; and with the increased means and we 
 trust the more sober habits of the working classes. 
 
 The remainder of the milk produced is devoted to the 
 making of cheese and fresh butter. The production of 
 cheese is much diminished in consequence of the increased 
 
42 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 demand for fresh milk and large importations of American 
 cheese of improved quality. Dairying as a whole is, how- 
 ever, now on the increase, the profit derived from it being, 
 under good management, generally superior to that from 
 fatting stock. 
 
 We propose to describe shortly the general management 
 of dairy cows, the feeding of dairy cattle for the production 
 of milk, the milk trade, the making of cheese of various 
 kinds, and the making of butter, fresh and cured. 
 
 General Management. — In ordinary summer dairies, 
 the cows and heifers calve from January to May, the 
 younger cows and heifers calving latest. Cheese is made 
 best and at least cost from cows at grass when in the 
 height of their milk production. In dairies, however, which 
 supply milk to towns, or where fresh butter is largely made, 
 it is important that cows should calve all through the year, 
 as a regular supply is needed ; and although it costs much 
 more to produce milk and butter in the winter season, the 
 extra price then ruling for milk or fresh butter repays it. 
 In the winter feeding of dairy cattle a liberal supply of 
 roots is desirable, and where this is unattainable must be 
 mads vip for by an extra supply of cake or meal, or the 
 use of brewers' grains. Some good meadow hay or well- 
 got clover is always desirable for cows in milk, and may 
 be given uncut. Straw or inferior hay should be cut into 
 chaff and mixed with pulped roots or grains and soaked 
 malt dust. Mangels are preferable to swedes or turnips for 
 milch cows, as the latter are apt to taint the milk or 
 butter with their peculiar aroma. Many parts of Great 
 Britain are, hovvever, unsuitable in ordinary seasons for 
 the profitable growth of mangels, which need plenty of 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 43 
 
 sun and a warm soil, whilst swedes thrive best in a cool, 
 moist soil and climate. The objectionable flavour of 
 swedes may be avoided in great measure by pulping them, 
 and mixing with chaflF flavoured with soaked malt dust. 
 In cheese-making the flavour of turnips is not perceptible. 
 Where both swedes and mangels are grown, the latter are 
 best reserved for giving whole, and for use late in the 
 season, when swedes are often decaying. 
 
 Chopped straw, mixed with say 20 lb. of pulped roots, 
 2 lb. malt dust, 3 lb. rice or maize meal, and 4 lb. decorti- 
 cated cotton cake or meal, with one or two fodderings of 
 good long hay or clover, and 20 lb. of whole mangels, form 
 a good ration for a dairy cow in full milk in the winter 
 season. The cost of the cake, meal, and malt dust amounts 
 to about 3s. 6d. per week. Where brewers' grains can be 
 obtained close to the farm at from 3c?. to 5d. per bush., 
 they are not dear for stock, and from two to four pecks per 
 day may be given, but a few roots in addition are desirable 
 to prevent clogging of the stomach. Under such a diet 
 milch cows yield liberally good milk without sinking in 
 condition. Under only an ordinary diet of hay or straw 
 and roots, cows giving milk freely must become low in 
 condition, and their power of milk production is liable to 
 become impaired. 
 
 Cows in milk are better kept moderately warm in the 
 winter — they feel cold more than cattle not in milk ; but 
 it is not desirable to make them tender by too close con- 
 finement when they are to be pastured afterwards. In 
 country dairies they are usually allowed to be out alto- 
 gether, from early in May until October or November, 
 being brought in for milking, and it may be for some 
 extra feed twice daily. 
 
44 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 The system of feeding cattle entirely in houses through- 
 out the summer, bringing them regular supplies of green 
 fodder, is strongly advocated by some for milch cattle. It 
 is specially suitable for sewage farms, and for dairy farms 
 chiefly arable, some of which in suitable localities might 
 with profit be devoted to dairying. Where land is 
 specially cropped to meet the probable demands for green 
 fodder at various seasons of the year, arable dairy farming 
 may be profitably carried out on what is called the soiling 
 system, but on dairy farms of ordinary pasture we consider 
 the present system of turning cows out to graze on the 
 pastures will continue to be found the most economical. 
 
 The choice of foods, whether grown on the farm or 
 purchased, depends greatlj' upon the locality. For instance, 
 in the neighbourhood of a great seaport, where foreign 
 cake or meal can be purchased cheaply with little cost of 
 railway conveyance, it may be most desirable to use this ; 
 whilst in inland districts the meal of home-grown corn, 
 brewers' grains, bran, and malt dust may be cheapest to 
 use. 
 
 In the use of extra foods for milch cows, discrimination 
 should be used in the apportionment of varying quantities 
 to individual animals, according to their special require- 
 ments, their milking capacity, and their condition as to age. 
 Some cows will pay well for a liberal allowance in 
 increased supplies of milk, and require more liberal diet 
 to make up for the large drain upon their system, whilst 
 other cows do not require, and will not pay, for forcing 
 keep. Heifers two and three years old when milking 
 freely require some extra food to enable them to grow in 
 size as well as to milk abundantly. For want of this 
 many animals whicli milk freely with their first calve 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 45 
 
 are checked in their growth, and never attain their proper 
 size. 
 
 The treatment of dairy cattle should he careful and 
 rational. The water supply should be pure and plentiful, 
 the sheds clean and well ventilated. The cows must not 
 be driven fast or excited and their tempers spoilt by loud 
 noise or blows. The milking of the cows must be per- 
 formed with thoroughness and regularity twice daily, at 
 as nearly regular intervals as possible. In exceptional 
 cases, where the udder is very full, or there is difficulty in 
 getting the milk away, it may be advisable to milk for a 
 while three or even four times daily. 
 
 The habit of milking well is most easily acquired when 
 young. The difficulty in getting good milkers is an 
 obstacle to the extension of dairying in new districts, 
 where the farm labourers have never learnt to do it well. 
 No milking machine, as yet brought out, has proved of 
 practical utility. If the milk be not all regularly and 
 quickly drawn, the yield of milk rapidly falls off, and 
 cannot be recovered until the cow calves again. 
 
 Milk Froductiou. — The feeding of dairy cattle with a 
 view to a profitable production of milk receives far more 
 attention than formerly, when, in ordinary country dairies, 
 extra feeding stuffs beyond the grass, hay, straw, and roots 
 of the farm were rarely supplied to dairy cows. It is now 
 generally understood that a moderate allowance of cake 
 or meal, judiciously selected according to cost, and given 
 to cows in full milk, brings a higher return in increased 
 dairy produce than it would in beef if given to fatting 
 animals. It is not always profitable to give extra feed to 
 cows when grazing on abundant pastures in the summer 
 
46 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 season, but the use of 3 lb. per head daily of decorticated 
 cotton cake, or 2 lb. of decorticated cotton cake and 2 lb. 
 of maize or rice meal, at a cost of from Is. 6d. to 2s. per 
 week, increases the yield and quality of the milk, improves 
 the condition, and if young, the growth of the milking 
 stock ; lessens somewhat the consumption of grass, and 
 maintains and improves the condition of the pastures, 
 which is somewhat reduced by the grazing of dairy stock 
 not supplied with extra food. The profit of the use of 
 extra food on grass will depend upon the price of dairy 
 produce, the price of the extra food, and the character of 
 the stock. Where dairy farms are partly arable, it will 
 be desirable to provide, for autumn use, some forage crop 
 to supply succulent food when the grass fails. The crop 
 grown most profitably for this purpose will depend upon 
 the nature of the soil and climate. Where these are 
 suitable, cabbages are a profitable crop, and supply in the 
 last four months of the year excellent food for milk pro- 
 duction. Italian rye-grass, clover, rape, vetches, kohl 
 rabi, or mangel tops are all useful aids to milk production 
 in the autumn. 
 
 The supply of country milk to large towns is of 
 comparatively modern introduction, having grown up 
 in the last twenty years, and it is extending yearly 
 with rapid strides. The cattle plague swept away 
 large numbers of cows in London and other towns ; the 
 increasing demands upon space in the neighbourhood of 
 crowded populations, and the requirements of sanitary 
 authorities of towns as to the construction and condition 
 of town cowsheds, have also discouraged cowkeeping in 
 towns, whilst the facilities offered by the various railway 
 companies for the speedy, safe, and cheap conveyance of 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 47 
 
 milk, have contributed to the extension of the trade ; and 
 at the same time the greater purity of the milk supplied, 
 partly due to the Adulteration Acts, has increased the 
 demand for it. A large proportion of the milk from the 
 coimties of Derby and Leicester, formerly made into 
 cheese, is now sent to London. Some large dairies exist 
 in London and the suburbs, but the great bulk of the 
 supplies are received by rail. 
 
 On many farms near a railway station, where a tolerably 
 regular supply can be forwarded, nearly the whole of the 
 milk is sent by rail. On other farms cheese or butter is 
 made in the summer, and the milk is only sold when 
 scarce, the price then being better than that obtainable 
 by making it into cheese or butter. 
 
 Most of the milk sent up to London is purchased by 
 large dealers, either private individuals or public com- 
 panies, who deliver much of the milk to retailers, who in 
 their turn distribute it to the public. The average price at 
 which milk is retailed in London is id. per quart, some 
 being sold in the spring months at Sd., and 5d. being 
 charged when milk is scarce. The disproportion between 
 the price paid by the town consumer and that realised on 
 the farm is great, and may be capable of some reduction, 
 but the labour of distributing, often twice daily, small 
 quantities over wide areas, is considerable in proportion 
 to its value. 
 
 The thorough cooling and aeration of milk before 
 despatch by rail is found necessary to secure its keeping. 
 To secure this end Lawrence's patent refrigerator, in 
 which the milk is poured over a large exposed metallic 
 surface kept cool by a current of cold water beneath it, 
 is far the best appliance available. The milk when it 
 
48 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 comes from the cow, after being strained, is, by being 
 passed over the refrigerator, through which a stream of 
 cold water is running, reduced at once from 90°, or blood 
 heat, to below G0°, at which heat it will bear carriage 
 with safety, even in the hottest weather. Without such 
 cooling and aeration it will not keep sweet twenty-four 
 hours. It is conveyed by rail in large cans ; those most in 
 use in the London trade holding 17 imperial gallons or 8 
 barn gallons — a local measure of 17 pints, still clung to 
 by the dealers. 
 
 Milk vans are put on the early morning and evening 
 trains, the milk travelling at express speed in time for 
 distribution a few hours after its production. The price 
 received by the country producer varies from 6^d. to 8c?. 
 per imperial gallon for four or six summer months, to 8^d. 
 to lOd. in the winter, clear of all cost of carriage : higher 
 prices being sometimes paid when milk is scarce. 
 
 The sender generally finds cans if he sends regularly, 
 but for those who only send a portion of their milk the 
 dealer finds all or a portion of the cans. The last im- 
 provement in the making of cans is the substitution of 
 tinned steel for tinned iron as the material. It is believed 
 that their greater hardness will make them last much 
 longer and avoid much of the leakage caused, by the rough 
 treatment cans receive in transit. 
 
 Dealers when purchasing dairies of milk often require a 
 maximum and minimum quantity to be named in the 
 contract, as in the winter the supply often falls short of 
 the demand. They also retain the power of stopping the 
 supply for a meal or two, when an over supply or a 
 .slackening demand occurs. The dairy farmer who supplies 
 milk ought to have the means of converting his milk into 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 49 
 
 cheese or butter when it is not wanted for sale. He is 
 thus rendered more independent, and able to make the 
 best of his produce. The best return may often be made 
 from a combination of the sale of milk and the making of 
 cheese and butter, the milk being for the time applied to 
 whichever purpose pays best. Dealers often obtain extra 
 supplies of milk from the cheese factories existing in 
 Derbyshire or elsewhere, which, when situated near to 
 rails, arrange to supply at a fixed price as much milk as 
 is required (instead of making it into cheese), whenever 
 apprised by letter or telegram of the dealer's wants. 
 
 A noteworthy feature of the present milk trade is the 
 success which some public companies influentially sup- 
 ported, and commanding the confidence of both producers 
 and consumers, have recently obtained. 
 
 In many rural villages a supply of pure milk can only 
 be purchased with difficulty, and we know cases where the 
 children of agricultural labourers have not tasted milk 
 during childhood, from the day they were weaned. The 
 consumption everywhere falls far below a desirable 
 quantity. Improved supply is found to create a demand, 
 and a source of profit not inconsiderable is thus being 
 developed. 
 
 Various tests of the quality of the milk are commonly 
 used. The cream gauge enables the number of degrees 
 of cream (say from 8° to 14°) in 100 parts of pure milk 
 to be read, but this is far from a complete test when 
 applied to milk which has been disturbed by carnage to 
 London. The lactometer enables the specific gravity to 
 be ascertained, which averages about 1032 (water being 
 1000) ; and with these two tests a fair opinion may be 
 formed of the quality. An analysis showing the propor- 
 
50 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 tion of solid and of butter fat is, however, the only 
 absolutely trustworthy guide * and to take this accurately 
 requires both time and skill. The sale of milk upon 
 terms in some measure based upon a standard of quality, 
 though desirable, is not yet the rule. 
 
 Cheese-making. — The variety of kinds of English 
 cheeses, each one made upon a principle in some measure 
 distinct, is considerable. The principal whole milk 
 cheeses are Cheddar, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Gloucester- 
 shire, Leicestershire, Lancashire, and Stilton. There is 
 also in some localities a considerable production of skim- 
 milk cheese. We give one or two examples. The 
 Cheddar system may be shortly described as follows. 
 The morning's and evening's milk are put in the cheese 
 tub at a temperature of about 80° Fahrenheit, and 
 sufEcient rennet (a coagulating fluid t prepared from the 
 stomachs of sucking calves) is added to make the curd 
 set in an hour or less. The curd is then slowly cut with a 
 breaker — either a wire sieve of large mesh thrust up and 
 down and to and fro, or a set of parallel knives set near 
 to one another in a frame, and used in a similar way 
 — great care being taken not to mix the curd up with 
 the whey. Heat is then applied to raise the tem- 
 perature to from 95° to 100°, in order to harden the curd 
 and complete the separation of the whey, which is then 
 removed. The curd is pUed up in the cheese tub, cut, 
 and turned over and allowed to remain for half an hour, 
 when a certain degree of acidity is developed. The 
 remainder of the whey is then drained off, and the curd 
 
 * See Handbook of tlie Chemistry of the Farm, f See Appendix. 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 51 
 
 cooled before grinding or breaking, when it is packed in 
 the vat, surrounded by a cloth of open texture, pressed, 
 again gi'ound or broken up, and salted at the rate of 1 lb. 
 of the salt for 56 lb of curd, and again put in the press. 
 The cloth is changed the following morning, and either on 
 that or the succeeding day a calico bandage is fastened 
 round the cheese. On the third day it may be taken 
 from under the press and placed in the cheese room, the 
 bandages being kept on, and the cheese turned daily. 
 A regular temperature of about 65° is most suitable for 
 ripening the cheese, and it requires about three months' 
 ripening before being ready for sale. This temperature is 
 generally best maintained by means of hot-water pipes 
 surrounding the room, heated either by a stove boiler, or 
 by a boiler connected with a cooking grate. A stove 
 within the cheese-room or hot-air pipes will answer for 
 this purpose. Cheddar cheeses ai-e generally made large 
 and deep, the usual sizes being from 56 lb. to 120 lb. 
 
 In Cheshire milk is set for cheese at about the same 
 temperature as Cheddar, but the rennet is commonly made 
 fresh daily ; and the first process is the same, though heat- 
 ing the curd after the first breaking is done by some but not 
 all makers. The whey is drained away and the curd left to 
 get firm ; when sufficiently firm it is cut into cubes of about 
 1 lb. weight, and lifted on to a drainer or rack covered with 
 a cloth, where it remains for three-quarters of an hour or 
 more. When dry enough it is broken up by hand, and 
 from 3 J to 4 J lb. of salt per cwt. well mixed with the curd. 
 It is afterwards twice passed through the curd miU, and 
 put in a vat with a weight upon it for from one to two 
 hours. It is then put in an oven or warm chamber pro- 
 vided for the purpose, close to the fire of the dairy room, 
 
 E 2 
 
62 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 where it remains until the following morning. The 
 warmth of the oven (80° or 90°) promotes the separation 
 of the whey, and skewers are used to pierce the curd 
 through the holes of the vat, to cause the escape of the 
 whey. Some degree of acidity is developed in the curd, 
 and it settles down into a compact mass. The cheeses are 
 turned upside down in the vat with a fresh dry cloth, and 
 put in the press for about three days, being turned and 
 dry-clothed once or twice daily. They are then bandaged 
 and removed to the cheese room, being at first turned 
 daily, afterwards less frequently, until ready for sale. As 
 a rule Cheshire cheese ripens quickly, and is sold for con- 
 sumption from one to three months after it is made. 
 
 The Derbyshire and Gloucestershire systems resemble 
 each other, and may be described as follows : — 
 
 The evening's milk is cooled and kept till the next 
 morning, and it is then mixed with the morning's milk, 
 the temperature raised to 80° to 85°, and sufficient rennet 
 added to coagulate it in an hour. The curd is gently 
 bi'oken with a curd breaker, and a metallic press sieve 
 plate allowed to sink slowly through the whey upon the 
 curd, the whey being then let off by a tap or baled out. 
 The press plate is gradually let down on to the curd, so as 
 to press out the whey ; the curd is cut with a knife and 
 heaped up in the kettle, and the pressure again applied. 
 When dry enough, it is broken up or ground once or 
 twice, some of the best makers mixing a small quantity — 
 say 1 lb. to the cwt. — of fine salt with the curd, which is 
 then vatted and put in a lever press, taken out again, and , 
 cut or slightly broken and re-vatted. The cheeses, which 
 are from 161b. to 281b. each, are rubbed over on the out- 
 side with salt, and fresh dry cloths are put on daily for three 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 53 
 
 days, -while kept in press. They are then removed to the 
 cheese room, kept in a temperature of from 60° to 70°, and 
 sold when ripe at from six to twelve weeks old. 
 
 In Lancashire, cheeses about four to the cwt. are made 
 very much as those of Derbyshire, except that the salting 
 is sometimes done — not by mixing salt vfith. the ground 
 curd, as must be done in Cheshire or Somersetshire, where 
 large cheeses are made, nor by rubbing the surface with 
 salt, as is done in Gloucestershire and partly in Derby- 
 shire, but — by floating the cheese in a vat of brine for 
 three or four days after it has acquired form and sub- 
 stance. The curd, when once it has been fairly drained 
 free of whey, is placed in a cloth under pressure for half 
 an hour, and then opened up and rebroken, and again 
 subjected to pressure. It is ultimately put through a 
 curd-mill, and ground as fine as grains of corn. The 
 ground curd is put in vats holding a quarter of a cwt. 
 each, and placed under full pressure for some hours ; after 
 which it is taken out and replaced in a dry cloth, and 
 subjected to a day's pressure. After this it is placed for 
 a period of four to six days, either each in an earthenware 
 vessel of proper shape and size, or several together in a 
 long wooden trough, in a brine in which it floats, and 
 from which it absorbs sufficient salt, (and becomes hard 
 and firm in the process. In a few days this process is 
 completed, and the cheese is taken out, wiped dry, and 
 placed on the floor -of the cheese-room, and turned occa- 
 sionally, until it is ready for sale. 
 
 Both in Gloucestershire and Cheshire, not universally 
 however — also in other districts less generally — it is a not 
 uncommon practice to use artificial means in order to give 
 to cheese a yellow and sometimes even an orange colour. 
 
54 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE' FAEM. 
 
 A small quantity — about half-a-gill per 100 gallons — of 
 liquid annatto is for this purpose mixed with the milk 
 before the rennet is added : giving it a richer, more 
 creamy colour than it naturally possesses — a colour which 
 is almost wholly carried down by the curd, so that the tint 
 becomes much stronger in the cheese. This is not now, 
 however, so commonly done as it used to be, A cheese of 
 natural colour is now generally preferred, and a nasty and 
 to some extent expensive practice is dying out. 
 
 Mention should here be made of the great importance, 
 which is everywhere acknowledged, of a good cheese-room 
 — one which can be kept at a uniformly warm tempera- 
 ture, especially during the early months of the cheese 
 manufacture. On this a great deal depends for the proper 
 ripening and maturing of the cheese : a process which is 
 materially shortened as well as brought to a more successful 
 issue, where sufficient warmth can be maintained without 
 any liability to changes of temperature. 
 
 Stilton cheese — manufactured chiefly in Leicestershire 
 — is made from milk enriched by the addition of cream, 
 and the curd hardens into cheese without pressure. The 
 cream of the night's milk is added to the new milk of the 
 morning, and the rennet is mixed with it when the whole 
 is at the temperature of 84° Fahr., enough being used to 
 make it coagulate in an hour and a half If it comes 
 sooner it will be too tough. The curd is not drained of its 
 whey in the ordinary manner, but is removed in slices 
 with a skimming-dish, and placed upon a canvas strainer ; 
 the ends of which, when it is full, are tied up and the 
 whey gently pressed out. It is then allowed to drain 
 until next morning, when it is removed and placed in a 
 cool dish ; whence, cut in thin slices, it is put in a hoop 
 
DAIEY MANAGEMENT. 55 
 
 made of tin, about 10 inches high and 8 inches across, 
 and pierced with holes. A clean cloth is placed within 
 the hoop, and, as the slices are laid in, a small quantity of 
 salt is sprinkled between the alternate layers. It remains 
 in the hoop, covered up, but without pressure. Next day 
 the cheese is taken out of the hoop and clean cloths are 
 applied ; after which it is inverted and replaced, and 
 pricked with skewers through the holes of the tin hoop, 
 to facilitate the extraction of the whey. In four or five 
 days the curd becomes firm. During this consolidating 
 process the cheeses are kept in a place where the tem- 
 perature can be maintained at about 100°. When the 
 cheese has become firm enough, it is pared smooth and 
 fii-mly bound up in a strong fillet of canvas, wrapping it 
 round several times. The binders and cloths are removed 
 every morning ; cracks are fiUed up with curd ; and ulti- 
 mately the coat becomes hardened, and the cheese is 
 removed to the drying-room. 
 
 Bath cheese may be named, although it is little else 
 than a household delicacy. To one gallon of new milk 
 two quarts of water are added, and two tablespoonfuls of 
 rennet. When it is coagulated, the curd is taken gently 
 out of the vessel with the skimming-dish, and laid in a 
 small vat of suitable size — perhaps 9 inches across and 
 3 inches deep — a canvas cloth being previously placed in 
 it. Dry cloths should be applied every twelve hours for 
 two days, when the cheese should be turned out on a 
 plate, with another over it, and being turned occasionally 
 it wiU be fit for use in a fortnight. 
 
 Cream cheese may be made from a quart of cream, to 
 which, perhaps, a pint of new milk may be added. It is 
 warmed in hot water to about 90° Fahr., and a table- 
 
56 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 spoonful of ordinary rennet is added. It is let stand till 
 it thickens, then broken slightly with a spoon and placed 
 in a frame 8 inches square and 4 inches deep, in which a 
 fine canvas cloth has been placed ; and then it should be 
 pressed slightly with a weight. It stands for twelve 
 hours, after which it may be lifted out and re-placed in a 
 finer cloth over which a little salt has been powdered. It 
 is fit for use in a day or two ; but is a mere household 
 delicacy. 
 
 Cheese factories, which have been found highly bene- 
 ficial in America, have been introduced into this country in 
 Derbyshire, Cheshire, and Somerset. Although they have 
 been, on the whole, fairly successful, they do not increase 
 in number, one reason being the great extension of the 
 milk trade, which diverts the supply of milk. 
 
