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 LIBRARY 
 
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Cornell University Library 
 
 GB 55.C18 1869 
 
 Modern school geography and atlas 
 
 3 1924 005 015 601 
 
Cornell University 
 Library 
 
 The original of this book is in 
 the Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924005015601 
 
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 IODEEN 
 
 SCHOOL GEOGEAPHY 
 
 AND 
 
 ATLAS. 
 
 1UTH0RIZED BY THE COUNCILS OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION FOR THE PROVINCES OF QUEBEC / 
 NEW BRUNSWICK, AND PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 TORONTO: 
 JAMES CAMPBELL AND SON. 
 
 1869. 
 
C (X 
 
 /<f6 ? 
 
 Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada in the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty-nine, 
 hy James Campbell & Son, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 The success which has followed the issue of the first 
 edition of this Geography has fully shown the 
 necessity that existed for a book of the kind, and 
 has proved that it has been acceptable as a reliable 
 and useful Text-Book. 
 
 The present edition has been thoroughly revised 
 up to the latest dates, many parts have been entirely 
 re-written, a large number of questions have been 
 added, and new maps inserted. Any errors in the 
 first edition have been corrected, and the accuracy 
 of all information now given may be relied upon. 
 While this edition is entirely new, and printed from 
 new stereotype plates, the same arrangement and 
 system has been continued as in the first, the chief 
 improvements being the addition of exercises on the 
 various maps, and the insertion of new maps, valu- 
 able for teaching more thoroughly the geography of 
 our own country. 
 
 The British Provinces occupy the foremost place, 
 while, from our connexion with Great Britain and 
 our proximity to the United States, these countries 
 have also been fully treated. 
 
 The style will be found to be simple, so as to be 
 acceptable to the largest number of scholars ; and 
 yet sufficiently full and explicit to give a thorough 
 general knowledge of the Geography of the world. 
 The latest authorities have been consulted for statis- 
 tics ; and each part of British America has been 
 revised by gentlemen resident in the various Pro- 
 vinces, whose intimate knowledge of the different 
 countries renders them well qualified to undertake 
 the task ; and to whom the author is under great 
 obligations for the care and attention which they 
 have bestowed upon the work. 
 
 The plan which has been followed throughout is to 
 impress upon the memory the great physical features, 
 
 form, and appearance of a continent or country, so 
 that the scholar may have imprinted on his mind a 
 view of the country, where the mountains, the rivers, 
 and general slope and appearance of the country 
 stand prominently out ; leaving the minor details, 
 such as subdivisions, towns, products, government, 
 ifcc., to be filled in upon the foundation of the first 
 and most important part. 
 
 To each section or country, questions have been 
 attached, with a view to assist the scholar in learn- 
 ing, and Exercises on the Maps are also given to 
 prove his knowledge of what he has learned, before 
 coming up to his teacher. These questions may, of 
 course, be increased to any extent, according as the 
 teacher may desire. It is, however, recommended 
 that full exercises and questions should be given on 
 the maps ; and as every place and name mentioned 
 in the text will be found on them, it will stimulate 
 the scholar to greater accuracy and observation, 
 should questions be asked the answers to which are 
 not to be found in the printed text. 
 
 The maps have been prepared and engraved ex- 
 pressly for this Geography by Messrs Philip & Son, 
 of Liverpool, whose name alone is a sufficient 
 guarantee for their accuracy and beauty. 
 
 This book is now offered to the public of the Pro- 
 vinces, in the hope that, as one step towards a united 
 nationality is a thorough and intimate knowledge of 
 the whole 1'* the different countries to be united, it 
 may enabf lot only the scholars, but others also, 
 to form a more true and correct idea of the sister 
 Provinces than they have hitherto had ; and assist 
 also in producing, even if in a small degree, that 
 good feeling and pleasant intercourse which ought 
 to exist between the different parts of the same 
 union. 
 
 Tobohto, March 1869. 
 
MODERN SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 FORM OF THE EARTH. 
 
 Geography is a description of the Earth, its surface, 
 divisions, and inhabitants. The Earth is round, like an 
 orange, being slightly flattened at the two poles, and 
 bulging out a little round the middle. To prove that 
 the Earth is round, although it appears to us to be fiat : 
 we know that we can only see the surface of the ground 
 about three miles on a level plain ; and at sea the view, 
 not being interrupted by mountains or any great in- 
 equalities in the surface, is bounded on all sides by the 
 horizon. When a vessel appears in sight, the masts 
 are always seen before the hull ; so also, a vessel can 
 sail round the world, and come back to her starting- 
 point without changing the direction of her course. 
 
 About one-quarter of the Earth's surface is land, and three- 
 quarters water. 
 
 The Earth is nearly 25,000 miles in circumference, and about 
 SOOO miles in diameter. 
 
 The circumference is a line drawn round the Earth, having 
 the centre of the Earth for its centre. 
 
 The diameter is a straight Hue drawn through the centre of 
 the earth, and terminated by its surface at each end. 
 
 What is geography? Describe 
 the form of the earth? How do 
 you prove that the earth is round? 
 Of what is the surface of the earth 
 composed? Iu what proportions? 
 
 What length is the circumference 
 of the earth? What length is the 
 diameter? What are the circum- 
 ference and diameter of the earth ? 
 
 MOTIONS OF THE EARTH. 
 Although appearing to us to be perfectl}' still, the 
 Earth is continually moving with great velocity. It 
 has two motions : — ■ 
 
 1. The Diurnal, or Daily. Every twenty-four hours it re- 
 volves once on its axis, causing alternate day and night, accord- 
 ing as the portion we live on is turned to or from the sun. The 
 axis of the Earth is an imaginary line passing through its 
 
 centre, terminating in what are called the North and South 
 Poles. 
 
 2. The Annual, or Yearly. Every year it moves once round 
 the Sun, producing the Seasons, according as the North or South 
 Pole inclines towards the Sun. Thus, when the North Pole, or 
 the northern portion of the Earth upon which we live, is in-- 
 clined towards the Sun, it is Summer with us, and "Winter with 
 the southern portion of the Earth, or to all south of the equator. 
 And also, when the South Pole inclines towards the Sun, it is 
 Winter with us, and Summer south of the equator. 
 
 [In order to understand this, it is necessary for the teacher to explain, 
 that the axis of the earth is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, 
 but is inclined to it at an angle of 66i degrees. And as the axis of the 
 Earth always points to the same part of the Heavens, the North or Polar- 
 Star, it is evident that, as the Earth moves round the Sun, it gradually 
 changes its relative position to the Sun ; and so, during one-half of the 
 year, inclines towards the Sun, and the other half from it, as may be 
 seen from the accompanying diagram, where AA represent the axis of 
 the Earth, and the globes the position of the Earth, at Midsummer, 
 Midwinter, and the Equinoxes.] 
 
 Does the earth move? How 
 many motions has it ? What are 
 they called ? How are day and 
 night caused ? How is the part of 
 the earth we live on situated with 
 regard to the sun at night? What 
 
 is the axis of the earth? What 
 are the poles? What causes the 
 seasons? When is it summer with 
 us? When winter? Are the sea- 
 sons the same both north and 
 south of the equator'.' 
 
G 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE HEAVENLY BODIES. 
 The Sun is the centre of the system in which the 
 Earth is placed, and round it the Planets and Comets 
 move at various distances, each one having its own 
 course, and shewing forth the beautiful regularity with 
 which the Creator has arranged the universe. 
 
 The Sun is 883,000 miles in diameter, and 1,350,000 times 
 larger than the Earth, from which it is distant ninety-five 
 millions of miles. 
 
 The names of bhe other planets, their relative sizes compared 
 with the Earth, and their distances from the Sun, are : — 
 
 
 Times the size 
 
 
 
 of the Eartli. 
 
 from the Sun. 
 
 Mercury, 
 
 l-19th 
 
 37 millions 
 
 Venus, . 
 
 1 
 
 69 „ 
 
 Mars, 
 
 3-16ths . 
 
 144 ,, 
 
 Asteroids, small ; situated between Mars and Jupiter. 
 Jupiter, 1438 494 millions. 
 
 Saturn, 932 906 ., 
 
 Uranus, 87 1787 „ 
 
 Neptune, . 60 2870 ,, 
 
 The Planets are supposed to be bodies somewhat similar to 
 the Earth, although as yet little, besides their dimensions and 
 orbits, is definitely known. Neither is it known whether they 
 are inhabited or not, although, like the Earth, they move on 
 the same plane, rotate on their axes, and have alternate day 
 and night, and probably seasons more or less varied. Accord- 
 ing as they are nearer or more distant than the Earth from 
 the Sun, they require less or more time to move round the 
 Sun. 
 
 Comets are luminous bodies which move round the Sun with 
 immense velocity. They generally move on a different plane 
 from the Earth and the other Planets, and have an erratic 
 course, not in a circle, like the planets, but at one time com- 
 paratively near, and at another very far from the Sun, so that 
 we may lose sight of them for hundreds of years. 
 
 The Moon is the attendant of the Earth. Were the Earth 
 to remain still, the Moon would revolve round it in 27-^ days ; 
 but as it is continually moving, the Moon requires 29^ days to 
 complete its revolution. The Moon is about one forty-ninth 
 part the size of the Earth, and is distant from it 237,000 miles. 
 
 The Moon derives its light from the Sun ; and as the Earth 
 sometimes intervenes directly between the Sun and the Moon, 
 it then casts a shadow on the Moon's surface. This is called 
 an Eclipse of the Moon, or a lunar eclipse. 
 
 The Moon also, in its course round the Earth, sometimes in- 
 tervenes directly between the Sun and the Earth, and hides 
 for a time the whole or part of the surface of the Sun from our 
 sight. This is called an Eclipse of the Sun, or a solar eclipse. 
 
 As the Moon does not move round the Earth on the same 
 plane as the Earth does round the Sun, eclipses happen com- 
 paratively seldom. There are from two to five solar eclipses 
 in the course of a, year ; there may be three lunar eclipses, 
 and sometimes none. As, however, lunar eclipses are visible 
 to a whole hemisphere at once, and solar eclipses only to a 
 part, the latter, though happening oftener, are less frequently 
 seen. 
 
 Besides the Planets, there are multitudes of Fixed Stars, 
 far beyond the system of which our Sun is the centre, and 
 powerful telescopes reveal many more which are invisible 
 to the naked eye. These shine by their own light, and are 
 supposed to be suns perhaps, the centres of other systems as 
 extensive as that in which the Earth is placed. The nearest 
 of these Fixed Stars is 211,000 times more distant than the 
 Sun. 
 
 What position does the sun oc- 
 cupy in the solar system? What 
 bodies revolve round the sun ? 
 What is the size of the sun com- 
 pared with the earth ? How far 
 distant is it? Are the planets Ihe 
 same size as the earth? Which are 
 larger? Which are smaller? Which 
 are nearer than the earth to the 
 sun? Which are more distant? 
 Describe the planets. Are their 
 motions the same as those of the 
 earth? What are comets? De- 
 
 scribe their motion. What is the 
 moon? How long does it take to 
 move round the earth ? What is its 
 comparative size? How far distant 
 is it? What gives light to the 
 moon? Whatcauses eclipses? How 
 many kinds of eclipses are there? 
 How often do they happen? Which 
 do we see most frequently? What 
 other heavenly bodies do we see? 
 What are they supposed to be ? 
 How far distant are they? 
 
 DIVISIONS OF THE LAND. 
 About one-quarter of the Earth's surface consists of land, 
 the different parts of which are known by the following 
 
 A Continent is a large extent of 
 land comprising several countries. 
 
 An Island is a smaller extent of 
 land wholly surrounded by water. 
 
 A Peninsula is a portion of land 
 almost surrounded by water. 
 
 An Isthmus is a narrow neck of 
 land connectingtwo larger portions 
 of land. 
 
 A Cape is a point of land project- 
 ing into the sea; and if high or 
 mountainous, is called a Promon- 
 tory. 
 
 A Shore or Coast is the edge or mar- 
 gin ofland bordering on the water. 
 
 A Mountain is a portion of land 
 rising to a considerable height 
 above the surrounding country. A 
 Hill is a smaller elevation. 
 
 A Valley is that portion of land 
 which lies between mountains or 
 hills. 
 
 A Volcano is a mountain which 
 throws out fire, smoke, lava, and 
 ashes. The opening from which 
 they issue is called the crater. 
 
 A Plain is a tract of level land, 
 and when considerably elevated 
 above the level of the sea, it is 
 called a Plateau, or table- land. 
 
 A Desert is a barren tract of coun- 
 try, covered with sand or rocks. 
 
 An Oasis is a fertile spot in a 
 desert. 
 
 APrairieis a- tract ofland, gener- 
 ally flat, or slightly undulating, 
 covered with long grass or small 
 shrubs. 
 
 DIVISIONS OF THE WATER. 
 
 About three-quarters of the Earth's surface is covered with 
 water, the different parts of which are known by the following 
 names : — 
 
 An Ocean is an extensive body 
 of salt water. Although the ocean 
 may be said to be one, it is sub- 
 divided into smaller portions, which 
 are also called Oceans. 
 
 A Sea is a smaller portion of salt 
 water. 
 
 An Archipelago is a sea studded 
 with many islands. 
 
 A Gzdf or Bay is a portion of 
 water extending into, and almost 
 surrounded by land. 
 
 A Strait is a narrow portion of 
 water connecting two seas. When 
 it is shallow, so that it may be 
 sounded or fathomed, it is called a 
 Sound. 
 
 A Channel is a portion of water 
 connecting two seas, but longer 
 and broader than a strait. The 
 
 same name is often applied to the 
 hollow bedof a river. 
 
 A Lake is a large body of fresh 
 water wholly surrounded by land. 
 
 A River is a stream of fresh 
 water, running into a lake, sea, or 
 another river. Small rivers are 
 called Streams, Creeks, Brooks, or 
 Rivulets. A Basin is a tract ofland 
 drained or watered by a river. 
 The ridge of land separating the 
 basins of rivers is called a Water- 
 shed. A Delta is that portion of 
 land occupying the [--pace between 
 the different mouths of the same 
 river. 
 
 An Estuary or Firth is an arm 
 of the sea, extending into the land 
 to meet a river, and appearing to 
 form a continuation of the river. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— The World.— Which hemisphere contains 
 most land? Which most water? Name a continent in the Western 
 Hemisphere. What is that portion of land called which connects North 
 and South America? What large island, is there in the Eastern Hemi- 
 
 sphere? What is the southern point of America called? Name the 
 oceans on the map. Name a sea near the centre of the Eastern Hemi- 
 sphere. An archipelago m the South Pacific Ocean. A gulf and sea 
 between North and South America. A strait on the North of America. 
 
INTRODUCTION". 
 
 CIRCLES ON THE GLOBE. 
 
 Eor the convenience of measurement and calculation, the 
 surface of the globe is divided by various imaginary Circles, 
 which are shewn by lines on the map. 
 
 Each Circle is divided into 360 parts called degrees (°). A 
 degree is again subdivided into 60 minutes (') and a, minute 
 into 60 seconds ("). 
 
 A Map is a representation of the Earth, or a part of it, on 
 a plane surface. 
 
 The upper part of a map is generally North, the lower, 
 South ; the right hand, East, the left hand, "West. 
 
 The Equator is an imaginary circle drawn round the Earth, 
 at an equal distance from the poles, and dividing the Earth 
 into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. 
 
 A Hemisphere is half of a globe or sphere. 
 
 The lines running from East to West across the map are 
 called Parallels of latitude, being parallel to the Eqxiator. 
 They are used for reckoning distance North and South from 
 the Equator. 
 
 The length of a degree of latitude, or the distance between 
 the parallels, is always the same, being 60 geographical, or 69 
 English, miles. 
 
 The lines running from North to South are called Meridians. 
 They are drawn from one pole to the other, and cross the 
 Equator at right angles. They are used for calculating longi- 
 tude, or distance East or "West. 
 
 The length of a degree of longitude, or distance between the 
 meridians, varies, becoming shorter as we approach the poles. 
 At the Equator it is 69 English miles, and at Montreal about 
 49 miles. 
 
 The first meridian from which we reckon is supposed to pass 
 through the Royal Observatory at Greenwich. Other countries 
 generally reckon from the meridian which passes through their 
 own capitals. 
 
 Longitude East or "West means distance East or "West of the 
 first meridian at Greenwich. 
 
 The Ecliptic is a great circle representing the course which 
 the Sun appears to take during the year, and is shewn by a 
 line drawn round the globe on the plane of the Sun's apparent 
 orbit. The line of the Ecliptic, as represented on a terrestrial 
 globe or on a map, shews where each day at noon the Sun is 
 directly overhead. It will be remembered that the Earth 
 gradually changes its position towards the Sun during the 
 year which it requires to complete its revolution ; conse- 
 quently, the points at which the Sun is directly overhead 
 change every day. The extent of the variation in the position 
 of the Sun towards the Earth is from 23£° North to 23^° South 
 of the Equator, which thus equally divides the Ecliptic. 
 
 The Ecliptic crosses the Equator at two points in the Earth's 
 course, about the 21st days of March and September ; and at 
 these two periods we have equal day and night all over the 
 world. These are called the Equinoxes. 
 
 The Tropics are two circles drawn round the globe at equal 
 distances north and south of the Equator, and parallel to it, 
 intersecting the extreme points of the Ecliptic, and are thus 
 
 2ol° distant from the Equator. The northern is called the 
 Tropic of Cancer, the southern the Tropic of Capricorn. 
 
 The Polar Circles are lines drawn round the globe parallel 
 to the tropics, and at equal distances from them, and mark 
 the distance the Sun's rays fall short of one pole, when the 
 opposite pole is inclined towards it. As the Sun then shines 
 vertically on places 2MA° north or south of the Equator, so its 
 rays fall short of one pole 23^ , and shine beyond the other to 
 the same distance ; causing continuous day for a time at one 
 pole and continuous night at the other. 
 
 The tropics and polar circles divide the Earth into five Zones 
 or belts : — 
 
 The Torrid Zone, extending between the tropics, and so 
 
 called from the intense heat. 
 Two Temperate Zones, extending between the tropics and 
 polar circles, so called from the heat and cold being 
 less excessive than in the other zones. 
 Two Frigid Zones, extending from the polar circles to the 
 poles, and so called from the intense frost and cold 
 prevailing there. 
 The Horizon is the circle bounding the view by the apparent 
 meeting of earth and sky. 
 
 The four Cardinal Points of the horizon are, North, South, 
 East, and "West. These are again subdivided in the mariner's 
 compass ; but the principal points are — 
 
 How is the surface of the globe 
 divided? How are these divisions 
 shewn on the map ? How is a circle 
 divided and subdivided? What is a 
 map? What are the different parts 
 of a map usually called? What is the 
 equator? What is a hemisphere? 
 What are parallels of latitude ? 
 What is their use? What are 
 meridians? What is their use? 
 Are degrees of latitude and longi- 
 tude of the same length ? What is 
 the length of a degree of latitude ? 
 Of longitude at the equator? At 
 Montreal? Where do we begin to 
 reckon the degrees of longitude ? 
 
 What does the ecliptic represent? 
 How much does it vary in position 
 during the year ? When is the sun 
 directly over the equator? What 
 results then ? What are the tropics ? 
 How far distant are they from the 
 equator? Whatarethepolar circles? 
 When the sun is north of the equa- 
 tor, what is the result at the North 
 Pole ? At the South Pole ? How 
 do the tropics and polar circles 
 divide the earth? Describe the 
 zones What is the horizon? What 
 are the principal points of the 
 compass ? What are the Cardinal 
 Points ? 
 
 NATURAL PHENOMENA. 
 
 The Earth is surrounded by a transparent fluid called the 
 air or atmosphere, which moves with it, and extends to the 
 height of about 45 miles above it. Close to the Earth it is 
 comparatively dense, becoming thinner as we ascend. 
 
 Heat and cold are produced, according as the Sun's rays 
 shine vertically or obliquely on the atmosphere, and vary 
 
 Exercises on the Map — The World.— What continents are crossed 
 by the Equator ? Which hemisphere contains most land, the Northern 
 or Southern? What continents are north of the Equator? Is any part 
 of Asia in the Torrid Zone ? In what zones is North America ? What 
 
 zones is Europe in? How many degrees of latitude and longitude are 
 there in each hemisphere ? Are the degrees of longitude in America 
 east or west ?— Of what ? Are the degrees of latitude in North America 
 north or south ? Of what ? Point out a land in the Antarctic Ocean. 
 
8 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 according to the height above the level of the sea. The heat 
 or cold of the atmosphere is called the temperature. 
 
 In the tropics, where the Sun's rays strike vertically down, 
 it is hottest ; and within the polar circles, where the rays strike 
 most obliquely, it is coldest. But, as the air becomes thinner 
 as we ascend, the Sun's rays gradually lose their strength, so 
 that even in the tropics there is on the mountains a limit be- 
 yond which snow will not melt. This is called the snow-line. 
 This line gradually decreases in height as we approach the 
 poles. At the Equator the snow-line is 16,000 feet above the 
 level of the sea, and in Canada and the neighboring provinces 
 it is about 7000 feet ; and, were there high mountains in the 
 country, their summits above that height would be perpetually 
 covered with snow. 
 
 The atmosphere is never at rest, the particles of which it is 
 composed being moved about by the influence of heat and cold, 
 thus forming winds. Several contrary currents of wind may 
 occur one above the other, as when we see the clouds moving 
 in a different direction from the wind on the surface of the 
 earth. When the winds move rapidly they cause hurricanes 
 and storms. 
 
 In the Torrid Zone, the East or Trade winds prevail through- 
 out the year, and opposite currents prevail in the Temperate 
 Zones. In the North Temperate Zone the prevalent winds 
 are from the South- West, and in the South Temperate Zone 
 from the North-West. 
 
 Periodical winds blow in different parts of the world, as the 
 Monsoon on the shores of the Indian Ocean ; the Typhoon in 
 the China Sea ; the Sirocco, Simoom, and Harmattan from 
 the burning deserts of Africa and Arabia. 
 
 The ocean, like the air, is never at rest, being subject to the 
 same influences ; heat and cold producing currents, winds pro- 
 ducing waves, and the attraction of the Sun and Moon produc- 
 ing tides. 
 
 The principal current in the ocean is the Gulf Stream, in the 
 North Atlantic Ocean. This flows from east to west in the 
 Tropics into the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, then 
 skirts the shore of North America as far as Newfoundland, 
 where it changes its course towards the east, and passing the 
 Azores Islands, flows south till it once more reaches the great 
 equatorial current which gave it origin. The water of the 
 Gulf Stream is much warmer than that through which it 
 flows, and its course rapid, varying from two to five miles an 
 hour. 
 
 The tides are principally caused by the attraction of the 
 Moon. The water being composed of particles more easily 
 moved than the land, is drawn at regular intervals towards 
 the Moon, as the Earth revolves on its axis, and is thus raised 
 in one place and lowered in another. This is called the ebb 
 and flow of the tide. Spring or high tides are caused by the 
 joint attraction of the Sun and Moon, and neap or low tides 
 by their attraction in opposite directions. 
 
 The heat of the Sun's rays acting on the water forms vapor, 
 which, being lighter than the air, gradually ascends. It is 
 generally invisible, and is carried along by the winds until the 
 temperature of the air becomes colder, when it condenses and 
 forms clouds, and eventually falls to the Earth in the shape 
 
 of rain, dew, hail, or 3now. Fogs or mists are clouds resting 
 on the Earth's surface. 
 
 The climate of a country is understood to mean the tem- 
 perature, and dryness or moisture of the atmosphere. 
 
 The climate is influenced by various circumstances ; hot or 
 cold winds, and the clearness or cloudiness of the sky ; such 
 as the proximity of large bodies of water, which, not being so 
 susceptible of change as the atmosphere, make the neighbor- 
 ing lands warmer or colder according as they are warm or cold. 
 When a country is covered with forests, its temperature is 
 found to be about 10° colder than when well cleared and culti- 
 vated, as the trees prevent the Sun's rays from reaching the 
 ground, which thus remains colder than it would otherwise 
 be, and imparts its coldness to the atmosphere. 
 
 Describe the atmosphere, How 
 are heat and cold produced ? "What 
 is meant by the temperature? Why 
 is it hottest in the tropics ? "Why 
 ccldest at the poles ? What is the 
 snow-line? How is it that snow will 
 not melt above a certain height? 
 What is the height of the snow-line 
 at the equator ? At Montreal ? 
 What causes the winds ? What 
 causes hurricanes and storms ? 
 What winds prevail in the tropics ? 
 Which in the north temperate zone? 
 Which in the south temperate zone ? 
 What winds are especially remark- 
 
 able, and where do they blow? 
 What produces currents in the 
 ocean? What causes waves? What 
 causes tides? Describe the course 
 of the Gulf Stream. How are tides 
 produced? What is meant by the 
 ebb and flow of the tide? What 
 are spring and neap tides? How 
 is vapor produced ? How are 
 clouds formed? What do they be- 
 come ? What are fogs and mists? 
 What is meant by climate? How 
 may the climate be influenced ? 
 What difference is there in it when 
 the country is cleared? 
 
 MINERALS. 
 
 The surface of the Earth is a crust surrounding a central 
 mass in a state of fusion. The consequent expansion of gases 
 and molten minerals causes volcanoes and earthquakes. Hence, 
 too, the temperature of mines is found to increase in propor- 
 tion to their depth. 
 
 In this crust are found many valuable minerals, the prin- 
 cipal of which are — 
 
 Iron, the most useful, found in Canada, the United States, 
 Great Britain, Sweden, Russia, Belgium, France, Germany, 
 &c. 
 
 Copper is found in Canada, the United States, Chili, Aus- 
 tralia, Norway, and other countries. 
 
 Tin is found chiefly in Cornwall, in England. 
 
 Zinc is found in Prussia and Belgium. 
 
 Lead is found in Great Britain, Spain, Canada, and the 
 United States. 
 
 Gold, the most valuable of all the metals, is useful chiefly 
 for coinage, and is most abundant in Australia, California, and 
 British Columbia. It is found also in Quebec, Nova Scotia, 
 and other places. More than 100 millions of dollars in value 
 is found annually. 
 
 Platina, the rarest of all metals, is found chiefly in the Ural 
 Mountains. 
 
 Silver is found chiefly in Mexico and South America, and in 
 Norway, Russia, and Hungary, in Europe. 
 
 Besides these are Cobalt, Arsenic, and many other metals of 
 less importance. 
 
 Coal is the most valuable mineral, and the most important 
 for adding to the wealth of a country. It is found in the 
 greatest abundance in Great Britain and the United States, 
 
 Exercises on the Ma p— The Woeld. — In what zone is Canada? New- 
 foundland? The West India Islands? What countries are crossed by 
 the Tropics and Polar Circles? What waters? What large islands in 
 Oceanica by the Equator? In what direction are the Sandwich Islands 
 
 from North America? In what direction is Africa from Europe? Aus- 
 tralia from Asia? Madagascar from Africa? Newfoundland from 
 Canada ? Europe from North America ? Asia from Europe ? The West 
 India Islands from South America? Bermuda from North America? 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 9 
 
 and largely in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Vancouver Island, 
 and other countries. 
 
 Sulphur is found chiefly in volcanic countries. 
 
 Salt is found in every pa.it of the world, in the various forms 
 of mines, mountains, plains, and springs, and is also produced 
 by the evaporation of sea water. 
 
 Other minerals are numerous, but less important. 
 
 What is the earth supposed to be? 
 What causes volcanoes and earth- 
 quakes ? Where is iron found ? 
 
 Copper ? Tin ? Zinc ? Lead ? 
 Gold ? Platina ? Silver? Coal ! 
 Sulphur ? Salt ? 
 
 PLANTS. 
 
 Plants are found adapted to every climate, soil, and locality. 
 In the Torrid Zone they are most numerous, and vegetation is 
 most luxuriant. They become less numerous and more stunted 
 as we approach the poles, till even trees refuse to grow, and 
 only mosses or lichens are found, upon which animals subsist. 
 
 The Torrid Zone is distinguished for the size and beauty of 
 its trees and flowers, its spices and rich fruits, and its odori- 
 ferous plants. 
 
 The Temperate Zones are distinguished for the abundance of 
 their grains and fruits most useful to man. 
 
 The Frigid Zones produce nothing but mosses and lichens, 
 except in the more temperate parts, where a little barley and 
 rye is grown, and a few pines and other hardy trees are found. 
 
 Do plants grow in every country? I peculiar to the torrid zone? What 
 Where are they most numerous? to the temperate zones ? What to 
 Where least? What plants are | the frigid zones ? 
 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 Animals, like plants, are to be found in every region, and 
 adapted to every climate, soil, and locality. 
 
 Amid the luxuriant vegetation of tbe Torrid Zone, animals 
 attain the largest size ; here, also, wild animals abound. The 
 forests, too, swarm with birds of brilliant plumage, insects, 
 and reptiles. 
 
 In the Temperate Zones the more useful animals, such as the 
 horse, cow, sheep, and deer, abound, and very few wild animals 
 are to be found. 
 
 In the Frigid Zones comparatively few land animals are 
 found, but sea-fowl are very numerous, and the sea abounds 
 with the whale, seal, and walrus. 
 
 Some animals are common to all the zones, such as the dog, 
 sheep, bear, &c. ; and it is remarkable that their natural cover- 
 ing varies with the climate in which they are found. 
 
 Are animals found in every coun- 
 try ? What animals inhabit the 
 torrid zone ? What the temperate 
 zones ? What the frigid zones ? 
 
 What animals are found in every 
 zone ? What peculiarity do they 
 exhibit ? 
 
 MANKIND. 
 
 Mankind has been variously classified according to distinc- 
 tions of form, color, skin, hair, &c The system of Blumen- 
 bach, as the one most convenient for classification, forms the 
 basis of nearly all subsequent schemes ; and is as follows : — 
 
 The Caucasian, including the principal nations of Europe, with the 
 allied Asiatic races, jointly classed as Indo-European ; and also the 
 Semitic races, including 1 the Arabs, Jews, &c. 
 
 The Mongolian, including the Chinese, the Tartar tribes of Central 
 Asia, and allied races ; amoug these the Finns and Lapps of Europe are 
 embraced, 
 
 The Malay, including the natives of the peninsula of Malacca, the 
 chief islands of the Indian Archipelago, New Zealand, &c. 
 
 The Ethiopian, including the chief nations and tribes of Africa ; 
 and 
 
 The American, including all the nations and tribes native to North 
 and South America. 
 
 The Papuans and other islanders are styled Xegritoes, from their 
 negro-like color of skin, woolly hair, &c. The Australians are equally 
 dark, but with hair generally straight. 
 
 The American Indian closely approximates to the Asiatic Mon- 
 golian. 
 
 How is mankind commonly clas- 
 sified ? What nations belong to the 
 Caucasian race? To the Mongolian? 
 To the Malay ? To the Ethiopian ? 
 To the Ami'i'ican ? What art: the 
 
 Papuans called ? What are the 
 Australians like? To what other 
 race does the American Indian 
 most approximate? 
 
 POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 The Political Divisions of the earth are Empires, Kingdoms, 
 Principalities, and Republics. 
 
 An Empire consists of several large countries united under 
 the rule of one monarch, generally called an Emperor. 
 
 A Kingdom, or Monarchy, consists of one or more countries 
 governed by a King or Queen. It is called a Limited Mon- 
 archy when the power of the king is restricted by law, and no 
 laws can be made without the consent of the representatives 
 of the people ; and an Absolute Monarchy when the will of the 
 monarch is supreme. 
 
 Principalities, Grand Duchies, and Duchies are small states 
 governed by a Prince, Grand Duke, or Duke. 
 
 A Republic is a country governed by a ruler chosen by the 
 people for a limited period, who is generally called a Presi- 
 dent. 
 
 IIow is the world politically divided? What is an empire ? Kingdom? 
 Principality? Republic? <fcc. 
 
 GRAXD DIVISIONS OF THE EAUTH. 
 
 The earth is divided into two Hemispheres, the Eastern and 
 Western. 
 
 Of the land there are five grand or principal Divisions — 
 America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Oceanica. 
 
 Of the water there are also five grand or principal Divisions, 
 called Oceans — the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian, the 
 Arctic, and the Antarctic. 
 
 The extent of land upon the surface of the earth may be 
 estimated at about 52 millions of square miles, divided as 
 follows : — 
 
 America, 
 Europe, 
 
 A^ia, 
 Africa, . 
 Oceanica, 
 
 15,500,000 
 
 3,800,000 
 
 17,1-10,000 
 
 11,160,000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 IIow is the earth divided ? What 
 are the grand divisions of the land ? 
 Of the ocean ? What is the extent 
 
 of land upon the earth? Which 
 division is the largest? Which 
 next? &e, Which smallest? 
 
 Exercises on the Map — The World. — What oceans wash the shores 
 of America? What sea is between North and South America? What 
 sea between Eux*ope and Africa? What sea between Asia and Africa? 
 What oceans are in the Eastern Hemisphere ? What strait divides 
 
 North America from Asia? What is the southern point of Africa 
 called? What is the southern point of India (in Asia) called? What 
 island is near there ? What islands lie to the east of Asia in the tem- 
 perate zone? What part of America is nearest to Japan ? 
 
10 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 POPULATION AND RELIGION. 
 
 The population of the earth is estimated at about 1180 
 millions divided as follows : — 
 
 America, 
 
 Europe, 
 
 Asia, 
 
 Africa, 
 
 Oceanica, 
 
 Population. 
 
 80,000.000 
 27<\ 000,000 
 700,000,(100 
 100,000,000 
 
 30,000,000 
 
 No. of Persons 
 to Sq. Mile. 
 
 5 
 
 The inhabitants are divided, according to their religious 
 
 belief, into 
 
 Christians, 
 
 Jews, . 
 
 Mohammedans, . 
 
 Pagans, or Heathen, 
 "What is the population of the 
 earth ? "Which division contains 
 the most inhabitants? Which next? 
 &c. Which is most densely peopled, 
 or contains the largest number of 
 
 335,000,000 
 5 000,000 
 160,000,000 
 GSO,000,000 
 persons to the square mile? Which 
 next? Which least? Into what 
 religious bodies are the inhabitants 
 of the earth classed ? Which are 
 most numerous ? Which next ? Ac. 
 
 A M E E I C A. 
 
 Area, 15,500,000 square miles, comprising 3-10ths of the land surface of Hie globe ; greatest length from north to south in a direct line, 9400 miles; 
 
 greatest breadth from east to west, 32J0 ; population, 80,000,000. 
 
 America, or the New World, the only great division 
 of the earth in the Western Hemisphere, is surrounded 
 on all sides by water : on the North by the Arctic 
 Ocean ; on the West by the Pacific Ocean ; on the 
 South by the Antarctic Ocean ; and on the Bast by the 
 Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 It is composed of two enormous pear-shaped masses 
 of land, both widest towards the north, and tapering to 
 a point towards the south, joined together by the 
 Isthmus of Panama. 
 
 These two parts are called respectively Kurth and 
 South America. 
 
 America is remarkable for the extent and grandeur of its 
 physical features ; its mountain chains, rivers, lakes, plains, 
 and forests being the largest in the world. 
 
 It was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492, when he 
 arrived at the island of San Salvador, one of the Bahamas. It 
 was not, however, till 1498, on his third voyage, that he reached 
 the mainland of South America ; North America having been 
 visited the year before by John Cabot, a Venetian in the service 
 of England. The new continent was named after Amerigo Ves- 
 pucci, a Florentine, who accompanied Hojeda, a Spanish com- 
 mander, as astronomer, and wrote an account of his discoveries 
 in America. Greenland was discovered by the Norwegians 500 
 years before Columbus reached America ; and it is said that 
 they also visited the shores of what is now called New England. 
 
 In shape and general features the two great divisions re- 
 semble each other. The Rocky Mountains of North America, 
 and the Andes of South America, stretch from north to south 
 through the whole length of the continent, forming an almost 
 unbroken chain of nearly 10,000 miles in length. In both divi- 
 sions, this chain is nearest to the Pacific, and both have smaller 
 ranges of mountains in the east, at the broadest part of the 
 continents ; while the centre, between the two ranges, is one vast 
 plain. Both divisions may be divided into four great slopes — 
 a north-eastern, eastern, south-eastern, and western ; and the 
 
 4000 
 2700 
 1600 
 
 three first are drained in North America by the Mackenzie, 
 St Lawrence, and Mississippi rivers ; and in South America 
 by the Orinoco, Amazon, and la Plata Bivers. And so, also, 
 in both continents, the sources of these rivers are divided 
 only by a gentle rise scarcely perceptible. 
 
 The rivers of America are especially remarkable for their 
 length and volume of water, and also for the distance to which 
 they are navigable, the length of the principal being — 
 
 Miles. 
 
 ("Mississippi, with the Missouri, . . 4500 
 
 N. America, i St Lawrence, with Lakes, 2140 
 
 ( Mackenzie, . . . 2160 
 
 (Amazon, with the Ucayali, . 
 S. America. J. La Plata, with the Paraguay, 
 
 ( Orinoco, 
 
 All of these rivers, with their tributaries, are navigable almost 
 to their sources. This is owing to the vast plains through 
 which they flow, and their very gradual fall towards the sea. 
 
 Compared with the other great divisions of the Earth, 
 America possesses but a small extent of coast line, its length 
 being only 43,000 miles, or, in comparison with its size, only 
 equal to half of that of Europe. It is more broken in North 
 than in South America. The latter presents one unbroken 
 mass of land, with no deep indentations, and but few islands 
 along its whole coast. 
 
 As the continent of America extends through all the zones, 
 its climate and soil vary greatly, and will be found treated fully 
 under the head of its separate countries. It is, however, in 
 general, more humid in the Tropics than the Eastern Hemis- 
 phere, and subject to greater extremes of heat and cold in the 
 higher latitudes. In the north, the frozen mass of the Arctic 
 Ocean renders it much colder than in the same latitude in 
 Europe, and along the whole of the "Western coast the high 
 mountain ranges attract the moisture, so that rain prevails 
 there to a far greater extent than on the Eastern coast. 
 
 America does not possess such a number or variety of wild 
 animals as are found in the Eastern Hemisphere, but presents 
 a larger variety of plants. Many of the latter, also, are indi- 
 genous or native to the country, such as tobacco, maize, the 
 potato, cinchona, (from which comes the Peruvian bark,) ivory- 
 
 Exercises on the Map— North Ahetuca.— What joins North and 
 South America ? Which of the principal Rivers are in British America ? 
 Which in t!)e United States? What mountain ranges extend through 
 British America ? Through the United States? Point out the principal 
 
 Lakes in British America. In the United States. In Central America. 
 What large island lies near the east coast of British America? What pen- 
 insula forms the south-eastern portion of British America ? What large 
 island near the west coast? What islands enclose the Caribbean Sea? 
 

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NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 11 
 
 palm, &c. ; and America now supplies tho world with cotton, 
 sugar, coffee, and grain. 
 
 When the Spaniards first discovered the "Western Continent 
 under Columbus and other commanders, they called the native 
 inhabitants Indians, under the impression that they had now 
 found out the western route to the East Indies. Those In- 
 dians dwelling in Mexico and Peru were comparatively 
 civilised, had large towns, and fixed forms of government. 
 They welcomed the new comers, but soon had reason to 
 repent of their hospitality, for the lust for conquest, and the 
 rapacity of the Spaniards and Portuguese, soon made them 
 captives and destroyed their cities. They have at length 
 disappeared, or are represented by debased races rapidly 
 becoming extinct. Many interesting relics remain to prove 
 the great progress in civilisation achieved by the native races 
 of Mexico and Peru. The Esquimaux, a short, stunted race, 
 occupy the extreme north, and subsist by hunting and 
 fishing. The remaining native races are called Indians, and 
 are supposed by some to be an altogether distinct race of 
 mankind. They are scattered over the whole continent, 
 living by the chase, and forming a great number of different 
 tribes, speaking different languages ; in general, they are fierce 
 and barbarous, incapable of civilisation, and continually at 
 war among themselves, or with the aggressor, the white man. 
 They are supposed to number about ten millions, and most of 
 them are still pagans. Many theories are advanced to account 
 for the native races of America, the most plausible being, that 
 they came originally from Asia, across Behring Strait, where 
 the Aleutian Isles form, as it wsre, stepping-stones between 
 the two continents. 
 
 "What is the extent of America ? 
 Greatest length? Greatest breadth ? 
 In what hemisphere is it? How is 
 it bounded ? Point out the boun- 
 daries on the map. What is its 
 shape ? How is it divided ? For 
 what is it remarkable ? "When was 
 it discovered? Mention the first 
 discoverers. How do North and 
 South America resemble each other ? 
 "What mountain chains traverse 
 them? Describe the other points 
 of resemblance. Trace the Rocky 
 Mountains on the map. The An- 
 des. Point out the principal rivers. 
 "Which are the longest? Are they 
 navigable? "What contributes to 
 make them easy of navigation? 
 Describe the coast line of America. 
 
 Which division is most irregular? 
 Describe the climate and soil of 
 America. "Why is it colder than 
 in Europe in the north ? Why is it 
 more moist in the west than in the 
 east? Has America many animals ? 
 Many plants? "Which are indi- 
 genous to the country ? What does 
 America largely produce ? What 
 are the natives called ? What was 
 their condition when the continent 
 was first discovered ? How were 
 they treated? What is known of 
 them? What native races now in- 
 habit the country? What is their 
 present condition? What is their 
 number? How are they supposed 
 to have originated? 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Area, 8,350, 000 square miles ; greatest length from north to south, in- 
 cluding Central America, 4700 miles; greatest breadth from east 
 to west, 3000 miles ; persons to a square mile, 6 ; population, 
 64,000,000. 
 
 North America comprises the Northern part of the 
 Continent of America, and is joined to South America 
 by the Isthmus of Panama. It is bounded on the 
 North by the Arctic Ocean ; on the West by the 
 Pacific Ocean ; on the South by the Pacific Ocean and 
 the Gulf of Mexico ; and on the East by the Atlantic 
 Ocean. 
 
 Its surface is divided into four great regions by the grand 
 chain of the Rocky Mountains, and the lesser chain of the 
 Alleghanies ; consisting of the Northern slope towards the 
 Arctic Ocean, the Pacific slope, tho great central plain extend- 
 ing from the sources of the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, 
 and the Eastern slope towards the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 The Rocky Mountains form the great backbone, as it may be 
 termed, of North America, extending from the Arctic Ocean 
 southwards, through the whole length of the continent. The 
 Cordilleras of Mexico and Guatemala may be considered as 
 a continuation of the chain, although it is somewhat inter- 
 rupted by the high plateaus of Mexico. The Rocky Moun- 
 tains rise mostly from a high table-land, which is sometimes 
 5000 feet above the sea. They occupy a region from 40 to 100 
 miles in breadth, and consist in some parts of two or three 
 parallel ranges. Their highest elevation is attained in British 
 America and Oregon, — Mounts Brown and Hooker (in British 
 Columbia) rising about 16,000 feet high, — although the Cordil- 
 leras contain the celebrated volcanoes of Popocatepetl, Agua, 
 and Orizaba, tho first nearly 18,000 feet high. 
 
 Along the Pacific coast are several successive ranges of moun- 
 tains, which have been called the Alps of the Pacific, extend- 
 ing from Mexico to the south of Russian America, and ter- 
 minated by the lofty volcano, Mount St Elias, nearly 18,000 
 feet high. These chains are known by different names, as the 
 Sierra Madre in Mexico ; the Coast range, and the parallel 
 range of the Sierra Nevada in California ; and the Cascade 
 Mountains in Oregon and British Columbia. 
 
 The Alleghany Mountains, or Appalachian chain, extend 
 from the north of the State of Alabama to the Gulf of St 
 Lawrence, about 1500 miles in length. Different portions of 
 the same range arc known by the names of the Cumberland 
 Mountains in Tennessee, the Blue Mountains in Virginia, the 
 Catskill Mountains in New York, the Green Mountains in 
 Vermont, "White Mountains in New Hampshire, and Notre 
 Dame Mountains in Lower Canada. The name Alleghany 
 belongs properly to the eastern and principal range in Virginia 
 and Pennsylvania. Their highest summits are in New 
 Hampshire, where they rise to the height of 6000 feet, but 
 elsewhere they seldom rise over 4000 feet. 
 
 Owing to the vast plains of North America, and the gentle 
 slope of the land, the rivers are large and numerous, and 
 navigable far into the interior of the country. The St Law- 
 rence, with the great lakes, is navigable for 2000 miles, the 
 Mississippi, with the Missouri, for 4000, and many of the other 
 great rivers almost to their sources. In the Great Central 
 Plain there is scarcely a water-shed 1500 feet above the level 
 of the sea, and many of the large rivers take their rise so 
 near each other that it is difficult to tell in which direction 
 the slope is. 
 
 The principal Rivers of North America are — 
 
 Alabama, Mississippi, with its afflu- 
 ents, the Illinois, Ohio, Missouri, 
 Arkansas, and Red Rivers, and 
 the Eio Grande-del-Norte. 
 
 In the west, the Colorado, Co- 
 lumbia, Fraser, and Sacramento. 
 
 In the north, the ClmrcluV , 
 Toucan, Colvillc, Mackenzie, Sas- 
 katchewan, and St Lawrence. 
 
 In the east, the St John, Hud- 
 son, Connecticut, Susquehanna, De- 
 laware, Potomac, and Savannah. 
 
 Iu the centre and south, the 
 
 Exercises on the Map— North Amertca. — What important gulf is 
 there to the east of British America? To the south of the United 
 States? What is the southern point of the peninsula of Lower Cali- 
 fornia called ? The south-eastern point of the United States ? The 
 
 south-eastern point of Newfoundland ? What capes and straits are in the 
 east of British America? What bay is between Nova Scotia and New 
 Brunswick ? How is Alaska divided from Asia ? What gulf is on the 
 west of Mexico ? What gulf is on the west of British Columbia 1 
 
12 
 
 FORTH AMERICA. 
 
 The principal Lakes of America are in the northern part, 
 and are either in British America, or form the boundary 
 between it and the United States. They are— 
 
 Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario, Great Bear, Great Slave, 
 Athabasca, Winnipeg, Winnipegoos, and Lake of the Woods. 
 
 South of these the only Lakes worthy of mention are — 
 Lake Champlain, just touching the Canadian frontier ; Great Salt 
 Lalce in Utah ; and Nicaragua in Central America. 
 
 The outline of North America is much more broken than 
 that of South America, especially on the north and east, but 
 compared with the extent of coast line, the Islands, Gulfs, 
 Promontories, &c, are not numerous. 
 
 The principal Islands are — 
 
 In the north, Greenland, Cum- 
 berland, and Southampton. 
 
 In the west, Vancouver, Queen 
 Charlotte, Prince of Wales, Sitka, 
 and Aleutian Isles. 
 
 In the south, the Bermudas, 
 
 and the West India Islands, com 
 prising the Bahamas, and Great 
 and Little Antilles. 
 
 In the east, Newfoundland, Ca.pt 
 Breton, Prince Edward Island, 
 Antkosti, and Long Island. 
 
 The principal Gulfs, Baps, and Straits, are- 
 
 In the north, Davis Strait and 
 Baffin Bay, Barrow and Banks 
 Straits, Melville and Lancaster 
 Sounds, Hudson Strait and Hudson 
 Bay, and its southern extremity, 
 James Bay. 
 
 In the east, the Strait of Belle 
 Isle, Gulf of St Lawrence, and 
 Bay of Fundy. 
 
 In the south, Florida Strait, 
 Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean 
 Sea, and Gulfs of Campeachy and 
 Honduras. 
 
 In the west, the Gulf of Cali- 
 fornia, Gulf of Georgia, and Beh- 
 ring Strait. 
 
 In the east, Farewell, Chudleigh, 
 Cliarles, Race, Breton, Sable, Cod, 
 Hatter as, Sable, (Florida,) Gatoche, 
 Gracias a Bios. 
 
 Tlie principal Capes are — 
 
 In the west, San Lucas, Men- 
 docino, Prince of Wales. 
 
 In the north, Lisburne, Barrow, 
 and Bathurst. 
 
 The Peninsulas of North America are — 
 In the east, Labrador, Nova Scotia, Florida, and Yucatan, 
 In the west, Alaska and Lower California. 
 
 North America, owing to its great extent from north to 
 south, varies greatly in climate, according to the latitude. In 
 general, it averages about 10° hotter in summer and 10° colder 
 in winter than in the same latitude in Europe. In the north 
 and east, however, it is much colder, owing to the great 
 extent of the frozen Arctic Ocean, from which cold currents 
 are continually flowing southwards. In the south it is hot, 
 but varies according to the elevation of the land above the sea. 
 On the west coast it is in general warmer and more moist than 
 in the east. It is remarkable, that about the centre of British 
 North America, in the Hudson Bay Territory, along the Sas- 
 katchewan Valley to the Rocky Mountains, the climate is 
 almost the same as in Ontario, although 10° higher in latitude, 
 or nearly 700 miles farther north. 
 
 The soil of North America is generally rich and productive, 
 owing chiefly to its level nature and the great number of 
 rivers ; the only barren parts of any extent being the Arctic 
 Regions, and the desert tracts to the north of Mexico, along 
 each side of the Rocky Mountains. Grain, cotton, sugar, and 
 tobacco form the great staple products. 
 
 There are few wild animals in North America, the princi- 
 pal being the bear, wolf, lynx, jaguar, &c. ; but fur-bearing 
 animals, such as the beaver, otter, mink, marten, and others, 
 abound in the North. The great prairies swarm with buffalo, 
 
 deer, and wild fowl ; and in the south, wild horses are 
 numerous. The sea also abounds with valuable fish. 
 
 All the principal minerals are found in North America; 
 gold, silver, copper, and lead, being found to a great extent in 
 many parts. It is estimated that the coal beds of North 
 America are more than ten times as large as all the others in 
 the world put together. 
 
 North America has been colonised by settlers from Europe, 
 principally from the British Islands, who, chiefly within the 
 last 200 years, have explored, settled, and cultivated a 
 territory larger than Europe ; have built large cities, and 
 carry on an extensive commerce with every quarter of the 
 globe ; and are distinguished for their energy and enterprise 
 in agriculture and commerce, for the extensive facilities for 
 rapid communication they possess, and for their general 
 intelligence and cultivation. 
 
 North America is divided into — 
 Danish America. Mexico. 
 
 British America. Central America. 
 
 United States of America, i West India Islands. 
 
 "What is the area of North Amer- 
 ica ? Greatest length ? Greatest 
 breadth ? Population ? Average to 
 the square mile ? What propor- 
 tion of the whole continent does it 
 comprise in extent? In popula- 
 tion? How is North America joined 
 to South America? How is North 
 America bounded ? Point out the 
 boundaries on the map. How may 
 its surface be divided, and by what? 
 Point out the divisions on the map. 
 Describe the Rocky Mountains. 
 Where are the Cordilleras ? Where 
 do the Rocky Mountains attain 
 their greatest height? What are 
 the highest peaks? What moun- 
 tains are on the Pacific coast? 
 How far do they extend ? What 
 are the highest peaks? What are 
 the names of the different chains? 
 How far do the Alleghanies ex- 
 tend ? Under what names ? How 
 high are they? Describe the gene- 
 ral features of the rivers of North 
 America. Describe the great] cen- 
 tral plain. Name the principal 
 rivers. Trace their courses on the 
 map. Where do they rise ? Into 
 what ocean, gulf, or bay do they 
 
 flow ? What tributaries have they ? 
 Where are the principal lakes y 
 Name them. Point them out on 
 the map. Describe the outline of 
 North America. Name the princi- 
 pal islands. Point them out on the 
 map. Describe the position of each. 
 Name the principal gulfs, bays, 
 straits, tfce. Point them out on 
 the map. Describe their position. 
 Name the principal capes. De- 
 scribe their position. Name the 
 principal peninsulas. Describe 
 their position. Describe the cli- 
 mate of North America. What is 
 remarkable in the climate of British 
 North America ? Describe the 
 soil of North America. Where are 
 the barren tracts? Point them out 
 on the map. What are the staple 
 products of North America? What 
 are the principal animals ? In 
 what parts are they respectively 
 found ? What minerals are found ? 
 Of what extent are the coal-beds ? 
 How has North America been 
 peopled ? In what length of time ? 
 For what are the people distinguish- 
 ed? HowisNorth Americadividcd? 
 Point out the divisions on the map*. 
 
 DANISH AMERICA. 
 
 Area, 380,000 square miles ; population, nearly 10,000 ; about twice the 
 size of Ontario. 
 
 Greenland or Danish America is supposed to 
 be a number of islands joined by ice. The sur- 
 face is high and rocky, with enormous glaciers in the 
 hollows. It is said to have been discovered by a 
 Norwegian, 500 years before Columbus discovered 
 America. 
 
 The climate is cold, although in July the thermometer rises 
 to S4° ; and fogs are almost constant on the coast. The soil is 
 unfit for cultivation, although it has been attempted with a 
 little success in some parts. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— North America. — Between what parallels 
 of latitude does North America lie ? Between what meridians ? From 
 what place are these reckoned ? Are they east or west ? Through what 
 zones does North America extend ? Point out on the map the principal 
 
 political divisions of North America ? Give the parallels of latitude and 
 meridians between which each lies? State what proportion is occupied 
 by each division? In what zone are the United States? Are they in the 
 northern or southern part of it? In what zones are the other divisions'; 
 
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NOETH AMERICA. 
 
 13 
 
 The principal animals are the reindeer, tho Esquimaux dogs, 
 hares, &c. Sea-fowl are very numerous. 
 
 The Danes have several settlements along the coast at 
 Julianshaab, Uppcrnavik, &c, for the purpose of trade. The 
 chief exports are eider-down, whale and seal oil, seal-skins, 
 and furs. The whale and seal fisheries on the coast are 
 valuable, and are extensively carried on. The Danish popula- 
 tion amounts only to about 300, the remainder being natives, 
 a branch of the Esquimaux. 
 
 the climate and soil. Name the 
 principal settlements, and point 
 them out on the map. "What are 
 the chief branches of industry ? 
 How is the population composed? 
 
 "What is the size of Danish Amer- 
 ica ? Population ? "What is it sup- 
 posed to be? Describe its surface. 
 When was it said to have been dis- 
 covered, and by whom? Describe 
 
 BRITISH AMERICA. 
 
 Area, about 3,000,000 square miles ; population, about 4,400,000 ; more 
 than three-fourths of the size of Europe. 
 
 British America is bounded on the North by the 
 Arctic Ocean and Baffin's Bay ; on the West by the 
 Territory of Alaska belonging to the United States, and 
 the Pacific Ocean ; on the South by the United 
 States j and on the East by the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 The chief features of British America are the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, extending through it from the Arctic Ocean to the 
 United States, and the parallel range of the Cascade Moun- 
 tains, both of which attain their highest summits in British 
 territory ; also the great lakes, which, with the St Lawrence 
 and Mackenzie Rivers, form an almost continuous chain from 
 the Atlantic to the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 The other features of this vast territory will be more fully 
 entered into under the head of the different divisions. 
 
 British North America is divided into — 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Prince Edward Island. 
 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 ■What is the size of British North 
 America? Population? How is it 
 bounded ? Point out the bound- 
 
 Hudson Bay Territory. 
 British Columbia. 
 Arctic Regions. 
 
 aries on the map. What are its 
 chief physical features ? How is it 
 divided ? 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 Area, 407,200 square miles; population, 4,00D,0CO; persons to square 
 
 mile, 9. 
 
 Greatest extent from east to west, 1500 miles, and from north to south, 
 
 about 300 miles. 
 
 Capital, Ottawa. 
 
 The Dominion of Canada is bounded on the North 
 by the Hudson Bay Territory ; on the West by the 
 Hudson Bay Territory, Lakes Superior and Huron ; on 
 the South by Lakes Erie and Ontario, and the United 
 States ; and on the East by the Atlantic Ocean, and 
 the Gulf of St Lawrence. 
 
 The Dominion of Canada consists of the four provinces of 
 Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, united 
 under one central government. 
 
 The surface of Canada is in general a level plain, gently 
 undulating and densely wooded, except in Quebec, where it is 
 more mountainous and has larger rivers. The settled portion 
 of the country in Ontario and Quebec forms a long narrow 
 strip of land along the Lakes and the River St Lawrence, 
 seldom extending much beyond 100 miles in breadth, though 
 more than 1000 miles in length. The northern limits are not 
 very accurately denned, so that the extent and area can only 
 be given approximately. 
 
 The mountains of Canada are the continuation of the Appala- 
 chian chain in Quebec, under the name of the Noire Dame 
 Mountains, to the extremity of the peninsula of Gaspe. They 
 seldom exceed 1000 to 1500 feet in height, except in one part 
 of the range called the Shickshock Mountains* the peaks of 
 which are about 4000 feet high. The Laurentide Hills are a 
 rugged range of hills, skirting the north hank of the St 
 Lawrence in the lower part of its course, and extending from 
 Labrador to near Quebec, where they leave the river and turn 
 inland, passing about 30 miles westward of Montreal, then, 
 skirting the Ottawa for about 100 miles, they curve round to 
 near Kingston. From there, the range again extends north- 
 westward to the shores of Lakes Huron and Superior. Their 
 average height is about 1300 feet, but some of their summits 
 below the city of Quebec rise to nearly 3000 feet. They are 
 remarkable for the numerous small lakes which they enclose, 
 many of which are yet unexplored, although upwards of 1000 
 are already laid down on the maps. The hills are generally 
 covered to their summits with dense forests of pine. 
 
 In Nova Scotia are the short ranges, called the North and 
 South Mountains in the west, and the Cobequid Mountains in 
 the north. 
 
 Canada is well watered, possessing numerous rivers, although, 
 owing to the physical formation of the country, their courses 
 are generally short. The principal are — 
 
 The St Laiurence, with its chief tributaries, the Ottawa, St Maurice, 
 and Saguenay; the St John, Miramichi, and liestigouche Rivers. 
 
 The St Lawrence forms the outlet of the great chain of in- 
 land lakes, and flows from Lake Ontario into the Gulf of St 
 Lawrence, a distance of about 750 miles. At the point where 
 it issues from Lake Ontario, it forms the Lake of the " Thou- 
 sand Islands," celebrated for variety, beauty, and picturesque 
 scenery. Below this, and extending as far as Montreal, are 
 several long and dangerous rapids, called the Galops, Long 
 Sault, Coteau, Cedars, Cascades, and Lachine. 
 
 Steamers and rafts pass down these in safety, and vessels 
 return by means of canals on the banks of the river. The St 
 Lawrence is navigable for large sea-going ships up to Mon- 
 treal. At Quebec it is two miles wide, and below that it 
 gradually widens till it enters the Gulf. The St Lawrence has 
 three large lake expansions on its course, — Lakes Si Francis, 
 St Louis, and St Peter, — and receives, besides the Ottawa, all 
 the rivers in Quebec, as mentioned on page 18. 
 
 The Ottawa takes its rise under that name in Lake Teniis- 
 caming, and joins the St Lawrence at the Island of Montreal 
 after a course of 350 miles, or including the chief feeder of 
 Lake Temiscaming, of over 500 miles. It has numerous lake 
 
 Exercises on the Map— British America. — "What mountain chain 
 crosses the western part of British America? What portions of British 
 America are on the west? What on the east? Which is the most 
 aoutherly part of British America? Which parts adjoin the United 
 
 States? How is it divided from Danish America? IVom Alaska? 1'rora 
 the United States? What large bay is nearly enclosed by British Amer- 
 ica? How is Newfoundland divided from Labrador? What island lies 
 north of Nova Scotia? "What lakes are to the south of Canada? 
 
14 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 expansions, the principal being the Allumettes, Chats, Chau- 
 diere, and Turn Mountains. The Chaudiere Falls at Ottawa 
 are very grand. Its principal tributaries are the Petewahweh, 
 Bonnechere, Madawaska, and Rideau on the south, and the 
 Z>u Moine, Gatineau, Du Lievre, Du Nord, and VAssornption 
 on the north bank. It forms the boundary between Ontario 
 and Quebec until near its mouth, and enters the St Lawrence 
 by three branches, enclosing the Islands of Montreal, Bizarre, 
 and Jesus. The St John, Miramichi, and Restigouchc Rivers 
 are in New Brunswick, (see page 20. ) 
 
 The principal feature of Canada is the extent and number of 
 its lakes. The great lakes, forming with the St Lawrence a 
 continuous chain of water communication for 2000 miles, com- 
 prise nearly one-half of the fresh water on the globe. (See also 
 pp. 1C, 17.) 
 
 These lakes now form the great highway of commerce for 
 Canada and the "Western States of America, and as the St 
 Lawrence is the only outlet for their productions without 
 transhipment, it must continue to increase in importance to 
 Canada. 
 
 Direct communication between Europe, the Atlantic 
 seaboard, and the principal cities on the Lakes, has already 
 been established, and as soon as the canals are enlarged to 
 admit vessels of large size into the lakes, this branch of 
 enterprise will increase, and be productive of much good 
 to Canada, as all trade must necessarily pass through Canadian 
 territory. 
 
 The extent of country drained by the Lakes, although great, 
 is small compared with their area, as no rivers of importance 
 flow into them. They occupy the hollow between the water- 
 sheds, from which the rivers of the Hudson Bay Territory to 
 the north, and those of the United States to the south, flow ; 
 in many cases these rise within a few miles of the lakes, as in 
 the case of the Hlinois Biver near Lake Michigan. 
 
 The climate of Canada is temperate, dry, and healthy, but 
 more inclined to extremes than in the same latitude in 
 Europe ; but as the country becomes better cleared, it is gradu- 
 ally becoming warmer in winter. The soil is very fruitful, well 
 repaying the labor necessary to clear the forests. All kinds 
 of grain' are grown in abundance, and largely exported, while 
 grapes, melons, peaches, in the more southern parts, besides 
 more hardy fruits, are extensively cultivated. Ontario is es- 
 sentially an agricultural country. In the other provinces it is 
 much colder, and the soil is not so well adapted for agriculture. 
 The winters there are long, but vegetation is very rapid. The 
 thermometer sometimes ranges in winter from 30° to 40° below 
 zero, and the St Lawrence is closed by ice during five months 
 of the year. Although the snows of winter form the great 
 highways for traffic, especially in the interior of the country, 
 still the opening of navigation is always anxiously looked 
 forward to. 
 
 Canada is also rich in minerals. Copper is found extensively 
 both in Ontario and Quebec ; and gold has also recently been 
 found on the Chaudiere River, and in considerable quantities 
 in Nova Scotia. The petroleum wells of Ontario and the coal 
 mines of Nova Scotia are very valuable. 
 
 Various branches of industry, such as shipbuilding, and 
 manufactures of woollens, leather, iron, tobacco, &c, are 
 steadily increasing. 
 
 The principal animals of Canada are the bear, fox, wolf, and 
 lynx, moose and cariboo deer. Numerous fur-bearing animals 
 abound ; such as the beaver, mink, racoon, squirrel, &c. Quebec 
 is celebrated for its horses, a small, active, hardy breed. 
 
 Quebec is peopled principally by the descendants of the 
 original French settlers, some of whom are also found in the 
 other provinces, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, 
 by the descendants of the United Empire loyalists, (who left 
 the United States when these States became independent,) 
 and by settlers chiefly from the British Islands. The Indians 
 now remaining in the country belong chiefly to the Huron, 
 Algonquin, Iroquois, and Micmac tribes, and have lands 
 reserved for them in different parts of the provinces. The 
 Manitoulin Islands in Ontario belong entirely to them, and 
 they have many villages in various parts of the country. 
 
 The Dominion of Canada is a Confederation, each of the 
 provinces of which it is composed having its own separate 
 Legislative and Executive Council, presided over by a Lieu- 
 tenant-Governor appointed by the Dominion government. 
 
 The Dominion form of government is the same as that of 
 Great Britain, on which it is modelled, and consists of Her 
 Majesty the Queen, represented by the Governor-General, and 
 the Parliament consisting of the House of Commons and the 
 Senate. 
 
 The Governor-General is assisted by an Executive Council 
 of thirteen members, who must each have a seat in Barlia- 
 ment, and who are responsible for the good government of the 
 country. 
 
 The House of Commons consists of 181 members, who are 
 elected by the people for one Barliament only, which cannot 
 exceed five years. The number of members to each province 
 is proportioned to the population, and provision is made for in- 
 crease, the number apportioned to Quebec (65) being made the 
 basis of calculation. 
 
 The Senate consists of 72 members appointed by the 
 Queen. 
 
 The number of Members to each Province is : — 
 
 Commons. Senate. 
 
 Ontario, . . .82 24 
 
 Quebec, . . 65 24 
 
 New Brunswick, . 15 12 
 
 Nova Scotia, . 19 12 
 
 The Dominion, . 181 72 
 
 It requires the assent of all three branches of the Govern- 
 ment, (the Governor-General, the Senate, and the House of 
 Commons,) for any bill to become law; but the House of 
 Commons alone has the privilege of introducing money bills. 
 
 The Dominion government regulates all matters connected 
 with trade and navigation, the customs and excise, the adminis- 
 tration of justice, militia and defence, and the postal service, : 
 but the provincial governments have control of all local \ 
 matters. 
 
 The commerce of Canada has largely increased, chiefly 
 
 Exercises on the Map — British America. — Name the lakes con- 
 nected with the St Lawrence River in proper order. How is Toronto 
 situated? How Ottawa? How Kingston? How Montreal and Quebec? 
 How St John? How Fredericton? How Halifax? What provinces 
 
 will the Intercolonial Railway pass through? In what direction is 
 Halifax from Ottawa? St John from Quebec? Toronto from Kingston? 
 St John from Halifax? Quebec from Montreal? Kingston from Ottawa? 
 Ottawa from Quebec? Ottawa from Toronto i 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 within the last ten years ; the imports now amounting to about 
 85,000,000 dollars ; and the exports, consisting principally of 
 grain and lumber, to about 60,000,000 dollars. 
 
 With the commerce, the means of internal communication 
 have also increased, and are, compared with the age and re- 
 sources of the Dominion, as extensive as in any part of the 
 continent. There are now 2500 miles of railways in operation ; 
 and canals, (constructed at a cost of over 14,000,000 dollars,) 
 on the St Lawrence and Ottawa to overcome the Rapids, — the 
 Eideau Canal, to connect Lake Ontario with the Ottawa,— and 
 the "Welland Canal, to connect Lakes Erie and Ontario. 
 
 In addition to these, the Intercolonial Railway, connecting 
 Quebec with Halifax and passing entirely through British ter- 
 ritory, is now in course of construction, and its completion will 
 tend greatly to strengthen the union of the British Provinces. 
 
 The revenue of the Dominion amounts to about 14,000,000 
 doUars, and the expenditure to about 13,000,000 dollars. The 
 debt is about 74,000,000 dollars, principally incurred by the 
 construction of public works, and wiU be increased by about 
 20,000,000 dollars for the construction of the Intercolonial 
 Railway. 
 
 From the revenue of the Dominion, subsidies are paid to the 
 local governments, which are as follows, after deducting the 
 proportion of interest in the public debt due by them : — 
 
 Ontario, 
 
 955,000 
 
 Quebec, 
 
 71 S, 000 
 
 New Brunswick, 
 
 315,000 
 
 Nova Scotia, . 
 
 334,000 
 
 2,322,000 
 
 The S3'stem of education in Canada is very complete, and 
 is liberally supported by provincial governments. There is a 
 great number of colleges in the country, many of which possess 
 University powers. 
 
 There is no established religion in Canada, all denominations 
 enjoying equal privileges. 
 
 Canada was first discovered by Jacques Cartier in 1535, and 
 was taken possession of by him in the name of the King of 
 France. Quebec and Montreal were the first towns founded 
 by the French, and settlements were gradually extended into 
 the country, with outposts at Niagara, Detroit, &c. After 
 various vicissitudes, Quebec was taken by the British, under 
 Wolfe, in 1759, and in 1763 Canada was ceded to Britain ; the 
 population then amounting to 69,000. Under the treaty, the 
 French Canadians retain their own laws, except the criminal 
 law, which is that of England, and are guaranteed equal rights 
 with other British subjects. The French language, as well as 
 the English, is still used in'Parliament, in the law courts of 
 Quebec, and in all public documents. The provinces were 
 united under the name of the Dominion of Canada on the 1st 
 of July 18G7. By Her Majesty's decision, Ottawa was selected 
 as the capital, and elegant Parliament buildings are now erected 
 there at a large cost. 
 
 "What is the extent of Canada? 
 Its greatest length ? Greatest 
 breadth? What is the capital? 
 How is Canada bounded? Point 
 out the boundaries on the map. 
 
 How is Canada divided? Describe 
 the surface of Canada. "What part 
 is settled? "What mountains are 
 there in Canada? Describe them. 
 For what are the Laurentide Hills 
 
 remarkable? Trace the mountains 
 on the map. Are they barren ? Has 
 Canada many rivers? Are they 
 large or sum 11? Name the princi- 
 pal. Describe the course of the St 
 Lawrence. Trace it on the map 
 Name the cities and towns it 
 passes. What lakes does it form? 
 What tributaries does it receive? 
 (see p. IS,) Describe the course 
 of the Ottawa. Trace it on the 
 map. What is its length ? "What 
 lakes arc in its course? What city 
 does it pass? What tributaries does 
 it receive? Point them out on the 
 map. Name the other rivers of 
 Canada. Trace their courses on 
 the map. What cities and towns 
 do they pass? What is the prin- 
 cipal feature of Canada ? What ex- 
 tent of water communication do the 
 lakes and i?t Lawrence River give? 
 What are the relative proportions 
 of these ? What amount of fresh 
 water do the lakes contain ? For 
 what are they useful to Canada? 
 What will increase their useful- 
 ness? What position do the lakes 
 occupy? What is the result? 
 Describe the climate of Canada. 
 Describe the soil and productions. 
 
 15 
 
 What minerals are found in 
 Canada, and where ? What are 
 the manufactures? What animals 
 are found in Canada? How has 
 Canada been peopled ? What is the 
 form of government? What are 
 the different branches? How are 
 they formed? What is necessary 
 in making the laws? Of what has 
 the House of Commons the exclu- 
 sive control ? Of what has the Do- 
 minion Government control ? What 
 is the amount of the commerce of 
 Canada? What means of internal 
 communication has Canada? What 
 is the provincial revenue ? What is 
 the debt, and how contracted? What 
 great undertaking is in process of 
 completion? What is paid to the 
 local governments? What is the 
 state of education? Is there any 
 established religion? When and 
 by whom w;is Canada discovered? 
 What were the first towns ? When 
 was Canada ceded to the British? 
 What was the population then ? 
 What proportion is that of the 
 present population? What was 
 granted by treaty to the French 
 Canadians at that time? When 
 were the provinces united? 
 
 Area, about 1S0,000 square miles ; population, 1,950,000 ; 
 persons to square mile, 11. 
 
 Capital, Toronto. 
 
 Ontario, formerly called Upper or Western Canada, com- 
 prises that portion of the Dominion of Canada west of 
 the Ottawa Kiver. It is divided into forty-six counties, 
 which may be classed in three sections : those in the "Western 
 Peninsula, those on Lake Ontario, and those on the St 
 Lawrence Kiver. 
 
 The Western counties, or those occupying the peninsula 
 nearly surrounded by Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, andSimcoe, 
 
 Counties. Chief Towns. 
 
 Essex, . Sandwich, Windsor, Amherstburg. 
 
 Kent, . . Chatham. 
 
 Bothwell, Bothwell. 
 
 Elgin, . St Thomas, Port Stanley, Port Burwell, Vienna. 
 
 Norfolk, Simcoe, Port Dover. 
 
 Haldimand, . Cayuga, Caledonia. 
 
 Monck, . Dunville. 
 
 Welland f Welland. Thorold, Port Colborne, Clifton, Chip- 
 
 * \ pawa, Fort Erie. 
 
 Lincoln, St Catharine's, Niagara. 
 
 Went worth, Hamilton, Dundas. 
 
 H alton, Milton, Georgetown, Oakville. 
 
 Peel, . Brampton, Streetsville, Port Credit. 
 
 Card well, Albion. 
 
 York, . Toronto, Newmarket. 
 Middlesex, . London. 
 
 Oxford, Woodstock, Ingersoll. 
 
 Brant, Brantford, Paris. 
 
 Peilth-, . Stratford, St Mary's, Mitchell. 
 
 Waterloo, Berlin, Gait, Preston. 
 
 Wellington, Guelph, Elora, Fergus, Mount Forest. 
 
 Lambton, Sarnia, Oil-springs. 
 
 Huron, . . Goderich, Clinton, Seaforth. 
 
 Bruce, . . Walkerton, Southampton, Kincardine, Paisley. 
 
 Grey, . . Owen Sound, Durham, Meaford. 
 
 Simcoe, . Barrie, Bradford, Col ling wood, Orillia. 
 
 Algoma District, Sault Ste Marie. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— British America. — What river divides On- 
 tario from Quebec? What is the position of New Brunswick from 
 Quebec? Of Nova Scotia from Newfoundland? Of Prince Edward 
 Island from New Brunswick ? How is Nova Scotia joined to New Bruns- 
 
 wick ? What is the southern point of Nova Scotia called? What large 
 island is in the Gulf of St Lawrence? How far do the Notre Dame 
 mountains extend? What Canadian rivers empty into the Gulf of 
 St Lawrence ? In what provinces are they ? 
 
1G 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Central Counties on Lake Ontario. 
 
 Counties. Chief Towns. 
 
 Ontario, . . Whitby, Oshawa, TJxbridge, Beaverton. 
 
 Durham, . . Port Hope, Newcastle, Bowmanville, Millbrook. 
 
 Victoria, . . Lindsay, Omemee. 
 
 Northumberland, Coburg, Brighton. 
 
 Peterborough, . Peterborough. 
 
 Prince Edward, . Picton. 
 
 Hastings, . . Belleville, Trenton. 
 
 Lennox, Napanee. 
 
 Addington, Bath. 
 
 Frontenac, . . Kingston. 
 
 ^Eastern Counties betit'cen the Ottawa and St Lawrence Rivers. 
 Leeds, . Brockville, Gananoque. 
 
 Lanark, . Perth, Smith's Palls. 
 
 Renfrew, . Pembroke, Renfrew, Arnprior. 
 
 Grenville, Prescott. 
 
 Bunda s, Momsburg". 
 
 Carleto.v, . Ottawa. 
 Stormont, Cornwall. 
 
 Russell, . Russell. 
 
 Glengarry, . . Alexandria. 
 
 Prescott, . , L'Orignal. 
 
 In the north and north-western parts of the province are still 
 vast tracts of unsurveyed lands, covered with the primeval 
 forests, and where even the lumber-man does not penetrate. , 
 New roads, however, are being opened up every year, and 
 settlements made, so that before long these districts will be as 
 thickly peopled as the already-named counties. 
 
 The surface of Ontario is in general level, or gently undulat- 
 ing, with only sufficient rise to form a watershed for the 
 rivers flowing north or south. From the Niagara River a 
 ridge extends westward, at a short distance from Late Ontario, 
 as far as Hamilton, then turns northwards, terminates in the 
 Blue Mountains, near Collingwood on the Georgian Bay, and 
 there attains the highest elevation in Ontario. A similar ridge 
 separates the streams flowing into Lake Ontario from those 
 flowing into Lakes Simcoe and Huron. The north shores of 
 Lakes Huron and Superior are rugged and precipitous. The 
 La Cloche Mountains are on the northern shore of Lake 
 Huron. 
 
 The principal feature of Ontario is its great chain of inland 
 lakes. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Breadth. 
 
 Area. 
 
 
 
 Height ahove 
 the sea. 
 
 Superior, . . 355 miles. 
 
 160 miles. 
 
 31,400 
 
 SI. 
 
 miles. 
 
 600 feet. 
 
 Huron, with l9S(> 
 Georgian Bay, j" " 
 
 190 „ 
 
 24,000 
 
 
 „ 
 
 578 „ 
 
 St Clair, . . 26 „ 
 
 25 „ 
 
 320 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 570 „ 
 
 Erie 210 u 
 
 80 „ 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 
 565 „ 
 
 Ontario, 180 „ 
 
 65 „ 
 
 7,300 
 
 
 ,, 
 
 232 „ 
 
 Michigan, . 320 „ 
 
 80 ,, 
 
 25,600 
 
 
 „ 
 
 57S „ 
 
 Lake Superior is the largest body of fresh water on the globe, 
 and is remarkable for the extensive copper and silver mines on 
 its shores ; and for the Pictured Rocks, a high range of cliffs 
 of various colors along its southern shore. The River St 
 Louis flows into it at the extreme west end. From Fort 
 "William a road is now being constructed to the Red River 
 Settlement. The St Mary Paver connects Lake Superior with 
 Lake Huron, and near its outlet are the rapids of the Sault 
 Ste Marie, to avoid which a canal has been made. 
 
 Lake Huron is noted for its extensive fisheries, white fish 
 and salmon trout being chiefly taken ; for its valuable copper- 
 
 mines, the most important of which are the Bruce mines ; and 
 for its numerous islands, of which the Manitouiin Islands, 
 belonging to the Indians, are the principal. On the east is the 
 Georgian Bay, separated from Lake Huron by a peninsula, 
 and terminating in Matchedash Bay, Nottawasaga Bay, and 
 Owen Sound. The Nottawasaga River flows into the bay of the 
 same name. Lake Simcoe is drained into the Georgian Bay 
 by the River Severn, and Lake Nipissing by the French River. 
 The Rivers Saugeen and Maitland flow into Lake Huron from 
 the western peninsula. On the west coast is a deep inlet, 
 called Saginav) Bay. The principal towns on Lake Huron are 
 Goderich, Kincardine, and Soutliampton, on the shore of the 
 western peninsula ; Owen Sound and Collingwood on the 
 Georgian Bay ; and Saginaw in Michigan. Lake Huron flows 
 into Lake St Clair by the St Clair River, at the head of which 
 is Samia. 
 
 Lake St Clair is a small shallow lake with a rapid current, and 
 is dangerous for navigation. The River Thames, rising in Perth 
 county, flows past St Mary's, London, and Chatham into it on 
 the south-east. The Detroit River connects Lake St Clair with 
 Lake Erie. It is about 30 miles long, and from one to two 
 broad. Windsor, Sandwich, and Amherstburg are situated on 
 it, and opposite "Windsor is Detroit, on the United States side. 
 
 Lake Erie is remarkable for its sudden storms. It is the 
 most shallow of the great lakes, its mean depth being only 
 about 100 feet. It contains the Islands Long Point and Pelee. 
 The Grand River rises in the county of Wellington, and flows past 
 Elora, Gait, Paris, Brantford, Caledonia, and Dunville, into 
 Lake Erie towards its north-eastern extremity, after a course of 
 upwards of 100 miles. The principal towns on Lake Erie are 
 Port Stanley, Port Lover, and Port Colborne, on the Canadian 
 side ; and Bvffalo, Dunkirk, Erie, Cleveland, Sandusky, and 
 Toledo, on the United States side. Lake Erie is connected 
 with Lake Ontario by the Niagara River, on which are the 
 celebrated Falls of Niagara, distant from Lake Ontario about 
 14 miles. The river, at the outlet of Lake Erie, is about three 
 quarters of a mile wide, and flows with a rapid current. 
 About a mile and a half above the Falls are Grand and Navy 
 Islands. Below these islands a series of fierce rapids begin, 
 until the whole volume of the river is precipitated over the 
 Falls, a height of about 160 feet. The Falls are divided by a 
 little island called Goat Island, the largest volume of water 
 being on the Canadian side, and forming the " Horse-shoe 
 Fall," so called from its semicircular form. The mass of water 
 which falls is enormous, and produces a deafening roar. The 
 force of the current below the Falls is so great that its depth 
 can never be sounded. After flowing in a rapid and turbulent 
 stream, between lofty precipices, it forms the "Whirlpool, 
 and then flows with a smooth but rapid course towards 
 Lake Ontario. 
 
 Lake Ontario is the smallest of the five great lakes, but is the 
 most important for Canadian trade. Burlington Bay, on which 
 Hamilton is built, is at the western extremity. On the north 
 shore is the remarkable Peninsula of Prince Edward, nearly 
 separated from the mainland by the Bay of Quinte, which is 
 noted for its beautiful scenery. The Trent, Moira, and Na- 
 panee Rivers flow into the Bay of Quinte. The other rivers 
 
 Exercises OS the Map — Ontario. — Which counties touch on the 
 Georgian Bay? "Which on Lake Huron? Which on Lake St Clair? 
 Which on Lake Erie? Which on Lake Ontario? Which on the St 
 Lawrence? Which on the Ottawa? What river anil large lake nearly 
 
 joins Lake Huron to the Ottawa River? Between what parallels of 
 latitude docs Ontario lie? Betweeen what meridians of longitude? 
 Which is the most southern part? What lakes and rivers nearly 
 enclose the western peninsula? What islands are in Lake Huron ? 
 
NORTH AMEEICA. 
 
 17 
 
 are numerous but small. The principal Canadian towns on 
 Lake Ontario are Hamilton, Toronto, Port Hope, Cobourg, and 
 Kingston; Belleville on the Bay of Quinte*; and Rochester, 
 Oswego, and Sackett's Harbor on the United States side. 
 
 Lake Michigan is entirely within the United States, hut is 
 connected with Lake Huron by the Strait of Mackinaw. Be- 
 sides these, there are Lake Simcoe, connected with Lake 
 Huron ; and a chain of smaller lakes extending through 
 Victoria, Peterborough, and other adjoining counties, and con- 
 nected with the Bay of Quinte by the River Trent : Lakes 
 I,'ipissirt(j, Tciniscaming, and others, are farther north. 
 
 Ontario was but little settled up to 1794, when York, now 
 called Toronto, was founded. Its whole population then 
 amounted only to about 65,000. Since then, and especially 
 v.ithin the last ten years, it has increased very rapidly, and is 
 now the most important part of British North America. 
 
 Agriculture and lumbering form the chief employments of 
 the inhabitants. Large quantities of grain, principally wheat 
 and barley, also of lumber and ashes, are annually exported. 
 Upper Canadian wheat and flour are considered among the best 
 on the continent. 
 
 The mines of Ontario are very valuable, especially the 
 copper and silver mines of Lakes Huron and Superior, 
 although they have not hitherto been worked to the extent 
 they might be. Great excitement has also been caused by the 
 discovery of gold at Madoc, in the county of Hastings. Valu- 
 able petroleum springs have been found in the western penin- 
 sula, at Oil-springs, Enniskillen, Bothwell, and other places, 
 and are giving employment to a large number of men. The 
 fisheries on Lake Huron are also large and valuable. 
 
 The Legislature of Ontario consists of a Lieutenant- Go vemor 
 with an Executive Council of five members, and a Legislative 
 Assembly of eighty-two members. The Lieutenant-Governor 
 is appointed by, and holds office during the pleasure of, the 
 Governor- General of Canada ; but cannot be removed within 
 five years of his appointment without cause shown. 
 
 The Legislative Assembly is elected by the people, and con- 
 tinues, if not sooner dissolved by the Lieutenant-Governor, 
 for four years and no longer. There must be at least one 
 session of the Assembly every year. 
 
 The annual revenue is about 1,800,000 dollars. 
 
 Toronto, (60,000,) situated on Lake Ontario, was founded in 
 1794 by General Simcoe, and then called York, It is the 
 largest city, and the capital, of Ontario, and was one of the 
 capitals of United Canada before Ottawa was chosen. It is 
 distinguished for the number and elegance of its public build- 
 ings, amongst which are the University of Toronto, Trinity 
 College, Osgoode Hall, the Provincial Lunatic Asylum, and the 
 Normal School. It is the seat of the law courts, and the centre 
 of education for Ontario. It is entered by three railways, 
 possesses a fine harbor, and carries on a large trade. 
 
 Ottawa, (15,000,) the present capital of the Dominion of 
 Canada, is situated on the Ottawa Paver, just below the 
 Chandiere Falls. It contains the new Parliament Buildings, 
 erected at a cost of upwards of 2,000,000 dollars, and is 
 celebrated for its beautiful situation. It is distant from 
 Montreal 100 miles. The Rideau Canal connects it with 
 
 Kingston, and just below the city are the Rideau Falls. It 
 is the principal centre of the lumber trade, vast quantities 
 of timber being floated down the Ottawa and its affluents. 
 
 Kingston, (14,000,) situated at the eastern extremity of Lake 
 Ontario, just above the Lake of the " Thousand Isles," is one 
 of the oldest cities in Ontario. It possesses several forts, being 
 the principal fortified town in the upper province. Its build- 
 ings are mostly of stone, which is found in the neighborhood 
 in great abundance. It has two colleges, Queen's and llcgio- 
 polis, and carries on a large shipping trade. 
 
 Hamilton, (19,000,) situated at the head of Burlington Bay, 
 is the second city in Ontario in population and commercial 
 importance. It is well built, the principal buildings being of 
 stone, and has extensive waterworks. Being at the head of 
 navigation on Lake Ontario, it has a large trade with the 
 western peninsula. 
 
 London, (12,000,) on the Thames, is the principal city in the 
 peninsula. It is situated in the midst of a populous and rich 
 agricultural country. It has numerous fine buildings, and is 
 the seat of Huron College. 
 
 St Catharines, (6300,) is beautifully situated on the "Welland 
 Canal, possesses mineral springs, and is a, favorite resort for 
 invalids and for summer residence. 
 
 Dundas, near Hamilton, and Gait, on the Grand River, are 
 important manufacturing towns. 
 
 Chatham, on the Thames, Peterborough and Lindsay, in the 
 interior, and BcUe riUe, on the Bay of Quinte, at the mouth of 
 the Moira, carry on a large lumber trade. 
 
 Cobovrg and Port Hope are important towns on Lake Ontario, 
 and export lumber and produce. Victoria College is situated 
 in Cobourg. 
 
 Guelph is an important centre of a rich agricultural country. 
 
 Brantford, on the Grand River, Woodstock, Ingersoll, and 
 Stratford, in the western peninsula, Perth, on a branch of the 
 Rideau, and Brcckrtl/e, on the St Lawrence, carry on a large 
 local trade in grain and lumber. 
 
 Niagara, the first capital of the old province of Upper 
 Canada, is at the mouth of the Niagara River, in an extremely 
 rich and fertile country, but is now of little importance. 
 
 Collingivood, on the Georgian Bay; Goderich, on Lake 
 Huron ; Port Dover and Port Colbornc, on Lake Erie, derive 
 their importance from shipping. Sarnia, on the St Clair 
 River, is the western terminus of the Grand Trunk Railway. 
 All the towns on Lake Ontario export grain and lumber. 
 
 What is the area of Ontario? flowingintoit. What towns do they 
 
 Population ? How many persons 
 are there to a square mile ? What 
 does Ontario comprise? How is 
 it bounded ? How is it divided ? 
 Name the counties and their 
 chief towns. State how each 
 county is bounded. Where are the 
 chief towns situated? What is said 
 of the unsurveyed lands? Describe 
 the surface of Ontario. Point out 
 the hills and ridges on the map. 
 What form the principal features 
 of Ontario ? Name the great lakes. 
 Which is the largest, &c ? De- 
 scribe Lake Superior. Describe 
 Lake Huron. Point out on the map 
 the principal bays in it. The rivers 
 
 flow past, and what lakes do they 
 drain ? Point out the towns on its 
 shores. How does Lake Huron 
 empty? Describe Lake St Clair. 
 What river flows into it? What 
 towns does it flow past ? Point them 
 out on the map. How does Lake 
 St Clair empty ? Describe Lake 
 Erie. Point out on the map the 
 principalriverfiowingintoit. What 
 towns does it flow past? Point out 
 the principal towns on Lake Erie. 
 How is it emptied? Describe the 
 Palls of Niagara. Describe Lake 
 Ontario, and point outitspi'incipal 
 features. What rivers flow into it ? 
 What towns are on its shores ? 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Ontario. — What city lies at the western 
 extremity of Lake Ontario? In what direction from Toronto is Kings- 
 ton? Cobourg? Belleville? Port Hope? London? Guelph? Colling- 
 wood? Niagira? In what direction from London is Goderich? Sarnia? 
 
 St Thomas? Chatham? Windsor? In what direction from Kingston 
 is Brockville? Ottawa? In what direction from Ottawa is Perth? 
 Pembroke? In what direction from Hamilton is Gait? Brantford! 
 Simcoe? Is any part of the province south of Lake Ontario*;; 
 
18 
 
 Point them out on the map. How 
 is Lake Ontario drained? What 
 other lakes are there ? Point them 
 out on the map. When did On- 
 tario begin to be settled? What 
 is said of it? What are the chief 
 employments of the inhabitants? 
 What are the chief products? What 
 is said of the minerals of Ontario ? 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Of the petroleum springs ? Of 
 the fisheries ? How is Ontario 
 governed? Who appoints the Lieu- 
 tenant-Governor ? For what term 
 is the Legislative Assembly elected ? 
 What is the revenue 1 Describe the 
 chief towns of Ontario? Pointthem 
 out on the map. State -where they 
 are situated and for what noted. 
 
 QUEBEC. 
 
 \rea, 210,000 square miles; population, 1,350,000; 
 
 persons to square mile, G. 
 
 Capital, Quebec. 
 
 The province of Quebec, formerly Lower or Eastern Canada, 
 comprises the central portion of the province of Canada, from 
 the Ottawa River to the Gulf of Sfc Lawrence. 
 
 It is divided into 20 judicial districts, and these are again 
 subdivided into 60 counties. To assist the memory, these may 
 be classed thus : — Counties on the Ottawa ; those on the North 
 Bank of the St Lawrence ; those on the South Bank ; and those 
 lying inland between the latter and the United States, usually 
 called the Eastern Townships. 
 
 Counties on the Ottawa. 
 
 Counties. 
 Jacques 
 
 C ARTIER, 
 HOCHE- 
 LAGA, 
 
 Chief Places. 
 
 Portage du Fort. 
 
 Aylmer, Hull. 
 ( Lachute, 
 t St Andrews. 
 
 TwoMo UmAIN9 ,{||t°S qUe - 
 Vaudreuil, Vaudreuil. 
 
 Soulanges, CoteauLanding. 
 
 Comities. 
 Pontiac, 
 Ottawa, 
 
 Aegenteuil, 
 
 Laval, 
 
 Chief Places. 
 
 Is £ nd Machine. 
 Montreal. / MontreaL 
 Islands \ St Vin- 
 Jesus & y cent-de- 
 Bizarre. j Paul. 
 
 Counties on the North Bank of the St Lawrence. 
 
 Terrebonne, 
 
 L'Assomption, 
 Montcalm, 
 Joliette, 
 Berthiee, 
 
 Maskinonoe, 
 
 {Terrebonne, 
 St Jerome, 
 Ste Theresa. 
 L'Assomption. 
 Raw don. 
 Industry. 
 Berthier. 
 f Itiviere -du- 
 t Loup. 
 
 St MauPvICE, 
 
 Champlain, 
 
 Portneup, 
 Quebec, 
 Montmorency, 
 Charli.voix, 
 Chicoutimi, 
 I Saguenay, 
 
 Huntingdon, 
 Chateauguay. 
 
 Napier ville, 
 
 St Johns, 
 Beauharnois, 
 
 Laprairie, 
 
 Ch amply, 
 
 Vercheres, 
 
 Richelieu, 
 
 St Hyacinthe, 
 
 Rotjville, 
 
 Iberville, 
 
 Bagot, 
 
 Missisquoi, 
 
 Brome, 
 Shefford, 
 JDrummond, 
 Arthabaska, 
 Meg antic, 
 
 Counties on the South Bank of the St 
 Yamaska, 
 
 Nicolet, 
 
 Huntingdon 
 ( Ste Mar ine, 
 
 \ Chateauguay. 
 ( St Remi, 
 [ Sherrington. 
 
 St Johns. 
 
 Beauharnois. 
 (Laprairie, 
 (Caughnawaga. 
 (Chambly, 
 |LongueuiI. 
 
 "Vercheves. 
 
 Sorel, St Ours. 
 
 St Hyacinthe. 
 
 Ste M.irie. 
 
 St Athanase. 
 
 St Liboire. 
 
 Lotbiniere, 
 
 Levis, 
 
 dorchesteti, 
 
 Bellechasse, 
 
 montmagny, 
 
 L' Islet, 
 
 Kamouraska, 
 
 Temiscouata, 
 
 RlMOUSKI, 
 
 Gaspe, 
 
 bonaventure. 
 
 Eastern Townships. 
 Beauce, 
 "Wolfe, 
 Richmond, 
 Compton, 
 Stanstead, 
 
 < Bedford, 
 \ Philipsburg. 
 
 Knowlton. 
 
 "Waterloo. 
 
 Drum m on d ville 
 
 St Christophe. 
 
 Inverness. 
 
 Three Rivers. 
 (Batiscan, 
 (Ste Anne. 
 
 Portneuf. 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 Chateau Richer. 
 
 St Irene. 
 
 Chicoutimi. 
 
 Tadoussac. 
 
 Lawrence. 
 ( Yamaska, 
 t La Baie. 
 ( Becancour, 
 ( Nicolet. 
 f Lotbiniere, 
 t St Croix. 
 
 Point Levi. 
 
 St Anselme. 
 
 St Michel. 
 
 St Thomas. 
 
 L'Islet. 
 
 Kamouraska, 
 
 Trois Pistoles. 
 
 Rimouski. 
 
 Perce. 
 
 New Carlisle. 
 
 r St Francois, 
 t La Beauce. 
 
 "Wolfestown. 
 < Richmond, 
 I Sherbrooke. 
 
 Compton. 
 f Stanstead, 
 X Coaticook. 
 
 The Island of Bonaventure, to the west of Gaspe", is an 
 
 important fishing station. The Magdalen Islands, situated in 
 the Gulf of Sfc Lawrence, 50 miles north of Prince Edward 
 Island, are high and rugged, but important for the fisheries 
 which are carried on by the inhabitants, who are of French 
 descent, and number about 2700. Anticosti is a barren, unin- 
 habited island. The principal islands, besides these, are in 
 the Sfc Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers ; the Island of Montreal, 
 on which the city is built, and the islands Bizarre and Jesus, 
 adjoining it, the Island of Orleans, just below Quebec, and/ate 
 Aux Coudres, Hare and Bic Islands and a few others lower 
 down, are in the St Lawrence; and the islands Calumet and 
 Alumette in the Ottawa. 
 
 The surface of Quebec is much more mountainous than that 
 of Ontario ; the rivers also are larger, and lakes numerous but 
 small. 
 
 The Notre Dame Mountains, a continuation of the White 
 Mountains of New Hampshire, extend (under various names, 
 as the Shickshock and St Ann Mountains) to the extremity of 
 Gaspe, where they form an elevated table-land 1500 feet high. 
 Their principal summits are Mount Logan and Mount Murray, 
 nearly 4000 feet high. In the more southern part of the range, 
 in the eastern townships, they are capable of cultivation to their 
 summits, and are generally low and rolling, rather than rugged. ; 
 The Laurentide Hills extend along the north bank of the Sfc 
 Lawrence, rising in Cape Tormentin, 20 miles below Quebec, 
 about 2000 feet in height ; several peaks in the same range 
 rise still higher. 
 
 The principal rivers are on the north side of the St Law- 
 rence. 
 
 The St Maurice rises in a number of small lakes near the 
 boundary of the Hudson Bay Territory, and falls into the St 
 Lawrence at Three Rivers. It is about 400 miles in length. 
 Twenty-four miles above Three Rivers is the Fall of Shawene- 
 gan, 150 feet high. 
 
 The Saguenay rises in Lake St John, issuing in two streams, 
 which unite after a few miles. It flows into the St Lawrence 
 at Tadoussac, after a course of 100 miles, or, including, under 
 the same name, the chief feeder of Lake St John, of over 300 
 miles. It is celebrated for its beautiful scenery, stupendous 
 cliffs forming the banks in some places, and it is of great 
 depth. It is 2£ miles wide at its mouth. About 60 miles 
 from its mouth is Ha Ha Bay, celebrated for its scenery. 
 
 Besides these, also on the north bank are, the Batiscan, enter- 
 ing the St Lawrence at Batiscan, Jacques Cartier, Ste Ann,&nd 
 Montmorency, the latter entering the St Lawrence a little be- 
 low Quebec, and celebrated for the beautiful Falls at its mouth, 
 250 feet high, and for the natural steps on its rocky banks. 
 On the south side are the Richelieu, draining the beautiful 
 and celebrated Lake Champlain, and entering Lake St Peter at 
 Sorel ; the St Francis, CJiaudiere, in which gold has recently 
 been discovered, Chateauguay, Yamaska, and Becancour. 
 
 The principal lakes are St John, the source of the Saguenay, 
 Temiscouata, Megantic, and Memphremagog. The northern 
 part of Lake Champlain is also in the province of Quebec. 
 
 Owing to the severity of the climate, the north bank of the 
 St Lawrence below the Saguenay is almost incapable of culti- 
 vation, but the south bank is better settled and more cultivated. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Quebec— Between what parallels of latitude 
 and what meridians of longitude does Quebec lie ? "What counties adjoin 
 the United States ? "What counties adjoin New Brunswick? Which is 
 the most easterly point of Quebec ? What large bay is there between the 
 
 east of Quebec and New Brunswick ? Which of the United States adjoin 
 Quebec ? Into what gulf does the River St Lawrence flow ? What large 
 island is situated in it ? What large island divides it from the Atlantic ? 
 Name the islands in the St Lawrence. 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 19 
 
 Copper is found extensively in the eastern townships, and gold 
 lately to some extent on the Chaudiere and in other places. 
 
 Quebec derives its chief importance from its commercial 
 position, its lumber trade, and fisheries. As the rapids on 
 the St Lawrence obstruct navigation for large vessels beyond 
 Montreal, the latter has become the commercial emporium for 
 the west. The fisheries of the St Lawrence are very valuable, 
 consisting chiefly of cod, herring, salmon, and seals. Lumber- 
 ing is carried on extensively along the shores of all the rivers ; 
 the lumber being floated down the Ottawa and St Lawrence 
 in rafts to Quebec, whence it is shipped. Quebec is also the 
 market for all the lumber from "Western Canada, and carries 
 on extensive shipbuilding. 
 
 The Legislature of Quebec consists of a Lieutenant-Governor, 
 and of two Houses, the Legislative Council, and the Legisla- 
 tive Assembly. The Lieutenant-Governor is appointed by the 
 Governor-General of Canada, and is assisted by an Executive 
 Council of 7 members. The Legislative Council is composed 
 of 24 members, appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor, for 
 ^life. The Legislative Assembly is composed of G~t members, 
 and is elected by the people for the term of four years, if not 
 sooner dissolved by the Lieutenant-Governor. 
 
 The annual revenue is about 1,700,000 dollars. 
 
 Quebec, (60,000,) tbe oldest city in Canada, and capital of the 
 province of Quebec, stands on a high promontory formed by 
 the junction of the St Charles with the St Lawrence. It is 
 the best fortified city in North America, and is celebrated for 
 its picturesque appearance, and for the beautiful scenery in 
 the neighborhood. Near the city are the plains of Abraham, 
 memorable as the scene of a celebrated battle between the 
 English and French, and for the death of both commanders, 
 Wolfe and Montcalm. The St Lawrence is here two miles 
 wide, and navigable for ships of the greatest draught. Quebec 
 derives its importance from its shipping, shipbuilding, and 
 lumber trade. 
 
 Montreal, (130,000,) the largest and most important city in 
 Canada, is situated on an island of the same name at the 
 junction of the Ottawa with the St Lawrence. It is beauti- 
 fully situated at the foot of a hill called the " Mountain," 
 from which it took its name, Mont Real or Royal Mountain. 
 It is noted for its numerous large buildings, mostly of stone, 
 and possesses a magnificent quay along the river, nearly a mile 
 long. It has several universities and colleges, many beautiful 
 churches and other public buildings. 
 
 Near Montreal is the famous Victoria Bridge, the largest 
 iron tubular bridge in the world, erected on twenty-four piers, 
 and nearly two miles in length. It is 60 feet high in the 
 centre, and steamboats and other vessels can pas3 under it 
 with ease. It crosses the St Lawrence on the line of the Grand 
 Trunk Railway, overcoming the difficulties of the ice in the 
 winter, and forming direct communication between the east 
 and west. 
 
 Three Mirers, (6000,) so called from the St Maurice, which 
 here joins the St Lawrence by three mouths, is one of the 
 oldest cities in Canada, carries on extensive iron manufactures, 
 and has a large lumber trade. 
 
 Sorel, Sherbrooke, Coteau du Lac, and Slanstead, are im- 
 
 portant towns, with local trade ; Ste TTyacinthe is a manufac- 
 turing city ; St John's is a rising town ; Rlmouski carries on 
 a large shipping and lumber trade ; Caughnawaga and St 
 Regis are Indian villages. 
 
 What is the area of Quebec? 
 Population? How many persons 
 are there to a square mile? What 
 is the capital of Quebec? How is 
 Quebec bounded? How is it di- 
 vided? Name the counties and 
 their chief places. How is each 
 county bounded? How are thpy 
 classed ? What islands belong to 
 Quebec ? Describe them. Where 
 are they situated? Describe the 
 surface of Quebec. Describe the 
 mountains. Trace them on the 
 map. Describe the course of the 
 St Maurice River. Trace it on the 
 mnp. Describe the course of the 
 Saguenay. Trace it on the map. 
 Name the other principal rivers. 
 
 Trace them on the map. Where 
 do they rise ? Name the principal 
 lakes Where are they situated? 
 Describe the climate and soil of 
 Quebec. Minerals. From what 
 does Quebec derive its importance? 
 What is said of the St Lawrence? 
 Of the fisheries? Of lumbering? 
 How is Quebec governed? Who 
 appoints the Lieutenant-Governor? 
 Who appoints the Legislative 
 Council? Who elect the Legisla- 
 tive Assembly? What is the 
 revenue ? Describe the principal 
 towns. Point them out ou the 
 map, and state where they are 
 situated. Describe the Victoria 
 Bridge. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 Area, 27,700 square miles; population, 320,000; persons to square 
 mile, 12; greatest extent from North to South, 210 miles; and 
 from East to Wesc, 19u miles. 
 
 Capital, Fredericton. 
 The province of New Bkunswick is bounded on the North by 
 Quebec and the Bay of Chaleur ; on the "West by the same 
 province and the United States ; on the South by the Bay of 
 Fundy ; and on the East by tbe Gulf of St Lawrence, Nor- 
 thumberland Strait, and Nova Scotia, with which it is con- 
 nected by the Isthmus of Chignecto, 14 miles wide. It is 
 divided into 14 counties, which, with their chief towns, are : — 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Charlotte, 
 
 King's, 
 
 * Qu lux's, 
 
 Carleton, 
 
 Counties on the Bay of Fundy. 
 
 Chief Places. 
 (St Andrews, 
 (St Stephen. 
 jSt John, 
 (Carleton. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Albert, 
 
 Chief Places. 
 
 5 Hopewell, 
 (Hillsboro'. 
 
 Counties in the Into\>_ 
 (Kingston, i Sunbury, 
 -'Hampton, „ 
 
 (Sussex. * 0RK ' 
 
 Gagetown, | 
 
 Counties in the Wed. 
 Woodstock. | Victoria, 
 
 Counties on the Gulf of St Lawrence. 
 f Dorchester 
 
 Oromocto. 
 (Fredericton, 
 (Stanley. 
 
 Grand Falls. 
 
 "Westmoreland, 
 
 Restigouche, 
 
 JMoncton, 
 "1 Shediac, 
 (Sackville. 
 
 Kent. 
 
 {Richibucto, 
 {Buctouche. 
 
 {Newcastle, 
 Chatham, 
 Douglas to wd. 
 
 Counties in the North, 
 (Dalhousie, I Gloucester, 
 (Campbelltown, J 
 
 Bathurst. 
 
 The surface of New Brunswick is generally undulating, 
 rather than hilly, and covered with vast forests. There are 
 some bills in the northern counties, also north of St John, and 
 along the Bay of Fundy ; but they nowhere rise to any 
 great height. The rivers, with their lake expansions, are 
 numerous, and some of them navigable for vessels of consider- 
 able size. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Quebec. — Name the principal cities and 
 towns on the St Lawrence River. In what direction from Montreal is 
 Sherbrooke? Ste Hyacinthe? Stanstead ? Quebec? Sorel? Three 
 Rivers? Ottawa? (See map of British America.) In what direction 
 
 from Quebec is Batiscan? Caconna? Tadoussac ? Riviere du Loup ? 
 Kimouski? What mountains are in the east of Quebec? Name the 
 principal Lakes of Quebec. Point them out on the map. Point out tho 
 Chaudiere and Richelieu. What waters does the latter connect? 
 
20 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 The St John Elver has its sources in Quebec and Maine, and 
 after a circuitous course of 450 miles, enters the Bay of Fundy 
 at St John. It is celebrated for its beautiful scenery, and is 
 navigable up to Fredericton, 85 miles, for vessels of con- 
 siderable size, and to "Woodstock and Grand Falls for smaller 
 vessels. It receives on the left bank the waters of Lake Tem- 
 iscouata in Quebec, the Tobiquc, Salmon River expanding 
 into Grand Lake, "Washedemoak, and Ivennebecasis, and on 
 the right bank the Aroostook and Oromocto. 
 
 The Restigouche forms the northern boundary between New 
 Brunswick and Quebec, and after a course of 200 miles falls 
 into the Bay of Chaleur, flowing past Campbelltown and Dal- 
 housie. 
 
 The Miramichi, 200 miles long, flows past Newcastle, Doug- 
 lastown, and Chatham, near its mouth, into Miramichi Bay. 
 The Pctitcodiac, 100 miles long, flows into Shepody Bay ; Dor- 
 chester is situated at the bend of the river. The St Croix, 
 rising in Grand Lake, and flowing into the Bay of Fundy, 
 forms part of the boundary between New Brunswick and the 
 United States. 
 
 The coast line of New Brunswick is deeply indented with 
 a great number of fine bays and harbors, but has few islands. 
 
 TJie principal Bays are : — 
 
 Bay of Chaleur, so called from 
 the heat experienced there by 
 the first discoverers ; Miramichi 
 Bay, Richibucto Harbor, Buc- 
 touche Harbor, Shediac Bay, j 
 
 and Bay Yerte, on the north-east 
 coast. 
 
 Shepody Bay, Chignecto Bay, St 
 John Harbor, and Pasaama- 
 quoddy Bay, on the Bay of Fundy t 
 
 The Bay of Fundy is an arm of the sea extending into the 
 land between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, and terminated 
 by two smaller bays, Chignecto and Minas Basin. Its length, 
 to the head of Chignecto Bay, is 140 miles, and its greatest 
 breadth 45 miles. It is remarkable for the rapid rise of its 
 tides, caused by the current of the Gulf Stream, and varying 
 from 30 feet at St John to 60 feet at the head of Chignecto 
 Bay, into which it rushes with great rapidity. At Bay Verte, 
 in the Gulf of St Lawrence, distant only 14 miles, the rise is 
 not more than four or five feet. 
 
 The principal Capes are : — 
 
 Point Miscon, Escuminac, Richi- 1 Cape Spencer, and Point Lepreau, 
 bxtcto Head, Shediac Point, Cape, on the south. 
 Tor merit in, on the north-east ; | 
 
 The principal Islands are : — 
 
 Passamaquoddy Bay ; and Grand 
 Manan Island, at the mouth of the 
 Bay of Fundy. 
 
 Miscou and Sluppegan, at the 
 north-east extremity ; Portage, in 
 Miramichi Bay ; Campobello, in 
 
 The climate of New Brunswick resembles that of the more 
 southern parts of Quebec. The influence of the Gulf Stream 
 in the Bay of Fundy renders it milder on the southern coast ; 
 but during the summer it is very subject to fogs, which do 
 not, however, extend inland. The soil is productive, and 
 well cultivated, especially along the courses of the rivers. 
 
 The chief source of the wealth of New Brunswick consists 
 in its valuable forests, lumbering being carried on very ex- 
 tensively. The value of the forest products exported annu- 
 ally amounts to over 3,000,000 dols. The lumber consists 
 chiefly of spruce and pine, and timber for shipbuilding. 
 
 Most of the spruce is sawn into deals, affording employment to 
 a large number of men. Shipbuilding is also an important 
 branch of industry, and is carried on chiefly at St John and 
 Miramichi. The number of vessels built annually amounts to 
 more than 100, valued at 2,000,000 dols., most of them being 
 large sea-going vessels. 
 
 New Brunswick also contains valuable mines of coal, iron, 
 gypsum, and building stone. The most extensive coal mines 
 are in Albert county. 
 
 The fisheries of New Brunswick are also very valuable, pro- 
 ducing over 750,000 dols. annually. 
 
 The o-nnual imports exceed 10,000,000 dols., and exports 
 0,000,000 dols. The revenue amounts to about 430,000 dols. 
 annually. The form of government of New Brunswick is the 
 same as that of Quebec. The Legislative Council consists of 
 22 members, appointed by the Crown, and the Legislative As- 
 sembly of 40 members, chosen by the people. The Lieutenant- 
 Governor is assisted by an Executive Council of 9 members. 
 Education is under the control of the Government, and is 
 liberally supported. There is a university at Fredericton. 
 
 New Brunswick formerly belonged to France, forming, with 
 Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, the colony of Acadia. 
 It was ceded to Britain by the treaties of 1713 and 1763, and 
 formed into a separate province in 1784. It has progressed 
 rapidly, especially in the northern and north-eastern counties, 
 which, but a few years ago, were uninhabited except by Indians. 
 These counties have been devastated by fearful fires in the 
 woods, the worst occurring in 1825, when 160 persons were 
 burned to death, and 1,000,000 dols. in property destroyed. 
 The Indians of New Brunswick are not numerous. They 
 belong to the tribe of the Micmacs. 
 
 St John, (42,000,) situatecTnear the mouth of the St John 
 River, with Carleton on the opposite side of the river, pos- 
 sesses a fine harbor, accessible to vessels of the largest sizo 
 at all seasons of the year. It is well built, and contains 
 many fine public edifices. The St John River here contracts, 
 and forms the Narrows, through which the tide flows with 
 great violence and danger to vessels. A suspension bridge 
 crosses the river at this point, connecting Carleton with St 
 John. The principal lumber and shipbuilding trades are car- 
 ried on here. 
 
 Fredericton, (5700,) situated on the St John River, about 85 
 miles from St John, is the capital. It is encircled by hills, 
 rendering its situation very picturesque. It contains the 
 government buildings, and the University of New Brunswick. 
 
 Chatham, or Miramichi, (2500,) Newcastle, (2000,) Moncton, 
 (1400,) are important for shipbuilding; Richibucto and She- 
 diac, for the fisheries ; and St Andrews and St Stephen, each 
 about 2000 in population, for trade with the United States. 
 Woodstock and Gagetown, on the St John River, and Bathurst, 
 Dalhousie, and Campbelltown, on the Bay of Chaleur, are rising 
 towns of some importance. 
 
 What is the area of New Bruns- 
 wick ? Population ? How many 
 persons are there to a square mile ? 
 What is its extent? Capital? How 
 is New Brunswick bounded? How 
 is it divided ? Name the counties 
 
 and their chief towns. How is each 
 county bounded ? Where are chief 
 towns situated? Describe the sur- 
 face of New Brunswick. What is 
 said of the hills? Of the rivers? 
 Describe the course of the St John 
 
 Exercises on the Map — New Brunswick. — How is New Brunswick 
 divided from. Nova Scotia? Prom Prince Edward Island? Prom the 
 United States? Give its latitude and longitude? What counties adjoin 
 Quebec ? The United States ? In what direction from St John is Frede- 
 
 ricton? Shediac? St Andrews? St Stephen? In what direction from 
 Fredericton is Woodstock ? Gagetown ? In what direction from Shediac 
 is Richibucto ? Chatham? Campbelltown? In what direction from Mira- 
 michi, (Chatham,) is Fredericton ? Bathurst? Dalhousie? 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 21 
 
 River. Trace it on the map. What 
 towns does it flow past? Describe 
 the course of the Restigouche. 
 Trace it on the map. What towns 
 does it flow past? Describe the 
 courses of the other principal rivers. 
 Trace them on the map. What 
 towns do they flow past? Describe 
 the coast line of New Brunswick. 
 Name the principal bays. Where 
 are they situated ? Point them out 
 on the map. Describe the Bay of 
 Fundy. For what is it remarkable ? 
 Name the principal capes. Point 
 
 them out on the map. Where are 
 they situated ? Describe the climate 
 of New Brunswick. The soil. What 
 is the chief source of the wealth of 
 New Brunswick ? What is said of 
 shipbuilding ? Of the mines? Of 
 the fisheries? What is said of im- 
 ports, revenue, &c. t What is the 
 form of government ? What is said 
 of education ? What historical facts 
 are stated about New Brunswick ? 
 Describe the chief towns. Point 
 them out on the map, and state 
 where they are situated. 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 Area, 19,500 square miles ; population, 380,000 ; persons to a square 
 mile, 20 ; greatest extent from north to south, including Cape 
 Breton, 390 miles, and from east to west, 160. 
 
 Capital, Halifax. 
 
 The province of Nova Scotia comprises the peninsula of 
 Nova Scotia proper, and the adjoining Island of Cape Breton. 
 It is bounded on the North by the Gulf of St Lawrence ; on 
 the West by New Brunswick and the Bay of Fundy ; and on 
 the South and East by the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 It is divided into 14 counties, which, with their chief towns, 
 
 Counties on the Bast Coast. 
 
 Counties. 
 Sfielbbtjrne, 
 
 Queen's, 
 Lunenburg, 
 
 Yarmouth, 
 
 DlGBY, 
 
 Annapolis, 
 
 King's, 
 
 Hani's, 
 
 Chief Towns. 
 
 Shelburne. 
 Liverpool. 
 Lunenburg. 
 
 Counties. 
 Halifax, 
 Guys borough, 
 
 Counties on the West. 
 
 Yarmouth. 
 
 Di^by. 
 
 Annapolis. 
 
 Kentville. 
 
 Windsor. 
 
 Cumberland, 
 Colchester, 
 Pictou, 
 Sydney, 
 
 Chief Towns. 
 Halifax. 
 Guysborough. 
 
 Amherst. 
 Truro. 
 Pictou. 
 Antigonish. 
 
 The Island of Cape Breton is divided into four counties : — 
 
 Counties. Chief Towns. 
 
 Comities. 
 Richmond, 
 Cape Breton, 
 
 Chief Towns. 
 
 Arichat. 
 
 Sydney. 
 
 Victoria, 
 Inverness, 
 
 Baddeck. 
 Port Hood. 
 
 The surface of Nova Scotia is mountainous, varied with rich 
 and fertile valleys. Several chains of high hills intersect the 
 country, generally parallel with the coast-line. The Cobequid 
 Mountains are the principal chain, and stretch from east to 
 west, along the peninsula which connects Nova Scotia with 
 New Brunswick, terminating in Cape Chignecto. Some of 
 their summits are 1100 feet high. The North and South Moun- 
 tains extend, in parallel lines, along the shore of the Bay of 
 Fundy, and an irregular range of small hills extends from the 
 Gut of Canso southward. The general slope of the country 
 is in a south-easterly direction, the Cobequid Mountains 
 forming the highest land. The shores of the r Atlantic are 
 generally low and barren, but rich in minerals. There are 
 several chains of lakes in the south-east, giving rise to 
 numerous rivers, which are, however, necessarily short. 
 
 The islands of Nova Scotia, besides Cape Breton, are Cari- 
 bou and Pictou Islands, in Northumberland Strait; Sable 
 Island, a dangerous, sandy island, 150 miles east of Halifax, 
 on which is an effective humane establishment, provided 
 
 by the provincial government ; Cape Sable, Seal, and Mud 
 Islands, in the south ; Long Island, at the mouth of St 
 Mary's Bay ; Isle Madame, to the south-east of Cape Breton. 
 
 Cape Breton is, in general, level, but with lofty, rugged 
 promontories towards the sea, especially on the north. The 
 coast-line is much broken, and the island is nearly cut in two 
 by the Bras d'Or Lake, which runs from north to south, and 
 is only separated from St Peter's Bay, on the south, by a nar- 
 row neck of laud less than half a mile wide. A canal is to be 
 constructed across this peninsula. This inlet is connected 
 with the Atlantic, on the north, by the Great and Little Bras 
 d'Or Channels, between which is the Island of Boularderie. 
 
 The principal lakes in Nova Scotia are Lake Rossignol, the 
 largest, 20 miles in length, in Queen's County, and Grand and 
 Ship Harbor Lakes, in Halifax County. Smaller lakes are 
 numerous, and generally occur in chains, connected by small 
 rivers. The Bras d'Or Lake, so called, may be more properly 
 termed an arm of the sea. 
 
 The principal Rivers in Nova Scotia arc : — 
 
 St Mary's, Musguodoboit, La 
 Have, and Liverpool, flowing into 
 the Atlantic; the Annapolis, flow- 
 ing between the North and South 
 mountains, into Annapolis Basin ; 
 the Avon, into the basin ot Minas ; 
 
 the Shubenacadie, into Cobequid 
 Bay; and the East, Middle, and 
 West Rivers, into Pictou Harbor. 
 Besides these, there are numerous 
 small streams, as well in Nova 
 Scotia proper as in Cape Breton. 
 
 The coast-line of Nova Scotia, as well as that of Cape 
 Breton, is much broken, and deeply indented with numerous 
 bays and harbors, except on the side of the Bay of Fundy, 
 where it is more compact, and possesses few harbors. 
 
 The principal Bays, Harbors, and Straits are: — 
 
 Bay VeHe, Tatmagouche, and St 
 George's Bays, in Northumberland 
 Strait ; Chedabucto Bay, at the 
 entrance of the Gut of Canso, a 
 naiTow strait separating Nova Sco- 
 tia from Cape Breton; Halifax 
 Harbor, Margaret's, and Mahone 
 Bays, on the south-east coast; St 
 
 Mary's Bay, on the south-west ; 
 Annapolis Basin, Minas Channel 
 and Basin, and Cobequid Bay, on 
 the west ; Bay of Fundy, (see page 
 20.) The chief inlets in Cape Bre- 
 ton are —A spy Bay, St Anne's 
 Bay, Sydney Harbor, Mire Bay, 
 and St Peter's Bay. 
 
 In the south of St Peter's Bay is Isle Madame, with Arichat 
 harbor, important to fishermen in stormy weather. 
 
 The principal Capes are : 
 
 Malagash, John, St George, on 
 the north coast ; Porcupine, Canso, 
 Sambro Head, Pennant Point, 
 Crown Point, and La Have, on the 
 south-east ; Sable, on the south ; St 
 
 Mary, Split, Cliignecto, and Blomi- 
 don, on the west. 
 
 In Cape Breton are St Lawrence, 
 North, Egmont, Murgain, and 
 Breton. 
 
 Many of these capes form rugged promontories, rising to the 
 height of 500 feet ; the whole of the coast, especially on the At- 
 lantic side, is bold and rocky, and lined with dangerous reefs. 
 
 The climate of Nova Scotia is milder than that of the neigh- 
 boring provinces, owing to its being nearly surrounded with 
 water, and to the influence of the Gulf Stream. The harbors 
 on the Atlantic are seldom closed by ice in winter. 
 
 The soil in the valleys and on the mountain slopes is rich and 
 fruitful, but towards the Atlantic coast it is rocky and less 
 fertile. Oats, potatoes, and hay are the principal agricultural 
 products ; apples grow abundantly in the west ; and cattle are 
 extensively reared. 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Nova Scotia. — How is Nova Scotia divided 
 from Cape Breton? From New Brunswick? Prom Prince Edward 
 Island ? Give its latitude and longitude. How is Halifax situated ? 
 In what direction from Halifax is Pictou? Annapolis? Windsor:' 
 
 Lunenburg? Liverpool? In what direction from Annapolis is St 
 John ? Yarmouth ? In what direction from Truro is Amherst ? 
 Antigonish? What cities ami towns are situated on the Atlantic 
 coast ? On the Bay of Fundy y On the Strait of Northumberland ? 
 
oo 
 
 NORTH AjMEEICA. 
 
 Nova Scotia is the most important of the eastern British 
 American provinces for the extent and variety of its mineral 
 productions. Gold, iron, coal, and gypsum, are found to a 
 greater extent than in any of the other provinces. It also 
 contains copper and building stone to a large extent. The 
 quantity of coal, gypsum, &c, annually exported, besides what 
 is retained for home consumption, is valued at 1,000,000 dols. ; 
 and the total quantity of coal raised is about 600,000 tons 
 annually. The principal coal mines are in Cape Breton Island 
 and Pictou County. Iron and coal are found in the Cobequid 
 Mountains, and iron largely in Annapolis and Pictou Counties. 
 Gold is found along most of the Atlantic coast, but is worked 
 chiefly in Guysborough, Halifax, and Lunenburg Counties. 
 
 Nova Scotia has also the most extensive fisheries of all the 
 provinces except Newfoundland. The principal are the cod, 
 mackerel, and salmon fisheries. The exports of fish are chiefly 
 to the West Indies and the Southern States of America, and 
 amount to over 3,000,000 dols., affording employment to more 
 than 15,000 men. 
 
 There are two lines of railway in Nova Scotia ; one from 
 Halifax to Truro, now extended to Pictou, and forming part of 
 the Intercolonial line ; the other from Halifax to Windsor, 
 now extended to Annapolis. A railway is also in course of 
 construction between Sydney and Louisburg in Cape Breton. 
 
 The annual imports of Nova Scotia are about 14,000,000 dols. , 
 and exports, 8,000,000 dols. ; revenue, 550,000 dols. The 
 form of government is the same as in the other provinces. The 
 Legislative Council consists of 20 members, appointed by the 
 Crown, and the Legislative Assembly of 53 members, elected 
 by the people. The Lieutenant-Governor is assisted by an 
 Executive Council of 9 members. 
 
 Education is carefully attended to, and supported by govern- 
 ment grants. There are five colleges. 
 
 Nova Scotia was first settled by the French, but has changed 
 ownership several times, having been taken four different 
 times by the British, and as often relinquished, until Prance, 
 in 1713, renounced all claim to the country. The French, 
 however, still retained the Island of Cape Breton, with the 
 fortified town of Louisburg, which was not taken by the Eng- 
 lish till 1758. Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, Prince Edward 
 Island, and New Brunswick, then formed the colony of Acadia, 
 and it was not till 1784 that they were formed into separate 
 colonies. In 1819 Cape Breton was reunited to Nova Scotia. 
 
 Halifax, (25,000,) the capital, is situated on the west side of 
 a deep and capacious harbor, formerly called Chebucto Bay. 
 It was founded by Lord Cornwallis in 1749, when about 4000 
 colonists were sent out from Britain. It is built on the side 
 of a steep hill, crowned by the citadel, and is, next to Quebec, 
 the most strongly fortified city in British America. It con- 
 tains many fine edifices, — the Parliament and other public 
 buildings, churches, kc. It has also Her Majesty's Dockyard, 
 and is the naval station for the North American and West 
 Indian fleets, — the admiral generally residing here during the 
 summer. It carries on the principal shipping trade. 
 
 Pictou, (2800,) and the adjacent town, New Glasgow, (4400,) 
 derive their importance from the extensive coal mines in 
 the neighborhood. During the season of navigation their 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Prince Edward Island. —How is Prince 
 Edward Island separated from New Brunswick ? From Nova Scotia ? 
 In what gulf does it lie? What islands are to the north of Prince Edward 
 Island T To the east? What land lies to the west of it? How is 
 
 harbors are crowded with shipping. The coal was formerly 
 chiefly exported to the United States, but since the abrogation 
 of the Reciprocity Treaty, new markets have been formed for 
 it. Pictou has steam communication with Quebec. 
 
 Sydney, C. B,, (2500,) is also important as the centre of ex- 
 tensive coal mines, from which coal is extensively exported, 
 chiefly to the neighboring colonies. 
 
 Yarmouth, (4200,) Liverpool, (2900,) and Lunenburg, (3000,) 
 have a large amount of shipping, and are extensively engaged 
 in the fisheries. Windsor, (2300,) exports large quantities of 
 gypsum, and is the seat of the principal college. Annapolis, 
 formerly Port Royal, was, under the French, the principal city 
 in Nova Scotia, and was the scene of several conflicts. Truro, 
 Amherst, Antigonish, and Pugwash, are important rising 
 towns. Truro contains the provincial normal school. 
 
 What is the area of Nova Scotia ? 
 Population ? How many persons 
 are there to a square mile ? What 
 is its greatest extent? Capital? 
 What does Nova Scotia comprise ? 
 How is it bounded? How is it 
 divided? Name the counties and 
 their chief towns. How is each 
 county bounded ? Describe the 
 surface of Nova Scotia. Describe 
 the chains of hills. Trace them on 
 the map. What is the general 
 slope of the country? What is 
 said of the Atlantic shore and the 
 lakes? What islands belong to 
 Nova Scotia? Point them out on 
 the map. Where are they situated? 
 Describe Cape Breton. What is 
 said of the coast line ? Of the Bras 
 d'Or Lake? Name the principal 
 lakes of Nova Scotia. Point them 
 out on the map. Where are they 
 situated ? Name the principal 
 
 rivers. Trace their courses on the 
 map. Name the principal bays, 
 <fec. Point them out on the map. 
 Where are they situated ? What 
 is said of the Isle Madame? Name 
 the principal capes. Point them 
 out on the map. Where are they 
 situated? What is said of some of 
 them '( Desci'ibe the climate of ^ 
 Nova Scotia. The soil. The pro- 
 ducts. For what is Nova Scotia 
 important? What minerals does 
 it contain ? Where are they chiefly 
 found ? What is said of the fish- 
 eries? Of the railways ? Trace their 
 course on the map. What finan- 
 cial statistics are given? What" is 
 the form of government? Whatsis 
 said of education, &c. ? What his- 
 torical facts are given? Describe 
 the chief towns. Point them out 
 on the map, and state where they 
 are situated. 
 
 PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 
 
 Area, 2133 square miles; population, 85,000 ; persons to square mile, 40 ; 
 greatest extent from east to west, 130 miles ; and from north to 
 south, 34 miles. 
 
 Capital, Charlottetowx. 
 
 Prince Edward Island is situated in the Gulf of St Law- 
 rence, to the north of Nova Scotia, and between a part of New 
 Brunswick and Cape Breton. It is separated from the border 
 counties of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia by Northumber- 
 land Strait, which is 130 miles long, and from 9 to 30 miles 
 wide. It is divided into three counties — King's, Queen's, and 
 Prince's, which are subdivided into 67 lots of townships. 
 
 The surface of Prince Edward Island is gently undulating, 
 except in certain central districts which may be considered 
 hilly ; the whole presenting a charming agricultural aspect of 
 bill and dais. 
 
 Its northern outline resembles a, crescent, the two horns 
 being called North and East Capes. It is deeply indented 
 with bays, the largest of which, Hillsborough on the south, 
 and Richmond on the north, nearly divide it into three parts. 
 It has also numerous harbors, the principal of which are 
 Gharlottetown, Georgetown, Bedeque, Port Hill, Cascumpec, and 
 Souris. 
 
 The climate is temperate and healthy, and the soil remark- 
 
 Chartottetown situated? In what direction from Charlottetown is 
 Georgetown ? Bedeque ? Shediac 1 Pictou ? Halifax ? Sydney ? St 
 John ? Draw, as well as you can, a map of Prince Edward Island, 
 shewing its outline, principal towns, harbors, and capes. 
 
NOETH AMERICA. 
 
 23 
 
 ably fertile, and favorable for agriculture. Prince Edward 
 Island lias more land under cultivation, in proportion to its 
 size, than any of the other provinces. Potatoes, oats, and 
 barley are the sta|:>le productions, and are largely exported. 
 
 The lots or townships were originally granted by the British 
 Government to certain proprietors, nearly 100 in number, on 
 certain conditions, which have never been fulfilled, thus origin- 
 ating a "'land question" which is not yet settled. Many of 
 the townships have passed out of the hands of the original 
 proprietors, and the leasehold system, which was formerly in 
 practice, is disappearing year by year. The fertility of the 
 soil will induce a large population to make the island their 
 permanent home, and it is already the most densely peopled 
 of the British North American provinces. Shipbuilding is 
 carried on largely ; the fisheries in the Gulf give employment 
 to a large number of men, but are chiefly carried on by the 
 New England States. 
 
 A submarine telegraph connects the island with New Bruns- 
 wick, crossing the narrowest part of Northumberland Strait, 
 between Capes Tormentin and Traverse, a distance of 9 miles. 
 In winter the mails are carried over between the same points 
 in boats fitted for the ice or water. Navigation is wholly 
 obstructed from the end of December to the beginning of 
 April. 
 
 The imports of Prince Edward Island amount to about 
 1,503,000 dols., and the exports to rather more. The public 
 debt is 250,000 dols., and the revenue about 210,000 dols. 
 Since 1851 the population has increased 25,000, or nearly one- 
 half more than it was at that time. The form of government 
 is similar to that of the other colonies, consisting of a 
 Lieutenant-Governor, an Executive Council of 9 members, an 
 elective Legislative Council of 13 members, and a Legis- 
 lative Assembly of 30 members. Education is very liber- 
 ally supported, and is directly under control of the Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Prince Edward Island formerly belonged to France, but was 
 ceded to Britain in 1763, after the capture of Louisburg and 
 Cape Breton. It was called St John's Island till the begin- 
 ning of the present century. It was formed into a separate 
 province in 1770. 
 
 Charlottetown, (7000,) the capital, is situated on the north 
 side of a large, safe, and commodious harbor, formed by the 
 junction near the city of the East, North, and West Rivers. 
 The city is 3 miles from the entrance of the harbor, and is 
 built on gently rising ground, with very wide streets. The 
 Colonial Buildings, churches, and colleges are the principal 
 edifices. It carries on the principal trade of the island, and 
 is largely engaged in shipbuilding. It is also the county town 
 of Queen's County. 
 
 Georgetown, (800,) the county town of King's County, about 
 30 miles east of Charlottetown, is an important place, with a 
 fine harbor. Summerside, in Prince's County, about 40 miles 
 west of Charlottetown, on the north side of Bedeque Harbor, 
 is a rapidly rising town, with much shipbuilding, and im- 
 portant trade with New Brunswick. Princetown, on Richmond 
 Bay, is the county town of Prince's County. Many thriving 
 villages are springing up all over the island. 
 
 ! What is the area of Prince Ed- 
 ward Island ? Population ? Ex- 
 tent ? Capital? How is Prince 
 Edward Island situated? now is 
 it divided? Describe the surface. 
 The outline. Point out the princi- 
 pal capes. State where they are 
 situated. Name the principal bays 
 and harbors. Point them out on 
 the map. State where they are 
 situated. Describe the climate and 
 
 soil. The products. What is said 
 of the land tenure? Of the soil? 
 Of shipbuilding ? Of the fisheries ? 
 Of the telegraph ? Of the mails in 
 winter? What financial statistics 
 are given? Describe the form of 
 government. What is said of edu- 
 cation ? Of the political history of 
 the island ? Describe the chief 
 towns. Point them out on the map. 
 State where they are situated. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 
 Area, 37,000 square miles; population, 130,000; persons to sqnare 
 miles, 3 ; greatest extent from north to soutn, 350 milea ; breadth 
 from east to west, 300 miles. 
 
 Capital, St John's. 
 The Island of Newfoundland lies at the mouth of the Gulf 
 of St Lawrence. It is separated from Labrador on the North 
 by the Strait of Belle Isle, {about 12 miles in breadth,) and 
 is distant from Cape Breton, on the South-west, about 60 
 miles . 
 
 It is divided into 15 Electoral Districts •"— 
 St John's, East. Trinity. 
 
 St John's, West. Bonavista. 
 
 Harbor Grace. Twillingate and Fogo. 
 
 Carbonnear. Ferryland. 
 
 Harbor Maine. Placentia and St Mary's. 
 
 Port de Grave. Burin. 
 
 Bay de Terde. Fortune Bay. 
 
 Burgeo and La Poile. 
 
 The Government of Newfoundland includes also the coast 
 of Labrador for nearly 700 miles, from Anse Sablon to the en- 
 trance of Hudson Strait. The principal islands on the coast 
 are North and South Belle Isle, and Fogo Island. 
 
 The Island of Newfoundland is triangular in shape, but 
 the coast-line is deeply indented with numerous large bays. 
 The principal of these are :— 
 
 Conception, Trinity, Bonavista, Bay of Islands, and St George, 
 Notre Dame, and White Bays, on on the west. 
 
 the north coast. Fortune, Placentia, and StMary's 
 
 Bays, on the south. 
 
 As the bays extend deep into the land, they form numerous 
 peninsulas. The principal is the Peninsula of Avalon, which 
 contains nearly two-thirds of the whole population. 
 
 The principal Capes are: — 
 
 Eauld, on the north; Ray, Pt. May, Freels,\&iid Race, on the south; 
 
 and St Francis, BreaJcheart Pt., Bonavista, and Freels, on the east. 
 
 Cape Race was formerly the calling point of the Atlantic 
 steamships with late news from Europe, and a line of telegraph 
 connects it with Cape Kay, from which a submarine telegraph 
 line extends to Cape Breton, and thence over the continent. 
 After several failures, two Atlantic Telegraph Cables have 
 been successfully laid by British enterprise, and now connect 
 Newfoundland at Trinity Bay with Europe at Valentia Bay 
 in Ireland, by which wonderful enterprise the European news 
 is published in the Canadian newspapers on the same day as 
 the events occur. On the north and east coast the capes are 
 numerous, but of little importance. There has been no 
 thorough survey made of the island, which is but thinly in- 
 habited, especially in the west. The settlements which have 
 been made comprise only a, narrow strip along the coast, 
 scarcely ever extending more than a mile or two inland. 
 
 Exercises on thb Map — Newfoundland, (see Quebec.)— Give the 
 latitude and longitude of Newfoundland. How is Newfoundland 
 separated from Labrador ? Which is the nearest point to Cape Breton ? 
 Point out the Atlantic Cable terminus? How is St John's situated? 
 
 In what direction from St John's is Harbor Grace? Carbonnear? 
 Trinity Bay? Halifax? (See map B. A.) "What islands on the south, 
 coast belong to France? What island gives a name to the strait 
 dividing Newfoundland from the mainland? 
 
24 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 The surface of the island is hilly, varied with numerous 
 rivers, lakes, and marshes. The ranges of hills generally 
 run in short parallel chains, from north to south. The Blue 
 Mills in the interior are the principal. The chief river is the 
 River of Exploits, which flows almost across the island from 
 south-west to north-east, through George IV. and Red Indian 
 Lakes. 
 
 The other largest Lakes and Rivers are : — 
 
 Grand Pond, drained by the Number River ; Victoria, Jameson, and 
 Bathuvst Lakes, drained by Little River ; and Barrow Lake, drained 
 by Salmon River. 
 
 The climate of Newfoundland is cold and severe, owing to 
 the quantity of ice which is always round the island, brought 
 down by the winds and currents in enormous icebergs from 
 the Arctic Ocean. Fogs also prevail, especially on the banks, 
 being caused by the cold currents from the north meeting the 
 Gulf Stream. The soil, especially in the interior, is rocky and 
 barren, the principal crops being raised along the southern 
 shore ; and even there they generally require to be cut green 
 for fodder. Most of the supplies are brought from the 
 neighboring provinces. Copper and lead are said to be plenti- 
 ful in the island, but the mineral resources have not yet been 
 developed. 
 
 Newfoundland derives all its importance from its fisheries, 
 which are chiefly cod and seal. Nearly the whole population 
 is employed in the catching and curing of fish. The cod fish- 
 eries on tho Banks of Newfoundland are the greatest and most 
 important fisheries in the world. These Banks, as they are 
 called, are elevated plateaus at the bottom of the ocean, rising 
 far above the surrounding ground. The great Bank, situated 
 to the east and south of the island, extends about 600 miles in 
 length, and 200 in breadth. The depth of water on them varies 
 from 150 to over 500 feet, and they form the favorite feeding 
 ground of the cod fish. Besides the British, the French and 
 Americans carry on the fishery, almost to the same extent, 
 both nations having the privilege of fishing along the coast 
 of the island. The seal fishery is carried on chiefly on the 
 coast of Labrador, and on the northern coast of Newfound- 
 land. 
 
 The annual value of the exports of Newfoundland, consist- 
 ing chiefly of fish, is about 6,000,000 dols., or about 50 dols. 
 for every inhabitant. The imports are nearly the same amount, 
 and the annual revenue about 450,000 dols. The chief mar- 
 kets for fish are Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, Brazil, and 
 the West Indies, 
 
 The form of government is the same as in the other provin- 
 ces, consisting of a Governor, Executive Council of 6 members, 
 Legislative Council of 10 members, and Legislative Assembly 
 of 30 members, elected by the people. Responsible govern- 
 ment was granted in 1855. The population is nearly equally 
 divided between Protestants and Roman Catholics. 
 
 St John's, (27,000,) the capital, possesses a fine harbor, 
 almost surrounded by hills. It is the chief commercial 
 station on the island, and is the nearest town to Europe, being 
 only 1920 miles distant from Ireland. It was formerly built of 
 wood, but having been several times nearly destroyed by fire, 
 the lower part of the city is now built of brick. The great 
 fire of 1844 destroyed 4,000,000 dols. worth of property. 
 
 Harbor Grace and Carbonnear, each containing about fiOOO 
 inhabitants, are the next most important towns. Port dt 
 Grave, Brigus, Trinity, Greenspond, are also rising towns. 
 
 The islands of St Pierre, Langley, and Miquelon, lying to 
 the south of Newfoundland, belong to France, and are im- 
 portant as fishing stations, and as the only part now remain- 
 ing to the French of their once large possessions in North 
 America. 
 
 What is the area of Newfound- 
 land? Population? Extent? Ca- 
 pital ? How is Newfoundland situ- 
 ated? How is it separated from 
 the mainland? How is it divided? 
 What is also included in the go- 
 vernment? Name the principal 
 islands. Point them out on the 
 map. Where are they situated? 
 Describe the outline of Newfound- 
 land. Name the principal bays. 
 Point them out on the map. What 
 is said of peninsulas? Point out 
 the principal on the map. Name 
 the principal capes. Point them 
 out on the map. What is said of 
 Cape Race ? Whatwonderful enter- 
 prise connects Newfoundland with 
 
 Europe ? What is said of the other 
 capes ? Of the settlements, &c. ? 
 Describe the surface. The princi- 
 pal lakes and rivers. Point them 
 out on the map. Describe the cli- 
 mate of Newfoundland. The soil 
 and products. The minerals. From 
 what does Newfoundland derive its- 
 importance? What is said of the 
 fisheries ? Who carry them on ? 
 Of the banks of Newfoundland? 
 Of the seal fishery? What financial 
 statistics are given? What are the 
 chief markets for fish? What is 
 said of the government? Of the 
 religions? Describe the chief towns. 
 Point them out on the map. Where 
 are they situated? 
 
 HUDSON BAY TERRITORY. 
 
 Area, 2,000,000 square miles ; population, about 200,000 ; greatest ex- 
 tent from east to west, 3200 miles ; and from north to south, 1400 
 miles. 
 
 The greater part of British North America is at present in 
 the possession of a large trading company, called the Hudson 
 Bay Company. They hold all the tract of land extending from 
 Labrador to the Pacific, and from Canada and the United 
 States to the Arctic Ocean. They received the charter, grant- 
 ing them the exclusive right to the greater part of this terri- 
 tory, from Charles II., in 1670; the remainder having been 
 leased from another trading company called the North-West 
 Company. 
 
 The surface of this vast country is much diversified by ranges 
 of small hills, rivers, numerous lakes, and marshy tracts. The 
 great chain of the Rocky Mountains, on the west, extends 
 across the territory from the Arctic Ocean southwards, into 
 the United States, but the general slope of the country is in a 
 northerly direction, towards the Arctic Ocean and Hudson Bay. 
 
 Hudson Bay, from which the territory derives its name, is 
 a large inland sea, with numerous but barren and desolate 
 islands at its mouth, and connected with the Atlantic by 
 Hudson Strait. Around it, as well as its southern extremity, 
 James Bay, there is an extensive plain, bounded by ranges of 
 low but rugged hills, nearly parallel with the shore. On the 
 east are the Wotchish Mountains, which run from north to 
 south. The Laurentide Chain, extending through Canada as 
 far as the northern shores of Lakes Huron and Superior, is 
 continued into the Hudson Bay Territory, between Hudson 
 Bay and Lake "Winnipeg. A watershed stretches westward, 
 south of James Bay, until it meets the Laurentide Chain, and 
 divides the rivers of Canada from those flowing into Hudson 
 Bay. From the Rocky Mountains two small ranges extend in 
 an easterly direction, enclosing the fertile valley of the Saskat- 
 chewan. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Hudson Bay Territory— (British America.) 
 — How is the Hudson Bay Territory divided from British Columbia? 
 "What part of the United States lies to the north-west of it? Which of 
 its rivers flow into theArctic Ocean? Which into Hudson Bay? Which 
 
 into Lake Winnipeg? How are the Lakes of the Hudson Bay Territory 
 drained? Which British provinces adjoin the Hudson Bay Territory? 
 Which States or Territories of the United States adjoin the HudsoD Bay 
 Territory? Point out the principal mountain chains. 
 
NOKTH AMERICA. 
 
 25 
 
 The most remarkable feature of the Territory is the exten- 
 sive chain of lakes, forming an almost unbroken line of com- 
 munication from the head of Lake Superior to the Arctic 
 Ocean. The northern of these are drained by the rivers flow- 
 ing into the Arctic Ocean, the southern by those flowing into 
 Hudson Bay. The principal are : — 
 
 The Lake of the WooJs, Winnipeg, Winnipefio&s, Manitoba, Wollas- 
 toil, Deer, Athabasca, Great Slave, and Great Bear Lakes. 
 
 The Hudson Bay Territory is well watered, containing a 
 large number of rivers, the principal of which is the Mackenzie 
 River, formed by the junction of the Athabasca and Peace 
 Rivers, which rise near the highest summits of the Rocky 
 Mountains, and unite a little north of Athabasca Lake, through 
 the end of which the Athabasca River flows. After the junc- 
 tion, it flows through Great Slave Lake, drains Great Bear 
 Lake, and after a course of 2160 miles enters the Arctic Ocean 
 by a number of mouths. It is navigable for more than 1200 
 miles, but being frozen for the greater part of the year, can 
 never be of much service for commerce. The other principal 
 rivers are the Coppermine and Back Rivers, flowing into the 
 Arctic Ocean; the Saskatchewan, north and south branches, 
 and Reel Rivers, flowing into Lake "Winnipeg. The Saskat- 
 chewan is navigable for boats for upwards of 700 miles ; the 
 Red River rises in the United States, nearly interlocking with 
 the Mississippi, and receives the Assiniboinc on the west bank ; 
 it is navigable for light-draught steamboats for upwards of 
 300 miles. The Churchill, Nelson, and Severn Rivers, besides 
 numerous smaller streams, flow into Hudson Bay, and the 
 Albany, East Main, and other rivers, flow into James Bay. 
 
 The climate and soil of the Hudson Bay Territory may be 
 divided into two distinct regions. The smallest, extending 
 from the Lake of the Woods along the valleys of the Assini- 
 boine and Saskatchewan to the Rocky Mountains, enjoys a 
 climate equal to that of Ontario, although so much farther 
 north, but with rather greater extremes of heat and cold. 
 This temperate region is from 80 to 100 miles in breadth, and 
 is capable of producing the same grains as Canada, and quite 
 as abundantly. It is also admirably adapted for pasture ; the 
 great prairies, even as far north as Lake Athabasca, furnish 
 abundance of nutritious grasses, and are frequented by vast 
 herds of buffalo even in winter. The other region lies north 
 and east of this. It is cold, bleak, and barren, except along 
 the Mackenzie River, which is well wooded. In the Saskat- 
 chewan "Valley iron and coal abound, and gold is found. 
 Coal, copper, and lead are found also as far as the Arctic 
 Ocean. 
 
 The Hudson Bay Company have upwards of 100 forts 
 scattered over various parts of the country for the purpose of 
 collecting furs, which forms their chief trade. The principal 
 are Fort Garry and. Stone Fort, in the colony of Red River; 
 York Fort, on the shore of Hudson Bay ; Moose Fort, on 
 James Bay ; and Fort Vancouver, at the mouth of the Colum- 
 bia River on the Pacific. The Company employs about 3000 
 persons. The population of the whole of this vast country 
 does not amount to more than 200,000, composed, to a great 
 extent, of half-breeds and Indians. The Territory is divided 
 
 Exercises on the Map — British America. — What lakes lie between 
 Red River settlement and Lake Superior ? What river fluffs with Red 
 Rivet* from the west? Where does the Saskatchewan rise? Where is 
 Fort William situated? Where does the Eraser River rise? What 
 
 into four sections, Northern, Southern, Montreal, and Colum- 
 bia, and these are again subdivided into a number of districts. 
 The government is in the hands of a Governor and Council 
 in England, and the trade is managed by the resident chief 
 traders and chief factors, the latter holding the highest posts 
 in the service. Some of the principal forts or posts have a com- 
 plement of thirty or forty men, but most of them have only 
 about four or five. Vessels generally arrive at and leave York 
 and Moose Forts once u year, for the transport of goods be- 
 tween the Territory and England. The Indians inhabiting 
 the country are the Crees round Hudson Bay, and the Seaul- 
 teaux farther in the interior, both inoffensive tribes, subsist- 
 ing by trapping and fishing ; and farther west, in the vast 
 prairies, are the more warlike Sioux, Blackfeet, Crows, Flat- 
 heads, and other tribes living on the produce of the chase. 
 
 What is the area of the Hudson 
 Bay Territory? Population? Ex- 
 tent ? To whom does the Territory 
 belong? Howisitbounded? From 
 
 whom did the Company receive the 
 Territory? Describe the surface of 
 the country. Describe Hudson 
 Bay. The mountains and hills. 
 Trace them on the map. What is 
 a remarkable feature of the coun- 
 try 1 Name the principal lakes. 
 Point them out on the map. De- 
 scribe the principal rivers. Trace 
 
 them on the map. Describe the 
 climate and soil. How may the 
 country be divided ? Describe the 
 regions into which it may be di- 
 vided. Trace them on the map. 
 What is said of the forts of the 
 Company? Name the principal. 
 Point them out on the map. What 
 is said of the people? How is the 
 Territory divided? What is said 
 of the government? Of the man- 
 agement of the forts? Of vessels 
 to Hudson Bay? Of the Indians.' 
 
 THE RED RIVER SETTLEMENT. 
 
 This settlement, formerly only a trading post of the Hudson 
 Bay Company, was founded by Lord Selkirk in 1812, when he 
 sent out a considerable number of emigrants to form the 
 nucleus of a new colony upon the borders of the prairies. 
 After undergoing many privations, the colony has now in- 
 creased to about 7000 inhabitants, and is rapidly improving. 
 
 The Red River Settlement or district of Assiniboine, comprises 
 u circuit of about 60 miles from Fort Garry; including the 
 valley of the Red River from the United States boundary, near 
 Pembina, to Lake "Winnipeg, and the adjacent territory east 
 and west. 
 
 The country consists of vast prairies, covered with grass, 
 with scarcely a tree except on the banks of the rivers. The 
 climate resembles that of Ontario, and the soil is very fertile, 
 producing wheat and other grains in abundance ; but, owing 
 to the want of a market for their surplus productions, the 
 enterprise of the settlers is much fettered. In the spring 
 and fall, buffalo hunting gives employment to all who choose 
 to engage in it, and a large trade is carried on by the inhabi- 
 tants in furs and skins, which are exported byway of Pembina 
 in Minnesota. 
 
 The principal trade of the colony is carried on with Canada 
 and the United States. 
 
 A large number of the inhabitants are half-breeds. The 
 population is about equally divided between Protestants und 
 Roman Catholics. 
 
 Fort Garry, the principal settlement, is situated at the con- 
 fluence of the Red River and Assiniboine. It is the seat of 
 the local government of the district, and the principal trading 
 post of the Company, and is rapidly rising in importance. The 
 
 river forms the northern boundary of British Columbia? Where does 
 the Red River rise? What large river in the United States rises 
 near Lake Superior? In what direction from Ontario is thy Hudson 
 
26 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Courts appointed by the Company for the preservation of the 
 laws meet there. There are six churches in the settlement. 
 
 The only line of communication with Canada now existing 
 lies through Minnesota in the United States, Pembina being 
 the nearest point. A steamboat runs on the Red River, but 
 the navigation is much impeded by shallows. This route is. 
 however, much used by the Company, in preference to that by 
 York Fort on Hudson Bay, for carriage of goods between the 
 territory and England. A road is now being constructed from 
 Fort "William at the head of Lake Superior, but the country 
 through which this route passes is yet unsurveyed and un- 
 settled. Before many years, Red River Settlement will, no 
 doubt, form an important point on the proposed line of rail- 
 way from Canada to British Columbia. The settlers have 
 for years agitated the formation of the settlement into a crown 
 colony, believing that their interests have been made subordi- 
 nate to those of the Company ; and the Government of Canada 
 will probably before long possess the whole territory, the 
 Imperial Government having made proposals to that effect. 
 
 How was Red River Settlement 
 formed? How has it progressed? 
 What territory does it comprise? 
 Point it out on the map. Describe 
 the country. The climate, soil, and 
 products. What is said of hunting ? 
 With whom is the principal trade 
 
 carried on ? What is said of the 
 inhabitants ? Describe Fort G-arry. 
 What means of communication are 
 there ? What efforts are now being 
 made? Whatissaidof theprospects 
 of the settlement? What change 
 of government is beiDg made ? 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 Area, 225,000 square miles ; greatest extent from north to south, 50D 
 miles ; and from east to west, 400 miles. 
 
 Capital, New Westminster. 
 
 British Columbia now consists of two parts — Vancouver 
 Island and the mainland or British Columbia proper. 
 
 British Columbia is bounded on the North by the Simpson 
 River, and the Finlay branch of the Peace River ; on the West 
 by the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Georgia, which separates 
 it from Vancouver Island ; on the South by the 49° of north 
 latitude, the boundary of the United States ; and on the East 
 by the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 It was formerly in the possession of the Hudson Bay Com- 
 pany, but in 185S was given up to the crown and formed into 
 a separate colony. 
 
 The colony is divided into eight districts, forming five for 
 electoral purposes. They are : — 
 
 New Westminster. j Cariboo East. 
 
 Hope, Yale, and Lytton. | Cariboo West. 
 
 Douglas and Lillooet. 
 
 The surface of British Columbia is in general mountainous, 
 and intersected by numerous lakes and rivers. The Rocky 
 Mountains, which form the eastern boundary, extend from 
 north to south in two parallel chains, the eastern being the 
 main and most important chain, containing the highest peaks 
 in the whole range, Mounts Brown and Hooker, each about 
 15,700 feet high. On the west the Cascade Range extends 
 northwards from the United States, close along the whole 
 Pacific coast, and a spur from this range, north of the Simp- 
 son river, almost encloses the country on the north. The 
 most important part of the country lies between the Rocky 
 
 Mountains and the Cascade Range, forming the valley of the 
 Fraser River, along the course of which the recent valuable 
 discoveries of gold have been made. 
 
 British Columbia is watered by several large rivers. Tho 
 Fraser River, rising in the main chain of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, flows through a gap in the smaller chain, where it 
 receives the Stuart River from the north, then following a 
 southern course, it receives the Thompson River, and flows into 
 the Gulf of Georgia, after a course of about 450 miles. The 
 Peace River, and its northern branch the Finlay River, rise in 
 the northern part of the valley, between the Rocky Mountain 
 chains, and flow eastward to form the Mackenzie River. 
 The Columbia River, the most important river on the Pacific 
 coast, rises in the southern part of the same valley, and flows 
 south through the United States into the Pacific Ocean, after 
 a course of about 1000 miles. The Simpson River, forming 
 the northern boundary, flows into the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The coast-line of British Columbia is much broken, with 
 numerous islands, deep inlets and bays ; the principal island 
 after Vancouver Island is Queen Cliarlotte Island, about 150 
 miles long and 60 broad, hilly, and well wooded. 
 
 The climate of British Columbia is temperate, and much 
 warmer than in the same latitude on the east coast of the con- 
 tinent. 
 
 The soil is in general fertile, especially in the interior, and 
 well adapted both for agriculture and pasturage, although as 
 yet, Owing to its being so lately settled, but little progress has 
 been made in either. It is also well wooded, and possesses ex- 
 tensive beds of coal and other valuable minerals. Between 
 the Cascade Range and the coast are magnificent forests of 
 Douglas pine. 
 
 British Columbia derives its chief importance from the rich 
 and extensive gold discoveries which have been made princi- 
 pally along the course of the Fraser River. The influx of 
 miners and gold-seekers since its first discovery in 1858 has 
 been very great ; before that time it was a perfect wilder- 
 ness, inhabited almost entirely by Indians. The exports of 
 gold in 1862 amounted to nearly 10,000,000 dols. ; and imports, 
 of provisions, &c, to about 2\ millions. The revenue now 
 amounts to more than 800,000 dols., and is fast increasing, 
 so that, in all probability, before very long, British Columbia 
 will equal California for prosperity. 
 
 From the year 1858, when British Columbia and Vancouver 
 Island became Crown colonies, till the year 18G6, each colony 
 had a governor and legislature of its own ; but in that year a 
 legislative union was effected in compliance with the wishes 
 of the people of both colonies. The united colonies take the 
 name of British Columbia, and the legislature consists of a 
 Governor appointed by the Queen, and a Legislative Council 
 of 22 members, 13 of whom are appointed by the Crown, 
 and 9 elected by the people. Of the elective members, 5 
 represent the mainland, and 4 Vancouver Island, the terra 
 for which they are chosen being only two years. The popu- 
 lation of both colonies is very fluctuating, and, after several 
 years of great depression, was, in 1866, estimated not to ex- 
 ceed 20,000 persons, exclusive of Indians and Chinese, whu 
 number about 40,000. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— British America.— In what direction is 
 Red River Settlement from Lake Superior? Which of the United 
 States is it nearest to? Which is the nearest place in the United 
 States? From what river does it take its name? Where does this 
 
 river empty? How is British Columbia separated from the Hudson 
 Bay Territory on the West? On the North? How is it separated from 
 "Vancouver Island? From the United States? Where do its principal 
 rivers empty? On what river is New Westminster situated? 
 

 
 
 
 S E A «? 
 
 
 II AMERICA ^.1 
 
 Lun£itacla "West of G 
 
 TA-MT T.R r. ATJP^-F.T.T, & SON. TORONTO 
 
NOETH AMERICA. 
 
 27 
 
 New Westminster, the capital, is situated near the mouth of 
 the Fraser River. Fort Langley, about 50 miles higher up on 
 the river, Yah, Lytton, and other forts in various parts of the 
 country, are the principal settlements. 
 
 The Stickecn Territory extends from the north of British 
 Columbia to the Liard River, and is also rich in gold. 
 
 The soil. From what does British 
 Columbia derive its importance ? 
 What progress has itmade? What 
 financial statistics are given ? What 
 are the prospects of the colony? 
 What is said of the government ? 
 What other colony has lately been 
 united with it? How are the 
 united colonics governed? What 
 is the estimated white population? 
 Name the chief towns and settle- 
 ments. Point them out on the map. 
 What territory adjoins British 
 Columbia? Howisit situated? For 
 what is it valuable ? 
 
 What is the area of British Co- 
 lumbia? Extent? Capital? How 
 is British Columbia bounded ? 
 Point out the boundaries on the 
 map. To whom did it formerly 
 belong? How is it divided? De- 
 scribe the surface. The principal 
 mountains. Trace them on the 
 map. Where is the most important 
 part of the country situated '( What 
 is said of the rivers? Describe the 
 principal. Trace their courses on 
 the map. Describe the coast-line. 
 The principal island. Point it out 
 on the map. Describe the climate. 
 
 VANCOUVER ISLAND. 
 
 Area, 13,000 square miles ; persons to square mile, 2 ; greatest extent 
 
 from north to south, 2S0 miles ; and from east to west, 60 miles. 
 
 , Capital, Victokia. 
 
 Vancouver Island, now united with the mainland as one 
 colony, under the name of British Columbia, is situated in the 
 Pacific Ocean, and is separated from British Columbia by 
 Queen Charlotte Sound, and the G-ulf of Georgia, and from 
 the United States by San Juan de Fuca Strait. 
 
 The surface is mountainous, diversified with extensive plains, 
 and covered with dense forests. 
 
 The climate is warm but healthy, and the soil productive, 
 but not yet much cultivated. 
 
 It owes its chief importance to its extensive coal mines, and 
 carries on also a considerable trade in lumber, furs, and fish. 
 It forms the commercial depdt for British Columbia. 
 
 The trade of Vancouver Island has largely increased since 
 the gold discoveries in British Columbia, the imports now 
 amounting to about four million dollars. 
 
 Vancouver Island was formerly in the possession of the 
 Hudson Bay Company, but was given up by them in 1858. 
 A separate government had been previously granted in 1849. 
 After a short existence as a separate colony, it has lately been 
 united with the adjoining colony of British Columbia, having 
 one common government, with proportionate representation in 
 the Legislative Council of the united colonies. 
 
 Victoria, the capital both of the island and of the whole 
 coloDy, is situated on the south of the island, and possesses 
 an excellent harbor. It carries on the principal trade of the 
 colony, its shipping is considerable, and it is rapidly rising in 
 importance. At Nanaimo are important coal mines. 
 
 What is the area of Vancouver 
 Island? Population ? Extent ? 
 Capital? How is A r ancouver Is- 
 land situated ? How is it bounded ? 
 Describe the surface. The climate. 
 Tu what does it owe its importance ? 
 
 What is said of its trade ? To 
 whom did it formerly belong ? 
 What is the political state of the 
 colony? Describe the chief towns. 
 Point them out on the map. Where 
 are they situated ? 
 
 THE ARCTIC REGIONS. 
 
 The Arctic Regions extend from Davis Strait on the East, 
 
 to Behring Strait on the West, along the shores and in the 
 
 waters of the Arctic Ocean. They comprise numerous islands, 
 peninsulas, gulfs, bays, sounds, and straits, and are chiefly 
 interesting as having been the scene of numerous brave and 
 determined attempts to find a highway to the west by means 
 of the Arctic Ocean. No practical benefit has resulted from 
 these expeditions, as the seas are sometimes ice-bound for 
 years, or else filled with enormous icebergs. That a passage 
 does exist was definitely discovered by M'Clure in 1850-51, 
 when he found that Barrow and Banks (or M'Clure) Straits 
 unite in Melville Sound, The Arctic Ocean is much more 
 open on the west than on the east, and from Banks Strait 
 navigation is uninterrupted by islands as far as Behring Strait, 
 but the sea is almost continually filled with ice. 
 
 The most important expeditions have been sent out by the 
 British Government during this century, and several also from 
 the United States. The most interesting, and also the most 
 unfortunate, was that of Sir John Franklin, which sailed in 
 1815, and the fate of which was long unknown. No less than 
 twenty-seven expeditions were sent out in search of him, with 
 but little success, until, in 1854, the remains of several men 
 and articles belonging to his expedition were discovered by 
 Dr Rae in King William Land, and some years later other 
 remains were found by Captain M'Clintock and others, proving 
 conclusively that the whole party had miserably perished. 
 
 On the Coppermine and Back or Great Fish Rivers extensive 
 beds of coal have been found, but they are not likely to be 
 worked, until those of more temperate latitudes are quite ex- 
 hausted. 
 
 Where do the Arctic regions ex- 
 tend? What do they comprise? 
 Tor what are they interesting ? 
 What is said of the expeditions? 
 What has been discovered? What 
 
 is said of the western part of the 
 Arctic Ocean ? What is said of the 
 most important expeditions? Of 
 Sir John Franklin ? What is said 
 of minerals? 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Area, 0,400,000 square miles ; population, 35,000,000 ; persons to square 
 mile, 10 ; greatest extent from north to south, 1600 miles ; and 
 from east to west, 2700 miles ; about the same size as British North. 
 America. 
 
 Capital, Washington. 
 
 The United States of America are bounded on the 
 North, — with the exception of the newly-acquired terri- 
 tory of Alaska, which lies to the west of the Hudson 
 Bay Territory and north of British Columbia, — by 
 British America ; on the West by the Pacific Ocean ; 
 on the South by Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico ; and 
 on the East by the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 They comprise thirty-seven states, one federal district, and 
 ten territories, united under one central government. 
 
 Two great mountain chains, the Rocky Mountains on the 
 west, and the Alleghany Mountains or Appalachian Chain on 
 the east, divide the country into three regions : the Atlantic 
 slope from the Alleghanies to the Atlantic Ocean ; the Great 
 Central Plain, or valley of the Mississippi ; and the vast plain 
 or plateau between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific 
 coast. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Bimisn Columbia, &c— How is Vancouver 
 Island divided from the mainland? "What large island lies to the north 
 of it? "What small island tothes^uth-east? What is its northern point 
 called ? What is the nearest point in the United States called ? 
 
 British America.— What large rivers flow through the Arctic 
 Regions ? What straits and sounds form a channel from east to west 
 in the Arctic Ocean? Point th^m out on the map. Give the boundaries 
 of Baffin's Bay. 
 
28 
 
 NOETH AMERICA. 
 
 The Rocky Mountains form the principal chain, extending 
 from British Columbia to the Cordilleras of Mexico. They 
 occupy from 40 to 100 miles in breadth. Their highest sum- 
 mits in the United States are Fremont's Peak, 13,600 feet, and 
 James's Peak, 11,500 feet high. Along the Pacific coast are 
 several chains of mountains, some peaks rising even higher 
 than the Rocky Mountains. They are : — the Coast Range and 
 the parallel range of the Sierra Nevada, enclosing Sacramento 
 "Valley, the gold region of California ; and the Cascade Range 
 in Oregon, extending into British Columbia, with the towering 
 peaks, Baker, Hood, Jefferson, St Helen, &c, each rising over 
 15,000 feet. 
 
 The Alleghany Mountains extend from the Peninsula of 
 Gaspe, in Canada, to the north of Alabama, and are known by 
 different names, according to the States which they traverse, 
 (p. 11. ) The highest peaks are in the White Mountains ; but 
 they seldom exceed 5000 feet, and are generally not more than 
 3000 feet high. 
 
 The United States are particularly noted for their numerous 
 and important rivers, and no country in the world possesses 
 such an extent of water communication. The estimated length 
 of the navigable rivers ismore than 47,000 miles. 
 
 The Mississippi rises in Lake Itasca, in Minnesota, near 
 Lake Superior, and receives as affluents the Wisconsin, Illinois, 
 and Ohio, (with its affluents the Cumberland and Tennessee 
 Rivers, ) on the east bank ; the Missouri, (with its affluent the 
 Platte,) the Arkansas and Red Rivers, on the west bank ; and 
 flows into the Gulf of Mexico by a number of mouths, after a 
 course of 3160 miles. The course of the Missouri is even longer 
 than that of the Mississippi, being over 3000 miles before 
 joining the latter, or about 4500 miles in all, thus forming the 
 longest river in the world. All these rivers are navigable 
 throughout the greater part of their course, either by steam- 
 boats, (for the great size and light draught of which the Mis- 
 sissippi is famouB,) or by flat-boats, which bring the produce 
 of the Northern States down to New Orleans. 
 
 The Brazos, Colorado, (in Texa3,) and Rio Grande del 
 Norte, the latter forming the boundary between the United 
 States and Mexico, flow into the Gulf of Mexico west of 
 the Mississippi; and the Alabama and other rivers east 
 of it. 
 
 The Penobscot, Connecticut, Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, 
 Potomac, James, Roanoke, and Savannah, besides numerous 
 other smaller and less important rivers, flow into the Atlantic. 
 
 The Colorado, (another river of the same name,) flows into 
 the Gulf of California ; and the Sacramento and Columbia 
 Rivers flow into the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The Great Lakes of Canada all adjoin the United States, 
 Lake Michigan being entirely within their territory ; besides 
 these are Lakes Champlain and George, and numerous smaller 
 lakes in New York, Minnesota, and other States, and the Great 
 Salt Lake in Utah. 
 
 The coast-line of the United States is very little broken, 
 tut along the Atlantic coast are numerous small Islands 
 and sand-banks of little value ; Long Island, Rhode Island, 
 Nantucket, and a few small islands adjoining, being the 
 principal. 
 
 The bays are chiefly the mouths of the rivers. 
 The principal Bays, Straits, &c, are : 
 
 On the east coast, Penobscot and 
 Massachusetts Bays, Long Island 
 Sound, Delaware and Chesapeake 
 Bays, Pamlico and Albemarle 
 Sounds, Strait of Florida, Appala- 
 
 chie Bay, and Galveston and Mata- 
 gorda Bays. 
 
 On the west coast are, San Fran- 
 cisco and Columbia Bays, San 
 Juan de Fuca Strait, and Ad- 
 miralty Inlet. 
 
 The principal Capes are : — 
 Oa the es.st coast, Ann, Cod, Mon-\ On the west coast are, Point 
 tank Point. May, Charles, Henry, Conception, Mendocino, Blanco, and 
 Hatteras, SoMe, and St Bias. \ Flattery. 
 
 As the territory occupied by the United States extends 
 over 24" of latitude, or a distance of about 1600 miles from 
 north to south, the climate varies very much with the locality. 
 It is temperate in the north, and hot in the south. Along 
 the south-eastern coast are numerous large swamps, and the 
 rivers are sluggish in their course, rendering the climate very 
 unhealthy for the white'population. In the interior it is hot, 
 but more healthy. On the Pacific coast, owing to the prox- 
 imity of the mountains to the sea, it is much more moist than 
 on the eastern coast. 
 
 The soil is in general rich and productive, especially in the 
 Great Central Plain or Mississippi Valley. In the north- 
 eastern States it is more rocky and barren, but everywhere well 
 cultivated. On both sides of the Rocky Mountains, but more 
 especially on the high plateau between that range and Cali- 
 fornia, are arid, desert tracts of country. In the Great Central 
 Plain almost all the country west of the Ohio River consists of 
 vast prairies covered with tall grass, and easily cultivated, but 
 with little timber. In the Northern and "Western States grain 
 is the chief production ; principally wheat and Indian corn. 
 Cattle are also extensively reared. In the Middle States, tobacco 
 and Indian corn are the staples, and in the Southern States, 
 cotton, sugar, and rice. 
 
 Gold, iron, copper, lead, quicksilver, and coal are found in 
 great abundance. Gold and quicksilver chiefly in California ; 
 iron, coal, and petroleum in the western parts of Pennsylvania, 
 in Virginia, and also in Ohio ; and copper and lead in Michi- 
 gan and "Wisconsin. 
 
 The Western States so called, or those occupying the 
 northern part of the Great Central Plain, are the chief sources 
 of the supplies of the South and East ; the Mississippi forming 
 the great channel of communication for the exchange of the 
 grain and cattle of the North, for the sugar, cotton, and other 
 products of the South. 
 
 The United States have been peopled principally by settlers 
 from Great Britain and Ireland, and from Germany, although 
 the native born population, descended from the earlier settlers, 
 now largely predominates. 
 
 The form of government is a Federal Republic. 
 
 Each State is a separate Republic, makes its own laws, pos- 
 sesses exclusive control of all local interests, and is governed 
 by a Governor, Senate, and House of Representatives, all 
 elected by the people. 
 
 The General Government regulates all affairs relating to com- 
 merce, the defence, and general interests of the country. It 
 consists of a President, Vice-President, and a Congress, con- 
 sisting of a Senate and House of Representatives. 
 
 Exercises on the Map — United States. — How are the United States 
 separated from Canada ? From Mexico ? What peninsula extends into 
 the Atlantic on the south-east? What peninsula extends into the 
 Pacific on the south-west t What islands are near Florida' What 
 
 large gulf is there to the south of the United States ? How is it nearly 
 
 enclosed ? What large rivers flow into it ? What large rivers of the 
 
 United States flow into the Atlantic Ocean? Into the Pacific Ocean? 
 Into the Gulf of California ? 
 
lonffUiidc Wast 85 of Gr&roYuA/ 
 
 JAMES CAMPBELL & SOH.TjR.0W~ 
 
NOETH AMERICA. 
 
 The President and Vice-President arc chosen every four years 
 by electors chosen by the people, each State being entitled to 
 as many electors as it has members of Congress. 
 
 The Senate is composed of two members from each State, 
 chosen by its legislature for a term of six years. 
 
 The representatives of the people are chosen every two years, 
 each State being entitled to one member for every 124,000 of 
 its inhabitants. 
 
 The territories of the United States are under the direct 
 control of the General Government, until they have a suffi- 
 ciently large population to entitle them to representation in 
 Congress, when they are formed into separate States, and are 
 entitled to the same prhileges as the others. 
 
 The United States were formerly British Colonies, and in 
 order to avoid the taxation which Britain wished to impose on 
 them, declared their independence in 1770, and after some 
 years of war, were finally acknowledged independent by Great 
 Britain in 1783. They then consisted of thirteen States — New 
 Hampshire, Massachusetts, Ehode Island, Connecticut, New 
 York, New Jersey, Pennslyvania, Delaware, Maryland, Vir- 
 ginia, North and South Caroliuas, and Georgia. The popula- 
 tion then amounted to 3,000,000, or about one-tenth of what 
 it now is. 
 
 Until lately negro slavery existed in all the Southern States 
 of the Union, and was the cause of constant dissensions between 
 them and the free States of the north and west. These dis- 
 sensions finally culminated in a prolonged and most bloody 
 war, which lasted from the election of President Lincoln, 
 early in 1861, until near the end of his four years' term of 
 office in 1805. The result was the entire overthrow of the 
 slave-holding power of the South, and the securing to the 
 black population of their personal freedom, and all the other 
 rights and privileges of their white fellow-citizens. 
 
 The United States present the most remarkable example of 
 rapid progress and successful enterprise in the world. Although 
 not more than eighty-six years old, their foreign exports now 
 amount to 373,000,000 dols., their imports to nearly as much, 
 and their shipping to nearly 5,500,000 tons. General Govern- 
 ment is 500,000,000 dols. Their national debt has largely 
 increased, owing to the present war, and is now over 
 2,000,000,000 dols., besides the debts contracted by the 
 separate States. 
 
 There is no country in the world, with the exception of 
 Great Britain, which possesses such a complete network of 
 railways and canals. 
 
 There is no established religion in the United States, every 
 denomination possessing equal privileges. Education, espe- 
 cially in the Northern and Eastern States, is carefully at- 
 tended to, under the management of the different State 
 Governments. 
 
 Each State is divided into counties, the same as in the 
 British provinces. 
 
 The States are usually classed under the heads of Eastern, 
 Middle, Southern, and Western States. 
 
 What is the area of the United j bounded? Point out the bounda- 
 States? Population? Extent? Size? ries on the map. What do they 
 Capital? How are the United States | comprise? Name the principal 
 
 mountain chains. How do they 
 divide tho country? Describe the 
 Rocky Mountains. The Mountains 
 of the Pacific. The Alleghany 
 Mountains. Trace them on the 
 map. For what are the United 
 States noted ? Describe the course 
 of the Mississippi. Trace it on the 
 map. Name the other principal 
 rivers. Where do they rise? Where 
 do they flow? Trace their courses 
 on the map. What lakes are in, 
 or border on, the United States? 
 Describe the coast-line. Name the 
 principal bays, straits, Ac. Where 
 are they situated ? Point them out 
 on the map. Name the principal 
 capes. In what States are they? 
 Point them out on the map. De- 
 scribe the climate of the United 
 States. Describe the soil. What i 
 are the principal products ? What i 
 
 29 
 
 are the principal minerals, and 
 where are they found? What is 
 said of the Western States? For 
 what is the Mississippi useful? 
 How have the United States been 
 peopled? Describe the form of 
 government of the States. The 
 General Government. What is the 
 position of the Territories of the 
 United States? Describe the United 
 States when British Colonies. What 
 institution was peculiar to the 
 Southern States? What has been 
 the result of the late civil war? 
 What is the amount of the debt of 
 the United States ? For what are 
 they remarkable? Are their means 
 of inland communication exten- 
 sive? What is the state of religion 
 and education in the country? How 
 is each State divided ? How are 
 all the States classed? 
 
 Chiof Towns. 
 Augusta, Portland, Bangor, 
 Concord, Portsmouth, Manchester. 
 Montpelier, Micldlebury, Burlington. 
 Boston, Lowell, Springfield, New Bedford. 
 Providence, Newport. 
 Hartford, Newhaven, Bridgeport. 
 
 EASTERN STATES. 
 
 The Eastern States, or New England, as they are some- 
 times called, comprise— 
 
 States. 
 
 Maine, 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Rhode Island, 
 
 Connecticut, . 
 
 The New England States occupy the north-eastern portion 
 of the United States, adjoining Canada. The country is 
 mountainous, and intersected by numerous lakes and rivers. 
 The Appalachian chain extends through the northern part of 
 the country, under the name of the drcai Mountains in Ver- 
 mont, and the White Mo untainsin New Hampshire and Maine; 
 the latter are so called from some of their summits rising over 
 G00O feet high, and being covered with snow for a great part of 
 the year. The Connecticut River runs from north to south, 
 between and through four of the States, into Long Island 
 Sound. 
 
 The coast-line is much broken, and indented with numerous 
 bays and harbors, with many small islands. The coast is 
 rocky, and dangerous for navigation. 
 
 The climate resembles that of Ontario, but is rather colder 
 in Maine. The soil is in general rocky, and not well adapted 
 for agriculture ; but it is, especially in Vermont, favorable 
 for pasture. 
 
 The New England States are especially noted as being 
 the principal manufacturing districts of the United States. 
 They were originally settled by the "Pilgrims," or "Puritans," 
 — religious refugees who left England during the reign of 
 James I. and Charles I. 
 
 Maine possesses fine harbors. The principal trade is in 
 lumber and the fisheries. Lumbering is carried on extensively 
 in the northern part, chiefly on the St John River and its 
 tributaries, and on the Penobscot. 
 
 Augusta, (12,500,) the capital, is situated on the Kennebec 
 Paver. Portland, (26,000,) the largest and most important 
 town, has a fine harbor, and is much resorted to for sea- 
 bathing. The Grand Trunk Hallway terminus is at Portland, 
 
 Exercises on the Map— United States.— Which States are on 
 the Atlantic coast? Which on the Pacific? Which on the Gulf of 
 Mexico ? Which States adjoin Canada ? Which adjoin the other British 
 possessions? Which adjoin Mexico? Which States border on the 
 
 great Northern Lakes? Past what States does the Mississippi flow? The 
 Missouri? The Ohio? The Arkansas? The Red River? The Rio 
 Grande? TheColumbia? TheConnccticut? The Susquehanna? "Which 
 
 is the largest State ? Next so ? Which the smallest ? 
 
30 
 
 NORTH AMERICA, 
 
 and it forms also the ■winter seaport for the Canadian steam- 
 ships. Bangor, (16,500,) is the second town in importance, 
 and carries on a large lumber trade. 
 
 New Hampshire is very mountainous, and is celebrated for 
 its beautiful scenery. It possesses very little sea-coast. The 
 principal occupations of the inhabitants are agricnlture and 
 rearing cattle. 
 
 Concord (10,900) is the capital. Portsmouth (9700) possesses 
 a fine harbor, and carries on extensive fisheries. Manchester, 
 Dover, and Nashua are manufacturing towns. 
 
 Vermont is an inland State, intersected by the Green Moun- 
 tains, which afford excellent and abundant pasture to large 
 herds of cattle. Eetween Vermont and New York States lies 
 Lake Champlain, which, with Lake George, is celebrated for its 
 beautiful scenery, and for having been the sceneof manybattles, 
 in the colonial times, between the French and English. 
 During the revolutionary war, also, Vermont was often a scene 
 of strife. 
 
 Montpelicr (4000) is the capital. Middlebury and Burlington 
 possess colleges. 
 
 Massachusetts is the richest and most populous of the 
 Eastern States ; and the most important- state in the Union for 
 manufactures, chiefly consisting of cotton, woollen, and leather 
 goods. 
 
 The surface is hilly, and the soil rocky and poor, but care- 
 fully cultivated. 
 
 Its coast is very irregular ; a semicircular peninsula, termin- 
 ated by Cape Cod, extends from the south-east into the 
 Atlantic. The islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard 
 lie to the south of this peninsula. It possesses many fine har- 
 bors, and carries on the principal part of the American cod 
 fishery on the banks of Newfoundland, as well as the whale 
 fishery. 
 
 Boston, (17SjO0O,) the capital, is an elegant city, situated on 
 a peninsula at the head of Massachusetts Bay. It possesses, 
 next to New York, the largest shipping trade of any city in 
 the United States, and carries on extensive manufactures, 
 especially in boots and shoes. 
 
 Loivell, (37,000,) Springfield, (21,600,) Lynn, Fall River, and 
 Worcester, are large and important manufacturing towns, 
 producing chiefly cotton and woollen goods, and boots and 
 shoes. Marblehead is the chief port for the American cod 
 fishery, and New Bedford and Nantvckct for the whale fishery. 
 Cambridge, near Boston, is the seat of Harvard University. At 
 Plymouth the " Pilgrims " made their first landing in 1620. 
 
 .Rhode Island, so called from the island of that name in 
 Narragansett Bay, is the smallest State in the Union, but, 
 compared with its population, carries on more extensive manu- 
 factures, chiefly woollen and cotton, than any other State. 
 
 Its surface is rocky, and soil poor, but industriously culti- 
 vated. 
 
 Providence, (50,000,) the capital, is situated at the head of 
 Narragansett Bay, and is the chief centre of the manufactures. 
 Newport, on Rhode Island, is a favorite summer retreat for 
 sea-bathing and beautiful scenery. 
 
 Connecticut is situated on the north side of Long Island 
 Sound. The country is hilly, but the soil very fertile, espe- 
 
 cially in the valley of the Connecticut River. It carries on 
 various and extensive manufactures, especially of clocks, cot- 
 tons, woollens, &c. ; but agriculture is the chief occupation of 
 the inhabitants. Education receives more attention than in 
 any of the other States. 
 
 Hartford, (29,000,) one of the capitals, is situated, on the 
 Connecticut Kiver. It is a flourishing town, and is surrounded 
 by a fertile country. New Haven, (40,000,) the other capital, 
 is a fine city, and is the seat of Yale College. New London and 
 Bridgeport possess good harbors, and a large amount of snip- 
 ing. Norwich is an important manufacturing town. 
 
 Name the Eastern States, and 
 their chief towns. Where are they 
 situated ? Describe the country. 
 What are the principal mountains? 
 "What river flows through them? 
 Describe the coast-line. The cli- 
 mate. For what are the Eastern 
 States noted ? How were they first 
 settled? Describe Maine. How is 
 it bounded? What are the chief 
 towDS ? Where are they situated ? 
 Describe New Hampshire. How is 
 it bounded ? What are its chief 
 towns ? Where are they situated ? 
 
 Describe Vermont. How is it 
 bounded? What are its chief 
 towns? Where are they situated? 
 Describe Massachusetts. How ia 
 it bounded ? Describe its coast and 
 islands. What are its chief towns? 
 Where are they situated ? Describe 
 Rhode Island. How is it bounded? 
 What are its chief towns? Where 
 are they situated? Describe Con- 
 necticut. Howisit bounded? What 
 are its chief towns? Where are 
 they situated? Por what are they 
 noted? 
 
 MIDDLE STATES. 
 The Middle States comprise — 
 
 States, Chief Towns. 
 
 New York, . New York, Albany, Buffalo, &c. 
 
 New Jersey, . Trenton, Newark, Patterson. 
 
 Pennsylvania, . Philadelphia, Harrisburg, Pittsburg. 
 
 Delaware, . . Wilmington, Dover. 
 
 Maryland, . . Baltimore, Annapolis, Hagarstown, &c. 
 
 District of Columbia, Washington. 
 
 The Alleghany Mountains extend through the eastern part 
 of New York, under the name of the Catskill Mountains, and 
 through Pennsylvania, and Maryland into Virginia. The 
 country is in general hilly on both sides of the mountains, 
 with rich and fertile valleys, and abounding in valuable 
 minerals. These States are watered by the principal rivers 
 of the Atlantic slope ; the Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna, 
 and Potomac. All these rivers enter the ocean by broad 
 mouths, forming bays and excellent harbors. The Susque- 
 hanna and Potomac flow into Chesapeake Bay. On the west 
 side of the Alleghany Mountains, the Alleghany and Monon- 
 gahela Hirers combine to form the Ohio. The climate is tem- 
 perate, but warmer than in the Eastern States, especially in 
 Maryland. 
 
 New York is the most important State in the Union, not 
 only in population, but also for commerce and public improve- 
 ments. It is well watered by rivers, and large and extensive 
 canals connect the Great Lakes with the Atlantic sea-board. 
 The principal is the Eric Canal, from Buffalo to the Hudson 
 River. Important lines of railway connect with all the cities 
 of the west. The soil is rich, and produces vast quantities of 
 wheat, which forms the staple of the State. 
 
 The surface is much diversified by numerous beautiful lakes, 
 Cayuga, Seneca, Canandaigua, and Oneida. Lake Champlain 
 lies between New York and "Vermont. New York is separated 
 roni Canada by Lakes Erie and Ontario, and by the Niagara 
 and St Lawrence Pavers. 
 
 Exercises on the Map — United Stater. — "Which of the Eastern 
 States adjoin Canada? Which are on the Atlantic coast? How is Con- 
 necticut sepai-ated from Long Island? On what bay is Boston situated? 
 In what direction is Boston from Montreal? From Toronto? From £?t 
 
 John ? Prom New York ? What towns are situated on the Connecticut 
 River? What islands lie to the south of Massachusetts? Name the 
 principal cities and towns of the Eastern States on the Atlantic coast. 
 On Long Island Sound. 
 
NORTH AMERICA, 
 
 ol 
 
 It also comprises Long and Staten Islands, the principal 
 islands on the Atlantic coast. 
 
 The original settlers were the Dutch, principally in and 
 r.round New York, then called New Amsterdam, and on the 
 Hudson River as far as Albany. 
 
 JWew York, the largest and most important city in the Union, 
 is situated on Manhattan Island, at the junction of the Hud- 
 son River and the East River, a continuation of Long Island 
 Sound. It contains, with Brooklyn and other suburbs situated 
 on the opposite banks of the rivers, upwards of 1,000,000 
 inhabitants, and is the great centre of trade for the whole of 
 the United States, about two-thirds of the whole foreign 
 commerce passing through it. The city contains many fine 
 buildings, and i3 supplied with water by the Croton aque- 
 duct. It has suffered much from fires; in 1S35 20,000,000 
 dollars' worth of property was thus destroyed. Shipbuilding 
 is extensively carried on, and Brooklyn contains a United 
 States Navy Yard. 
 
 Albany, (62,000,) the capital, is situated on the Hudson 
 River, at the terminus of the Erie and Champlain Canals. It 
 is an old and wealthy city. Buffalo, (81,000,) the largest city 
 in uhe State next to New York, is situated on Lake Erie, and 
 derives its importance from its extensive trade with the 
 "Western States. Rochester, with extensive flour mills ; Oswego, 
 the terminus of the Oswego Canal on Lake Ontario ; Sackett's 
 Harbor and Ogdensburgh carry on extensive trade with 
 Canada and the "Western States. West Point, on the Hudson 
 River, contains the military academy of the United States. 
 Poughkeepsie, Hudson, and Troy, also on the Hudson River, 
 are towns of some importance. Utica, Syracuse, and Auburn 
 are centres of fertile districts. 
 
 New Jersey is situated on the Atlantic coast, extending 
 from Delaware Bay to the Hudson River, and is separated 
 from Pennsylvania by the Delaware River. Its surface is 
 generally low and level, but its soil is good ; fruit and veget- 
 ables being raised in immense quantities for the New York 
 and Philadelphia markets. Numerous small islands of no im- 
 portance skirt the coast, but it contains no harbors. It was 
 the scene of many battles during the revolutionary war. 
 
 Trenton, (17,000,) near the lower falls of the Delaware, is the 
 capital. Kcwark and Patterson are important manufacturing 
 towns. Princeton contains two colleges. 
 
 Pennsylvania is the second State in the Union for popula- 
 tion. It is an inland State, connected with the ocean by 
 Delaware Bay. The Alleghany Mountains intersect it, ren- 
 dering the surface hilly. The soil is good, especially in the 
 south, which is the most populous part. Wheat is the staple. 
 
 Pennsylvania derives its chief importance from its vast and 
 valuable coal and iron mines and petroleum wells. It was 
 originally settled by Quakers, under the direction of "William 
 Penn ; a considerable proportion, however, of the inhabitants 
 are of German origin, and still retain their mother tongue. 
 
 Philadelphia, (565,500,) the largest city in the State, is built 
 on a fiat peninsula between the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers, 
 and is about 120 miles from the sea. It is the most regularly 
 built city on the continent, all the streets being laid out at 
 right angles. It contains many fine buildings and extensive 
 
 water-works, and carries on a largo shipping and inland trade. 
 Harrisburg, (13,500,) on the Susquehanna, is the capital. 
 Pittsburg (49,000) is situated on a peninsula between the Alle- 
 ghany and Monongahela Rivers, which here join and form the 
 Ohio River. It is at the head of steamboat navigation, is also 
 situated in the centre of the coal and iron region, and has the 
 most important iron manufactures in the United States. 
 Reading and Lancaster are thriving towns, chiefly peopled 
 by Germans. Poitsvlllc and other towns derive their import- 
 ance from the adjacent coal mines. Gettysburg was the scene 
 of a great battle between the Northern and Southern forces in 
 18G3. Erie is a considerable port on Lake Erie. 
 
 Delaware, situated to the south of Delaware Bay, is a 
 small and unimportant State. It is low and sandy, and chiefly 
 devoted to agriculture, but carries on some manufactures in 
 the northern part. 
 
 Wilmington, (21,000,) the largest town, is situated on the 
 Brandywine, near its mouth. It has numerous manufactures, 
 and a considerable trade. Dover, near the middle of the State, 
 is the capital. 
 
 Maryland is the most northerly of the late slave States. In 
 soil and surface it resembles Pennsylvania, but the climate is 
 warmer. Tobacco is its staple. Iron and coal are found in 
 the west. 
 
 Baltimore, (212,000,) the largest city in Maryland, is situated 
 on the Patapsco River, 14 miles from Chesapeake Bay. It is 
 well built, and possesses some fine monuments. It is the com- 
 mercial emporium for a great part of the western trade. Port 
 M l Henry is at the mouth of the harbor. Annapolis, (4000,) 
 a small town on an arm of Chesapeake Bay, is the capital. 
 Frederick, Hagarstoidt, and Cumberland, are also important 
 centres for local trade. 
 
 The District op Columbia is the seat of the United States 
 Government, and is under its direct control. It was originally 
 ten miles square, extending on both sides of the Potomac, but 
 the part in Virginia was given back to that State, and it is 
 now altogether on the Maryland side of the river. The 
 inhabitants have no representation in Congress. 
 
 Washington, (61,000,) the capital of the United States, and 
 seat of the Federal Government, is situated on the Potomac 
 River, about 110 miles from its mouth, and contains the finest 
 public buildings in the States, as the Capitol, Treasury, and 
 Patent Office. The President resides here at the White House 
 during his term of office. The city occupies a large space of 
 ground, but is very straggling, and derives all its importance 
 from being the seat of government. 
 
 Name the Middle States and their 
 chief towns. Describe their surface. 
 Name the principal mountains. 
 The principal rivers. Point them 
 out on the map, and trace the 
 courses of the rivers. Describe 
 the climate. Describe New York 
 State. How is it bounded ? De- 
 scribe its surface. "What islands 
 belong to it? "Who were the ori- 
 ginal settlers? Describe the city of 
 New York. "What is its population ? 
 "What are the other chief towns? 
 "Where are they situated? Describe 
 New Jersey. How is it bounded? 
 
 What are its chief towns ? Where 
 are they situated ? Describe Penn- 
 sylvania. Ilowis it bounded? Prom 
 what does it chiefly derive its im- 
 portance ? Describe Philadelphia. 
 What are the other chief towns? 
 Where are they situated? Describe 
 Delaware. How is it bounded? 
 What are its chief towns? Where 
 are they situated ? Describe Mary- 
 laud. How is it bounded? What 
 are its chief towns? Where are 
 they situated? Describe the dis- 
 trict of Columbia. Describe Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 Exebcises on the Map — United States. — Through which of the 
 Middle States do the Alleghany Mountains extend? In what State is 
 the Hudson River? What large bays are on the Atlantic coast? What 
 rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay? How is New York situated? 
 
 How is Philadelphia situated? Baltimore? Washington? Pittsburg? 
 Buffalo? In what direction from New York is Albany? Philadelphia? 
 Washington? Buffalo? Toronto? Quebec? Ottawa? St John? 
 Halifax ? In what State is Lake Champlain situated ? 
 
32 
 
 NORTH AMEEICA. 
 
 SOUTHERN STATES. 
 The Southern Slates comprise — 
 
 States. Chief Towns. 
 
 Eastern Yircinia, . . Richmond, Norfolk, Petersburg. 
 
 Western Virginia, Wheeling. 
 
 North Carolina, . Raleigh, Newbern, Wilmington. 
 
 South Carolina, . Columbia, Charleston, Beaufort. 
 
 Georgia, .... Milledgeville, Savannah, Augusta. 
 
 Florida Tallahassee, Pensacola. 
 
 Alabama, . , Montgomery, Mobile. 
 
 Mississippi, . . Jackson, Natchez, Yicksburg. 
 
 Louisiana, . . Baton Rouge, New Orleans. 
 
 Texas, .... Austin, Galveston, Houston. 
 
 Tennessee, *. Nashville, Memphis, Knoxville. 
 
 Kentucky, . . Frankfort, Louisville, Lexington. 
 
 Arkansas, . . Little Rock. 
 
 These, together with Maryland and Missouri, were for- 
 merly Slave States ; all which, except Kentucky and Maryland, 
 seceded from the Union in 1861. They have since been re- 
 conquered by the United States, but only some of them have 
 as yet been allowed representation in Congress. 
 
 The country occupied by these States is intersected in the 
 north by the Alleghany Mountains, forming two parallel 
 chains called the Cumberland Mountains in Kentucky and 
 Tennessee, and the Blue Bridge in Virginia. They extend as 
 far as the north of Alabama. In the interior the surface is 
 hilly, but along the coast it is low and flat, forming vast 
 unhealthy swamps, as the Dismal Swamp in Virginia, the 
 Great Pcdec Su-amp in South Carolina, and the Ererglades in 
 Florida. The rivers to the east of the Alleghanies are slow, 
 and of little commercial importance. In the west are the 
 important rivers — the Ohio, with its tributaries the Cumber- 
 land and Tennessee, flowing into the Mississippi ; and the 
 Alabama River, into the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 The coast-line is not so broken as in the north, but numerous 
 sand-banks and small islands line the coast. The peninsula of 
 Florida, terminated by Cape Sable, juts out in a. remarkable 
 manner, as if originally joined to South America by means of 
 the West India Islands. The climate is hot, and in the most 
 southerly States very unhealthy, so that few white people can 
 live on the plantations in summer. All the labor is carried 
 on by negroes. The soil is very rich and fertile ; cotton, rice, 
 sugar, tobacco, and Indian corn being the staples. Gold is 
 found in small quantities in North Carolina and Georgia. 
 
 Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida were formerly 
 almost entirely peopled by the Seminole and other Indians, 
 -who carried on war against the white settlers. They were at 
 last subdued, and deported to the Indian territory west of 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 Virginia is one of the oldest States in the Union, and pos- 
 sesses an extremely rich soil, which, however, has been much 
 exhausted by careless cultivation ; and within the last few 
 years was devastated by the troops of botli parties in the 
 civil war, until the eastern part became almost a desert. It 
 is the birthplace of many of the most celebrated men of the 
 United States. Tobacco is the great staple, and wheat and 
 cattle are also extensively raised. It is celebrated for its 
 picturesque scenery and natural wonders, such as the Natural 
 Bridge, &c. It was the scene of the most desperate battles 
 in the late civil war. 
 
 The Western part of Virginia having owned the authority 
 of the Federal Government, was in 1862 formed into a separate 
 State. 
 
 Richmond, (38,000,) the capital of Bast Virginia, and 
 formerly of all Virginia, is situated on the James Eiver, and 
 carries on the principal trade. It was the capital and head- 
 quarters of the Confederate States, and many bloody and 
 obstinate battles were fought near it. Norfolk possesses a 
 fine harbor, and is the chief seaport. At Portsmouth, oppo- 
 site Norfolk, was formerly a United States Navy Yard, de- 
 stroyed during the war. Petersburg is the chief centre of the 
 tobacco trade. Fredericksburg, Harper's Ferry, and other 
 places, have become famous since the war. WJieeling, on the 
 Ohio, is a large manufacturing town, and the capital of West 
 Virginia. 
 
 North Carolina is densely covered with pine woods, and 
 exports large quantities of tar and turpentine. Grain and 
 cattle are raised in the western part of the State. Its coast is 
 almost enclosed by low sandy islands. Cape Hatteras is one 
 of the most dangerous points on the Atlantic coast. 
 
 Raleigh, a small town near the centre of the State, is the 
 capital. Newbern and Wilmington (21,000) are the chief sea- 
 ports. Fayetteville contained a United States armory. 
 
 South Carolina is an important and wealthy State, and 
 was the first to secede from the Union. The soil is very 
 fertile. The numerous islands along the coast produce the 
 best cotton, called sea island cotton. Eice is the staple pro- 
 duct of the lowlands, and cotton in the interior. 
 
 Charleston (40,500) is the largest city, and before the war, 
 was about the only one on the eastern coast of the Southern 
 States possessing direct trade with Europe. It is an elegantly 
 built city, and carries on a large trade in cotton and rice. 
 Columbia, near the centre of the State, is the capital. George- 
 town and Beaufort have a large trade. 
 
 Georgia is one of the largest and most populous of the South- 
 ern States, producing vast quantities of cotton, rice, and wheat. 
 
 Savannah, (22,000,) the largest city, is situated on a river of 
 the same name, 17 miles from its mouth, and carries on the 
 principal trade of the State. Milledgeville is the capital. 
 Augusta, Atlanta, and Macon are important towns, with largo 
 local trade. Columbus has cotton manufactures. 
 
 Florida was formerly in the possession of Spain, but was 
 ceded to the United States in 1819, and became a separate State 
 in 1844. The country is low and flat, but vegetation is most 
 luxuriant. The coast line, although extending 1200 miles, 
 scarcely possesses a single harbor, and is the scene of many 
 wrecks. The coral reefs on the south, called the Florida Keys, 
 are especially dangerous, owing to the rapid current of the 
 Gulf Stream. 
 
 Pensacola, on the Gulf of Mexico, has a fine harbor, and a 
 United States Navy Yard. Tallahassee is the capital. Apala- 
 chicola, at the mouth of the river of the same name, is the 
 chief commercial city of the State. St Augustine is a favorite 
 resort for invalids, on account of its delightful climate. Key 
 West, one of the Florida Keys, has a fine harbor. 
 
 Alabama is watered by several important rivers, — the Ala- 
 bama, Tombigbee, &.C., — and produces vast quantities of cotton. 
 
 Exercises on the Map — United States. — Through which of the 
 Southern States do the Alleghany Mountains extend? What river 
 divides Kentucky and Virginia from the Western States ? What large 
 rivers flow through Kentucky and Tennessee 1 How is Florida separated 
 
 from the Bahama Islands? Name the most eastern point of North 
 Carolina. What large cities are on the Atlantic coast? On the Gulf of 
 Mexico? On the Mississippi? On the Ohio? How is Richmond 
 situated ? What large lake is situated in Florida ? 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 S3 
 
 The State was, forty years ago, entirely in the possession of the 
 Indians. 
 
 Mobile, (29,000,) the largest city, is situated at the month of 
 the Mobile River, and carries on a large trade in cotton, which 
 is conveyed down the rivers, from the interior and from the 
 adjoining States. Montgomery, near the centre, is the capital, 
 and was also for a short time the capital of the Confederate 
 States. Tuscaloosa and Huntsvilh are also important towns. 
 
 Mississippi is the principal cotton State, and extends along 
 the east bank of the Mississippi River. It produces more 
 cotton than any other State. Jackson is the capital ; Natchez 
 and Yicksburg carry on the principal trade of the State. The 
 latter is noted for the long siege it withstood in 1S63. 
 
 Louisiana is the principal State for the production of sugar. 
 Cotton is also extensively grown in the northern part of the 
 State. The country is very flat on both sides of the Mississippi, 
 which is often higher than its banks. To protect the land 
 from being inundated, the river is kept between vast dikes or 
 levees, as they are called, which extend for about 300 miles 
 above New Orleans. 
 
 Louisiana formerly belonged to France, and was purchased 
 by the United States in 1803, along with the vast territory 
 extending from the Mississippi north-west to the Pacific, for 
 15,000,000 dols. The French language is still used to some 
 extent ; and the laws are published both in French and 
 English. 
 
 New Orleans, (1G9,000,) the largest city in the South, is 
 situated on the Mississippi River, about 100 miles from its 
 mouth. All the commerce of that great river and its tribu- 
 taries centres at New Orleans, and the number of steamboats 
 and flat boats crowding its levee is enormous. It carries on a 
 large foreign shipping trade. It is unhealthy in summer, and 
 is largely peopled by French and Spanish Creoles. Baton 
 Rouge is the capital, and Alexandria is an important centre 
 of trade. 
 
 Texas is the largest State in the Union. It was previous to 
 1835 one of the Mexican States, but gained its independence 
 after a severe struggle, and became one of the United States 
 in 1845. The surface of the country is a rolling prairie, inter- 
 sected by numerous rivers, and separated from Mexico by the 
 Rio Grande del Norte. The Brazos and Colorado are the 
 principal rivers. The products are sugar, cotton, and Indian 
 corn. Vast herds of wild cattle, buffaloes, and wild horses 
 roam over the prairies. Austin, the capital, is situated on the 
 Colorado. Galveston is the chief seaport, and Houston the 
 former capital. Matagorda and San Antonio de Bexar are 
 important towns. 
 
 Arkansas, a thinly settled state, lies north of Louisiana, west 
 of the Mississippi River. Cotton is the chief product. It is 
 intersected by the Arkansas and other rivers. Little Rock is 
 the capital of the State. 
 
 Tennessee and Kentucky are the great centres for the pro- 
 duction of Indian corn and tobacco ; Tennessee has also 
 valuable iron mines. Cattle are reared in vast numbers. The 
 surface is mountainous or undulating, and well watered by 
 large and navigable rivers. The soil is very productive. 
 
 Nashville, (17,000,) the capital and principal city of Tennes- 
 
 see, is situated on the Cumberland River. Memphis and Knox- 
 ville are important commercial towns. 
 
 Frankfort, a small town, is the capital of Kentucky. Louis- 
 ville, (70,000,) on the Ohio, is the largest city, with important 
 manufactures and extensive trade. Lexington is the second 
 city in size, and the centre of a large and fertile district. 
 
 Name the Southern States, and 
 their chief towns. What is said 
 of these States? "What are the 
 principal mountains? Trace them 
 on the map. Describe the sur- 
 face. Name the principal rivers, 
 and trace their courses on the map. 
 Describe the coast-line. The cli- 
 mate. The soil and products. 
 "What is said of Georgia and other 
 States ? Describe Virginia. How 
 is it bounded ? For what is it re- 
 markable ? How is it now divided ? 
 "What are the chief towns ? Where 
 are they situated ? Describe North 
 Carolina. How is it bounded ? 
 What are its chief towns ? Where 
 are they situated ? Describe South 
 Carolina. How is it bounded ? 
 What are its chief towns ? Where 
 are they situated ? Describe Geor- 
 gia. How is it bounded? What 
 are its chief towns? Where are 
 they situated ? Describe Florida. 
 
 How is it bounded? What is re- 
 markable on the south coast? What 
 are its chief towns? Where are 
 they situated ? Describe Ala- 
 bama. How is it bounded ? What 
 are its chief towns? Where are 
 they situated ? Describe Missis- 
 sippi." How is it bounded ? What 
 are its chief towns ? Where are 
 they situated ? Describe Lou- 
 isiana. To whom did Louisiana 
 formerly belong ? Describe New 
 Orleans. What are the other chief 
 towns ? Where are they situated r 
 Describe Texas. How is it bound- 
 ed ? What rivers flow through it ? 
 What are its chief towns ? Where 
 are they situated? Describe Arkan- 
 sas. What is its capital? Describe 
 Kentucky and Tennessee. How 
 is Kentucky bounded? How is Ten- 
 nessee bounded? What are the 
 chief towns of Kentucky ? Of Ten- 
 nessee ? Where are they situated ? 
 
 WESTERN STATES. 
 The Western States comprise : — ■ 
 
 States. Chief Towns. 
 
 Ohio, . . . Cincinnati, Columbus, Cleveland. 
 
 Michigan, . . Detroit, Lansing, Monroe, &c. 
 Indiana, . Indianapolis, Madison, Terre Haute. 
 
 Illinois, Springfield, Alton, Cairo, Chicago. 
 
 Wisconsin, Milwaukie, Madison, Green Bay. 
 
 Minnesota, . St Paul's, Pembina. 
 
 Iowa, . . Des Moines, Iowa City, Burlington, Dubuque, 
 
 Missouri, . St Louis, Jefferson City. 
 
 Kansas, . Lecompton, Topeka. 
 
 California, San Francisco, Sacramento City, 
 
 Oregon, . . Salem, Portland, Oregon City. 
 Nebraska, Omaha. 
 
 Nevada, Virginia City. 
 
 The "Western States are generally considered to be those 
 lying west of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. The surface of 
 the country is in general composed of vast level prairies, some- 
 times gently undulating, and then called rolling prairies. 
 They are principally covered with tall rank grass, and few 
 forests occur except between the Rocky Mountains and the 
 mountains of the Pacific. These prairies are admirably 
 adapted for agriculture and pasturage, requiring but little 
 labor to raise wheat, Indian corn, and other grains in vast 
 abundance. They are, however, in many places, marshy and 
 unhealthy, especially in the neighborhood of rivers, the slope 
 of the country being too little to carry off the superabundant 
 moisture. South of the Missouri the country is more hilly and 
 wooded. These States comprise the greater portion of the vast 
 plain drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries. They are 
 rich in minerals : gold, iron, lead, copper, and salt being found 
 in great abundance. They have been chiefly peopled by 
 settlers from the Eastern States, and from Great Britain and 
 Germany. 
 
 Ohio is the most important State in the West for population 
 
 Exercises on the Map — United States. — Which of the Southern 
 States are west of the Mississippi? How is Texas separated froir. 
 Mexico? What rivers flow through Alabama? What river divides 
 Georgia from Alabama? By what names are the Alleghany Mountains 
 
 called in the Southern States? In what direction from Washington is 
 Richmond? Louisville? Mobile? In what direction from New York 
 is New Orleans? Charleston? In what direction from New Orleans is 
 Pensacola ? Montgomery ? Vicksburg ? 
 
34 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 and commerce. In the western part of the State the prairies 
 commence, but in the east it is well wooded. The soil is fer- 
 tile, producing wheat and Indian corn in great abundance. 
 Pork and wool are largely exported. Iron, coal, and salt are 
 found in the south-east. 
 
 Cincinnati, (161,000,) the largest and most important city 
 in the West, is situated on the Ohio. It is well-built, and 
 carries on an extensive trade in pork and distilling. Colum- 
 bus, near the centre of the State, is the capital. Cleveland, 
 Sandusky, and Toledo, on Lake Erie, have a large shipping 
 and inland trade. Marietta and Portsmouth are important 
 towns. 
 
 Michigan possesses the largest extent of lake coast of any 
 State, being washed by Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, and 
 Erie. Lake Michigan is entirely within the United States, 
 being connected with Lake Huron by the Straits of Mackinaw, 
 both shores of which are in Michigan. The soil is fertile, wheat 
 being the staple. A large trade is carried on with Canada and 
 with the States bordering on the lakes. On the shores of Lake 
 Superior, copper is found in great quantities. 
 
 Detroit, (46,000,) on the Detroit River, opposite Windsor 
 in Ontario, is the principal city, possessing extensive lake 
 commerce. Lansing is the capital. Monroe, Saginaw, Ann 
 Arbor, and Kalamazoo, are important towns, with large local 
 trade. 
 
 Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, all 
 present the same general physical features, and resemble each 
 other in surface, soil, and productions. They are all composed 
 chiefly of vast prairies, (Minnesota and Wisconsin being the 
 only states which are at all wooded,) and are watered by the 
 Mississippi and tributaries. The climate is dry, and warmer 
 than in Canada, even in those States which are in the same 
 latitude. The principal products are wheat and Indian corn, 
 and vast quantities of cattle are reared for the Eastern markets. 
 Iowa and Wisconsin have valuable lead mines. They are all 
 new States, and are remarkable for the rapidity with which 
 they have been settled and improved. The Sioux Indians in- 
 fest the northern part of Minnesota. 
 
 The chief towns in Indiana : — Indianapolis, the capital ; 
 Madison, Tern Haute, and New Albany, are important 
 towns. 
 
 The chief towns in Illinois : — Chicago, (109,000,) on Lake 
 Michigan, is the largest city. It has been built chiefly since 
 1830, and has risen into a large and elegant city with unpar- 
 alleled rapidity. It carries on a very extensive commerce on 
 the lakes, and is the great centre of the grain-growing Western 
 States. Spnngfield is the capital. Peoria, Alton, Galena, 
 and Cairo, are important towns. 
 
 The chief towns in Iowa : — Des Moines is the capital. 
 Iowa City, Burlington, Dubuque, and Muscantine are rising 
 towns. 
 
 The chief towns in Wisconsin : — Milwaukie, (45,000,) the 
 largest city, is another example of rapid growth and prosperity. 
 It has been built principally since 1830, possesses a fine harbor 
 on Lake Michigan, and a large trade on the lakes. Madison is 
 the capital. Bacine and Green Bay are rapidly rising towns. 
 Fond du Lac is at the foot of Lake Superior. 
 
 The chief towns in Minnesota :— St Paul's, (6500,) the capi- 
 tal and largest town, at the head of navigation on the Mis- 
 sissippi. Pembina, in the north-west corner of the State, oa 
 the Red River, is the nearest point of communication with the 
 Red River Settlement, and the only mail route between it 
 and Canada. 
 
 Missouri is a large and important State, intersected by the 
 Missouri River, which here joins the Mississippi. Its surface 
 is level, consisting of extensive prairies, with a very fertile soil. 
 It is especially rich in minerals, chiefly iron, lead, coal, and 
 salt. The iron mountain in Missouri is an immense mass of 
 almost pure iron. It is the chief depot for trade with the Far 
 West. Corn, hemp, and tobacco grow abundantly, and vast 
 herds of cattle are reared in the prairies. 
 
 St Louis, (161,000, ) on the Mississippi, is the largest city, and 
 principal centre of trade for the hunters and traders west to 
 the Rocky Mountains. It has also a very large trade on the 
 Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, and has rapidly increased, 
 having had, in 1840, a population of only 16,000. Jefferson 
 City, near the centre of the State, is the capital. St Genevieve, 
 Independence, &c, are rising towns. 
 
 Kansas is a new State, thinly settled, lying to the west of 
 Missouri, with fertile prairie lands in the east, but barren in 
 the west. The chief towns are Lecompton and Lawrence, and 
 near them is Topelca, the capital. 
 
 California, on the Pacific coast, is celebrated for its rich 
 gold mines, discovered in 1840, before which time it was almost 
 uninhabited, except by Indians. It now contains 380,000 in- 
 habitants. The country is mountainous, lying mainly between 
 the parallel chains of the Pacific ranges. Gold is chiefly found 
 in the Sacramento Valley, between the Sierra Nevada and the 
 Coast Range. Quicksilver is also found. The soil is produc- 
 tive, wheat and Indian corn being extensively cultivated. 
 Good wine is also made. 
 
 San Francisco, (57,000, ) the largest city, and capital of Cali- 
 fornia, is situated on a bay of the same name. It has suffered 
 much from fires. Its commerce is enormous compared with its 
 size, it being the principal commercial emporium on the Pacific 
 coast. Sacramento, in the gold regions, San Jost, Los Angelas, 
 and Monterey are important towns. 
 
 Oregon is a new State, lying to the north of California, on 
 the Pacific coast. It is mountainous, and covered with mag- 
 nificent forests. The coast is rocky, and has few good har- 
 bors. The soil is very fertile between the mountains and the 
 coast. It contains as yet but a small population, which is 
 principally settled in the valley of the Willamette, between 
 the Cascade Range and the Pacific Ocean. Salem, on the 
 Willamette, is the capital ; Portland and Oregon City the 
 chief towns. 
 
 Nebraska, capital Omaha, and Nevada, capital Virginia 
 City, are recently settled States, just admitted into the 
 Union. Nebraska is situated to the west of Iowa ; and 
 Nevada to the north-east of California. 
 
 Name the Western States, and 
 their chief towns. How are they 
 situated ? Describe the surface. 
 Describe the prairies. What part 
 
 of the country do these States coin- 
 prise ? What minerals are found 
 in them? How have they been 
 peopled? Describe Ohio. How is 
 
 Exercises on the Map— The Western States. — How arethe Western 
 States separated from the Middle and Southern States ? Which of the 
 Western States adjoin British America 1 Which ot the great Northern 
 Lakes is entirely within the United States? What large rivers flow 
 
 through the Western States? Where do they empty? Which of the 
 Western States are on the east of the Mississippi? Which on the west? 
 Through what States does the Missouri flow ? Which States lie between 
 the Ohio and Mississippi ? 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 35 
 
 it bounded? "What are the chief 
 towns ? Where are they situated ? 
 Describe Michigan. How is it 
 bounded ? What are the chief 
 towns ? Where are they situated ? 
 Describe Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, 
 Wisconsin, and Minnesota. How 
 is eacii bounded ? What are their 
 chief towns ? Where are they situ- 
 ated ? Describe Missouri. How 
 is it bounded ? What are the 
 chief towns ? Where are they situ- 
 ated ? Describe Kansas. How is it 
 
 bounded? What are the chiif 
 towns? Where are they situated? 
 Describe California. How is it 
 bounded ? Where is gold chiefly 
 found ? What are the chief towns? 
 Where are they situated ? Describe 
 Oregon. Howisitbounded ? What 
 are the chief towns ? Where are 
 they situated ? What .are the chief 
 towns of Nebraska, Colorado, and 
 Nevada ? How are these states 
 situated ? How long have they 
 been in the Union? 
 
 TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 The territories of the United States are under the direct 
 control of Congress until they become sufficiently populous to 
 entitle them to become independent States. They are ten in 
 number : — 
 
 Washington. 
 Idaho. 
 
 Dacotah. 
 Indian. 
 
 Utah. 
 Montana. 
 
 New Mexico. Alaska. 
 Arizona. Colorado. 
 
 The country occupied by the territories resembles generally 
 that of the adjacent States. Those to the east of the Rocky 
 Mountains are level prairie lands. Those to the west are 
 more mountainous, or consist of high table-lands, such as Utah. 
 In Washington Territory the country is covered with magnifi- 
 cent forests ; but along the Rocky Mountains, on each side, is 
 a vast, barren tract, almost destitute of fresh water, becoming 
 broader in Utah, ^ew Mexico, and Arizona. 
 
 Colorado, capital Denver, is to the west of Kansas. 
 
 The Indian Territory is a portion of land set apart for the 
 Indians who have been deported from the more settled States. 
 They consist chiefly of Cherokees, Creeks, Choctaws, and 
 Seminole s. 
 
 Utah contains the celebrated Great Salt Lake, near which is 
 Great Salt Lake City, the chief city and settlement of the 
 Mormons, who carry on a, kind of independent government 
 there. It is in the centre of a fertile district, and round it are 
 a number of small villages, also peopled by the Mormons. 
 
 Alaska, formerly Russian America, comprises the north-west 
 corner of the continent of North America, being separated 
 from British America by the 141st degree of west longitude. A 
 chain of volcanic mountains extends from Mount St Elias 
 through the peninsula of Alaska and the Aleutian Isles. The 
 Youcan River rising in the Rocky Mountains flows north-west 
 and west through the centre of the country, and falls into 
 Behring Strait, while the Colville River flows north into the 
 Arctic Ocean. 
 
 It is an inhospitable region, where rain and snow continually 
 fall, although not so cold as in the same latitude on the 
 eastern side of the continent. It is only valuable for its 
 furs, which the natives formerly bartered with the Russians, 
 who had several factories along the coast, the chief of which 
 is New Archangel on Sitka Island. The inhabitants are 
 Esquimaux and other Indians, who lead a wandering and bar- 
 barous life, and subsist by hunting and fishing. 
 
 This territory was purchased by the United States in 1867. 
 
 "What is the position of the terri- l now in existence. "Where are they 
 tories of the United States before situated? Describe their surface. 
 they become States ? Name those j For what is the Indian territory 
 
 set apart? Who inhabit Utah? 
 Describe their city. Describe the 
 territory of Alaska. What are its 
 geographical features? What is 
 
 its value? To whom did it for- 
 merly belong ? What is the chief 
 trading port ? Describe its inhabi- 
 tants. 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 Area, 856,000 square miles; population, 8,000,000; persons to square 
 
 mile, 9 ; four times the size of Quebec. 
 
 Capital, Mexico. 
 
 The United States of Mexico are bounded on the 
 North by the United States ; on the West by the 
 Pacific Ocean ; on the South by the Pacific Ocean and 
 Central America ; and on the East by the Gulf of 
 Mexico. 
 
 Mexico consists of twenty-three states, one territory, and one 
 federal district, united under a government formed like that 
 of the United States. 
 
 The surface is for the most part a high plateau, from 6000 
 to 8000 feet above the sea. It is subject to volcanic erup- 
 tions and earthquakes. The Rocky Mountains are continued 
 through Mexico under the name of the Cordilleras. These are 
 highest in the south, where the lofty volcanoes, Orizaba and 
 Popocatepetl, rise to the height of 17,000 feet. 
 
 The principal rivera are the Rio Grande, which forms the 
 north-eastern boundary, and the Santiago, flowing into the 
 Pacific. 
 
 The coast-line of Mexico is more broken on the Pacific than 
 on the Gulf of Mexico. The principal gulfs are those of 
 Mexico, Cam-peachy, and California; the latter extending 700 
 miles into the land, and meeting the Colorado River from the 
 United States. 
 
 The principal capes are C'atoci'C, Corrientes, and St Lucas. 
 
 Mexico possesses the temperatures and climates of the three 
 zones. On the coast it is hot and unhealthy, gradually becom- 
 ing milder towards the high plateaus in the interior ; on the 
 mountains it is cold, and the snow never melts. Its produc- 
 tions are also various. Indian corn forms the principal staple; 
 and besides that, coffee, cocoa, sugar, indigo, and the maguey, 
 from which pulque, the favorite drink of the lower classes, is 
 made, are extensively cultivated. On the coast all the tropical 
 fruits, and on the high lands all the European grains, flourish. 
 Yucatan exports mahogany and logwood. 
 
 The cochineal insect, yielding a valuable dye, is largely ex- 
 ported. Immense herds of cattle, horses, and mules are reared 
 on the northern prairies. It is also rich in minerals ; and, pre- 
 vious to the revolution of 1821, its mines produced nearly 
 25,000,000 dollars of silver annually. They are not now so 
 productive. Iron, copper, lead, and quicksilver are also fouDd. 
 The inhabitants are composed of native whites or Creoles, 
 Indians, and mixed races of whites, Indians, and negroes. The 
 Indians of the south are comparatively civilised, and live in 
 villages ; in the north they are savage, and are continually at 
 war with the inhabitants. 
 
 Mexico was first conquered by the Spaniards, under Cortez, 
 in 1521. At that time it consisted of an extensive empire 
 under a regular government. The people were the most civi- 
 
 Exehcises on the Map — United States. — "What principal cities of 
 the United States are situated on the Mississipi? On the Missouri? 
 On the Ohio ? On Lake Michigan ? On Lake Erie ? In what direction 
 from New York is Chicago? St Louis? Cincinnati? Which is the 
 
 principal state on the Pacific coast ? How are its chief cities situated ? 
 Which of the United States territories adjoin British America ? Which 
 adjoin Mexico? In what direction from Vancouver Island is Sao. 
 Francisco ? In what direction from New York is Utah ? Alaska ? 
 
3G 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 lized on the continent, and many interesting monuments still 
 remain to shew their ancient grandeur. The principalis the 
 pyramid of Cholulu, 70 miles east of Mexico, which is a lofty 
 mound, covering a greater area than any of the great pyra- 
 mids of Egypt. The colonists threw off the Spanish yoke in 
 1821, but have since been almost continually engaged in intes- 
 tine feuds. In 1846-8, during the war with the United 
 States, they lost the northern part of their territory, which 
 now forms the state of California, and the territories of Utah, 
 New Mexico, and Arizona. In 18G1, France, England, and 
 Spain sent an expedition against Mexico, in order to indemnify 
 themselves for losses sustained by their subjects in that 
 country. The French, not satisfied with this, conquered the 
 greater part of the country, and induced the Archduke Maxi- 
 milian of Austria to accept the title of Emperor of Mexico. As 
 long as the French army occupied the country Maximilian re- 
 tained this dignity, but early in 1867, when the French troops 
 were withdrawn, the Emperor, after a brave but futile struggle, 
 was taken prisoner and shot by the Republican forces. The 
 government is now Republican in form. 
 
 Owing to the hitherto unsettled state of the country, educa- 
 tion and general improvements have been grossly neglected, 
 The Roman Catholic is the only religion tolerated. 
 
 Mexico, (200,000,) the principal city, is beautifully situated 
 in a fertile plain, about 7500 feet above the sea. It is an 
 elegant city, adorned with fountains and magnificent churches. 
 About 50 miles south-east, amid numerous peaks, rises the 
 volcano Popocatepetl, or Smoking Mountain. Vera Cruz, to 
 the east of Mexico, is the principal port. Its harbor is poor, 
 and the situation low, hot, and unhealthy. In going [from 
 Vera Cruz to Mexico, the traveller passes through several 
 distinct zones of vegetation, from the tropical on the coast to 
 the temperate on the plains. La Puebla and Guadalaxara&re 
 the next most important towns. Matamoras, near the mouth 
 of the Rio Grande, Tampico, and Cam/peachy are the principal 
 ports on the east, and Acapulco and Mazatlan on the west, 
 Guanaxuata, Zacatecas, and San Luis Potosi are in the centre 
 of the richest silver mines. Merida is the capital of Yucatan. 
 
 "What is the area of Mexico? 
 Population? Size? Capital? How 
 is Mexico bounded? What does it 
 consist of? Describe the surface. 
 What mountains are there in 
 Mexico ? Name the principal 
 rivers, and trace them on the 
 map. Describe the coast - line. 
 N ame the principal gulfs, and 
 state where they are situated. 
 Name the principal capes, and say 
 where they are situated. Describe 
 
 the climate. Productions. What 
 is exported? What are reared on 
 the prairies ? What minerals are 
 found? Describe the inhabitants. 
 When, and by whom was Mexico 
 first conquered ? What was the 
 state of the country and people at 
 that time? What has happened in 
 Mexico during this century? What 
 is the present state of education, 
 &c. ? Describe the principal towns. 
 Where are they situated ? 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 Area, 233,000 square miles; population, 2,500,000; persons to square 
 mile, 11; about the size of Quebec and New Brunswick. 
 
 Central America is the name generally given to 
 that portion of North America lying between Mexico 
 and South. America, forming an isthmus between the 
 two continents. 
 
 It is composed of five independent states, and one British 
 colony : — 
 
 Guatemala, . 
 &an Salvador, 
 Honduras, 
 Nicaragua, 
 Costa Rica, 
 British Honduras, 
 
 Chief Towns. 
 New Guatemala. 
 Sin Salvador. 
 Comayagua, Truxillo. 
 Leon, Nicaragua. 
 £an Jose*. 
 Belize. 
 
 Central America resembles Mexico in climate, productions, 
 religion, and institutions. It consists of a high plateau, from 
 ■which rise numerous volcanoes. Earthquakes and volcanic 
 eruptions are frequent and very destructive. Most of the prin- 
 cipal towns are situated on the inland plateau, and on the 
 coast the settlements are very unhealthy. The inhabitants 
 are chiefly Indians, or a mixed race of Indians, negroes, and 
 Spaniards. 
 
 These republics formerly belonged to Spain, but declared 
 themselves independent in 1821 : and since then have been the 
 seat of continual war and strife amongst themselves. In 1823 
 they formed themselves into a confederation as the United 
 States of Central America, but in 1839 dissolved the union, 
 and are now all independent states. 
 
 The soil is rich and fertile, and, as in Mexico, combines the 
 productions of the tropical with those of the temperate zone. 
 The chief exports are mahogany, logwood, indigo, cochineal, 
 cocoa, sarsaparilla, &c. 
 
 The Isthmus of Panama, at the southern extremity of these 
 states, belonging to New Granada, in South America, is tra- 
 versed by a railway, affording direct communication between 
 the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. 
 
 Several schemes have been proposed to form a ship canal 
 from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific by way of Lake Nicara- 
 gua, which is nearly as large as Lake Ontario, and about 128 
 feet above the level of the sea. The San Juan River forms 
 its outlet to the Caribbean Sea, and it is only 20 miles distant 
 from the Pacific. 
 
 British Honduras is a British colony. It exports large 
 quantities of mahogany. Belize, the capital, is an important 
 depot for British goods. 
 
 The Mosquito Coast lies along the coast east of Honduras 
 and Nicaragua, from Cape Gracias £t Dios to the mouth of the 
 San Juan River. It is governed by a native prince, and is 
 under the protectorate of Britain. The capital is Bluefieids. 
 Leon is the capital, and Nicaragua a considerable town in 
 Nicaragua. San Juan, or Greytoicn, a rising town, was bom- 
 barded by a United States force in 1854. 
 
 Neio Guatemala (60,000) is the largest city in Central 
 America. Old Guatemala, once a magnificent city, was almost 
 destroyed by a volcanic eruption, and afterwards by an earth- 
 quake, in 1773; so that most of the inhabitants removed, and 
 founded the new city. San Salvador, (16,080,) near the Pacific 
 coast, is the centre of the indigo -producing country. It was 
 nearly destroyed by an earthquake in 1S54. Comayagua is 
 the capital, and Truxillo the seaport of Honduras. San Jose 
 is the capital of Costa Rica. 
 
 Exercises on the Map — North America. — How i3 Mexico separated 
 from the United States? How is Central America connected with South 
 America? What sea is there to the east of Central America ? How 
 is it separated from the Gulf of Mexico? Name the principal towns 
 
 on the G-ulf of Mexico. On the Caribbean Sea. On the Pacific Ocean. 
 In what direction from Panama is San Francisco? In what direction 
 from Aspinwall is New York? New Orleans? In what direction from 
 the city of Mexico is Vera Cruz ? Matamoras ? Tampico ? 
 
NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 37 
 
 . What is the area of Central Amer- 
 ica ? Population ? Size ? What 
 part of the continent does it com- 
 prise? Describe Central America. 
 Describe the soil, products, and 
 exports Of what States is it com- 
 posed -f What is their political con- 
 dition ? What schemes have been 
 proposed? What means of com- 
 
 munication are there between the 
 Atlantic and Pacific coasts ? De- 
 scribe British Honduras and its 
 chief town. How is it situated? 
 Describe the Mosquito Coast. Ni- 
 caragua and its chief towns. Gua- 
 temala and its chief towns. Hon- 
 duras and its chief towns. How 
 are they situated? 
 
 "WEST INDIA ISLANDS. 
 Area, 95,000 square miles ; population, 4,500,000. 
 
 The "West India Islands form an extensive archi- 
 pelago, reaching from the peninsula of Florida, in North 
 America, to the delta of the Orinoco, in South Amer- 
 ica, and enclosing the Caribbean Sea. They comprise 
 nearly 1000 islands, most of them small uninhabited 
 rocks, and are usually divided into three groups — the 
 Bahamas, and the Great and Little Antilles ; the latter 
 are subdivided into the Virgin Islands in the north, 
 the Leeward Islands in the middle, and the Windward 
 Islands in the south. 
 
 They all belong to European Powers, except Hayti, which 
 is independent. Margarita and a few small islands along the 
 coast belong to Venezuela in South America. They are in 
 general mountainous, the largest being traversed by ranges 
 of a considerable height, and high peaks rise from many of 
 the smaller islands. In the Little Antilles there are many 
 volcanoes, and earthquakes are frequent. Many of the small 
 islands have been formed by submarine volcanoes. Coral reefs 
 generally extend round the coasts, which are frequently pre- 
 cipitous. Sand-banks and coral reefs, rising almost perpendi- 
 cularly from a vast depth, render navigation very dangerous, 
 especially among the Bahamas. 
 
 The climate is hot and unhealthy, but modified by the sea 
 and land breezes on the coast, and by the height of the moun- 
 tains in the interior. From June to August the sky is clear 
 and unclouded, and the planet Venus so brilliant as to cast a 
 shadow. Like most tropical countries, they have the wet and 
 dry seasons, and violent hurricanes occur from August to 
 October. From November to May is the most pleasant season. 
 
 The islands are celebrated for their rich productions. Every 
 variety of tropical fruits andspices, suchas oranges, pineapples, 
 bananas, ginger, &c, grow in abundance, and the forests pro- 
 duce valuable cabinet woods. The sugar-cane and coffee form 
 the great staple products ; the first yielding sugar, rum, and 
 molasses. Tobacco, indigo, pepper, and various spices are ex- 
 tensively cultivated. No wild animals are found ; but birds 
 and insects are beautiful and numerous. Turtles are found on 
 the coasts of most of the islands. 
 
 The population consists chiefly of negroes and mixed races, 
 the whites only numbering about one-sixth of the whole. The 
 negroes are slaves, except in the British and French islands. 
 The British Government in 1834 paid 100,000,000 dollars to 
 free the slaves on the British Islands. 
 
 What is the area of the West In- 1 formed? Describe the coast. De- 
 dia Islands? Their population? De- scribe the climate, productions, 
 scribethem. Howaretheydivided? animals, &c. How is the population 
 To whom do they belong? Describe composed ? What did the British 
 their surface. How have they been J Government do for the slaves ? 
 
 BRITISH ISLANDS. 
 
 Area, 13,000 square miles ; population, 1,100,000 ; three-fourths the 
 size of Nova Scotia. 
 
 The British Islands comprise all the Bahamas, Jamaica, in 
 the Great Antilles, and the greater number of the Little An- 
 tilles. They are formed into five separate Governments : — 
 
 Chief Towns. 
 
 1. Bahamas, ... . Nassau. 
 
 2. Jamaica, Spanish Town, Kingston. 
 
 Z. Leeward Islands, comprising — 
 
 Tortola, . . Tortola. 
 
 Anegada, and Virgin Gorda, 
 
 Anguilla, 
 
 Barbuda, 
 
 St Christopher, (St Kitts,) Basseterre. 
 
 Nevis, . . Charlestown. 
 
 Antigua, St John. 
 
 Montserrat, . Plymouth. 
 
 Dominica Roseau. 
 
 4. Windward Islands, comprising — 
 
 St Lucia, . . Castries. 
 
 St Vincent, . . . Kingston. 
 
 Barbadoes, ... . Bridgetown. 
 Grenadines, (cluster of small islands.) 
 Grenada, , . .St George. 
 
 Tobago, 
 5. Trinidad, 
 
 . Scarborough. 
 . Port of Spain. 
 
 St George. 
 
 1. The Bahamas (35,000) are the most northerly of the 
 West India Islands, and comprise about 500 islands, very few 
 of which are inhabited. They are generally low, barren, and 
 rocky, surrounded by coral reefs. The Gulf Stream sweeps 
 through the channel between Florida and the Great Bahama 
 Bank, from which most of the Bahama Islands rise, at the rate 
 of five miles an hour, rendering navigation very dangerous, and 
 wrecks frequent. The principal islands are— Bahama, which 
 gives its name to the group ; New Providence, upon which is 
 situated Nassau, (7000,) the capital ; Turk's Island, celebrated 
 for its salt ; San Salvador, the first land reached by Columbus. 
 
 2. Jamaica, (440,000,) the largest and most valuable of the 
 British Islands, is nearly three times the size of Prince Edward 
 Island. It was taken from Spain in 1655. The Blue Moun- 
 tains, rising over 7000 feet high, and covered with forests, 
 traverse the island from east to west. They are more preci- 
 pitous on the south than on the north side. The country is 
 well watered by small streams, and produces large quantities 
 of sugar, rum, coffee, and spices, which are chiefly exported t» 
 Britain. Kingston, (35,000, ) the largest town, is situated on 
 the north side of Port Royal, a fine harbor, well defended. 
 It carries on a large shipping trade, and is connected by rail- 
 way with Spanish Town, the capital, ten miles distant. Mon- 
 tego Bay is an important seaport. 
 
 3. Leeward Islands, (110,000.) Antigua is the principal island, 
 containing Si John, (15,500,) the capital, and seat of govern- 
 ment. St Christopher possesses a very fertile soil. Basseterre, 
 (7700,) its principal town, and Roseau, (5000,) the principal 
 town of Dominica, export sugar, rum, and molasses largely. 
 
 Exercises on the Map — West Indies.— What sea is enclosed by the 
 West India Islands. In what direction do they run? Between what 
 degrees of latitude and longitude? Which are the most northerly? 
 Which are the most easterly? Which is the largest island? Which 
 
 next ? Which next ? How are the British Islands divided for govern- 
 ment? In what position is Jamaica from Cuba? From Dominica? 
 From Trinidad ? From the Bahama Islands ? How is Kingston situated? 
 In what direction from Florida is Nassau ? 
 
38 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 4. The Windward Islands, (258,000,) are the most easterly 
 and southerly of the West India Islands. Barbadoes is the 
 oldest British settlement, and is densely peopled, containing 
 more than 800 persons to the square mile. Bridgetoxm, 
 (23,000,) the largest town, is the capital and seat of govern- 
 ment. In St Vincent is the volcano of Morne Garou. King- 
 ston, (5500,) its chief town, carries on an extensive trade. St 
 George, in Grenada, Castries, in St Lucia, and Scarborough, in 
 Tobago, are important towns. 
 
 5. Trinidad (84,000) is the most southerly of the West India 
 Islands, and is, next to Jamaica, the largest of the British 
 Islands, being about the same size as Prince Edward Island. 
 It is separated from Venezuela by the Gulf of Paria. It is 
 distinguished for its fertility and beautiful scenery, and is 
 covered with magnificent and valuable forests. On the south- 
 west promontory is a lake of asphalt, or pitch, a mile and a 
 half in diameter, and of unknown depth ; and near it are a 
 number of remarkable mud volcanoes. The exports are cocoa, 
 sugar, and molasses. Port of Spain, (18,000,) on the west coast, 
 is the capital. 
 
 The Bermudas are a group of small coral islands, nearly 
 400 in number, of which only five are inhabited. They lie in 
 the Atlantic, about 600 miles east of South Carolina. They are 
 celebrated for their delightful climate, and are the favorite 
 resort of invalids. The chief products are potatoes and arrow- 
 root. St George is the largest island, and contains the prin- 
 cipal town of the same name, with 3000 inhabitants. It has a 
 good harbor, well fortified, and is an important British naval 
 station. 
 
 "What is the extent of the British 
 West India Islands ? Population? 
 How are they divided ? Name 
 them, and point them out on the 
 map. Describe the Bahamas. How 
 are they situated ? The chief 
 islands? Describe Jamaica. How 
 is it situated? What mountains 
 does it contain ? Describe its pro- 
 ducts. What are the chief towns ? 
 Describe the Leeward Islands. 
 How are they situated ? What are 
 
 the principal islands, and their chief 
 towns ? Describe the Windward 
 Islands. How are they situated? 
 Describe the principal islands and 
 their chief towns. Describe Trini- 
 dad. How is it situated? What 
 remarkable lake, &c, does it con- 
 tain ? What are its exports ? What 
 is its chief town ? Describe the 
 Bermudas. Where are they situ- 
 ated ? What is the principal island 
 and town, and for what is it useful ? 
 
 SPANISH ISLANDS: 
 
 Area, 52,000 square miles ; population, 2,000,000 ; about the size of 
 New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. 
 
 The Spanish Islands are Cuba, Isla de Pinos, and Puerto Eico. 
 
 Cuba is the largest and most important of all the West India 
 Islands. It is 760 miles long, and about 60 broad, and is tra- 
 versed by an extensive chain of mountains from east to west, 
 covered with valuable cabinet woods, such as mahogany, &c. 
 The soil is very fertile, especially in the valleys in the north, 
 producing sugar, coffee, and the best tobacco. It possesses 
 valuable copper mines in the east. Its climate is delightful, 
 and hurricanes rarely occur. A very large proportion of the 
 inhabitants are negro slaves, but as the government of Spain, 
 since the Revolution in 1868, has decided to abolish slavery, 
 they will probably be emancipated shortly, and thus the last 
 remnant of negro slavery will have passed away. 
 
 Savannah (120,000) is the capital and largest town, and 
 
 possesses a magnificent harbor. It carries on a large trade, 
 and is celebrated for its cigars. It is elegantly built, and the 
 cathedral contains the remains of Columbus. It is connected 
 by railway with Matanzas, (30,000,) an important port, as is 
 also Santiago. Puerto Principi, (24,000,) a large town, is situ- 
 ated in the interior, and is poorly built. 
 
 Puerto Rico lies to the east of Hayti. It is beautifully diver- 
 sified in surface, well watered, and very fertile. It exports 
 chiefly sugar, coffee, and tobacco. San Juan, (20,000,) on the 
 north coast, is the capital. 
 
 Hayti, or St Domingo, (about 1,000,000,) lying to the east 
 of Cuba and Jamaica, is the second of the West India Islands 
 in size. For many years it was owned jointly by France and 
 Spain ; but in 1791, during the French Revolution, the negroes 
 expelled the French, formed a kind of republic of their own, 
 and were declared independent in 1800. The Spaniards held 
 the other portion till 1821. Both portions now form the 
 separate independent republics of Hayti and Dominica ; but 
 they are continually in a turmoil of revolutions. The island is 
 fertile, producing sugar, tobacco, &c, and the condition of the 
 country under the negroes is much better than that of the 
 Central American States. 
 
 Port au Prince (30,000) is the capital of Hayti, and Cape 
 Saytien a large and important town. 
 
 St Domingo (15,000) is the capital of Dominica, and is re- 
 markable as having been the first city founded by the Span- 
 iards in America. Santiago is also a large town. 
 
 Samana on the north-east coast, has been purchased by the 
 United States as a naval station. 
 
 The French Islands comprise — 
 
 Martinique, (chief town, Port Royal,) Guadaloupe, (chief 
 town, Basseterre,) Marie Galante, Desirade, and the northern 
 part of St Martin. 
 
 Port Boyal (7000) is the capital and largest town, and St 
 Pierre the seaport of Martinique. Guadaloupe contains the 
 volcano La Souffriere, or Sulphur Mountain. Basseterre is the 
 capital, and Pointe-d-Pitre the largest town. 
 
 The Dutch Islands comprise — 
 
 St Eustatius, Saba, the southern part of St Martin, and Buen 
 Ayre, Curagoa, and Oruba, off the coast of Venezuela. 
 
 St Eustatius, on the island of the same name, and WiTlcm~ 
 stadt, on Curacoa, are the principal towns and carry on a con- 
 siderable trade. 
 
 The islands of St Thomas and St John are the property of 
 the United States, having been purchased from Denmark in 
 1868. 
 
 St Thomas, on the island of the same name, is the principal 
 station for the West India mail steamers. 
 Santa Cruz is a Danish island. 
 Christianstadt, on Santa Cruz, is an important town. 
 
 Sweden possesses St Bartholomew, with its capital, Gustavia. 
 
 Exercises on the Map — West Indies. — Which is the longest of the 
 Leeward Islands? Of the Windward Islands? How is Puerto Rico 
 situated ? In what direction is Havannah from Key West ? Santiago 
 from Kingston, Jamaica ? How is San Juan situated ? What islands 
 
 are near San Domingo ? How is Port au Prince situated t Among what 
 groups of islands are the French Islands ? The Dutch Islands ? The 
 Danish Islands ? How is Trinidad separated from South America on the 
 West? Point out St Kitt's, Nevis, Barbadoes, Barbuda. 
 
t^t 5 
 
 
 ifC: 
 
 
 
 *:Jlifltf3J; STAGES 
 
 f^' 3 - B. JMiuia. 
 
 y 
 
 
 . : .-'y. 
 
 
 
 
 English. Hilts 
 
 JAMES CAMPBELL & SON".TORO 
 
SOUTH AMEEICA. 
 
 39 
 
 Which are the Spanish "West In- 
 dia Islands? How are they situ- 
 ated ? What is their extent ? Po- 
 pulation? Describe Cuba. Its pro- 
 ductions, soil, climate, &c. What 
 are its chief towns ? Where are 
 they situated? Describe Puerto 
 Rico. Its chief town. Describe 
 Hayti. How is it situated? How 
 was it divided? What is its pre- 
 sent position? Describe the soil, 
 
 &c. State of the country. What 
 are the chief towns ? What islands 
 belong to Prance? Where are 
 they situated ? What are their 
 chief towns ? What islands belong 
 to Holland ? Where are they situ- 
 ated ? What are their chief towns ? 
 What island belongs to Denmark ? 
 How is it situated ? What island 
 belongs to Sweden ? 
 
 SOUTH AMEEICA. 
 
 Area, 7,150,000 square miles ; persons to square mile, 4 ; greatest 
 extent from north to south, 4600 miles ; and from east to west, 3200 
 miles ; population, 26,000,000. 
 
 South America comprises the southern portion of 
 the American continent from the Isthmus of Panama. 
 It is bounded on the North by the Caribbean Sea ; 
 on the "West by the Pacific Ocean ; on the South by 
 the Antarctic Ocean ; and on the East by the Atlantic 
 Ocean. 
 
 Like North America, South America may be divided into 
 four great regions, besides the narrow strip of land between the 
 Andes and the Pacific ; the north-eastern slope or valley of 
 the Orinoco ; the great central plain or valley of the Amazon, 
 extending from the Andes on the Pacific coast to the Atlantic 
 Ocean, across the widest part of the continent ; the Atlantic 
 slope from the mountains of Brazil eastward; and the south- 
 eastern slope or valley of the La Plata, consisting chiefly of 
 vast pampas or desert plains. 
 
 The great chain of the Andes extends from the extreme 
 north to the southern point of the continent, more than 4000 
 miles in length, near the Pacific coast, from which it is never 
 more than 200 miles distant. They are only exceeded in 
 height by a few peaks of the Himalayas, but are nowhere in 
 the world equalled for the vast extent and size of their rugged 
 masses. In the north they consist of three parallel chains, 
 but do not reach their greatest height until they unite in 
 the high table-lands of Quito in Ecuador, which are 6000 feet 
 above the sea. Here they form a mass of enormous volcanoes 
 from 18,000 to 22,000 feet above the sea, their summits covered 
 with perpetual snow. Amongst these are Chimborazo ; Coto- 
 paxi, the most dreaded volcano ; Antisana, and others. They 
 then extend south in two parallel chains, enclosing Lake Titi- 
 caca, which is 12,000 feet above the sea, and 150 miles in 
 length, and empties only into another small lake, which has 
 no outlet to the ocean ; on the table-lands between Bolivia and 
 Peru they form another group of immense volcanoes of equal 
 height, comprising Llimani, Sorata, Sahama, Arequipa, and 
 others. From this they extend southwards in one chain, till, 
 from occupying 400 miles in breadth, they gradually narrow 
 down to 20 in Patagonia. The highest summit in the whole 
 range is Aconcagua, near Valparaiso, in Chili, nearly 24,000 
 feet high. 
 
 In the north-east are the parallel chains of the Parime and 
 Aceray mountains, rising from 7000 to 10,000 feet high ; and 
 in the east, in Brazil, there are several chains of mountains, 
 
 generally stretching from north to south, but not of any great 
 height. 
 
 The Andes contain the sources of some of the greatest 
 rivers in the world. The Amazon rises in Peru, receives on 
 the north bank the Napo, Putumayo, Yapura, and Negro — 
 the latter forming a remarkable connexion with the Orinoco 
 by means of the Gassiquiare River; and on the south bank, 
 the Ucayali, Purus, Madeira, Tapajos, and Xingu ; and flows 
 into the Atlantic by an estuary 180 miles wide at its mouth, 
 after a course of over 4000 miles. It is navigable to the mouth 
 of the Ucayali, over 2000 miles, and most of its affluents for 
 the greater part of their courses. On the Madeira are remark- 
 able falls. The tide flows into the Amazon as far as 300 miles 
 from its mouth, and at spring tides is headed by a bore, or 
 tidal wave, which frequently swallows up and destroys any 
 boats on the river. 
 
 The La Plata is formed by the junction of the Uruguay 
 and Parana Rivers, rising in the high table-lands of 
 Brazil, the latter receiving from the west the Salado, and 
 Paraguay, which also has several large tributaries. It is 
 2700 miles long, and is navigable for large vessels for 1300 
 miles. At Buenos Ayres, 200 miles from its mouth, it is 30 
 miles wide. 
 
 The Orinoco rises in the Pariine" Mountains, and flows into 
 the Atlantic, by a number of mouths, a little south of the 
 Island of Trinidad. Its length is about 1600 miles, and it is 
 navigable for 1000 miles. The Orinoco connects with the 
 Amazon by the Cassiquiare Eiver, forming a complete circle 
 of inland navigation. 
 
 The other important rivers are the Magdalena, flowing into 
 the Caribbean Sea ; the Essequibo, Para, with its aflluent the 
 Tocantins, Paranahyba, and San Francisco in the north, and 
 the Colorado and Negro in the south, flowing into the Atlan- 
 tic. The Para may be considered as an arm of the Amazon, 
 and with it separates Marajo Island from the mainland. 
 
 West of the Andes are no rivers of consequence, the moun- 
 tains being so close to the coast, and the intervening land being 
 generally hot and dry. 
 
 South America is very compact, the coast-line being almost 
 unbroken. 
 
 The principal capes are on the east coast, — Gallinas, 
 St Roque, Frio, St Antonio; and Horn, at the southern ex- 
 tremity. 
 
 The bays, straits, &c, are few. The principal are : — 
 
 The Gulfs of Darien, Maracaybo, 
 and Paria, on the north : All Saints 
 Bay, Gulfs of Matias and St George, 
 on the east; the Strait of Magel- 
 
 lan, between Patagonia and Tierra 
 del Fuego ; the Gulfs of Guayaquil 
 and Panama on the west ; besides 
 the estuaries of the large rivers. 
 
 To the south are the Falkland Islands, Tierra del Fuego, 
 Cape Horn, Staten Island, and numerous small groups of 
 islands off the west coast of Patagonia, the principal of which 
 are Wellington Island and Chiloe Island. To the west of Chili 
 is Juan Fernandez Island, and off the coast of Ecuador are the 
 Galapagos or Turtle Islands. 
 
 The climate of South America varies greatly even within a 
 distance of a few miles. At the equator the snow-line is about 
 1 6,000 feet above the sea, and from this down to the base of 
 
 Exercises on the Map — South Amekica. — How is South America 
 joined to North America ? What oceans and sea wash the shores of 
 South America ? What rivers flow into the Atlantic ? Into the Carib- 
 bean Sea? Do any rivers flow into the Pacific ? What is the cause of 
 
 this ? In what zone is the greater part of South America situated ? 
 Which countries border on the Caribbean Sea ? On the Atlantic ? On 
 the Pacific ? Which is the largest country ? Which is entirely in the 
 interior ? What is the southern point of South America called ? 
 
40 
 
 SOUTH AMEEICA. 
 
 the mountains are to be found the climate and vegetation of 
 all the zones in succession. It is generally hot and unhealthy 
 on the coast ; on the east within the tropics it is very moist, 
 but on some parts of the west coast rain never falls. No part 
 of the world is so subject to volcanic eruptions and earth- 
 quakes as those countries situated near the Andes. Nearly 
 all the principal cities in the western part of the continent 
 have been more or less destroyed by them. An earthquake 
 at one time permanently raised a great part of the coast of 
 Chili from two to seven feet above its former level. 
 
 The soil of South America is remarkable for its fertility. 
 Humboldt estimates the vegetable productions of South 
 America at about one-third of all the varieties in the world. 
 Along the banks of the Amazon the country is densely wooded, 
 but the courses of the other large rivers are chiefly through 
 vast grassy plains. Cassava, cocoa, indigo, sugar, cotton, 
 coffee, Peruvian bark, and other medicinal plants, cinnamon, 
 and all the tropical fruits and spices, are produced abundantly 
 and with but little labor ; but owing to the unsettled political 
 state of the country, and the want of enterprise in the inhabi- 
 tants, agriculture is greatly neglected, and the vast resources of 
 the continent lie idle. 
 
 The animals peculiar to South America are— the llama and 
 the alpaca ; the first a species of camel, but smaller, and with- 
 out a hump ; the other resembling a sheep or goat, and yielding 
 fine wool ; the condor of the Andes, the sloth, taper, armadillo ; 
 monkeys, serpents, birds of brilliant plumage, and a great 
 variety of insects swarm, especially in the forests of Guiana. 
 
 South America is also very rich in the most valuable mine- 
 rals : gold, diamonds, and precious stones are extensively found 
 in Brazil and other parts ; silver in Peru and Bolivia ; and iron 
 and other metals in Brazil. 
 
 The Portuguese formerly possessed Brazil, and the Spaniards 
 the rest of the continent, except Patagonia, which is little 
 known and little valued; but all the states are now in- 
 dependent. 
 
 When South America was first conquered by the Spaniards, 
 the inhabitants of Peru were to a great extent civilized, had a 
 regular form of government, and built fine cities, temples, and 
 monuments ; but most of the other Indians, as they were 
 called, were iguoraot and barbarous. The present population 
 consists chiefly of Indians, and the mixed races of whites, 
 Indians, and negroes. The whites probably number less than 
 one-third of the whole. 
 
 South America is divided into nine republics, one limited 
 monarchy, (Brazil,) and one European possession, (Guiana,) 
 Patagonia being still in the possession of the natives. 
 
 The Countries are : — 
 
 New Granada. 
 
 Bolivia, or Upper Peru. 
 
 "Venezuela. 
 
 Chili. 
 
 Ecuador. 
 
 La Plata, (including Buenos Ayres. ) 
 
 Guiana. 
 
 Paraguay. 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 Uruguay. 
 
 Pern. 
 
 Patagonia. 
 
 What is the area of South Ameri- 
 ca? Extent? Population? What 
 does South America comprise ? 
 How is it bounded? How may it 
 be divided ? Describe the divi- 
 
 sions. Describe the Andes. Trace 
 them on the map. Describe their 
 appearance in the different coun- 
 tries. What other mountains are 
 there ? Point them out on the 
 
 map. Name the principal rivers. 
 Trace their courses on the map. 
 Deseribe the Amazon, La Plata, 
 Orinoco. Describe the coast-line 
 of South America. Name the 
 principal gulfs, bays, straits, &c. 
 Point them out on the map. Where 
 are they situated ? Name the prin- 
 cipal capes, and point them out on 
 the map. Where are they situated ? 
 Name the principal islands, and 
 point them out on the map. Where 
 
 are they situated? Describe the 
 climate of South America. To 
 what is South America subject? 
 Describe the soil, vegetable produc- 
 tions, state of the country. De- 
 scribe the animals, minerals, and 
 where they are found. What was 
 the condition of Peru when first 
 conquered? Describe the present 
 inhabitants. How is South Amer- 
 ica divided ? Name the countries, 
 and point them out. 
 
 NEW GRANADA. 
 
 Area, 520,000 square miles ; population, 2,360,000 ; persons to square 
 
 mile, 4 ; three times the size of Ontario. 
 
 Capital, Bogota. 
 
 New Granada occupies the north-west part of the 
 continent, and joins Central America by the Isthmus 
 of Panama or Darien, which is from 30 to 50 miles 
 wide. Along with the adjoining states, Venezuela and 
 Ecuador, it formed the republic of Columbia, after the 
 Spanish colonies had gained their independence ; but 
 the confederation was broken up in 1832, and each 
 state now forms an independent republic. 
 
 The Andes traverse the western part of the country, in three 
 chains, but in the south and east it is a level plain, forming 
 part of the llanos, or vast grassy plains annually inundated by 
 the Orinoco. The Magdalena Biver flows northward, between 
 the parallel chains of the Andes, into the Caribbean Sea, after 
 a course of about 860 miles. 
 
 The climate in the lower parts of the country is •hot, damp, 
 and unhealthy ; but most of the cities are built on the high 
 table-lands of the Andes. The forests in the mountains contain 
 mahogany, caoutchouc, and other valuable trees. The soil is 
 fertile; and cotton, sugar, indigo, coffee, cocoa, cinnamon, and 
 other tropical products grow in great abundance ; but agricul- 
 ture and commerce are at a low ebb. On the llanos vast herds 
 of cattle roam ; and hides and tallow form important articles of 
 export. Gold, platinum, and precious stones are also found 
 in the mountains. 
 
 The Isthmus of Panama, belonging to New Granada, is 
 now traversed by «■ railway from Aspinwall, on the Carib- 
 bean Sea, to Panama, on the Pacific ; affording great facilities 
 for the commerce of the Eastern States with California and the 
 Pacific. 
 
 The only religion tolerated is the Roman Catholic. 
 
 Bogota, (40,000,) the capital, is a well-built city, situated on 
 a level plain, nearly 9000 feet above the sea. Coal is found in 
 the vicinity. Near the city the Bogota Biver falls over a per- 
 pendicular precipice 600 feet high, with the vegetation of the 
 temperate zone above, and that of the tropics below, Carta- 
 gena is the principal seaport. 
 
 What is the area of New Gran- 
 ada? Population? Size? Capital? 
 Where is it situated, and how 
 bounded? Of what did it once form 
 part? Describe the surface, moun- 
 tains, rivers, &c. Describe the 
 
 climate, productions, soil. What 
 are found on the llanos? What 
 minerals are found ? For what is 
 Panama famous? Describe the 
 chief towns. Where are they situ- 
 ated ? 
 
 Exercises on the Map — South America — What strait divides the 
 most southern part of South America from the mainland ? What islands 
 lie to the east of the Strait of Magellan ? What is the north-eastern 
 point of South America called? What rirer flows through New 
 
 Granada ? For what is the north-western part of New Granada import- 
 ant? What large river flows through Venezuela? What important 
 island belonging to Britain lies on the north-east of Venezuela ? What 
 countries adjoin Venezuela ? What large gulf is on the north-west ? 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 41 
 
 VENEZUELA. 
 
 Area, 426,800 square miles ; population, 1,600,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 4 ; twice the size of the province of Quebec. 
 
 Capital, Caracas. 
 
 Venezuela lies to the east of New Granada, on the 
 Caribbean Sea, and south of the Little Antilles. It 
 formed one of the states of the republic of Columbia, 
 which was dissolved in 1832, and is now an independent 
 republic. 
 
 The Parime mountains separate it from Brazil ; and one of 
 the chains of the Ancles is continued from New Granada in a 
 north-easterly direction along the coast. It is watered by the 
 Orinoco, which flows through extensive llanos, or level grassy 
 plains, supporting vast herds of cattle. The climate, soil, pro- 
 ducts, and religion are the same as those of New Granada. 
 
 Lake Maracaybo is situated in the north-west ; and on its 
 shores is an inexhaustible mine of asphalt, or pitch. 
 
 Caracas (35,000) is the capital. It was nearly destroyed 
 by an earthquake in 1812, when 12,000 persons lost their lives. 
 Valencia (15,000) is the next largest town. Maracaybo and 
 Cumana are the chief seaports, and are very unhealthy. 
 
 compose part ? Describe the sur- 
 face, climate, &c. Describe Lake 
 Maracaybo. Describe the chief 
 towns. Where are they situated? 
 
 What is the area of Venezuela ? 
 Population ? Size ? Capital ? 
 Where is it situated, and how 
 bounded ? Of what did it formerly 
 
 ECUADOR. 
 
 Area, 290,000 square miles ; population, 1,000,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 3 ; ten times the size of New Brunswick. 
 
 Capital, Quito. 
 
 Ecuador is situated to the south of New Granada, 
 and is directly under the equator, as its name implies. 
 It also formed one of the states of the republic of 
 Columbia. 
 
 In the west it is traversed by the Andes, which have there 
 some of their highest summits and most remarkable volcanoes. 
 Cotopaxi is the most tremendous volcano in the world, and 
 rises to the height of 18,000 feet, in the form of a perfect 
 cone; its summit covered with eternal snow. The flames 
 from its crater sometimes rise 3000 feet above its summit, 
 with a terrific roaring noise. Chimborazo is also a conical 
 peak, upwards of 21,000 feet high. Pichincha, on the slope of 
 which the city of Quito is built, and Antisana, are also 
 formidable volcanoes. In the east, Ecuador includes part of 
 the level wooded valley of the Amazon. The climate, soil, 
 productions, and religion resemble those of New Granada. 
 The Galapagos, or Turtle Islands, 650 miles to the west, 
 belong to Ecuador. 
 
 Quito, (75,000,) the capital, is 9500 feet above the level of 
 the sea, and is built in a valley oa the east side of the volcano 
 Pichincha. It enjoys a most delightful climate ; but, like 
 most of the towns in the republic, has suffered much from 
 earthquakes. Cucnca is the next most important town, and 
 with Loxa exports Peruvian bark. Guayaquil is the principal 
 seaport. 
 
 ' "What is the area of Ecuador? 
 Population? Size? Capital? Prom 
 what does it receive its name ? 
 Where is it situated, and how 
 bounded ? Describe the surface. 
 
 Describe the celebrated volcanoes 
 it contains. Describe the climate, 
 .fee. "What islands belong to Ecua- 
 dor ? Describe the chief towns. 
 Where are they situated ? 
 
 GUIANA. 
 
 Area, 164,000 square miles; population, 326,000 ; persons to a square 
 mile, 2; one-sixth less than Ontario iu size. 
 
 Guiana ia situated on the Atlantic, between Vene- 
 zuela and Brazil. It is the only part of the continent 
 possessed by European nations. It is divided into : — 
 
 Chief Towns. 
 
 British Guiana, Georgetown. 
 
 DuTcn G-uiana, or Surinam, . 1 Paramaribo. 
 
 Fklinch Guiana, . . . Cayenne. 
 
 The Aceray mountains separate it from Brazil. From being 
 low and marshy on the coast, the land gradually rises towards 
 the interior, and becomes more mountainous. The climate is 
 the mildest of any country situated in the tropics, owing to 
 the trade winds, and cool land and sea breezes. The soil is 
 remarkably fruitful, and produces sugar, coffee, rice, various 
 medicinal plants, Cayenne pepper, and other tropical spices in 
 the greatest abundance. "Vegetation is most luxuriant ; and 
 the forests swarm with monkeys, birds of brilliant plumage, 
 insects, &c. 
 
 British Guiana, the largest of the three divisions, was con- 
 quered from the Dutch in 1803. It is divided into three dis- 
 tricts — Berbice,Demerara, andEssequibo. Georgetown, (20,000,) 
 the capital, is situated at the mouth of the Demerara River. 
 Most of the inhabitants of the town and country are negroes. 
 
 Butch Guiana is the central portion of the country, and is 
 sometimes called Surinam. Paramaribo, the capital, is situ- 
 ated on the Surinam River. 
 
 French Guiana is used as a penal settlement. Cayenne, the 
 capital, is situated on an island of the same name, and gives 
 its name to the species of red pepper, or capsicum, grown in 
 Guiana, and known as Cayenne pepper. 
 
 What is the area of Guiana ? 
 Population? Size? Where is it 
 situated, and how bounded ? For 
 what is it noted? How is it divided? 
 Describe the surface, climate, soil, 
 
 products, &c. Describe British 
 Guiana. Its chief town. Its in- 
 habitants. Describe Dutch Guiana. 
 Its capital. Describe French 
 Guiana. Its capital. 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 Area, 3,134,000 square miles ; population. 9,000,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 3 ; about the same size as British North America. 
 
 Capital, Rio Janeiro. ; 
 
 The empire of Brazil is bounded on the North "by 
 Guiana and Venezuela ; on the West by New Granada, 
 Ecuador, Peru ; on the South and West by Bolivia, 
 Paraguay, La Plata, and Uruguay ; and on the East by 
 the Atlantic. 
 
 This immense country formerly belonged to Portugal, but 
 was acknowledged independent in 1825, and now constitutes 
 an hereditary monarchy under a branch of the Royal Family of 
 Portugal. 
 
 It is intersected by a number of chains of mountains, 
 generally extending from north to south, and by high table- 
 
 Exeroises on the Map — South America.— What countries adjoin 
 Ecuador ? Guiana ? Brazil ? On what ocean is Ecuador situated ? 
 Guiana? Brazil? What river separates Ecuador from Peru? What 
 great rivers flow through Brazil ? How is Brazil separated from Guiana ? 
 
 Prom Paraguay ? To whom does the largest portion of Guiana belong ? 
 How is Rio Janeiro situated? How is Bahia situated? Marauhao? 
 Pernambuco? Quito? In what direction from Rio Janeiro is Bahia? 
 Cayenne ? Quito ? Caracas ? Maranhao ? Pernambuco ? 
 
42 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 lands, stretching westward, and dividing the tributaries of the 
 Amazon from those of the Paraguay. The Amazon forms 
 the great feature of the northern part of the empire, and most 
 of its large tributaries flow through Brazil. There are, besides 
 these, the Para, Paranahyba, and San Francisco Rivers; so 
 that no country in the world possesses within the same limits 
 so many or such extensive navigable rivers. The valley of the 
 Amazon is celebrated for its valuable forests of mahogany, 
 logwood, and Brazil wood. From the south-west portion of 
 the central table-lands, the vast pampas, or level plains 
 covered with grass and small shrubs, commence, and extend 
 as far south as Patagonia. 
 
 The climate of Brazil is one of the most delightful in the 
 world,' especially in the south and east, where it is almost per- 
 petual summer. In the valley of the Amazon it is hotter and 
 more moist, rain falling almost every day ; but on the table- 
 lands it is cooler and more healthy. There is no country in the 
 world so favored by nature as Brazil, and yet so little im- 
 proved. Sugar, rice, coffee, tobacco, and drugs grow exten- 
 sively in the north, and grain and fruits in the southern and 
 more elevated parts. Vast herds of cattle are raised, and 
 hides and tallow are largely exported ; but agriculture and 
 commerce are greatly neglected. Brazil is also rich in gold 
 and other precious metals, and celebrated for its diamonds, 
 which are principally found on the San Francisco Biver. 
 Most of the animals of South America are found in Brazil, 
 besides a vast variety of every species of vegetation. About 
 three-fourths of the whole population consist of Indians and 
 negroes. 
 
 The Boman Catholic is the prevailing religion. 
 
 Rio Janeiro, (250,000,) the'capitah is situated on a magnifi- 
 cent bay, and is the largest city in South America. It contains 
 many fine buildings, and is the chief centre of commerce in the 
 country. Bahia or San Salvador, (120,000, ) the former capital, 
 is situated on the Bay of All Saints, and exports large quan- 
 tities of sugar. Pernambuco, Maranhao, and Para are also 
 important commercial towns, and are all situated on the coast. 
 The inland towns are small and unimportant. 
 
 What is the area of Brazil? Po- 
 pulation? Size? Capital? Where 
 is it situated, and how bounded? 
 To whom did it formerly belong ? 
 Describe the surface. What are its 
 principal rivers? Trace them on 
 the map. For what is the valley of 
 
 the Amazon celebrated? What 
 commences in the south - west ? 
 Describe the climate, products, 
 minerals, and where they are found. 
 Animals. Inhabitants. Religion. 
 Describe the chief towns. Where 
 are they situated ? For what noted ? 
 
 PERU. 
 
 Area, 508,000 square miles ; population, 2,500,000; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 5 ; nearly three times the size of Ontario. 
 
 Capital, Lima. 
 
 Peru is situated on the Pacific, to the south of Ecua- 
 dor, and west of Brazil and Bolivia. It was conquered 
 by the Spaniards under Pizarro in 1532, and remained 
 in their possession till 1821, when it became an inde- 
 pendent republic. 
 
 It is traversed by the double chain of the Andes, between 
 which are high table-lands about 8000 feet above the sea, 
 
 where are situated most of the large towns. The climate is 
 there cool and delightful, and the soil rich and fertile, yielding 
 all the ordinary grains. The products resemble those of 
 Brazil ; and Peruvian bark, guano, and various dyewoods are 
 largely exported. In the eastern range of the Andes are the 
 valuable gold and silver mines, for which Peru has long been 
 famous. The tract between the Andes and the Pacific is chiefly 
 a hot desert sandy plain. To the east the country forms part 
 of the vast forest plain or valley of the Amazon. About 
 fifteen miles from the coast are the Chincha Islands — three in 
 number — celebrated for their extensive deposits of guano, 
 which is largely exported. Nearly everything has to be carried 
 into or out of the interior of the country on the backs of mules 
 or llamas. The Andes are celebrated for their rugged and 
 dangerous, but picturesque scenery. Travelling is very diffi- 
 cult, men and mules often requiring to be taken across a 
 torrent, slung to a single rope. Earthquakes are frequent, and 
 some of the largest volcanoes of the Andes rise on the borders 
 of Peru and Bolivia. The only religion tolerated is the 
 Boman Catholic. 
 
 Lima, (80,000,) the capital, is situated in the midst of a 
 fertile plain, and is connected by railway with Gallao, its 
 seaport. Cuzco, the ancient capital of the Incas of Peru, is 
 situated in the interior, and still contains the remains of the 
 magnificent Temple of the Sun, and other monuments attesting 
 the ancient civilization of the inhabitants. Arequipa and 
 Pasco are the next most important towns. 
 
 What is the area of Peru? Popu- 
 lation? Size? Capital? Where 
 is it situated, and how bounded ? 
 To whom did it formerly belong? 
 Describe the surface. Climate. 
 Products. Minerals. What islands 
 
 belong to Peru ? For what are they 
 famous? Describe the difficulties 
 of the Andes. To what is the 
 country subject ? What is the reli- 
 gion? Describe the chief towns. 
 Where are they situated? 
 
 BOLIVIA. 
 
 Area, 473,000 square miles ; population, 2,000,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 4; about the same size as Canada and Newfoundland. 
 
 Capital, Chuquisaca, 
 
 Bolivia, up to the year 1825, formed part of Peru, 
 and now takes its name from Bolivar, the leader who 
 was chiefly instrumental in gaining its independence. 
 
 It is situated almost entirely in the interior, between Peru 
 and Brazil, to the north of La Plata, possessing only a small 
 portion of coast-line with one small seaport, Cobija. 
 
 On the borders of Bolivia and Peru the double chain of the 
 Andes encloses Lake Titicaca, the sacred lake of the ancient 
 Peruvians. It is nearly 13,000 feet above the level of the sea. 
 Between the Andes and the Pacific is a sandy desert, but to 
 the east of the Andes the country consists of a vast forest plain, 
 watered by the tributaries of the Amazon and Paraguay. The 
 products are the same as those of Brazil and Peru. The wool 
 of the alpaca is also largely exported. Silver was once found 
 in great quantities, but latterly the mines have not been 
 nearly so productive. The Boman Catholic is the only religion 
 tolerated. 
 
 Chuquisaca, (25,000,) is the capital. Potosi, (15,000,) is 
 13,000 feet above the sea, and contains the famous silver 
 
 Exercises on the Map — South America. — On what ocean are Peru 
 and Chili situated ? How is Peru separated from Bolivia ? Chili from 
 La Plata? What countries adjoin Bolivia? What are the princi- 
 pal cities on the Pacific coast ? Are Peru, Bolivia, and Chili north or 
 
 south of the equator ? In what direction from Valparaiso is Lima ? 
 Chuquisaca ? Rio Janeiro ? What celebrated island lies to the west of 
 Chili ? What valuable islands lie to the west of Peru ? What seaport 
 town has Bolivia? Has it any other seaports? In what zone is it ? 
 
SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 43 
 
 mines. A century ago it contained 130,000 inhabitants. La 
 Paz (43,000) is the largest town, situated near the lofty 
 volcanoes, Tllimani and Sorata. Cochabamba is a town of some 
 importance. 
 
 What is 'the area of Bolivia? 
 Population? Size? Capital? Where 
 is it situated, andhowisit bounded? 
 Of what did it form part? From 
 what does it take its name? When 
 
 did it become independent? De- 
 scribe Lake Titicaca. Describe the 
 surfaceofBolivia. Products. Mine- 
 rals. Religion. Describe the chief 
 towns. Where are they situated ? 
 
 CHILI. 
 
 Area, 1SO,000 square miles ; population, 1,650,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 9 ; the same size as Ontario. 
 
 Capital, SANTrAGO. 
 
 Chili consists of a long, narrow strip of land between 
 the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, and extending from 
 Bolivia southwards for 1200 miles. It is about 190 
 miles in width at the broadest part. It also claims 
 Patagonia. Chiloe Island, a large, well-wooded island, 
 and Juan Fernandez, or Robinson Crusoe's Island, 
 belong to Chili. 
 
 The surface is mountainous or hilly from the Andes to the 
 coast. The Andes here form only one chain, and reach their 
 highest summit in the peak of Aconcagua, 24,000 feet high. 
 Between the mountains are beautiful and fertile valleys. In 
 the north is the desert of Atacama. 
 
 The climate in the northern and middle regions is hot and 
 dry, but becomes cooler towards the south. Earthquakes are 
 frequent, and often very destructive. The soil is very pro- 
 ductive. Potatoes, wheat, and maize are extensively cultivated, 
 besides olives, figs, and vines. Chili is supposed to be the 
 native country of the potato. The seasons are reversed from 
 ■what they are in the northern hemisphere, winter being in the 
 months of June and July. Gold, silver, and copper are found 
 to a great extent near Copiapo, in the north. Chili is the most 
 progressive of the states of South America, and exports largely 
 guano, copper, and saltpetre. Its trade is chiefly with Great 
 Britain. 
 
 Santiago, (80,000,) the capital, is situated in a beautiful and 
 fertile district, about 60 miles from the coast. Valparaiso, 
 (72,000,) the port of Santiago, is the principal commercial city, 
 and carries on a large trade, chiefly with Britain. Conception 
 and Copiapo are the next towns of importance. 
 
 What is the area of Chili ? Po- 
 pulation ? Size ? Capital ? Where 
 is it situated, and how bounded ? 
 How far does it extend ? What is 
 its breadth ? What islands belong 
 to it ? Describe the surface. What 
 
 remarkable mountain is in Chili ? 
 How many miles high is it? De- 
 scribe the climate. Soil. Produc- 
 tions. Seasons. Minerals. Trade. 
 Describe the chief towns. Where 
 are they situated ? 
 
 LA PLATA. 
 
 Area, 900,000 square miles ; population, 1,800,000; persons to square 
 
 mile, 2 ; nearly twice the size of Canada and Newfoundland. 
 
 Capital, Buenos Ayres. 
 
 La Plata, or the Argentine Confederation, occupies 
 
 the central country between the Andes and the rivers 
 
 Paraguay and Uruguay, and extends from Bolivia to 
 
 Patagonia. It comprises twelve federate States, which 
 obtained their independence between 1810 and 1816. 
 
 The surface consists chiefly of flat level plains, called pampas, 
 covered with coarse grass or sand. The largest is in the north- 
 east, called the desert of El Gran Ckaco, and from it others 
 extend west to the Andes, and south as far as Patagonia. In 
 the south-west are numerous swamps and salt lakes. On these 
 pampas vast herds of cattle and wild horses roam, and form the 
 chief wealth of the country. Hides, tallow, and bones are 
 largely exported. The rivers of La Plata are large and import- 
 ant, including the Parana, with its tributaries, the Paraguay, 
 Pilcomayo, Vermejo and Salado; the Uruguay flowing into the 
 estuary called the Bio de la Plata ; and the Colorado and Negro 
 farther south. The climate is hot, and violent hurricanes, 
 called pamperos, occur on the pampas. The soil in the middle 
 region is fertile, producing wheat, cotton, sugar, and rice, but 
 agriculture is little attended to. The greater part of the in- 
 habitants are Indians or mixed races. The prevailing religion 
 is the Roman Catholic. 
 
 Buenos Ayres extends between La Plata and the Atlantic 
 Ocean, from the estuary of the La Plata to the Negro Biver, 
 which separates it from Patagonia. It separated from the 
 Argentine Confederation in 1853, but joined it again in 1861. 
 Grain is now cultivated to a limited extent. 
 
 Buenos Ayres, (80,000,) the capital, and largest city in the 
 Confederation, is situated near the head of the estuary of the 
 La Plata, the navigation of which is rendered dangerous by 
 numerous shoals, and by the pamperos, or hurricanes from 
 the pampas. It is an important commercial port, and is 
 rapidly increasing. It exports chiefly hides, tallow, wool, 
 and skins. 
 
 Parana, (8000,) the former capital, is situated on the river 
 Parana, 240 miles north-west of Buenos Ayres. CorHentes, 
 (20,000,) Cordova, Mendoza, and San Juan are the principal 
 towns. The pass of Mendoza is upon the great commercial road 
 across the Andes between Valparaiso and Buenos Ayres. 
 
 What is the area of La Plata? 
 Population? Size? Capital? Where 
 is La Plata situated, and how 
 bounded? Of what is it composed ? 
 Describe the surface. Which is the 
 largest of the pampas ? What do the 
 
 pampas supply ? Describe the 
 rivers, and trace them on the map. 
 Describe the climate. Soil. Pro- 
 ductions. Religion. Describe 
 Buenos Ayres. Describe the chief 
 towns. Where are they situated? 
 
 PARAGUAY. 
 
 Area, 80,000 square miles ; population, 1,340,000 ; persons to square 
 mile, 17 ; three times the size of New Brunswick. 
 
 Capital, Asuncion. 
 
 Paraguay lies wholly in the interior, between the 
 Paraguay and Parana Rivers. It resembles La Plata in 
 physical features, climate, products, and religion ; but 
 in the north is more mountainous, and produces a 
 species of holly, about one and a half feet high, called 
 Matte or Paraguay tea, which is largely used as tea in 
 South America. 
 
 Paraguay gained its independence from Spain in 1813, and 
 
 Exercises on the Map — South America. — What countries 
 adjoin La Plata? How is it separated from Uruguay ? From Brazil? 
 From Paraguay ? From Chili ? Which countiy occupies the most 
 southern part of South America ? How is Buenos Ayres situated ? How 
 
 is Monte Video situated ? In what direction from Buenos Ayres is Rio 
 Janeiro ? Valparaiso ? Callao ? Asuncion ? Santiago ? What is the 
 southern part of South America remarkable for ? Which is the largest 
 island ? In what direction from the capital is Valparaiso ? 
 
44 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 up to the year 1840 was ruled by a native Creole, Dr Francia, 
 •who strictly excluded all foreigners. Since his death this re- 
 striction has been removed. 
 
 Asuncion, (10,000,) the capital, is situated near the junction 
 of the Pilcomayo and Paraguay rivers. 
 
 "What is the avea of Paraguay ? 
 
 ' Population ? Size ? Capital ? Where 
 
 is it situated, and how bounded? 
 
 Describe its surface, climate, &c. ? 
 
 What does it produce ? How was 
 it formerly governed ? Describe 
 the capital ? Compare in size and 
 population Paraguay and Ontario. 
 
 URUGUAY. 
 
 Area, 103,000 square miles ; population, 250,000 ; persons to a square 
 mile, 2 ; about half the size of the province of Quebec. 
 
 Capital, Monte Video. 
 
 Uruguay, or Banda Oriental as it was called, lies be- 
 tween the Uruguay River and the Atlantic Ocean, and 
 between Brazil and the estuary of the La Plata. 
 
 It formerly belonged to Buenos Ayres, with which it was 
 long engaged in hostilities, until it was acknowledged inde- 
 pendent in 1828. 
 
 In physical features, climate, products, and religion it re- 
 sembles La Plata. Its exports are chiefly hides and tallow to 
 Great Britain, and dried beef to the West Indies. Within the 
 last thirty years it has largely increased in population, and 
 greatly improved. 
 
 Monte Video, (70,000,) the capital, possesses the best har- 
 bor on the La Plata, and carries on the chief trade of the 
 country. 
 
 What is the area of Uruguay? I Describe its surface, climate, &c. 
 Population ? Size ? Capital ? Where | What progress has it made ? De- 
 is it situated, and how bounded? I scribe its capital. Where is it 
 To whom did it formerly belong ? | situated ? 
 
 PATAGONIA. 
 
 Patagonia comprises the southern extremity of South 
 America, but little is known of the country or its people. 
 
 It consists chiefly, however, of level pampas, which are cold 
 and barren. The Andes extend along the Pacific coast. It is 
 inhabited by a tall, well-formed race of Indians, who subsist 
 on the flesh of wild animals, and live much on horseback. 
 They were described as giants by early travellers, who were 
 probably misled by their long mantles of hide, which reach to 
 the ground, and give them the appearance of extraordinary 
 height. They are the only independent aboriginal race on 
 the continent. The pampas abound with wild cattle and 
 horses. The Pacific coast is claimed by Chili. 
 
 Tierra del Fuego is an island, or rather a cluster of islands, 
 separated from Patagonia by the Strait of Magellan. The 
 natives are described as the most wretched race of ugly, 
 stunted savages in the world, and subsist chiefly on fish. The 
 islands are generally thickly wooded. Cape Horn, or Hermit 
 Island, is a huge dark rock, covered with trees, rising about 
 600 feet high. It is the most southerly point of South Amer- 
 ica, and is 1470 miles farther south than any point of Africa. 
 It is in about the same latitude, south of the equator, as the 
 southern part of Hudson Bay is north of it. 
 
 The Falkland Islands, about 300 miles east of Patagonia, 
 belong to Britain, and consist of 2 large, and about 200 
 small islands. They are destitute of trees, but nearly covered 
 with peat bogs. Large herds of cattle and horses roam wild. 
 They contain many fine harbors, and are valuable as places of 
 refuge for shipping frequenting the southern seas. They were 
 erected in a colony in 1833, and contain about 600 inhabitants. 
 
 Where is Patagonia situated? Horn. What position would it oc- 
 
 What is known of it ? Describe its cupy in North America? Describe 
 
 surface. Inhabitants. Animals, the Falkland Islands. Where are 
 
 Describe Tierra del Fuego. Its they situated ? For what are they 
 
 inhabitants. What separates it valuable? When formed into a 
 
 from Patagonia? Describe Cape colony? What is their population? 
 
 EUKOPE. 
 
 Area, 3,800,000 square miles, comprising about one-fourteenth part of the land surface of the globe; greatest extent from north to south, 
 2400 miles ; and from north-east to south-west, 3400 miles ; population about 288,000,000. 
 
 Eueope is bounded on the North by the Arctic Ocean ; 
 on the "West by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the South by 
 the Mediterranean Sea, the Sea of Marmora, the Black 
 Sea, and Mount Caucasus ; and on the East by the Cas- 
 pian Sea, the Ural River, and Ural Mountains, which 
 separate it from Asia. 
 
 Although the smallest of the great divisions of the 
 earth in extent, it is second in population, and by far 
 the most important in power and influence, as well 
 
 as the most advanced in learning, arts, and manufac- 
 tures. 
 
 The surface of Europe is divided by mountain ranges into a 
 north-west and south-east slope, as all the great rivers on the 
 continent flow in these directions. The north and east, with 
 the exception of Norway and Sweden, consists of a vast plain, 
 with occasional small elevations, and comprises about two- 
 thirds of the whole surface, extending from Holland to the 
 Ural Mountains, and including all Russia ; in the south and 
 west it is mountainous or hilly. 
 
 Exercises on the 3Iap— South America. — What countries lie partly 
 in both hemispheres ? How much in each? In what zonearethey? Are 
 any of them in the temperate zone? What cities lie near the equator? 
 How far from it is British Guiana? Point out the most terrific volcano 
 
 in the world? In what country? Near what city? How many miles 
 above the sea do its flames rise ? What part of a mile above the sum- 
 mit ? Are there any volcanoes which rise higher ? Point them out. 
 What countries are crossed by the tropic of Capricorn ? 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 45 
 
 Unlike the Mountain ranges of the New "World, those of 
 Europe occur in smaller and more detached chains. The prin- 
 cipal are : — 
 
 the Apennines, in Italy, with the 
 volcanoes, "Vesuvius near Naples, 
 and Etna in Sicily ; the Balkan in 
 Turkey ; the Carpathian, in Aus- 
 tria, with the smaller ranges of the 
 Black Forest, Harz, Erz, and 
 Sudetic Chains, in Germany ; the 
 Caucasus, between the Black and 
 the Caspian Seas ; and the Ural 
 Mountains, between Europe and 
 Asia. 
 
 The Dovrefield mountains, in 
 the Scandinavian peninsula ; the 
 Grampians, in Scotland ; the Pen- 
 nine Range, in England; and Cam- 
 brian Range, in Wales ; the Alps, 
 in Switzerland and the adjacent 
 countries ; the minor ranges of the 
 Vosges, Jura, and Cevennes in 
 France ; the Pyrenees, between 
 Prance and Spain ; and the parallel 
 ranges of the Castile, Moreno,, and 
 Sierra Nevada mountains, in Spain ; 
 
 The principal Rivers of Europe arc : — 
 
 diana ; the TJiames, in England ; 
 and those flowing south and east 
 — the Ebro, Rhone, Po, Danube, 
 Dnieper, Don, and Volga. 
 
 Those flowing north-west or west, 
 — the Petchora, Dvina, Vistula, 
 Oder, Elbe, Rhine, Seine, Loire, 
 Garonne, Douro, Tagus, and Gua- 
 
 The Volga is the largest river of Europe, rising in the Valdai 
 hills, in the north-west of Russia, and flowing into the Cas- 
 pian Sea, after a course of about 2100 miles. 
 
 The Lakes in Europe are generally small, but celebrated for 
 their beautiful scenery. The principal are : — 
 
 in Italy; Derwentwater and Win- 
 dermere, in England; Lomond and 
 Katrine, in Scotland ; and Neagh 
 and Killarney, in Ireland. 
 
 Wener, and Wetter, in Sweden; 
 Ladoga, Onega, and Saima, in 
 Russia ; Geneva and Constance, in 
 Switzerland; Maggiore and Como, 
 
 Europe is remarkable for the irregularity of its outline or 
 coast, having numerous islands, peninsulas, seas, bays, and 
 gulfs, giving it about 20,000 miles of coast-line, — a very much 
 greater length, in proportion to its size, than is possessed by 
 any of the other great divisions of the globe. Almost every 
 country in Europe has some sea-coast, and nowhere, except in 
 the east of Russia, is there any place more than 400 miles 
 distant from the sea. 
 
 The principal Islands arc 
 
 In the Arctic Ocean, Nova Zem- 
 Na and SpitzOnrgcn. 
 
 In the Baltic, Zealand, Funen, 
 Gottland, &c. 
 
 In the Atlantic, Iceland, Great 
 Britain, Ireland, Orkney, Shetland, 
 
 In the north, Scandinavia, (Nor- 
 way and Sweden,] and Jutland, in 
 Denmark. 
 
 In the south, the Iberian, (Spain 
 
 and Hebrides Islands, and the 
 Azores. 
 
 In the Mediterranean, Majorca, 
 Minorca, Ivica, Sardinia, Corsica, 
 Sicily, Malta, Ionian Isles, Candia, 
 and Negropont ; and the Cyclades, 
 in the Archipelago. 
 
 The principal Peninsulas are: — 
 
 and Portugal,) Italy, the Morea, in 
 Greece, and the Crimea, in the 
 south of Russia. 
 
 The principal Isthmuses arc:- 
 
 Corinth, joining the Morea to 
 the mainland of Greece ; and Pe- , 
 
 rekop, joining the Crimea to 
 Russia. 
 
 The principal Seas and Gulfs are: — 
 
 In the north, the White Sea, the 
 Baltic Sea with the Gulfs of Both- 
 nia, Finland, and Riga, the Catte- 
 gat and Skager Rack ; and the 
 North Sea or German Ocean. 
 
 In the west, the Irish Sea and 
 Bay of Biscay. 
 
 In the south, the Mediterranean 
 Sea, the Gulfs of Lyons, Genoa, and 
 Toronto, the Adriatic Sea, with the 
 Gulf of Venice, the Archipelago, 
 Sea of Marmora, Black Sea, and 
 Sea of Azov. 
 
 The principal Straits and Channels are :- 
 
 In the north, the Sound, Great 
 Belt, and Little Belt. 
 
 In the west, the Strait of Dover 
 and English Channel, St George's, 
 and North Channels. 
 
 In the south, the Straits of Gib- 
 
 raltar, Bonifacio, between Coi'sica 
 and Sardinia, Messina, Dardanelles, 
 the Bosphorus or Strait of Con- 
 stantinople, and Kertch or Yeni- 
 kale., 
 
 The principal Capes are : 
 
 In the north, North Cape, Naze, 
 and Skaw. 
 
 In the west, Duncansby Head, 
 Clear, Land's End, La Hague, 
 
 Ortegal, Finisterre, and St Vin- 
 cent. 
 
 In the south, Tarifa, Passaro, 
 Spartivento, and Matapan. 
 
 The climate of Europe is warmer than that of the other 
 great divisions of the globe in the same latitude, and not sub- 
 ject to the same extremes of heat and cold, owing in part 
 to the influence of the Gulf Stream, and to every part of it 
 being so near the sea. In the west it is more moist than in 
 the east : and although cold in the north, it is in general mild 
 and salubrious, and in the south warm and delightful. The 
 soil, especially in the south, is fertile ; and is everywhere, 
 except in Russia, most industriously cultivated. "Wheat is 
 grown as far north as the middle of Norway, and barley much 
 farther ; in the middle latitudes all kinds of grain grow in 
 abundance ; and in the south the vine, olive, orange, fig, and 
 other southern fruits flourish. Europe also contains great 
 quantities of valuable minerals, — iron, lead, copper, tin, coal, 
 and salt being found in almost every part. 
 
 Very few wild animals are found in Europe, the principal 
 being the bear, wolf, and wild boar ; but useful animals, such 
 as the horse, ox, &c, are very numerous. It has a great 
 variety of birds of song ; in the north, aquatic birds abound ; 
 and in the mountain regions, eagles and other birds of prey 
 are found. The seas abound with valuable fish, including the 
 whale, cod, herring, and salmon, and in the Mediterranean 
 the anchovy and other small but delicate fish. 
 
 The commerce of Europe is greater than that of any of the 
 other divisions of the globe, although it is the smallest in 
 extent. This is owing in a great measure to its vast extent 
 of coast-line, its large population, and its valuable mineral 
 resources, but chiefly to the energy and advanced civilization 
 of the people. 
 
 The inhabitants of Europe are of the Caucasian race, forming 
 three branches — the Celtic in the west, the Teutonic, including 
 the Scandinavian, in the middle and north, and the Sclavonic 
 in the east. The Christian is the prevailing religion, under the 
 three forms of the Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Greek 
 Churches ; except in Turkey, where the principal religion is 
 the Mohammedan. 
 
 The Countries of Europe are 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 Norway and Sweden. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 Holland. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 France. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Portugal. 
 German States. 
 Prussia. 
 Austria. 
 Italy. ' 
 Switzerland. 
 Turkey in Europe. 
 Greece. 
 
 Great Britain, France, Russia, Prussia, and Austria are con- 
 sidered the five great Powers of Europe ; and the kingdom of 
 
 Exebctses on the Map — Eueope. — What large sea is there to the 
 south of Europe ? How is it connected with the Atlantic ? "With what 
 seas is it connected on the east ? How is Europe separated from Asia ? 
 "Which European islands are situated in the Atlantic ? "Which in the 
 
 Mediterranean ? "What sea is between Britain and Denmark ? Between 
 Sweden and Russia? "What countries border on the Atlantic ? On the 
 North Sea? On the Baltic? "What mountains separate Europe from 
 Asia ? In what directions do they run ? How long are they 'I 
 
46 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Italy, although formed only in 1859, is gradually gaining a 
 position scarcely secondary to them. 
 
 What is the size of Europe? 
 What is its extent ? Population ? 
 How is it bounded ? Point out the 
 boundaries on the map. For what 
 is Europe remarkable ? How is its 
 surface divided ? Describe the di- 
 visions. What is said of the moun- 
 tains? Name the principal moun- 
 tain ranges. Point them out on the 
 map. Where are they situated? 
 Name the principal rivers. Point 
 them out on the map. Describe 
 their courses. Which is the lar- 
 gest? Name the principal lakes. 
 Point them out on the map. Where 
 are they situated? Describe the 
 coast-line of Europe. Name the 
 principal islands. Point them out 
 on the map. Name the principal 
 peninsulas. Point them out on the 
 
 map. Name the principal isth- 
 muses, and point them out on the 
 map. Name the principal seas and 
 gulfs. Point them out on the map. 
 What countries do they wash? 
 Name the principal straits and 
 channels. Point them out on the 
 map. Between what countries are 
 they situated ? Name the principal 
 capes. Point them out on the map. 
 Where are they situated ? Describe 
 the climate of Europe. What in- 
 fluences act upon it ? Describe 
 the soil. Products. Minerals. 
 Animals, &c. What is said of the 
 commerce of Europe ? To what 
 races do the inhabitants belong? 
 What are the prevailing religions? 
 Name the countries of Europe. 
 Which are the principal ? 
 
 BRITISH EMPIRE. 
 
 The British Empire is composed of the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and of numerous 
 colonies and possessions in every quarter of the globe. 
 The British Islands consist of Great Britain, including 
 England, Wales, and Scotland ; Ireland lying to the 
 west of Great Britain ; and a number of small islands 
 adjoining them. 
 
 The British Colonies and Possessions are : — ■ 
 In Europe. 
 
 Heligoland, a small island near 
 the mouth of the Elbe. 
 
 Gibraltar, an important fortress 
 at the southern extremity of Spain, 
 
 commanding the entrance to the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 Malta, with the small islands of 
 Gozo and Cumino in the Mediter- 
 ranean. 
 
 In North America. 
 
 Canada, including Ontario, Que- 
 bec, Nova Scotia, and New Bruns- 
 wick. 
 
 Prince Edward Island. 
 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 Hudson Bay Territory. 
 
 British Columbia and Tancouver 
 Island. 
 
 Bermudas. 
 
 British Honduras in Central 
 America. 
 
 The West India Islands, includ- 
 ing the Bahamas, Jamaica, Lee- 
 ward Islands, Windward Islands, 
 and Trinidad. 
 
 In South America. 
 British Guiana. | The Falkland Islands. 
 
 In Asia. 
 
 India, comprising the presiden- 
 cies of Bengal, Madras, and Bom- 
 bay, with their dependencies. 
 
 Ceylon, an important island at 
 the south-eastern extremity of 
 India. 
 
 Aracan, Pegu, and Tenasserim ; 
 with the "Straits settlements," in- 
 cluding the Islands of Singapore 
 
 and Penang, and a part of the 
 Malacca peninsula. 
 
 Hong-Kong, an island at the 
 mouth of the Canton River. 
 
 Labuan Island, off the coast of 
 Borneo. 
 
 Aden, an important town at the 
 entrance of the Red Sea. 
 
 In Africa. 
 
 Cape Colony and Natal, at the 
 southern extremity. 
 
 Mauritius Island and its de- 
 pendencies. 
 
 Seychelles Islands. 
 
 Ascension and St Helena Islands, 
 in the Atlantic. 
 
 Sierra Leone, and various settle- 
 ments on the Gold Coast and the 
 Gambia. 
 
 In Australasia. 
 
 Australia, comprising "Western 
 Australia, Queensland, South Aus- 
 tralia, New South Wales, and Vic- 
 
 toria; Tasmania, or Van Diemen's 
 Land; New Zealand; Norfolk Is- 
 land. 
 
 These numerous and extensive colonies and possessions cover 
 an area of more than 7,000,000 square miles, with a population 
 of about 190,000,000 ; so that, although small in the extent of 
 home territory and population, Great Britain is the most im- 
 portant country in the world, ruling over nearly one-seventh 
 of the whole land surface of the globe, and more than one- 
 sixth of its population. 
 
 It is also the first country in the world for commerce and 
 manufactures, exporting annually goods to the value of 
 883,000,000 dollars, consisting chiefly of cotton, woollen, and 
 iron manufactures, and importing annually to the amount of 
 1,000,000,000 dollars. The great wealth of Britain is derived 
 from its mines and manufactures. Its coal and iron mines 
 are almost inexhaustible ; and its lead, copper, and tin mines 
 are very extensive. The cotton manufacture alone employs 
 500,000 persons, and it is estimated that four millions of 
 people derive their support from it. 
 
 As a natural consequence of the extensive commerce, the 
 facilities for internal communication are very great. Nearly 
 10,000 miles of railway are now completed, and canals connect 
 every important point. The number of vessels belonging to 
 Great Britain is nearly 22,000, of which more than 1600 are 
 steam-vessels ; and the number of seamen employed is about 
 200,000. The British navy is nearly as powerful as all the 
 navies of the world put together, although the vessels are 
 not so numerous. The annual revenue of Great Britain is 
 340,000,000 dols., not including that of India or other colonies, 
 and is equal to more than a fourth of the revenue of all the 
 states of Europe. The national debt is enormous, amounting 
 to nearly 4000 millions of dollars, and has been contracted 
 chiefly in various European wars. 
 
 Many of the advantages enjoyed by Great Britain are de- 
 rived from the excellence of the system of government, which 
 is perhaps the most perfect in existence, combining all the ad- 
 vantages of other forms, without their defects. It is a limited 
 monarchy. The Queen is the head of the State, and carries on 
 the government through her ministers, who must also possess 
 the confidence of the people, as represented by the House of 
 Commons ; and of the aristocracy and clergy, as represented 
 by the House of Lords. No law can take effect without 
 receiving the sanction of the Queen and of both Houses of 
 Parliament. 
 
 How is the British Empire com- 
 posed? Name the colonies and 
 possessions in Europe. Point them 
 out on the map. Name those in 
 North America. Point them out 
 on the map. Name those in South 
 America. Point them out on the 
 map. Name those in Asia. Point 
 them out on the map. Name those 
 in Africa. Point them out on the 
 map. Name those in Australasia. 
 
 Point them out on the map. What 
 extent and population do these 
 colonies and possessions comprise ? 
 For what is Britain the first coun- 
 try in the world ? Prom what does 
 it derive a great part of its wealth ? 
 What is said of its railways, &c. ? 
 Of its shipping and navy? What 
 is said of its revenue, &c. ? Of its 
 government. Describe the form of 
 government. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Eueope.— What countries border on the 
 Mediterranean Sea? What countries adjoin Asia? What countries 
 are in the interior ? Which is the largest ? In what zone is the west 
 of Europe ? What parts of it are in the same latitude as the place you 
 
 live in ? What is the most southern point of Europe called ? The 
 south-west point? The most northern point? What large rivers flow 
 into the Black Sea? The Mediterranean? The North Sea? The 
 Baltic ? In what direction is Iceland from Norway? 
 
EUKOPK 
 
 47 
 
 ENGLAND AND "WALES. 
 
 Area, 5S.320 square miles; population, 21,500,000; persons to square 
 
 mile, 368 ; rather more than twice the size of New Brunswick, 
 
 Capital, London. 
 
 England and Wales occupy the southern portion of 
 the island of Great Britain. England is bounded on the 
 North by the River Tweed, Cheviot Hills, and Solway 
 Firth, which separate it from Scotland ; on the "West 
 by the Irish Sea and St George's Channel ; on the 
 South by the English Channel ; and on the East by the 
 North Sea. 
 
 England is divided into 40 counties or shires, and "Wales 
 into 12. 
 
 The Counties of England are : — 
 Six Northern. 
 
 Principal Towns. 
 Newcastle, Berwick, Alnwick. 
 Carlisle, Whitehaven, Penrith. 
 Appleby, Kendal. 
 Durham, Sunderland, Stockton. 
 York, Leeds, Sheffield, HuU, Bradford. 
 Lancaster, Liverpool, Manchester, Preston, 
 
 Four Western. 
 Chester, Stockport, Macclesfield. 
 Shrewsbury, Ludlow, Bridgenorth. 
 Hereford, Leominster. 
 Monmouth, Chepstow, Abergavenny. 
 
 Four Eastern. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Northumberland. 
 
 Cumberland, 
 
 Westmoreland, 
 
 Durham, . 
 
 Yorkshire, 
 
 Lancashire, 
 
 Cheshire, . 
 Shropshire, 
 Herefordshire, 
 Monmouthshire, 
 
 Lincolnshire, 
 Norfolk, . 
 Suffolk, . 
 Essex, 
 
 Nottinghamshire, 
 
 Derbyshire, 
 
 Staffordshire, 
 
 Worcestershi r e, 
 
 Warwickshire, 
 
 Leicestershire, 
 
 Rutlandshire, . 
 
 Northamptonshire, 
 
 Huntingdonshire, 
 
 Cambridgeshire, 
 
 Gloucestershire, 
 
 Oxfordshire, . 
 
 Buckinghamshire, 
 
 Bedfordshire, 
 
 Hertfordshire, 
 
 Middlesex, 
 
 Surrey, 
 
 Berkshire, 
 
 Wiltshire, 
 
 Somersetshire, 
 
 Kent, 
 
 Sussex, 
 
 Hampshire, 
 
 Dorsetshire, 
 
 Devonshire, 
 
 Cornwall, 
 
 Flintshire, 
 Denbighshire, 
 
 Boston, Lincoln, Stamford, Grimsby. 
 Norwich, Yarmouth, Lynn. 
 Ipswich, Bury St Edmund's, Sudbury. 
 Chelmsford, Colchester, Harwich. 
 
 Ten North Midland. 
 Nottingham, Newark. 
 Derby, Chesterfield. 
 Stafford, Wolverhampton, Stoke. 
 Worcester, Dudley, Kidderminster. 
 Warwick, Birmingham, Coventry. 
 Leicester, Loughborough. 
 Oakham. 
 
 Northampton, Peterborough. 
 Huntingdon, Stives, St Neot's. 
 Cambridge, Ely, Newmarket. 
 
 Ten South Midland. 
 
 Gloucester, Bristol, Cheltenham, Stroud. 
 
 Oxford, Woodstock. 
 
 Buckingham, Aylesbury, Eton. 
 
 Bedford, Bigglewade, Dunstable. 
 
 Hertford, St Albans. 
 
 London, Westminster. 
 
 Guildford, Southwark, Kingston. 
 
 Reading, Windsor. 
 
 Salisbury, Devizes, Cricklade. 
 
 Bath, Taunton, Bridgewater, Bridport. 
 
 Six Southern. 
 Maidstone, Canterbury, Dover, Chatham. 
 Brighton, Chichester, Lewes, Hastings. 
 Winchester, Portsmouth, Southampton. 
 Dorchester, Weymouth, Poole. 
 .Exeter, Plymouth, Devonport. 
 Falmouth, Truro, Bodmin. 
 
 The Counties of Wales are ; — 
 Six in North Wales. 
 Mold, Holywell. 
 Denbigh, RuthiD. 
 
 Caernarvonshire, . Caernarvon, Bangor. 
 
 Counties. 
 Anglesey, 
 Merionethshire, 
 Montgomeryshire, 
 
 Principal Towns. 
 Beaumaris, Holyhead. 
 Dolgelly, Bala. 
 Montgomery, Welshpool, Newton. 
 
 Radnorshire, . 
 
 Cardiganshire, 
 
 Pembrokeshire, 
 
 Caermarthenshire, 
 
 Brecknockshire, 
 
 Glamorganshire, 
 
 Six in South Wales. 
 New Radnor, Presteign. 
 Cardigan, Aberystwith. 
 Pembroke, Haverfordwest, Milford. 
 Caermarthen, Llanelly. 
 Brecon. 
 
 Cardiff, Swansea, Merthyr-Tydvil. 
 The surface of England is generally level or gently undulat- 
 ing, and the hills rise to no great height ; while that of "Wales 
 is mountainous. The principal mountains are the Pennine 
 range in the north, extending from the Cheviot Hills to the 
 Peak in Derbyshire ; the Cumbrian group, between the 
 Pennine range and the Irish Sea, enclosing the beautiful lakes, 
 Windermere, Ulleswater, and Denventwater, so celebrated 
 for their picturesque scenery ; the Cambrian mountains, 
 occupying the greater part of "Wales; and the Devonian 
 range, extending from Somerset, through Devonshire and 
 Cornwall. Skauiell, in the Cumbrian range, rises 3200 feet, 
 and Snowdon, in "Wales, 3600 feet ; they are the highest sum- 
 mits iu England and "Wales. Besides these are a large number 
 of smaller hills, as the Malvern, Mendip, and Cotsioold hills, 
 near the mouth of the Severn ; the Dorset hills, and others. 
 
 The rivers are numerous, and although short, are valuable 
 for navigation. The principal are— the Medway, Thames, 
 Trent, Ouse, Humber, Tees, Tyne, and Tweed, flowing into the 
 North Sea; the Mersey, imdSevem, withits tributaries the Wye 
 and Avon, flowing into the Irish Sea and Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 The coast-line is much broken, the rivers widening at their 
 mouths, and for m i n g excellent harbors. Besides the mouths 
 of the rivers, there are, on the east— the Wash ; the Yarmouth 
 Roads, off the coast of Norfolk ; and the Downs, off Kent, pro- 
 tected by sand-banks, and affording secure anchorage to ship- 
 ping. On the south, the Strait of Dover, 21 miles across, 
 separates England from France ; and on the coast are South- 
 ampton, Weymouth, Plymouth, and Falmouth harbors. On 
 the west, are — the Bristol Channel, with a number of excellent 
 harbors, — Cardigan Bay, Morecambe Bay, and Solway Firth. 
 The principal capes are — on the east, Flamborough Head, 
 Spurn Head, the Naze, North and South Foreland; on the 
 south, Beachy Head, the Needles, off the Isle of Wight, Port- 
 land Point, Start Point, Lizard Point, and Band's End j on 
 the west, St David's Head and Holyhead. 
 
 The islands are — Man, Anglesea, and Holyhead, on the 
 west ; the Stilly Islands, Channel Islands, (including Jersey, 
 Guernsey, Alderney, and Sarh,) and the Isle of Wight on the 
 south ; Thanet and Sheppy off the coast of Kent ; and Holy 
 Island on the north-east. 
 
 The Isle of "Wight, the Channel Islands, and Isle of Man, 
 are important islands. Near Cowes, in the Isle of Wight, is 
 Osborne House, a favorite residence of the Queen. St Helier, 
 in Jersey, contains 30,000 inhabitants. St Pierre, in Guernsey, 
 Kyde and Newport, in the Isle of Wight, and Douglas and 
 ftamsay, in the Isle of Man, are large towns. Anglesea is 
 joined to the mainland by the Menai Suspension Bridge, 
 stretching across the Menai Strait. 
 
 Exercises on the Map — England. — What seas, straits, and channels 
 nearly surround England ? What countries do' they separate England 
 from ? What rivers flow into the North Sea ? Into the Irish Channel 1 
 What is the south-western point of England called ? What island is in 
 
 the Irish Sea ? What island is on the south coast ? Where is Holyhead ? 
 In what direction from Dublin? In what direction from Liverpool? 
 Which is the largest county? The smallest? The most northern? 
 What French and English towns are nearest each other? 
 
48 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 The climate of England is damp and changeable, but healthy ; 
 and the soil fertile and well cultivated. The prevailing 
 westerly winds bring a great deal of moisture from the Atlantic 
 Ocean, causing an almost perpetual verdure ; and, owing to its 
 insular position, the extremes of heat and cold are not nearly 
 so great as in the same latitude on the continent. 
 
 The English are chiefly of the ancient Anglo-Saxon race, 
 with Danes and Norman-Prench ; mixed with the Welsh are 
 Celts, descended from the ancient inhabitants of Britain. 
 
 The form of religion established by Government is that of 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church ; but every form of religion 
 is equally allowed. There are two Archbishops, — Canterbury 
 and York, (the former being primate of all England,) and 
 twenty-six bishops. 
 
 No country in the world contains so many large cities within 
 the same compass. The principal in England are : — 
 
 London, (2,800,000,) the capital of England, on the Thames, 
 about 50 miles from its mouth. It is the largest, most 
 wealthy, and most populous city in the world. It includes 
 the City proper and Westminster in Middlesex, with South- 
 wark and Lambeth in Surrey, on the opposite side of the 
 Thames, which is spanned by a number of beautiful and 
 massive bridges. It is nearly 10 miles long by 7 broad, and is 
 gradually extending, and including large villages which a few 
 years ago were surrounded by fields. London is nearly in 
 the centre of the land portion of the globe, and is the great 
 emporium of the world for wealth and commerce. Some of 
 the principal buildings are Buckingham Palace, the Tower, St 
 Paul's Cathedral, Bank of England, Westminster Abbey, and 
 Houses of Parliament. The tunnel, docks, parks, bridges, and 
 churches are also objects of interest. Near London are 
 Greenwich, (139,000,) with its celebrated Observatory and 
 Hospital for sailors ; Kensington, Kew, and Richmond, with 
 magnificent gardens ; Hampton Court and Windsor, with 
 royal palaces ; and many other places of present or historic 
 interest. 
 
 Liverpool, (444,000,) on the Mersey, next to London in com- 
 merce and wealth, is famous for the vast extent of its docks, 
 covering 700 acres, and quays upwards of six miles in length. 
 It is the great emporium for trade with America, the West 
 Indies, and Ireland. The other principal ports are — Hull, on 
 the Humber ; Southampton ; Bristol, on the Avon, near Bristol 
 Channel ; Newcastle, on the Tyne ; Sunderland, on the Wear ; 
 Stockton, on the Tees ; Yarmouth, Plymouth, Falmouth, and 
 Dover. Portsmouth is strongly fortified, and is the principal 
 dockyard and station for the British navy. Plymouth and 
 Devonport, on the south coast, and Chatham, Sheerness, Wool- 
 wich, and Deptford, on the Thames, have also extensive dock- 
 yards. Woolwich has the largest arsenal and manufactories of 
 war materials in Great Britain. 
 
 Manchester, with Salford, (460,000,) is the centre of the 
 cotton-manufacturing trade, and the second city in population, 
 Oldham, Preston, Bolton, Blackburn, Bury, Stockport, Roch- 
 dale, and other cities, have large cotton manufactures. 
 
 Birmingham (296,000) is celebrated for the extent, variety, 
 and excellence of its metallic manufactures ; Sheffield (185,000) 
 for cutlery, hardware, and plated goods. Dudley, Walsall, 
 
 and Wolverhampton are the chief seats of the iron trade ; and 
 Newcastle, Sunderland, and Shields of the coal trade. 
 
 Leeds (207,000) is the chief centre for the woollen manu- 
 factures, which are also largely carried on in Bradford, 
 Halifax, and Huddersfield ; Nottingham is celebrated for its 
 lace manufactures ; Macclesfield, Derby, and Coventry for silks ; 
 Kidderminster for carpets ; Worcester for porcelain ; Stoke, 
 Hanley, and Neiocastle-under-Lyne for pottery ; Canterbury 
 and York are distinguished for their magnificent cathedrals, 
 and as the seats of the archbishoprics ; Oxford and Cambridge 
 for their celebrated universities and magnificent buildings. 
 
 Lancashire is the chief county for cotton manufactures; 
 Yorkshire for woollens ; Staffordshire for pottery ; Durham and 
 Northumberland for coal mines ; Cornwall and Devon for tin 
 and copper ; the counties of Wales for iron and coal. 
 
 Merthyr-Tydvil (63,000) is the largest city in Wales, and is 
 distinguished for its extensive coal mines and iron works. 
 Cardiff is its seaport. Pembroke has a Government dockyard, 
 and Milford Haven a magnificent harbor. 
 
 What is the area of England and 
 Wales? Population? Size ? Capital ? 
 How are they bounded? What 
 countries do these boundaries sepa- 
 rate them from? How are they 
 divided? Name the counties of 
 England. How is each bounded? 
 What are the chief towns? Where 
 are they situated ? Name the coun- 
 ties of Wales. How are they 
 bounded ? Name the chief towns. 
 Where are they situated ? Describe 
 the surface of England. Of Wales. 
 Name the principal mountains. 
 Point them out oij the map. Where 
 are they situated ? Name the prin- 
 
 cipal rivers. Trace their courses 
 on the map. What cities do they 
 flow past t Describe the coast-line. 
 Name the principal straits, bays,&c. 
 Where are they situated? Name 
 the principal capes. Point them 
 out on the map. Where are they 
 situated ? Name the principal is- 
 lands. Point them out on the map. 
 Where are they situated ? What is 
 said of the largest? Describe the 
 climate of England. Of what races 
 are the inhabitants composed? 
 What is the religion ? What is said 
 of the cities? Describe the prin- 
 cipal. Where are they situated ? 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Area, 30,685 square miles; population, 3,100,000; persons to square 
 mile, 100 ; rather larger than New Brunswick and Prince Edward 
 Island. 
 
 Capital, Edinburgh. 
 
 Scotland forms the northern part of the Island of 
 Great Britain, and is bounded on the North by the 
 Atlantic Ocean ; on the West by the Atlantic Ocean 
 and North Channel ; on the South by England ; and on 
 the East by the North Sea. 
 
 It is divided into 33 counties or shires. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Orkney and Shetland, 
 
 Caithness, 
 
 Sutherland, 
 
 Ross, . . . . 
 
 Cromarty, 
 
 Inverness, 
 
 Nairn, 
 
 Elgin, 
 
 Banff, . 
 
 Aberdeen, 
 
 Kincardine, 
 
 Eleven Northern 
 
 Principal Towns. 
 Kirkwall, Stromness, Lerwick. 
 Wick, Thurso. 
 Dornoch. 
 Dingwall, Tain, Eortrose, Stornoway, 
 
 (Isle of Lewis.) 
 Cromarty. 
 
 Inverness, Portree, (Isle of Skyc.) 
 Nairn. 
 
 Elgin, Forres, Fochabers. 
 Banff, Cullen, Portsoy, Keith. 
 Aberdeen, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, 
 
 Huntly. 
 Stonehaven, Bervie, Laurencekiik. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— England.— What counties of England 
 border on the North Sea? On the English channel? On the Atlantic 
 Ocean and Bristol Channel ? On St George's Channel ? On the Irish 
 Kea? What large cities are on the Thames? On the Severn? On the 
 
 Trent? On the Humber ? On the Wash? On the Mersey? What large 
 cities are on the southern coast? On the eastern? On the western? 
 In what direction from London is Dublin ? Edinburgh ? Manchester! 
 Bristol? York? Birmingham? Brighton, &c? 
 
-Lon.gi.tud> 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 40 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Forfar, 
 
 Perth, 
 Fife, 
 
 Kinross 
 
 Clackmannan, 
 
 Stirling, 
 
 Dumb auto n or Lennox 
 
 Argylc, 
 Bute, 
 
 Nine Middle. 
 
 Principal Towd3. 
 
 Forfar, Dundee, Montrose, Arbroath, 
 Brechin. 
 
 Perth, Crieff, Dunkeld, Dunblane. 
 
 Cupar, St Andrews, Dunfermline, 
 Kirkcaldy, Dysart. 
 
 Kinross. 
 
 Olackmannan, Alloa. 
 
 Stirling, Falkirk, Bannockburn. 
 
 Dumbarton, Kirkintilloch, Helens- 
 burgh. 
 
 Inverary, Campbelton, Oban. 
 
 Kothesay, Lamlash, (Isle of Arran.) 
 
 Thirteen Southern. 
 
 Haddington or East-Lothian, Haddington, Dunbar. 
 
 Edinburgh or Mid-Lothian, Edinburgh, Leith, Musselburgh, Por- 
 tobello, Dalkeith. 
 
 Linlithgow or West-Lothian, Linlithgow, Borrowstounness, (or Bo- 
 ness.) Bathgate. 
 
 Berwick, . . Greenlaw, Dunse, Coldstream. 
 
 Roxburgh, Jedburgh, Kelso, Hawick, Melrose. 
 
 Selkirk, Selkirk, Galashiels. 
 
 Peebles, Peebles, Inverleithen. 
 
 Lanark, . Glasgow, Lanark, Airdrie, Hamilton. 
 
 Renfrew, Renfrew, Paisley, Greenock, Port- 
 
 Glasgow. 
 
 Ayrshire, . , . Ayr, Kilmarnock, Irvine, Girvan, Ar- 
 
 drossan, Troon, Saltcoats. 
 
 Dumfries, . Dumfries, Annan, Moffat, Langholm. 
 
 Kirkcudbright, Kirkcudbright, New Galloway. 
 
 Wigton, . . . "Wigton, Stranraer, Portpatrick. 
 
 Scotland is very mountainous, especially in the north and 
 west. The Grampian Mountains form the principal chain, and 
 extend from Argyleshire in a north-easterly direction to Aber- 
 deenshire ; Ben Nevis, the highest summit, rises 4400 feet 
 above the sea. The north-west is entirely occupied by rugged 
 masses of mountains, and is called the Northern Highlands ; 
 the highest summit is Ben Wyvis, 3400 feet high. The south 
 and east consist chiefly of gently undulating plains, crossed by 
 smaller ranges of hills, as the Louiher and Cheviot Hills in 
 the south, the Lammcrmuir and Ochil Hills in the east, be- 
 sides other small ranges. 
 
 The mountains in the north and west divide the country into 
 the Highlands and Lowlands ; the former, as the name implies, 
 being mountainous, and the latter more level. The inhabit- 
 ants of the Highlands ore Celts, and still speak the Celtic or 
 Gaelic language, while those of the Lowlands are chiefly of 
 Saxon origin, like the English. 
 
 The general slope of the country is easterly from the High- 
 lands, the Clyde being the only river of importance flowing 
 westwards. The principal rivers are — the Tweed, Forth, Ten/, 
 Dee, and Spey, flowing east ; the Clyde, flowing west ; and 
 several small rivers, flowing into the Solway Firth. 
 
 Scotland abounds with lakes celebrated for their picturesque 
 beauty, being generally surrounded by lofty rugged moun- 
 tains. To the South of the Grampians are Loch Lomond, Loch 
 Katrine, Loch A%ve. In the Northern Highlands are Loch Ness 
 and Loch Lochy, in the great Caledonian valley connecting the 
 Moray Firth with the Atlantic Ocean ; and farther north, Loch 
 Marce, Loch Shin, and Loch Assynt. To the west, Loch Earn, 
 Loch Tay, Loch Rannoch, in Perthshire, Loch'Ericht and others, 
 in Inverness, and Loch Levcn, in Kinross -shire. 
 
 Scotland is remarkable for its irregular coast-line, numerous 
 firths and lochs extending deep into the land. The Firth of 
 
 Forth and Firth of Clyde almost intersect the southern part, 
 and are connected by a canal 38 miles long ; while the Moray 
 Firth and Loch Linnhe, almost connected by Lochs Ness and 
 Lochy, intersect the northern part. Besides these, on the 
 east are the Firth of Tail, Cromarty Firth running into Moray 
 and Dornoch Firths ; on the west are Loch Broom, Loch Fine, 
 and Loch Long; and on the south Lace and Wigton Bays, 
 and Solway Firth. The sea between the Hebrides and main- 
 land is called the 31 inch; the other channels are the Little 
 Minch&nd sounds of Sleat,Mull, and Jura ; and the Pentland 
 Firth, between the Orkney Islands and the mainland. 
 
 The principal capes are — Duncansby Head, Dunnet Head, 
 and Cape Wrath, on the north ; Mull of Cantyre and Mall of 
 Gallovau, on the south-west; KinnairaVs Head, Fife Ness, 
 and St Abb's Head, on the east. 
 
 The islands on the coast of Scotland are very numerous, but 
 are rocky and barren, and important chiefly fromtheir fisheries. 
 The principal are the Shetland and Orkney Islands, on the 
 north ; and the HebHdes, divided into the Inner and Outer, 
 and comprising most of the islands on the west coast. The 
 principal in the Outer or "Western Hebrides are — Lewis, North 
 and South Uist; in the Inner are Skye, Mull, and Islay, with 
 Arran zudBute in the Firth of Clyde. Staffa, a small island 
 in the Inner Hebrides, is celebrated for its basaltic columns 
 and caverns, the principal of which is Fingal's Cave. 
 
 The climate in the north and west, or mountainous part of 
 Scotland, is generally moist and bleak, and the soil barren, but 
 admirably adapted for grazing : and vast herds of sheep and 
 cattle are reared. In the south and east, or in the Lowlands, 
 it resembles England, and is warmer and more fertile, and in 
 a high state of cultivation. 
 
 The j>rincipal minerals are coal, iron, lead, stone, and slate. 
 The coal region extends across the country from Fifeshire to 
 Ayrshire. Iron is chiefly found in the neighborhood of Glas- 
 gow, lead in the Lowther Hills, and slate in Argyleshire. 
 
 Cotton, linen, woollen, and iron manufactures are extensively 
 carried on, and the Clyde is celebrated for its iron ship-build- 
 ing trade. The fisheries on the coast and on the islands are 
 important, especially those of the herring and salmon. 
 
 Scotland and rCngland were uuited under one king in 1G03, 
 when James VI. of Scotland ascended the throne as James L 
 of England ; the parliaments of the two countries, however, 
 were not united till 1707- The established religion is the Pres- 
 byterian, of which there are several branches. 
 
 Edinburgh, (168,000,) the capital, is situated near the Firth 
 of Forth. It is divided into the Old and New Towns. The 
 former is very ancient, and is built on hills, giving it a very 
 picturesque appearance; and the latter is celebrated for its 
 beauty, and for its numerous fine monuments and buildings. 
 Edinburgh has long been distinguished as a seat of learning 
 and literature, and possesses a fine university. It has few 
 manufactures, but carries on an extensive trade through its 
 seaport, Leith, (33,600.) Glasgow, (395,000,) on the river 
 Clyde, is the largest and most important city in Scotland, and 
 the fourth in Great Britain in population. It carries on large 
 manufactures, and is celebrated for its iron steam-ship-building. 
 It possesses a fine cathedral, and is the seat of a university. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Scotland. — How is Scotland separated 
 from England ? Prom Ireland ? From what countries does the North 
 Sea separate Scotland, (Europe?) What groups of islands lie to the 
 north ? Which counties border on the Atlantic ? Which on the North 
 
 Sea? Which adjoin England? Which large cities are on the west 
 coast ? Which on the east coast ? In what direction from Edinburgh 
 is Glasgow? Aberdeen? Inverness? Dumfries? Paisley? Berwick? 
 Stirling? Ayr? What is the nearest English town? 
 
50 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Greenock, on the Clyde, is an important seaport. Paisley 
 (48,000) has extensive cotton and shawl manufactures. Aber- 
 deen (74,000) is the principal city in the north, and is built 
 chiefly of granite. It has a large shipping and shipbuilding 
 trade, and is the seat of two universities. Near it is Balmoral, 
 the favorite Highland residence of the Queen. Kilmarnock 
 and Dumfries are manufacturing towns. Dundee, (79,000,) 
 Arbroath, and Montrose, are important seaports, with linen 
 manufactures. Dunfermline also has extensive linen manu- 
 factures. Perth and Stirling are beautiful towns. Near Perth 
 is Scone, where the Scottish kings were crowned. Inverness 
 is the capital of the North Highlands. 
 
 What is the area of Scotland? 
 Population ? Size ? Capital 1 How 
 is it bounded ? How is it divided ? 
 Name the counties and their chief 
 towns. How is each bounded? 
 "Where are the towns situated ? 
 Describe the surface of Scotland. 
 "What are the principal mountains ? 
 Where are they situated ? Point 
 them out on the map. How do the 
 mountains divide the country? In 
 what direction does the land slope ? 
 Name the principal rivers. Trace 
 them on the map. What towns do 
 they flow past? For what are the 
 Scottish lakes celebrated ? Name 
 the principal. Where are they 
 situated? Point them out on the 
 
 map. Describe the coast-line of 
 Scotland. Name the principal firths 
 or bays. Where are they situated ? 
 Point them out on the map. Name 
 the principal capes. Where are 
 they situated ? Point them out on 
 the map. What is said of the is- 
 lands of Scotland ? Name the prin- 
 cipal. Point them out on the map. 
 Where are they situated ? Describe 
 the climate of Scotland. Soil. Pro- 
 ducts. Minerals, and where they 
 are found. What is said of the 
 manufactures and fisheries? When 
 were Scotland and En gland united ? 
 What is the religion of the country ? 
 Describe the chief towns? Where 
 are they situated ? 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 Area, 31,874 square miles ; population, 5,790,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 181 ; one-seventh less than Newfoundland in size. 
 
 Capital, Dublin. 
 
 Ireland is an island in the Atlantic Ocean to the 
 west of Great Britain, from which it is separated 
 by the North Channel, Irish Sea, and St George's 
 Channel. 
 
 It is divided into four provinces, — Ulster, Connaught, 
 Leinster, and Munster, which are subdivided into 32 counties. 
 
 
 Ulster, Nine Counties. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Principal Towns. 
 
 Londonderry, 
 
 Londonderry, Coleraine. 
 
 Donegal, . 
 
 Lifford, Ballyshannon. 
 
 Antrim, 
 
 Belfast, Lisburn, Ballymena, Carrickfergu 
 
 Down, 
 
 Newry, Downpatrick, Donaghadee. 
 
 Armagh, . 
 
 Armagh, Portadown. 
 
 Monaghan, 
 
 Monaghan. 
 
 Tyrone, . 
 
 Omagb, Dungannon, Strabane. 
 
 Fermanagh, 
 
 Enniskillen. 
 
 Cavan, 
 
 Cavan. 
 
 
 Connaught, Five Counties. 
 
 EOSCOMMON, 
 
 Roscommon. 
 
 Leitrim, . 
 
 Camck-on- Shannon. 
 
 Sligo, 
 
 Sligo. 
 
 3Iayo, 
 
 Castlebar, Westport. 
 
 Galwat, . 
 
 Galway, Tuam, Ballinasloe. 
 
 
 Leinster, Twelve Counties. 
 
 Dublin, . 
 
 Dublin, Kingstown. 
 
 WlCKLOW, 
 
 Wicklow, Ark low. 
 
 Wexford, 
 
 Wexford, New Ross. 
 
 Kilkenny, 
 
 Kilkenny. 
 
 Carlow, . 
 
 Carlow. 
 
 KlLDARE, . 
 
 Athy, Naas, Maynooth, Kildare. 
 
 Queen's Count 
 
 7, . Maryborough. 
 
 King's County 
 
 Tullamore, Birr or Parwnstown. 
 
 Counties. 
 Westmeath, 
 Longford, 
 Meath, . 
 Louth, , . 
 
 Waterford, 
 
 TlPPERARY, 
 
 Clare, 
 
 Limerick, 
 
 Cork, 
 
 Kerry, 
 
 Principal Towns. 
 Mullingar, Athlone. 
 Longford. 
 Trim, Navan. 
 Dundalk, Drogheda, Ardee. 1 
 
 Munster, Six Counties. 
 
 Waterford, Dungarvan, Lismore. 
 
 Clonmel, Cashel, Nenagh, Thurles, Tipperary, 
 
 Cavrick-on-Sair, Templemore. 
 Ennis. 
 Limerick. 
 Cork, Queenstown, Bandon, Youghal, Kinsale, 
 
 Fermoy. 
 Tralee, Killarney, Dingle. 
 
 The surface of Ireland is generally low, and about two-fifths 
 of it is covered with peat bogs. Mountains occur in detached 
 masses, generally near the coast, and most frequently in the 
 north and west. There are numerous beautiful lakes, and the 
 scenery in the mountainous districts is exceedingly varied and 
 picturesque. The principal mountains are — Cam Tual in 
 Magillicuddy's Reeks in King's County, 3400 feet; Mount 
 NepMn in Mayo, and Lugnaquilla Mount in 'Wicklow. Besides 
 these are the Donegal, Antrim, and Connemara Mountains. 
 
 Owing to the level country through which they flow, the 
 rivers of Ireland are slow, and navigable for the greater part of 
 their courses. The principal rivers are — the Shannon, with 
 its lake expansions, Loughs Allen, Bee, and Dery, flowing west, 
 224 miles long, and navigable for 213 ; the Blaekwater, Suir, 
 and Barrow, flowing south ; the Liffey and the Boyne, flowing 
 east ; the Bann, draining Lough Neagh, the largest lake in 
 Britain or Ireland, the Erne, draining several beautiful lakes, 
 and the Foyle, flowing north. The Lakes of Killarney, cele- 
 brated for their beautiful scenery, are situated among the 
 mountains of Kerry. 
 
 Ireland, like Scotland, is deeply indented with bays and 
 loughs, especially on the west. The principal are — Loughs 
 Foyle and Swilly, on the north coast; Donegal, Clew, and 
 Galuay Bays, mouth of the Shannon, Dingle, Kenmore, and 
 Bantry Bays, on the west coast ; Cork, Waterford, and other 
 harbors on the south ; and Wexford Harbor, Dublin, Dundalk, 
 and Carlingford Bays, and Belfast Lough, on the east coast. 
 
 The principal capes are — Howth Head, near Dublin, on the 
 east ; Fair Head, Malin Head, and Bloody Foreland, on the 
 north ; Bossan Point, Slyne, and Dunmore Heads, on the west ; 
 and Cape Clear, and Carnsore Point, on the south. 
 
 The climate of Ireland is mild and healthy, but very moist, 
 owing to the prevailing westerly winds. To its moist climate 
 it owes the beautiful verdure with which the fields are always 
 clothed, and which has caused it to be named the " Emerald 
 Isle." The soil is fertile, but is not so highly cultivated as in 
 Britain, owing to the poverty of the people, and much of the 
 land being in possession of non-resident owners. Flax and 
 potatoes are the staple agricultural productions. Cattle are 
 extensively reared, and exported to Britain, as well as all kinds 
 of dairy and farm produce. 
 
 Ireland possesses valuable minerals, but these are little 
 wrought. The peat bogs supply valuable fuel, peat being used 
 instead of coal. 
 
 The linen manufacture is the chief branch of industry, and 
 is carried on principally in the north. 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Ireland — What is the most northern point 
 of Ireland'called ? What is the most southern point of Ireland called ? 
 How is Ireland separated from England? From Scotland! What 
 is the nearest town in Scotland ? Which counties are on the west coast ? 
 
 On the north? On the east? On the south? What cities are on the 
 Shannon? Which are the chief towns on the east coast ? On the north? 
 On the west ? On the south ? In what direction from Dublin is London- 
 derry? Cork? Belfast? Galway? Sligo? Limerick? 
 
I1IILAII 
 
 Long»Wil«* "Wtst 8 of Greenwich 
 
 JAMES CAMPBELL & SON .TOKQNTD . 
 
froMUM./ - ^ c f , , 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 51 
 
 The native Irish are Celts, but a large part of the popula- 
 ;ion, especially in the north, came originally from the neigh- 
 boring island. The religion established by Government is the 
 Protestant Episcopal, but four-fifths of the population are 
 Roman Catholic. Since the year 1S0O the parliament of Ire- 
 land has been united with that of Great Britain. The Queen 
 is represented in Ireland by the Lord-Lieutenant, who resides 
 it Dublin. 
 
 Owing to the failure of the potato crop, and other causes, 
 which led to extensive emigration to America, the population 
 if Ireland has decreased 2,500,000 in 20 years, or about 30 
 per cent, of the entire population. 
 
 Dublin, (250,000,) the capital, is a large and beautiful city, 
 and is celebrated for the number of its fine buildings, its 
 beautiful bay, and the surrounding scenery. It is the see of 
 an archbishop, the residence of the Lord -Lieutenant, and the 
 seat of a university. Its trade is carried on chiefly with Liver- 
 pool. Near it is Maynooth, with a Soman Catholic college. 
 
 Belfast (119,000) is one of the most rising cities in the 
 British Islands. It has risen into importance chiefly within 
 the last century, and is now the second city in Ireland. It 
 is the centre of the linen and sewed muslin trade. Cork, 
 (101,500,) the third city in Ireland, has a magnificent harbor, 
 and is the centre of a large trade. Galway is the largest town 
 in Connaught, and possesses an excellent harbor. Limerick 
 and Waterford are important towns, with large manufactures. 
 Londonderry, Newry, Lundalk, Drogheda, Wexford, and Sligo 
 are seaports, engaged in the export of provisions. Kilkenny 
 and Clonmel are the most important inland towns. Near 
 Coleraine is the celebrated Giant's Causeway, a mass of basaltic 
 columns extending into the sea: 
 
 Name the principal bays, Ac. Point 
 them out on the map. Where are 
 they situated? Name the principal 
 capes. Point them out on the 
 map. Where are they situated? 
 Describe the climate of Ireland. 
 For what is it remarkable? De- 
 scribe the soil, products, minerals, 
 manufactures. To what races do 
 the Irish belong? What is their 
 religion ? What government has 
 Ireland? What is said of the de- 
 crease of population? Describe 
 the principal towns. Where are 
 they situate d ? What great natural 
 curiosity exists in Ireland? 
 
 What is the area of (Ireland? 
 Population? Size? Capital? How 
 is it bounded? How is it divided? 
 Name the counties and their chief 
 towns. How are the counties 
 bounded ? Where are the towns 
 situated ? Describe the surface of 
 Ireland. Name the principal 
 mountains. Point them out on the 
 map. Where are they situated? 
 What is said of the rivers ? Name 
 the principal. Trace their courses 
 on the map. What towns do they 
 flow past? What are the principal 
 lakes, and where are they situated ? 
 Describe the coast-line of Ireland. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 Sweden and Nokwat form the peninsula of Scandi- 
 navia, situated between the Atlantic Ocean, Baltic Sea, 
 and Gulf of Bothnia ; and form one power under the 
 same crown, but with separate governments. They 
 are separated from Denmark by the Skager Rack, Cat- 
 tegat, and the Sound. 
 
 NORWAY. 
 
 Area, 121,400 square miles ; population, 1,700,000 ; persons to a square 
 mile, 14 ; two-thirds the size of Ontario. 
 Capital, Christiania. 
 Norway occupies the western part of the peninsula, and ex- 
 tends from the Arctic Ocean to the Skager Eack. It is divided 
 into five provinces. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Northern Europe. — How is Sweden 
 separated from Kussia? From Prussia? From Denmark? How is 
 Norway separated from Denmark? What islands are on the west coast 
 of Norway ? What islands are in the Baltic ? How is Christiania situ- 
 
 The surface is very mountainous, being composed of high 
 mountains or table-lands, extending the whole length of the 
 peninsula, nearly 1100 miles, and called the Kiolen Mountains 
 in the north, the Dovrefield Mountains in the middle, and the 
 Hardangerjield Mountains in the south. These mountains rise 
 chiefly from high plateaux, and are most abrupt and precipi- 
 tous on the west, where they sometimes form the sea-coast, 
 and in Sweden decline more gradually towards the Baltic 
 Sea. The principal plateaux are Longjicld, Sognefield, Dovre- 
 fitldy and Hardangerjicld. 
 
 The rivers, owing to the formation of the country, are neces- 
 sarily short rapid torrents ; the principalis the Glommen, flow- 
 ing into the Skager Rack. 
 
 The coast-line of Norway is remarkable for its deep indenta- 
 tions called fiords, narrow arms of the sea, extendingsometimes 
 50 miles into the land between precipitous mountains, and 
 abounding with grand and picturesque but wild scenery. The 
 principal capes are the North Cape, the northern extremity 
 of the country, and the Naze, the southern extremity. 
 
 Numerous small islands extend along the coast, the principal 
 of which are the Lufoden Isles, with important -fisheries. Near 
 them is the dangerous and celebrated whirlpool, the Maelstrom, 
 caused by the meeting of opposite tidal currents. 
 
 The climate of Norway is very severe but healthy, and owing 
 to the Atlantic Ocean is much more moist than that of 
 Sweden. The soil is in general rocky and barren, although 
 some tracts are fertile and well cultivated. In the northern 
 part, within the Arctic circle, the sun does not set for weeks 
 together at midsummer, and is not seen for the same length of 
 time at midwinter. 
 
 The chief wealth of Norway is derived from its mines, 
 forests, and fisheries. Timber, iron, and eider-down are 
 largely exported. It possesses also silver and copper mines. 
 
 Norway was an independent kingdom previous to 1397, when 
 it was annexed to Denmark. It was ceded to Sweden in 1814, 
 and is now governed by a Viceroy, but enjoys a free constitu- 
 tion. The religion is the Lutheran. It is the most thinly 
 peopled country in Europe. 
 
 Christiania^ (39,000,) the capital, is situated at the head of a 
 fiord of the same name. It is largely engaged in commerce, 
 and has a university. Bergen (26,000) is the second city insize, 
 and an important seaport, with large exports of timber and 
 dried fish. Dronthcim. is also an important town, and the 
 former capital of Norway. Roraas has extensive copper mines. 
 At Frederickshald, Charles XII. of Sweden was killed while 
 besieging it. Hammerfest is the most northerly town in Europe. 
 The other towns are small. 
 
 What countries compose Scandi- 
 navia ? How is the peninsula 
 situated? What is the area of 
 Norway? Population? Size? Ca- 
 pital ? How is it bounded? De- 
 scribe the surface. Name the 
 principal mountains. Point them 
 out on the map. Describe them. 
 Nametheprincipalplateaux. What 
 is said of the rivers ? Point out 
 the principal on the map. De- 
 scribe the coast-line of Norway. 
 
 Point out the principal capes on 
 the map. What is said of the is- 
 lands ? Point out the principal on 
 the map. What famous whirlpool 
 is near Norway, and where is it? 
 Describe the climate. Soil. What 
 happens in the northern part ? 
 Describe the products. What min- 
 eralsareprincipallyfound? Whatis 
 said of Norway ? Describe the chief 
 towns. Point them out on the map. 
 Where are they situated ? 
 
 ated? Bergen? Drontheim? Hammerfest? In what direction from 
 London is Christiania? In what direction from Christiania is Stock- 
 holm ? How is Stockholm situated ? G-othenberg ? In what direction 
 from Stockholm is St Petersburg ? Copenhagen? Warsaw? 
 
£2 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 Area, 168,000 square miles ; population, 4,110,000 ; persons to a square 
 mile, 24 ; nearly the size of Ontario. 
 
 Capital, Stockholm. 
 
 Swedes occupies the eastern portion of the Scandinavian 
 peninsula, including part of Lapland in the north, and extend- 
 ing along the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea. 
 
 It is divided into three great divisions, Gothland, Streden 
 Proper, and Nordland, and these are subdivided into 24 luns 
 or governments. 
 
 Sweden resembles Norway in most of its characteristics, but 
 the slope of the mountains is more gradual towards the sea. 
 It has many rivers, but they are rapid and impetuous, and of 
 no value for commerce. More than one-half of the surface is 
 covered with vast forests. 
 
 The lakes of Sweden form the most striking feature of the 
 country, and are numerous. The principal are Lakes Wener, 
 Wetter, Malar, and Hielmar. 
 
 The islands of Oottland and Ola ad in the Baltic belong to 
 Sweden. 
 
 The climate, like that of Norway, is severe, and agriculture 
 is only carried on in the south. 
 
 The mines of Sweden are very valuable. It is celebrated for 
 its iron, which is considered the best in the world ; the copper 
 mines of Dalecarlia are also famous. The principal mining 
 districts are in the valley of the Dal. 
 
 The form of government is a limited monarchy, and the reli- 
 gion Lutheran. 
 
 Stockholm, (112,000,) the capital, is situated partly on the 
 mainland and partly on some small islands at the junction of 
 Lake Malar with the Baltic. It possesses a safe and commo- 
 dious harbor, and carries on an extensive trade. Gothenherg 
 (38,000) is the second city, and an important seaport, with 
 large exports of iron and timber. Upsala is famous for its 
 university. Carlscrona, in the south, situated on five small 
 islands, is the principal station of the navy. Dannemora has 
 celebrated iron mines, and Fahlun, Norkceping, Maimer, and 
 Calmar, are the only other towns of importance. 
 
 The island of St Bartholomew, in the "West Indies, belongs 
 to Sweden. 
 
 LAPLAXD. 
 
 Lapland lies to the north-east of Sweden, and is the most 
 northerly part of Europe. It belongs nominally to Sweden and 
 Russia, but the country is so poor, and the inhabitants are so 
 wandering, that they are practically independent. They are 
 small in stature, and subsist chiefly upon the flesh and milk 
 of the reindeer. They profess Christianity, but mingle with 
 it many Pagan superstitions. 
 
 What is the area of Sweden? 
 (Population! Size? Capital? How 
 is it bounded ? How is it divided? 
 What is said of Sweden ? What is 
 said of the lakes of Sweden ? 
 Name the principal. Point them 
 out on the map. What islands 
 belong to Sweden ? Describe the 
 climate, &c. For what is Sweden 
 
 celebrated ? What is the form of 
 government and religion ? Describe 
 the chief towns. Point them out 
 on the map. Where are they situ- 
 ated? What foreign possessions 
 has Sweden ? 
 
 Where is Lapland situated ? To 
 whom does it belong ? Describe 
 the people. 
 
 EUSSIA IN EUEOPE. 
 
 Area, 2,128,000 square miles ; population, 68,000,000 ; persons to asquare 
 
 mile, 32 ; rather larger than the Hudson Bay Territory. 
 
 Capital, St Petersburg. 
 
 Russia in Europe is bounded on the North by the 
 Arctic Ocean ; on the "West by Sweden, the Baltic 
 Sea, Prussia, Austria, and Turkey; on the South by 
 Turkey, the Black Sea, and Mount Caucasus ; and on 
 the East by the Caspian Sea, the Ural River, and Ural 
 Mountains, which also separate it from Siberia or Asiatic 
 Russia. 
 
 The empire of Russia, of which by far the greater portion U 
 in Asia, comprises about one-half of Europe and one-third of 
 Asia ; the whole extent being a little less than that of the 
 empire of Great Britain, and about one-seventh of the whole 
 land surface of the globe. In population, it is far inferior 
 to the British Empire, containing altogether only about 
 74,000,000 inhabitants, of which Russia in Europe has the 
 greater part. 
 
 Russia in Europe is divided into 51 governments. It consists 
 of one vast level plain, with few hills, and without a single 
 mountain, except on the boundaries. South and east of St 
 Petersburg are the Valdai Hills, a raised tableland, in which 
 most of the large rivers of Russia rise. In the south-east 
 are vast steppes or desert sandy plains. The Ural Mountains, 
 forming the eastern boundary, extend about 1200 miles from 
 the Arctic Ocean southward, nearly to the Caspian Sea, rising 
 in some parts upwards of 6000 feet in height. The Mounts 
 Caucasus extend from the Sea of Azov along the north-eastern 
 shore of the Black Sea and across to the Caspian Sea ; Mount 
 Elburz, the highest peak, being nearly 18,000 feet high. 
 
 The rivers of Russia are large but slow, owing to the level 
 nature of the country which they traverse. The principal are 
 the Pctcliora, flowing into the Arctic Ocean; the Dvina, 
 flowing into the "White Sea; the Nera, Dunn, Kiemen, and 
 Vistula (the latter rising in Russian Poland, and flowing 
 through Prussia) into the Baltic; and the Dnieper, Don, and 
 Volga, flowing south into the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov, 
 and the Caspian Sea respectively. The Volga is the largest 
 river in Europe ; it is about 2100 miles long, and is navigable 
 for almost the entire length of its course. 
 
 A number of large lakes extend from near St Petersburg to 
 the "White Sea, and, by means of these and a series of canals, 
 the "White Sea is connected with the Baltic. St Petersburg 
 is also connected with the Caspian Sea by the Volga River and 
 canals. The principal lakes are Ladoga, Onega, and Saima. 
 
 Russia possesses but little sea-coast compared with the 
 extent of its territory ; the White Sea and Arctic Ocean are on 
 the north ; the eastern portion of the Baltic, with the Gulfs 
 of Bothnia, Finland, and Riga, on the west; the Black Sea, 
 and the Sea of Azov, on the south ; and the Caspian Sea, on 
 the south-east. 
 
 The Islands belonging to Russia are Waigat:, Nora Zemhla, 
 and Spitzhergen in the Arctic Ocean; the Aland Isles, and 
 Dago and Oesct in the Baltic. Between the Black Sea and Sea 
 
 Exercises on the MAr — Northern Europe. — How is Russia separ- 
 ated from Asia ? What five seas wash the shores of Russia ? What 
 countries adjoin Russia on the south-west ? What large rivers flow into 
 the Black Sea 1 The Caspian ? What are the principal cities on the 
 
 Baltic? On the Black Sea? On the Volga? How is St Petersburg 
 situated ? Moscow ? Sebastopol ? Archangel ? In what direction from 
 St Petersburg is Moscow? Nijni Novgorod? Archangel' Odessa? 
 Vienna? Warsaw? HelsiDgfors? Riga? London (Europe >) 
 
TAMPS CAMPBELL s- SOH.TOKOWTO 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 53 
 
 of Azov is the peninsula of the Crimea, joined to the mainland 
 by the Isthmus of Perekop. 
 
 The climate is cold and severe in the north, but not so 
 extreme as in North America in the same latitude. In the 
 south it is warmer. The soil is barren in the north, and in the 
 south-east where the vast steppes cover the country ; but fer- 
 tile in the south and west, where barley, oats, and wheat are 
 extensively cultivated and expoited. Hemp is grown in the 
 west to a great extent. 
 
 The Ural Mountains contain valuable mines of gold, silver, 
 copper, and iron. Manufactures are greatly neglected. The 
 chief exports are timber, hemp, grain, flax, tallow, pitch, 
 wool, and furs. 
 
 The government is an absolute monarchy, and the religion 
 that of the Greek Church. The Czar is the head both of the 
 Church and of the Government. "Until March 1861, the peasants 
 were serfs or vassals of the proprietors of the land upon which 
 they were born. They are now free ; and education, which 
 was formerly altogether neglected, is now becoming more dif- 
 fused, [and the state of the people improved. The nobles 
 are wealthy, and live in a very magnificent but rude style. 
 
 St Petersburg, (532,090,) the capital, is situated on the left 
 bank of the Neva, and on two small islands adjoining. It was 
 founded by Peter the Great, and is one of the most magnificent 
 and important commercial cities in Europe. Kronstadt is its 
 port, and the chief station of the Russian navy. It is strongly 
 fortified. Riga, Revel , and Helsingfors on the Baltic are im- 
 portant commercial towns, strongly fortified, with large ex- 
 ports of flax, hemp, timber, and grain. Archangel, on the 
 Northern Dvina near its entrance into the White Sea, is an im- 
 portant commercial town. Vilna, the former capital of Lithu- 
 ania, has a large trade. The greater part of the inhabitants 
 are Jews, Moscow, (368,000,) the former capital, in the centre 
 of the country, is the great emporium of trade in the interior. 
 It is celebrated for having been destroyed by the Russians 
 themselves in 1812, causing Napoleon Bonaparte to commence 
 his disastrous retreat. Odessa (170,000) is the chief port on 
 the Black Sea. It is strongly fortified, and makes large exports 
 of grain. Taganrog, on the Sea of Azov, has a large trade in 
 grain. Sevastopol, in the Crimea, is celebrated for its siege by 
 the Allies in 1854-55 ; since the destruction of Sebastopol, Nilio- 
 Jaiev is the chief naval station of the Russians in the Black 
 Sea. Kiev, on the right bank of the Dnieper, is one of the 
 oldest cities in the empire. It was here that Christianity was 
 first introduced, and it is regarded as a sacred city. Tula, 
 about 100 miles south of Moscow, has large manufactures, 
 chiefly of iron and steel. Astrakhan, on an island at the mouth 
 of the Volga, is the emporium of the trade on the Caspian Sea 
 with Persia and other eastern countries. Nijni Novgorod, at 
 the junction of the Oka with the "Volga, is celebrated for its 
 annual fairs, lasting from July to September, and attracting 
 upwards of 100,000 persons from all parts of Europe and Asia. 
 Kasan, 430 miles east of Moscow, near the Volga, has a large 
 trade with Siberia and Tartary. 
 
 Circassia is situated between the Black and Caspian Seas, 
 on the north of Mount Caucasus. The men are celebrated for 
 their bravery, and have long defied the power of Russia ; and 
 
 the women are famous for their beauty. They are now 
 deserting the country, and emigrating in large numbers to 
 Turkey, rather than submit to Russian rule. 
 
 Finland, in the north-west, between the Gulfs of Finland 
 and Bothnia, formerly belonged to Sweden, but was annexed 
 to Russia in 1809. 
 
 What is the area of Russia in 
 Europe? Population? Size? Capi- 
 tal ? How is Russia bounded ? 
 Point out the boundaries on the 
 map. "What is said of the Russian 
 Empire ? How is Russia in Europe 
 divided ? Describe the surface. 
 The principal mountains. Trace 
 them on the map. Describe the 
 rivers of Russia. Trace their 
 courses on the map. Describe the 
 lakes of Russia. Point them out 
 on the map. "Where are they situ- 
 ated ? Describe the sea-coast. 
 
 Its principal features. Point them 
 out on the map. State where they 
 are situated. Name the principal 
 islands. Point them out on the 
 map. "What peninsula is in the 
 south-east ? Describe the climate. 
 The soil and products. The miner- 
 als. The government. The state 
 of the people. Describe the princi- 
 pal cities. Point them out on the 
 map. "Where are they situated? 
 Describe Circassia and its people. 
 Describe Finland. Where are 
 these countries situated ? 
 
 POLAND. 
 
 Poland lies to the south-west of Russia, between Prussia 
 and Austria. It was formerly a powerful independent king- 
 dom, but towards the end of last century was seized and 
 divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria. It was for- 
 merly rather larger than France, and contained 12,000,000 
 inhabitants ; the greater part is now subject to Russia. 
 
 It is level in surface, and well adapted for the production 
 of grain, which is largely exported. 
 
 The Poles are a brave and patriotic people, and in 1830, and 
 later in 1863, made determined but unsuccessful attempts to 
 throw off the foreign yoke. 
 
 Warsaw, (161,000,) on the Vistula, was the ancient capital. 
 It suffered greatly in the sieges of 1794 and 1831, and is now 
 the principal station for the Russian army in Poland. Its 
 university was suppressed in 1834. About 35,000 of the 
 inhabitants are Jews. 
 
 Where is Poland situated? What 
 was its former state? What was 
 its former extent and population? 
 Describe the surface. The people. 
 
 The chief city in Russian Poland. 
 Point it out on the map, and state 
 where it is situated. Of what his- 
 toric interest is it? 
 
 HOLLAND, OR THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 Area, 12,7D1 square miles ; population, 3,750,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 293 ; nearly two-thirds the size of Nova Scotia. 
 
 Capital, Amsterdam. 
 
 Holland is bounded on the North and West by the 
 North Sea ; on the South by Belgium ; and on the East 
 by Rhenish Prussia and Hanover. 
 
 It is divided into twelve provinces, including those portions 
 of the old Duchies of Iimburg and Luxemburg, (the latter 
 lying to the south-east of Belgium,) which belong to it. Until 
 1866, Dutch Luxemburg belonged to the German Confederation. 
 
 Holland is the lowest and most level country in Europe, a 
 great part of the surface being below the sea-level at high 
 water. It is protected from the encroachment of the sea 
 by enormous dykes, or banks faced with stone and wood. 
 Canals, which are very numerous, have long formed the chief 
 highways for traffic, but railways now connect the principal 
 points. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Northern Eorope. — What countries 
 adjoin Poland? On what river is "Warsaw situated? Where does it 
 empty? Through what countries does it flow? What countries ad- 
 join Holland? What sea washes its shores? What countries adjoin 
 
 Belgium ? What large river flows through Holland ? What other coun- 
 tries does it flow through or past ? How is Amsterdam situated ? How 
 is Rotterdam situated? Antwerp? In what direction from Amsterdam 
 is London? Brussels? Copenhagen (see Europe) ? St Petersburg? 
 
 D 
 
54 
 
 EUKOPE. 
 
 The coast-line is much broken by the estuaries of the Rivers 
 Rhine, Meuse,, and Schelde, which enter the sea by a number 
 of mouths, and form numerous large islands. The principal 
 other inlets are the Zuyder Zee, and the Dolkt/rt. These were 
 formerly inland lakes, but the sea has broken in upon them. 
 From the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, a chain of islands extends 
 north-east along the coast, the principal of which is Texel. 
 There are many lakes near the coast, which are gradually 
 being drained. The Salt Lake, near Dort, at the mouth of 
 the Meuse, was^ in 1440, formed by an inundation of the sea 
 which destroyed 72 villages, and more than 20,000 persons. 
 
 The climate is damp and cold, but the soil is rich and moist, 
 and is industriously cultivated. Horticulture has been brought 
 to great perfection ; and cattle are reared in large numbers. 
 The manufactures are large and valuable, consisting chiefly of 
 linen and earthenware. 
 
 Holland was formerly the foremost commercial nation in the 
 world, after throwing off the Spanish yoke ; but successive 
 wars, and the tyranny of Napoleon Bonaparte, have greatly 
 checked its progress. 
 
 Its foreign possessions now comprise — Java, the Moluccas or 
 Spice Islands, and some other settlements in the East Indies ; 
 puracoa, and several other islands in the West Indies, (see 
 page 38 ;) Swrinam, or Dutch Guiana, in South America ; and 
 some forts on the coast of Guinea, in Africa. 
 
 Amsterdam,, (260,000,) the capital, is one of the first com- 
 mercial cities of Europe. The site of the city is marshy,, and 
 the houses are built on piles. It is intersected by canals, 
 crossed by about 300 bridges. Rotterdam (110,000) is next in 
 importance and commerce. North of it is " The Hague," the 
 residence of the Court, and a beautiful city. Leyden is cele- 
 brated for its university, and for its heroic defence against the 
 Spaniards in 1573. Utrecht is famous for its treaties, and has 
 large woollen manufactures. Bois le Due has linen manufac- 
 tures. Haarlem, Maastricht, and Luxemburg are important 
 towns. 
 
 What is the area of Holland? 
 Population? Size? Capital? How- 
 is Holland bounded? Point out 
 the boundaries on the map. How 
 is it divided ? Describe its surface. 
 What is said of the canals? De- 
 scribe the coast-line. Its principal 
 features. Point them out on the 
 map. What rivers flow through 
 Holland ? Trace the whole of their 
 courses on the map. Describe the 
 
 islands. Point them out on the 
 map. What is said of the lakes ? 
 Of the Salt Lake near Dort? De- 
 scribe the climate and soil. In- 
 dustry and manufactures. What 
 is said of Holland? What foreign 
 possessions has it? Where are they 
 situated? Point them out on the 
 map. Describe the chief cities. 
 Point them out on the map, and 
 state where they are situated. 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 Area, 11,500 square miles; population, 4,900,000; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 426 ; three-fifths the size of Nova Scotia. 
 
 Capital, Brussels. 
 
 Belgium is bounded on the North by Holland ; on 
 trie West by the North Sea ; on the South by France ; 
 and on the East by Rhenish Prussia. 
 
 It is divided into nine provinces. 
 
 The surface is in general level, but not so much so, nor so 
 low, as in Holland. More especially in the south and east it 
 presents a pleasing variety of gentle eminences and undulating 
 plains. 
 
 The principal rivers are the Schelde, draining the west, and 
 the Meuse, with its tributary the Sombre, draining the east, ; 
 both flow through Holland into the German Ocean. The 
 coast is low, and the country is protected from the sea by sand- 
 hills or dunes. 
 
 The climate is mild and pleasant, and the soil productive, 
 and most industriously cultivated. Belgium is the most densely 
 peopled country in the world, and has large and important 
 manufactures, chiefly of lace, cambric, woollen, and iron. It 
 also possesses extensive iron and coal mines. 
 
 Belgium was at one time the foremost commercial country, 
 of Europe, but gave place to Holland, which in time has given 
 way to Great Britain. 
 
 Belgium, formerly called Elanders, belonged successively to 
 Burgundy, Austria, Spain, and France. In 1814 it was joined 
 to Holland, forming the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In the 
 Revolution of 1830 it became independent, and Leopold of 
 Saxe-Coburg, uncle of Queen Victoria, was elected king. 
 
 Brussels, (260^000)) the capital, is one of the most beautiful 
 cities of Europe, and has a large trade, with manufactures of 
 lace and carpets. Seven miles to the south is the famous 
 battle-field of Waterloo, where Napoleon was defeated by the 
 British in 1815. Antwerp (114,000) is themost important port, 
 and carries on the largest trade. It was formerly the first city 
 in Europe for commerce, and has a celebrated cathedral. Ghent 
 and Bruges have large cotton manufactures. Ostend is an im- 
 portant seaport* Mons and Namur are important fortified 
 towns, the first with iron and coal trade, the latter with manu- 
 factures of cutlery and hardware. Louvaim has the prin- 
 cipal university. Malines or Mechlin is famous for its lace 
 manufactures. Liege is the most important iron manufactur- 
 ing town on the continent. 
 
 What is the area of Belgium? 
 Population? Size? Capital? How 
 is Belgium bounded? Point out 
 the boundaries on the map ? How 
 is it divided ? Describe its surface. ' 
 Its principal rivers. Trace their 
 courses on the map. Describe the 
 coast-line. The climate and soil. 
 
 What is said of the population 
 and trade of Belgium? Of its 
 mines ? What is said of the former 
 position of Belgium? What his- 
 torical account is given ? Describe 
 the chief cities. Point them out 
 on the map. Where are they 
 situated ? 
 
 FEANCE. 
 
 Area, 207,560 square miles; population, 38,000,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 182 ; about the same size as the province of Quebec. 
 
 Capital, Paris. 
 
 Feance is bounded on the North by Belgium and the 
 English Channel ; on the West by the Bay of Biscay ; on 
 the South by Spain and the Mediterranean ; and on the 
 East by Italy, Switzerland, and Germany. 
 
 Previous to the revolution in 1789, France was divided into 
 35 provinces ; after that event it was divided into 86 depart- 
 ments, named from the rivers or mountains within their bound- 
 aries. In 1860, the Duchy of Savoy and county of Nice were 
 ceded to France by the King of Italy, thus increasing the 
 number of departments to 89. 
 
 The surface of France consists chiefly of undulating plains, 
 except in the east, which is mountainous. The highest moun- 
 tains are the Pyrenees in the south, forming the boundary 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Western EUROPE. — In what direction 
 from Brussels is Antwerp? OsteUd? Liege? What is the length of 
 Holland? Of Belgium? Their breadth? What is the latitude and 
 longitude of Irance?. How long is it? How is Prance separated 
 
 from Germany? Prom Switzerland? from Italy? From Spain? Er6m 
 England? What large bay is on the west coast? What islands be- 
 longing to Britain are off the north-west coast? What large island in 
 the Mediterranean belongs to France ? 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 55 
 
 between France and Spain. In the east are the Alps, form- 
 ing the boundary between France and Italy ; and the Jura 
 Mountains between France and Switzerland. To the west of 
 the Jura Mountains is the plateau of Burgundy, from which 
 the Tosges Mountains extend north-east along the left bank 
 of the Rhine, and the Cevennes south -west, forming the bound- 
 ary between the basin of the Rhone and the rivers flowing west 
 into the Eay of Biscay. To the west of the central Cevennes 
 chain are the mountains of Auvergne and Forts. 
 
 France may be divided into four great river basins, all slop- 
 ing from the mountains in the eastern part of the country to 
 the sea — the Rhine, with its tributary the Moselle, and the 
 Meuse, flowing north ; the Seine, flowing into the English Chan- 
 nel ; the Loire and Garonne, flowing west from the Cevennes 
 to the Bay of Biscay ; and the Shone, flowing south into the 
 Gulf of Lyons. The extent of navigable rivers and canals is 
 upwards of 8000 miles. 
 
 France is very compact in territory, and is washed on three 
 sides by the sea. The principal cape is Cape de la Hogue, in the 
 north. The principal bays and gulfs are — St Michael's Bay, 
 on the north-west ; the Bay of Biscay, on the west ; and the 
 Gulf of Lyons, on the south. The only island of importance 
 belonging to it is Corsica, which is mountainous, and cele- 
 brated as having been the birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 The Hieres Islands, near Toulon, in the Mediterranean, are 
 celebrated for the salubrity of their climate. On the north- 
 west is Ushant ; and in the Bay of Biscay, Belle Isle, fie, Ole- 
 ron, and others. 
 
 The climate of France is one of the finest in Europe, as the 
 country is situated about the middle of the temperate zone, 
 and is protected from extremes by the influence of the Atlantic 
 Ocean. The soil is fertile, and favorable for agriculture, which 
 forms the occupation of three-fifths of the population. Its 
 productions are various; in the north, wheataJicLgrainj in the 
 middle and south, the_yine; and in the south, olives, figs^ 
 oranges, almonds, and other southern fruits. The wines and 
 brandies of France are celebrated, and are considered to be 
 among the best in the world ; Champagne is made in the 
 north-east, Burgundy in the east, and Bordeaux in the south- 
 west ; the best brandy comes from Cognac on the Charente. 
 Beet-root is extensively cultivated for the manufacture of 
 sugar. 
 
 In manufactures and commerce, France is one of the first 
 countries in the world, but still much inferior to Great Britain. 
 The principal manufactures are silks, woollens, porcelain, jewel- 
 lery, articles of fashion, laces, gloves, and fancy wares. Its 
 imports and exports amount to less than those of Great Britain. 
 France is one of the five great powers of Europe, and maintains 
 a standing army of from 400,000 to 600,000 men, which is kept 
 up by conscription ; and were its navy equal to its army, it 
 would be the most formidable power in Europe. The annual 
 revenue is slightly in excess of that of Great Britain. 
 
 France has been the scene of many revolutions and changes, 
 commencing with the memorable revolution of 1789 ; and it is 
 in part owing to its unsettled political state that it does not 
 occupy a higher position in wealth and commerce, considering 
 the natural advantages which are at its disposal. The present 
 
 government is an almost absolute monarchy, although in form 
 constitutional. The Emperor, Napoleon III. , was elected by 
 the people in 1S52, after having been previously chosen as 
 President of the French Republic in 1848. 
 
 In literature and science, France has always held a high 
 position in the world ; but popular education was much ne- 
 glected until Louis Philippe ascended the throne, since which 
 time an extensive and well-organized system has been estab- 
 lished under the control of Government. The established 
 religion is the Roman Catholic ; but all others are tolerated, 
 and Protestant clergymen are paid by the state. 
 
 The foreign possessions of France are the colony of Algeria, 
 in the north of Africa ; Senegal, and other settlements in the 
 west ; and portions of Madagascar, the island of Re-union, or 
 Bourbon, with some smaller islands, in the Indian Ocean. In 
 Asia, Yanaon, Chandcrnagore, Karikal, and Pondicherry, on 
 the east coast of Hindostan, and Mahe on the west ; and Saigon, 
 with the surrounding territory, in the south-east of Cochin 
 China. In North America, the islands of St Pierre, Langley, 
 and Miquelon, oil the coast of Newfoundland ; Ghmdaloupc, 
 Martinique, and other islands, in the West Indies ; and French 
 Guiana, in South America. In Oceanica, the Marquesas 
 Islands and other settlements. 
 
 Paris, (1,700,000,) the capital, situated on the Seine, is the 
 second city in Europe for size ; but for architectural splendor 
 and beauty, it perhaps ranks first. It has been much improved 
 under the reign of the present Emperor. It is the great centre 
 for the manufacture of articles of taste and fashion ; and is 
 distinguished for the number and high character of its literary 
 and scientific institutions, no less than for its numerous splen- 
 did palaces, churches, and places of amusement. Near Paris 
 are Versailles, celebrated for its palaces and gardens, and Sevres 
 for porcelain manufactures. Lyons, (292,000,) on the Rhone, 
 the second city in France for size, is celebrated for its silk 
 manufactures. Marseilles, (250,000,) on the Mediterranean, 
 is one of the oldest and most important cities in Europe. It 
 is the great channel of communication between France and the 
 Levant, and is the largest seaport in France. A little to the 
 east of it is Toulon, an important naval port and arsenal. The 
 other seaports are Bordeaux, with a large wine trade, on the 
 Garonne ; La Rochelle, near the mouth of the Charente ; and 
 Nantes, on the Loire, on the west coast ; and St Malo, Hav^e, 
 at the mouth of the Seine, and Dieppe, on the north coast. 
 The other fortified naval ports are Cherbourg on the north, and 
 Brest, L' Orient, and Rochefort, on the west. 
 
 In the Rhone basin are — Montpelier, near the Mediter- 
 ranean, noted for its salubrious climate ; Nimes, with many old 
 Roman antiquities ; Avignon, on the Rhone, "the ancient resi- 
 dence of some of the Popes ; Dijon, the centre of the Burgundy 
 wine trade ; and Chambery, the chief town of Savoy. 
 
 In the Rhine basin are — Strasbourg, near the Rhine, a 
 strongly fortified city, with a magnificent > cathedral ; Mul- 
 hausen, with large cotton manufactures. 
 
 In the north — Rouen, Amiens, Abbeville, Lille, and Rheims 
 have large woollen and cotton manufactures ; Rouen is the 
 chief seat of these. Amiens has a fine cathedral, and is memor- 
 able for the treaty made there in 1802 between France and 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Western Europe. — What large rivers flow 
 into the Bay of Biscay? Into the Mediterranean? Into the English 
 Channel? What is the most westerly island of France called? On 
 what river is Paris situated? What other large cities are situated on 
 
 its banks ? On the Khine ? On the Rhone ? On the Loire ? On 
 the Garonne? What large cities are on the Mediterranean shore? 
 In what direction from Paris is Strasburg? Marseilles? Lyons? Bor- 
 deaux? Brest? Bheims? How is Spain separated from Trance ? 
 
56 
 
 EUKOPE. 
 
 England ; in the cathedral of Kheims the French tings were 
 usually crowned; near Abbeville is the ancient battle-field 
 of Crecy, and farther north that of Agincourt ; Lille is strongly 
 fortified. Valenciennes is celebrated for its lace. 
 
 In the basin of the Loire are — Tours and Orleans, with manu- 
 factures of cloth ; Orleans is celebrated as the scene of the ex- 
 ploits of Joan of Arc ; and St Etienne, the chief seat of the iron 
 manufactures of France. 
 
 Farther south are — Limoges, on the Vienne, and AngouUme, 
 on the Charente, with porcelain manufactures ; Toulouse, on 
 the Garonne, where "Wellington defeated Soult in 1814, has 
 a large trade ; Pau, near the Pyrenees, a favorite resort for 
 invalids ; Bayonne, where the bayonet was invented ; and 
 Biarritz, a fashionable watering-place. 
 
 What is the area of France? 
 Population? Size? Capital? How 
 is Prance bounded ? Point out the 
 boundaries on the map. How is 
 France divided? What parts of 
 the country were ceded to France 
 5n 1860 ? Where are they situated ? 
 Describe the surface of Prance ? 
 Name the principal mountains, and 
 describe their positions. Point 
 them out on the map. Into what 
 natural divisions may Prance be 
 divided ? Namethe'principalrivers, 
 and trace their courses on. the map. 
 What is said of the rivers and 
 canals? What is said of the outline 
 of Prance ? Of the islands ? Of 
 the bays and gulfs ? Of the capes ? 
 
 Point them out on the map. ' State 
 where they are situated ? Describe 
 the climate of Prance. Its soil, &c. 
 Its productions. For what is it 
 celebrated ? For what is beet-root 
 used ? What is said of the manu- 
 factures and commerce of Pranc'e ? 
 What is said of the army ? What 
 is said of the political history of 
 France ? What is said of litera- 
 ture and science in Prance ? Of 
 education? Of religion? Name 
 the foreign possessions of Prance. 
 Point them out on the map. Where 
 are they situated? Describe the 
 chief cities of Prance. Point them 
 out on the map. Where are they 
 situated ? 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 Area, 183,000 square miles; population, 17,000,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 93 ; about the same size as Ontario. 
 
 Capital, Madrid. 
 
 Spain is bounded on the North by the Pyrenees and 
 Bay of Biscay; on the West by Portugal and the Atlantic 
 Ocean ; on the South and East by the Mediterranean. 
 
 It was formerly divided into 14 provinces ; but since 1833 it 
 has been subdivided into 49 smaller provinces or governments. 
 Spain is ,the most mountainous country in Europe, with the 
 exception of Switzerland. The central region is an elevated 
 table-land, occupying about one-half of the whole area of the 
 country, and nearly surrounded by mountains. The principal 
 mountains are the Pyrenees, forming the boundary between 
 Spain and France, extending westward under the name of the 
 Cantabrian chain, or mountains of Asturias, and terminating 
 in Cape Finisterre on the Atlantic. Farther south, and ex- 
 tending from east to west, are the mountains of Castile ; the 
 Sierra Toledo and the Sierra, Morena; and on the south coast 
 the Sierra Nevada. Between these chains are large and fertile 
 plains, through which the principal rivers flow, the elevated 
 central plateau forming the boundary between those flowing 
 west and those flowing east ; the Mmho, Douro, Togas, Guad- 
 iana, and Cfuadalqumr, flow west into the Atlantic ; and the 
 JEbro, Guadalaviar, Xuear, and Segura, flow east into the Medi- 
 terranean. 
 
 The coast is bold and mountainous ; and the principal capes 
 are Ortegal, Finisterre, and Trafalgar, (where Nelson fell victo- 
 
 rious in 1805,) on the west coast ; Cape Tariffa and Europa 
 Point on the south ; and Capes Cata, Palos, DeNau, and Creuse, 
 on the east. The islands belonging to Spain are the Balearie 
 Isles, including Majorca, Minorca, Ivica, and Formentera, and 
 two smaller islands in the Mediterranean. 
 
 The climate of Spain is varied. In the valleys the heat is 
 excessive; and the high table-lands are alternately subject to 
 scorching hot winds and freezing winter blasts, both destroying 
 vegetation. The soil is in general rich, but it is poorly culti- 
 vated. Olives, figs, vines, oranges, and lemons grow in great 
 abundance. Vast flocks of merino sheep, the wool of which is 
 particularly valuable, are reared on the high lands; and the 
 horses of Andalusia, in the south, are famous. The mines of 
 Spain are also valuable, especially those of iron, lead, and 
 quicksilver ; but they are little wrought. The chief exports 
 are wool, wine, cork, lead, and grain. 
 
 Spain was formerly one of the first powers of Europe, and 
 ruled over a large part of it, besides possessing the greater part 
 of America, from Mexico southwards ; but it now ranks only 
 as a second-rate power. Of all its vast foreign possessions 
 there now only remain the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico in 
 the "West Indies, the Philippine and Ladrone Islands in the 
 Pacific, and the Canaries and other small islands off the coast 
 of Africa. It also possesses Gevia and some small settlements 
 on the north coast of Africa. 
 
 The government, after the revolution of 1820, was a limited 
 monarchy, but in 1868 Queen Isabella was driven from the 
 throne, and the power is now in the hands of a Provisional 
 Government. The religion is the Roman Catholic. The In- 
 quisition, which formerly prevailed there in all its power, was 
 abolished in 1820. 
 
 Spain once possessed many universities, but now they are 
 neither numerous nor well attended. Popular education is 
 in a very low state, and the people are very ignorant. Bull- 
 fighting was formerly a favorite amusement, but has now 
 somewhat declined. 
 
 Madrid, (300,000,) the capital, is situated on an elevated 
 plain about 2000 feet above the sea, near the centre of the 
 country. About 30 miles north-west is the celebrated palace, 
 the Escurial. Barcelona, (250,000,) on the Mediterranean, is 
 the second city in size, but the chief in importance for com- 
 merce, wealth, and manufactures. Seville, (155,000,) the for- 
 mer Moorish capital of Spain, on the Guadalquivir, is a large 
 and handsome city. Cadiz, on the Island of Leon, is an impor- 
 tant naval and commercial port, strongly fortified. Murcia, 
 on the Segura, and Valencia, on the Guadalaviar, near the 
 Mediterranean, have large manufactures of silk. Malaga, 
 Almeria, and Alicante, on the southern coast, have large ex- 
 ports of fruit. Zeres, near the mouth of the Guadalquivir,' is 
 celebrated for its sherry wine. Ferrol, on the north-west, and 
 Cartagena, on the south-east, possesses very fine harbors, and 
 are naval stations. Near Ferrol is Corunna, with a fine har- • 
 bor, where Sir John Moore was killed. In the valley of the 
 Douro are — Valladolid, in former times the capital of the 
 Spanish monarchy ; and Salamanca, celebrated for its univer- 
 sity. On the Tagus is Toledo, an ancient city, celebrated for 
 its sword manufactures. On the Guadalquivir, is Cordova, . 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Western Europe. — How is Spain separated 
 from Africa? What ocean and sea wash its shores ? What other country 
 occupies part of the same peninsula? What islands are off the east 
 coast? Point out Nice? What large rivers of Spain flow into the 
 
 Atlantic? Into the Mediterranean? Where is Madrid situated? 
 What large cities are on the Ebro? Douro? Tagus? Guadiana? 
 Guadalquivir 1 On the southern coast? On the northern coast ? How 
 is Lisbon situated? How is Oporto situated? . 
 
famous in ancient and mediaeval history, under the Romans 
 and the Moors. Granada, in the south-east, a former capital 
 of the Moorish kings, contains the celebrated palace of the 
 Alhambra. Saragossa, on the Ebro, is celebrated for its de- 
 fence against the French in 1808-9. Many of the cities of Spain 
 are celebrated as the scenes of great battles and sieges during 
 the Peninsular "War, between Great Britain and France, at the 
 commencement of this century, as Badajoz, Talavera, Ciudad 
 Rodrigo, Salamanca, and others. 
 
 Gibraltar, at the extreme south of Spain, is the strongest 
 fortress in the world. It is built on a precipitous rock, 1500 
 feet high, and has stood three sieges, the last and most 
 memorable of which lasted for three years, against the French 
 and Spanish forces in 1779-82. It has belonged to Britain 
 since 1704. 
 
 "What is the area of Spain ? 
 Population? Size? Capital? How 
 is Spain bounded ? Point out the 
 boundaries on the map. How is it 
 divided ? Describe the surface. 
 The principal mountains. Point 
 them out on the map. Name the 
 principal rivers. Trace their 
 courses on the map. Describe the 
 coast-line. Name the principal 
 capes and islands. Point them out 
 on the map. Where are they situ- 
 ated ? Describe the climate of 
 
 Spain. The soil. Productions. Ani- 
 mals. Minerals. Exports. What 
 did Spain formerly possess? What 
 foreign possessions has it now? 
 Where are they situated? Point 
 them out on the map. What is 
 said of the government and reli- 
 gion ? What is said of education, 
 &c. ? Describe the chief cities. 
 Point them out on the map. Where 
 are they situated ? What is said of 
 Gibraltar ? Where is it situated ? 
 What does it command ? 
 
 EUROPE. 57 
 
 The foreign possessions remaining to Portugal are Madeira, 
 the Cape Verde Islands, Angola, Benguela, Mozambique, and 
 other settlements in Africa ; Goa, and several other settlements 
 in Hindostan ; Macao, in China, and settlements at Timor, in 
 the Indian Archipelago. The Azores Islands ako belong to 
 Portugal. Brazil, in South America, formerly in its posses- 
 sion, became independent in 1822. 
 
 The government is now a limited monarchy, and the estab- 
 lished religion the Roman Catholic. 
 
 Lisbon, (280,000,) the capital, is situated on the Tagus, 
 which here widens, forming a magnificent harbor. It is 
 finely situated, but poorly built. It was nearly destroyed by 
 an earthquake in 1755, when 60,000 persons are said to have 
 perished. Oporto, (80,000,) at the mouth of the Douro, is the 
 second city in size and importance, and exports port-wine, 
 principally to England. These two cities divide the commerce 
 of the country. Setubal, south-east of Lisbon, at the head of 
 the bay of the same name, has large manufactures of salt, 
 and Coimbra, on the Mondego, the only university in the 
 kingdom. 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 Area, 37,225 square miles ; population, 4,240,000 ; persons to a square 
 mile, 114 ; rather larger than Newfoundland. 
 Capital, Lisbon. 
 
 Portugal occupies the south-western portion of the 
 Iberian Peninsula, and lies between Spain and the 
 Atlantic Ocean. It is divided into six provinces. 
 
 Portugal is similar to Spain in most of its physical features 
 and productions. 
 
 It is traversed by several of the mountain ranges and rivers 
 of Spain. The Sierra aVEstrella, a continuation of the moun- 
 tains of Castile, terminate in Cape Boca, the most westerly 
 point of Europe. The Sierra d'Ossa and Sierra Monchique, 
 continuations of the Sierra Nevada, terminate in Cape St Vin- 
 cent, off which Admiral Jervis defeated the Spanish fleet in 
 1709. The Douro and Tagus enter the Atlantic in Portugal, 
 and the Mirilw and Gitadiana form respectively the northern 
 and south-eastern frontiers between Portugal and Spain. 
 The Mondego is the only river of importance wholly Portu- 
 guese. 
 
 The climate is delightful, although excessively warm in the 
 valleys ; and the soil, like that of Spain, is rich, though 
 poorly cultivated. Vines, oranges, lemons, olives, and figs 
 grow abundantly. The principal exports are port-wine, cork, 
 oil, and fruit. 
 
 In the fifteenth century Portugal was the most enterprising 
 maritime power in Europe. The Portuguese were the first 
 discoverers of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope ; 
 but they have now greatly declined, and commerce, manufac- 
 tures, and agriculture, are much neglected. 
 
 "What is the area of Portugal ? 
 Population? Size? Capital? How 
 is it situated, and how bounded ? 
 How is it divided ? What is said of 
 its physical features ? What moun- 
 tains traverse Portugal ? Point 
 them out on the map. What rivers 
 flow through Portugal ? Trace 
 their courses on the map. De- 
 scribe the climate of Portugal. Soil. 
 
 Products. Exports. What is said 
 of Portugal as a maritime power ? 
 Name the foreign possessions of 
 Portugal. Where are they situ- 
 ated ? Point them out on the map. 
 What is said of the government 
 and religion ? Describe the chief 
 cities? Where are they situated? 
 Point them out on the map. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 Area, 14,550 square miles ; population, 1,600,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 110 j more than two-thirds the size of Nova Scotia. 
 
 Capital, Copenhagen. 
 
 Denmark comprises the peninsula of Jutland and a 
 group of Islands lying at the entrance of the Baltic Sea. 
 It is bounded on the North by the Skager Rack ; on the 
 West by the North Sea ; on the South by Germany ; and 
 on the East by the Baltic, the Sound, and the Cattegat. 
 
 It also possessed the Duchies of Schlesivig-Holstein, 
 and Lauenbarg, comprising the southern part of the 
 peninsula, but in 1864, after a gallant struggle, they 
 were wrested from it by the German powers. 
 
 The principal islands are Zealand, Funen, and Laaland; 
 and besides these are numerous smaller islands, both on the 
 east and "west coasts. 
 
 The straits between the islands and the mainland are called 
 the Sound, the Great Belt, and Little Belt. The most northerly 
 point of the peninsula is called the Skaio. 
 
 The surface of Denmark is flat, scarcely interrupted even 
 by a hill, and the rivers are small. The only navigable river 
 in Denmark is the Eider, flowing into the North Sea, and 
 connected with the Baltic by the Canal of Kiel. 
 
 The climate is damp, and the soil in the south fertile and 
 well cultivated, but in the north it consists of barren and 
 dreary wastes. The Danes have always been celebrated for 
 their maritime enterprise. Their manufactures are smnll, 
 
 Exebcises on the Map— "Western Europe. — In what direction from 
 Lisbon is Madrid? Oporto? Cadiz? In what direction from Madrid 
 is Badajoz? Seville? Barcelona? Valladolid? Paris? London? How 
 far from the coast are the Balearic Islands ? How is Denmark separated 
 
 from Sweden and Norway? How is Zealand separated from Sweden? 
 How is Copenhagen situated ? In what direction from Copenhagen is 
 St Petersburg? Londou (see Europe)? Christiania? Stockholm? 
 Where is Iceland (see Europe) ? In what direction from Britain l 
 
58 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 and the inhabitants are chiefly engaged in agriculture or the 
 fisheries. 
 
 Denmark possesses also the Island of Iceland and the Faroe 
 Islands. Iceland is situated in the Atlantic, about 200 miles 
 east of Greenland. It is cold and barren, and is celebrated for 
 its numerous volcanoes, the largest of which is Mount Secla, 
 and for the geysers, or boiling springs, which throw up columns 
 of boiling water at intervals, sometimes to the height of 80 
 feet. Iceland was peopled by the Norwegians in 874, and 
 contains about G5,000 inhabitants. The chief town is 
 Meikiavik. 
 
 The Faroe Islands are situated between Iceland and the 
 Shetland Isles, and export large quantities of eider-down. 
 
 The foreign possessions of Denmark are the Island of St 
 Cruz, in the West Indies, and Greenland, in the Arctic 
 Ocean. 
 
 The government is a limited monarchy, and the established 
 religion the Lutheran. Education is carefully provided for. 
 
 Copenhagen, (155,000,) the capital, is situated on the east 
 coast of the Island of Zealand, and possesses a fine harbor. 
 It contains a university, and some fine palaces and buildings, 
 It was bombarded by Lord Nelson in 1801, and again in 1807, 
 when the Danish fleet was taken to England. Elsinore is 
 situated on the east coast of the Island of Zealand, at the nar- 
 rowest part of the Sound, the passage of which is commanded 
 by the Castle of Kronborg. All vessels entering the Baltic 
 formerly had to pay dues to Denmark at Elsinore. Aalborrj 
 and Aarhuus are seaports. 
 
 "What is the area of Denmark ? 
 Population? Size? Capital? What 
 does Denmark comprise ? How is 
 it bounded? Point out its boun- 
 daries on the map. What part of 
 Denmark is now held by G-ermany ? 
 Which are the principal islands? 
 What channels are between the 
 islands and mainland ? Describe 
 the surface of Denmark. Trace 
 the principal river on the map, 
 and describe it. Describe the 
 
 climate and soil. What is said of 
 the maritime enterprise of the 
 Danes? Of their manufactures, 
 &c. ? What islands belong to Den- 
 mark? Describe Iceland, its vol- 
 canoes, geysers. &c. What is its 
 chief town ? What other posses- 
 sions has Denmark ? What is said 
 of the government ? Describe the 
 chief towns. Point them out on 
 the map, and state where they are 
 situated. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 Area, 206,507 square miles ; population, 33,000,000 ; nearly as large as 
 Quebec. 
 
 Germany, including Prussia, is bounded on the North 
 by the Baltic Sea, Denmark, and the North Sea ; on the 
 West by Holland, Belgium, and France ; on the South 
 by Switzerland ; on the South and South-East by the 
 Austrian Empire ; and on the East by Russia. 
 
 The Sudetic chain of mountains, stretching from the borders 
 of "Westphalia to the Carpathian Mountains in Austria, 
 separates Germany into two parts — Northern or Lower 
 Germany, forming part of the great plain formerly mentioned, 
 (page 44 ;) and Southern or Upper Germany, diversified by 
 mountains and plains. This chain is called by various names 
 — as the ffartz Mountains in Hanover, the Erz Mountains 
 between Saxony and Bohemia, and Riescn Gebirge between 
 Prussia and Bohemia. These, with the Bohemian Forest, 
 -extending south-east from the southern extremity of the Erz 
 Mountains, and the Moravian Mountains, enclose Bohemia on 
 
 all sides. From the junction of the Erz Mountains and the 
 Bohemian Forest the chain extends to the Hartz Mountains, 
 and another smaller chain traverses the table-lands of Bavaria, 
 terminating in the Black Forest, on the east bank of the Rhine. 
 The highest summits are about 5000 feet high. In the south 
 are the Rhwtian or Tyrolese Alps, (see page 61.) 
 
 The principal rivers are— the Danube, rising in the Black 
 Forest, and flowing east into the Black Sea ; the Rhine, Weser, 
 and Elbe, flowing north into the North Sea ; and the Oder and 
 Vistula, flowing into the Baltic Sea. 
 
 Germany possesses but little sea-coast ; and it is probably 
 owing to this that its commercial advantages have been but 
 little improved, compared with what they might be. 
 
 The climate of Germany is temperate ; but, being inland, it 
 is more subject to extremes of heat and cold than other 
 countries in the same latitude. 
 
 The soil in the north and north-east is sandy and marshy, 
 with numerous small lakes ; but in the south and west it is 
 very fertile, yielding vast quantities of grain for export. The 
 Rhine wines are celebrated ; the vineyards on its hilly banks 
 are very picturesque, and the scenery attracts large numbers 
 of tourists. "Vast forests still cover large tracts of the country, 
 as the Black Forest, Bohemian Forest, and others. 
 
 Germany is rich in minerals. In the Hartz and Erz moun- 
 tains are found lead, iron, copper, tin, and other metals. 
 Bavaria is celebrated for its mines of rock-salt, and coal is 
 found in various localities. 
 
 The Germans are industrious, and carry on large manufac- 
 tures ; but labor is very poorly paid. Education, especially in 
 the north, is carefully attended to, and attendance at school is 
 made compulsory, non-attendance being punished by a fine 
 against the parents. In the north the religion is chiefly 
 Protestant, and in the south Roman Catholic. 
 
 What is the area of Germany? 
 Population ? Size ? How is it 
 bounded ? Point out the bound- 
 aries on the map. What does it 
 comprise ? What is said of its con- 
 dition before and since 1866? How 
 is it divided? Describe the moun- 
 tains of Germany. Trace them 
 
 on the map. Name the principal 
 rivers. Trace their courses on 
 the map. What states do they flow 
 through? What is said of the sea- 
 coast? Of the climate? Of the 
 soil and products? Of the mine- 
 rals ? Of the.people, education, and 
 religion? 
 
 SMALLER GERMAN STATES. 
 The Territory of Germany comprises a large part of central 
 Europe, and is composed of a number of independent states, 
 with their own rulers, and separate constitutions, but more 
 or less closely united for certain purposes of general govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Before the Prusso-Austrian war of 1866, Austria was in- 
 cluded in the German Confederation; but since then she 
 has been excluded, and a closer union has been formed be- 
 tween the remaining states, which are 26 in number. Pend- 
 ing their final union under one government they have been 
 divided into : — 
 
 Noeth Germany, under the entire and absolute leadership 
 of Prussia, and comprising — - 
 
 The Kingdoms of Prussia and Saxony. 
 
 The Grand Duchies of Oldenburg, Mecklcnburg-Schwerin, Mecklen- 
 burg-Strelitz, Saxe-Weimar. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Central Europe. — Which countries of 
 Germany are in the north ? Which in the south ? How is Germany 
 separated from France ? What large river flows through Germany into 
 the Black Sea ? Through what countries does it flow ? What rivers 
 
 flow northwards ? Which is the largest country in Germany ? Which 
 next ? How is Munich situated ? What large cities are on the Rhine ? 
 How is Hamburg situated? What large cities are on the Elbe ? How 
 is Bremen situated ? Lubeck? Schleswig-Holstein, and Lauenburg 1 
 
itudc East 20 of Groanncfi, 
 
 JAMES CAMPBELL s, SON .TORONTO 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 59 
 
 The Principalities of Lippe-Detmold, Lippe-Soh&umburg, Schwartz- 
 burg, Rudolstadt, Sehwartzburg-Sondcrhausen, Reuss-Schleitz, 
 Waldeck. 
 
 The Duchies of Brunswick, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Mciningen, 
 Saxe-Altenburg, Anhalt. 
 
 The Free Cities of Hamburg, Li'ibeck, and Bremen. 
 
 SOUTH Germany, more loosely clustered around the ascend- 
 ancy of Bavaria, and comprising — 
 
 The Kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurtemburg. 
 
 The Grand Duchies of Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. 
 
 The Principalities of Reuss-Greitz and Lichtenstein. 
 
 The two divisions are bound to mutual aid in time of war. 
 
 Prussia will be treated of separately. Many of the other 
 states are very small, and of little importance. 
 
 Saxony is situated between Prussia, Austria, and Bavaria. 
 Dresden, (128,000,) its capital, is a handsome city, the centre of 
 the arts and literary institutions of Northern Germany. It 
 has a celebrated museum, library, and gallery of pictures. At 
 Meissen, 15 miles from Dresden, the celebrated Dresden china 
 is manufactured. Leipsic, (79,000,) is distinguished for its 
 book-fairs, its university, and the defeat of Napoleon in 1813. 
 
 In Brunswick and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, between Saxony 
 and the former kingdom of Hanover, are situated respectively 
 the cities of Brunswick and Ooburg. 
 
 In Meoklenbukg-Schwerin, between Holstein and the rest 
 of Prussia is Rostock, on the Warnow, 9 miles from its mouth. 
 It has a large library and university, once belonged to the 
 Hanseatic League, and is still an important seaport. 
 
 Oldenburg, with its capital Oldenburg, is in the west of 
 Hanover. 
 
 In Saxe-"W"eimae, west of Saxony, Weimar, celebrated as 
 having once been the residence of a cluster of literary geniuses 
 at the court of Karl August. 
 
 Hamburg, (176,000,) on the Elbe, is the principal seaport, 
 aDd most important commercial city of Germany. Bremen, 
 (67,000,) on the Weser, is the principal port for foreign 
 commerce. Lubcck, (31,000,) is an important seaport on the 
 Trave, near the Baltic. These free cities belonged to the old 
 Hanseatic League. 
 
 Of Bavakia, which lies west of the Austrian Empire, the 
 capital is Munich, (148,000,) on the Iser, a tributary of the 
 Danube. It is a large and beautiful city, with celebrated 
 galleries of painting and sculpture, and literary institutions. 
 Augsburg, where the Protestant Confession of Faith was pre- 
 sented to Charles V., and Batisbon, are important towns. 
 Nuremberg and Bamberg are manufacturing towns. 
 
 Of "Wurtemberg, which is west of Bavaria, the capital is 
 Stuttgart, (56,000,) near the Neckar. 
 
 In Baden, west of 'Wurtemburg again, Karlsruhe, the 
 capital, is a beautiful city. Heidelberg is renowned for its 
 university. Baden is afashionable watering-place. Mannheim, 
 at the confluence of the Neckar and Rhine, has a large trade. 
 
 Hesse-Dabhstadt lies north of Baden . Darmstadt is the 
 capital. At Worms, Luther appeared before the Diet. 
 
 PRUSSIA. 
 
 Describe the positions of the 
 principal states. Point them out 
 on the map. Describe the principal 
 
 cities. In what state is each? How 
 are they situated? Point them out 
 on the map. 
 
 Area, 137,000 square miles ; population, 23,800,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 172 ; one-third smaller than the province of Quebec. 
 
 Capital, Berlin. 
 
 Prussia is tie first country in Germany for size 
 and population, and is bounded on the North by the 
 Baltic Sea, Mecklenburg, Denmark, and the North Sea ; 
 on the West by Holland, Belgium, and France ; on the 
 South by some of the smaller German States and 
 Austria ; and on the East by Russia. 
 
 By the wars of 1864-66, Prussia added to her eight provinces 
 the Duchies of Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg, the King- 
 dom of Hanover, the Electorate of Hesse-C&ssel, the Duchy of 
 Nassau, parts of Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt, and the free 
 city of Frankfort ; thus consolidating her territory. 
 
 The surface is in general flat, sloping towards the north. In 
 the south are the Harts, Biesen, Gcbirge, and Sudetic chains of 
 mountains ; in the north-east it is covered to a great extent 
 with vast sandy and marshy tracts, and numerous small shal- 
 low lakes. The rivers are slow, and favorable for navigation. 
 The principal are — the Bhine and Elbe, flowing into the North 
 Sea, and the Oder, Vistula, and Nicmen, flowing into the 
 Baltic Sea. None of these rise in Prussia. 
 
 The sea-coast of Prussia is on the Baltic, with a small portion 
 on the North Sea. Opposite the mouths of the rivers, long sand- 
 banks or islands nearly enclose the Gulfs called the Stettiner 
 Haff, Frische Haff, and Curische Haff. 
 
 The climate in the east and north is subject to extremes, but 
 in the western provinces it is milder and more favorable to 
 agriculture. The soil in the west and south is fertile, and all 
 the ordinary grains are raised in sufficient quantities for ex- 
 portation. The vineyards of the Rhine are celebrated, and 
 tobacco is grown in the south. 
 
 .Prussia is not rich in minerals, but iron, copper, lead, and 
 coal are found in the mountain ranges. Amber is found on 
 the shores of the Baltic. 
 
 The commerce of Prussia is large, being principally carried 
 on through the Baltic ports, and is greatly aided by the rivers 
 and canals. The principal exports are grain, wool, linen, 
 flax, and Rhenish wines. It has also important linen, wool- 
 len, cotton, and iron manufactures. 
 
 Prussia is one of the five great powers of Europe, and owes 
 its position greatly to the attention paid to its standing army 
 since the time of Frederick the Great. 
 
 The form of government is a constitutional monarchy, with 
 Upper and Lower Houses of Representatives, but the King 
 still possesses great power. The constitution was granted by 
 Frederick 'William IV. in l?j0. 
 
 The Royal Family, and the greater part of the inhabitants, 
 are Protestants, but all religions are equally tolerated. The 
 system of education is very complete, and every child is re- 
 quired by law to attend school. 
 
 Berlin, (525,000,) on the Spree, a tributary of the Elbe, is 
 the capital ; it is the largest city in Germany, and one of the first 
 in Europe ; it is celebrated for its university. Potsdam, near 
 Berlin, is celebrated for its Royal Palace of Sans Souci, and is 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Central Europe. — What states are com- 
 prised in Prussia ? What countries adjoin Prussia ? What large cities 
 belonging to Prussia are on the Baltic ? On the Rhine ? On the Oder ? 
 On the Elbe? What river and mountains separate Prussia from 
 
 Southern Germany ? How is Berlin situated? In what direction from 
 Berlin is Breslau? Cologne? Danzig? Munich? Stuttgart? Dres- 
 den ? Hamburg ? Erankfort-on-Main ? Brussels (see Europe) 2 
 Paris! London? Point out the position of Oldenburg. Of Baden. 
 
60 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 the head-quarters of the Prussian army. Wiesbaden, in the 
 former duchy of Nassau, is famous for its hot springs. On 
 the Oder are— Breslau, (139,000,) the second city in size and 
 importance, with large -woollen and linen manufactures ; and 
 Frankfort, with large manufactures of cloth, and an extensive 
 trade. On the Elbe are — Magdeburg, one of the strongest 
 fortresses in Europe, sacked by Tilly in 1631 ; Wittenberg, 
 where the Reformation began ; Altona, the capital of Holstein. 
 Halle, on the Saale, a tributary of the Elbe, has a celebrated 
 university. On the Rhine are — Cologne, celebrated for its 
 magnificent cathedral, the principal seat of the commerce of 
 the Rhine ; Bonn, with a university ; Diisseldorf, an im- 
 portant town and river port for the cotton and silk manu- 
 factures of Elbcrfield, Barmen, &c. ; Goblentz, at the junction 
 of the Moselle with the Rhine, with Ehrenbreitstein, on the 
 opposite side of the river, cne of the strongest fortresses in 
 Europe ; Bingen, with a large wine trade ; and Mayence, a 
 strongly fortified town. Aix-la-Cliapelle, or Aachen, 30 miles 
 west of Cologne, has famous baths, and is noted for the 
 treaties which have been negotiated there. Treves, on the 
 Moselle, is the most ancient town of Germany, with many 
 old Roman remains. Frankfort-on-the-Main (72,000) has a 
 large banking business. The principal seaports are — Stettin, at 
 the mouth of the Oder, with grain trade ; Dantzic, at the 
 mouth of the Vistula, with foreign commerce ; Konigsberg, on 
 the Pregel ; Memel, at the entrance of the Curische Haff, 
 with exports of grain and timber ; Kiel, on the Baltic, the 
 capital of the former duchy of Holstein, with its university, 
 library, observatory, &c. ; and Flensborg in Schleswig. In the 
 former kingdom of Hanover are — Hanover, the capital ; Oot- 
 tingen, with a university ; Emdcn, the chief seaport. 
 
 What is the area of Prussia? 
 Population? Size? Capital? How 
 bounded? -What did it gain in 
 1864-66 ? What is said of its shape, 
 Ac. ? Describe the surface. The 
 
 mountains. Where are they situ- 
 ated? Point them out on the 
 map. Name the principal rivers. 
 Trace their courses on the map. 
 Where do they rise ? Describe the 
 
 coast-line of Prussia. The gulfs. 
 The climate. The soil and pro- 
 ducts. The minerals. The com- 
 merce and exports. The manu- 
 factures. To what does Prussia 
 owe its position ? What is said of 
 the government ? Of the religion? 
 Of education? Describe the chief 
 towns. Point them out on the 
 map. Where are they situated ? 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 Area, 227,000 square miles ; population, 33,000,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 145 ; rather larger than British Columbia. 
 
 Capital, Vienna. 
 
 Austria is bounded on the North by Russia, Prussia, 
 and Saxony ; on the West by Bavaria, Switzerland, and 
 Italy ; on the South by Italy, the Adriatic Sea, and 
 Turkey ; and on the* East by Turkey and Russia. 
 
 It is one of the five great Powers, but has, during the last 
 few years, lost much territory, and much of its former prestige 
 in contests with France, Italy, and Prussia. Although it 
 has, through the influence of its ascendant rival, Prussia, been 
 excluded from all connection with the political division of 
 Europe called Germany, still, as the inhabitants of the western 
 portion of the Empire speak German and are of German de- 
 scent, it is divided into German, or Cisleithan Austria, or 
 Austria Proper, and Transleithan, or Hungarian Austria. 
 
 The German part is mountainous. The Sudetic chain ex. 
 tends along the northern frontier, and Bohemia and Moravia 
 are almost enclosed by mountains, (see page 58.) The Alps, 
 in the south, extend from the Tyrol in two chains, in a north- 
 easterly and south-easterly direction; the Noric Alps, towards 
 Vienna; and, farther south, the Carnic and Julian Alps, into 
 Turkey. The Carpathian Mountains extend from near Vienna 
 in a circular direction, enclosing Hungary and Transylvania, 
 and separating them from the province of Galicia, and from 
 the Turkish provinces of Moldavia and 'Wallachia on the east 
 and south. Some of the summits rise to the height of 8000 
 feet. On the north they are abrupt and precipitous, but on 
 the south they slope more gradually into Hungary, which 
 forms a vast plain, almost surrounded by mountains. 
 
 The principal river of Austria is the Danube, which flows in 
 an easterly and south-easterly direction through the country, 
 receiving the Inn, Drave, and Save, from the Alps, and the 
 March, Waag, and Theiss, from the northern mountains. The 
 Elbe, Oder, and Vistula rise in Austria and flow through Prus- 
 sia into the Baltic Sea. The principal lakes are — the Neu- 
 siedler See and Balaton Lake, both in Hungary. 
 
 Austria possesses a small portion of coast-line on the Adria- 
 tic Sea, less than any of the other great countries of Europe. 
 
 The climate, owing to the inland position of the country, is 
 more subject to extremes than in most other countries of Europe 
 in the same latitude. North of the Carpathians it is subject to 
 the greatest extremes, and in Hungary it is warmest ; while in 
 the mountain regions it varies according to the elevation. 
 
 The soil, especially in the south and east, is fertile, produc- 
 ing corn and wine abundantly. Wheat is largely exported, and 
 Hungary produces the celebrated wine, Tokay. Agriculture 
 forms the chief occupation of the inhabitants, but is not in 
 such an advanced state as in the west of Europe. 
 
 The mines of Austria are very valuable, producing almost 
 every metal; iron, copper, and lead are found in great quanti- 
 ties, as well as gold, silver, and quicksilver. The salt mines 
 near Cracow are celebrated, and are probably the largest in 
 the world. Coal is also found in Bohemia. 
 
 Commerce, owing to the small extent of the sea-coast, is 
 limited ; and manufactures, considering the vast resources of 
 the country, are small. Glass, woollens, and linens in Bohemia, 
 are the principal. 
 
 Austria comprises under its Government, nations speaking 
 various languages, and differing in laws, manners, and cus- 
 toms. They are generally Germans in the west, Hungarians 
 in the east, and Sclavonians in the north and south. Jews 
 are numerous. The Zingari, or Gipsies, are a wandering race, 
 existing chiefly in the Hungarian and Polish provinces. 
 
 A large portion of Northern Italy was formerly under the 
 power of Austria ; but in the war of 1859 Lombardy was an- 
 nexed to the kingdom of Italy, and Venetia in 1866. 
 
 The military force of Austria is large, being computed, when 
 on the peace footing, at 283,000 men. The revenue of the 
 country is less than half of that of Great Britain ; and, owing 
 to the rapacity of the Government, some of the provinces can 
 only be kept from rebellion by the presence of a powerful 
 armed force. 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Central Europe. — What countries adjoin 
 Austria ? How is it separated from Turkey on the east ? On the south ? 
 How is it separated from Northern Germany and Poland? How is 
 Vienna situated? What other large cities are on the Danube? How 
 
 is Prague situated ? What seaport belongs to Austria ? On what sea 
 is it? In what direction from Vienna is Pesth ? Pra<me ? Trieste? 
 Innsbruck? Cracow? Berlin? Munich? Nuremberg? Paris (see 
 Europe) ? London ? Where does the Danube leave Austria ? 
 
EUEOPE. 
 
 61 
 
 The form of government is an hereditary monarchy, -with 
 the Emperor as head. A Council of the Empire sits at 
 Vienna, and Provincial Diets in the different countries. The 
 Eoman Catholic is the prevailing religion, but all are tolerated. 
 Education is carefully provided for by Government. 
 
 Vienna, (476,000,) the capital of the Empire, is situated on 
 the Danube, and is one of the first cities in Europe for science, 
 literature, and refinement. It is an elegant city, possesses a 
 famous university, and carries on the chief trade of the 
 country. Prague, (143,000,) the capital of Bohemia, is the 
 second city of Austria. It has a university, and is celebrated 
 in European history. In Moravia are the important fortresses, 
 Olmiitz and Troppau; Briinn, with large woollen manufac- 
 tures ; and A usterlitz, famous for Napoleon's victory in 1805. 
 In Styria, Gratz has large iron manufactures. Salzburg is 
 celebrated for its salt manufacture. In the Tyrol are Trent, 
 where the famous Catholic Council was held in 1545 ; Inns- 
 bruck, an important town with a university ; Klagenfurt and 
 Laybach are important manufacturing towns. In Hungary 
 are Pesth and Buda, on opposite sides of the Danube, forming 
 one city, with a population of 187,000. They are now the cap- 
 ital of Hungary. Presburg, also on the Danube, was the for- 
 mer capital. Kremnitz and Schemnitz have gold and silver 
 mines. Tokay, on the Theiss, is famous for its wines. Lem- 
 herg is the capital of Galicia. Cracow (50,000), was the former 
 capital of Poland, and has a university, and a splendid cathe- 
 iral, where the Polish kings were crowned, and many of them 
 fcuried. Klausenhurg, Hermannstadt, and Kronstadt, are large 
 and important towns in Transylvania. Trieste, the chief 
 Austrian seaport, and Fiume, the seaport for the Hungarian 
 provinces, are both on the Adriatic Sea. 
 
 "What is the area of Austria ? 
 Population? Size! Capital? How 
 it bounded? Point out the 
 
 boundaries on the map. What is 
 said of the importance of Austria ? 
 What are its divisions ? Point them 
 out on the map ? Describe the sur- 
 face of Austria. Describe the 
 principal mountain chains. Trace 
 them on the map. Where are they 
 situated ? Describe the principal 
 rivers. Trace their courses on the 
 map. What countries do they flow 
 
 through ? Name the lakes of 
 Austria, and state where they are 
 situated. What is said of the 
 coast-line of Austria ? Of the cli- 
 mate ? Of the soil and products ? 
 Of the mines? Of the manufac- 
 tures? Of the inhabitants? Of 
 Italy? Of the military power of 
 Austria? Of the government? 
 Religion and education ? Describe 
 the chief cities. Where are they 
 situated? Point them out on the 
 map. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Area, 15,250 square miles ; population, 2,500,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 164 ; about four-fifths the size of Nova Scotia. 
 
 Capital, Berne. 
 
 Switzerland is bounded on the North by Germany 
 and Prance ; on the West by France ; on the South by 
 Italy ; and on the East by Austria. 
 
 It is a Eepublic, consisting of twenty-two cantons united 
 under one federal government. 
 
 It is the most mountainous country in Europe ; two-thirds 
 of the surface being covered with mountains, and the re- 
 mainder consisting of an elevated plain. The Jura Mountains, 
 on the west, separate it from France, and in the south and east 
 are the celebrated Alps. These form several distinct chains, 
 the most southerly being the Pennine Alps, extending south- 
 
 west, and the Rhcctian or Tyrolese Alps, east ; a little farther 
 north are the Bernese Alps, on the west, and the Helvetian Alps 
 extending north. In the Pennine Alps are the highest sum- 
 mits, Mont Blanc, 15,730 ft., Monte Eosa, 15,200 ft., and the 
 Matterhorn or Mont Cervin, 14,630 ft. In the Bernese Alps 
 the Jungfrau rises 13,700 ft. Mont St Bernard is celebrated 
 for its convent, and sagacious breed of dogs. The Alps are 
 remarkable for their numerous glaciers or vast fields of ice, 
 filling the higher valleys between the mountains ; they are 
 estimated at more than 400 in number. These form the 
 sources of many of the large rivers of Europe; the Rhone 
 and Ticino flowing south ; the Aar, Rhine, and Inn flowing 
 north. 
 
 Switzerland is also celebrated for its numerous and beautiful 
 lakes, Geneva, Neufchatel, Constance, Lucerne, Zurich, &c. 
 
 The scenery of Switzerland is most varied and beautiful, and 
 renders it the favorite resort of tourists. Enormous rugged 
 snow-capped mountains, with fearful precipices, glaciers, ava- 
 lanches, and dashing waterfalls, form a striking contrast to the 
 peaceful scenes in the valleys, with their picturesque chalets, 
 waving fields of grain, orchards ripening under a southern 
 sun, and the deep clear lakes almost hidden by the mountains. 
 
 The soil of Switzerland varies greatly with the locality, and 
 wherever it is possible, it is industriously cultivated. The 
 valleys yield grain, wine, and various fruits, and the moun- 
 tains give pasturage to vast herds of cattle and goats. The 
 manufactures are chiefly cottons, woollens, and watches. 
 
 The Swiss are a brave, industrious, and frugal people, and 
 are celebrated for their love of liberty. They speak the French, 
 Italian, or German language, according to the country they 
 border upon. Three-fifths of the population are Protestants, 
 and the remainder Eoman Catholics. 
 
 Berne, (29,000,) on the Aar, the chief town of the largest 
 canton, is also the seat of the Federal Diet. Geneva (41,000) 
 is beautifully situated on the lake of the same name, and has 
 important manufactures of watches and jewellery. Basle and 
 Schaffhausen on the Rhine, and Zurich on the lake of the 
 same name, carry on the principal commerce. St Gall is a 
 manufacturing town. Neufehatel has clock and watch manu- 
 factures. Lucerne is beautifully situated on the lake of that 
 name, and near it are most of the scenes rendered famous by 
 "William Tell's exploits. 
 
 What is the area of Switzerland ? 
 Population ? Size ? 'Capital ? ;How 
 is Switzerland bounded ? Point out 
 the boundaries on the map. Of 
 what is it composed ? Describe the 
 surface. The principal mountain 
 chains. Trace them on the map. 
 Name the highest mountains. For 
 what are the Alps remarkable ? 
 
 Name the principal rivers. Trace 
 their courses on the map. Name 
 the principal lakes. Where are 
 they situated? Describe thescenery 
 of Switzerland. The soil and pro- 
 ducts. The people — their language 
 and religion. Describe the chief 
 towns. Point them out on the 
 map. Where are they situated ? 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 Area, including islands, 113,000 square miles ; population, 25,000,000/ 
 
 Italy is bounded on the North by Austria and 
 Switzerland; on the West by France and the Medi- 
 terranean ; on the South by the Mediterranean ; and 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Central Europe. — Point out and give the 
 boundaries of Bohemia? Of Moravia? Of Transylvania? Of the 
 Tyrol? Of Vorarlberg? Of Galicia? Is there any other province of 
 Galicia (see Western Europe) ? What country adjoins Switzerland on 
 
 the west ? On the north ? On the south ? What large towns are on 
 the Rhine? How is Zurich situated? Lucerne? Geneva? In what 
 direction is Geneva from Paris (see Europe) ? Berne from Stras- 
 burg t Berne from London ? 
 
62 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 on the East by the Adriatic Sea and Austria. Prior 
 to the year 1859, it comprised eight separate states, 
 some independent, and others under the power of Aus- 
 tria ; but it now consists of two, the Kingdom of 
 Italy and the Papal States. 
 
 Italy is a long, narrow peninsula, much resembling a boot 
 in shape. Its surface is much diversified, presenting every 
 variety of rich and varied landscape. The Alps curve round 
 it on the north and north-west, and the Apennines extend 
 from the Maritime Alps, the southern extremity of the Pennine 
 Alps, through the entire length of the peninsula, rising in the 
 south to the height of about 10,000 feet. These mountain 
 chains divide the country into three parts ; the large fertile 
 plains of Piedmont and Lombardy in the north, between the 
 Alps and Apennines ; and the eastern and western slopes from 
 the Apennines to the sea. 
 
 Italy is well watered by rivers, and their basins are remark- 
 ably fertile. The principal are the Po, with its tributary 
 the Ticino, and the Adige, flowing into the Adriatic through 
 the northern plains ; the Arno and Tiber, flowing west into 
 the Mediterranean. North of the Po, at the foot of the Alps, 
 are the beautiful Lakes Como, Lugano, Maggiore, &c. 
 
 The coast is irregular, and indented with many fine gulfs 
 and bays, of which the principal are the Gulfs of Genoa and 
 Gaeta, Bay of Naples, and Gulf of Salerno, on the west coast ; 
 the Gulf of Taranto on the south ; and the Gulf of Venice on 
 the east, at the head of the Adriatic Sea. The principal capes 
 are Passaro, on the south of Sicily, and Spartivento and Leuca, 
 the southern points of the mainland. The Strait of Messina 
 separates Sicily from Calabria, and the Strait of Bonifacio is 
 between the islands of Sardinia and Corsica. 
 
 The islands belonging to Italy are — Sardinia, separated 
 from Corsica, which belongs to France, by the Strait of 
 Bonifacio, and intersected by a range of mountains. The 
 inhabitants are chiefly agricultural, and have also important 
 fisheries of anchovy, tunny, and sardines. Sicily, the largest 
 and most fertile island in the Mediterranean, separated from 
 the mainland by the Strait of Messina. In the east is Mount 
 Etna, the largest European volcano, nearly 11,000 feet high. 
 Elba, on the west coast of Italy, between Corsica and the 
 mainland, the first place of banishment of Napoleon. The 
 Lipari Islands, north of Sicily, with Stromboli, called the 
 lighthouse of the Mediterranean, from the volcano it contains, 
 which is always burning. 
 
 The climate of Italy is delightful, but on the west coast, 
 between the Island of Elba and the Gulf of Gaeta, the heat of 
 summer causes malaria from the marshes, rendering large 
 tracts of the country uninhabitable. These tracts are called 
 the Maremma, Pontine Marshes, and the Campagna. The soil 
 is very fertile. Rice, wheat, and maize are extensively culti- 
 vated, and vines, olives, oranges, and lemons are abundant. 
 Italy possesses few minerals, but is celebrated for its fine 
 marbles and alabaster. Silks are manufactured in the north, 
 and are almost the only manufacture of consequence. 
 
 Although till 1S59 disunited and unsettled, Italy is famous 
 as having been the seat of the old Roman Empire, the mistress 
 
 of the world in the early ages, and possesses many interesting 
 classic remains of its former grandeur, forming an ample and 
 interesting study to the traveller and scholar. It was also the 
 seat of several of the most powerful commercial republics of 
 the middle ages, Venice, Genoa, &c, and is celebrated as being 
 the great centre for the fine arts, painting, sculpture, music, 
 and architecture. 
 
 What is the area of Italy? Popu- 
 lation ? How is it bounded ? Point 
 out the boundaries on the map. 
 Of what is it composed ? Describe 
 the surface. The mountain chains. 
 Trace them on the map. How do 
 the mountains divide the country? 
 What is said of the rivers of Italy. 
 Name the principal. Trace their 
 courses on the map. Describe the 
 coast-line. Name the principal 
 
 gulfs and bays. Point them out on 
 the map. Where are they situated ? 
 Name the principal capes and 
 straits. Point them out on the 
 map. Where are they situated? 
 Describe the principal islands. 
 Point them out on the map. Where 
 are they situated? Describe the 
 climate of Italy. Soil and pro- 
 ducts. Minerals. Manufactures. 
 What is said of Italian associations ? 
 
 KINGDOM OF ITALY. 
 
 Area, 108,000 square miles ; population, 24,150,000 ; persons to asquare 
 
 mile, 233 ; rather more than half the size of the-province of Quebec. 
 
 Capital, Turin. 
 
 The Kingdom op Italy comprises Piedmont and Lom- 
 bardo-Venetia, the Duchies of Tuscany, Lucca, Parma, 
 and Modena, the Island, of Sardinia, part of the Papal 
 States, and the Kingdom of Naples, including the 
 Island of Sicily. There only remains Rome, with the 
 surrounding country, which is still ruled by the Pope, 
 assisted by a French army. The kingdom has only 
 been formed since the war and revolutions of 1859-60, 
 when France and Italy defeated the Austrians and 
 gained Lombardy. Garibaldi gained Naples and Sicily, 
 and the other states voluntarily annexed themselves to 
 Sardinia ; Victor Emmanuel, King of Sardinia, becom- 
 ing the first King of Italy. Savoy and Nice, formerly 
 belonging to Sardinia, were at the same time ceded to 
 France. In 1866, Austria was compelled after a short 
 war to cede Venetia to the new kingdom. The 
 country is still rather unsettled, but it is fast taking 
 rank as one of the chief powers of Europe. 
 
 The government is a limited monarchy, and is formed upon 
 the pattern of that of Britain. The Roman Catholic is the 
 established religion, but all others are tolerated. It possesses 
 a great number of large towns, most of them celebrated in 
 history. 
 
 In Piedmont are — Turin, (200,000,) the capital, u, fine city, 
 with extensive trade, noted for its silk manufactures ; Genoa, 
 (128,000,) the chief seaport of Italy, with important manufac- 
 tures of silks and velvets ; formerly the capital of a power- 
 ful republic of the same name ; Spezia, the chief naval station, 
 with an excellent harbor ; and Alessandria, a strongly-forti- 
 fied city, with silk manufactures. In Lombardy — Milan 
 (200,000) is a beautiful city, with a magificent cathedral of 
 white marble, and large trade ; Bergamo, Brescia, and Pia- 
 cenza are important towns ; Parma and Modena, the former 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Southeen Eueope. — How is Italy separated 
 from France? From Switzerland? From Austria? What sea washes 
 the east coast of Italy ? How is this sea connected with the Mediter- 
 ranean? How is Sicily separated from Italy ? Sardinia from Corsica ? 
 
 How is Rome situated ? What famous city is on the Adriatic ? Where 
 is Turin situated ? Milan ? Florence ? In what direction from Rome 
 is Naples ? Palermo ? Venice ? Florence ? Turin ? Paris (see 
 Europe)? London! Berlin? Vienna? 
 
capitals of the duchies of the same name, and Bologna, with 
 the oldest university in Italy, are important inland towns. 
 Near Milan is Magenta, and near Brescia is Solfcrino, where 
 the Austrians were defeated in 1859. In Tuscany— Florence, 
 (115,000,) surnamed the beautiful, is a magnificent city, and 
 has long been celebrated as a seat of science and art, and 
 for its splendid galleries of painting and sculpture ; it was 
 fornxs'ly the head of a republic of the same name ; Pisa, 
 with its famous leaning tower ; and Leghorn, an important 
 seaport. Ancona is a fortified seaport on the Adriatic, and 
 near it is Loretto, with its famous shrine. In Naples is 
 Naples, (420,000,) the largest city in Italy, surpassing every 
 city in Europe for the beauty of its situation and appearance. 
 The Bay of Naples is celebrated for its scenery. About ten 
 miles from the city is the volcano Vesuvius, 4000 feet high, 
 near which are the remains of the ancient cities of Hercrdaneum 
 and Pompeii, which have been buried in lava and ashes since 
 A.D. 79, and are now being excavated. Gaeta and Capiat are 
 near Naples. In the Island of Sicily are— Palermo, (194,000,) 
 a fine city, with much commerce ; Messina, (100,000,) the 
 principal commercial city; Catania, (69,000,) with manufac- 
 tures of silt ; Syracuse, famous for its ancient greatness, and 
 memorable in history ; and Marsala, with wines. Cagliari 
 is the chief port of the Island of Sardinia. 
 
 In Venetia, Venice, (118,000,) was long the head of a power-' 
 ful commercial republic. It is built on a number of islands, 
 canals form i ng the streets, and gondolas the carriages, and 
 contains many fine buildings. Padua, with a celebrated uni- 
 versity, and Viccnza are large and important towns. Verona, 
 Pesckiera, Mantua, and Legnago form the famous " quadri- 
 lateral," or chain of fortresses to repel foreign invasion. 
 
 What is the area of the kingdom 
 of Italy? Population? ^ize? 
 Capital ? "What does it comprise ? 
 What territories still remain out of 
 it ? How has the kingdom of Italy 
 been formed ? What is said of its 
 present position? What is the 
 
 form of government? Religion, 
 &c. ? Describe the chief cities. 
 Point them out on the map. Where 
 are they situated? Describe the 
 chief cities of Venetia. Point them 
 out on the map. Where are they 
 situated ? 
 
 THE PAPAL STATES. 
 
 Area, 4900 square miles ; population, 692,000 ; twice the size of 
 Prince Edward Island. 
 
 The Papal States occupy a small portion of the 
 central part of Italy, on the west coast, with Rome for 
 the capital. The Pope is temporal sovereign, as well 
 as head of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 The country is in a very unsettled state, Home being garri- 
 soned at times by French soldiers. Borne, (200,000,) on the 
 Tiber, the former mistress of the world, although sadly de- 
 cayed, possesses magnificent remains of its former grandeur, and 
 is still celebrated for its splendid buildings and for the archi- 
 tectural beauties of its old ruins. Civita Vecchia is its seaport. 
 
 What is the area of the Papal 
 States? Population? Size? Where 
 are they situated? What is said 
 of the Pope? Of the present con- 
 
 dition of the country? Describe 
 the chief cities. Point them out 
 on the map. Where are they situ- 
 ated? 
 
 The Island of Malta, to the south of Sicily, belongs to 
 
 EtTKOPE. 63 
 
 Britain. Valetta i3 the capital, and is the chief station for the 
 British fleet in the Mediterranean. 
 
 Where is Malta situated? Point I it belong? Describe the chief 
 it out on the map. To whom does | town. 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 Area, 20,000 square miles ; population, 1,332,000 ; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 06 ; about the same size as Nova Scotia. 
 
 Capital, Athens. 
 
 Greece is bounded on the North by Turkey ; on the 
 West and South by the Mediterranean; and on the 
 East by the Archipelago. 
 
 The surface consists of a succession of gentle hills and valleys, 
 well adapted for cultivation. In the northern part are the 
 celebrated mountains, Parnassus and Helicon. 
 
 There are no rivers of importance in Greece. The country 
 is almost intersected by the Gulf of Lepanto on the west, and 
 the Gulf of Athens on the east. The southern part is called 
 the Morea, or ancient Peloponnesus, and is joined to the main- 
 land by the Isthmus of Corinth. 
 
 Greece also possesses numerous bays and islands. Of the 
 latter, the principal are the Ionian Islands, on the west coast, 
 including Corfu, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cephalonia, Zante, and 
 Cerigo. They were formerly under the protection of Britain, 
 but were given up to Greece in 1863. On the east coast are 
 Negropont or Eubcea, and the Cijclades. 
 
 The principal gulfs are — Lepanto, JYauplia, and Athens. 
 The most southerly points of Greece are Capes Matapan, 
 Malio, (or Malea,) and Colonna. 
 
 The climate is warm and delightful, and the soil fertile, 
 producing in abundance wine, oil, oranges, lemons, and all 
 southern fruits. The Ionian Isles export large quantities of a 
 small dried grape called currants. Owing to the unsettled 
 state of the country, agriculture is but poorly attended to. 
 Manufactures are few, and the means of internal communica- 
 tion very bad. 
 
 Previous to the year 1829 Greece was subject to Turkey. It 
 then became independent, and in 1S32 elected Otho of Bavaria 
 to be king. He was again expelled in 1862, and in 1863, George, 
 the son of the present King of Denmark, was elected in his 
 stead. 
 
 Although small in territory, and now of little importance, 
 Greece possesses a great amount of interest on account of the 
 magnificent remains of its ancient monuments, and theremem- 
 brance of its former greatness. Almost every spot is classic 
 ground, and is the scene of some remarkable event in its ancient 
 history, when it held the first rank among the nations of the 
 world for its military greatness, and advancement in the arts 
 and learning. 
 
 Athens, (48,000,) the capital, is now a poor city, and is only 
 celebrated for its former greatness and the remains of its ancient 
 magnificence. Nauplia, (7000,) at the head of the gulf of the 
 same name, possesses a fine harbor and fortress, and is a con- 
 siderable seaport. Navarino, in the south-west, is memorable 
 for the destruction of the Turkish navy by the combined fleets 
 of England, France, and Russia. Corinth and Sparta, both in 
 the Morea, were once renowned cities. Tripolitza was for- 
 
 Exebcises on the Map — Southebn EUROPE. — What country does the 
 Strait of Otranto separate Italy from ? What is the northern part of 
 the Adriatic called ? