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REFERENCES, 
 
 TO 
 
 POLITICAL' AND ECONOMIC TOPICS. 
 
 PliEPAKED BY 
 
 WILLIAM E. FOSTER. 
 Librarian of tlte Providence Public Library, 
 
 TO ACCOMPANY A SERIES OF LECTURES DELIVERED IN PIwyjluiwsi^, 
 
 R. I., 18Si-S5, 
 
 UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE 
 
 FIRST CONGREGATIONAL PARISH. 
 
 PKOVIDENCE: 
 
 I'UOVIDENCE PBESS COMPANY, BOOK PKINTEES. 
 1885. 
 
NOTE 
 
 The following references to topics in political and economic science, are, as will be seen, 
 prepared to accompany a series of lectures delivered in this city on successive Monday 
 evenings during the past winter. The order of succession of the various lectures is by no 
 means a logical one, being subject to the convenience of the gentlemen who have given 1 
 the lectures. It has been thought best, however, to preserve this order of succession in 
 the references here given, instead of rearranging the topics. The following is a list of the 
 topics, with the dates on which the lectures were delivered : 
 
 J. The study of political economy. Professor E. B^ Andrews, Nov. 17, 1884. 
 II. The organization and administration of the federal government. Mr. Charles 
 H. Parkhurst, Nov. 21, 1881. 
 
 III. The relation of the citizen to the national government. Mr. William E. Foster, 
 Dec. 1, 1884. 
 
 IV. The spirit of the common law, as seen in its maxims. Mr. Joseph C. Ely, Dec. 
 8, 1881. 
 
 V. How are inventors protected? Mr. B. F. Thurston, Dec. 29, 1884. 
 VI. Free trade. Mr. Amasa M. Eaton, Jan. 5, 188S. 
 VII. The nation's resources. Mr. Edward Atkinson, Jan. 19, 1885. 
 VIII. Communism and socialism. Mr. Carroll D. Wright, Jan. 26, 1888. 
 IX. Wages, strikes, and labor unions. Mr. William B. Weeden, Feb. 2, 1885. 
 X. A protective tariff. Hon. Jonathan Chace, Feb. 16, 1885. 
 
 XI. The banking system and monetary exchange. Mr. John W. Vernon, Feb. 23, 1885. 
 XII. A study of the constitutional history of Ehode Island. Mr. Arnold Green, March 
 2, March 9, March 16, 1885. 
 
 XIII. How the law is applied, by lawyers, judges, and jurors, to the protection of pri- 
 vate rights. Mr. B. N. Lapham, March 23, 1885. 
 
 XIV. City government. Hon. Thomas A. Doyle, May 18, 1885. 
 
Missing Page 
 
POLITICAL ECONOMY. 3 
 
 I. 
 
 THE STUDY OF POLITICAL ECONOMY. 1 
 [Lecture by Professor E. B. Andrews, Nov. 17, 1884.] i 
 Modern political economy may be regarded as beginning with Adam 
 Smith. See his "-Wealth of nations," published 1776, (A. B. P.) 
 Another early stage of economic discussion is represented in the writings 
 of Ricardo, (A. B.) (1810-16); Malthus, (A. B.) (1814-27) ;, and 
 .James MU1, (A "> ''821V See •>. "*-<— '■"'-" 
 
 V,- 
 
4 POLITICAL ECONOMY. 
 
 philosophy," 1879) ; also by J. B. Thorold Rogers, (in his " Social 
 economy," 1876, (P.), and his "Six centuries of. work and 
 wages," 1883,) (A. B. P.); also bv the Iate Henry Pawcett, (in his 
 "Manual of political economy," 1863,) (A. B. P.); also in a very 
 marked degree, by J. B. Cairnes, (in his " Essays in political 
 economy, theoretical and applied," 1873, (A. B. P.), and "The 
 character and logical method of political economy," 1874, ) (A. 
 B. P'^ 
 
THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. 5 
 
 (B.)i and Brater), and in French, (by Block, and by Guillaumin and 
 Coquelin) • Neither one of these has been translated, but " Lalor's 
 " Cyclopaedia," above cited, (1881-84) (A. P.), is based largely upon 
 their material. 
 
 II. 
 
 THE ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE FED- 
 ERAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 [Lecture by Mr. Charles H. Parkhurst, Nov. 24, 1884.] 
 (1). The executive department. 
 
 The powers and duties of this department are definitely prescribed in 
 Article 2 of the Constitution of the United States, (A- B. P-) 
 
 For comment and discussion, see Story's "Commentaries on the 
 Constitution," (A. B. P.); (Cooky's edition, v. 2, p. 268-376), (B. P.) 
 
 Also the " General principle of constitutional law," by Judge 
 Thomas M. Cooley, p. 100-7, (B. P.) 
 
 Also the "Commentaries on American law," by Chancellor 
 James Kent, v. 1, p. 271-90, (A. B.) 
 
 Also the treatise on ' ' The powers of the executive department, " 
 by the late Judge Alfred Conkling. 
 
 For discussion on this point, in the convention of 1787, see the 
 "Journal of the convention"; also the "Debates in the con- 
 vention," (in Elliot's "Debates," v. 5, p. 127, 131, 205, 376,380), 
 (A. B. P.) 
 
 See also Curtis's "History of the adoption of the constitu- 
 tion," v. 2, p. 388-420, (A. B. P.) 
 
 For discussion contemporary with the adoption of the constitution, see 
 The Federalist, nos. 47-51, 67-77, (A. B. P.) 
 
 For more recent comment, see the article on " Presidential govern- 
 ment," by Edward A. Freeman, in the National Re-view, Nov., 
 
 1864, v. 19, p. 1-27, (A.) ; also in his "Historical essays," 1st series, 
 P- 373-4 o6 ' (A. P.); also the article on "The presidency of the 
 
 United States," by C. Hickox, in Lipfincotts Magazine, v. 28, p. 
 610. 
 
 [Note. — In 18S4 was published an interesting " History of presidential elections," 
 by Edward Stanwood, (A. P.).] 
 
 (2). The legislative department. 
 
 The powers and duties are prescribed in Article 1 of the Constitution, 
 (A. B. P.) 
 
6 THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 For comment, see Story's ''Commentaries," (A. B. P.) (Cooler's 
 ed., v. i ; also v. 2, p. 1-267,) (A. B. P.) ; also Kent's " Commen- 
 taries on American law," v. 1, p. 221-70, (A. B.); also Cooley's 
 "General principles of constitutional law," p- 54-99, (B. P.) 
 
 See also the article, "Congress," in Lalor's "Cyclopaedia of 
 political science," v. 1, p. 587-891 (A. P.) 
 
 Also " The United States government," by G. N. Lamphere. 
 
 The " Conduct of business in congress " w»s discussed by Sena- 
 tor Hoar, of Massachusetts, in the Atlantic Monthly, Feb., 1879, v - 43> 
 p. 113-34, (A. P.) ; and also in two articles by the late President Gar- 
 field, — (1) " A century of congress," Atlantic Monthly, July, 1877, 
 v. 40, p. 49-64, (A. P.) ; (2) ''National appropriations and mis- 
 appropriations," North American Review, June, 1879, v. 128, p. 572- 
 86, (A. B. P.) 
 
 The tendency to extend and enlarge the powers of the legislative depart- 
 ment may be studied in the " Tenure of office act," passed, 1867 ; see 
 Judge Benjamin R. Curtis's argument, Memoir, etc., v. 2, p. 357-67) 
 (A. B. P. J; and also in the Supreme Court decision in the case of Juil- 
 lard vs. Greenman, March 3, 1884, (printed in Knox's " United States 
 notes," p- 193-210,) (A. P.) See Atkinson's " Distribution of prod- 
 ucts," p. 4-5. (A. P.) 
 