 Factory cheese is now mostly classed as Derby cheese, 
 chiefly because it resembles it in form and size ; cheeses 
 of from 25 to 30 lb. being found most marketable. The 
 method of manufacture and the character of the cheese 
 is, however, quite distinct from that of the Derby dairies. 
 The American system of cheese-making, a modification 
 of the Cheddar, is generally copied in English factories. 
 After the curd is broken, the temperature is raised to 90° 
 to 100°, and thus a degree of acidity developed which 
 promotes the perfect separation of the whey. The cheese 
 is entirely salted in the curd, from 2 lb. to 2 J lb. per cwt. 
 being applied. The cheese is made with comparatively 
 small expenditure of time and labour. Stored in good 
 keeping rooms of a temperature of 60° to 70° it ripens 
 quickly; but like the American cheese, it is somewhat 
 perishable, and deteriorates by keeping after it is ripe. 
 In a well managed large cheese factory the cost of making 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 57 
 
 and the waste are reduced to a minimuai. Milk supplied 
 to these factories is paid for by weight, a gallon being 
 taken as 10 lb. (it actually weighs about lOj lb.). 
 
 The yield of curd varies much in the different months 
 of the year, the chief cause being the distance from the 
 time of calving. Thus whilst it takes nearly 11 lb. of 
 milk to make 1 lb. of cheese (weighed green) in May, 9 lb. 
 will produce the same weight in October. The shrinkage 
 of cheese from the time it leaves the press to the time it 
 is marketable, may be taken at about 10 per cent. 
 
 The whey from the cheese tub is usually put in vats or 
 tubs a few inches deep, and after standing twelve or 
 twenty-four hours, the cream which rises to the top is 
 skimmed, and afterwards made into butter. This is in- 
 ferior to milk butter, but where well managed it is sold at 
 a price not much jbelow it. In some cases the sweet 
 whey, instead of being set for cream, is at once heated, 
 and the cream then rises at once. Whey is used as pig 
 food mixed with meal, and under good management pro- 
 duces a profit not inconsiderable. Scalded maize meal, 
 rice meal, and bran, or pea or barley meal are suitable to 
 give with the whey. Strong store pigs of from 4 to 6 
 months old, when supplied with meal to the value of from 
 Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. per head per week, with abundance of 
 whey, will increase in value from 4s. to 5s. per week, one- 
 half of which will be the profit on the consumption of 
 whey. About one strong pig for every two cows may be 
 kept in the season, and such pig will readily fatten in 
 twelve to foui-teen weeks. The value of the whey for pig 
 feeding may be estimated at from £1 10s. to £2 per cow. 
 The yield of cheese per cow in the grass season depends 
 greatly upon the milking capabilities of the cows and their 
 
•58 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 keep and management. It averages from 3 cwt. to 4J cwt. 
 of ripe cheese per cow, in addition to the milk required for 
 feeding calves at the start of the season. 
 
 The best quality of cheese is made from grass ; fodder- 
 made cheese, however perfectly made, being somewhat 
 inferior. Much inferior cheese is made, and the fault is 
 not infrequently laid upon the character of the land, the 
 manures or draining which may have been carried out, or 
 anything except what is generally the cause — viz., defec- 
 tive management. Some pastures are unquestionably 
 superior for making fine cheese, but, as a rule, the quality 
 depends chiefly upon th6 maker. Dairy cows require 
 good food, pure water, and careful management. Milk 
 must be kept clean and sweet ; if kept twelve or twenty- 
 four hours before being made into cheese, it must be 
 cooled and kept in a clean well-ventilated dairy. The tem- 
 perature at the time of setting, the use of a sufficient 
 quantity (but no more) of good rennet to coagulate the 
 milk within an hour, careful treatment of the curd to 
 avoid waste, the perfect separation of the whey, the 
 proper curing of cheese by salt, which is best applied 
 either wholly or in part well mixed with the curd, the 
 storing of cheese in suitable rooms of proper temperature ; 
 these are all points of importance common to every system 
 of cheese-making. 
 
 The Mauufactnre of Butter .-^SVe have no means of 
 ascertaining the actual consumption of butter in England, 
 but it is very great, and, unlike that of cheese, it is yearly 
 increasing. In addition to the large amount produced at 
 home, we have an enormous import which increases year 
 by year, and is of the value of £10,000,000 or ^£12,000,000 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 59 
 
 sterling. It is scarcely creditable to our dairy industry 
 that so large a sum should be paid for what we might 
 profitably produce at home ; and it must be admitted that 
 a large proportion of our home-made butter is, from 
 defective management, inferior in quality to much that is 
 imported from France and Denmark. 
 
 In describing shortly the details of successful butter- 
 making, we will first mention a few of the causes of 
 inferior quality — (1) a want of cleanliness in dealing with 
 the milk, and of suitable dairy rooms for setting the 
 milk — well-ventilated and free from any strong odours; 
 (2) leaving the cream so long on the milk that it becomes 
 sour; (3) not churning often enough, churning at wrong 
 temperatures, or too fast, and not stopping soon enough 
 when the butter begins to come ; (4) not getting out all 
 the buttermilk, or leaving too much water mixed with the 
 butter ; (5) over salting, using or imperfectly mixing coarse 
 and inferior salt ; (6) working the butter with the hands ; 
 
 (7) want of tidiness in preparing and sending it to market ; 
 
 (8) feeding cows on turnips or other strong flavoured food, 
 or giving them foul water; also (9) injudicious driving 
 of the cows before milking. 
 
 There are two distinct systems of setting milk, each of 
 which has its advocates. The one is setting the milk in 
 shallow pans in dairy rooms of the temperature of from 
 50° to 60° ; the other the deep setting the milk at a low 
 temperature (W abou<li^O°, obtained by the use of ice or 
 very cold spring water. The latter system finds much 
 favour in the North of Europe, and also in America, 
 varieties of it, being known by the name of the " Swartz," 
 the " Cooley," and the " Hardin " systems. The chief 
 advantage of these systems is that the milk is kept sweei 
 
60 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 and pure ; and excellent keeping butter, free from casein, 
 and therefore not likely to taint, is produced. 
 
 Where butter is made for sale whilst fresh, as nearly all 
 that produced in England is, an equally good result may 
 be obtained on the shallow setting system ; and as supplies 
 of ice or water sufficiently cold are frequently unattainable 
 here, we do not think the system is likely to become 
 general. It is found that cream rises best when the tem- 
 perature of the milk is falling somewhat rapidly, and 
 though this separation takes place under the cold setting 
 system, the cream obtained is thinner and less concen- 
 trated than that obtained by shallow setting. 
 
 A comparatively recent invention is the centrifugal 
 cream separator, by which cream can be almost perfectly 
 separated immediately after milking. This plan, however, 
 requires the application of power, and is scarcely likely to 
 become general, except in creameries or very large dairies. 
 One advantage of the system is that the skim milk is 
 obtained perfectly fresh and suitable for sale wherever 
 there is a demand for it. Excellent pure-flavoured butter 
 is obtained from the cream resulting from this use of the 
 separator. It is usefully employed in some of the large 
 London dairy establishments. 
 
 We will now describe the shallow setting of milk. The 
 milk, when brought from the cow, is carefully strained 
 and put in shallow pans, from 2 to- 4 inches deep, made of 
 well-tinned iron, glazed earthenware, or glass, all of these 
 non-porous materials which can be kept perfectly sweet 
 by the use of hot water. The pans are set in a dairy the 
 temperature of which in winter should not sink much 
 below 50°, and in summer should be kept as cool as may 
 be. The room should be well ventilated, and no odours 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 61 
 
 of meat, vegetables, or smell from drains, should be per- 
 mitted. The cream should be carefully skimmed off at 
 twenty -four hours, and the milk be used for feeding pigs 
 or rearing calves, having considerable value for either 
 purpose, when suitably mixed with meal. Some farmers 
 churn all the milk without setting for cream. This plan 
 has, however, nothing to recommend it. If churned sweet 
 it is a wasteful plan, and all the butter is not obtained, 
 whilst if, as is usually the case, it is lappered or soured 
 before churning, the quality of the butter is sacrificed, 
 there being a considerable mixture of curd in the butter. 
 The purest butter is made from perfectly sweet cream. 
 Cream when put in the churn should be of the tempera- 
 ture of about 60°, or a little lower in the summer season. 
 The cream is in cold weather best raised to the required 
 temperature by floating some of it (to be afterwards mixed 
 with the rest) in a tin vessel or a boiler of hot water. 
 
 Improved churns are of various shapes. One which has 
 taken the lead at recent competitions at the " Royal " 
 and other shows is Messrs. Thomas & Taylor's eccentric 
 barrel churn, which has no beaters, but pegs fixed inside. 
 Another excellent barrel churn (Waide's Victoria) has, 
 also, no dashers, but works end over end. The churning 
 should be done steadily, a pace of from fifty to sixty revo- 
 lutions per minute being found desirable. There is a 
 ventilating peg in some of the best churns, which is 
 removed occasionally during the first ten minutes of 
 churning to give ventilation. Some are also fitted with 
 a small glass window, by which may be seen the first 
 signs of butter coming. Churning should be stopped as 
 soon as the butter forms, or the quality will be injured. 
 The time occupied in churning usually varies from twenty 
 
62 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 to sixty minutes ; but where the temperature is too low, 
 or the cream is from the milk of old-milched cows not 
 liberally fed, churning is sometimes a tedious and unsatis- 
 factory operation. 
 
 As soon as the butter is formed in small particles, and 
 the period is at once recognised by the altered feel of the 
 work to any one engaged in churning, some of the 
 buttermilk is let off by means of a plug, a hair sieve being 
 used to prevent waste, and the little butter which flows 
 through the tap is returned to the churn. Cold water 
 is added to the churn and the process recommenced. 
 The process is repeated, and the churn is then half-filled 
 with pure cold water, and after a few revolutions the 
 water let off. This process is repeated until the water 
 comes out of the churn as clear as when it was 
 put in. The butter may then be taken out with a pair of 
 wooden patters without coming in contact with the hand. 
 The water may be pressed out, and if desired a little fine 
 salt mixed with the butter by working it with the wooden 
 patters, , or by the use of a mechanical butter-worker. 
 There are circular butter-workers which are of use 
 in improving the condition and purifying inferior or 
 badly-made butter, but when butter is thoroughly well 
 managed from the first they are not necessary in small 
 dairies. 
 
 In the winter season butter may be slightly coloured 
 by a special preparation of annatto, or sometimes by the 
 use of the liquid from scraped carrots. The milk from 
 Channel Islands cattle produces butter of a beautiful 
 natural colour. The most scrupulous cleanliness in eveiy 
 particular, and neatness and attractiveness in packing and 
 preparing butter for market, are desirable. In this latter 
 
DAIRY MANAGEMENT. 63 
 
 particular French butter is generally in advance of our 
 native produce. 
 
 The use of salt in what is sold as fresh butter is a matter 
 of taste. In Scotland "fresh " butter is generally altogether 
 free from salt. A small quantity is generally added to 
 what is sold as fresh butter in the Southern Counties ; 
 and in the Northern half of England " fresh " butter is 
 generally rather heavily salted. This we think a mistake, 
 as it overpowers the flavour of good butter, and is quite 
 unnecessary to secure its keeping as long as it is generally 
 required. The process of making butter not required for 
 immediate consumption, is the same as that above de- 
 scribed, the butter being salted regularly with about half 
 an ounce of fine salt per pound of butter, and the butter, 
 pressed down tight in a clean jar or firkin, and covered 
 over with a little salt and a thin cloth. The finest flavoured 
 butter may be made from cows fed on good sweet grass in 
 the spring or summer season. The use of some meal or 
 some kinds of cake, whilst increasing the yield does not 
 injure the quality. Linseed cake is somewhat objection- 
 able. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 
 
 History. European Horses — Stud Book — Breeds : Suffolk — Oleyeland Bay 
 — Clydesdale — Shire Horse — Breeding : Rearing — Breaking — Feeding 
 — Rations — Liability to Disease — ^Working — The Stable : Construction 
 — Ventilation. 
 
 Of the first domestication of the horse — his first 
 subjection to the service of man — all trace is lost. The 
 records of sacred history, and the representations found on 
 the tombs and monuments of Egypt and Assyria point to 
 these events as coeval with the origin of man himself. 
 The horse was numerous in most Eastern countries at an 
 early age of the world's history. Conjecture points to Asia 
 as his birthplace. Probably Egypt was the first country 
 which made any attempt to improve the race, as we read 
 of the rulers and princes of distant lands resorting thither 
 to replenish their studs. 
 
 No horses were found either in America or Australia 
 when those continents were first discovered. Now, on the 
 almost boundless prairies of South America, immense 
 herds, numbering many thousands, are to be met with. 
 These mustangs, or wild horses, are the descendants of a 
 race of Spanish horses, who escaped from domestication. On 
 becoming emancipated they bred and congregated in herds. 
 In time they became inured to exposure and the dangers and 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 65 
 
 vicissitudes of a nomadic life, preferring unimpeded freedom 
 of action, with its attendant privations, to servitude and 
 domestication with its advantages. 
 
 The horse is now to be met with in everj'- habitable 
 country ; except Lapland and Greenland, in the region of 
 eternal snow. The earliest records of this country refer 
 to its horses. When Julius Caesar landed his armies on 
 the shores of Kent, he was opposed by armies — consisting 
 in part of cavalry. 
 
 The horses of Europe, like the inhabitants, are of mixed 
 lineage. The Russian horse is of small stature, hardy, 
 •and muscular, capable of great endurance, inured by 
 exposure to the hardship of a rigorous climate, and 
 the privations of an innutritions and scanty fare. The 
 Italian horses of the present day are widely diversified in 
 ■character; many are powerful and well-shaped, whilst 
 ■others are of a light and weedy character. During the 
 middle ages large numbers were imported into this country 
 for military purposes, and no doubt became mixed with 
 the native races. The Spanish horse is small, and has a 
 strong dash of African blood. For many years large 
 numbers of Norman-French horses have been imported 
 into London, and into the provincial towns. They are 
 compactly built, with fine crests ; they are, however, gene- 
 rally rather sluggish in their movements, with shelly hoofs, 
 and subject to side-bones and contracted feet. 
 
 The first Stud Book published in England bears date 
 the 25th day of March, 1808, the second volume of which 
 did not appear until 1822. During the fourteen years which 
 elapsed between the appearance of the first and second 
 volumes, the "horses" of 1808 had become "racehorses" 
 in 1822. From this slender beginning all the Stud and 
 
'66 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 Herd Books now extant trace their origin. From the date 
 of the Koman invasion the native race of English horses, 
 became much mixed in blood from a small Eastern breed 
 supplied to them principally through the medium of Jewish 
 dealers. The Anglo-Saxon warriors preferred the powerful 
 black race of Germany, as representative of the Flemish 
 breed. The Normans, who were skilled horsemen, im- 
 ported the best animals their country could produce for 
 the use of their soldiers. And as all horses used for war 
 purposes during the middle ages were entire, they rapidly 
 influenced the native breed of the country. 
 
 The horse was so important an agent in warfare as to 
 induce the English kings, at great cost and trouble, to 
 use every means in their power to effect their improve- 
 ment. Henry II., King John, Edward II., and Edward 
 III., each imported large numbers of powerful foreign 
 horses for the improvement of the native races ; and from 
 these descended the ponderous and somewhat sluggish race 
 of the midland counties. 
 
 Although the indigenous breed of middle England 
 differed somewhat in size from those of the lowlands of 
 Scotland, yet the improvement of both was derived from 
 a common ancestry. Both the improved Clydesdale and 
 the modern Shire horses were built up through the 
 infusion of Flemish blood. During the latter part of the 
 thirteenth and early part of the fourteenth centuries a 
 considerable trade was carried on between Scotland and 
 the low countries, and in those days of barter it is only 
 fair to suppose that the Scottish merchants would some- 
 times accept horses in exchange for goods. 
 
 It is generally considered that the later improvement of 
 draught horses in England was principally effected through. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 67 
 
 the importation of a race of black horses from Holland 
 and Belgium. Bakewell, of Dishley, whose name is a 
 household word amongst the stock breeders of the midland 
 counties, by his improvement of the Leicester sheep, also 
 tried his hand on the improvement of the cart-horse. His 
 efforts resulted in a considerable degree of success. He 
 made several journeys to Holland for the purpose of 
 selecting mares, which he imported to his farm at Dishley, 
 crossing them with the old black horse of the shires. The 
 stallions bred from this union subsequently became in 
 high repute. Oil paintings of some of Bakewell's favourite 
 stallions still adorn the walls of many a farmhouse in 
 North Leicestershire. 
 
 The most natural method of reducing the horse to a 
 state of subjection, is to teach him to bear the burden of 
 a rider. It is within a comparatively recent date that the 
 use of wheel carriages became general on the farm ; prior 
 to this all the hay, corn, and manure was carried on the 
 backs of horses : the latter in creels, or panniers, specially 
 constructed for the purpose. A century ago, when excise 
 duties were exorbitant on the luxuries, and even on 
 the necessaries of life, a very considerable contraband 
 trade was thus constantly being carried on and the 
 smuggled commodities were conveyed from the seaboard to 
 the interior on the backs of horses. The class of animals 
 used for the purpose seldom exceeded 15 hands; they 
 were remarkably well -shaped, strong, active, and sure- 
 footed. Their invariable custom, when on the march, was 
 to proceed in single file, only the first carrying a rider to 
 direct the cavalcade ; each horse was securely tied to the 
 tail of the one immediately in front of him; the whole 
 was under the escort of a few well-mounted men. But 
 
 F 2 
 
68 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 the old pack horse, with all his valuable qualifications, has 
 merged in other races, and become extinct as a separate 
 breed. 
 
 Breeds. — The Suffolk Punch is chiefly confined to the 
 Eastern Coimties — Suffolk, Essex, and Norfolk. The breed 
 is distinguished by the colour, which is chestnut, often merg- 
 ing into a dark sorrel, the mane and tail being frequently 
 of a light or silvery shade. They seldom exceed 16 hands 
 in height. The breed has been vastly improved within the 
 last 20 years. They are compact and well shaped, legs 
 tolerably free from hair, but rather inclined to be round in 
 the bone. They are active, and well adapted for ploughing 
 and other farm work. Many find their way to London, 
 where they are used in brewers' drays and other heavy 
 work. They are generally reputed as being trustworthy 
 at a steady pull, at which they will again and again renew 
 their exertions. They are reputed to be of Norman-French 
 origin, and are said to have been at first introduced into 
 the Eastern Counties by Norman invaders. Crossing with 
 other varieties has been tried, but the result has generally 
 been disappointing. The pure breed, except on the home 
 farms of noblemen and large landed proprietors, has not, 
 however, made much progress beyond its native district. 
 Within the last few years there has been a growing de- 
 mand for good specimens for importation; these have 
 frequently realised high prices. The establishment of a 
 Stud Booh, and the fostering care of a vigilant executive, 
 will tend to improve and enhance the value of the breed. 
 
 The Cleveland Bay may be considered more of a 
 carriage than an agricultural horse. The breed takes its 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 69 
 
 name from tlie rich valley of Cleveland on the River Tees, 
 in the North Eiding of the county of York ; and it is now 
 largely cultivated throughout Yorkshire, Durham, and 
 Northumberland. The prevaiUng and most fashionable 
 colour is bay, with black legs. Many are 16 hands and 
 upwards. They are particularly active, hardy, and of great 
 endurance. For general tillage purposes, on light soils they 
 cannot be surpassed. It is generally supposed the breed 
 was established by mating the blood horse with the native 
 mares of the district. By still crossing the Cleveland 
 mares with the thoroughbred, most of the fine carriage 
 horses in the country are produced. Those with more 
 bone and strength, though somewhat deficient in style and 
 action, are in great demand in London and the large pro- 
 vincial towns, for spring carts and light vans, used in the 
 speedy dispatch of merchandise. The thoroughbred stallion 
 and the Cleveland mare form a good alliance, and many 
 valuable weight-carrying hunters are now thus bred in 
 these days. But a weight carrier is of little use unless he 
 can go at a racing pace for a burst of 20 minutes, and 
 successive crosses of pure blood are needed to increase the 
 powers of speed and endurance. When carried too far, 
 substance and strength are at length sacrificed. 
 
 The Clydesdale. — This breed derives its name from a 
 district of considerable extent, through which the river 
 Clyde winds its course. Taking Glasgow as a centre the 
 country, for miles in every direction, is teeming with an 
 industrial population. The haughs of Clyde are celebrated 
 far and wide for the superior excellence of their pastures ; 
 and here the breed has long been located, and then fostered 
 and improved through the energy and intelligence of those 
 
70 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 interested and engaged in the business of agriculture. No 
 district can vie with that of Clydesdale in the care bestowed 
 on the breeding, rearing, and management of the horse, 
 and the labour has not proved unfruitful to those interested 
 in the noble animal. A visit to the Glasgow Stallion Show 
 will well repay the student. The ducal palace of Hamilton 
 is situated on one of the middle reaches of the Clyde ; and 
 a long line of noble proprietors have thence for centuries 
 interested themselves in the endeavour to improve their 
 favourite breed. A local tradition still lingers in the 
 locality, that a certain duke of that ilk, centuries ago, im- 
 ported several black stallions from Holland, which were 
 used on the native mares. Hence the origin of the present 
 improved breed. From a single centre the improvement 
 has radiated to the most remote corners of Scotland ; and 
 many fine animals are now bred in Ayrshire and the 
 adjoining counties of Wigton, Kirkcudbright, and Dum- 
 fries. The head-quarters of the breed still, however, 
 remain on the banks of the Clyde. The prevailing 
 colours of the breed are black, brown, and bay. A 
 grey sometimes makes its appearance ; but a stallion 
 of that colour, however perfect in form, would scarcely 
 be used for stud pui-poses. The avei'age stature is 
 about 16 hands; they are rather long in Ihe body. In 
 the best specimens the head is lean, eyes full and 
 prominent, neck well arched, and of moderate length ; 
 shoulders oblique, chest wide, legs placed well outside the 
 body, flat and muscular, with abundance of straight, soft, 
 silky, feathering ; ribs deep and well-sprung, hocks clean 
 and strong. One of the chief essentials in a draught 
 horse is freedom of action. In this respect the Clydesdales 
 are superior to most other breeds ; they step out freely 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 71 
 
 witli the long, slinging gait peculiar to the race. They 
 are high-mettled ; and, except from the results of neglect 
 and unkind treatment, are usually free from vice. When 
 used in one-horse carts, as they generally are throughout 
 Scotland, no other breed of horses can accomplish an 
 equal amount of work in a given time. The breed i^ held 
 in high estimation, and commands high prices. During 
 recent years the sum of £1600 has been paid for a 
 stallion, whilst several mares have realised over £500 
 each. Through the united exertions of a number of patriotic 
 noblemen and gentlemen interested in the breed, a society 
 has been formed for the purpose of protecting the interests 
 of breeders and purchasers, by means of a Stud Booh, in 
 which all animals of authentic pedigree can be registered 
 at a small cost. This will no doubt greatly enhance their 
 value, and enable the intelligent breeder to pursue his 
 vocation with greater certainty of success. 
 
 The Shire Horse. — Ancient tradition accords to the 
 rich fen land districts of Lincoln, Huntingdon, and Cam- 
 bridge a distinct race of black horses, of tall stature and 
 massive form. Animals of similar characteristic type, 
 though varying in size (the probable result of a change of 
 soil and climate), were spread over the counties of 
 Northampton, Warwick, Stafford, Leicester, Derby, and 
 Nottingham. Early historical records furnish descriptive 
 particulars of a similar breed inhabiting Germany, Hol- 
 land, and Belgium. They were well known and exten- 
 sively used by the Romans for military purposes, 
 during the Roman invasion and occupation, no doubt, 
 large numbers were brought over to England, and be- 
 came mixed with the native races. The breed appears to 
 
72 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 have thriven best in a country of rank pasture and soft, 
 marshy soil. 
 
