fyxmll Uttwraitg \ ■— ^^^^ 1 BOUGHT WITHE THE INCOME , "TROM- THE SAGE ENDOWMEN THE (HFt OP 1891 T FUND ./G/a^kii. v!l-.j5...S,5..^. Cornell University Library 3 1924 031 243 904 olin.anx The original of tliis book is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924031243904 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY IADVERTISEMENT.\ The Chemical Apparatus referred to in this Work can be obtained from MESSRS. TOWNSON & MERCER, 89, BISHOPSGATE STREET "WITHIN, LONDON, E.G. Contractors for Chemical Apparatus and Chemicals to all the Principal Railway Companies and Manufacturers in the British Isles, I"OR FURTHER PARTICULARS, SEE OTHER ADVERTISEMENT AT END OF THE WoRK. ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY A PRACTICAL TREATISE FOR THE USE OF glnalytical CCfiEnu'stg, lEngtneers, Ironmasters, Ironfounliers SbtuUents, anJj ©tjbers COMPRISING METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND VALUATION OF THE PRIN- CIPAL MATERIALS USED IN ENGINEERING WORK WITH NUMEROUS ANALYSES, EXAMPLES AND SUGGESTIONS H. JOSHUA PHILLIPS, F.I.C, F.CS. ANALYTICAL AND CONSULTING CHEMIST TO THE GREAT EASTERN RAILWAY AUTHOR OF •* FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS : THEIR ANALYSIS AND VALUATION " LONDON CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON. 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL 1891 A. 3?-5Y-o [UNlVEHSfTYi . tOMDON-. -PRINTED BY J. S.' VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED GITY ROAD PREFACE. In the Author's capacity as an analytical chemist, engaged in the laboratories of railway companies, he has frequently heard it remarked by pupils, whether in chemistry or in engineering, as well as by practis- ing engineers and others, that a work which should give precise methods for analysing and valuing the most important of the materials in general use by engineers, would be of great service. Having him- self also felt the want of such a book when a student, he has utilised a portion of his leisure time in col- lecting the materials for the present work, which he trusts will meet with general approbation, and be found to sufficiently answer the purpose for which it has been written. It will be observed that Reddrop's " equivalent system " of reagents, of which the Author has now had seven years' experience, is used as far as possible throughout the work. This system he considers pre- eminently the best for adoption in analytical chemis- try, insuring, as it does,' accuracy and uniformity of results, and limiting the " personal equation " to a great extent. ' He is indebted to the courtesy of Mr. W. Crookes, F.R.S., and of Mr. Reddrop himself, for the full description of the system as given by its VI PREFACE. author in the Chemical News of May 23rd and 30th, 1890. Many of the methods of analysis given in the fol- lowing pages, as far as the strength and volumes of solutions are concerned, were worked out by the writer when acting as Chief Assistant in the Labora- tory of the Great Western Railway, under the direc- tion of Mr. F. W. Harris, F.I.C., to whom he desires to acknowledge his indebtedness for much of his know- ledge of chemical analysis. He has also to express his obligations to the authors of the various published works, papers in the Proceedings of Societies, etc., which have been consulted by him, and to which in many cases direct reference is made in the body of the work. The substance of a smaller work* which the Author had already published, and which has been very cordially received by chemists and engineers, has been embodied, with some slight additions, in this volume (Part HI.). In conclusion, he would say that if the present work prove acceptable, he will gladly avail himself in future editions of any suggestions with which he may be favoured by any of his readers, or for which he may be indebted to notices of the book in the public press. Stratford, London, E., jfuly, 1891. * "Fuels — Solid, Liquid, and Gaseous : Their Analysis and Valuation.'' London : Crosby Lockwood & Son, CONTENTS. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. PAGE Reddrop's System of Reagents i— 21 PART I. METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. Copper, methods for complete analysis of .... 22 — 33 „ analytical data of a complete analysis of . . . 33 — 38 „ analyses of two samples of 38 — 39 „ Tube Plates, specification of, for Indian State Railways 39 Iron and Steel, methods for complete analysis of, with notes on influence of elements on 39 — 6i Steel, for various purposes, percentage of Carbon in . . . 50 — 51 „ influence of excess of Carbon and Silicon on ... 51 „ experiments on the hardening and annealing of . . 51 — 52 „ influence of Copper and Sulphur on the rolling proper- ties of S3 „ Tyres, effect of Chromium on S7 — 59 „ Bessemer, analytical data of an analysis of . . . 61 — 63 Iron and Steels, analyses of 63 — 67 Spiegeleisen and Ferromanganese 67 — 68 „ analysis of, from Stahberg Ore .... 68 — 69 Brass, Bronze, &c 69 „ „ methods for complete analysis of . . . 69 — 72 ,, analytical data of an analysis of a bad sample of . . 72 — 73 ,, and Bronze, analyses of . ■ 74 Vlll CONTENTS. White Metals, method for complete analysis of Babbit's Metal, analytical data of an analysis of White Alloys, analysis of various Tinplate, analysis of White Lead, qualitative analysis of . „ quantitative „ . . . PAGE 74-77 77-78 78 78-79 79-80 80—82 PART II. ORES, LIMESTONES, ETC. Iron Ores, method for complete analysis of ... . 83 — 92 „ analyses of various 93 „ ManganiferouE 93 — 97 Limestones, Boiler Incrustations, &c., analysis of . . . 94 — 95 Boiler Scale, analysis of 95 — 9^ Siliceous Materials, analyses of various 96 Clays, analyses of various 9^ Blast Furnace Slag, analysis of 97 Basic Bessemer Converter Lining, analysis of ... . 97 PART III. FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. Fuels, requirements for valuation of 98 — 99 „ methods of analysis of 99 — 108 „ Solid and Liquid, determination of calorific value by- Thompson's Calorimeter 108 — m „ Calculation of theoretical values of solid and liquid fuels from the chemical analysis Ill — 118 „ Gaseous, method of analysis of 118 — 122 ,, ,, calorific value of 122 — 123 , „ . „ „ „ compared with coal . . 123 — 125 „ tables of practical results with, and analyses of . . . 126 — 142 „ various gaseous analyses of 142 — 145 Variable Blast-pipes on Locomotives, note on . . , 145 CONTENTS. ix PART IV. WATER. PAGE I. — ^Water for Boiler Purposes 146 „ collection oFsamples of 147 — 148 „ for Boilers, method of analysis of . . . . 148 — 153 „ method for complete mineral analysis of . . 153 — 158 „ analytical data of an analysis of ... . 158 — 162 „ analysis, scheme for 162 — 163 „ analysis of a sample of, for boiler use, with remarks 164 — 166 ' Waters, softening of hard *. . 166 — 167 „ various River, analyses of 167 — 169 » » Sea, „ „ 169—1-70 II. — Water for Drinking 170 „ „ method of analysis of . . . 170 — 180 Waters, Classification of 180 Rivers and Streams, Recommendations of Commissioners on Pollution of i8i — 182 PART V. OILS. Lubricating Oils 183 „ „ various, for special work .... 184 ,, „ test to be applied to 184 — 185 ,, „ determination of viscosity of . . . . 185—188 „ „ „ ,, Redwood's apparatus 186 „ „ determination of Specific Gravities of, with remarks, tables, &c 189 — 191 „ „ flashing point of I91 — 192 „ „ determination of Free Fatty and Mineral Acids in, with remarks, tables, &c. . . 192 — 194 ,, „ determination of Fatty and Mineral Oil in . 1194 — 196 Melting Points of Fatty Acids from various oils . . . 196 — 197 Determination of Congealing and Melting Points of oils and fats 197—198 „ „ loss on evaporation of oils and fats . . 198 — 199 „ „ suspended matter in oils and fats . . 199 Ideal characteristics of Lubricating Oils 199 — 201 Scheme for complete analysis of oils 202 CONTENTS. Mineral Illuminating Oils, table of products of distillation of „ „ „ assay of. Comparative Cost of Petroleum as an illuminant Storage of Petroleum Notes on the construction of Petroleum Lamps Oils for various purposes . . Gas Oils, specification for and tests of . Turpentine Oil, properties and assay of . Rape Oil „ Olive Oil „ Linseed Oil „ >> » • • Cottonseed Oil • „ » » • ■ Various tests for Oils . . PAGE 203 204 — 210 211 211 — 212 212 — 213 213— 2IS 215—218 218—219 219 — 220 220 — 221 221 222 — 229 PART VI. MATERIALS USED IN GREASE-MAKING. Manufacture of Railway Grease 230 Composition of various Greases 231 Tallow, examination of 231 — 233 Palm Oil „ 233—235 Petroleum Residuum, examination of 235 Soap, examination of 236 — 239 „ scheme for analysis of 240 Table of analyses of various Soaps 241 Caustic Soda, assay of 242 Soda Ash „ 243—244 PART VII. GASWORKS PRODUCTS. Ammoniacal.Liqupr, composition and valuation of Sulphate of Annnoniai assay of Spent Oxide, assay of . . . Coal Tar, synopsis of distillation of . Creosote, Dr. Tidy's report on ; . „ „ specification for ,, Sir F.Abel's ,, „ Characters of various Creosote Oils . CarboUneum 245—250 250—253 253—254 254—256 256—261 261 — 263 263 264 264 CONTENTS. XI PART VIII. DISINFECTANTS. Carbolic Acid, propeities and assay of Condy's Fluid „ „ Chloride of Lime „ „ PAGE 265 — 269 269 — 270 270 — 272 PART IX. EXPLOSIVES. Nitro-glycerine, properties and assay of . Dynamite „ „ „ . . . Scheme for analysis of Nytro-glyceiine compounds Gunpowder, composition of, in various countries „ analyses of products of combustion of . „ analysis of Composition of various patent Explosives 273—274 274 27s 276 276—277 277—278 278—282 APPENDIX. Symbols and Atomic Weights of the Elements (H = l) Table of Atomic Weights (O = 16) Factors for ascertaining the amount of Constituent sought • Form in which weighed English Weights and Measures .... Weights and Measures of British Pharmacopoeia . Weights and Measures of the Metrical System Tables for Conversion of Metrical and English Measures Hydrometer Tables ....... Comparison of Thermometers Comparison of Centigrade and Fahrenheit Degrees . Percentages and Gravity of Sulphuric Acid „ ,, „ Hydrochloric Acid „ „ „ Nitric Acid . „ ' „ „ Caustic Potash Solutions „ „ „ Caustic Soda Solutions , „ „ „ Ammonia Melting Points of the Metals Comparative Wear of Axle-bearings TextofPetroleum Act, 1879 INDEX from 283—284 285-286 287 — 290 290 291 292 292 — 294 294—295 29s 296 297 298 299 300 300 301 361 302 302—304 30s— 312 SUBJECTS ILLUSTRATED. FIG. PAGE FIG. I. Estimation of Combined 19- Carbon in Steel . . . 45 2. ji »» j> 46 20. 3- »» jj )» 47 4- *i »» >» 47 S- Graduated Tube for Com- 21. ' bined Carbon in Steel 22. , (Eggertz' Caloiimetric 23.) Method) SO 24. 6. Position 6f Samples taken 25- J from ingot of steel 26.1 (Snelus) 66 27-) 7- Analysis of White Metals 75 28. 8. Estimatidn of Water in Ores 84 9- Determination of Iron exist- ing as Ferrous Oxide . 87 29. lO. Estimation of Carbonic Acid in Iron Ores . . 88 P- II. Estimation of Nitrogen in Fuel '...;.. 103 12. Estinlation of Carbon and 31- Hydrogen in Fuel . . 105 13- Determination of Calorific Value of Fuel (Thomp- 32- son's Calorimeter) 109 14. \ Analysis of Graseous Fuel ) (ElUot's Method) .' ■. ' 33. IS- "9 16. 17- 18. ) Holden's Liquid Fuel 1 Injector 13s Macallan's Variable Blast Pipe 145 Estimation of Nitrates in Water (Crum's Method) 156 {Determination 6£ Viscosity of Oil (Redwood's Ap- paratus) 186 Determination of Specific Gravity of Oil . . .189 . ^ Separators for Saponifica- , i tion of Oils .... Flash-point Apparatus for Burning Oils (Sir F. Abel) ...... Estimation of Resin in Soap (Gladding) . . . Determination of Free Am- monia in Gas Works Products Estimation of Sulphur in Spent Oxide .... Determination of Coal Tar Acids in Creosote : Sepa- rating Funnel .... Determination of Nitro- Glycerine in- Dynamite : Soxlet's Fat Extraction Tube 274 19s 205 237 248 254 262 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. Reddrop's System of Reagents. I THINK it will be generally agreed that many of the text books and standard works on Analytical Chemistry rely rather too much on the discretion of the operator as to the strength and volume of the solutions, &c., which are to be employed in the work of analysis ; and if the analyst attempts to follow new methods as he finds them described in scientific perio- dicals, it is often very difficult to obtain such satisfactory results as the authors of such methods claim for them, owing to the want of a precise and universal system of detailing the modus operandi of the processes. The discordant results of analysis, often obtained by different chemists operating upon the same sample, are much to be regretted ; and as the discrepancies are mainly due to difference's of working, it is to be hoped that something will soon be done to systematize methods of analysis generally, so that there may be no excuse for differences of result. A practical insight into chemistry, as affecting engineering, is now considered essential for the complete education of an en- gineer. As a pupil, the young engineer serves from three to six months in the works' laboratory, and a precise description of the methods of analysis of materials coming under the cog- nisance of the practising engineer should prove of great ser- vice to an engineering pupil, as well as a means of relief B / 2 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY. to his tutor, who is often preoccupied otherwise than in teaching. The two main points to be considered in describing a method of analysis are, (i) The strength of reagents used ; and (2) The volume of reagents employed. It therefore becomes necessary to have a stock of reagents of definite strength at hand in the laboratory. As a general rule, in instructions for analysis, the specific gravity of the desired solution or one part of a strong reagent diluted so many times, is re- ferred to as a means of indicating the solution to be employed; but this mode of expressing strength is not veiy definife or convenient. The best system of reagents with which I am acquainted is that devised by Mr. J. Reddrop, F.I.C., the chemist of the London and North -Western Railway. This system (it will be found) has been followed as far as possible throughout this work, my own experience having led me to fully endorse the claims of its author (see post, page 14) as to t)ie advantages to be secured by the employment of the system. . In the year 1877 (Mr. Reddrop states) he introduced into the new laboratory at Crewe a number of reagents, the strength qf which was based on the chemical equivalents. Their use was subsequently extended until it included almost all the reagents in the laboratory, and the advantages derived there- from were found to be so decided, especially in chemical ana- lysis, that they are now employed in all investigations at the Crewe laboratory, and also at the laboratories of the Great Western Railway at Swindon, and the Great Eastern Railway at Stratford. Subjoined is a full description of the system as given by Mr. Reddrop * : — Beddrop's System of Chemical Heagents Based on the EcLiiivalents of the Elements. An equivalent reagent may be defined as one which contains a milligram equivalent of reacting substance in one cc. of solution, or a grm. equivalent in one litre. A solution cf this strength * Vide Chemical Nfws, Hay, 1890. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 3 is called an equivalent solution, or an equivalent reagent, and is denoted by the symbol E, e.g., E sodium carbonate represefits a solution co;ntaining 53 m.grms., =0-053 grm. in i cc, or 53 grms. in i litre. It will be observed that this is not Sl percentage solution, but one containing parts by weight (m.grms.) of sub- stance, in parts by volume (cc.) of solution. The strengths of all the reagents are expressed in terms of E,* thus the strength of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1-84, is approximately 36 E; strong nitric acid, sp. gr. i'42, is about 16 E ; and strong hydrochloric acid, sp. gr. i-i6, is about 10 E. Many of the reagents em- ployed are made of E strength, but in some cases the substance is not sufficiently soluble to make an E solution, and conse- quently some fractional part thereof has to be adopted instead. Thus we have — hydrogen sulphide, — calcium oxide, - cal- 4 •' = t '20 '30 E Gmm sulphate, 7 — strontium sulphate (test for barium). The fractional indices may, if preferred, be expressed decimally, thus or o"6 E. All E reagents are equal in precipitating or quantitative reacting power. For example, if we have a quantity of lead salt iri solution which requires 36 cc. of E sulphuric acid to exactly precipitate the lead salt as sulphate (not allowing for free sulphuric acid in excess), it will require the saihe number of cc. of E ammqnium carbonate to precipitate the lead as carbonate, or of E potassium chromate to precipi- tate the lead as chromate. The same quantity of lead in solution could, however, be precipitated by i cc. of 36 E sul- phuric acid, or by 7-2 cc. of 5 E ammonium carbonate, but it ■p would require at least 144 cc. of— hydrogen sulphide (saturated solution) to precipitate the lead as sulphide.. Tt may here be pointed out that, _ reagents are not made with the same degree of accuracy as the Standard E reagents employed in volumetric analysis. Variations in strength to the * E being, used as the symbol of equivalent or equivalents. KNGINEERING CHEMISTRY. extent of from i-^-oth to -/jth part are not considered inadmis- sible ; they may, consequently, be made in almost the same time as those hitherto employed, and the strength, in terms of E, is printed on the label of each bottle, thus — SULPHURIC ACID. 36 E. or SULPHURIC ACID. , H,SO, 36 ^T- 36 E. SULPHURIC ACID. HjSOi E.= The accompanying Table includes the reagents to which the equivalent system has already been extended. Column I gives the name of the reagent. Column 2 the molecular formula of the anhydrous substance. Column 3 the molecular weight of the anhydrous substance. Column 4 the equivalent weight of the anhydrous substance. Column 5 gives the strength of reagent as recommended by Fresenius, "Qual. Analysis," loth English Edition, first in the terms stated by him, and second, as calculated on the equi- valent system. This double column is simply given for comparison. Colupin 6 gives the strength of reagent recommended on INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 5 the equivalent system, first in grms. per litre, and second in terms of E. Column 7 gives the chemical formula of the substances used, and the methods by which the reagents are prepared of suffi- eimt accuracy for general use. Column 8 gives the strength of reagent as determined by trial after being prepared by the method given. Several notes are also appended, to which the reader should refer for further information. Notes to Table i. (i) Sulphuric acid, sp. gr. i"842, containing 98-6 per cent. iy calculation gives 37'07 E. Sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1-84, as supplied, two samples titrated gave 36-6 E and 368 E. (2) I usually make 5 litres of 5 E acid at a time and adjust the strength by titrating 2 cc. with standard N sodium hydrate. This can be done more quickly than by using the hydrometer, owing to changes of temperature on dilution. 5 E ammonium hydrate may be made in a similar manner. These 5 E re- agents may also be made by simply diluting the concentrated ones to the right degree. (3) Nitric acid, sp. gr. i -50, containing nitrous acid, titrated, ■ gave 2 2*8 E. (4) Nitric acid, sp. gr. i'424, containing 70-2 per cent., by calculation gives 15 "87 E. Nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*42, as supplied, two samples titrated gave i6"os E and i6*6 E. (5) Hydrochloric acid, sp. gr. i'i6o, containing 3i"73 per cent, by calculation, gives lo'oS E. Hydrochloric acid, sp. gr. i"i6, as supplied, two samples titrated gave io"36 E and io-32 E. (6) Carbonic acid. Water at 15° C. dissolves i'oo20vols.. ^^ , ■ , , , • • 100 E of CO2; this, by calculation, gives . ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY, ' Column X. Name of Reagent. Sulphuric Acid II ... \,. *i ••• •• Kitric Acid ij ••• ••• ••• Hydrochloric acid Mole- Equiva- Symbol, ,,>,cular lent weight, weight. H,SO. HNO, HCl 98 63 49 63 36-5 36"S Fresrnius's System. . Strength of Reagent. Calculated As stated. Sp. gr. 1*840 I to 5 Sp. gr. 1-2 Sp. gr. i'i2 m equiva- lents. 36 E eE 6-i6E 7-48 E Sulphurous acid ... . . .H,SOb 82 4" - CarboDic acid ... . . HzCO, 62 31 — Acetic acid »» . HCHjO, 60 II 60 II 332ofHC,H,0, tt Tartaric acid .. HjCikiOj ISO 75 = Citric acid . H3CSH5O7 192 64 - Oxalic acid . HgC,0« 90 45 — Hydrofluoric acid ... . HF 20 20 Hydrofluosilicic acid . . HjSiFo 144 7« — Hydrogen sulphide HjS 3« 17 Saturated solution Chlorine water ... . CI. 71 3S-S Saturated solution Bromine Br, 160 So Bromine water ... . *» „ „ — Hydrogen peroxide . H,0. 3+ 17 - Potassium hydrate KHO s's 56 — »• II jj „ , , Sodinm hydrate ... . . NaHO 40 40 Sp. gr. I-I3 = 9 X Na Ammonium hydrate AmHo 35 35 w II M „ Sp. gr. 0-96 = 10 2 Nl J-6iE E_ 4 5 INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. Column 6. EquivaleDt System. Grms, per litre. 56 40 Stren£^th. JSymbol of substance taken. Method of Freparin^^ Reagent. 8. ^ Strength of Reagent as found by trial. — 36E — Sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1-8427 at i5'5' C. 36 E Note (i). — 5 E — Sulphuric acid diluted' to sp. gr. 1*1527 at s E iS'S". Note (2). 49 E — 200 cc. of 5 E sulphuric acid diluted to i litre- E — 24 E — — Nitric acid sp. gr. 1*50. Note (3). 22"8 E — ■ 16E — Nitric acidsp.gr. 1-4268 at ISVC. Note (4). 16 E — 5E — Nitre acid diluted to sp.gr. i"i656 at ij-S'C. 5E Note (2) 63 £ — 300 cc. of 5 E nitric acid diluted to 1 litre. £ — 10 E — Hydrochloric acid sp, gr. i-x6ii at 15*5° C. 10 E Note (5). — 5 E — Hydrochloric acid diluted to sp. gr. 1*0843 at 5 E 15-5° C. Note (2;. 36-5 E — 200 cc. of 5 E hydrochloric acid diluted to X E litre. — 4 E — — Water at 15-5° C. saturated with sulphur di- 3-7 E oiide (sp.gr. 1-052). — — Water at 15-5° C. saturated with carbon di- — "> oxide. Note (b). — ry E — Acetic acid solid at 10^ C. Note (7). — 5 E — 294 cc. of 17 E acetic acid diluted to x litre. Note (2). 60 £ — 200 cc. of 5 E acetic acid diluted to x litre. ~- 5 E HxCiHiOg 375 grms. dissolved and diluted to 1 litre. IS E •> 75 >■ I. .. — sE HsCsHsOr.Aq 350 .. .. .. 64 E „ 70 „ „ „ 3E '-5- H2CsO,,2Aq 94*5 Note (8). — 12 E? — E — ^ — 4 _ E_ 5 — 37 E _ E 2 _ 4E- Hydrofluoric acid, -sp. gr. 1*15. . 16*9 E SE E SE E SE E 2 12*9 E 2E — SE E SE E aoE — SE KHO NaHO Water at x5*5'^ C. saturated with hydrogen sulphide. Water at 15*5° C. saturated with chlorine. Pure liquid bromine. Note (9). Water at 15*5° C. saturated with bromine. Hydrogen peroxide, 20 volume solution. • [Note (10). „ „ xo „ Note{tx). 280 grms. dissolved and diluted to i litre. [Note (12). 56 „ „ ,. Note(x2). 200 „ „ „ Note(t3). 40 „ „ „ Note(x3). Ammonium hydrate sp, gr. 0-880. Note (X4). Ammonium hydrate diluted to sp. gr. 0-9643 at 15-5° C. Note (2). 24 E 100 19E 100 E 18-9 ft SB ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY. Column I. z. S- 4- S- Symbol. Mole- cular weight. Equiva- lent weight. Fresenius's System. Name of Reagent. Strength of Reagent. Calculatfid As stated. in equiva- lents. Ammonium hydrate . AmHo 33 35 - — Barium oxide BaO 153 76-S BaHzOj.SAq. i to 20 -5- Calcium oxide • CaO 56 23 E Saturated solution 20 Ammonium sulphide ... AmiS 68 H lo^NH, 5-54 B? Sodium sulphide NajS 78 39 9 % NagO 3-28 E Potassium cyanide Potassium sulphate Potassium iodide KCy KiSOi KI 65 174 166 63 87 166 X to 12 0-96 £ »» Potassium chromate ... Potassium metantimo- niate KaCrOi ' KSbOs I94"3 209 *> 97"23 209 Saturated solution E 68 079 E i'03 E 3-77 E Potassium ferrocyanide Potassium ferricyanide Potassium 'sulphocya- nate Sodium carbonate KiFeCys KeFesCyi! KCyS NasCO, 368 658 97 106 92 109-7 97 S3 I to 12 I to 10 2-7 to s i» Hydrogen disodium- phosphate HNasPOi 142 47'3 I to 10 0-84 E Sodium acetate ^Sodium sulphite NaCsHsOa NasSOs 82 126 82 63 I to 10 074 E ^dium thiosulphate ... NajSjOs 158 79 — _ Sodium hypochlorite ... Ammonium aceute ... NaClO AmCsHsOs 74-5 77 74-5 77 - - Ammonium oxalate AmzCaOi Hydrogen di-ammonium phosphate HAmjPOi 132 Ammonium carbonate... AmsCOs 96 48 I to 24 I sesqui to 5 -|- NHj o'sgE S'oSE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. Column 6. ^Equivalent System. p^K^Strength; Symbol of substance taken. Method of Preparing; Reagent, 8. Strength of Reagent as found by trial. 35 39 65 87 166 97'25 307 92 1097 97 53 47'3 E K 3 _K 5E E :e E E E^ S E E_ OH E £ E 3E E 3 4E 2E — 200 cc. of 5 E ammonium hydrate diluted to x E litre. BaHsOz, 8Aq 52*5 grms. dissolved and diluted to t litre. Note (15). — "Water at i5'5° C. saturated with calcium hy- drate. of 5 E ammonium hydrate irke ' " ■ KCy KaSOi KI KBCrOi Saturate 600 'cc. with H2S in a corked flask, and then add 400 cc. of 5 E ammonium hydrate. 200 cc. of 5 E ammonium sulphide diluted to X litre. Dissolve 200 grms. of sodium hydrate in 800 cc. water, saturate one half with H2S. then add the other half and dilute to i litre. zoo cc. of 5 E sodium sulphide diluted to i litre. 65 grms. crj'stal dissolved and diluted to i litre, 87 grms. dissolved and diluted to i litre. 166 „ „ ,♦ Note {18). 33'2 97 '25 KsSbsOg, 7Aq Saturated solution at 15*5° C. KiFeCyg, 3Aq KgFeaCyia KCyS NaaCOsioAq io5'5 grms. dissolved and diluted to i litre. iog'7 „ « 97 429 grms. dissolved and diluted to x litre. 143 M M „ HNagPOi, i2Aq 119*3 NaCzHsOg, 3Aq 544 NaaSOs, 7Aq 252 NaaSzOs, sAq 124 2000 5K Note (18), S. E E E E 2-9+ E 098 E E 3-96 E 77 372 44 E 3E — 5 E — 294 cc. of 17 E acetic acid, neutralised with 5 E strung ammonium hydrate and diluted to I litre. ■— 200 cc, of 5 E ammonium acetate diluted to i E litre. AmjCaOi, Aq 42*6 grms. dissolved and diluted to i litre. 3^ I Note (16). ' 5. or E HAmaPOf 44 grms, dissolved and diluted to i litre, E 3E — ig6'7grms.of ammoniumsesquicarbonatedis- — t solved in333'3 cc.of 5 E ammonium hydrate and diluted to i litre. E — 200 cc. of 5 E ammonium carbonate solution — diluted to X litre. 2E 10 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY, Column 1, Kame of Reagent. Symbol. Hydroeren ammonium carbonate HAmCOs Mole- cular Equiva- bqi If ent weight, weight. 79 Frbsenius's System. Strength of Reagent. Calculated As stated. in equiva- lents. Ammonium chloride Ammonium sulphate Barium chloride ... Barium nitrate ... Barium carbonate ... Strontium sulphate Calcium chloride ... Calcium sulphate ... Magnesium chloride Magnesium sulphate Ferrous sulphate ... Ferric chloride AmCl Am2S0« BaClj BaNjOi! BaCOs SrSOi CaCIj CaS04 MgCl, MgSOi FeSO, FejCls srs 132 208 261 197 183-5 xxz 95 120 152 325 53'5 66 10+ 130-5 98-5 91-75 55-5 68 47 -S 6a 76 54-17 I to 8 I to to 1 to IS I cryst. to 5 Saturated solution 2-34 E 0-82 E 0-51 E 1-83 E E 30 o'8i E Plumbic acetate ... Plumbic nitrate Argentic nitrate ... ... PbCtHeO, 325 162-5 ... PbNjOe 331 165-5 AgNOs 170 170 X to 10 X to 20 0-53 E 0-30 E Argentic sulphate... Mercurous nitrate... Ag.S04 HgaNjOe 312 524 156 263 Mercuric chloride ... Cupric sulphate ... Cupric chloride Stannous chloride ... Auric chloride Platinic chloride Ma^esia mixture (for phosphoric aciJ) HgCl, 135-5 CuSO« CuCl, SnCls J59-5 134-5 189 79"75 67-25 94-5 AuCIj 303-1 XOI PtCU 339-1 848 I to x6 X to 10 J to 30 0-46 E o-8oE 0"3JE 0-77 E Column 6, Equivalent System. perTtre. Strength. INTJ^ODUCTORY CHAPTER. 7- Symbol of substance taken. Method of Preparing Reagent, II 8. Streiigth of Reagent as found by trial. _ 5J 53 5 66 164 6525 55"S a'a? 47'S 60 76 54" 1 7 162-5 165-5 170 7-8 5!'4 + 54"2 79'7S 67-25 94-5 + 84-8 or3E 5E R E E .2 JE 600 E 1;^ 30 E E E E E E E E^ 5 E -5r + 5 5 E E E + E 5 AmCl AmiSOi BaCIs, 2Aq BaNjOo BaCOa SrSOi CaCla, 6Aq CaS04, 2Aq MgCU, 6Aq MgS04, 7Aq EeSOi, 7Aq PbC4H604,3Aq PbNsOfi AgNOs A saturated solution made by passincr excess of carbon dioxide into 3 E ammonium hy- drate. 267'5 grms. dissolved and diluted to x litre. 53-5 „ ., „ 66 „ „ „ 122 ,. ., .. 65'2S E E E „ Note (17). — X97 grms. freshly precipitated, suspended in water and diluted to 1 litre. Water at rs's" C. saturated with precipitated strontium sulphate. Z09-5 grms. dissolved and diluted to i litre. Water at 15-5° C. saturated with precipitated calcium sulphate. 101*5 grms. dissolved and diluted to z litre. 123 grms. dissolved and diluted to x litie, 139 .. >. 18-67 grms. of iron, as FeaHgOq, dissolved in 200 cr. of 5 E hydrochloric acid anddiluted to 1 litre. 189-5 grms. dissolved and diluted to 1 litre. 165-5 170 „ „ „ Note (18). 34 „ „ ., Note (18). Ag2S04 Water at 15-5° C. saturated with freshly pre- cipitated argentic sulphate. HgjNzOj, aAq 56 grms. dissolved in 40 cc. of 5 E nitric acid and dilutpd to i litre, a little mercury being placed in a bottle. 1± HgCl2 CuS04, 5Aq CuCU, 2Aq 5nCl2, sAq 54-2 grms. dissolved and diluted to 1 litre. i24'75 .. " >' 85-25 112-5 grms. dissolved in 200 cc. of 5 E hydro- chloric acid and diluted to i litre, a little tin being placed in bottle. 13-1 grms. of metallic gold, converted into auric chloride, dissolved and diluted to z litre. Note (18). 49-3 grms. of metallic jjlatinum, converted into platinlc chloride, dissolved and diluted to 1 litre. Note (18). Dissolve 68 grms. MgClz, 6 Aq in about 500 cc. of water, add 165 grms. AraCl.then 300 cr. of 5 E ammonium hydrate, and dilute to 1 litre. b-97 E 0-98 £ E 0-97 E E 0-98 K E IL 5 E 21 .1 5 S £ 0-95 E 0-96 E 12 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY. (7) Acetic acid, anhydrous sp. gr. 1-0635, containing 100 per cent., by calculation gives 177 E. Acetic acid, sp. gr. 1-0598, solid at 50° F., as supplied, titrated, gave 16-9 E. (8) Oxalic acid. A ~— solution do's not cystallise out at 15° C, but does so at 10° C. (9) Bromine, sp. gr. 2-966, by calculation gives 37-oS E. (10) Hydrogen peroxide, 20 volumes, by calculation gives 3-6 E. (11) Hydrogen peroxide, 10 volumes, by calculation gives 1-8 E. (12) Potassium hydrate, about one-tenth more than the quantity given in the table is required, owing to most samples containing water. (13) Sodium hydrate prepared from sodium is employed. (14) Ammonium hydrate, sp. gr. o'88, containing 38 per cent., by calculation gives 19-7 E. Ammonium hydrate, sp. gr. o-S8, as supplied, three samples titrated gave 18-0 E, 16-2 E, and 18-9 E. (15) Barium hydrate. The strength of a M/«^a/^^ solution vari; s considerably with the temperature. 3 E (16) Ammonium oxalate. A stronger solution than crystallises. out at the ordinary temperature. (17) Barium nitrate is not sufficiently soluble to make an E solution. E E (18) Where reagents are expensive an — or — solution may be made for qualitative tests. It will be seen from the Table that a large number of the reagents are made of E strength. Experience, however, has shown that there are cases in which it is necessary to employ ' certain reagents, and especially the acids, stronger than this ; consequently a number of 5 E reagents have been introduced, 5 being a convenient figure for calculations on the decimal system. These are more accurately made, and keep more INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 1 3 constant in strength than the concentrated reagents, which are liable to a variation of about one equivalent. About three-fourths of the reagents given in the Table may be kept in well-stoppered bottles for a considerable time without appreciable change. In the few remaining cases where the variation in strength is considerable, the unwelcome fact is ex- pressed in column 6 of the preceding Table and on the reagent bottles in the following manner : — Where it is known that the reagent has been made the standard strength, but becomes weaker on keeping, it may be ex- pressed by the sign — placed after the symbol E, thus : — 4 E — Sulphurous Acid. If, on the other hand, there is an increase of strength, as in the case of the acid solution of stannous chloride kept in contact with metallic tin, it may be expressed thus : — E + Stannous Chloride. The analyst is thus fore- warned as to any irregularity which may occur in the strength of such reagents. The practical application of these multiple and fractional equivalents is well illustrated by the chlorine and bromine reagents given in the table. Pure liquid bromine is shown as ■p - 37 E; a saturated solution of bromine in water as — ; and a E saturated solution of chlorine in water — . Now if we know that I cc. of liquid bromine (37 E) is required to effect a definite amount of oxidation in a solution, we see at a glance by means of these equivalents that it would require 74 cc. of E E — bromine water or 181; cc. of — chlorine water to effect the same quantitative result. It may here be pointed out that a few reagents require a 2 E double index of their strength, e.g., E or — hydrogen disodium phosphate.* This reagent behaves as an E solution if em- 2 E ployed to precipitate iron as phosphate, but only as when * On this account the second or third label previously given is preferred. 14 ENGINEKRING CHEMISTRY. employed to precipitate magnesium as ammonium magnesium phosphate owing to ammonium taking part in the reaction. A reference to the chemical equations representing the reactions will illustrate this : — Fe2Cle + 2 HNajPOi + 2 NaX = 2 FePOi + 6 NaCl + 2 H A. 6 equivs. 6 equivalents. , 6 equlvs. of Fe precipitated. 2 MgCl; + 2 HNaaPOi + 2 AraHO = 2 AmMgPOi + 4NaCl+2HjO. 4 equivs. 6 equivalents. 4 equivs. of Mg precipitated. Having thus briefly described the proposed system of reagents, we will proceed to notice some of the advan- tages attending its employment in practical and analytical chemistry : — 1. It affords the most convenient method of expressing the proportionate strength or precipitating power of each reagent, and one which may be plainly indicated on each bottle. , 2. It indicates as , near as can be practically attained the actual strength of each reagent. Thus : — 36 E sulphuric acid contains 36 m.grm. equivalents in I cc, and knowing this we can readily calculate the quantity of any constituent, i?.^., the equivalent weight of sulphuric acid being 49, we have 49 x 36 = 1,764 m.grrns. = 1764 grms. of sulphuric acid present in r cc. Simi- larly, each cc. contains i x 36 = 36 m.grms. = o'036 grm. of hydrogen, 16 x 36 = 576 m.grms. = 0-576 grm. of sulphur, and 32 x 36 = 1,152 m.grms. = i'i52 grms. of oxygen. 3. By observing the quantity of a reagent employed in an analysis, we can calculate the quantity of by-product therefrom, a point of considerable importance in deciding upon the dilu- tion of our solutions. For example : — If, during a quantitative analysis, 10 cc. of 36 E sulphuric acid is added and afterwards neutralised by sodium carbonate, we observe that 10 x 36 equivalents of sodium siilphate will be produced. Now, since the equivalent of sodium sulphate is 71, we have 71 x 36 x INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 15 10 = sSiS^o, m.grms. = 25-56 grms. as the quantity of anhydrous sodium sulphate formed by the reactipn. Know- ing this, we are forewarned to dilute sufficiently before proceeding with the analysis. 4. In qualitative analysis we are able to form a better judg- ment of the amount of substance present than when using the reagepts of indefinite strength hitherto employed. 5. The strength of reagents employed in chemical investi- gations may be most conveniently expressed on this system. For exapple : — Nitric acid sp. gr. f4268 at IS'S° C. is exactly l6 E in strength. )> f) i*i656 „ ,, 5E „ » ., I-034S .. .. E Now it is evident that the latter mode of expression is far simpler, and gives a much more accurate idea of the strength of the acid than does its specific gravity. These equivalent numbers would be a valuable addition to sp. gr. tables. 6. Reagents may l)e most readily diluted to the various strengths required in chemical analysis. For example: — Nitric acid sp. gr. .r^2 — 16 E approxi- mately may be readily obtained by distillation. To make an acid of E strength, it is simply necessary to dilute i cc. of 16 E acid with water to the volume of 16 cc. To make 2 E acid, dilute 2 cc. of 16 E acid to 16 cc. ; or to make 15 £ acid, take 15 cc. of 16 £ acid and dilute to 16 cc, and so on. It is not usually necessary to take changes of temperature into consideration, except in the case of strong sulphuric acid. 7. This system affords the simplest method of calculating the theoretical quantity of reagent required to effect any chemi- cal change. For example : — If we w4sh to find the quantity of reagent necessary to precipitate i grm. of calcium from its solu- tion ; we already know that i cc. of E reagent, say E ammonium carbonate, will precipitate 20 m.grms. (i m.grm. i6 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY. equivalent) ; consequently, 50 cc. of E reagent will be required to precipitate i grm. If preferred, 10 cc. of 5 E ammonium carbonate may be used instead. In like manner we can calculate the quantity of acid theoretically required to dissolve a given quantity of metal or other sub- stance. Thus, I grm. of zinc, containing 30*8 m.grms. equivalents, will theoretically require 30-8 cc. of E acid or 6'i6 cc. of 5 E acid to effect its solution. In the same way it may be shown that while to dissolve or precipitate I grm. of thallium theoretically requires only 4.9 cc. of E reagent, to dissolve or precipitate i grm. of beryllium would require 2 17 "4 cc. of E reagent. The following table gives the number* of m.grm. equivalents contained in i grm. of each of the more common elementary substances. This enables us to find at a glance the number of cc. of E. reagent theoretically required to effect the solution or precipitation of i grm. of each substance. Symbol of Atomic Equivalent Weight. M.grm. equivs. Element. Weight. per grm.. or cc. of E. Al'" 27 9 III-I Sb'" 120 40 25 Sb' »» 24 417 As'" 75 25 40 Asv »> 15 66-7 Ba" 137 68-s 14-6 Be" 92 4-6 217-4 Bi'" 210 70 14-3 Biv >j 42 23-8 B"' II 3-67 272-5 Br- 80 80 125 Cd" 112 56 17-9 Ca" 40 20 50 C" 12 6 166-7 C" jj 3 333-3 CI' 35 5 35-5 28-2 • This number is the reciprocal of the equivalent weight X 1,000 ; con- sequently a table of reciprocals would be applicable for all substances, and might be used for this purpose. INTROE!tJ[CTORY CHAPTER. 1 7 Symbol of Atomic Element. weight. ^'"' 52-5 Crvi Co" 59 Co'" . „ Cu' 63s Ca" F' 19 Au' 1 96-6 Au" H' 1' I 127 31 Fe" 56 Fe" Pb" 207 Li- 7 Mg" ' 24 Mn" S5 Mn" „ Mnvi „ Hg" 2ca Hg" „ Ni" 59 Ni"' Pr Pt" 194-381 Pi'" K' 39-1 Si" 28 Ag' 108 Na- 23 Sr" 87-s S" 32 S" S" Sn" 118 Sni' Tl' 204 Tl" Ti" so Tii- Zn" 6s EquivaleQt M.grra. eqnivs. weight. pergirm„,or; cc. of E. 17-5 S7-I' '' 8-75 114-3 295 , 339 , 19-67 ■ -50-8 63-S 15-7 3I-7S 31-S 19 ' 52-6 I96'6 5-1 65-53 15-3 I looo-o 127 7-9 28 35-7 18-67 53-6 1035 9-7 7 142-9 12 83-3 ■27-5 36-4 13-75 72-7 9-17 109-1 200 5 100 10 29-S 33-9 19-67 50-8 10-33 95-S 6-2 i6i-3 97-19 10-3 4859 20-6 39-1 25-6 7 142-9 108 9-3 23 43-5 43-75 22-9 16 62-s 8 125 5-33 187-6 59 16-9 29-S 33-9 204 4-9 68 14-7 25 40 I2-S 80 32-5 30-8 1 8 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY. Should a secondary reaction occur, as for instance in the action of copper upon nitric acid, the quantity of reagent re- quired may be deduced ' from the equation representing the chemical change, as follows : — 3Cu + 8HNO3 = 3 CuNzOe + 2 NO + 4 H2O. 6 equivalents. ' 8 equivalents. Here we see that 6 equivalents of copper require 8 equiva- lents of nitric acid, or one-third more than the normal quantity; therefore li times the quantity of acid, as obtained from the table, will be required. 8. The system further affords a simple method of calculating the quantity of gas given off in chemical reactions. Since i cc. of an E reagent, in acting upon excess of metal, will liberate a m.grm. equivalent of hydrogen = ii'i6 cc, the volume given off by x cc. of any E reagent will be X ii*i6 cc. Conversely, we may calculate the quantity of acid required to produce a given volume of hydrogen. 9. In working with this system we have the most convenient method of expressing the precise acidity, &c., of chemical solutions intended for accurate titration, precipitation, &c. For example : — In Margueritte's method of estimating iron volumetrically by means of standard — potassium per- manganate, I recommend that the solution for titration ■p be acidified to E or — sulphuric acid, thus expressing the acidity at which it is preferred the reaction should take place. An example of the application of these reagents to the sepa- ration of metals may be given. It is known that a solution of zinc chloride containing i grm. of zinc, in 100 cc. requires the presence of an appreciable quantity of free hydrochloric acid to prevent the precipitation of the zini; by hydrogen sulphide. It is also known that lead is not completely precipitated from its solutions by hydrogen sulphide if more than 2 "5 per cent, of free hydrochloric acid be present. The question arises how to INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 19 acidify the solution so as to allow of the complete precipitation of the lead without the co-precipitation of the zinc. I have found that lead can be completely precipitated by hydrogen E sulphide from an — hydrochloric acid solution without per- ceptible co-precipitation of zinc, and now by acidifying the solution to — hydrochloric acid, I always secure the most favourable conditions for the separation of these metals. As illustrating the application of this system to precipitation, I may mention the determination of lead as sulphate. It is well known that lead sulphate is soluble in strong sulphuric acid, and also in pure water, but that in dilute sulphuric acid it is practically insoluble. The strength of sulphuric acid corre- sponding to the least solubility does not appear to have been recorded. I have, however, found that lead sulphate is least soluble in E sulphuric acid, and now always adopt this strength in my analytical work. As a final illustration we will take the precipitation of phos- phoric acid by magnesia mixture. David Lindo, 'va. Chemical News, vol. xlviii., p. 217, has given the conditions under which he considers this precipita- tion can be best effected. I have calculated the quantities of reagent used in terms of E, and the conditions of precipitation may be stated as follows : — I St. Solution to be neutral or slightly ammoniacal. E E 2nd. Dilution of PzOs to be from — to — , or about i grm. 5 20 ° in from 200 to 800 cc. E 3rd. Dilution of AmCl to be from O to — . 4th. After precipitate has settled, add \ bulk of 5 E ammo- nium hydrate. 3 E 5th. Wash with — ammonium hydrate. E €th. Magnesia mixture up to — in excess does not vitiate ■3 result. 20 ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY. 7th. Magnesia mixture counteracts solvent action of ammo- nium chloride. Preparation of Standard Equivalent Solutions. — In volumetric analysis, where the measure of a certain substance is to be obtained from the volume of a certain reagent required to neutralize or precipitate it, it is essential that its value should be accurately known, so that a definite volume of it will be equivalent to, or a measure of, any substance which it is desired to determine. The following method used for prepara- tion of standard solutions in alkalimetry, acidimetry, &c., will suffice to illustrate how Standard equivalent solutions are prepared. Preparation of Standard E Sodic Carbonate. — Since sodic car- bonate can be obtained in a pure state, and any moisture it may contain be driven off by gentle ignition, it can be used as a basis for the standardization of all acid and alkaline solutions. It is prepared by dissolving 53 grms. of pure anhydrous sodic car- bonate in water and diluting to 1,000 cc. at 15° C. About 56 grms. of the carbonate are weighed out into a platinum dish, and gently ignited to a dull red heat until all moisture has been eliminated ; it is cooled in a desiccator, and the 53 grms. quickly weighed from it. Preparation of Standard E Sulphuric Acid. — Standard E sulphuric acid should contain 49 grms. real HjSOi in a litre of water. The following will illustrate how this is obtained: — 29 cc. of strong sulphuric acid of sp. gr. 1-84 was dissolved in water, and diluted to 1,000 cc. at 15° C. 30 cc. of standard E NajCOs was run from a burette into a 100 cc. beaker, and two drops of methyl orange (i in 1,000) added, and diluted to 50 cc. A burette was filled with the H2SO4 prepared as above, and allowed to gradually run into the yellow-tinted alkaline solution, stirring, until the last drop added produced a pink coloration, when 2 8 cc. were required instead of 30 cc. Now it is necessary to add water to the acid, since- it is too strong, to an extent that will make it exactly E, and every 28 cc. of the acid will INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER. 2 1 want diluting to 30 cc. There was 910 cc. of acid left; there- , 910 tore — g- = 32'5 times; and 32-5 x 2 = 65 cc. more water to be added; on adding this quantity, and again titrating as above, 30 cc. of alkali required exactly 30 cc. of acid, and there- fore, the solutions were chemically equivalent to each other. Preparation of Standard E Sodic Hydrate. — A Standard E solution of sodic hydrate should contain 40 grms. of NaHO in a litre, but since pure sodic hydrate always contains some water, a quantity more than this must be taken. 42 grms. of pure sodic hydrate prepared from sodium was dissolved in water and diluted to 1,000 cc. at 15° C, and on titrating 30 cc. with the above standard E acid, exactly 30 cc. were required for neutralization ; but often it requires more acid than this, then it must be diluted until it is of the right strength, in a similar manner to that adopted for the dilution of the sulphuric acid. PART I. METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. Method for the Complete Analysis of Copper. Insoluble Eesidue and Stock Solution. — Weigh out 50 grms. of the sample in turnings, and transfer to a i^- litre beaker, pour on 600 cc. of nitric acid, sp. gr. i'2 = 6'is E, and allow to digest on a warm plate until all that is soluble is dissolved ; evaporate now over water bath until crystals of cop- per nitrate come out. Dissolve in 800 cc. of distilled water and filter off any residue through a small tared filter paper ; detach any portion adhering to the sides of the beaker with the aid of a feather and wash till free from the copper salt with E HNO3 and finally with water; dry the filter at 100 C, and weigh between watch glasses. If the residue is at all considerable it is to be kept and fused with sodic sulphide, and treated by pro- cesses herein described. There will be a separate method adopted for the estimation of tin. The filtrate is now diluted to 1,000 cc. at i5"S° C, and poured into a dry stoppered bottle, from which known volumes are to be taken for the estimation of most of the impurities. Estimation of Fe, Ni, Co, Zn. — 200 cc. (equivalent to 10 grms. of sample) of the stock solution, are measured out accurately, and poured into a litre beaker ; add now 20 cc. of sulphuric acid, sp. gr. 1-84 = 36 E, and evaporate as far as possible on the water bath and finally on the sand bath until all fumes of HjS04 are eliminated. Allow to cool and ESTIMATION OF IRON AND NICKEL IN COPPER. 23 digest with 300 cc. of — H2SO4, until all that is soluble is 2 dissolved, decant as much as possible of the clear blue solution into a tared i^^ litre flask, provided with a cork, and pass the residual solution containing any PbSOi, &c., through a filter paper and finally wash with — HjSOi until 2 free from copper salt — reject residue. To the solution add 50 cc. of strong HCl = 10 E, and dilute to 1,000 cc, the solu- tion being now '65 E total free acid. Heat the solution to 70° C. and saturate with sulphuretted hydrogen, after which the cork is introduced, allowed to cool to ordinary temperature, and the whole weighed. Deduct from this the weight of the dried flask, + iS'07 grms. CuS (the amount ot CuS formed by the 10 grms. of sample taken ; this is not strictly speaking correct, but there is no practical error introduced for ordinary coppers) and the amount of liquid present will be obtained. Decant through a filter carefully and as quickly as possible (to prevent oxidation) into another tared ij litre flask and weigh; and cal- culate from this the amount of sample equivalent to the volume decanted (vide example, page 34). The liquid is now poured out of the flask into a beaker and evaporated to complete dry- ness over the sand bath. Dissolve the residue in 20 cc. of |- E HCl, pour into a small, tall beaker and saturate with SHj, and filter off any little CuS, &c., that was not completely separated in the first instance. Neutralize the solution with 20 E AmHO, add \ cc. in excess, and saturate with SHj. Allow to settle in a warm place for about a quarter of an hour and filter off the precipitated sulphides of Fe, Ni,'&c. ; wash quickly with \ E hm^ solution and dissolve residue in 3 cc. warm 5 E HCl, with addition of a crystal of chlorate of potash : boil the solution carefully until all free chlorine has escaped, add 4 cc. of 5 E AmCl, dilute to about 20 cc, and add, very cautiously, 5 E solution of ammonic carbonate, until nearly all the free acid is neutralized ; then add, drop by drop, a solution of E ammonic carbonate, until a slight tur- bidity is produced. Heat slowly to boiling, cool, and add 3 cc. 24 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. of 5.E AmHO ; allow to stand a short time, filter through a small filter paper, wash with ^.E Am CI, reserve filtrate, re-dissolve in 3 cc. of 5 E HCl, and re-precipitate the iron now as ferric hydrate [Fe2(HO)6] with i cc. of ammonia hydrate •880 sp.gr. = 20 E ; heat to boiling, and filter off through one of Schleicher & Schijll's smallest size chemically pure filter papers, leaving less than "oooi grra. of ash on incineration, a quantity which may be disregarded in the determination. (It may be here remarked that throughout the copper analysis, where such small quantities are to be weighed, it will be advisable to use these papers. They can be obtained from Messrs. Townson & Mercer, London, who are the sole agents.) Wash the precipi- tate with water, until the washings no longer give a turbidity with nitrate of silver, mix filtrate and reserve, spread the filter on to a watch glass and dry in the water oven. Scrape as much as possible of the. oxide into a small tared porcelain crucible and ignite the filter paper separately, adding the residue to the main portion. The crucible and its contents are now gradu- ally ignited to a full red heat in the oxidising flame of a Bunsen or in a good muffle, after which it is cooled in a good desic- cator and weighed. The increase in. weight of the crucible is the amount of iron originally present in logrms. of the sample now in the state of peroxide (FejOs). This weight, multiplied by "700, and divided by amount of sample taken, x 100, will give the percentage of iron in the sample. The mixed filtrates, containing the zinc, &c., are now evapo- rated to 30 cc. and made just acid with HCl, and then just alkaline with E NajCOa ; add 4 drops of 5 E HCl, saturate with SH2, filter off any zinc sulphide if present, and wash. Boil the solution until SH^ has gone off, neutralize with ■p E NaaCOa, make — with acetic acid, add 2 cc. E acetate of soda, heat to 70° C, saturate with SH2, allow precipitate to subside, filter off the nickel sulphide quickly, and wash with SH2 water (test the solution for manganese by neutralizing with 20 E AmHO, and adding 5 cc. 5 E AmjS). Dissolve off the filter with 5 cc. of 10 E HCl, with addition of a crystal of potassic ESTIMATION OlF ANTIMONY AND ARSENIC IN COPPER. 25 chlorate, boil till chlorous odour has gone, and wash out into a porcelain dish ; volume being here now 15 cc, neutralize with 2 E NazCOs, boil, and add 2 cc. of 2 E NaHO solution (pure) to the hot solution, and boil for a few minutes : filter off hydrate of nickel, wash with boiling water till free from alkali, dry in water oven, scrape precipitate into a tared crucible, ignite the filter separately, and add residue to main portion : ignite the crucible at a red heat for ten minutes, cool and weigh the NiO, which X "7867 and -r- the amount of sample taken, x 100 = per- centage of nickel in the sample. Test the nickel oxide for cobalt by treating the residue in the crucible with J cc. of aqua regia, evaporating to dryness, dissolv- ing in 5 cc. of water, adding a drop of 5 E acetic acid and 2 cc. ,of 4 E potassic nitrite solution, and allowing to stand at 50° C. for some hours, when, if cobalt is present, a yellow precipitate of double nitrite of cobalt and potassium will be produced. Estimation of Antimony and Arsenic {Abel's process). — Take 200 cc. of stock solution, equivalent to 10 grms. of original sample, and pour into a litre beaker. Add 5 cc. of an E solution of nitrate of lead [Pb(N03)3], 70 cc, of 5 E AmHO, and 10 cc. 5 E AmjCOa. Dilute to 800 cc, and allow to stand twenty-four hours with frequent stirring, after which it is allowed to stand without stirring, until the precipitate of arseniate, antiraoniate, carbonate, &c., of lead has settled to the bottom. Decant as much as possible of the clear solution, filter off the remain- ing solution, wash the precipitate with 2 E AmHO till free from copper salt, &c., spread out the filter on a glass plate, carefully remove as much as possible of the precipitate into an 80 cc. beaker with a platinum spatula, and remove any pre- cipitate adhering to the paper with 30 cc. of i J E oxalic acid, with the aid of a wash bottle. Boil the solution for half an hour, filter off, and wash with water. The antimony and arsenic is now in solution. Dilute filtrate to 150 cc, neutralize with 2 E pure solution of sodic hydrate, add 7 grms. by weight in excess, saturate with sulphuretted hydrogen (SH2), allow to stand in a warm place for some time, filter off sulphide of 26 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC., lead, &c., and wash with i E NajS solution. Neglect residue, dilute filtrate to 225 cc, carefully add 20 cc. of 10 E HCl, allow the precipitate of antimony and arsenic sulphides, and free sulphur, to settle in a warm place for a couple of hours, filter off, wash with SH3 water, dry in water oven, half fi.ll a small tall beaker with bisulphide of carbon, fold the paper up with its contents, place it cone downwards into the CSu, and cover with a watch glass ; by this means the great bulk of the free sulphur is dissolved out. After digesting for a couple of hours the filter is spread out on a watch glass and dried, the precipitate brushed into a small beaker and dissolved in a mixture of 2 cc. 22 E HNO3 (fuming) and 6 cc. 10 E HCl at a gentle heat. Dilute with water to 50 cc, add 4 grms. of tartaric acid previously dissolved in 5 cc. of water, neutralize with 5 E AmHO and add 4 cc. in excess. Add 10 cc, of E magnesia mixture (prepared by dissolv- ing 68 grms. magnesic chloride and 165 grms. AmCl in 290 cc. of 5 E AmHO and diluting to i litre) and dilute to 100 cc, stir well and allow to stand twenty-four hours, filter off the arseniate of magnesia and ammonia, detaching the last portions of the precipitate from the beaker with the aid of some of the filtrate and a feather. This is adopted in order to minimize the number of washings with the 2 E AmHO in which the precipitate is somewhat soluble. Wash with 2 E AmHO, and note the total volume of the solution, which should be about 120 cc, and reserve. Dry the precipitate in the water oven, brush into a tared porcelain or platinum cru- cible, saturate the paper with E ammonium nitrate solution, dry, ignite by means of platinum wire and Bunsen, and add the residue to mean portion. Ignite gradually, until the cru- cible is at a bright red heat, cool, and weigh. The increase of weight of the crucible is due to pyroarsenate of magnesia (MgaAsjO,). Add to this weight -0032 grm. due to the solu- bility of the arseniate of magnesia and ammonia in the 120 cc. of the ammoniacal solution, multiply this weight by "4839 x io, and this will give the percentage of arsenic in the sample. The filtrate containing the antimony is now neutraUzed with ESTIMATION OF LEAD AND BISMUTH IN COPPER. 27 10 E HCl and 5 cc. added in excess. Saturate withSHa, allow the sulphide of antimony to settle in a warm place, filter off, wash with SHj water, dry in water oven, scrape off paper into a small tared crucible, moisten the paper with E AmNOs solu- tion, dry and ignite, and add residue to crucible; add 8 to 10 times its bulk of 22 E HNO3, cover with a watch glass and digest for some time at a gentle heat ; evaporate off excess of acid and carefully ignite at a red heat for ten minutes, cool in desiccatot and weigh the Sb204. Multiply this weight by •7922 X 10, and this will give the percentage of Sb present in sample. Estimation of Lead and Bismuth {AbeFs process). — Take 200 cc. of the stock solution (=10 grms. of sample) and pOur into a litre beaker. Now add 20 cc. of E sodic phos- phate solution, dilute to 650 cc, add 60 cc, 20 E AmHO, stir well, and allow to stand for forty-eigh,t hours. Decant as much as possible of the clear liquor, filter the residue on a small filter paper, wash till free from copper salts with 2 E AmHO, arid dissolve the phosphates of lead, bismuth, &c., on the filter into a small beaker with 5 cc. of warm 10 E HCl, wash- ing out with hot water. Let volume here be now 20 cc, neutralize with 20 E AmHO, add i cc. in excess, saturate with SH2 gas, allow the precipitated sulphides of lead, bismuth, &c., to subside in a warm place, filter and wash with SHu water, place a test tube under the funnel and pour on to the precipi- tate s cc. of 8 E HNO3 (warm), passing it through several times. There are invariably lumps of dark sulphur containing traces of lead and bismuth left on the paper. To separate the sulphur, push the sulphur particles as far as possible down to the bottom of the filter, dry in water oven, and digest in some carbon bisulphide contained in a small beaker until the sulphur is dissolved out ; now dry, treat with 8 E HNO3, and add this to the main portion. The filter is dried, moistened with am- monium nitrate, carefully incinerated, and the ash likewise added to main solution. The whole is boiled until all is dissolved. Dilute to 15 cc, nearly neutralize solution with 28 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. AmHO, using 20 E at first, and towards the end a 5 E solution, drop by drop, until the precipitate which is formed goes into solution with difficulty, and, the solution being perfectly clear, add now some recently precipitated copper hydrate, Cu(HO)2, in slight excess with the aid of a glass spatula, stir well, and allow to stand a couple of hours with frequent stirring. (The copper hydrate is prepared by diluting 5 cc. of E CuClj to 80 cc, and adding, gradually stirring, 15 cc. of — NaHO solution, in the cold, filtering, aiid 2 washing with water till free from NaHO.) This quantity of Cu(HO)i! will generally be found sufficient for ordinary coppers. The bismuth is thus precipitated as Bi(H0)3, and the lead left in solution as nitrate. Filter off and wash with hot water, and reserve filtrate for the estimation of lead. Dissolve ofi the Bi(H0)3 and excess of Cu(H0)2 in 3 cc. of 5 E HNO3, wash ■p the paper with — HNO3, dilute to 20 cc, saturate with SHj, allow to settle, filter off sulphides, dissolve in 8 E HNO3 as before, dilute to 1 5 cc, neutralize with 5 E AmaCOa add 5 cc. in excess, and allow to digest on a hot plate for some time ; filter off the bismuth carbonate, wash, dry in water oven, brush off to a small watch glass, ignite the filter carefully, and add the ash to a tared crucible. Digest this in a few drops of 16 E HNO3, evaporate, add main portion of precipitate from ■watch glass, and ignite the whole cautiously in an oxidizing flame of a Bunsen burner for tea minutes, cool and weigh. Increase in weight = BijOs X "8965 x 10 = percentage of bismuth present in sample. [This process is liable to give low results for lead. The lead could be estimated in the portion taken for the iron, &c., esti- • mation, but the residue should be taken up in 5 E sulphuric acid, to take bismuth sulphate in solution, and then diluted five times with water before filtering off the lead sulphate.] Estimation of Combined Oxygen. — Clean a piece of the sample 2 in. x ij in. X i in. by immersing for a few seconds ESTIMATION OF OXYGEN IN COPPER. 29 in 16 E HNO3; wash with distilled water, then with alcohol, dry quickly in water oven and weigh. Immerse in 150 cc. of E AgNOa solution for three hours, occasionally scraping off the metallic silver, &c., from the sui-face of the copper with a stir rod. (Reaction with regard to the combined oxygen = Cu30+ 2 AgNOa = Ag2 + Cu(N03)2CuO.) The portion of the sample unacted upon is taken out and washed with the aid of a jet of water from a wash bottle, and a feather ; the water is taken off with alcohol, and the sample dried in water oven, cooled, and weighed. The difference between this and the original weight is the amount of sample taken for the estimation. The liquid and washings are decanted through a filter paper, and the precipitated silver and basic nitrate of copper washed with water, first six times by decantation combined with filtra- tion, and finally filtered through the filter paper and washed till free from copper. The filter and its contents are now spread out on a sheet of glass and the precipitate transferred by means of a platinum spatula to an 80 cc. beaker. Now add 5 cc. of E AgNOa -solution, digest for half-an-hour (this to E ensure perfect reaction), add 25 cc. of standard — HjS04, allow to digest in an air oven for one hour at 50° C, filter by decantation, and wash free from acid. The reaction which takes place here is as follows : Cu(N03)3CuO + HjSOi = Cu2(N03), + CUSO4 + H2O, so that if we ascertain how much acid the basic nitrate has taken up, we can calculate its equivalent of oxygen. In order to ascertain this, fill a burette with E standard - NajCOs, and run it gradually mto the solution, 4 which should be boiling (this is to eliminate CO2 produced, which would keep any basic carbonate of Ag or Cu in solu- tion) until a faint permanent precipitate is produced. Subtract the volume required from 25 cc. and this will give the amount E of — HjSOi neutralized. 4 Now I cc. of - Ha SO4 = "002 grm. of oxygen, and in order 4 30 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. to get the percentage of oxygen present multiply the number of cc.'s of - H2SO4 required by "002, divide by the amount of sample taken, and multiply by 100. Estimation of Silver and Sulphur. — Take 200 cc. of stock solution == 10 grms. of sample, and dilute to 700 cc. with distilled water. Heat to 70° C, add 2 cc. of 5 E HCl, allow the chloride of silver to settle, out of contact with light, for twenty-four hours, decant as much as possible of the clear fluid, filtei; off the AgCl on a small filter paper (chemically pure), wash with — HNO3 and finally with water till free from copper salt. Dry in water oven, scrape off into a tared porcelain crucible, ignite filter separately, and add residue to main por- tion; moisten with a couple of drops of 16E HNO3, to oxidize any reduced silver, add a drop of 10 E HCl to convert it into chloride, evaporate and carefully ignite at a dull red heat for ten minutes (do not fuse), cool in desiccator, and weigh. The weight of AgCl thus ascertained, multiplied by 7527 x 100 = percentage of silver present in sample. The filtrate containing the sulphur is now evaporated to dry- ness with 50 cc. of . I o E HCl. The residue is taken up in 50 cc. of water, and evaporated to dryness again with 50 cc. of 10 E HCl (this is to convert the copper into chloride, as BaS04 is soluble to an appreciable extent in a strong solution of nitrate of E copper). Dissolve the residue in 200 cc. of — HCl, and filter if 10 necessary ; boil, add 10 cc. of E baric chloride solution, and allow to stand twenty-four hours; decant as much as possible of the clear solution, filter off the BaS04 on a small filter, wash ■p with - HCl, and finally with water until free from copper salts. Dry in water oven, brush off the precipitate into a tared crucible, ignite the filter separately, add' residue to former, and ignite in oxidizing flame of Bunsen at a dull red heat for ten rainutes. Allow to cool, and weigh. ESTIMATION OF TIN IN COPPER. 31 The weight of BaSOi multiplied by "1373 X 10 = the per- centage of sulphur preseiit in the sample. Estimation of Tin. — Weigh out 10 grms. of sample, brush into a tared litre flask with cork, add 96 cc. of 5 E HCl and 8 cc. 16 E HNO3 ; heat until dissolved, dilute to 840 cc, add 160 cc. of lo E potassic hydrate solution, saturate with SH2 (this will take a couple of hours), allow the precipitate to subside, decant as much as possible of the clear supernatant liquor through a filter paper into another^ weighed litre flask, weigh and calculate for quantity of sample taken as in the ex- ample of estimation of Tin (videpa.ge 37), remove from flask to a beaker, neutralize with 10 E HCl and add 30 cc. in excess. Allow the precipitate to subside in a warm place for a couple of. hours j filter, wash with SH2 water, and dry in water oven ; brush the precipitate of tin, antimony, and arsenic sulphide with the free sulphur produced, into a tared Rose's crucible, provided with a lid and delivery tube ; connect the delivery tube with the SH2 apparatus, and pass current of dry SHj over ; heat the crucible gently at first with a Bunsen flame, and gradually more strongly, so as to volatilize the free sulphur and arsenic sulphide. The sulphides of Sb and Sn now remain. Moisten with a couple of drops of 16 E HNO3, add I cc. of 22 E HNO3, allow to digest hot for half-an-hour, evaporate carefully, heat gradually, at first with lid on over Bunsen, and afterwards to red heat with lid ofif. Cool and weigh the SnOz and SbaO* thus produced, and subtract from this the weight of SbjOi as found in the other portion taken for the anti- mony estimation. Remainder = weight of SnOj. Multiply this by "7867, divide by amount of sample taken, multiply by 100 := percentage of tin in the sample. [Test the residue for Cu, which, if present, must be extracted by means of nitric acid; and the residue again ignited and weighed.] Estimation, of Copper {Brown's process). — It sometimes happens that an estimation of the amount of copper present in 32 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC, a sample of copper is sufficient in many cases. But in order to reduce the error involved in its estimation to a minimum great care is required and perfect confidence and experience in the method on the part of the operator to insure accuracy. The author has found the following modified process of Brown's to give very good results : — Dissolve "5 grra. of sample (weighed to -to- of a milligram) in lo cc. of 6 E HNO3, add 6 cc. 5 E H2SO4, evaporate to dryness and heat residue on sand bath until fumes cease to come ofi"; dissolve in 10 cc. of E HjSOi, filter off sulphate of lead on a very small filter, wash with E H2SO4 until free from copper, dilute to 40 cc, gradually add an E solution of NajCOa until a slight per- manent precipitate is produced in the cold, re-dissolve this in I cc. of 5 E HjSOi and add 1 2 cc of 2 E sodic acetate solution and 9 cc. of 5 E acetic acid ; boil for ten minutes, filter off the basic acetate of iron, &c., without losing a drop E of the solution, and wash with a hot — solution of sodic acetate ' 10 till free from copper salt. Reduce filtrate by evaporation to about 35 cc. and wash into a colourless 250 cc. stoppered bottle. Volume now 50 cc. ; add to this 50 cc. of a solution of potassic iodide containing 5 grms. KI; shake well, and allow to stand for ten minutes. Now carefully run in from a burette an - standard solution of hyposulphite of soda (thio- sulphate NajSaOs) until nearly all the. free iodine liberated is seen to have disappeared ; now a:dd 5 cc. of starch solution (i grm. starch in 100 cc. of water), which will form blue iodide of starch ; run in the hyposulphite very carefully, stirring, until the solution becomes colourless. Note the volume of hyposulphite required. Taking the atomic weight of copper as 63-1, then E I cc. of — NauSzOa should equal '00631 grm. copper; but the value of the hyposulphite should invariably be obtained by treating 0-5 grm. of pure electrotype copper as above and noting ■p the volume of the — hyposulphite that this is equivalent to. A ESTIMATION OF COPPER IN COPPER. 33 factor can thus be obtained for determining unknown quantities. Owing to a little difficulty that presents itself sometimes in de- termining the end of the reaction, due to differences in tint, a duplicate assay should go on at the same time, so that if the first assay was run a little over or a little under the mark, by a second observation this could be corrected. An example will make matters clearer. •5 grm. of a sample of electrotype copper supplied by Messrs. E Hopkin and Williams required 80 cc. of — hyposulphite (theo- retical quantity being 79*2 cc.) and a sample of tube-plate copper previously completely analyzed by the foregoing methods and giving gg'So per cent, of copper by difference, required 79-8 cc. — hyposulphite. Then 80 : 79-8 : : -S : a: = -49875 •49877 X 2 X 100 = 997S per cent, copper present. Reactions : 2 Cu(N03)2 -f 4 KI = CU2I2 + 4 KNO3 + 12 2 NasS203 + 12 = 2 Nal -f NajSiOe Analytical Data of a Complete Analysis of a Sample of Copper by the foregoing Methods. Residue insoluble in 6 E HNO3. 50 grms. taken. Grms. Watch glasses -\- clip -\- filter paper after drying in water oven for 2 hours 31 '8997 Ditto -j- insoluble residue dried i hour in water oven . 38-9097 „ „ „ „ „ 2nd time 38-9097 Insoluble residue in 50 grms. -0100 •01 X 2 =: 0-02 per cent, insoluble residue. D 34 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. Estimation of Iron, Nickel, &c. Calculation for amount of sample taken. Original sample taken := lo grms. Flask (i) + cork Do. -|- liquid -|- CuS . .... Grms. 131-92 1190-08 liquid + CuS 1058-16 CuS (corresponding to 10. grms. Cu; . 15-07 Total liquid Flask (2) -|- cork Ditto + filtered liquid 1043-09 128-16 966-02 837-86 Liquid taken for analysis 1043-09 : 837-86 : : 10 : « = 8-032 Equivalent to 8-032 grms. of copper taken for the estimation of iron, nickel, &c. Iron. 8-032 grms. of sample taken. Grms. Porcelain Crucible marked x 7/45 12 Do. + FezOs 1st ignition ... . 7"4535 „ „ 2nd ignition 7-4535 •00161 8-032 ■ FeaOs . FeaOa into Fe Fe . ; -00020 •0002 X 100 = -02 per cent. iron. 0023 -7000 -00161 NiCKKL. 8-032 grms. of sample taken. Porcelain Crucible marked O Do. + NiO 1st ignition 2nd . Grms. • 7-45J4 • 7-4599 • 7-4599 NiO NiO into Ni . -0085 . -7867 39335 62936 •52^7 = -000832 8-032 Equivalent to -083 per cent, nickel •00668695 ANALYSIS OF COPPER (ANALYTICAL DATA). 35 Zinc. 8-032 grms. of sample taken. Nil. Manganese. Nil. Estimation of Arsenic. ID grms. of sample taken. Gims. Porcelain Crucible marked 12 6-0715 Do. -j- Mg3As20i 1st ignition .... 6-2364 ,, 2nd ignition 6-2360 Allowing for solubility of precipitate MgjAsuOj into As •08115 X 10 = -812 per cent, arsenic. •1645 -0032 •1677 •4839 15093 503 1 13416 6708 •08115003 Estimation of Antimony. 10 grms. of sample taken. Porcelain Crucible marked 00 ... . Do. + Sb204 + F.A ,, „ 2nd ignition SbjOi SbzOi into Sb . IGrms. 6-9265 6-9276 6-9276 •oon -7922 •7922 ■7922 Sb. •000871 X 10 = -009 per cent, antimony. -00087142 36 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. Estimation of Lead. IQ grms. of sample taken. Porcelain Crucible marked V . . Do. + PbSOi 1st ignition .... 2nd PbSOi . PbS04 into Pb •008061 X 10 = 'oSi per cent. lead. Estimation of Bismuth. 10 grms. of sample taken. Porcelain Ciucible marked u Do. + BijOs 1st ignition . 2nd „ . BiaO; BiaOs into Bi Grms.' 6-9168 6-9286 6-9286 •0118 ■6832 S4656 6832 6832 •00806176 Grms. 7-4906 7-49S9 7-49S4 7 -4954 ■0048 •8965 71720 35860 •00430320 •0043032 X 10 = ^043 per cent, bismuth. Estimation of Silver. 10 gims. of sample taken. Grms. Porcelain Crucible marked ;«; y 6^07 15 Do. + AgCl 1st ignition 6-0724 » 2nd „ 6-0724 AgCl AgCl: -00067743 X 10 = '007 per cent, of silver. -0009 •7527 •00067743 ANALYSIS OF COPPER (ANALYTICAL DATA). 37 Estimation of Sulphur. 10 grms. of sample taken. Porcelain Crucible marked x y . Do, -|- BaSOi 1st ignition 2nd „ Deduct for sulphur in reagents •001 X -1373 = -0001373 ■0001373 X 10 = '001 per cent, sulphur. ' Grmsl 6-0720 6'076i 6-07.61 ■0041 ■0031 EsTiifATiON OF Tin. Calculation of amount of sample taken. Original sample taken =: 10 grms. Flask (i) + Cork . Do. + Liquid -|- CnS Liquid + CuS CuS . Total liquid Flask (2) 4- Cork .... Do. ■\- decanted liquid (filtered) Liquid taken for analysis . 761-60 Then 1053-71 : 761-6 : : 10 : « =r 7-228 Equivalent to 7-228 grms. sample taken for tin estimation. Grms. Porcelain Crucible marked T 7-6287 Do. + SnOa + SbaOi 7'63i4 „ „ 2nd ignition .... 7"63i4 Grms. 132-55 1201-33 1068-78 15-07 1053-71 ' 128-20 889-80 Deduct Sbj04 {vide page 35) -0027 -0011X7-228 ^ -0008 SnOa -0019 -ooig X -7867 , — ^ ,/ — -' = -000206 grm. 7-228 ^ Equivalent to -021 per cent. tin. 38 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. Estimation of Oxygen. Grms. Watch glass i2'6o2 Do. + Sample SiH^S Sample taten 38-883 Weight of watch glass -|- sample after diges- tion in AgNOs 46'S59 Sample dissolved 4-926 The precipitated Ag + Cu(N03)2. CuO, was digested with 5 cc. E AgNOs and 25 cc. standard - H2SO4, for one hour at 50° C., 4 filtered and washed. On titrating back with — NaiCOj until a slight permanent precipitate was obtained on boiling, 23"9 cc. were required. 25 — 23-9 = i-i cc. — HsSOd used. I cc. — HaSO^ := -002 grm. O. or -0178 grm. CujO. i-i X -002 ■=. -0022 grm. O. '0022 -_ — -r- = -000446 grm. O. •000446 X 100 = -045 per cent, combined oxygen. I-I X "0178 =.-01958 grm. CuaO ; •019C8 4-926 ^ ■004 X 100 := -40 per cent, suboxide of copper, CusO. Anaxyses of Two Samples of Coppek. Nos. I and 2. No. I. No. 2. Per cent. Per cent. Antimony . . . 0-020 0-002 Arsenic loio 0-020 Bismuth 0-045 0021 Iron .... 0-02O 0-005 Lead . . . 0-085 0-023 Nickel . . . 0083 0-069 Carried forward . . 1-263 0-140 SPECIFICATION FOR COPPER. 