 A volume recently issued, — "Congressional government," by 
 Woodrow ^Tilson, — is not only the fullest examination yet made of 
 the powers and duties of congress, but a most valuable contribution to 
 American political science, (A. P.) 
 
 [Mr. Wilson's conclusion is that not only is political power tending to concentrate in 
 congress, at the expense of the other departments of the government, but in certain com- 
 mittees of congress.] 
 
 (3). The judicial department. 
 
 The powers and duties are prescribed in Article 3 of the Constitution 
 (A. B. P.) For comment see Story's " Commentaries," v. 2, p. 377- 
 553, (B. P.); also Kent's " Commentaries," v. i,p. 291-352, (A. B.); 
 also Cooley's " General principles of constitutional law," p. 108- 
 40, (B. P.) 
 
 See also the "Treatise on the courts of the United States," by 
 Judge Alfred Conkling. 
 
 Also " The jurisdiction of the United Stabes courts," by Judge 
 Benjamin R. Curtis. 
 
 Also p. 24-88 of the " Lectures on the constitution of the United 
 States," by Judge S. P. Miller, (1880), (P.) 
 
CITIZEN AND THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. 7 
 
 Also B. P. Wheeler's pamphlet, "The supreme court as a 
 co-ordinate branch of the United States government," (P.) 
 
 The powers of the Supreme Court, at first only generally and indefi- 
 nitely claimed, were steadily strengthened and extended under the chief- 
 justiceship of John Marshall. See the sketch of his life in Planders's 
 " Lives of the chief-justices," v. 2, p. 277-550, (A. B. P.); also the 
 recent volume on John Marshall, (by A. B. Magruder,) (A. B. P.), 
 in the series, "American statesmen," which, however, is based almost 
 wholly on Planders's account. On the more recent development of the 
 powers of the United States Supreme Court, see Lalor's "Cyclo- 
 paedia," v. 2, p. 650, (A. P-) Yet Mr. Brooks Adams, in his article 
 in the Atlantic Monthly, March, 1885, v. 55, p. 302-8, on "The consoli- 
 dation of the colonies," (A. P.), maintains that the prestige of the 
 Supreme Court has been hopelessly impaired. 
 
 [Note. — The appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States is care- 
 fully discriminated in the Constitution, article 3, section 2, (A. B. P.) .] 
 
 III. 
 THE RELATION OF THE CITIZEN TO THE NATIONAL GOV- 
 ERNMENT. 
 [Lecture by Mr. William E. Foster, Dec. i, 1884.] 
 (1). The rights guaranteed nim by the government. 
 
 These may be studied in the Constitution of the United States, Article 
 1, Section 3, paragraph 7; section 6, paragraph 1; section 9, paragraphs 
 2 and 3 ; Article 3, section 2 ; Article 4, section 2 ; also of the amendments, 
 nos. 1 to 9, inclusive, and 13 to 15, inclusive, (A- B. P.) 
 
 Compare also Story's " Commentaries," v. 1 and 2, (A- B- P-) 
 
 Out of the 15 amendments, no less than 12 relate to personal rights. 
 For discussion in connection with the earlier amendments, and with a 
 "billof rights, "see The Federalist, No. 84, (A- B. P.); also the Journal 
 of the Convention, 1787, (A- B- P-); also Elliot's "Debates," v. 2, 
 (A. B. P.) 
 
 Compare also " The political, personal, and property rights of 
 a citizen of the United States," by Professor Theophilus Par- 
 sons, P- I7i-6S3> (A. P.); also "Judge and jury," by B. V. Abbott, 
 (A. PO 
 
 [NOTE. — The foundation of these rights may be studied in the constitutional develop- 
 ment of the mother country. See Scott's " Rise of constitutional liberty," (P.);, also 
 Lieber's work, " On civil liberty and self-government," (A. B. P.).] 
 
8 COMMON LAW. 
 
 (2). Duties of the citizen to the government. 
 
 (a). The duty of bearing arms. 
 
 On the origin of this duty in the military life of the middle age, see 
 Hallam's "View of the state of Europe during the middle 
 ages,"ch. 2, pt. 1, (A. B. P.); also Woolsey's "Political science," 
 v. 2, p. 392-95, (A. B. P.) 
 
 As an instance of the inefficiency of a too slight attention to this duty, 
 see the condition of the government under the Confederation. (Mar- 
 shall's "George Washington," v. 5, p. 212-48,) (A. B. P.) An 
 instance of the hardship resulting from the opposite extreme maybe seen 
 in the military laws of the German empire, (requiring military service 
 from each citizen between his 20th and 28th year). See the Constitution 
 of the German empire, article 59, (B. P-) 
 
 (b). The duty of financial stiff ort. 
 
 On taxation, see "The law of taxation," by Judge Thomas M- 
 Cooley- 
 
 Also, the article, "The principles of taxation," by David A. 
 Wells, in Lalor's "Cyclopaedia," v. 3, p. 870-90, (A. P.) 
 
 For the discussion of methods of taxation, see the bibliographical tract, 
 (Tract No. 2), of the Society for Political Education, on " Political econ- 
 omy and political science," p. 9-10, (P.) 
 
 (c). The duty of allegiance. 
 
 See the " Statutes at large," of the United States, p. 351-52, £B. P.) 
 
 Also, Woolsey's "Political science," v. 1, p. 386-88, (A. B. P.) 
 
 IV. 
 
 THE SPIRIT OF THE COMMON LAW, AS SEEN IN ITS 
 
 MAXIMS. 
 [Lecture by Mr. Joseph C. Ely, Dec. 8, 1884.] 
 
 A comprehensive discussion of the subject will be found in " The com- 
 mon law," by Judge Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., (1881). 
 
 See also the article, " Common law," by J. W. Clampitt, in 
 Lalor's " Cyclopaedia," v. 2, p. 704-9, (A- P-) 
 
 Some of the celebrated works on the English common law are Brac- 
 ton's "Laws and customs of England," (1569), (B.); Portescue's 
 " De laudibus legum Anglise," (about 1510) ; Sir Thomas Lyttle- 
 ton's " Tenures," (B,) (about 1481); Sir Edward Coke's "Com- 
 mentary on Lyttletons tenures," (1628), (B ); Bacon's "Ele- 
 ments of the common law of England," (1636), (A. B. P-); the 
 " History of the common law of England," by Sir Matthew 
 
PROTECTION OF INVENTORS. 9 
 
 Hale, (i7 T 3)> (A. B-); " The grounds and rudiments of law and 
 equity," published anonymously, 1749, (B.); and Sir William Black- 
 stone's " Commentaries on the laws of England," 1765. (A- B. 
 P.) See also Broom's " Legal maxims," (B.) 
 Compare also p. 306-15, of Clark's " Practical jurisprudence,"(P-) 
 On the legal conditions existing in the American colonies before 1776, 
 see the chapter on " Colonial jurisprudence," in the volume, "Judge 
 and Jury," by B. V. Abbott, A- P.) 
 
 For the increasing extent to which other departments of jurisprudence 
 than the common law have gradually claimed a position of greater impor- 
 tance in this country, see Judge Bispham's article on ''Law in Amer- 
 ica, 1776-1876," in the North American Review ,]a.n. , 1876, v. 122, p. 154^ 
 91, A. B. P) 
 
 HOW ARE INVENTORS PROTECTED ? 
 [Lecture by Hon. B. F. Thurston, Dec. 29, 1884.] 
 
 On the early measures adopted in England, by the granting of " monop- 
 olies," see Cunningham's "Growth of English industry and 
 commerce," p. 316 (A. P.) 
 
 On the early measures in the American colonies, see Bishop's "His- 
 tory of American manufactures," v. 1., p. 96, 223-24, (A. B. P.) 
 
 The issue of such patents or " rights," is provided for in the Constitu- 
 tion, Article 1, section 8, paragraph 8, see Story's " Commentaries," 
 v. 2, p. 78-80, (A. B. P.) 
 