 The old English black horse was a heavy, coarse animal, 
 with wide loin, powerful quarters, and immense bone, 
 generally inclined to be round, with flowing mane and tail, 
 the legs clothed with a profusion of coarse hair. Their 
 colour was generally of a sooty black, with almost in- 
 variably white markings on the legs and a small white 
 star on the forehead. They were of a sluggish tempera- 
 ment. Their short, steep pasterns and upright shoulders 
 were fatal to that freedom of action so desirable a quality 
 in modern draught horses. Tradition says an Earl of 
 Huntingdon imported several stallions from Holland for the 
 use of his numerous tenantry on Trent-side. Down to the 
 present day a similar race is still in existence in Holland, 
 whence most of the horses used in mourning coaches are 
 chiefly drawn. 
 
 The old English cart-horse, with all his defects, has been 
 the basis of the most valuable breed of draught animals in 
 England. From him has descended the Shire horse, good 
 specimens of which are in great demand for waggon 
 and dray purposes, both in London and the provincial 
 towns, and the mares just now command high prices for 
 breeding purposes. Many of the best mares and fillies go 
 to Scotland, where they breed well with the Clydesdales. 
 They are chiefly bred in the counties of Cambridge, 
 Huntingdon, Northampton, Warwick, Stafford, Leicester, 
 Derby, Nottingham, and Lincoln. Though not of such 
 massive proportions as those reared in the Fen district, 
 there are none more hardy, or of more pure descent, than 
 are to be found in North Leicester and Derbyshire. The 
 land being principally in old pastures, the mares are never 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 73 
 
 overworked, whilst the rich alluvial soils of the river valleys 
 are specially adapted for the rearing of young horses. The 
 fillies mostly go into the hands of breeders. The colts are 
 bought young by the dealers, and passed on to the tillage 
 farmers of the southern and eastern counties, who break 
 them in and work them lightly till they are 5 years old, 
 at which age they usually sell them to the great brewers 
 and carmen. Great interest is now being taken in the 
 cultivation and improvement of the breed, many wealthy 
 noblemen and gentlemen are devoting great energy to 
 breeding, the Duke of Westminster, the Earl of EUesmere, 
 Earl Spencer, the Hon. E. K. W. Coke have all large 
 breeding establishments ; whilst of tenant-farmers Messrs. 
 F. Street, Matthews, Nix, and many others are exerting 
 themselves in the same direction. A society has been 
 formed for the purpose of registering pedigrees. This 
 will undoubtedly give a great impetus to breeding, whilst 
 an authentic record will tend to enhance the value of the 
 stock, more care will now be devoted to the selection of 
 sires. Black, brown, and bay are the most desirable colours. 
 This, however, to a casual observer, may appear a trifling 
 matter, and, as the old adage runs — " a good horse never 
 was a bad colour." 
 
 In the improved Shire horse the head is generally 
 long and lean, the profile sUghtly arched, broad between 
 the eyes, eyes large and prominent, ears large, not set 
 too forward ; nostrils wide and clear ; neck long, deep^ 
 and arched ; shoulders oblique, sprung well into the back, 
 deep from withers to shoulder point, and placed well out- 
 side the trunk — this ensures a wide chest, a most desirable 
 and important point — ribs deep and well sprung, with 
 small space between last rib and the hip ; round in the 
 
74 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 barrel and deep in the girth ; back short, loins broad and 
 muscular,. long from hip to hough ; tail well set, buttocks 
 full, dropping well down to hock. The feet should be 
 rather large, the heels well expanded, the horny sub- 
 stance firm, slightly sloping, and free from sand cracks, 
 side or ring bones ; legs short from knee to pastern, bone 
 large and flat, well clothed with long silky feather, with 
 tassel of hair at lip, knee, and hough ; pastern joints long 
 and sloping. The carriage should be good, and the action 
 long and slinging. Walking is the principal pace of a 
 draught horse ; unless he can do this well he is of little 
 use. Pace to some extent may be improved, but without 
 good shoulders no animal can walk well. 
 
 Breeding. — The breeding of draught horses has hitherto 
 been carried on under unfavourable circumstances, owing 
 to the want of an authentic record of the pedigree of the 
 different animals. The most intelligent and experienced 
 have thus been in no better position than the careless or 
 the ignorant man, who uses the first horse he can meet, 
 provided the service fee be low, depending entirely on 
 chance for the result. Whereas, it requires the guidance 
 of a master mind to make success even a probability. 
 Experienced breeders in every line are unanimously of 
 opinion that extreme crossing, i.e., coupling animals 
 characterised by extreme differences, whether of' size or 
 character, seldom answers. What the Americans call line 
 breeding is most to be depended upon. If any degree of 
 success is to be attained it is of the utmost importance 
 that great care and attention should b6 bestowed on the 
 selection of the mare ; the excellence of the progeny 
 depends on the good points more of the dam than of the 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF FAKM HORSES. 75 
 
 sire, though it is very desirable that both should be as 
 perfect as possible. Both sire and dam should be young, 
 in good health, and in full vigour. Great attention should 
 be paid to soundness ; it is idle to expect sound and 
 healthy issue from diseased and unsound parents. Most 
 of the infirmities from which cart-horses suffer are here- 
 ditary, and are certain to be transmitted from parent to 
 offspring. Sidebones, •which are very prevalent, are the 
 result of careless breeding. 
 
 The produce of young mares are the most healthy and 
 vigorous ; there can be no greater en-or than that of 
 putting a mare to the stud when she is incapacitated for 
 work, either from age or accident. The mare may be put 
 to the stud when only two years old, and if well cared for 
 will not be injuriously affected. There is no more danger 
 attending parturition in the case of young mares than 
 there is in that of comparatively old ones. The period of 
 gestation in the mare varies from ten to twelve months. 
 It is desirable that she should be well kept during her 
 state of pregnancy. Scanty fare and insufficient nourish- 
 ment induce a debilitated condition, which sometimes 
 causes abortion; and in any case must injuriously affect 
 the progeny. A liberal supply of nutritious food, and a 
 moderate amount of work or exercise, is essential to the 
 health of every pregnant animal. In-foal mares, if care- 
 fully tended, may be safely worked up to within a short 
 period of foaling. 
 
 The premonitory symptoms of parturition are a waxey 
 adhesive secretion issuing from, and forming small drops 
 or accumulations on the ends of the teats. This generally 
 takes place about twenty-four hours before foaling. There 
 is always considerable danger attending parturition ; and 
 
76 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 this is particularly the case where the mares are in high 
 condition, and have had little work. False presentations 
 will also frequently occur. As soon as the slightest pre- 
 monitory symptom appears they should be closely watched ; 
 if the least difficulty presents itself the services of a well- 
 qualified veterinary surgeon should at once be secured. 
 We have frequently known mares subjected to gi'eat 
 suffering, and even the lives of valuable animals sacrificed 
 through the ill-directed efforts of unskilled persons. 
 
 When parturition has been safety accomplished the 
 umbilical cord should be broken off, and the attachment 
 secured. The foal should then be assisted to suck. This 
 often requires the exercise both of skill and patience. 
 Many foals are lost through neglect. The mare and foal 
 should be kept in for a few days, and should at first be 
 turned out only for an hour or two about noon, until they 
 become hardened, and so to speak acclimatised. A few 
 boUed roots and bran mashes should at first be given for the 
 purpose of encouraging the flow of milk. If the weather is 
 wet and stormy mare and foal should be taken into a yard 
 during the night. The effects of every change of food 
 should be carefully watched — a sudden change from dry 
 to succulent food often produces diarrhoea in the foal, and 
 if not speedily checked may prove fatal. 
 
 Horse breeding does not answer where the mares are 
 worked hard while suckling. On tillage farms, where a 
 large breadth of roots is grown and the whole team hard 
 worked, however well they may be cared for, the strength 
 and constitution of the mares is impaired and the foal 
 is stunted, as they often remain four or five hours at a 
 stretch without food. On farms principally in grass 
 where the services of the mares are only occasionally re- 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 77 
 
 quired and the work is light, these remarks do not apply. 
 Foals are generally weaned at from five to six months 
 old. They are often removed to a separate pasture, 
 or the mare is put to work. We very much prefer 
 placing the foal in a loose box when first removed from 
 the mare. Horses are social animals, particularly young 
 horses. They thrive best when in the society of others, 
 hence the advantage of placing several together. No 
 doubt young animals thrive best in well-sheltered pad- 
 docks, furnished with loose boxes and yards. Foals 
 should never be grazed on short pastures; if so, they 
 invariably suffer from woi-ms. During the early stages of 
 their existence their diet should be principally composed 
 of a mixture of crushed oats, Indian corn, and bran, with 
 a few pulped swedes. Carrots are often recommended; 
 but except in small quantities, they are injurious, as they 
 excite the kidneys to undue action. 
 
 Rearing. — The land best adapted for the rearing of 
 young horses is the soft alluvial soil of the river valleys, 
 which throws up a profusion of grass, often of a coarse 
 character ; these spongy pastures tend to encourage the 
 growth and expansion of the hoof. Only a very few horses 
 are grazed on the best ox pastures of the midlands ; graziers 
 object to them, as they are apt to disturb the cattle. They 
 settle best when only two are allowed to occupy the same 
 field ; they are useful to clear off the tussocks or rough 
 bunches which the cattle sometimes refuse to eat. Horses 
 are bad grazers when kept in large numbers on the same 
 field ; they generally choose particular spots, which they 
 will gnaw off to the roots, whilst other parts are left un- 
 touched. Where horse breeding is carried out to any extent. 
 
78 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 shelter sheds should be erected in the different fields ; and 
 unless the grass land is 'of first-rate quality, a small allow- 
 ance of oats or artificial food should be given daily, say 
 4 lb. or 5 lb. per diem of a mixture of crushed oats and bran, 
 at a cost of about 2s. per week. This would increase the 
 formation of bone and muscle, and would greatly enhance 
 the value of the animal. In the case of foals, we greatly 
 prefer wintering them in well-sheltered hovels, with large 
 roomy yards, to admit of free exercise, which is of the first 
 importance. Want of exercise retards the healthy develop- 
 ment of bone and muscle, and when carried to an undue 
 extent, even injuriously affects the general health of the 
 animal. The artificial foods used for young horses should 
 be rich in .flesh-formers — clover, hay, beans, peas, oats, 
 and linseed cake. A few cut swedes daily aid digestion, 
 and tend to maintain the general health. Regularity in 
 feeding is an important point. Compared with the bulk of 
 the animal itself, the stomach of the horse is small, hence 
 it should be frequently replenished. Long fasts produce 
 flatulency and indigestion. We prefer using the food in a 
 prepared state — corn ground, hay chaffed, and roots 
 pulped. By this system a gi'eat waste of food is prevented. 
 Except under vigilant and skilful management, however, 
 it is attended with greater risk ; for, unless the food is all 
 mixed together and well macerated with water before 
 being used, it frequently produces a stoppage : the animal 
 technically becomes "bound," which often proves fatal. 
 In the absence of a veterinary sivgeon we have frequently 
 given the patient in such a case a quart of yeast with 
 good effect. The feet of the young animal should be fre- 
 quently examined and attended to. When turned out to 
 grass the second year the pasture should afford a full bite. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 7.9 
 
 and the land on which they are grazed should be of good 
 quality. 
 
 Breaking. — The education of the horse should com- 
 mence at birth ; the foal from its earliest infancy should 
 be accustomed to be haltered and to be led. If suffered 
 to grow up in a half wild state to the age of two or three 
 years — the first attempt at handling being made at this 
 age, the young inexperienced animal is seized with a 
 nervous dread of man. Its confidence can only be secured 
 by the most kind and gentle treatment. Young horses 
 should never be entrusted to the hands of men of hasty 
 and ungovernable tempers. It is true certain vices may 
 be transmitted from parent to offspring, but they are 
 more frequently the result of ignorant and barbarous treat- 
 ment. Instead of rational and gentle means, the most 
 violent and cruel measures are often resorted to, with the 
 ignorant view of effecting their subjection. This invari- 
 ably results in disappointment and failure ; the horse, 
 possessed of great intelligence, is not slow to resent an 
 injury. It is also capable of forming strong attachments. 
 Nearly all the vicious habits of the horse are acquired 
 through the gross negligence and unkind treatment to 
 which they are subjected by their keepers. 
 
 The colt is usually put in the plough by the side of a 
 steady old horse for a few days. On large farms where 
 many young horses are used it is preferable as soon as 
 they have settled down to work to place those of the same 
 age in pairs ; they thus become accustomed to step to- 
 gether, and are much more active than when retarded in 
 their pace by the slow action of an old horse. Assuming 
 that the legs and shoulders are well placed, the pace of an 
 
80 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM 
 
 agi'icultural horse much depends on the driver ; a man of 
 sluggish habits soon brings his horses to his own pace. 
 When the young animal is first put into the cart or 
 waggon, great caution should be exercised in order not to 
 frighten him or make him nervous. Horses should be accus- 
 tomed to plain headstalls instead of the barbarous gear 
 generally in use, which contract the vision to a mere 
 narrow space in front. The horse when habitually in- 
 terested with the sights around him, is less likely to take 
 fright, and reasonable headgear may be the means of pre- 
 venting many of the accidents which now daily occux. 
 
 As soon as the colt has been partially broken he 
 should be taught to respect and obey his instructor, who 
 should treat him with kindness and firmness, and in a 
 caressing ratlier than in an angry tone. The harness 
 should be quietly and carefully put on, and the horse 
 led about, in order to accustom him to it ; he should. then 
 be put to plough between two steady animals ; gentle 
 treatment will soon overcome his nervous fears. He should 
 at first only be worked for a few hours daily, until he gets 
 hardened and accustomed to the work. His shoulders are 
 naturally tender ; they should be carefully examined each 
 evening, and well bathed with strong brine for the first 
 week or ten days. 
 
 Feeding. — The necessary quantity and quality of food 
 vary with the age of the animals, and the relative amount 
 of exertion they are destined to bear. In a natural state 
 they subsist principally upon grass, cereals being beyond their 
 reach. Even in a state of domestication the young animal 
 frequently attains the age of three years before it re- 
 ceives any other food than that of grass, with occasionally a 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 81 
 
 small foddering of inferior hay. During severe weather 
 in the winter months, a mixture of foods is given, rela- 
 tively rich in heat producers, to restore the daily waste 
 of tissue, and build up the animal system in a healthy 
 state. Innutritions food overtaxes the digestive organs, 
 and generally results in a stunted subject. ' Hay, oats, 
 and beans, have an established reputation as the best 
 food for the horse. This holds good where speed and 
 endurance are the principal requisites, as in the case of 
 the racehorse and the hunter. For slow work, such as that 
 of the agricultural or dray horse, crushed Indian corn is 
 now extensively used. Until the young animal has arrived 
 at full maturity, we stiU prefer the use of oats and beans 
 in moderate quantities. Greedy feeders swallow their food 
 before it is sufficiently masticated ; and the digestive 
 organs are incapable of acting on the food in a crude 
 state, and of extracting its nutritive qualities. Whether, 
 therefore, the animals are young or old, and whatever the 
 description of corn, it should all be crushed. In common with 
 all other animals, slow feeding is of importance to the horse, 
 as it increases the secretion of saliva, which passing into 
 the stomach accelerates the process of digestion. The food 
 of the horse should all be prepared and given in a con- 
 centrated form — the hay, or straw, or better still a mixture 
 of both, should be cut into chaff and mixed with the 
 crushed corn, and the mass macerated with water several 
 hours before being used. Bruised corn given alone fre- 
 quently induces scouring ; we have known this to occur 
 when the grain has been mixed with chaff. Wheat meal is 
 sometimes used as food ; but though nutritively rich, it is by 
 no means a desirable food, as it has a natural tendency to 
 form obstructions in the intestines. Barley is frequently 
 
82 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 used ; but though rich in nutriment it is inferior to the 
 oat. It is naturally of too heating a character, and animals 
 fed upon it are subject to sudden attacks of an inflammatory 
 charactei', and also to surfeit and mange. A full-sized agri- 
 cultural horse at work on the farm will require 12 lb. of 
 crushed oats and 30 lb. of hay chaff per diem. A better 
 and cheaper food would be 9 lb. of Indian corn meal, 2 lb. 
 of crushed beans or peas, and 21b. of bran per day together 
 with the hay.* If tied up in stalls they will require 12 lb- 
 of wheat straw per day for litter. 
 
 Horses are remarkably fond of raw potatoes. Their use 
 is principally confined to the potato growing districts of 
 the North, where they are largely used in a boiled state, 
 being then considered more nutritious. Swede turnips 
 are a wholesome and valuable addition to the bill of fare ; 
 they are easy of digestion, and maintain the system in a. 
 healthy state ; in the south-western counties of Scotland 
 they are extensively used in a boiled state mixed with 
 chatf, and given whilst hot. Carrots in small quantities 
 are valuable in conjunction with dry food ; though much 
 relished, their use in large quantities is not desirable. As 
 spring advances a change from dry to green succulent 
 food exercises a beneficial effect on the health of the 
 animal ; but the change from one extreme to the other, 
 should be gradually accomplished. Rye, tares, clover, and 
 Italian rye-grass, are the earliest and best varieties of 
 green food ; they should be mixed with hay, or straw, and 
 passed through the chaff-cutter. Except in the case of 
 breeding mares and young stock, work horses are better 
 and more cheaply summered in the yards ; a less quantity 
 
 * See Appendix. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 83 
 
 of food then suffices, the animals rest better; and they 
 thus escape the deteriorating effects of unrestrained 
 freedom. 
 
 The most economical and wholesome food for an agri- 
 cultural horse in full work is a mixture of Indian meal, 
 bran, swedes, and cut chaff, one-third hay to two-thirds 
 straw. This mass should be prepared, watered, and care- 
 fully mixed at least one day before being used. The ordi- 
 nary weekly allowance is 60 lbs. Indian meal, 20 lbs. bran, 
 and 120 lbs. chaff. During the winter months, if roots 
 are plentiful, 6 to 10 lbs. of sliced or pulped swedes may 
 be given with advantage. Regularity in feeding and 
 watering is of almost as great importance as the food 
 itself. Long fasts are most injurious to the health of the 
 horse. When the work is of such pressing necessity as not 
 to admit of the animal being taken out and fed during the 
 day, the pse of the nosebag should be resorted to. Irre- 
 gular feeding is the cause of many of the ailments to 
 which the horse is liable. The system of turning working 
 horses out to grass during the summer months is an un- 
 satisfactory and expensive practice: On the majority of 
 tillage farms there is generally abimdance of straw. By 
 the exercise of a little forethought a succession of green 
 food, rye, tares, rye-grass, clover, and trifolium can be 
 grown. The hard-worked horses kept in the yards wilL 
 stand their work much better, and will conveirt a quantity 
 of straw into valuable manure at a profit to the farmer. 
 On all the best managed farms very little long hay is now 
 used, nearly everything is passed through the chaff-cutter.. 
 Even oats are now seldom used in a whole state, they are^ 
 generally passed through grinding mills. Used as a con- 
 diment a small quantity of malt is beneficial. Linseed 
 
 G 2 
 
84 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 cake is too costly to enter into the daily bill of fare. 
 Some further particulars on this subject are given in the 
 Appendix. 
 
 Next to the quality of the food, the chief point which 
 contributes to the health and comfort of the horse, is the 
 I'egularity -with which he is fed. This should be done at 
 fixed intervals and these should bQ rigidly observed. As a 
 rule, the food of the horse is quickly digested, hence the 
 utility of frequent feeding : long fasts are apt to cause the 
 horse to feed greedily, and are a frequent cause of indiges- 
 tion, or stomach staggers. A lump of rock salt should be 
 kept constantly in the manger, or in some other convenient 
 place within the reach of the horse. Of no less importance 
 is the quantity and quality of the water with which they 
 are supplied. The horse, when in a heated state, is 
 frequently injuriously affected when allowed to swallow a 
 large quantity of water at a low temperature. The safest 
 plan is to have a constant supply in a trough in the 
 manger, to which they have free access at all times, where 
 this is so we have never known any injury to arise. Here 
 the natui-al sagacity of the animal is clearly shown, with 
 the knowledge that it is at all times within his reach, he 
 is careful not to take too much. There is considerable 
 difference both in the temperature and quality of water. 
 River or pond water, when tolerably free from organic im- 
 purities, is generally soft, palatable, and more conducive to 
 health than that obtained from springs and deep wells, 
 which is generally hard and cold, and charged with 
 chemical eleihents contained in the rocks through which 
 it flows. To a horse unaccustomed to it hard water induces 
 chilliness and colic and a staring coat. All ponds or re- 
 servoirs for supplying stock should be fenced in, and kept 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM HORSES. 85 
 
 clear from weeds and decaying organic substances of all 
 kinds; horses tinder a state of freedom naturally prefer 
 soft water. — Reference to the cost and quantity of work 
 accomplished by horse-power upon the farm will be found 
 in the Appendix. 
 
 The StaMe. — A wellrconstructed stable is of the utmost 
 importance : farm stables have hitherto not received that 
 amount of attention which their importance deserves. 
 They should be erected on a dry situation, and be lofty 
 and well ventilated. Stables with granaries over cannot 
 be too strongly condemned. A free circulation of pure air 
 is of vital importance. Ill-ventilated stables are hot- 
 beds of disease. Poisonous gases are generated from the 
 fermenting excrements ; these become mixed with carbonic 
 acid thrown off from the lungs in the act of respiration ; 
 and this vitiated pungent atmosphere is unavoidably again 
 and again inhaled. This soon injuriously affects the lungs, 
 impairs digestion, weakens the vital functions, induces 
 attacks of chronic cough, inflammation of the eyes, ophthal- 
 mia, and numerous other ailments. The practical details 
 of stable construction will be further explained when treat- 
 ing on the buildings of the farm. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 
 
 Breeds: Linoolns — Cotswolds — Leicesters — Local LongwooUed Breeds 
 — Cheviots — Mountain Breeds— South Downs— Hampshire Downs — 
 Oxfordshire Downs— Shropshires. The Ewe Flock: Breeding— Early- 
 Fattening— Auction Marts — Lambing — Castration — Weaning— Shear- 
 ing. Fatting : Early Maturity — Eations. Diseases : Rot — Foot-rot 
 — Gid— Scour — Hoose— Splenic Diseases. 
 
 The number of sheep in Great Britain is larger than on 
 any other equal area, there being 28,157,080 in 1879, 
 26,619,050 in 1880, 24,581,055 in 1881, on 30,000,000 
 acres of cultivated and enclosed land, besides an indefinite 
 extent of unenclosed moorland. The number and variety 
 of improved breeds specially adapted to produce either 
 fine close wool and mutton of the finest quality, or long 
 wool and great ■weight of mutton is also remarkable. 
 There is no other domestic animal upon which climatic 
 influences are so great. Pure-bred animals, of any of the 
 distinct English breeds, when removed to a locality where 
 the soil and climate are quite different, will in the course 
 of two or three generations gradually change their type. 
 The quality of the wool is dependent upon the climate and 
 soil, not less than upon the breed of sheep. Generally 
 speaking, the native sheep of a district have special 
 qualities, the result of climatic influences, which render 
 them, when improved by careful selection and breeding, or 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 87 
 
 by crossing with some other strain, more profitable to keep 
 in that district than any other breed. The natural home 
 of the sheep is upon dry uplands, and though a limited 
 number will for a time thrive admirably upon the succu- 
 lent grass of low-lying pastures, they are apt to become 
 affected with foot-rot, and to scour if kept thickly on the 
 ground. Ater the terrible loss of cattle from rinderpest 
 in Cheshire, many farmers stocked their dairy pastures 
 heavily with sheep, not daring to purchase cattle. It was 
 found, however, that they would not thrive upon such 
 unsuitable land. 
 
 Breeds of Sheep. — Sheep may be divided into three 
 classes — Longwools, Shortwools, and Mountain sheep. 
 