39 No. I. No. 2. Per cent. Per cent Brought forward 1*263 0-140 Silver o-oio 0-014 Sulphur . Trace Nil Tin .... »» O'OiS Zinc .... It Nil Oxygen .... o-oss 0-023 Copper (by difference) 98-672 99-805 Total rooooo 100-000 No. I is a sample of copper manufactured some forty years ago, and which has done good service as a locomotive fire-box. No. 2 is a sample of recent manufacture : it is a very good sample of copper for electrical purposes, &c., but owing to its purity and consequent softness, it did not last long as a loco- motive fire-box. The specification for copper tube plates for the Indian State Railways enacts that " the plates must be of the very best quality, and samples are to stand a test of having doubled cold without showing any signs of cracking. As many samples of the copper as the Inspector-General of the Rivay Stores shall think fit will be analysed by a metallurgist selected by the Inspector-General. Should any of the analyses show more than 0-5 per cent, in all of other metals or matters, the plates represented by that analysis will be rejected." The writer's experience with regard to the quality of copper tube plates is that pure copper is too soft to be economically used ; but what is the best hardening ingredient to add to copper so as to reduce corrosion and abrasion to a minimum, has yet'to be determined j although arsenic in limited quantities would seem a favourable addition for that purpose. Iron and Steel. Methods for Complete Analysis. Estimation of Silicon, Sulphur, Phosphorus, and Man- ganese. — Take 8 grms. of sample, brush into 500 cc. beaker, add 70 cc. of 16 E HNO3, heat gently until red fumes cease 40 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. to come off, add cautiously 20 cc. of lo E HCl, boil until all that is soluble is dissolved, evaporate to complete dryness on hot plate, stirring, heat on sand bath for one hour at 200° C. to render silica insoluble, and to destroy organic matter, cool, add 60 cc. of 10 E HCl, and boil until all that is soluble goes into solution. Evaporate to 50 cc, dilute with distilled water to 120 cc, filter off silicon and graphite, remove any adhering to sides of beaker with the aid of a feather, and wash with hot 5 E HCl till free from FcjCIe (this is ascertained by allowing some of the washings to drop into a test tube containing a little potassic. sulphocyanide solution, when if iron is present a red coloration is produced). Reserve filtrate for the estima- tion of sulphur, phosphorus, and manganese. Dry the silica, &c., in the water oven, brush into a weighed crucible, ignite filter separately, add residue to main portion, ignite at a bright red heat for a quarter of an hour, cool and weigh the Si02, and 1 ,-1 , <■ 7 ■ • , T, -I '4667 X 100 subtract filter ash from this weight. Remainder x 3 = percentage of silicon present. This aqua regia method gives results for silicon slightly below the truth. Allen's method, herein described, is the most accurate, although both are frequently used, as is likewise the sulphuric acid method, which gives good results. The hardening effect of silicon depends to a large extent upon the proportion of carbon present. As much as 0-5 per cent, of silicon in a steel, with only o-i per cent, of carbon, does not render the metal brittle, but if the carbon be as high as o'5 per cent, with the silicon 0*5 per cent., the metal would be "red-short" and "cold-short." The addition of siliceous pig iron with a high percentage of manganese, to molten steel, makes sound castings, the silicon preventing the formation of blowholes owing to its deoxidizing any carbonic oxide present in solution before actual solidification. From a paper read by Mr. Turner before the Chemical Society, June, 1885, it seems that an appropriate addition of silicon to cast iron improves the tensile strength of the metal, as the following results that were obtained show : — ESTIMATION OF SULPHUR IN IRON. 41 Silicon Breaking Load. Moduli JS ot Per Cent. Tons per Square Inch. Elasticity. 10-14 25-79 millions, OS 12-31 28-67 I 12-72 31-18 2 15-70 23-56 2-S 14-62 25-45 3 12-23 21-15 4 11-28 15-64 S I0-I6 18-72 rs S-34 14-75 10 . 475 13-93 Any further addition beyond 2-5 per cent, causes a gradual deterioration in strength. Estimation of Sulphur. — The filtrate from the silica is now diluted to 160 cc. in a 200 cc. stoppered graduated test- mixer and thoroughly mixed, and 100 cc. of this (=5 grms. of sample), measured off into a 100 cc. graduated cylinder (the residual 60 cc. is reserved for the determination of phosphorus and manganese) and poured into a 200 cc. beaker. The free acid is neutralized as far as possible with 5 E AmHO (about 10 cc. will be found sufficient, which must be added gradually, stirring the solution thoroughly before each addition) heated to boiling, and 10 cc. of E BaClz solution added, stirring. Allow to stand for twelve houriS, Decant the superna- tant fluid as far as possible from the precipitate, filter the residue through a small " pure " filter paper, wash until free from iron salts with — HCl and ifinally with water, dry in water oven, brush BaSO^ into a weighed porcelain crucible, ignite filter separately, and add the ash. Ignite the crucible and its contents for ten minutes at a dull red heat in an oxidizing flame, cool '1^7^ X 100, and weigh the BaSOi, and multiply this weight by — ' Result = percentage of sulphur in sample. Sulphur has a very deleterious effect upon iron, small quan- tities producing red-shortness. Manganese has a powerful influence in preventing the red-shortness of sulphur. Steel Rolling Copper. Qualities. •050 Good •040 Good ■076 Bad ■057 Bad ■066 Very bad 42 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. containing ot per cent, of sulphur and a low proportion of manganese is very liable to crack in rolling, while if the same proportion of sulphur be present, but with from o-6 to i per cent, of manganese, such steel is known to roll without a flaw. The following are analyses of steels by Herr Wasum contain- ing various amounts of sulphur, with remarks on their rolling properties : — Phos- Man- No. Carbon. Silicon, pliorus. ganese. Sulphur. 1 -280 -160 -049 -634 -iig 2 "393 -141 -065 -695 -158 3 -258 -136 -043 -500 -201 4 '307 -075 -039 '488 -214 5 -224 -089 -030 -480 ■231 Estimation of Phosphorus. — Measure off accurately 40 cc. (= 2 grms. of sample) of the original solution as left above (reserving the remaining 20 cc. for the estimation of manganese) into an 80 cc. beaker, add 6 cc. of 16 E HNO3, evaporate on water bath to dryness, redissolve in 6 cc. of 3 E HNO3, dilute to 15 cc, gradually add, stirring, 20 cc. of amraonic molybdate reagent (prepared by dissolving 55*5 grms. of molybdenum trioxide (M0O3) in a mixture of 94 cc. of 20 E AmHO and 150 cc. of water and filtering into 694 cc. of HNO3 sp.gr. i'2 = 6-i5 E, diluting to i,ogocc. with 2 E HNO3, allow- ing to stand for twelve hours at 50° C. filtering and bottling), allow to stand for three hours at 40° C. with occasional stirring, filter through a small paper and wash until free from iron salts, E first with — HNO3 (test the solution to ascertain if precipita- tion was complete by adding 10 cc. more of molybdate reao-ent to the filtrate and digesting at 40° C), and then with water, until free from acid. Spread the filter on a watch glass and dry in water oven, brush off the yellow precipitate of phosphomo- lybdate of ammonium into a weighed crucible, and dry at 100° C. until weight remains constant. The precipitate as dried at ESTIMATION OF MANGANESE IN IRON. 43 100° C. contains 1*63 per cent, of phosphorus, so that by , . , . , "0163 X too , , multiplying by we get percentage of phosphorus in sample. Estimation of Manganese. — The residual 20 cc. of original solution (= i grm. of sample) left from above are poured into a litre flask, diluted to 250 cc, and neutralized with 5 E AmjCOs solution, adding small quantities at a time, and vigorously shaking until a slight permanent precipitate is pro- duced. This is now dissolved by adding two or three drops of 10 E HCl, and then adding 2 cc. in excess ; 20 cc. of 5 E am- monic acetate solution are now added, and the solution diluted to 800 cc, and boiled for ten minutes. Filter off quickly the basic acetate of iron [FeA3,Fe2(HO)6] through a large ribbed filter paper into a i ,500 cc. flask, wash quickly half-a-dozen times with boiling distilled water, cool the filtrate to ordinary tempera- ture, add 3 cc. of bromine, shake well until all is dissolved (the object of the bromine here is to convert the manganous acetate in solution into manganic acetate), allow to stand for five minutes and add 20 cc. of 20 E AmHO, boil for ten minutes, filter off the manganic hydrate [Mn(H0)3] hot, wash with hot water until free from ammoniacal salts, dry in water oven, scrape precipitate into a tared crucible, ignite filter separately, add ash, gradually ignite to full red heat for five minutes, and then at a higher temperature over a blow lamp for five minutes, taking care to avoid reducing gases. Cool and weigh the MnjO^ produced which x 7205 x 100 = percentage of manganese present in sample. Estimation of Graphite and Silicon. — {Allen's Method.) — Weigh out 5 grms. of sample into a 200 cc. beaker, add 70 cc. of s E HCl, heat until all that is soluble is dissolved, filter into a 500 cc. beaker, wash the precipitate four or five times with - HCl, and afterwards three or four times with 10 water. The filtrate is now placed on a water bath to evapo- 44 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. rate. Wash the precipitate of silica and graphite into a silver crucible of about 50 cc. capacity, by means of a fine jet of water from a wash bottle, add to it 11 grms. of potassic hydrate, dilute to about 40 cc, put on cover and place in water bath for twenty minutes with occasional stirring. The silica is thus dissolved, the graphite being insoluble, which how- ever always retains a small proportion of silica undissolved. Wash out into a beaker, dilute to about 1 20 cc. and filter oflf graphite, adding the filtrate to former on water bath, after pre- viously adding 20 cc. of 10 E HCl. Evaporate to complete dryness and heat on sand bath to 160" C. for one hour, cool, moisten residue with 10 cc. of 10 E HCl, heat on water bath for half an hour, dilute to about 100 cc, boil, filter E and wash with — HCl till free from iron, and finally with distilled water till free from acid. Dry in water bath, brush into a weighed crucible, heat gradually to full redness for ten minutes, cool in desiccator, and weigh the SiOa. SiOa X -4667 X 100 ^ . ... ■ = percentage of silicon. The graphite on the filter is washed off into a small beaker by means of a jet of water from a wash bottle, and evaporated to dryness on a water bath, after which a mixture of 15 cc. 10 E HCl and 5 cc. 16 E HNO, is added, and boiled for ten minutes to dissolve out any iron,' &c. Dilute to 60 cc, filter and wash till free from iron. Dry in water oven, brush precipitate into a weighed crucible, and reject filter paper. Heat in an air bath regulated to 160° C. for one hour, cool and weigh. Ignite until all graphite has burned off, cool and reweigh. The residue left here (should not exceed 2 milligrams) is deducted from the graphite, &c., as dried at 160° C, and the difference is taken as graphite, which x -—- = percentage graphite. Estimation of Combined Carbon. — There are two methods in use — ESTIMATION OF COMBINED CARBON IN STEEL. 45 (i) Combustion method, which involves the separation of the carbon, which is ignited in a current of oxygen, and the resulting CO2 absorbed and weighed. (2) Colorimetric method. In this method it is assumed that when a steel is dissolved in 6 E HNO3, the colour of the result- ing solution is proportionate to the amount of combined carbon present. A steel in which the combined carbon has been esti- mated by the combustion method is taken as a standard, and the sample is diluted until the tints are coincident, when the percentage of carbon is easily deduced. (i) Combustion Method [Total Carbon). — Estimation of Com- bined Carbon and Graf kite. — Weigh out 5 grms. of the sample in a 300 cc. beaker, and pour on 250 cc. of Creath's solu- tion. (This may be prepared in the following manner : Weigh out 170 grms. of pure recrystallized cupric chloride and -107 grms. of pure ammonic chloride, and dissolve in 500 cc. of water, after which run in gradually from a burette — NaHO solution, stirring, until a permanent precipitate of cupric hydrate [Cu(H0)2] is produced. Any free acid is thus neutralized. Filter off and dilute to 1,000 cc.) The solution is allowed to act upon the sample for about a quarter of an hour, with frequent stirring, and a gentle heat is applied until all the iron has gone into solution, which can be ascertained by pressing the precipitated copper with a glass rod, and observing if any par- ticles of iron remain undissolved. When this is accomplished, the solution is heated to about 90° C. and kept at this tempera- ture until all the copper has gone into solution, leaving the carbon, &c., suspended in the form of '^^^^^— / a fine precipitate. It now becomes necessary to filter off the carbon through an asbestos plug, pre- paratory to its combustion in oxygen. Some pure long-fibre asbestos is ignited at a bright red heat for about half an hour in a porcelain crucible, to destroy any organic matter present, and cooled in a place free from dust. A piece of tubing about an inch in diameter is drawn out as in a, Fig. i, and a disc of perforated B 46 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. zinc, B, fitted into the contraction. Some of the asbestos is now roughly powdered in a clean mortar with a little water, and the whole poured on to the zinc plate, a quantity of asbestos being taken sufficient to make a stratum in the tube about an inch high. Another quantity of asbestos is '^^JV-ro Water Ts.p Fig. taken and powdered with water in the mortar very finely, and this is poured on the top of the other until a layer of about a quarter of an inch thick is obtained. This makes a good filter, capable of retaining the most finely divided precipi- tates. It is now fixed into the cork k of the flask m, Fig. 2, and filled with water, and a gentle stream of water made to pass through the ejector, d, when a partial vacuum is formed in m, ESTIMATION OF COMBINED CARBON IN STEEL. 47 and the liquid is soon filtered into M. G is a reservoir, which serves to obtain a steady pull on a, the de- gree of vacuum being registered by the tube, H, which dips into mer- cury contained in the bottle, i. The solution containing the precipitated carbon is now filtered through a, with the aid of the ejector (about 3" of vacuum will usually be found •sufficient), and washed with 5 E HCl till free from copper chloride, and the acid afterwards washed out with distilled water, and allowed to drain as far as possible, a is taken out and put into a water oven to dry, B having been previously pushedhalf-way up thetube; when perfectly dry, the disc and its con- tents are pushed out of the tube with a glass rod on to a clean watch glass, and the under portion of the asbestos which does not contain any admixed carbon is detached as far as possible by means of a pair of forceps. The remainder containing the whole of the carbon is then placed into a platinum boat (Fig. 3), which is afterwards introduced into the combustion tube, d, in position shown in Fig. 4. As will 48 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. be seen in the sketch, the tube, besides the boat, contains cop- per gauze and copper oxide in the proportions seen ; the tube should be about 28 in. long and about ^ in. in diameter. The copper oxide should be in a granular form and recently ignited. The cylinder, a, contains 36 E HsSOi, and is connected with the tubes x and y to gas holders containing oxygen and air respectively, and also to the cylinder, b, which is filled with good recently ignited soda lime ; c is a u tube containing small pieces of caustic potash. These three tubes serve to absorb any moisture or COj that is present in the oxygen or air that passes through the tube ; e is a tube containing CaClj, which absorbs any moisture that may be given off from the CuO, &c. ; F is Giessler's potash bulbs which contain 8 E KHO solution, and G is a small tube containing CaClj, which serves to absorb any moisture given off from f. When all is ready for combustion, f and g are accurately weighed and attached to E, the tube, d, of course being placed in a combustion furnace. The ends of the tube containing the copper gauze are first gradually heated to redness, a gentle current of oxygen being made to pass through the apparatus. The copper oxide is then gradually heated to its full length to bright redness, and then the part containing the boat is likewise gradually heated to bright redness, the oxygen passing through the potash bulbs about the rate of a bubble a second; after going for about an hour, all the carbon being oxidized, the oxygen is turned off and air turned on at about the same rate; meanwhile the gas is turned out, and after the air has been passing through for about a quarter of an hour, f and g are detached and weighed. '2 ^2 '7 '2 ^C TOO Increase in weight x = percentage of total carbon. Determination of Graphite by combustion. — 10 grms. of the sample of steel, or 2 grms. of pig iron are dissolved in 60 cc. of 8 E HCl, and diluted to 120 cc, and the graphite, &c., filtered off in the manner as described for total carbon. When all iron and acid are washed out, some warm E NaHO solution is allowed to percolate through ; this is washed out with water ESTIMATION OF COMBINED CARBON IN STEEL. 49 and the graphite dried and estimated by the above process. In deducting the graphite thus found from the total carbon, the amount of combined carbon is hereby attained. The following is an example of an actual determination of graphite and combined carbon in a steel rail by the foregoing process. Total Carbon. Five grms. of sample taken. Potash Bulbs before combustion 37' 7658 .. „ after „ . i . . . 37-8444 Wt.ofCOz i^ ■0786 X -27273 X 100 ^ ^ ^ , , — ~=^ = -429 per cent, total carbon. Graphite. Ten grms. of sample taken. Grms, Potash Bulbs before combustion 38-0313 „ „ after „ ...... 38-0434 [ Wt. ofCOa -oizi ■0121 X -27273 X 100 — — •* = -033 per cent, graphite. Combined Carbon. •429 — -033 =-"396 per cent, combined carbon. (2) Estimation of Combined Carbon by Eggertz^ Colori- metric Method. — The principle of this method, as already stated, is, that when steel is dissolved in 6 E HNO3 a more or less brown colour is produced, which may be taken as being in proportion to the amount of combined carbon present. A standard steel is first selected, the combined carbon in which has been previously determined by com- bustion. It is important that the amount of carbon present in the standard should be somewhat near to that expected in the sample. It would be wise to keep at least three standards 50 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. (i) containing about i per cent, carbon for tool steels, &c.; (2) containing "40 per cent, for rails, tyres, &c.; (3) containing •20 per cent, for axles and soft steels generally. Suppose we have to determine the combined carbon in a sample of rail steel by this method. Select two test tubes, 5 in. by i in., and weigh into them o'l grm. of the 0*4 per cent, standard, and o' I grm. of the sample respectively, and add to each 2 cc. of 6 E HNO3. A beaker of water or a copper bath arranged with a perforated false bottom, through which the test tubes can pass, is made to boil, and the test tubes put in and allowed to stay in the boiling water for exactly a quarter of an hour with occasional shaking, after which they are taken out and allowed to cool. The standard is now poured out into a graduated tube (Fig. 5), holding 20 cc. graduated in -rV cc, and diluted to 8 cc, each cc. of which will now equal "05 per cent, of combined carbon. Pour the sample into a similar tube, and dilute with small quantities of water delivered from a wash bottle, and compare tints after each addition, until the colours are seen to be as near as possible alike. A piece of tissue paper held behind the tubes renders the observation more exact. Suppose that when 6-5 cc. was reached the Pjg colours were alike, the amount of carbon present would be 6"5 x '05 = '325 per cent. It appears that I'S per cent, of carbon in a steel is the maximum amount that can be present to render it workable. Steel with i per cent, of carbon welds well, and makes good cold chisels. The following are ideal percentages of carbon in various steels, assuming the other elements being present in normal quantities. Per cent. I '3 to 1-5 Razors and Chilled Roll__Tools. I "2 to I '4 Saw Files. I- 1 to 1-2 Drills, Turning Tools, &c. HARDENING AND ANNEALING OF STEEL. 51 Per cent. I to IT Spindles, large Turning Tools, Millpicks, &c. •8 to i-o Shears, Dies, Cold Sets, &c. ■3 to '5 Tyres, Rails, Cannon, &c. •2 to ■$ Boiler Plates, &c. ■15 to -20 Crank Axles, Tinplate Iron, &c. The hardness of a steel containing a given quantity of carbon will depend upon the rate at which it was cooled, and also upon the amounts and nature of other elements that may be present, such as silicon, phosphorus, manganese, &c. The following analyses show that excess of siUcon in presence of excess of carbon is injurious to steel used for tyres, axles, and steel plates for bridges. Bad Stkft,. Good Steel. I Per cent. 2 Per cent. 1 2 Per cent, Per cent Combined Carbon and Graphite '40 •53 •35 -49 Silicon -59 •64 ■OS '01 Phosphorus . . . . -oi •03 nil -03 Sulphur -OI ■06 •03 Manganese .... nil •OS ■57 Copper nil •03 •01 -02 The following interesting results were obtained by Mr. Spencer, showing the influence of hardening and annealing upon the condition of carbon in steel. No. I Sample. Combined Carbon (colour test) Graphitic Carbon Total Carbon Total Carbon by combustion Before Hardening;. Per cent. . 0-89 . 0-29 . i-i8 . i-i8 Hardened. Per cent. 0-58 trace 0-58 1-09 Annealed. Per cent. 0-98 0-20 I-l8 1-20 No. 2 Sample. Combined Carbon (<;olour test) Graphitic Carbon Total Carbon Total Carbon by combustion . o-8o • 034 . I-I4 . I-2I Loss 0-51 0-66 0-07 073 I-IO 079 0-44 1-23 I-I9 Loss "37 52 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. No. 3 Sample. Combined Carbon (colour test) Graphitic Carbon Total Carbon Total Carbon by combustion Before Hardening. Per cent. Hardened. Per cent. Annealed. Per cent. . 0-38 0-22 0-38 . 0-04 nil trace . 0-42 0-22 0-38 • 0-39 0-34 0-38 Loss Sulphuric Acid Method for the Estimation of Silicon. —The following method will be found to give good results for silicon determinations : — 10 grms. of the sample are weighed out into a 400 cc. beaker, dissolved in 120 cc. of 5 E HjSOi, evaporated as far as possible on a water bath, and then heated on a sand bath or hot plate until fumes of H3SO1 are evolved. The beaker is now cooled, 120 cc. of distilled water poured cautiously on to the residue, the solution boiled up for a short time, the insoluble silica filtered off, washed till free from acid, and determined as directed on page 44. Estimation of Copper.- — Weigh i grm. of the sample into a 100 cc. beaker, add 12 cc. of 6 E HuS04, heat until all iron has gone into solution, dilute to 50 cc. and boil ; now add gradually a solution of 3 E thiosulphate of soda (NajSjOs), as long as a black precipitate continues to form, and on allowing to settle the supernatant liquid contains suspended sulphur only; (from I to 2 cc. of thiosulphate of soda are usually required) the copper is thus precipitated as subsulphide (CujS). Filter off through a small filter and wash until free from iron with dis- tilled water, dry in a water oven, carefully ignite filter and pre- cipitate in a good porcelain criicible, digest with 2 cc. of 10 E HCl + I cc. of 16 E HNO3 until dissolved, evaporate nearly to dryness, add J cc. of water, make slightly alkaline with 5 E AmHO, filter off any iron, &c., and receive the filtrate in a car- bon tube (Fig. s), washing the filter a little with 2 E AmHO in small quantities until the blue tint thus produced is the same as that of a standard copper solution contained in a similar tube, and which is prepared by dissolving o'l grm. of pure electrotype copper in i cc. of 6 E HNO3 and 2 cc. of 10 E ESTIMATION OF IRON IN IRON. 53 HCl, and diluting to 500 cc. with 2 E AmHO at 'tys" C, i cc. thus containing -0002 grm. of copper. Supposing that the volume of the sample was 5 cc. when the tints were coincident, S X '0002 X 100 = o'lo per cent, of copper present. The effect of copper on steel was generally considered to render it red-short, but Herr Wasum has shown that as much as 0-86 per cent, of copper may be present, which yet rolls perfectly sound: The following are analyses and the effects of copper, and of copper and sulphur, on the rolling properties of steel obtained by Herr Wasum. Influence of Copper. Phos- Manga- Carbon. Silicon, pliorus. nese. Sulphur. Copper. Rolled. No. I -276 -144 -064 -778 -059 -452 Very Good. No. 2 -233 -091 -050 -709 -060 -862 Good. Influence of Copper and Sulphur. Phos- Manga- Carbon. Silicon. phorus. nese. Sulphur. Copper. Rolled. No. I •311 •051 ■061 ■514 •107 •8S9 Good. ,. 2 ■281 •169 •0S9 •S94 ■170 •429 Bad. ,. 3 ■23s •164 •04s ■468 ■173 ■573 Bad. ,. 4 ■262 •131 •052 •65s •189 ■406 Bad. Estimation of Iron. — Usually in iron and steel analyses the iron is taken by difference after estimating all the other elements present. It sometimes happens, however, that a direct determination of iron is required, when the following is the best method to adopt. Weigh out '56 grm. of the sample into a small assay flask of about 80 cc. capacity, add 10 cc. of 10 E HCl, and heat until dissolved; then add in small portions at a time about i grm. of pptassic chlorate, to oxidize organic matter, &c., and evaporate down to about 4 cc. Transfer to a bulb flask- of about 500 cc. capacity, supplied with a rubber cork into which a tube with a Bunsen valve is fitted. Dilute to 200 cc, then add 10 cc. of 2 E NasSOs, and its equivalent of HCl, viz. 2 cc. of 5 E. Attach cork and tube, and boil until free from SOs, which usually takes about a quarter of 54 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. an hour or twenty minutes after it starts boiling. Close the valve quickly and put the flask into cold water to cool. The iron is thus reduced to the form of ferrous chloride, as the following reaction shows : — FezCle + OH3 + NasSOs = 2 FeCIs + NaaSOi + 2 HCl. The next step in the process is to ascertain how much of an oxidizing agent is necessary to convert the FeCU into FczCIe. In this case bichromate of potash (KsCrsO?) is the most suitable to use. When the solution is cold, pour it into a beaker of about 500 cc. capacity, and test, to ascertain if perfectly reduced, by bringing a drop of the solution on the end of a glass rod in contact with a drop of E potassic sulphocyanide solution on a porcelain plate, when if a mere trace of FejClg is present a red coloration will be produced. If no coloration is produced add 10 cc. of 10 E HCl. Fill a 100 cc. burette graduated in o'l cc. with standard — potassic bichromate (KjCrsO?), pre- pared by dissolving 4"9i7 grms. of the pure, dry, recrystallized salt in about 500 cc. of pure distilled water, and diluting to 1000 cc. at i5'5" C. (This solution should be standardized by the method here described, taking -56 grm. of pure pianoforte ■p wire, when 99-7 cc. of the — solution should be required, the o'3 cc. being allowed for unavoidable impurities in the iron). E . . . Run the — KjCraO; into the iron solution at the rate of about iV cc. per second, with continual stirring, bringing a drop of the solution out from time to time on the end of a glass rod and mixing with a drop of dilute solution (-5 grm. in 500 cc.) of potassic ferricyanide, when a more or less blue colora- tion is produced as long as there is any ferrous chloride present. When no further blue or green colour is produced with the ferricyanide on allowing to stand for four minutes, the reaction may be considered completed. Note the number of cc.'s required. ESTIMATION OF ALUMINIUM IN IRON. 55 The following is the action of the bichromate : — 6 FeClz + 14 HCl + KjCraOv = 3 Fe^CU + CraCle + 2 KCl + 7 OH2. Supposing that 987 cc. were required, then, since -56 grm. E of the sample was taken and i cc. of — KjCraO, = "0056 grm. Fe, the amount of iron present is 98-7 per cent. In addition to the determination of the element just de- scribed in iron and steel, there are, of course, special steels in which tungsten, chromium, aluminium, or titanium may be- present. If the character of the iron or steel is unknown, it would be safer to make first a qualitative analysis of the sample, and the result thus obtained would decide what elements are to be determined. The following are methods for the estimation of the above-named four elements : — Estimation of Aluminium. — The following is the pro- cess adopted by Mr. Stead for estimating small quantities of aluminium in iron and steel : — Weigh out 1 1 grms. of the sample in a 600 cc. beaker, add 44 cc. of 10 E HCl, heat until dis- solved, and, evaporate to dryness. Redissolve residue in 60 cc. of E HCl, filter off into a 500 cc. beaker, and wash the residue till free from iron. Dilute the filtrate to 1 50 cc, add 3 cc. of E sodic phosphate solution, and gradually add 5 E AmHO until the free acid is neutralized and a permanent precipitate is produced. Now add 10 E HCl drop by drop until the solu- tion has cleared up, heat to boiling and add 50 cc. of a satu- rated solution of sodic thiosulphate, and continue boiling for one hour ; filter and wash. Dissolve the precipitate off the filter with 10 cc. of hot 5 E HCl, collecting the filtrate in a plati- num dish, wash the filter and evaporate to dryness, add 2 grms. of sodic hydrate and i cc. of water ; allow to dissolve, evapo- rate to dryness, and fuse for about ten minutes over a Bunsen. Cool and digest with 50 cc. of water, and dilute to exactly no cc. ; filter off the insoluble oxides and measure off 100 cc. of the filtrate (= 10 grms. original sample), neutralize with 10 E HCl, add 3 cc. of E sodic phosphate and 30 cc. of the 56 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. saturated thiosulphate solution, and boil ; now add 2 cc. of 5 E amnionic acetate, and boil five minutes longer and filter ; wash the precipitate with hot water, dry, ignite, and weigh the AIPO4. AIPO4 X "2236 X 10 = percentage of aluminium. Estimation of Chromium. — (Arnold's Method^ — Weigh out 2 grms. of the sample into a 100 cc. beaker, add 20 cc. of 10 E HCl, and heat until dissolved ; evaporate over the water bath to cornplete dryness ; detach as much as possible of the crisp residue with the aid of a glass rod, and brush on to a clean watch-glass ; any chloride still clinging to the beaker is dissolved off with a few cc. of 5 E HCl, and poured into a deep platinum crucible and evaporated to complete dryness. The main portion of the chlorides on the watch glass is now brushed into the crucible and the whole finely powdered with a glass rod ; 5 grms. of fusion mixture (i part NasCOs and I part KNO3) are now introduced and thoroughly mixed with the chlorides. The mixture is now fused for about fifteen minutes over a blow-lamp. The iron is thus converted into insoluble oxide, and the chromium, silicon, and manganese into alkaline chromate, silicate, and manganate respectively. Allow to cool, put the crucible and contents into a beaker containing about 80 cc. of boiling water, and digest until all that is soluble is dissolved ; take out the crucible with the aid of a glass rod, and wash the liquid adhering to it into the beaker with hot water. Now add i cc. of alcohol to the solution to decompose the manganate, and stir well and allow the oxides of iron and manganese to thoroughly settle. Decant the clear liquid through a double filter (without disturbing the precipitate) into a beaker; add 30 cc. of boiling water to the residue, stir, allow to settle, drain off the clear liquid through the filter as before, wash the filter twice with hot water, and treat the residue with a second 30 cc. of hot water and filter as before ; this may be considered sufficient washing for the oxides. The solution, which now contains chromate and silicate, is acidified with 20 cc. of 10 E HCl and boiled until all CO2 and nitrous fumes have come off. Now add gradually 5 E AmHO until slightly ESTIMATION OF CHROMIUM IN IRON. 57 alkaline, heat nearly to boiling, and filter off the resulting precipitate through an ashless filter and wash. Dissolve the pre- cipitate off the paper with 10 cc. of hot 5 E HCl, wash the paper into the solution and evaporate to complete dryness on a sand bath to render the silica insoluble ; dissolve residue in 100 cc. of E HCl, filter off silica, collecting filtrate into a porcelain basin, neutralize the solution with 20 E AmHO, adding about J cc. in excess and heat to incipient boiling, filter off the chromic hydrate Cr2(H06) through an ashless filter, wash with boiling water till free from soluble matter, dry in water oven, and ignite carefully in weighed crucible for ten minutes at a good red heat. Cool, and weigh the resulting CrjOs. Cr^Oa X -6862 X 100 ^ 1 - ^ = per cent, chromium. An appropriate addition of chromium to steel increases its •tensile strength. Chrome steel is manufactured in Brooklyn, containing from i to 2 per cent, of chromium, by reducing chrome-iron ore with charcoal in crucibles, and mixing the. crude chromium thus produced with a suitable quantity of wrought iron. Mr. Arnold has made experiments with steel tyres containing chromium, and the result shows that this element materially in- creases the tensile strength of the tyres over ordinary Bessemer steel. The following are results that he obtained. The composition of an ordinary steel tyre was : — Per cent. Carbon ' 0-280 Silicon 0-070 Manganese 1-250 Sulphur ..... 0"o8o Phosphorus 0-080 The mechanical tests of the above would give a maximum tensile strain of 37 tons per square inch ; elongation, 26 per cent, ; reduction of area, 47 per cent. ; and fracture, grey 58 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. granular with silky edges, shape convex and concave. Such a tyre, with an inside diameter of 2 ft. 8 in. and a sectional area of II in., would behave under the falling weight test in a manner indicated by the subjoined figures, the weight of the tup being 22 cwt. : — Fall in Feet . .2' 4' 6' 8' 10' 12' \ Deflection in Inches . J" J" if" 3^5" 41V' 6J" / ''"'"■°''™- Steel was made, having the following composition : — Per cent. Carbon 0-25 Silicon 0'03 Manganese ..... I'7S Sulphur 0*12 Phosphorus OTI The mechanical tests gave a mean maximum strain of 42*1 tons per square inch ; mean elongation, 1 8 per cent. ; mean reduction of area, 26'3 percent. The mean results of the tests on many tyres, practically identical in composition, 2 ft. 8 in. inside diameter, and having a sectional area of 11 in., the weight of the tup being 22 cwt., were : — Fall in Feet . .2' 4' 6' 8' 10' 12' 14' Deflection in Inches J" f" if" 2^" 3-1V' Si" 61" The analysis of a tyre steel required to stand a strain of at least 48 tons per square inch was : — Per cent. Carbon 0-28 Chromium ..... 0^42 Manganese ..... 1-54 Silicon ..... o-o8 Sulphur . . . . . OTO Phosphorus ..... 0*09 The mechanical tests gave, maximum tensile strain, 49 8 tons per square inch; elongation, 15 per cent. ; reduction of area, 26 per cent. ; fracture flat and finely crystalline. A tyre of ESTIMATION OF TITANIUM IN IRON. 59 2 ft.. 8 in. diameter and of 11 in. sectional area behaved thus under the 22 cwt, falling weight : — Fall in Feet . . 2' 4'" 6' 8' 10' 12' 14' 16' 18' 20' 25' Deflection in Inches f" J" ij" iH" SiV 4f" Sj" 7f" 9i" nA broke. A test piece planed out of the broken tyre gave the fol- lowing results : — Maximum tensile strain, 477 tons per square inch; elongation, 3 per cent.; reduction of area, 6*4; fracture, large crystals. The molecular change set up by the shock and vibration of the falling weight is thus clearly indicated. Estimation of Titanium. — {Riley's Method). — Weigh out 10 grms. of the sample into a 500 cc. beaker, pour on to it 60 cc. of 16 E HNO3, and heat on a hot plate until its action on the iron has nearly ceased ; now add cautiously 20 cc. of 10 E HCl, boil until all that is soluble is dissolved, evapo- rate to dryness, heat the residue on a sand bath to about 130° C, for an hour, cool, add 50 cc. of 10 E HCI, and boil until all that is soluble is dissolved. The solution, which should now be about 40 cc, is diluted to 80 cc, and the graphite and silica, with some titanic acid, are filtered off and ■p washed with hot — HCl till free from iron. The filtrate is re- 10 served, the residue is dried and ignited in a platinum crucible, then fused with about 16 times its weight of bisulphate of potash, and then cooled and digested with hot water until all that is soluble is dissolved ; it is now filtered, and the filtrate added to the reserved filtrate containing the iron, &c. Pour the mixed filtrates into an 800 cc. flask, provided with a cork fitted with a Bunsen valve, dilute to 300 cc, add 100 cc. of 2 E NajSOj and 20 cc. of 10 E HCl, and boil until the iron solution is reduced and all sulphurous odour has gone off. Cool, add I cc. of E HNO3, nearly neutralize with ammonia, add 80 cc. of s E ammonic acetate, boil for a few minutes, and filter off the precipitate quickly, which contains, besides titanic acid, oxide of iron and phosphate of iron. Wash 6o METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. with — acetic acid, dry, ignite in platinum crucible, and fuse with 1 6 times its weight of bisulphate of potash; digest in cold water, and filter off phosphate of iron, &c. Dilute the filtrate to 500 cc, add I cc. of 16 E HNO,, aiid' boil for about six hours, keeping up the original volume with additions of boil- ing water. The titanic acid is now allowed to settle over night, the clear liquid decanted, the residue filtered, washed, dried, and ignited in a platinum crucible, and then cooled and weighed. The weight of TiOa thus produced X "6098 X 10 = percentage of titanium. •Estimation of Tungsten. — Weigh out 5 grms. of the sample, dissolve in 120 cc. of 6 E HNOj, evaporate to dry- ness on sand bath, cool, add 40 cc. of 10 E HCl, and boil ufttil all that is soluble is dissolved ; add 40 cc. of water and again boil, filter off the precipitate, which may consist of oxide of tung- sten (yVOg), graphite, Fe^O,, TiOj, &c., wash with hot water, dry and ignite in a platinum crucible ; add 10 cc. of hydro- fluoric acid (HF) and 2 cc. of 36 E H2SO4, evaporate in a hood, and repeat the evaporation with HF and H2SO4 until all SiOu has escaped as SiFi ; add to the residue four times its weight of NasCOg, fuse over a Bunsen for ten minutes, cool, and treat the fused mass with water until all that is soluble is dissolved. E Filter off insoluble oxides, &c., and wash with — NasCOj. The solution now contains all the tungsten as soluble tungstate of soda. Dilute to 100 cc, neutralize with 16 E HNOj, boil off CO2, and add two drops of 16 E HNOg in excess ; add 50 cc. of — mercurous nitrate, neutralize the free acid by adding sufficient recently precipitated oxide of mercury, and stir well. Allow to settle, filter off the mercurous tungstate with the slight excess of oxide of mercury, and wash with hot water till freefrom soda salts ; dry inwater oven, scrape into platinum crucible, ignite filter separately, and add ash. Now heat the crucible under a hood gradually to a bright red heat, until fumes ANALYSIS OF STEEL (ANALYTICAL DATA). 6 1 have all come ofT. The mercury thus completely volatilizes, and leaves the tungsten- in the form of oxide (WO3). Cool and weigh. WOs X -7931 X 100 * . . -2^ := percentage tungsten. Analytical, Data of an Actual Analysis, by the Above Methods, of a Bad Sample of Bessemer Steel. Estimation of Combined Carbon. {Eggertz' method^ O'l grm. of sample taken. The total volume of solution of sample, when the tint was equal to the standard solution (half strength) was 8- 6 cc. Now each cc. of the dilute standard solution contains "00005 grm. of carbon, therefore, — ^-ii ^ 0-43 per cent, combined carbon. . Estimation of Silicon. {^Sulphuric acid method.") 10 grms. taken. grms. Porcelain Crucible marked 6 Tl^^Z Do. + Si02 + F. Ash 7-5842 „ „ „ 2ndignitioQ . . . . 7'S840 •0657 F.A. . . . -0005 SiOa = . . . -0652 SiOa into Si . . -4667 4564 3912 3912 2608 •0304 X 100^ 0-304 per cent, of silicon. •030428841 62 2 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. Estimation of Sulphur. 5 grms. taken. gnas. Porcelain'Crucible marked 7 7 '339° Do. + BaSOi + F.A. + BaSOi/ram reagents used . 7 3633 „ „ 2iid ignition 73631 BaSOi + F.A. 4- Re . . . -0241 F.A. + Re -0019 BaSOi -0222 BaSOiintoS .... -1373 666 iS5t 666 •00304806 •CO3O48 X 100 , ^ r ^ X. ■ — ^-^ — — ■=. o-o6i per cent, of sulphur. Estimation of Phosphorus. 2 grms. taken. grms. Porcelain Crucible marked x 3' 7960 Do. + " ppt " dried at 100° C 3-8242 „ „ „ 2nd drying . . . 3-8242 •0282 " ppt" into P . . . -0163 846 1692 282 ■00045966 •0004596 X 100 .^ r ■, ^jii =: o 023 per cent, of phosphorus. ANALYSIS OF METEORIC IRON. Estimation of Manganese. {Bromine method.) I grm. taken. Porcelain Crucible marked Q . . . . Do. +,Mn304 + P. Ash ,, _. „ „ 2nd ignition Mn304 + F.A. . F.A 63 grms. 7-3386 7-3S3S 7-3S34 •0148 •0017 Mn304 -0131 MnaOiintoMn .... '7205 65s 262 917 ■00943855 •009438 X 100 =; 0"944 per cent, of manganese Estimation of Copper. (Colour method.) I grm. taken. Volume of blue solution when tint was equal to that of the standard = 375 cc. I cc. of standard Solution 1= -0002 grm. Cu. therefore, i3"7S X '0002 X 100 = 0'075 per cent, of copper. Analyses of Various Irons and Steels. Analysis of a [Sample of Virginian Meteoric Iron (Mallet). Iron . Nickel Cobalt Copper Tin . Manganese Phosphorus Sulphur Chlorine Carbon Silica I 88706 10-163 0-396 0-003 0-002 trace o'34i 0-019 0-003 0-172 0-067 99-872 64 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. Analyses of Pig Irons. North- Hematite. ■West Kirkless ampton, HotBlast. Bessemer Hallum. Hall. Pig No. I. No. 3 Foundry. No. 3. Graphite 1-150 3-050 2-650 3-200 C. Carbon . •SS4 •710 — — Silicon 1-900 2 012 I-3SO I-Z75 Sulphur 0-414 o-oio 0055 0-081 Phosphorus . 1-807 0-052 0-650 I -750 Manganese . 0-39S 0-040 0-41S 2-215 Iron (by difference ) 93-780 94-126 94-880 91-479 100-000 100-000 100-000 100-000 Analyses of Various Cast Irons. Gurlt. Bodemann. Abel. Grey Coal. Mottled Hot Blast. White Gart- sherrie. ' Grey Hot Blast. Mottled Cold Blast. '^Grey. French Charcoal. White Silesian. Density 7-21 7-21 7-41 ■ 7-166 7-43 7-000 7-S3I Carbon com- bined Graphite Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus Iron . Manganese . Copper I -02 1 2-641 3-061 I-I39 0-928 90-236 •834 1-793 I-IIO 2-165 1-480 I-171 89-314 1-596 2-457 0-871 I -124 2-516 0-913 89-863 2-715 1-44 2-71 3-21 trace 1-22 91-42 trace 2-78 1-99 0-71 trace 1-23 93-29 trace 3-40 0-80 005 0-45 9S-I8 4-94 0-75 trace 0-12 88-57 S-38 0-24 99-860 98-629 100-459 100-00 100-00 99-88 100-00 Analysis of a Bad Sample of Bessemer Steel Rail broken BY Weight of Locomotive. Combined Carbon . . .0-275 Silicon : 0-235 Sulphur Phosphorus Manganese . Iron (by difference) 0-037 0-065 0-750 98-638 ANALYSES OF GOOD AND BAD STEELS. 65 The high percentage of silicon in this -rail was no doubt the cause of breaking. Analysis of a Bessemer Steel Rail that got Bkoken during Transference from Rail-bank to Waggon. Combined Carbon • 0-350 Silicon .... trace Sulphur .... o-o8o Phosphorus . 0-230 Manganese 0-150 Iron (by diiTerence) . . 99-190 100-000 The high percentage of phosphorus, making the steel " cold short," was no doubt the cause of breakage. Often chemical analysis does not show up any reason why a rail should break. In these cases it is either due to a flaw, or to a want of physical uniformity due often to careless manufacture. The author considers that an ideal rail and tyre should have the following compositions, provided that a thorough homoge- neous metal is insured upon : — Combined Carbon Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus . Manganese . Rail. 0-350 to 0-400 0-056 „ 0-070 0-040 „ 0-060 0-040 „ o-o6o 0-750 „ i-ooo Tyre. 0-400 to 0-500 0-080 „ o-ioo 0-040 „ 0-060 0-040 „• 0-060 0-400 „ 0-600 Analysis of a Krupp Tyre that has done Good Service. Combined Carbon Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus Manganese Iron (by difference) 0-500 0-275 0-035 0-060 0-4.7S 98-655 It will be observed that this tyre contains a high percentage of silicon, and although it wore well it would be unsafe to 66 METAiS, ALLOYS, ETC. generally recommend such steel for the purpose, especially if manufactured by the Bessemer process. With 0*5 per cent, of carbon in a tyre the amount of silicon should not exceed o" i per cent. The following results show that the elements are not evenly distributed in an ingot (Snelus) : — Top of Ingot. Bottom of Ingot. Combined Carbon 0760 0'3S0 Silicon . • trace trace Sulphur 0-187 0-044 Phosphorus o-igi 0-044 Manganese O'SS^ O'S'4 Six samples were taken out of the top of an ingot and six out of the bottom from positions sketched in section (Fig. 6), when the following results were obtained : — From Section AT Top. From Section at Bottom. Carbon. Sulphur. Phosphorus. Carbon. Sulphur. Phosphorus I •44 •032 •044 •44 •048 •060 2 •54 •048 •066 •42 •056 •062 3 •57 •080 •086 •41 •048 •054 4 •61 •cg6 ■097 •40 -048 •054 5 •68 •120 •III •38 ■048 ■058 6 •77 •187 •142 •37 •044 •052 •2 Fig. 6. Analysis of Steel used for Dies in Royal Mint. Carbon (combined) Manganese Silicon Sulphur . Phosphorus (I) (2) (3) (4) 0^82 1-07 0-79 i-i^ o-io 0-12 0-24 0-4S 0-05 0-06 o-i8 0-29 trace trace o-oi trace — j» 0-01 ESTIMATION OF MANGANESE IN SPIEGEL. 67 Analysis of Swedish Gun-barrel Steel. Carbon . 0-450 Silicon • 0-450 Manganese . 0-400 Sulphur 0-040 Phosphorus . 0-085 Iron (by difference) • 98-575 loo-ooo Analysis of Two Samples of Krupp-gun Steel of Approved Quality. (I) (2) Combined Carbon -42 -69 Graphite -04 -02 Silicon -11 -06 Manganese '13 -15 Phosphorus . . .... nil trace Sulphur — Copper -30 -26 Specification of Quality of Steel Supplied to the Cockerhill Works, Seraing, for the Purpose of Shipbuilding. Carbon "... -08 to -15 Silicon . . trace „ -02 Sulphur "03 „ '05 Phosphorus '03 „ -05 Manganese -30 „ -60 Spiegeleisen and Ferromanganese. Estimation of Manganese. — There are two methods generally in use, (i) Direct method, and (2) Indirect method. Direct method. — Weigh out -5 grm. of the finely-powdered sample into a 50 cc. assay flask, add a mixture of 10 cc. 10 E HCl and 5 cc. 22 E HNO3 (fuming), and boil until all action ceases. Now add a few crystals of potassic chlorate to ensure complete oxidation of organic rpatter, and boil until all 68 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. free chlorine is eliminated, and bulk of liquid is reduced to about 8 cc. ; pour into a ij litre flask, wash out with water, dilute to 250 cc, and gradually add 5 E ammonic car- bonate solution, until a slight permanent precipitate is obtained which does not disappear on vigorously shaking. Dissolve the precipitate in two or three drops of 10 E HCl and add 2 cc. in excess. Now add 20 cc. of 5 E ammonic acetate solution, dilute to 800 CO., boil for ten minutes, filter off quickly the basic acetate of iron thus produced, and wash three times with hot distilled water. The precipitate is dissolved off the paper with 5 cc. 10 E HCl into a ij litre flask, diluted to 250 cc, and iron precipitated and filtered off as before. The two filtrates are now mixed in a large beaker, and evaporated down to i litre, allowed to cool, 3 cc. of bromine added, and stirred until all goes into solution. The rest of the process is conducted as stated on page 43. Indirect method. — Estimate the percentage of iron volume- trically by the process described on page 53, add tp this result 5 per cent for carbon and impurities, and the difierence between this and 100 is taken as the percentage of manganese present. This indirect method is largely used in Spiegel works, &c. ; and where a number of estimations are required in one day, it may be considered sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes; In cases of dispute between buyers and sellers the direct method must be adopted. Fresenius gives the following analysis of Spiegeleisen made from Stahberg spathic ore. Per cent. Iron 82'86o Manganese ....... i6-707 Nickel o-oi6 Cobalt trace Copper 0'066 Alnminium 0-077 Titanium 0'Oo6 Magnesium o'04S Carried over 93'777 ANALYSIS OF BRASS AND BRONZE. 69 Per cent. Brought forward 93' 777 Cajcium . ' , . o-ogi Potassium 0-063 Arsenic . . . . ^ . . . 0-007 Antimony 0-004 Phosphorus 0-059 Sulphur 0-014 Nitrogen 0-014 Silicon 0"997 Carbon 4'323 Slag 0-665 100-014 Manganese can be made to replace iron in pig iron to the extent of 85 per cent. When pig iron contains manganese from about 5 to 20 per cent, it is called spiegeleisen, and when ■ over this amount ferromanganese. Manganese plays an impor- tant part in the manufacture of steel. Owing to its greater a-fifinity for oxygen than iron it deoxidises any FeO formed in the process 5 the resulting MnO forming a fluid slag with the impurities readily separating from the molten metal. It like- wise neutralises to a great extent the deleterious effects of sulphur. Brass, Bronze, &c. Estimation of Tin, Lead, Copper, Iron and Zinc. — The following process is applicable to the analysis of Aich's metal, bell metal, brass (all colours), bronze for bearings, Dutch metal, gun metal, Muntz metal and sterro metal. Although all the above-named elements are not always present in these alloys, it would be always advisable to pass them through the following process. If it is thought that the amount of any one element present, judging from the amount of precipitate found, is not sufficient in quantity to affecf the quality of the alloy, of course it could be filtered off and discarded, and the estimation of the more important metals proceeded with. Weigh out i grm. of the sample into an 80 cc. 70 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. low and wide beaker, add 15 cc. of 6 E HNO3, and heat until all that is soluble is dissolved. If any quantity of tin be present a white precipitate of an hydrate of tin, called meta- stannic acid, is produced. Evaporate on the water bath nearly to dryness, dilute with distilled water to 100 cc, boil, filter off the precipitate, wash with -^V E HNO3, ^^^^^ ^^^ filtrate gives no reaction for copper with potassic ferrocyanide, and then with distilled water until free from acid. The filter and its contents are spread out on a watch glass and put into a water oven to dry; in the meantime a small porcelain crucible is weighed, after which the precipitate is brushed into it, the filter ignited separately, and the ash added to main portion, finally ignited for ten minutes oveir the blow-lamp, and weighed. The weight of the oxide of tin (SnOa), thus produced X 7867 x 100 = percentage of tin present. The filtrate, which may now con- tain lead, copper, iron and zinc as nitrates, is evaporated as low as possible on the water bath, with addition of 2 cc. of 36 E H2SO4, and finally on the sand bath until nearly all fumes of H2SO4 are driven off. Digest residue with 50 cc. — H2SO4. till all that is soluble is dissolved, filter off PbSOi, wash E with — H2SO4 until free from copper, and finally with water until free from acid. Dry in water oven, scrape precipitate into weighed porcelain' crucible, ignite filter separately, add ash to main portion, ignite at a dull red-heat for ten minutes,, and weigh. Weight of PbSOi x "6832 x 100 = percentage of lead. The filtrate is mixed with 23 cc. 10 E HCl, and diluted to 350 cc, heated to 70° C, saturated with sulphu- retted hydrogen, and the precipitated copper sulphide allowed to subside, and then filtered off and washed quickly with SH2 water. To ensure the perfect separation of zinc, the pre- cipitate is dried, roasted carefully in a porcelain capsule, dissolved in 10 cc. of aqua regia {3 cc. 16 E HNO3 and 7 cc. 10 E HCl), evaporated to dryness, residue dissolved in 52 cc. of 5 EHCl, and diluted to 350 cc, and the copper separated as. sulphide as before ; the two filtrates are mixed and reserved ANALYSIS OF BRASS AND BRONZE. 7I for the determination of zinc and iron. The CuS is dissolved off the filter with 10 cc. of 8 E HNO3, using small portions at a time, and collected in a 300 cc. porcelain basin ; the filter is washed free from Cu, the solution diluted to 200 cc, and heated nearly to boiling; z E NaHO solution is now run in, until no further precipitation of copper hydrate takes place, and the solution shows a slight alkaline reaction. It is now boiled, allowed to settle, and the clear liquid decanted as far as possible through a filter paper ; 150 cc. of hot water are poured on to the residue and again boiled up, the whole filtered off, and the precipitate washed with hot water till free from alkali. The filter and its contents are now dried in water oven, the CuO scraped into a weighed crucible, the filter paper ignited separately, the ash added to main portion, and the whole ignited for ten minutes at a dull red heat over a Bunsen. The weight of the 'CuO thus obtained X 7985 X 100 = per- centage of copper. The reserved filtrates containing any iron and zinc are evaporated to 200 cc, with addition of a few crystals of KCIO3 for oxidation, poured into a 300 cc. porcelain dish, heated nearly to boiling, and 2 E NajCOa run in gradually, stirring until all the iron and zinc present are precipitated as basic carbonates, and the solution shows a distinct alkahne re- action. It is now boiled up, allowed to settle, the clear liquid filtered, the residue washed three times with boiling water by decantation combined with filtration, the precipitate finally washed on the paper until free from alkali, dried in the water oven, scraped into a weighed platinum crucible, the filter paper ignited in usual manner, and ash added to main portion. The crucible and its contents are now heated to bright redness for ten minutes, cooled, and weighed. The increase in weight = ZnO + FeaOs. Dissolve the mixed oxides in about 5 cc. of 10 E HCl, wash out into a 250 cc. bulb flask, reduce with 2 E NazSOg, and estimate the amount of — KjCrjOr taken up by the reduced iron on titration by the process given on page 53. The number of cc.'s required X "0056 X 100 = 72 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. percentage of iron present in the sample. To ascertain the percentage of zinc let ZnO + FejOs = X. FezOa = Y. ZnO = Z. E Y = cc. lo K3Cr207 required X 'OoS. Z = X-Y and Z X '8026 X 100 = percentage of zinc. The following is an example of analytical data of a bad sample of brass, by the foregoing process : — Estimation of Lead. I grm. of sample taken. Porcelain Crucible marked W 77IS9 Do. + PbSOi 7-7336 » 2nd ignition 7-7336 PbS04 -0177 •0177 X'6832 = -01209264. •01209264 X 100 = I-2I per cent. Pb. Estimation of Copper. Porcelain Crucible marked V 8-2226 Do. + CuO + F.Ash 8-8626 „ „ „ 2nd ignition- .... 8-8623 » » ,> 3rd 8-8623 -6397 F.A. -0029 -6368 •6368 X -7985 X 100 = 50-85 per cent. Cu. ANALYSIS OF BRASS (ANALYTICAL DATA). 73 Estimation of Zinc. . Small Platinum Crucible 13-8316 Do. +ZnO + Fe203+F.Ash .... 14-4401 ,, „ „ „ and ignition . . 14-4385 .. „ „ » Srd „ . . . 14-4385 •6069 F.A. -0029 (X) ZnO + FezOa -6040 (Y) FeuOs (see below) -0496 (Z) ZnO -5544 "5544 X -8oz6 X 100 = 44-49 per cent. Zn. Estimation of Iron. The "6042 grm. ZnO + Fe203 was dissolved in 10 E HCl, and the Fe estimated therein by standard — KaCraOy in ■' 01 •the usual manner, when 6-2 cc. were required for complete oxidation. I cc. of — KaCrjO? = "0056 grm. Fe. 1 cc. of— KaCrzOtzz '008 „ Fe203 6-2 X -008 = -0496 grm. FejOs. 6-z X -0056 X 100 =: 3-47 per cent. Fe. Summary. Per cent. Lead i-2i Iron 3-47 Copper S°'84 Zinc 44-49 Tin ...... traces 100-01 When a sample of an alloy is submitted for analysis, and its nature unknown, it would perhaps be wise to first make a careful- qualitative analysis, which may in some cases modify the modus operandi of the quantitative analysis. 74 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC, The following table gives analyses of various alloys, which can be analysed by the process just described. Tin. Copper. Iron. Zinc. Aich's Metal 6o 1-8 38-2 Bell Metal .... 22 78 — Brass, Best — 71-4 — 28-6 „ Common . — 66-6 — 33-4 „ Yellow — 6o — 40 „ Pin Wire . — 63 — 37 Bronze Coinage . 4 §s — I „ for Bearings . i6 82 — 2 »» j> »» • • •H 6 — 77 „ „ Wheel Boxes . i8 80 — 2 Dutch Metal — 84-6 — 15-4 Sterro Metal 1-5 S8 3-0 37-S Speculum Metal . 33-4 66-6 — Muntz Metal 60 — 40 Stopcocks and Pump Valves 10 88 2 White Metals. The following alloys, which may contain tin, antimony, lead, copper, iron or aluminium, such as Britannia metal. Babbit's metal, solder, type metal, and pewter (triple and ley), may be analysed by the process here described. Weigh out I grm. of sample in fine shavings or drillings into an 80 cc. low and wide beaker, add 14 cc. 8 E HNO3, heat nearly to boiling on a hot plate until all that is soluble is dissolved, evaporate nearly to dryness on water bath, add 50 cc. of dis- tilled water to the residue, boil until all that is soluble is dis- solved, allow to settle, pour off the clear liquid through a filter, add 20 cc. hot water to the residue, boil up, and filter off as before. Continue this treatment three times, and finally filter off the precipitate which may be metastannic acid and antimonic acid, and wash with hot water until the washings scarcely redden litmus paper; reserve the filtrate (No. i), dry the precipitate in the water oven, brush into a silver crucible of about 30 cc. capacity, ignite filter paper, and add ash. Now add to the precipitate 8 times its bulk of pure sodic hydrate (note the ANALYSIS OF WHITE METALS. 75 weight added), fuse over a Bunsen for a quarter of an hour, treat the fused mass with water containing 33 per cent, by volume of alcohol until all that is soluble is dissolved, transfer to a beaker and dilute with the alcohol solution until the strength. of the solution becomes E with the quantity of sodic hydrate taken. It is now allowed to stand with frequent stir- ring for twelve hours. The stannate of soda and excess of sodic hydrate are now in solution, while the antimoniate of soda is precipitated. Filter off and wash with alcohol (30 per cent.), and finally with strong alcohol. Reserve filtrate (No. 2), dis- solve the precipitate off the filter with 25 cc. 2 E HCl, in which there are previously dissolved 4 grms. of tartaric acid. Fig. 7. and collect in small flask. Dilute to 100 cc, fit cork into flask into which are fitted two tubes, one bent at right angles and going to the bottom of the flask, and the other bent twice at right angles, and just passing through the cork. Connect with SH3 apparatus and dip the ofif-tube bent at right angles into a small beaker of distilled water.. Fig. 7 speaks for itself with regard to the fittings. Pass SH2 until saturated, applying heat gently at first and finally to the boil. After complete precipitation has been insured, allow the flask to stand on a warm plate for half an hour and then pass CO2 through until the odour of SHj is eliminated. Filter quickly, wash with SHj water, dry in water oven, scrape off the antimonious sulphide into a small beaker, ignite the filter, and add ash. Moisten with 16 E HNO3, 76 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. gradually add 5 cc. of 22 E HNO3, heat on plate until oxida- tion is complete, pour into a weighed porcelain crucible, rinsing out the last portions of precipitate with distilled water with the aid of a wash bottle, evaporate to dryness, and gradually ignite to full red heat. Cool and weigh the SbaO* thus produced, which X 7922 X 100 = percentage of antimony. The filtrate (No. 2) containing the tin is evaporated until all alcohol is expelled. Neutralize with 10 E HCl, add 5 cc. in excess, dilute to 100 cc, saturate with SH2, allow to stand in a warm place until SH2 is nearly all driven off, filter, and wash with a solution containing 5 per cent. 5 E ammonic acetate and 5 per cent. 5 E acetic acid, till free from chlorides. Dry in water oven, scrape precipitate into a watch glass, ignite filter in a weighed crucible, oxidize ash with a drop of 22 E HNO3, and ignite. Now add main portion from watch glass, place lid on crucible, heat gently at first, then take lid off and increase the temperature gradually until SO2 comes off freely ; when this abates, heat strongly over the blow-lamp for ten minutes, cool, add a small lump of ammonic carbonate, and ignite first over Bunsen with lid on till AmsCOa has all gone off, and finally over the blow-lamp as before. Repeat until no further loss occurs. Cool and weigh. The weight of the SnOa thus produced x "7867 x 100 = percentage of tin present. To the filtrate (No. i) containing the lead, copper, &c., add 10 cc. of 10 E H2SO4, evaporate to dryness, heat up on sand-bath till all H2SO4 fumes have gone off, digest with 30 cc. of E H2S04 until all that is soluble is dissolved ; filter off PbSOi, wash with E H2SO4 till free from any copper, remove filtrate, wash the acid out of filter with strong alcohol, dry, and proceed as directed on page 70. Evaporate the filtrate to dryness, dissolve residue in 50 cc. E HCl, saturate with SH2, digest, filter off CuS, washing quickly with SH2 water, treat and estimate as directed on page 71. The solution, which may contain small quantities of iron and aluminium, is boiled to expel SH2, and evaporated to about 30 cc, with addition of a few crystals of KCIO3 to convert FeCU into FeaCU. The solution is now made slightly alkaline with 20 E AmHO, 5 ANALYSIS OF BABBIT'S METAL (ANALYTICAL DATA). ^^ cc. 5 E AmCl added, and boiled. If any appreciable quantity of ferric or aluminic hydrate is here precipitated, it is to be filtered pfif, and the iron and aluminium determined therein as directed on page 89. SH2 may be passed through the am- moniacal filtrate, and any Zn, Ni, Mn, or Co will be precipitated if present, and may be determined by the methods given in the analysis of copper. The following is an example of analytical data obtained in the analysis of a sample of Babbit's metal by the above process : — Estimation of Tin. I grm. of sample taken. Porcelain Crucible marked L 7'i427 Do. + SnOz + F.A 7'9273 „ „ 2nd ignition .... 7-9274 •7847 F.A. . -0029 ■7818 •7818 X 7867 X 100 = 61-50 per cent. tin. Estimation of Antimony. Porcelain crucible marked C 7-0916 Do, + SbuOi + F.A 7-2267 „ ' „ „ zndigniUon . . . 7-2264 •1348 F.A. . -0017 •1331 •1331 X -7922 X 100 = 10-54 per cent, antimony. Estimation of Lead. Porcelain crucible marked Y . Do. + PbSOi + F.A „ „ 2nd ignition PbSOi + F.A. F.A. 7-8115 8-2005 8-2003 •3888 -0010 •3878 •3878 X -6832 X 100 = 26-49 P^r cent. lead. 78 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. Estimation of Copper. Porcelain crucible marked F 6*789l Do. + CuO + F.A 6-8o8z „ „ „ 2nd ignition .... 6-8082 Cu + F.A. F.A. ■01 9 1 •0010 CuO . . -oiSi ■0181 X "7985 X ioo=,l'45 per cent, copper. Summary. Per cent. Tin 61-50 Lead 26-49 Antimony 10-54 Copper 1-45 Iron, Zinc, Aluminium, &c traces 99-98 Analyses of a few White Alloys, Antimony. Copper. Tin. Lead. Zinc. Britannia Metal . 6-2 1-8 92 Pewter, Triple . 15-0 — 79 . 6 „ Ley — — 80 20 Solder, Fine — — 66-6 33'4 ,, Common — — ■ SO 50 „ Coarse . — — 33-4 66-6 „ Brazing . — 50 — 50 Type Metal . 25 — 75 j> jj - 2S ~ 25 5° ■~~ Tin Plate. Estimation of Tin. — It sometimes happens, that a know- ledge of the thickness of tin on a tin plate is required. The following method has been proved to give good results: — Weigh out 5 grms. of the sample in chips into an 80 cc. bulb flask provided with a cork, into which passes a tube with a ANALYSIS OF WHITE LEAD. 79 Bunsen valve attached, add 53 cc. of 5 E HCl, dissolve (the object of dissolving the sample out of contact with the air, is to prevent precipitation of a large amount of sulphur by subsequent treatment with SH2, if the iron were present as perchloride), pour into a 300 cc. beaker, dilute to 250 cc, add 13 cc. of 10 E HCl, saturate with SH^, allow to stand in warm place for half an hour, filter off SnS, and wash with SH, water. Dis- solve the SnS off the paper with iz cc. of hot 2 E NajS, in which o'l grm. of sulphur is previously dissolved, by frequent percolation, and repeat with 1 2 cc. more. The solutions are now mixed, diluted to 100 cc, neutralized with 10 E HCl, adding 5 cc. in excess, allowed to stand in warm place for an hour, and the stannic sulphide filtered off and treated as de- scribed on page 31, in order to separate any arsenic sulphide that may be present, when the tin may be determined as oxide. A sample of tin plate gave by this process 2*5 per cent, of tin. Analysis of White Lead. Pure white lead is supposed to be a mixture of carbonate and hydrate of lead, but often it is mixed with, and sometimes wholly substituted by, such substances as chalk, heavy spar (barium sulphate), gypsum, witherite (baric carbonate), zinc oxide, kaolin, &c. For paints it is usually previously mixed with oil and " dryers," a compound which may contain any- thing in the shape of matter, often of doubtful efficiency. Before making a quantitative analysis of a sample, it is well to first subject it to a careful qualitative analysis, and if not pure, to determine the nature and quantity of the adulterants. Qualitative Analysis. — Weigh out about a grm. of the sample, add 20 cc. of 8 E HNO3, heat on hot plate until all that is soluble is dissolved, suck up any oil floating on the surface of the liquid with a piece of blotting or E filter paper, dilute to about 40 cc, filter, and wash with — 8o METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. HNO3. If any residue is present it may consist of BaSOj, PbS04, Si02, &c.; pour on about 10 cc. of hot 5 E amnionic acetate, pouring it through several times. Any PbSOi is thus dissolved out, which will give a yellow precipitate of PbCrOi, when a solution of E KaCrOi is added to it. The residue is fused with four times its weight of potassic carbonate and tested in the usual manner for acids and bases. The original nitric acid solution is diluted to about 150 cc, and conducted through the usual groups of reagents. If there is no insoluble residue on treatment with 8 E HNO3, and if, after the lead has been separated by SH2 a little of the solution leaves no residue on evaporation on platinum foil, it may be taken for granted that there would not be much present in the way of the usual adulterants. Method for Quantitative Analysis. — We will assume that the qualitative analysis shows the following to be present : — Oil, BaSOi, BaCOs, CaCOs, CaSOi, PbCOa and Pb(H0)2. Weigh out 2 grms. of the sample into a two-ounce stoppered bottle, pour on 20 cc. of methylated ether, tie down stopper, heat the bottle and its contents to about 40° C, thoroughly shake, and allow the sediment to subside. When cool, withdraw stopper and decant the clear ethereal solution of the oil through a double filter into a weighed flask. Repeat the digestion with ether three timds, finally filtering off the residue, and washing with ether until free from oil. Distil off the ether by putting the flask, attached to a Liebig's condenser, into a beaker of hot water, and weigh the residual oil. The residue on the filter is dried and brushed into a flask, and the CO2 determined therein by the method described on page 87, using 8 E HNO3 for the decomposition instead of HCl. The solution from this deter- mination is now filtered, and the residue, which will consist E of BaS04 and CaSOi, is washed with — HNO3. Reserve solu- tion. The residue is dried, brushed into an 80 cc. porcelain basin, and 20 cc. of 2 E NajCOs poured on to it and boiled for about an hour, keeping up the original bulk with hot water; the ANALYSIS OF WHITE LEAD. 8 1 CaSOiis thus completely decomposed, insoluble calcic carbonate being formed, together with soluble sulphate of soda. The solution is diluted to 50 cc, and the CaCOs and BaSO* filtered off. Since the CaCOs on the filter is the equivalent of the CaSOi originally present, the solution may be rejected, the CaSOi being deduced from the amount of CaO found here- after. Percolate zo cc. of hot E HCl through the precipitate several times, wash the BaS04 remaining on the filter, dry, determine in usual manner. Test residue for PbSOi. Dilute the solution to about 30 cc, add 5 cc. 5 E AmCl, s cc. of 20 E AmHO, and 10 cc. of E ammonic oxalate ; stir well, and allow the calcic oxalate to settle for a few hours in a warm ■place, after which it is to be filtered off, washed, dried, ignited gradually to a bright red heat, cooled, and the resulting CaO weighed. Every 7 parts of CaO equal 1 7 parts of CaS04. The reserved nitric acid solution containing lead, &c., is now evaporated nearly to dryness, 2 cc. of 10 E HCl added, the solution diluted to 150 cc. with hot water, saturated with SH^, the PbS allowed to subside, filtered off, washed with SH2 water, dissolved off the filter in 8 E HNO3 and precipitated and determined as sulphate as directed on page 70. The filtrate is made alkaline with 10 cc. of 20 E AmHO, 5 cc. of 5 E AmaS added, and then allowed to stand a short time in a warm place. Any precipitate that may be formed is filtered off and examined • for zinc, iron, &c. The filtrate contains the barium and calcium originally present in the sample, as carbonates. Add to the solution 10 cc. of 5 E AmjCOs, allow to stand some time, and filter off the carbonate of Ca and Ba through a weighed filter. The solution might be tested for magnesia by adding to it a solution of sodic phosphate, and allowing to stand twelve hours. It now becomes necessary to determine the proportion of CaCOs and BaCOa present in the precipitate ; this may be done in- directly, since there is such a wide difference in the atomic weights of Ba and Ca. Dry the precipitate and weigh. De- termine the CO2 present by the method employed for the estimation of total CO2, the difference between these two amounts being the quantity combined as carbonate of lead. To G 82 METALS, ALLOYS, ETC. calculate the amounts of BaCOs and CaCOa from the data obtained — Let X = weight of BaCOa + CaCOa. Y = CO2 found. Z = CaCOs In mixture. then CO2 EqBaCOa 44 : 197-2 : : Y : C (BaCOs, if all present as such). C — X =: D which is proportional to amount of CaCOa present. BaCOs — CaCOs Ca.COs 97-2 : 100 : : D : = Z (CaCOj) and X — Z = BaCOa. PART II. ORES, LIMESTONES, ETC. Iron Ores. Method for Complete Analysis. — The ore, having been carefully- sampled, is quartered and powdered moderately fine, taking care that the last portion completely passes through the smallest sieve. It is thoroughly mixed and placed in a dry stoppered bottle. Estimation of Moisture in Ores which contain no CO^ or Organic Matter. — Weigh out 2 grms.of the sample in a small shallow dish, and place in a water oven. After being at 100° C. for two hours, it is placed in a desiccator, cooled and weighed, and the loss noted ; it is again placed in water oven for half an hour and weighed. If no further loss occurs, all moisture is eliminated. Loss x 50 = percentage hygroscopic water. Estimation of Water (free and combined) in Ores containing CO2 and Organic Matter. — Weigh out 3 grms. of the sample into a bulb tube, Fig. 8, a, and attach to a weighed CaClj tube, c. This is connected with the cylinder, d, containing 36 E HaSO^, which serves to ascertain the rate at which the air comes through, and to absorb any moisture that 84 ORES, LIMESTONES, ETC. may be given off from e. e is an aspirator, and b is a tube containing CaCIs, which dries the air previous to its passing through A. A gentle heat is at first applied to the bulb, and air made to aspirate through gently, and the heat gradually increased to redness. After it is assured that all moisture is deposited in the CaCl2 tube c, it is detached and carefully weighed; the increase in weight is the total water free and. ^ ^^ M p B Fig. 8. combined in 3 grms. sample. On subtracting the amount of free moisture obtained as above, the amount of combined water is obtained. Estimatiou of Total Iron. — Weigh out i grm. of the sample into an 80 cc. beaker, add 20 cc. of 10 E HCl, and boil gently for about twenty minutes, or until no further action takes place ; some ores are completely decomposable by 10 E HCl, leaving a white insoluble residue, while others are very difficult to act upon. In any case, evaporate to complete dryness and heat on a sand bath to about 130° C, for half an hour, to render silica insoluble ; cool, and boil with 10 cc. of 10 E HCl until all that is soluble is dissolved ; dilute to 50 cc, filter, and wash insoluble residue with hot E HCl until free from FezCls (testing washings with KCyS). Reserve filtrate, dry the ESTIMATION OF SILICA IN IRON ORES. 85 residue in water oven, ignite at a full red heat in a weighed platinutn crucible, cool, and weigh. Increase in weight x 100 = percentage of " Insoluble Residue." Now this insoluble residue invariably contains more or less iron, alumina, &c., and in order to estimate these add four times its weight of Fresenius' flux (NasCOs + K2CO3), fuse for twenty minutes over the blow lamp, cool, treat repeatedly with small quantities of boiling water, allow to settle, -filter the clear liquid, transfer the bases to the filter with the aid of wash-bottle and feather, and wash till free from alkali. Reserve the filtrate for estimation of silica. The bases are now dissolved off the paper with 5 cc. of 8 E HCl, the paper washed till free from FejCls, and the solution added to that containing the main portion of the iron. To the mixed solutions are now added a few crystals of KCIO, (to ensure perfect peroxidation). Boil down to 50 cc. Transfer to a 250 cc. bulb flask provided with a Bunsen valve, reduce with 2 E NaaSOg, and determine the iron volumetrically, as directed on page 54. This gives the total iron, i.e. that exist- ing as peroxide and protoxide. Determination of the Silica. — The solution reserved from the iron estimation for the determination of silica, is rendered neutral with 10 E HCl, 10 cc. added in excess, evaporated to dryness on the water bath, and then heated on the sand bath at about 130° C, to render silica insoluble ; 10 cc. of 5 E HCl are now added, then boiled for about ten minutes, diluted to 50 cc, allowed to settle, in a warm place, the clear liquor decanted through a filter paper, the residue boiled up with 50 cc. of water, and the whole filtered. The silica, which should now be colourless, is washed till free from chlorides, with boiling water (tested with AgNOg), dried in water oven, trans- ferred to weighed crucible, ignited at bright red hea,t, cooled, and weighed. Increase in weight x 100 = percentage of silica. [The purity of the silica must be tested by evaporating with H2SO4 and hydrofluoric acid, and igniting. There should 86 OJIES, LIMESTONES, ETC. be no residue left ; if there is, subtract. This residue will be examined in another portion of the analysis.] Determination of the Iron existing as Ferrous Oxide (PeO). — Many iron ores contain iron in two degrees of oxida- tion : the sesquioxide (Fe303) and the protoxide (FeO). The protoxide may exist in a state soluble and insoluble in HCl. To determine the FeO soluble in HCl, select a loo cc. bulb flask, into which a rubber cork containing a tube fitted with a Bunsen valve is made to fit, weigh into it about i grm. of bicarbonate of soda, and then brush in i grm. of sample accurately weighed. Now add 12 cc. of 10 E HCl, and quickly fit in cork ; the CO2 given off by the decomposition of the bicarbonate thus drives the air out of the flask. Apply a gentle heat until the acid is in a state of incipient ebullition, which is continued until no further action is observable; dilute the solution to 200 cc, pour into a 250 cc. beaker, add 10 cc. of 10 E HCl, and E titrate the solution with standard — KoCr.O,, in usual man- ic ■= ' " ner. The number of cc.'s required x '0056 x 100 := per- centage Fe existing as soluble FeO, and cc.'s required X '0072 X 100 = percentage soluble FeO. The FeO existing in the insoluble portion is determined as follows : The insoluble resi- due in the above solution is filtered off through a plug of asbestos felt, free from iron, and washed with hot water ; it is dried and transferred with the felt to a platinum crucible of about 25 cc. capacity. It now becomes necessary to decompose the residue so as to render the insoluble FeO soluble in HCl without undergoing peroxidation ; to adopt this, the process recom- mended by Avery* is suitable. The crucible and its contents are placed on a platinum triangle, fixed over a hole in a special bath, Fig. 9, and 10 cc. of 10 E HCl, and 5 cc. of hydrofluoric acid (HF), poured on. It will be observed that there is a groove, G, in the top of the bath ; this is partially filled with water ; and the funnel, f, is made to fit into it, thus forming an * Chemical News, xix., 270. ESTIMATION OF FeO IN IRON ORES. 87 air-tight joint. A Bunsen flame is put under the bath (which is half filled with water) ; meanwhile a current of coal-gas is made to pass through the tube, /, and the heat continued until the residue and felt are completely dissolved ; after which it is transferred quickly to a beaker, diluted to 200 cc, 10 cc. of 10 E HCl added, and the iron present in the ferrous state, titrated by the standard KaCraOT, as before. To ascertain the amount of peroxide of iron (FezOa) present Fig. 9- in the sample, subtract from the amount of standard KaCraOr required in the determination of total iron, the amount required for oxidation of ferrous iron in soluble and insoluble portion. This X 'ooS X 100 = the percentage of FcaOj present. Estimation of Carbonic Acid. — Some ores of iron con- tain a rather large percentage of combined CO2, such as the spathic ore, blackband ore, &c. If a preliminary test for CO, i(made by warming some of the ore with 8 E HCl in a test-tube 88 ORES, LIMESTONES, ETC. and observing if there is any effervescence) gives a negative result, of course the quantitative estimation need not be pro- ceeded with. The following is a good method for its determi- nation when present. Fig. lo is a sketch of the apparatus employed. Weigh out 3 grms. of the sample into the flask, d, and connect in the manner as shown below ; a is a (J-'ube containing pieces of caustic soda, which serve to absorb COj of the air that is made to pass through the apparatus by means of the aspirator, 1 ; c is a bulb tube containing 30 cc. of 8 E HCl, which is prevented from flowing out by means of a clip 1 '"■'V i 111 i Fig. 10. at B ; E are bulbs containing a little 36 E H2SO4, which serves to absorb the great bulk of moisture coming from d ; r is a U-'ube containing in the first limb pieces of pumice-stone, which have been soaked in a concentrated solution of copper sulphate, dried, and ignited ; this serves to absorb any HCl that comes over ; the second limb contains pieces of calcium chloride ;' G is a weighed U-tube containing in the first three quarters, small pieces of caustic potash; and the remaining quarter, pieces of CaCU. This tube absorbs the COj liberated, which is to be weighed before and after experiment ; h is a tube containing pieces of CaClz, which serve to absorb any moisture from air that may tend to come into G from i. When all is ESTIMATION OF ALUMESTA, ETC., IN IRON ORES. 89 fixed, and the tube, g, accurately weighed, open the clip and allow the acid to. run on to the ore in d ; after which open the tap, K, and allow a gentle stream of water to flow out ; a cur- rent of air thus passes through the apparatus and sweeps the CO3 out of D, which is absorbed in the (J-tube, g. Continue the aspiration in the cold until no more effervescence is observed, and then apply a gentle heat to the flask, d ; continue heating to incipient ebullition until it is assured that all COj is elimi- nated, when the tube, g, is detached and weighed. The increase in weight, X — is the percentage of combined CO2 present. Determination of Alumina, Manganese Oxide, Lime, Magnesia, Potash, and Soda. — Weigh out 2 grms. of sample . and heat with a mixture of 20 cc. of loE HCland 6 cc. of 16 E HNO3, until all action has ceased, which may take about half an hour. Evaporate the solution to dryness and heat on sand- bath to about 130° C, for about half an hour. Cool, add 10 cc. of 10 E HCl, and heat until all that is soluble is dis- solved. Dilute solution to 50 cc, filter, and wash with hot iV E HCl until free from FcaCIe, &c. The residue (i) is reserved. The solution is diluted to 200 cc. and 5 E AmaCOs gradually added, stirring, until a slight permanent precipitate is produced. 