 The present organization of the United States Patent Office dates from 
 1836. See the successive publications of this office, comprising an "An- 
 nualreport," 1837-71, (A.) and the weekly periodical issue of the Offi- 
 cial Gazette of the United States Patent Office, since Jan., 1872', 
 (A. B. P.); also, for the same period, the " Specifications and draw- 
 ings" ; also, the annual reports of the commissioners, for the same period, 
 (A. B. P.) See also the ''Subject-matter index, 1790-1873," 3 
 vols. ; alsp an earlier list, 1790-1836, (B.) 
 
 For the present law in relation to patents, see the ' ' Statutes? at large, " 
 Titles 11 and 60, (B.) See also the " Rules for practice," as revised 
 Jan. 1, 1879, (B. P-) Also the " Revised classification of subjects 
 of invention," 1880, (B. P.) Also the "Digest of the decisions of 
 law and practice in the patent office, 1869-80," by D. H. and 
 L. C Rice, 1880, (B. P.) 
 
 [Note. — In 1837, the year following the organization of the Patent Office, was pub- 
 lished " The inventor's guide," by Willard Phillips, (P.) ; the type of a long list of 
 
io FREE TRADE. 
 
 similar publications appearing from that time to this. Of these, one of the most valuable 
 was " The inventor's manual," by George Ticknor Curtis (A. P.), (1st edition, 1851) ; 
 see also his " Law of patents," 1873.] 
 
 Some conception of the extraordinary development of mechanical inven- 
 tive genius in this country may be gained from an examination -of 
 Knight's "American mechanical dictionary," 3 vols., 1872-76, 
 (A- P-); supplementary volume, 1883, (A- P-); also the reports, with illus- 
 trations and descriptions, of the various industrial and international expo- 
 sitions, from 1851 to 1884, (A- B- P); also the chapter on " Mechanical 
 progress," 1776-1876, in the volume (published 1876), entitled " The 
 first century of the republic," (A. B- P.)' The article, " Patents 
 and the patent system," by p. W. Whitridge. in Lalor's 
 " Cyclopaedia," v. 3, p. 129-39, (A- P-), is a valuable summary of the 
 American system. The article, " Patents," by J. H- Johnson, in the 
 "Encyclopedia Britannica," 9th ed., v. 18, p. 354-58, A. B- P-), 
 summarizes the method of procedure in all the European eountries. 
 
 VI. 
 
 FREE TRADE. 
 
 [Lecture by Mr. Amasa M. Eaton, Jan. 5, 1885.] 
 
 For the two definitions of this principle, designating it (1) as an abso- 
 lute freedom of trade, and (2) the opposite of the protectionist policy, see 
 Bastiat's " Sophisms of protection," (A.)> and an article in The American, 
 (a protectionist journal of Philadelphia), Aug. 7, 1884. 
 
 For an examination of the " mercantile system" and the "balance of 
 trade " theories, see Perry's " Elements of political economy," (A. 
 B- P-) Great Britain's experience, in her adoption of a free trade policy, 
 (since 1842) may be studied, (though quite inadequately), in the " History 
 of the free-trade movement in England," by A- Mongredien, (A. P.) 
 Compare also the volume, " Fiscal legislation, 1842-Q5," by John 
 Noble; also the lives and writings of Mr. Cobden, (A- B- PO, and Mr. 
 Bright, (A. B- PO 
 
 [Note. — An adequate study of the English experience would necessitate the compari- 
 son of much material now almost inaccessible in newspaper tiles, pamphlets, government 
 documents, etc.] 
 
 On the revenue measures of the United States during its first three dec- 
 ades under the constitution, see Dr. P. "W". Taussig's volume, "Pro- 
 tection to young industries, as applied in the United States,'' 
 (A.P),and "Taxationin the United States, 1789-1816," by Henry 
 Carter Adams, ("Johns Hopkins University Studies," 2d series, nos. 
 
FREE TRADE. n 
 
 5~&)i (A. P.), in both of which it is maintained that the protective princi- 
 ple as we now know it, in association with tariff measures, is of later date 
 than 1815. , 
 
 At two periods since 1815, an approach has been made to a free trade 
 policy. 
 (1). The period, 1833-42. 
 
 On the tariff of these years, see Niles's Weekly Register, v. 44, p. 4-5, 
 (A. B. P-); also Benton's " Thirty years' view," v. 1, ch. 85-86, 
 (A. B- P.) 
 
 (2). The period, 1844-60. 
 
 See Sumner's " Lectures on the history of protection in the 
 United States," (A.) Also, Perry's " Elements of political econ- 
 omy," p. 564-65, (A. B. P-) Compare also the annual report of the Sec- 
 retary of the Treasury, (R. J. Walker), Dec, 1848, (A.) 
 
 Recent discussion in congress, from a revenue reform point of view, 
 may be found in the speeches, (on the appointment of a tariff commission, 
 1882), by Senator Beck, Jan. 5, Jan. 10, and March 20, 1882 ; Senator 
 Bayard, (now Secretary of State), Jan. 10, 1872; and Representative 
 Carlisle, March 28, and 29, 1882. (In Congressional Record, v. 12, 1882), 
 (A. P.) 
 
 Other discussion may be found in the series of articles by David A. 
 "Wells, entitled "How shall the nation regain prosperity?" in 
 the North American Review, July, Sept. Nov., 1877, v. 125, p. 1 10-32, 
 283-308, 544-56, (A- B- P-); also " The argument against protec- 
 tive taxes," by Professor 'William G. S um ner, Princeton Review, 
 March, 1881, new series, v. 7, p. 241-59, (A. B- P.) 
 
 There is an interesting review of the experience under " Free trade and 
 protection," by Professor Alexander Johnston, in the recently collected 
 " Representative American orations," v. 3, p. 327-37, (A- P) 
 
 Measures of tariff reform may be considered in their bearings on — 
 
 (i). THE WAGE-RECEIVING CLASS. 
 
 The " Ninth census of the United States," (" "Wealth and 
 industry," p- 394), shows the number of persons employed in manu- 
 factures to be 2,053,996, (A. B. P.) Of these, only 3 per cent., says 
 Perry, were " in the cotton, iron, steel, woollen, and worsted industries, 
 which are all highly protected industries.'' (" Introduction to politi- 
 cal economy," p- i7°0 (A. B. P-) The Tenth census, (" Compen- 
 dium," p.928), shows the total to be 2,738,895,) (A- B P-) Of this total 
 also,- Mr. Eaton maintains that a most important percentage comprises 
 trades in which no protection, real or supposed, can be considered to 
 operate. 
 
12 FREE TRADE. 
 
 For other considerations of the question of wages, see Craines's 
 " Essays in political economy," p. 348, (A. B- P.); the Book Notes, 
 March 14, 1885, v. 2, p. 105-7, (A. B. P.); and. "The wages ques- 
 tion," by P. A- Walker, (A- B- P-) 
 
 (2). The manufacturers. 
 
 See the volume, " Does protection protect?" by W. M. Gros- 
 venor, (AO; also the "History of the present tariff," by P. W. 
 Taussig, (A. P.) 
 
 A single phase of the subject, — namely, the operation of a high tariff on 
 raw materials,— has received especial attention. See especially "The 
 distribution of products," by Edward Atkinson, (A. P.); and the 
 " Introduction to political economy," p- 187-90, by A- L. Perry, 
 (A- B- P-) On this point, the utterances of manufacturers themselves are 
 of interest. See the "Address before the Washington County 
 [R. I.] Agricultural Society," Sept. n, 1884, by Rowland Hazard, 
 discussing its relations to the woollen industry, (A. B- P-) 
 
 A series of lectures was delivered in the Old South Church, Boston, 
 (arranged by the Massachusetts Tariff Reform League), Jan, 23, Jan. 30, 
 Feb. 6, Feb. 13, Feb. 20. 1885, .in three of which the bearings of this ques. 
 tion on the manufacture of hardware, on ship-building, and on shoe- 
 manufacturing, were respectively considered by manufacturers engaged in 
 these industries. (Printed in the Boston Daily Advertiser, Jan. 24, Jan. 
 31, Feb. 7, Feb. 14, Feb. 21, 1885,) (P.) High duties on raw materials have 
 been unfavorably noticed by President Arthur in his successive annual 
 messages, (A- B. P-)> an d in the annual report of the Secretary of the 
 Treasury, Dec. 1, 1884, (Mr- McCulloch), their removal is strenuously 
 urged, (A- B. P.) 
 
 (3). The commercial classes. 
 
 In the annual reports of the " Bureau of statistics of commerce 
 and navigation," 1861-80, (AO, (also in the annual reports of the 
 National Board of Trade), may be studied the very striking decline in 
 tonnage of the merchant marine of the United States. (From 5,539,813 
 tons in 1861, to 3,128,374 tons in 1880.) 
 
 In the volume, " Our merchant marine," by David A- Wells, 
 (1S82), p. 20-25, (P.), the effect of high tariff duties in this connection is 
 examined. See also Mr. Wells's article, " Navigation laws," in 
 Lalor's " Cyclopaedia," v. 2, p. 973-84, (A- P.); also " The ques- 
 tion of ships," by Lieut. J. D- J. Kelley, U. S. N., p. 46-47, (A. P.) 
 
 A graphic representation of the decline in the American vessels engaged 
 in American trade, (from 75.2 per cent, in 1856, to 16.2 per cent, in 1881), 
 
COMMUNISM AND SOCIALISM. 13 
 
 is found on the plate facing the title-page, in Mr. "Wells's volume, "Our 
 merchant marine," (P.) 
 
 VII. 
 
 THE NATION'S RESOURCES. 
 [Lecture by Mr. Edward Atkinson, Jan. 19, 1885.] 
 For the most comprehensive exhibits of the resources of the United 
 States, see the reports of the successive United States Censuses, CA 
 B. P.) 
 
 [Note.— That of 1880 has thus far appeared in 10 quarto volumes, of which 2 volumes are 
 devoted to the cotton industry, 1 to other agricultural products, and 1 to manufacturing 
 processes, (A. B. P.)]. 
 
 On the census of 1870 was based the valuable statistical atlas, known as 
 "Walker's " Statistical atlas," (A. B. P-) A much more compre- 
 hensive work is the new Scribner's " Statistical atlas," based on the 
 census of 1880, and published in 1884, (P.) 
 
 "The natural resources of the United States," by J. Harris 
 Patton, (P-), gives a separate consideration to each of the great interests, 
 such as coal, iron, wood, etc. 
 
 In "The distribution of products," by Edward Atkinson, 
 (1885), (A. P.), tables are furnished, showing the absolute and compara- 
 tive statistics of the more important articles of trade and commerce. 
 
 VIII. 
 COMMUNISM AND SOCIALISM. 
 [Lecture by Mr. Carroll D. Wright, Jan. 26, 1885.] 
 The appearance of socialistic and communistic tendencies in early forms 
 of society maybe studied in " Ancient society," by Lewis H- Mor- 
 gan, (A. B. P.); also in "Early law and custom," by Sir Henry 
 Sumner Maine, (A. B. P-), also in "Primitive property," by 
 Emile Laveleye, (A- B- P ■); also in " The origin of civilization 
 and the primitive condition of man," by Sir John Lubbock, 
 (A. B. P.) 
 
 For socialistic traits existing among uncivilized races, see " The Nar- 
 ragansetts," by Henry O. Dorr, (printed in "Collections of the 
 Rhode Island Historical Society," v. 7), (A. B. P.) 
 
 A conspicuous exemplification of these principles occurred in connection 
 with the French revolution, [1789-93]. See chapter 1, of " French and 
 German socialism in modern times," by Richard T. Ely, (A. 
 2 
 
1 4 WAGES, S Til IKES, ETC. 
 
 P.) Compare also the " History of the French revolution," by 
 L. Adolphe Thiers, (A. P.) 
 
 For discussions of socialism as manifested within recent years, see 
 "Socialism," by M. Kaufmann, (1874), (P.); "Socialism," by 
 Roswell D. Hitchcock; "Communism and socialism," by 
 Theodore D. Woolsey, (B. P.); "French and German social- 
 ism in modern times," by Richard T. Ely, (A. P.) ; "Contem- 
 porary socialism," by John Rae, (1884), (A. P.); and th e article 
 by Louis Reybaud, in Lalor's " Cyclopaedia of political sci- 
 ence," v. 3, p. 745-53, (A. P.) 
 
 For the most conspicuous modern example of communism, see "Paris 
 under the Commune," 1871, by John Leighton, (P.) See also the 
 article, " Communism," by Henri Baudrillart, in Lalor's "Cyclo- 
 paedia of political science," v. 1, p. 533-39, (A. P.) 
 
 For the nihilistic manifestations in Russia, see " Underground Rus- 
 sia," by "Stepniak." 
 
 [Note. — In the United States, the peculiar theories above indicated have not as yet 
 gained an important foothold. See, however, the " History of American social- 
 isms," by J. H. Noyes, (A. B.); " The communistic societies of the United 
 States," by Charles Nordhoff, (A. B. P.); " Communism in America," by H. A. 
 James; " Icaria; a chapter in the history of communism," by Albert Shaw, (P.); 
 and "Recent American socialism," by It. T. Ely.] 
 
 IX. 
 WAGES, STRIKES, AND LABOR UNIONS. 
 [Lecture by William B. Weeden, Feb. 2, 1885.] ' 
 The wage-systems of early communities are examined in two of Sir 
 Henry Sumner Maine's volumes, "Early law and custom," and 
 "The early history of institutions," (A. B. P.) 
 
 The conditions existing in England, from 1259 to 1884, are minutely and 
 intelligently examined in the recent volume by J. E. Thorold Rogers, 
 "Six centuries of work and wages," (1884), (A. B. P.; 
 
 See also Cunningham's " Growth of English industry and 
 commerce," p. 62-80, 389-420, (P.) 
 
 For corresponding conditions existing in the American colonies, see 
 Eggleston's series of papers on " Social life in the colonies," in the 
 Century, 1883-84, v. 28, 29, (A. B. P.)- Compare also Winthrop's 
 Journal, (A. B. P.); Sewall's Diary, etc., (A. B. P.) 
 
 Corresponding conditions at present may be examined in the report on 
 
 " Labor in Europe and America," by Edward Young, (1876), 
 
 (A. B. P.); also the successive annual reports of Carroll D. Wright, 
 
 as the Chief of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, 
 
WAGES, STRIKES, ETC. 15 
 
 (A. P.); als ° the' article, "Wages," by Gen. Francis A. Walker, 
 in Lalor's '' Cyclopaedia," v. 3, p. 1077-85, (A. P-) 
 
 Gen. Walker has criticised in detail the theory known as the 
 "Wage-fund principle," in Lalor's " Cyclopaedia," v. 3, p. 1074- 
 77, (A- PO; and also in his volume, "The wages question," (1S76), 
 (A- B- P-) This theory is now very generally abandoned. 
 
 Other modern discussions of the general subject are to be found in W^ 
 T. Thornton's treatise, " On labour," (1869), (B.) This and other 
 writings of Mr. Thornton are reviewed by John Stuart Mill, in his 
 article, "Thornton on labour and its claims," in the Fortnightly 
 
 Review, May, 1869, v. 11, p. 505, 680, (A-), (also reprinted in his "Dis- 
 sertations and discussions," v. 5, p. 28-94), (A- B- P-) 
 
 See also the little volume by Sir Thomas Brassey, '' On work 
 and wages," (1872), (A; B- P-) ; also a still smaller tract by Edward 
 Atkinson, entitled "Labor and capital allies,, not enemies,"" 
 (1879). (P) 
 
 The volume entitled "Progress and poverty," by Henry George, 
 was published in 1879, (A- P-) It is reviewed by "William B- W^eeden 
 and Willard Brown, in the Atlantic Monthly, Dec, 1880, v. 46, p. 846- 
 54. (A- P.) 
 
 The question of " The state in relation to labour," is examined by 
 William Stanley Jevons, (B ) 
 
 See also " The wages and earnings of the working classes in 
 1883-84," by Leone Levi. 
 
 The most comprehensive " History of CO- operation," is that by Q. 
 J. Holyoake,.d879), (P.) 
 
 On trades unions, see " Trade unions and the relations of capi- 
 tal and labour," by J. Gostick; " Trade unions," byR. Somers ; 
 and "Conflicts of capital and labour," by G- Howell, (P-); also, 
 Fawcett's " Manual of political economy," p- 238-58, (A.P.); and 
 Jevons's primer of " Political economy," p- 61-77, (p.) 
 
 On strikes, see " Working people and their employers," by W. 
 Gladden; "Politics for young Americans," by Charles Nord- 
 hoff, (A- B- P-); and "Industrial conciliation and arbitration," 
 by Carroll D. Wright, (P.) 
 
 Other discussions of the relations of employers and employed may be 
 found in R. R. Bowker's little treatise, "Of work and wealth.'' 
 (Economic tract, no. 10, of the Society for political education), (P.)- 
 " What social classes owe to each other," by William G. Sum- 
 ner, (A- P.); and ''The social law of labor," by William B. 
 Weeden, (A. B- P-); also " What makes the rate of wages? " 
 
16 A PROTECTIVE TARIFF. 
 
 by Edward Atkinson, (p. 1-190 of "The distribution of pro- 
 ducts), (A- P.) ; also " Profit-sharing," by Sedley Taylor- 
 
 X. 
 A PROTECTIVE TARIFF. 
 [Lecture by Hon. Jonathan Chace, Feb. 16, 18S5.] 
 For the distinctive features of the successive tariffs of the United States, 
 (namely, those of 1789, 1816, 1824, 1828, 1833, 1842, 1846, 1857, and 1861), 
 see the article, " Tariff," in Lalor's " Cyclopaedia of political sci- 
 ence," v. 3, p. 423-40, 856-67, (A- P.); also Bishop's "History of 
 American manufactures," v. 2, p. 16, 225-29, 290-92, 322-24, 374-75, 
 424-74, (A. B. P) ; also Homans's " Cyclopaedia of commerce," 
 P- 1795 (A. P.) ; also Bolles's "Financial history of the United 
 
 States, 1789-1860," p. 359-466, (A- P.) The latter work comprises an 
 extended discussion of the successive modifications in the tariff. For tar- 
 iff legislation since i860, see the " History of the present tariff," by 
 F. W. Taussig, (18S5), (A. P.) 
 
 American tariff legislation was an outgrowth of various colonial provis- 
 ions and restrictions, but was first put in tangible form by the comprehen- 
 sive reports of Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treas- 
 ury, on " Laying duties on imports,'' on ''Manufactures," and on 
 " The public credit," (i?9° and 1791). These reports are printed in the 
 "American state papers; Finance," v. 1, p. 15-25, 45-51, 123-24, 
 (A. B. P-) 
 
 Since the close of the war of 1812 the tendency to regard the tariff as a 
 measure for the protection of American industries, rather than simply for 
 revenue, has been alternately in the ascendant and the reverse. See the 
 article, "Tariff," in Lalor's " Cyclopaedia," v. 3, p. 856-67, (A. P.) 
 
 The protective policy was effectively advocated by Henry Clay, in the 
 course of his political career. See his " Life and speeches," in 2 vol- 
 umes, (A. B-P-) Compare also the historical review by E. H- Roberts, 
 in his recent work on " Government revenue," p- 26-65, (A. P.) 
 
 This policy is advocated also in the "Principles of social science," 
 by Henry C. Carey, (B. P-); in " Essays designed to elucidate 
 the science of political economy," by Horace Greeley, (A- P.); 
 and in R. E. Thompson's "Political economy," 3d-ed., 1882, (P.) 
 See also the volume by E. H. Roberts, above cited, on " Govern- 
 ment revenue, " (A. P.) (1884), consisting of lectures delivered at Cor- 
 nell University. 
 
 In 1860-62 the protective principle in the American tariff policy was 
 more thoroughly incorporated into legislative enactment, than ever before, 
 
BANKING SYSTEM, AND MONETARY EXCHANGE. 17 
 
 and this policy has never been wholly reversed or abandoned. See 
 Thompson's "Political economy," p. 357~ 6 4. (P.) See als ° "The 
 history of the present tariff," by p. W- Taussig, (A. P.); also 
 Greeley's volume, p. 290-305, (A- P.) 
 
 The latest important attempt at tariff legislation was in the appointment 
 of the Tariff Commission, 1882. The "Report "of this commission, 
 (1883), comprises 2 octavo volumes, (P.) For protectionist discussion of 
 the subject in connection with this plan, see the argument of Senator 
 Morrill, of Vermont, Dec. 9, 1S81 ; of Senator Hoar, of Massachusetts, 
 March 9, 1882; of Representative Kasson, of Iowa, March 28, 1882; and 
 of Representative Jonathan Chace, [since Senator], of Rhode Island, 
 May 5, 1882. The foregoing are printed in the Congressional Record, v. 
 12, '(A. B. P.) See also the address of Mr. Chace in the House, April 
 16, 1884, -(A. B. P.) 
 
 The result of the report of the tariff commission was a reduction of 20 
 per cent. The exact status of the tariff at present may be learned from the 
 tables showing the duties on each article, given in the "American 
 alm_anac," 1885, p. 81-84, (A. B. P.) See also Morgan's " U. S. 
 import duties," 1883, (P.) 
 
 [Note. — In Homans's " Cyclopaedia of commerce," p. 1795, (A. P.), is a table 
 showing " Revenue accruing: under high and low tariffs, 1824-55." At p. 6i, 66 
 of the "American almanac," 1885, is a table showing the amount of revenue from cus- 
 toms duties, 1789-1884, (A. B. P.)]. 
 
 *For still other references, see the list on Free trade. 
 
 XI. 
 
 THE BANKING SYSTEM, AND MONETARY EXCHANGE. 
 
 [Lecture by Mr. John W. Vernon, Feb. 23, 1S83.] 
 
 On the early history of exchange by barter and otherwise, see "Primi- 
 tive property,"' by Emile de Laveleye, (A. B. P.) ; also " Indian 
 money in American civilization," by William B. Weeden, 
 (" Johns Hopkins University Studies," 2d series, nos. 8, 9), (A- P-) ; also 
 the " History of American currency," by William G. Sumner, 
 p. 1-57, (A. B. P.) ; Phillips's " Historical sketches of the paper 
 currency of the American colonies," (B. P) ; and " The finan- 
 cial history of the United States," 1774-89, by A. S- Bolles, 
 (A. P.) 
 
 On modern systems of exchange, see " Money and the mechanism 
 of exchange, by William Stanley Jevons, (1875), (A. B. P.); 
 also Mr. J avons's " Investigations in currency and finance," 
 
18 BANKING SYSTEM, AND MONETARY EXCHANGE. 
 
 (published posthumously, 1884), (A. B. P-); a ' so " Principles of cur- 
 rency and banking," by Bonamy Price, (1876), (A.); and "Me- 
 tallic and paper money, and banks," by J. R. McCulloch, (B.) 
 
 For a description of the English monetary system, see "Lombard 
 Street," by Walter Bagehot," (1873), (A. B. P.) 
 
 For an account of American monetary methods, see ""What is a 
 bank ?" by Edward Atkinson, (A. P.), (p. 191-228 of "The dis- 
 tribution of products" ; also published separately, (A. P-) 
 
 Other works by American financial- writers are "Money," (1878), by 
 Gen. p. A. Walker, (A. B. P.); "Money in its relations to trade 
 and industry," (1879), ( b y the sa me author), (A. B. P.); the article by 
 Horace White, on "Money and its substitutes." in Lalor's 
 " Cyclopaedia, " v. 2, p. 87S-89, (A. P-); a ' so a remarkably intelligible 
 and effectively written volume by Graham McAdam, entitled "An 
 alphabet in finance," (A. P.) 
 
 Three other American publications, written in a popular and readable 
 style, were called out by the necessity for refuting inflationist doctrines, — 
 namely, "The A. B. C- of finance," by Simon Newcomb, (P.); 
 "Robinson Crusoe's money," by David A- Wells, (A.); and 
 " Paper money," by H. W- Richardson. 
 
 The financial history of this country during the past 100 years may be 
 studied in the ''American state papers; Finance," (B. P.); also 
 the Works of Alexander Hamilton, (A- B- P.); also "Alexander 
 Hamilton," by Henry Cabot Lodge, (A- B- P.); the " Sketch of 
 the finances of the United States,"i796, by Albert Gallatin, (P.); 
 also the Life and Works of Albert Gallatin, edited by Heriry 
 Adams, (A. B.); also "Albert Gallatin," by John Austin 
 Stevens, (A. B- P.) ; also the " History of American currency," 
 by William G- Sumner, (A- B- P) ; also the " Financial history 
 of the United States," by Albert S. Bolles, 2d vol., 1789-1860, p. 
 502-17, (A. P-); the "History of the legal-tender act, 1862," by 
 B- G. Spaulding; McPherson's "Political history of the great 
 rebellion," (A. B. P.) ; "Political history of reconstruction," 
 (B.P).and biennial "Handbooks of politics," (P.); "The national 
 banks," by H- W- Richardson, (P.); and "United States notes," 
 by John J. Knox, (A- P.) See also part 2, p. 131-84, of ''The 
 American citizen's manual," by W. C- Ford, (P.); also p. 237-425 
 of Bowen's "American political economy," (A, B. P-) 
 
 The act known as the Silver coinage bill was passed by congress, 
 May 24, 1879. (Printed in McPherson's " Hand-book Of politics, 
 1880-82," p- 25-27), (P.) The discontinuance of the silver coinage has 
 
CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF RHODE ISLAND. 19 
 
 been strongly recommended by President Arthur, in his successive 
 annual messages of 1882, 1883, and 1884, (A. B-P.) See the messages as 
 printed in the volumes of "Message and documents. (P.)" See also 
 the letter of President Cleveland, (during the week before his inaugura- 
 tion), written to Mr. A.J.Warner, of the House of Representatives, and 
 dated Feb. 24, 1885, (A. P.), in which he expresses even more decided 
 condemnation of the silver policy. 
 
 There is a valuable summarised view of the subject in the article, 
 "Money," by C. F. Bastable, in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," 
 v. 16, p. 720-38, (A. B- P.) 
 
 XII. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF RHODE 
 
 ISLAND. 
 
 [Three Lectures by Mr. Arnold Green, March 2, March 9, 
 
 March 16, 1885.] 
 
 The three principal instruments to be cited in this connection are (1) 
 
 the patent of 1643-4; (?) tne charter of 1663 ; (3) the constitution of 1842. 
 
 (1). The patent of 1643-4*. 
 
 For the text of this instrument, see the Colony Records of Rhode 
 Island, v. 1, p. 143-46, (A. B. P,); also the United States government _ 
 publication entitled " The federal and state constitutions," v. 2, p. 
 i594~95. (A. B. P.) 
 
 See also the text of the same as printed by Gov. Stephen Hopkins, 
 in his " Historical account of the planting and growth of Prov- 
 idence," (reprinted in the " Collections of the Massachusetts Historical 
 Society," 2d series, v. 9, p. 185-S8, (A. P-); and also in the " Collections 
 of the Rhode Island Historical Society," v. 7, p. 40-44), (A- B. P.) 
 
 There is also a version, (differing 'in some slight particulars), in the 
 pamphlet by the la ( te Judge William R. Staples, entitled "The pro- 
 ceedings of the first General Assembly, 1647," p. viii-ix, (B P.) 
 For comment on this patent, see the " History of Rhode Island," by 
 Samuel G- Arnold, v. 1, p. 200-n, (A. B. P.); Staples's "Annals 
 of Providence," p. 55-5°, (A. B- P); Staples's "Proceedings of 
 the first General Assembly," (B. P,); also Gov. Hopkins's "His- 
 torical account," (in Rhode Island Historical Society Collections, v. 7, 
 p. 36-40), (A. B. P.) 
 
 See, however, particularly the addresses of Hon- John H Stiness, of 
 the Rhode Island Supreme Court, and Gen. Horatio Rogers, at the 
 unveiling of the historical painting in the Providence County Court House, 
 
20 CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 (first read before the Rhode Island Historical Society, Dec. 16, .1884, and 
 printed (in part) in the Providence Journal of Dec. 17, 1884), representing 
 the return of Roger Williams in 1644 with the patent, (A. B. P-) 
 
 See also Story's "Commentaries on the constitution," (A. B- 
 P.), (Cooley's edition, v. :, p. 61), (P.), where, however, the curious 
 error is made, of treating this patent of March 14, 1643-4, as two char- 
 ters, one dated 1643, and one dated 1644. 
 
 (2). The charter of 1663. 
 
 The text of this instrument is to be found in the Rhode Island Col- 
 ony Records, v. 2, p.1-21, (A. B. P-); also in the "Federal and 
 state constitutions," v. 2, p. 1595-1603, (A- B- P ); also in the 
 " Rhode Island manual," 1884-85, p. 31-47, (A- B. P-) 
 
 For discussion of its provisions, see Arnold's "History of Rhode 
 Island," v. 1, p. 284-95, (A- B. P-); Story's "Commentaries," 
 (Cooler's edition, v. 1, p. 62-64, (A- B- P-); Knowles's "Memoir of 
 Roger Williams," p. 318-25, (A. B. P.) 
 
 (3). The constitution of 1842. 
 
 The text of this instrument is to be found in the "Rhode Island 
 manual," p- 49-74, (A. B. P.); also in the " Federal and state con- 
 stitutions," v. 2, p. 1603-13, (A. B. P-) 
 
 This constitution was adopted by a convention of the citizens of Rhode 
 Island, Nov. 5, 1842, thus replacing the charter of 1663. See the " Jour- 
 nal of the convention, 1842," (printed by order of the House, 1859,) 
 (A. B.) 
 
 [Note.— This action was preceded by other attempts at constitution-making. See the 
 entries given on pages 89-00 of Bartlett's " Bibliography of Rhode Island," (A. B. 
 P.) The constitution agreed on by the Dorr convention, earlier in the same year, is 
 printed in Greene's " Short history of Rhode Island," p. 317-32, (A. B. P.) The rev- 
 olutionary proceedings in connection with it may be studied in the volume, "A concise 
 history of the efforts to secure an extension of the suffrage in Rhode Island," 
 by Jacob Frieze, (A. B. P.); also in the "Considerations on the Rhode Island 
 question," by the late Judge E. R. Potter, (1842), (A. B. P.); also in the "Life of 
 Thomas W. Dorr," by D. King, (A. B. P.) ; also in the summarized account in Lalor's 
 " Cyclopaedia," v. 1. p. 835, (A. P.) 
 
 (4). Relations of Rhode Island to the general government. 
 
 On the independent attitude of Rhode Island during the period of its 
 colonial history,' see Arnold's " History of Rhode Island," v. 2, (A. 
 B. P.): also the "Address before the Redwood Library," [New- 
 port], Aug. 24, 1847, by "William Hunter, p. 105-7, (A- B. P.); also 
 "The rights of colonies examined," i>y Stephen Hopkins, (1765), 
 (B. PO 
 
CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF RHODE ISLAND. 21 
 
 •On her attitude between 1775 and 1787, see Staples's ' ' Rhode Island 
 in the Continental Congress," (A. B. P.); also " The spirit of 
 '76 in Rhode Island," by B. Cowell, (A. B. P.) 
 
 The position of Rhode Island during the years 1787-90, in refusing to 
 accede to the United States constitution, may be studied in Arnold's 
 "History of Rhode -Island," v. 2, p. 536-64, (A. B. P,) See, however, 
 particularly, Staples's "Rhode Island in the Continental Con- 
 gress," (A. B. P.) 
 
 [Note.— In the Rhode Island Colony Records, v. 10, p. 271.-356, (A. B. P.) , will 
 be found the official action of the General Assembly at this time.] 
 
 5). Local constitutional discussion in recent years. 
 
 In 1881, the arguments in favor of certain modifications in the present 
 constitution of Rhode Island, were presented in the anonymous pamphlet, 
 " Equal rights, and the constitution of Rhode Island," (A. B.) 
 
 In 1881, these arguments were examined by Hon. Henry B. Anthony, 
 United States senator from Rhode Island, in his address in the Senate, 
 (1881), entitled, "A defense of Rhode Island," separately published 
 as a pamphlet), (A. B.) 
 
 In March, 1883, in response to an inquiry from the state senate of Rhode 
 Island, the Supreme Court of the state rendered an Opinion as to the 
 manner in which the state constitution is susceptible of amendment, 
 namely, that " the mode provided in the constitution for the amendment 
 thereof is the only mode in which it can be constitutionally amended." 
 
 [This " opinion " is dated March 30, 1883, and is printed in the Providence Daily Journal 
 of March 31, 1883; also reprinted in the pamphlet entitled " The methods of changing 
 the constitutions of the states," (1885), p. fi-10, (A. B. P.) 
 
 Comment on this opinion by Hon. Charles S. Bradley, was printed 
 in the Providence Daily Journal, May 31, 1883: also reprinted in the 
 pamphlet, " The methods of changing the constitutions of the 
 states," (1885), p. n-33, (A. B. P.) 
 
 The Chief Justice, (Hon. Thomas Durfee), in rejoinder to this com- 
 ment, published (1884) the pamphlet entitled "Some thoughts on the 
 constitution of Rhode Island," (A. B. P.) In answer to this 
 appeared, (1885), the pamphlet, by Judge Bradley, entitled, "The 
 methods of changing the constitutions of the states, espec- 
 ially that of Rhode Island," (A. B. P.), in which besides the material 
 already cited above, he replies, (p. 34-104), to Chief Justice Durfee's 
 pamphlet, just cited. See also the pamphlet by Professor James B. 
 Thayer, of the Harvard Law School, entitled a "Memorandum on 
 3 
 
22 PROTECTION OF PRIVATE RIGHTS. 
 
 the legal effect of opinions given by judges to the executive 
 and the legislature under certain American constitutions," 
 
 (1885 . (P-) 
 
 XIII. 
 
 HOW THE LAW IS APPLIED BY LAWYERS, JUDGES. AND 
 
 JURORS, FOR THE PROTECTION OF PRIVATE RIGHTS. 
 [Lecture by Mr. B. N. Lapham, March 23, 1S85.] 
 (1). Statute law. 
 
 For a schedule of the successive volumes of statutes, revised from time 
 to time, representing the legislation through a series of years of the 
 national congress and the state (and colonial) legislatures, see the Cata- 
 logue of the Massachusetts State Library, p. s 2 °. 7'3. 8 45-4 u > 
 etc., (B. P.) 
 
 On statute law, see Austin's "Lectures on jurisprudence," v. 2, 
 p. 641-62, (A. B. P.) 
 
 Also, the "Treatise on the rules which govern the interpre- 
 tation and construction of statutory and constitutional law," 
 by Theodore Sedgwick, (revised by J. N. Pomeroy, 1874.) 
 
 (2). Case-law. 
 
 The volumes of "Reports," in whicn an authorized record is made of 
 all judicial decisions of importance, for the various courts of the United 
 States, comprise more than 3,000 volumes, (including the Reports of 
 cases in the United States Supreme Court, and the other United States 
 courts, and also in the Supreme (or Superior) courts of the respective 
 states, (B.) 
 
 In England the volumes are even more numerous. 
 
 Case-law, (termed by Austin "judiciary law," and by others "judge- 
 made law"), has been objected to as lacking the deliberateness and slow 
 growth of the common law. See Austin's "Lectures on jurispru- 
 dence," v. 2, p. 672-75, (A. B. P.) 
 
 (3). Common law. 
 
 For an enumeration of some of the best-known works on the common 
 law of England, see the references under Mr. Ely's lecture. 
 
 On the connection of Roman law with modern decisions and precedents, 
 see B. P. Burke's " Historical essay on the laws and the gov- 
 enrment of Rome," (P.); also the recent volume on "Roman law," 
 by W. C. Morey, (B. P.) 
 
 Modern text.book writers also have contributed in a most important 
 degree, to the common stock of legal authorities. Instances would be 
 
PROTECTION OF PRIVATE RIGHTS. 23 
 
 Greenleaf on Evidence, (A. B. P.), Story on Contracts, (A. B. 
 
 P.), etc., but a mere enumeration would occupy volumes. 
 
 (4). Schemes of codification. 
 
 The emperor Napoleon I performed for France one of the greatest of 
 services of modern times, in the codification of the laws of France. See 
 the "Code Napoleon," (A. B.), (as translated by R. S. Richards), 
 London, 1824. 
 
 In Jeremy Bentham's "Principles of the civil code," (in his 
 " Works," v. 1), the adoption of some similar action in England is con- 
 sidered, (B.) 
 
 See also the article by James Fitzjames Stephen, on "Codifi- 
 cation in India and England," in the Fortnightly Review, v. 18, 
 
 1872, (A.) 
 
 See also Austin's "Lectures on jurisprudence,'' v. 2, p. 698-703, 
 io 59-73> "3°-3 6 > (A. P.); also E. C. Clark's volume, "Practical 
 jurisprudence," p- 380-94, (B. P.) 
 
 On codification in this country, see the article, "Law in America,". 
 1776-1876, by Gr. T. Bispham, in the North American Review, Jan., 
 1876, v. 122, p. 154-91, (A. B. P.); also an extremely suggestive address 
 of Governor Hoadly, of Ohio, before the Yale Law School, 1884,, on 
 "Codification in the United States." The most conspicuous 
 instance of American codification is the " Code," prepared for the State 
 of Louisiana, 1822-33, by Edward Livingstone, (A.) Published at 
 Philadelphia, 1833, and reprinted in "The complete works of Ed- 
 ward Livingstone on criminal jurisprudence," 1873, (P.) 
 
 See also the " Life of Edward Livingstone," by C. H. Hunt, 
 
 (P.) Also the comments of Abraham Hay ward, on this code, Edin- 
 burgh Review, v. 120, July, 1864, (A. B. P.) 
 
 (5.) The function of the courts in American political organi- 
 zation. 
 
 See Judge Story's "Commentaries on the constitution of the 
 United States," v. 2, p. 377-553, (A. B. P.) 
 
 Also the Federalist, nos. 78 and 80, (A. B. P.) 
 
 Also the pamphlet by Everett P. Wheeler, on "The Supreme 
 Court as a co-ordinate branch of the United States govern- 
 ment," (i860), (P.) 
 
 See also " Judge and jury," by Benjamin V. Abbott, (A. P.) 
 
 Also "The laws of business for business men," by The- 
 ophilus Parsons, (P-) 
 
24 CITY GOVERNMENT. 
 
 XIV. 
 CITY GOVERNMENT. 
 [Lecture by Hon. Thomas A. Doyle, May r8, 1885.] 
 (1). Local government in the United States. 
 
 There were three principal systems of local government, characterizing 
 the early American colonies; — (1) the New England town system; (2) the 
 system of the middle colonies ; (3) that of the southern colonies. See the 
 chapter on " The minor political divisions of the United States, by S. A. 
 Galpin, in Walker's "Statistical atlas," (A. B. P.); also the chap- 
 ter on " Civil divisions less than counties," in the Tenth census 
 report on "Population," part 1, p. 89-91, (A. B. P.) 
 
 (a). The New England town system. 
 
 For a statement of what the functions of a town officer comprise, see the 
 volume, "Powers, duties, and liabilities of town and parish 
 officers," by W. A. Herrick. 
 
 Not all of these powers and duties have been associated with the town 
 from the beginning. Compare the remarks of Judge P. Emory Aldrich, 
 before the American Antiquarian Society, at Worcester, April 30, 1884, in 
 the "Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society," 
 
 April, 1884, (A. B. P.) 
 
 On the origin and growth of the New England town, see Palfrey's 
 
 "History of New Englnad," v. 1, p. 380, 434, (A. B. P.) 
 Also the oration of Arnold Green, (Providence, 1875), on "New 
 
 England's gift to the nation, the township," (Providence city 
 
 documents, )i875, (A. B. P.) 
 There has been a difference of opinion as to the theory on which the 
 
 origin of towns is to be explained. For instance, in the paper on "The 
 
 origin, organization, and influence of the towns of New Eng- 
 land," by Joel Parker, (in Massachusetts Historical Society Proceed- 
 ings, Jan., 1866, p. 14-65), (A- B. P.), it is maintained that the town 
 organization, as existing here, was an original creation. 
 
 In the paper on" The Germanic origin of New England towns," 
 by Dr. H. B. Adams, (Johns Hopkins University Studies, 1st series, 
 no. 2), it is stated that "The town and village life of New England is as 
 truly the reproduction of Old English types as those again are reproduc- 
 tions of the village community system of the ancient Germans," (p. 8), 
 
 (A- P.) 
 
 In the inaugural address before the American Association for the 
 Advancement of Science, 1SS0, Mr. Lewis H. Morgan declared 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT. 25 
 
 that "Upon the township was formed the county, composed of several 
 towns similarly organized; the State, composed of several counties, and 
 finally the United States, composed of several states.'' 
 
 In the paper on the "Town "by Judge P. Emory Aldrich, before the 
 American Antiquarian Society, April 30, 188 1, (Proceedings, p. 
 111-24), emphatic exception was taken to this position, and it was main- 
 tained that the towns were original creations of colonial government, (A. 
 B. P.) 
 
 At the meeting of the American Historical Association at Saratoga, 
 Sept. 10, 1884, the subject was again treated, in a paper by Dr. Edward 
 Channing, of Harvard College, on "Town and county govern- 
 ment in the English colonies of North America," (since pub- 
 lished in the Johns Hopkins University Studies, 2d series, no. 10), and also 
 in the discussion following the paper, (by Charles Deane, Judge" 
 Chamberlain, and Dr.H. B. Adams). See " Papers of the American 
 Historical Association,'' v. 1, no. 1, p. 24-29, (P.) 
 
 Compare also the paper by Brooks Adams, on "The. embryo of 
 
 a commonwealth," in the Atlantic Monthly, Nov. 1884, v. 54, p. 610- 
 
 19, (A. P.) 
 
 Dr. Channing's position is that the origin of the town institutions of 
 New England is to be found in the parish institutions of Old England. 
 
 Compare also the paper on " The town meeting," in the volume by 
 John Fiske, on "American political ideas," (1885), (P.) 
 
 (J>). The system of the middle colonies. 
 
 Its characteristics are given in Galpin's articlerln Walker's " Sta- 
 tistical atlas," p. 12, (A. B. P.) 
 
 Compare also Frothinghanj's "Rise of the republic," p. 23-24, 
 (A. B. P.) 
 O'Callaghan's " New Netherlands (A. P.) 
 Elmer's " Constitution and government of New Jersey." 
 Also H. C. Northam's " Civil government for common 
 schools," (giving the organization of local government in New York), 
 1884. 
 
 (c). The system of the southern colonies. 
 
 The characteristics are given in Galpin's article in Walker's " Sta- 
 tistical atlas," p- 11-12, (A- B. P.) 
 
 Compare also Doyle's " English colonies in America," (A. P.); 
 also "A short history of the English colonies in America," by 
 Henry Cabot Lodge, p. 45-53. (A. B. P.) 
 
.26 CITY GOVERNMENT. 
 
 (2). The development of city government from the primary forms 
 OF local government. 
 On the rise of city institutions in England and other European coun- 
 tries, see " Local government," by M. D. Chalmers, (London, 1883), 
 
 chaps. 5 and 10, (A. P-) 
 
 Also Lalor's " Cyclopaedia," v. 1, p. 468-72, (A. P.) 
 Compare also the chapter, " Local government in England," by" 
 G- C Brodrick, in the volume " Local government and taxa- 
 tion," in the Cobden Club's series of publications, (A. B. P.); also the 
 article, "Local government in England," by R. P. Porter, (P-), 
 
 in the International Review, Aug. 1882, (A-); also his article on " Local 
 government at home and abroad," in the Princeton Review, July, 
 
 1879, (A- B. P.) 
 
 On the rise of similar institutions in this country, see " The origin 
 
 and development of local self-government in England and 
 the United States," by James M. Bugbee, (P.) 
 
 Also the pamphlet by A- R. Spoffbrd, on " The city of Washing- 
 ton and the growth of cities in the United States," (P-) 
 
 Also the recent lectures (1885), of Gen. F- A. "Walker, before the 
 Lowell Institute, Boston, on " City population in the United 
 States-" 
 
 Also the article on American cities by Simon Sterne, in Lalor's 
 
 " Cyclopaedia," v. 1, p. 460-68, (A. P-) 
 
 A comparison of the text of recent city charters, and the discussion 
 thereon, is necessarily instructive and interesting. 
 
 See, for instance, the " Report of the commission appointed to 
 revise the charter of the city of Newton, Mass-,'' (1881), (P.) 
 
 Also the minority report thereon, (P.) 
 
 Also the pamphlet, (the preparation of which was suggested by this 
 charter discussion), by F- J. Parker, entitled "A study of munici- 
 pal government in Massachusetts," (1881), (P.) 
 
 Also comment on the above, in The Nation, v. 33, p. 169-70, 196, 216 
 (A. B. P-) 
 
 See also the text of the charter of the city of Brooklyn, N. Y., (p.) 
 Also the important Amendments adopted 1880, (P.) 
 
 [Note. — These modifications are carefully explained in a paper summarizing the 
 provisions of the amended Brooklyn charter, by Moses Williams and William Minot 
 Jr., and published in Boston, 1881, (P.).] 
 
 See also the address on "Municipal government," delivered in 
 Rochester, N. Y., Feb. 19, 1885, by Mayor Low, of Brooklyn, stating the 
 
CITY GOVERNMENT. 27 
 
 ^main features of the Brooklyn charter, (P.) [Summarized in Boston 
 Daily Advertiser, April 4, 1885], (P.) 
 
 The experience of the city of New York in recen't years, in charter 
 amendment and modification, is summarized by B- L. Godkin, in the 
 article, "New York," in the " Encyclopaedia Britannica," v. 17, p.. 
 462-64, (A. B. P.) 
 
 The characteristics of city government under the present charter of the 
 city of Boston, are examined, — and strongly condemned,— in the "Re- 
 port of 1he commission on a revision of the charter," (1884), 
 (B- P) 
 
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