 Foremost among the Longwools stands the Lincoln, on 
 account of the great weight and the lustrous character of 
 its fleece. The large number of sheep kept in the county 
 from which this breed derives its name are, with few ex- 
 ceptions, entirely of this breed, and many are also kept in 
 all the adjoining counties. On the dry arable lands of 
 Lincoln Heath and Wold, these sheep thrive admirably, 
 receiving often in the summer and autumn somewhat dry 
 and scanty pasturage on clover or stubbles, but in the 
 winter being folded on turnips, with linseed, or cotton 
 cake or corn, and other dry fodder. The native sheep of 
 the district were originally crossed with the Leicester, and 
 have been gi'eatly improved. Whilst weight and quality 
 of wool have been increased, weight of carcase, symmetry, 
 aptitude to fatten, and early maturity, have also been im- 
 proved. A large number of very fine fat sheep in the 
 wool, 1 year old, are annually sold in April at Lincoln, and 
 other fairs in the county. Lincoln wool is of very long 
 
88 THE LIVK-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 staple, and often curly, parting down the back. Some of 
 it has a glossiness which is much prized, as it is ]-etained 
 when manufactui'ed into various fabrics. Lustre wools 
 were used for mixture in the manufacture of alpaca goods, 
 and commanded a high price, which however has of course 
 been dependent on the demands and freaks of fashion. 
 Instances of a fleece weighing as much as 30 lb. are not 
 wanting, and ram hogg fleeces in a flock often average 
 14 or 15 lb. each. The faces and legs of the Lincoln 
 breed are always white. 
 
 The Cotswolds, perhaps the largest British breed of 
 sheep, originally springing from the neighbourhood of the 
 Cotswold hills, have been cultivated with care and improved 
 in quality. They arc for the most part confined to their 
 native district, but some are kept in Norfolk ; and the 
 rams of this breed are often used with ewes of other 
 breeds, specially Hampshire and South Downs, also North 
 Country and Border Leicesters, to increase the size of 
 the produce, and to get cross-bred sheep for fattening. 
 Cotswold sheep have large handsome frames, well covered 
 with flesh, and a great propensity to fatten. They 
 handle soft, and the mutton is rather coarse-grained. 
 They have the head well covered with a tuft of wool. The 
 majority of the sheep have white faces and legs, though 
 some pure-bred sheep are mottle-faced. 
 
 The Leicester breed of sheep has been cultivated more 
 than 100 years, the name of Bakewell being very famous 
 in connection with this breed in the last century. Enor- 
 mous prices were then paid for the purchase or hire of the 
 rams from his flock. The Leicester sheep is of moderate 
 size, with neat frame, a good fleece of wool, very firm 
 mutton, and a great aptitude to fatten. The mutton has 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 89 
 
 however, too large a proportion of fat, and is, therefore, 
 not so saleable as the mutton of some other breeds. The 
 price of .fat for tallow now rules very low, less than half 
 the price that was formerly paid, whilst prime mutton not 
 over fat is much dearer than formerly. It is, therefore, 
 now most profitable to breed sheep which have a good 
 proportion of lean flesh. The pure-bred Leicester, possibly 
 from close in-breeding, is now somewhat small and deli- 
 cate looking. The head is small and often bare, the face 
 white, the nose very narrow. Leicesters have been very 
 useful for improving coarser breeds of sheep, and many of 
 the local breeds of white-faced sheep which have a good 
 dash of Leicester in their composition, are very profitable 
 sheep in their special districts. The Teeswater, the Border 
 Leicester (a much larger white-faced sheep, the most noted 
 breeders of which in the north obtain enormous prices for 
 their rams), the Derbyshire Limestone sheep, and the 
 Devon Longwools, have most of them a heavy fleece, 
 tolerable symmetry, and aptitude to fatten, and much 
 more size and constitution than the pure Leicesters, from 
 which they are partially derived. The Kent or Eomney 
 Marsh sheep are a hardy local breed, with a good growth 
 of long, rather fine wool, rather unlevel frames, and faces 
 resembling the Cheviot. All these breeds have been 
 improved by crosses of the Leicester, breed, by which 
 they have been rendered more precocious, becoming 
 earlier ripe, and more symmetrical, with better backs and 
 loins and legs of mutton ; while not necessarily losing 
 hardiness or local fitness. The low prices recently obtain- 
 able for wool, and specially for long wool, due to the 
 greatly increased import of long wool from the Colonies, 
 the produce of native breeds crossed with long wooUed 
 
90 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 rams imported from England, have somewhat discouraged 
 the breeding of our heaviest wool producing races. 
 
 The Cheviot is a very useful whitefaced sheep, bred in 
 hilly and upland districts in Scotland and the North of 
 England, where the pasturage is moderately good. The 
 ewes are remarkably good sucklers; when three years 
 old they are generally sold from their breeding districts, 
 and are purchased for grass farms for breeding, by a 
 Leicester ram, one crop of lambs for sale to the butcher, 
 either as fat lambs or yearlings ; the ewes themselves 
 being fattened after rearing their lambs. Cheviots 
 have not a heavy fleece ; their mutton is excellent, and 
 the first cross Cheviot and Leicester is specially good for 
 fattening, and many Scotch farmers keep these cross-bred 
 ewes for breeding purposes. When put to a Shropshire 
 ram their progeny is admirably adapted for sale to the 
 butcher either as fat lambs or fat yearling sheep. Very 
 large annual sales of cross-bred Cheviot and Leicester 
 ewes are held in the autumn in the south of Scotland. 
 
 The Somerset or Dorset horned sheep, a whitefaced but 
 scarcely a longwool breed, is specially useful for breeding 
 early lambs for fattening as house lambs in the winter for 
 the London market. The ewes will sometimes rear two 
 crops of lambs in one year. 
 
 Black, brown, or greyfaced sheep are usually classed as 
 Shortwools, though some of them, as the Shropshires and 
 Oxford Downs, especially the latter, cut a good fleece of 
 wool of long staple. 
 
 The Southdown is a brown or greyfaced sheep, rather 
 small but very true in form, with very close fine wool, 
 and mutton of the finest quality. Southdowus are largely 
 kept in the dry climate of the south and south-east of 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 91 
 
 England, and thrive ■well on the close cropped herbage of 
 the downs, furnishing the highest priced mutton for the 
 London market. Removed to the colder and moister 
 climate of the midlands or the north they prove thriving, 
 and ultimately change their type. 
 
 The Hampshire Downs are much larger sheep, with 
 more bone, short wool, lengthy frames, black faces, and 
 often long Roman noses. This breed has been described 
 by its admirers as " the coming race " of sheep ; it un- 
 doubtedly possesses many merits. They are well adapted 
 for folding on the light arable farms of Hampshire, and 
 the wether lambs are sold fat from 8 to 14 months old, 
 weighing 80.1b. to 1001b. the carcase. They have recently 
 been much improved in frame, quality, and early maturity. 
 Their fine lengthy carcases full of lean flesh are much 
 esteemed in the London markets. Lambs of this breed 
 attain a greater weight than those of any other breed at 
 the same age. 
 
 The Oxford Downs are a fine breed of sheep, like the 
 Shropshires of comparatively modern introduction. They 
 were oi-iginally produced from a cross of Cotswolds with 
 Hampshire Downs. They have been carefully bred as a 
 distinct breed for more than thirty years. They have 
 large, handsome frames, like the Cotswolds, but with a 
 black or grey face, closer wool, and firmer mutton. They 
 are largely kept in Oxford, Bedford, Bucks, and adjoining 
 counties. The ewes are moderately prolific, and the 
 young sheep fatten to a good weight at 12 to 15 months 
 old, one of their chief merits being their size and maturity 
 at an early age. 
 
 The Shropshires, more probably than any other breed, 
 are being kept in increasing numbers over a wide district. 
 
92 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 Like Shorthorn cattle they seem to possess the faculty 
 of thriving in varied circumstances of soil; and climate. 
 They occupy, to the exclusion of other breeds, continually 
 extending areas, of which Shrewsbury, Stafford, and 
 Birmingham and Worcester are centres. They are also 
 kept in many other counties of England, and there are 
 some good flocks in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales ; and 
 rams of this breed are in demand for crossing. With a 
 good fleece of flne, thickset wool, and a well-covered head, 
 a carcase long, wide, and deep, with plenty of lean flesh, 
 they have robustness of constitution and aptitude to 
 fatten. The quality of their mutton is excelled only by 
 that of the South Downs, and possibly some of the smaller 
 mountain breeds. The ewes are good sucklers and very 
 prolific, 100 ewes not unfrequently rearing 160 to 180 
 lambs. The colour of the face and legs is black or gi;ey. 
 As Leicesters have been used for conferring symmetry 
 and precociousness and fineness upoa longwoolled breeds, 
 so South Downs have been used at various times to give 
 early ripening and diminished coarseness to our various 
 shortwoolled breeds, which however like the Cotswolds, 
 Lincolns, and Kentish breeds of sheep are now maintained 
 in the acquired quality which further admits of imported 
 blood. 
 
 Amongst the mountain sheep may be mentioned the 
 Herdwicks, a large, hardy, horned sheep ; the Blackfaced 
 Scotch, the Lonk, the Exmoor, and the small Welsh 
 sheep, which are very hardy, and have excellent mutton 
 when well fatted, but are so small as to leave little profit to 
 the feeder. Most of these sheep are bred in rather wild 
 districts, and require little attention, a shepherd and his 
 dog looking after 500 or 600 of them. They graze on the 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 93 
 
 heather and rough mountain grass, getting no extra food, 
 except in severe weather. The wethers and draft ewes, 
 when of mature age, are sold to be fattened in better 
 pastures. The mutton of all these mountain breeds is 
 excellent when well fatted. 
 
 Breeding Flocks. — Large breeding flocks of sheep can 
 be most profitably kept on dry arable farms, for the 
 most part of light soil, in those parts of England where the 
 rainfall is light. They are also largely kept upon dry hilly 
 grass farms. On purely arable farms sheep are kept in 
 spring, summer, and autumn on the seeds grown in 
 rotation every fourth or fifth year, with the addition of 
 various fodder crops, such as winter and spring vetches, 
 cabbages, rape, rye, or mustard, which are grown for them, 
 and consumed on the land by close folding. In the winter, 
 white turnips, swedes, or mangels, with the addition of 
 cut straw or hay and some com or cake, form their diet. 
 
 The consumption of roots and other green crops by 
 sheep, upon the land where grown, in folds changed once 
 or twice daily, thus manuring the land equally withou 
 expense of cartage, has been the foundation of great 
 increase in the yield of corn crops upon light arable farms. 
 On heavy arable farms in a damp climate, the consump- 
 tion of roots by folding is not always possible without 
 damage to both land and sheep from a muddy lair. 
 Vetches, however, afford a summer fold on such lands 
 where sheep are kept with advantage in the winter 
 months either in sheds, or in yards partially covered. 
 By the daily use of a moderate quantity of dry litter 
 they may be kept clean and thriving. Their feet require 
 careful attention to prevent foot-rot. 
 
94 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 In a regular breeding flock the ewes are kept young ; 
 all those above 3 or 4 years old being draughted and sold 
 to produce one more crop of lambs on some farm where 
 the ewes are bought every year, or fattened and sold to 
 the butcher. There is less risk of loss with young ewes, 
 and it is better to sell them before they are very old, and 
 when they will realise a good price, and to supply their 
 places with yearling ewes. In a ram breeding flock, any 
 ewe of special excellence may be kept as long as she will 
 breed. The age of sheep up to 4 years old is readily 
 ascertained from the mouth. They put up two large 
 teeth in the centre of the lower jaw, casting two sucking 
 teeth at about 12 months old ; they put up two more large 
 teeth each of the next three years, making at 4 years old 
 a full mouth of eight large teeth. These soon become 
 gappy and worn, especially when sheep are fed on whole 
 roots, when sheep are said to be broken mouthed. — See 
 last chapter on " Health and Age." 
 
 The system of the early fattening of our improved 
 breeds of sheep has gained ground. The earlier the 
 process of fattening commences, and the sooner it is over, 
 the greater the economy in the consumption of food, 
 although it may have to be of a richer and more expensive 
 character. A veiy large number of sheep, which formerly 
 -would have been kept until 2 years old, are now sold fat 
 at 12 to 14 months old at nearly the same weight. The 
 price of mutton of the best quality suffers less than any 
 other agricultural commodity from foreign competition. 
 The giving corn or cake in the summer, cutting the roots 
 for young fatting sheep, and giving a larger proportion of 
 dry food with turnips or other watery food, are all modern 
 improvements in the feeding of sheep. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 95 
 
 The establishment of auction marts for the ■weekly or 
 fortnightly disposal of fat and store stock has become very 
 general in our agricultural towns. A large number of 
 sheep change hands about Michaelmas, many being then 
 sold from grass-land farms to be folded upon turnips, and 
 the price obtained for them is greatly dependent upon the 
 turnip crop. The sales of rams of all the improved breeds 
 of sheep are annually held in August or September, and 
 prices of £10 to even £100 occasionally are obtained for 
 well-bred animals of good fleece and carcase. The time 
 of putting the ram to the flock varies with the locality 
 and the prospects of early spring feed. In the South of 
 England August and September are usual months. In 
 the Midlands October, and in the North, November. 
 Where rams are bred for sale for stock purposes, it is con- 
 trived to have them early, so that they may be large 
 shearlings. As one ram is serviceable for 50 or more 
 ewes, it is good policy to secure a first-rate animal of the 
 desired quality, although a good price may have to be 
 paid. The ram is usually turned with the ewes, but in 
 special cases, where it is desired to put a large number of 
 ewes to a valuable sire, the ewes when in season are 
 brought to the ram. In a regular breeding flock the plan 
 of crossing by using a ram of a different breed is rarely 
 adopted, as the progeny, though good for feeding, would 
 be undesirable breeding animals. 
 
 Breeding ewes are better in moderate store condition, 
 not fat, and when the ram is put with them they should 
 be improving in condition. A supply of succulent food at 
 this period is found to increase the number of lambs. 
 For this reason many good managers provide a fold of 
 rape or early turnips for them at this season. As an 
 
SG THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 instance of the powerful influence treatment of this kind 
 has upon the yield of lambs, we may mention the case 
 which came to our knowledge of a Scotch farmer who, 
 from a very large flock of Cheviot and Leicester ewes 
 served by a Shropshire ram, reared and sold fat to the 
 butcher, at £2 each, more than two lambs for every ewe. 
 Many roots are not desirable for in-lamb ewes, and they 
 are generally kept on the stubbles, clover, or grass, with a 
 few roots and some dry food, or they follow the fold of the 
 young and fatting sheep, clearing up the waste roots, and 
 being supplied with ample dry food. On farms where there 
 is any sound grass land not liable to sheep-rot available 
 ewes may well be kept in the winter upon it, with perhaps 
 a little cotton cake or a few roots, as they approach 
 lambing. Ewes go with lamb from 20 to 22 weeks, young 
 ewes yeaning rather sooner than old ones. In a large 
 flock of ewes some healthy lambs will generally be dropped 
 alive at 20 weeks and 3 days after the date of the ram 
 being turned to them. When near lambing, ewes require 
 rather better keep, avoiding on the one hand the extra 
 risk of inflammation and parturient fever, which arises 
 from ewes being in too high condition ; and, on the other 
 hand, feeding the in-lamb ewes so that they may produce 
 their lambs strong, and may be able to suckle them well. 
 In flocks of ewes, such as the Shropshires, some of which 
 will produce three or more at a birth, it is desirable to 
 draw out all ewes very heavy in lamb or weakly some 
 time before lambing, and to feed them more liberally than 
 ' the rest of the flock, giving them 1 lb. each daily of 
 linseed cake or oats with good hay and roots, and driving 
 them as little as possible. After lambing, all ewes require 
 liberal feeding, so as to yield an abundant supply of milk 
 
BEEEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 97 
 
 to the lamb, the want of which injures the constitution of 
 the lamb ; and no amount of good food supplied later in 
 life can compensate for the loss of it. On arable farms, 
 early rye or Italian rye-grass is provided for early spring 
 feed, in addition to roots, and a half a pound to 1 lb. 
 daily of cake or corn. In the milder climate of the South 
 of England cabbage or thousand-headed kale is successfully 
 grown for use at this season, but severe winters injure 
 these crops, and in colder districts they rarely stand the 
 winter well. 
 
 When about to lamb the ewes are brought at night or 
 in very bad weather into a covered shed or yard ; or a 
 movable lambing shed is taken into the open field ; and 
 protection against wind and rain is provided by means of 
 hurdles wattled with straw, or by padded fencing of some 
 other kind ; and the shepherd gives them unremitting 
 attention both by day and night. In the majority of cases 
 ewes will yean their lambs without assistance, and are best 
 left without interference, except to see that the lamb sucks 
 all right. In any case of false presentation help should be 
 carefully given, and after any case of difficulty an intelli- 
 gent shepherd will apply simple remedies such as those 
 recommended by Mr. Woods in his pamphlet on sheep. 
 Sometimes great mortality occurs amongst ewes within 
 two or three days after lambing, from inflammatory fever, 
 which, where sheep are kept in large numbers together, 
 may become highly infectious. From one to three days 
 after lambing the ewe droops, and then, after-pains begin. 
 The use of dilute carbolic acid applied to the womb has 
 been found very beneficial in these cases. One part of 
 Calvert's best carbolic acid to seven parts of Gallipoli oil 
 
98 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 is a suitable strength for use, about two tablespoonfuls 
 being poured into the womb. Mr. C. Scott, of Howford, 
 near Kelso, in a letter to Mr. Woods, has brought this 
 remedy into public notice. And its merits have been 
 ■ amply verified since. Separation of such cases from 
 healthy ewes about lambing should always be carried 
 out. 
 
 A supply of cow's milk should also be at the disposal 
 of the shepherd, as although it is not so suitable as ewe's 
 milk, and its use is attended with some risk to the lamb, 
 yet in the numerous cases in which for the first few days 
 ewes have not sufiicient milk for their lambs, it is the only 
 means of keeping them alive. Young lambs require some 
 shelter in very bad weather, but it is not well to keep 
 them long confined. The lambs in a short time begin to 
 nibble food for themselves ; and where ewes are fed in 
 troughs with cake they will soon learn to eat a little. On 
 arable farms where the ewes are folded, the lambs are 
 frequently permitted to run before the ewes by means 
 of special hurdles. Their early growth is much forwarded 
 by a variety of succulent or concentrated food. Nowhere 
 is this better carried out, than in Hampshire and other 
 counties in the South of England. The use of a small 
 quantity of malt or of malt-combs, is often attended with 
 advantage, being highly relished by the young sheep, and 
 having a condimental value apart from its mere value 
 as food. 
 
 Castration of all ram lambs, not likely to be required 
 for stock purposes or to be sold to the butcher as early 
 lamb, may be performed by drawing at about a week old, 
 or if delayed to eight or ten weeks old, by searing. There 
 is usually little danger in either of these plans, though 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 99 
 
 sometimes from the weather being very cold at the time 
 of operation, or some other cause, loss does occur. Where 
 drawing is adopted it is much safer done early, the lambs 
 being afterwards housed a night or two if the weather be 
 frosty or cold. It is claimed for the searing process that 
 the lamb is stronger for being cut late, and when sold as 
 a fat wether has a better developed purse. 
 
 "Weaning is better not delayed too long, especially if 
 the lambs have learned to eat corn or cake, and there is a 
 good supply of suitable green food for them. About three 
 months is the usual age. Where the sheep are kept 
 -within hurdles an easy plan of separation is to shut the 
 lambs forward by a double row of hurdles, when they soon 
 become reconciled to the change. Lambs should be dipped 
 as soon as weaned, not only in order to destroy all vermin 
 which disturb and injure the growth of the lamb, but to 
 prevent the fly striking them in hot weather. The ewes 
 and yearling sheep are also commonly dipped after they 
 have been shorn a few weeks ; and some flockowners dip 
 a second time in August or September. Various dipping 
 compositions are employed which are effectual, arsenic 
 being an ingredient in some of them ; but with ordinary 
 care and attention to the directions given by the makers 
 af these dips, there is no risk; Special apparatus can be 
 obtained very convenient for dipping and draining the 
 sheep, or two large tubs may be employed. Carbolic 
 preparations are preferred by some. 
 
 Shearing is usually done in May, many fat hoggets 
 being shorn much earlier, just before going to the butcher. 
 The time, however, varies greatly in different' parts of 
 Great Britain according to the climate. The sheep should 
 
 H 2 
 
100 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 be washed ten days or a fortnight previously, time being 
 allowed for the yolk of the wool, an oily secretion, to rise 
 in the fleece. Washing may either be done in a running- 
 stream, or in a tub with warm water, in which a little soft 
 soap has been dissolved, the sheep being afterwards rinsed 
 with clean water. The latter plan takes more time, but is 
 more effectual. Unless sheep be well-washed the value of 
 the wool is much lessened. Shearing is often done by men 
 who go round various farms ; 5s. per score being a common 
 price. Sheep shearing machines have latterly been in- 
 vented which will do the work, but not, as yet, with any 
 economical advantage. If the weather be windy and wet 
 or very cold, newly-shorn sheep require housing for a few 
 nights. Great losses have sometimes occurred through 
 too early exposure. 
 
 In districts where the maggot fly is troublesome the 
 sheep are often dressed over their backs with some powder 
 to prevent the fly striking. Careful shepherding is re- 
 quired in hot or showery weather, and any sheep becoming 
 dirty at the tail should be at once clipped clean (belted), 
 or damage to the wool and the sheep from the maggot will 
 arise. 
 
 Feeding. — The larger improved breeds of sheep, such 
 as, Longwools, the Lincoln, the Cotswold, and the Border 
 Leicester; and amongst Shortwools, the Hampshire, the 
 Oxford, and the Shropshire, may be readily fattened to an 
 average weight of 90 lb. the carcase at 13 months old, if, 
 in addition to an abundant supply of other food, they are 
 supplied as lambs, before and after weaning, with a small 
 quantity of cake or corn, at a cost of 2d. per head per 
 week, being also given 1 lb. per head daily of mixed cake 
 and corn for the last six months, from October to April, 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 101 
 
 at a cost of Qd. per head per week; making the total 
 cost of artificial food — 
 
 30 weeks at 2d 5s. Od. 
 
 26 weeks atSd 13s. Od. 
 
 18s. Od. 
 
 The fat sheep will make from lOd. to Is. per lb., either 
 sold in the wool, or shorn and the value of the wool added, 
 making for the carcase of 90 lb. from £S 15s. to £4 10s. 
 It is difficult to give trustworthy data as to the quantity 
 of roots, or other green food, required by a given number 
 of sheep, so much depends upon the quantity of dry food 
 used, and upon the size and kind of sheep. Morton's 
 Cyclopcedia states that a ewe living on roots alone will 
 consume from 25 to 30 lb. daily. Supposing 100 sheep, 
 having a small quantity of chaff supplied, consume 20 lb. 
 each daily of turnips, a crop of 15 tons on 1 acre would 
 last them nearly 17 days. Mi-. Coleman, in his paper on 
 ■" Sheep," in Koyal Agricultural Society's Jou^mal, vol. i., 
 part 2, estimates that 1 acre of a crop of swedes, of 16 ton, 
 will keep 300 tegs one week. Mr. A. Ruston estimates 
 that 1 acre of mangels of average crop will, with some 
 <ii-y food, keep 25 tegs or 20 older sheep from the beginning 
 of December to the beginning or middle of April. Mr. 
 Lawes has found by experiment that sheep well fed under 
 cover will consume about 70 lb. of roots, 4f lb. of hay, and 
 4f lb. of cake per head per week for every 100 lb. of their 
 live weight, increasing in weight weekly about 2 per cent. 
 The Principal Diseases of sheep require some mention. 
 The liver rot — due to the presence of the fluke in 
 the liver and biliary ducts — destroys thousands of 
 sheep every wet season, and wrought unprecedented 
 
102 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 damage in the years 1879 and 1880, both of which were 
 marked by excessive rainfall in the summer months. 
 Sheep never acquire this disease except from feeding on 
 land which, either from want of drainage, or excessive and 
 continuous rainfall or flooding, has had stagnant water 
 upon it. The history of the fluke woiin, its various 
 changes, and the probable means of its introduction into 
 the system of the sheep, have been ably treated upon by 
 Professor Simonds in a paper published in the Royal 
 Agricultural Society's Journal, vol. 23, p. 64. Sheep in 
 the first stage of this disease will fatten readily, and in 
 some cases will live for years ; but it is incurable, and it 
 will generally be best to fatten as quickly as possible, and 
 send to the butcher the whole flock, if this disease is 
 found at all prevalent. It may be guarded against by 
 careful stocking, by allowing the sheep to have free access 
 to salt, by the use of extra foods, by draining wet marshy 
 places in the pastures, and by not allowing sheep to graze 
 upon land lately flooded or waterlogged from excessive 
 downfall. The risk of acquiring this disease is much 
 greater in the summer or autumn than in winter or 
 early spring, as frost is believed to destroy the embryo. 
 The sheep are, however, often some months before the 
 mischief is apparent in them. When fatting sheep are 
 purchased, especially after wet seasons, care should be 
 taken to ascertain if they come from sound pastures, for 
 careful inspection of their appearance as regards sound- 
 ness is not sufficient, as it is not always possible to detect 
 unsoundness in them by the most careful examination : 
 and it has latterly been a common practice to ascertain 
 the condition of any lot offered in the market by slaughter- 
 ing one for examination. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 103 
 
 Foot-rot is a very troublesome complaint •with sheep 
 kept on low-lying succulent pastures. Upon the dry 
 uplands or light arable soils, for which sheep are specially 
 fitted, it is rai-ely seen, and if introduced there, is speedily 
 cured ; but upon rich cattle-feeding pastures it is very 
 prevalent. Frequent parings of the hoof, and the dressing 
 of the part affected with some caustic preparation, or 
 carbolic acid, are the best modes of treatment. It some- 
 times becomes so thoroughly established in the system as 
 to be incurable. 
 