2 cc. of 10 E HCl are now added together with 25 cc. of 5 E ammonic acetate solution, the solution diluted to 800 cc, boiled for about ten minutes, filtered, and washed with hot water. Reserve solution, dry the precipitate in a water oven, scrape into a weighed platinum crucible, ignite, cool, and weigh ; the residue may contain FcaOa -f AI2O3 + PuOs (TiOz). Deduct from this weight the amount of FeaOa, and P2O5 present in 2 grms. of sample, as determined by the methods herein described, and the remainder x 50 = per- centage of alumina in soluble portion. There may be some TiOs present in the residue; this should be tested for, and determined by, the method described on page 59, if any be present it is deducted, with the addition of the Fe^Oa + P3O5, already found, from the amount of residue, the remainder 90 ORES, LIMESTONES, ETC. being the alumina. The filtrate is now poured in a i^ litre flask, diluted to i litre, 3 cc. of bromine added, stirred until all has gone into solution, 20 cc. of 20 E AmHO added, the solution heated to the boil, the hydrate of manganese filtered off, washed, and estimated as directed on page 43. Evaporate the solution to about 100 cc, add 5 cc. of 5 E AmCl, 5 cc. of 20 E AmHO, and 10 cc. of E ammonic oxalate solution, stir well, and allow to stand for about ten hours. Filter off the oxalate of lime, wash with water till free from ammoniacal salts, dry, and ignite gradually in a weighed crucible, to the highest heat of the blow-lamp. Cool and weigh the residue, which is now lime. (CaO) x 50 = percentage of lime. The solution containing the magnesia and alkalies is evaporated to dryness in a platinum dish, and the residue carefully ignited until no more fumes of ammoniacal salts are given off. Cool, add 5 cc. of water, brush in about i grm. of oxalic acid, evaporate to dryness as before, and ignite. The alkalies are now left as carbonates, and the magnesic chloride is converted into magnesia (MgO). Treat the residue with about 20 cc. of hot water, filter off magnesia, wash with water, dry, ignite, and weigh; this weight X 50 = percentage of magnesia (MgO). The solution is transferred to a weighed platinum dish, and the solution made acid with 10 E HCl, evaporated to dryness without loss, and the residue carefully heated to a dull red heat for ten minutes. Transfer to desiccator to cool, and weigh the NaCl + KCl. Add 5 cc. of water to the residue, and then sufficient E PtCU to convert the sodic and potassic chlorides into double chlorides of the alkalies and platinum. Assuming that the whole of the residue is NaCl, a calculation of the quantity required can be made. Thus every 117 parts of NaCl require 336-38 parts of PtCU, forming PtCU, 2NaCl, I cc. of E PtCli solution contains "0841 grm. of PtCl4. The mixture is evaporated (at a temperature of about 90° C.) over a water bath, nearly to dryness; after which about 15 cc. of alco- hol, sp. gr. '86, are added, the dish covered with a glass plate, and allowed to stand for three hours, with occasional rotatory stirring of the contents ; allow to settle before filtering, decant ESTIHATION OF TITANIC ACID IN IRON ORES. 9 1 the clear liquid through a weighed filter, and finally filter off the double chloride of potassium and platinum, with the aid of the filtrate and a feather. Wash with alcohol until free from the PtCU 2 NaCl ; dry at 130° C, cool with the usual precautions, and weigh. Calculation of the proportion of NajO and KjO present : — PtCl4,2KCl X -3070 = KCl, and KCl x -6317 X 50 = per- centage of K3O. Subtract the weight of KCl thus calculated from the weight of the NaCl + KCl. The remainder x •5302 X 50 = the percentage of NasO present. The reserved residue (i) is dried, brushed into a platinum crucible, 8 cc. of 10 E HCl and 4 cc. of HF added, the solution evaporated to dryness, the same quantities again added, and evaporated as before. Take up the residue in about 8 cc. of 10 E HCl, allowing to gently boil until all that is soluble is dissolved. Dilute to 30 cc, and filter if neces- sary. The residue, if any, must be examined for titanic acid, sulphate of barium, &c. The solution is then tested for AI2O3, FcaOs (TiOa), CaO, MnO, &c., which are estimated, if present in sufficient quantities, by the foregoing methods, taking care to keep the volume of the solutions in proportion to amounts thought to be present ; and the result added to those already found in the soluble portion. Estimation of Titanic Acid (TiOj) in Titaniferous Iron Ores. — The following process is recommended by W. Bettel.* Weigh out 0*5 grm. of the powdered sample into a platinum crucible, mix with 6 grms. of powdered and re- cently-fused bisulphate of potassium, and keep in a steady fusion for about twenty miputes. Allow to cool, digest for a few hours in about 180 cc. of distilled water, and filter off any silica. Dilute the solution to about 1,200 cc, and add 4 E H2SO3, until all the iron is reduced, and boil for about six hours, replacing the water as it evaporates. The precipi- tated titanic acid is now allowed to settle, the superna- tant liquid decanted through a filter, and the residue washed * " Crooke's Select Methods," p. 194. 92 ORES, LIMESTONES, ETC. E by decantation and filtration with — H3S04 ; after which it is dried, ignited, allowed to cool, moistened with 5 E AmaCO^, re-ignited, cooled, and weighed. When only very small quan- tities of titanic acid are present, as in the case of some iron ores, a process similar to that described for the determination of titanium in iron is adopted. Estimation of Phosphoric Acid (P3O5) and Stilphurie Acid (SO3). — Weigh out 10 grms. of the ore into a 250 cc. porcelain dish, pour on a mixture of 45 cc. of 10 E HCl and 25 cc. of 16 E HNO3, boil until it is assured that all action has ceased, evaporate to dryness, heat up on sand bath, cool, re-dissolve in 50 cc. of 10 E HCl, dilute to 100 cc, filter off, wash the insoluble residue with tV E HCl until free from FcaCle, pour the filtrate into a 250 cc. graduated test mixer, and dilute to 200 cc. Divide the solution in half, pouring each 100 cc. into beakers of about 150 cc. capacity. To the one add 20 cc. of 16 E HNO3 evaporate to the consistency of syrup on water bath, dissolve in 14 cc. of 10 E HNO3, dilute to 35 cc, add 40 cc. of ammonic molybdate reagent, stir well, allow to stand at 40° C. for three hours, filter, and deter- mine as directed on page 42. The other 100 cc. are nearly neutralized with 5 E AniHO, heated to boiling, 10 cc. of E BaCls added, allowed to stand for twelve hours, and the sulphur determined as directed on page 41. The above methods are applicable only to those iron ores which are mostly smelted in this country. For the analysis of iron ores containing arsenic, vanadium, copper, pyrites, &c., special treatises must be consulted. The following is a table of analyses of various iron ores, used for the extraction of the metal : — * * Thorpe, "Chemical Analysis," p. 2i6. ANALYSE5j OF VARIOUS IRON ORES. 93 Magnetic Dannemora. si III (Sjg e.a ■0 III 5 "^ JStnB gQ Ferric Oxide Ferrous Oxide Manganous Oxid« Alumina Lime . Magnesia . SiUca . Carbonic Acid Phosphoric Acid Sulphuric Acid Iron Pyrites Water . Organic Matter 70-23 29-65 94-23 0-23 0-63 O'OS trace 4-90 trace 0-09 1 0-03 J 0-56 90-05 0-88 0-14 o-o6 0-20 0-92 0-09 traces 9-22 2-75 48-12 0-83 1-63 1-75 2-29 1-62 39-92 0-54 0-22 0-45 0-39 2-72 40-77 0-90 0-72 10-10 26-41 I -00 17-38 0.40 45-86 0-96 5-86 1-37 10-88 31-02 021 trace o-io 1-08 0-90 99-88 100-72 100-76 100-51 100-00 100-29 Manganiferous Iron Ores. Estimation of Manganese. — The value of these ores, largely used in the manufacture of spiegeleisen, depends on the proportipn of manganese present. There are difficulties in determining the manganese, as in ordinary iron ores, owing to the presence of baryta, zinc oxide, &q. The method adopted by Riley is as follows : — i grm. of the dried ore is heated with 20 cc. of 10 E HCl until all that is soluble is dissolved. Dilute to 50 cc, filter off the insoluble residue, wash with — HCl till free from soluble matter, dilute the 10 filtrate to 300 cc, heat to boiling, add S cc. of 5 E H3SO1, stir well, allow to stand for four hours, and filter off any BaSOi. Dilute to 1,000 cc, add 5 E AmjCOs gradually, until a slight but permanent precipitate is produced ; dissolve this in 3 cc. of 10 E HCl, add 20 cc. of 5 E ammonic acetate, boil for ten minutes, filter, dissolve the unwashed precipitate, 94 ORES, LIMESTONES, ETC. which may contain some manganese, in lo cc. of lo E HCl, re-precipitate the iron as basic acetate as before, with AmaCO* and AmCzHsOa and filter. Mix the filtrate, evaporate down to 1,200 cc, add 3 cc. of bromine, precipitate the manganese as Mn(H0)2 with 20 E AmHO, and estimate as directed on page 43. The ignited MngOi should always be examined for impurities, such as baryta, zinc oxide, and lime. Analysis of Iiimestones, Boiler Incrustations, and Siliceous Substances. — Weigh out i grm. of sample, and dry in a platinum crucible of 30 cc. capacity at 100° C. until no furthur loss occurs. Loss = free moisture. Add 4 grras. of white flux (K2CO3 + NaaCOa), fuse over blow-lamp for ten minutes, allow to cool, put the crucible and its con- tents into a 200 cc. beaker, pour on about 80 cc. of hot dis- tilled water, and stir with a glass rod until the fused mass is detached from the crucible ; lift the crucible out of the liquid with a pair of bone forceps, and wash it down with hot water. The solution is now boiled up, the precipitate allowed to settle, the clear liquid decanted through a filter, 50 cc. of hot water poured on the residue, boiled, and filtered as before ; this operation is continued until the washings scarcely turn red litmus paper blue. The precipitate then is filtered ofif and washed completely with boiling water on the filter. The solution is acidulated with 10 E HCl, evaporated to dryness on a sand bath, cooled, 50 cc. of E HCl poured on to the residue and heated until all that is soluble is dissolved. It is then filtered, the insoluble residue washed till free from chlorides, the solution diluted to 100 cc, heated to boiling, E BaClz added until no further precipitation takes place, allowed to stand twelve hours, and the BaSO^ filtered off and estimated. The silica is dried, ignited in a weighed platinum crucible, cooled and weighed. It should be tested for im- purities, such as TiOi, AI2O3, &c., by evaporation with HaSQt and HF, and if any residue is left it is to be examined and taken into account. The bases left on the filter, which may contain CaO, MgO, FejOa, AI2O3, are dissolved off with about ANALYSIS OF BOILER SCALE, ETC. 95 10 cc. of 10 E HCl, with addition of a few crystals of KCIO3, the filter is washed with water, 5 cc. of 5 E AmCl added and the solution diluted to 100 cc. 20 E AmHO is taow added until the solution is just alkaline, boiled, and the FejOj and AI2O3 filtered off and determined by the method given on page 89. E ammonic oxalate is noAv added to the filtrate until no further precipitation takes place, stirred, the calcic oxalate allowed to subside, after which it is filtered off, and the CaO estimated as directed on page 90. E sodic phos- phate is added to the filtrate until no further precipitation takes place (if there be no immediate precipitate about 10 cc. will be found sufficient), allowed to stand at least twelve hours, the amraonio-magnesic phosphate filtered off, the MgO determined as described on page 154, the potash and soda estimated in the filtrate as described on page 90, and the CO2 estimated as described on page 88. The composition of a boiler incrustation will depend upon the heat that it has been subjected to. That part which is nearest the iron and the heat will contain less carbonic acid than that on the surface, owing to its being driven off by the heat from the carbonate of lime and magnesia present, with the formation of caustic lime and magnesia, which eventually become con- verted into hydrates as the boiler cools down. In order to determine the combined water, about i grm. is ignited over a blow-lamp until it ceases to lose weight. By this means the com- bined water and carbonic acid and free moisture are driven off, and by subtracting the amount of carbonic acid and free mois- ture from the loss, as found in another portion, the proportion of combined water is obtained. The following is an analysis of a boiler scale by the above process by Stillman : — Per cent. Silica and Clay . . . . . .1170 Ferric Oxide and Alumina . . . .2-81 Sulphate of Lime I -69 Carbonate of Lime . .... 5*45 Carried over 21-65 96 ORES, LIMESTONES, ETC. Per cent Brought forward . 21.65 Carbonate of Magnesia . . ■ 7-36 Calcium Hydrate (CaO, HaO) . • 13-70 Magnesium Hydrate (MgOHuO) . 56-37 Moisture driven of at loo° C. . 0-69 Undetermined .... 0-20 99-97 By a slight modification many other substances can be analysed by the above process, such as clays, fire-bricks, fur- nace slags, &c. Analyses of Siliceous Materials. Glenboig , Firebrick. Newcastle Dowlais Sheffield " Firebrick. Firebrick. Canister. Silica . 62-10 58-00 97-5 89-04 Alumina 33-IO 36-50 1-4 S-44 Ferric Oxide . 3-00 1-67 o-SS 2-65 Lime 0-90 0-50 0-15 0-31 Magnesia trace 0-90 o-io 0-17 Potash 0-90 2-12 — — Soda — •30 — ~ Loss on Ignition — — — 2-30 99-99 99-70 99-9f Analyses of Various Clays. (Dr. Miller). Washed Kaolin. Stour- bridge Fire Clay. Pipe Clay. Sandy Clay. Blue Clay. Brick. Clay. Chinese St. ;Yrieii. Cornish. Silica Alumina . Ferric Oxide Lime Magnesia . Potash and Soda Water 33-7 1-8 0^8 1-9 I1-2 48-37 34-95 1-26 trace 2-40 12-62 . 46-32 39-74 0-27 0-36 044 } 12-67 64-10 23-15 1-85 0-95 10-00 53-66 32-00 J -35 0-40 trace 1 2 -08 66-68 2608 1-26 0-84 trace 5-14 46-38 38-04 1-04 1-20 trace 13-57 49-44 34-26 1-48 5-14 1-94 999 99-60 99-80 100-05 99-49 100 -co 100-23 100-00 ANALYSES OF SLAGS, ETC. 97 AvKKAGE Analysis of Blast Furnace Slag. (Thorpe), Silica .... • • 41-85 Alumina • 1473 Ferrous Oxide 2-63 Manganous Oxide . 1-24 Lime .... • 30.99 Magnesia • 4-76 Potash . 190 Calcium • i-is Sulphur 0-92 Phosphoric Acid . . 0-I5 IOO'32 A good mixture for lining a " Basic " Bessemer converter :- Magnesia Lime . Silica .... Alumina and Oxide of Iron 37 SI 8 4 100 Analyses of Mill-Furnace Slags. Dowlais. Wasseral- fingen. Sweden. Riley. Rammels- berg. Dugent. Noad. Ferric oxic Ferrous ox Manganou Alumina Lime . Magnesia Silica . Sulphur Ferrous su , Phosphoric Copper e . . ide . s oxide phide acid . . 66-01 o-ig 2-47 o-8i 0-27 28-71 O-II 1-22 trace 8-49 55-36 0-36 tiace 34-00 6F83 0-74 trace 33-47 S-oo 52-50 9-60 32-00 1-95 0-25 9979 98-21 100-04 101-30 Iron, per c 5nt. . . 51-34 49-0 51-20 45-34 PART III. FUELS—SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. At a time when fuel has become such an expensive commodity, the consideration of its quality, heating power, and economic apphcation, becomes a matter of great importance to engineers and steam users in general. In determining the value of a solid fuel such as coal, coke, and patent fuel, it is necessary to estimate the amount of moisture, volatile matter, coke and its quality, sulphur, the amount of ash left on the incineration of sample, together with the calorific and evaporating power — (i) Theoretically, from a knowledge of the percentage of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen found to be present, by an elementary organic analy- sis of the substance ; or (2) Practically, by igniting a known! weight in a calorimeter in oxygen, and ascertaining the amount of ice that has been melted, or observing the increase in temperature of a known weight of water ; or (3) By ascertain- ing the amount of lead reduced from its oxide, by a known: weight of the sample. This last method, however, is not often: adopted for calorific power, the amount of lead reduced being; a measure pf the reducing power of a sample, rather than the' amount of heat that it is capable of evolving. ! The calorific and evaporating power of fuels, estimated by^ the foregoing methods, must only be taken relatively. Thej actual highest practical value of any fuel would depend very; materially upon the kind of furnace used, and the regulation of an appropriate influx of air, so as to insure complete, com- bustion. The heat carried up the flues by the products of ESTIMATION OF MOISTURE AND ASH. 95 combustion should, if- possible, be reduced to a minimum, so as to obtain the most economic results. Liquid fuels are now coming to the front, and, judging from recerit experiments made on locomotives in South Russia, where petroleum is plentiful and cheap, and coal comparatively dear, they seem to have the advantage over coal. The specific gravity, flashing point, and the calorific power obtained prac- tically by slightly modifying the process as used in the case of coals, or by calculating it theoretically from the percentage of carbon and hydrogen found to be present, would be valuable data for guidance as to their selection. Sulphur, generally speaking, is present in so small a quantity as to be not wortla consideration. With regard to gaseous fuel, the principal heat-giving ingre- dients usually present are hydrogen, gaseous hydrocarbons (marsh gas, defiant gas, &c.), and carbonic oxide. The deter- mination of these, and the calculation of their respective calorific values on combustion, would convey an estimate of their efficiency for heating purposes. Estimation of Moisture and Ash (Solid IFuels). — Weigh out 3 grms. of the fairly averaged powdered sample in a shallow platinum dish, dry in an air bath regulated to 105° C. for one hour, allow to cool in a good desiccator, and weigh j the loss is taken as moisture. Coal and cokes should not be allowed to dry for more than one hour, otherwise the result obtained for moisture will be too low, owing to the oxidation of the pyrites present, by the air. The dish with the dried sample, is now cautiously heated to redness in a muffle, until it is seen that all carbonaceous matter has been eliminated, allowed to cool, in the desiccator and weighed.' It is once more heated in a muffle for about five minutes, and again cooled and weighed. If the weight is unaltered from that of the last weighing, the increase in weight over the dish, is the amount of ash left by 3 grms. of sample, which can easily be expressed centesimally. The amount of lOO FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. ash left by different samples is very variable, some coals show- ing only 7 per cent., while others as much as 20 per cent. Estimation of Coke and Volatile Matter. — i grm. of the sample is carefully weighed into a small porcelain crucible provided with a cover, cautiously heated to redness by a large Bunsen burner for two minutes, and then heated for an addi- tional two minutes at a higher temperature over a gas blow- pipe ; it is then allowed to cool in a desiccator and weighed. The loss =: moisture + volatile matter ; and the residue = coke -f- ash. The coke is tested by means of a penknife, to ascertain it it is friable or compact. A little of it is placed on platinum foil and ignited, and a note made as to whether it burns freely or not. Mr. G. E. Davis makes an interesting classification ot coals, according to the amount of coke they are capable of producing : — (i) Splint coal, burning with a long flame, and yielding from 50 to 60 per cent, of powdery or slightly caked coke. (2) Gas coal, or coal of a bituminous nature, burning with a long flame, and yielding from 60 to 70 per cent, of fused but deeply seamed coke. (3) Smithy coal, or true bituminous coal, burning with a long flame, and yielding 68 to 75 per cent, of fused compact coke. (4) Caking coal, burning with a short flame, leaving from 75 to 82 per cent, of fused compact coke. (5) Anthracite or smokeless steam coal. Estimation of Sulphur. — Sulphur is a very deleterious constituent of coal and coke, both for boilers and metallurgical purposes. Very small quantities finding their way into " pig " iron, will render the latter unfit for steel-making, while the sulphurous vapour formed by its combustion in boilers, cor- rodes fire-boxes, boiler-tubes, &c. The disagreeable odour in our underground jrailway tunnels, SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FUELS. 10 1 is largely attributable to compounds of sulphur (sulphuretted hydrogen, bisulphide of carbon, &c.), mainly brought about by the distillation of fresh portions of coals, thrown on to the red- hot coke in the fire-boxes of the locomotives. Sulphur exists in two forms in coals and cokes, being present as iron pyrites (FeS2), technically termed " brasses," and sul- phate of lime (CaSOj). The sulphur, present as iron pyrites, alone appears to affect the economic application of the fuel. To determine the total sulphur present, weigh out 2 grms. of the sample and mix thoroughly with 5 grms. of pure pow- dered nitrate of potash. Add this mixture in small portions at a time, to 8 grms. of pure anhydrous sodic carbonate kept in a steady state of fusion in a capacious silver crucible by means of the oxidising flame of a Bunsen burner. The cru- cible should be tilted, and the flame kept as far from its mouth as possible, to pre vent .the access of sulphur compounds, from the gas. When the mixture has been fusing for about tea minutes, after the addition of the last portion of the sample, allow to cool. The crucible and its contents are now put into a 200 cc. beaker, 100 cc. of 2 E HCl poured on, digested until all that is soluble is dissolved, the crucible taken' out, rinsed with water, the solution evaporated to dryness, heated on sand bath to about 130° C. to render silica insoluble, moistened with 5 cc. of 10 E HCl, diluted with distilled wat-erto 100 cc, filtered and washed, the filtrate diluted to about 300 cc, and heated nearly to boiling. 10 cc. of an E solution of baric chloride are now added, the solution well stirred, and allowed to stand in a warm place, if possible, for about twelve hours. The supernatant liquid is now syphoned off, and the precipitated baric sulphate (BaSO^) carefully filtered through a No. 2 Swedish filter paper, and washed till free from soluble matter with hot water. The filter paper is then spread out on a watch glass, and put to dry in a water oven : in the meantime a srpall porcelain crucible is carefully weighed. When the filter is dry, the BaSO^ is brushed into it, the filter burnt separately, and its ash added to the main portion. The crucible and its 102 FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. contents are then ignited at a dull red heat in the oxidising flame, allowed to cool, and weighed. Increase in weight = BaSO, + ash. Subtract ash, then BaSO, X -1373 X loo _ * 2 percentage of total sulphur. The sulphur present as sulphate of lime is determined by boiling 5 grms. of" sample with about loo cc. of a 2 E solution of sodic carbonate ; the .sulphur is by this means converted into soluble sulphate of soda ; dilute and filter, acidulate with 10 E HCl and estimate sulphur as above. On subtracting the sulphur thus found from the total, the amount of sulphur present as pyrites is obtained. Estimation of Nitrogen. — Owing to the small quantity of nitrogen usually present in fuels, it is best determined volu- metrically. The following is the process devised by Dumas. A combustion tube about 120 cm. long is selected, sealed at one end like a test tube, cleaned, and dried. A layer of pure bicarbonate of soda 15 cm. long is first introduced, then a layer of copper oxide 20 cm. long, then an intimate mix- ture of 1*5 grm. of the sample with oxide occupying 30 cm., then 30 cm. of coarse copper oxide, and 20 cm. of small copper turnings ; the tube is now connected by means of a good fitting cork with the bent delivery tube, b. Fig. 11, and placed in a combustion furnace. The further end of the tube containing the bicarbonate is then gradually heated to the extent of 6 cm. Carbonic acid gas is evolved and sweeps the air out of the tube ; after the gas has been coming off for a few minutes, the end of the delivery tube is dipped under mercury contained in the trough, m, and the issuing gas tested for air, by inverting a test tube filled with a 5 E solution of potassic hydrate over it. If the gas as it comes in is com- pletely absorbed, all air has been eliminated ; if not, continue the heating until the desired point is attained. The graduated tube, A, which is filled f with mercury and J with a 5 E solution of potassic hydrate, is then inverted over the end of the delivery tube and held in position by the clamp, k. The ESTIMATION OF NITROGEN IN FUEL. 103 combustion is now proceeded with. The fore part of the tube containing the copper is first cautiously heated to redness, and the heat gradually extended to the further end until the point where the sample ends. When no more gas comes off from the sample, the other half of the bicarbonate is heated ; the second crop of COj thus produced drives any nitrogen still left in the tube into A. When the volume of gas in the tube, A, is no longer diminished by the absorption of any CO2 that Fig. II. may still be present, even on shaking, the tube is transferred, by means of a small dish filled with mercury, to a deep vessel containing water. The mercury will then be displaced by water ; the tube is pushed into the water until the levels of the liquids are coincident, when the volume of nitrogen is noted, together with the temperature and barometric pressure. The volume observed is reduced to 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure ; and inasmuch as the gas is measured over water, allowance must be made for the reduced pressure caused by the tension of aqueous vapour at the temperature observed. The following is an example of an actual determination of nitrogen in a sample of South Stafford coal : — I04 FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. Volume of nitrogen observed . . . . 25 cc. Temperature ....■■■ ^5 ^• Barometric pressure 75^ ™™- The tension of aqueous vapour at 15° C. is equivalent to 1 2-677 mm. of mercury. Taking i cc. of nitrogen at 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure as weighing '0012544 grm., then the percentage of nitrogen by weight in the sample is — 25 X 273 X (758 — 12-677) X -0012544 X io o_ (273 + 15) X 760 X i-S 1-943 per cent, nitrogen. Estimation of Carbon and Hydrogen. — The principle of the method adopted for the determination of carbon and hydrogen depends upon the fact that when a fuel is burnt in excess of air or oxygen, or any oxidizing substance, the carbon is oxidized into carbonic acid gas (CO2), while the hydrogen is converted into water (OH3), evolved as steam. A known weight of the sample being taken, it is ignited with chromate of lead, or with copper oxide and oxygen or air ; the products of combustion, CO2 and OH,, are absorbed by appropriate re- agents, and weighed separately, from which the amounts of car- bon and hydrogen present are deduced by a simple calculation. The following is the modm operandi of the process : — Select a wrought-iron tube 20 — 22 mm. in diameter and 115 cm. long ; oxidize inner surface of tube by heating it to redness in a combustion furnace, and passing a current of steam through. A layer of recently ignited coarse oxide of copper, about 20 cm. long, is pushed into the middle of the prepared tube and kept in position by plugs of copper gauze, placed one each side ; a sheet-iron "boat about 30 cm. long, is nearly filled with recently fused and powdered chromate of lead, and introduced into the tube, which is placed in a combustion furnace and heated below the fusjng point of the chromate, a current of dry air being passed through, to rid the tube of any moisture. The gas is then put out and the tube plugged and cooled. The boat is then taken ESTIMATION OF CARBON AND HYDROGEN. 105 out, and from -3 to "5 grm. of the powdered sample, free from water, is quickly and thorouglily mixed with the chromate, and replaced in the tube ; a similar boat filled with recently reduced metallic copper is introduced at the other end of the tube, and the whole placed into the furnace and coupled up to the neces- sary desiccating and absorption apparatus. Fig. 12 shows the apparatus ready for a combustion. ^ is a cylinder containing a 5 E solution of potassic hydrate, which absorbs the great bulk of CO2 present in the oxygen or air used for the combustion ; it is coupled to a gas holder by Fig. 12. means of the tube t, and to the cylinder, k, which is filled with fragments of soda lime, which completes the absorption of CO2. The U tubes a a, are filled with dry granulated calcium chloride, which completely absorbs atmospheric moisture. They are connected to the combustion tube by means of the pipe, ;«;,■ the bulb tube, n, contains dry calcic chloride which serves to absorb the water brought about by the combustion of the hydrogen in the sample. The bulbs, b, contain a 5 E solution of potassic hydrate, which absorbs the CO2 produced by the combustion of the carbon, f is a small tube containing calcium chloride, which serves to retain any moisture carried mechanically from b by the issuing gas. Before proceeding with the combustion, n and b are accu- rately weighed separately and attached to tube as in sketch ; I06 FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. all joints having been insured air tight, the gas is turned on at the end of the tube containing the reduced copper, and a gentle current of air made to pass through the apparatus, when it is at a dull red heat. The gas is then gradually turned on until the boat containing the sample is reached. Care is here required, and the heat should be gradually raised to full redness, when the chromate will fuse, and the sample will soon be completely oxidized. After it has been insured that the combustion is complete, the calcium chloride tube, n, and potash bulbs, b, are detached and weighed. The increase in weight of the CaCU tube, multiplied by •iiii, gives the amount of hydrogen in quantity of sample taken, and the increase in weight of the bulbs, B, multiplied by "27273 gives the amount of carbon present in the quantity of sample taken. In estimating the carbon and hydrogen in non-volatile liquid fuels, the two boats are filled with copper oxide, the weighed liquid absorbed in one of the boats, and the combustion pro- ceeded with as above ; or if it be a volatile hydrocarbon it is weighed into a small thin glass tube, with a loose stopper, and dropped into the boat, due care being taken that the combus- tion is not hurried, otherwise vapour will escape unoxidized. The following is an example of the results obtained for car- bon and hydrogen in a Scotch bituminous coal, when -5 grm. was taken : — Weight of CaClj tube before combustion . . . 30-4562 „ „ after „ ... 30-6884 Water absorbed -2322 -2322 X -IIII X 2 X 100=1-5-159 percent, hydrogen. Weight of potash bulbs before combustion . . . 52-0318 „ „ after „ ... 53-4296 CO2 . . 1-3978 I '3978 X -27273 X 2 X 100 = 76-244 per cent, carbon. Estimation of Oxygen. — There is no ready method for the direct determination of oxygen in complex organic compounds. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FUELS. 1 07 It is as a rule estimated by difference. Having a knowledge of the percentage of all other ingredients present in the sample, adding up and subtracting from 100, the remainder is taken as oxygen. The Specific Gravity of Coals, &c. — It is often desirable to know the amount of space that a given weight of coal will occupy, and the determination of the specific gravity thus Ijecomes necessary. To obtain this a small flask provided with a thermometer stopper, and holding a definite weight of water at a known temperature — usually 15° C, which is previously accurately ascertained— is taken, and 2 to 3 grms. of the sample weighed into it ; water is then added, and the coal allowed to soak in it for some time, so as to eliminate air from the pores. The bottle is then filled with water at the standard temperature and again weighed. The specific gravity is obtained as follows : — Let W ^ weight of sample in air R =^ weight of flask + water Ri =: weight of flask + water + sample Then, "W Specific gravity = ^ _|. j^ _ ^^ The weight of a cubic foot of the sample in pounds is ob- tained by — . log. specific gravity + 179588 := log. weight of cubic foot. The number of cubic feet in a ton = I '55437 — log. specific gravity ^ log. cubic feet. It is very important in determining the specific gravity of coals and cokes, to insure that all air has been driven out of the sample by the water before diluting and weighing. An example may be given of the error that would be involved if this precaution were not taken. Mr. Crookes, F.R.S., obtained I08 FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. the following : 276 grms. of coal gave a specific gravity of I -309 at 64° F., immediately after filling the flask with water ; after soaking twelve hours the specific gravity had increased to 1-328 for the same temperature. So that the latter deter- mination would make a cubic foot of this coal weigh 82-76 lbs., and the former only 81-58, or i'i8 lbs. less. Specific Gravity of Liquid Fuel. — The specific gravity of liquid fuels can in the majority of cases be determined at 15° C. by the hydrometer in the usual manner. It sometimes happens, however, that liquid fuels are too thick to obtain an accurate result by this means, and it has to be determined by the specific gravity bottle ; or if too thick for this, by plac- ing a drop in a cylinder of alcohol at 15° C, and adding water until it remains stationary in any part of the fluid in which it is placed, a glass rod being used for the purpose. The specific gravity of the fluid is then taken with the hydrometer, and the specific gravity of the sample is thus attained. (See page 189). The Plashing Point. — The temperature at which the vapour coming off from liquid fuels ignites when mingled with air, on the application of a flame, is of some importance. The lower the temperature at which the vapour is capable of ignit- ing, the more care, of course, will be required with its handling, storage, transport, &c. The flashing point can be determined in the manner directed on page 206. But in cases where the flash of the oils is above the temperature of boiling water, the oil cup is to be placed in an air bath and heat applied direct with a flame, which is kept under the bath the whole of the time, the rest of the process being conducted as described. Determination of the Calorific Value of Solid and Iiiquid Puels by Thompson's Calorimeter. — In this method, which is now most extensively used in estimating the heating power of fuels, a known weight of sample is ignited with an oxygen mixture in a copper cylinder, in a known CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUEL. 109 weight of water, the temperature of which is first accurately observed. From the increase of temperature of the water, due to the combustion of sample, the comparative heating and evaporating power can be deduced. The French unit of heat, is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of i grm. of water through 1°^ C, or more correctly from 0° to 1° C. The calories as here expressed are the number of grms., lbs., or any unit weights of water raised i" C. by the combustion of 1 grm. or i lb. &c., of the sample. These can be converted into British Thermal Units : 4 ^ > 2000 cc BO°F d: ts i B tt r B SO. J d Fig. 13. viz., lbs. of water raised i'' F. by i lb. of sample, by multiply- ing by f . For coals and cokes, 2 grms. of the finely powdered and dried sample, are thoroughly mixed with 26 grms. of a finely powdered and dry mixture, of chlorate of potash, 3 parts, and nitrate of potash, i part, on a sheet of glazed paper. By means of a flexible steel spatula, the mixture is introduced in small quantities at a time infe the copper cylinder b. Fig. 13, each addition being pressed with the same pressure, with the rounded end of a test-tube, so that a fairly uniform combustion can be relied upon. When all has been brushed in, a short length of fuse (prepared by soaking lamp cotton in a strong solution of nitre, and drying) is pushed into the mixture, and no FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS, about half an inch allowed to protrude. It is then fixed into the brass stand c. The glass cylinder d, having been charged with 2,000 cc. of water, the condenser a is fixed over b into c, held firmly by the clutches k. The whole is then pkced into D, and moved up and down in the water until the tempera- ture of the latter is fixed. The temperature is recorded by a very delicate thermometer graduated to -aV of a degree Centi- grade. The temperature of the room is usually higher than the water, so that a little hot water or ice (as the case may demand) must be added, until the differences are about as follow : — Room at ° C. 27 23 20 16 13 10 6 Water should be 21 18 IS 12 10 8 S Dififerences 6 s S 4 3 2 I When this is accomplished the apparatus is lifted out of the cylinder D and the condenser detached. A light is then ap- plied to the fuse, the condenser quickly replaced, and the whole plunged into the water ; when gas appears through the holes at the bottom of a the time is noted, and an observation made as to the regularity of the combustion. When the combustion is at an end, which should in most cases occupy not less than 60 seconds, the stopcock of a is opened and a wire forced down the pipe to clear it ; the whole is then moved up and down in the liquid with the thermometer until the temperature has attained its maximum, and the increase is then noted. Often there is a small quantity of sample that has escaped combustion ; and to make allowance for this, the liquid is made acid with hydrochloric acid, and evaporated to a small bulk in a porcelain basin. The residue is filtered off", washed, dried, brushed into a tared crucible, dried and weighed ; it is then ignited in a muffle, cooled, and again weighed ;' the loss is assumed to be the carbon and hydrogen unburnt. To ascertain the temperature this would raise the water if completely burnt in the calorimeter : Let V = combustible matter minus water in 2 grms. sample, C amount of carbon and hydrogen found to be unburnt, and Ti the rise in tempera- CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS. Ill ture in calorimeter, then the temperature Ta corresponding to C will not be far short of, Tix C V The following is an example of the determination of the heating power of a sample of Welsh steam coal by the above process : — Temperature of room I7'25°C. „ ,, water before combustion . 13-20° C. „ „ after „ . . 20-30° C. Increase in temperature 20-3 — 13-2 . = 7-10° C. Allowance for temperature of C and H imburnt -21° C. 7-31° C. Absorption of heat by calorimeter TTi; . . z= '73° C. Total 8-04° C. 8'04 X 1,000 = 8,040 calories — that is, pounds of water heated i" C. by i pound of sample. The latent heat of steam being 537 thermal units, the eva- porative power (lbs. of water evaporated at 100° C. (212° F.) by I lb. of coal) becomes = i4'Q7. ' _ 537 On determining the heating power of substances rich in hydrogen — such as patent and liquid fuels — the oxygen mix- ture is diluted with from "5 to 3 grms. of dry kaolin clay. The combustion is sometiines difficult to start ; in most cases, how- ever, this may be overcome by the employment of a little gunpowder or coal mixture with the fuse, the calorific value of which has been previously ascertained; and the temperature corresponding to the amount taken, must be subtracted from the increase of terriperature observed. Calculation of the Theoretical Calorific Values of Solid and Liquid Fuels from the Chemical Analysis. — Carbon and hydrogen are the only elements in solid and liquid 112 FUELS— SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. fuels that may be considered the source of their heating effici- ency, consequently the amount of heat that would be expected from them would be thought to depend entirely upon the re- spective amounts of these elements present in the fuel. The quantity of oxygen present, however, has to be taken into account, which is assumed to be combined with its equivalent of carbon or hydrogen as the case may be, and renders so much of the latter incapable of generating heat. The amount of heat rendered ineffective by the quantity of oxygen present, will depend upon whether the latter is supposed to be combined with carbon, or hydrogen. The amount of carbon rendered latent by a given quantity of oxygen, would be three times the amount of hydrogen rendered latent by the same quantity of oxygen. The heat given out in the combustion of hydrogen is always the same, but in the case of carbon it depends upon whether it is oxidized to its maximum as carbonic acid (CO2) or to its minimum carbonic oxide (CO), so that carbon can have two calorific values according whether the product of combustion be CO or CO2. In practical working, great loss of heat would be entailed if the carbon were not oxidized to its full, as the following shows : — Calories. The heat generated by the combustion of i grm. car- bon to carbonic acid is = 8080 While the heat generated by the combustion of the same weight of carbon to carbonic oxide is . . =: 2473 Loss of heat by production of CO . . . . =: 5607 From accurate determinations made by Favre and Silber- mann it has been found that the amount of heat generated by the combustion of hydrogen is 4*265 times as great as the heat given out by the combustion of the same weight of carbon to carbonic acid. The relative calorific power of fuels may be deduced from the following formulae : — CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUEL. "3 (i.) Fuel containing carbon only . . p =z C. (2.) Fuel containing carbon and hj-drogen p = C + 4"265 H. (3.) Fuel containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen p = C + 4-265 (H- 1^0.) where, p = relative calorific power C, H and O =: amounts of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen present in i part of fuel. If it be required to express the calorific power of a fuel in heat units then — (i.) p = 8o8oC. (z.) p = 8080 C + 34462 H. (3.) p = 8080 C + 34462 (H - ^ O). The following table gives the calorific values of several sub- dances as calculated from the above formulae : — Composition of fuel. ■S S-o S| Fuel. g (3 ■• Ss , 1 s 1 . §■ g ■-U ^S8 °UM 1 I- ■B -S 3| -30. |il fii w Regnault. Roldue (near Aix-la- ChapeUe 1-367 90-72 3-92 4-42 0-94 Swansea . 1-270 90- ss 3-60 4-10 1-72 \ Sabl6 Vizille . 1-750 1-730 87-22 94-09 in 3-39 2-85 6-90 1-90 \ Jacquelin. Isere 1-650 94-00 1-49 3-58 4-00 ) 128 FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. Table showing the Progressive Diminution of Hydrogen AND Oxygen from Wood to Anthrasite. {Prof. Johnson.') Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Disposable Hydrogen. Wood (average) 100 1218 8307 1-80 Peat 100 9-85 55-67 289 Lignite (mean of 15 va- rieties) .... ICO 8-37 42-42 3-07 Coal, South Staffordshire. 100 6-12 2123 3'47 Steam coal, Newcastle 100 S'9i 18-32 3-62 Portrefelin coal, S. Wales. IOC 4"7S 5-28 4-09 Pennsylvanian anthracite . . 100 2-84 1-74 2-63 Analysis of Patent Fuels. (Admiralty Investigation^ Kind of Fuel. Si •e i 1 S % "a CO 1-62 1 < i Warlich's patent fuel IIS 90-02 S-S6 trace 2-qi 8s-i Livingstone's steam fuel . 1-184 86-07 4-n 1-80 i'4S 2-0^ 4-S2 Lyon's patent fuel . I -13 86-36 4-')6 1-06 I-2q 2-07 4-66 Wrlam's „ I-IO 79-91 .S-69 1-68 I-2S 6-63 4*84 6s-8 BeU's 1-14 87-88 <;-22 0-81 0-71 0-42 4*g6 71-7 Holland & Green's patent fuel .... 1-302 70-14 4-65 ^•'5, — — 13-73 — COMPARATIVE VALUE OF VARIOUS COALS. 129 Average Value of Coals from Different Localities. - ia«« ! , u it a I a .1 ■ a Locality. IS- go % ' Pi •Si s ill S| M J, ■S3 s H Results obtained in ex jieriments on cobesiv "power of coals (pel centage of lar^e coals 1 m h Average of 37 samples 1 from Wales . 90s !448-2 S3-I ,42-71 60-9 .I'42 Average of 17 samples ) from Newcastle . / 8-37. i4ii-i ,49-8 45-30 67-5 0-94 Average ot 28 samples ) from Lancashire . / 7-94 i447-6 497. 45-15 73-5 .1-42 : Average of S samples ) from Scotland , . ,770 431-4 50-0 49-99 73-4 1-45 1 Average of from Der' 8 samples \ )yshire . ) 7-58 4327 47-2 47-45 So-g I-OI ; i Com PARATIVE VAlUES jOB WfeLSH Steam Coals. 1 (Portsmouth Dockyard Experiments.) ' 1 Lbs. of water Percentage- j evaporated by I lb. of coal. of clinkfer and 1 ash. Nixo I's Navigation . i 10-05 5-37 Way be's Merthyr ■ ■ ^ 10-05 S-37 ThoiJ ias „ 9-79 5-47 Nauhndyn „ » 9^62 5-48 Ynsfto . 9-52 6-76 MerthyrDare . 9-45 5-481 , Resqlven Merthyr 9-41 604 . Ihsolies . 9-37 6-52 1 Averages 9-65 S-8i Results of Evaporative Duties of Newcastle and Welsh Coals in the Coal-Testing Marine Boiler at Kevham Steam Factors'. Coal. S 1 1^ in III pi 1 First Series. sq. ft. cwts. lbs. cub. ft. cub. ft. lbs. (With common doors.) Welsh, Wayne's Merthyr, Resolven, Merthyr Dare, GelUa, Cadoxton . 14-0 1-93 iS-44 32-4 231 10-42 Hartley Main Newcastle . 14-0 2-32 I8-S6 34-S 2-46 9-22 J Welsh 1 Hardey . I4-0 1-92 15-40 30-4 2-17 9-81 2 1. 1 ,, • • 14-0 1-76 i4'o8 28-7 2-05 IO-I2 I .. 2 „ . . I4-0 1-96 15-70 30-7 2-20 9-72 (With perforated doors.) Hartley Main . 140 2-06 16-50 30-2 2-i6 9-10 Second Series. (With common doors.) Welsh— Powell's Duiftyn, Nixon's Navigation, Davis's Merthyr . I4'0 2-09 16-68 37-1 2-65 II-O? Newcastle — Davidson's ^J Hartley, HasUng's Hatt- 1 Welsh ^' Hartleys ; '. 14-0 14-0 2-29 203 18-29 16-24 34-S 34-4 2-46 2-46 9-39 10-56 2 ,. I „ 14-0 2-43 16-36 3S-0 2-56 10-61 Welsh .... 14-0 219 17-48 39-3 2-8o ii-i6 Third Series. (With perforated doors.) Welsh coal . . 14-0 1-87 14-95 32-7 2-34 10-86 Hartleys .... ^ Welsh 1 HarUeys . 14-0 14-0 2-13 2-i8 17-04 17-44 32-8 37-1 Pet 9-61 10-54 2 „ I „ 14-0 2-o8 16-64 35-7 2-55 10-64 I .. 2 „ Davidson's Hartley . i4*o I4-0 2-l8 2-86 17-42 22-88 36-S 42-9 2"6l 3-06 10-39 9-31 10-80 JHarUeyJWeUh . 14'0 2-30 18-40 31-0 ■3 2-22 Fourth Series. (With smaller grate area. With common doors.) Welsh coal J Welsh small J David- 10-5 2-II 22-46 38-3 3-65 11-31 son's llartley lo-S 2-02 21-60 26'0 3-43 11-06 1 Welsh beans | Hasting's J** w Hartley lo-s 2-14 22-85 36-7 3-50 10-65 Fifth Series. (With perforated doors.) Hartleys .... ^ Welsh 1 Davidson's lo-s 2-29 24-40 42-0 4-00 11-42 Hartley lo-s 2-10 22-34 39-3 3-74 11-65 DISPOSAL OF HEAT. 13 1 DisposAii OF Hkat of Combustion of Coal burnt under Steam Boilers, and Composition of the Products of Combustion. The following are results obtained by MM. Scheurer-Kest- ner and Meunier in 1868 in a French boiler at Thann. ( Vide Bulletin de la Sod'etk Industrielle de Mulhouse.) sq.ft. Heating surface of heaters 301 '3 „ „ -boiler 129- 1 Total of boiler . 430-4 Heating surface of feed heaters 764"0 1,194-4 Direct heating surface exposed. to fire . . . 32-3 Area of fire-grate ig'3 Area of air-spaces through grate .... 5-5 Ratio of grate area to total surface of boiler . . i to 22-3 Ratio of grate area to total surface of boiler and fuel heaters I to 63 The average composition of the Ronchamp coal used in the experiments devoted to the analysis of the chimney gases was as follows : — Carbon ^o Hydrogen ... .4 Oxygen .... .4 Nitrogen . . . I Ash 21 132 FUELS— SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. Analysis of the Product of Combustion of Ronchamp Coal under a French Boiler at Thann. i 3^ ■a it ii Composition of the Gases. •3 u !&' 1 1^ 12 II 9 H 13 10 tbs. 8-2 9-6 9-6 8-2 8-2 4-7 19-0 34 lbs. 30-8 30-8 iS-4 iS-4 iS-4 13-2 mins. 4 10 i 2 ID p.c. 14-9 14-2 14-6 13-4 133 12-9 10-9 8-2 p.c. ■84 ■97 ■86 •24 p. c. riS- i-ii ■S6 1-41 ■91 ■96- •19 0-4 p. c. I -35 i-ii •S6 1-41. •96 •19 •52 p. c. 75- 1 72-5 70-I 63-7 677 59-7 45*9 37-4 p. c. 6-7 lo-s 13-3 20-9 17-6 26-2 42-8 S3-8 cu. ft. IIO-O ll6-2 134-7 144-5 147-5 156-6 198-3 2605 Carbon and Hydrogen in Escaped Combustible Gases. No. of Experiments. Per cent, of Total Carbon. Per cent, of Total Hydrogen. Temperature of Gases leaving Feed heaters. In 0»de. In Hydro- carbons. Total. 12 11 9 14 '3 8 10 7 4-1 5-0 S-2 i-S II-4 to- 2 5-9 4-1 15-6 15-3 II"2 S-7 6-1 3-9 3-4 -9 19-5 167 9-9 26-9 17-S 197 4-7 177 119° c. 128 126 13s 93 156 94 It appears from these results that the most effective combi- nation is arrived at when about one-third of the gaseous pro- ducts consists of free air. DISTRIBUTION OF HEAT. 133 Influence of Excess of Air. — The following table shows lae innuence 01 e: wald coal : — cccss 01 aii; in i I sing rneanc i 1 nsinai ana Alt 1 Friedrichsthal Coal. . Altenwald Coal. Free Air. Lbs. Water Evap. Free Air. Lbs. Water Evap. Per cent. perlb. ofCaal. Per cent. perlb. of Coal. 40 6-8o '' 3S 7-06 36 6-46 ; 33 7-28 30 6-38 , 32 7-02 27 6-19 ■■ 30 679 27 6-23 28 6-8s 24 S-68 i • '25 >6-7r 23 5-80 ■■ 1 1 *3 t , 6-66 Distribution of the Heat of Combuation.— For the comparison of the absolute heat of combustion of coals, the boiler, firegrate, &c., in this case had the following dimen- sions : — sq. ft. Area of iire-grate 4-6 feet long by 4-47 feet wide . . 20-6 Katio of grate to heating surface of boiler . . . i to 21 „ to total service of boiler and feed heaters i to 5 cu. ft. Total capacity of boiler 423'6 „ „ feed heaters 3I7'7 Water room in boiler 335 '3 Steam room in boiler ;....;. 88-3 sq. ft. Heated surface of brickwork for conduction and radia- tionofheat , above I1290 The following are the results obtained with various coals in the above boiler : — 134 FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. 1^ Kg .0 i Temperatures. i 1y Coal. U d" £ •a ^ Ash. CO £ £t3 M .s's 4 1 i ss II lbs. Ronchamp, No. 3 . 7,82s I.S2-.3 24-7 17 6s 132 17-3 4-46 8-77 No. 4 . 7i77S 160-7 29-1 21 71 i.3« 15-8 4-84 y49 Sarrebriick (mean of 7 coals) .... 7, SCO I wo 31-0 20 72 >3o 14-0 4-72 8-17 Blanzy, Hontceau . 7,067 «.3S-4 z.S-9 18 6.S 160 12-0 4-60 r**? „ anthracite . 7,"S 'S2-3 30-5 16 64 «7S 24-4 4-S« 8-i8 Creusot, anthracite . «,P4«> 269-0 47-b — 72 144 91 4-60 10-53 Crensot, f ; Ron- champ, i , , . 8,s6s 230-1 36-2 II 67 132 13-4 4-71 10-54 Creusot, f ; Ron- champ, J . . . . 8,6^0 214-q 34-2 8 62 I4,S i.S-9 4-71 9-«3 Wood, charcoal . . 8,080 2SO-1 42-S ~ ~ iSS OS 9-2 The absolute heat of combustion of the fuels was estimated from the above to have been distributed about as follows : — per cent. Heat in the steam (about 60 lbs. pressure) . . .61-0 Heat ungenerated in the combustible gases • . ■ S'S Heat lost in the clinker and ash . . . . . 1-5 Heat carried o£Pin the gaseous products of combustion . 5-5 Heat ungenerated in the smoke carbon .... -5 Heat absorbed in the evaporation of the bygrometric water, and water newly formed .... 2-5 Heat lost in the brickwork 23-5 Total .... loo-o Holden's System of using Liquid Fluid on Locomotive AND Stationary Boilers. By this system liquid fuel and air are introduced into the fire-box above a thin layer of solid incandescent fuel by means of a special injector, Fig. 16, and burnt in combination with the solid fuel, without any alteration of the fire-box, other than the insertion of one or more tubes through the casings, the boiler so fitted being equally suitable HOLDEN'S LIQUID FtlEL INJECTOR. 135 for the use of ordinary fuel. The internal arrangement of the injector varies, according as the appliance is to be used with Fig, 18.— Locomotive Pattern. Holden's Liquid Fuel Injector. the boiler of a stationary engine, as in Fig. 1 7, or with the boiler of a locomotive engine, as in Fig. 18. The use of this method results in effectual combustion, entire 136 FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. absence of smoke, intense and regular heat, and great economy of fuel. Slack, inferior coal, lignite, cinders, wood, peat, or saw- dust may with equally good results be used as solid fuel. The air necessary for combustion, not having to be introduced through the fire, a very small amount of draught is required, and in the case of locomotives the orifice of the blast pipe may advantage- ously be enlarged from 50 to 60 per cent., thus reducing the wear and tear of the fire-box, tubes, smoke-box, and chimney, prevent, ing the emission of sparks and ashes, and conducing to economic and efiicient working by the diminution of back pressure. The Steam Pressure in a boiler fitted with the apparatus can be regulated with great nicety, as the solid fuel required is only sufficient to form a base for ignition, and the steam pressure can be promptly increased or reduced by varying the quantity of liquid fuel. For locomotives this is specially advantageous, as in the case of an exceptionally heavy load, strong wind, ad- verse gradient, or an engine employed piloting or shunting, a good supply of steam can be quickly ensured and easily main- tained. On the other hand, if an engine is suddenly stopped by signals, or has to put by for other trains to pass, the genera- tion of steam can be immediately stopped. In the event of tubes or stays leaking, or an engine having to face a bank towards the end of a journey when the fire is dirty, steam can be maintained and the train worked with the help of liquid fuel,, when without it it would probably lose time and come to a stand. It is therefore submitted that even' in cases where the rela- tive cost of coal and liquid fuel is in favour of coal burning, the advantages to be derived from the system are sufficient to render its adoption desirable as a supplementary means of meet- ing any exceptional demands upon the engine. Results obtained with Liquid Fuel by Mr. James Holden, M.I.C.E., ON the Great Eastern Railway. Experiment on a Small Cornish Boiler. Coal only used. 1887. Consumption during one week from August 15th to LIQUID FUEL, COST OF. 137 20th (inclusive), 74^ hours' work, including lighting up = 8oi^ cwt. = 121*3 lbs. per hour. Cost for 100 hours =12,130 lbs. of coal at iis. per ton = £2 19s. 7id. Coal, Coke, and Tar used. Holdetfs System. 1888. Consumption during one week from June 2Sth tp 30th (inclusive), 87^ hours working ; including lighting up = coal 15 cwt. ^ I9'2 lbs. per hour = cokellJcwt.= 147 „ „ Gas tar 280 gallqns = 35'i „ ,, Total 69-0 Cost for 100 hours := 1,920 lbs. of coal at IIS. per ton = o 9 Sj = 1,470 lbs. of coke at 9s. 6d. ,,^061^ ■=. 3,,Sio lbs. of tar at i2s. 6d. ,, := o 19 ;!_ Total /r IS 2\ Comparative Cost of Liquid Fuel and Coal on Locomo- tives OF THE Gkeat Eastern Railway. % 1 1^ Total lbs. used. Lbs. per Mile. Total; lbs. of Coal, Liquid Fuel, and Chalk per mile. Proportion of Xiquid Fuel and Chalk to Coal used. I'' s-s 1 M i-IFii }| 1 '93 194 951: 95 1 13.511 27.738 10,505 784 14-2 29-1 II'C 8 26-0 291 per cent. 83 £b. d. 9 I S^ 9 4 loj 2-28 2-33 ' I )ifFeren cein fa vou rof Nol 193 engine ' . • 03 Si •OS N.B. . Cost of coal computed at 14/1 1 per ton (Radford coal used). „ liquid fuel computed at ijd. per gallon of n lbs. „ chalk computed at 5/6 per ton. 138 FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS, Comparative Evaporation of Water by different Liquid Fuels injected and sprayed with Holden's Patent Injector. On a small Vertical Boiler about 6-h.p. working AT 50 LBS. PER Square Inch pressure. With Yorks coal 4*7 lbs. water per lb. of fuel „ „ and coal tar 57 „ „ „ „ „ and green oil 6-6 „ „ „ „ „ and astatki 91 „ „ „ On a small Cornish Boiler about 30-H.p. working AT A pressure OF 35 LBS. PER SQUARE INCH. With Yorks coal 8-4 lbs. water per lb. of fuel „ „ and coal tar 9-9 „ „ „ » „ and green oil 10-3 „ „ „ „ „ and astatki 12-3 „ „ „ On A Loco. Boiler working as stationary at 80 LBS. PER Square Inch pressure. With Yorks coal 9-1 lbs. water per lb. of fuel „ „ and green oil 12-9 „ „ „ Evaporative jjower of Liquid Fuel alone. In all cases the figures give evaporation from feed water at •atmospheric temperature. Shale oil about equals green oil for evaporative value. Comparative Consumption of Coal and Oil in Ordinary AND Compound Passenger Locomotives on the Buenos Ayres and Rosario Railway. Four weeks irom 27 May to 25 June, 1887. Distance run. Coal, lbs. Oil, lbs. Total. Per Mile. Total. Per 100 Miles. Ordinary engine. No. 10. Compound „ No. 34. 3,638 111,001 81,350 28-19 22-36 595-24 599-65 ■ 15-12 16-48 Thus the compound burnt 20J per cent, less coal than the PETROLEUM REFUSE AND COAL, COST OF. 139 ordinary engine, but used 9 per cent, more oil j the actual money saving Was 3 dollars 20 cents per hundred miles. The working pressCirein the ordinary engine was 150 lbs. per square inch, and in the compounds 1 60 lbs. The following are very instructive results obtained by Kir. Urquhart on the Grazi and Tsaritsin Railway locomotives, showing the efficiency of petroleum refuse: — Comparative Trials with Petroleum, Anthracite, Bituminous Coal, and Wood, between Archeda and Tsaritsin on Grazi and Tsaritsin Railway in Winter. Train alone. Dis- tance run. Car. Miles. Fuel. Consumption, inclumng ' Lighting-up. Cost of Fuel Irain Mile. Atmospberic Temperature and Weather. No. of Loaded Cars. Gross Load. Total. Per Train Mile. 25 25 25 25 25 tons. 400 400 400 4CX> 400 400 miles. 388 388 194 194 194 194 9,700 9,700 4.850 4.850 4.850 4.850 Anthracite . ( Bituminous ) \ coal . / r Petroleum 5 \ refuse / Anthracite . fWood in 1 \ billets i ( Petroleum j ( refuse J lbs. 31.779 37.557-5 9,462 12,639-5 Cubic ft. 1,071-8 lbs. 7.223 lbs. 81-90 96-53 48-77 55-15 Cu.ft. 5-52 lbs. 37-23 pence. 11-957 14-093 5-487 9-512 8-5 4-188 \ —14° to ( -13° 0. r Strong side 1 wind. ) —6° to ( — ii°C. i Light, side ! wiqd. Prices of Fuel : — Petroleum refuse, 21s. per ton. Anthracite and bituminous coal, 27s. 3d. per ton, Wood, i-47d. per cubic foot. Dimensions of Locomotives : — Cylinders, 185" dia. and 24"strokj. Wheels, 4 ft. 3 in. dia. Total heating surface, 1,248 sq.ft. Total adhesion weight, 36 tons. Boiler pressure, 8 to 9 atmos. ■s Tf 00 N K. a\ 'a\ bo 9 o in 8 00 "O lO C^ CO « 00 J> i> .•* "ci irt b *M lb b i> vQ -^ in CO c< m 00 »-« p '•p CO in vo bt N r^ m CO --j- CO M 00 CO CJ CO 0» ^ CO P* CO N ^ '■t vo r» ■* in r* uo N 00 O t*- p I (b in V tb ^ ' f- m CO CO CO t^ H « in i> { WON p f> 1 tb '■* « '-^ \o '• t-* \D Tf CO (O !' ■g g.'^ ^ £• 13- S- S" CO r* V Cd bi o c* m r* •* "O 3 ^ 3 (a) . g o 01 . s I" M ■^■35 "'33 •a "ab grt "rtiig O 0«0 OQJ. U OOi U UPu ■ 5 s ja p< & Pi a S o O 8 m -°? 1? "S fl *, J3 ja S % \f l-< u M K R in IXi ' fc 0> M m W N 00 o» M a\ CO i> o »p « ;* p* «3 00 « b in y3 in CO "b ^ vo « 6 ^~ CO ^ m m oo CO p* CO CO vo m lO CO « h* 00 p* ■* ^ CO «3 l> "O •* r* r* i> Q CO w •*■ i> _i> a\\p \p N M V in in in "w ■* 00 in in 11 mm-* M \o ->■ m to pi « »-< ^ M 'o\ V Ih in N "in o> 6 o\ o^ « r- t^ ^o w I vo t^ c^ r- m « ? I 00 CO ID ■* '■ F^ CO 00 "o f \0 CO tr* . CO iH oi vo 11 00 -^ ^D 01 CO CO O ■* 00 vD m CO Ol Ht ■ lO t^ 00 ■* oi m CO 00 w b\ ^ u3 tb . m oi « CO CO CO o\ Q C: *^ 1 \0 o uS p^ p I in w r* b r*. CO o "o «3 "0*3 O 0<1)**0 On) O o S d. ^ 8 ,M u 1 1 £ » X u w o I ■I COMPARATIVE VALUE OF LIQUID FUEL AND COAL. 141 The following results were obtained on the above line in summer time : — Train alone. Train Miles. Fuel. Consumption, including Lighting-up. Cost of Fuel ■I?ain Mile. No. of Loaded Cars. Gross Load. Total. Per Train Mile. No. 30 30 30 30 Tons. 480 480 480 480 194 194 194 194 Bituminous coal Petroleum refuse Anthracite Petroleum refuse lbs. 14,084-07 6,175-325 12,784-002 6,103-097 lbs. 72-598 31-831 65-897 31-459 pence. 10-599 3-581 9-621 3-539 Theoretical Evaporative Value of Petroleum Fuel and Coal. Theoretical Chemical Evaporation. Composition. Heating Lbs. of Water ■s Power. per lbs. of Fuel. Fuel. British 51 li la a Mb. Thermal Units. From and at 212= F. Atmo- spheric effective Pressure. lbs. lbs. Pennsylvania!! \ heavy crude oil •886 84-9 13-7 1-4 — 20,736 21-48 ;i7-8 Caucasian light ) crude oil -884 86-3 13-6 o-i — , 22,027 22-79 18-9 (Caucasian heavy crude oil -938, 86-6 12-3 i-i — • 20,138 20-85 17-3 Petroleum refuse drdod English coal, j ■ mean of' 98 sam- j , pies . . ) -92« 87-.1 II-7 '1-2 19,832 20-53 i7-i 1-380 i8o-o S-o 8-0 1-215 14,112 14-61 12-16 1 1 In comparing petroleum refuse (Russian) and anthracite, Mr. Urquhart says that " the former has a theoretical evapora- 142 FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. tive power of 16-2 lbs. of water per lb. of fuel, and the lattei of 12-2 lbs., at an effective pressure of 8 atmospheres, or 120 lbs. per square inch; hence petroleum has, weight for weight, 33 per cent, higher evaporative value than anthracite. Now in locomotive practice, a mean evaporation of from 7 to 7i lbs. of water per lb. of anthracite, is about what is generally obtained; thus giving about 60 per cent, of efficiency, while 40 per cent, of the heating power is unavoidably lost. But with petroleum an evaporation of 12-25 lbs. is practically obtained, giving = 75 per cent, efficiency. Thus, in the first place. I2'25 l6"2 petroleum is theoretically 33 per cent, superior to anthracite in evaporative power, and, secondly, its useful effect is 15 per cent, greater, being 75 per cent, instead of 6 per cent. ; while, thirdly, weight for weight, the practical evaporative value of I2'25 — 7'So petroleum must be reckoned as at least from - — — — =- 63 per cent, to —, — - — = 75 per cent, higher than that of anthracite. Analyses of Various Gaseous Fuels. Analysis of Siemens Producer Gas. (JTrans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng.) 1 2 3 4 5 per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. Carbonic acid . . . • 3"9 8-6 9-3 I'S 61 Carbonic oxide . . 27-3 20'O I6-S 23-6 22-3 Hydrogen .... 8-7 8-b 60 287 Marsh gas ... . ,'■4 1-2 2-7 30 l-O Nitrogen .... 67-4 61-4 62 9 65-9 4C9 Heat units .... 93966 97184 99074 "4939 I64I64 ANALYSES OF GASEOUS FUELS. 143 Analysis of American Natural Gas. {Ford, Jr. I. and S. Inst.) I 2 3 ♦ s per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. Carbonic acid . . . 0-8 0-6 nil. 0-4 nil. Carbonic oxide I'D 0-8 0-58 0-4 l-OO Oxygen . . . . I'l 0-8 0-78 0-8 2-10 Olefiant gas . 07 0-8 0-98 0-6 0-80 Ethylic hydride 30 SS 7-92 12-3 S-20 Marsh gas . . .. 72-18 65-25 60-70 49-58 57-85 Hydrogen . , , 20-02 26-16 29-03 35-92 9-64 Nitrogen . . . nil. nil. nil. nil. 23-41 Heat units . . • 728746 698852 627170 745813 592380 Analysis of the Gases at Different Depths of the Alfreton Blast Furnace. Distance below the Furnace Moutfa. 8 feet 14 feet 20 feet 24 feet 34 feet Nitrogen . . Carbonic acid . Carbonic oxide Marsh gas . . Hydrogen . . Oleiiant gas . Cyanogen . . 54-77 9-42 20-24 8-23 6-49 0-85 50-95 9-10 19-32 6-64 12-42 1-57 60-46 10-83 19-48 4-40 483 56-75 10-08 25-19 2-33 5-65 trace 58-05 37-43 3-18 1-34 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 Analysis of Water-Gas. (i) "Strong" Gas (Dr. Moore). (2) Water-Gas Coke used (Langlois), Water-Gas Coke used (Frankland). Gas made by Beilby' s Process. Carbonic acid . Carbonic oxide Marsh gas . . Hydrogen . . ' 2-05 35-88 4-11 52-76 0-77 4-43 12-000 31-860 1-62 1 54-52 / 13-80 29-30 56-9 21-32 10-72 / nil. I 3^'9 30-77 Nitrogen . . • 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00 144 FUELS — SOLID, LIQUID, AND GASEOUS. Analysis of Gases Issuing from the Mouth of the Bessemer Converter. {Sneltis, I. and S. Inst.) Time after Commencement of Blow,, After addition of 6 Spiegeleisen at Bochum ' mins. mins. nfins. mins. mins. mins. Works. Carbonic acid . . 10- 7 1 8-S9 8-20 VS8 2-^0 1-^4 _ 086 Carbonic oxide . . nU. 3-9S 4-.S2 19-.S9 29-30 31-11 82-6 78-.S,5 Oxygen .... 0-92 — 1-32 Hydrogen . . \ Nitrogen . . . ] 88-37 f 0-88 I 86-58 4 -CO 2-00 2-l6 2-00 2-8 2-52 85-28 74-83 66-24 65-55 14-3 16-38 Composition of Gases in Blowholes of Steel Ingots. [Stead, Clev. Inst. Eng.) Steel containing C = 0-42 p. c. Si = I'oo.p. c. Mn = x'oSp. c. Steel containing C = 0-33 p. c. Si =0-10 p. c. Mn. =o-6gp.c. Steel containing C = 0-I7 p. c. Si = 0-09 p. c. Mn. = 0-89P. c. Hydrogen ..... Nitrogen. ..'... Carbonic oxide . . . . Oxygen 67-ld 30-30 2-6q 86-62 13-29 0-32 0-37 87-21 Il-IS 1-64 Composition of Various Gases. (By -Weight.) N H CO, 1 cjo . i CH4 CtH. Autho- rity. Blast furnace, Scotch . 48-20 0-90 21-70 291-24 ^^-80 .Bell Blast furnace, Askam . S2-5P 0-14 IV47 — . Crossley Blast furnace, Cleveland S8-S4 o-o6 14-32 27-03 __ Stead Producer gas, Siemens . 64-50 6-qS 24!-q2 0-8q 2-7^ Snelus Producer gas, Siemens . 6322 0-65 8-71 2ii-q7 1-45 Producer gas, "Wilson . 61-70 0-90 6-qi 29-158 0-91 Stead Producer gas, Wilson . 62-84 i-ii 8-29 26-33 1-43 Retort-made town gas . ^~ 8-17 "~ 56-1017-12 — VARIABLE BLAST PIPES. Average Composition of Coal Gas. {Thorpe.^ Hydrogen 45"S8 Methane 34'90 Carbon Monoxide 6'64 Ethene 4"°8 Quartene 2-38 Sulphuretted hydrogen .... 0-29 Nitrogen . 2-46 Carbonic acid ... . • • • 3"67 loo-oo 145 Variable Blast Pipes on Locomotives. — An important economiser of fuel on locomotives is the somewhat recent invention by Mr. Macallan, M.I.M.E., of a " variable blast pipe." The appliance is fully under the control of the driver, who can at will regulate an appro- priate influx of air, by increasing or decreasing, as the case may de- mand, the diameter of the nozzle of the blast pipe, by means of the adjustable cap, a, shown in Fig. 19, which is manipulated from the foot- plate by a rod connected with the lever b. It is claimed that on an average a saving of 10 per cent, of fuel is effected by its means. The reason of this is not far to seek. The ordinary blast pipe of locomo- tives has an area such as will cause a sufficiently strong blast to enable the engine to make steam to do its heaviest work, while when doing light work the exhaust steam passes through the same orifice, and consequently causes more fuel to be burnt than is required to raise the required amount of steam. Fig. 19.— Macallan's Variable Blast Fife. PART IV. WATER. It is intended in this section to deal with waters required to be used (i) for boilers, and (2) for drinking purposes. I.— WATER FOR BOILER PURPOSES. Waters largely impregnated with carbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia, are highly objectionable for use in steam boilers, since these salts are deposited as a hard incrustation on the boiler, tubes, &c., causing great inconvenience and waste of fuel, and any considerable quantities of such salts, as chlo- ride, sulphate and carbonate of soda, &c., present in waters, although not causing " hardness," give much trouble in the form of " priming." Waters containing a comparatively large proportion of calcareous and magnesian salts are termed " Hard," while those containing a small proportion are termed " Soft." These qualities are practically determined by the more or less " curd " (lime and magnesian soaps) that is pro- duced, when the water is used with soap. The amount of mineral matter or incrustating substances present in a water, materially depends upon the geological character of the strata through which the water passes or percolates. The following table shows the quality of the water obtained from the various geological strata or formations of this country : — ANALYSIS OF BOILER WATER. 147. Formations, Thickness in Faet. Quality ofWater. Chalk Upper Greensand . Lower Greensand . Purbeck and Portland Beds . Coral Rag and Grit Great and Inferior Oolites Upper Lias Sands . Marlstone or Middle Lias New Red Sandstone Lower Permian Beds 645 to 1,000 100 to 400 20 to 500 to 60 40 200 to 450 20 to 200 30 to 250 to 2,150 Variable. Hard. Rather Hard. Soft and Good. Rather Hard. ,, tt Hard. Soft. Rather Hard. Soft or Variable. Soft. Collection of Samples. — For collecting the water, the stoppered glass bottles known'as "Winchester quarts," holding 2 J litres, are generally found convenient. One of these filled will be sufficient for an ordinary analysis, but when an exhaus- tive examination is proposed at least three will be required. If the water is to be taken from a pump or tap, let a few gallons of the water be run off before collecting ; then fill the bottle to the top to expel any gases, empty, wash out the bottle about half a dozen times with the water, and then fill to within about an inch from the stopper, and tie down. When the water is obtained from a well, tank, or river, the clean bottle is plunged into the water, and the neck kept below the surface, care being taken that no scum, &c., gets into the bottle, and that no mud or sediment is disturbed. When the water is intended to be examined as to its suitability for dietetic purposes, it should be kept in a cool, dark place previous to its analysis, which should take place within forty- eight hours after its collection, since on long keeping, any organic matter may be decomposed by fermentation, &c. In judging of the suitability of a water for boilers, &c.,- the following points must be determined :— (i) Mechanically suspended matter j (2) Total solid matter in solution; (3) Hardness — total, permanent, and temporary ; (4) Chlorine in chlorides ; (5) Alkalinity ; and (6) Qualitative idea of the amounts of sulphates, nitrates, lime, and magnesia present. 148 WATER. This will give a tolerably good idea of. the nature and suitability of water for use in steam boilers, although sometimes a com- plete mineral analysis of a water is desirable. Determination of Suspended Matter. — If on shaking up the sample of water a fair quantity of suspended matter is seen, filter off about 250 cc. of the sample through a weighed filter, wash with distilled water, dry at 130° C, cool and weigh. Increase of weight multiplied by 280 = grs. suspended matter per gallon. Total Solid Matter in Solution. — Accurately weigh a por- celain or platinum dish of about 100 cc. capacity, and measure out 70 cc. of the filtered sample from a pipette into it. Place on a water bath, evaporate to dryness, remove to an air bath regulated to 130° C. for one hour, transfer to a desiccator, allow to cool, and quickly weigh. Place in the air bath for another hour at 130° C, cool and weigh as before. If the second weight is no less than that of the previous one, the increase in weight oyer the dish = total solid matter in 70 cc, and which multiplied by 1,000 gives grains per gallon of solid matter. Determination of Hardness. — The degree of hardness of a water is determined by ascertaining the amount of standard soap solution necessary to form a permanent lather with a defi- nite volume of the sample : the " harder " the water the more soap will it consume, owing to the formation of insoluble cal- cium, magnesium, &c., soaps (" curd "), brought about by the decomposition of the soda or potash soap added, by the salts of the alkaline earths present in the water. The hardness of a water is usually expressed in terms of carbonate of lime, or degrees Clark (i.e., grains per gallon). Dr. Clark being the originator of the process ; and is usually determined in terms of "temporary" and "pertaianent" hardness. By "tempo- rary" is meant that hardness which can be eliminated by boiling the water, by which means the carbonic acid gas which PREPARATION OF STANDARD SOAP SOLUTION. 149 holds the carbonates of lime and magnesia, &c., in solution is expelled, and the carbonates in consequence precipitated. If this boiled water be filtered, the hardness (" permanent ") of the filtrate will be diminished in proportion to the amounts of carbonates filtered off. Carbonate of lime is not, however, completely precipitated by boiling, 2*5 grains per gallon being soluble in water free from carbonic acid. In order to ascertain the hardness, a standard " hard " water and a standard soap solution will be required. Preparation of Standard "Hard Water. ^' — Dissolve i-ii grms. of pure fused calcium chloride in a little water, and dilute to 1,000 cc. at 15° C, or dissolve i grm. of pure carbonate of lime in 50 cc. of 5 E HCl, evaporate to dryness, dissolve in 50 cc. of water, and carefully neutralize any trace of free acid with 5 E AmHO. In either case each cc. of the solution will correspond, or be chemically equivalent, to •001 grm. of carbonate of lime. Preparation of Standard Soap Solution. — Castile soap, which is supposed to be made with soda and olive oil, is much used for standard soap solutions, but the writer has found that it is liable to considerable deterioration on keeping, especially in cold weather, owing to the deposition of stearate and palmi- tate of soda ; and warming up the solution with a view to their re-solution makes it more prone to deposit a fresh crop of pre- cipitate, and in consequence it is never safe to use the solu- tion unless "standardized" previous to use, which necessitates undesirable factors. Sodic oleate, supplied by Hopkin and Williams, London, makes a standard soap solution which suffers very little change on keeping, and can be generally recommended for the purpose. About 13 grms. of it are dissolved in a mixture of 500 cc. of methylated alcohol and 500 cc. of water, and filtered if necessary. It now becomes necessary to standardize it, so that i cc. will be equivalent to •001 grm. of carbonate of lime. In order to effect this, 12 cc. of the standard hard water are run into a 250 cc. stoppered bottle from a burette and diluted to 70 cc. A burette is now filled with the soap solution, which is run into the bottle i cc. 150 WATER. at a time, and the bottle vigorously shaken after each addition, until a point is reached where a persistent lather, lasting for at least five minutes, is obtained. Note the volume required. 12 cc. of hard water should require 13 cc. of soap solution (dis- tilled water itself requiring i cc. to form a lather), but it will be a figure less than this, and therefore the soap solution is too strong, and will require diluting, so that -12 cc. of standard "hard" water will require 13 cc. of soap solution. An example of an actual preparation of a standard soap solution will make matters clear : — 13 grms. of sodic oleate were dissolved in a mixture of 500 cc. of methylated alcohol and 500 cc. of water, and filtered. On testing in the manner described, 12 cc. of the standard " hard" water, diluted to 70 cc, required 11 -4 cc. of the soap solution to form a persistent lather. Now, since 13 cc. should have been required, every 11-4 cc. of the Soap solution left, requires diluting by. 13 — 11*4 = i'6 cc. There were 960 cc. of the solution left, therefore = 84-2, ' ' ii'4 ^ * and 84*2 X I '6= i34"7 cc. more of the mixture of alcohol and water to be added. On adding this quantity, thoroughly mixing, and testing as before, 12 cc; of the standard hard water required exactly 13 cc. of the soap solution. 'Estimation of Total Hardness. — 70 cc. of the clear sample are run into a 250 ccl stoppered bottle, and the standard soap solution run into it in the manner described above, until a lather capable of persisting for five minutes is produced. The number of cubic centimetres required, minus i cc. for the water itself, will give the hardness in degrees Clark, or in terms of chalk in grains per gallon. If the water should require more than 16 cc. of standard soap solution, 70 cc. of distilled water must be added, and the testing continued as before, in order that the lathering may take place uniformly. Or 35 cc. of the sample are taken, diluted to 70 cc, and tested as before; but the result must be multiplied by 2. If the water contains a fair proportion of magnesia salts, there will be a Kttle difficulty in ESTIMATION OF CHLORINE IN WATER. 151 hitting the right point, owing to the slowness with which mag- nesia salts decompose soap ; an apparent persistent lather is formed, which on being allowed to stand a little while and again shaken up, will disappear ; a little experience with magnesian hard waters will familiarize the operator with this peculiarity. The Permanent Hardness. — 250 cc. of the clear sample are poured into a 500 cc. flask, and boiled for one hour, the original volume being kept up by frequent iaddjtions of boiling distilled water free from COj ; after which it is covered over with a watch glass and put into cold wata: for a quarter of an hour to cool. It is now quickly poured into a 250 cc. gradu- ated stoppered flask, diluted if necessary to exactly 250 cc. at 15° C. with distilled water free from COa, well mixed, and filtered. 70 cc. of the well-mixed solution are now poured into the bottle, and the permanent hardness determined as described. Tlie Temporary Hardness. — The temporary hardness, or that hardness removed by boiling, is obtained by deducting the degree of permanent hardness from that of the total. Estimation of Chlorine in Chlorides. — Chlorine is mostly present in water as common salt (NaCl), but it is sometimes present as potassic -chloride (KCl), calcium chloride (CaCU), and magnesium chloride (MgClj), so that it is wise to express the chlorine as chlorides, which of course could be run out in terms of common salt. The chlorine in waters is usually determined volumetrically by a standard solution of argentic nitrate, using potassic chromate as indicator of the end of the reaction. Preparation of Standard Silver Nitrate Solution. — Dissolve 479 grms. of pure nitrate of silver in a little distilled water, dilute to exactly 1,000 cc. at 15° C. and thoroughly mix. Each cc. of this solution will exactly precipitate "ooi grm. of chloride as chloride of silver. AgNOa -f NaCl = AgCl + NaNOs. Method. — Measure out 76 cc. of the sample into a porcelain 152 WATER. . basin of about loo cc. capacity, and add to it two drops of E potassic chromate solution. Fill a burette with the standard silver nitrate solution, and run this gradually into the sample, stirring until the last drop added turns the solution from yellow to yellowish-red, owing to the formation of silver chromate. The principle of the process depends upon the fact, that silver has a greater affinity for chlorine than for chromic acid, and chromate of silver in consequence is not permanently produced until all the chlorine is precipitated, although when the silver solution drops into the sample tinted with potassic chromate, the silver chromate is momentarily formed, but is decomposed on stirring the solution, by the chlorides in excess, thus : AgjCr04 + 2 NaCl = NaaCrOi + 2 AgCl. The number of cubic centimetres required for 70 cc. minus o-i cc. taken up for colouring this quantity of distilled water will represent the chlorine in terms of grains per gallon, and this 117 multiphed by — - will give the number of grains in terms ot common salt (NaCl) per gallon. Determination of Alkalinity. — By alkalinity is under- stood the power of neutralizing an acid, and by noting the amount of standard acid of known strength required to neu- tralize a definite volume of water, the degree of alkalinity can be ascertained. Preparation of Standard — H-iSOi. — Run out from a burette 50 cc. of standard E H2SO4 into a graduated 500 cc. flask, dilute with distilled water to 500 cc. at 15° C, and thoroughly mix. i cc. of this solution will exactly neutralize •COS grm. of carbonate of lime or -0053 grm. of carbonate of soda. Preparation of Cochineal Solution. — Grind about 5 grms. of cochineal in a mortar, brush into a 300 cc. beaker, pour on 200 cc of water and 50 cc. of methylated alcohol, and allow to COMPLETE MINERAL ANALYSIS OF WATER. 153 digest with frequent stirring for a few hours at about 60° C. Filter and bottle. Me^^od.^-Measme off 250 cc. of the sample into a 300 cc. flask, add 2 cc. of cochineal solution, and mix;. if carbonates be present in the water a pink colour will be produced. Treat 25,0 cc. of distilled water in the same manner, when a yellow solution is produced, which will be of service in ascer- taining by comparison the colour indicating the end of the reac- E tion with the — H2SO4 on the sample. Fill a burette with the E Standard — H2SO4, run it into the sample gradually, stirring, until the last drop turns the solution from pink to the colour of the tinted distilled water, and note the volume of solution, required. It is customary to express the alkalinity in terms of grains of carbonate of lime per gallon, and the number of cubic centimetres of — H2SO4 required for 250 cc. of water, multi- plied by -005 and 280, will give the desired figure. Method for the Complete Mineral Analysis of a Water. — Estimation of Silica, Oxide of Iron aud Alumina, Lime and Magnesia. — Acidulate 1,000 cc. of the filtered sample with lb E HCl, evaporate to complete dr)mess in a platinum or porcelain dish, and heat the residue to about 130° C. for about an hour, to render siHca insoluble. Allow the dish to cool, moisten residue with 5 cc of 5 .E HCl, add 50 cc. of water, and allow to digest until all that is soluble is dissolved ; filter off the insoluble residue, which is silica, through a small ashless filter, wash with hot water till free from chlorides, dry, ignite in weighed crucible, cool, and weigh ; increase in weight multiplied by 70 = grains per gallon of silica. The solution is now made shghtly alkaline with 20 E AmHO, gently boiled until the smell of ammonia has nearly all gone off, the pre- cipitated oxide of iron and alumina filtered through a small ashless filter, washed, dried, ignited and weighed. The pro- portion of oxide of iron and alumina in water is usually 154 WATER. SO small that they are estimated and expressed together, and sometimes with the silica in addition. The filtrate from the iron oxide, &c., which should be about 150 cc. in volume, is now made strongly alkaline with, say, 5 cc. of 20 E AmHO, and 5 cc. of 5 E AmCl are added to keep magnesia in solution. 10 cc. of — ammonic oxalate are now added, 2 the solution well stirred, and the precipitated oxalate of lime thus produced allowed to subside for, a few hours, after which it is filtered off through an ashless filter, washed with water, dried in the water bath, transferred to a weighed platinum cru- cible, heated gently at first, and finally for ten minutes to the highest heat of the blow-lamp. The oxalate thus becomes con- verted into anhydrous calcium oxide (lime) ; cool in the desic- cator, and weigh. Increase in weight multiplied by 70 = grains of combined lime per gallon, and this figure multiplied by o'7i43, gives grains of calcium per gallon. The filtrate is now evaporated to about 80 cc, 5 cc. of 20 E AmHO and 6 cc. of E sodic phosphate solution added, well stirred, and allowed to stand in the cold for about twelve hours. The magnesia is thus precipitated as ammonio-phosphate. It is filtered off, and the filtrate used with the aid of a feather to trans- fer the last portions of precipitate sticking to the beaker, to the filter. This method is adopted to limit the amount of wash water used, in which the precipitate is somewhat soluble ; the precipi- tate is finally washed with a minimum quantity of 10 E AmHO. The filtrate is measured, and "ooi grm. allowed for each 50 cc, due to its solvent action on the ammonio-phosphate. The pre- cipitate is dried, carefully ignited to a bright red heat in a weighed platinum or porcelain crucible, cooled, and the resulting pyrophosphate of magnesia (MgjPaO,) weighed. After adding the amount that was dissolved by the ammoniacal solution, multiply by "2162 and 70, and the figure obtained expresses grains per gallon of magnesium. Estimation of Potash and Soda. — 1,000 cc. of the sample are evaporated to about 50 cc, about o-is grm. of caustic baryta added, the solution boiled for a little while, and the precipi- ESTIMATION OF' ALKALIES IN WATER. 155 tated carbonates, hydrate of magnesia, Sac, filtered off. 5 E AniaCOa is now gradually added until no further precipitate of carbonates of baryta and lime is produced. After allowing to settle, they are separated by filtration, the filtrate being received in a weighed platinum dish. The solution now contains the sodium and potassium in the form of chlorides, together with ammoniacal salts ; it is acidulated with i o E HCl, evaporated to dryfiess, and the residue cautiously heated with the naked flante of a Bunsen burner to expel ammoniacal salts, which are driven off as dein'se fumes. Great care must be taken that the heat apphed does not exceed very dull redness, or the chlorides of the alkalies will suffer loss by volatilization. After fumes have ceased to come off, the dish containing now KCl + NaCl is cooled in a desiccator and weighed. If the proportion of K and Na present be required, proceed as follows : — Dissolve in 10 cc. of water, add 4 cc. of E. platinic chloride, evaporate on water bath to a pasty condition, digest with 10 cc. of methy- lated alcohol, decant off the clear liquid from the precipitate of double chloride of platinum and potassium (2 KCl.PtCU) through a weighed filter, add 5 cc. more alcohol to the residue, digest, and decant as before, repeating the digestion a third and fourth time, finally transferring the precipitate to the filter with the aid of a feather and a stream of alcohol from a small wash bottle. The filter and its contents are now dried in a water oven and weighed between two tared watch glasses. The weight of the 2 KClPtCUthus obtained, multiplied by o"307o= KCl ; subtract this from the weight of KCl + NaCl as obtained above j remainder = NaCl. Then — KCl X •5244 X 70 = grains K per gallon, and • NaCl X -3934 X 70 = „ Na „ Estimation of Sulphates — 1,000 cc. of the clear sample are acidulated with 10 cc. of 10 E HCl, evaporated to about 250 cc. in a porcelain basin, transferred to a 300 cc. beaker, heated to boiling, 10 cc. of E baric chloride solution added, well stirred, and allowed to stand twelve hours. The resulting 156 WATER. baric sulphate is then filtered off, washed, dried, scraped in a weighed crucible, filtered, ignited separately, residue added to main portion, ignited at' a dull red heat for ten minutes, cooled and weighed. BaS04 x '412 X 70 = grains combined SO4 (sulphion) per gallon. Estimation of Nitrates. — A very neat method of estimating the proportion of nitrates and nitrites in waters, is the adoption of Cram's method for the refraction of nitre, in which process the determination is deduced from the volume of nitric oxide gas given off when a concentrated so- lution of the sample is shaken up with 36 E H3S04 and mercury, in a gradu- ated tube termed a nitrometer. The following is the manner in which the process is carried out : — 500 cc, or more if necessary, of the sample, are evapo- rated to dryness in a porcelain basin, and the residue drenched repeatedly with small quantities of hot water, the solution of the nitrates being assisted by rubbing the residue with the clean finger. Filter into a small beaker, and wash the residue with a little hot water to ensure complete solution of all the soluble ni- trate. The solution is now to be evapo- rated to a volume not exceeding i^ cc, and poured into the cup, a, of the nitro- meter, Fig. 20, already filled with mer- cury. By lowering the tube d, and opening the tap ■ b, the liquid is made to run into the graduated tube c, and by careful manipulation no air need enter; wash out the beaker with small quantities of water into c (using 3 cc. in all), and then pour 6 cc. of 36 E H2SO1 free from nitrates into the beaker, finally transferring it in small quantities at a time into c through B. Any air or CO2 which is produced is now got rid of by rising, D and carefully opening b. The tube, c, is now taken out of its clip, held at an angle of about 40°, and shaken in this plane. Fig. 20. ESTIMATION OF ORGANIC MATTER. 157 for about five minutes, part of the mercury being thus finely divided and mixed with the liquid. Allow to stand for five minutes, and again shake as before, until no further increase in the volume of gas given oif takes place. Raise or lower d, as the case may be, until the level of the mercury therein is about one-seventh of the volume of the liquid above the level of the mercury in c. Read off the volume of nitric oxide (NO), and note the temperature and barometric pressure at the time. Now since nitric oxide contains half its volume of nitro- gen, the volume of gas thus found represents the volume of nitrogen from 1000 cc. of sample; 1000 cc. of nitrogen at 0° and 760 mm. mercury weigh i'2544 grms., so that cc. of N (at 0° C. and 760 mm.) X'i'2S44 X 70 1,000 grains of nitrogen per gallon, and the figure thus obtained 62 multiplied by — = grams NO3 per gallon. Estimation of Organic Matter. — The accurate determination of total organic matter in a water is attended with difficulties, owing to the decomposition of carbonate, nitrate, magnesic chloride, &c., during the ignition of the residue. However, , a fair idea may be had of the proportion present by the follow- ing method : — Evaporate 500 cc. of the water to dryness in a platinum dish, and dry the residue at 130° C. until the weight remains constant ; we thus obtain the total solid residue. It next becomes necessary to gently ignite so as to burn off- all organic matter at as low a temperature as possible. For this purpose the dish is placed on a pipeclay triangle, fixed to a ring on a retort stand, and a flame, from a Bunsen burner, held in the hand, is made to play on the dish for ten minutes, care being taken that the temperature does not exceed a dull red heat. It is now cooled in a "desiccator and weighed, and the ignition repeated as before until no further loss occurs. The CO2 that has been driven off from the carbonates is now re- placed by evaporating with strong CO2 water, prepared by acting upon marble with 2 E HCl, washing the gas with water, 158 WATER. and saturating distilled water with the washed gas. The dish is filled with COj water thus prepared, and evaporated to dry- ness, the process being repeated four times more, which will be generally sufficient to replace all CO2 lost by ignition. The residue is next dried at 130° C. until the weight remains con- stant. By subtracting this weight from that of the total solid residue the remainder is taken as organic matter. Conversion of Solid Residue into Sulphates. — Often it is sufficiently accurate to determine the amount of combined sodium (disregarding potassium) . indirectly. For this purpose the residue from the determination of the organic matter is evaporated to dryness with excess of E sulphuric acid to con- vert into sulphates, the residue gently ignited with ammonic carbonate, cooled, and weighed. The following analytical data of a complete analysis of a sample of water from the river Wye, at Ross, Monmouthshire, by the writer, illustrate the manner in which the bases and acids are combined, the combined sodium being in this case determined indirectly. River Wye Water. Estimation of Silica, Oxide of Iron, and Alumina. 1,000 cc. taken. Porcelain Crucible marked 4 .... 8-2235 Do. ■\- SiOj 4- FeaOs -f AI2O3 ... •0037 X 70 = 0"259 grain per gallon. Estimation of Combined Calcium. 1,000 cc. taken. Porcelain Crucible, marked 1 . Do. 4- CaO -\- filter ash No. 3 » » ,, 2nd ignition CaO + F.A. F.A. CaO 8'2262 •0037 6-4129 6-4450 6-4449 •0320 •0017 •0303 X -7143 X 70 = 1-52 grains CaO per gallon. •0303 RIVER WATER ANALYSIS (ANALYTICAL DATA). 159 Estimation of Combined Magnesium. 1,000 cc. taken. Porcelain Crucible, marked 2 . . . . S-igoa Do. -{- MgjPsOv 6-2052 „ „ 2nd ignition .... 6-2052 -0150 Allowing for solubility of precipitate in ammoniacal solution -0026 Mg2P20T . . -0176 -0176 X -2162 X 70 = 0-27 grain Mg. per gallon. Estimation of Sulphates (SOt). 1,000 cc. taken. Porcelain Crucible, marked B .... 6-4129 Do. + BaSOi + F.A. No. 2 .... 6-4412 ,, „ ,, „ 2nd ignition . . 6-4412 ■0283 F.A. . -0009 •0274 •0274 X -412 X 70 =: 0-79 giain SO4 per gallon. Estimation of Chlorine in Chlorides. 100 cc. taken. I cc. standard AgNOs = -001 grm. CJ. 100 cc. sample required -95 cc. standard AgNOa. ■95 X '7 = '67 grain chlorine per gallon. or — i_ ^:^ I -I grain common salt (NaCl) per gallon. Total Hardness. 70 cc. of the sample requiried 6 cc. of standard soap solution to produce . a persistent lather for 5 mins. 6 — i =: 5° Clark. Estimation of Nitrates. 500 cc. taken. NO liberated 0-2 cc. Temperature 19° C. Barometric pressure 29-25"- l6o WATER, V = -^X 273X29-25 ^ .,8, ,,. ,t ,,0 ,^d 760. (273 + 19) 3° Now a litre of nitrogen at o° and 760 mm. weighs f2544 grms. — ^-^ = -000228 grm. N. ■ 1000 * •00023 X 70 = '01 6 1 grain N per gallon, -0161 X 62 . „„ „ ^ ^ -0713 gram NO3 per gallon. 14 Alkalimiy, I cc. standard — H3SO4 = -005 grm. CaCOs 250 cc. of sample required 2-7 cc. of — H3SO4 for neutralization. 27 X -005 X 280=3-78 grainsper gallon, expressed as carbonate of lime. Estimation of Organic Matter, 500 cc. taken. Grms. Platinum Dish . . . . . . . 40-7432 40-7946 40-7944 40-7843 40-7818 Do. + residue dried for 2 hours at 130° C. . J, »j ^ ») • „ „ ignited 10 mins. dull red heat „ „ „ 2nd 10 mins. dull red heat . » » » y^ !, „ » 40-7804 )f >; .. 4**1 I. » » 40-7800 After evaporating four times with CO3 water and dried at 130° C 40-7924 After evaporating once more with CO2 water and dried at 130° C 40-7925 Organic matter . . " -0019 ■0019 X 2 X 70 = 0-27 grain organic matter per gallon. Coniieriion of Solids into Sulphates. 500 cc. taken. Platinnm dish + sulphates, after ignition with am. carb. . 40-8010 „ „ after 2nd ignition with am. carb. 40-8008 „ .. » 31'd „ „ „ 40-8008 ,, 407432 •0576 •0576 XI2 X 70 = 8-o6 grains per gallon. RIVER WATER ANALYSIS (ANALYTICAL DATA). l6l Tabulated Results. Grains per gall. Organic matter O'Z" Inorganic matter 6-90 Total Sulphate formed .... 8-o6 Calcium i'S2 ^ Magnesium 0-27 Silica, Oxide of Iron, and Alumina . . 0-26 Sulphion (SO4) . • • • • 079 Chlorine . . . ■. . . . 0-67 Sodium (by calculation) .... 0-41 Nitrion (NO3) . .' . • • . 0-07 Carbonates (CO3) 2-41 6-40 and these may be combined as follows : — LS?JliI = s.,7CaS0,. •27 X S = i-3SMgS04. CaSOi + MgS04 + SiOs, &c. = 6-78. 806 — 6-78 = 1-28 Na2S04. 71 : 23 : : f28 : a; =; '41 Na. 46 : 117 : : •41 : a; =: 1-04 NaCl. i'04 — -41 := -63 combined CI used. ■67 — -63 = "04 CI remaining. 71 : III : : -04 : a; ^ -06 CaCla. •06 — "04 = "02 Ca used. 1-52 — "02 = i'5 Ca remaining. 31 : 41 : : •oy : X — = -09 Ca (NOaja. •09 — -07 =: "02 Ca used. i-j — -02 = i'48 Ca remaining. 12 : 17 : : -79 : * = I-I2 CaS04. I • 1 2 — -79 := "33 Ca used. 1-48 — "33 ^ l';5 Ca remaining. 2:5:: 1-15 : a; = 2-88 CaCOs. 2:7:: 0-27 : x,^ "95 MgCOs. M l62 WATER. Grains per gall Sodic Chloride .... I -04 Calcic Chloride O'o6 Calcic Nitrate 0-09 Calcic Sulphate .... I-I2 Calcic Carbonate .... 2-88 Magnesium Carbonate 0-9S Silica, Oxide of Iron, and Alumina . 0-26 Organic Matter .... 0-27 6-67 Remarks. — Solids gave a slight odour of peat on ignition. Colour (before and after filtration) brownish-yellow. Suspended matter very small. Reaction : very slightly alkaline. Owing to the small proportion of incrustating salts present, this water is of first class quality for use in steam boilers. The following ingredients were obtained by Stillman in a sample of water by the method described on the opposite page :— Grains per U.S. gallon. Silica 0-4771 SO3 I'20I2 CI 0-3206 K2O o-02gi NaaO 0-3615 MgO 0-4490 CaO I'I3I3 FeaOaAlaOs 0-2973 Organic I'I2S4 Carbonic Acid 0-7989 Oxygen in excess of CI 6-1914 0-0932 6-0982 Having determined the component parts of the water residue in grains per gallon, it becomes necessary to unite these in chemical union, as near as possible, as they exist in the water. The general rule may be stated as follows : — The chlorine is combined with the sodium ; if still in excess, with the potas- sium, then magnesium, and finally calcium. The sulphuric acid is combined to the alkalies, provided there is not enough ° «t« a -a o^ J' »d EH 00 Pd rt-o^" O o So CO +> « (3 r t« oO — u.! « IP'o H -a CO ° w S 3 " t' hi fe (J ..S «i '*' rt u fl g g < §1 3 §■358 H u 3 0) S 3 > O SY?s •- §■§ go -a ■3k = a s^o « O K n-- O 4-1 o o g ft'tJ lo d o o u -1 O ■Ss "•a ■■2S (0^ 8 85 M w rt 1 in'*' .-S-gl ■°s 83 i2 &s ■°rt °g SB . o rt > > rt « ■• §■■- «) S 1^ :^ uj-a K-^ ^ B rt vd • 1.2 E rt o E *- m'a .ab O ■|g.|'a«t!r ft >* jj a ^ o o Id C " s •ssa&iss 9t3 a w * O'C * aT3 ■oja S §■" Sja '^ S ■g-" S g[aB^.aj3 13 & • m ^jf-a-ifO !£sSMSES5=§.a3l •■ffiU ' S £ J '* a 3 oq a 3 SoS J3 , «4) si'Soz.a, <]i3h ^ (4 m li^Si^B ;Q'gu5"'ad ■''^ 5 ^ u fe tja 13 CK a O -a — O O O S-afS£'g"i • l^o.s»sS jO'a ,^B a ° ts o a) BtialZigWMS Ji'S l"'S.SfB«'3- 1*3 . •35 3 « So- «ir^i^ a to O i I .tJ bo ■• fl'S • lo-aM S'^ a M ^c/3 nJ rt O 164 WATER. chlorine to saturate them; then to the calcium, and finally to the magnesium. The carbonic acid is united with the calcium and magnesium after the other combinations are made.. There are exceptions to this rule ; mineral waters and many artesian well waters form- ing notable examples. Carrying out the above, the following is obtained : — Grms. per Grains per U.S. gallon. litre. NaCl 00091 NaaSOi 0-0033 K2SO4 o-ooog CaSOi 0'03ii CaCOs 0.0118 MgCOs 0-0162 FejOsAlzOa .... 0-0051 SiOj 0-0082 Organic, &c 0-0193 0-5306 0-1923 0-0524 I -8136 0-6880 0-9446 0-2973 0-4771 I-I2S4 Total . . 0-1050 6-1213 This analysis shows, that the principal scale-forming ingre- dient is calcium sulphate, being more than equal to the carbon- ates of calcium and magnesium. The following analysis is of a water containing sulphuric acid, but the alkalies being present in sufficient amount to ■ combine with all of it, as well as the chlorine, no sulphate of lime is present. Grms. per Grains per litre. U.S. gallon SiOa . 0-0038 0-2215 SO3 . 0-01 10 0-6414 CI . . . . 0-0062 0-3615 K2O . 0-0033 0-1923 NaaO . 00185 1-0788 MgO . . . 0-0165 0-9388 CaO . . 0-0466 2-7175 AlaOaPezOs . .. 0-0020 ■ O-I166 Organic Matter . 0-0246 I -4345 Carbonic acid . • 0-0530 3-0908 0-1855 10-7937 Oxygen in excess of CI . 0-0021 . 0-1834 0-1224 Total 10-6713 ANALYSES OF BOILER WATERS. 165 Combined as follows : — n™. „„ r™:.,..,., Grms. per Ijrams per litre. U.S. gallon. NaCl 0-0154 0-8900 NaaSOi 0'0I4I 0-8223 K2SO4 o-oo6i 0-SSS7 CaCOs 0-0833 4-8577 MgCoa 0-0338 1-9710 AlzOaFejOa .... 0'0O20 o-ll66 SiOa 0-0038 0-2215 Organic 0-0246 l"434S Total . . 0-1831 10-8693 Where all the chlorine is not in combination with the sodium and potassium, chloride of magnesium is usually present. This latter compound, while not scale-forming, is considered an active corrosive agent — upon the supposition that at the temperature of 100° C, and higher, it is decomposed, and hydrochloric acid formed and liberated. The report, given below, is of a water from a driven well in Florida. Complaint having been made that not only was the scale excessive in amount, but that corrosive action was also very marked, an analysis was made, reference to which readily explains the difficulty encountered in the boilers. Grms. per Grains per litre. U.S. gallon. NaCl 0-323 18-87 KCl 0-067 3"9i MgCh 0-104 6°6 CaSOj 0-197 11-52 CaCOs 0-293 1 7' 10 MgCOs 0-144 8-40 SiOz ... . . o-oii 0-62 Al203Fe203 .... 0-007 0-46 . Organic 0-138 8-02 Total . . 1-284 74'86 In all of the above analyses the constitutents have been stated in grains per U.S. gallon of 231 cubic inches, rather than in parts per 100,000, the former being in general use by the me- 1 66 WATER. chanical profession as the proper method by which to express the weights of the component parts of water. The Softening of Hard Waters. — Waters that are ex- cessively hard, and due to " temporary hardness," that is, hard- ness due to the carbonates of lime and magnesia held in solution by excess of carbonic acid, and which can be removed by the boiling of the water, may be conveniently softened by Dr. Clark's process, the principle of which depends upon the formation of carbonate of lime, brought about when hydrate of lime (lime water), is added to such a water. The lime in the lime water combines with the free or incipiently combined carbonic acid gas, thus : — CaO + CO2 = CaCOa. when all except a little over 2 grains per gallon of the car- bonate of lime and magnesia are precipitated, which can be separated by filtration or decantation. In calculating the amount of quicklime — which is to be " slaked " — necessary to remove the temporary hardness from a water, Dr. Frankland states that, " To soften 700 gallons of water, i oz. of quicklime is required for each part of temporary hardness in 100,000 parts of water." The following is an example of the manner in which the amount of lime required is calculated, together with its cost, to remove the temporary hardness from 1,000 gallons of water: — A sample of water had 147 degrees of temporary hardness. 70,000 : 100,000 :: i4'7 : a; = 21 parts temporary hard- ness per 100,000 parts. 21 oz. lime is therefore required for 700 gallons and 700 : 1,000 : : 21 : a; = 30 oz. for 1,000 gallons. ■^o -^ = i*88 lbs. Best lime costs 12/6 per ton of 2,240 lbs. 12/6 = 150 pence. 2,240 : i*88 :: 150 : x = 0-13 pence per 1,000 gallons of water. 7 he J>ermanent hardness, due principally to sulphates of lime ANALYSES OF VARIOUS RIVER WATERS. 167 and magnesia, can nearly all be removed by adding sodic carbonate to the water after the lime treatment, calcium car- bonate and soluble sodic sulphate being formed thus ; — CaSOi + NaaCOs = CaCOs + NazSOi, but the cost of this process is considerably more than that of the removal of temporary hardness by the lime treatment, and if the CaSOi be present in large quantities, its equivalent of sulphate of soda formed would cause " priming " in boilers, which would be very objectionable. Analyses of River Waters.^— The following are analyses of various river waters, expressed in parts per 100,000. : — The Thames at Twickenham. Total solid contents 32-01. Carbonate of Lime . . l8'23 „ Magnesia . 1.47 Sulphate of Lime . . 0-64 „ Soda . . 2-86 Sulphate of Potash Chloride of Lime SiUca Organic Matter . 0-95 2-50 0-39 4-97 The Seine above Paris. Total sohd contents ly-go. Carbonate of Lime . . 9-20 „ Magnesia . 3-90 Sulphate of Lime . .2-00 Sulphates of Soda and Mag- nesia .... Chloride of Lime Silica, Alumina, Iron Oxide I -00 i-oo o-8o The Rhine at Strassburg. Total Solid contents, 23-18. Carbonate of Lime ' . . 13-56 „ Magnesia . 0-51 Sulphate of Lime . . i'47 Soda . . I-3S Chloride of Soda . . . 0-20 Nitrate of Potash Silica Alumina .... Iron Oxide .... 0-38 4-88 0-25 0-58 1 68 WATER. The Rhone at Geneva. Total solid contents i8-20. Carbonate of Lime . . 7 '89 „ Magnesia .' 0-49 Sulphate of Lime . . 4*66 ' „ Magnesia . ' . 0-63 Sulphate of Soda . . 074 Chloride of Soda Nitrate of Soda . Silica Alumina .... 0-17 0-85 2-38 0-39 The Danube at Vienna. Total solid contents i2'62. Carbonate of Lime . . 8-37 „ Magnesia . 1-50 Sulphate of Lime . 0-29 Sulphate of Magnesia . . 1-57 Sulphate of Potash and Soda Silica ..... Iron Oxide .... 0-20 0-49 0-20 The Spree at Berlin. Total solid contents 11 -40. Carbonate of Lime . . 6-50 „ Magnesia . 0-90 Sulphate of Soda . . o-6o Sulphate of Potash . . o-6o Chloride of Soda Nitrate of Soda . Alumina and Iron I -20 0-30 1-30 The following are analyses by Professor Wanklyn, of waters supplied to the Metropolis by three of the principal water companies : — West Middlesex Company. (Grains per gallon). Silica . Carbonate of Lime Sulphate of Lime . 0-3 12-9 2-4 Sulphate of Magnesia . . o-6 Nitrate of Magnesia . . i ■ i Chloride of Sodium . . 2-0 New River Company. Silica . Alumina, &c. Carbonate of Lime Sulphate of Lime 0-26 0-14 1270 i-6o Nitrate of Lime. . „ Magnesia Chloride of Sodium I -00 1-28 2-02 ANALYSES OF SEA WATERS. 169. Kent Company. Silica Alumina, &c. Carbonate of Lime Water Silica, Alumina, &c. Sulphate of Lime „ Magnesia Nitrate of Magnesia „ Soda . Chloride of Soda . Water ' = 18-3 insoluble solids. • =: I2-0 soluble solids. Deep Well Water at Croydon, Surrey. (Grains per gallon). Total solid contents . . 21-6 Sulphate of magnesia _. • 1-4- Silica .... . trace Chloride of soda . . 1-8 Carbonate of lime • 14-1 Nitrate of soda . • '■4- Sulphate of lime . . 1-8 „ potash . i-i Sea Waters. — The following are analyses of various sea. waters, from which it is seen that sodic chloride is present to the extent of nearly 3 per cent., the other constituents being, comparatively small. Mediter- ranean. tUsiglio). Pts. per 1000. 962-345 29-424 0-505 3-219 0-556 2-477 1-357 0-114 0-003 British Channd. Irish Sea. (Schweitzer). (Thorpe). Fts. per xooo. Pts. per 1000. Water. 963-74372 966-14054 Sodic Chloride . 28-05948 26-43918 Potassic Chloride . 0-76552 0-74619 Magnesic Chloride 3-66658 3-15083 Magnesic Bromide 0-02929 0-07052 Magnesic Sulphate 2-29578 2-o66o8 Calcic Sulphate . 1-40662 1-33158 Calcic Carbonate . 0-03301 0-04754 Iodine . traces Ammonic Chloride jj 0-00044 Ferrous Carbonate — 0-00503 Magnesic Nitrate . — 0-00207 1000-00000 1000-00000 Specific Gravity - 1027-4 at 16° 1024-84 at 15° 1025-8 at 21° 170 WATER. According to Dittmar the solids obtained from sea water have the following percentage composition : — Chloride of Sodium . .• . . . 7776 Chloride of Magnesium .... IO-88 Sulphate of Magnesia 4*74 Sulphate of Lime 3'6o Sulphate of Potash 2-46 Bromide of Magnesium .... 0-22 Carbonate of Lime 0-34 II. WATER FOR DRINKING PURPOSES. . No doubt many of the diseases that human flesh is heir to, are propagated through the drinking of water contaminated with those microscopic creatures which, from time to time, have been proved to be the causa causans of such maladies. It is essential, therefore, that the water we drink should be free from those sources of danger. Water should likewise be as free as possible from unorganized organic matter, and a limited amount only of mineral constituents should be present. In judging of the suitability of a water for general domestic use, the following data will usually be found sufficient to form an opinion as to its quality: — Total Solids; Chlorine; Free and Albuminoid Ammonia ; Nitrites and Nitrates ; Hardness; Poisonous Metals; Colour before and after Filtration; Sus- pended matter ; and The Odour of the Water when warmed. In some cases, such as the question of a town supply, a complete mineral analysis will be required in addition. The Total Solids. — These may be determined as directed on page 148. They should be gently ignited; and an observa- tion of the odour given off will serve to show whether any ■organic matter present is of animal or vegetable origin. With FREE AND AI^BUMINOID AMMONIA. 171 regard to the amount of total solid matter present, which may , allow the water to be pronounced fit for drinking, Dr. Wanklyn states that if it does not exceed 30 or 40 grains per gallon there would be no reason for rejecting it on that score. Tlie Chlorine. — The chlorine is to be determined as directed on page 151. The amount of chlorine present in a sample of water proposed to be used for drinking forms an important datum, since it is, within certain limits, an indica- tion of sewage contamination, animal secretions being highly charged with salts in which chlorine is a heavy constituent, whereas natural waters usually contain but very small propor- tions of chlorine, often only one grain in the gallon. Although a water may contain a comparatively high proportion of chlorine, it does not always follow that it is charged with sewage since the geological strata through which the water passes may afford it an unusually high amount of chlorine. A water containing little or no chlorine is sure not to con- tain any sewage, but at the same time it may be charged with objectionable decomposing vegetable organic matter, so that the amount of chlorine present, as seemingly indicating presence or absence of organic matter, must be taken with some reservation. The amount of chlorine in sewage is from 9 to 12 grains per gallon. Free and Albuminoid Ammonia. — The estimation of these bodies, known as Wanklyn's ammonia process, affords valu- able criteria as to the purity of a water, organically considered. The " free " ammonia is that which can be removed by simple distillation of the water, while the "albuminoid" ammonia does not pre-exist as ammonia in waters, but is produced by the conversion of the nitrogen, contained in albuminous or nitrogenized organic matter present, by the action of a solution of potassium permanganate, made strongly alkaline with potas- sic hydrate. The whole of the nitrogen is not liberated from albuminoid substances as ammonia by this means, but the amount given off is a fraction of the total, being thus pro- 172 WATER. portional to the quantity of nitrogenous or albuminoid sub- stances present. The ammonia process requires the following standard solutions, &c. : — Dilute Standard Solution of Ammonia. — Two solutions are generally kept : a strong solution which contains i milligram of ammonia in each cubic centimetre, and a weak solution pre- pared by diluting i volume of the former to loo volumes, which will thus contain "oi of a milligram of ammonia in each cubic centimetre. The strong solution is prepared by dissolving 3' 15 grms. of pure dry ammonic chloride in water, diluting to 1,000 cc. at 15° C, and well mixing; and to prepare the weak solu- tion 10 cc. of the solution thus prepared are run from a burette into a graduated litre flask, and diluted to 1,000 cc. at 15° C. Alkaline Potassic Permanganate Solution. — Weigh out 8 grms. of potassic permanganate and 200 grms. of stick potassic hydrate, into a i J litre basin, add 1,060 cc. of distilled water free from ammonia, and stir until all is gone into solution; the solution is now boiled, until about one quarter of the liquid has boiled off, diluted to original bulk, again boiled down as before, and finally diluted to 1,000 cc. and bottled. It is necessary to give the solution a thorough boiling in order to drive off any ammonia that may be present. Mere evaporation below the boiling point does not appear to be very effective in removing any traces of NHs present. 50 cc. of this solution are required for each analysis, and the amount of ammonia still left in this quantity must be determined by the method herein described, using water free from ammonia in the distillation. If any appre- ciable quantity of ammonia be thus found, it must be deducted from the amount obtained for albuminoid ammonia in each analysis. The Nessler Reagent. — This extremely delicate test for ammonia is prepared as follows : — Weigh out 35 grms. of potassic iodide and 13 grms. of mercuric chloride {corrosive sublimate) in a i^ litre beaker, dissolve in about 800 cc. of hot distilled water, and allow to cool ; a saturated solution of mercuric chloride is now cautiously added until a slight but ANALYSIS OF DRINKING WATER. 1 73 permanent precipitate of red periodide of mercury is produced, the solution being, of course, well stirred during the addition. 160 grms. of potassic hydrate or 120 grms. of sodic hydrate are now added to the liquid and stirred until it all goes into solu- tion, which is finally to be diluted to 1,000 cc. The solution is now to be rendered sensitive by addingat first 2 cc. of saturated mercuric chloride solution, well shaken, and the precipitate allowed to settle. On adding 2 cc. of Nessler reagent to 50 cc. of water containing o"S cc. of the dilute ammonia solution, an immediate yellowish-brown colour should be pro- duced, owing to the formation of dimercur-ammonium iodide NHgzIOHz. If this is not the case the solution is not suffi- ciently sensitive, and more mercuric chloride solution must be added until the desired delicacy is produced. Distilled Water fret from Ammonia. — It is very obvious that, in testing for such minute quantities of ammonia, the water used for diluting, &c., should be free from all traces of ammonia, or must not contain more than '005 milligram in 100 cc. The writer prepares distilled water free from ammonia, by distilling good river water. The first 10 per cent, of distillate is rejected ; the next 30 per cent, put into the ordinary stock bottle, the next 20 per cent, is bottled separately, and will be found tolerably free from ammonia. The rest of the distillate, which contains traces of'ammonia, is put with the ordinary stock. It is needless to remark that all apparatus must be scrupu- lously clean for this process, and that all bottles or any other vessel containing solutions from which ammonia is liable to be given off must be kept out of the room for the time the analysis is on, or locked in a cupboard some distance away, or placed in a good stink closet, provided with a good draught. Estimation of Free Ammonia. — A stoppered litre glass retort is selected, and about 10 cc. of strong sulphuric acid poured into it, which is allowed to moisten the whole of the interior of the retort, after which it is washed out with plenty of tap water until the washings no longer redden blue litmus paper. It is next fixed to a Liebeg's 174 WATER. condenser by means of a piece of stout india-rubber tubing, E that has been previously boiled for some time ma — solution of sodic hydrate, in order to free it from any traces of ammonia. About half a dozen pieces of recently-ignited pumice stone each about the size of a pea are now introduced into the re- tort, which serve to prevent " bumping," and 500 cc. of water free from ammonia poured in. Any water present in the con- denser is allowed to run off, so as to allow steam to pass through to clear out all traces of ammonia. A Bunsen burner is lit under the retort and the water made to boil ; steam will soon find its way through the condenser, and after it has been steam- ing for about half an hour, the cold water is turned on to the condenser and a Nessler cylinder (these are colourless glass cylinders usually 6 ins. high and i^ ins. in diameter, and marked at 50 cc.) is now put under the delivery tube. When 50 cc. have come over, add to it 2 cc. of the Nessler solu- tion and mix by pouring backwards and forwards into an empty Nessler glass. On placing on a sheet of white paper there should be no yellow coloration produced; if there should be, continue the distillation with pure water until the apparatus is free from traces of ammonia. If the sample of water under examination contain much in the way of suspended matter, it will be wise to filter it before subject- ing it to the ammonia process, through a filter that has been previously washed with the pure distilled water till free from ammonia. Any residual water having been syphoned out of the retort, 500 cc. of the clear sample are introduced, aiid a clean empty Nessler glass .placed under the delivery tube of the con- denser. Distillation is now proceeded with, and when So^c, of distillate have been collected in the Nessler glass, it is removed and an empty one put in its place. It now becomes neces- sary to ascertain how much free ammonia is present in the first 50 cc. of distillate?; for this purpose run in 2 cc. of the Nessler solution from a pipette, well mix and place on a sheet of white paper. Observe the intensity of colour produced. If it is of a faint yellow tint there is not much in the way of " free " ALBUMINOID AMMONIA. 175 ammonia present, but if it appears of a rich reddish brown colour a fair quantity is present, and sometimes when waters are highly contaminated with sewage, there is so much ammonia present as to occasion a brownish precipitate. In all such cases it is better to take a fraction of the 500 cc. for distillation, diluting to 500 cc. with the pure distilled water, previous to distillation. A burette graduated in o*i of a cc. is filled with the dilute standard ammonia solution, and a definite volume of it, say 3 cc, run into a clean Nessler glass ; this is diluted with the pure distilled water to 50 cc, 2 cc. of Nessler solution added and well stirred ; it is now placed beside the 50 cc. of distillate, and the colours compared by looking down through the liquids. If the solutions are not of equal depth of colour a fresh standard must be made, using more or less, as the case may demand, of the dilute ammonia solution, and Nesslerizing as before until a certain quantity used produces exactly the same colour as the sample. The " free " ammonia is estimated in the first 50 cc. of distillate only, i of the quantity thus found being added on ; this being the quantity that is invariably pre- sent in the next 150 cc. that are distilled over, before the intro- duction of the potash and permanganate solution for the deter- mination of the albuminoid ammonia. Supposing that 2-5 cc. of the dilute standard ammonia solution were required for the first 50 cc. of distillate, that is, 2*5 x 'oi = "025 milligram of ammonia, then the amount of free ammonia present in 500 cc. of sample will be — - — |- -025 = -0333 milligram, or "0333 X z = '0666 parts per million, or "0666 X "07 = "00466 grain per gallon. The Albuminoid Ammonia. — After the 200 cc. have been distilled over and the free ammonia estimated as described, 50 cc. of the potash and permanganate are introduced into the retort, and the distillation proceeded with as before, Nessleriz- ing each 50 cc. that comes over, three of which are usually sufficient. The following is an example of the determination of the free 176 WATER. and albuminoid ammonia in a sample of water contaminated with a little sewage : — Free Ammonia. 500 cc taken. I cc. of standard dilute AmCl ^ -oi milligram of NH3. 1st 50 cc. distillation required 6-3 cc. = -063 milligram NH3. Correction ^ =: -021 „ „ Total . -084 •084 X 2 = 0*l68 part per million, or, •168 X '07 ^ •01 1 76 grain per gallon. Albuminoid Ammonia. 1st 50 cc. required J5"0 cc. = -050 milligram NH3. 2nd „ „ fS cc. = •018 „ ,, 3rd „ „ 0-8 cc. = -008 „ „ Total -076 ", Subtracting NH3 found in potash solution -005 ,, ,, •0,71 ■071 X 2 ^ 0'I42 part per million, or, 0-142 X '07 = '00994 grain per gallon. Remarks. — ^When the free ammonia in waters exceeds •08 part per million, it is often due to the fermentation of urea, into carbonate of ammonia, owing to the presence of urine, &c., in the water — the chlorine being likewise high ; but there are waters which give a comparatively high proportion of free ammonia, with little albuminoid ammonia, and low chlorine. In such cases the free ammonia may be safely considered of saline or mineral origin rather than from a decomposition of organic pollution. When the albuminoid ammonia is high, and the free ammonia and chlorine low, it is diagnostic of the pre- sence of organic matter of vegetable origin. In such cases the odour given off when the total solid residue is gently ignited, NITRATES IN WATERS. Z77 will be of a peaty or some such characteristic vegetable odour. With regard to the amount of " free " and " albuminoid " am- monia present, that admits of a water being passed or condemned for drinking purposes, Professor Wanklyn states — " If a water yield o'oo part of albuminoid ammonia per million, it may be passed as organically pure despite of much free ammonia and chlorides ; and if indeed the albuminoid ammonia amount to '02 or to less than 0*05 parts per million, the water belongs to the class of very pure water. When the albuminoid ammonia amounts to -05, then the proportion of free ammonia becomes an element in the calculation, and I should be inclined to regard with some suspicion a water yield- ing a considerable quantity of free ammonia along with more than 0-05 part of albuminoid ammonia per million. Free ammonia, however, being absent, or very small, a water should not be condemned unless the albuminoid ammonia reaches something like o-io part per million. Albuminoid ammonia above o'lo per million begins to be a very suspicious sign ; and over o"i5 ought to condemn a water absolutely. The absence of chlorine or the absence of more than i grain of chlorine per gallon, is a sign that the organic impurity is of vegetable rather than of animal origin ; but it would be a great mistake to allow water highly contaminated with vegetable matter to be taken for domestic use." The Nitrates. — The nitrogen present as nitrates and nitrites is to be determined as directed on page 156. Nitrates may be present in waters owing to the solvent action of the water on the nitrates present in the geological strata through which the water passes, or to the decomposition of nitrogenous organic matter present, with the production of nitric and nitrous acid, which in turn act upon the carbonates with the formation of nitrates and nitrites. Dr. Frankland lays much importance on the presence of nitrates in waters as indi- cating past pollution, and although the organic matter is thus destroyed, it may still contain living animalculse capable of propagating disease ; on the other hand, Dr, Wanklyn states N 178 WATER. that "presence or. abundance of nitrates does not show defilement by means of sewage, and deficiency of nitrates does not show absence of defilement." Whether or not the presence of nitrates is a measure of past or present organic pol- lution of a water is immaterial, since we have other means of determining its actual presence ; and, moreover, knowing the filth that enters such rivers as the Thames every day previous to its distribution by the water companies for consumption, and that such waters are pronounced as being wholesome, it seems to be of secondary consideration what the condition of a water was so long as it comes up to the ideal of organic purity as it is. The Nitrites. — A qualitative test for the presence of nitrites may be of interest in ascertaining whether any nitrogenous organic matter present is still decomposing, &c. The presence of nitrites may be quickly determined by the following method: 100 cc. of the water are taken, acidulated with i cc. of 5 E HaSOi, 5 cc. of starch and potassic iodide solution (i grm. of starch and 0*2 grm, of iodide in 100 cc.) added, and well stirred. If any considerable quantity of -nitrites be present, a blue colour of iodide of starch will be at once produced, but if present only in minute quantity, the colour will not be pro- duced until after standing for some time. The Hardness. — The hardness may be determined as directed on page 150. It is always desirable to obtain soft water for laundry and toilet use, since it is more efficient and economic to use as a detergent than hard water, which would require artificial means for softening, such as boiling, or the use of excess of soap or soda. Where the supply of water is excessively hard, rain water, if it can be procured, would be far superior for such purposes. As a general rule, the hardness of a water increases with the total solids. It is said that persons who are predisposed to such diseases as calculus and bronchoceU are liable to propagate it if they habitually drink very hard water. POISONOUS METALS IN WATERS. 1 79 Poisoaous Metals. — A drinking water should always be tested for lead. The presence of this metal is due to the solvent action of soft or faintly acid waters upon lead piping, which is •often used to convey the water ; and a test should likewise be made for copper and iron. A useful qualitative test for copper, lead, and iron collectively is as follows : — Pour 100 cc. of the water into a porcelain basin, add a drop of 5 E ammonium sulphide, and stir. If any copper, lead, and iron be present, a more or less dark colour will be produced, owing to the formation of the sulphides of the metals. If the colour pro- duced is due to iron only, a drop of 5 E HCl will remove it, but will unaffect any sulphide of lead or copper present. If lead is detected by this means it should be determined by Dr. Miller's colorimetric method, as follows: — A standard solu- tion of crystallized lead acetate is first prepared by dissolving o"i83i grm. of the salt in a litre of distilled water, each cubic centimetre of such solution containing '0001 grm. of metallic lead ; 70 cc. of the sample are poured into a white porcelain dish, two drops of 1 7 E acetic acid, and 5 cc. of a saturated solution of sulphuretted solution added, and stirred. It now becomes necessary to imitate the test thus produced by a known volume of the standard lead solution ; for this pur- pose pour about 65 cc. of distilled water into a similar porce- lain dish, add 5 cc. of sulphuretted. hydrogen water, stir, fill a burette with the standard lead solution, and allow it to run gradually into the distilled water, until the tests in both dishes are alike. Each cubic centimetre of lead solution required will represent ^g- of a grain of lead present in a gallon of water. Owing to the serious influence of water containing small quantities of lead on the human economy, all waters containing iV of a grain or upwards of the metal per gallon should be rejected for drinking purposes. Copper. — This metal may be estimated in a manner similar to the above, the solution for comparison being prepared by dis- solving 0*3929 grm. of crystallized sulphate of copper in a litre of water, each cc. containing "oooi grm. Cu. Arsenic, Barium, Zinc, and Manganese, &'c. sometimes find l8o WATER. their way into waters, especially in those mining and chemical works districts where the metals are obtained and worked. The Colour of Waters. — Good drinking water should be free from colour. The colour of a sample of water can be best judged, by filling a colourless glass cylinder about two feet high with the sample and looking down through the liquid on to a sheet of white paper, making a comparison with distilled water contained in a similar cylinder. The Suspended Matter. — The suspended matter if present in appreciable quantity, may be estimated as described on page 148, and it would be interesting to make, if possible, a microscopical search for any low forms of animal or vegetable life that it may contain. Classification of Drinking Waters. — Dr. Frankland makes the following classification of waters for domestic pur- poses: — !i. Spring water ) 2. Deep well water) "^^T palatable. 3. Upland surface water) Sus icious I*- ^'°"^ '■^"' "^^'^^ -> ^""^"^'^^y palatable (5. Surface water from cultivated land \ Dangerous I ^' -^i^^"" water to which sewage gains access ( Palatable. I 7. Shallow well water The following is a classification of waters according to their softness ; — 1. Rain water. 2. Upland surface water. 3. Surface water from cultivated land. 4. Polluted river water. 5. Spring water. 6. Deep well water. 7. Shallow well water. THE POLLUTION OF WATERS. l8l The Pollution of Rivers and Streams. Standards of Purity recommended by the Rivera Pollution Commissioners. — " We recommend that, with cer- tain exceptions in reference to standards d and e, the follow- ing liquids be deemed polluting and inadmissible into any stream : — " {a.) Any muddy liquid which has not been subjected to perfect rest in subsidence ponds of sufficient size for a period of at least six hours, or which, having been so subjected to subsidence, contains in suspension more than one part by weight of dry organic matter in 100,000 parts by weight of the liquid, or which, not having been subjected to subsidence, contains in suspension more than three parts by weight of dry mineral matter, or one part by weight of dry organic matter in 100,000 parts by weight of the liquid. " (^.) Any liquid containing in solution more than two parts by weight of organic carbon, or 0*3 part by weight of organic nitrogen in 100,000 parts by weight. " (tf.) Any liquid which shall exhibit by daylight a distinct colour when a stratum of it one inch deep is placed in a white porcelain or earthenware vessel. " ((/.) Any liquid which contains, in solution in 100,000 parts by weight, more than two parts by weight of any metal except calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium. "((?.) Any liquid which in 100,000 parts by weight con- tains, whether in suspension or solution, in chemical combi- nation or otherwise, more than 0*05 part by weight of metallic arsenic. " (/) Any liquid which after acidification with sulphuric acid contains in 100,000 parts by weight more than one part by weight of free chlorine. " (^.) Any liquid which contains in 100,000 parts by weight more than one part by weight of sulphur in the condition either of sulphuretted hydrogen or of a soluble sulphuret. " (^.) Any liquid possessing an acidity greater than that which 1 82 WATER. is produced by adding two parts by weight of real muriatic acid to i,ooo parts by weight of distilled water. " (/.) Any liquid possessing an alkalinity greater than that produced by adding one part by weight of dry caustic soda to i,ooo parts by weight of distilled water. " {k.) Any liquid exhibiting a film of petroleum or hydro- carbon oil upon its surface, or containing, in suspension in 100,000 parts, more than cos P^"^' of such oil." PART V. OILS. In this section it is proposed to deal with oils in three divisions — (i) Oils for Lubricating, (2) Illuminating, (3) those adapted for special purposes. There is, of course, no hard and fast rule for the legitimate classification of oils in this manner, since some oils, such as rape, would come under the three divi- sions ; but it will be found convenient. (i) Lubricating Oils. A lubricating oil has for its object the reduction of friction and the prevention of an undue development of heat. The result of friction is to abrade solids, heat being given out both in solids and liquids; the amount being the exact measure of the power wasted as a consequence of the friction. The amount of heat generated for each 772 foot pounds of work thus expended, is equivalent to the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of i lb. of water 1° F. Lubricants may be solid, semi-solid, or liquid, and the " body " or " vis- cosity " of them should be proportional to the pressure which will be exerted upon them. They may be fatty (animal or vegetable), mineral, or compound. Soap is a constituent of railway grease, and graphite and steatite are sometimes used for heavy machinery. 1 84 OILS. The following list shows the best purpose to which the various lubricants can be applied : — ^ ,. , f Heavy mineral oils, lard, .tallow, rape oil. For steam cylinders ■ ■ i s^ ^ ,. ,. f Rape oil, lard oil, tallow oil, and medium Ordraary machinery . -X '^. , ., ' ' \ mineral oils. For very great pressures ■)-,... . » ... , J \ Graphite, soapstone, &c, with slow speed . . . > r > r For great pressures | ^^j,^ ,^^^ j^ ^^ ^^_ with slow speed ... J ' ' '^ For heavy pressures ) Sperm oil, rape oil, castor oil, medium ' and high speeds . . . ) mineral oils. For light pressures and i Sperm, refined petroleums, cottonseed, highspeed.. . . . .j rape, oUve, and mineral, oils. Watches clocks &c \ ^'^'^ "'"^''^^ °"'' ''^^''^'^ 'P^""' °''^"" watcnes, ciocKs, Kc. .| foot, olive and porpoise. It may be stated, however, that in all cases where possible, a mineral oil of suitable " body " should be used, especially for cylinders, the high temperature of which decomposes fatty oils, with the production of free fatty acids, which attack copper, iron, &c., forming metallic soaps, which cause much damage to fittings, &c. In judging of the suitability of a lubricating oil, the purpose for which it is proposed to be used being first ascertained, the following points must be determined : — (i) The " body " or viscosity of the sample at the tem- perature at which it is proposed to be used. (2) The specific gravity at 15° C, or in some cases at the temperature of boiling water. (3) The " flashing point," or the temperature at which the vapour evolved becomes ignited on the application of a flame. (4) The percentage of free, fatty, or mineral acids present. (5) The percentage of fatty and mineral oils. (6) The loss the oil suffers when exposed for about twelve hours to the temperature at which it is proposed to work. DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY. 185 (7) The amount, if any, of mineral and organic suspended matters present. (8) The temperature at which the oil solidifies or congeals. (9) A test to ascertain the liability of the oil to gum. (10) The extent of the corroding action of the oil on pieces of steel, brass, bronze, &:c. Determination of Viscosity. — The viscosity or body of an oil, although not an exact measure of unctuousness or greasiness, is one of the most important factors in judging of its suitability for any special class of work. The viscosity should be proportional to the pressure exerted upon the oil — that is to say, an oil for any specific purpose should not be so thick as to cause undue fluid friction, nor so thin that it is squeezed out, leaving the bearings, &c., dry. The viscosity of an oil decreases considerably with an in- crease in temperature ; mineral oils in this respect decreasing, through a given range of temperature, far more than the majority of fatty oils. There is no fixed ratio between the vis- cosities of oils at the ordinary temperature, and the viscosities at an elevated temperature, i.e., two different oils having identical viscosities at 15° C. would in all probability have different viscosities at a temperature, say, of 100° C. The specific gravity of an oil, although valuable as a means in some cases of identification, is no criterion of the viscosity. The best form of apparatus suitable for obtaining viscosities at different temperatures, is that devised by Mr. Boverton Ked- wood, F.R.S.E., &c. Each apparatus is standardized by Mr. Redwood himself, being so adjusted that 50 cc. of a standard average rape oil take 535 seconds to flow out at a temperature of 1 5 '5° C, distilled water taking 25*5 seconds to flow out under the same conditions. The following is a sketch (Figs. 21 and 22) of the apparatus* and modus operandi of the process : — The viscosity tube a is of electro-plated copper 3^^ inches * The standardized apparatus can be obtained from Townson & Mercer, 8g, Bishopsgate Street, E.G., and James How & Co., 73, Farringdon Street, E.G. 1 86 OILS. Fig. 22.— Vertical Section. Redwood's Affaratds for Deiekmihihg Viscosity of Oil DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY. 1 87 high and i|-inch internal diameter. The orifice c is of agate, of definite bore and limited protuberance, and a plug of electro- plated copper suspended to a wire is supplied with the appa- ratus, in order to close it while the oil is being run in and adjusted. The outer jacket e is made of copper, in which water, oil, or any other liquid can be maintained at a definite temperature by the application of a flame to f. The tempera- ture is made uniform by means of the paddles which can be revolved with the handle g. In order to obtain viscosities at elevated temperatures, e is filled with mineral oil of high-boiling point, and heated with a Bunsen until the desired temperature is attained, which is kept constant by the regulation of the flame, and the oil mixed by means of the paddles. The sample of oil to be tested is heated in an air bath to the required temperature, and poured into the viscosity tube a until the surface of the oil just reaches the point of the gauge B. When it is assured that the temperatures registered by the thermometers t and R are the sjime, a small narrow-necked flask holding 50 cc. to a mark made on its neck, is placed under the orifice in a vessel con- taining a liquid heated to the same temperature as the oils^ The plug is then taken out of c, and the number of seconds- that 50 cc. of the oil take to run out, is noted. The temperature at which the viscosity of an oil should be determined, depends upon the temperature at which it is pro- posed to be used. With oils proposed to be used for ordinary machinery, the viscosities should be determined at tempera- tures of 15°, 30°, and 60° C. ; while for cylinders, at tempera- tures of 100°, 120°, and 150° C. The following interesting table by Redwood,* gives the comparative rates of flow of various oils for every rise of 10° F.,. by the above standard apparatus : — * Vide "Journal Soc. Chem. Ind.," v. 128. i88 OILS. 4) I0 ■sH ■ss ■sN i 1 ^§i sSg 0t ssg S§^ S§1 r n (5 u a Is- 13 k r- % m ^li 1° 7I2-S . 620 145 425 1030 2040 2520 bo 54° — — — — 177 470 105 zqs-'; 680 I2^S 1980 — r 40s 406 405-5 407 — 137 3bb 90 22.S 4«S 820 1320 — Ho 32b — — — — "3 280 73 171 375 t;8o 900 — 90 260 — — — — 9b 219 63-5 136 262 426 640 — 100 2I3-S — — — 80-5 175 54 III 200 315 440' 1015 no 169 — — — 70-5 147-5 50 «9-5 I S3 226 335 739-5 120 147 [46 147 147-5 — 6o'S 126 47 7« I2b 174 245 531 130 123s — — — 57 tt2 44-7 S b3-^ lOI i^5-S i«S 398-S 140 'OS'S 106-5 lOb-s 106 — 5' 88-5 41 S« «2 lib 14s 317-5 150 9S-S — — — — 49 75-5 37-S 52 70- 1; 9S "5 250 I bo °5 — — ■ — — 47-5 70 46 63-1 «3-'; 93-S 200 170 7b — — — — 4b 62 — 58 70-5 77-'; 161 180 ^J — — — — 44-5 56-5 — — 52- S 61-5 b7-S 134-5 190 <'4-S — — — — 43 53 — — 47 Sb-S 61 "5-5 200 S>i-5 S7-S 57-5 5«-5 54-5 42 50-5 — — 42 48 54 99 210 S4 — 41 4«-5 — — 40' «5 220 54 — • — — — 39 47 — — 3« — — 77 230 47-S — — — — 37 4b — — — — 70-5 240 4S-S — — — — 3f 44-5 — — — — — 64-5 250 43-S — — — 40 35 44 — — — — — S-J 260 g.i — — — — 34 43-5 — — — — — 54 270 &^s — — — — 33 43 — — — — — 48-5 2U0 s'F — — — — 32 41-5 — — — ■ — — 46-5 290 .gSfe — — — — 31 41 — — — — — 4b 300 i>;tf| — — """ 30 3« — — — — — 42-S The following table gives the number of seconds that 50 cc. of oil (mineral) take to run out of Redwood's Viscometer at various temperatures, and the purposes for which such oils the writer has found to be most suitable : — At 60° F. 140° F. 180° F. 220° F. Sees. Sees. Sees. Sees. Cylinders, valves, and heavy machi- nery Medium machinery, carriage oils, boxes, &c Light machinery, spindles, &c. 540 290 105 52 95 70 ■30 65 54 15 DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 189 Specific Gravity. — The specific gravity of oils is usually determined at a temperature of 15° C, and in the case of solid fats, at any convenient temperature above their ^^ melting points, A quick and fairly accurate specific gravity of oils fluid at the ordinary temperature, may be obtained by the hydrometer (Fig. 23). The oil having been brought to the required tempera- ture in a glass cylinder, the hydrometer is dropped into it J when it stops sinking, the point of the graduated stem, which the tip of the meniscus of the oil just touches, is taken as the specific gravity. In the examination of oils, it will be convenient to keep three hydrometers, graduated from '700 to •800, "800 to "900, and "900 to '1000 respectively. Some oils are too thick to allow their specific gravities being taken with the hydrometer at the ordinary temperature ; in such cases the specific gravity bottle (Fig. 24) may be used — one holding about 50 cc, with a fine hole drilled through the stopper is convenient. The weight of the empty dry bottle being first ascertained, it is filled with distilled water at 15° C, and again weighed; and by subtracting the weight of the bottle, the weight of the water it holds is thus obtained. The water having been poured away and the bottle dried, the sample of oil at a temperature of 15° C. is poured in, and the bottle stoppered, cleaned, dried and Tl r^^^ weighed. The weight of the oil JU. I ' thus obtained (by subtracting the weight of the bottle from that of the bottle plus oil), divided by the weight of water the bottle holds, will give the specific gravity of the oil. In determining the specific gravity of the solid fats at ele- vated temperatures, Sprengel's specific gravity tube (Fig. 25) Fig. 23. C^ Fig. 24. Fig. 25. 1 90 OILS. is useful. The weight of water at 15° C. it holds having been iirst ascertained, the melted fat is sucked into it and placed into a beaker of water at the desired temperature ; after being immersed sufficiently long for the oil to acquire the tempera- ture of the water, the caps are put on each of the ends of the capillary tubes, dried, cooled and weighed, from which the specific gravity is calculated; water at 15° C. being taken as unity. It sometimes happens that in extracting solid fats, &c., from substances, there is insufficient to make a determination of the specific gravity by the usual methods ; in such cases it can be obtained fairly accurately by floating a thin piece of the fat on distilled water at the desired temperature, and adding alcohol, until on moving the fat about with a glass rod, it will stop in any desired part of the liquid. The specific gravity of the liquid being ascertained with the hydrometer or bottle, the specific gravity of the fat is obtained. The following is a table of specific gravities, at 1 5° C, by Stillwell, of various kinds of animal and vegetable oils : — Sperm, bleached winter 8813 Sperm, natural winter '88 15 Elaine -goii Red, saponified -9016 Palm "9046 TaUow '9137 Neatsfoot "9142 Rape-seed, white winter '9144 Olive, light greenish yellow .... '9144 Olive, dark green '9145 Pea-nut '9154 Olive, virgin, very light yellow . . . "9163 Rape-seed, dark yellow "9168 Olive, virgin, dark clear yellow . . . -9169 Lard, winter !9I7S Sea elephant . -9199 Tanner's (Codi) "9205 Cotton-seed, raw -9224 Cotton-seed, refined yellow .... "9230 Salad (cotton-seed) '9231 Labrador (Cod) '9237 I'^ppy • • -9245 DETERMINATION OF FLASH-POINTS. 191 Seal (natural) -9246 Cocoa nut '9250 Whale, natural winter "9254 Whale, bleached winter '9258 'Cod liver, pure -9270 Seal, racked -9286 Cotton-seed, white winter .... -9288 Straits (Cod) -9290 Menhaden (dark) -9292 Linseed (raw) "9299 Bank (cod) '9320 Menhaden (light) "9325 Porgy -9332 Linseed, boiled '94' i Castor, pure, cold pressed .... '9667 Resin, third run '9887 The mineral lubricating oils, have specific gravities ranging from '850 to "925. The following is a table of specific gravities and yield of various products on the distillation of 100 gallons of Russian petroleum : — Specific Gravity. Gallons. "Benzine" -725 i "Gasolene" 775 3 Kerosene . . . . "822 27 Pyronaphtha -858 12 Lubricating oil ... . •8go-*905 27 Cylinder oil -915 5 Vaseline (not a direct product) . -925 i Residuum and loss ... — '24 100 The Elashing Point. — The flashing point, or the temperature at which an oil gives off inflammable vapour, can be determined by the Abel flash-point apparatus, described on page 204 ; but the cup must be taken out of the water bath and placed in a copper air bath, since the flash point of most lubricating oils is above the temperature of boiling water. A small flame is kept under the apparatus, and the oil tested at every rise of one degree, as in the case of the petroleums. The flash point 192 OILS. of a lubricating oil must be higher than the temperature at which it is proposed to work. For cylinders, &c., oils should not flash below 200° C, and for ordinary machinery not below 149° C. The light Scotch shale oils flash at from 130° to 185° C, while the darker variety used for heavy machinery, cylinders, &c., flash at from 180° to 230° C. Determination of Free Patty and Mineral Acids. — Free fatty acids present in fatty oils are brought about by the decomposition of the glycerides, which thus become rancid. The free fatty acids, present in oils intended for lubricating, should not exceed 5 per cent., owing to their corroding action on bearings, &c. ; while for burning purposes, 3 per cent, should be the maximum quantity present, otherwise the wicks become charred. Free mineral acids are sometimes present in very small quantities, owing to their imperfect elimination during refining ; they have a very corroding action on bearings, &c. The free fatty acids may be determined as follows : Weigh out 50 grms. of the sample (or in the case of palm oil, 5 grms.) into a 200 cc. flask, and pour on to it 100 cc. of neutral methyl- ■ ated alcohol, to which three drops of an alcoholic solution of phenolphthalein (i in 30), and one drop of E NaHO has been previously added; the pink solution thus produced soon be- comes colourless on agitating with the oil if any free fatty acid be present. After agitating for some time to ensure the com- plete solution of the free acids, a standard E solution of sodic hydrate is gradually run in from a burette, stirring, until the last drop added produces a permanent pink coloration on agitat- ing for five minutes. Note the volume of standard soda solu- tion thus required. Each cc. of solution required, corresponds to 0*282 grm. of free oleic acid (C18H34O2), 0"256 grm. free palmitic acid (CisHsaOj), or o'284 grm. of free stearic acid (CisHsoOz), as the case may be. Free mineral acids may be detected by agitating 50 cc. of the oil with about 30 cc. of distilled water free from acid; and on adding an alcoholic solution of methyl-orange to the aqueous extract, a more or less pink coloration will be pro- ACTION OF OILS ON METALS. 