liii ■ i| ALBERT R MANN LIBRARY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY X-^ i DATE DUE :e ^BtNTEO IN U.S.A. Cornell University Library SF 239.E92 The dairyman's manualbeing a complete gu 3 1924 002 972 929 The original of tliis book is in tlie Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924002972929 'iv^ O I 4 ^ hi •^■: t3 1=^ s "THE DAIRYMAN'S MANUAL: BEING A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR THE AMERICAN DAIRYMAN WITH 'NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. ,/ BY GUEDON EVANS, M. A. UTICA: JOHN W- FULLER & COMPANY. HARTFORD: O. D. CASE & CO, 1851. 317057 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, BY GURDON EVANS, In the Clerk's Office for the Northern District of New-York. B. Roithway & Co. Printers. PREFACE. In preparing- the following" pages for the press, the useful rather than the novel has been my aim and en- deavor. Of the hints, sug-gestions and conclusions arising from "the experience and observation of others, whether directed to scientific inquiries or occupied with manual exertions, I have availed myself, alike fully and gr£itefully. My obligations in this respect I acknowl- edge generally, without going here into specific refer-' ences and particular illustrations. Multiplied paragraphs in various forms and different connections on the general subject of this volume have been urged on the attention of the reading public. A large amount of matter, equally attractive and weighty, ihas thus been afforded ; an occasion to us all for grati- ■tude and encouragement. May those, who have thus labored for our benefit rejoice in a large reward ! This volume, however, is an attempt, if humble yet 'earnest, to supply what I could not but regard as a de- ficiency in this species of literature. We need what may deserve the name of a manual, in which the vari- ous topics belonging to the subject here introduced, may be distinctly adverted to, and systematically dis- posed of. How far I have succeeded in what I have thus undertaken, my readers will judge ; I hope, as kindly as intelligently. I shall gladly avail myself of the criticisms, with which they may honor my para- graphs. To Youatt, I am chiefly indebted for what I have of- fered, abridg-ed from that excellent writer, on the diseases of cattle ; adding-, however, whatever may be valuable in the results of more i-ecent observations and experi- ence. The cuts and engravings will be found, I trust, to add as much to the substantial worth, as to the attractiveness of the present volume. Art has introduced us to the forms, and figures, and appearance of animals, sec- ond to none in the country ; and has thus furnished us- with a standard, by which we may well dispose of the claims of the various breeds of horned cattle. GURDON EVANS, De Ruyter, June, 1851. CONTENTS AND INDEX. CHAPTER I. THE PAIRY— ITS HISTORY, 5 Milk, its primary object, 5 Cheese, its early history, 5 Butter, its early history, 6 The Cow, her adaptedness to the dairy, 6 Biperieuce profitable, .7 CHAPTER II. IMPORTANCE OF THE DAIRY, 8 Capital invested in New York State 8 Large yields of butter and cheese, ' .9 Amount made by George Vail in 30 days,. 9 A. L. Fish's cheese dairy, 9 A. Hall's cheese dairy, 10 B. R. Evans' butter dairy, 10 H. Hall's premium dairy farm, 10 N. Bronson's cheese dairy, 10 J ohn Holbert's butter dairy, H S. P. Chapman, butter of one cow in 20 days, 11, 20, 28 M. L. Thompson's butt«r dairy 11 CHAPTER III. THE "WILD or, 13 Domestic ox, 14 Breeds of cattle classified, 14 Long horns, '.. .15 Middle horns 15 Sljort horns, .'.15 Scotch cattle .^ 16 Welch cattle ,.16 Aldemey cattle, 16 Jersey cattle .16 Native herd, 17 Brooding in America, 17 CHAPTER IV. DIFFERENT BREEDS OF COWS, 19 Sliort horns ;;.19 Oossing, ...20 Devons, 22 11 H^refords, 23 Ayrshire , 25 Native cows, 26 Ktetskill, 28 CHAPTER V. BREEDING FOR THE DAIRY, 30 Points of a good cow, 30 Quality of milk 30 Selection of calves for the dairy, 31 Crossing 32 Crossing in Ireland^ 37 Constitution of cows, 38 Milker and grazier contrasted, 39 CHAPTER VI. MILK— ITS COMPOSITION, 40 Properties of milk, 40 Oceam, its properties, 41 Arrack 41 Ewe's milk, 41 Goat's milk, , 42 Aaalysis of milk 42 Mode of separating parts, 43 CHAPTER VII. CIRCTTMSTANOES BT WHICH THE QUALITY AND QUANTITY OP MILK ARE AFFECTED, 45 Distance from time of calving 45 Composition of first milkings, 45 Age of cow 4a Climate and season of year, 4S Health and general state, 47 Milking, 47 Milk left in the udder, 47 Cracked teats 47 Wetting teats with milk, 48 Wash the hag 48 Time of milking, 48 Quality varies with the time of milking, 49 Moral state of the cow 50 Breaking heifers, 5q III will of cows. 5j Quality of milk of different breeds, 52 Selection of cows, , 5g Kind of food 53 Oaks cow,.... gg 1N)o many cows kept, 5. in Extra feed profllable, f.. ; 66 A. L. Fish's mode of feeding, , , 66 Corn fodder ^ , 56 Average yield of cheese, t(8 Col. Jaques' mode of feeding 58 Boiliog grain and roots, 69 Starch, how changed to nutriment , 60 Gluten in wheat, rye, barley, &c., 61 Its similarity to curd, 61 Soiling, ,... 62 Tetharing, ,-62 Whey fed to cows 63 Buttermilk, '. ./. .63 Still slop , 63 Brewers' grain ,. . . . 65 State of pregnancy , , 66 Amount yielded by one cow, 67 M. Quenon's method of selecting, 67 CHAPTER VIII. DAIRY BUILDINGS, 70 Bam described, ^ 71 Dairy-house and furniture, , 75 Condition of cows, 81 Care of in winter, 82 Ventilation of stables, 83 Heats, 83 Treatment at Calving, 83 Salting, 84 Selection of cows, . , 84 CHAPTER IX. MANAGEMENT OP THE DAIRY, 87 Milk dairies, 87 Governeur Morris' experience 88 Feed for cows, 89 Spaying, 90 Cheese dairy, 96 Cheese making, 97 Rennet, its effect upon milk, 98 • State of milk when first drawn, 98 Curing and preparing rennet -. 99 A. L. Fish's mode of making cheese, 101 Scalding curd, 105 Salting cheese, .106 Pressing, 107 Cleansing furniture, 107 I Coloring the cheese, '. ^^ The riQd, '^^ Siie and shape, ^"° Curing cheese, ^^" Cosone, or smarty part, "^ Cheshire cheese, manufacture of '^^ Gloucester cheese, '■ " ^^^ " " character of ^^ Stilton cheese, manufacture of 124 Pine apple cheese, " " 126 Lewis Nortoh's mode 127 Vegetable juices, 129 Presses, Collins & Stone's 131 " Kendal's 132 Dairy steamers, . . : 132 The cheese trade, 133 CHAPTER X. THE BUTTER DAIRY, 136 Experiment on 20 cows, 137 Oream, its character, 138 Churning the cream, 139 Working and salting, 141 Different kinds of salt, 143 Butter making, by .John Holbert, 144 Packing for market ■ 146 Stone pots for butter, 147 Churns, dog power, < 148 Kendal's 148 Thermometer churn, 149 CHAPTER XI. ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE HEAD, ]&8 Inflammation of the membrane, 153 Hollow Horn, ' 154 Leeches in the nose, 154 Rings on the horns, 164 The ear, 155 The eye, 155 Apoplexy, 155 Water on the brain, 156 Phronitis, or phrenzy I57 Lock jaw, .158 Palsy, 158 Rabies, or bite of mad dog, 559 The nose, ICO Bleeding at the nose 161 state of the muzzle 162 Teeth ; 162 Age indicated by 163 (JIoss anthrax, or blaln, , 164 Thrush in the mouth, 166 Glands of the mouth, Ififi CHAPTER XII. ANATOMr AND DISEASES OF THE NECK AND CHEST, 168 Arteries of 168 Veins, .■ 169 Heart, 171 " Dropsy on 171 Capillaries, 172 Inflammation of arteries and veins, ., 173 Ferer, I73 ' ' inflammatory, 174. " typhus, 176 Tracheotomy, 178 Hooze, or catarrh, 178 Influenza, 178 Murrain, 179 Bronchitis, 181 Inflammation of the lungs, , 182 Pneumonia, 182 Pleurisy, , 188 Consumption, / 18-S CHAPTER XIII. ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE GULLET AND STOMACH, 186 Choking, 187 Probang, use of 188 Paunch and stomachs, 187 Reticulum 190 Manifolds, 190-196 Hoove, or distension of stomach by gas, 198 Loss of cud, IW Poisons, 195 CHAPTER XIV. THE SPLEEN, LIVEE, PANCREAS, AND BOWELS, 19« Spleen, or milt, , 198 Liver, 198 " inflammation of 199 Jaundice 199 Pancreas, ; 200 VI IntestineK, 201 Mesentery, enlargement of '• • • 201 Bowels, inflammation of •. ,-202 Diarrhoea , 203 Colic, '. 204 Kropsy, 206 Breach, or hernia, 207 CHAPTER XV. ANATOMY AND DISEASES OP THE URINABT OEGANS, 210 Red water 210 Kidneys and bladder, 211 Breeding in general, 212 Proper age for breeding, 213 Abortion, or slinking, 214 Treatment before calving, 216 Parturition 216 Unnatural presentation, 218 Inversion of the womb, 219 Attention after calving, , 219 The cleansing 220 Milk fever, • 221 Sore teats, 222 Garget 223 Cow pox. 224 CHAPTER XVr. DISEASES OP CALVES, 226 Navel ill 226 Constipation, 227 Diarrhcea, 227 Bloating, 228 CHAPTER XVII. DISEASES OP THE JOINTS AND FEET, 229 Rheumatism, 229 Hoof ail 230 Foul in the foot, . .230 CHAPTER XVIII. DISEASES OF THE SKIN, 282 Hide bound, 232 Mange, 233 I'ice, 23i Warbles, or grub in the back, 034 WaHs '.'''''^^'234 THE DAIEYIAN'S MANUAL. CHAPTER I. THE DAIRT: ITS HISTOKY. The product of the dairy, in one form or an other, has from the earliest period of man's history constituted an important item in his daily food. Milk is bounteously given to supply the demands of the young of all that large class of animals, the Mam- .tnalia, is most admirably adapted to this end, possess- ing as it does, the elements of bone, muscle, fat, and all the other distinct parts of the animal economy. The milk of several animals has also, for many ages constituted a large share of the food of some nations, before they reached a high degree of civilization. So little human skill being necessary to prepare it for food, it very naturally became one of the first articles of food, beyond the spontaneous productions of the earth. Before the spade or plow was known, the simple wanderer of the plain could easily watch his herd of goats or heifers, enjoying at morning and evening a de- licious repast from the bounty of their milk. Butter and Cheese are also so directly and naturally produced from milk, that a single step conducts the wandering herdsman to the facilities for producing these delicacies, in a rade state no doubt, yet to him a luxury. The earliest notice of the manufacture of cheese is in the Bible, Job x: 10. "Hast thou not poured me out as milk and curdled me as cheese." David was sent to his brother in the valley of Elah with this injunction : " Carry those ten cheeses to the captain of their thousand, and look how thy brethren fare." 6 Cheese is mentioned by Homer, the old Greek poet, nine hundred and seven years before Christ : "Around the grot we gaze, and all we view, In order ranged onr admiration drew : The bending shelves with loaves of cheeses pressed, The folded flocks each separate from the rest." Julius Csesar says of the Germans in his day : " The greater part of their food consisted in Milk, C/ieese, and flesh." And he gives also a similar account of the Gauls, or ancient inhabitants of Francd. From these early dates, at least, to the present, cheese has constituted an important item in the food of all civilized countries. Butter, the second most natural and simple product of milk, received early attention. In Abraham's time, when he had washed the feet of the Angel visitors, and given them a little cold water, " He took Butter and milk and the calf which he had dressed, and set it before them ; and he stood by them under the tree, and they did eat." Gen. xviii : 8. Allusion to butter is several times made in the Old Testament, but the above is the earliest. From that time to the present, it has to many nations been an important article of food. There is a tradition among the Arabs, that butter was first made by the agitation of the milk, carried in goat's skins upon the backs of their camels, during their jour- neys across the deserts of the east. Among the animals most useful in the dairy, the Cow, Camel, Goat and Ewe, are the principal. Among these the Cow, from her docility and amiable temper, has always stood pre-eminent, except where the climate, face of the country, or habits of the people of certain localities, rendered one of the others more desi- rable. Indeed, no other animal combines so many ad- vantages for this service. She yields a larger quantity of milk in proportion to her size and expense of keep- ing ; is more docile, and better adapted to a great vari- ety of food and climate, than any other animal : beside, when age renders her unfit for the dairy, she is easily fattened, so that an old cow is of little less value than a young one. As this book will hardly find its way to any who milk any other animal than the cow, it will refer principally to her milk and its product, only devoting a little space to a brief notice of the other varieties of milk. No dairyman will for a moment doubt the wisdom of availing himself of every item of the experience of others, which can in any way tend to improve the dairy, especially when he recollects that it costs as much (and often more) to keep a poor cow as a good one ; as much to make and cure a cheese that will sell readily at 10 or 15 cents a pound, as one entirely unmarketa- ble ; as much to make and pack butter of the first qua- lity, as a greasy, rancid article, hardly fit for soap grease. The object in publishing this little volume is not so much to offer new theories and speculations, as to pre- sent in an accessible fonn, the collected experience of the most successful dairymen, both of our own and of other countries. In a few instances, facts and theories interesting to the scientific, have been embodied in text notes, which the general reader can omit at his option. As my design is to make it a " book for the people," care has been taken to express everything in the body of the work in language easily comprehended by alL CHAPTER II. IMPOETANCE OF THE DAIRY. The importance of the dairy, especially to the agricul- turist of the eastern, northern and western States of our own country, is second in importance to no other branch of industry. In 1845, there were in the State of New York, 999,- 490 Milch Cows, and the census of this year will probably give the present number 1,200,000. Now, allowing that three acres of land are necessary to sum- mer and winter each cow, not less than 3,600,000 acres of meadow and pasture land are annually devo- ted to dairy purposes, beside that necessary to raise the grain and extra food consumed by the cows. If*we estimate the value of each cow at $20, it will give an aggregate of $24,000,000 ; value of the land at an average $30 per acre, gives $ 1 08,000,000. If each 10 cows require the labor of one person at $150 per an- num, it will cost to take care of the dairies of this State, $18,000,000. This estimate, perhaps too low all round, shows that fixed capital and labor to the amount of $140,000,000 are annually devoted to this business in the State of New York alone. Estimated prodvice in Butter and Pork, 12,522,058. " Cheese, 5,026,102. $17,548,160. Is it not strange then, that a business involving so much property, the prosperity of so many of our citizens, and so much hard labor, should have so little attention 9 given to its improvement 1 Should not this business, like any other of equal importance, be reduced to an exact science, and its operations be carried. on upon well known and fixed principles, as certain as those that regulate the operations of the house builder, the calico printer, or the steam engine manufacturer 1 Instead of this, not a single book, in the whole mass of American literature, can be found that pretends to give anything like a full exposition of the principles or practice of this great business. Enough perhaps has been written, but it is scattered through a hundred vol- umes of agricultural journals, and reports of various so- cieties, and it "would be as hopeless a task for the com- mon husbandman to attempt to glean from these sources the infoi'mation necessary to his calling, as to look for a "cambric needle in the hay-stack," that he is foddering out to his half famished heifers. That great improvements have been made in dairy husbandry, no one can for amoment doubt. " What man has done, man may do." Witness the large yields of superior butter and cheese annually presented for pre- miums to the New York State Agricultural Society, and the Fair of the American Institute. In 1844, George Vail, of Troy, received a premium from the New York State Agricultural Society, for pro- ducing from six cows in thirty days, 262 pounds and 9 ounces of superior butter. This is an average of 1 1-2 lbs. per day during the time of trial. The Cows were of the short-horn Durham breed, and fed on pasture only. The same year, Alonzo S. Fitch, of Litchfield, Herki- mer, Co., made on his first premium dairy farm, between the 1st of May and Sept. 17, an average of 566 1-2 lbs. per cow, of excellent cheese from 25 cows. For the 10 whole season, each cow would produce not much less than 700 lbs., which at 6 cts. per lb., would g-ive an income of $42, each. This dairy^received some extra feed in shorts, whey, &g. Cows of the short horn, crossed with the Holderness and native stock. His mode of conducting- hig dairy is given farther on. Mr. Abraham Hall, of Floyd, Oneida Co., realized in 1844, results but little inferior to those of Mr. Fish. From a dairy of 40 cows he made 23,427 lbs., or an aver- age of 585 lbs. for the season. In 1845, the first premium of this Society was awarded to E. R. Evans, of Marcy, Oneida Co., for 217 lbs. of butter, made in 30 days, from 5 cows, from the 14th of August to Sept. 13th. His cows were all of the na- tive breed, and fed on grass alone. A premium was awarded to George Vail, for produ- cing 202 lbs. of butter from 5 cows in 30 days. His cows were full bred Durhams. In 1846, Mr. B. H. Hall, of New Lebanon, received the premium on his dairy farm, upon which he made from 19 cows, during the season, 3,189 lbs. of butter, beside fattening 20 calves and raising 2, an average of over 167 lbs. a head. His butter brought him in Bos- ton, 19 3-4 t^s. Cows all native breed except one heifer. The butter alone of this dairy amounted to an average of nearly $33 per cow ; and the calves, pork, &c., valued by Mr. Hall, at $425, would easily pay the expense of tilling the farm and attending the dairy. This yearthe first and second premiums were awarded to Mr. Newbury Bronson, of "Warsaw, Wyoming Co., and Mr. and Mrs. William Ottley, of Phelps, Ontario Co. Their dairy products were quite similar, being about 400 lbs. of Cheese to the Cow, witliout any extra feed. 11 In 1848, the first premium for butter made from 5 cows in 30 days, was awarded to E. R. Evans, of Marcy, Oneida Co. His cows were of the native breed, fed on pasture only, and produced 249 lbs. of butter. Mr. John Holburt, of Chemung-, received the second premium for 248 lbs., made in 30 days from 5 cows. This year, (1850,) S. P. Chapman, of Clockville, Madi; son Co., received the first premium for his milch cow, (Ruly,) a short horn Durham, 5 years old. From the lOth to the 20th of June, made 20 lbs. 4 oz. of butter ; and from the 10th t o the 20th of August, 19 lbs. 14 oz., making- 40 lbs. and 2 oz. in 20 days, or 2 lbs. per day- In 1848, the American Institute awarded premiums to Brewster Helms, of Walwick, for butter. His dairy of 13 cows averaged 186 lbs. The committee say his butter was "super excellent." Also, to M. L. Thompson, for specimen of 20 lbs. of butter. His 15 cows averaged 163 1-3 lbs., which sold for 24 1-2 cts : $40 per cow. I might extend this list of great dairy products if my limits would permit. But this is sufficient to show what has been done, and "what man has done, man may do." It is not too mucli to affirm that every dairy in the State may, and should equal, if not surpass the above surprising results. An inspection of these results will show them not to be limited to any particular locality or climate, or soil, or even to any particular breed of cows. The great secret is all in proper management, and a judicious breeding- and selection of animals. It may be safely affirmed- that every dairyman has, within his own reach, all the elements and means necessary to the most complete success in his business. 12 Then ■why not put forth an efTort of head-work equal to that of the hands, and thus nearly double the dairy pro- duct of this country 1 CHAPTER III. THE OX: (URUS SCOTICUS.) The distinguished zoolog-ist, Hamilton Smith, remarkis:: " It is certain that the real Ursa, (Wild Ox,) was found wild in the Vosges mountains and in the forests of Ad- emies and Germany ;" while its existence in England is incontestably proved by Fitz Stephens, who speaks of the Uri Sylvestris, (Oxen of the forest,) which in his time, (1150,) infested the great forests in and around London. " The only existing breed of wild Oxen now, how* ever, is the white Urus, or tFrus Scofieus, of HamiltoB Smith. "The tame Urus was further distinguished by a mane which is still observed, about two inches long, in old bulls of the Scottish race. " When this breed was exterminated from the open forest is not known, but it was confined to parks long before the reformation. The color is entirely white with muzzle wholly black. " Their manners are singular. Upon perceiving a stranger, they gallop wildly in a circle round him, stop and gaze, toss their heads, and show signs of defiance r this is repeated several times, each circle being made smaller, till they approach sufficiently near to make an effective charge. " The cows conceal their young eight or ten days, and when one of the herd is wounded or enfeebled, the oth' ers of the herd gore it to death. The breed is still preserved at Chillingham Castle near Berwick-upon- 14 Tweed, Wallaston in Notting-ham, Gisburn in Cawen, Linchall in Cheshire, and Cartly in Staffordshire. "THE DOMESTIC OX: (BOS TAURUS,) " Considered by some as a variety, and by others as a distinct species from the last, is supposed by Hamilton Smith to have been first domesticated by the Caucasian nations of western Asia. It is stated they have four- teen ribs, whereas those of the Urus are but twelve, a distinction sufficiently important to sanction the be- lief of a specific difference. " Whether or not this parent of our domestic race ever existed in these islands in a state of nature, is very doubtful. " The principal breeds of oxen peculiar to Great Brit- ain have been arranged by Major Hamilton Smith, irnder nine divisions." The several breeds and varieties are grouped and ar- ranged in a tabular form, which will enable one to trace at a single glance any of the varieties to its appro- priate parent stock. ENGLISH VARIETIES. Long Hoened. 1, Long Horned or Lancaster. I" Holdemess, I Teeswater, Short Horned. 2, { Yorkshire, I Durham, L Northunfiberland. ( Devon, MiddleHorned.S, i Hereford, ( Sussex. SCOTCH VARIETIES. No Horns, 4, \ ^°"^'^, galloway, I Suffolk Dun. Highland. 5, 15 West Highlands, Argyle or Sky, Kyloe of the Hebrides, Morlands, Orkney or Shetlands, p„„„„,^„ g 5 Fifeshire, fiFESHiRE.b, i Aberdeenshire. WELCH VAKIETIKS. 7. Large dark brown with white faces. 8. Small black and white. GUERNSEY VARIETY. 9. Alderney, Guernsey or Jersey. " The Long Horned or Lancaster Breed, as the name implies, is remarkable for long horns. They have firm, thick hides, long, close hair, large hoofs, and give in proportion less milk but more cream. They are of various colors but in general Jinched, that is with a white streak above the spine and a white spot inside of the hoofs. The improved Leicester is a slight varie- ty originally bred near Coventry. " The Short Horned Breed, includes those that are named the Holderness, Teeswater, Yorkshire, Dur- ham, and Northumberland. This has been most im- proved, producing usually twenty-four quarts of milk per day, and three firkins of butter per season. Their color varies but is generally red and white mixed, called by the graziers flecked. " The Middle Horned, includes the Devon, Here- ford, and Sussex breeds. They are active, hardy and much esteemed for draught; but though they fatten early, do not milk so well as the last. The pure Dev- ons are of a high red color, without spots, a light dun ring round the eye, fine in bone, clear neck, thin face, and the tail set on high. The North Devon is most es- 16 teemed for eating. The Sussex and Herefords are lar- ger. " Thk Scotch Breeds may be arranged under the Polled, (or Mully,) the Highland and the Fifeshire. The Polled Galloway is the most esteemed : it is straight in the back, the hair soft, the color black or dark brin- dle, and the size not large. The Suffolk dun, is a va- riety of this race. " The Highland Eace, includes several varieties, the most valuable ones being the West Highland, Argyle or Sky, and the Kyloe from the Hebrides. The Nor- lands is another variety with coarse hides, long legs, and |a narrow make. The -Orkney or Shetlands, are very diminutive, an ox Weighing about 60 lbs. a quar- ter, and a cow 40 pounds. Their colors are various and their shape bad, but they give an abundance of milk, and fatten rapidly. " The" Fifeshire, appears to be an improved breed of the Highlands crossed with the Cambridgeshire ; they are black, spotted with grey, the horns small, white, and very erect. A variety "occurs in Aberdeen- shire. "The Welsh have two breeds : the first is large, dark brown, with some white, the legs long and slender, the horns white and turned upwards ; these, next to the Devons, are best in the yoke, and are a cross of the long horned : the second is low, well formed, black with little white, and good milkers. "The Alderney or Guernsey Race, is proverbially small, their color is mostly yellow or light red, marked with white about the face and limbs, and with crum- pled horns. The true breed is known by being yellow ¥ 17 within the ears, and at the root of its tail and its tuft."* The American herd is from several of the varieties above named, and I may say from some of the choicest, imported at different times, as necessity has demand- ed, or as our cattle breeders have been induced, by a laudable desire to improve their stock. The stock of the United States is of course thei cross- ing in an infinite variety of ways of many of the above varieties, and when we speak of native stock, we only mean that whose pedigree can not be traced correct- ly to some distinct variety or varieties, as the Bos Tau- rus is no more a native of America than of the British Isles. Yet, indiscriminate as this mode of breeding may have been, it is a curious fact that an animal can scarcely be found in any of our herds, in which a practiced eye will not readily detect the characteristics of some one or more varieties of some of the leading breeds of Great Britain. The American mode of breeding, though generally a matter of chance and fortune, is carried on in a way calculated, gradually though very blindly, to improve our stock. The best male calf in each herd being left each year uncastrated, and then when grown up, the best bull in each neighborhood being preferred, a species of upward breeding is pursued, yet it must be admitted in a very unintelligent and impolitic manner. Yet, because these chance crosses occasionally produce an animal nearly equal, in some points at least, to the regular bred ani- mals of a certain breed, the unthinking and inexperi- ♦This Chapter has thus far been extracted from the Encyclopedia of 6eog- raphy, hy Hugh Murray, F. R. S. E. B 18 enced at once denounce thorough breeding as useless pains. It cannot be denied that some choicely selected dai- ries of native cows fully equal in their product, the best thorough bred dairies ; and permit me to suggest wheth- er it is not worthy of a trial to undertake a thor- ough and systematic course of breeding from such native cows, with the hope of producing new Ameri' can varieties that will even surpass the best bred of Great Britain 1 May not our soil and climate, peculiar- ly adapted to jmsturage, warrant us in the hope of soon attaining in the animal kingdom what has already been accomplished in the vegetable 1 It is a well known fact that our varieties of the apple, pear, peach, and plum, are highly prized and sought by the pomolo- gists of Great Britain and France, and may we not reasonably aspire to render our native bred stock equal- ly excellent and desirable *? CHAPTER IV. DIFPJIKENT PKEEDS OF COWS. Since all the varieties of our cattle had a Etiropean tJrigin, there now existSj as tiiight be expected, a very great difference in size^ color, form and habits^ xiistin- guishing marks that the greatest attention in feeding and care will fail to obliterate. One would scarcely expect to raise from the white or flecked Durham a full red calf, or from a deep red Devonshire a light <5olored animal. The form too, of different breeds, is ^almost as unlike as the color. It is not the province of the writer, even were he able, to decide upon the best breeds for any spedj[|ic ob- ject, but only to call attention to the more prominent features of the most important, leaving each farmer to choose his own stock as Ms judgment or taste may dic- tate.* THE SHOKT HORN OR DURHAM. This fe a highly bred Eaglish variety, some branches of which date back an uninterrupted pedigreet for inany • generations. The improved Short Hoffis originated with Mr. Charles Colling, a distingwished catjtle breeds of Eng- land. He owned a bull named Hubback,; a fine ani- * For a more complete work on native and foreign stock, see an article on that inbjeot by Stenry S. Randall, in Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc, IM9, p. 249, from which seveEalparagtaplis in this chapter are ,tivken. ■f-The accompanying portrait of .the Earl of Lehamj is c^ s hull imported from the herd of Mr. StephensoUj England, by Col. Sherwood of Auburn and Mr. Stephens of N0W Tdrk, he is decidedly a fine animal, and his ancestors P first pre* mium of the N. T. State Agricultural Bocie^. 23 cious grades of natives and Devons, a more profitable stock than the Short Horns. THE HEREFORD. " The Hereford Ox is supposed to be descended from the same stock as the Devon, but is larger, heavier in the bone, usually of a darker red or brown color, with a white face, throat and belly. " The Herefords are shorter legged than the Devons, hardier and kindlier feeders, but like that breed, are inferior tnilkers. Upwards of twenty years since, the Hon. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, imported two pairs of Herefords. He remarks : "The Herefords resemble the Devons, the race of New England cattle, and a fine race it is. But the Herefords have the advantage of them in greater size, greater length, more power consequently for draft ; I think are quite as quick in the step, and as good at the pails." In instituting a comparison between them and the short horns, he slates it as his opinion that the former make better work cattle, are hardier, and will, on being fattened, take themselves to market better than their rivals. On the other hand, he says, " the Durhams, I think, have the advantage in earlier maturity, in beauty and in the quantity of milk they will yield." He adds, "In Kentucky, the Durhams are generally preferred to all other races." There can be but little doubt that in the points re- garded by the butcher, the Herefords have few rivals ; though, perhaps, the grazier would prefer a variety maturing somewhat earliei". In a country where feed- ing properties are regarded as the prime point, and the 24 demands of whose market will render it profitable to breed and graze a race of cattle exclusively for the shambles, the Herefords, from their aptitude to take on flesh, from the high quality of their beef, and from their endurance of travel, will always be deservedly held in high esteem. "The great drawback on the value of the Here- fords, either pure or crossed, for the wants of the far- mers of the eastern and middle States is, their lack of milking properties. Here they are concededly sadly deficient. All English authorities, early and modern, agree on this point, Lawrence, after quoting the enco- miums of Marshall on this breed* in other respects, significantly remarks, 'as milkers they have nothing in particular to boast of ;' and Youatt, the best living authority, who is an unprejudiced and disinterested judge in deciding the qi^estion, thus summarily disposes of their claims in this respect : "'The Herefords are far worse milkers than the Devons. This is so generally acknowledged, that while there are many dairies of Devon cows in various parts of the country, (England,) none of which, however, are very profitable to the owner, a dairy of Herefords is rarely to be found.' "t "Whether a breed so deficient in the point, (the dairyj) regarded in a large portion of our country as the prime one, would in such points be the most profit- able one to the farmer, cither in a pure state, or employed as a meliorating cross with native stocks, perhaps admits of little question. ♦Lawrence's " Treatise on Cattle.'' tFarmers' Series, Vol. on Cattle, p. 31. 25 " This, we have ever thought, is much to be regret- ted, as the Hereford would seem in many respects not only a valuable animal, but well adapted to the circum- stances of our country. In the remote western States, on whose immense natural pastures early maturity is less a matter of consequence, where dairying proper- ties are little regarded, provided the' cow will yield sufficient milk to properly rear her progeny, and where beef cattle must be driven great distances to market, there is little doubt that the Hereford would prove an invaluable breed." ATKSHIEE. This race of cattle is supposed to have originated from a cross between tjhe native cow of Cunningham, Kyle and Ayrshire on one side, and the short horns on the other. The parent stock was very indifferent in size, form and milking properties, perhaps much inferior to the ordinary American stock. But by this cross and breeding, a race a of cattle possessing many excellencies has been produced.* " This improved race is of a red and white color, beautifully mottled, short in the leg, the horns small and fine, the head and neck delicate, the latter thickening properly toward the shoulders, the carcass deep, but inclining to be flat, and the loin and haunch, compared with the short horn, narrower. "Five gallons of milk daily for the first two or three months after calving, three gallons for the next three *The Portrait is of an Ayrshire bull, " Dandy," bred by E. P. Prentice, of Mount Hope, near Albany, from the cow " Ayr," represented on the next page. This cut also gives the portait of the short horn cow, Charlotte, bred by George Vale, and now owned by S. P. Chapman, of ClockvUle, Madison county, N. T. 26 months, and one gallon and a half for the remaining- four months in which she is milked, is said to be an average given by the Ayrshire cow.* On medium soils, there is perhaps, no breed, size and consumption of food being considered, which presents a much better combination of milking and grazing properties." This race of cattle has, however, been less generally introduced into our country than either of the breeds described above, and this fact may, perhaps, be regard- ed as an evidence that they combine less desirable qualities for the American grazier and dairyman. E. P. Prentice, of Mount Hope, Albany, has a fine herd of Ayr cows. AMERICAN NATI"^»E COWS. The length of time elapsed since neat cattle were in- troduced into this country, and the absence of all records, render it quite impossible to trace any direct pedigi'ee of any native breed. Inti'oduced as they were by the early settlers, each bringing with him specimens from his own herd or some one of his neighborhood, as many races of cattle were introduced as the different sections from which emigrants found their way to this country. " An attempt has been made to trace the origin of our common cattle, especially those of the northern States, exclusively to the English Devon, and it is pro- bable that this breed did mingle largely in the early importations, from the fact that a large portion were from the south of England, or embarked from ports in that district, where the Devon, at that period, was the prevailing breed. " The characteristics of this variety also, as to horns, ♦Farmers' Series. 27 color, etc., have always been the favorite ones among the people of the United States. Besides, at the settle- ment of America, but little attention had been paid to breeds or ptirity of blood, the English herd being, as ours is now, of a stock whose pedigree no one pretends to trace. " Besides, the Dutch in New York, and the Swedes on the Delaware, introduced the cattle of their respective countries, which were subsequentljr incorporated with the common stock, the traces of whose varied lineage the practiced eye will detect in many districts. " Our black and polled cattle give evidence of their Welch and Galloway extraction." The mode of breeding pursued in the United States, already referred to, from this mixed stock has produced the native cow, and it is believed an improvement has usually been made on the parent stock, especially in milking qualities. While this may be true as a general thing, but a small portion of the cows of the American dairy can boast of superior excellence. In almost every township, to be sure, a small dairy might be selected that would compete with the best herds of impi-oved stock in point of butter and cheese : in size and beauty the former would certainly fall far below the latter. This opinion may appear presumptuous and very wide of the mark : facts however will, we think, fully conr firm it ; and the proof of the pudding is in eating it. Perhaps a fair trial was made between native cows and short horns, by that celebrated breeder, E. P. Pren- tice, of Troy, with "five of his cows, selected from a herd of some twenty full blood short horns, on the one hand, and E. E. Evans, of Marcy, Oneida county, with the same number of native cows, on the other. 28 The results, as reported to the N. Y. State Agricul- tural Society, were as follows : Mr. Prentice's cows produced in thirty successive days, 202 pounds of butter. They gave in one day, 102 1-2 quarts of milk, weighing 213 pounds and 7 ounces. Mr. Evans' cows produced in thirty successive days, 217 pounds of butter. They gave in one day, 77 1-2 quarts of milk, weighing 137 1-2 pounds. See Report of N. Y. State Ag. Soc, 1845, pp. 110, 111. As these trials were both maxJe in competition for the premium of the State, it is reasonable to suppose that both parties did their best, and it may also be regarded as a fair comparison between our best native cows and the best improved short horns. Among the many accounts of great yields of single cows, furnished by agricultural papers, both native and improved stock, we may place side by side that of the full bred short horn cow Ruby, own^d by S. P. Chap- man, of Clockville, Madison county, and a native cow, owned in 1844, by R. Donaldson, of Blithwood, Dutch- ess county. Mr. Chapman made from his cow, in the summer of 1850, 40 1-8 pounds of butter in 20 days, or an average of 2 pounds and a fraction over per day for that time. Mr. Donaldson's cow " Kaatskill," (see frontispiece,) produced 38 1-2 quarts of milk per day, which in two days yielded 6 1-2 pounds of butter, or 3 1-4 pounds per day. The average for 20 days would, doubtless, have been somewhat less. Numerous instances are on record of native cows producing 2 pounds and upwards of butter per day. These facts are not introduced for the disparagement of cultivated breeds, for the writer is a gread admirer 29 of animals of the various improved varieties ; but to stimulate our own countrymen, by fairly stating- what has been done, to go and do likewise. While the native stock is confessedly inferior to the Short Horns or Herefords in be?iuty, size and fattening- properties, past experience places it beyond a doubt that a systematic course of breeding-, crossing- with im- proved stock where the case appears to require it, would in a very short time produce a race of cows not equalled in the world, and a race of fat cattle not sur- passed for grazing or the butcher. CHAPTER V. BREEDING FOR THE DAIEY. The great question with the American dairyman should be : Hovb can I best improve the quality of my cows? The principal points constituting the desirable cow, are, her milking properties, size, form, disposition, ease of keeping, and fattening qualities. The good milker gives a large quantity of milk and of good quality. A common sized cow should not give less than sixteen quarts of milk per day if it is ever so rich, when in the best of feed, and hold out well for ten months of the year. The condition of the animal and kind of food she receives are known materially to affect the quantity of milk as well as its quality. The best of milk will jrield four and a half (a) lbs. of butter, or twelve (b) of cheese to one hundred lbs. of milk. There is often a vast difference in the quality of milk given by cows of the same herd, and this point re- quires the more attention, since it is not as readily de- termined as the quantity. Hear the evidence of a dairyman : John Holbert, of Chemung, N. Y., after stating that he had made in the summer of 1848, two hundred and (a) See Statement of E. K. Evans, Trans. N. T. S. Ag. S. 1846, p. H0» (*) See Statement of Mrs. Ottey Trans. N. T. B; Ag. S. 1846, p. 142. 31 forty-eight pounds of butter in thirty days, from five Cows, fed on grass only, says : " There is more differ- ence in the quality of milk for making butter than in the quantity : dairymen would do well, therefore, to look to the quality more than the quantity of milk that each eow gives. I find that by chiu:ning the milk of each cow separately, that one of my best cows will make as much butter as three of my poorest, giving the same quantity of miUc. I have kept a dairy for twenty years, but never knew until the past season that there was so much difference in cows." — Tram. Am. Inst. 1848, .p. 124. In selecting calves to rear, the dairyman should never do it by guess, but know by actual experiment the char- acter of each cow in relation to the quality as well as quantity of milk, and rear only the calves of his very best cows ; and it would conduce greatly to the im- provement of the dairy if every dairyman, instead of slaughtering indiscriminately all of his calves, as many do, would rear enough of the best cows' stock, and only the best, to keep his number good, rather than depend upon bujdng. It may be laid down as a general fact the world over, that in reproduction, "Like produces like," though there are occasional apparent exceptions. This rule holds equally good in the ox tribe. Behold the Striking similarity in any herd of full bred short horns or De- vons. It would be no less so in native stock after a few generations. In this way only, can any man be sure of replenishing his herd with animals of the best quality, In purchasing, ignorant of pedigree, and without an opportunity, as is usually the case, of testing the qual- ity of the milk, a ^reat risk must be run. The bull 32 should be from a cow unsurpassed for quantity and richness of milk, a perfect form, docile temper, and fair size, though some smallish bulls have produced a stock of fine cattle, and when from a race usually large, many breeders think the form is improved by selecting a medium sized sire. This was the case with " Hub- back," the great progenitor of the improved short horns. There are many reasons why the American dairy- man must rely mainly upon the native breed for the basis of improving his stock. The expense necessarily incurred in changing our en- tire stock, to say nothing of the time requisite, would be an insuperable objection ; besides, those who already have dairies of native stock, equal or superior for milk to the best improved varieties, will be very loth to make a great sacrifice for the matter of taste in form, or even to increase the size, especially when this must at the same time add to the amount of keeping re- quired. Yet much may be, and in fact has already been done in some sections by crossing. And this is no doubt the true naode of introducing improved blood into our stock. Besides the greater economy of this course, it has other recommendations. A race of cattle better fitted to our climate is produced, than any foreign stock, at least un- til acclimated by several years' residence, and strong prejudices extensively imbibed, are more easily met this way than by a more summary course. Many intelligent farmers, friends of improvement too, are of the opinion that grade cattle from judicious crosses, are in no way inferior to the cultivated stock. Henry S. Randall, of Cortlandville, from whose 33 writing's I have quoted so freely in the last chapter says: " After some experience with several English varie- ties, our conclusion is unhesitatingly, that it is to the blood of the improved short horns that we are to look for the ameliorating change. " We will not pretend to say that " dashes " of other blood would depreciate, or under certain circumstances, would not prove advantageous to the produce of such a cross. For high or thin soils, the cross effected by a Durham and Devon bull on our native stock, might be superior to that effected by a pure Durham, 46 The amount of the curd in all of these is very great, compared \dth the table in the preceding chapter. As the casein is identical in composition, only differing in form from muscle, this deviation from the ordinary composition of milk, appears to be peculiarly adapted to a rapid development of the young animal's muscular system when he most needs it, to enable him to stand and walk and help himself to food. This state of milk, however, does not long continue, but it gradually as- sumes its ordinary character, when after eight or ten days it has reached the usual condition. Age of the cow. Observation has shown that milk of the best quality or of the greatest quantity is not given till the cow has reached the age of four or five years and had two or three calves ; after which they are not materially reduced till the animal is unfitted by age for milking purposes. Climate and season of the year. Moist and temperate climates are favorable to the production of milk. In hot countries and dry seasons the quantity is less, but the average quality is richer, provided the animal gets enough to eat. Cool weather favors the production of cheese and sugar in milk, while hot weather increases the yield of butter.* Note. — This perhaps may be owing to the circumstance that the fatty and starchy portions of food which naturally go to produce but- ter, is more rapidly consumed by the vital action of the animal in cold weather, and thrown off from the lungs in respiration ; while the nitrogenized portions of food, such as are identical with curd and muscle, are less easily decomposed in the lungs, and therefore are deposited in the secretion of milk in the form of cheesy matter. If ♦Sprengel'B Chemic fur Landwrerthe, ii, p. 620. 47 this is true, the warmer and more comfortable animals are kept during the cold of winter, the richer will be the milk in butter. Experi- ments on this point would be interesting and instructive. In spring and early summer the milk is more abund- ant and of a finer flavor. HeaUh and general state of the animal. It is obvious that the quality of the milk must be affected by almost every change in the health of the animal. It is also less rich in cream as soon as the cow becomes pregnant, and the same is observed to be the case when she shows a tendency to fatten. The poorer the apparent condition of the healthy cow, good feed being given, the richer in general is the milk. Milking. The quantity of milk that a cow gives manifestly depends much upon the mode, time and re- gularity of milking. To be a good milker is an accom- plishment not possessed by every dairyman. First of all it should be performed in a manner not to hurt or disturb the cow, and as rapidly as possible, for any irritation will render her less disposed to yield all the milk secreted, and a double mischief is done : first, a part, and the best part, of the milk is left, and any milk thus retained in the udder diminishes the quantity given at the next milking, and if this is continued for a long time the amount will gradually diminish till the cow becomes nearly dry. If through the negligence of the milker, or any other cause, a small quantity is left in the udder the same disastrous effect is produced ; hence the greatest care should be taken to draw the last drop from the cow at every milking. The teats of some animals appear naturally disposed to crack, and all more or less so in the cold weather of 48 spring- and fall. This is ag-gravated by the pernicious practice of wetting the teats with milk at the com- mencement to make the milk flow easier. This should always be avoided, both for the comfort of the animal and the cleanliness of the milk. But it is highly recom- mended to have each milker provided with a supply of clean water, with which to wash the teats and udder in case any dirt, in which the animal may have lain down, should render it necessary, or when cows are driven through muddy places and thus become be- smeared. For any dirt that may accidentally fall into the pail will communicate its taint to the butter or cheese, especially to the former. A bathing in cold water before milking and oiling with fresh butter or some soft clean grease afterwards, will, it is believed, usually cure the worst cracked teats in a short time. Regularity in the times of milking and an equal division between, can not be too closely observed. Six o'clock morning and evening the year round, may be as con- venient an hour as any ; yet some circumstances, such as marketing the milk or making the cheese, may" ren- der some other hour preferable. But whatever hour is preferred should be punctually regarded ; otherwise the secretion of milk in the udder will be sometimes hastened and sometimes retarded, and thus the well doing of the cow greatly obstructed. Most dairymen in this country milk but twice in 24 hours; but numerous experiments prove that the product is increased from one-fourth to one-third by milking- three times ; at four, twelve and eight, especially during the long days and full feed of June and July. Several of the great yields spoken of in a previous chapter were obtained in this way. Among them are Mr. Chapman's and Mr. Donaldson's. 49 By milking' three times, however, the quantity is in- creased in a greater proportion than the quality. Some experiments show, that if a cow is milked but once in twenty-four hours, an equal quantity of milk will yield one seventh more butter than when milked twice. The quality varies with the time of milking. Every one knows that the strippings are much richer than the first yield of the milking-. Some ingenious experiments performed by Dr. Anderson, of England, as early as 1793, also show the quality of butter made from the strippings to be much superior to that made from the first milkings. Acting upon this sug-gestion, many dairymen, who wish to produce butter of the finest flavor and richest color, churn only about the half last drawn, reserving the first to feed to calves, to carry to market, or for culinary purposes, &c. In referring- to two cups of milk, one drawn at the beginning- and another at the close of the milking, Dr, Anderson says : " the difference in the quality of the cream, however, obtained from these two cups, was much greater than the difference in the quantity. In the first cup, the cream was a thin tough film, thinner and perhaps whiter than the paper on which I write ; in the last, the cream was of a thick, butterous consistency, and of a glowing- richness of color that no other cream is found to possess." The buttermilk of such cream is also much richer than from other cream. I am not aware that any well conducted experi- ments have been made in making cheese from the last half of the milking only, but little doubt can be enter- tained that, were it properly manufactured, an article might thus be produced little inferior in richness to the celebrated Stilton Cheese. Where cream is to be 50 raised, the quantity and quality are much reduced by carrying the milk far, and thus agitating it before it is strained into pans, or by letting it stand in the pail till it is cold before straining. TREATMENT AND MORAL STATE OF THE ANIMAL. " A state of comparative repose is favorable to the performance of all the important functions in a healthy animal. Any thing which frets, disturbs, torments, or renders it uneasy, affects these functions, and among other results, lessens the quantity and vitiates the qual- ity of the milk. Such is observed to be the case when the cow has been recently deprived of her calf; when she is taken from her companions in the pasture ; when her usual place in the cow-house is changed ; when she is kept long in the house after the spring has arrived ; when she is hunted in the field or tormented by in- sects ; or where any other circumstance occurs by which irritation or restlessness is caused, either of a temporary or permanent kind. I do not inquire at present into the physiological nature of the changes which ensue ; to the dairyman, it is important, chiefly, to be femiliar with the fact." (Johnston.) And I may add, in relation to breaking heifers, that they should be handled ^nd tamed before calving, if possible; but sometimes then, they will manifest a great aversion to being milke^, though perfectly gentle before. A heifer should always be treated with the greatest kindness and caution, and in most instances, a few days will be sufficient to render her perfectly gentle : but sometimes an apparent maliciousness, as in the horse and ox, ren- ders it necessary to resort to severe modes of treat- 51 menu It is i-ecommended n^er to whip a heifer when loose, or when driven into a corner, or tied fast to a post, but holding' her (by a rope around her horns) with one hand, inflict moderately several blows with a bit of rope, a strap or small whip, with the other, and never cease till she will gently walk up to you when you stop and call her, as you stand back the rope's length ; make her feel that it is a relief to be close by you ; then caress her, and if she will stand perfectly still, milk her ; but if not, repeat the chastisement till she will ; taking care, however, never to whip her feet or shins, as blows inflicted there might produce perma- nent injury^ then wash her all over with cold water, which both cools her temper and heals her stripes, and after giving her a taste of salt, let her go ; and in most cases, when you enter the lot next time she will come to you and caress you. When chastising is once under- taken, it should never be abandoned till the animal is perfectly subdued, as otherwise, more harm than good would follow. Care is often necessary in the milker not to incur the ill will of a cow : for in that case, she will not only be disposed to uneasiness during milking, but often refuse to yield her milk. In short, the greatest caution is necessary in every thing that pertains to the comfort and quiet erf the animal, if the greatest amount, and the best quality of milk is obtained. THE KACS <0E BREED, AND SIZE OF THE ANIMAL. •After what has already been said under this head in ^preceding chapters, little need be added. Long obser- vation has shown that the quality and quantity of milk 52 depends much upon the breed of cows, though, per- haps, quite as much upon individuals of the respective races : some yielding- a very large quantity of thin and poor milk ; others, a large quantity of very good qual- ity, and others still, a moderate quantity of the very best quality ; and perhaps others, a small amount, and that very poor. Though none of these properties may belong strictly to any particular breed, each has its pe- culiar characteristic to a greater or less degree, as experiments at Bradley Hall, in Derbyshire, England, will illustrate. " During the height of the season, and when fed upon the same pasture, cows of four different breeds- gave per day, as follows : H(4deTnea», 29 qirarts of mflk mader 38 1-2 oz. butter, or 12 qnart» yield, 1 Ik Alderney, 19 " 25 " " 12 " " " " Devon, 17 " " " " 28 " "• 9 3-4 " " " '* Ayrshire, 20 "■ "• " " 34 " "• ^l-Z " « red, or small individuals of the larger races give the richest milk from the same kind of food." Repeated trials have shown that the small breed» of Scotland, the Kerry, Alderney, and Shetland cows though they give a much less amount @£ milk, are more 53 profitable for that climate, than the larger breeds of their southern neighbors. Each farmer will of course stock his farm with such a breed as his own circumstances and branch of dairy- ing demands. In the vicinity of cities where good feed is plenty, and milk alone is sold, the large breeds of deep milkers will be the most profitable : while under other and contrary circumstances, smaller breeds giving richer milk but less of it, would be more profitable. Attention once called to this subject, every dairyman will pursue that course best adapted to his own circum- stances. In selecting cows, it will not answer to rely upon any pedigree or race implicitly : actual trial of every cow's milk, especially when butter or cheese is to be made, is the only reliable means of information, especially in relation to the quality. But little trouble is necessaiy to set each cow's milk separate for a few days, and ascertain, by actual experiment, the exact amount of butter yielded by each cow, under similar circumstances ; though it is not as easy to judge of the amount of cheese thus given; and we lack experi- ments to determine whether a cow that gives a large amount of butter, will invariably give an amount of cheese proportionately large. The kind of Food. Permit me to commence this section with an extract from the address of Hon. Za- dock Pratt, before the Green County Agricultural So- ciety. Speaking of cows, he says : " In the agricul- tural journals, I have read an account of a middle sized country cow, I refer to the celebrated Oaks cow, bought out of a drove in Massachusetts for a mere arifle. Her history illustrates two things worthy of 54 notice. First, wiiat we can obtain from the best of our old breed; and secondly, how much depends on good feeding. * * It is stated on the most unquestion- able authority, such as satisfied the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, that in the first year, with ordi- nary keep, she made but 180 pounds af butter. The next year she had twelve bushels, of corn meal, and then gave 300 pounds of butter. The next, she had thirty-five bushels, and gave more than 400 pounds. The next year she had a bushel a week, and all her own milk skimmed, and then she gave from the 5th of April, to the 25th September, the day of the show, 480 pounds, besides suckling her calf for five weeks. She was exhibited, and deservedly took the premium on the last mentioned day^ and will carry down her own- er's name with credit to posterity, as long as oaks grow." This instance, which might be strengthened by many other similar cues, is full of instruction to the dairyman. This cow was actually worth more than any two ordinary cows, while she required only one half as much care, one half as much stable and pas- ture, and little more time in milking and manufacturing the butter. Nothing is plainer than that farmers try to keep too many cows for their feed, and thus suffer a loss similar to the man who half tills one hundred acres, and raises no more bushels and tons, than he who cultivates fifty in the best manner, but with the additional ex- pense of twice as much fence, twice as mitch plowing,, sowing, seed, harrowing, reaping, and perhaps nearly twice as much taxes. No man can reasonably expect a cow to do well through the summer that gets poor and weak during the winter. Making cows barely 55 live through, has a depreciating- effect upon our race of cattle, perhaps, beyond any other cause. For a poor cow will , not produce a strong and large calf; and a poor calf, will not, as a general thing, make a good animal. The Jill-pail breed is the best breed in the world, and let the dairyman feed his cows as he does his horses and hogs, and his pail will be filled three times a day. To do this, a radical change in dairy husbandry must be made. Pasture and meadow lands must be made richer, and a portion of it appropriated to grain, not to be sold to the distiller, but to be fed to his cows, to be made into milk, butter and cheese. Perhaps to raise a good crop of grain on any part of many dairy farms, the land must be under-drained, which will also im- prove it, both for pasture and meadow. Many appear to doubt the economy of feeding cows highly. The best and most accurate calculations, however, prove beyond a doubt, that grain and roots given in reason- able quantities, especially during winter, bringing them out healthy and vigorous in the spring, pays much bet- ter in butter and cheese the next season, than to sell them at the usual price, winter the cows on hay or straw alone, and have the cows enter the season ema- ciated and weak, requiring all the best of the season to recruit their flesh and strength, ready to grow* poor again in a few months. Besides, this course cannot be conducive to good health and condition of the animal ■ especially must it retard the growth of heifers that are kept thin by milking during summer, to permit them to grow still thinner during the winter months. Thus, small feeble cows are produced, bearing feeble calves, and, as before remarked, a general detraction from 56 what the American herd might be, is suffered, to the great loss of all parties concerned. I am not aware that a systematic plan of full feeding is pursued in but few dairies of this country. Below I give the out- line of the plan successfully pursued by A. L. Fish, of Herkimer county. Trans. N. Y. State Ag. Soc. 1844, p. 22, etc. " When the ground is settled and grass is grown so that cows can get their fill without too much toil, they are allowed to graze an hour, only, the first day ; the second day a Uttle longer, and so on, till they get ac- customed to the change of feed before they are allowed to have full range of pasture. Shift of pasture is fre- quently made to keep feed fresh and a good bite. About one acre per cow affords plenty of feed till the first of August. If enough land was turned to pasture to feed the cows through the season, it would get a start of them about this time, and be hard and dry the balance of the season. To avoid turning on my meadows in the fall, I take one acre to every ten cows, plow and prepare it the fore part of June for sowing; I com- mence sowing com broad cast, about half an acre at a time, (for twenty-five cows,) so that it may grow eighty or ninety days before it is cut and fed. I have found by experiment, that it then contains the most saccharine juice, and will produce the most milk. If the ground is strong, I sow two bushels per acre ; more if the ground is not manured. " The common yield is from fifteen to twenty tons (of green feed) per acre. About the first of August, when heat and flies are too oppressive for cows to feed quietly in the day time, I commence feeding them with what corn they will eat in the morning, daily, which is cut 57 up with a grass scythe, and drawn on a sled or wagon to the milk barn and fed to them in the stalls, which is one hour's work for a man at each feeding. When thus plentifully fed, my cows have their knittip,g work on hand for the day, which they can do up by lying quietly under artificial shades erected in such places as need manuring most, and are most airy, by setting posts and putting poles and bushes on top, the sides being left open. These shades may be made and re- moved annually, to enrich other portions of soil if de- sired, at the small expense of one dollar for each ten cows. At evening, my cows are fed whey only, be- cause they can feed more quietly, with less rambling, and will give more milk by feeding most when the dew is on the grass. " The capacity of cows for giving milk is varied much by habit. In fall, after the season of feeding is past, I feed four quarts of wheat bran or shorts made into slop with whey, or a peck of roots to each cow, till milking season closes, (about the first of December,) When confined in stables and fed hay and milked, they are fed each one pail full of thin slop at morning before foddering, and also at evening, to render their food more succulent, and they will not drink so much cold water when let out in the middle of the day. In cold weather cows are kept well attended in warm stables. No foddering is done on the ground. Thus a supply of milk is kept up, and the cows get in good flesh ; while their blood and bags are left in a healthy condition when dried off". "This flesh they hold till milk season in spring, with- out other feed than good hay. They will not get fleshy bags but come into milk at once. About the first of 58 April they are carded daily, till they are turned to grass. Wheat bran in milk or whey, slops or roots are daily fed, as they are found best adapted to the nature of different -cows, and most likely to establish a regTilar flow of milk till grass comes." Here we have a view of Mr, Fish's feeding through the season. It may not be pretended that this is better than any other mode ; indeed, there may be plans pur- sued much superior to this. Nor is it deemed essential that any precise plan of feeding be adopted, provided the cows are well fed and well cared for, in an econo- mical manner. At any rate, the product of Mr. Fish's dairy proves this to be a good mode., Mr. Fish kept in 1844, 25 cows, and made cheese. Before the 17th of September, he had made 14,813 pounds, or 566 1-2 pounds per cow, and it was estimat- ed that 700 pounds per cow would have been easily produced by the close of the season. Now an average yield of cheese dairies will not exceed 350 pounds per cow ; then here is an increase of 350 pounds to each cow, to compensate for the extra feed and care given his dairy, giving as the proceeds of each cow, $37,50. It can not be expected that an ordinary dairy can be brought up to this mark by following an improved mode of feeding and attention in a single season ; yet a com- mencement may be made, and by pursuing it year after year the highest degree of excellence may be attained, when accompanied by an observance of the suggestions thrown out on bi^eeding in the foregoing chapters. One more example, a course of feeding pursued with great success, by Col. Samuel Jaques, of Charleston, Mass., the breeder of the cream-pot race, before refer- red to, shall be presented. 59 A correspondent of the Cultivator, for 1845, p. 75, writes as follows: "In feeding his stock Col. Jaques observes the closest economy. He has sometimes kept a herd of cows for the purpose of supplying milk for the market. For 30 cows, cut with a machine, 30 bushels for one feed ; one-third common English hay, one-third salt hay, and one-third rye or barley straw, add 30 quarts of wheat bran or shorts and 10 quarts of oat and corn meal moistened with water. One bush- el of this mixture is given to each cow in the morning, and the same quantity at noon and in the evening. In addition to this, a peck of mangel wurtzel is given to each cow per day. This mode of feeding has been found to produce nearly as much milk as the best grass feed in summer. When no wheat bran or any kind of meal is given, the hay is fed without cutting." It will hardly be necessary to detail a great many modes of feeding, as every farmer's circumstances are a little different from those of his neighbor, each will find it convenient to pursue a plan best adapted to his own. But what I would insist upon is, that one full fed healthy cow is worth nearly or quite as much for milk, butter or cheese, as two kept in the ordinary manner ; and this fact well established in the mind of the dairy- man, will lead him to adopt such a course as is best adapted to his own circumstances. A few suggestions on the mode of preparing food, may not be out of place in this connection. It may be laid down as a standing fact, that all roots, bran, shorts, and grain of any kind, that contain much starch, will be greatly improved by boiling or scalding. The reason is, that starch before entering into the circulation and secretions of the animal System, 60 must first be changed to a condition called dextrine— the glutinous substance produced by the house-keeper, when starch is prepared for use in the laundry. Starch, in its granular condition, is quite insoluble in cold water, but when scalded it is perfectly soluble and enters readily into the circulation. In fact, if starch is eaten raw, this change must be wrought in the animal's sto- mach by an expenditure of animal heat, before it can be digested ; but if it be thus changed by artificial heat before being eaten, the amount of animal heat necessary to produce the change is thus saved, and hence efiects a great saving of food ; for the amount of food digested is nearly in direct proportion to the amount of animal heat necessary to carry on the vital functions. The change in starch spoken of above, is observed when boiling water is poured upon buckwheat bran ; the same takes place in baking bread, and when carried a little farther in this process, the dextrine is changed to sugar, giving the sweet taste which all well baked bread should always have.*. Many theoretical speculations have been entertained relative to the quality of milk produced by different kinds of food. But thus far, accurate experiments are wanting to establish any principle. If we reason from the analogies discovered by the analysis of food and milk, we should conclude that substances containing the * starch is readily changed into sugar by exposing four parts of starch, one of sulphuric acid, and twelve of water, to a heat a little below boiling water, for a few hours. To obtain sugar pure, after the change is perfectly effected, which is done when the solution becomes of the appearance of thin syrup, add chalk as long as it efiervesces, and filter it through unglazed paper, after which carefully boil the solution down to the consistency of mo- lasses. This experiment can be performed by any ingenious person, and illus- trates in a beautiful manner the changes' which vegetable substances are subjected to, during the growth of plants and their consumption by animals. 61 most fatty and oily matter would produce the most but- ter when fed to cows. To produce more butter in proportion to the cheese, corn, oil-meal, (fee, should be fed. But on the contrary, to produce more cheese, such Veg-etables as contain a large amount of gluten, or what is sometimes called p-otein, or the nitrogenized part of grain, should be fed. Wheat contains from 8 to 24 per eent. of glutea. Bye " " 9 " 13 " " " " Barley " '• 3 " 6 " " " " Oatu " " 2 " 6 " " " " Wheat bran and shorts are very rich in this substance. It may be interesting to many to know haw closely the gluten of grain, of animal fibre and the casein or curd of milk resemble each other in chemical compo- sitions, and how little change is necessarily wrought in gluten during digestion, to convert it to animal muscu- lar fibre and casein, as the following table will show ', ODHTER or VrSEAT. SAaEIN OP MILK, FIBRE OP MUSCLE* Carbon, 54.75 54.96 54.56 Hydrogen, 6.99 7.15 6.90 Kitrogen, 1S.71 15.80 15.72 Oxygen, 21.93 21.73 22.13 Phosphorns, 0.33 sulphur. 0.62 0.36 0.3© 100.00 100.00 lOO.OO There can be but httle doubt, indeed, the most accu- fate experiments that We possess, lead to the conclu- sion, that for any dairy purpose, mixed food is preferable to any one kind fed alone. For it should be remem- bered that, while the main object is to realize the great- est possible amount of milk of the best quality, to do it, the general conditicoi of the animal must always be 63 atteaded to first, "without which, no cow can yield a great profiU Soiling, or cutting- green feed for cows and feeding them in the milking barn. Those who have tried this plan find that a" given amount of land will yield much more feed in the course of the season if the grass be cut and fed than when cropped off by the animal ; as they must destroy a large amount of feed by treading and littering upon it. Besides, grass cropped off" just before it shoots up to seed has only begun a growth, the most rapid and profitable stage of which is arrest- ed, and the plant must set out anew before another bite is produced. It is contended) however, that the flavor of butter is not as good made from soiled cows, as when they are permitted to graze at large. This point is worthy of more accurate experiment than has hitherto been made. A friend who is in the habit of feeding his cows a quantity of mown grass while milking them in the barn, morning and evening, says, that one-third more milk is produced in this way than when they only graze. This might often be done with profit when a portion of meadow around the barn grows so rapidly as to pi-o- duce several heavy crops in a season, if cut just before it heads out ; whereas, if it is permitted to grow till matured it is nearly worthless. In many parts of Great Britain, and especially upon the island of Jersey, where the breeding of cows, and the dairy are carried to great perfection, the habit of tethering or confining the cows to a small portion of ground by a rope and moveable stake, is universally practiced. This permits the grass to approach maturity before it is cropped off"; secures the eating of all the 63 grass produced ; distributes the litter of the cows uni- formly over the whole field, and prevents the cows from wandering- around. When the entire field has been passed over, the part upon which the animal was first tethered is fit for feeding upon again, and the portion not required to supply the cows is mown. The practice of feeding the loliey to cows is exten- sively adopted in some districts, and shrewd dairymen who have tried it conclude that it yields a greater profit when thus disposed of, than when fed to swine. This is the practice and conclusion of JVlr. Fish, several times referred to before, and also of Mr. R. Hall, of Holland Patent, Oneida county, who took the second premium for dairy in June, 1844. The sugar of the milk is the principal nutritive ingre- dient contained in whey from well made cheese, amounting to from 3 to 5 per cent, of the whole milk. Buttermilk is also fed and possesses much more nu- triment than whey ; as, besides containing the sugar, it also contains all the cheese ; where the whole milk is churned, and when the cream is Raised, most of the cheesy matter remains in the skimmed milk, which may then be fed. There can be but little doubt, that, while the grain growing districts of the west can make pork so cheap, the dairyman of the east will do better to feed most of his whey and buttermilk to his cows, than to try to compete with our western neighbors in the pork market. Still Slop. In many large cities and their environs, many dairies for milk alone, are fed almost exclusively on the refuse materials of fermentation distillation, called still slop. This slop is composed of various grains, as rye, corn, wheat, barley, a cerlaiii 85 degree, fleshy, and even inclined to fullness ; the girth behind the shoulders should be deep ; the ribs should spread out -wide, so as to give as cylindrical a form as possible to the carcase, and each should project farther than the preceding one, to the very loins, giving, if after all the milch cow must be a little wider below than above, as much breadth as can possibly be afforded to the more valuable parts. She should be well formed across the hips and on the rump, and with greater length there than the milker gsenerally possesses, or if a little too short, not heavy. If she stands a little long on the legs, it must not be too long.; the thighs some- what thin, with a slight tendency to crookedness, or being sickle hammed behind; the tail thick at the upper end, but tapering below ; and she should have a mellow hide, and little coarse hair. Common consent has given her large milk-vein, and although the sub- cutaneous or milk-vein has nothing to do with the ud- der, but conveys the blood from the fore part of the chest and sides to the inguinal veins, yet a large milk vein certainly indicates a strongly developed vascular system, one favorable to secretion generally, and to that of milk among the rest The last essential in the milch cow is the udder, rather inclined to be large in proportion to the animal, but not too large. It must be suflSciently capacious to contain the proper quantity of milk, but not too bulky, lest it should thicken and be- come loaded with fat. The skin of the udder should be thin aaid free from lumps in every part of it ; the teats should be of moderate size, at equal distances from each other every way, and of equal size from the udder to nearly the end where they run to a kind of a point The udder should be of nearly equal size before 86 and behind, or if there is any difference, it should be broader and fuller before than behind. The following- doggerel, descriptive of a good cow, is given in a note originally from the Farmer's Mag- azine : " She 's long in her face, she 's fine in her horn ; She '11 quickly get fat without cake or com She 's clean in her jaws, and fall in her chine , She 's heavy in flank and wide in her loin ; She 's broad in her ribs, and long in her rump, A straight and flat back, without ever a hump: She 's wide in her hips, and calm in her eyes ; She 's fine in her shoulders, and thin in her thighs ; She 's light in her neck, and small in her tail ; She 's wide in her breast, and good at the pail ; She 's fine in her bone, and silky of skin ; She 's a grazier's without, and a butcher's within. Experiments by Newbury Bronson, show that a great difference exists in the proportion of cheese, ca- pable of being made from the milk of different cows» From his poorest cows, the milk yielded seventeen per cent, less curd, than the milk of his best cows. Thus if the best yield 12 lbs. per 100 lbs. of milk, that of the poorest would yield but about 10 lbs. CHAPTER IX. MANAGEMEKT OF THE DAIRY. Dairy business may be divided into three branches : Milk^ Butter, and Cheese dairies, each of which shall receive separate consideration. MILE DAIRIES. The great slop dairies of the cities have already been referred to, and perhaps deserve no farther notice, since the course pursued in them admits of no improvement by tlie application of the principles of science, or the experience of others, till an entirely different system is adopted by them : a result not to be looked for until their spurious and unwholesome product is driven from the market by the pure article broug-ht in from country dairies. The increased facilities for rapid transportation have, within a few years, opened the city markets for milk, to many dairies along the lines of railroads and steam- boat navigation, by which the milk dairy business, even many miles inland, has become one of great impor- tance. The profit of the milk dairy depends principally up- on the quantity of milk produced from a given number of cows, provided that it can always be put in market before it becomes soured. Where several hours must elapse before the milk can be sold, there is danger, in warm weather, of this ; to obviate which, cans are con- 88 structed with a cooler, attached in various ways, so that the milk is kept sweet by the use of a little ice placed in each can. This is an excellent means of re- taining- milk sweet, provided care is taken that none of the water mingles, with the milk ; for I need not say here, that " honesty is the best policy" in this, as well as in all other business transactions. A small quantity of saleratus may sometimes be added to neutralize the acid in its incipient formation, and thus preserve it sweet for a considerable length of time ; but milk thus treated is not as fine flavored as when naturally sweet, and this expedient should be resorted to only in extreme cases. Milk has been so universally adulterated, and detec- tion is so difficult, that city milk buyers hardly expect to get a pure article ; but the milk dealer may rest as- sured that, could the buyer be certain of obtaining pure milk of any particular dealer, he would always find not only a ready market, but be able to sell at a price much in advance of his shrewd neighbor. The course pursued by Governeur Morris, of Yonk- ers, is a sufficient proof of this. He says, in relation to his milk business, (Trans. Amer. Inst., 1846, p. 132,) after relating his experience in selling milk at his farm to job-buyers : " I began on the first of April, 1837, to send milk to private houses in the city, myself: at first we sold only about twenty quarts per day, in that way, and had to dispose of the rest to other milk-men who all predicted that I should fail of getting customers enough to pay, and would give up in disgust before the year went out. Many of my friends were of the same opinion, but I was sure that I was right and went ahead, and time solved the problem. In October, 1837, 89 I had more customers than could be served by one wag-on, and I had to start a second. In May, 1838, two were not enough, and we had to get a stable in New York to keep the horses and wagons that served the milk, and send it down in a large wagon. That fall we had four wagons on the road, and the next summer five ; and in 1840, it took six wagons to do the busi- ness, from which time to the present we have not tried to enlarge the concern, as I am contented with it as it is. ]Vly policy is to furnish as good an article as can be produced and at a fair price. At times persons have started up, thinking to make a fortune by the qudity they sold, and have offered to serve, my customers at a less price. I have never fixed the price at less than 6 cents per quart, and have always found that those who undertook to serve at 4 cents per quart, either stopped soon or the customers who had left us to take of them, came back again, which I supposed they would not have done unless, they found my milk better and cheaper at 6 cents per quart than others at 4 cents." The quantity of milk yielded by a cow depends upon so many circumstances, such as breed, individual char- acter, keep, care, mode of milking, (fee, , any mode ^aH will presence its strength and 101 flavor so that it will be smelled and tasted with good relish when pjt into the milk. Any compdsitiienSii not thus kept, I deem unfit for use, as the coagnlatof is an essential agent in cheesing the curd, and sure to impart its own flavor. " The rennet never should be taken from the calf till the excrement shows the animal to be in perfect health. It should be emptied of its contents, salted and dried, without any scraping or rinsing and kept dry for one year, when it will be fit for use. It should not be al- lowed to gather dampness, or its strength will evap- orate. To prepare it for use, into ten gallons of water^ (blood warm,) put ten rennets, churn or r«b them often for twenty-four hours ; then rub and press them to get the strength: stretch, salt, and dry them as before. They will gain strength for a second use. Make the liquor as salt as it can be made ; strain and settle it, separate it from the sedimeat, (if any,) and it i^ fit for Use. Six lemo'ns, two ounces of cloves, two ouficcs of cinnamon, and two ounces of common sage, are some- times added to the liquor to preserve its flavor and quicken its actioQ. If kept Cool in a stone jar, it will keep sweet any length of time desired, and a uniform strength is secured while it lasted Stir it before dippirig off*. To set milk, take of it enough to curdle milk firm in forty minutes ; squeeze or rttb through a rag, annatto enough to make the curd a cream color, and stir it in with the rennet." OH£ESE MAKING. The following plan of making cheese, is condensed from a communication of Mr. Fish, made by request, ta the State Agricultural Society, page 262, etc., 102 1847. Mr, F. has studied the subject as scientific- ally, and practiced it as successfully, perhaps, as any man in this country. His success may be judged of as well from the product of his dairy, as any way. In 1844, his cows averag-ed 700 lbs , and in 1845, 775 lbs., of the first quality of cheese during the respective years, "The evening's and morning's milk, is commonly used to make one cheese. The evening's is strained into a tub or pans and cooled to prevent souring.* The Uttle cream that rises over night, is taken off in the morning, and kept till the morning and evening milk are put together, and the cream is warmed to receive the rennet. It is mixed with about twice its quantity of new milk, and warm water added to raise its tempera- ture to ninety-eight degrees : stir it till perfectly limpid, put in rennet enough to curdle the milk in forty minutes, and mix it with the mass of milk by thorough stirring ; the milk having been previously raised to 88 or 90 degrees, by passing steam from the steam generator to the water in the wooden vat. (In case no double vat is to be had, the milk may be safely heated to the right temperature, by setting a tin pail of hot water into the milk in the tubs. It may be cooled in like manner by filling the pail with ice water, or cold spring water where ice is not to be had. It is not safe to heat milk in a kettle exposed directly to the fire, as a slight scorch- ing will communicate its taint to the whole cheese and spoil it. If milk is curdled below 84 degrees, the *The proper mode of cooling, is to strain the millc into the tin tub set in a ■wooden vat, described in the dairy house, and cool by filling the wooden vat vrith ice water bom tfa,c ice house, or ice in small lumps, and water from thO' pump. 103 cream is more liable to work off with the whey. An extreme of heat will have a like effect. The curdling', heat is varied with the temperature of the air, or the liability of the milk to cool after adding rennet. The thermometer is the only safe giiide in determining the temperature, for if the dairy- man depends upon the sensation of the hand, a great liability to error will render the operation uncertain. If, for instance, the hands have previously been im- mersed in cold water, the milk will feel warmer than it really is : if, on the contrary, they have recently been in warm water, the milk will feel colder than it really is. To satisfy the reader how much this circumstance alone will affect the sensation of the hand, let him im- merse one hand in warm water, and at the same time the other in a vessel of cold water, for a few moments : then pour the water in the two dishes together, and immerse both .hands in the mixture : the hand that was previously in the warm water will feel cold, and the other quite warm, showing that the sense of feeling is not a test of temperature worthy of being relied upon. A fine cloth spread over the tub while the milk is curdling, will prevent the surface from being cooled by circulation of air. JVo jarring of the milk, by walking upon a springy floor, or otherwise, should be allowed while it is curdling, as it will prevent a perfect cohesion. " When milk is curdled so as to appear like a solid, it is divided into small particles to aid the separation of the whey from the curd : this is often too speedily done to facilitate the work, but at a sacrifice of quality and quantity." This division is most expeditiously and perfectly ef- fected by the use of two simple and cheap instruments. 104 One, wire a net work, the frame of a strong- wire of the size and shape to just slip into the cheese tub, filled with finer wire with the meshes half or three-fourths of an inch square : four wires are attached, one to each corner, and brought together two or three feet from the net work, upon which a wooden handle is fastened. With this, the curd is cut through into small perpendic- ular columns. The other instrument is a knife, the length half of the diameter of the tub. This knife is firmly attached to the lower end of a long screw, passing through one end of the knife lying flatwise : the screw has a coarse thread and passes through a piece of timber which lies in the top of the tub, held in its place by notches in the ends fitting on to the opposite edges of the tub. By placing the timber across the tub, having previously brought the knife above the curd, turn the crank and the knife is carried completely through the curd in a series of revolutions from top to bottom, cutting the curd into pieces the thickness of the thread on the screw. This perfect separation of the curd, allows it to settle and permits the uniform and simultaneous es- cape of the whey. Mr. F. first cuts the curd with a long knife, and then breaks it gently with the hands. The three indispensable agents, heat, rennet and •pressure, must keep pace with each other in effect ; the two former operating to sub-divide, the latter to aid cohesion, by bringing the particles of a sameness closer in contact. This should be skilfully and stu- diously applied in a mild way, according to the capa- city of the curd to receive it. The less friction in work- ing the curd, the less waste. When the action of the rennet appears complete, steam is admitted to the sur- im rounding- water and the curd stirred and worked with the hand till it is raised to about 98 degrees, at which heat it is kept for 30 minutes. If heat is raised too fast, or commenced while the curd is too young, the effect of the rennet will be checked and decomposition will not be complete, and result in a leaky cheese. This often happens when steamers are used in small dairies. Heat may be raised in scalding to keep pace with ren- net ; if rennet is quick, heat may be raised quick ; if slow,' heat must be raised slow and held longer. Scald- ing heat may be raised from 96 to 104 degrees, accord- ing to the size of the cheese and temperature to whigh it is exposed. During the process of scalding, the curd should be kept in motion to prevent it from settling and sticking together, as separating it is attended with great labor and waste from friction. When the curd is cooked so that it feels elastic, and will squeak when chewed with the front teeth, it is separated from the whey to receive salt. This is done by dipping it into a strainer over a basket or sink, or the whey is drawn off at a faucet, and the curd settled in the tub. Either may be done without producing lumps by stirring it in a small portion of whey till cooled to 94 degrees. This is the most critical part of the process when cheese-makers are most likely to err, as the portion of salt retained in cheese, after pressing, will be in proportion to the capacity of curd to receive it when added. At a particular period and temper of curd when draining off whey, it will absorb salt freely ; and after being thoroughly mixed and packed up a few minutes while warm, it will be evenly shrunk and cleansed by salt and whey, and will press out freely ; but if the curd is not well cooked, or cooled too fast 106 when draining off whey, it will acquire a degree of stubbornness, prevent the absorption of salt to shrink and cleanse, and no amount of pressure will be suflB- cient to drive out the fluid. If the curd is not cooked evenly the large lumps will not be cooked enough or the smaller too much, and the quality of the cheese will be injured. The curd should be salted warm, as it is then most absorbent, but should be thoroughly cooled before put to press, to suppress the combined action of heat and rennet. Salt. The quantity of salt required, varies with the condition of the curd, size of cheese, amount of heat to which it is exposed in curing, and the market for which it is designed, A well worked cheese, from 50 to 100 pounds, requires one pound of refined salt to forty pounds of curd, to remain in the cheese after it is pressed and exposed to a tem- perature of from seventy to eighty degrees. This may be varied from two to four pounds to the hundred, ac- cording to the texture of the cheese required ; small cheeses requiring less, and large ones more in proportion. A degree of moisture is necessary in cheese for a malleable texture, but this should not be from animeU fluids retained in the curd. A high salted cheese imme- diately exposed to a high temperature becomes sour, hard, dry and crumbhng ; the same exposed to a cool, damp atmosphere, retains sufficient moisture to be soft, yet solid. A cheese light salted in a high temperature, will cure quick, become porous, liufFy and stale. Curd from hay milk, requires much less salt than that from grass or grain fed, as it is poorer and will retain salt like lean meats. The richer the milk the more salt it requires to control the animal properties, and the less 107 absorbent the curd, the pores being filled with the finer buttery particles. IVlore salt is necessary in hot weather also, to over- rule the combined action of rennet and heat, neither of which will be effective abne. When curd is ready to press, it is important to remove from it all the rennet possible. This is to be worked off with the whey, and the only way to, get rid of it is to work the curd down Jine and solid, and work the whey all out. I may here add that some of the best cheese-makers rinse the curd with cold water before putting to press, which has the effect both to remove much of the remaining ren- net and cool the curd, though it may slightly impover- ish the cheese. Pressing. When the curd is properly tempered for pressing, a cotton or linen cloth is spread over the hoop, the curd is put in and pressed with from three to twelve tons' weight, and turned twice in eight and forty hours into clean cloths. The press should be faithful and fol- low down as the curd yields, (when young,) to expel the whey before a rind is formed to prevent its escape. There is no danger of too much pressure after the first ten minutes. The press, hoops, cloths, tfec, should be cleaned with ley often, to keep the rind from cracking. The cloth is removed from the cheese when it is taken from the hook.* ♦The process ot skewering cheese during pressing, would, without doubt, add- to the excellence of the cheese, by effecting a more complete separation of the whey from the curd, and greater compactness. This process is unirersal- ly practiced in the manufacture of the Cheshire, and other celebrated varieties of English cheese. Skewering consists simply in thrusting long tapering point- ed spikes or wires, half or three-fourths of an inch thick at the large end, into the cheese, after the press is brought down upon it, through holes in the hoop 108 The cheese is set on a tiable for a few hours, till dry enough to absorb oil, and then painted with annatto mixed with strong ley, (from common ashes,) kept in a jar for ready use. This todghens the rind, so that it will not require much grease after the first coat, to make it smooth if rubbed often with the hand. It has already been stated that casein is dissolved in an alkali, as potash or ley, and it is upon this principle that annatto mixed with ley operates to toughen and smooth the rind ; that is, it partially dissolves the outer coating of the cheese, and on drying it becomes tough and proof against flies and cracks or warts. The paint will fade to a rich butter color, which is as high a color as is desirable. A firm rind may be formed upon cheese when young, by a careful exposure to dry- ing air, frequent rubbing with the hand, and by using no more oil than will readily incorporate with the rind. If more grease is used than will be taken up, it will sooner or later flake off, leave the cheese without rind, scabby, exposed to crack, flies, mold, &c. Oil for greasing cheese is obtained from cream skimmed from whey, after standing 24 hours : it is churned till sepa- ration takes place, like butter, and then melted over a dow fire till it is turned to oil. A preparation of bees- wax, from 1-8 to 1-4 mixed with oil, will make a rind impervious to flies. Size and Shape. It is most desirable that cheese designed for foreign markets, should be in a proportion half aS thick as they are wide, as this shape gives the of the proper size. They pass through a coarse thin pressing cloth without materially dams^ng it. After remaining in the cheese a short time, say 20 or 30 minutes, they may he withdrawn, and the press worked down so as to per- fectly compact the curd, and the process repeated as long as any whey is ex* pelled. 109 least surface to a given weight of cheese. The size qf the hoop to be used, may be determined by knowjuag the number of gallons of milk set. Each gallon will niake one pound of cheese, nearly. A cheese 21 inches wide will weigh 14 1-2 lbs. to each inch in depth. 20 (( (C tt (1 12 ». tt tl tl It tl 19 tl " tl 1( 101-2 tt tt It tl tl tt 18 It t( 1 (( 9 tt tt ft ft tt tt 17 tt (1 ( (1 .8 tt tt tt (( (C It 16 tt ( l( 7 tt tt tt ([ 11 It 15 tt 1 1 (1 6 tt tt tt u It It 14 tt 1 11 5 tt tt tt 1* tt It These figures will give a key to determine the size of the hoop to be used. Thus : if 56 gallons of miUc is set, it should be pressed in a 16 inch hoop ; for 56 poundg of cheese divided by 7, will give 8 for the quotient, which will be the thickness, half as great as the width, 16. So this rule will give the size of the hoop : divide the number of gallons by some weight per inch that will give a quotient half as great as the correspojading^ diameter. A 20 inch hoop will contain 120 Ib». " 21 '■ " tf It 1621-4 " " 19 •' " ft ft 100 « la " " f( fe 81 (1 1^ fl It f( tl 761-2,." U IQ .. » tl it 66 " 15 " •' ffr It 45 (( 14 '< " II 16 86 "When it is desirable to cany out this plan to any de- gree of exactness, the cheese tub should be grad*ia|©d towards the top into five gallons spaces, so that the amount of milk noay be deternaiped, at a glance. Qhees^ ci the above proportions are bandaged with stroBg^^#Ktii pevlously stretGhed^ to keep them in shape. The band no TBhould not cover more than an inch or an inch and a half of the flat surface. Curing Cheese. Though a cheese may be ever so well made of the best material, it will not be fit for market or the table unless well cured. Curing consists in a chemical change in a part or all of the curd, transforming it from an insoluble to a so- luble state; at the same same time the well cured cheese acquires a delicious flavor peculiar to that article, and from its easy solubility readily digested, constitut- ing at once an exceedingly nutritive and harmless va- riety of food. A good cheese should contain all the butter of the milk as well as the curd ; and in curing, the butter sfumid remain unchanged. The change in the curd, transforms a part of it into a peculiar substance which gives the cheese its smarty or pungent flavor. This changed portion may be readily separated from the unchanged part of the curd and from the butter, and when thus separated is of an ea> ceedingly pungent flavor, a piece as large as a duck shot being as much as one can well bear in the mouth at once. This being separated, the unchanged portion of the curd is quite tasteless.* * The author, during the winter of 1848, discoyered a mode of separating the parts of cheese ahove referred to. To analyze cured cheese, talte a piece new- ly cut from the heart of the cheese, and to separate the butter, first digest or soak it in suceessive portions of sulphuric ether, till a piece of paper wet in the ether is not oiled on being dried ; then evaporate the ether carefully and weigh the butter remaining. Then digest the remainder of the cheese in pure alcohol, which will dissolve out the smarty portion and leave the unchanged part <»f the curd undissolved ; filter out the alcohol and carefully evaporate it, and ^e sniarty part will remain a yellow shining mass ; dry the remainder of the cheese, which is unchanged curd. The per cent, of each part is readily calcu- lated from the weight of the whole, and the amount which it lacks of making Ill After the cheese is pressed, the character given to it by curing, depends almost entirely upon heat, rennet, salt and moisture, and numerous experiments performed by Mr. Fish, give the following principles : " High salting and heat, making hard, smart cheese ; low salting and heat, soft, mild and tasteless ; low salt- ing and high heat, porous, soft and sharp ; much rennet and little salt, cheese huffed, run oil became rank and spoiled ; little rennet and high heat, sour, dry, hard and smart." All the above conditions, heat, moisture, salt and rennet, must keep pace with each other. If a cheese appears too dry, it should be removed to a moist, cool place ; if too soft, it should be placed upon the cellar bottom for a time ; so if it shows a disposition to huff". A cool, dry room, easily ventilated, and capable of having the temperature regulated by a stove or ice, is to be preferred for cooling. It should be studded, lathed and plastered, and not be next to the roof, but sepa- rated by at least one tight wall. A temperature vary- ing from 65 to 75 degrees, is most favorable for curing cheese. Cheese will shrink from 6 to 10 per cent, during the process of curing, partly from parting with a portion of the water it contains, and partly from the decomposition of the curd. 100 per cent, ia water. However, to determine the amount of saline matter in the cheese, each part should be burned, and the amount of ash, after being carefully weighed, deducted. As no name has been given to the smarty part of the cheese, I would respectfully suggest that it be called Casone, which ia in accordance with the nomenclature of organic chemistry. Its exact chemi- cal constituents are not known, not having been subjected to an accurate or- ganic analysis ; yet a hasty analysis indicates that it contains less nitrogen aod hydrogen, than casein, probably having parted with tbem in the form of ammonia, which accounts for the loss of weight in curing, over and above the water, and also for the ammoniacal smell in chejse rooms. 112 MANUFACTURE OP CHESHIRE CHEESE. From several descriptions of the mode of manufac- turing Cheshire cheese, practiced in the county of Chesire, Eng-land, and its environs, it appears that the process varies somewhat in some of the details in differ- ent dairies ; yet the various modes given, agree in the essential points. And it is worthy of note that the great difference between this mode of manufacture and our ovm most approved, as given above, consists in freeing ii more perfectly from the whey, by working with the hand, squeezing, draining, and the like, before put- it to press, changing the cloths and turning often, and pressing longer, skewering, t l( 2.5 It It (f 11 '■ 3 i .1 5 u tt .( ^ CC (1 tt g 6 II (1 4 If 5 11 " 3 11 2 " If 2 If 138 Not more than thirteen shpuld be considered worthy a place in the dairy. Next to good cows, g-ood pasture in summer and feed in winter are indispensable. A fresh, tender bite of red and white clover mixed with herds grass, is perhaps as good pasture as cows can have. This subject has, however, been already treated at length, and it need not be resumed here. Fresh running water, easily accessible, should be fur- nished ; for if cows are compelled to drink from stag- nant pools, containing large quantities of vegetable mat- ter in solution, the butter will be infected with the offensive taint, and the most untiring effort will fail to produce a prime article. When cows are milked under sheds, no offensive odor should be allowed to arise from the accumulation of dirty litter or other impure matter; for milk is remark- ably absorbent of gases, and being peculiarly exposed to it, during milkinjr, the cream and butter made from it will be infected with any such impurity. Plaster of paris, coal dust or saw dust, occasionally sprinkled over the part kept wet or littered, will effectually remove all offensive odors. Tke character of Cream. " Milk is a kind of natural emulsion in which the fatty matter exists in a state of very minute globules, enclosed in very thin envelopes or films, and suspended in a solution of casein and su- gar. Cream is a similar emulsion, differing fiom milk chiefly in containing a greater number of oily globules and a much smaller proportion of curd and water. In milk and cream these globules appear to be surrounded by a thin white shell or covering, probably of casein, by which they are prevented from running into one 139 anothar end collecting- into larg-e oily drops." But on being- heated, or from contihued agitation, these glo- bules break their covering, rise to the surface and cleave together in a homogeneous mass, called butter. On standing, these globules of butter rise, from iheir less specific gravity, to the surface, and adhere in a mass, called cream. This, indeed, appears to be the condition in which it exists in the udder of the cow, for the por- tion first drawn is less rich than that subsequently milked, and the last drawn richest of all. Besides, the globules in the milk last drawn, appear to be larger and more perfect than the others and will produce butter of a better quality. Separation of Butter from Milk. This process is usually called ckurning, and consists in agitating the milk or cream till the butter separates in lumps, or in other words till the butter globules break their covering and unite. The process appears to be principally me- chanical, though it is said that the cream must become sour before the butter will separate; If this is tme, it would appear that the acid is necessary to dissolve the film that encases the globules. By some butter makers the whole milk is churned, while others set the milk, and after skimming it, churn only the cream. The churning of milk with the cream appears, however, to be gaining in favor witli butter makers ; saving, as it does, so many intermediate steps from milking to churning. Yet each mode has its stre- nuous advocates, and doubtless, its peculiar advantages. But as both are practiced, they shall be treated sepa- rately. Of Churning the Cream. The plan pursued by E. R. Evans, of Marcy, Oneida county, is as follows ; 140 " Milk is strained into pans and remains 36 hours, then skimmed into pots with a small quantity of strippings, and stands until it becomes a little sour : churned in the old fashioned dash churn, operated by dog--power. Butter is freed from milk with a ladle and without washing-, as it is believed that much washing injures the flavor and grain of the butter. Use the Ashton ground salt and no other substance. The quantity of salt regulated by the dairy-maid." This plan give the outlines of a course that enabled Mr. E. to produce butter of the best quality. When cream is churned, the creaming dish or pan should not be filled more than two or two and a half inches deep, and the room in which they are set, kept at a tempera- ture not above 55 or 60 degrees. The lower rooms of the dairy house, already described, will make a good butter dairy, using one of the rooms for setting the milk, and the other for making the butter. The Sha- kers, at New Lebanon, have their butter cellar provided with a large bowl worked in a block of marble, in which the butter is placed to cool after it is taken from the churn ; this is placed on the cellar bottom, and in very hot weather pieces of ice are also applied. " A rack, better than shelves and cheaper, for setting pans upon to cream, is made as follows : Four posts, say 3 inch hard wood scantling are provided, six feet long ; across these and six inches apart, strong strips of inch boards, 30 inches long, are nailed, so as to form two bents ; and after rearing these, about six or eight feet apart, four slats, 1 1-2 inches thick and 2 inches wide are laid upon the end strips, the right distance apart to support two rows of pans, and after nailing on strips of boards at top and bottom to make it stand up, 141 it is complete, furnishing- about ten tiers of 8 pans each, if it is six feet long-, or room for 80 pans ; and the entire arrang'ement need not cost over two dollars. This rack is preferable to shelves, as it permits free cir- culation of air among- the pans ; and a current of air, produced by the warmth of the milk, is kept up till it is reduced to the same temperature of the surrounding air, and by placing pieces of ice under the rack, the milk is very rapidly cooled. Several of these racks may be arranged around the cellar, permitting the dairy- maid to pass on all sides of them to set up and take down pans. When a churning is made every day, as many cream pots of stone ware are provided as the number of days the cream is to be kept; then one is filled each day and set away till fit to churn, which is not until the cream has acquired a pleasant sourness ; but care must be taken that, in summer, it does not become too sour, and in winter, bitter, as these tastes when once acquired by the cream will be retained by the bultsr. The pans after being emptied, should be thoroughly washed and scald- ed and set in the sun or near a slow fire to I'ry ; for if any trace of the sour milk is left in them, it will induce sourness in the next mess of milk, will thus coagulate before the cream is all up. When a very nice article is desired the pan is skimmed twice ; that first taken off yielding butter of a quality much superior to the second skimming, and cream from the last of the milking is superior to that from the firs.t milking. Working and Salting. It is the practice of most but- ter makers to wash the butter while working it ; but it is believed that the application of a large quantity of 142 water deprives il of the flavor peculiar to good butter : none but tlie purest cold water sli«uld be used, if any. Salting has the effect to shrink and harden butter, and make the butter-milk escape from it more freely. Butter should be worked but litde, immediately after removino- it from the churn ; but when it has become hard every drop of milk should be removed from it with as little working as possible, as too much injures the grain and flavor. A wooden ladle is the only suitable instrument. The mischief done by leaving the fluids in butter, results both from the casein and sugar pre- sent ; the first important change being the conversion of the sugar into lactic acid, giving the sour taste to butter before it becomes rancid. The presence of this acidity induces a change in the oily part of the butter, and various and complicated substances, ruinous to the butter, are rapidly formed, till it is frowy and spoiled. But if care is taken to remove every particle of fluid matter before packing, this source of mischief is of course removed. Of the premiums awarded by the N. Y. State Ag, Society and the Amer. Insdtute, for the past few years^ about an equal niimber have been given to butter washed and not washed ; a pretty good proof that the manufacture of butter of the first quality is confined to neither mode. Each plan has its advantages : Thus, if butter ia washed, the milk is removed from it without working it so much as to spoil the grain or brittle texture of it ; but there is danger of depriving it of its fine flavor, as any one may satisfy themselves by tasting the water after washing the butter in it. On the other hand, if the milk is removed by working alone, there is great danger, especially in warm weather, of so injuring the 143 grain as to g-ive it a greasy consistency and unmarket- able character. " Peihaps there is no better mode than to rapidly work it through a moderate quantity of the coldest water, and then having poured it off, complete the separation of the fluids with the ladle. No more s^lt should be put in than enough to per- fectly saturate the traces of fluid matter that still re- main, and render it palatabb. Butter made under different circumstances requires different quantities of salt, so that no rule can be given that would apply to every case. The taste is the best guide, though the neighborhood of one ounce to the pound is about enough. Much interest has of late been felt in the kind of salt best adapted to curing cheese and butter. The author will not pretend to decide this vexed question, but will quote for the benefit of dairymen, from the re- port of the committee on the dairy of the N. Y. State Ag. Society, made in 1848, under the head of Salt. " All who are engaged in the manufacture of butter, agree that unless the salt is pure, good butter can not be mide. Of this there can be no doubt. Owing to complaints made of the salt manufactured at our own works, an analysis of several varieties of that salt was made last winter by Prof. Emmons, which will be found in tiie Transactions of 1847, p. 299. " It will be seen that those samples which were ob- tained in the market in this city, were equal to the best of foreign varieties, and were every way adapted to the manufacture of good butter. One of the competi- tors at Biiffalo, who received the first premium in class of butter made in June, used the barrel salt from our own works, and he had for competitors, two who used 144 other varieties ; one the Ashton ground, the other the Turk's Island. Three of the competitors who received premiums at Buffalo, used our own salt. From the care which is now taken by the superintendent of our salt works, it is believed that salt is manufactured that will realize the expectations and satisfy the wants of the dairyman, and make butter equal in every respect to any other, so far as the salt is concerned. ]f salt of our own works is kept until a year old, or more, before it is used, it is believed there will be no reasonable cause of complaint. The character of our salt should be such as to secure the confidence of the public ; and strict integrity on the part of the manufacturer can alone secure this." Transactions of '4S, p. 265. From the circumstance that the crystals of salt are less soluble than the impurities that are usually found in it, salt may be rendered perfectly pure in the fol- lowing simple manner : Place in a bag, say a peck of salt, and after suspending it pour upon it water enough to rinse it thoroughly through, and let it hang and dry : the part undissolved will consist of crystal or pure salt Churning the whole milk. The following description of the plan pursued by John Holbert, who received the first premium on buttar, in 1848, both from the Ameri- can Institute and the N. Y. State Ag. Soc, is copied from his report : " I take care to have my cellar thoroughly cleansed and whitewashed early every spring. I keep milk in one cellar and butter in another. Too mueh care can not be taken by dairymen to observe the time of churning. I usually churn from one hour to one hour and a half. I put from one to two pails of cold water in each churn, and one pail more in each when nearly done, in order to thin the milk and make it produce all 145 the butter it contains. When done take the butter out, wash it through one water ; then set it in the cellar and salt it ; then work it from three to Jive times before pack- ing. Butter should not be made quite salt enough un- til, the last working. Then add a little salt whicli makes a brine that keeps the butter sweet. One ounce of salt to a pound of butter, is about the quantity I use. I pack the first day if the weather is cool ; if warm, the second. If the milk is too warm when churned, the quantity of butter will be lessened, the quality and flavor not as good as when it is cool at a proper temperature.* I have always worked my butter by hand. Last fall I bought a butter worker, but I disap- prove of its use entirely, and use the hand ladle in its stead. In packing, I fill my firkins to within two inches of the top, then lay a clean cloth on the butter and put salt on the cloth, and keep it covered with salt and brine all the season. Great care should be taken not to let the milk stand too long before churning, as in that case in hot weather it becomes too sour, and the butter will be sour also ; and in cold weather it becomes bitter ; all of which can be prevented in cold weather by putting one quart of buttermilk in each tub before straining the milk, and in hot weather by churning as soon as the milk becomes thick and moist on the top of the cream. I use the Turk's Island salt of the Ashton sacks." It may here be added, that in 1848, Mr. Holbert sold his butter in the month of November, for 23 cents per pound, in New York. His dairy of forty cows, inclu- ♦ The best temperature observed for churning milk, is from 60 to 65 ; cream must be a little cooler. In summer, when it is difScuIt to reduce cream to a low enough temperature, it is an advantage to churn milk which need not be as cool by about 5 degrees. K 146 ding three heifers, produced an income of $37,30 per cow, beside the dairy product consumed by a family of eight persons. Packvrigfor Market or Keeping. In relation to this, Wm. Hulbert e patient ; or if more force is necessary, tie a cord around the fore legs and another around the un- der jaw by which as much force may be applied as the safety of the cow will permit. If this fails, one 218 shoulder of the calf must be disgected out. An inci- sion is made by means of a small bent knife blade through the skin of the forearm, and the skin elevated and turned back by means either of the knife or the fingers. The shoulder may then be easily detached from the body and drawn out, after which the remain- der is easily removed. Unnatural presentations sometimes interrupt partu- rition. Any other manifestation than the one described above may be regarded as unnatural. One of the most common is, to have the head so turned as to thrust the nose under the bone of the pelvis ; in this case a cord is fastened to the fore feet, and holding on to the cord, push the feet back, introduce the hand, carrying with it a noose in a cord, and after raising the calf's nose, fasten the cord around the under jaw, and by gently drawing upon the cords and guiding the feet along the passage by the hand, the cow is assisted in voiding the offspring. The calf is sometimes turned over so that his back is toward the cow's belly, his feet up and pressed against the pelvis. In this position no portion of the calf appears. The calf can not w^ell be turned, but as be- fore, cords must be attached to the jaw and fore feet, and the head raised, by which, perhaps, the calf may be extracted : if not, he must be dissected out as already described. The tail only of the calf sometimes ap- pears ; the calf can not be turned, but must be brought away by attaching a noose in a cord round above the hocks, and then guiding the hind feet out, the calf is easily extricated. These are among the most frequent cases of unnatural presentation : for more complicated cases the readei: will consult veterinarv works. After all 219 attempts to remove the foetus have failed, no one should hesitate to dissect the calf and remove it piecemeal, if by it there is a prospect of saving- the life of the cow. All that will be necessary is a very small kind of prun- ing knife, with the blade even a little more curved than those knives generally are, and that can be carried into the passage in the hollow of the hand, being tied by a fine cord to the wrist, with scarely a possibility of wounding the cow. Inversion of the Womb is sometimes the consequence of violent and continued throes, aided by the placenta or after birth being brought out with the calf while it is yet attached to the womb. It is distinguished by its fresh red color, which, after being out sometime, as- sumes a deep purple, and by its firm attachment to the cow. It must be washed clean in tepid water, cleared from all fragments of the placenta and loose clots of blood ; then, being held up in a clean cloth carefully but forcibly returned, and placed as nearly as possible in a natural position. This operation is facilitated by elevat- ing the hind parts of the cow, A stout bandage should be passed under the tail and fastened forward foi* a time to prevent its reappearance. ATTENTION AFTER CALVING. " Parturition having been accomplished, the cow should be left quietly with the calf; the licking and cleaning of which, and the eating of the placenta, if it is soon discharged, will employ and amuse her. It is a cruel thing to separate the mother from the young so soon : the cow will pine and will be deprived of that medicine which nature designed for her in the moisture 220 which hang-s about the calf and even in the placenta itself, and the calf will lose that gentle friction and mor tion which helps to give it the use of all its limbs, and which, in the language of Mr. Berry, ' increases the languid circulation of the blood, and produces a genial warmth in the half exhausted and chilled little animal.' A warm mash should be put before her and warm gru- el or water from which some of the coldness has been taken off. Two or three hours afterwards, it will be prudent to give an aperient drink, consisting of a pound of epsom salts and two drachms of ginger : this may tend to prevent milk fever and garget in the udder. Attention should likewise be paid to the state of the udder. If the teats are sore and the bag generally hard and tender, she should be gently and carefully milked three or four times every day. The natural and the effectual preventive of this, however, is to let the calf suck her at least three times in a day, if it is tied up in the cow house, or to run with her in the pasture and take the treat when it pleases. The tendency to inflammation in the udder is much diminished by the calf frequently sucking ; or should the cow be feverish, nothing soothes or quiets her so much as the presence of tlie little one." THE CLEANSING. The, placenta, or after birth, should follow the calf pretty soon, as its retention is liable to irritate and in- duce a fever that will injure the health of the cow. When it is delayed, a weight of six or eight ounces is sometimes tied to the cord, which by its gradual force brings the whole mass away without much danger of hemorrhage. But if putrefaction seems, to have begun, 221 the hand must be introduced by which the placenta is easily removed. If inflammation follows, nothing is better than injections of milk warm water into the va- gina and rectum, together with mild physic. If hemorrhage follows and threatens to be danger- ous, the loins and external parts should be bathed in cold water and the hips somewhat elevated. If this treatment fails, two drachms of opium may be given every two hours ; but this drug should not be resorted to till after a long time, for its effects upon the system are by no means pleasant. MILK FEVEB. This dangerous disease, called also puerperal fever and dropping after calving, is common and too often fatal to cows. The first symptoms are a dry muzzle, quick pulse, tenderness of the udder and partial loss of milk ; then the beast is uneasy, paws, constantly chan- ges her feet, and heaves laboriously at her flanks with the tongue protruded. Then she wanders about, low- ing mournfully, becomes irritable, and sometimes butts at the attendant ; delirium follows, she staggers, grates her teeth and falls down, but with an effort soon rises or tries to rise again, but rapidly sinks and is past all help. The first step to prevent this disease is to see that' the cow is not too abundantly fed just before calving, or that her food is not increased before or immediately after this period ; also that she is not exposed to take' cold by being compelled to lie on the cold and damp ground. It is only in the first stages of this disease that we 222 may entertain any hope of a cure. Hence, upon the first appearance of the leading symptoms, (tenderness of the udder and loss of cud,) she must be g-ot into a dry and well ventilated stable, carefully and cleanly milked, the bag often and thoroughly bathed in mode- rately cool water, a dose of epsom salts given and fol- lowed up by half doses till the bowels are thoroughly opened, aided by injections of tepid water to which may be added some castile soap, or epsom salts : the hips, loins, and external, thoroughly and repeatedly bathed in cold water, (ice water is best,) and a drachm of chloride of lime given to prevent or arrest the gen- eration of gases in the stomach. Copious bleeding has been practiced, but as in many other cases the author can not recommend it here ; yet those who prefer may resort to this at their option. This treatment may, if thoroughly followed up, arrest the inflammation and raise the cow, but nothing short of the best attention will do it. SORE TEATS. This is brought on by a slight inflammation to which the bag and teats are subject, both from the more active flow of blood, and the irritation of milking, but most of all by the useless and filthy habit of wetting the teats with milk on first beginning to milk. Instead of this, the milker should be provided with a vessel of clean water, with which each cow's teats and udder should be thoroughly washed before milking, or after the calf has sucked. Then if the teats crack, the following ointment will soon heal them up : " An ounce of yel- low bees wax and three of lard : melt them together and when they begin to get cool, well rub in a quarter 223 of an ounce of sugar of lead and a drachm of alum finely pulverized." GARGET. This disease is usually the result of a chronic in- flammation of the udder, brought on by causes already mentioned, or by leaving a portion of the milk, and always the best portion in the udder. The bag be- comes hard and hot, the teats tender, and coagulated masses of milk are discharged or interrupt the flow of milk. This disease is believed to be greatly aggrava- ted by the cow feeding upon acid plants so abundant in the spring, which has the effect to neutralize the naturally alkaline state of the milk, and thus coag- ulate it in the udder, as the same juices would curdle the milk after it is drawn : thus an irritation is set up that leads to inflammation and general disease. The bag should be bathed in cold water, the cow abun- dantly and regularly salted, and turned upon clean hay or short sweet pasture. One of the best remedies for garget, is the root of the scoke or pigeon berry. It may be cut in slices and fed in salt or other feed : a piece nearly as large as one's finger being a dose. Cows have often been observed to browse off" the tops of this herb where it grows spontaneously, and under these circumstances garget is rare. Youatt recom- mends bleeding and physic : perhaps this may be re- sorted to when other remedies fail. He also recom- mends an ointment made by rubbing down an ounce of camphor, having poured a teaspoon full of spirits of wine upon it, add an ounce of mercurial ointment and half a pound of elder ointment, and well incorporate them together. Let this be applied after milking, the 224 bag being well fomented with warm water, and thp remainder of the ointment washed off before the next milking. When this fails, he recommends an ointment made of one part of hjTtiriodate of potash and seven parts of lard well incorporated, and two drachms applied to the udder each morning. When arrested, its return is pre- vented by introducing a seaton of a piece of scoke root fastened into the dewlap by a stitch. One quarter of the bag is usually first attacked and the disease often runs its course upon it alone, but fre- quently extends to the other teats, and the cow is en- tirely lost to the dairy. When ulceration appears to threaten any part of the bag, it should be opened, if suppuration has taken place, with a deep, clean incis- ion, which will heal much more readily than if allowed' to break itself. A wash of chloride of lime is the best to remove all offensive smell and bring the sore to healing. THE cow POX. This contagious disease appears in two forms as an eruption on the bag and teats, and closely resembles the kine pox in the human subject, from which indeed the latter had its origin. The two forms differ but little in appearance and effect, and in time both come to a healthy termination. The disease is communicated to the milker, and from him to the other cows of the herd, or they, by lying down where the bag of the dis- eased one had rested, may imbibe the infection, so that it is quite liable to go through the entire herd when once introduced. ■ "To the mind of Mr. Jenner, then a surgeon at 225 Berkley in Gloucestershire, the probability of arresting the small pox by innoculation from this matter, first presented itself. He spoke of it to his medical friends, but from every one of them he met with discourage- ments. They positively threatened to banish him from their club if he continued to tease them with his wiled speculations. For more than twenty years he brooded on the subject ere he could summon sufficient resolu- tion to oppose himself to the ridicule of his friends, and of the profession generally, by making the decisive experiment. At length he innoculated a boy with the matter taken from the hands of a milk maid, who had been infected by her master's cow. The disease was com- municated with the immunity which he expected. " He multiplied his experiments, and was successful in all of them ; and, althoug-h his brethren and the public were slow to believe him, he established the power of vaccination, and proved himself to be one of the greatest benefactors to the human race that ever lived," CHAPTER IVI. DISEASES OF CALVES. In whatever manner the calf is afterwards disposed of, it should remain with the mother for a few days after it is dropped, and until the milk can be used in the dairy, for the good of the cow, if nothing else, and if the calf is to be reared, especially for his own good. Thus the little animal will derive the benej&t of the first milk, that to which nature has given an aperient property by which the black and glutinous feces that had been accumulating in the intestines during the lat- ter months of the fetal state, is readily carried away. NAVEL-ILL. After getting upon his feet, care should be taken that the bleeding is stopped, by a ligature if necessary, tied as far from the body as practicable. The navel-ill is an obstinate inflammation of the navel and portions adjacent. It usually comes on from the third to the tenth day, not often later. If suppura- tion takes place, it must be banded and fomented with soap suds. Two or three ounces of castor oil, once a day in a beaten egg, may be given, and a plaster of tar placed upon the part affected. 227 CONSTIPATION. If the calf is permitted to take the biestings there is but little danger of constipation ; but when they have been imprudently withheld, nothing is more common or troublesome. Castor oil in three ounce doses, with a little ginger, all beaten into an egg, is the best purgative. Constipation, from being allowed habitually to take loo much milk with but moderate exercise, is not un- common. This is' more easily prevented than cured, as a large mass of coagulated milk collects in the fourth stomach, and bakes so solid that it is quite diffi- cult to remove it. It may be soaked up with water con- taining a little saleratus in solution, and removed by the stomach pump, the best of any way. When the calf first begins to eat hay, the maniplus may be too weak to grind in pieces the harder fibres, and a collection of undigested food will destroy the action of the ntomach. It must be washed out with warm water and a little soap, and the bowels stimula- ted to action by a gentle purgative. Diseases of this sort in young cattle cannot be too early or thoroughly attended to. DIABRH(EA. The disease to which calves are most liable, and which is most fatal to them, is purging. It arises from various causes. The milk may be too poor or too rich, given in too great quantities, or too little ; all sudden changes in their diet are sure to bring on a loose state of the bowels. This will often stop without medicine, but when it has run long, a good look out must be 228 kept up, that mucus matter does not mingle with the feces and a dysentery take the place of the relax. It will be safe to try to arrest it after a day or so, and the best medicine is the one already prescribed for dysen- tery in doses according- to the age of the calf. (See Dysentery.) Boiling the milk will often effectually check the disease. Alum whey, made by dissolving a small lump of alum in water, and pouring it into milk is counted good. BLOATING. Sudden formation of gases in the stomach imme- diately after eating, sometimes occurs. No time should be lost, but the gas should be drawn off through the probang and a small dose of chloride of lime imme- diately given. Where no probang is at hand, the ga» may be let off through a small puncture in the left side. CHAPTER XVII. DISEASES OP THE JOINTS AND FEET. Rheumatism. This disease in cattle appears to be brought on by causes similar to those that bring- it up- on the human subject and with similar symptoms and results. Cows exposed to cold and wet weather soon after calving, are especially liable to it. It is no uncommon thing in this country to see individuals in almost every herd, so stiffened by rheumatism as to make an ex- tremely awkward figure in walking. It consists in an inflammation of the covering coat of the muscles and joints, more commonly in a chronic form, but occasion- ally in a more acute and alarming character. Prevention is the great safeguard, and the only me- dicine worth naming. Scoke root, the same recom- mended for garget, has been used by the human sufferer with success, and perhaps might, in like man- ner, upon the cow. An ointment of turpentine and laudanum is recommended. When it takes a chronic form, swelling of the joints is common, tumors being formed which, however, will generally disappear, when by proper care the animal recovers from the rheumatic attack. The application of cold water w»)uM doubtless be an effectual remedy. Tumors occur about the joints not connected with a 230 rheumatic attack. These are of various forms, and appearances, and are best treated with an ointment of iodide of potassium one part, and lard seven. These tumors sometimes ulcerate and break ; then chloride of lime is a good application. HOOF AIL. This name is given to a disease which some years ago affected many cattle in various' parts of this country, and which generally proved fatal. The first symptoms were a sensation of itching and pain, which by slow degrees was developed into pustular eruptions around the top of the hoof, which, continuing to fester, bid de- fiance to all medicine, and went on worse and worse for months. In many cases the animal lost the hoof, and in a few, the entire foot ; and after living through several months of misery, died from general debility. There is no account of but one recovery. This was treated with a seaton in the leg below the knee : the skin was cut lengthwise, raised up a little, and a cir- cular piece of stiff leather slipped under it, which dis- charged copiously, and appeared to cleanse the system. This was thought by most men at the time to be contagious. FOtJI. IN THE FEET. This unpleasant disease affects working oxen oftener than cows, but they are by no means exempt from it. The skin between the hoofs first becomes irritated, then raw, and the animal is a little lame: soon a purulent and offensive discharge follows, attended with extreme pain, and if allowed to proceed, ulceration works its way up between the coffin bones so. that a probe 231 may be passed up between the hoofs several inches. The animal becomes emaciated, and unless arrested, this ailment g-ives place to some disease that ends his life. In the first stages, it is usually cured by thoroughly cleansing the hoof with a cord, and filling in between the hoofs with an ointment of equal parts of white lead and white vitriol mixed with tar enough to make it adhere. At the same time, the animal should be purged with salts, and followed up with doses of sulphur. This is generally supposed to be contagious. CHAPTER XVIII. DISEASES OP THE SKIN. The skin serves equally as a covering' and protec- tion against the inclemency of the weather, and an important organ in carrying on the functions of nutri- tion and health. A large portion of the food and drink taken by the healthy animal passes off through the skin by insensi- ble perspiration. This is effected by an immense num- ber of little ducts leading from the extremities of the veins and arteries, to the surface. It is furthermore sup- plied with numerous glands which discharge in health, an oily substance, giving the skin of the thrifty animal a peculiarly mellow and elastic feeling ; this, the herds- man calls good handling or touch. Graziers know full well that the beast whose skin is not soft, and mellow, and elastic, can never carry any profitable quantity of flesh and fat ; this is equally true of the capacity of the cow for the dairy. Therefore, they judge of the value of the animal even more by the handling than by the conformation of parts. This view of the skin suggests at once the impor- tance of keeping it in a healthy condition. HIDE BOUND. The term is very expressive : the hide seems to be 233 bound or to cling to the muscles and bones. It has lost its elasticity ; both the secretions and exhalations are partially or wholly interrupted, and the animal is manifestly in a bad condition. This is oftenev an alarm- ing symptom of some disease preying upon the system, than a disease itself. Perhaps a close examination may search out the disease which will be appropriately treated. It may be the manifolds, the liver, the pancreas, or perhaps the hoose is degenerating to the phthisis, or fouls, hollow horn, or stone in the bladder. To open the pores, the animal should be thoroughly bathed in warm soap suds, and afterwards curried and rubbed till dry : this may be repeated daily, and physic given. MANGE. This disease particularly affects the skin, causing an intolerable sensation of itching ; the animal rubs against every accessible thing, often removing the hair in spots, particularly along the back and roots of the tail It is contagious, and the beasts affected by it should be removed to enclosures iapart from the herd. A dose of salts, followed by daily doses of sulphur internally, and an external application of an ointment well rubbed in, of a pound of sulphur, four ounces of turpentine, two ounces of mercurial ointment, and a pint of linseed oil. Melt the turpentine and oil together, and when cooling, stir in the sulphur, then grind in the unguentum after it is cold. This is said to be a sure cure. Mange neglected, degenerates into a species of leprosy which must then receive similar treatment, with more physic and a plenty of green feed. 234 LICE: These vermin, comprising several varieties, become a great pest to animals in a half starved and emaciated condition, but never live upon a -weU. fed and healthy animal; hence the surest and cheapest cure, is to keep the animal in good condition. A little fine dust or ashes sprinkled along the back and between the ears renders their home very uncomfortable, and will usually expel them. Mercurial ointment, mixed with six parts of lard, and well rubbed in, will kill them ; but it should be added that no application will long protect a lean animal, and lice will not long live on a thrifty one. WARBLES, OB GKUB IN THE BACK. Late in the summer the gadfly deposites an egg in the cellular tissue of the skin near the back bone on either side, which hatches and begins to grow, having one end out of the orifice to breathe. The larvcE re- mains in his nidus through the winter and spring, and in June or July comes out, burrows in some secure spot for six weeks, and then hatches to a perfect gadfly again, who first seeks his mate, then the animal to deposite the egg anew. These animals do not seem materially to affect the cow aside from giving her great pain when first stuRg by them, but the prudent man will destroy all of them in the fall, as they can do no good, and certainly inflict permanent injury on the hide. W ARTS. These troublesome excresences usually occur on the bag, teats, nose, neck, eyelids,