 Upon some land lambs, when thickly kept, are affected 
 similarly to calves with the hoose, due to the presence of 
 worms in the bronchial tubes. A similar mode of treat- 
 ment for its cure is adopted. 
 
 Young sheep are sometimes affected with what, from 
 . the symptoms observable, is called the turn, or the gid, a 
 brain affection, due to the presence within the cavity of 
 the skull of a hydatid of the tapeworm. If the young 
 sheep be fleshy, they should be promptly slaughtered. 
 The operation of piercing the skull and destroying the 
 hydatid is, however, sometimes performed with safety. 
 
 Lambs are liable to suffer from scour, which is some- 
 times due to the presence of parasites in the stomach or 
 intestines. It is dangerous to let them graze upon land 
 which has been previously very heavily stocked by older 
 sheep, and upon which the clover or grass has sprung up 
 again in dark green luxuriance. Pasture land in high 
 condition, the result of liberal manuring, or feeding stock 
 with cake, is sometimes unsafe for young sheep, which 
 in such circumstances sometimes suffer from a fatal kind 
 of fever. 
 
 Feeding sheep, or ewes suckling lambs, are liable to be 
 
104 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 seized with sudden inflammation, being often found dead 
 without being previously seen to be amiss. The lungs in 
 these cases are often found much congested, but some- 
 times the inflammation seizes the head or neck. These 
 cases rarely recover, and with fat sheep prompt slaughter 
 is generally resorted to if they are found to be amiss. 
 Sheep are more liable to be thus taken when grazing upon 
 very luxuriant clover or rape, or when first put upon turnips. 
 These attacks of blood disease are of kindred nature to 
 quarter-evil and splenic apoplexy in cattle, the causes and 
 means of prevention of which are as yet but imperfectly 
 understood. When corn of any description, but specially 
 maize, is given to sheep unmixed with chaff or other food, 
 there is risk of losses from some sheep eating voraciously 
 more than their share. Sheep trespassing into corn, 
 whether ripe or half ripe, or getting to the sides of a 
 stack of loose corn, are in danger of over-gorging them- 
 selves with fatal results. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 BREEDS A2SrD MANAGEMENT OF SWINE. 
 
 Breeds: Small White— Large White— Middle White— Suffolk— Essex 
 — Berkshire — Dorset. Management: Farrowing— Feeding. Diseases: 
 Fever — ^Murrain — Mange — Spleen — Inflammation. 
 
 The agricultural returns show much greater variations 
 in the number of pigs than in any other domesticated 
 animals, the annual difference sometimes amounting to as 
 much as 10 per cent, or more ; the principal cause no doubt 
 being the ease with which the swine of the country may 
 be increased, from the early age at which they produce 
 their young, and the number brought forth at each birth. 
 The average number of swine in the United Kingdom is 
 about 2,250,000. 
 
 Breeds. — Each county in England, and almost every 
 district has a distinctive variety of pig, which has acquired 
 a loeal reputation for some good or bad points; but we 
 may consider the following as being the sources from 
 which the different local varieties originate — viz., the 
 Small, Middle, and Large White breeds, the Black Suffolk 
 or Essex, the Berkshire, the Dorset and the Tarn worth. 
 There are besides these the black and white pigs of 
 Northamptonshire and many others, which have not been 
 so fortunate as to find some one to set about improving 
 
106 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 them and fixing a certain type, as did the late Earl Ducie 
 and others for small whites, and the late Mr. Fisher 
 Hobbs, Mr. Sexton, and Mr. Stearn for the Suffolk or 
 Essex breed. 
 
 The Small White Breed first demand a description as 
 perhaps the most useful variety, not only for breeding as 
 pure stock, but for crossing purposes ; as it not only gives 
 quality to the other breeds of white pigs, but has been 
 successfully used on nearly all kinds. A cross between 
 a boar of this breed and a Berkshire sow is said by some 
 extensive pig-graziers and breeders to be the best for their 
 purpose, the small white giving quality and aptitude to 
 fatten, and the Berkshire leaner and firmer meat, as well 
 as rather more weight. 
 
 The principal points of the small white breed are a 
 short, upturned nose, lower jaws dished, prick ears, heavy 
 jowls or cheeks, so that when fat it is an open question 
 whether or not they have eyes, or whether the noses have 
 undergone an operation of some kind to give them the 
 broken appearance they then present ; the neck some- 
 what long, and well padded with flesh, making the head 
 appear to be hung at a lower level than the shoulders, 
 which should be wide apart, and well joined to hoop-like 
 ribs ; the loin wide, the hind quarters long and square, 
 with flesh down to the hocks ; the tail very fine, the legs 
 short, and placed well apart ; the whole carcase covered 
 with a coat of soft silky hair. 
 
 The Large White Breed are better adapted for breed- 
 ing growing stores or as scavengers in the bullock-yards ; 
 they are fast growers, but require to be at least 12 months 
 old before being put up to fat. They then reach an enor- 
 mous weight ; some have been known to reach as much as 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE. 107 
 
 60 stone imperial. The colour is generally all white, but the 
 largest of the breed have sometimes blue spots or patches 
 which the breeders do not object to, as they assert that 
 it is indicative of great size. The principal points of the 
 breed are a short square bead with somewhat drooping 
 ears, rather light in the neck, good shoulders, flat ribs ; 
 a long and rather narrow back, tail placed low, good hams, 
 thick bristly coat, all placed on fairly long legs. 
 
 The Middle Breed at present have scarcely a fixed 
 type of their own, but the specimens at our largest shows 
 give one the idea that they are either a cross made to 
 increase the size of the small breed, or one made to give 
 the large breed more quality ; the result being an animal 
 too small for the latter and too large for the former 
 breed, and yet a very good pig for general purposes, as 
 some of the produce will be small quick grazers, whilst 
 others will require more time and make heavy bacon pigs. 
 
 The Black Suffolk or Essex closely resemble the 
 small white breed in their early maturity and other 
 qualities, as well as in their shape, the principal differ- 
 ences being their coal-black skins, at times not too well 
 covered with hair, their greater length and lighter car- 
 case ; the head, too, is not so short or dished. A great 
 many of this breed, or of one veiy similar, are kept in 
 Devonshire and Cornwall; the breeders from these counties 
 sending some very good specimens to the Bath and West 
 of England Society Show, as well as to their local shows. 
 
 The BerJcshires have been bred and exhibited by 
 tenant-farmers in larger numbers than any other breed. 
 This is doubtless to a certain extent to be accounted for 
 from the Berkshires being more hardy in their young 
 state, and requiring at all stages of their life less care and 
 
108 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 attention than any other improved breed. A great many 
 have been exported to America, where they have been 
 extensively used for crossing with the native stock, as 
 well as for breeding pure breeds. Our American cousins 
 are ahead of us, as usual, in having established a herd 
 book for this breed. The demand for Berkshires is not 
 now so great for exportation as it has been, both the 
 Americans and Canadians preferring the white breeds. 
 A proposal to establish a herd book for the small white 
 breed is already on the point of being carried into execu- 
 tion. The points of a Berkshire are — black colour, a 
 longish head slightly dished, ears thick and inclined 
 forwards, a star on or a white mark down the fore- 
 head, white feet and tip end of the tail, neck muscular, 
 shoulders wide, ribs flat, somewhat narrow loin and hind- 
 quarters, drooping rump, bone of the legs thick and rather 
 coarse, as is the coat, denoting hardihood rather than 
 aptitude to fatten on little food. 
 
 The Dorsets seem to have claimed a place amongst 
 the distinctive breeds of pigs from the success which has 
 attended their exhibition at the Smithfield Club. They 
 appear to be derived from a cross between the Suffolk 
 and Chinese, or Neapolitan breeds, which has produced a 
 somewhat plain animal of a rusty colour, longish head, 
 rather pendant ears, and thin coat, but withal a heavy 
 carcase of pork of good quality. The breeders of the 
 Dorset also claim for them the quality of being good 
 mothers, which is generally the case with animals recently 
 crossed with those of another breed. 
 
 The Tamworth might also almost be called a local 
 breed, as but very few of them are seen out of Warwick- 
 shire. They are, however, a distinct breed, their red 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE. 109 
 
 colour, long head, body, and legs, and their deep, flat ribs, 
 being transmitted without fail to their descendants. 
 
 The Management of Figs is generally considered to 
 be within the power of any one, and yet no class of animal 
 is so systematically mismanaged. A low, damp comer of 
 the premises, facing north, is chosen, or rather happens to 
 be fixed on, as it is useless for anything else, and, as results 
 prove, worse than useless for rearing young pigs. Some 
 of the principal requisites in breeding pigs successfully, 
 are a warm, ventilated piggery, facing south or south- 
 west, paved with bricks or flag stones — (not asphalte, as 
 it is too cold for the little pigs in the winter), good drainage, 
 great cleanliness, frequent feeding, and personal attention. 
 
 In choosing young sows for breeding it is better to pick 
 the largest of the litter, with good wide hips, and at least 
 12 paps; let them be also from sows that have proved 
 themselves good and quiet mothers. In the young boar, 
 size is not considered so requisite, but let him be com- 
 pactly built, showing plenty of quality, and yet be of a 
 masculine character 
 
 The usual time to begin breeding from them is at the 
 age of eight months, and the best times of the year to put 
 the sow to the boar are October and April ; and as the 
 period of gestation is about 113 days, they will then pro- 
 duce their young either in February, so that the young 
 pigs will have the whole benefit of the summer, or in July 
 and August, when they will have time enough to get 
 strong before the cold weather commences. Pigs farrowed 
 the latter part of the year seldom do well ; the cold seems 
 to stunt them ; and they cannot get that exercise which 
 seems especially requisite for young pigs. 
 
110 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 Care must be takea not to allow the sow too much 
 litter when she farrows, as the little pigs often get en- 
 tangled in the straw, and are then yery likely to get laid 
 on and killed. The best plan is to have the sow put into 
 the house for a few nights before her time is up, giving 
 her a few beans or maize to entice her in ; the being 
 obliged to force her in often leads to wrong presentations^ 
 &c. Let her have just enough short litter to prevent the 
 pigs falling on to the bricks. In general she is best left 
 to herself with plenty of warm drink in her trough ; but 
 when accustomed to be handled, as in the case of well bred 
 or pedigree stock, she maybe waited on. Have a hamper 
 filled with dry wheat straw, then as the porkers appear 
 on the scene suckle them and place them in the hamper, 
 where they will rest comfortably until the sow has finished 
 pigging. Remove the after-birth as soon as it becomes 
 detached, then give the sow a little warm mixture either 
 of milk or water and fine bran. She will then lie down. 
 Place the pigs with her, and leave without much fear, pro- 
 viding the house has a fixed rail about 10 inches from the 
 ground, and projecting about 8 inches from the wall. That 
 will allow the little ones to get round the sow and prevent 
 her lying on them. The sow should be fed on sharps for 
 about three weeks, an ounce of sulphur being given to her 
 every six days ; that generally prevents the pigs scouring, 
 as they often will when about 20 days old, or as they 
 begin to eat. Should the pigs show any symptoms of 
 diarrhoea, give the sow morning and evening, J oz. of 
 bicarbonate of potash in her food, at the same time 
 slightly reducing the quantity of food and placing clean 
 water in a trough so that the little pigs can drink and so 
 dilute the mother's milk, whose richness causes indigestion. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE. Ill 
 
 When the pigs are about a month old give them, in a 
 place apart from their mother, a few oats and peas. They 
 will at about eight weeks old have nearly weaned them- 
 selves, so that when their mother is taken from them they 
 wiU scarcely miss her. When the pigs are six weeks old, 
 those not required for breeding purposes may be spayed 
 or castrated. For a time after they are weaned they 
 require frequent feeding, giving them as much food in the 
 shape of maize, oats, or peas, as they will clear up ; they 
 do better if they are allowed to have plenty of exercise 
 when the weather is fine. If they are carefully attended 
 to in their young stage they are, with fairly liberal feeding 
 afterwards, fit to be killed at any age, and with very little 
 expense in fatting. 
 
 Pigs as meat manufacturers are considered by many to 
 hold first place, as their appetites are not in the least 
 fastidious ; refuse of almost any kind from the house or 
 farmyard being converted into pork without any ado. In 
 the neighbourhood of large towns quantities of pigs are 
 fatted on the refuse, swill, and bones from the hotels. 
 These are stewed up together, a little meal added, and 
 then, as one of our largest exhibitors boasted, " his pigs 
 are fed on turtle and gravy soup." Immense quantities 
 of maize and foreign barley, added to potatos, kohl rabi, 
 and mangel are used in the fatting of pigs ; but nothing 
 produces meat of such nice quality as milk and barley and 
 wheat meal. Numbers of pigs are fed in Cheshire, Derby- 
 shire and other dairying counties on whey and butter- 
 milk and meal ; the meat is then white and of good flavour. 
 Peas and beans, too, are used in fatting pigs, but the pork 
 is hard and stringy if entirely made from the use of them, 
 and it is yellow and flabby if only maize is used in feeding. 
 
112 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 The quantity of meal, &c., consumed by pigs when put 
 up to fat will vary considerably with the age and condition 
 of the store pigs ; a lean, hungry one consuming often as 
 much again for a time as one that has been fairly well 
 kept all its life. The latter will also at once show the effects 
 of good food by beginning to thrive, whilst the former will 
 devour a great deal of food without any apparent benefit. 
 This, again, shows the good policy of keeping one's pigs in 
 a thriving state from the time they are farrowed. A 
 medium-sized, well-bred pig will eat, on an average, about 
 6 stone of meal per week, and increase in weight 1 stone. 
 
 Large numbers of pigs are bred from the common sow, 
 crossed with a small or middle breed white boar, and are 
 sold as porkers in the London market. They are killed 
 at about 4 months old, and weigh from 5 to 6 stones each. 
 They are well fed on barley and maize meal, with skim 
 milk, from the time they begin to eat. They make the 
 highest price, and are considered by many farmers to pay 
 much better than keeping them until a year old and then 
 fatting them. 
 
 Diseases of Figs. — There are several diseases to which 
 pigs are subject, but they all, or nearly all, seem to arise 
 from unhealthy sties, want of cleanliness, and proper feed- 
 ing. The most common complaints are — typhoid fever, 
 murrain, mange, enlargement of the spleen, and inflamma- 
 tion of the lungs. Typhoid fever is perhaps the cause 
 of the greatest loss amongst pig breeders, as it is highly 
 infectious. Pigs that have been herded with others that 
 have died from this disease are often sent to market, 
 where they seem quite healthy, but sometimes within a 
 few hours they fall ill, lose their strength, their pulse is 
 
BEEEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF SWINE. 113 
 
 weak, they foam at the mouth, grunt plaintively as if in 
 great pain ; purple spots appear on the belly and thighs, 
 they refuse solid food, and care for nothing but drink. As 
 a rule, it is better to have such a pig killed at once, and 
 thus stamp out the infection. Use disinfectants freely, 
 and keep the other pigs in a warm, dry place, giving them 
 all a gentle dose of opening medicine. An ounce of 
 sulphur and a little nitre answers as well as anything. If 
 you decide to doctor the patient, bleed him at the back of 
 the ears, or by cutting a little piece off the end of his tail ; 
 keep him warm and quiet, giving him a little gruel, and 
 from 2 to 6 oz. of equal parts of linseed and castor oil. In 
 case he refuses to drink the mixture, cat a hole at the toe 
 of an old shoe, place the fore part of the shoe in his 
 mouth, and then pour in the oil at the top of the shoe ; 
 the pig will generally chew the leather and swallow the 
 medicine, without knowing it. After the medicine has 
 operated, feed, sparingly and often, on good food, adding 
 a tablespoonful of whiskey and a few drops of quinine. 
 
 The symptoms of murrain are staggering, shortness of 
 breath, and the discharge of viscid matter from the eyes 
 and mouth. If noticed in the early stages, and treated as 
 typhoid fever, this disease is not necessarily fatal. 
 
 Mange is without doubt the result of the want of clean- 
 liness ; it is a troublesome disease to get rid of, and is 
 very infectious. It is easily discovered by the blotches or 
 small pustules which appear on different parts of the 
 body. The remedy is first to thoroughly wash the pig 
 with soap and tepid water, then put him in an airy place 
 with a good bed of clean dry wheat straw. Next give him 
 2 oz. of Epsom salts in some slops, feed him sparingly on 
 roots and fine bran, giving him at each meal for three or 
 
114 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 four days J oz. of sulphur, aud ^ oz. of nitre. Apply 
 externally each day until you see the pustules are dead, a 
 mixture of oil and sulphur. 
 
 A pig suffering from enlargement of the spleen will wring 
 and twist itself about, bending towards the ground as if in 
 great pain internally. The cause of this disease being over- 
 feeding with too rich food, the first thing is to clear out 
 the bowels with a strong aperient, such as Epsom salts ; 
 reduce the quality as well as quantity of the pig's food, 
 and give him the following day a blue pill rolled up in 
 butter or in other tempting form. Repeat this in about 
 three days, then be careful not to surfeit the pig, but feed 
 him sparingly for a time. 
 
 Inflammation of the lungs, or, as it is called, "heavings," 
 is seldom curable. If the pig is in good condition, the 
 butcher can apply the best remedy. This disease is 
 considered infectious, and is generally brought on by 
 exposure to weather or lying on hot manure. Careful 
 feeding and attention to diet sometimes enable you to 
 fatten the pig, which when killed will often be found ' 
 to have but one sound lung or one of them grown to 
 the side. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 
 
 Varieties : Setting Sorts — Laying Sorts. Accominodation : Houses — Food 
 — Rearing. Wcaer Fowl : Geese — Ducks. Offier Sorts : Turkeys — 
 Pea Fowl — Guinea Fowl. 
 
 Few persons live in detached houses in the country but 
 might keep, in their yards, with advantage, a few head of 
 poultry ; and, on all farms, where there is always abundant 
 space at hand and some waste food, the poultry ought to 
 be an important department of the live stock. The 
 demand for young fowls and for fresh eggs, — especially 
 tlie latter, — is always great. The sum of money sent 
 every year out of the country for them is very large ; in 
 spite of which, during some months of each season, there 
 always seems to be a scarcity of eggs. Yet it cannot be 
 said that all persons are fit to be employed in the pursuit 
 of poultry-keeping. A certain amount of knowledge of 
 the wants of bird-life is necessary to begin with ; also a 
 suitable homestead, if the owner is not to be disappointed, 
 and if the poultry are not to be tortured. 
 
 It must be understood, at the outset, that all kinds of 
 poultry do far best when at liberty to range, for, at all 
 events, part of the day. And all fowls require, in addition 
 to ordinary diet, grit, green leaves or roots, animal food in 
 some form (flies, worms, &c.) if they are to be healthj-^ or 
 
 I 2 
 
116 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 prolific. And no creatures feel more keenly than poultry- 
 do the changes of sun and wind. It is therefore necessary 
 that the birds should be able, in order to do themselves 
 and their owners justice, to bask in the sun when this is 
 not too hot ; to have shade in the heat of the day ; and 
 to find shelter — when they wish for it — in wind or rain. 
 
 All this holds good with hens, ducks, geese, and turkeys ; 
 which, with Guinea and, perhaps, pea fowls, make up the 
 usual collection in a poultry yard. Of course only a farm 
 would allow the whole of these varieties to be kept to 
 advantage. Still, in setting forth the peculiarities and 
 the wants of poultry, although these general principles 
 may be laid down for all, it may be desirable to give, in 
 turn, a few words to each kind ; and a beginning shall 
 be made here with the land birds, and with hens first 
 among these. 
 
 Varieties. — Within the last few years the number of 
 so-called distinct varieties of fowls has been largely in- 
 creased. Whether the breeds are originally distinct may 
 be doubted. Not above five or six can be relied on to 
 breed all their chickens like themselves. For practical 
 purposes fowls may be treated as if there were but few 
 kinds, for almost all require the same treatment. It may 
 be convenient to group all the kinds at present culti- 
 vated under two headings. 
 
 The two groups must be described as, first, of fowls 
 which immediately " set " or incubate after having laid 
 a certain number of eggs ; and second, of those which 
 will generally continue laying, throughout the late spring 
 and early summer months, without even wishing to set ; 
 i.e. we may call them "setters," and " non-setters." Among 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 117 
 
 tte first — the group of setters — these further distinctions 
 must be taken. Thej"- are either clean-legged or feather- 
 legged fowls. Of the former (the clean-legged) the best 
 known varieties are the Dorking or Sussex fowl, under 
 which title must be included all the five-toed fowls of all 
 colours, and also the cuckoo, the Scotch-grey, and the 
 ordinary barndoor fowl. These are among the best for 
 providing chickens for market. The game-breeds (with 
 which must be reckoned the Malay) are steady setters, 
 and the best of mothers. All the feather-legged fowls set. 
 In this group are included the different shades of colour 
 assigned to what are known as Cochin Chinas, with the 
 grey birds called Brahmas, and the black called Lang- 
 shans. The special merit of these feather-legged breeds 
 is their tameness and their habit of winter laying : in 
 order to which the earliest pullets of the spring must 
 be retained — which will begin laying as early as the end 
 of October. They also — better than any others — endure 
 confiement within nan'ow limits. Then turning to those 
 varieties which do not set on their eggs, the second group 
 must be divided into single and rose-combed varieties. Of 
 the former, the best known kinds are the black Spanish, 
 blue Andalusian, black Minorca, and brown and white Leg- 
 horn. Under this head, also, come the crested varieties 
 (under which must be included the Polish, the Houdan, and 
 other French kinds). In this second group must be 
 considered the whole of the varieties, — whether pencilled 
 or spangled, — which are called Hamburgs, Chittaprats, or 
 Dutch every day layers. Both single and rose-combed 
 breeds furnish a large supply of eggs in summer; but 
 the rose-combed are very impatient of confinement. The 
 crested fowls are placed in this group because, though they 
 
118 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 occasionally become " broody " or desirous of setting, yet 
 they are not often to be trusted either to hatch eggs or to 
 rear chickens which have been hatched in other ways. 
 
 Now as regards their treatment it matters little to 
 which of these varieties the fowls we propose to keep may 
 belong ; for all alike need a certain degi'ee of freedom, 
 and a free exposure to sun, to be at all productive, 
 especially in winter. Only people of experience can keep 
 fowls healthy in confinement. The most experienced can 
 hardly keep them confined long. Young fowls, i.e. the 
 early pullets of the year, lay the largest, quantity of 
 winter eggs ; but no fowls, young or old, can be expected 
 to reach the standard of high health, at which laying begins, 
 unless they be well fed with a large variety of food. It is 
 comparatively easy to fatten a fowl in a few weeks ; but to 
 preserve one in constant high condition, so as to enable it 
 to lay regularly, good meals, from the owner's hands, are 
 requisite ; with tit-bits picked up for itself upon the yard 
 or road-side hedges. It is a mistake to suppose that the 
 hens do best which have a neat garden or trim compart- 
 ment to run on. Fowls and untidiness go well together.- 
 An open common or highway where cattle have been — 
 which, with their droppings, attract flies — is better range for 
 fowls than is the neatest flower bed; whilst rough shrubs to 
 give shade, or shelter insects, are very desirable. Given 
 these — i.e., a rough place to run about in— then the task 
 of the poultry keeper will be comparatively easy ; for his 
 main duties will be discharged by the birds themselves. 
 
 Accommodation. — This is of the very first importance in 
 order to attain success. The first thing of course will be 
 to provide a roosting place. The lighter breeds (as game. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 119 
 
 Hamburg, &o.), retain the old instinct of the wild race 
 from -which they sprung ; and, if possible, will roost high 
 on trees or shrubs, or in the cross-beams in the roof of any 
 building. Fowls never thrive better than where they can 
 safely be allowed so to roost. Dorkings should not be 
 forced to roost high, and they require broad perches. 
 Except caution be taken in these respects the birds are 
 apt to become lame, and their breast bones to be bent and 
 disfigured. The feather-legged kinds, are indiiferent to a 
 high place to rest in ; indeed, hardly ca.re to get upon a 
 perch at all. They will squat anywhere, as partridges in 
 the middle of a field, and do well so in summer. Any old 
 tub or box will serve to shelter them, in a position where 
 thieves or vermin are not likely to intrude. They sit at 
 night, by preference, on a board or on the bare ground. 
 
 Food. — And then for the food ! The amount of this 
 which will be essential must be determined by the range 
 which the birds are likely to get. If the fowls can escape 
 from their roosts at daybreak ; and wander at will over 
 grass land, or among the heaps of refuse from a stable, it 
 will be enough to give them two feeds a day; one of 
 sound grain after the familj' breakfast, and one the last 
 thing at night before the birds go to roost. Of all grain the 
 best is sound, heavy barley of English growth. Wheat is 
 good, but not for a long continuance, and maize produces 
 more of fat than of eggs. The feed of the day when there 
 is not sufficient range should be of meal, mixed with water 
 (or, better, skim-milk), and any refuse vegetables or crusts 
 from the house should be added. Care must be taken that 
 the food is not allowed to become sour. Where, however, 
 the birds are in confinement at night, they should be fed 
 
120 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 the first thing, when the household is astir ; and care must 
 be taken, then, to supply clean water as well as food thrice 
 a day ; with sharp gravel, and chalk, or pounded or burnt 
 oyster shells, occasionally, when eggs are looked for. Birds 
 in confinement during long hours will also require to have 
 grass turf, supplied regularly, to furnish them with salad 
 and occupation. If they have not employment, the birds 
 will pull off one another's feathers. 
 
 The Bearing of Chickens, even more than the keep- 
 ing of adults for laying, will require either space or extra- 
 ordinary attention. No doubt chickens may be kept, for 
 a few days, wholly indoors ; but they rarely grow well 
 until they can range with the hen. All hens hatch and 
 rear their broods far best when at liberty, each to choose 
 for herself a place in which to lay and to sit upon her 
 eggs, and to rove at will with the chickens, after these 
 are strong enough to follow her. The hen can hardly be 
 left too much alone to hatch and bring up her brood. All 
 other hens should be kept from interfering with her, as 
 also intruders of any kind. Yet it is well to confine the 
 mother of a young brood for some few days, until the dew 
 is off the grass, even when the season has become genial. 
 Broods, hatched at a season when it is not natural to 
 expect them, require even more of extra attention and 
 skill from their owners than do old birds confined. Nature 
 does not suggest either winter broods, or life in a cage. 
 Thus poultry, however domesticated, thrive best when the 
 natural conditions of liberty and season are respected. 
 Yet a demand for eggs and chickens at times (as autumn 
 and winter], when Nature does not incline the birds to 
 produce them, can only be met by artificial arrangements. 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 121 
 
 It is necessary to hatch broods early in spring to have winter 
 layers. Now the feather-legged breeds came originally from 
 a home in which the seasons do not correspond with ours. 
 It is natural, therefore, to them to begin to lay, when 
 breeds, longer acclimatised in Europe, are beginning to 
 moult and to leave off. Early hatched Cochin or Brahma 
 pullets can be relied on to lay in October and November, 
 as indeed can early hatched pullets of most of the clean- 
 legged breeds. But the feather-legged varieties carry out 
 their laying more persistently ; even though snow and 
 cold weather intervene. They will go on, where well 
 supplied with food and water, to sit and hatch even in the 
 shortest and dreariest days of an English winter. They 
 are also good, though somewhat clumsy, mothers ; and are 
 largely employed as nurses, for all other sorts of poultry, 
 €^en for goslings. 
 
 From these general remarks it is hoped that it may be 
 seen that the keeping poultry successfully, depends upon 
 the place being adapted to them ; upon knowing the 
 natural wants of the birds; and upon supplying these with 
 scrupulous care and completeness when the fowls cannot 
 wait upon themselves. Few special details are given 
 because these will differ in different places. The natural, 
 universal wants may be thus summed up : — A dry, safe 
 place to pass the night in ; and during the day access to 
 clean, untainted ground, where insects, grit, green meat 
 may be had ; with a dusty corner to bask in when the sun 
 shines; and something to break the wind or sun when 
 these are more than ordinarily strong. The dust bath 
 must never be neglected with land-birds ; it plays for 
 fowls the part which soap and water does for ourselves. 
 Entire confinement is best borne by the feather-legged 
 
122 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 breeds, or by the Spanish and its sub-varieties. Dorkings, 
 Hamburgs, and all the game breeds are not fruitful, 
 except when entirely at large. Cold rarely hurts any 
 fowls ; except the non-setters with large, single combs. 
 
 ■Water Fowls. — Keeping these to advantage, whether 
 geese or ducks, depends upon attention to the same 
 principles. First consider the natural habit of the birds, 
 and then consider how far these can be permitted. All 
 restrictions put upon the birds involve extra trouble in 
 providing substitutes. Geese and ducks do not require so 
 warm or dry a night-lodging as land birds. Where no 
 enemies are to be dreaded, waterfowl do best on the pond, 
 or its outskirts, at night ; they feed earlier and later than 
 hens. But it should be remembered that rats are more 
 destructive to ducklings than to chickens. Ducks well 
 repay an ample range. By collecting slugs and worms, 
 which are otherwise destructive, ducks save a great 
 part of the expense of feeding them, and do good to the 
 orchard and pasture besides. Geese cannot be reared 
 without some space to graze on ; for bits of grass, 
 nibbled where it grows, seem quite essential to the 
 thriving of young goslings. But, when reared up to a 
 certain stage, goslings can be finished and fattened in 
 confinement. The most common varieties of ducks are 
 the white Aylesbury and a modern introduction — the 
 white Pekin, which differs from the Aylesbury in its al- 
 most orange-yellow bill and feet. The bill of the Ayles- 
 bury is of a flesh-colour. The brown Rouens of the 
 colour of the wild duck, and the black Labrador (which 
 with call-ducks are the bantams of the water birds), can- 
 not be kept profitably, except when at large. The Ayles- 
 
BREEDS AND MANAGEMENT OF POULTRY. 123 
 
 bury variety is the best for producing eggs. It best bears 
 confinement ; and, as it begins to lay earlier than any 
 other, it is the best for hatching early ducklings. These 
 are among the most profitable of all poultry to send to 
 market. It is necessary, however, to provide foster 
 mothers, or an incubator ; for Ajdesbury ducks rarely set. 
 The principal varieties of geese cultivated in. England 
 are a very large gi'ey variety commonly spoken - of as 
 Toulouse ; a pure white breed kiiown as Embden ; and a 
 parti-coloured breed, which is general through Great 
 Britain. This last, although smaller in size, is the most 
 fertile of all ; rearing always two, and sometimes three 
 broods in a season. The Toulouse geese lay a good many 
 eggs in spring, but rarely hatch them. The Embden 
 variety very frequently omits to produce a second brood ; 
 yet its pure white plumage and grand size make it a 
 great favourite. Unless on. farms geese should not be 
 attempted except there be access to wide roadside gi'azing. 
 
 Other Breeds. — All that has been said, as to range, 
 applies to turkeys, pea fowLs, and guinea fowls. These are 
 but semi-domesticated ; they cannot endure long confine^ 
 ment, even within a large yard. They must wander at will 
 to be healthy. They are not often profitable, even when 
 allowed to range ; except, perhaps, turkeys upon farms 
 where there is much corn, shed in the fields, to be had for 
 nothing. Of all three breeds there are white sub-varieties. 
 But these seem rather smaller and less vigorous than their 
 coloured relatives. Of turkeys, beside the white, there 
 are bronze and black kinds. The former (known as Cam- 
 bridgeshire) is the larger, but the latter is preferred for its 
 delicacy of flesh. No amount of reading can really supply 
 
124 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 the kind of experience •which is required to make a suc- 
 cessful keeper of any of these varieties of poultry. It 
 will be necessary first to see for oneself how experienced 
 people treat their birds, especially how they feed the 
 newly-hatched broods. And next, one must be willing to 
 study careftilly the reasons for the habits of the birds 
 themselves. They, and their instincts, give the best finish- 
 ing lessons to a would-be poultry keeper. Some general 
 advice may be attempted. We must begin by determining 
 to be very regular in feeding (especially young chickens, 
 which, after the first day or two, need attention every 
 hour). We must preserve great cleanliness in coops and 
 drinking vessels, And whilst giving each time all the 
 food that the birds care to pick up, it is never wise to 
 leave any food by them. They should have enough, but 
 no more. All excess, after the birds are well satisfied, is 
 not onl}^ a waste of money, but a preparation for disease. 
 What is the best food to buy, and how to prepare such 
 food, are questions ivhich can only be answered by know- 
 ing what the poultry keeper has of his own to spare. It 
 irarely pays to buy all the food poultry require ; they will, 
 however, consume much of the refuse of a household (which, 
 without them, would be wasted) ; there is hardly any kind 
 of food used in a house which poultry will not eat, and 
 the additional food which is necessary is well repaid by 
 the eggs. House scraps, with chopped vegetables, are best 
 given when mixed with meal ; and of all meals barley is 
 the best, miller's offal next, and maize meal worst of all. 
 But an occasional change seems to improve the condition 
 of fowls. The great precautions besides cleanliness are to 
 see that the birds are never without pure water, and that 
 the food be not wasted by too large a quantity at once. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HEALTH AND AGE. 
 
 Climate : Marsh Land — Damp Air — Foot and Liver Eot. BaUtation : 
 Dry Site — "Ventilation. Food: "Waste of Tissues— Constituents of 
 Flesh and Food — Quality of Food — Digestive Apparatus. Water: 
 Quantity— Quality — Purity. Age : Dentition of Horse, Ox, Sheep, 
 Swine. 
 
 The art of preserving health is based on a knowledge 
 of the laws which govern animal life. It is one of the 
 most important known to man. While animals are 
 healthy their owners are enriched by their uninterrupted 
 work and usefulness. In a state of sickness they are a 
 source not only of loss but of danger. The bite of the 
 rabid dog ; that deadly disease of the horse known as 
 glanders; tapeworm, to which man also is subject; are one 
 and all transmissible from animal to man. The health of 
 the lower animals, therefore, should be guarded, and all 
 those who attend on them should be acquainted with the 
 rules for securing and maintaining it. 
 
 The art of preserving health embraces a large and 
 varied field of human knowledge, comprehending all the 
 conditions and requirements of animal existence. Among 
 these are the influence of climate, of habitation, air, 
 food, water, and employment. 
 
 Infinence of Climate. — By the term climate is under- 
 
126 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 stood all those influences that cause a district to be hot or 
 cold, moist or dry, arising mainly out of the character 
 and changes of the seasons, due to differences of altitude, 
 latitude, proximity to the sea or to mountain chains, dis- 
 tribution of land and water, the prevailing winds, oceanic 
 currents, and general aspect. The surface of the land and 
 cultivation of the soil are likewise important matters in 
 regulating the character of climate. The health of a 
 country depends in a great degree on the amount of low- 
 lying or marsh land it contains, and the extent to which 
 the soil remains undrained. In marshy distric:^s animal 
 and vegetable matters form a large proportion of the soil, 
 and under the influence of heat and moisture these sub- 
 stances are ever undergoing putrefaction and giving off 
 vapours and germs injurious to health. When rivers over- 
 flow their banks, and spread their waters over land of an 
 alluvial or boggy nature, the herbage becomes rank, watery, 
 a.nd deficient of nutriment. Animals reared on such food 
 are wanting in size, weakly in constitution, and easily fall a 
 prey to disease. Moreover, the dampness of the soil, and 
 the cold noxious vapours that rise from it and hang about 
 the body seriously lower the vitality and enfeeble the 
 powers of life, and they may even alone excite disease. 
 Marshy districts prove specialljCiinjurious to health during 
 hot summers, when the ground surface is exposed to the 
 heat of the sun after long immersion in water. Under such 
 circumstances cattle and horses should not be allowed in 
 
 . the open fields during the night or early morning while 
 the atmosphere is humid and heavy, and loaded with the 
 peculiar poisonous exhalations from the soil. In the low 
 
 ,damp valleys, which follow the course of rivers, "foot rot " 
 and fluke disease or "liver rot," as it is termed, are 
 
HEALTH AND AGE. 127 
 
 always prevalent to a greater or less extent. Foot rot is 
 there caused by the softening influence of the wet turf on 
 the hoofs of sheep, by which they are caused to break and 
 tear. The fleshy parts of the foot are thus exposed to the 
 irritating action of dirt, and in this way ulceration, pain, 
 and lameness arise. 
 
 Pastures given to excessive moisture should, as far as 
 possible, be avoided for sheep grazing, excepting in the 
 middle of the day, when the surface moisture has been 
 dispersed. They are further dangerous to health and life 
 in harbouring certain descriptions of snails, which carry 
 upon or within their bodies the larvae or young parasites 
 which occasion " liver rot," a disease everywhere prevalent 
 in wet seasons, excepting on so-called salt marshes. The 
 almost entire freedom from " rot " or so-called fluke disease 
 enjoyed by farm stock when turned on these marshes, is 
 possibly due to the absence in such places of the particular 
 kind of snail in whose body the young flukes are lodged^ 
 or nursed prior to being swallowed by sheep- or other 
 animals ; or it may be that the embryos or young parasites 
 are destroyed by the saline matter with which the soil is 
 impregnated. Elevated localities are generally found to 
 be as conducive to health as low-lying marsh districts are 
 destructive of it, providing that they oflfer a permeable 
 subsoil for the escape of water. In ascending from the 
 latter to the former, the pressure of the atmosphere 
 becomes reduced, the temperature is lower, the quantity 
 of the moisture in the air is less, and the peculiar 
 organisms, germs, and noxious gases, so obnoxious in 
 marsh air, are here absent or in very small amount. 
 
 The effect of a diminution of atmospheric pressure on 
 the vital functions is very marked in high situations ; 
 
128 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 thus the pulse becomes quickened, the breathing more 
 frequent, and the exhalations from the skin and lungs are 
 increased and pass freely away, instead of being condensed 
 on the body to cool and starve it. Such districts afford 
 an abundant and rich vegetation, -which, together with a 
 pure dry air, renders them highly conducive to health. 
 
 Influence of Habitation. — Farm stock usually spend 
 the early period of their life in the open pastures ; and, 
 provided they are not exposed to those adverse climatic 
 conditions to which we have referred, the standard of 
 health may be fairly maintained by ordinary care. Pro- 
 tection from extremes of cold and heat, and from exposure 
 to wet, is, however, essential to the maintenance of a 
 healthy and vigorous growth ; and when stock are at 
 pasture, suitable shedding should be provided. Natural 
 shelter from the north and east winds can, in a great 
 measure, be secured by the cultivation of stout, well-grown 
 hedges or by the judicious planting of trees. In the case 
 of old or adult horses, summer grazing often proves highly 
 objectionable. When the weather is hot, and flies attack 
 them in large numbers, they are prevented from feeding. 
 Moreover, the repeated stamping to dislodge the offenders 
 causes much swelling and soreness of the legs, tires the 
 muscles, and weakens the parts it was originally intended 
 to strengthen. The eyes also frequently become swollen 
 and inflamed, and the general health, from these causes, 
 coupled with restlessness and insufficiency of food, may 
 seriously suffer. 
 
 In choosing a site for the erection of stables, cowsheds, 
 kennels, and other animal habitations, preference should 
 at all times be given to an elevated position, where plenty 
 
HEALTH AND AGE. 129 
 
 of light and air are to be obtained. The soil should 
 be dry, and the conformation of the locality such as to 
 favour perfect drainage. A good supply of water should 
 be at hand, and every facility offered for the proper and 
 perfect removal of sewage. To be healthy, animal 
 dwellings should be large, lofty, dry, and well ventilated. 
 They should not be placed too near to each other, but 
 in such relation as to allow a free circulation of air 
 within and about them. The ends of stables, &c., should if 
 possible stand north and south, so as to expose the two 
 sides of the building to the sun. By this arrangement 
 warmth, dryness, and a more perfect natural ventilation is 
 secmred. Local circumstances, such as hills, woods, and 
 buildings, may render another aspect advisable. In that 
 case the next best position for acquiring sun, air, and light 
 must be chosen. 
 
 Life and health are dependent upon the free passage of 
 pure air into the lungs. While there, oxygen is given up 
 to the blood, and carbonic acid passes from it, being 
 expelled in the act of respiration. The air is constantly 
 receiving into it large quantities of foreign matter, organic 
 and inorganic, living and dead, in the form of minute solid 
 particles, as well as noxious vapours and gases, evolved 
 from the decomposition of animal and vegetable substances, 
 or thrown off from the lungs and skin of man and animals 
 in the process of respiration. Disease germs of the most 
 subtle character are also known to exist in it at times, and 
 to be carried by it from sick animals to healthy ones, and 
 thus to occasion fatal and widespread epizootics. These 
 disease germs, as they are termed, are best known to usi 
 in connection with cattle plague, sheep pox, foot-and-mouth 
 disease, and some other disorders of an infectious charac- 
 
130 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 ter which from time to time have destroyed our flocks and 
 herds. To maintain the atmosphere in a state of purity 
 is one of the first principles of hygiene. Where animals 
 are confined in stables, cowsheds, and other habitations, 
 the atmosphere of such places is constantly being vitiated 
 by carbonic acid evolved from the lungs and skin, and by 
 the vapours and gases given off from the urine, manure, 
 and decomposing matters of food and sewage. The danger 
 to health arising out of this contamination will be in- 
 versely as the size of the apartment in relation to the 
 number of animals it contains, and the means adopted for 
 insuring a constant change of air in the dwelling. With 
 a view to preserve health, the habitations of animals 
 should be large and lofty, and overcrowding should be 
 scrupulously avoided. By packing together large numbers 
 of animals in a small space, the air soon becomes loaded 
 with the impurities referred to. In this foul state of the 
 atmosphere the blood is insufficiently oxygenised, and in 
 this vitiated or diseased state the working powers or func- 
 tional activity of the various organs of the body is retarded, 
 and health correspondingly deranged. Whether the 
 building be large or small, a free and constant movement 
 of air should be provided for by proper means of ventila- 
 tion, but in such a manner as to prevent a too rapid 
 current through it, which may occasion the sensation 
 of draught. 
 
 Ventilation is effected by natural and artificial means. 
 The natural means consist in — (1) the natural tendency 
 of gases to mix one with the other ; (2) the force of 
 winds, which is sometimes very efficient, but at all 
 times uncertain and uncontrollable ; (3) the difference in 
 weight of masses of air of unequal temperature. Thus 
 
HEALTH AND AGE. 131 
 
 warm air, being lighter than cold, expands, and rises to 
 the highest point of the apartment. If no outlet exists 
 by which it can escape it soon becomes cool, and, con- 
 densing, falls to a lower level. It now gains entrance to 
 the lungs a second time in its impure condition, and so it 
 may be respired again and again, each time becoming 
 more injurious to health. The heavier air remains below, 
 to ascend as its temperature increases. This elevation of 
 temperature is due partly to the heated air expelled from 
 the lungs and partly also to the heat given off from the 
 surface of the body. In order to allow of a regular and 
 constant change, openings or outlets for the warm air 
 should exist in the upper portion of the apartment near 
 to the ceiHng, and inlets for the cool pure atmosphere are 
 to be provided below. These openings should not be 
 placed too near to each other, or the cold air will pass out 
 again without being respired. Artificial ventilation is 
 seldom or never resorted to in the management of our 
 domesticated animals. Nothing contributes so much to 
 render the air impure as defective or badly managed 
 drains. To avoid contamination from this source a good 
 fall for the sewage should be provided, and daily flushings 
 of the drains should be regularly practised. 
 
 lufltieuce of Food. — From birth to death the body of 
 every living creature undergoes an incessant waste, break- 
 ing up, or resolution, of their tissues. This is brought 
 about by the combustion or burning of the flesh by the 
 oxygen of the air, of which we have just" spoken as so 
 essential to life. If food be withheld, the body gradually 
 becomes reduced in weight and bulk, and ultimately in- 
 anition and death are induced. The time required to 
 
 K 2 
 
132 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 bring about these results varies in different animals. The 
 health of cold-blooded animals, as the frog, does not 
 appear to suffer so much as that of others of a warm- 
 blooded nature. Frogs have been known to fast for three 
 years ; but a comparatively brief period of abstinence is 
 sufficient to impair the health of our domesticated 
 animals. To compensate for this constant waste, and to 
 build up the ever-decaying organism, and maintain it in a 
 state of activity, is the special function of food. To up- 
 hold perfect nutrition the food should consist of nitro- 
 genous and non-nitrogenous aliments, embracing four 
 classes of substances — viz., (1) the albumenoids or flesh- 
 formers ; (2) animal or vegetable fats; (3) starchy and 
 saccharine substances known as carbo-hydrates ; (4) 
 mineral salts, and water. 
 
 The flesh of the body is built up of these several con- 
 stituents, as is also milk, and no aliment can be said to be 
 complete, or capable of maintaining health for a length 
 of time without them. To maintain a healthy condition 
 of the system an adult animal should receive such a 
 quantity as will equal the waste of the tissues; this is 
 called the necessary ration. A still larger amount will 
 result in an increase of flesh, an accumulation of fat, or 
 the production of milk in the cow or wool in the sheep. 
 In the young animal the food supply must exceed the 
 waste, in order to meet the requirements of growth, and 
 build up the body to its natural limits. For several weeks 
 after birth young stock are incapable of eating ordinary 
 food. Their teeth are not developed, and their digestive 
 organs generally are "unfitted to receive and act upon the 
 coarse alimentary substances furnished to older animals. 
 During this period they live entirely on milk derived from 
 
HEALTH AND AGE. 133 
 
 the mother, and in a great measure the health of the 
 former is dependent on the bodily condition of the latter. 
 The milk of animals in a state of disease or of excitement 
 or fright is liable to great alterations in [its quality, and 
 acquires properties which may seriously derange the health 
 of the young, or even destroy life. The milk of cows 
 suffering under an attack of foot-and mouth disease, for 
 example, contains the germs of that malady, and proves 
 infectious and sometimes immediately poisonous to the 
 young, and it is also said to affect children injuriously. 
 A knowledge of these facts should put us on our guard, 
 and lead us to avoid the use of milk from unhealthy 
 stock. When food is allowed in excess the stomach is 
 taxed and digestion is incomplete. The undigested matter 
 undergoes fermentation in the alimentary canal ; gas is 
 given off in large volumes, and sickness follows; or, as often 
 occurs in the horse, the channel of the intestines may 
 become filled up with a closely packed mass of solid 
 matter. Frequently these blocks of ingesta prove in- 
 capable of being removed during life, and lead on to the 
 death of the animal Deficiency of food is not less in- 
 jurious to health than an excess of it. If continued for 
 many days it leads to wasting of the body, weakness of 
 the muscles, great depresssion and fever. Animals in- 
 sufficiently nourished prove susceptible of contagious dis- 
 orders, which they quickly contract when exposed to 
 infection. Moreover they the more readily become the 
 victims of parasitic affections. Lice and the peculiar 
 minute plant or fungus to which ringworm is due are 
 both found to flourish and propagate vigorously under the 
 influence of poverty and dirt. Long intervals between 
 meals is not conducive to health. Like fatigue, it weakens 
 
134 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 the powers of digestion and disorders the alimentary 
 organs. 
 
 Different species of animals require different descrip- 
 tions of food. Dogs and cats consume flesh, and are 
 termed carnivorous. Horses, oxen, and sheep require 
 grasses, seeds, roots, &c., and are known as graminivorous 
 feeders. Pigs, like man, eat both, and are distinguished 
 as omnivorous animals. 
 
 The quantity of food necessaiy to a healthy state will 
 depend upon quality, temperature, labour performed, and 
 the size and age of the animal. Quality of food is of the 
 first importance in dealing with live stock. Endurance, 
 growth, fatting, and profit, as well as health depend 
 upon it. 
 
 Fodder of all kinds, and also grain when damaged by 
 long exposure to wet, lose much of their nutriment and 
 sweetness, and acquire injurious properties. In damp 
 seasons hay gets mouldy, and oats often require to be kiln- 
 dried, in which condition both substances may be injurious 
 to the health of stock. Food having undergone fermenta- 
 tion — such as stale vetches, grass, grains, and various pre- 
 pared aliments — constitutes a most unwholesome diet by in- 
 ducing many dangerous disorders of the stomach and bowels. 
 Roots in a state of decay induce blood poisoning, disorder 
 the milk of ewes and cows, and act prejudicially on the 
 young of both. In warm weather a much less quantity of 
 food is consumed than in cold, and it has been shown that 
 both sheep and oxen thrive better in warm, dry shedi^ on 
 a smaller quantity of food than they do in the open fields. 
 The more exertion an animal undergoes the greater is the 
 wear and tear of the system. Exercise increases the re- 
 spiration or breathing; more oxygen is consequently taken 
 
HEALTH AND AGE. 135 
 
 into the system, and the tissues of the body are burned 
 up in proportion. Unless this extra waste is met by an 
 additional supply of food, emaciation and sickness follow. 
 The amount of food consumed by young animals is rela- 
 tively greater than that of old ones, for reasons above 
 mentioned. How to feed ? what to feed upon 1 are the 
 most important questions in the economy of health. Their 
 solution involves a knowledge of the habits and aptitude 
 of animals, the nature and properties of food, and the 
 physiological processes by which it is converted into flesh. 
 The organs of digestion vary in different animals, and call 
 for a different mode of feeding, as well as differences in 
 the kind of food used. The size of the horse's stomach is 
 remarkably small in comparison with his body, while those 
 of the ox and sheep are voluminous and somewhat com- 
 plicated in their arrangement. The former requires to be 
 fed frequently, not less than three times daily, and to 
 receive a moderate quantity at one time. It is also of the 
 highest importance to health in dealing with all beasts of 
 burden, that a sufficient time should elapse after feeding 
 for digestion to be well-nigh completed before animals 
 are put to exertion. This is especially the case where 
 quick or otherwise severe work is required to be performed- 
 A loaded stomach causes much embarrassment of the 
 breathing by pressing upon the lungs, and sometimes 
 leads to very serious consequences. Moreover, digestion 
 is only indifferently carried on under exertion, and many 
 derangements of the stomach, bowels, and other organs, 
 owe their origin to this cause alone. 
 
 The capacious stomachs of oxen and sheep enable them 
 to take in large quantities of food at one time, and as they 
 are not used for quick or otherwise laborious work, but little 
 
136 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 inconvenience arises out it. In the case of working oxen, 
 however, the diet must be less bulky than for ordinary- 
 cattle, and the diminished quantity supplied to them may 
 be compensated by an additional amount of concentrated 
 and more nourishing aliment. In connection with food, 
 the germs of animal parasites play an important part in 
 impairing the health of farm stock, and should as far as 
 possible be excluded from the pastures and habitations of 
 the latter. Sheep whose livers contain flukes, discharge 
 the eggs of those parasites from the bowels on to the 
 pastures, there to hatch out their young, which other sheep 
 devour with the herbage and become in turn the subjects 
 of "rot." Similarly, shepherd and other dogs infested 
 with tapeworm are often a fruitful source of sickness 
 among cattle and sheep. When the eggs of these parasites 
 are expelled from the intestines of the dog on the grass 
 land, or when they are mixed with any article of diet and 
 eaten by cattle or sheep, bladder worms or hj'datids are 
 produced in various organs of the body, as the brain (in 
 "gid"), liver, lungs, &c.; and protracted sickness or death 
 may be the result. To obviate this mishap, dogs known 
 to have tapeworm should not be allowed access to the 
 feeding grounds of farm stock. 
 
 Water is an indispensable alimentary principle. The 
 flesh of animals, and the tissues of plants, are largely made 
 up of it. A complete withdrawal of water is soon fol- 
 lowed by death, and an insufiicient supply induces 
 disease, as may also an excess under some circumstances. 
 The quality of water, no less than the quantity, has a 
 material influence on the health of stock ; and its employ- 
 ment in the cleansing of stables, dairy utensils, drains, 
 
HEALTH AND AGE. 137 
 
 sewers, &c., contributes in a very great measure to ward off 
 disease. 
 
 Large quantities of this fluid are continually leaving 
 the body in the form of visible or invisible sweat. The 
 air discharged from the lungs in the process of breathing 
 is loaded with it in a state of vapour, besides which it 
 is being constantly thrown off from every part of the 
 surface of the body. From the bladder water is dis- 
 chai-ged in large quantities, and the other excretions of 
 the body owe their moisture to its presence. Without it 
 the blood would cease to flow, and a suspension of all the 
 functions of life must necessarily follow. The demand for 
 water is expressed by the sensation known as thirst. 
 When, as sometimes occurs, more is imbibed than is 
 required for the pui-poses of life, the excess is rapidly 
 eliminated or cast out of the system through the kidneys, 
 skin, and lungs, &c. In this way a certain standard of 
 proportion is maintained in relation to the solids of the 
 body. The quantity required to uphold the bodily health 
 varies for different animals, and for the same animal 
 under different conditions. The elephant will consume 
 twenty-five gallons per day, while for horses and oxen 
 one-third of that amount is found to be sufficient, and for 
 sheep and pigs two to three'quarts proves ample. Hot 
 sultry weather usually augments the desire for water, 
 owing to the large amount got rid of by the skin in per- 
 spiration. For the same reason, animals subjected to 
 severe exertion suffer great thirst, and require an addi- 
 tional supply to that needed in a state of quiet. When 
 confined in warm stables or sheds, both horses and oxen 
 require more than when turned out in the open ; and the 
 same remark applies to all the other of our domesticated 
 
138 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 creatures. Food in a dry condition provokes thirst equally 
 ■with external warmth and activity, and an extra- allowance 
 of water under these circumstances is necessary to the 
 efficient digestion and solution of the nutrient consti- 
 tuents it contains. Certain animals, among them the 
 sheep, are considered by some to be indifferent to water. 
 It is true that in a state of domestication, where food of a 
 juicy or succulent character forms the staple diet, there is 
 little or no demand for extraneous fluid, but in their 
 desert home sheep are known to travel far and wide in 
 pursuit of it. 
 
 An insufficient supply of water is said to prevent the 
 discharge both of carbonic acid from the lungs, and of the 
 debris of the used up tissues with which the urine is 
 naturally loaded. The retention of the products of lung 
 combustion leads to an overchargijig of the blood with 
 effete and noxious matter. Muscular energy is thereby 
 reduced, and great prostration and disease are the con- 
 sequence. Water never occiirs in Nature in a state of 
 perfect purity. Even in the most salubrious locality rain- 
 water, which is regarded as the purest of all natural 
 waters, contains a slight amount of foreign matter. 
 Kiver and spring water hold in solution or in suspension 
 various substances of an organic or inorganic nature. Of 
 the inorganic constituents some are essential to the main- 
 tenance of health arid life. They take an active part 
 in building up the various tissues, and supplying the 
 waste which is constantly taking place. Besides these 
 elements of nutrition, it sometimes contains substances 
 which, while in certain proportion, prove harmless, 
 yet when taken in larger quantity, tend to upset the 
 balance of health and induce disease. Water when 
 
HEALTH AND AGE. 189 
 
 largely impregnated with salts of lime is said to be 
 hard. The long-continued use of it provokes various 
 disorders of the stomach and bowels, and predisposes to 
 the formation of earthy concretions or stones in the 
 bladder, as well as in the viscera referred to. In the horse 
 constipation and colicky pains are frequently induced by 
 it. When stored in lead tanks or circulated through 
 lead pipes, water is liable to contamination by salts of 
 that metal. This is especially the case in regard to rain- 
 water. The action of lead when introduced into the 
 system usually results in colic, paralysis, and brain 
 disease. The salts of various metals may sometimes be 
 found in streams adjoining factories and smelting works. 
 Water thus contaminated has often proved mischievous to 
 the health of cattle depastured thereabouts. The water of 
 salt marshes, rendered brackish by sea water, often 
 proves injurious to health by deranging digestion and 
 inducing diarrhoea. 
 
 In a very large number of instances the water consumed 
 by faiTH stock contains a considerable amount of both 
 animal and vegetable matter in a state of suspension and 
 solution. And although the immediate effect of such water 
 may not appear to occasion any perceptible disturbance 
 of the system, there can be no doubt that its long con- 
 tinuance does seriously impair the healthy functions of the 
 body, having the effect of predisposing it to various forms 
 of disease, of which diarrhoea and dysentery are the more 
 common. Specific contagious fevers, such as cattle plague, 
 foot-and-mouth disease, pig typhoid, anthrax, and the like, 
 may all be disseminated by water contaminated with their 
 respective germs. In like manner the eggs of various 
 
140 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FAEM. 
 
 parasites are scattered, and may find their way into the 
 bodies of suitable hosts. 
 
 In the dispensing of water, as well as in selecting it, 
 care and judgment are sometimes much needed. When 
 cold it should not be allowed to animals in a heated con- 
 dition, excepting in small quantities when work is about 
 to be continued at once. Long fasting induces fatigue 
 and depression, and seriously compromises health. The 
 quantity of water to be given at one time will vary under 
 different circumstances. In a state of rest animals should 
 be allowed as much as they will take, but where they are 
 likely to be called upon to perform severe exertion, smaller 
 quantities are advisable, and in that case the allowance will 
 require to be repeated at short intervals. 
 
 It is safer and better to give water before feeding than 
 after. In the latter case the food is liable to be washed 
 out of the stomach prematurely, while in an imperfectly 
 digested state, and thus occasion intestinal irritation and 
 disease. 
 
 Hereditary Influence. — "Like begets like" is an ex- 
 pression as true of health and vigour of constitution as it 
 is of colour, symmetry, character, and outward form. It 
 is to a knowledge of this fact, and the enterprise it has 
 awakened in the stock-breeders of this country, that the 
 super- excellence of English horses, oxen, and sheep, is 
 attributable. Just as the progeny of our domestic crea- 
 tures bear the general impress, temperament, and qualities 
 of the parent, so do they inherit the strength or weakness 
 of the latter, and their tendency or predisposition to actual 
 disease. The influence of parentage is as decidedly and 
 completely shown in the good or indifferent performance 
 
HEALTH AND AGE. 141 
 
 of the various functions of the body as it is in the exterior 
 physical conformation ; and the defects of the one are as 
 readily transmitted from parent to offspring as are those 
 of the other. Weak lungs are as capable of being directly 
 and powerfully inherited as are bent limbs and other 
 bodily distortions, and even in some instances as the 
 colour of the animal itself. General constitutional weak- 
 ness, with an aptitude to relapse into disease, is the in- 
 heritance of some of our most valuable strains of both 
 horses, oxen, and sheep.. The over-zealous desire to 
 introduce or improve some special quality of form, func- 
 tion, or expression, or to modify the general appearance 
 in conformity with the requirements of breeders of stock, 
 has Jed to the adoption of a system of in-and-in breeding, 
 i.e., the mating of animals of the same family or strain or 
 kindred blood. 
 
 The results obtained have been highly beneficial in 
 promoting rapid growth, early maturity, and fattening 
 properties ; but they have likewise in numerous instances 
 proved destructive of constitutional vigour and general 
 health, by multiplying the intensity of family infirmities. 
 Trom a health point of view, it is of the highest importance 
 to breeders of farm stock that dams and sires should be 
 judiciously selected. Only animals with sound constitu- 
 tion and good physical development, born of sound parents, 
 should be used for stock purposes. Some of the most in- 
 tractable, enduring, and fatal diseases are hereditary and 
 transmissible from parent to offspring. The destructive 
 disorders known as tuberculosis and scrofula, which present 
 themselves in the form of consumption or wasting, are 
 among the number. Eheumatism, rickets, and the various 
 diseases of the legs of horses known as splints, spavins, 
 
142 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 ringbones, and curbs are all the outcome of inherited 
 weakness in by far the majority of cases. 
 
 Roaring, broken wind, and ophthalmia or inflammation 
 of the eye — diseases which incapacitate and render worth- 
 less some of our best equine blood — are bom of hereditai'y 
 influence. Similarly the powers of endurance possessed 
 by some horses, and the tolerance of cold and deprivation 
 exhibited by some other animals, are properties built up 
 in the constitution and handed down from parent to pro- 
 geny. Certain strains of racehorses, for example, are 
 notorious for carrying heavy weights over long distances, 
 and other feats of endurance of which other equally strong 
 and highly -trained animals are utterly incapable. 
 
 The hereditary tendency to disease may be strongly or 
 slightly inherited. In some families particular weaknesses 
 appear in every member, at one period or another. In 
 others they appear only occasionally, or may even alto- 
 gether disappear from one or many generations— to 
 return again under the influence of indifferent regard for 
 the laws of health. The influence of external circum- 
 stance may do much to uphold health and ward ofi" disease 
 where the tendency to it is only feebly inherited, and 
 even in some cases permanently stamp out the morbid 
 faculty altogether. In this connection good food, a suit- 
 able climate, and the general observance of the laws of 
 health, added to judicious crossing with sound stock, are 
 the essential elements of success. 
 
 Age. — We add here a paragraph descriptive of 
 the dentition of farm-stock as indicative of age. The 
 teeth of our domesticated animals vary in size, form, 
 character, and number, in accordance with the nature 
 
HEALTH AND AGE. 143 
 
 of the food on which they live, and also in accordance 
 with the peculiar organisation and habits of life of 
 the animals themselves. They are also capable of being 
 materially influenced in their development by the system 
 under which stock are reared. In highly bred and 
 liberally fed animals the teeth are produced earlier than 
 in those living under the reverse conditions. It is there- 
 fore necessary to take this point into consideration in 
 determining the question of age. Teeth are divided into 
 three classes, viz.: molars or grinding teeth, incisors or 
 cutting teeth, and canines or tushes. All our domesticated 
 animals possess the two former but not in equal numbers. 
 The ox and sheep have no incisors in the upper jaw, 
 neither have they any canine teeth or tushes. Besides 
 the three varieties mentioned, the pig has also a small 
 tooth in each jaw situated between the corner incisor 
 tooth and the first molar ; this is termed the premolar. 
 Each animal has two sets of teeth during life : the first are 
 termed the milk or sucking teeth, also known as temporary 
 or deciduous in consequence of their being shed or cast off ; 
 the second set, by which they are replaced, are known as 
 the permanent or adult teeth. The teeth appear in the 
 mouth with tolerable regularity and in a certain definite 
 order, so that they afford a fairly reliable indication of the 
 age of stock up to the time when dentition is completed. 
 The temporary teeth differ from the permanent in size, 
 form, and character, and are readily distinguished from 
 each other after a little careful study. The molar teeth 
 are distinguished numerically, counting from front to 
 back, viz. : first, second, third, and so on. The incisors 
 of the horse and pig are six in number in each jaw, the 
 two middle ones are termed centrals, the next pair 
 
144 
 
 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 laterals, and the outermost corners. In the ox and 
 sheep there are eight cutting teeth. Those next the 
 centrals are spoken of as lateral centrals, and the other 
 two pairs as in the horse and pig. 
 
 The following table shows the order of succession in which 
 the changes take place in the horse, ox, pig, and sheep. 
 
 HOESE. 
 Tempoeaey Incisobs. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Position. 
 
 At birth 
 
 3 to 5 weeks old . . . . 
 9 to 10 months old 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Central. 
 Lateral. 
 Corner. 
 
 Pbemauent Incisoeb. 
 
 2 years 6 months old 
 
 3 years 6 months old 
 
 4 years 6 months old 
 
 Central. 
 Lateral. 
 Comer. 
 
 Tempoeaey Molaes. 
 
 At birth 
 
 First, Second, Third. 
 
 Pbemakent Molaeb. 
 
 1 year 3 months old ... 
 
 
 Fourth. 
 
 1 year 9 months old 
 
 
 Fifth. 
 
 2 years 6 to 9 months old . . 
 
 
 First. 
 
 3 years to 3 years 3 months old . 
 
 
 Second. 
 
 3 years 3 months to 6 months old 
 
 
 Third. 
 
 3 years 9 months to i years old . 
 
 
 Sixth. 
 
 Tusheb. 
 
 4 years 3 months old 
 
HEALTH AND AGE. 
 
 145 
 
 From a consideration of the above tables, it will be 
 seen that at ten months old there are present in the 
 horse's mouth six temporary incisors, and the first, second, 
 and third temporary molars. At one year and nine 
 months the fourth and fifth permanent molars have 
 appeared, and a year later the first temporary molar is 
 changed and the two central incisors are permanent. At 
 three years and six months old the second and third tem- 
 porary molars have been replaced by permanent ones, and 
 the two lateral incisors are also permanent. At four 
 years and a half old the temporary corner teeth are shed 
 and the last molar and tusks are up, so that at this time 
 dentition is fairly completed. 
 
 OX. 
 Temporary Incisors. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Nwnibeir. 
 
 Position. 
 
 At birth 
 
 12 to 14 days old . 
 
 21 to 28 days old .... 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 Central. 
 
 Lateral Central. 
 
 Lateral. 
 
 Corner. 
 
 Permanent Incisoes. 
 
 1 year 9 months old 
 
 2 years 3 months old . . . 
 
 2 years 9 months old . 
 
 3 years 3 months old . . . 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Oentral. 
 
 Lateral Central. 
 
 Lateral. 
 
 Comer. 
 
 Temporary Molars. 
 
 21 to 28 days old . 
 
 8 
 
 First, Second, Third. 
 
 Permanent Molars. 
 
 6 months old 
 
 15 months old .... 
 
 24 months old . 
 
 24 to 30 months old . 
 
 30 to 36 months old ... 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 2 
 1 
 
 Fourth. 
 
 Fifth. 
 
 Sixth. 
 
 First and Second. 
 
 Third. 
 
146 
 
 THE LIVE-STOCK OF THE FARM. 
 
 At one month old the ox has a full complement of 
 incisors, with three temporary molars in each jaw. At two 
 years old the fourth, fifth, and sixth permanent molars are 
 present, and the two central incisors are changed. At 
 two years and a half old the first and second molars are 
 cast, and the lateral central incisors are permanent. At 
 three years and three months all the temporary teeth are 
 shed, and have been replaced by permanent ones. 
 
 SHEEP. 
 Temporary Incisors. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Position. 
 
 4 to 7 days old . 
 
 7 to 10 days old . 
 21 to 28 days old . 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Central. 
 
 Lateral Central. 
 
 Lateral. 
 
 Comer. 
 
 Pkemanbnt Incisors. 
 
 1 year old 
 
 1 year 6 months old ... 
 
 2 years 3 months old . 
 
 3 years old 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 Central. 
 
 Lateral Central. 
 
 Lateral. 
 
 Corner. 
 
 Temporary Molars. 
 
 14 to 21 days old . 
 
 3 
 
 First, Second, Third. 
 
 Permanent Molars. 
 
 3 months old 
 
 9 months old .... 
 
 18 months old 
 
 18 to 24 months old . 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 
 Fourth. 
 
 Fifth. 
 
 Sixth. 
 
 First, Second, Third. 
 
 In the sheep, as in the ox, all the temporary incisors 
 are up at one month old, as well as the first, second, and 
 third molars. At one year old the two central incisors 
 are changed and replaced by permanent teeth, and the 
 fourth and fifth molars are up. Six months later the two 
 lateral central and the sixth molar appear. At two years 
 
HEALTH AND AGE. 
 
 147 
 
 and three months the lateral permanent incisors are cut, 
 and the first, second, and third molars are permanent. At 
 three years old the corner incisors are shed, and shortly 
 afterwards all the permanent teeth are in the mouth. 
 
 PIG. 
 Tempobaey Incisoes and Ttjshes. 
 
 Period. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Position. 
 
 Atbii'th ... 
 
 ,j . .... 
 1 month ol<l 
 3 months old 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Tushes. 
 
 Corner Incisors. 
 
 Central. 
 
 Lateral. 
 
 Pbemanbnt Incisoes and Tushes. 
 
 9 months old . 
 
 12 months old . . 
 18 months old .... 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 Tushes. 
 
 Comer Incisors. 
 
 Central. 
 
 Lateral. 
 
 Tbmpoeaey Molabs. 
 
 1 month old . ... 
 
 3 
 
 Fii-st, Second, Third. 
 
 Pbemanent Molaes. , 
 
 6 months old .... 
 
 )j )) ■ • 
 9 months old 
 
 12 months old . ... 
 1 8 months old 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 3 
 1 
 
 Premolar. 
 
 Fourth. 
 
 Fifth. 
 
 First, Second, Thii-d. 
 
 Sixth. 
 
 The pig acquires a full mouth of incisor teeth at about 
 three months old, some time previous to which three 
 molars have appeared in each jaw — viz., the first, second, 
 and third. At six months the premolars and the fourth 
 permanent molar appear ; in nine months the tusks and 
 fifth permanent molar ai-e changed. Three months later 
 the first, second, and third temporary molars are shed and 
 replaced by permanent ones. At eighteen months the 
 sixth or last molar and the lateral incisor are cast, and the 
 changes at this time are complete. 
 
 L 2 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Ebmtbt. — The rennet used in the cheese manufacture is 
 made from the dried stomachs of young calves — "veils," so 
 called. In Cheddar cheese making so many veils are allowed 
 to stand in as many quarts of salt water, and the liquid rennet 
 is used after three or four weeks standing, at the rate of half- 
 a-pint to 100 gallons of milk — enough to set the curd in 
 about an hour. In Cheshire cheese making fresh rennet is 
 used — that which is used each morning haviag been made 
 the day before — about eight or nine square inches of the 
 veil having been put in a pint of salt water and kept in a 
 warm place ; and this is enough for 100 gallons of milk. Mr. 
 Siddorns of Broxton, Cheshire, who has taken accurate weight 
 and measure, finds that five pieces of " veil," each weighing 
 sixty grains, standing in twelve ounces of water during the 
 day, in a temperature of 70°, give the proper quantity for 50 
 gallons of milk. The Irish veil is used, being from very 
 young and wholly milk-fed calves.- — ^The following is the 
 recipe of Mr. Harding of Marksbury, Somerset, a well-known 
 maker of Cheddar cheese : " For making a perfect rennet, 
 mix a brine of strong salt and water sufficient to float an egg 
 well; boil half an hour and let it stand till cold. To two 
 gallons add sis veils, one lemon sliced, and one ounce of salt- 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 149 
 
 petre. It will be fit to use in a month, and will keep any 
 length of time." 
 
 Gestatiox. — The following is the duration of pregnancy in 
 domestic animals : — 
 
 Species. 
 
 Preuiatiu-e 
 Labour. 
 
 Regular Labour. 
 
 Protracted 
 Labour. 
 
 Mare . 
 
 Cow . 
 
 Sheep aud Goat 
 
 Sow 
 
 330 days 
 240 „ 
 135 „ 
 110 ,. 
 
 840 days 
 285 „ 
 144 „ 
 120 „ 
 
 420 days 
 330 „ 
 160 „ 
 130 „ 
 
 Castration. — Castration consists in the removal of the 
 testicles from what is termed the scrotal sac or purse. 
 
 In different animals different periods of life are selected for 
 its performance. Twelve months old is usually considered a 
 suitable period for the emasculation of horses, but where colts 
 are foaled late and lose the advantage of summer growth, or 
 where there exists any constitutional weakness, or want of 
 development, it may be advisable to defer the operation for 
 six or twelve months. Colts with long, lean, ewe-like necks, 
 and a deficiency of crest, or prone to legginess, and want of 
 spring and depth of ribs, will be benefited by the delay. 
 April and May are the months best suited to the operation ; 
 the weather is then fairly cool, and flies have not yet become 
 troublesome. Clear, dry weather should be selected. Easterly 
 and north-easterly winds are to be avoided. 
 
 In order to entail the least possible risk, it is desirable to 
 observe certain precautionaiy measures before proceeding to 
 the operation. The general health of the subject should be 
 good ; and the operation must be postponed if influenza, 
 strangles, and other like disorders are prevalent in the vicinity 
 of the farm. 
 
loO APPENDIX. 
 
 Preliminary to the operation the scrotum or purse should 
 be carefully examined, in order to determine whether both 
 testicles have descended into it. If only one is found there, 
 further time should be allowed for the descent of the second, 
 otherwise the operation will require to be repeated. The 
 operation need not be here described in detail. It includes 
 casting the colt in the case of the horse, and in all cases 
 cutting and the removal of the testicles — the cord by which it 
 is suspended being burnt through with a blunt-edged iron at 
 a dull red heat. For twelve hours preceding the operation, 
 food and water should be withheld in order to prevent any in- 
 ternal mischief during casting, or while the operation is pro- 
 ceeding. Where the knife is employed the vessels of the cord 
 must first be strangulated by ligature, or by clams. In young 
 animals, such as sheep, calves, and pigs, where the vessels are 
 small and the tissues soft and easily torn, the cord is simply 
 twisted upon itself once or twice, and then " drawn " out, thus 
 breaking the testicle away from its connections. Whatever 
 method be adopted, the aim and object is alike in all, viz., to 
 prevent haemorrhage or bleeding. 
 
 When the animal has been liberated from the ropes he 
 should be walked quietly to the stable and kept perfectly quiet 
 in a thoroughly clean, roomy, and well ventilated box. His 
 diet should be light and easy of digestion, such as scalded 
 oats, with bran and a few roots. 
 
 In from 24 to 48 hours swelling of the sheath and scrotum 
 will take place, when, should no other signs of disorder exist, 
 a little walking exercise may be allowed two or three times 
 during the day. If at any time after the operation profuse 
 bleeding sets in, it may usually be arrested by plugging the 
 purse with tow or cotton wool, and applying cold water to it, 
 and wet cloths over the loins. Calves and pigs are commonly 
 cut between two and four months old, and lambs about the 
 tenth to the sixteenth day after birth. In all cases after the 
 
APPENDIX. 151 
 
 operation it is advisable to place them on clean lit tar, and to 
 protect them from wet and cold. 
 
 A large number of animals are annually sacrificed by the 
 neglect of these simple precautions. 
 
 Taste of Tuenips in Butter. — The correction of this 
 disagi'eeable consequence of feeding cows on turnips must 
 depend mainly on giving, both naturally and artificially, 
 opportunity for the escape of the aroma. To this end it is 
 well (1) not to feed cows on turnips except immediately after 
 a milking, by which means the cow has twelve hours in which 
 to get rid of the smell of the vegetable ; and (2) it has been 
 recommended to keep up the natural heat of the milk in the 
 vessel into which it is poured, either by standing it on a hot 
 surface, or by actually adding hot water to it, and thus giving 
 a chance for the smell to evaporate ; (3) it diminishes the risk 
 of communicating the flavour, if the turnips themselves be given 
 as a hot mash (after steaming or boiling) along with chaff of 
 hay and straw ; (4) the cream may be heated or kept hot for 
 some time before being churned ; (5) an addition of saltpetre 
 (a teaspoonful to every gallon of cream before churning) has 
 been recommended, and even of chloride of lime (a drachm to 
 every expected pound) to the water in which the butter is 
 washed. But it is better to avoid the risk by giving as little of 
 the turnips as possible to cows when in full milk. 
 
 Stable Rations. — We take the following examples from a 
 paper by Mr. J. C. Morton, in Volume XIX. of the English 
 Agricultural Society's Journal. They illustrate the variety of 
 farm practice in this particular, and the varying expense thus 
 often unwittingly incurred by different farmers : — 
 
152 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 The Seasons. 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Roots. 
 
 Clover. 
 
 Pasture. 
 
 Weekly 
 cost. 
 
 Summer Season. ■ 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 d. 
 
 J. Binnie, Seaton 
 
 _ 
 
 70 
 
 28 
 
 _ 
 
 ad lib. 
 
 night. 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 J. Morton, Whitfield 
 
 — 
 
 TO 
 
 
 — 
 
 7 ewt. 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 Autumn Season. 
 
 
 
 
 potatoes 
 
 
 
 /' 
 
 
 Professor Low . 
 
 140 
 
 60 
 
 — 
 
 70 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 W. Yater, Botley 
 
 160 
 
 6,^ 
 
 32 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 T. P. Dods, Hexliam. 
 
 Ml lib. 
 
 105 
 
 — 
 
 bran. 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 I'O 
 
 6 
 
 H.J.Wilson, Mausfleld 
 
 42 
 
 67 
 
 — 
 
 21 
 
 — 
 
 ad lib. 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 Winter Season. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tuniips. potatoes 
 
 straw. 
 
 
 
 J. Gibson, Woolmet . 
 
 — 
 
 84 
 
 — 
 
 220 
 
 220 
 carrots. 
 
 112 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 J. Morton, Wliitfleld 
 
 — 
 
 126 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 330 
 pollard. 
 
 ad lib. 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 W. Tater, Botley . 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 32 
 
 70 
 
 40 
 
 ail lib. 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 T. Aitken, Spalding . 
 
 ad lib. 2 
 
 SS 
 
 36 
 
 linseed. 
 
 — 
 
 ud lib. i 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 J. Cobban, Whitfield 
 
 Si 
 
 00 
 
 — 
 
 34 
 carrots. 
 
 bi-an. 
 
 ad lib. 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 M. Sanford, Dover . 
 
 C6 
 
 42 
 
 — 
 
 SO 
 
 28 
 oilcake. 
 
 ad lib. 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 F. Sowerby, Aylesby 
 
 — 
 
 106 
 
 23 
 
 — 
 
 7 
 
 ad lib. 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 Spring Season. 
 
 
 
 
 turnips. 
 
 
 
 
 
 D. A. Milward . 
 
 63 
 
 70 
 
 — 
 
 2S0 
 grn. rye. 
 
 — 
 
 63 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 A. S. Euston, I. of Ely 
 
 ad lib. i 
 
 84 
 
 — 
 
 nci lib. i 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cost of Horse Power. — This was the subject of a paper 
 in the 19th volume of the Journal of the English Agricultural 
 Society, in which the cost of maintaining and feeding the horses 
 of the farm, — the expense of wages, of harness, blacksmith, and 
 farrier ; the cost of maintaining the horse implements being also 
 added, — was elaborately calculated. And the whole, as stated in 
 a number of ascertained examples, was compared with the actual 
 amount of draught per annum to which all the horse work of the 
 farm, carefully added together, was reduced. The following 
 table, in which the main conclusions in six examples are given, 
 is here quoted ; but the whole paper deserves examination. The 
 
APPENDIX, 
 
 153 
 
 common calculation is that a horse-power is 33,000 lbs. lifted 
 1 ft. high per minate ; and this is nearly in accordance with 
 agricultural experience : e.g. a pair of horses will draw a 
 plough at the rate of 2| miles an horn-, i.e. 220 ft. a minute ; 
 and that, at 2^ cwt. of draught, corresponds to a draught 
 (== a lift) of 30,800 lbs. apiece one foot per minute ; an amount 
 often exceeded during greater draughts and quicker speeds. 
 From a half to two-thirds of this amount is actually realised 
 during any prolonged period of agricultural work — the smaller 
 amount being easily understood when you take the periods of 
 comparative rest into account, as when turning at plough \ipon 
 the land ends, or, when at cart, waiting while being loaded. The 
 following is the table referred to, from which it will be seen 
 that agricultural horse power costs about 6^. per cwt. of 
 draught {= lift) per hour of 2J miles. 
 
 Name and 
 
 number uf 
 
 Horses worked. 
 
 Aitken (20) 
 Coleman (H) 
 Laidlaw (7) 
 Wilson (20) . 
 Melvin (20) 
 Morton (Y) . 
 
 Performance 
 
 per Horse, 
 
 i.e. lbs. 
 
 lifted 1 Foot 
 
 per Minute. 
 
 lbs. 
 18,260 
 14,354 
 18,062 
 11,957 
 la,893 
 16,492 
 
 Annual Labour. 
 
 Cwts. drawn 
 1 Mile per 
 Annum. 
 
 Cwts. drawn 
 
 2^ Miles per 
 
 Hour. 
 
 cwts. 
 
 100,000 
 44,000 
 30,800 
 93,800 
 
 107,900 
 S7,10B 
 
 cwts. 
 14-S 
 6-6 
 4-5 
 13-SS 
 16-«8 
 5-6 
 
 Cost of Horse 
 Labour. 
 
 Per 
 Annum. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 873 
 
 471 5 
 
 346 12 
 
 981 16 
 
 1131 10 
 
 381 10 
 
 Per 
 Hour. 
 
 Cost of 
 Horse- 
 power per 
 cwt.drawn 
 
 2^ miles, 
 
 s. d. 
 
 6 6| 
 3 6 
 2 6| 
 
 7 3i 
 
 8 44 
 2 10 
 
 d. 
 H 
 
 ei 
 
 fli 
 
 6 
 6 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Age, indications of, 142 
 Angus, polled, 24 
 Aunatto, 54, 62 
 Ayi'sMies, 27 
 
 Bath cheese, 55 
 
 Berkshii'e pigs, 107 
 
 Black Horse, Old English, 72 
 
 — quarter, 39 
 Breeding cattle, 30 
 
 — horses, 74 
 Breeds of cattle, 1 — 32 
 
 — hoi'ses, 64 — 75 
 
 — poultry, 116 
 
 — ofsheep, 87— 93 
 
 — of Bwine, 105 
 Butter, 58—63 
 
 Calves, 39 
 Castration, 100, App. 
 Cattle, 1—40 
 Cheddar cheese, 50 
 Cheese making, 50 
 
 — room, 54 
 Cheshire cheese, 51 
 Cheviot sheep, 90 
 Chicken rearmg, 120 
 Chums, 61 
 
 Clerelaud bay, the, 68 
 Climate, influence of, 125 
 Clydesdale horse, the, 69 
 Collins, 0., 4 
 
 Cooling milk, 47 
 
 Cost of food, 34 
 
 Cotswold sheep, 88 
 
 Cotton cake, 46 
 
 Cows, management of, 42—45 
 
 Cream cheese, 55 
 
 — sepai'ator, 60 
 Card, 57 
 
 Daikt breeds, 26—32 
 
 — management, 40 — 63 
 
 Dentition, 144 
 Derbyshire cheese, 52 
 Devons, 22 
 Digestion, 132—136 
 Diseases of cattle, 39, 40 
 
 — sheep, 101 
 
 — pigs, 112 
 Dorset pigs, 108 
 
 — sheep, 90 
 Ducks, 122 
 
 Essex pigs, 107 
 
 Factory cheese, 56 
 Feeding horses, 80 
 — sheep, 100 
 Flock, Breeding, 93 
 Food, influence of, 131 
 
 — of cattle, 37, 42 
 
 — of horses, 80 
 
 — of poultiy, 119 
 
 — of sheep, 100 
 
 — of swine, 110 
 
 Foot and mouth disease, 40 
 Foot-rot, 103 
 
 General management of cattle, 33 
 (iestation, 36, App. 
 " Gid," the, 103 
 Gloucester cheese, 52 
 Green food for horses, 82 
 Guernsey cattle, 29 
 
 Habitation, influence of, 128 
 Hampshire Downs, 91 
 Health, 124—142 
 Herdbook, 6, 15 
 Herdwiok sheep, 92 
 Hereditary influence, 140 
 Herefords, 15—21 
 History of the horse, 64 — 67 
 
156 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 " Hoose," 39 
 Horses, farm, 64 — 85 
 Horse-power, App. 
 Horse, teeth of, 144 
 
 Intlammation, 104 
 
 "Jean IE," an Ayrshire cow, 29 
 Jersey cattle, 29 
 
 Kext sheep, 89 
 
 Lactometers, 49 
 Lambitig, 97 
 Xancashire cheese, 53 
 Large white pigs, 100 
 Leicester sheep, 88 
 " Leonora," a Hereford cow, 29 
 Lincoln sheep, 87 
 Longhoms, 26 
 
 McCoMBiE, W., 25 
 Maize, 113 
 
 Management of pigs, 109 
 Middle breed of pigs, 107 
 Milk as food, 133- 
 
 — consumption, 41 
 
 — fever, 38 
 
 — production, 45 
 
 — setting for cream, 59 
 Mountain sheep, 92 
 
 Norfolk, poUed, 28 
 
 Ox, teeth of, 145 
 Oxford Downs, 91 
 
 Pig feeding, 67 
 Pleuro-pneumonia, 40 
 Portraits of Ayrshire cow, 29 
 
 — of Devons, 22 
 
 — of Herefords, 20, 28 
 
 ■ — of Longhorns, 26, 27 
 
 — of Shorthorns, 12, 13 
 Poultry, 115 
 
 Poultry house, 118 
 Pure ail-, 129 
 
 Quality of milk, 49 
 
 Rations for the stable, 83, App. 
 Kearing horses, 77 
 Kennet, App. 
 
 Salt, 51, 63 
 
 Scour, 39 
 
 Setting breeds of fowls, 116 
 
 Sheep, the, 86—104 
 
 — teeth of, 146 
 
 — rot, 102 
 Shire horse, the, 71 
 Shortlioms, 1 — 14 
 Shropshire sheep, 91 
 Small white pigs, 106 
 Southdown sheep, 90 
 
 Sow, management of the, 110 
 Splenic apoplexy, 39, 104 
 Stable, the, 84, 128 
 
 — rations, App. 
 Statistics, 1, 31, 41, 87, 105 
 Stilton cheese, 54 
 
 Stud book, 66 
 Suttblk pigs, 107 
 Suifolk ]?unch, the, 68 
 Sussex cattle, 23 
 Swine, 105 
 
 — teeth of, 147 
 
 Tamwouth pigs, 108 
 Town supply of milk, 47 
 Turkeys, 123 
 
 Varieties of poultiy, 116 
 Ventilation, 130 
 
 "Water as food, 136 
 ■Water fowls, 122 
 Weaning, 33, 101 
 Welsh cattle, 27 
 Whey, 57 
 
 Yeaklings, management of, 35 
 
 BRADBURY, AGKEW, & CO., IRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS. 
 
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 and Animals — Breeds of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs ; also Poultry, Insects, 
 General Natural History.; and Buildings — Farmhouses, Homesteads, Cottages; 
 Photographs illustrative of Country Life and Occupations, whether at Home 
 or Abroad — all these provide subjects for the Engraver. 
 
 PORTRAITS and MEMOIRS of NOTEWORTHY AGRICULTURISTS 
 are also occasionally given. 
 
 SUBSOEIPTIONS PAYAELE IN ADVANCE. 
 
 Including Postage to any part of the United Kingdom. 
 
 Twelve Months, 19s. 6d. ; Six Montlis, 9s. 9d.; 
 Three Months, 6s. 
 
 Post Ofiice Orders to be mad& payable at the King Street Post OiHce, W.C., 
 to Alexander K. Bhuce. 
 
 PUBLISHING OFFICE AND OFFICE FOE, ADVERTISEMENTS: 
 
 7, CATHERINE ST., STRAND, LONDON, W.C. 
 
JOHN FOWLER & CO., Steam Plough Works, Leeds, 
 Bngland ; and 71, ComMll, London, E.G., have been awarded Five Diplomas of Honour 
 at the various International Exhibitions ; all the Royal Agricultural Society a First Prizes for 
 Steam Ploughing Machinery; numerous Oold and Silver Gups, Medals, and valuable Money 
 Frizes, oVit»(ined in all parts nf the World. 
 
 Paris Exhibition, 1878, 
 
 GRAND PRIX: 
 THRE E PRIZE ME DALS. 
 
 LIACHUTEHY, 
 
 Adapted for the efficient Cultiva- 
 tion of Crops in any part of the 
 world. Bouble Engine Sets of 
 Tackle, from six to twenty horse- 
 power, and special ImplementB 
 for eveiy operation. 
 
 Steel Wire Ropes, Portable 
 Engines, Reclamation Machinery. 
 
 Sydney Exhibition, 1880. 
 
 THREE SPECIAL PRIZES, 
 
 Including GOLD MEDAL. 
 
 TRACTION EN&mES, 
 
 To suit the requirements of all 
 Countries. 
 
 Hundreds of these are at work 
 giving great satisfaction, and are being 
 used for Hauling, Thrashing, Pump- 
 ing, Sawing, &c. They are made from 
 3 to 12 H.P. 
 
 These are made of various sizes; 
 fitted with steel throughout ; and with 
 a patent arrangement of gearing, 
 vrhich does away with aU clutchefi. 
 and reduces the width of the Engines 
 to the lowest possible extent ; which, 
 is of great importance when passing 
 through gateways & narrow roads, &c 
 
 PATENT 
 
 PORTABLE RAILWAY 
 
 ROLLING STOCK, 
 AND LOCOMOTIVES, 
 
 Constructed of various Gaug^es, to 
 meet all requirements. 
 
 THE : 
 
 Bails & Patent Sleepers 
 
 can be shipped separately, and 
 put together at their destination 
 without the aid of skilled labour, 
 thus effecting a considerable saving 
 iu transport charges alone. 
 
 The plant is as light as it is pos- 
 sible to make it consistent with 
 strength ; both rails & sleepei-s are 
 made of steel, and little or no wood 
 is used iu the construction of the 
 wagons. 
 
 Catalogues, Specifications, or References to Parties using our Uaohinery, can Ise had on application. 
 
DAY, SON, & HEWITTS 
 
 "ORIGINAL" 
 
 STOCKBREEDERS' MEDICINE CHESTS 
 
 FOR 
 
 ALL DISORDERS IN HORSES, CATTLE, CALVES, SHEEP, 
 AND LAMBS. 
 
 Ill this Chest are the following matchless and world-renowned remedies, all that a 
 Farmer can require to cure disease amongst his Stock, and keep them iu fine, healthy, 
 and buoyant condition. 
 
 " THE CHEMICAL EXTRACT," for Cuts, Bruises, Sore Udders, and Ewes 
 
 Lambing. 
 "THE GASEOUS FLUID," for Colic in Horses, and Scour, and Debility in 
 
 Cattle and Sheep. 
 " THE RED DRENCH," for Cleansing after Calving and Lambing, Fevers, &o. 
 "THE RED PASTE BALLS," for Conditioning Horses. 
 "THE GASEODYNE," for Parturition in Mares, Ewes, &c. 
 "THE BRONCHOLINE," for Husk, Hoose, or Cough in Sheep and Calves. 
 " THE ALCOHOLIC ETHER," for Colds and Chills. 
 " THE CARMINATIVE CHALK," for Diarrhoea in Lambs and Calves. 
 
 PRICE OF CHEST, WITH GUIDE TO FARRIERY . £2 16s. M. 
 
 EACH AETICIiE CAN BE HAD SEPARATELY. 
 
 Patronized by Royalty, and used for over 40 years by the leading 
 Agriculturists of tfie British Empire. 
 
 CATJTIOlf.— See that the name BAY, SON, & HEWITT is on all Bottles and Packets. 
 
 DAY. SON, & HEWITT, 
 
 22, EOKSET STEEET, BAKEE STEEET, LONDON, W. 
 AND WANTAGE, BEEKS. 
 
THE HUNTING BOX 
 OF AN ENGLISH SQUIRE. 
 
 In this series of volumes the artist, who has acquired celebrity 
 as a pleasing delineator of scenes in the hunting-field, has illustrated 
 with considerable fidelity and much humour the various amuse- 
 nlents of indoor and outdoor life in a hunting country durinig the 
 season. The bracing exercise of fox-hunting, and the exhilarating 
 gallops across Country, which consume the daytime of rural life, 
 with the home amusements in the evening, give occasion to in- 
 cidents abounding in fun, which are happily treated. 
 
 G. BOWERS' HUNTING 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 In 3 volumes, oblong folio, in a characteristic binding of hunting 
 ' design, price 4:2s. 6d. 
 
 These volumes can be had separately as under:— 
 
 A MONTH IN THE MIDLANDS: a Book for the 
 
 Shires. Half-hunting cloth, Coloured Plates, price 12s. 6d. 
 
 HOLj^Y BUSH HALL; or, "Open House" in an 
 
 " Open Country." Half-hunting Cloth, Coloured Plates, price 15«. 
 
 NOTES FROM A HUNTING BOX. Oblong foUo, 
 
 half-hunting cloth, price 15s. 
 
 BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO., 8, 9, & 10, BOUVEKIE STREET, E.G. 
 
THE COUNTRY GENTLEMAN'S 
 LIBRARY OF AMUSING READING. , 
 
 This inimitable series of volumes is absolutely unique, tbere being notliing 
 approaching to them in all the wide range of modern or ancient liteiat^ure. 
 ."Written by Mr. Surtees, a well-known country gentleman, who was passion- 
 ately devoted to the healthy sport of fox-hunting, and gifted with a keen 
 spirit of manly humour of a Rabelaisian tinge, they abound with incidents 
 redolent of mirth and jollity. The artist, Mr. Leech, was himself also an 
 enthusiast in the sport, and has reflected in his illustrations, with instinctive 
 appreciation, the rollicking abandon of the author's stories. 
 
 " HANDLEY CROSS " SERIES 
 OF SPORTING NOVELS. 
 
 Embellished with nearly 1000 bf John Leech's best Sketches on Wood, 
 and nearly 100 Hand-coloui'ed Steel Engravings. 5 medium 8vo volumes, 
 large margin, cloth extra, price £S lis. ; and in half morocco, with panelled 
 hunting adornments, gilt and finished, price £i 15s. ( 
 
 These volumes can be had separately as under: — 
 
 HANDLEY CROSS; or, Mr. Jorrocks's Hunt. Many 
 
 Sketches on "Wood, and 17 Steel Engravings. Price 16*. 
 
 ASK MAMMA; or, The Richest Commoner in Eng- 
 land. Many Sketches on "Wood, and 13 Steel Engravings. Price 14s. 
 
 SPONGE'S SPORTING TOUR. Many Sketches on 
 "Wood, and 13 Steel Engravings. Price 14*. 
 
 PLAIN OR RINGLETS? Many Sketches on W6od, and 
 13 Steel Engravings. Price 14s. 
 
 MR. FACEY ROMFORD'S HOUNDS. 24 Steel En- 
 
 gravings. Vnce 14». 
 
 BRADBUKY, AGNE"W, & GO., 8, 9, & 10, BOUVERIE STREET, E.C.