193 duced if any free mineral acid be present. An idea of the E amount could be ascertained by tritating with standard — NaHO. The nature of the free mineral acids could be deter- mined by dividing an aqueous extract of 50 cc. of the sample into three equal parts, adding BaClj to one for H2SO1, AgNOj to another for HCl, and sulphate of brucine, and 36 E HjSOi to another for HNO3. When free mineral acid is present in oils it is mostly sulphuric acid. A very delicate test for the detection of minute quantities of free sulphuric acid is to evaporate an aqueous extract of about 20 grms. of the oil, to dryness, with an addition of a few crystals of white cane sugar, and on heating the residue for some time in a water bath, a more or less browning or blackening will be produced. The following table by Watson shows the corroding action of various oils upon iron and copper ; — Iron dissolved in Copper dissolved 24 days. in 10 days. •0040 grain •1030 •0048 »» — •0800 ii •0170 •0250 )i — '•0050 „ •3000 •0875 jj ■I 100 ■0062 )) •2200 -004s 11 ■0015 ■0050 )) •0485 •0460 >> •0030 Oils. Almond Castor Colza Lard Linseed Neatsfoot Olive Paraffin Seal Sperm The extent of the action of oils on metals, is directly pro- portional to the amount of free fatty acids present, and most of the fatty oils act more rapidly upon copper than on iron. The following table * shows the minimum, maximum, and mean percentage proportions of free fatty acids in various oils : — ,* Noerdlinger, "Zeit. Anal. Chem.," 28, 183-187. 194 OILS. A. Table oUs obtained by pressing. B. Expresstd commercial oils. C. Oils extracted by light petroleum. A. B. c. - min. max. mean min. max. mean. min. max. mean. Rape-seed oil . 0-S3 1-82 I-I9 0-52 6-26 2-8? 0-77 I-IO 0-93 Olive oil . — 1-66 3-87 27'i6 12-97 — Poppy oil . 070 2-86 1-92 12-87 17-73 15-37 2-15 9-43 4-72 Earth-nut oil 0-85 3-91 1-94 3-S8 io-6i 6-52 0-9S 8-85 4-02 Oil of sesame 0-47 S-7S 1-97 7-17 33-13 17-94 2-62 9-71 4-89 Cotton-seed oil . o-is 0-42 0-50 0-46 — Oil of mustard . — — 0-68 1-02 o-8s — — — Castor oil . — — — 0-62 i8-6i 9-28 1-18 5-52 2-78 Linseed oil — 0'4i 4-19 1-57 Candle-nut oil . — 56-45 — Palm kernel oil . — — 3-3 17-65 6-91 4-17 11-42 8-49 Palm oil (old) . — — — 50-82 — Cocoanut oil — — — 3-03 14-35 7-92 1-00 6-31 4-26 Llippe fat (3 years old) — . — — 28-54 — — Niam fat . — — — — — 14-40 34-72 24-56 Bicuhyba fat — — — — — is-ss Japan wax . — ~ ■"" — 9-25 ~~ Determination of Fatty and Mineral Oils. — Mixtures of fatty and mineral oils are now much used in lubrication, and it becomes frequently necessary to determine the proportion of each present. In order to effect their separation, advantage is taken of the fact that, while fatty oils are decomposed and converted into soaps by the action of a solution of potash or soda, the mineral oils do not suffer any apparent change by such treatment. The following is the modus operandi of the process : — Weigh out 5 grms. of the sample into a 5-oz. wide-mouth stout glass bottle, provided with an indiarubber stopper. Pour into it 26 CO. of I J E alcoholic potassic hydrate solution, and place into a bath of cold water. A Bunsen is lit under the bath, and when the alcoholic solution is seen to boil, the bottle is taken out, and the stopper fixed and tied down with wire ; it is now again placed into the bath, the water made to SAPONIFICATION OF OILS. 195 boil, and the bottle occasionally shaken ; after heating thus for about half an hour, the bottle is taken out, allowed to cool, the contents poured into a porcelain basin, and evaporated iiearly to dryness over a water bath ; 60 cc. of warm water are now poured into the bottle and well shaken in small quantities at a time, so as to remove any adhering matter, poured into the dish, and stirred with a glass rod until the soap goes into solu- tion : any mineral oil present will float, or remain in an emul- sive condition with the solution of soap. The whole is now carefully poured into a globular or cylindrical separator (Figs. 26 and 27), and the dish and bottle washed out with water and about 50 cc. of methylated ether (using small quantities at a time), into the sepa- rator; the stopper is now put in, the con- tents violently shaken up for about ten minutes, and the mixture allowed to separate; sometimes there is a little difficulty in the separation, an emulsion being formed. In such cases an addi- tion of 2 or 3 cc. of absolute alcohol with a rotatory motion puts matters all right. When complete separation is ensured, the aqueous solution is tapped off into a second separator, the ^"'- ^^- ^'°- "'• aqueous solution shaken up with 20 cc. more ether, allowed to separate, the aqueous solution tapped off as before, and the ethereal extract added to the main portion, which in turn is washed three times with 20 cc. of water, and the washings added to the main aqueous solution. The ethereal solution of the mineral oil is now tapped off into a weighed flask attached to a Liebig's condenser, and the ether distilled off; the residual mineral oil is then dried in a water oven, air being pumped into it occasionally to get rid of the last traces of water, which was taken up by the ether ; after which it is cooled and weighed, and dried again until no further loss occurs, If the mineral oil present be light, and of low boiling point, consider- able loss would be incurred by its evaporation by this process ; 196 OILS. in such cases it would be best to determine by difference, or dry at a lower temperature where practicable. The specific gravity, congealing, and melting points, would convey an idea of the nature and source of the mineral oil present. The aqueous solution contained in a separator, which now contains the oil in the form of soap, is acidulated with 10 cc. of 10 E HCl, the fatty acids being thus precipitated. 40 cc. of methy- lated ether are added, and the mixture well shaken up ; the fatty acids are thus dissolved by the ether. After complete separa- tion occurs, the acid solution is tapped off, and the ethereal solu- tion washed three times with about 20 cc. of water, after which it is run off into a weighed flask, the separator being washed out with a little ether. The flask is attached to a Liebig's condenser, the ether distilled off, and the residual fatty acids dried in the water oven until no further loss of weight occurs. On adding 5 per cent, for glycerine, to the weight of the fatty acids thus obtained, this gives practically the proportion of fatty oil present. In order to identify the oil, obtain its specific gravity, melting point, odour on ignition, and if resin is indi- cated estimate by Cladding's process, given on page 237. The following table by Hubl gives the melting and con- gealing points of fatty acids from various oils and fats, and will serve as a good guide as to the nature of the oil present : — Fatty Acids from — Melting point. Congealing °C. "C. Olive oil . 26 2f2 Almond oU . • 14 5° Arachis oil . • .277 23-8 Rape oil 20-1 12-2 Cottonseed oil ■ 37-7 30-5 SesamS oil . 26-0 22-3 Linseed oil . . 17-0 '3"3 Poppy oil . . 20- 5 I6-S Htempseed oil 19-0 15-0 Walnut oil . 20-0 i6-5 Castor oil • 13-0 30 Palm oil - 47-8 427 Cacao butter . 52-0 Si-o MELTING ANB CONGEALING POINTS. ig? Fatty Acids from— Melting poiat. Congealing point. "C. °c. Nutmeg butter ■ 4Z-S 40-0 Cocoanut oil 24-6 20.4 Laurel oil 270 22-0 Shea butter . • 3<3-S 38-0 Tallow . • • 450 43-50 "Wool fat . 41-8 40-0 Butterire • . 42. 398 Betermination of the Melting and Congealing Points of Oils and Pats. — It is important that oils used for lubrica- tion should not have very high congealing or solidifying points. The temperature at which an oil congeals may be found by half filling a test tube, 6 in. by i in., with the oil, placing a ther- mometer therein, and introducing the whole into a mixture of equal parts of salt and ice ; or if ice be not available, into a mix- ture of fifteen parts of sodic sulphate, and ten parts of 5 E HCl. The oil is stirred with the thermometer until on. inclining the test tube the oil ceases to run ; the temperature at which this takes place is taken as the congealing point. On taking the test tube out of the mixture the temperature at which the oil melts could be obtained. It is important that the sample should be free from water and suspended matter before ob- taining the melting or congealing point, since these interfere with the accuracy of the results. To obtain the melting and congealing points of oils, solid or semi-solid at the ordinary temperature, a small tall beaker is nearly filled with mercury, and placed in a bath of cold water, the surrounding water being slightly higher than the level of the mercury. A thermo- meter is suspended from a support, the bulb of which is immersed in the beaker of mercury ; a little of the fat — about the size of a pin's head — is placed on the mercury by means of a pair of glass rods drawn out to fine points, and a small flame placed under the water bath, regulated so that the tem- perature of the mercury rises about 0*5° C. per minute. Note the temperature at which the sample begins to melt, and also the temperature at which it is perfectly fluid. By taking the igS OILS. lamp away it could be observed, as the temperature sinks, at what point the sample congeals. Good mineral oils do not congeal at the freezing point of water ; the heavier varieties congeal at about — 6° to — 8° C, and the lighter kinds remaining fluid at — i6° to — 18° C. The following results were obtained at the U.S. Navy Yard, Brooklyn, in 1870, with various oils : — Thickens. Flow ceases. Solid. Sp.gr. "C. °c. °c. ^ Sperm . I — 3 — 9 •761 Olive . 10 — 8 — 14 •933 Tallow . . — I — 4 — 8 •795 j> " 21 16 6 •993 Lard 7 — 6 •959 The following are congealing points of the more important oils : — °c. Rape oil, about — 8 Cottonseed oil, about Sunflower ,, ,, Linseed „ „ Hempseed „ ,, Castor „ ,, Poppyseed „ „ Neatsfoot „ ,, — 3 — 14 — 24 — 20 — 18 — 18 — 4 The following are melting points of a few fats, solid at the ordinary temperature : — °c. Cacao butter, about Palm oil auuuL 5' 35 Cocoanut oil ,» 26 Tallow It ■ • 43 Butter :i 34 Butterine it ■ 38 Beeswax )> • • . . 63 Spermaceti tt . . 46 Loss on Evaporation, and Gumming Properties of Oils. — To determine the loss an oil sustains ,on exposure at SUSPENDED MATTER IN OILS. 199 elevated temperatures, weigh out about i grm. of the oil on a weighed watch glass, allow to stand exposed in a water oven for twelve hours, cool and reweigh, and calculate the loss or gain, as the case may be; observe if the residue is at all sticky or gummy. If the oil be required for light machinery, exposure for twelve hours at 60° C. instead of 100° will be found suitable. Good mineral oils, intended for heavy machinery, cylinders, &c., rarely lose more than i per cent, on exposure for twelve hours at 100° C, while mineral oils intended for light machinery rarely exceed a loss of 0-5 per cent, on exposure for twelve hours at 60° C. Many vegetable oils of the " drying " class, such as linseed, hempseed, cottonseed. Sec, increase in weight on exposure for twelve hours at 100° C, owing to the absorp- tion of oxygen from the air. Estimation of Suspended Matter. — Oils intended for lubrication should only contain, at most, a mere trace of sus- pended matter. Some mineral oils are so dark and thick that a fair quantity of suspended or mineral matter would escape ob- servation in the ordinary way. To determine the proportion that may be present, weigh out about 10 grms. of the sample into a beaker, dilute with 50 cc. of methylated ether, filter off any sus- pended matter through a weighed filter paper, wash the filter till free from oil with ether,, dry and weigh. Increase = sus- pended matter both mineral and organic. If the amount be large, it would be wise to ignite the filter and its contents care- fully in a weighed crucible, and estimate the residual mineral matter. The loss on the former weight would represent sus- pended organic matter. The following should be the ideal characteristics of good lubricating oils, according to Spon : — (i) A mineral oil flashing below 150° C. is unsafe. (2) A mineral oil losing more than 5 per cent, in ten hours at 15° to 20° C. is inadmissible, as the evaporation creates a gum, or leaves the bearing dry. (3) The most fluid oil, that will remain in its place, fulfilling 200 OILS. Other conditions, is the best for all light bearings at high speeds. (4) The best oil is that which has the greatest adhesion to metallic surfaces, and the least cohesion in its own particles ; in this respect fine mineral oils stand first, sperm oils second, neatsfoot oil third, and lard oil fourth; consequently the finest mineral oils are best for light bearings and high velo- cities. The best animal oil to give body to fine mineral oils is sperm oil ; lard and neatsfoot oils may replace sperm oil when greater tenacity is required. (5) The best mineral oil for steam cylinders is one having a density of "893, and a flashing point of 360° C. (6) The best mineral oil for heavy machinery has a density of -880, and a flashing point of 269° C. (7) The best mineral oil for light bearings and high velo- cities has a density of "871, and a flashing point of 262° C. (8) Mineral oils alone are not suited for very heavy machi- nery, on account of their want of. body, but well purified animal oils are applicable to the heaviest machinery. (9) Olive oil stands first among vegetable oils, as it can be purified without the aid of mineral acids. The other vegetable oils which, though far inferior to olive oil, are admissible as lubricants are — in their order of merit — sesame, earth-nut, rape and colza, and cottonseed oils. (10) No oil is admissible which has been purified by means of mineral acids. The following list of oils, by Duggan, are placed in the order of their usual commercial monetary value : — (I) Olive oil. (2) Sperm oil. , (3) Neatsfoot oil. ( ■ {") Bottlenose oil. (4) Lard oil. Castor oil. (7) Cod oil. • W Arachis oil. (8) (») Sesam£ oil. M Poppyseed oil. VALUE OF OILS. 201 (") Colza and Rape oil. (12) Seal oU. (13) Nigerseed oil. (14) Linseed oil. (IS) Whale oil. (16) Cottonseed oil. (17) Menhaden oil. (i8) Japan Fish oil. (19) Mineral oils. (20) Resin oil. The following is a useful table, by Allen, for the examination. of oils containing foreign admixtures : — s hfl H a r1 H i^ t3 S Si >.& ri 11 cij O i-c ^ « Oi s u fo a 2 «|= B bos fi-ti p.M ^^^ bo MINERAL ILLUMINATING OILS. 203 Mineral Illuminating Oils. The mineral illuminating oils of commerce are obtained by- distilling (i) The natural crude petroleum oils found as springs and subterranean reservoirs in close proximity to deposits of bitumen, bituminous coals, &c., in America, South Russia, India, Persia, &c., and (2) The crude oil obtained by the dis- tillation of bituminous shale. The oil fields of Pennsylvania supply most of the burning oils of commerce. There are many fancy names given to the various fractions of the distillation of crude petroleum and shale oils sold as burning oils, such as " kerosene," " photogene," " petroline," " liquid gas," " beacon oil," " aurora oil," " astral oil," &c. The following table by Redwood * shows the percentage of burning oils obtained from crude petroleums of various localities : — Specific gra-vity. Yield of Commercial Products. Naphtha Burning oil. Lubrica- ting oil. Persia . East India Burmah, mudvolcan „ native pits, „ Western B ,, Eastern Ba Assam India Russia jf Hanover . South America New Zealand . Italy, near Milan United States, Wyo ft J o,K, Mim aran^ rang aang t ouk Phyou ah^": : ih . •818 •866 ■888 •83s ■933 •935 •836 •942 •843 •852 •goo •828 •787 ■910 •945 per cent yt nil it It nU^ 20-0 nil lO-O nil 45-0 per cent 62^5 55-7 15-1 7-2 66-1 nil 20-0 40-0 nil 6o^o 50^0 nil 6o^o 45^0 27-5 lO-O sp.gr. •800 •800 •810 •81S ■8io •805 •812 •808 •808 •806 per cent. 320 65-9 89-3 27-3 94-2 6o-o 37^5 90-0 27-5 45^0 91-5 38-0 S-4 57-5 72-5 Scotch Shale OU . . . . •870 6 36 •810 180 * " Joum. Soc. Arts," xxxiv., 823, 878. -204 OILS. Assay of Buriimg Oils. — One of the most important points to be determined in the selection of mineral oils for burning purposes is the temperature at which the vapour evolved from the oil takes fire on the application of a flame, and is termed the "flashing point." The minimum flashing point by the close test about to be described, has been fixed by the Petroleum Act of 1879 to be 73 degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. The following i? a sketch of the apparatus and modus operandi of the process for the determination of the flashing points of light mineral oils as devised by Sir Frederick Abel, and set forth in Schedule I. of the Petroleum Amendment Act of 1879 : — Specification of the Test Apparatus (Fig. 28). — The oil cup consists of a cylindrical vessel 2 in. in diameter and 2-^^ in. in height (internal), with outward projecting rim A in. wide, f in. from the top and i| in. from the bottom of the cup. It is made of gun-metal or brass (17 B.W.G.) tinned inside. A bracket consisting of a short stout piece of wire bent upwards, and terminating in a point, is fixed to the inside of the cup to serve as a gauge. The distance of the point from the bottom of the cup is ijin. The cup is provided with a close-fitting 'overlapping cover made of brass (22 B.W.G.), which holds the thermometer and test lamp. The latter is suspended from two supports from the side by means of trunnions, upon which it may be made to oscillate ; it is provided with a spout, the mouth of which is iV in. in diameter. The socket which is to hold the thermometer is fixed at such an angle, and its length so adjusted, that the bulb of the thermometer when inserted to its full depth shall be i J in. below the centre of the lid. The cover is provided with three square holes, one in the centre iV in, X A in., and two smaller ones -A- in. X -^s in. close to the sides and opposite each other. These three holes may be closed and uncovered by means of a slide moving in grooves, and having perforations corresponding to those on the lid. In moving the slide so as to uncover the holes, the oscillating lamp is caught by a pin fixed in the slide and tilted in such a way as to bring the end of the spout just below the surface of FLASH-POINT APPARATUS. 205 the lid. Upon the slide being pushed back so as to cover the holes, the lamp returns to its original position. Upon the cover, in front of and in line with the mouth of the lamp, is fixed a white bead, the dimensions of which represent the size of the test flame to be used. -^^7^ Fig. 28.— Sir F. Abel's Flash-point Apparatus. B Water bath. A Oil cup. C Gauge. E Thermometer. G Oscillating lamp. I Air chamber. H Thermometer. K Spirit lamp. F Flame gauge. d Funnel. The bath or heated vessel consists of two flat-bottomed copper cylinders (24 B.W.G.), an inner one of 3 in. in diameter and 2\ in. in height, and an outer one 5^ in. in diameter and Sf in. in height ; they are soldered to a circular copper plate (20 B.W.G.) perforated in the centre, which forms the top of the bath in such a manner as to enclose the space between 206 OILS. the two cylinders, but leaving access to the inner cylinder. The top of the bath projects both outwards and inwards about ■§■ in., that is, its diameter is about f in. greater than that of the body of the bath, while the diameter of the circular opening in the centre is about the same amount less than that of the inner copper cylinder. To the inner projection of the top is fastened, by six small screws, a flat ring of ebonite, the screws being sunk below the surface of the ebonite to avoid metallic contact between the bath and the oil cup. The exact distance between the sides and bottom of the bath and of the oil lamp is i in. A split socket, similar to that on the cover of the oil cup, but set at a right angle, allows a thermometer to be inserted into the space between the two cylinders. The bath is further pro- vided with a funnel, an overflow pipe, and two loop handles. The bath rests upon a cast-iron tripod stand, to the ring of which is attached a copper cylinder or jacket (24 B.W.G.), flanged at the top, and of such dimensions that the bath while firmly resting on the iron ring just touches with its projecting top the inward turned flange. The diameter of this outer jacket is 6i in. One of the three legs of the stand serves as a support for the spirit lamp, attached to it by means of a small swing bracket. The distance of the wick-holder from the bottom of the bath is i in. Two thermometers are pro- vided with the apparatus, the one for ascertaining the tempe- rature of the bath, the other for determining the flashing point. The thermometer for ascertaining the temperature of the ater has a long bulb, and a space at the top ; its range is from about 90° to 190° F. The scale (in degrees of Fahrenheit) is marked on an ivory back, fastened to the tube in the usual way. It is fitted with a metal collar fitting the socket, and a part of the tube below the scale should have a length of about 3^ in., measured from the lower end of the scale to the end of the bulb. The thermometer for ascertaining the temperature of the oil is fitted with collar and ivory scale in a similar manner to the one described. It has a round bulb, a space at the top, and ranges from about 50° to 1 50° F. It measures from end of ivory back to bulb 2^ in. DETERMINATION OF FLASH-POINT. 207 Note. — A model apparatus is deposited at the Weights and Measures Department of the Board of Trade. Directions for Applying the Flashing Test. — (i) The test apparatus is to be placed for use in a position where it is not exposed to currents of air or draught. (2) The heating vessel or water bath is filled by pouring water into the funnel until it begins to flow out at the spout of the vessel. The temperature of the water at the commence- ment of the test is to be about 130° F., and this is attained in the first instance either by mixing hot and cold water in the bath, or in a vessel from which the bath is filled until the thermometer which is provided for testing the temperature of the water gives the proper indication j or by heating the water with the spirit lamp (which is attached to the stand of the apparatus) until the required temperature is indicated. If the water has been heated too highly, it is easily reduced to 130° F. by pouring in cold water little by little (to replace a portion of the warm water) until the thermometer gives the proper read- ing. When the test has been completed, this water-bath is again raised to 130° F. by placing the lamp underneath, and the result is readily obtained while the petroleum cup is being emptied, cooled, and refilled with a fresh sample to be tested. The lamp is then turned on its swivel from under the apparatus, and the next test is proceeded with. (3) The test lamp is prepared for use by fitting it with a piece of flat-plaited candle wick, and filling it with colza or rape oil to the lower edge of the opening of the spout or wick tube. The lamp is trimmed so that when lighted it gives a flame of about 0-15 of an inch in diameter, and this size of flame, which is represented by the projecting white bead on the cover of the oil cup, is readily maintained by simple manipula- tion from time to time with a small wire trimmer. When gas is available it may be conveniently used in place of the little oil lamp, and for this purpose a test flame arrangement for use with gas may be substituted for the lamp. (4) The bath having been raised to the proper temperature. -208 OILS. the oil to be tested is introduced into the petroleum cup, being poured in slowly until the level of the liquid just reaches the point of the gauge which is fixed in the cup. In warm weather the temperature of the room in which the samples to be tested have been kept should be observed in the first instance, and if it •exceeds 65° F. the samples to be tested should be cooled down (to about 60° F.) by immersing the bottles containing them in -cold water, or by any other convenient method. The lid of the •cup with the slide closed is then put on, and the cup is placed into the bath or heating vessel. The thermometer in the lid of the cup has been adjusted so as to have its bulb just immersed in the liquid, and its position is not under any circumstances to be altered. When the cup has been placed in the proper posi- tion, the scale of the thermometer faces the operator. (5) The test lamp is then placed in position upon the lid of the cup ; the head line or pendulum, which has been fixed in a •convenient position in front of the operator, is set in motion ; and the rise of the thermometer in the petroleum cup is watched. When the temperature has reached about 60° F., the operation of testing is to be commenced, the test flame being applied once for every rise of 1° F. in the following manner : — The slide is slowly drawn open while the pendulum performs three oscillations, and is closed during the fourth oscillation. JVoie. — If it is desired to employ the test apparatus to deter- mine the flashing points of oils of very low volatility, the mode of proceeding is to be modified as follows : — The air chamber which surrounds the cup is filled with cold water to a depth of ij in., and the heating vessel or water bath is filled as usual, but also with cold water. The lamp is then placed under the apparatus and kept there during the •entire operation. If a very heavy oil is being dealt with, the operation may be commenced with water previously heated to 120° F., instead of with cold water. Fractional Distillation. — In addition to obtaining the specific gravity and flashing points of mineral burning oils, the KEROSENE AND PYRONAPHTHA. 209 amount of distillates with their specific gravities on fractional distillation, would be a valuable means of j udging their qualities. They should yield a comparatively small quantity of distillate below 150° C, and a small percentage of heavy oils as a residuum at 300° C. A good method for the fractional distil- lation of burning oils is that recommended by Biel : — 250 grms. of the oil are weighed into a 500 cc. flask which is covered with brass wire gauze to maintain an even temperature. It is connected to a Glinsky's dephlegmator and a Liebig's con- denser. A thermometer is fixed in the dephlegmator, the bulb of which is to be on a level with the exit tube. A small flame is lighted under the flask, and the distillate up to 150° C. is collected in a weighed receiver and weighed. A second weighed receiver is replaced on the condensing tube and the flame enlarged, and the heating continued until practically all has distilled up to a temperature of 270° C, which is weighed. The difiference between the weights and the 250 grms. taken, may be considered the " tailings " or heavy oils left in the retort at 270° C. Biel obtained the following results by the above process with different Russian burning oils: — Kerosene. Pyronaphtha, A. B. c. D. E. Specific Gravity . Flash Point °C. . Light Oil (below 150°) Normal Oils (150° to 270°) . Heavy Oils (tailings) . •820 52-5 o-«7o / 2 /o •820 35-0 io'o7„ 76-s7o •83s 44-5 6-o7o 63-S7o 30-s7c •857 7-S o-o7o 44-570 5S-S7o •867 94-0 o-o7o 30-5 7o 69-S7o The following results were obtained by Biel with Ameritan and Russian burning oils : — 210 OILS. American. Baku. No. I. No. 2. No. 1. No. 2. Specific Gravity Flash Point "C. Light OU (below 150° C. ) . Normal Oils (150° to 270° C.) . Heavy Oils (tailings) . ■795 26 45-9 7c 39-7 7o •783 48 2-2 7o 87-8 7o I0'0 7„ •803 26 33'5 7o 66^5 7o ■822 30 12-8 7„-, 8-4 7o The following table by Redwood* shows the distinctive differ- ences between Russian and American burning oils (kerosene). Nine fractions of 10 per cent, each were distilled off, and their respective specific gravities taken at 15° C, and also the 10 per cent, of residuum left in the retort : — Original Russian Kerosene. American Kerosene Specific gravity "822. Specific gravity *8o3. 1st fraction •783 •748 2nd. „ ■796 ■759 3>-d „ •803 •778 4tli .. •814 •792 Sth ,. •827 •802 6th „ •831 •812 7th ., •837 ■822 8th „ •838 •831 9th „ •846 •838 loth „ (residue) •864 •849 In judging the quality of various burning oils for lighting railway carriages, &c., it would be wise to make a practical test under the same conditions as in actual use, noting : — (i) The intensity of light at start ; (2) The intensity of light towards the end ; (3) The consumption of oil per hour ; (4) The condition of wick at finish ; comparing with what is considered a standard oil under the same conditions. * ^our. Soc. Chem. Ind., iv., 76. STORAGE OF PETROLEUM. 2 I.I Comparative Cost of Petroleum as an Illuminant. The following table by Redwood, shows the comparative ■cost of a given amount of light from petroleum oil, colza oil, and coal gas, equal to that of a standard sperm candle, burning at the rate of 120 grains per hour for 1,000 hours : — Cost of 1,000 Candle Hours. From Petroleum Oil. From Colza Oil. From Coal Gas. Price per gallon. Price per gallon. Price per 1,000 cubic ft. d. 9 s. d. r s. d. I 3 s. d. I .6 s. d. 3 s. d. 3 6 s d. 4 s.d. 3 s.d. 36 s.d. 4 d. 7i d. 9f d. s. d. I 3 s. d. 2 4 s.d. 2 8 s.d. 3 of S.d. I 3 s.d. I Si s.d. I 8 From the above figures it will be seen that, taking petroleum at IS. per gallon and coal gas at 3s. 6d. per 1,000 cubic feet, a given amount of light from the latter costs about twice as much as the former ; and taking colza oil at 3s. 6d. per gallon and petroleum oil at is. per gallon, it will be seen that petroleum has the advantage threefold for a given amount of light. Reporting upon the relative cost and efficiency of electricity, gas, and oil as illuminants, the Trinity House Committee con- clude, that " for all practical purposes, gas and oil are equal," and that, "for the ordinary necessities of lighthouse illu- mination, mineral oil is the most suitable and economical illuminant." The Storage of Petroleum. Owing to the high degree of inflammability of petroleum oils, it is of importance that great care should be exercised in their storage. The following are some of the best means of safely storing petroleum : — 212 OILS. (i) The oil to be kept in metallic tanks, sunk some distance into the ground, from which quantities can be drawn as required with the aid of a hand pump. (2) If the ordinary wooden barrels be desired to be kept intact, they should be kept in isolated warehouses of one storey only, built of uninflammable materials. (3) Weights are attached to the ordinary barrels, which are then sunk in water. (4) A convenient mode of storing inflammable oils, is to place a vessel similar to a gasholder, mouth downwards into a large tank filled with water, in which the oil can thus be stored over the water, from which quantities can be drawn as required. Tf otes on the Construction of Petroleum Lamps. — The Metropolitan Board of Works (now London County Council) have issued the following instructions as to the construction and management of ordinary mineral-oil lamps : — (A) Lamps. (i) That portion of the wick which is in the oil reservoir should be enclosed in a tube of thin sheet-metal, open at the bottom, or in a cylinder of fine wire gauze, such as is used in miners' safety-lamps (28 meshes to the inch). (2) The oil reservoir should be of metal rather than china or glass. (3) The oil reservoir should have no feeding-place or open- ing, other than the opening into which the upper part of the lamp is screwed. (4) Every lamp should have a proper extinguishing appa- ratus. (5) Every lamp should have a broad and heavy base. (B) Wicks. (i) Should be soft, and not tightly plaited. (2) Should be dried at the fire before being put into lamps. GAS OILS. 213 (3) Should be only just long enough to reach the bottom of the oil reservoir. (4) Should be so wide that they quite fill the wick-holder without having to be squeezed into it. (C) Management. (r) The reservoir should be quite filled with oil every time before using the lamp. (2) The lamp should be kept thoroughly clean. All oil should be carefully wiped off, and all charred wick and dirt be removed, before lighting. (3) When the lamp is lit, the wick should be first turned down and then slowly raised. (4) Lamps which have no extinguishing apparatus should be put out as follows : — The wick should be turned down until there is only a small flickering flame, and a sharp puff of breath should then be sent across the top of the chimney but not down it. (s) Cans or bottles used for oil should be free from water and dirt, and should be kept thoroughly closed. Oils for Various Purposes. Gas Oils. Oils obtained from crude petroleum and bituminous shale oil are now largely used in the manufacture of gas for the lighting of railway carriages, &c. The great point in the selec- tion of oils for this purpose, is to ensure uniformity of supplies, when once the right kind of oil has been decided upon that is suited to the plant used. The following is the specification of the Great Eastern Rail- way Company for shale gas oil, for use with their Pintsch apparatus : — "The specific gravity to be not less than '855 at 60° F. 214 OILS. (= 15-5° C.). When subjected to fractional distillation, free ebullition is to commence at a temperature of about 550° F. (= 287'8° C), and the first tenth by volume of the distillate is not to exceed -840 sp. gr. at 60° F. (= 15-5° C). The suc- ceeding tenths by volume of distillates are to exhibit a fairly uniform rate of increase in density, and the specific gravity of the tenth or final fraction, is not to exceed '880 at 60° F. (= 15-5° C.)." The following results were obtained for three sampies of shale gas oil supplied by three different firms, in response to inquiries for quotations for gas oil on the basis of the above specification : — Specific gravity at 15-5° C. Commencement of free ebullition No. I. •869 287-8° c. No. z. •847 287-8° C. No. 3. •887 (above) 287-8° c. Results of Distillaiions : — Specific gravity of fractions at 15-5° C. No. of fraction. No. I. No. z. No. 3 I •843 -830 •863 2 •84s •834 •868 3 -848 ■837 •869 4 •859 ■838 •87s S •861 •841 •878 6 •866 •843 •880 7 -871 •847 •885 8 •878 •851 •889 9 •879 •856 •893 10 •880 •874 •906 The following are some interesting results obtained by Dr. Macadam on experimenting with Pintsch's and Keith's appa- ratus : — TURPENTINE. Blue Paraffin Oil Used. :i5 Pintsch's Apparatus. Keith's Apparatus. A B Aver- .age. A B Aver- age. Specific gravity of oil . Flashing point . . . Firing point .... Gas per gallon, cubic feet Illuminating power . . Volume of oil flowing into each retort per hour Gas per retort per hour . Heavy hydrocarbons per cent Gas per ton (cubic feet) . 877-6 296° 356° go- 7 625 126-8 39-2 23,128 878-2 294° 352° 103-4 59-1 r-i8 122-S 37-1 26,356 877-9 295° 354° 97 60-8 1-29 124-6 38-2 24,742 874-1 292° 348° 85 63-2 2-3 197-5 39-9 21,772 877-6 286° 346° 84-8 59-5 1-3 111-9 38-2 21,671 875-9 289° 347° 84-9 61-4 1-8 154-7 39-0 21,721 Oil of Turpentine (doHie). Pure oil of turpentine is obtained by distilling the oleo- resinous juice got from the bark, &c., of pine and fir trees, &c., and which yields from 10 to 30 per cent, of turps, leaving a residuum of resin or colophony. American oil of turpentine has a specific gravity of -864 to •870, and commences to boil at about 155° C, and on distilla- tion it completely passes over below 180° C. Turpentine is often largely adulterated with petroleum pro- ducts or " turpentine substitutes." The writer recently examined a sample of supposed genuine turpentine, and found it to be wholly American kerosene. A good practical test of the drying properties of turpentine, is to drop a little of the sample on a piece of writing paper and allow it to evaporate at the ordinary tempera- ture ; genuine turpentine completely evaporates in a short time without leaving a trace of a greasy stain, while if kerosene, &c., be present, a' more or less permanent greasy stain will be 2l6 OILS. produced which, on gently heating, will give an odour charac teristic of its nature.. In making an assay of a sample of turpentine, the following are the most important points to be ascertained : — (i) The Specific Gravity. — Genuine turpentine should have a specific gravity of -864 to "870 ; if it is much lower than this, it is almost sure to contain foreign hydrocarbons. Resin spirit has a sp. gr. of -856 to •880. Shale naphtha . . -700 ,, '750. Coal tar solvent naphtha -860 ,. "876. Petroleum naphtha . -700 „ ■745. {2) The Flashing Point, — American oil of turpentine flashes at about 34° C, and if any petroleum spirit or naphtha be present it would be considerably lower. (3) The Boiling Point. — The range of the boiling point of genuine turps would be from 155" to 180° C. ; while if petro- leum products were present, the range would be considerably more. (4) Distillation. — Distil 100 cc. of the sample in a 150 cc. retort, to 180° C.,and collect the distillate in a graduated tube. With good turps at least 97 per cent, should come over at this temperature, and the residue in the retort would be oxidized products of the turpentine ; if there is any considerable resi- due left in the retort at this temperature, it points to adul- teration with hydrocarbon of higher boiling point. Obtain its specific gravity with a Sprengel tube. By distillation in a current of steam pure turps leave a small residue of about "5 per cent. ; genuine old samples, however, leave as much as 2 per cent, residue, owing to the turpentine having absorbed atmospheric oxygen, forming resinous substances. If any petroleum is present it is unvolatilized, and may be recognised by its low specific gravity as compared with that of turpentine. For the determination of petroleum in turpentine the follow- ing method* will be found to give fair results : — A balloon flask of 750 cc. capacity is fitted with a two-hole * Vide Oil and ColourmarCs Jovmxl, Dec, 1890. ESTIMATION OF NAPHTHA IN TURPENTINE. 217 cork stopper. Through one hole is inserted the tube of a glass-stoppered drop funnel, having a capacity of 100 cc. The flask is also connected with an inverted condenser. About 300 cc. fuming nitric acid of sp. gr. i'4 are placed in the flask, and 100 cc. of the turpentine to be tested are measured into the drop funnel. The flask is surrounded by cold water, and the turpentine is allowed to drop slowly into the nitric acid. As each drop strikes the acid violent action takes place, with evolution of red fumes. It is well to shake . the flask occasionally during the operation. When the turr ■pentine has all passed into the flask, the apparatus is allowed to stand until all action is over. The contents of the flask are transferred to a large separating funnel, and treated with suc- cessive portions of hot water. In this way all the products resulting from the action of the .acid on the terpenes are removed, while any petiroleum paraffins remain insoluble in water, and can readily be separated and measured. Having procured some turpentine known to be free from petroleum, mixtures of the pure turpentine with samples of refined petroleum of various boiling points were prepared. In order that judgment in experimenting might not be influenced by knowing the quantities of material used, the pro- portions employed in the mixtures were withheld from the operator. Ten mixtures were analysed, with the following results : — Pure turpen- . Petroleum Boiling point of '^^wlfliSS'""* tine U:ieu. used. Petroleum. Dy memo describe' cc. cc. deg. cc. (>s 35 about 250 34-1 80 20 250 18-9 70 30 . 200 29 80 20 200 i8-S 90 10 200 8-9 80 20 100 17-8 70 30 100 28-4 85 IS 100 13-5 80 20 75 17-9 7a 30 75 28 2l8 OILS. It will be noticed that the sum of the amounts of petroleum and turpentine used would be loo cc. in each case, so that the number of cubic centimetres of petroleum found would also express the percentage of adulterant. It appears from the above results that the petroleum fractions, which boil at about 250°, are least affected by the fuming nitric acid, while the low-boiling fractions are affected the most. But in order to keep the specific gravity of the turpentine where it should be, the higher boiling petroleum fractions must be used in the adulteration — a fact which is favourable for the application of this method in the analysis of such mixtures. Bape Oil. Rape oil or Colza oil is obtained from the seeds of various species of Brassica, chiefly those of B. campestris and B. napus. The principal applications of rape oil are for illumi- nating purposes, lubrication, and in the manufacture of india- rubber. It has a brownish-green or yellowish-brown colour, and a characteristic odour. The specific gravity of genuine rape oil ranges between -913 and '916 at i5"5°C; if the density of a sample of rape oil be above -916 it is highly pro- bable that it is adulterated with oils of higher ilensity a,nd less value, such as the drying oils, of cottonseed, linseed, sunflower, hempseed, &c., whose specific gravities range between '920 and •937. When rape oil is intended for lubrication, the presence of drying oils is highly objectionable, since they increase the gumming properties of the oil. A useful test for the drying pro- perties of rape oil, is to expose a thin film of the oil on a glass plate at a temperature of 100° C. for twenty-four hours by the side of a sample of genuine rape, frequently noting the condition of the samples by touching them with the finger. Genuine rape remains comparatively fluid for a few days ; but if any drying oil be present it will assume the consistency of a jelly, or in some cases become almost as hard as a resin. Another useful test for the drying properties of rape oil is the Elaiden test described on page 222, under "Various Tests." OLIVE OIL. 2,19. The viscosity of the sample at 15*5° C. is another valuable point in judging of its quality, 50 cc. of genuine rape oil taking about 535 seconds to run out of Redwood's viscosi- meter at I5'S° C. See table on page 188. Maumen^'s tempe- rature reaction, described on page 222, would be useful in con- firming the presence of some foreign seed oils, the average- rise of temperature for genuine rape being about 60° C. by this- test. In addition to the above tests apply the following : — (i) Ascertain the melting and congealing points of the total fatty acids, as directed on page 197. The fatty acids of good rape oil melt at about 20" C, and congeal at about 17° C. (2) Determine the percentage of free fatty acids, as described on page 192. The proportion of free fatty acids in good rape oil varies from 0-5 to 4 per cent. Excess of free fatty acids is undesirable when the oil is intended for lubrication, owing to their action on bearings, &c., forming hard metal soaps J and when such an oil is used for illuminating purposes- it burns with a smoky flame and chars the wick. If required for soap-making the presence of free fatty acids is less objectionable, since the acids are neutralized in the process. (3) Test for free mineral acids. The presence of free mineral acids is very objectionable, if the oil is proposed to be used for lubrication. Traces of free sulphuric acid are often found in rape oils, owing to its incomplete elimination after refining. (4.) Test for mineral oils as directed on page 194. Olive Oil. Olive oil, salad oil, or sweet oil is obtained from the fruit of the Olea Europxa by compression, or by extracting with bisul- phide of carbon, in which it is soluble. It should be of a greenish-yellow colour, without odour, and of an agreeable taste, and non-drying. Its principal uses are for cooking, wool-dressing, lubricating, medicine, and soap manufacture. I*s specific gravity ranges between "914 and '918. At a tem- 220 OILS. .perature of o° C. it congeals, which on compression yields one-third of its weight of solid fat (Palmitin and Stearin), melting at from 20° to 28° C. ; the two-thirds of the fluid portion (olein), remain liquid at from — 4° to — 10° C. Olive oil, when long exposed, assumes an objectionable rancid odour, owing to the incomplete elimination of mucilaginous matters. In judging of the quality of a sample of olive oil, obtain the following points, as described under their respective heads, referring to the various tables to see how near to, or how far from, the genuine article it corresponds : — (i) Specific gravity at rs"5° C. (2) Temperature at which fat is deposited. (3) The percentage of free fatty acids (average should be 5 to 8 per cent). (4) Maumene's temperature reaction. (5) Test for mineral oils. (7) Test for fish oils. (8) The drying properties, Elaiden test. (9) Mineral acids. (10) The viscosity at iS'S° C. (11) The odour on heating. (12) Taste. (13) Acid tests. Iiinseed Oil. This well-known and useful oil is obtained from the seeds of the flax plant — Linum uiitatissimum — principally grown in India and Russia. It is largely used for paints and varnishes, and in the manufacture of oil-cloth, rick-covers, and soft soap. It is used in four states, according to the purpose for which it is to be applied, viz. : — the raw, refined, artists', and the boiled oil. The colour of the raw oil is yellowish- brown, and its specific gravity varies from "930 to "937. At a temperature of — 18° C. a little fat separates out, and it be- comes perfectly congealed at — 27° C. The most valuable ■characteristic of linseed oil is the facility with which it absorbs COTTONSEED OIL. 221 atmospheric oxygen, with the formation of a tough, resinous- looking substance, materially differing in. properties from the original oil. The drying properties of linseed oil are increased after it has been heated to about i8o° C, with a current of air passing through, and the heat continued until the oil is seemingly in a state of ebullition owing to the liberation of decomposition products. The addition of drying agents, such as sugar of lead, oxide of manganese, litharge, iron oxide, &c., during the heating, increases the drying properties of the finished or " boiled " oil, owing to their acting as carriers of oxygen. In judging of the quality of a sample of linseed oil, its drying property is one of the most important points to be determined, and may be ascertained by smearing a glass plate with the sample, allowing it to be exposed in a water oven, and noting how long it takes to dry, and the nature of the residuum left as compared with that of a standard sample. If it be desired to ascertain if any driers have been added, and their nature, gradually ignite about 50 grms. of the sample in a large porcelain crucible, and make a qualitative analysis of the residue. With regard to other tests of its quality, apply those given under the head of olive oil. Cottonseed Oil. This is a drying oil obtained from the Gossypium barba- dense, and is largely used to adulterate rape oil, olive oil, and other oils. It is also used in cooking, soap-making, and in the manufacture "of buttefine. The specific gravity of cottonseed oil ranges from '922 to '930, and solidifies at from 1° C to 4? C- The melting point of the fatty acids from cottonseed oil is so high as 38° C. It appears that cot- tonseed oil is not likely to be adulterated itself, but a know- ledge of the properties of the oil is of great importance, in ascertaining its presence in other oils. By applying the tests given under those of olive oil, cottonseed oil could be approxi- mately estimated in a mixture. 222 OILS. Various Tests for Oils. Maumen^'s Temperature Reaction of Oils. — The prin- ciple of the test depends upon the fact that when 36 E sulphuric acid is mixed with a fatty oil, decomposition takes place, with considerable rise in the temperature, which varies with different oils. The following is the method of applying the test : — 50 grms. of the oil are weighed into a 200 cc. tall beaker, and packed with cotton wool into a litre beaker. The temperature of the oil is next observed, and 10 cc. of 36 E H2SO1, at the same temperature, gradually run in from a pipette or burette, which should occupy about 60 seconds to run out, the oil being thoroughly stirred with the thermometer the whole time ; continue stirring after the addition of the acid, and note the highest temperature the thermometer indicates ; on subtracting from this, the initial temperature, the increase in temperature will be obtained. The following are the results obtained by Maumend by the above process with various oils : — Rise in Tempera ture'C. Olive oil . . . -42 Almond oil . 52-54 Rape „ . . 57-58 Arachis „ . ■ 67 Beechnut oil . . 65 Sesame „ , 68 Poppyseed oil • 74 Hempseed „ . 98 Walnut „ lOI Linseed ,, . 103 Castor „ ■ 47 Tallow . 41-44 HoTsefoot ,, SI Cod liver „ 102.103 Skate liver ,, 102 Poutet's Elai'din Test. — This is a very useful test for detecting drying oils mixed with non-drying oils and vice versa. ACID TEST FOR OILS. ' '223 It depends upon the formation of elaidin (an isomeric modifi- cation of olein, and which is solid at the ordinary temperature), ■When a non-drying oil is subjected to the action of nitrous acid, the drying oils, which consist largely of linolein, being not so affected. The following is the manner in which the test is performed : — Measure out 50 cc. of the oil into a wide- mouthed stoppered bottle of about 100 cc. capacity, and pour on to the oil 2 cc. of a cold freshly-made solution of nitrate of mercury, prepared by dissolving 13 grms. of mercury in 12 cc. of 16 E nitric acid, the beaker in which it is dissolved being kept in cold water to retain nitrous fumes. Agitate the mixture, and allow to stand in an air bath, regulated to 25° C, for twenty-four hours, with occasional shaking, together with a pure standard sample of a similar oil. Note the length of time that solidification takes place, also the consistency of the mass after standing for the twenty-four hours. The drying oils, such as linseed, hempseed, &c., remain fluid, while the non-drying oils, such as olive, tallow oil, almond, sperm, yield hard pro- ducts ; and oils of the intermediate class, such as rape, neats- foot, sperm, cottonseed, whale, &c., leave a mass more or less of the consistency of treacle. Sulphuric Acid Test. — This is the best of the various colour tests for oils recommended by Chateau. There are various methods of applying it, the most suitable being that recommended by Allen,* who adds one or two drops of 36 E HjSOi in the centre of twenty drops of the oil, and notes the colour produced before and after stirring, when the following colours are produced with various oils : — * Vide " Cornel. Org. Analysis." V. ii., p. 59. Oil. One or two drops of 36 E H2SO4 to twenty of the oil. Before Stirring. After Stirring. Vegetable Oils. Olive oil ... . Yellow, green, or pale Light brown or olive- brown. green. Almond oil . . . Colourless or yellow. Dark yellow, olive, or brown. Earthnut oil . . . Greyish yellow to orange. Greenish or reddish brown. Bright green, turning brownisli. Brown. Rape oil (crude). . Green with brown rings. „ „ (refined) . Yellow with red or brown rings. Mustard oil . . . Darkyellowwith orange streaks. Reddish brown. Cottonseed oil (crude) „ „ (refined) Very bright red. Dark red, nearly black. Reddish brown. Dark reddish-brown. Nigerseed oil . . . Yellow with brown clot. Reddish or greenish- brown. Olive or reddish-brown. Poppyseed oil . . Yellow spotwith orange streaks. Linseed oil (raw) . Hard brown or greenish- brown clot. Mottled dark brown. „ (boiled) Hard brown clot. Mottled dark brown. Castor oil . . . . Yellow to pale brown. Nearly colourless or pale brown. Animal Oils. Lard oil ... . Greenish -yellow or brownish with brown streaks. Mottled or dirty brown. Tallow oil. . . . Yellow spot with pink streaks. Red, turning violet. Orange red. "Whale oil. . . . Brownish-red, turning brown or black. Seal oil . . . Orange spot with pur- Brownish-redjchanging ple streaks. to mottled brown. Cod liver oil . . . Dark red spot with pur- Purple, changing to ple streaks. dark brown. Sperm oil . . . . Pure brown spot with Purple, changing to faint yellow ring. reddish or dark brown. Hydrocarbon Oils. Petroleum lubricating Brown. Dark brown, with blue oil. fluorescence. Shale lubricating oil Dark reddish brown. Reddish brown, with blue fluorescence. Resin oil (brown) . Bright mahogany brown. Dark brown, with purple fluorescence. „ „ (pale) . . Mahogany brown. Red brown, with purple fluorescence. TESTS FOR OILS. 225 Massie's Nitric Acid Colour Test. — Mix 3 cc. of the oil for two minutes with i cc. of pure 16 E nitric acid, and observe the colour of the separated oil. The following are the colours produced with various oils by this method : — Olive oil . . Colourless, yellow or greenish. Almond oil . Colourless or slightly greenish, Arachis „ . Reddish. Peach-kernel oil . Immediate red liniment. Rape oil . , Reddish or orange. Sesam£ oil . Yellowish or orange. Cottonseed oil , . Brown or brownish-red. Linseed . „ . . Red or orange. Poppyseed „ . . Reddish. Hempseed „ . . Brownish-red. Castor „ . . Yellowish or orange. Tests for Fish Oils in Vegetable Oils. — Heat some of the sample in a small covered crucible to about 130° C, and observe the odour given off. If much fish oil ■ be present a characteristic fishy odour will be perceived. Measure out 50 cc. of the sample into a large test tube, and pass a current of dry chlorine gas through it, when a more or less reddish- brown colour will be produced if fish oils be present. Saponify 5 grms. of the sample as directed on page 194, but using absolute alcohol instead of the methylated, (which gives a brownish colour with potash, owing to the methyl alcohol it- con tains), and dilute the saponified oil to about 50 cc. with' water in a test tube, when, if fish oils be present, a more or . less brownish colour is produced. Valenta's Acetic Acid Test. — In this test the oil is brought into solution by boiling in 17 E acetic acid, and the temperature at which a turbidity is produced is observed. This being different for various oils, the test may be useful as confirming the presence of a particiilar oil which has been previously identified by other means. The test may be applied in the following manner : — 5 cc. of the sample and 5 cc. of glacial (17 E) acetic acid are poured into a test tube, and the Q 226 OILS. mixture heated to boiling, until all the oil has gone into solu- tion ; a thermometer is then immersed in the liquid, which is allowed to cool gradually, and the temperature at which a turbidity is produced is observed. The following results were obtained by Valenta, for various oils, by this test : — Kind of Oil. Green Olive oil Temperature of Turbidity " C. 85 Yellow „ . : III Almond oil no Aracliis ,, 112 Apricot Kernel oil Sesame oil . 114 107 Melonseed oil io8 Cottonseed oil no Cod-liver „ lOI Rape seed oil . Mustard seed oil Wild Radish-seed Oil 1 Not completely dissolved at tht j boiling point of acetic acid. Palm oil . 23 Laurel „ . 26 to 27 Nutmeg Butter Cocoa Nut oil 27 40 Palmnut oil, 48 Bassia oil 64-5 Beef Tallcivsr 95 Pressed Tallovr .n4 Cacao Butter . loS Olive Kernel oil Castor oil Solu ble at the ordin iry temperature. Iodine Absorption Test for Oils. — This process of testing oils, which was first brought out by Baron Hiibl * depends upon the fact that different oils, under the same conditions combine with varying quantities of iodine,, owing to each oil possessing the glycerine ethers of the members of the three groups of fatty acids— viz., the aceit'c, acrylic, and tetrolic series, in different proportions ; the acetic series being comparatively indifferent to the action of iodine, while the fats of the acrylic * Ding. Polyt. Jour., ccliii., 281. IODINE ABSORPTION TEST. 22? and tetrolic series readily unite with fixed quantities of the halogen. The following are details of the process : — Weigh out into a 30 cc. beaker from o'2 to 0*3 grm. of a drying oil, 0-3 to 0*4 grm. of a non-drying oil, or from o"8 to i-o grm. of a solid fat. Dissolve in 10 cc. of chloroform, and pour into a 250 cc. stoppered flask. 20 cc, of a siant/ard solu- tion of iodo-mercuric chloride (prepared by dissolving 25 gnus, of iodine and 30 grms. of mercuric chloride each in 500 cc. of 95 per cent, alcohol, and mixing the two solutions) are now added and the mixture well agitated. If the solution is not quite clear add a little more chloroform. If the mixture be- comes nearly colourless after standing fifteen minutes add 10 cc. more of the iodine solution, well mix, and allow to stand for two hours. Now add 10 cc. of an aqueous solution of E potassic iodide, mix, dilute to about 200 cc, and titrate the free iodine still present with an — standard solution of hypo- sulphite of soda (thiosulphate, NajSaOs), using. 2 cc. of starch solution (i in 100) as indicator of the end of the reaction. A blank experiment must be made, using the same quantities of chloroform, iodine solution, &c., in order to obtain the true value of the hyposulphite solution, after which the aniount of iodine absorbed by the sample is easily obtained, which should be expressed centesimally. The following table shows the iodine absorption for various oils in percentages (Hiibl and MoUer) : — Iodine deg^ree. Shark-liver oil 268-2 Manhaden „ 170-8 Porpoise ,, I3I-2 Seal ,, ...... 103-4 Lin-eed ,, 158 Walnut „ 143 Poppyseed „ 136 Cottonseed „ 106 Rapeseed „ too Almond „ 98-4 228 OILS. Iodine de^ee. Castor oil 84-4 . Olive „ . 82-8 ■ ., , 8'-3 Lard „ 59 Palm „ 51-5 Tallow,, .... ... 40 Cocoa-nut oil 8*9 Cocoa-butter oil 34 "4 Muskat-butter „ 31 '6 Mutton-fat oil S7'3 Lard „ SS Beef-suet „ 38'4 Oleic acid „ . ' 86-2 Olein ■ 82-3 Commercial stearin vj Beeswax S"3 Japanese wax 5'6l Bayberry tallow i'38 Butter 31 Oleomargarine . SS'3 HiJbl obtained an assimilation of fronu Sg'S to go's per cent, of iodine by chemically pure oleic acid, while the theo- retical proportion required by the reaction C18H31O2 + Ij = CisHmIjOz is 90-07 per cent. The following are his conclusions deduced from the experi- ments* : — (i) Linseed oil is distinguished by its high iodine, and any addition of a foreign oil must reduce that degree. By boiling linseed oil, its iodine degree is lowered, but the fusing point of its fatty acids is increased. (2) An addition of 5 to 10 per cent, of cottonseed or rape- seed oil would be readily detected in nut or poppy oil, but not much less than 20 per cent, of linseed would be detected. (3) Rapeseed oil as regards the iodine absorption is affected by the method of extraction and refining. The refined oil usually has an iodine degree 2 or 3 degrees, below that of the * See "Journal Soc. Chem. Ind.,"-i884, p. 642. IODINE ABSORPTION TEST. 229 raw product. A falsification with 15 per cent, of linseed oil would be detected with certainty. (4) Castor oil possesses a very constant iodine degree — from 84-0 to 847, and is distinguished from all other oils and fats by this figure, by the points of fusion and solidification of its. fatty acids (13° and 3° C. respectively), by the saponifi- cation test and by its ready solubility in alcohol and acetic acid. (5) In' twenty samples of olive oil, collected fi:om various sources, the absorption of iodine varied only within 3 degrees. The addition of about 5 per cent, of a drying oil, or 15 per cent' of cottonseed, sesamd, arachis, or rape-seed, may be established with certainty. (6) Animal fats, as is well known, are liable to alteration in respect to their consistency and proportion of oleic acid, owing to variety, age, and food of the animal whence derived. In the case of butter-fat the absorption of iodine varies between the limits of 26 and 35. (7) 'When the nature of two fats in a mixture is known their proportion may be determined approximately by the formula : — 100 (I— k) m—n ■Where x ^ the percentage of one fat. y =1 „ „ the other. I =: iodine degree of the mixture. m= „ „ „ fat X. «= « „ .. „ y. (8) The age of a fat, so long as great alterations have not taken place, does not affect its iodine absorption. If, how- ever, an oil has become rancid and contains free acid, .the iodine degree suffers considerable depression. PART VI. MATERIALS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF RAIL WA Y GREASE. Railway grease may be made from tallow, palm oil, petroleum residuum, caustic or carbonated alkali, and soap. A known weight of alkali (which is determined according to the percen- tage of free fatty acids present in the tallow and palm oil), is first dissolved in an appropriate quantity of water contained in an open boiler, into which is fitted a perforated coil of iron tubing, through which steam can be made to issue. A weighed quantity of palm oil is next added, and thoroughly stirred until the free fatty acids are completely neutralized, which can be known by the abatement of effervescence, due to COj from the decomposition of the alkali ; a definite weight of tallow is next added, and the mixture " boiled " up with steam for some time, when the free fatty acids of the tallow thus become neu- tralized. After the addition of soap, and steaming, the grease is run off through sieves into vats, or, if a black grease is required, about 40 per cent, of Russian petroleum residuum is previously added. The quality of the materials used in the manufacture of grease is of great importance in ensuring uniformity of working, and in obtaining a homogeneous product. A source of trouble in practical working is the great difference in the percentages of free fatty acids in different consignments of palm oil, Lagos brand C9ntaining about 12 per cent, of free fatty acids, TALLOW. 231 expressed as palmitic 'acid, while the brand known as Salt Pond may contain as much as 80 per cent, of free fatty acids. The following may be taken as being the average composi- tion of good yellow and black railway grease : — Water Tallow . . . . , Palm oil Soap (containing 30 % water) Petroleum reSiduum Soda ash .... Yellow. Per cent. Black. Per cent 37 25 30 . ; lO-S 21 17 4 13-5 1-5 40-0 Grease used on the German railways has the following composition : — Per cent. Tallow 24' 6 Palm-oil 9-8 Rape-seed oil I-I Soda . S-2 Water • . 59-3 loo-o strian Grease: — Tallow. Olive Oil. Old Grease For winter 100 20 13 •For spring and autumn 100 10 10 For summer 100 . 1 10 Tallow. Australian mutton tallow and Russian tallow are much used in the manufacture of grease, and in judging its quality it becomes necessary to know the amount of moisture, free fatty acids, suspended matter (mineral and organic), the total fatty acids, together with the determination of the melting and con- gealing points of the sample, and also of the total fatty acids. Estimation of Moisture. — Weigh into a tared beaker, supplied with a glass rod, 10 grms. of the fairly averaged 232 RAILWAY GREASE. sample, dry in an oil bath or air oven for one hour, at a temperature of iio° C, allow to cool and reweigh; replace in the oil bath or air oven for another hour, cool, and again weigh; if there is no considerable diiference between this and the last weighing the loss is taken as moisture. The normal amount of moisture in tallow ranges from 0*5 to 2 per cent. Estimation of Suspended Matter. — If the amount of sus- pended matter is at all considerable — which could be judged when the tallow is melted — the tallow left from the estimation of moisture is melted, and passed through a tared ashless filter- paper contained in a hot water funnel, after which it is trans- ferred to an ordinary filter stand, and the remaining portion of tallow and suspended matter in the beaker treated with methylated ether, and filtered, the filter being washed free from fat with ether, dried and weighed ; after which the filter and its contents can be ignited in a weighed crucible, and the residual mineral matter weighed. The total suspended matter in a tallow should not exceed o'3 per cent. Estimation of Free Fatty Adds — 50 grms. of the sample are weighed into a 180 cc. flask, and 100 cc. of pure methy- lated alcohol (to which are previously added three drops of an alcoholic solution of phenolphthalein and two drops of ENaHO solution, which should give a permanent pink colora- tion) are added ; the mixture is then placed on top of a water oven, and when the tallow is seen to be melted, it is vigorously stirred so as to dissolve all the free fatty acids. A standard solution of E sodic hydrate, contained in a burette, is now gradually run into the solution until a pink coloration (which remains permanent on stirring for five minutes) is produced. Note the volume required, i cc. of E NaHO = o'282 grm. free oleic acid ; cc's required x "282 X 2 = percentage of free oleic acid. The usual range of free fatty acids in tallow is from I to 5 per cent., and in samples which have been kept for some years, and which are characterised with a very offen- sive rancid odour, may contain as much as 20 per cent. Some- times, however, the free fatty acids are abnormally high, due to PALM OIL. 233, adulteration with cotton-seed oil, stearic acid, and the acids from wool grease. Estimation of Total Fatty Adds — 5 grms. of the sample are saponified as directed on page 194, and the total fatty acids determined as described. The Melting Point and Congealing Point of the Sample, and ■ of the Total Fatty Acids therefrom. — These are determined by the method described on page 197. The melting point of Australian tallow is from about 4S°to 50° C, and the congeal- ing point from 40° to 47° C. The melting point of the total fatty acids is often 49° C, and the congealing point 47° C. Calculation of atnount of Soda-ash required to neutralize the Free Fatty Adds in i cwt. of Tallow, — We shall suppose the soda-ash to contain 477 per cent, of combined NauO and the tallffw to contain 4"8 per cent, free oleic acid. Now two mole- cules of oleic acid require one molecule of sodic oxide, since 2 C18H34O2 + NajO = 2 NaOisHssOz + H2O. 564 reqs. 62 Now I cwt of the tallow contains •048 cwt. dsHaiOj ; then 564 : '048 : : 62 : x— = -00528 cwt. pure NajO required, but the soda-ash only contains 477 per cent, pure NazO; then, 47*7 : 100 : : "00528 : x ='oiio7 cwt. or "01107 X 112 ^ i"24 lbs. soda-ash required to neutralize the free fatty acids in i cwt. of the tallow. Palm Oil. Palm oil is obtained from the fruit of the Avoira elais or Elais Guineenis, and is imported largely into this country from the West Coast of Africa for the purpose of making grease, soaps and candles, &c. Its specific gravity is "920 to '927 at 15° C. and about •856 at 100° C, and it melts at about 40° C, the total fatty acids melting at from 41 to 46° C. The colour of palm oil varies from orange yellow to brownish ■ yellow. In consistency it varies from that of vaseline ta hard tallow, owing to the variation in the proportion of free 234 RAILWAY GREASE. fatty acids. Palm oil may be assayed in a similar manner to tallow, the free fatty acids being expressed as palmitic acid, (CisHajOa) 5 grms. instead of 50 being taken. For railway grease the amount of free fatty acids present is not a serious item, since they are neutralized in the process of manufac- ture. The oil in its raw state, however, quickly corrodes iron, :steel, &c. The following is a table by Archbutt giving the proportions of free fatty acids in various brands of palm oil. Free Fatty Acids, per cent "*' Expressed as Palmitic. Salt Pond 78-9 Unknown . 72-0 Refined . 55-8 Brass 53-2 New Calabar 52-2 Fernando Po 40-5 Half Jack . 3S-7 Half Jack . 24-4 Bonny 2I-S Lagos Ji-9 The following is what the author considers an ideal palm ■oil for grease making : — Free fatty acids Total „ „ . . Water, below . Suspended matter, below Melting point of sample Congealing point of sample Melting point of total fatty acids Congealing „ „ 30 pel cent. 95 j» o-S }» •3 ), 41° C. 36° C. 42° to 47° C 43° to 41° C The Lagos brand contains the least proportion of free fatty acids, but it is likewise the most expensive, and therefore it is more economic to use for grease making a palm-oil containing a fair proportion of free fatty acid at a reasonable price. It •could, of course, be arranged that there should always be the same proportion of neutral palm fat present in the grease, by altering the proportion of added soap according to the amount PETROLEUM RESIDUUM. 235 of soap formed by the neutralization of the free fatty acids. There should be no difficulty in the making of grease with palm oil so long as the proportion of the free fatty acids keeps below 40 per cent. Petroleum Eesiduum. The best petroleum residuum applicable to grease-making is that imported from Russia. If the distillation has not been carried too far, it is of a fine glossy silky nature ; and when rubbed on the hand, it exhibits a good greasy consis- tency. On the other hand, if the distillation has been carried on to the extent that the last portion of lubricating oil has been removed, a rough-feeling product is obtained which is inferior for the purpose. Petroleum residuum is now much used in the manufacture of railway grease, and it appears to be a very economic introduc- tion. It can be got for something like £fi per ton ; and more- over, the grease made with it lasts longer, and has less action on the bearings, journals, &c., than the ordinary yellow grease. The most important point in buying residuum is to get it of the required viscosity ; many of the residuums in the market become very thin when the temperature rises a litttle, and grease made with them is of little value, since on attaining the temperature of the bearings it separates and runs away in waste. The viscosity of residuums for grease-making should be determined at 180° C, and the best for the purpose takes about 546 seconds for 50 cc. to run out of Redwood's viscosimeter. The amount of suspended matter if large must be determined, and also the loss on exposing about i grm. of the sample con- tained in a watch glass of 2 J inches diameter, in a water oven for twelve hours, the loss being due to water and any light oil that has volatilized, an amount which rarely exceeds 2 per cent. Sometimes residuums contain a considerable amount of water ; in such cases it is best to treat a known weight with petroleum ether in a graduated measure, and note the volume of water that has separated out. 236 RAILWAY GREASE. Soap. Palm soap containing 28 per cent, of water and 8 to 13 per cent, of resin as soap is much used for grease-making, but it is questionable whether a much cheaper soap could not be used with equal advantage, containing no resin, which is of little use as a lubricant. Method of Analysis. Estimation of Water. — The amount of water in soaps considerably varies, some hard soaps containing 15 per cent., and inferior varieties as much as 80 per cent. Weigh out 2 grms. of the fairly averaged sample into a tared beaker supplied with a pointed glass rod, and dry for one hour at 50° C. ; and finally gradually increase the temperature to 110° C, with frequent stirring until all water has been driven off ; about three hours in all being in most cases sufiScient to completely expel water. The loss = water. Estimation of Total Combined Fatty and Resin Adds. — 5 grms. of the average sample are dissolved in 100 cc. of hot water and poured into a separator, 20 cc. of standard E HNOj are then added, and the mixture well shaken up ; the soap is thus de- composed, fatty acids and any free unsaponified fat being liberated, the soda or potash combining with the nitric acid forming nitrate of soda or potash. 50 cc. of methylated ether are now added, well shaken, and allowed to settle. The aqueous solution is tapped off into another separator, 20 cc. more ether added to it and separated as before ; the two ethereal solutions are mixed and washed with water, and separated, adding the aqueous solution to the main portion. Reserve aqueous solution. The ethereal solution containing the fatty acids, &c., is poured into a weighed flask and attached to a Liebig's condenser, the ether distilled oflf, and the residue carefully dried and weighed ; any unsaponified fat and resin as found in another portion, must be subtracted from this weight. Of course the fatty acids as thus found do not exist in this RESIN IN SOAP. 237 form in the soap, but as fatty anhydrides ; to obtain the corre- sponding quantity of fatty anhydrides; multiply the weight of fatty acids found by •966. Estimation of Total Soda {Na^O.) — To obtain the total amount of soda present, free and combined, the reserved aqueous solution from the above determination is taken : the excess of E nitric acid therein is titrated back with a standard E solution of NaHO, using litmus paper as an indicator. Each cc. of E HNO3 neutralized = -032 grm. NajO. The solution could now be divided into two halves, and if necessary the chlorides could be estimated in one by precipi- tation with nitrate of silver, and sulphates in the other by pre- cipitation with barium chloride in the usual manner. Estimation of Resin. — The best method for the determi- nation of resin is that devised by Gladding, depending upon tha solubiUty of silver resinate in an alcohol- ether solution, and the comparative insolubility of silver oleate, stearate, palmitate, &c., in the same solution. Weigh out 0*5 grm. of the total fatty and resin acids, as obtained in their deter- mination, into a small flask, dissolve in 20 cc. of absolute alcohol, add two or three drops of phenolphthalein, then add drop by drop a con- centrated alcoholic solution of potash till a pink coloration is produced, and then add two drops more, and keep near the boiling point for ten minutes to ensure complete saponification of any neutral fat; pour out into a graduated 100 cc. Muter tube, Fig. 29, dilute to 100 cc. with anhydrous ether, and thoroughly mix. Now add o*5 grm. of pure silver nitrate in the state of the finest powder, and thoroughly shake for about ten minutes to ensure complete reaction. Allow the precipitated silver soaps to subside. About 70 cc. or any known quantity of clear ethereal solution are tapped off into a separator, and shaken up with about Fig. 29. 238 RAILWAY GREASE. o'l grm. more powdered silver nitrate to ensure complete formation of silver soaps. If any flocculent precipitate is produced the solution is agaiij run into the Muter tube and shaken up with o'3 grm. more of the powdered silver nitrate, allowed to settle, and a known volume tapped off into a separator as before. 20 cc. of 4 E HCl are now added to the liquid, and the mixture vigorously shaken up. The soluble silver soaps are thus decomposed, silver chloride is precipi- tated and collects at the bottom of the aqueous solution, while the resin acids and small quantities of oleic acid, Szc, are dissolved in the ethereal layer. When complete separation is ensured, the aqueous solution with the precipitate is tapped off, the ethereal solution distilled off in a weighed flask, and the residue of resin, &c., dried at 100° C. and accurately weighed. Now, since the silver soaps of oleic, stearic acids, &c., are to an appreciable extent soluble in the ethereal liquor, a correction must be made for the solubility ; the amount dis- solved varies with the nature of the fatty acids. The following table showing the average variation of solu- bility of different fatty acids as silver soaps, was obtained by Wright and Thompson : — Pure oleic acid .... Milli .in grams of Fatty Acids 10 cc. of Solvent. . 1-20 Pure stearic acid . . i-i6 Mixed stearic and oleic acids . 1-91 Acids from cottonseed oil . . 2-69 Acids from castor oil . • 5-39 Acids from cocoa-nut oil . i-8o Acids from linseed oil (Allen) . 2-31 An idea of the nature of the fatty acids present having been obtained from their melting point, specific gravity, &c., the operator could judge which was the most correct figure to take for subtraction. The method gives good results with a little practice, but unless great care is exercised a very erroneous result may be obtained. ESTIMATION OF FREE FAT. 239 Estimation of Free Pat. —Owing to incomplete saponifi- cation of the fat used in the manufacture of soap, there is sometimes fat present in the free state. To determine this, the dry residue left from the estimation of water is detached by means of a flexible steel spatula, powdered, brushed into a 50 cc. wide mouth stoppered bottle, 30 cc. of methylated ether added, and the stopper tied down. It is now heated to about 40° C, well shaken for about a quarter of an hour, and allowed to cool ; the stopper is then withdrawn, the clear ethereal solution decanted through a filter into a separator, the residue exhausted twice more with 30 cc. of ether, and filtered as before. The ethereal solution containing any free fat, free fatty acids, a little soap, &c., is now washed three times with 20 cc. of distilled water, the purified ethereal extract distilled, and the residuum of free fat, &c., weighed and tested for mineral oils and waxes. Sic. The following is a tabular scheme given by Dr. Leeds * for the complete analysis of soaps : — * Chem. News, xlviii., 67. =3^ - d) 1:3 " s -S '■u =h ",S - - ^ - id "'■ 1 tfU ** P n'O i>.wi-i4-> W4->*! O A i SOS'S -oart .■2's-"''.l»co 5'L.^ aP^^ ^ M ^ ^R I«is1: •a "5 ZP 5f g«Ji-S !3 .S • H-sS t ••- • *3 2 S" Cja nj . rt a.a g s o s^.S P^MmPm (Scni-I y bo' « -■a I.S s ° o o ■0-2 nil © is cd ^ S 8« rt o .a 5 t'"s S'Sg « S •§^"■5 .So Si ID'S o f « rt o ( .:: I " =^.H S ! ■^ a £»-.'^ < £ O ?fl W'Tj'd* fa H rt uC_"" " „ Hja'rt-i -a a_r. w M 1* 'C rtW ■ » _. 4S u , (fl u i c o ■-j rt 2 S c n u II -a erf " w hH « -o^ "J^ £i3 &|8. 0} » o^ « » ■T3,a o oj -.5 2fl-a £ Sg^gsl&Sg' ''■*'m ft ""■S .1fls Map, ANALYSIS OF SOAPS. 241 •spioy nisa-^ §•8, j:.^ rtpo^wb^ f/^w 6\« ^^ C4 g ■F?ox 00 pp ■-• VD l^ ■^ for^oo 8S;g N N ^-^ OMo moo vo ooop NQO w r^o\9oo p\o y^ OsOxO 0^0^0^0^0 a^O^O 0^ 0^ -iSJE^ « CO %b 00 t^ OOOOmOOoONOOr^O COM N ropOcO'^PO'<:i-»n«oo •Dij 'noji JO aplxQ 'sniii >-* b b GO -^O 066 uiWi-((-i00i-<0'-"^J*l7' 666666606606 6. oipos 6 6 S '=•-0 i ^t^O '^Nl^u" 000 "I^O 6bb66i;6bb66 6 ■apupmo Dipos C3M-I 6 6 CO N^ 6 £s 6 M \o nD 1^00 t-i r»o 1000 10 r^ iO\0 r^ ;«*• *^ ^ ro ^vo ^"^ y^ b666^6666wMi« in ■spog JO OJBaoqJB3 paB 3ljsnB3 M 6 6 6 6b fr> N t^ t^\o a\ r- w M N w g 6666^bNbbbbi! 8 •ajE3!i!s SB Epog '3 - 000 N b •-• fo ro w 0^ 0^_ 00 10 _ 9 N r=l "^^ - w :g -: w6b6w'^M«66'^ CO- PO ■^3!I!S 1 0^ 6 b 000 6 r^^ PP P 7*"^ 9^ 9 ?"^ P P N666<)6io66666 8 •dBOg SB Snijsixe 00 N OVOO coo rooo o sb r^ Q 00 r^ lOsO nO ^ M »JTO l-l •sapupiquy nisa-g ^2 mOvOOOCNWMOONvoO 0^^^vp NQO O^^O^cn 0^0 CTi ON Ht w b«db bt « b 00 On CO 6 -«i-r^vo U-) PO »n -sj-vo -chroo m n -bo . ■c TaUow Tallow and Cocoa- nut Oil Do. Do. Tallow, Resin, and Cottonseed Oil Do. ■ Olive Oil ChieBy Olive Oil Palm Oil PaltnnafOil Tallow and Resin Do. Do. Do. Do. 1 § ■■B - a Si Cold Water, No. i Olive Oil, No. I . Marseilles, No. i . Palm Oil, No. i . Mottled Satinet . Glasgow Almond . Pale Resin, No. i Milling Yellow (for foreign markets; Marine (for emi- grants) K 242 RAILWAY GREASE. Assay of Caustic Soda (NaHO). Weigh out quickly lo grms. of the fairly averaged sample, lissolve in the purest distilled water free from CO2, dilute to 1,000 cc. at 15° C. in a graduated stoppered flask, thoroughly mix, and allow any sediment to subside. Estimation of Total Alkali. — 100 cc. (= i grm. sample) of the above clear solution are measured off and poured into a 200 cc. beaker; 28 cc. of standard 'E H2SO4 are now run in from a burette, and the mixture boiled for five minutes with the cover on. It is then cooled, a few drops of litmus solu- tion added, and standard E NaHO run in gradually from a burette, stirring until the last drop added just turns the red solution blue. Note the volume required, subtract this amount from 28, and the quantity of E acid neutralized by I grm. of sample is obtained. Each cc. neutralized =: -031 grm. soda (NaaO). Example. — A sample of caustic soda treated as above re- quired 8"8 cc. of E NaHO to neutralize excess of acid, then: — 28-8-8 = 19-2 CO. E H2SO4 neutralized, 19-2 X 0-031 = -5952 grm. Na20 in i grm. ■5952 X 100 = 59-52 per cent. Total NazO. Estimation of Na^O present as Hydrate and Carbonate. — Take 250 cc. of the original solution ( = 2*5 grms., of sample), pour into a graduated 500 cc. flask, add 40 cc. of E BaClj, dilute to 500 cc. at 15° C, stopper, thoroughly mix, and allow any precipitate of carbonate of barium to sub- side; decant off 250 cc. (= 1-25 grm. original sample) of the clear solution into a 400 cc. beaker, add three drops of phenol- phthalein solution, and run in standard E HCI from a burette until the pink colour has just disappeared. Note the amount required. Example. — 250 cc. of the original solution were treated as above, and 22-6 cc. of standard E HCI were required to de- colourize the solution. ASSAY OF SODA ASH. 243 1 cc. of E HCl = '031 gnn. NaaO. 22-6 X "031 = -7006. ■=. "5605 grm. NazO as NaHO in l grm. sample. I'25 ■5605 X 100 = 56-1 per cent. NaaO as NaHO. The total NajO was 59*52 per cent. Then— 59-52 — 56-1 =: 3-42 per cent. NaaO as carbonate. 57 to 60 per cent, of total soda, and 2 to 3 per cent, soda as carbonate are frequent proportions in the commercial article. Assay of Soda Ash (KaaCOs). Weigh out 10 grms. of sample, dissolve in 300 cc. of distilled water, filter into a graduated 500 cc. stoppered flask, wash the residue with distilled water until the wash- ings are no longer alkaline, and dilute to 506 cc. at 15° C. The solution is then thoroughly mixed. 100 cc. (= 2 grms. sample) are accurately measured out and poured into a 200 cc. beaker, and 37 cc of standard E H2SO4 gradually added from a burette; the solution is now boiled for five minutes with cover on to eliminate CO2, allowed to cool, a few drops of litmus solution added, and the free acid titrated by a standard E solution of sodic hydrate until the last drop produces a blue coloration. Note the volume required. Example. — 10 grms. of a sample of soda ash were treated as above; on titrating the free acid with standard E NaHO 6"o cc. iVere required. Then— 37-6 ^ 31 cc. of standard E H2SO4 neutralized. I cc. of E H2SO4 = -031 grm. NaaO. 31 X "031 = 0-961 grm. NaaO in 2 grms. sample. — - — — =: 48-05 per cent, combined NaaO. or. 31-41. X 48-05 _ 48.7 English degrees. 244 RAILWAY GREASE. A great number of commercial soda ashes examined by the writer ranged from 46 per cent. NajO to 52 per cent. NaaO. The following is a complete analysis of Glasgow refined soda ash {Brown). Sodium carbonates . 80-92 ,, hydrate 3-92 ,, silicate 1-32 ,, aluminate T-OI ,, sulphate ■ 7-43 ,, sulphite I'll ,, thiosulphate trace ,, sulphide 023 ,, chloride 3'H Insoluble matter 077 99-85 PART VII. GASWORKS PRODUCTS. This section will include articles upon gas liquor,' ammonic sulphates, spent oxide, distillation of coal tar, and creosote for the pickling of timber. I^Ammouiacal Liquor. The ammoniacal liquor of the gas works, which derives its ammonia from the nitrogen present in the coal from which it is distilled, is a complicated solution containing a number of ammoniacal compounds, of which the following is a list : — (a) Volatile at oRDiNAsr Temperatures. Free ammonia. Ammonium carbonates (mono, sesqui, and bi). ,, sulphide. ,, bisulphide. , , acetate. „ cyanide. (S) Fixed at ordinary Temperatures. Ammonium sulphate, sulphite, hyposulphite, thiocarbonate. chloride, sulphocyanate. ferrocyanide. 245 GASWORKS PROi)UCTS. together with smaller portions of tarry matters, such as phenol, benzol, &c., pyridine, salts, &c. Gas liquor is principally used for the production of sulphate of ammonia, much used as a manure, and its value for this purpose depends upon the proportion of total ammonia (free and combined) that it contains. Of the total ammonia from the liquor produced from English coals 15 to 20 per cent, is in the "fixed" state. The following interesting table by Gerlach shows the amount of total ammonia contained in the ammoniacal liquors from various German and English coals : — Coal Distilled. g:rms.NH3 per 100 cc. degs. Baum€. Gas Works. German Coals. Zwickau coal and Bohemian lignite . o'9o8 1-66 Leipzig Zwickau and Burgk coal . 0-944 1-5 Dresden Burgk coal r86z 2-8 Freiberg Ruhr coal . I-8I2 2-1 Bonn >j 1-292 1-75 Eupen »» 1-826 2-25 Cologne »' 1-278 1-5 Dortmund Saar coal I -574 Augsberg >i 1-523 2-S Treves »» 1-870 3-2 Zurich Silesiancoal z-339 3-0 Berlin jj >» 1-290 Pest ,, „ and Bohemian lignite . 1-030 2-0 Prague English Coals. Cannel coal : boghead 2-881 3-75 Hamburg English coal 3-51* 4-0 Stettin it It . • 2-659 3-0 St. Petersburg „,,..... 2-244 3-3 Trieste „,,..... 2-142 3-5 Stralsund Leverson Wallsend .... 2-366 4-0 Altona English coal .... 2-407 4-0 Copenhagen New Pelton : Ravensworih 1-785 2-75 Riga Old Pelton Main .... 1-717 3-0 Konigsberg English coal 2-966 3-0 Stettin Old Pelton -Main: Leverson Wallsend 1-345 3-0 • Dantzic TAe Valuation of Ammoniacal Liquor. — We shall here only make a determination of the free and combined ammonia with VALUATION OF GAS LIQUOR. 247 the amount of lime required and its cost for expelling the com- bined ammonia. A method much used for valuing liquors is to obtain the j^pecific gravity of them, and by referring to a table the percentage of ammonia is obtained ; but owing to the difference in density of the various ammonium salts present, this method might be considered practically worthless. The following table by Siedel shows the differences in the percentage of ammonia in different liquors of the same specific gravity at 15° C. :— Degrees, Baume . 2 2"5 3 3'5 4 .4'5 5 6 Specific gravity . . i"oi38 1*0163 I'0208 l"024g. 1-0280 1*0316 i"035z 1*0426 Per cent. NH3 i-i6 1-42 1-50 177 1-30 1-63 177 1-98 2-l8 2-65 1-63 1-75 I -go 2-10 2-38 2-45 1-87 2-00 2-24 2-40 272 2-SS 272 2'go 3-40 279 2-8S 3-06 3-40 3-53 3-67 374 The following is a good method for the determination of the amount of the free and combined ammonia present in gas liquors. The specific gravity is first taken at 15° by hydro- meter. Determination of " Free " Ammonia. — Accurately measure out 20 cc. of the sample, pour into the flask a, Fig. 30, holding about 300 cc, dilute with about 100 cc. of distilled water, fix to condensing arrangement as shown in the sketch, and keep the tap b closed, e is a tube filled with glass wool, and serves to trap any traces of ammonia that might otherwise escape. When all is ready fixed for distillation, 30 cc. of standard E H2SO4 are run into d through the tube e, followed by a few drops of litmus solution. The glass wool will thus be 248 GASWORKS PRODUCTS. coloured red. If any of the ammonia escapes (which rarely happens) during the distillation, the stratum of glass wool would be completely coloured blue. Apply a gentle heat to a until it gently boils, and keep at this temperature until about 60 cc. have collected in d. The tap b is now opened and all acid washed out of e into d. It now becomes necessary to ascertain how much of the acid has been neutralized by the "free" ammonia distilled ofif; for this purpose detach d, gently boil Fig. 30. to eliminate any CO2, fill a burette with standard E sodic hydrate, and run this into it gradually until the last drop added turns the solution from red to blue. For every cc. of E HzSO^ neutralized by the sample there is 'oiy grm. of NH3 in solution. Combined Ammonia. — The flask d is now swilled out and again attached to e and A, and 20 cc. of standard E H2SO4 coloured with litmus are poured through e into D ; 40 cc._ of E NaHO (recently boiled to eliminate any NHj present) are VALUATION OF GAS LIQUOR. 249 now run into the residual solution in a through b, and the dis- tillation proceeded with as before, the solution being reduced nearly to dryness. The free acid in d is titrated with standard E NaHO as before. The number of cc.'s of acid neutralized X '017 = grms. oi comdined ammonia, in 20 cc. of sample* Example. — A sample of ammoniacal liquor had a specific gravity of i"026 at 60° F. Free Ammonia, — 20 cc. of sample were taken, diluted, and dis- tilled into 30 cc. of standard E H2SO4. On titration with E NaHO 1 1 "6 cc. were required to produce blue tint. 30 — n-6 =: 18-4 cc. E H2SO4 neutralized. I cc. of E H3S04 = -017 grm. NH3. 18-4 X "017 ^ '3128 grm. NH3 in 20 cc. 20 cc. of liquor = 20 X i"026 (sp. gr.) = 20-52 grms. 20-52 : 100 :: -3128 : x — ^ i -5244 per cent. " free " ammonia. I gallon of liquor weighs 10 X i'026 = 10-26 lbs. 103 : 10-26 : : 1-5244 : x — = 0-1564 lbs. free NH3 per gallon. Combined Ammonia. — The residual solution from the estima- tion of the '■' free " ammonia was distilled with sodic hydrate into 20 cc. of standard E H2SO4, and on titrating the excess of acid back with E NaHO, 11*7 cc. were required to pro- duce blue tint. 20 — 11-7 = 8-3 cc. E H2SO4 used. 8-3 X '017 ■=■ -1411 grm. combinedNHs in 20 cc. ( = 20-52 grms.) of liquor. 20-52 : 100 : : •1411 : x — =; 0-6876 per cent, combined ammonia. Total Ammonia. 1-5244 ■\- -6876 = 2-212 per cent, total ammonia. 100 : 10-26 :: 2-212-: a; =: -22695 lbs. of total NH3 in a gallon of liquor. Now every 34 parts of ammonia (NH3) form 132 parts of ammonic sulphate (NH4)2 SO4 then 34 : -22695 '• '• '32 - a; = o-88iilb. of AmaSO^ could be produced from one gallon of liquor ; and „„ =2542 250 GASWORKS PRODUCTS, gallons of liquor required, to produce one ton of pure sulphate of ammonia. Quantity and price of lime required to expel the combined ammonia from i,ooo gallons of liquor. Say 90 per cent, lime is 22s. per ton. Now every 34 parts of combined ammonia require 56 parts of pure lime (CaO) for its expulsion. 1,000 gallons of the liquor weigh 10,260 lbs., and the number of lbs. of combined ammonia in 1000 gallons is — 100 : 10,260 : : -6876 : x — =. 70-55 lbs. •■• lbs. of pure lime required — ^ 7 55 X 5 __ jj^.^ i[,g_ o, 100 X ii6-2 ,, , „ 90 % „ „ = — = 129 lbs. = IS. 4d. per 1,000 gallons. Assay of Sulphate of Ammonia (AmjSOj). The value of commercial sulphate of ammonia in this country, is deduced from the percentage of ammonia present, and in Germany from the percentage of nitrogen. The pure salt contains 21-21 percent, of nitrogen, equivalent to 25-75 per cent, of ammonia (NH3). The specification for sulphate in this country enacts that it should contain 23 per cent, of combined ammonia ; but the commercial article often contains between 24 and 25 per cent. The analysis of sulphate of ammonia should include the determination of water, combined ammonia, free sulphuric acid, and any sulphocyanates. Estimation of Water. — 10 grms. of the sample are weighed into a tared beaker and dried in the water oven until no further loss occurs ; the loss is taken as water. Estimation of Free Sulphuric Acid. — Weigh out 5 grms. of the sample into a 150 cc. beaker, dissolve in 100 cc. of dis- tilled water, boil for a few minutes to expel any COs, cool, add a few drops of litmus solution, and run in standard E sodic hydrate from a burette until the last drop added turns SULPHOCYANATES IN Am2S04. 25 1 the solution from red to blue. Note volume required. Each cc. of E NaHO = "049 grm. of free sulphuric acid present. Estimation of Combined Ammonia. — The method adopted for the estimation of the combined ammonia in gas liquor is. suitable for its determination in sulphates. 10 grms. of the averaged sample • are weighed into a beaker, dissolved in water, diluted to 250 cc. at 15° C, and thoroughly mixed. 50 cc. of this solution (= 2 grms. sample) are now poured into, the flask a. Fig. 27, and 35 cc. of standard E H2SO coloured with litmus, added through e into the flask d, and attached ready for distillation. 5 grms, of sodic hydrate dissolved in 50 cc. of water and boiled to expel any NH3 present, are now poured into A through the tap b, which is afterwards closed, and the distillation proceeded with, which should take about two hours, the solution being prevented from getting too low in A by frequent additions of water through b. After it is assured that all the ammonia has beeil expelled, the tube e is washed into D, and the excess of acid therein titrated with standard E. NaHO ; each cc. of acid neutraHzed = '017 grm. of ammonia.. Estimation of Sulpkocyanates. — Owing to defective manufac- ture, small quantities of sulphocyanic acid often find their way into the finished product, which is supposed to have a very detri- mental influence on plant life, and thus materially diminishes- its value as a manure. A rough method much used for testing; for sulphocyanates, is to place a small heap of 5 grms. of the sample on a sheet of white paper, and drop on it a solution of ferric chloride until the whole becomes saturated with it,, when, if any sulphocyanates be present, a more or less red coloration will be produced, owing to the formation of ferria sulphocyanate. The following reaction takes place : — 6 NHiCNS + Fe2Cl6 = Fez (CNSje + 6 NH4C]. Amnionic sulpTaocyanate. Ferric sulphocyanate. If a similar heap of pure sulphate of ammonia, free from sulphocyanate, be placed by the side of the sample, and satu- rated with ferric chloride solution, a solution of potassic; 252 GASWORKS PRODUCTS. sulphocyanide of known strength can be gradually run on to it, and stirred with a glass rod ' until it is seen that the tints are near alike ; a rough idea is thus formed of the amount present. . The proximate estimation of- sulphocyanate in commercial sulphate of ammonia is attended with difficulties, owing to the small quantity usually present, and to the influence pf other ■complicated substances on its estimation by the usual pro- cesses. With care, the following colorimetric process based oh the above reaction, will give fair results : — Weigh out 4 grms. of the sample, dissolve in a little water, dilute to exactly 14 cc, filter off 7 cc. (= 2 grms. sample), into a carbon tube (Fig. 5), add o'5 cc. of 5 E HaSO^, and I cc. of 5 E FcaCU, and thoroughly mix. It now becomes necessary to obtain a standard ferric sulphocyanate solution. Owing to the peculiar tint of a solution of the commercial sulphate, neither an aqueous nor a pure ammonic sulphate solution of the same strength will answer for comparison ; the best method the writer knows of, is to make a standard of some of the sample, in which the sulphocyanates have been previously eliminated by evaporating to complete dryness with sulphuric acid. Weigh out 4 grms. of the sample into a small porcelain dish, mix with i cc. of 5 E H2SO4, and dry in a water oven for a couple of hours. By this means the sulpho- cyanates will be practically all gone. Dissolve in watet, dilute to 10 cc, filter off 5 cc. into a carbon tube, add i cc. of 5 E FezCle, and dilute to within 2 cc. of the volume occupied by the sample ; now run in o'2 cc. at a time, from a 2 cc. ■c* pipette, graduated in -05 cc.'s, a solution of — potassic sul- phocyanate, until the tints are nearly alike, finally adjusting the volumes with water. ■p« I cc. of - KCNS = •00116 grm. CNS. The following is an' analysis, by the above processes, of a bad sample of sulphate : — ESTIMATION OF SULPHUR IN SPENT OXIDE, 253 Water 3-50 per cent. Combined ammonia . . . 23-45 „ Free sulphuric acid . . . trace Sulphocyanate (CNS) . . . -09 ,, Corresponding to AmCNS . . -12 „ Spent Oxide. The important part played by hydrated peroxide of iron in the absorption of sulphuretted hydrogen and other detri- mental constituents of crude coal gas, renders the residual spent oxide a valuable product. With sulphuretted hydrogen the following reaction occurs : — FezOs. X OH2 + 3 SH2 = FezSs. x OHa + 3 OH2. Sesquisulphide of Iron. On exposing the sesquisulphide of iron thus produced to, the action of the air, peroxide of iron is again produced, while free sulphur is fprmed thus : — 2 FeaSa. x OH2 + 3 O2 = 2 FeaOs x OHa + 3 Sj, and the mixture would be capable of absorbing, a further quantity of SH2; the exposure could be repeated several times, until the oxide is completely choked with sulphur.. When -the spent oxide has completed its duty, it is left exposed to the atmosphere, with frequent stirring up, until completely revivified; it is then assayed for sulphur. and sold, the price varying according to the amount of sulphur present. Estimation of Sulphur. — The recognised method for the determination of sulphur in spent oxide^ is very simple. All that has to be done is to dissolve the sulphur out of a known weight of the sample by means of pure redistilled disulphide of carbon, which is afterwards distilled in a weighed flask, and the residual sulphur weighed. The following is the manner in which the sulphur is determined : 5 grras. of the averaged sample are weighed into the tube a (Fig. 31), into which a ^54 GASWORKS PRODUCTS. plug of glass wool is fitted in the constriction. It is fitted into the weighed flask b contained in a sand bath, and connected to the bottle g, containing pure disulphide of carbon, by the tube T, and to the condenser d, by means of the tube M. When all is fixed, CSz is made to percolate through the sample by blowing into g, through q. The sulphur is thus dissolved . out into B ; when b is nearly full the Bunseia, f, is lighted, and the disulphide distilled off through d into the flask E, which is Fig. 31. afterwards poured back into g, and the percolation continued several times, until it is assured that the whole of the sulphur is dissolved out. " The CSj having been finally distilled, the residual sulphur is dried in the water oven and weighed ; its weight X 20 = percentage of sulphur. Synopsis of the Distillation of Coal Tar. — The fol- lowing tabular statement shows the manner in which the various products from coal tar are obtained :■ — SYNOPSIS OF COAL-TAR DISTILLATION. 255 Dehydration, a. by standing . . . < \ i. during the heating up . . I Ammoniacal Distillation. \ LiC[tlOr I. Fraaion up to 170° C. \ A™™oniacal liquor ) \ First runnings rectified yield : — (1) Product up to iio°C.', chemically washed Distilled by steam, yields, a . . . \ b. Weaker benzol goes to I, 2 . . \ 00 per Cent. BenZOl (2) Product up to 140° treated like ( i), yields a ) ^ 50 per cent. Benzol c. Intermediate fraction is redistilled (3) Product up to 170° treated like (i) and (2) I Solvent Naphtha yields a J * Burning Naphtha c. Residue, goes to II. II. Fraction from 170° to 230°. Middle oil — . washed with caustic soda yields : — (l) Oil, distilled in the light oil" still, yields — a. Distillate up to 170'' goes to (i), (3) 5. „ „ 230", yields . . . Napthalene c. Residue goes to III. (l) Alkaline liquor decomposed by CO2 yields : — a. Aqueous solution of sodium carbonate, causticised by lime and used over again h. Crude carbolic acid is purified and yields, a CarboUc Acid /3. Waste oils, go back to II. III. Fraction from 230° to 270° =: Heavy oil (collected till solid matters begin to crystal- lize). Can be treated for naphthalene, usually \ only employed as . , • . . | CreOSOte Oil or else separated into a . . , ) b . . , Lubricating Oil IV. Fraction, anthracene oil Filtered or cold-pressed yields : — (I) Oils, are redistilled and yield a. Solid distillate, treated along with IV. (2) h. Liquid distillate, goes to III, h, or is re- distilled. c. Residue (pitch, coke, &c.) 256 GASWORKS PRODUCTS. (2) Residue is hot pressed and yields a. Oils; treated like IV. (i) *. Crude anthracene, washed withnaphtha, Ac, yields, a . . . , . Anthracene j3. Solution is distilled, and yields, cuz. Naphtha used over again for washing bb. Phenanthrene, &c., is burnt to . LampMack V. Pitch. Employed for patent fuel or varnishes, &c Pitch or else distilled, yielding : — (1) Crude anthracene, treated like IV. (2) (2) Lubricating oU, goes to III. a, resp. III. b (3) Residue Coke The following table shows the yields, in percentage, of the various products from different tars (Calvert). ^sf:'- Neutral heavy oil. Phenol. Paraffin. Naphtha- lene. Pitch. Boghead . Cannel coal - . Newcastle coal Staffordshire coal 9 2 S 30 40 12 35 3 s 9 41 IS 58 22 14 22 23 29 Creosote as used for the " Pickling " of Timber. The following is an extract from an interesting report which was made by Dr. Tidy to the Directors of the Gaslight and Coke Company, in August, 1883,* upon this subject : — " The advantages to be derived from the creosoting process are of a threefold nature : " ist. A physical action. — A very great increased solidity is effected by choking up the pores, thus agglutinating the whole mass of the wood into a more or less solid block. Apart from its rendering the wood more solid, this physical action is impor- tant in preventing the subsequent absorption of moisture. * Vide " Lunge's Coal Tar and Ammonia." CREOSOTE. 257 " and. A physiological action. — The smell of creosote im- parted to the wood prevents germinal life, well known to be destructive to timber, from being developed within it. Seeing that the preservation of timber has been effected by such materials as chloride of zinc, sulphate of copper, &c., with greater or less success, and that the action of these bodies must be mainly — although I admit not entirely — dependent on their toxic properties, this physiological action is one of im- portance. It must be remembered, however, that creosote has the advantage of a well-marked smell, which odour most of the lower animals dislike. In this respect it is superior to the other bodies I have named. " Further, it is worth pointing out that all the constituents of the coal tar, and not the tar acids only, have a more or less well-marked tarry odour. " 3rd. A chemical action. — Respecting the chemical action I would draw attention to the fact that tar acids are not only antiseptic, but that they possess the power of coagulating albumen. It is to this latter action that I shall have to refer later on in this report, as playing an important part, in my opinion, in the preservation of timber. " Now the following questions arise : — (ist.) Upon what constituents of the creosote does its value specially depend, aind what are the relative values of its different constituents ? (2nd.) If there be constituents in the creosote, which of them- selves possess no special value, do they in any respect lessen the activity of the valuable constituents ? "The importance of considering the precise value of the several constituents of creosote arises as follows : — "Speaking generally, creosote may be divided into two classes, London and Country creosotes. By London creosote we mean the creosote derived from the tars of London gas- works,, the east coast generally, and from the gasworks of towns such as Southampton, Brighton, &c., where the coal em- ployed is Newcastle coal. So far as I am able to learn, thg larger proportion of the creosote produced in England is of this character. The two creosotes being very different in 258 GASWORKS PRODUCTS. their composition, it becomes important to consider them separately. " The London Creosote has a somewhat high specific gravity, and contains a comparatively large percentage of naphthalene, and a small percentage {i.e., less than 10 per cent.) of tar acids. Further, it contains a considerable quantity of the heavier portions of the oil, that is, of those portions not volatile at a temperature below 316° C. " The Country Creosote, on the other hand, has a less specific gravity, and is considerably more fluid than London creosote. It contains considerably less naphthalene than the London creosote, a larger total percentage of tar acids, and a smaller percentage of the heavier portions of the oil present. " The real question I have had in view in this inquiry being Country creosotes versus London creosotes, it became neces- sary to inquire into the relative values of the heavier portions of the oil, of the naphthalene, and of the tar acids in creosoting. " The tar acids, in the first instance, effect the coagulation of the albumen of the wood sap. This coagulated albumen mixes with the naphthalene of the creosote, which, so soon as the temperature becomes sufficiently reduced, is redeposited, and forms, along with the heavier portions of the oil, a solid magma within the pores and fibres of the wood. That this formation of solid magma actually occurs, I have convinced myself by numerous microscopic examinations of creosoted timbers. "The success of the process, therefore, being presumably assisted by the coagulation of the albumen, the question arises, What quantity of tar acids is necessary to effect this object ? " There is little doubt in my mind that 2 or 3 per cent, would amply suffice to effect this coagulation of the sap albumen. " We are now led to consider if any value and, if any, what value is to be ascribed to the tar acids beyond that needed to effect the coagulation of the albumen. " I am far from prepared to say they are otherwise entirely valueless. Still it is a remarkable fact, which I have over and •CREOSOTE. 259 over again verified, that in the timbers that have been creosoted for a considerable time (say a year), very small quantities in- deed (if any) of the free tar acids are to be found. " I have upon this point instituted a series of examinations of sleepers, obtained from independent sources, and of ages varying from one to twenty years ; and it is a fact worth noting that, within a very short time after a sleeper has been in use, the tar acids appear to be entirely dissipated. " Seeing however that the life of a sleeper is by no means so limited, the facts I have mentioned suffice to show that the action of the tar acids per se cannot have any great or per- manently preservative influence in creosoting. " I admit it was natural to suppose that bodies commonly re- garded as powerfully antiseptic should have been the active agents in the process. Further, I must admit that it was with such view I commenced this inquiry. My recent investiga- .tions, however, have clearly shown that the value of the tar acids in the creosoting process has been greatly over-estimated. " I am convinced that, so long as the quantity of carbolic •acid present in the creosote is sufficient to coagulate the albu- men of the wood sap, it is also sufficient for practical purposes. " I have now to consider the value of naphthalene. " I am disposed to think that this body is of infinitely greater value than at first sight appears. Admitting that as an anti- septic it is inferior to the tar acids, nevertheless, so far as preservative action alone is concerned, it must not be supposed to be inoperative. Its special value, however, consists in help- ing to render the wood solid. "But it may be said, granting this to be the case, naphtha- lene is so volatile, that the heat of the sun, especially the intense heat of an Indian climate, would soon drive the whole of it off. It is true that on exposing a block of creosoted timber in an oven to a temperature of 54*5° C, and this may be taken to be an extreme tropical heat, the door of the oven after a short time shows conclusively that some of the naph« thalene in the sleeper has undergone volatilization by the heat applied. 26o GASWORKS PRODUCTS. "I would, however, direct attention to the following experi- ment : — " I exposed a large block of creosoted timber (accurately- weighed) to a temperature of 65-5° C. On weighing this at the end of twenty-four hours, I found it to have lost 1,200 grains. On exposing the same block tp the same temperature for another twenty-four hours, it lost 135 grains; whilst on continuing the experiment for a third twenty-four hours, it lost only 15 grains. After this the loss was practically nil. " I now planed off about a quarter of an inch of the block I had already heated. This done, I again exposed it to a heat of S4"5° C. for twenty-four hours, during which time it lost 1,150 grains. The loss on the second day was less than 100 grains, whilst on the succeeding days the loss was practically nil. " The surface of the wood was again planed off, and similar experiments repeated a third time, with almost identical re- sults. " From numerous microscopical examinations of the timber, and from the experiments I have described, I consider that I am justified in drawing the following conclusions r^ naphthalene : — " ist. That supposing, for the sake of argument, naphthalene possesses no great antiseptic power, nevertheless it acts bene- ficially by clogging. up the pores of the wood, forming a more or less solid magma with the coagulated albumen. In this way it assists the physical part of the creosoting process, upon which the preservation of timber materially depends. " 2nd. That although a certain quantity of naphthalene would undoubtedly be volatilized t)y a tropical heat, neverthe- less the loss would be practically limited to the surface of the timber, and would be complete a day or two after the exposure, the naphthalene in the deeper parts of the wood remaining fixed by incorporation with the albumen coagulated by the action of the tar acids, " 3rd. That inasmuch as the naphthalene cannot injure the action of the tar acids, or other constituents of the creosote, and is itself a positive benefit to the process, there is not tidy's specification for creosote, 261 only no object in requiring that the oil used for creosoting should be free from naphthalene, but that it would be unad- visable to demand such freedom. " There are many other facts that in my judgment corro- borate the views I have expressed. Thus I am given to understand that, during the twelve years after the process of creosoting was first introduced into India, the whole of the sleepers were prepared with heavy London creosote (that is, a creosote heavily charged with naphthalene), with the occasional admixture of a small quantity of Country oil for the purpose of dilution. " It is perfectly certain, further, that it was on account of the good results so obtained that creosoting became a process of acknowledged utihty. " So far as I can learn it was not until the Country ofls became more extensively used that any complaints respecting the inefficiency of the process arose. From independent in- quiries, I think there is the strongest possible reason to believe that the sleepers that proved unsatisfactory had been prepared with Country and not with London oil. " Nothing has impressed me more strongly in the course of these inquiries than the value of the heavy oils present in the creosote, that is, of the oils that do not distil over under 316° C. Of a certain antiseptic power, and very difficult of volatilization, they are, I believe, bodies of great value in the oil employed in the creosoting process.'' Dr. Tidy's Specification for Creosote. Taking into consideration the arguments of the report just quoted. Dr. Tidy has recommended the following as a speci- fication for creosote (amended in 1885) : — " (i) That the creosote shall be completely liquid at a temperature of 38° C, no deposit afterwards taking place until the oil registers a temperature of 35° C. " (2) That the creosote shall contain at least 25 per cent, of constituents that do not distil over at a temperature of 316° C. 262 GASWORKS PRODUCTS. " (3) That tested by the process hereafter to be described, the creosote shall yield a total of 8 per cent, of tar acids. " (4) That it shall- contain no admixture of bone oil, shale oil or of any substance not obtained from the distillation of coal tar, and that the first 25 per cent, of the distillate shall have a specific gravity greater than that of water. Process to be adopted for determining the coal tar acids, " (i) 100 cc. of the well mixed creosote are to be distilled at a temperature of 316° C. until no further distillate comes over. The distillate so obtained is to be mixed and well shaken in a stoppered flask with 30 cc. of a solution of caustic soda, sp. gr. i'2 (5 E). The mixture is then to be heated. This done, the stopper is to be replaced in the flask, and the hot mixture again shaken vigorously for at least a minute. " The contents of the flask are now to be poured into a separating funnel (Fig. 32), and the soda \ / solution drawn off. The creosote is to be heated iT]^ a second and a third time in a similar manner with the caustic soda solution, except that only 20 cc. of the soda solution shall be used for the second and third extraction, instead of 30 cc. as in the first ex- traction. " (2) The three soda solutions are now to be mixed together. IVAen cold, any particles of creosote are to be got rid of by means of a separating funnel. This done the solution to be thoroughly boiled, in order to expel the last traces of creosote present in the solution. The mixture is then allowed to be cooled. When cold 9 E HaSO^ is to be added (about 35 cc. will be required) until the solution becomes slightly acid to litmus. The whole is then to be poured into a separating funnel, and allowed to stand until perfectly cold and the tar acids well separated. " (3) The tar acids are now to be dissolved in 20 cc. of the caustic soda solution, sp. gr. 1-2 (5 E), and 10 cc. of water. The mixture is then to be boiled and filtered through a funnel ABEL'S SPECIFICATION FOR CREOSOTE. 263 fitted with a plug of asbestos. The asbestos is to be washed with not more than 5 cc. of boiling water. The solution is to he allowed to q.oo\ perJfcUy in a ipo cc. measure. It is then to be rendered slightly acid, with 12 E H2SO4 (10 cc. will probably be found sufficient for this purpose). The whole is again allowed to stand for two hours until perfectly cold, when the percentage of the tar acids is to be read oE Process to be adopted in estimating quantity of distillate. " The operation is to be conducted in a retort (fitted with a thermometer), and heated with the naked flame of a Bunsen burner. The heat applied is to be gradually raised to 316° C, and continued at that temperature until no further matters distil over. The distillation of the 100 cc. should be completed within, half an hour.'' Sir F. Abel's Specification for Creosote. The following is a specification for creosote which was drawn up by Sir Frederick Abel in January, 1884 : — " The creosoting liquor is to be of the description known as heavy oil of tar, obtained by the distillation of coal tar, and consisting of that portion of the distillate which comes over between the temperature of 176° C. and 405° C. " The liquor must be free from admixture with any oil or other substance not obtainable from such distillate. It shall contain not less than 20 nor more than 30 per cent, of con- stituents that do not distil over at a temperature approaching 316° c. " It must yield not less than g per cent, by volume of tar acids. " The creosoting liquor must become completely fluid when raised to a temperature of 38° C, and exhibit no signs of any deposit on cooling down to a temperature of 32^° C, " The specific gravity of the liquor must not be less than i'o35, and not more than i'o65, at a temperature of 32° C., as compared with water at 15^° C." 264 GASWORKS PRODUCTS. Creosote Oils.— The following table shows the character of various creosote oils* : — Specific ■ Gravity at 32" 6. Per cent, of Distillate below3i5''C. Per cent, of Tar Acids from Distillate. A. Heavy London oils : highest Ditto lowest Average of 20 samples . B. Partial runnings from London oils : highest . Ditto lowest Average of 20 samples . C. English Country oils : highest Ditto lowest Average of 18 samples 1-075 1-048 1-0588 1-056 1-024 I-033S 60 7I-S 91 78 82-8 90 72 8i-8 8-0 S-6 10-2 8-2 .91-5 24-0 13-5 18-6 Carbolineum. — This is a substance becoming much used as a timber preser\'ative. It is, however, mostly used superficially for painting telegraph poles, wood pavements, fences, &c., and is said to effectually prevent water from getting into the wood. It has a remarkably high boiling point, and is prepared from the anthracene oil, squeezed out of rough anthracene, which is mixed with sulphate of copper or chloride of zinc, and certain proportions of boiled linseed oil or resin. Owing to the absence of phenol, it may not be considered so effectual for the pickling of sleepers in the ordinary way as creosote would be. * Allen's " Comcl. Org. Anal.," V. ii. PART VIII. DISINFECTANTS. The assay and valuation of the disinfectants treated of here, will include those that are, commercially speaking, the most in use, viz., carbolic acid, carbolic acid powders, chloride of lime (bleaching powder), and permanganate of soda or potash (Condy's Fluid). arbolic Acid (PheHol, CsHsHO). Carbolic acid, which is a powerful antiseptic and disin- fectant, is principally obtained from that fraction obtained on the distillation of coal tar which distils between 150° C. and 200° C. In the pure state it is a colourless crystal- lized solid, melting at 42*2° C, and boiling at 182° C. A commercial carbolic acid much used as a disinfectant is a dark-coloured liquid with a characteristic tarry smell, ranging in specific gravity from i"o4 to i-o6, and sometimes containing a considerable proportion of neutral tar oils of little use as a disinfectant. Absolute crystallized phenol is miscible with water at the ordinary temperature, to the extent that the most concentrated solution contains about 73 per cent, of the pure acid, while the liquid thus produced is soluble in about ii*2 times its measure of waterat 1 5° C. The solubility, however,is greatly increased at 266 DISINFECTANTS. higher temperatures, being miscible in all proportions with water at about 73° C. The pure acid is miscible in all proportions in benzol, ether, carbon disulphide, acetic acid (17 E), alcohol, and glycerine. Carbolic acid acts as a powerful disinfectant and antiseptic owing to its property of coagulating albuminous substances, and preventing germinal life from propagating. A dilute solu- tion of phenol is the most satisfactory agent we know of for arresting and preventing mortification. By determining the neutral tar oils in a known volume of a sample of commercial carbolic acid, and subtracting the amount thus found from the volume of the original sample taken, an approximate idea of the value of a sample could thus be obtained. Estimation of Neutral Tar Oils — Measure out 5 cc. of ihe crude acid into a carbon tube, Fig. 5, add to this 10 cc. of a 2 E solution of sodic hydrate, and thoroughly shake for some time; the soda thus combines with the tar acids, forming phenate and cresylate of soda, &c., which is soluble in the aqueous solution. On allowing the mixture to stand some time, the neutral tar oils will settle out, sinking to the bottom or floating on the top, according to whether they are heavier or lighter than the aqueous liquid; 5 cc. of petroleum ether are now-added, the mixture thoroughly shaken, the volume of the ethereal solution of the neutral oils is read off, and on subtracting the 5 cc. of added ether, the remainder is equal to the volume of neutral oils present in the 5 cc. of sample, which multiplied by 20 gives the percentage, Estimation of Phenol and Cresol. — These are the prin- cipal acting disinfectants in commercial carbolic acid, and Dr. Tidy asserts that cresol (CtHjOH) is as equally efficacious as pure phenol (CeHjHO). If the amounts of these be re- quired collectively, the volumetric process devised by Koppe- schaar, depending upon the formation of tri-bromo-phenol ^(CeHzBrsOH), and tri-bromo-cresol,(C7H4Br30H) gives very fair results. The following are details of the process : — Solutions, required, — A solution of thiosulphate of soda ESTIMATION OF PHENOL IN CARBOLIC ACID. 267 (NajSaOs) of such strength that i cc. of it would be theoreti- cally equivalent to '005 grm. of iodine, is prepared by dissolv- ing 9764 grms. of crystallized thiosulphate of soda (NaaSzOa. 5 H2O) (previously dried between blotting paper) in distilled water, and diluting to 1,000 cc. at 15° C. It should be standardized by the method herein described with a solution of iodine containing 5 grms. per litre. Starch Solution — Weigh out i grm. of starch, make into a thin paste with cold water, pour on 100 cc. of boiling water, stir, allow sediment to subside, and bottle the clear supernatant liquid. Bromine Water. — Dissolve about i^ grms. of liquid bro- mine in I litre of distilled water. Potassium Iodide Solution. — Dissolve 125 grms. of pure KI in water, and dilute to 1,000 cc. When all the above solutions have been made, dissolve 4 grms. of the sample in water, dilute to 1,000 cc. at 60° C. in a graduated stoppered ilask, thoroughly mix, and put on one side while the bromine solution is valued as follows : — Fill a Mohr's burette with the standard thiosulphate solution, then measure off accurately 50 cc. of the bromine solution into a 100 cc. beaker and add 5 cc. of the potassic iodide. Iodine is thus liberated ; now run in gradually the thiosulphate solu- tion, stirring till the violet colour of the iodine has nearly all. disappeared (the reaction here is : — 2 NajSaOs -|- 2 I = 2 Nal -1- Na2S406), then add 2 cc. of starch solution, when the blue colour of iodide of starch will be produced with the small quantity of free iodine still in solution ; continue running in the thiosulphate solution until the last drop added completely decolourizes the solution. Note the volume required. 25 cc. of the solution of the sample ( = o'l grm. original sample) are- no w poured into a graduated stoppered 500 cc. flask, and diluted quickly up to the rnark with the bromine solution (= 450 cc). Fix stopper, thoroughly shake for about ten initiutes, and allow to stand for about half an hour, after which pour out into a litre beaker, containing 5 cc. of the iodide solution. Stir and titrate with the standard thiosulphate solution in the same ^68 DISINFECTANTS. manner as with the bromine solution, and note volume re- quired. From the following formula the percentage of carbolic and cresylic acids expressed as carbolic acid is obtained : — Let X = thiosulphafe required for 50 cc. bromine solution. „ Y = „ „ for excess of bromine in the 25 cc. of the sample (=: ■! grm.). Then (9'5 x—i/) 0-5i753 := percentage of carbolic acid. Carbolic Acid Powders. The best carbolic acid powders in the market are those which have for a base or absorbent, for the crude carbolic acid, substances which do not chemically combine with the ■carbolic acid, such as kaolin, calcium sulphate, kieselguhr, &c. Carbolic acid powders made with slaked lime appear to be of little use as disinfectants, since the carbolic acid thus com- bines with the lime, forming carbolate of lime. " Macdougall's Disinfecting Powder " contains a crude sulphite of lime as a l)ase. " Calvert's Carbolic Acid Powder" is made by mixing the carbolic acid with the siliceous residuum left in the manu- facture of alum from shale. There are five qualities made, •containing 5, 10, 15, 20, and 50 per cent, of the crude acid. Commercial carbolic acid powders may be considered of very fair quality if they contain from 15 to 20 per cent, of crude carbolic acid. Method of Assay. — There are two methods in use for the ^assay of carbolic acid powders: (i) by distilling a known weight direct in a retort with the collection and examination ■of distillate, &c., a process applied to powders which contain the acid in a free state ; and (2) liberation of combined acid with sulphuric acid and its subsequent extraction with ben- zol, &c. (i) Method for Powders containing Free Carbolic Add. — Weigh out 100 grms. of the averaged sample, transfer into a 150 cc. retort, attach a 100 cc. graduated tube as a con- denser, apply a gentle heat at first to the retort with the naked ASSAY OF CONDY'S FLUID. 269. flame of a Bunsen burner, and gradually increase the heat until the contents of the retort are at a dull red heat, and no more liquid is being distilled. Note the volume distilled, and the amount of water separated out. It is important that the oily layer should be tested for neutral tar oils, which are apt to be used as a useless adulterant. Pour the liquid into a separator^ separate the oily layer, and estimate the tar oils as described on page 266, and, if necessary, the carbolic acid by the Koppe- schaar process. (2) Method for Powders containing Combined Catholic Acid. — This process can be applied with equal advantage to powders containing free carbolic acid without the addition of sulphuric acid. Weigh out 50 grms. of the sample into a 200 cc. glass mortar, mix with the aid of a pestle with 5 cc. of water, and then run in gradually 18 E sulphuric acid, stirring until a decided but slight excess is added ; 50 cc. of water are now added, and the whole poured off into a capacious separator ; 60 cc. of 90 per cent, benzol are now added, and the mixture thoroughly agitated for some time, to ensure the complete extraction of the crude carbolic acid by the benzol. It is then allowed to separate, the benzol solution distilled, and the residual crude carbolic acid thus isolated examined for tar oils and carbolic acid by the methods before mentioned. Assay of Permanganate of Potash {Condfs Fluid). — The value of this useful disinfectant depends upon the amount of available oxygep present. The molecule of pure perman- ganate of potash (KaMnaOg) contains five atoms of available oxygen, capable of destroying by oxidation organic matter, germs of disease, &c., and in order to determine the amount of available oxygen present we must find out how much of a given substance capable of being oxidized by it to a definite form is required for a known weight. Pure crystallized ammonio- ferrous sulphate [Fe(NH4)3(S04)3 6 HsO] is a salt well adapted for' this purpose, and an — solution iS of convenient strength to use, which is prepared by dissolving 39*2 grms. of the salt 270 DISINFECTANTS. (previously dried between blotting paper) in recently boiled distilled water, and diluting to i,ooo cc. at 15° C.; i cc. of this solution corresponds to "oooS grm. of available oxygen. Five grms. of the sample are carefully weighed into a beaker, dissolved in recently boiled distilled water, diluted to 1,000 cc. at 15° C. in a graduated flask, thoroughly mixed, and any sediment present allowed to subside ; 50 cc. of the clear solution (=; -25 grm. sample) are measured into a 150 cc. beaker, and 20 cc. of 5 E H2SO4 added. A burette is now filled with the the ammonio-ferrous sulphate solution, and this is gradually run into the solution of the sample, stirring until the. last drop added gives a slight but permanent pink coloration to the liquid, which can be best observed by holding a piece of tissue paper behind the beaker. Note the volume required. The re- action that takes place is as follows : — 10 Fe(NH4)2(S04)2 + 8 H2S04 + KjMnaOs = S Fe2{S04)3 + 2 MnS04 + K2SO4 + 8 H2O + 10 (NH4)2(S04). E The number of cc's of — K2Mn208 required X "oooS X 4 X 100 = percentage of available oxygen present. Assay of Chloride of Iiime (^Bleaching Powder). — This well known disinfectant is manufactured by passing chlorine gas over slaked lime gradually, so as not to raise the temperature of the substance, otherwise chlorate of lime will be produced, which is of no use as a disinfectant. The reac- tion which goes on when the temperature is kept low may be expressed as follows : — 3 Ca(0H)2 -f 2 CI2 = 2 Ca / °H _^ q^q^ ^ ^ jj^q^ Bleaching powder. If the temperature be raised, it is decomposed with the forma- tion of hydrate and chlorate of lime, and calcium chloride thus : — S^CasHoOcCU = S CaClj + Ca(C103)2 + 3 CaHaOa + 6 H2O. Bleaching powder. Chlorate of lime. ASSAY OF BLEACHING POWDER. 27 1 The value of bleaching powder as adisinfectant, depends upon the liberation of hypochlorous acid, which is a very powerful oxi- dizing agent. The hypochlorous acid is brought about by the action of moist air containing carbonic acid, calcium carbonate ■being simultaneously produced. When used as a bleaching , agent it is mixed with water; the article to be bleachedis ■dipped into the mixture, and then into a dilute solution of sulphuric acid ; chlorine is thus liberated in a nascent state in the fibre of the material, which combines with the hydrogen of water, thus liberating nascent oxygen, which in its turn destroys the colouring matter of the material. Good bleaching powder should contain about 35 per cent, of available chlorine, the maximum amount that can be present being about 39 per cent. But owing to careless manufacture, exposure to air, &c., the amount of available chlorine may be anything below this amount. The best method for determining the amount of available chlorine in bleaching powder is that devised by Penot, which depends upon the oxidation of arsenious acid (AsjOs) into arsenic acid (AszOs) by the sample, thus : — AssOs + Ca(C10)3 = AsaOs + CaClu. Solutions Required. — Deci-Normal Sodic Anenite. — Weigh out accurately 4-95 grms. of pure arsenious acid into a 300 cc beaker, together with 25 grms. of pure crystallized carbonate of soda; pour on to the mixture 250 cc. of hot water, and heat and stir until all goes into solution; cool, pour into a graduated stoppered litre flask, dilute to 1,000 cc. at 15° C, and thoroughly mix. 1 cc. of the - solution = '00355 grm. chlorine. Starch Test Papers. — Weigh out about 3 grms. of starch into a glass mortar, and make into a paste with about 50 cc. of water, with the aid of a pestle. Pour into a beaker and gradually add 200 cc. of boiUng water, stirring, and then add I grm. of carbonate of soda and i grm. of potassic iodide dissolved in a little water, and dilute the whole to about 500 cc. 272 DISINFECTANTS. Strips of filter paper are moistened with this solution, and after carefully drying they are' put into a stoppered bottle ready for use. The Analytical Process. — lo grms. of the well mixed sample are weighed into a 150 cc. glass mortar, 60 cc. of water poured on it, the mixture thoroughly lixiviated with the aid of a pestle, and the sediment allowed to subside as far as possible ; after which the supernatant and turbid solution is decanted off into a graduated stoppered litre flask ; more water is added to the residue in the mortar and mixed as before, and the liquid poured off into the flask ; the lixiviation with portions of water is repeated until the whole of the sample is thus got into the flask, and then finally diluted to 1,000 cc. at 15° C. Accurately measure off 50 cc. of the solution (= '5 grm. original sample) into 200 cc. beaker, and gradually run in the standard - sodic arsenite solution from a burette, stirring until a drop of the solution, taken out with the stirrer, no longer produces a blue stain of iodide of starch upon one of the pre- pared starcn papers. ■ Example. — 10 grms. of a sample of bleaching powder was treated as above, and 50 cc. (= "5 grm. sample) of the solu- tion required 48-5 cc. of the arsenious solution to produce no further blue coloration of the starch paper. I cc. of — arsenious solution = '00355 g'"™- chlorine. 48-5 X '00355 ^ -1722 gnn. chlorine in 0-5 grm. of sample. ■1722 X 2 X 100 = 34'44 PEr cent, available chlorine. PART IX. EXPLOSIVES. Nitro-Glycerine [CsH6(N03)3]. — Nitro-glycerine is pre- pared on a large scale by first mixing four parts of 36 E HsSO«, and one part of 22 E HNO3 (fuming) in a wooden vessel lined with lead, and allowing to cool, after which one part of glycerine is allowed to ruij into the mixture in a thin stream. On allow- ing to stand for some time, the nitro-glycerine separates as an oily liquid on the surface of the acid, which is separated, washed first with water, and finally with a dilute solution of sodic carbo- nate to eliminate the last traces of acids. It is important that all the free acid should be perfectly neutralized, since, if any is left in the finished product, it is liable to spontaneously decom- pose. The specific gravity of nitro-glycerine is i-6oo at 15° C, and it solidifies at 8° C. When heated to about 257° C, it decomposes with a sharp detonation ; a similar result is ob- tained when a little of the substance is smartly struck or com- pressed. When ignited in air it burns with a greenish flame without explosion. According to Bloxam, when nitro-glycerine is dissolved in alcohol and warmed with ammonium sulphide it is decdhiposed, sulphur being separated, the reaction being : — C3H6(ON02)3 -j- 3 NH4HS = C3H6(OH)3 4- 3 NH^NOj-f Ss. The value of nitro-glycerine can be determined from the amount of nitric oxide liberated when a weighed portion is treated with sulphuric acid over mercury in a nitrometer, as in the determination of nitrates in waters, page 1 5 6. This process was devised by Hempel and Lunge, who proceed as follows : 0*2 grm. is introduced into the cup of the nitrometer previously T 274 EXPLOSIVES. filled with mercury, and 2 cc. of 36 E H2SO4 added, stirred with a glass rod, and the inixture made to run into the nitro- meter. The cup of the nitrometer is rinsed out with successive small portions of 36 E H2SO4, 3 cc. in all being used. The mixture is then thoroughly shaken up with the mercury until no further evolution of nitric oxide occurs. The number of cc's. of nitric oxide thus produced corrected to 0° C, and < 3' 19 X 100 760 mm. mercury, multiphed by gives the per- centage of nitro-glycerine present. Dynamite. — Ordinary dynamite contains 75 per cent, of, nitro-glycerine and 25 percent, of a porous siliceous substance, called kieselguhr. But there arenumerous explosives of the dyna- mite class now in the market, containing a variety of substances, many of which are not classified among the explosives licensed in this country. For the composition of various kinds, see page 280. Determination of Water. — ^Water cannot be determined by drying a weighed portion of the sample in a water oven, since nitro-glycerine is thereby volati- lized. 2 grms. of the sample are reduced carefully, as finely as possible with the aid of a horn spatula, and dried in a vacuum over strong sulphuric acid until the moisture is eliminated. Determination of Nitro-Glycerine. — When other substances soluble in methylated ether are absent, the nitro-glycerine can be determined by exhaust- ing 2 grms. of the sample with methylated ether in a Soxlet's fat extraction tube (Fig. 33), and weigh- ing the residuum, the loss being taken as nitro- glycerine. The nitro-glycerine cannot be accu- rately determined by the evaporation of the ethe- real extract and weighing the residue, since there is a sensible loss of nitro-glycerine by this means. The following is a tabulated scheme, arranged by Allen, for the analysis of nitro-glycerime compounds : — w •a o to if 9 tn ^ ■»§'? p e o « H u a a»M'a o +r c " 2 o'rt nt ;3 M ?J ^ §ois ■?„ . «-j3 J-i- B S.S > ^-.^ &o « H m 3 ft; rt So.s a- -i if si •-Bog . '5 «'=' "•S "■"■:; ^ " ^ M l^-a bo"' B (o o_g o ■3S . •S.S £ to spill g:s| S*^ ^^ "^ « o fe o p r! o ■ a ^ i_r T3 D*ff;^ - ■ STi g ffS "i.-a ^O Si^-s-gas _D,*^feaiu'*c s-r^ I. ^ O -^ h-O t> (fl U Pi ciJ -w btiH 276 EXPLOSIVES. Gtmpowder. — Gunpowder is a mechanical mixture of nitre, charcoal and sulphur. Good charcoal obtained from dogwood, willow, or alder, is the best for the purpose ; the sulphur preferred is that which has been distilled and ground to a fine meal ; and nitre only of the first quality is employed. The proportion of these ingredients varies in different coun- tries, and also according to the purpose for which the gunpowder is proposed to be used. The following table shows the percentage compositions of gunpowders of various countries : — Nitre. Sulphur. Charcoal. English and Austrian (musket) Prussian (musket) .... Swedish „ . . . . Chinese French (musket) .... „ (sporting) . . . . „ (blasting) . . . . 7S 75 75 75-7 75-0 76-9 62 10 "•5 9 9-9 12-5 9-6 20 15 16 14-4 I2-S 13-5 18 The products of combustion of gunpowder are very compli- cated, the composition varying according to the manner in which the powder is fired. Karolyi, ■ Noble and Abel suc- ceeded in making an analysis of the products of combustion of gunpowder. The following shows some of the results obtained by firing three kinds of powder under the conditions of artillery prac- tice : — (i) Composition of the Powder Used . Nitre . Sulphur ■^ , Carbon . Ordnance Small arms powder. powder. 73-78 77-15 12-80 8-63 10-88 ^ 1178 \ Pebble powder (Noble and Abel) 74-67 10-07 12-12 ^ S J Hydrogen 1 Oxygen . U VAsh 0-38 1 0-42 1-82 '3-39 ,.-9 0-31 '' 0-28' 14-27 0-42 0-23' Water . — — 0-9S 14-22 99-97 100-05 99-91 ANALYSES OF GUNPOWDER GASES. 277 {2) Products of Combustion of 100 Parts by Weight, Nitrogen Carbonic acid Carbonic oxide Hydrogen Sulph. hydrogen Marsh gas Ordnance powder. ■ 977 17-39 2 '64 DTI 0-27 0-40 Total gaseous 30'58 Small arms powder. I0'06 21-79 1-47 0-^4 0-23 0-49 Pebble powder (Noble and Abel], "•39 2770 473 0-05 0-84 0-12 34-18 44-83 Amnionic sesquicarbonate Potassic sulphate „ carbonate . ,, thiosulphate „ sulphide Charcoal . Sulphur . Loss Potassic sulphocyanate ,, nitrate 2-68 36-95 19-40 2-85 o-li 2-57 4-69 0-17 Total solid 69-42 2-66 36-17 20-78 1-77 0-00 2 -60 i-i6 0-68 65-82 0-04 6-58 30-98 3-38 lo-SS 3-40 Q-13 Q-n 55-17 (3) Products of Combustion by Volume 11} 100 of Gas. Nitrogen . Carbonic acid . Carbonic oxide Hydrogen Sulphuretted hydrogen Marsh gas Ordnance powder. 37-58 42-74 10-19 5-93 0-86 2-70 100-00 Small arms Pebble powder powder. (Noble and Abel) 35-33 48-90 5-18 6-90 • 0-67 3-02 32-19 49-82 13-36 2-o8 1-96 0-58 99-99 The Analysis of Gunpowder. — Estimation of Moisture. — Weigh out s grms. of the powdered sample into a porcelain basin, and dry in vacuo over sulphuric acid until no further loss in weight occurs. The loss = moisture. Estimation of Nitrogen — The residue from the estimation of 278 EXPLOSIVES. moisture is exhausted with water, and filtered through a tube containing a plug of glass wool, as in Fig. i, into a weighed dish. When all soluble matter has been extracted, the solution is evaporated to dryness and the residue weighed. The resi- due should be again dissolved in water, and tested for sulphates and chlorides, the sulphates being precipitated with nitrate of barium, and the resulting BaS04 filtered off and estimated if necessary. The chlorides could be determined in the filtrate by precipitating with nitrate of silver, and filtering the resulting AgCl. Estimation of Sulphur. — The residue left in the tube after the exhaustion with water, is dried in the tube by passing a current of air through, which has been previously dried by passing through sulphuric acid. The sulphur is then esti- mated in the manner described for the estimation of sulphur in spent oxide, page 253. The Charcoal may be taken by difference. If it be neces- sary to determine the quality of the charcoal, this could be obtained by the method given on page 104 for the analysis of coal. Subjoined are the compositions of a few of the many patent explosives now in existence* : — Class I. Nitrated Powders. Bolton's Powder. Carbonate of copper Graphite Prepared quicklime „ alum „ sugar Nitrate of soda Soda ash Ferrocyanide of potassium Charcoal ... Carbonate of potash Parts. 8 10 H 50 35° 35° 20 300 30 450 Parts. 52-5 27-5 20-O Pyronome. . Nitrate of soda Spent tan Sulphur Diorrexin (an Austrian explosive'). Nitrates of potash and soda 60 Sulphur . . . .12 10 Sawdust Charcoal Picric acid Moisture 7 IS 7-S * For further information with regard to the preparation, composition, &c., of various explosives, see Major Cundill's ' ' Dictionary of Explosives " and Mr. Eissler's " Handbook of Modern Explosives." COMPOSITION OF VAIUOUS EXPLOSIVES. 279 Class I. Nitrated Powders {continued). Johnite. Davey's Powder Parts. Parts. Nitrate of potash . 75 Saltpetre . 64 Sulphur 10 Sulphur . 16 Lignite 10 Charcoal 12 Picrate of soda 3 Flour, bran, or starch . 8 Chlorate of potash 2 Pyrolithe. -■• PudroUthe. Saltpetre Nitrate of soda • 51-5 . i6-o Saltpetre . 68 Sulphur . 20-O Sulphur 12 Sawdust . ii-o Charcoal 6 Charcoal • 1-5 Nitrate of baryta . „ „ soda . Sawdust 3 3 S 3 Safety Blasting Powder. Saltpetre .... 70 Spent tan Sulphur Lampblack . 12 5 Spent tan or sawdust . • 13 CourteaWs Powder. Sulphate of iron . 2 Nitrate of soda or potash 60 to 75 Sch'dffei's Powder Sulphur Charcoal 10 „ 12 7 ,. 10 Saltpetre . Nitrate of soda 30 to 38 40 8 to 12 7 „ 8 Peat and hard coal Combined metallic sul- 9 ., 12 Sulphur Charcoal phates 2 ,. 4 Rochelle salt 4 .. 6 Oleaginous matter, \ ^ J) " animal or vegetable / Violette's Powder. (or tar), refined or \ ' » 3 Nitrate of soda . 62-5 crude . . / Acetate of soda . • 37-5 Class II. Chlo RATE Powders, Dynamogen. yaline. Parts. Yellow prussiate of potash Water .... Farts ■ 17 • 150 Nitrate of potash . Sulphur 65 to 75 10 Charcoal 17 Lignite 10 to 50 Picrate of soda . 3 .. 8 After boiling, and cooled, | Chlorate of potash 2 there are added :— Knaffl's Powder. Potash .... • 35 Chlorate of potash . 46 . 26 • IS Chlorate of potash Starch .... . 70 10 Nitrate of potash . Sulphur . . Water .... • 50 Ulmate of ammonia 10 28o EXPLOSIVES. Class II. Chlorate Powders {continued). Ehrhardfs Powders. Artil- Blast- ci- n lery. ing. Shells Pts. Pts. Pts. Chlorate of potash i i i Saltpetre . . i i — Charcoal . . — 4 — Tannic acid .1 2 i Goetz' Powder. Chlorate of potash Glucose solution . Charcoal in powder Sulphiir • . Amorphous phosphorous Picrate of lead Parts ID ID 3 2 I 3 Nisjer's Powder. Parts. Yellow pmssiate of potash . i'5 Bichromate of potash . . 2-0 Chlorate of potash . . 10-5 Nitrates of soda and potash , 44- 5 Vegetable matter . . . 6-5 Mineral and vegetable carbon ig-j Sulphur .... 15-5 Pyronome. Saltpetre Sulphur Charcoal Antimony Chlorate of potash Rye flour 69 9 10 8 S 4- Class III. Dynamite Powders. Atlas Powders, A. B. Pts. Pts. Sodium nitrate ■ . .2 34 tVood fibre . . .21 14 Magnesium carbonate . 2 2 Nitroglycerine . .75 50 Castellanos Powder. Parts 40 25 10 S 10 10 Nitroglycerine Nitrate of Potash . Picrate .... Sulphur .... Insoluble salts (silicates, &c.) Carbon .... Petralithe. Nitroglycerine . . . 640 Nitrate of ammonia, soda or urea 120 Palmitinate of cetyl . . 2 J Carbonate of lime' . . 2 J Animal or vegetable charcoal 230 Bicarbonate of soda . . 5 Vulcan Powder. Nitroglycerine Nitrate of soda Sulphur Charcoal Parts. ■ 30 • 52-5 ■ 7 . 10-5 Diaspon. Nitroglycerine . 47 to 63 Nitrocotton . . 0-5 „ 3'0 Nitrate of soda . 22 ,,23 Wood cellulose . 8 „ 18 Sulphur . . 3 „ 9 Dualine. Nitroglycerine Fine sawdust Saltpetre 30 2D Hercules Powders. No. I, No. 2, Pts. Pts. Carbonate of magnesia 20-85 1000 Nitrate of potash . 2-lo 31-00 Chlorate of potash 1-05 3-34 White Sugar . i-oo 15-66 Nitroglycerine . 75-00 40-00 COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS EXPLOSIVES. Class III. Dynamite Powders {continued). 28t Rtndrock. Vigorite. Parts. Parts. Nitrate of potash . . 40 Nitroglycerine . V> Nitroglycerine . 40 Nitrate of soda . 60 Wood fibre . • «3 Charcoal S Paraffin or pitch . 7 Sawdust 5 Class rv. Guncotton Class. Ammonia Nitrate Powder: Parts Ammonium nitrate . . 80 Potassium chlorate . . 5 Nitroglucose . . .10 Coal tar . . . . s Nitronaphthalene . Nitronaphthalene . . .10 Saltpetre . . . .75 Charcoal . . . . I2'5 Sulphur .... 12-5 Petrofacteur. Nitro-benzene . . .10 Chlorate of potash . . 6; Nitrate of potash ... 20 Sulphide of antimony . . 3 JohnscrCs Powders. For Military Arms. Parts. Nitrocellulose . . 50 Potassium nitrate . . 40 Torrefied starch . . 10 Bellite, Securite, Roiurite. These explosives, which have advantages for firing in coal miaes> are mixtures of nitrate of an.mo- nium with di or tri nitro-benzole, or chlorinated di nitro-benzole. Schultze Powder. Part!. Soluble nitroliguin . 24-83 Insoluble .nitrolignin . 23-36. Lignin .... 13-14 Nitrate of potash and b?.rium 32-35 Paraffin . . , . 3-6S Matters soluble in alcohol . o-ii Moisture .... ■2-S& Class V. Picric Powders. Designolles Powders. For Torpedoes Small and Shells. Arms. Pts. Pts. Picrate of potash SS 28-6 Saltpetre . . 45 65-0 Charcoal . . — "6-4 Victorite. Parts., Chlorate of potash . 80. Picric acid . . IIO Nitrate of pota-sh . 10 Charcoal - S 2»2 EXPLOSIVES. Bronolithe. Barium sodium picrate I,ead „ » Potassium „ » Nitronaphthalene Saltpetre . Sugar Gum Lampblack Per cent. IS to 30 8 „ 30 2 „ 10 S .. 2° 26 „ 40 i-S" 3 2 „ 3 o-S,. 4 APPENDIX. Symbols and Atomic Weights of the Elements. Element. Symbol. Atomic wt. Observer. Alummium Al 27-02 Mallet. Antimony Sb I2O-0O Schneider, Cooke. Arsenic As 75-15 Kessler. Barium Ba 136-84 Marignac. Bismuth Bi 210-00 Dumas. Boron B 11-04 Berzelius. Bromine Br 79-76 Stas. Cadmium Cd II2'04 Lenssen. Csesium Cs 133-00 Bunsen. Calcium Ca 39-90 Erdmann. Carbon C 11-97 Dumas, Liebig. Cerium Ce 138-24 Rammelsberg. Chlorine CI 35-37 Stas. Chromium Cr 52-08 Siewart. Cobalt Co 58-74 Russell. Copper Cu 63-12 Millon & Commaille. Didymium D 142-44 Hermann. Erbium E 168-90 Bahr 61 Bunsen. Fluorine F 18-96 Luca, Louyet. Oallium Ga 69-80 Lecoq de Boisbaudran. Glucinum Gl 9-30 Awdejew, Klatzo. Gold Au 196-71 Berzelius. Hydrogen ' H I -00 Dulong & Berzelius. Indium In 113-40 Winkler, Bunsen. 284 APPENDIX. Element. Symbol. Atomic wt. Observer. Iodine I I26-S4 Stas. Iridium Ir 196-87 Berzelius. Iron Fe 56-00 Dumas. Lanthanum La 139-33 Hermann. Lead Pb 206-40 Stas. Lithium • Li 7-00 Stas. Magnesium Mg 23-94 Dumas. Manganese Mn 54-04 Schneider. Mercury Hg 200-00 Erdmann. Molybdenum Mo 96-00 Dumas, Debray. Nickel Ni S8-74 Russell. Niobium Nb 94-00 Marignac. Nitrogen N 14-01 Stas. Osmium Os 19903 Berzehus. Oxygen 15-96 Palladium Pd 106-57 Berzelius. Phosphorus P 30-96 Schi otter. Platinum Pt 194-38 Seubert. Potassium K 39-04 Stas. Rhodium Rh 104-21 Berzelius. Rubidium Rb 85-40 Bunsen, Piccard. Ruthenium Ru 104-40 Berzehus. Selenium Se 79-46 Dumas. Silver Ag 107-67 Stas. Silicon Si 28-10 Dumas. Sodium Na 22-99 Stas. Strontium Sr 87-54 Marignac. Sulphur S 31-996 Stas. Tantalum Ta 182-300 Marignac. Tellurium Te 128-06 V. Hauer. Thallium Tl 203-66 Crookes. Thorium Th 231-44 Delafontaine. Tin Sn II8-IO Dumas. Titanium Ti 50-00 Pierre. Tungsten W 184-00 Schneider, Roscoe;. Uranium U 237-60 Ebelman. Vanadium V 51-35 Roscoe. Yttrium Y 92-55 Bahr & Bunsen. Zinc Zn 65-16 Oxel Erdmann. Zirconium Zr 89-60 Marignac. APPENDIX. 285 Table of Atomic Weights. {Issued December 6, 1890,) Revised for the Committee of Revision and Publication of the Pharma- copoeia of the United States of America. By F.' "W. Clarke, Chief Chemist of the United States Geological Survey. This table represents the latest and most trustworthy results, reduced to a uniform basis of comparison, with oxygen := 16 as smarting point of the system. No decimal places representing large uncertainties are used. When values vary, with equal probability on both sides, so far as our present knowledge goes, as in the case of a cadmium (11 1'8 and M2-2),the mean value is given in the Table. The names of elements occurring in pharmacopoeial, medicinal, chemi- cals, are printed in italics. Name. Aluminium Antimony Arsenic . Barium. . Bismuth . Boron Bromine . Cadmium Caesium . Calcium . Carbon Cerium . Chlorine . Chromium Cobalt . *Columbium Copper tDidymiura Erbium . Fluorine . Gallium . Germanium JGlucinum Gold Hydrogen Indium . * Has priority over niobium. + Now split into neo- and phraseo-didymium. X Has priority of over beryllium. Symbol. Atomic weiffbt Al 27- Sb 120- As 75- Ba 137' Bi 208-9 B 11- Br 79-95 Cd 112- Cs 132-9 Ca . 40- C 12- Ce 140-2 CI 35-46. Cr 521 Co 59- Cb : 94- Cu 63-4 Di 142-3 Er ■ 166-3 F 19- Ga 69- Ge 72-3 Gl 9- Au 197-3 H 1-007 In "37 286 appendix: Name, Symbol. Atomic weight Iodine / 126-85 Iridium . . Ir I93-I Iron . Fe 66- Lanthanum . La 138-2 Lead . Pb 206-95 Lithium . . Li 7-02 Magnesium ■ ■ Mg 24-3 JIfanganese . Mn 65- Mercury . . . Hg 200- Molybdenum . Mo 96- Nickel . . Ni S87 Nitrogen . . N 14-oa Osmium . . Os 191-7 § Oxygen . ." O 16- Palladium . Pd lo6-6 Phosphorus . P 31- Platinum . . Pt 195- Potassium . £■ 39-11 Rhodium . Rh 103-5 Rubidium . Rb 8S-S Ruthenium . Ru ior& Samarium . Sm 150- Scandium . Sc 44" Selenium . . Se 79- Silicon . . Si 28-4 Silver . Ag 107-92 Sodium . . Na 23-05 Strontium . Sr 87-6 Sulphur . . 5 32-06 Tantalum , . Ta 182-6 Tellurium . Te 125- Terbium . . Tb 159-5 Thallium . . Tl 204-18 Thorium . . Th 232-6 Tin . . Sn 119- Titanium . ' . Ti 48- Tungsten . . W 184- Uranium . . U 239-6 Vanadium . V 5i'4 Ytterbium . Yb 173' Yttrium . . Yt 89- r Zinc . Zn 65-3 Zirconium Zr 90-6 i Stan dard. orbas s of the system. APPENDIX. 287 Factors for Ascertaining the Amount of Constituent Sought from tUe Form in which it is Weighed. Element. Form. Sought. Factor Aluminium AI2O3 AI2 •5340 Ammonium NH4CI NH3 •3180 if 2 NHiCliPtCU 2NH3 •0761 Antimony SbjOs Sba •8356 fj SbjSs Sba •7177 )» SbsSs Sb203 •8588 ji SbaOi SbaOa ■9481 Arsenic AS2O3 Asa 7S76 It AS2O5 Asa •6522 tt AlzOs AS2O3 •8609 if AS2S3 AsaOs •8049 »» AS2S3 AsaOs •9350 if (MgAmAs04)aOH2 AS2O5 •6053 »J )» . AS2O3 •521 1 Barium BaO Ba •8954 )» BaSOi BaO ■6567 ft BaC03 BaO •7767 ft BaF2,SiF4 BaO •5484 Bismuth BiaOs Bia ■8966 Boron Ba03 Ba •3143 Bromine AgBr Br •4256 Cadmium CdO Cd •8750 Calcium CaO Ca •7143 )) CaS04 CaO •41 18 >> CaC03 CaO •5600 Carbon C02 C •2727 ft CaCOa CO2 •4400 Chlorine AgCl CI •24.72 if AgCl HCl •2542 Chromium Cr203 Cra •6862 J} CraOs 2 CrOs 1-3138 ft PbCr04 Cr03 •3J06 Cobalt- Co CoO 1-2712 )t C012O19 C012 •6999 )) C03O5 C03 •6887 )i C0SO4 CoO ■4839 j> C03O4 C03 •7344 j» ( CoaOa, 3 K2O, ) lsNa03,2HaOj 2 CoO •173s )) 2CoS04 + 3K:aS04 2 CoO •1802 » 31 C02 •1417 288 i APPENDIX. Element. Form. Sought. Copper CuO Cu ft CuaS CU2 Fluorine CaFa Fj )i SiF4 Fi Hydrogen HaO H2 Iodine Agl I Pdl2 Ij Iron FesOs Fez FejOs 2FeO FeS Fe Lead PbO Pb PbSOi PbO "^ PbSOi Pb PbCb Pb " PbClj PbO >t PbS PbO Lithium LizCOa LiaO LijSOi LijO LiaPOi LijO Magnesium MgO Mg MgS04 MgO MgjPjO, 2 MgO Manganese MnO Mn MnsOi Mna MnzOa Mnj " MnSOi MnO )> MnS MnO i> ' MnS Mn Mercury 2Hg HgaO Hg HgO " HgaCh 2Hg "^ HgS Hg Nickel NiO Ni Nitrogen 2 AmCl, PtCU Nj Pt Nj »i BaSOi NjOs j» AgCN CN AgCN HCN Oxygen AhOs O3 SbaOa O3 it AsjOa O3 ji AsjOs O5 ?> BaO »» BijOs O3 Factor. '•798s •7985 •4872 •7308 •nil •5405 •7056 ■7000 ■9000 ■6364 •9283 •7360 •6832 •7448 •8024 •9331 •4054 ■ -2727 •3879 ■6000 ■333S •3604 •7747 •7205 ■6962 •4702 •8161 •6322 1-0400 I -0800 •8494 •8621 •7867 •0627 •141b •463s •1941 ■2016 •4660 ■1644 •2424 •3478 •1046 •1035 APPENDIX. 289 Element. Form. Oxygen CdO tj CrzOa jj CoO 39 CuO Jt FeO )) FeaOs J) PbO CaO ft MgO ?J MnO If MnsOi ]} MnaOs tJ HgjO 5» HgO it NiO tf KjO SiOa >» AgaO NajO n SrO jf SnOa jy H2O If ZnO Phosphorus P2O5 a MgjPaOt j» MgPjOT tt FejPjOs It Pj05 ff Ag3P04 t$ U1P2O11 )) AgiPaOr Potassium K2O )f K2SO4 jj KNO3 Pptassium KCl KCl )) 2KCI, PtCU »> ji Silicon SiOa Silver AgCl )) AgCl Sodium NajO NajSOi NaNOj Sought. Factor. •1250 O3 •3138 •2133 •2015 •2222 O3 •3000 •0718 •2857 •3997 •2254 O4 •2795 O3 •3038 •0385 •0741 •2133 •1698 Os •S333 •0690 •2581 •1546 •213.? •8889 •1974 Pa •4366 PaOs •6396 2PO4 •8SS9 P2O5 •4702 2PO4 1-3380 (PaOs)^ •1695 PaOe •1991 PaOs •2344 Ka •8302 KaO •S400 (KaO)^ •4659 K •5245 (KaO)i •6317 KaO •1927 2 KCl •3070 Si •4667 Ag •7528 (AgaO)J •808s Naa •7419 NaaO •4366 (N^iiOJi •3647 290 APPENDIX. Element. Fonn, Sought. Factor. Sodium NaCl (NaaO)^ •5302 »» NaCl Na •3934 »» NajCOa NajO • "5849 Strontium SrO Sr •8454 »» SrS04 SrO •5640 j» SrCOs SrO •7017 Sulphur BaS04 S •1373 9> AsaSs S3 •3902 99 BaSOi SO3 •3434 >» SOa SO4 1-2000 Tin SnOa Sn •7867 91 SnOa SnO •8933 Zinc ZnO Zn •8026 )> ZnS ZnO ■8352 » ZnS Zn •6703 English Weights and Measures. Avoirdupois. Grains. Drachms. Ounces. Lbs. Qrs. Cwts. Tons. Grain . I Drachm 27-34 I Ounce . 437-5 l6 I Pound . 7.000- ■ 256 16 I Quarter I96,ooo• 7,168 448 28. I Cwt. . 784,000- 28,672 1.792 112 4 I Ton . 15,680,000- 573.440 35,840 2,240 80 20 I Troy Weight. Grains. Dwts. Ounces. Lb. Grain I Pennyweight . 24 I Ounce 480 20 I Pound 5.760 240 12 I APPENDIX. '291 Cubic inches. I gallon r= 277-276 I pint = 34*659 I fluid ounce = 17329 I litre = 61-02705 ; I cubic centimetre = 0-06102705 I cubic inch = 16-386176 cubic centimetres. I cubic inch of distilled water in" air at 62° F := 252-330 grains. I cubic inch „ „ in vacuo at 62° F = 252-645 grains. I minim is the volume of 0-91 grain of water. I fluid drachm „ of 54-68 grains of water. I fluid ounce „ of 437-5 grains of water. I gallon is the „ of 10 pounds or 70,000 grains of water. Weights and Measures of the British Pharmacopoeia of 1867. Weights. I grain, gr. I ounce, oz. = 437-5 grains. I pound =: 16 ozs. = 7,000- ,, Measures of Capacity. I minim, min. I fluid drachm, fl. drm. =: 60 minims. I fluid ounce, fl. oz. = 8 fluid drachms. I pint, O • =: 20 fluid ounces. I gallon, C =8 pints. Measures of Length. I line = -A- inch. I inch =: seconds— pendulum. 39-1393 12 „ =1 foot. 36 „ =3 feet = I yard. 292 APPENDIX. Weights and Measures of the Metrical System. Weights. .1 milligram = 'ooi grm. I centigram = 'Oi „ I decigram =: o-l „ I grm. = weight of a cubic centimetre of water at 4° C. 1 decagram = 10 grms. I hectogram := 100 ,, I kilogram = 1,000 „ Measures of Capacity. I millilitre = i cubic centimetre of water at 4° C. I centilitre = 10 cubic centimetres: I decilitre ^ 100 „ „ I litre ^ 1,000 „ „ Measures of Length. I millimetre = -ooi metre. I centimetre ^ -ox „ I decimetre ^o-i „ I metre ^ the ten millionth part of a quarter of the earth's meridian (nearly). Tables for Conversion of Metrical and English Measures. A. Length. METRICAL TO ENGLISH. ENGLISH TO METRICAL. (1) Millimetres to inches. (2) Metres to feet. (3) Inches'to milli- metres. (4) Feet to metres. I = 0-03937079 I = 3-2808992 1= 25-39954 I = 0-30479449 2 = 0-07874158 2= 6-5617984 2 = 50-79908 2 = 0-60958898 3=0-11811237 3= 9-8426976 3= 76-19862 3=0-9x438347 4 = 0-15748316 4=13-1235968 4^ 101-598x6 4=1-2x9x7796 5=0-19685395 5 = 16-4044960 5 = 126-99770 5 = x-5239724S 6 = 0-23622474 6 = 19-6853952 6 = 152-39724 6 = x-82876694 7 = 0-27550553 7 = 22-9662944 7 — X77-79678 7 = 2-13356143 8 = 0-31496632 8 = 26-2471936 8^ 203-19632 8 = 2-43835592 9 = 0-354337" 9 = 29-5280928 9 = 228-59586 9 = 2-74315041 APPENDIX. B. Capacity. METRICAL TO ENGLISH. 293 (l) Cubic centimetres to cubic mches. (2) Litres to fluid ounces. (3) Litres to pints. (4) Litres to gallons. I = 0-06102705 1= 35-215468 1= 1-7607734 I 1= 0-22009668 ■ 2 = 0-12205410 2— 70-430936 2= 3-5215468 2 = 0-44019336 3=0-18308115 3 = 105-646404 3 = 5-2823202 3 = OT66029004 4 = 0-24410820 4 = 140-861872 4= 7-0430936 4 = 0-88038672 5=0-30513525 5 = 176-077340 5 = 8-8038670 5 = 1-10048340 6 = 0-366 [6230 6 ^ 211-292808 6 = 10-5646404 6= 1-32058008 7 = 0-42718935 7 = 246-508276 7 = 12-3254138 7 = 1-54067676 8 = 0-48821640 8 = 281-723744 8 = 14-0861872 8 = 1-76077344 9 = 0-54924345 9 = 316-939212 9 := 15-8469606 9:= 1-98087012 ENGLISH TO METRICAL. (1) Cubic inclies to cubic centimetres. (2] Fluid ounces to cubic centimetres. (3) Pints to litres. (4) Gallons to litres. 1 = 16-386176 1 = 28-396612 I = 0-567932 «= 4-543458 2= 32-772352 2— 56-793224 2= 1-135864 2 =; 9-086916 3= 49-158528 3= 85-189856 3 = 1-703796 3 = 13-630374 4= 65-544704 4= 113-586448 4 = 2-271728 4== 18-173832 5= 81-930880 5 = 141-983060 5 ;= 2-839660 5 = 22-717290 6= 98-317056 6=170-379672 6 = 3-407592 6 = 27-270748 7= 114-703232 7 = 198-776284 7 = 3-975524 7 = 31-804206 8 = 131-089408 8 = 227-172896 8 = 4-543456 8 = 36-; 47664 9 = 147-475584 9 = 255-569508 9 = 5-111388 9 = 40-891122 C. Weight. METRICAL TO ENGLISH. (i) Grammes to grains. (2) Kilogrammes to ounces. (3) Kilogrammes to ■ pounds. 1 = 15-4323488 2= 30-8646976 3= 46-2970464 4= 61-7293952 5= 77-1617440 6= 92-5940928 7 = 108-0264416 8 = 123-4587964 9=138-8911392 1= 35-27394 2= 70-54788 3 = 105-82182 4=141-09576 5 = 176-36970 6 = 211-64364 7 = 246-91758 8 = 282-19152 9 = 317-46546 I = 2-20462 2= 4-40924 3= 6-61386 . 4= 8-81848 5 = 11-02310 6 = 13-22772 7 = 15-43234 8 = 17-63696 9=19-84158 294 APPENDIX. ENGLISH TO METRICAL. (l) Grains to (2) Ounces to (3) Pounds to (4) Hundredweights grammes. grammes. kilogrammes. to kilogrammes. I = 0-0647989 1= 28-34954 I = 0-45359265 I = 50-8023768 2 =; 0-1295978 2 = 56-69908 2 = 0-90718530 2 = 101-6047536 3 = 0-1943967 3= 85-04862 3= 1-36077795 3 = 152-4071304 4 = 0-2591956 4=113-39816 4= I -81437060 4 = 203-2095072 S = 0-3239945 5 = 141-74770 5 = 2-26796325 5 = 254-0118840 6 = 0-3887934 6 =-17009724 6 = 2-72155590 6 = 304-8142608 7 = 0-4535923 7 = 198-44678 7 = 3-17514855 7 = 355-6166376 8 = 0-5183912 8 =: 226-79632 8 = 3-62874120 8 = 406-4190144 9 = 0-5831901 9 = 255-14586 9 = 4-08233385 9 = 457-2213912 Hydrometer Tables. Densities corresponding to Degrees of BAUMfi's Hydrometer FOR Liquids heavier than Water. "B. Density. "B. Density. °B. Density. °B. Density. I -000 19 1-152 38 1-357 57 1-652 1 1-007 20 l-l6l 39 1-370 5« 1-671 ■2 1-014 21 1-171 40 1-383 59 1-691 3 1-022 22 1-180 4t 1-397 bo 1-711 4 I 029 23 1-190 42 1-410 61 1-732 1-036 24 I -199 43 1-424 62 1-753 6 1-044 25 1-210 44 1-438 63 1-774 7 I 052 26 1-221 45 1-45;. 64 1-796 8 i-o6o 27 1-231 46 1-468 65 1-819 9 r-067 28 1-242 47 ■ 1-483 66 i'846 10 1-075 29 1-253 48 1-498 67 1-872 II 1-083 30 1-264 49 1-514 68 1-897 12 1-091 31 I-27S 50 1-530 69 1-921 13 I'lOO 32 1-286 SI 1-546 70 1-946 14 i-io8 33 1-297 52 1-563 71 1-974 15 1-116 34 1-309 ■S3 1-580 72 2-000 16 ri2S 35 1-320 54 1-597 73 2-031 17 I-I34 .36 1-332 55 1-615 74 2-059 18 I -143 37 I -345 SO 1-634 APPENDIX. 295 X)ensities corresponding to BaumS's Hydrometer for Liquids Lighter than Water. (Francceur). °B. Density. °B. Density. °B. Density. °B. Density. 10 I 000 23 0-918 36 0-849 49 0-789 II 0-993 24 0-913 37 0-844 SO 0-785 12 0-986 25 0-907 3» 0-839 SI 0-781 13 0-980 26 o-goi 39 0-834 S2 0777 H 0-973 .27 0-896 40 0-830 S3 0773 IS 0-967 28 0-890 41 0-825 S4 0-768 i6 0-960 29 0-885 .42 0-820 5S ■ 0-764 17 0-9S4 30 0-880 4,^ 0-816 56 • 0-760 i8 0-948 31 0-8.74 44 O-811 S? 0757 19 0-942 32 0-869 4.'; 0-807 s« 0753 20 0-936 33 0-864 46. 0-802 S9 0-749 21 0-930 34 0-859 47 0-798 60 074s 22 0-924 35 0-854 48 0-794 Degrees on Twaddle's Hydrometer with the corresponding Densities. °Tw. Density. °Tw. Density. °Tw. Density. Tw. Density. I 1-005 8 1-040 15 1-075 22 l-IIO 2 I -010 9 I -045 • 16 I -080 23 I-II5 3 1-015 10 1-050 17 1-085 24 I'I20 . 4 1-020 II I -055 18 1-090 25 I-I25 S 1-025 12 1-060 19 1-095 26 I 130 6 1-030 13 1-065 20 i-ioo 27 I-I3S 7 1-035 14 1-070 21 1-105 . 28 1-140 Degrees Twaddle are converted into the corresponding specific gravi- ties by multiplying them by 5 and adding 1,000. Comparison of Thermometers. Conversion of Thermometer Degrees. ° C. to ° R. : multiply by 4 and divide by 5. ° C. to ° F. : multiply by 9, divide by 5, then add 32. ° R. to ° C. : multiply by 5 and divide by 4. " R. to ° F. ; multiply by 9, divide by 4, then add 32. ° F. to ° R. : first subtract 32, then multiply by 4, and divide by 9. ° F. to ° C. : first subtract 32, then multiply by 5 and divide by 9, 296 APPENDIX. Comparison of Centigrade and Fahrenheit Degrees. °c. • oj. °c. °F. "C. T. "C. "F. + S00 + 932 + 74 + 165-2 + 45 + 113 + 16 + 60-8 400 7S2 73 163-4 44 III-2 15 59 300 572 72 161-6 43 109-4 H 57-2 200 392 71 IS9-8 42 107-6 13 55-4 • 100 212 70 158 41 105-8 12 53-6 99 210-2 69 156-2 40 104 II 51-8 98 208-4 68 154-4 39 102-2 10 s? 97 206-6 67 152-6 38 100-4 9 48-2 96 204-8 66 150-8 37 98-6 8 46-4 9S 203 6S 149 36 96-8 7 44-6 94 201 -2 64 147-2 35 95 6 42-8 93 199-4 63 145-4 34 93-2 5 41 92 197-6 62 143-6 33 91-4 4 39-2 9« I9S-8 61 141-8 32 89-6 3 37-4 90 194 60 140 31 87-8 2 35-6 89 192-2 S9 138-2 30 86 I 33-8 88 190-4 58 136-4 29 84-2 32 87 188-6 57 134-6 28 82-4 — I 30-2 86 186-8 56 132-8 27 80-6 2 28-4 8S I8S 55 131 26 78-8 3 26-6 84 183-2 54 129-2 25 77 4 24-8 83 i8i-4 53 127-4 24 75-2 5 23 82 179-6 52 125-6 23 73-4 6 21-2 81 177-8 S« 123-8 22 71-6 7 19-4 80 176 5° 122 21 69-8 8 17-6 79 174-2 49 120-2 20 68 9 15-8 78 172-4 48 u8-4 19 66-2 10 14 77 170-6 47 II6-6 18 64-4 II 12-2 76 168-8 46 114-8 17 62-6 12 10-4 7S 167 APPENDIX. 297 Percentages and Gravity of Siilphuric Acid. Table showing Percentages of Real Sulphithic Acid (HaS04) corresponding to various specific gravities of aqueous Sulphuric Acid. Bineau ; Otto. Temp. 15° C. Specific Per SpeciiSc Per Specific Per Specific Per Gravity. cent. Gravity. cent. Gravity. cent. Gravity. cent. 1-8426 100 1-675 75 1-398 50 I-182 25 1-842 99 1-663 74 1-3886 49 I-174 24 1-8406 98 1-651 73 1-379 48 I -167 23 1-840 97 1-639 72 1-370 47 I-I59 22 1-8384 96 1-627 71 1-361 46 1-1516 21 1-8376 95 1-615 70 I-3SI 45 I-I44 20 1-8356 94 1-604 69 1-342 44 1-136 19 1-834 93 1-592 68 1-333 43 I-I29 18 1-831 92 1-580 67 1-324 42 1-121 17 1-827 91 1-568 6b 1-315 41 1-1136 16 1-822 90 1-557 65 1-306 40 I -106 15 I-816 89 1-545 64 1-2976 39 1-098 14 1-809 88 1-534 63 1-289 38 I -09 1 13 1-802 87 1-523 62 1-281 37 1-083 12 1-794 86 1-512 61 1-272 36 1-0756 II i-78b 85 1-501 60 1-264 35 1-068 10 1-777 84 1-490 59 1-256 34 I -061 9 1-767 83 1-480 58 1-2476 33 1-0536 8 1-756 82 1-469 57 1-239 32 1-0464 7 1-745 81 1-4586 56 1-231 31 1-039 6 1-734 80 1-448 55 1-223 30 1-032 5 1-722 79 1-438 54 1-21S 29 1-0256 4 1-710 78 1-428 53 1-2066 28 1-019 3 1-698 77 1-418 52 1-198 27 1-013 2 1-686 76 1-408 51 1-190 26 1-0064 I 298 APPENDIX. Percentages and Gravity of Hydrochloric Acid. Table giving the Percentages of Hydrochloric Acid contained IN AqtJeous Solutions of the Gas of Various Specific Gravities. Ure. Temp. 15° C. Specific HCI Specific Gravity. HCI Specific HCI Specific HCI Gravity. Per cent. Per cent. Gravity. Per cent. Gravity. Per cent. 1-200 40-777 II515 30-582 I-IOOO 20-388 1-0497 10-194 i-igSz 40-369 I-I494 30-174 r-0980 19-980 1-0477 9-786 1-1964 39-961 I- 1473 29-767 1-0960 19-572 I -0457 9-379 1-1946 39-554 I-I452 29-359 1-0939 19-165 1-0437 8-971 1-1928 39-146 I-143I 28-951 1-0919 18-757 1-0417 8563 1-1910 38-738 I-14I 28-544 1-0899 18-349 1-0397 8-IS5 1-1893 38-330 I-1389 28-136 1-0879 17-941 i-0377 7-747 1-1875 37-923 I -1369 27-728 1-0859 17-534 1-0357 7-340 1-1857 37-516 I -1349 27-321 1-0838 17-126 1-0337 6-932 I -1846 37-108 1-1328 26-913 I-0818 16-718 1-0318 6-524 1-1822 36-700 I -1308 26-505 1-0798 16-310 1-0298 6-II6 1-1802 36-292 I-1287 26-098 1-0778 15-902 1-0279 S-709 1-1782 35-884 1*1267 25-690 1-0758 15-494 1-0259 5-301 1-1762 35-476 1-1247 25-282 1-0738 15-087 1-0239 4-893 1-1741 35-068 I-I226 24-874 1-0718 14-679 1-0220 4-486 1-1721 .34-660 I-I206 24-466 1-0697 14-271 1-0200 4'078 1-1701 34-252 I-II85 24-058 1-0677 13-863 1-0180 3-670 1-1681 33-845 I-II64 23-650 1-0657 13-456 1-0160 3262 1-1661 33-437 I-II43 23-242 1-0637 13-049 1-0140 2-854 1-1641 33-029 1-1123 22-834 1-0617 12-641 1-0120 2-447 i-l6zo 32-621 I-II02 22-426 1-0597 12-233 I -0100 2-039 I-IS99 32-213 1-1082 22-019 1-0577 11-825 1-0080 1-631 1-1578 31-805 I-IO61 21-611 1-0557 11-418 1-0060 ■■J^^ I-I557 31-398 I-IO4I 21-203 1-0537 1 1 -010 1-0040 •816 1-1536 30-990 1-1020 20-796 1-05x7 10-602 1-0020 •408 APPENDIX, 299 Percentages and Gravity of Nitric Acid. Table showing the Percentages of Nitric Acid (HNO3) in Aqueous Solutions of Various Specific Gravities. Kolb, Ann. Ch. Phys. (4) 136. Temp. 150 C. HN03 Specific HNO3 Specific HNO3 Specific HNO3 Specific Per cent. Gravity. Per cent. dxavity. Per cent. Gravity. Percent. Gravity. 100-00 I -530 80-96 1-463 59-59 1-372 39-00 1-244 99-84 I-S30 80-00 1-460 58-88 1-368 37-95 1-237 99-72 1-530 79-00 1-456 58-00 1-363 36-00 1-225 99"S2 1-529 77-66 I-45I 57-00 1-358 3500 I-218 97-89 1-523 76-00 1-445 56-10 1-353 33-86 I-2II 97-00 1-520 75-00 1-442 5S-0O 1-346 32-00 I -198 96-00 1-516 74-01 1-438 54-00 I -341 3100 I -192 95-27 1-514 73-00 I -435 53-81 1-339 30-00 1-185 94-00 1-509 72-39 1-432 53-00 1-335 29-00 1-179 93-01 1-506 71-24 1-429 52-33 I -33 1 28-00 1-172 92-00 1-503 69-96 1-423 50-99 1-323 27-00 1-166 91-00 1499 69-20 1-419 49-97 1-317 25-71 I-I57 90-00 1-495 68-00 1-414 . 49-00 1-312 23-00 1-138 89-56 1-494 67-00 1-410 48-00 1-304 20-00 1-120 88-00 1-488 66-00 I -40s 47-18 1-298 17-47 1-105 fr^s 1-486 65-07 1-400 46-64 1-295 15-00 1-089 86-17 1-482 64-00 1-395 45-00 1-284 13-00 1-077 85-00 1-478 63-59 1-393 43-53 1-274 11-41 1-067 84-00 1-474 . 62-00 1-386 42-00 1-264 7-22 1-045 83-00 1-470. 61-21 1-381 41-00 1-257 400 1-022 82-00 1-467 6o-oo 1-374 40-00 1-251 2-00 i-oio 300 APPENDIX. Oxide of Fotassiiuu and Caustic Potash. Table Showing the Percentage of Oxide of Potassium (KjO) in Aqueous Solutions of Caustic Potash (KHO) of Various. Specific Gravities. Tiinnermann. Temp. 15° C. SpecificGravity. Per cent. Specific Gravity. Per cent. 1-3300 28-^go I -1437 I4'I4S 1-3131 27-158 1-1308 I3OI3 1-2966 26-027 I-I182 11-882 1-2805 24-895 I-IOS9 10-750 1-2648 23-764 1-0938 9-619 1-2493 22632 1-0819 8-487 1-2342 21-500 1-0703 •7-355 1-2268 20-935 1-0589 6-224 I-2I22 19-803 1-0478 5-002 I-I979 18-671 1-0369 3-961 1-1839 17-540 1-0260 2829 1-1702 16-408 I -0153 1-697 1-1568 15-277 1-0050 •5658 Oxide of Sodium and Caustic Soda. Table showing the Percentage of Oxide of Sodium (NajO) in Aqueous Solutions of Caustic Soda (NdHO) of various Specific Gravities. Tiinnermann. Specific Gravity. Percent. Specific Gravity. Percent. Specific &avity. Percent. Specific Gravity. Percent. 1-4285 30-220 1-3198 22-363 1-2392 I5-IIO I -1042 7-253 1-4193 29-616 1-3143 21-894 1-2280 14-500 1-0948 6-648. I-4IOI 29-011 1-3125 21-758 1-2178 13-901 10855 6-044 1-4011 28-407 1-3053 21-154 1-2058 13-297 1-0764 5-440 1-3923 27-802 1-2982 20-550 1-1948 12-692 1-0675 4-835 I -3836 27-200 I-2912 19-945 i'i84i 12-088 1-0587 4-23« 1-3751 26-594 1-2843 19-341 I- 1734 11-484 1-0500 3-626 1-3668 25-989 1-2775 18-730 1-1630 10-879 I-04I4 3-022 1-3586 25-385 1-2708 18-132 1-1528 10-275 1-0330 2-418 1-3505 24-780 1-2642 17-528 1-1428 9-670 1-0246 1-813 1-3426 24-176 1-2578 16-923 1-1330 9-066 I -0163 1-209 1-3349 23-572 I-2515 16-379 1-1233 8-462 I -0081 0-604 1-3273 22-967 1-2453 15-714 1-1137 7-857 1-0040 0-302 APPENDIX. 301 Percentages and Gravity of Ammonia. Table showing the Percentages of Ammonia (NH3) in Aqueous Solutions of the Gas of various Specific Gravities. Garius. Temp. 15 °C. Specific gravity. NHs Per cent. Specific gravity. NHs Per cent. Specific gravity. NHs Per cent. 0-8844 36 0-9133 24- 0-9520 12 0-8864 3S 0-9162 23 0-9556 II 0-8885 34 0-9191 22 0-9593 10 0-8907 33 0-9221 21 0-9631 9 0-8929 32 0-9251 • 20 0-9670 8 o-8gS3 31 0-9283 19 0-9769 .» / 0-8976 30 0-9314 18 0-9749 6 0-9001 29 0-9347 ■17 0-9790 5 0-9026 28 0-9380 16 0-9031 4 0-9052 27 0-9414 IS 0-9873 3 0-9078 26 09449 H 0-9915 2 0-9106 25 0-9484 "3 0-9959 I Melting Points of the Metals. Melting Melting point ° C. point • C. Aluminium 700 Lithium . 180 Antimony 425 Magnesium . 232 Arsenic . 415 Mercury . -40 Bismuth . 270 Nickel . [,500—1,600 Cadmium . 320 Phosphorus 44 Cobalt 1,050—1,200 Potassium 62-s Copper . Gold . 1,050 Platinum . . 2,600 • 1.250 Silver . 1,000 Indium . . 176 Selenium . . 217 Iron, Cast 1,050 — 1,200 Sodium . . 96 „ Steel . 1,300—1,400 Sulphur . • "S „ Wrought 1,500—1,600 Thallium . 290 iead 330 Tin • 235 Zinc . 412 302 APPENDIX. Comparative Wear of Axle-bearings. (Thurston). Bearing. Composition, Cost per 100 lbs.* Miles run per lb. Wear per 100 miles for four bearings. Copper. Tin. Anti- mony. Gun metal . White metal Lead composition : lead 84; antimony 16 Gun metal on brake cars ^3 82 3 5 82 is. 7 10 $ c. 26 60 28 68 32 85 32 27 13 04 28 68 25,489 27,918 22,075 24,857 22,021 2,576 grs. 200 252 366 284 308 274 • Including melting expenses, loss, &c. Tliese figures are constantly varying. Text of the Petroleum Act, 1879. (42 & 43 Vict. c. 47.) 1. This Act may be cited as the Petroleum Act, 1879. This Act shall be constraed as one with the Petroleum Act, 187 1, and together with that Act may be cited as the Petroleum Acts, 1871 and 1879. 2. Whereas by the Petroleum Act, 1 871, it is enacted that the term "petroleum to which this Act applies" means such of the petroleum defined by that Act as, when tested in manner set forth in Schedule One to that Act, gives off an inflammable vapour at a temperature of less than one hundred degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer, and it is expedientto alter the said test : Be it therefore enacted that — APPENDIX. 303 ■ In the Petroleum Act, 187 1, the term " petroleum to which this Act applies " shall mean such of the petroleum defined by section three of that Act as, when tested in manner set forth in Schedule One to this Act, gives off an inflammable vapour at a temperature of less than seventy-three degrees of Fahren. heit's thermometer. Every reference in the Petroleum Act, 1871, to Schedule One to that Act shall be construed to refer to Schedule One to this Act. 3. A model of the apparatus for testing petroleum, as described in Schedule One to this Act, shall be deposited with the Board of Trade, and the Board of Trade shall, on payment of such fee, not exceeding five shillings, as they from tjme to time prescribe, cause to be compared with such model and verified every apparatus constructed in accordance with Sche- dule One to this Act which is submitted to them for the purpose, and if the same is found correct shall stamp the same with a mark approved of by the Board and notified in the London Gazette. ' An apparatus for testing petroleum purporting to be stamped with the said mark shall, until the contrary is proved, be deemed to have been verified by the Board of Trade. All fees under this section shall be paid into the Exchequer. 4. The Petroleum Act, 1871, shall continue in force until otherwise directed by Parliament. 5. This Act shall come into operation on the thirty-first day of December one thousand eight hundred and seventy-nine, which day is in this Act referred to as the commencement of this Act. 6. The Petroleum Act, 1871, shall be repealed after the commencement of this Act to the extent in the third column of the Second Schedule to this Act mentioned. Provided that any sample of petroleum taken before the commencement of this Act shall be tested in manner set forth in Schedule One to the Petroleum Act, 1871, and any offence committed before the commencement of this Act shall 304 APPENDIX. be prosecuted, and any investigation, legal proceeding, or remedy in relation to such offence, or to any act done before the commencement of this Act, shall be instituted, carried on, and have effect as if the provisions of this Act, other than those continuing the Petroleum Act, 1871, had not been {passed. First Schedule. — Mode of testing Petroleum so as to ascertain the temperature at •which it will give OFF Inflammable Vapour. Specification of the Test Apparatus. (See ante, p. 204.) Directions for applying the Flashing Test. (See ante, p. 207.) Second Schedule. — Act repealed. Year and Chapter. Title. Extent of repeal. 34 & 35 Vict. c. 105. The Petroleum Act, 1871. Section three, from " and the term petroleum to which this Act applies " inclusive to the end of the section. Sec- tion eighteen. INDEX. A CETIC acid test for oils, 225 I\ Aich's metal, analysis of, 74 Air, influence of excess of, in com- bustion of coal, 133 Albuminoid ammonia in waters, es- timation of, 175 Alkalinity of waters, determination of. 153 Alumina, estimation of, in iron ores, 89 Aluminium, estimation of, in iron and steel, 55 Ammonia, amount of, in ammoniacal liquors obtained from various coals, 246 Ammoniacal liquor, composition of, 245 cost of lime to expel combined NH,, 250 Ammoniacal liquor, valuation of, 247 Ammonium hydrate, strengths of solutions of various specific gravi- ties, 301 Ammonium nitrate powder, com- position of, 281 sulphate, analysis of, 250 estimation of sulphocyanates in, 251 Anthracites, composition of various, - 127 Antimony, estimation of, in copper, 25 : white metals, 75 Appendix, 283 Arsenic, estimation of, in copper, 25 Atlas powders, composition of, 280 Atomic weights of the elements (H=i), 283 Atomic weights of the elements (0=16), 285 Axle-bearings, comparative wear of, 302 ■DABBIT'S metal, analytical data ■'-' of an analysis of„ 77 Bellite, composition of, 281 Bell-riietal, analysis of, 74 Bismuth, estimation of, in copper, 27 Blast pipe, Macallan's variable, note on, 145 Bleaching powder, 270 Boiler incrustations, analysis of, 94 Bolton's powder, cwpposition of, 278 Brass, methods of analysis of, 69 and bronze, various analyses of, 74 7- analytical data of an analysis of, 72 best analysis of, 74 common analysis of, 74 pin- wire „ 74 yellow ,, 74 Britannia metal, analysis of, 74, 78 Bronolithe, composition of, 282 Bronze, method for analysis of, 6g coinage, composition of, 74 — for bearings ,, 74 wheel boxes „ 74 Buenos Ayres and Rosario Railway, coal and oil on the, 138 Butterine, 197 3o6 INDEX. /""ALORIFIC value of solid and ^-^ liquid fuels determined by calorimeter, io8 Calorific value of solid and liquid fuels determined by calculation from analysis, in Carbolic acid, assay of, 265 powders, assay of, 268 CarboUneum, 264 Carbon, combined, estimation of, in steel, 44 amount in steels for various purposes, 50 Carbon, combined, condition of, in steel, experiments on, 51 estimation of, in solid and liquid fuels, 104 Carbonic acid, estimation of, in iron ores, 87 Castellanos powder, composition of, 280 Caustic soda, assay of, 242 Chlorate povfders, composition of, 279 Chloride of lime, assay of, 270 Chromium, effect of, on steel tyres, 57 estimation of, in iron and steel, 56 Clay, blue, composition of, 96 brick „ 96 ironstone ,, 93 pipe ,* 96 sandy „ 96 Stourbridge ,, 96 Coal and oil, comparative consump- tion of, on Buenos Ayres and Rosario Railway, 138 and petroleum, evaporative values of, 137, 138 consumption of, by compound and ordinary ■ locomotives on Great Eastern Railway, 126 gas, average composition of, 145 Newcastle and Welsh, experi- ments with, 130 Coal tar, synopsis of distillatipn of, 254 thermic value of, compared with gas, 123 Coals, classification of, 100 various, analysis of, 127 average value of, 129 Welsh steam, com- parative values of, 129 yields of distillation, products from, 256 Coke, estimation of, in fuels, 100 " Cold short," 65 Condy's fluid, assay of, 269 Converter gases, analysis of, 144 lining, composition, of, Copper, analyses of two samples of. analytical data of an analy- sis of, 33 estimation of Ag and S in, 30 ■■ combined oxygen, 28 in copper, 31 insoluble re- sidue in, 22 Pb and Bi in, 27 Sb and As in, 25 Sn in, 31 methods for complete analy- sis of, 22 tube plates, specification of, for Indian States railways, 39 Cottonseed oil, properties of, 221 Courteille's powder, composition of, 279 Creosote, 256 composition of, London and Country, 264 Dr. Tidy's specification for, 261 Sir Frederick Abel's speci- fication for, 263 INDEX, 307 ■p\ANUBE river, at Vienna, analy- ^-' sis of, 168 Davey's powder, composition of, 279 DesignoUe's ,, „ 281 Diapson ,, ,, 280 Diorrexin „ „ 278 Disinfectants, 265 Dualine, composition of, 280 Dutch metal, analysis of, 74 Dynamite powders, composition of, 280 Dynamogen, composition of, 279 ■p HRHARDT'S powders, composi- ■'-' tion of, 280 Elaiden test for oils, 222 Explosives, 273 "P ACTORS used in analysis, 287 -^ Fats, melting points of various, igS Fatty acids, melting points of various, ig6 Ferromanganese, analysis of, 67 Firebricks, various „ 96 Fish oils, test for, in vegetable oils, 225 Flash points of oils, directions for applying, 207 Flue gases, composition of, 132 Formulae for calculating thermic value of fiiels, 114,' 115, 116 Free ammonia in waters, estimation of, 173 Free fatty acids, amounts of, in various oils, 194 Free fatty atids, estimation of, in oils, 192 Fuels, patent, analyses of, 128 solid, liquid and gaseous, 98 various, table of csdorific value of, 113 GANNISTER, Sheffield, analysis of, 96 Gas, coal, analysis of, 145 natural American, analysis of, 143 Gas, Pittsburg, analysis of, 123 water ,, 143 Gaseous fuel, determination of con- stituents of, 118 formula for obtaining calorific value of, 122 i — thermic value of, com- pared with coal, 123 Gases, blast furnace, analyses of, 143 composition of various, 144 Gasworks products, 245 Goetz' powder, composition of, 280 Grazi and Tsaritsin railway, com- parative trials with various fuels, 139 Grazi and Tsaritsin railway, con- sumption of coal and petroleum on locomotives of, 140 Grease, railway, manufacture of, 230 black, composition of, 231 yellow ,, 231 Guncotton explosives, composition of, 281 Gunpowder, 276 analysis of, 277 products of combustion of, 276 TT^MATITE, brown, analysis of, ■•^ ■ 93 ^ — red, analysis of, 93 Hardness of waters, determination of, 148 Hard water, standard, preparation of, 149 Heat, disposal of, 131 effective, determination of, by calculation, 117 of combustion, distribution of, 133 Hercules powder, composition of, 280 Holden's injector for liquid fuel, 134 Hydrochloric acid, strength of solu- tions of various specific gravities, 298 Hydrogen, estimation of, in solid and liquid fuel, 104 3o8 INDEX. TNGOT steel, analyses to show ■*■ unequal distribution of the ele- ments, 66 Introductory chapter, i Iodine absorption test for oils, 226 Iron, estimation of, in brass, bronze, &c., 71 copper, 22 iron, 53 iron ores, as ' FeO, 86 iron ores, as FejO,, 87 Iron (total), estimation of, in iron ores, 84 Iron and steel, analyses of various kinds of, 63 estimation of alu- minium in, 55 estimation of com- bined carbon in.by combustion, 44 estimation of com- ' bined carbon in,by Eggertz' test, 49 estimation of chro- mium in, 56 estimation of copper in, 52 estimation of graph- ite and silicon (Al- len's method), 43 estimation of graph- ite by combustion, 48 estimation of Si, S, P and Mn in, 39- 43 estimation of tita- nium in, 59 estimation of tung- sten in, 60 Iron ores, analyses of various, 93 Iron ores, methods for complete analysis of, 83 TALINE, composition of, 279 •' Johnite, „ 279 Johnson's powder, composition of, 281 KAOLINS, various analyses of, 96 Kent Company's water,analy- sis of, 169 KnafH's powder, composition of, 279 T EAD, estimation of, in copper, 27 -'— ' Lime, ,, iron ores, &c.,.90 Limestones, analyses of, 94 Linseed oil, properties of, 220 Liquid fuel and coal, comparative cost of, on Great Eastern Railway, 137 Liquid fuels, various, comparative values of, 138 Lubricating oils, 183 special, special work for, 184 various tests for, 1 84 viscosities of va- rious, 188 TV /TACALLAN'S variable blast Magnesia, estimation of, in iron ores, 90 estimation of, in waters, 154 Magnetic iron ore, analysis of, 93 MaumenS's test for oils, 222 Meteoric-iron, analysis of, 63 Moisture, estimation of, in fuels, 99 Muntz' metal, analysis of, 74 NESSLER reagent, preparation of, 172 New River Company's water, analy- ses of, 168 Nickel, estimation of, in copper, 22 Nisser's powder, composition of, 280 Nitrated powders ,, 278 Nitrates, estimation of, in water, 156 Nitrogen „ fuels, I02 INDEX. 309 Nitre-glycerine, 273 compounds, scheme for analysis of, 275 Nitro-naphthalene, composition of, 281 Nitric acid colour test for oils, 225 strength of solutions of various specific gravities, 299 Nutmeg butter, 197 /^IL, almond, 193, 225 ^-^ Oil, American and Russian Mineral, 188 Oil, arachis, 200, 225 bank cod, 191 bottlenose, 200 castor, 131, 191 cocoa-nut, 191 =■ cod-liver, 191 cotton-seed, 190, 198, 221 Elaine, 190 hempseed, 198 horsefoot, 222 Japan fish, 201 Labrador cod, 190 lard, 190, 193, 198 laurel, 226 linseed (raw), 193, 198, 220 (boiled), 191 Menhaden, 191 mustard, 226 neat's-foot, 188, 193, 198 Niger seed, 224 olive, 190, 193, 219, 225 palm, 226, 233 pea-nut, 190 poppy, 190, 200 porgy, 191 rape-seed, 188, 193, 198, 201, 218, 225 resin, igi, 201 '■ sea elephant, igo seal, 191, 193 Sesam§, 200 shark-liver, 227 sperm, 188, 193, 198 tallow, 190 tanner*s-cod, igo Oil, turpentine, 215 walnut, 227 Oils, acetic acid test for, 225 American petroleum, tests for, 210 burning, assay of, 204 creosote, table showing charac- ter of various, 264 determination of melting points of, 197 determination of viscosity of, 185 Elaifden test for, 222 estimation of suspended matter in, 199 fatty and mineral, estimation of in, 194 flash points of, directions ■ for applying, 191, 207 flash points of, description of test apparatus, 204 free fatty and mineral acids in, 192 gas specification for G.E.R., 213 tests of 3 samples of, 214 tests of, with Pintsch's and Keith's apparatus, 215 ■ gumming properties of, 198 ■ iodine absorption test for, 226 - kerosene, tests of, 209 - loss on evaporation at 212° F., 198 -lubricating, 183 - MaumenS's test for, 222 - melting points of various, 196 determination of, 197 mineral illuminating, 203 scheme for analysing, 202 special work, for various, 184 specific gravities of, determina- tion, 189 specific gravities of, determina- tion of various, igo sulphuric acid, colour test for, 223 tests for lubricating, 184 various, action of, on iron and copper, 193 310 INDEX. Oils, various, mean percentage of free fatty acids in, 194 various, viscosities of, at differ- ent temperatures, 188 vegetable, test for fish oils in, 225 viscosities of, determination, 185 Olive oil, properties of, 219 Organic matter, estimation of, in waters, 157 Oxygen combined, estimation of, in copper, 28 Oxygen in fuels, io5 "DALiW oil, 233 -*• Palm oil, free fatty acids in various kinds of, 234 Paul's method for obtaining effective heat of fuel, 116 Petralithe, composition of, 280 Petrofacteur, composition of, 281 Petroleum Act (1879), 302 and coal, evaporative values of, 141 oil, products of distilla- tion of, 203 storage of, 211 residuum, 235 Pewter, triple, composition of, 78 ley, composition of, 78. Phosphoric acid, estimation of, in iron ores, 92 Phosphorus, estimation of, in iron and steel, 42 Picric acid powders, composition of, 281 Pig irons, analyses of various, 64 Poisonous metals in waters, detec- tion of, 179 Pollution of rivers and streams. Com- missioners' report, 181 Potash, estimation of, in waters, 154 Potassic hydrate, strength of solu- tions of various specific gravities, 300 Potassic permanganate, reagent for water analysis, preparation of, 172 Pudrolithe, composition of, 279 Pump valves, analysis of, 74 Pyronome, composition of, 278 Pyronome (chlorate mixtures), com- position of, 280 Pyrolithe, composition of, 279 ■pAIL steel, analysis of a bad -'•^ sample, 65 Railsteel.analysisof an ideal sample, 65 Rape oil, properties of, 218 Reddrop's system of chemical re- agents, 2 Rendrock, composition of, 281 Resin, estimation of, in soaps, 236 Rhine river at Strasburg, analysis of, 167 Rhone river at Geneva, analysis of, 168 River waters, analysis of various, 167 River Wye water, analysis of, 158 Rivers and streams, pollution of, report, 181 Roburite, composition of, 281 C AFETY blasting powder, compo- '-^ sition of, 279 Sch^er's powder, composition of, 279 Schultze „ „ 281 Securite „ „ 281 Seine river above Paris, analysis of, 167 Siemens' producer gas, analysis of, 142 Silica, estimation of, in iron ores, 85 Silicon and carbon, influence of, in steel for tyres, &c., 51 estimation in iron and steel, Allen's method, 43 estimation in iron and steel, aqua regia method, 39 estimation in iron and steel, sulphuric acid method, 52 table indicating strength of steel containing, 41 Silver nitrate solution, standard preparation of, 151 INDEX. 311 Slag, blast furnace, analysis of, 97 Soap for grease-making, analysis of, 236 Soap, scheme for complete analysis of, 240 Soaps, analyses of various kinds of, 241 Soap solution, standard preparation of, 149 Soda ash, analysis of Glasgow re- fined, 244 Soda ash for grease-making, assay of, 243 Soda, estimation of, in water, 154 Sodic carbonate, preparation of stan- dard E solution, 20 Sodic hydrate, preparation of stan- dard E solution, 21 Sodic hydrate, strength of solution of various specific gravities, 300 Solder, brazing, composition of, 78 common, ,, 78 coarse, „ 78 — ; — fine, „ 78 Spathic ore, analysis of, 93 Specific gravity of coal, determina- tion of, 107 Specific gravity of liquid fuel, deter- mination of, 108 Specific gravity of oils, determina- tion of, 189 Speculum, metal composition of, 74 Spent oxide, assay of, 253 Spiegeleisen, analysis of, 67 Spree river at Berlin, analysis of, 168 Standard equivalent sdutions, pre- paration of, 20 Steel, analytical data of an analysis of, 61 ingot, analysis of, to show un- equal distribution of ele- ments, 66 rail, broken, analysis of, 64 ideal composition of, 65 Krupp gun of approved qua. lity, analysis of, 67 specification of, for shipbuild- ing, 67 Steel, Swedish gun barrel, analysis of, 67 Sterro metal, composition of, 74 Sulphates, estimation of, in waters, 155 Sulphate of ammonia, analysis of, 250 Sulphocyanates, estimation of, in AmaSO^, 251 Sulphur, estimation of, in copper, 30 fuel, 100 iron and steel, 41 . Sulphuric acid, colour test for oils, 223 estimation of, in iron ores, 92 standard E prepara- tion of, 20 strength of solution of various specific gravities, 297 'yALLOW, 188, 197, 226, 231 Tar, coal, synopsis of distillation of, 254 Thames water at Twickenham, ana- lysis of, 167 Thermometers, comparison of vari- ous, 295 Thermometers, table of comparison of "F. and "C, 296 Tin, estimation of, in copper, 31 brass, bronze, &c., 69 tin plate, 78 white metals, 74 Tin plate, estimation of tin in, 78 Titanic acid, estimation of, in iron ores, 91 Titanium, estimation of, in iron and steel, 59 Tungsten, estimation of, in iron and steel, 60 Turpentine, boiling point of, 216 distillation of, 216 oil of, 215 -^ specific gravity of, 216 312 INDEX. Turpentine, test for naphtha in, 216 Twaddle's hydrometer, comparison of with Sp. Gr., 295 Tyre, good Krupp, sinalysis of, 65 Tyre, steel, analysis of an ideal sample of, 65 "VT'ICTORITE powder, composition * of, 281 Vigorite powder, composition of, 281 Violette's „ „ 279 Viscosity of oils, method for deter- mining, i8g various, 188 Volatile matter in fuel, estimation of, 100 Vulcan powder, composition of, 280 1 X rATER, analytical data of an ' "^ analysis of, 158 Water analysis for boiler purposes, 146 analysis, preparation of stan- dard soap solution for, 149 analysis, scheme for, 163 collection of samples of, 147 estimation of suspended mat- ter in, 148 estimation of hardness in, 148 in iron ores, 83 total solid mat- ter in, 148 gases, analyses of, 143 Water, hard, preparation of, 149 softening of, 166 New River Co.'s, analysis of, 168 nitrates, estimation of, in, 156 preparation of distilled, firee from ammonia, 173 Kent Co.'s, analysis of, j6g Waters, detection of poisonous metals in, 179 drinking, classification of, 180 drinking, methods of ana- lysis of, 170 various sea, analyses of, 169 Weights and measures, Brit. Pharm., 291 Weights and measures, metrical, 292 tables for conversion of metrical into English and vice versa, 293 White lead, analysis of (qualitative), 79 White lead , analysis of (quantitative) , 80 White metals, analysis of, 74 estimation of Sn., Cu., Fe., Zn., &c., in-, 74 various, analyses of, 78 7INC, estimation of, in brass, &c., ^ 71 PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AKD CO., LIMITED, CITY ROAD, LONDON. ADVERTISEMENTS. NOTE. The Instruments, Apparatus, and Chemicals mentioned in this Work are made by, or can be obtained from, john j. griffin & sons, ld-, 22, garrick street, covent garden, London, w.c, Makers of Apparatus to the War Department, Indian and Colonial Governments, the Universities of London, Oxford, Cambridge, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Sydney, Otago, &"£., &'c.. Agents by Appointment to the Department of Science and Art. Catalogues Free upon Application. AD VERTISEMENTS. TOWNSON & MERCER, 89, BISHOPSGATE ST. WITHIN, LONDON, E.G. ESTABLISHED 1798. 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Petroleum Test Apparatus (Petroleum Act, 1879), Apparatus for testing Dynamite and other Nitro Compounds. Chemical Apparatus of every description. BOOKS FOR ENGINEERS, MA CHINISTS, k. Just published, large folio, about 150 pp. of Text, and 51 Plates, with Marginal Ledger-Index of Subjects. Price ^5 5s.' half-bound. THE MECHANICAL ENGINEER'S REFERENCE BOOK FOR MACHINE AND BOILER CONSTRUCTION. In Two Parts. Part I. Engineering Data. Part II. Boiler Construction. By Nelson Foley, M.I.N.A. New Volume of Hutton's Practical Handbooks for Engineers. Now ready. Medium 8vo, 44S pages, with 314 Illustrations, i8s. cloth. STEAM-BOILER CONSTRUCTION : A Practical Handbook for Engineers, Boiler- Makers, and Steam-Users. Containing a lar^'e Collection of Rules and Data relating to recent Practice in the Design, Construction, and Working of all kinds of Stationary, Locomotive, and Marine Steam- Boilers. By W. S. Hutton, C.E. Also hy ike same Author. — Medium 8vo, 424 pages, with 150 Illustrations, 15s. cloth. THE WORKS MANAGER'S HANDBOOK OF MODERN RULES, TABLES, AND DATA. For Engineers, Millwrights, Machinists, Boiler and Tool Makers, Founders, &c. By W. S. Hutton, C.E. Fourth Edition,. Revised, and partly Re- written. " Contains a great deal of that kind of information whidhis gained only by practical experience. " — Engineer. Also by the same Author. — Medium 8vo. Nearly 500 pages, with upwards of 370 Illustrations. i8s. cloth. IPRACTICAL ENGINEER'S HAND-BOOK (THE). A Treatise on Modern Engines and Boilers ; Marine, Locomotive and Stationary. By W, S. Hutton. Third Edition, Revised, with Additions. Demy 8vo, 12s. cloth. ENGINEERING ESTIMATES, COSTS AND ACCOUNTS: A Guide to Commercial Engineering. With numerous Examples of Estimates and Costs of Millwright Work, Miscellaneous Productions, Steam Engines and Steam Boilers ; and the Preparation of Costs Accounts. By A General Manager. "This excellent book is invaluable, not only to the young engineer, but also to the estimate department of every works." — Builder, Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth. LOCKWOOD'S DICTIONARY OF TERMS USED IN THE PRACTICE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions. By A Foreman Pattern-Maker. "After a careful examination of the book, and trying all manner of words, we think that the engineer will here find all he is likely to require." — Practical Engineer, London :— CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, 7, Stationers' Hall Court, E.C. AD VERTISEMENTS. STANDARD BOOKS ON CHEMISTR Y, METALL URGY, «&c. A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE, including the Manufacture of Sul- phuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder. By John Lomas. 390 pages, with 232 Illustrations and Working Drawings. Second Edition. Royal 8vo, £1 los. cloth. " This book is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers. The working details of the most approved forms of apparatus are given, and these are accompanied by no less than 232 wood engravings, all of which may oe used for the purposes of construction. Every step in the manufacture is very fully described in this manual, and each improvement explained." — Aihenmuni. A HANDBOOK ON MODERN EXPLOSIVES. Being a Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Application of Dynamite, Gun-Cotton, Nitro- Glycerine, and other Explosive Compounds. Including the Manufacture of Collodion-Cotton. By M. EissLER, M.E., Author of " The Metallurgy of Gold," &c. With about 100 Illus- trations. Crown 8vo, los. 6d. cloth. " The book is clearly written. Taken as a whole, we consider it an excellent little book and one that should be found of great service to miners and others who are engaged in work requiring the use of explosives." — AihencBunt. THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, AND GEOLOGY. Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, Working: Examples, and In- structions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut. -Col. W. A. Ross, R.A. With 120 Illus- trations. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. " The student who goes through the course of experimentation here laid down will gain a better insight iiito inorganic chemistry and mineralogy than if he had 'got up 'any of the best text-books of the day, and passed any number of examinations in their contents." — Chemical News. THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS; or, Practical Instructions for the determination of the Intrinsic or Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures, Trades, and the Arts. By A. Normandy. New Edition by H. M. Noad, F.R.S. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. "Essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. The most recent results are given, and the work is well edited and carefully written." — Nature. THE METALLURGY OF GOLD: A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores. Including the Processes of Concentration and Chlorination, and the Assaying, Melting, and Reiinins' of Gold. By M. Eisslkr, M.E. Third Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. With 187 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, i2S. 6d. cloth. "This book thoroughly deserves its title of a 'Practical Treatise.' The whole process of gold milling, from the breaking of the quartz to the assay of the bullion, is described in clear and orderly narrative and with much, but not too much, fulness of detail." — Saturday Review. THE METALLURGY OF SILVER: A Practical Treatise on the Amalgama- tion, Roasting, and Lixiviaiton of Silver Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting, and Refining of Silver Bullion. By M. Eissler, M.E. Second Edition, enlarged. With 150 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 10s. 6d. cloth. " A practical treatise, and a technical work which we are comanced will supply a long- felt want amongst practical men, and at the same time be of value to students and others indirectly connected with the industries." — Mining journal. THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD ORES: A Practical Treatise on the Smelting 0/ Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining of Lead Bullion. Illustrated with Plans and Sections of Smelting Furnaces and Plant in Europe and America. By M. Eissler, M.E., 8tc. Crown 8vo. [/« the press. ELECTRO-DEPOSITION : A Practical Treatise on the Electrolysis of Gold, Silver^ Copper, Nickel, and other Metals and Alloys. With descriptions of Voltaic Batteiies, Magneto and Dynamo -Electric Machines, Thermopiles, and of the Materials and Processes used in every Department of the Art, and several Chapters on Electro-Metallurgy. By Alexander Watt. Third Edition, Revised and Corrected. Crown 8vo, 9s. cloth. " Eminently a book for the practical worker in electro-deposition."— 5M£-z>?i9«r. London: CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON, 7, Stationers' Hall Court, E.G. 7, Stationers' Hall Court, London, E C October, i88g. A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS INCLUDING MANY NEW AND STANDARD WORKS IN ENGINEERING, MECHANICS. ARCHITECTURE, NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE, INDUSTRIAL ARTS, TRADE AND COMMERCE, AGRICULTURE, GARDENING, LAND MANAGEMENT, LAW, rfc. PUBLISHED BY CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON. MECHANICS, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. Ifew Manual for Practical Engineers. THE PRACTICAL, ENGINEER'S HAND-BOOK. Comprising a Treatise on Modern Engines and Boilers : Marine, Locomotive and Sta- tionary. And containing a large collection of Rules and Practical Data relating to recent Practice in Designing and Constructing all kinds of Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering work. The whole constituting a comprehensive Key to the Board of Trade and other Examinations for Certi- ficates of Competency in Modern Mechanical Engineering. By Walter S. HuTTON, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of " The Works' Manager's Handbook for Engineers," &c. With upwards of 370 Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised, with Additions. Medium 8vo, nearly 500 pp., price i8s. Strongly bound. \J«5t published. IS" This work is designed as a companion to the Author's "Works' Manager's Hand-book." It possesses many new and original features, and con- tains like its predecessor, a quantity of matter not originally intended for pubVca- tion, but collected by the author for his own use in the construction of a great variety of modem engineering work. *tt tj. pnutjAMsfid and concise .,.,, „ ,_, ' tabulated matter of great The information is given in a condensed and concise form, and is illustrated by upwards 0/370 Woodcuts; and comprises a quantity of tabulated matter of great value to all engaged in designing, constructing, or estimating for Engihes, Boilers and OTHER Engineering Work. %* Opinions of the Press, " We have kept it at hand for several weeks, reFerring to it as occasion arose, and we have not on a single occasion consulted its pages without finding the information of which we were in quest." . ^Athenaum. " A thoroughly good practical liandbook, which no engineer can go through without learning ' sometliing that will be of service to him."— Jtfarine Engineer. •• An excellent book of reference for engmeers, and a valuable text-book for students of engineering."— 5«/iOTa». ■ _ " This valuable manual embodies the results and experience of the leading authorities on ' mechanical engineering. "—5«t7aV«^Wi:«'r. . ,j " The author has coUected together a surprising quantity of rules and practical data, and has shown much judgment in the selections he has luade. . . . There is no doubt that this book .s one of the most useful of its kUid published, and wiU be a very popular compendium. -Engineer. " A mass of inrorraation, set down in simple language, and in such a fornithat it can be emiiy referred to at any time. The matter is uniformly goof and weU chosen, and is greatly elucidated Jiv the mustratlons. The book wiU find its way on to most engineers shelves, where it will rank as one of the most useful books of tetcteace."-PracHcal Engineer. " Full of useful information, and should be found on the office shelf of all practical engineers." ^-English Mechanic^ 2 CROSBY LOCK WOOD &* SON'S CATALOGUE. Handhooh for Works' Managers* THE WORKS' MANAGER'S HANDBOOK OF MODERN RULES, TABLES, AND DATA, For Engineers, Millwrights, and Boiler Makers; Tool Makers, Machinists, and Metal Workers; Iron and Brass Founders, &c. By W. S. Hutton, Civil and. Mechanical Engineer, Author of " The Practical En^neet's Handbook." Third Edition,, careftilly Revised, with Additions. In One handsome Vol., medium 8vo price 15s. strongly bound. 13" The Author having compiled Rules and Data for his own use in a great variety of modem engineering work, and having found his notes extremely useful^ decided to publish them—revised to date—belicvtng that a practical work, suited to the DAILY REQUIREMENTS OF MODERN EUGitiEERSt would bs favourably received, Jn the Third Editiottt the following among other additions have been made, viz.: Rules for the Proportions of Riveted Joints in Soft Steel Plates,the Results of Expert' ments by Professor Kennedy for the Institution of Mechanical Engineers — Rules for the Proportions of Turbines— Rules for the Strength of Hollow Shafts of Whit' worth*s Compressed Steel, &c, \* Opinions of the Press, "Theauthortreatsevery subject from the point of view of one who has collected workshop notes for application in workshop practice, rather tlian from the theoretical or literary aspect. The volume contains a great deal of that kind of infonimtion which is gained only by practical experi- " ence, and is seldom written in bodks."~Ett£ineer: "The volume is an exceedingly useful one, brimful with engineers' notes, memoranda, and rules, and well worthy of being on every mechanical engineer's hookshelf."'~M'ecAaftical fVorld. "A formidable meiss of facts and fieures, readily accessible through an elaborate index .... Such a volume will be found absolutely necessary as a book of reference in all sorts of 'works 'connected with the metal traLAes."-^Eyland's Iron Trades CircuUtr. " Brimful of useful information, statted in a concise form, Mr. Hutton's books have met a press- ing want among engineers. The book must prove extremely useful to every practical man possessing a copy." — Practical Ensituert ^^The Modernised Templeton.'^ THE PR A CTICA L MECHA NIC 'S WORKSHOP COM- PANION. Comprisingagreat variety of the most useful Rules and Formulae in Mechanical Science, with numerous Tables of Practical Data and Calcu- lated Results for Facilitating Mechanical Operations, By William Temple- ton, Author of "The Engineer's Practical Assistant," &c. &c. Fifteenth Edition, Revised, Modernised, and considerably Enlarged by Walter S. Hutton, C.E., Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook," "The^ Prs^cticEd Engineer's Handbook," &c. Fcap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with Eight Plates and upwards of 250 Illustrative Diagrams, 65., strongly bound for workshop or pocket wear and tear. IS" Tehpleton*s " Mechanic's Workshop Companion " has been for more than a quarter of a century deservedly popular, and, as the well-worn and thumb- markea vade mecum of several generations of intelligent and aspiring workmen, it has had the reputation of having been the means of raising many of them in their position in life. In consequence of the lapse of time since the Author's death, and the great advances in Mechamcal Science, the Publis hers have thought it advisable to have it entirely Reconstructed and Modernised; and in its present greatly Enlarged and Improved form, they are sure that it will commend i^elf to the English workmen of the present day all the world over, and become, like its predecessors^ their indispens- able friend and referee, A smaller type having been adopted, and the page increased in size, while the number of Pages has advanced from about 330 to nearly 500, the book practicalljy con* tains double the amount of matter that was comprised in the original work, \* Opinions of the Press. ** In Its modernised form Hutton's ' Templeton 'should have a wide sale, fbr It contains much valuable information which the mechanic will often find of use, and not a few tables and notes which he might look for in vain in other works. This modernised edition will be appreciated by all who bave &rued to value the original editions of ' Templeton.' " — English Mechanic, ** It has met with great success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are a great many men who, in a great measure, owe t heir rise in life to this little book." — Bu'Uding Ntius. " This familiar text'book— rwell known,to all mechanics and engineerst-is of essential service to the every-day requirements of en^^neers, millwrights, and the various trades connected with engineering and building. The new modernised edition is worth its weight In %fA^"-~BuUdins - Ntws. (Second Notice.) - " The publishers wisely entrusted the task of revision of this popular, valuable and useful book of Mr, Hutton, than whom a more competent man they could not have found."— /rtm. MECHANICS, MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 3 Stone-working Machinery* STONE-WORKING MACHINERY, and the Rapid and Economu cal Conversion of Stone. With Hints on the Arrangement and Management of Stone Works, By M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E. Crown 8vo, ps. " Should be in the t^nds of every mason or student of %lan.e'V/orV:."— Colliery Guardian. " It is in every sense of the word a standard work upon a subject which the author is fully competent to deal exhaustively with." — Builder's Weekly Reporter. *' A capital handbook for all who manipulate stone for buUdinf or ornamental purposes." — Machinery Market, JPamp Construction and Management* PUMPS AND PUMPING : A Handbook for Pump Users. Being Notes on Selection, Construction and Management. By M. Powis Bale, M.I.M.E., Author of " Woodworking Machinery," " Saw Mills," &c. Crown Svo, 2s. 6rf. cloth. {Just published. "The matter is set forth as concisely as possible. In fact, condensation rather than diffusencss has been the author's aim throughout ; yet he does not seem to have omitted anything likely to be of use " — yotirnal af Gas Lighting, " Thoroughly practical and simply and clearly written."— G/«j^(jw Herald. ,.^ Taming, LATHE-WORK : A Practical Treatise on the TooU, Appliances, and Processes employed in the Art of Turning. By Paul N. Hasluck. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown Svo, 5s. cloth. " Written by a man who knovfrs, not only how work ought to be done, but who also knows how to do it, and how to convey his knowledge to others. To all turners this book would be valuable." —Engineering. " We can safely recommend the work to younff engineers. To the amateur it will simply be Invaluable. To the student it will convey a gfreat deal of useful information." — Engineer, " A compact, succinct, and handy guide to lathe- work did not exist in our language until Mr. Hasluci, by the publication of this treatise, gave the turner ^UMQvade'f*iecuni."~H0use Decorator. Screw- Cutting* SCREW THREADS : Ajtd Methods of Producing Them. With Numerous Tables, and complete directions for using Screw-Cutting Lathes. By Paul N. Hasluck, Author of "Lathe-Work," &c. With Fifty Illustra- tions. Second Edition. Waistcoat-pocket size, price is. cloth. " Full of useful information, hints and practical criticism. Taps, dies and screwihg-tools gene- rally are illustrated and their action Aesctihed."— Mechanical World. Smith's Tables for Mechanics, etc* TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATED RESULTS, FOR MECHANICS, ENGINEERS, ARCHITECTS, BUILDERS, etc. Selected and Arranged by Francis Smith. Fourth Edition, Revised and En- larged, 250 pp., waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d. limp leather. " It would, perhaps, be as difficult to make a small pocket-book selection of notes and formulae to suit ALL engineers as it would be to make a universal medicine ; but Mr, Smith's wwstcoat- pocket collection may be looked upon as a successful attempt."— Engineer. " The best example we have ever seen of 250 pages of useful matter packed mto the dimen- sions of a ca.td-c^e."— Building News, "A veritable pocket treasury of knowledge."— /rtf«. Engineer's and Machinist's Assistant* THE ENGINEER'S, MILLWRIGHT'S, and MACHINIST'S PRACTICAL ASSISTANT. A collection of Useful Tables, Rules and Data. By William Templeton. 7th Edition, with Additions. i8mo, 2s. 6d. clotb. " Occupies a foremost place among books of this kind, A more suitable present to an appren tice to any of the mechanical trades could not possibly be made. —^«*/(;mfA^«M. "A deservedly popuUr.work, it should be in the •drawer', of every mechamc '-£«^AjA Mechanic, Iron and Steel* " IRON AND STEEL " : A Work for the Forge, Foundry, Factory^ and Office. Containing ready, useful, and trustworthy Information for Iron- masters and their Stock-takers; Managers of Bar, Rail, gate, and Sheet KoUine Mills ■ Iron and Metal Founders ; Iron Ship and Bridge Budders ; Mecnanical, Mining, and Consulting 5°g»'if?" ? A^f;^^*^^*^^^^^^ Draughtsmen. By Charles Hoahe, Author of *' The Slide Rule. ' &c. Eighth Edition , Revised and considerably Enlarged, same, 6s. leather." •'Oneof the best of the pocket books."— £«f-/wAJtf«A««*?-. . ,....., , „,. . , ■ " wTcorSyrtcommend this book to those engaged In consldenng the details of afl kmds of Iron and steel woiks."*—JV«/(»/ 5<:ifewA ^ CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE, Engineering Construction, PATTERN-MAKING : A Practical Treatise, erahracing the Mam Types of Engineering Construction, and including Gearing, both Hand and Machine made, Engine Work, Sheaves and Pulleys, Pipes and Columns, Screws, Machine Parts, Puuips and Cocks, the Moulding of Patterns in ^ Loam and Greensand, &c,, together with the methods of Estimating the weight of Castings; to which is added ah Appendix of Tatles for Workshop Reference. By a Foreman Pattern Maker, With upwards of Three Hundred and Seventy Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d, cloth. " A well-written technical guide, evidently written by a man who understands and has prac- .^Ised what he has written about. We cordially recomm'end it to engineering- students, yourg joumeymen, and others desirous of being: iniliateo into the mysteries of paltera-making. "~~£uilder. " Likely to prove a welcome guide to many workmen, especiall;^ to draughtsmen vho have lacked a traming in the shops, pupils pursuing their practical studies m our factories, and to em- ployers and managers in engineering vtotVs. —//ardivare Trade yournal. " More than 370 illustrations help to explain the text, which is, however, always clear and ex- ,5>1icit, thus rendermg the work an excellent vade mecutn for the apprentice who desires to become master of his ixaAe'~English Mechanic. Dictionary of Mechanical Engineering Terms, LOCKWOOD' S DICTIONARY OF TERMS USED IN THE PRACTICE OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, embracing those current dn the Drawing 0£5ce, Pattern Shop, Foundry, Fitting, Turning, Smith's and Boiler Shops, &c. &c. Comprising upwards of 6,000 Definitions. Edited by A Foreman Pattern -Maker, Author of " Pattern Making." Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. "Just the sort of handy dictionary required by the various trades engaged in mechanical en- ;^neering. The practical engineering pupil will find the book of great value in bis studies, and ^very foreman engineer and mechanic should have a copy. — Bui/ding' Neivs. ' ' After a carefiil examination of the book, and tr^fing aU manner of words, we think that the '^engineer will here find all he is likely to require. It will be argely used."— I'raciical En^^ineer. " This admirable dictionary, although primarily intended for the use of draughtsmen and other technical craftsmen, is of much larger value as a book of reference,- and will find a ready welcome tin many libraries." — Gletsgtnu Herald, " One of the most useful books which can be presented to a mechanic or student." — English ^Mechanic. " Not merely a dictionary, but, to a certatn extent, also a most valuable guide. It strikes rs as a happy idea to combine with a definition of tlie phrase useful information on the subject of which _it treats." — Machinery Market. "Thiscareiully-compiled volume forms a kind of jjocket cyclopaedia of the extensive subject to which it is devoted. No' word having connection with any branch of constructive engineering seems to be omitted. No more comprehensive work has been, so far, issued." — Knowltage. " We strongly commend this useful and reliable adviser to our friends in the workshop, and to .•students everywhere,"— Cc/Zitfyj' Guardian. Steam Boilers, A TREATISE ON STEAM BOILERS: Their Strength, Con- struction, and Economical Working. By Robert Wilson, C.E. Fifth Edition. Tzmo, 6s. cloth. "The best treatise that has ever been published on steam boilers." — Engineer, "The author shows himself perfect master of his subject, and we heartily recommend all em- -ploying steam power to possess themselves of the ■woik."—Iiy land's Iron Trade Circular. Boiler Chiinneys. BOILER AND FACTORY CHIMNEYS: Their Draught-Power and Stability. With a Chapter on Lightning Conductors. By Robert Wilson, C.E., Author of " A Treatise on Steam Boilers," &c. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, 3*. 6d. cloth. "Full of useful information, definite in statement, and thoroughly practical in treatment." — "The Local Government Chronicle. " A valuable contribution to the literature of scientific b-^ilriing. . . . The whole subject is a very intere!:ting and important one, and it is gratifying to know that it has fallen into such com- pitent hands."— The £ui/der. toiler 3Iaking, THE BOILER-MAKER'S READY RECKONER. With Ex- amples of Practical Geometry and Templating, for the Use of Platers, Smiths and Riveters. By John Courtney, Edited by D. K. Clark, M.I.C.E. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions, lamo, 5s. half-bound. " No workman or apprentice should be without this book." — Iron Trade Circular, "A reliable guide to the working boiler-maker." — Iron. " Boiler-makers will readily recognise the value of this volume. . . . The tables are dearly -printed, and so arranged that they can be referred to with the greatest facility, so that it cannot be •doubted ttiat they wiU be generally appreciated and much \xsea,"— Mining youmaf. MECHANICS, MECHANICAL ENG INEERING, etc. 5, Steam Engine^ TEXT-BOOK ON THE STEAM ENGINE, With a Sup- plement on Gas Engines. By T. M. Goodeve, M.A., Barrister-at-Law,. Author of "The Elements of Mechanism," &c. Tenth Edition, En'arge SON 'S CATALOGUE. THE POPULAR WORKS OF MICHAEL REYNOLDS (" The Engine Driver's Friend "). Locomotive-JEngine Driving, LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE ■ DRIVING : A Practical Manual for Engineers in charge of_ Locomotive Engines. By_ Michael Reynolds, Member of the Society of Engineers, fcrmerly Locomotive Inspector L.B.and S. C. R. Eighth Edition. Including a Key to the Locomotive E»gine. With Illus- trations and Portrait of Author, Crown 8vq, 45. 6d. cloth. "Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want,.and has supplied'it well. We -can confidently recommend the boolc, not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the performance of locomotive e^nes." — The Engineer,, " Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the literature of the day. This admirable practical treatise, of the practical utility of which we Jiave to speak in terms of warm commendation."^ " Evidently the wqrk of one who knows his subject thoroughly."— Railway Sendee Gazette. " Were the cautions and rules given in the book to become part of the every-day working of our engine-drivers, we might have fewer distressing accideuts to Ae.^Qt^"— Scotsman. Stationary! Engine Driving, STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING : A Practical Manual for Engineers in charge of Stationary Engines. By Michael Reynolds. Third Edition^ Enlirgedv With Plates ana Wobdciits. Crown Svoj 4s. 6i. cloth. "The author is thoroughly acquainted with his subjects, and his advice on the various points Created is clear and practical. ... He has produced a manual which is an exceedingly useful one for the class for whom it is specially \aiciiA^d."~^Engi7teering; " Our author leaves no stone unturned. Ho is determined that his readers shall not only know something about the stationary engine, but all about it." — Engineer. "An engineman who has mastered the contents oPMr. Reynolds's bookwill requlrebut little actual experience with boil^s aild enguies before hecan be trusted to look' after them." — Engli^hMeckanic* The Engineer^ Fireman, and Engine-Boy. THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, FIREMAN, and ENGINE-BOY. Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer Locomotive Engines and their Inventors. By Michael Reynolds. With numerous Illus- trations and a fine Portrait of George Stephensbn. . Crown 8vo, 4s. 6d. cloth. " From the technieaMenowl^dge of the author it will appeal to tiie railway man' of to-day more forcibly than anything written by Dr.-Smiles. . . . The volume contains information of a tech- nical kmd, and facts tliat every driver should be familiar with." — Eftglish Mechanic. "We should be glad to see this book in the possession of everyone in the kingdom who has ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine." — Iron, Continuous JRailway Bralces, CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES: A Practical Treatise on the several Systems in Use in the United Kingdom; their Construction and ■Performance. With copious Illustrations and numerous Tables. By Michaex* Reynolds, Large crown 8vo, gs. cloth. " A popular explanation of the different brakes. It will be of great assistance in forming public opinion, and will be studied with benefit by those who take an mterest in the brake."— English Mechanic. "Written with sufficient technical detail to enable the principle and relative connection of the various parts of each particular brake to be readily grasped." — Mechanical IVorld, EnginC'Driving Life, ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE : Stirring Adventures and Incidetits in the Lives of Locomotive-Engine Drivers, By Michael Reynolds. Second Edition, with Additional Chapters. Crown 8vo. 2s. cloth. IJ^st published, "From first to last perfectly fascinating. Wilkie Collins's most thrilling conceptions are thrown Intotheshade by true incidents, endless in their variety, related in every page." — North BriHskMail. " Anyone who wishes to get a real insight into railwaylife cannot do better than read ' Engine- Driving Life ' for himself ; and if he once take it up he will find that the author's enthusiasm ana real love of the engine-driving profession will cany him on till he hds read every ^^ge,"— Saturday Revtevi, Tocket Companion for Enginemen, THE ENGINEMAN'S POCKET COMPANION AND PRAC- TICAL EDUCATOR FOR ENGINEMEN, ^BOILER- ATTENDANTS, AND MECHANICS., By Michael, Reynolds. With, Forty-five IJlustra-" tions and numei oil 3 Diagrams. Second -Edition, Revised. Royal zSmo, 3s, 6:2., strongly bound for pocket wear.- - - " This admirable work is well suited' Co .accomplish its object, being the honest workmanship of a cpmpetent engineeT"-^G/as^ow Herald.- ' , " A most meritorious work, j;iving in ^succioct and practical form^ all the Information an engine- minder desirou^ of mastering the,5cienlj^c principles of his daly exalting woujd require. "—jlfr^Tifra , "A boon to^ those who are' striving to become efficient mechanics." — Daily Chronicle. CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc, 7 French'English Glossary for Engineers, etc, A POCKET GLOSSARY of TECHNICAL TERMS: ENGLISH- FRENCH, FRENCH-ENGLISH ; with Tables smtable for the Architectural, Engineering, Manufacturing and Nautical Professions. By John James FLETcijcRt Engineer and Surveyor ; 200 pp. Waistcoat-pocket size, is, 6d., limp leather. " It ought certainly to be In the walstcoat-poctet of every professional man. -'Fran. 'i It is a very great advantage for readers and correspondents in France and England to have so large a number of the words relating to engineering and manufacturers collected m a liliputian volume. The little book will be useful both to students and travellers.' *~^rcAi"«rf. " The glossary of terms is very complete, cind many of the tables axe new and well arranged. We cordially commend the boolc"*— ^«Aa?^fl/ IVcrld. JPortable Engines, THE PORTABLE ENGINE; ITS CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT. A Practical Manual for Owners and Users of Steam Engines generally. By William Dyson Wansbrough. With go Illustra- tions. Crown Syo, 3s. 6rf. cloth. " This is"a work of value to those who use steam machinery. , . . Should be read by every- one who has a steam engine, on a farm or elsewhere." — Mark Lane Express. " We cordially commend this work to buyers and owners of steahi engines, and to those who have to do with their construction or use."— 7Vw*£7" Trades youmal. " Such a general knowledge of the steam engine as Mr. Wansbrough furnishes to the reader should be acquired by all inteUigent owners and others who use the steam eas}a.ei.''—Buil SON'S CATALOGUE, MR. NUMBER'S GREAT WORK ON MODERN ENGINEERING. Complete in Four Volumes, imperial 4to, price ^£'12 X2S., half-morocco. Each Volume sold separately as follows : — i RECORD OF THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEER- ING. First Series. Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By William Humbbr, A-M.Inst.C.£., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, Photographic Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., Ac, and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c., £^ 3s. half-morocco. List of the Plates and Diagrams, Thames, West London Extension Railway [&. plates) ; Armour Plates : Suspension Bridge, Thames (4 plates); The Allen Eng:ine; Sns* pension Bridge, Avon (3 plates); Undergifound Railway (3 plates). Victoria Station and Roof, L. B. & SON'S CATALOGUE, Statics, Graphic and Analytic* GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS Jn their Practical Appli* cation to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, Selid Girders, Lattice, Bowstring and Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron A rckes and Piers, and.other Frameworks. By_ R. Hudson Graham, C.E. Containing Diagrams and Plates to Scale, With numerous Examples, many taken from existing Structures. Specially arranged for Class-work in Colleges and Universities. Second Edition, Re- vised and Enlarged. 8vo, i6s. cloth. "Mr. Graham's book will find a place wherever graphic and analytic statics are used or studied." " The work is CTCellent from a practical point of view, and has evidently been prepared with much care. The directions for working are ample, and are illustrated by an abundance of well- selected examplesit It is an excellent text-book for the practical draughtsman."— ^/A^mrum. StudenPs Teoct-BooJc on Surveying, PRACTICAL SURVEYING: A Text-Book for Students pre- paring for Examination or for Survey-work in the Colonies. By George W. UsiLL, A.M.I.C.E., Author of "The Statistics of the Water Supply of Great Britain." With Four Lithographic Plates and upwards of 330 Illustra- tions. Crown Svo, ys. 6d. cloth, [Just published, " The best forms of instrumonts are described as to their construction, uses and modes of eTnployment, and tht^re are innumerable hints on woric and equipment such as the author, in his experience as surveyor, draughtsman and teacher, has found necessary, and which the student in his inexperience will find most serviceable." — Ens^ineer. " We have no liesitation in saying* that the student will find this treatise a better guide than any of its predecessors. ... It deserves to be recognised as the first book which should be put in the hands of a pupil of Civil Engineering, and every gentleman of education who sets out lor the Colonies would find it well to have a copy."— A rcAiieci. "A very useful, praciical handboolc on field practice. Clear, accurate and not too con- densed."— yij«r«fl/ b/ Education. Survey JPractice, AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE, for Reference in Surveying, Level- Ungt Setting-out and in Route Surveys of Travellers by Land and Sea, With Tables, Illustrations^ and Records. By Lewis D'A. Jackson, A.M.LC.E., Author of " Hydrauhc Manual," " Modern Metrology," &c. Second Edition, Enlarged. Large crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth, " Mr. Jackson has produced a valuable vadt-mecufn for the surveyor. We can recommend this book as containing an admirable supplement to the teachii^ of the accomplished surveyor." — Athenaum. " As a text-book we should advise all surveyors to place it in their libraries, and study well the matured instructions afforded in its pages." — Colliery Guardian. " The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical experience which, aided by a clear and lucid style of writing, renders the book a very useful on^,"— Builder,. Surveying, Land and Marine. LAND AND MARINE 5t7i?r£77^G, in Reference to the Pre- paration of Plans for Roads and Railways ; Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water Supplies; Docks and Harbours, With Description and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. D. Haskoll, C.E., Author of " Bridge and Viaduct Con- struction,'' &c. Second Edition, with Additions, Large crown 8vo, gs. cloth. " This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no hesitation in r^ commend- t, feeling assured that it will more than repay a careful study." — Mechanical IVorhi. ' We can strongly recomiaend it as a carefulfy-written and valuable text-book. It enjoys a well- deserved repute among surveyors."— .ffw/^nr. " This volume cannot fail to prove of the utmost practical utility. It may be safely recommended to all students who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors.' —Mining' journal. Tunnelling, PRACTICAL TUNNELLING, Explaining in detail the Setting- out of the works, Shaft-sinking and Heading-driving, Ranging the Lines and Levelling underground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering, and the Construction of the Brickwork oi Tunnels, with the amount of Labour required for, and the Cost of, the various portions of the work. By Frederick w. Simms, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. Third Edition, Revised and Extended by D. Kinnbar Clark, M.Inst. C.E. ; Imperial 8vo, with ai Folding Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, 30s. cloth. " The estimation in which Mr. Simms's bqok on' tunnelling has been held for over thirty years cannot be m'oretrulyexpressed than inthe words of the late Prof. Rankipe: — * The best souroe of in- formation on the subiect of tunnels is Mr.F.W. Simms's work on Practical' Tunnelling.' " — Architect. " It has J)een regarded from the first as a text baok of the subject. .. . . Mxt Ckirke'has added immensely to the value of the book." — Engineer, - ■ . - CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. Levelling, A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING. Showing its Application to purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering, in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr. Telford's Rules for -the sf-^e-,Pyr-RE.Ti^Kic«. W. SiMMS,F.G.S., M.Inst.'C.E. Seventh Edition, with «ie addition of £,aw's Practical Examples for §etting-out Railway Curves, and T.raotwine's Field Practice of Laying-out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts, 8vo, 8s. 6d. cloth. *»* Tkauiwise on Curves ^ may be had separate, ss. ' '.'. S° •=^:!'°''''' °» levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges."— £«fVn«>-. I ne publisliers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the younger , members, by brmging,out the present, ediUon of Mr. Sumns's useful work:'— £ngitKerin^. Meat, Expansion by. EXPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT. By John Keily, C.E., late of.the Indian fublic Works and Victorian Railway Depart- ments. Crown 8yo, 3s. 6d. cloth. - . Summary op Contents. Section I. FoRMOLAs AND Data. Section VI. Mechanical Force of section II. Metal Bars. Heat Section HI. Simple Frames. - Section VII. Work of Expansion bection IV. Complex • Frames ; and . ■ • and Contraction. „ ,. ,, _ Fi-ATES. Section VIII. Suspension Bridges. m5? ■ ■ Thermal Conductivity. Section IX. Masonry Structures. The aim the author has set before- him, viz., to show' the effects of heat upon metallic and ' otner structures, is a laudable one, for this is a branch of physics upon which the engmeer or archi- .f wiT" f ^'"^ '=''»'''« "ill comprehensive data in books."— SuUtfir. whoever 13 concerned .to know .the effect of changes of temperature on such structures as suspension bndges and the like, could not do better than consult Mr. Kelly's valuable and handy e-fposition of the geometrical principles involved in these i:haflgss."—Scafsman, Practical Mathematics. MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN: Being a Common- place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the use Dt Civil Engineers., Architects and Surveyors. , By Olinthus Gregory, LL.D., F.R.A.S., Enlarged by Henry Law, C.E. 4th Edition, carefully Revised by J. R. Young, formerly Professor of Mathematics, Belfast College, With 13 Plates, 8vo, £1 is. cloth. ■"' ^^^^h^iieer or architect. will here find ready to his hand rules for solving nearly every mathe matical dunculty that may arise in his practice The rules are in all cases explained by means of examples, m which every step of the process is clearly worked out."^Builder. ■ " 'It is an instructive boole for the-student, and a text-book for him who, having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs occasionally to refresh his memory upon tiism."—Buit 7s. 6d. cloth. " The new matter added to Mr. Dempsey 5 excellent work is characterised by the comprehen- 5l7e grasp and accuracy of detail for which the name of Mr. D. K. Clark is a sufficient voucher."— " As a work on recent practice in drainag:e engineering, the book is to be commended to all who are making- that branch of engineering science their special study." — Iron. "A comprehensive manuEiI ou drainage engineering, and a useful introduction to the student.'" BuildingNews, ' Tramtvays and their Working* TRAMWAYS: THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING, Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an exhaustive Analysis of the various Modes of Traction, incJuding Horse-Power, Steam, Heated Water, and Compressed Air ; a Description of the Varieties of Rolling Stock; and ample Details of Cost and Working Expenses: the Progress recently made in Tramway Construction, &c. &c. By D. Kinnear Clark, M.Inst.C.E, With over 200 Wood Engravings, and 13 Folding Plates. Two Vols,, large crown 8vo, 30s. cloth. " All interested in tramways must refer to it, as all railway engineers have turned to the author's wprk 'Railway Machinery.'"— £'«^'««r. " An exhaustive and practical work on tramways, in which the history of this Idnd of locomo> Hon, and a description and cost of the various modes of laying tramways, are to be found.'— Building J^eivs. " The best form of rails, the best mode of construction, and the best mechaitlcal appliances are so fairly indicated in the work under review, that any engineer about to construct a tramway will be enabled at once to obtain the practical information which will tie of most service to him." — Athfnizuttt, Oblique Arches, A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OP OBLIQUE ARCHES, By John Hart. Third Edition, with Plates. Iii>. erial 8vo, 8s. cloth. " Curves, Tables for Setting^ouU TABLES OP TANGENTIAL ANGLES AND MULTIPLES for Setting-out Curves from 5 to 200 Radius. By Alexander Beazeley^ M.Inst.C.E. Third Edition, Printed on 48 Cards, and sold in a cloth boX| waistcoat-pocket size, 3s. 6d, " Hach table is printed on a smaU card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands free to manipulate the instrument— no sniaU advantage as regards tfie rapidity of work." — Engineer^ "Very handy ; a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these cards, which he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest bebmd."~Athe»aumM EarthworJc, EARTHWORK TABLES. Showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c., of Heights or Depths up to an average of 80 feet. By Joseph Broadbent, C.E., and Francis Campin, C.E. Crown 8vo, 5s. cloth. "The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division ol each cross section into three- elements, two in which are constant and one variable, is ingenious." — Athenceum. Tunnel Shafts, THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAPTS : A Practical and Theoretical Essay. By J. H. Watson Buck, M.Inst.C.E., Resident Engineer, London and North-western Railway. Illustrated witlr Folding Plates, royal 8vo, 12s. cloth. "Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason; and the observations on the form of arch, the rules for ordering? the stone, and the construction of the templates will be found of considerable use. We commend the book to the engineering profession."— ^Mi&f/Mf JVea/s^ "Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost value, and calculated to save much time and obviate many mistakes."— CoUitry Guardian. Girders, Strength of, GRAPHIC TABLE FOR FACILITATING THE COMPUTA. TION OF THE WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL GIRDERS, etc., for Parliamentary and other Estimates. By J. H. Watsos Buck, M.Inst.C.E, On a Sheet, 2s.6d, CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc, 13 Hiver Engineering, RIVER BARS: The Causes of their Formation, and their Treat- ment by " Induced Tidal Scour; " with a Description of the Successful Re- duction by this Method of the Bar at Dublin. By A. J. Mann, Assist. En-g, to the Dublin Port and Docks Board. Royal 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth. "We recommend all interested in harbour works— and, indeed, those concerned in the im- ■provements of rivers generally— to read Mr. Mann's interesting woric oa the treatment of river oars. —Engineer. Trusses* TRUSSES OF WOOD ANP IRON. Practical Applications of Sciencein Determining theStresses, Breaking Weights, Safe Loads, Scantlings, and Details of Construction, with Complete Working Drawings. By William Griffiths, Surveyor, Assistant Master, Tranmere School of Science and Art. Oblong 8vo, 4s. 6d. cloth. " This handy little book enters so minutely into every detail connected with the construction or roof trusses, that no student need be ignorant of these matters,"— ^rae/to/ Engineer. Mailway Working, SAFE RAILWAY WORKING. A Treatise on Railway Acci- dents: Their Cause and Prevention; with a Description of Modem Appliances and Systems. By Clement E. Stretton, C.E., Vice-President and Con- sulting Engineer, Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants. With Illus- trations and Coloured Plates, crown 8vo, 45. 6d. strongly bound, " A book for the engineer, the directors, the managers ; and, in short, all who wish for informa- tlon on railway matteis will find a perfect encyclopaedia in ' Safe Railway Working.' " — Railway .Review. " We commend the remarks on railway signalling to all railway managers, especially where a jjniforin code and practice is advocated.."— Herepaih's Railway 'journal. "The author maybe congratulated on having collected, in a very convenient form, much valuable information on the prmcipal questions attecting the safe workirg of railways," — Raii- ■z^ay Engineer. JField-BooJc for Engineers. THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, AND CON- TRACTOR'S FIELD-BOOK. Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting-out and Reducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner; setting-out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples, with Right and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument: Setting-out Curves without Theodolite, on the System of Tangential Angles by sets of Tangents and 0£F- sets : and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in depth. By W. Davis Haskoll, C.E. With numerous Woodcuts, Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 12s. cloth. "The book is very handy; the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make it usefid for many other purposes, the genuine traverse tables existmg all the sa.me."—jiihenaufn. "Every person engaged in engineering field operations will estimate the importance ot such a work and the amount of valualale time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tables 'prepared with the accuracy and fulness of those given in tliis volume."— Railway News, EarthworJe^ Measurement of. A MANUAL, ON EARTHWORK. By Alex. J. S, GrahaSi, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. i8mo, gs. 6d. cloth. "A great amount of practical information, very admirably arranged, and available for rough -estimates, as well as for uie more exact calculations required in the engineer's and contractor's offices.'— -4r«*a». Strains in Ironwork, THE STRAINS. ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; with Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. Sheilds, M.Inst.C.E. Second Edition, with 5 Plates. Royal 8vo, 5s. cloth. "The student cannot find a better little book on this subject."— £«^««er. Cast Iron and other Metals^ Strength of, A PRACTICAL ESSAY. ON THE STRENGTH OF CAST IRON AND OTlJER METALS. By Thomas Tredgold, C.E, .Fifth Edition, including Hodgkimsoh's Experimental Researches. 8vo, ks. cloth. 14 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &* SON'S CATALOGUE, ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etc. Construction* THE SCIENCE OF BUILDING : An Elementary Treatise on the Principles of Construction. By E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A., Architect. Second Edition, Revised, with 58 Engravings, Crown 8vo, ys. 6d. cloth. *' A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students." — Builder. " No architectural student should be without this handbook of constructional knowledge."— j4rchitect. Villa Architecttire, A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE : Being a Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With Outline Specifications and Estimates. By C. Wickes, Architect, Author of "The Spires and Towers of England," &c, 61 Plates, 4to, £1 iis. 6d. half-morocco, gilt edges. " The whole of the designs bear evidence of their beinef the work of an artistic architect, and foey will prove very valuable and suggestive."— Suiiding' News. Text'BooJc for Architects* THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE: Being a Text-Booh of Useful Information for Architects, Engineers^ Surveyors^ Contractors, Clerks of Works, &c. esigning, Measuring^ and Valuing, THE STUDENT'S GUIDE to the PRACTICE of MEASUR- ING AND VALUING ARTIFICERS' WORKS. Containing Directions for takinft Dimensions, Abstracting the same, and bringing the Quantities into Bill, with Tables of Constants for Valuation of Labour, and for the Calcula- ^onof Areas and Solidities. Originally edited by Edward Dobson, Architect. Revised, with considerable Additions on Mensuration and Construction, and a New Chapter on Dilapidations, Repairs, and Contract?, by E. Wyndham Tarn, M.A. Sixth Edition, including a Complete Form of a Bill of Quantities, With 8 Plates and 63 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6rf. clo [Just published. "Well fulfils the promise of its title-page, and we can thoroughly recommend it to the class for whose use it has been compiled. Mr. Tarn's additions and revisions have much increased the "^ Jl 2.1^ '"^ work, and have especially augmented its value to students."— £njrineertn£. This edition will be found the most complete treatise on the principles of measuilng and valumg artificers' work that has yet been published."— ^«»Vrf««^ JVews. Tocket Estimator and Technical Guide. THE POCKET TECHNICAL GUIDE, MEASURER AND ESTIMATOR FOR BUILDERS AND SURVEYORS. Containing Tech- nical Directions for Measuring Work in all the Building Trades, with a Treatise on the Measurement of Timber and Complete Specifications for Houses, Roads, and Drains, and an easy Method of Estimating the various parts of a Building collectively. By A. C. Beaton, Author of "Quantities and Measurements," &c. Fifth Edition, carefully Revised and Priced ■ according to the Present Value of Materials and Labour, with 53 Woodcuts, leather, waistcoat-pocket size, is. 6d. gilt edges, [jfust published. "No builder, architect, surveyor, or valuer should be without his ' BeTLton.'"— Building- News. "Contains an extraordinary amount of information in daily requisition in measuring and estmiating. Its presence in the pocket will save valuable time and trouble."— 4«»7(f»>(^ World. Donaldson on Specifications, THE HANDBOOK OF SPECIFICATIONS; or, Practical Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Surveyor, and Builder, in drawing up Specifications and Contracts for Works and Constructions. Illustrated by Precedents of Buildings actually executed by eminent Architects and En- gineers. By Professor T. L. Donaldson, P.R.I.B.A., &c. New Edition, in One large Vol., 8vo, with upwards of 1,000 pages of Text, and 33 Plates, £1 lis. 6d, cloth "In this work forty-four specifications of executed works are given, Including the specifics* tlons for parts of the new Houses of Parliament, by Sir Charles Barry, and for the new Royal Exchange, by Mr. Tite, M.F. The latter, in particular, is a very complete and remarkable document. It embodies, to a great extent,, as Mr. Donaldson mentions, 'the bill of quantities with the description of the works.' ... It is valuable as a record, and more valuable still as a book of precedents. . . . Suffice it to say that Donaldson's 'Handbook of Specifications' must be bought by all ardiltects." — Builder, Bartholomew and Mogers' Specifications, SPECIFICATIONS FOR PRACTICAL ARCHITECTURE, A Guide to the Architect, Engineer, Survejjor, and Builder, With an Essay on the Structure and Science of Modern Buildings. Upon the Basis of the Work by Alfred Bartholomew, thoroughly Revised, Corrected, and greatly added to by Frederick Rogers, Architect. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. With numerous Illustrations, medium 8vo, 15s. cloth. " The collection of specifications prepared by Mr. Rogers on the basis of Bartholomew's work Is too well known to need any recommendation from us. It is one of the books with which every young architect must be equipped ; for time has shown that the specifications cannotbe set aside through any defect in thcm."—Arc)iileci. " Good forms for specifications are of considerable value, and It was an excellent Idea to com- pile a work on the subject upon the basis of the late Alfred Bartholomew's valuable work. The second edition of Mr. Rogers's book is evidence of the want of a book dealii^ with modem re- quirements and materials."— 5«i7rfi«^ JVews, Building ; Civil and JEcclesiastical, A BOOK ON BUILDING^ Civil and Ecclesiastical, including Church Restoration ; with the Theory of Domes and the Great Pyfatnid, &c. By Sir Edmund Beckett, Bart,, LL.D., F.R.A.S., Author of "Clocks and Watches,; and Bells," &c. Second Edition, Enlarged. Fcap. 8vo, ss.xloth. "A book which Is always amusfaig land lieatly always Instructive. The style throughout is la the highest degree condensed and ep^rammalic."— 7¥»«j. j6 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &» SON*S CATALOGUE. Geometry far the Architect, Engineer, etc* PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, for the Architect, Engineer and Mechanic, Giving Rules for the Delineation and Application of various Geometrical Lines, Figures and Curves. By £. W. Tarn, M.A., Architect, Author of "The Science of Building," &c. Second Edition. With Appen- dices on Diagrams of Strains and Isometrical Projection. With xyz Illus- trations, demy Svo, 95. cloth. " No book -with the same objects in view has ever been published In whldi the clearness of the rules laid down and the illustrative diagrams have been so satisfoctory." — Scotsman. "This is a manual for the practicalinan, whether architect, eng;ineer, or mechanic. . > . The objectof the author being to avoid all abstruse formulae or complicated methods, and to enable persons with but a moderate knowledge of geometry to work out the problems required." — English Mechanic, Tfie Science of Geometry, THE GEOMETRY OF COMPASSES; or, Problems Resolved by the mere Description of Circles, and the use of Coloured Diagrams and Symbols, By Oliver Byrne. Coloured Plates. Crown Svo, 3s. 6d. cloth. " The treatise is a good one, and remarkable— like all Mr. Byrne's contributions to the science of geometry— for the lucid character of its teaching."— 'fw^lA/if^ News. DECO RATIVE ART S, etc. Woods and Marbles (Itnitation of), SCHOOL OF PAINTING FOR THE IMITATION OF WOODS AND MARBLES, as Taught and Practised by A. R, Van der Burg and P. Van der Burg, Directors of the Rotterdam Painting Institution. Royal folio, iSi by i2i in., Illustrated with 24 full-size Coloured Plates; also 12 plain Plates, comprising 154 Figures. Second and Cheaper Edition. Price ;fx iis.6d. List of Plates, I. Various Tools required for Wood Fainting — a, 3. Walnut : I^eliminciry Stages of Graining and Finished Specimen — 4. Tools used for Marble Fainting and Method of Manipulation— 16. St. Remi Meirble: Esulier Operations Emd Finished Spechnen — xg. Mahogany: Siieclmens of various Grains and Methods of Manipulation — 20, SI. Mahogany: Earlier Stages and Finished Specimen — 22, 23, 34. Sienna Marble : Varieties of Grain, Freluninary Stages and Finished Specimen — 25, 36, 27. Juniper Wood : Methods of producing Grain, &c. : Freliminary Stages ana Finished Specimen — aS, 29, 30. Vert de Mer Marble : Varieties of Grain and Methods of Working Unfinished and Fmished Speci- mens— 31. 32. 31. Oak: Varieiies of Grain, Tools Employed, ana Methods of Manipulation. Pre- liminary Stages and Finished Specinen — 34, 35, 36. Waulsort Marble: Varieties of Grain, Uu- nnished and Finished Specimens. different Grsuns, Knots, Ac— 8, g. Ash: Pre- liminary Stages and Fmished Specimen — zo. Methods of Sketching Marble t.rains — 11, la. Breche Marble : Freliminaiy Stagns of Working and Finished Specimen — 13. Maple : Metho£ of Producing the diiferent Grains — 14, 15. Bird's- ?fe Maple: Freliminary Stages and Finished pecimen— 16. Methods of Sketching the dif- ferent Species of White Marble— 17, 18. White Marble: Freliminary Stages of Process and \* Opinions of the Press. " Those who desire to attain skill in the art of painting woods and marbles will find advantage In consulting this book. , . _. Some of the Workmg Men's Clubs should give tneur young men the opportunity to study it." — Builder. " A comprehensive guide to the art. The explanations of the processes, the manipulation and management of tlie colours, and the beautifullv executed plates will not be tlie least valuable to the student who aims at making his work a faithful transcript of nature." — BuUdinz News. " Students and novices are fortunate who are able to become the possessors of so noble a - v/ork."— Architect. House Decoration. ELEMENTARY DECORATION, A Guide to the Simpler Forms of Everyday Art, as applied to the Interior and Exterior Decoration of Dwelling Houses, &c. By James W. Facey, Jun. With 68 Cuts, izmo, as. cloth limp. As a technical guide-book to the decorative painter it will be found Te^h\a."~-Building^Nea/s. PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION : A Guide to the Art of Ornamental Painting, the Arrangement of Colours in Apartments, and the principles of Decorative Design. With some Remarlis upon the Nature and Properties of Pigments. By James William Facey, Author of " Elementary Decoration,'* &c. With numerous Illustrations, i2mo, 2J. &d. cloth limp. N.B.—The above Two Works together in One Vol., strongly half-bound, 51. DECORATIVE ARTS, eU. 17 Souse Decoration* ELEMENTARY DECORATION. A Guide to the Simpler Forms of Everyday Art, as applied to the Interior and Exterior Decoration of Dwelling Houses, &c. By James W. Facey, Jun. With 68 Cuts. lamo, as. cloth limp. PRACTICAL HOUSE DECORATION : A Guide to the Art of Ornamental Painting, the Arrangement of Colours in Apartments, and the principles of Decorative Design. With some Remarks upon the Nature and Properties of Pigments. By James William Facey, Author of " Elementary Decoration," &c. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo, 2S. 6d. cloth limp. N,B.—The above Two Works together in One Vol.^ strongly half-bound, ss. Colour. A GRAMMAR OF COLOURING. Applied to Decorative Painting and the Arts. By George Field. New Edition, Revised, Enlarged, and adapted to the use of the Ornamental Painter and Designer. By Ellis A. Davidson, With New Coloured Diagrams and Engravings. lemo, 3s, 6d, cloth boards, "The book is a most useful resume of the properties of pigments."— ^Mi'ifor, House JPainting, Graining, etc. HOUSE PAINTING, GRAINING, MARBLING, AND SIGN W^/?jr/NG, A Practical Manual of. By Ellis A. Davidson, Sixth Edition. With Coloured Plates and Wood Engravings. lamo, 6s. clolh boards. " A mass of information, of use to the amateur and of value to the practical man." — English Mechanic. " Simply invaluable to the youngster entering upon this particular calUng, and highly service- able to the man who is practising it. —Furniture Gazelle. Decorators, Receipts for, THE DECORATOR'S ASSISTANT: A Modern Guide to De- corative Artists and Amateurs, Painters, Writers, Gilders, &c. Containing - upwards of 600 Receipts, Rules and Instructions ; with a variety of Informa- tion for General Work connected with every Class of Interior and- Exterior Decorations, &c. Fourth Edition, Revised. 152 pp., crown 8vo, 15. in wrapper. " Full of receipts of value to decorators, painters, gilders, &c. The book contains the gist of larger treatises on colour and technical processes. It would be difficult to meet with a work so full of varied information on the painter's art." — Building Ne-ws. " We recommend the work to all who, whether for pleasure or profit, require a guide to decora- tion." — Plumber and Decorator. Moyr Smith on Interior Decoration, ORNAMENTAL INTERIORS, ANCIENT AND MODERN. By J, Moyr Smith. Super-royal 8vo, with 32 full-page Plates and numerous smaller Illustrations, handsomely bound in cloth, gilt top, price 185. " The book Is well illustrated and handsomely got up, and contains some true criticism and a good many good exEimples of decorative treatment.' —7"Ae 5«*Vrf«r. " This is the most elaborate and beautiful work on the artistic decoration of interiors that we have seen. . . . The scrolls, panels jmd other designs from the author's own pen are very beautiful and chaste ; but he t^es care that the designs of other men shall figure even more thar. Ilia own." — Liverpool Albion. " To cillwho take an interest in elaborate domestic ornament this handsome volume will be welcome. " — Graphic. British and Foreign Marbles. MARBLE DECORATION and the Terminology 0/ British and Foreign Marbles. A Handbook for Students. By George H, Blag rove. Author of " Shoring arid its Application," &c. With 28 Illustrations. Crown Svo, ss, 6d. cloth. " This most useful and much wanted handbook should be in the hands of every architect and tw.lder."— Building JVorld. , , . ^ „...-. " It is an excellent manual for students, and mteresting to artistic readers generally." — Saturday •* a' carefully and usefully written treatise ; the work is essentially practical."— Atf&waw. Marble Working, etc, MARBLE AND MARBLE WORKERS: A Handbook for Architects, Artists, Masons and Students. By Arthur Lee, Author of " A Visit to Carrara," *' The Working of Marble,'' &c. Small crown Svo, 2s. clotb. " A really valuable addition to the technical literature of architects and masons."— Building News, i8 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE, DELAMOTTE'8 WORKS ON ILLUMINATION AND ALPHABETS. A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION, for the Use of Beginners ; with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for its exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MS5., printed in Gold and Colours. By F. Delamotte. New and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 6s. orna- mental boards. "The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, vith much eood sense, the author chooses from coHections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and Knowledge, as well as taste." — Athenceufn. ORNAMENTAL ALPHABETS, Ancient and Mediaval, from the Eighth Century, with Numerals; including Gothic, Church-Text, large and small, German, Italian, Arabesque, Initials for Illumination, Monograms, Crosses, &g. &c., for the use of Architectural and Engineering Draughtsmen, ■ Missal Painters, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. &c. . Collected and Engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, 25. 6d, ornamental boards. "For those who Insert enamelled sentences round gilded chalices, who blazon shop legends over shop-doors, who letter church walls with pithy sentences from the Decalogue, this book will be \xsq- fvL—Athenesufn. EXAMPLES OF MODERN ALPHABETS, Plain and Ornamental: including German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective, Greek, Hebrew, Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband, Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque ; with several Original Designs, and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English Alphabets, large and small, and Numerals, 'for the use of Draughtsmen, Sur- veyors, Masons, Decorative Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, &c. Collected and Engraved by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. New and Cheaper Edition. Royal 8vo, oblong, zs. 6d, ornamental boards. "There is comprised In It ev^ry possible shape into which the letters of the alphabet and numerals can be foimed, and the talent which has been expended in the conception oi the various plain and ornamental letters is wonderful."— ^Axni/art/. MEDIEVAL ALPHABETS AND INITIALS FOR ILLUMI- NATORS. By F. G. Delamotte, Containing 21 Plates and Illuminated Title, printed in Gold and Colours. With an Introduction by T. Willis Brooks. Fourth and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 4s. ornamental boards. " A volume in which the letters of the alphabet come forth glorified in gilding and all the colours of the prism interwoven and intertwined and intermingled." — Sun. THE EMBROIDERER'S BOOK OF DESIGN. Containing Initials, Emblems, Cyphers, Monograms, Ornamental Borders, Ecclesiastical Devices, Mediaeval and Modern Alphabets, and National Emblems. Col- lected by F. Delamotte, and printed in Colours. Oblong royal 8vo, is. 6^. ornamental wrapper. "Theboofcwillbeof great assistance to ladies and young children who are endowed with the art of plying the needle in this most ornamental and useful pretty vfot)s.."—East Anglidtt Times. Wood Carving. INSTRUCTIONS IN WOOD-CARVING, for Amateurs : with Hints on Design, By A Ladv. With Ten Plates. New and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo, as. in emblematic wrapper. " The handicraft of the wood^ News. Carpentering, THE CA RPENTER 'S NEW G VIDE ; or, Book of Lines for Car- penters ; comprising all the Elementary Principles essential for acquiring a knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late Peter Nicholson's Standard Work. A New Edition, Revised by Arthur Ashpitel, F.S.A. Together with Practical Rules on Drawing, by George Pyhe, With 74 Plates, 4to, £1 IS. cloth, Handrailing and Stairbuilding, A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILING : Showing New and Simple Methods for Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing the Moulds, Bevelling, Jointing-up, and Squaring the Wreath. By George CoLLiNGS. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, to which is added A Treatise on Stairbuilding. With Plates and Diagrams., izmo, zs^Gd, cloth limp. * ' Will be found of practical utility in the execution of this difficult branch of joinery.* —Builaer. " Alraobt every difficult phase of'^this somewhat intricate branch of joinery is elucidated by the aid of plates and explanatory \Gtterpre^."~Fumiiure Gazette. Circular Work, CIRCULAR WORK IN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY: A Practical Treatise on Circular Work of Single and Double Curvature. By George Collings, Author of " A Practical Treatise on Handrailing." Illus- trated with numerous Diagrams. Second Edition, lamo, as. Qd. cVoth limp. *' An excellent example of what a book of this kind should be. Cheap in price, clear in defini- tion and prartical in the examples sQleztcA."— Builder. 20 CROSBY LOCKWOOD tS* SON'S CATALOGUE, Timber Merchants Companion, THE TIMBER MERCHANTS AND BUILDER'S COM- PANION. Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from One to a Thousand Pieces, and the relative Price that each size bears per Lineal Foot to any given Price per Petersburg Standard Hundred ; the Price per Cube Foot of Square Timber to any given Price per Load of 50 Feet; the proportionate Value ot Deals and Battens by the Standard^ to Square Timber by the Load of 50 Feet; the readiest mode of ascertainmg the Price of Scantling per Lineal Foot of any size, to any given Figure per Cube Foot, &c. &c. By William Dowsing. Fourth Edition, Revised and Corrected. Cr. 8vo, 3s. cl. " We are glad to see a fourth edition of these admirable tables, which for correctness and simplicity of arrangement leave nothing- to be desired." — Timber Trades journal. " An excHgedingly well-arranged, clear, and concise manual of tables for the use of all who buy or sell timber." — yourttal (if Fores^y. Practical Timber Merchant* THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT, Being a Guide for the use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c., comprising useful Tables for all purposes connected with the Timber Trade, Marks of Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of Timber, &c.. By W. Richardson. Fcap. 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. *' This handy manual contains much valuable information for the use of timber merchant^ builders, foresters, and all others connected with the growth, sale, and manufacture of timber. '— journal ef Forestry. Timber Freight BooTc* THE TIMBER MERCHANTS, SAW MILLER'S, AND IMPORTER'S FREIGHT BOOK AND ASSISTANT. Comprising Rulea, Tables, and Memoranda relating to the Timber Trade, By William Richardson, Timber Broker; together with a Chapter on "Speeds op Saw Mill Machinery,*' by M. Powis Balk, M.LM.E., &o. lamo, 3s. 6d. c?. boards. "A very useful manual of rtiles, tables, and memoranda relating to the timber trade. We re- commend it as a compendium of calculation to all timber measurers and merchants, and as supply- ing a real want in the X,iaAc,"—BuildiHff News. l*aching~€ase Makers, Tables for» PACKING-CASE TABLES; showing the number of Super- ficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and upwards. By W. Richardson, Timber Broker. Third Edition. Oolong 4to, 3s. 6d, cl, " Invaluable labour-saving tables." — rronm<»izer. "WiU save much labour and calculation." — Grocer, Superficial Measurement, THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL MEA- SUREMENT. • Tables calculated from t to 200 inches in length, by i to loS inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber Merchants, Builders, &c By James Hawkings. Third Edition. Fcap., 3s. 6d. cloth, " A useful collection of tables to facilitate rapid calculation of surfaces. The exact area of any ^ s-irfece of which the limits have been ascertained can be instantly determined. The book will be found of the greatest utility to all engaged in building noerations." — Scotsman. " These tables will be found of great assistance to all who require to make calculations in super* ficial measurement."— ^»^/ijA Mechanic. Forestry, THE ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY, Designed to afford In- formation concerning the Planting and Care of Forest Trees for Ornament or Profit, with Suggestions upon the Creation and Care of Woodlands. By ^.B. Hough. Large crown 8vo, los. cloth. Titnber Importer's CHiide, THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANTS AND BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By Richard E. Grandy. Compris- ing an Analysis of Deal Standards, Home and Foreign, with Comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements for fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &c. &c. Together with copious Information for the Retailer and Builder. Third Edition, Revised. i2mo, 2s. cloth limp. " Everything it pretends to be : built u^ gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and throws in, as s makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &c."—Bnglish Mtihanic. MARINE ENGINEE RING, NAVIGATION, etc, -ii MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION, etc. Chain Cables* CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS, Comprising Sizes and Curves of Links, Studs, &c., Iron for Cables and Chains, Chain Cable and Chain Making, Forming and Welding Links, Strength of Cables and Chains, Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain Cables and Chains, Historical Notes, Acts of Parliament, Statutory Tests, Charges for Testing, List of Manufacturers of Cables, &c. &c. By Thomas W. Traill, F.E.R.N., M. Inst. C.E., Engineer Surveyor in Chief, Board of Trade, Inspector of Chain Cable and Anchor Proving Establishments, and General Superin- tendent, Lloyd's Committee on Proving Establishments. With numerous Tables, Illustrations and Lithographic Drawings. Folio, £z 2S. cloth, bevelled boaids. " It contains a vast amount of valuable information. Nothing seems to be wanting to make it K complete and standard work of reference on the subject."— JVauiieai Magazine. Marine Engineering, MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS (A Treatise on). By Robert Murray, C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with considerable Additions by the Author and by George Carlisle, C.E,, Senior Surveyor to the Board of Trade at Liverpool, izmo, 5s, cloth boards. " Well adapted to give the youngs steamship engineer or manne engine and boiler mak<;r a general introduction into his practical work."— Mechanical IVorld. * ' We feel sure that this thoroughly revised edition will continue to be as popular in the future as it has been in the pcist, as, for its size, it contains more useful information than any similar tceatise. ' ' — Industries, The information given is both sound and sensible, and well qualified to direct young sea- EToing hands on the straight road to the extra chiefs certificate. Most useful to survejors, inspectors, draughtsmen, and all young engineers who take Em interest in their profession." — Giasgow Herald. "An indispensable manual for the student of marine engineeiing." — Liverpool Mercury. Pocket-BooU for Naval Architects and Shipbuilders* THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S POCKET-BOOK 0/ Formula,Rule5,andTables,and MARINE ENGINEER'S AND -SURVEYOR'S Handy Book of Reference. By Clement Mackrow, Member of the Institution of Naval Architects, Naval Draughtsman. Fourth Edition, Revised, With numerous Diagrams, &c. Fcap., zzs. 6d. strongly bound in leather. " Will De found to contain the most useful tables and formula required by shipbuilders, carefully ■collected from tiie best authorities, and put together in a popular and simple form." — Engineer. " The professional shipbuilder has now, m a convenient and accessible form, reliable data for solving many of the numerous problems that present themselves in the course of his work." — Iron. "There is scarcely a subject on which a naval architect or shipbuilder can require to refresh his memory which will not be found within the covers of Mr. Mackrow's book,"— £ttglisA Mechanic, PocJcet-Booh for Marine Engineers. A POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL TABLES AND FOF^ MULM FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. By Frank Proctor, A.I.N.A, Third Edition, Royal 32mo, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 4s. "We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt vraaV-Naval Science. "A most useful companion to all marine engineers." — United Service Gazette. Introduction to Marine Engineering, .ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING: A Manual foy Young Marine Engineers and Apprentices, In the Form of Questions and Answers on Metals, Alloys, Strength of Materials, Construction and Management of Marine Engines and Boilers, Geometry, &c. &c. With an Appendix of Useful Tables. By John Sherren Brewer, Government Marine Surveyor, Hong- kong. Small crown 8vo, 2s. cloth, " Contains much valuable information for tjie class for whom it is intended, especially in the cbaliters on the management of boilers and eng nes."— Nautical Magazine. " A useful introduction to the more elaborate text hooks."— Srots man. " To a student who has the requisite desire and resolve to attain a thorough knowledge, Mr. Brewer offers decidedly useful iis\p.''~-Athenaum. Navigation. PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. Consisting of The Sailor's Sea-Book, by James Greenwood and W. H. Rosser; together with the requisite Matheipatical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems, by Henry Law, C.E,, and Professor J. R. Young. Illustrated, i^rao, 7s. fitroagly half-bound. CROSBY LOCKWOOD &» SON'S CATALOGUE, MINING AND METALLURGY. Metalliferous Mining in the United Kingdom* BRITISH MINING : A Treatise on the History, Discovery, Practical Development, and Future Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United King' dom. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records; Editor of " Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines," &c. Upwards of 950 pp., with 230 Illustrations. Second Edition, Revised. Super-royal 8vo, £2 2S. cloth. "One ofthe most valuable works of reference of modem times. Mr. Huht, askeeper of mining records of the United Kingdom, has had opportunities for such a task not enjoyed by anyone else, and has evidentw made the most of them. . . . The language and style adopted are good, and the treatment olr the various subjects laborious, conscientious, and scientific."— Mn^neerint. "The book is, in fact^ a treasure-house of statistical information on miningr subjects, and we know of no other work embodying so great a mass of matter of this kind. Were this the only merit of Mr. Hunts volume, it would be sufficient to render it indispensable in this library of everyone interested in the development of the mining and metallurgical mdustries of this country." —Athenaum, "A mass of information not elsewhere available, and of the greatest value to those who may be interested in our great mineral industries." — Engineer, " A sound, business-like collection of interesting facts. . . . The amount of Information Mr. Hunt has brought together is enormous. . . . The volume appears likely to convey more instruction upon the subject than any work hitherto published." — Mining' journal. Colliery Management, THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK: A Compre- hensive Treatise on the Laying-out and Working of Collieries, Designed as a Book of Reference for Colliery Managers, and Tor the Use of Coal-Mining Students preparing for First-class Certificates. By Caleb Pamely, Mining Engineer and Surveyor; Member of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers ; and Member of the South Wales Insii- tute of Mining Engineers, With nearly 500 Plans, Diagrams, and other Illustrations. Medium 8vo, about Coo pages. Price £1 5s. strongly bound. [Just published. Coal and Iron* THE COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM, Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, and of the Principal Seams of Coal, with Returns of their Produce and its Distribu- tion, and Analyses of Special Varieties. Also an Account of the occurrence of Iron Ores in Veins or Seams ; Analyses oi each Variety ; and a History oi the Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture, By Richard Meade, Assistant Keeper ol Mining Records. Witb Maps. Svo, £1 8s. cloth, "The book is one which must find a place on the shelves of all Interested In coal and iron production, and in th6 iron, steel, and other metallurgical industries." — Engineer. " Of this book we may unreservedly say that it is the best of its class which we have ever met. . . A book of reference which no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from bis library." — Iron and Coal Trades Rcvirm. Prospecting for Gold and other Metals, THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK: A Guide for the Pro- spector and Traveller in Search of Metal-Bearing or other Valuable Minerals, By J. W. Anderson, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S., Author of "Fiji and New Caledonia." Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. Small crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. "Will supply a. much felt want, especially among Colonists; in whose way are so often thrown many mineralogjcal specimens the value of which it 15 difficult to determine, ^^Engitierr. "How to Imd commercial minerals, and how to identify them when they are found, are the 1 sadin^ points to which attention is directed. The author has managed to pack as much Practical detail mto his pages as would supply material for a book three times its size."—MiMi7ig- jourftaU Mining Notes and Formulce, NOTES AND FORMULA FOR MINING STUDENTS. By John Herman Merivale, M.A., Certificated Colliery Manager, Professor of Mining in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Small crown 8vo, as. 6d. cloih. " Invaluable to anyone who is working up for an examination on mining subjects."— C&o/ and Iron Trades Remew. " The author has done his work In an exceedingly creditable manner, and has produced a book that will bo of service to students, and those who are practically engaged in mining operations." — Enzineer. " A vast amount of technical matter of the utmost value to mining engineers, and of consider- able interest to students." — Schoolmaster. MINING AND METALLURGY. 23 Explosives. A HANDBOOK ON MODERN EXPLOSIVES. Being a Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Application of Dynamite, Gun- &°"°?' Nitro-Glycerine and other Explosive Compounds. Including the Manufacture of Collodion-Cotton. By M, Eissler, Mining Engineer and Metallurgical Chemist, Author of " The Metallurgy of Gold," &c. With about 100 Illustrations. Crown Svo, los. 6d. cloth. "Useful not only to the miner, but also to officers of both services to whom blasting and the "^^ ot explosives generally may at any time become a necessary auxiliary."— jVaiwre. J 1,1 ^?"t3ble mme of mformation on the subject of explosives employed for military, mining ..4?'°^ purposes."— .rfrimj' and Navy GaxetU. The book IS clearly written. Taken as a whole, we consider it an excellent little book and on_ that should be found of great service to miners and others who are engaged in work requiring the use of explosives."— ..liAMaBOT. Gold, Metallurgy of. THE METALLURGY OF GOLD : A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores. Including the Processis ct Concentration and Chlorination, and the Assaying, Melting and Refining of Gold. By M. Eissler, Mining Engineer and Metallurgical Chemist, formerly Assistant Assayer of the U. S. Mint,6an Francisco. Third Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. With 187 Illustrations. Crown Svo, 12s. 6d. cloth. .,,." This book thoroughly deserves its title of a ' Practical Treatise.' The whole process of gold milling, from the breaking of the quartz to the assay of the buUion, is described in clear and orderly narrative and with much, but not too much, fuhiess of dela.\i."~~Saeitrday Review. ' The work is a storehouse of information and valuable data, and we strongly recommend it to all professional men engaged in the gold-mining industry."— Afiwiw^- Journal Silver, Metallurgy of, THE METALLURGY OF SILVER : A Practical Treatise on the Amalgamation, Roasting and Lixiviation of Silver Ores, Including the Assaying, Melting and Refining of Silver Bullion.- By M. Eissler, Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold " Second Edition, Enlarged. With 150 Illus- trations. Crown Svo, los. 6rf. cloth. [Juit published. * ' A practical treatise, and a technical work which we are convinced will supply a long felt want amongst practical men, and at the same time be of value to students and others mduectly connected with the industries."- ^irii»^ yottmat. '* From first to last the book is thoroughly sound and reliable."— C(j//«o' Cnardian. " For chemists, practical miners, assayers and investors alike, we do not know of any work on the subject so handy and yet so comprehensive. "^G/ajjipw Herald. Silver-Lead, Metallurgy of. THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD: A Practical Treatise on the Smelting of Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining of Lead Bullion. Including Reports on varioas Smelting Establishments and Descriptions of Modern Furnaces and Plants in Europe and America. By M. Eissler, M.E., Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold," &c. Crown Svo. 400 pp., with numerous Illustrations, las. 6d. cloth. [Just published. Metalliferous Minerals and Mining. TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND MINING. By D. C. Da vies, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c.. Author of " A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying." Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings. Fourth Edition, carefully Revised. Crown Svo, 12s. 6d. cloth. " Neither the practical miner nor the general reader interested in mines canhave a better book for his companion and his guide." — Mining yaumal. IMittin^ IVorld. "We are doing our readers a service in calling their attention to this valuable work." — "As a history of the present state of mining throughout the world this book has a real value, and it supplies an actual want." — Athenteum. Earthy Minerals and Mining. A TREATISE ON EARTHY &= OTHER MINERALS AND MINING. By D. C. Daviks, F.G.S. Uniform with, and forming a Com- panion Volume to, the same Author's " Metalliferous Minerals and Mining." With 76 Wood Engravings. Second Edition. Crown Svo, izs, 6d. cloth. " We do not remember to have met with any English work on mining matters tliat contains the same amount of information packed in equally convenient form."— ^oirtc^y. " We should be incUned to rank it as among the very best of the handy technical and trades manuals which have recently appeared."— BrittsA Quarterly Review. 24 CROSBY LOCK WOOD S- SON'S CATALOGUE, Mineral Surveying and Valuing, THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COMPLETE G VIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying and the Valua- tion of Mining Properties, with New Traverse Tables. By Wm. Lintern, Mining and Civil Engineer. Third Edition, with an Appendix on " Magnetic and Angular Surveying," with Records of the Peculiarities of Needle Dis- turbances. With Four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c. i2nio, 4s. cloth. " Mr. Lintem's book forms a valuable and &orou£:hly trustworthy gaide."—Jron and Coat Trades Review. " This new edition must be of the highest value to colliery surveyors, proprietors and mana- gers."— Co/Ziltfry Guardian. Asbestos and its TJses» ASBESTOS : Its Properties, Occurrence and Uses, With some Account of the Mines of Italy and Canada. By Robert H. Jones. With Eight Collotype Plates and other Illustrations. Crown 8vo, izs. 6d. cloth. " An interesting' and invaluable work." — Callierv Guardian. " We counsel our readers to get this exceedingly interesting work for themselves ; they will find in it much that is suggestive, and a great deal that is of immediate and practical usefulness." — Bnilder. " A valuable addition to the architect's and engineer's library." — Building News. Underground JPumping Machinery. MINE DRAINAGE. Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery, with a Descrip- tion of a large number 01 the best known Engines, their General Utility and the Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and their merits compared with other forms of Pumping Machinery, By Stephen MicHELL. 8vo, 15s. cloth. "Will be highly esteemed by colliery owners and lessees, mining engineers, and students generally who require to be acquamted with the best means of securing the drainage of mines. It Is a most valuable work, and stands almost alone in the literature of steam pumping machinery." — Colliery Guardian. " Much valuable information is given, so that the book is thoroughly worthy of an extensive circulation amongst practical men and purohaisers of machinery," — Mining journal. Mining Tools. A MANUAL OF MINING TOOLS. For the Use of Mine Managers, Agents, Students, &c. By William Morgans, Lecturer on Prac- tical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines. i2mo, 2s. 6d. cloth limp. ATLAS OF ENGRAVINGS to Illustrate the above, contain- ing SE35 Illustrations of Mining Tools, drawn to scale. 4to, 4s. 6d. cloth. "Students in the science of mining, and overmen, captains, managers, and viewers may gain practical knowledge and useful hints by the studjy oi Mr. Morgans' manual." — Colliery Guardian. "A valuable work, which will tend materially to improve our mining literature." — Mining journal. Coal Mining, COAL AND COAL MINING: A Rudimentary Treatise on. By the late Sir Warington W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector of the Mines of the Crown. Seventh Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With numerous Illustrations, izmo, 4s. cloth boards, "As an outline is given of every known coal-field In this and other countries, as well as of the principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers."— Mining journal. Subterraneous Surveying. SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, Elementary and Practical Treatise on, with and without the Magnetic Needle. By Thomas Fenwick, Surveyor of Mines, and Thomas Baker, C.E. lUust. i2mo, 3s. cloth boards. Granite Quarrying. GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES. By George F. Harris, F.G.S,, Membre de la Soci£l£ Beige de G^ologie, Lec- turer on Economic Geology at the Birkbeck Institution, &c. With Illustra- tions, Crown Svo, 25. 6d. cloth. " A clearly and well-written manual for persons engaged or interested in the granite industry." —Srotstn an, * "An interesting work, which will be deservedly tiXeemeA."— Colliery Guardian. "An exceedingly interesting and valuable monograph on a subject which has hitherto received unaccountably little attention in the shape of sysleniaitc Uttrary tieatmcnt." — Scottish Leader, ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, etc. 25 ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, etc. Electrical Engineering, THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK OF MODERN RULES, FORMULAE, TABLES AND DATA. By H. R. Kempe, M.Inst.E.E., A.M.InstC.E,, Technical Officer Postal Telegraphs, Author of " A Handbook of Electrical Testing," &c. With' numerous Illus- trations, royal 32mo, oblong, 5s. leather, l^ust published. ' ' There is very little in the shape of formuljE or data which the electrician is likely to want '" * ,, a"^ which cannot be found in its pages."— Praciical En^neer. 'A very useful book of reference for daily use in practical electrical engineering and its various applications to the industries of the present day."— /r<;?j. "It is the best book of 'As \mA."— Electrical Eng'weer. 'The Electrical Engineer's Pocket- Book is a good one."— ^/fc/n'a'aw. "Strongly recommended to those engaged in tne various electrical industries."— £i!rfnV«/ Review. Electric Lighting. ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING : A Handbook for Working Electrical Engineers, embodying ^Practical Notes on Installation Manage- ment. By John W. Urquhart, Electrician, Author of " Electric Light," &c. With numerous Illustrations, crown 8vo, 5s. clotb. {.Just published. "This volume deals with what may be termed the mechanics of electric lighting, and is addressed to men who are already engaged in the work or are training for it. The work traverses a great deal of ground, and may be read as a sequel to the same author's useful work on 'Electric Light.' "—Electrician. _ _ " This is an attempt to state in the simjplest language the precautions which should be adopted in mstal'ing the electric light, and to give information,ror the guidance of those who have to run the plant when Installed. The book is well worth the perusal 6f the workmen for whom it is y/nxtea."— Electrical Review. " Eminently practical and useful. . . . Ought to be in the hands of everyone in charge of an electric light plant."— Electrical Engineer. " A really capital book, which we have no hesitation in recommending to the notice of working electricians and electrical engineers."— Afef/tawi^a/ /■/'(jr/rf'. Electric lAghU ELECTRIC LIGHT : Its Production and Use, Embodying Plain Directions for the Treatment of Dynamo-Electric Machines, Batteries, Accumulators, and Electric Lamps. By J. W. Urquhart, C.E., Author of ''Electric Light Fitting," &c. Fourth Edition, Revised, with Large Additions and 145 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 75. 64. cloth. IJust published. " The book is by far the best that we have ^et met with on the subject." — AtHentBunt. " It is the only work at present available which gives, in language intelligible for the most part to the ordinary reader, a general but concise histoty of the means which have been adopted up to the present time in producing the electric light." — Metropolitan, '^'The book contains a general account of the means adopted in producing the electric light, not only as obtained from voltaic or galvanic batteries, but treats at length df the dynamo-electric machine in several of its forms." — Colliery Guardian, Construction of lyynatnos, DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION : A Practical Handbook for the Use 0/ Engineer Constructors and Electricians in Charge. With Examples of leading English, American and Continental Dynamos and Motors. By J. W. Urquhart, Author of " Electric Light," &c. Crown 8vo, 7s. 6d. cloth. [Just published. "The author has produced a book fur which a demand has long existed. The subject is treated in a thoroughly practical manner."— Mec/tatiical IVorld. Dynamic Electricity and Magnetism, THE ELEMENTS OF DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. By Philip Atkinson, A.M., Ph.D. Crown 8vo. 400 pp. With 120 Illustrations, ics. 6rf. cloth. iJust publish d. Text Booh of Electricity* THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. New Edition, carefully Revised.- With an Introduction and Additional Chapters, by W. H. Preece, M.I.C.E., Vice-President of the Society of Telegraph Engineers, &c. With 470 Illustra- tions. Crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. "We can recommend Dr. Noad's book for clear style, great range of subject; a good index, and a plethora of woodcuts. Such coUections as the present are indispensable. — AOteneetttn. "An admirable text book for every student — .beginner or advanced — of electricity."— Ef*£ineering; 26 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &» SON'S CATALOGUE. Electric Idghttngm THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC LIGHT- ING. By Alan A. Campbell Swintoh, Associate I.E.E. Second Edition, Enlarged and Revised. With i6 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, is. 6d, cloth. "Anyone who desires a short and thoroughly dear exposition of the elementary principles ol electric-lighting cannot do better than read this little yrozTc.—Sratl/bni Observer, Electricity, A MANUA'L OF ELECTRICITY: Including Galvanism, Mag- netism, Dia-Magnetism, Electro-Dynamics, Magno-Electricity, and the Electric Telegraph. By Henry M. Noad, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Fourth Edition, With SOD Woodcuts. 8vo, £i 4s. cloth. *' It is worthy of a place in the library of every public institution,"— Jl/i(»»«i^ yournal. Dynamo Construction, HOWTOMAKEA DYNAMO: A Practical Treatise for Amateurs. Containing numerous Illustrations and Detailed Instructions for Construct- ing a Small Dynamo, to Produce the Electric Light. By Alfred Crofts. ' Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo,2s. cloth. "The instructions given in this unpretentious little book are sufficiently clear and explicit to enable any amateur mechanic possessed of average' skill and the usual tools to be found in an amateur's workshop, to build a practical dynamo ma.c\imc."— Electrician. NATU RAL SCIENCE , etc. Pneumatics and Acoustics, PNEUMATICS : including Acoustics and the Phenomena of Wind Currents, for the Use of Beginners. By Charles Tomlinson, F.R.S. F.C.S., &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged- i2mo, is. 6d. cloth. " Beginners in thestudy of this important application of science could not have a better manual " ^Scotsman, " A valuable and suitable text-book for students of Acoustics and the Fheno- uieiia of Wind Currents," — Schoolmaster, Conchology. A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSCA : Being a Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By S. P. Woodward, A.L.S., F.G.S., late Assistant Palaeontologist in the British Museum. With an Appendix on Recent and Fossil Conchological Discoveries, by Ralph Tate, A.L.S., F.G.S. Illustrated by A. N. Waterhouse and Joseph Wilson Lowry. With 23 Plates and upwards of 30a Woodcuts. Reprint of Fourth Ed., x88o, Cr. 8vo, ys. 6d. cl. " A most valuable storehouse of conchological and geological 'm£oTma,tion."—Scieftce Gossip. Geology, RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON GEOLOGY, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. Consisting of "Physical Geology," which sets forth the leading Principles of the Science ; and " Historical Geology," which treats of the Mineral and Organic Conditions of the Earth at each successive epoch, especial reference being made to the British Series of Rocks. By Ralph Tate, A.L.S.. F.G.S., &c. With 250 Illustrations. i2mo, gs. cloth. " The fiilness of the matter has elevated the book Into a manual. Its information ^ exhaustive and well arranged."— 5r^D/ Board Chronicle, Geology and Genesis, THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION; or, Geology and Genesis : their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. By George W. Victor le Vaux. Numerous Illustrations. Fcap. 8vo, ss. cloth. " A valuable contribution to the evidences of Revelation, and disposes very conclusively of the arguments of those who would set God's Works against God's Word. — TVce RacA, The Constellations, STAR GROUPS: A Student's Guide to the Constellations, By J. Ellard Gore, F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A., &c., Author of "The Scenery of the Heavens." With 30 Maps. Small 4to, 55. cloth, silvered. [^ttst published. Astronomy^ ASTRONOMY, By the late Rev. Robert Main, M.A., F.R.S., formerly Radcliflfe Observer at Oxford. Third Edition, Revised and Cor- rected to the present time, by W. T. Lynn, B.A., F.R.A.S. i2mo, 2S, cloth. "A sound and simple treatise, very carefidly edited, and a capital book for beginners." — Knotatedg:. [Honal Times, " Accurately brought down to the requirements of the present time by Mr. Lynn."— 'ft/uco- NATURAL S CIENCE, etc, 27 DR. LARDNEW8 COURSE OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and almost re- written by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. With 378 Illastrations. Post 8vo, 65. cloth. . "T^^ pfepicuity o* the original has been retained, and chapters which had become obsolete * ^^ 1^" replaced by others of more modem character. The explanations throughout are studiously popular, and care has been ttikea to show the application of the various branches of P*iysics to the industrial arts, and to the practical busmess of life."— Jl/i«i«f Jtmrttal. Mr. Loewy has carefully revised the book, and brought it up to modern requirements,"— ■ I'^*'*"'^^P''iilosophy has had few exponents more able or better skilled in the art of popu- larKmg the subject than Dr. Lardner j and Mr. Loewy is doing good service in fitting this treatise, and the others of the series, for use at the present tune."— 5ewA«Ma», THE HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS, New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S. With 236 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 5s. cloth, "For those ' who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical scieiice without the pro- found methods of mathematical investigation,' this work is not merely intended, but well adapted." — Chemical News. " The volume before us has been carefully edited, augmented to nearly twice the bulk of the former edition, and all the most recent matter has been added. . . . It is a valuable text-book." — Naittre. " Candidates for pass examinations will find it, we think, specially suited to their requirements." English Mechanic, THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and almost entirely re- written by Benjamin Loewy, F.R.A.S., &c. 117 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. " The style Is always clear and precise, and conveys Instruction without leaving any cloudiness or lurking doubts behind." — Engineering. "A most exhaustive book on the subject on which It treats, and is so arranged that It can be understood by all who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science Mr. Loewy has included all the latest discoveries in itie varied laws and effects of hc&t."—Seaftdard. "A complete and handy text-book for the use of students and general tesidcis,"— English Mechanic. THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS, ByDiONYSius Lardner,D.C.L.. formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. New Edition. Edited by T, Olver Harding, B.A. Lond., of University College, London. With 298 Illustrations, Small 8vo, 448 pages, 5s. cloth. "Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, beautifully and elaborately illustrated." Mechanic's Magazine. THE HANDBOOK OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND ^COC/srzCS. By Dr. Lardner. Ninth Thousand. Edit, by George Carey Foster, B.A., F.C.S. With 400 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 5s. cloth. " The book could not have been entrusted to anyone better calculated to preserve the terse and icid style of Lardner, while correcting his errors — "" ^- — ■' *"' '" '" '' ' -'■-'■- -' scientinc knowledge." — Popular Science Review. lucid style of Lardner, while correcting his errors and bringing up his work to the present state of ■ itificl ' ' ■■ " - - - • " • THE HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. Forming a Companion to the *' Handbook of Natural Philosophy.'' By Dionysius Lardner, D.C.L.; formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. Fourth Edition. Revised and Edited by Edwin Dunkin, F.R.A.S., Royal Observatory, Greenwich. With 38 Plates and upwards of zoo Woodcuts, In One Vol., small Svo, 550 pages, gs. 6d. cloth, " Probably no other book contains the same amount of information in so compendious and well- arranged a form — certainly none at the price at which this is offered to the public." — Athenteufn. "We can do no other than pronounce tliis work a most valuable manual of astronomy, and we strongly recommend it to all who wish to acquire a general— but at the same time correct— acquaint- ance with this sublime science."~Quarieriy S^ournal of Science. "One of the most deservedly popular books on the subject , . . We would recommend not only the student of the elementary principles of the science, but he who sdms at mastering the higher and mathematical branches of astronomy, not to be without this work beside him."-^/Vr» Lardfier's Electric Telegraph, THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. By Dr. Lardner. Re- vised and Re-written by E. B, Bright, F.R.A.S. 140 Illustrations. Small Svo, 2S. 6d. cloth. "Oneof the most readable books extant on \^\&'E\Q^Atic'T^cgtz:g^x."— English Mechanic. 2S CROSBY LOCKWOOD &- SON'S CATALOGUE, DR. LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AMD ART, THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART, Edited by DiONYSjus Lardner, D.C.L., formerly Professor oi Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. With upwards of 1,200 Engrav- ings on Wood. In 6 Double Volumes, ;^i 15., in a new and elegant cloth bind- ing ; or handsomely bound in half-morocco, 315. 6(1. %* Opinions of the Press, "This series, besides afibrding: popular but sound instruction on scientific subjects, with which the humblest man in the country ought to be acquainted, also undertakes that teaching of ' Com- mon Things ' which every well-wisher of his kind is anxious to promote. Many thousand copies of this serviceable pubUcation have been printed, in the belief and hope that the desire for Instruction and improvement widely prevails ; and we have no fear that such enlig'htened faith will meet with disappointment." — Times. " A cheap and interesting publication, alike Informing and attractive. The papers combine jjects of importance and great scier'-*^- ' ^■'*-' — '-^ — *''" J"-*-"*"— — » ■- popular style of treatment."— S^eaaior, subjects of importance and great scientific knowledge, considerable inductive powers, and a " The ' Museum of Science and Art ' is the most valuable contribution that has ever been made to the Scientific Instruction of every class of society." — Sir David BREWSTER, in the North British Review. " Whether we consider the liberality and beauty of the illustrations, the charm of the writing, or the durable interest of the matter, we must express our behef that there is hardly to be found among the new books one that would be welcomed by people of so many ages and classes as a valuable preseTXt."^Examiner. *♦* Separate boohs formed from the above^ suitable for Workmen's Libraries, Science Classes, etc. Common Things Explained. Containing Air, Earth, Fire, Water, Time, Man, the Eye, Locomotion, Colour, CIocIes and Watches, Sec. 233 Illus- trations, cloth gilt, 5s, The Microscope, Containing Optical Images, Magnifying Glasses, Origin and Description of. the Microscope, Microscopic .Objects, the Solar Micro- scope, Microscopic Drawing and Engraving, &c. 147 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2S. Popular Geology* Containing Earthquakes and Volcanoes, the Crust o£ the Earth, &c. 201 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2S. 6d. Popular Physics, Containing Magnitude and Minuteness, the Atmo- sphere, Meteoric Stones, Popular Fallacies, Weather Prognostics, the 1 hermometer, the Barometer, Sound, &c. 85 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s.6cj. Steam, and its Uses. Including the Steam Engine, the Locomotive, and Steam Navigation. 89 Illustrations, cloth gilt,2S. Populetr Astronomy, Containing How to observe the Heavens — ^The Karth, Sun, Moon, Planets, Light, Comets, Eclipses, Astronomical Influ- ences, Sec. 182 Illustrations, 45. 6d. The Bee and White Ants : Their Manners and Habits. With Illustra- tions of Animal Instinct and Intelligence. 135. Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2S. The Electric Telegraph Popularised, To render intelligible to all who can Read, irrespective of any previous Scientific Acquirements, the various forms of Telegraphy in Actual Operation. 100 Illustrations, cloth gilt, IS. 6d. Dr, Lardner^s School HandbooJcs^ NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS, By Dr. Lardner. 33B Illustrations, Sixth Edition. One Vol., 3s. 6d. cloth. " A very convenient class-book for junior students in private schools. It Is Intended to convey, in clear ana precise terms, general notions of all the principal divisions of Physical Science. "-« British Quarterly Review. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. Lardner. With 190 Illustrations. Second Edition. One Vol., 3s. 6d. cloth. " Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently illustrated." — Gardftut's CAnmicle, COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, CALCULA TORS, etc. 29 COUNTING-H OUSE WORK, TABLES, etc. Introduction to Susiness. LESSONS IN COMMERCE, By Professor R. Gambaro, of the Royal High Commercial School at Genoa Edited and Revised by James Gau'lt, Professor ©f Commerce and Commercial Law in King's College, London. Crown 8vo, price about 3s. 6rf. \in the press. Accounts for Manufacturers, FACTORY ACCOUNTS: Their Principles and Practice. A Handbook for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the No- menclature of Machine Details ; the Income Tax Acts ; the Rating of Fac- tories; Fire and Boiler Insurance; the Factory and Workshop Acts, &c., including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number of Specimen Rulings . B^ Emile Garpke and J. M. Fells, Third Edition. Demy 8vo, 250 pages, price 6s. strongly bound. " A veiy interesting description of the requirements of Factory Accounts. .' . . the princip.e of assimilating the Factory Accounts to the general commercial books is one which v/e thoroughly agree with." — Aa:ountant^ yournal, "There are few owners of Factories who would not derive great benefit from the perusal of this most admirable work." — l^cal Govemmer^ Chronicle, Foreign Commercial CorrespondencCm THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT: Being Aids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages — English, French, German, Italian and Spanish. By Conrad E. Baker. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 3s. Gd. cloth. ' * Whoever wishes to correspond in all the languages mentioned by Mr. Baker cannot do better than study this work, the materials of which are excellent and conveniently a.TTan.ge6."—Athenn has convinced us that it is unusually complete, well arrdoged and reliable. The book is a thoroughly good onc."SchoolmasUr, Intuitive Calculations, THE COMPENDIOUS CALCULATOR; or, Easy and Con- cise Methods of Performing the various Arithmetical Operations required in Commercial and Business Transactions, together with Useful Tables. By D. O'GoRMAN. Corrected by Professor J. R. Young. Twenty-seventh Ed., Revised by C. Norris. Fcap. 8vo, 2S. 6d. cloth ; or, 3s. 6^, half-bound. " It would be difficult to exaggerate the usefulness of a book like this to everyone engaged in commerce or manufacturing industry."— ^wtiro/tfrf^f. " Supplies special and rapid methods for all kinds of calculations. Of great utilityto persons engagedTin any Kind of commercicil transactions." — Scotstnan, Modem Metrical Units and Systems, MODERN METROLOGY : A Manual of the Metrical Units and Systems of the Preset Century. With an Appendix containing a proposed English System. By Lewis D'A. Jackson, A.M.Inst.C.E,, Author of *' Aid to Survey Practice," &c. Large crown 8vo, 12s. 6d. cloth. "The author has brought together much valuable and interesting information. . . . IVe cannot but recommend the ■s compiled by a gentleman eminent in his profession as a land agent, whose spe- cialty, It IS acknowledged, lies i tbe direction of assessing property for ratine purposes."— Z,a«rf Agents Retard. " It is an intfepensable work of reference for all engaged in assessment business."— ^^cttnia/ of Gas LiffhHns. Souse Property t HANDBOOK OF HOUSE PROPERTY. A Popular and Practi- cal Guide to the Purchase, Mortgage, Tenancy, and Compulsory Sale of Houses and Land, including the Lawxf Dilapidations and Fixtures; with Examples of all kinds of Valuations, Useful lutormatlon on Building, and Suggestive Elucidations of Fine Art. By E. L. Tarbuck, Architect and Surveyor. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. lamo, ss. cloth. " The advice is thoroughly practical."— /.aw Sfaurnai. •For all who have deahngs with house properi^, this is an indispensable gaide."^DecoraeioH. ' ' Carefully brought up to date, and much miproved by the admlion of a division on fine art. " A well-written and thoughtful work,"- Z,o«d Agenfs Record. In/wood's Estate Tables, TABLES FOR THE PURCHASING OF ESTATES, Freehold, Copyhold, or Leasehold; AfmuitieSiAdvowsons,etc., and for the Renewing of Leases held under Cathedral Churches, Colleges, or other Corporate bodies, for Terms oi Years certain, and for Lives ; also for Valuing Reversionary Estates, Deferred Annuities, Next Presentations, &c. ; together with Smart's Five Tables of Compound Interest, and an Extension of the same to Lower and Intermediate Rates. By W. Inwood. 23rd Edition, with considerable Additions, and new and valuable Tables of Logarithms for the more Difficult Computations of the Interest oi Money, Discount, Annuities, &c., by M. Fedor Thouan, of the Soci^^ Credit Mobili^r of Paris. Crown 8vo, 8s. cloth, "Those interested in the purchase and sale of estates, and in the adjustment of compensation cases, as well as in transactions iu annuities, life insurances, &c„ will find the present edition of eminent service." — Engineering. " ■ Inwood's Tables ' still maint^ a most enviable reputation. The new issue has been enriched by large additional contributions by M. Fedor Thoman, whose carefully arranged Tables cannot ImL to De of the utmost utility."— Jlftwt?^ journal, ^ AgricultK/ral and Tenam^t-B^ght Valuation, THE AGRICULTURAL AND TENANT-RIGHT-VALUER'S ASSISTANT, A Practical Handbook oil Measuring and Estimating the Contents, Weights and Values of Agricultural Produce and Timber, the Values of Estates and Agricultural Labour, Forms of Tenant-Right- Valua- tions, Scales ot Compensation under the Agricultural Holdings Act, 1S83, &c. &c. By Tom Bright, Agricultural Surveyor. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. cloth. 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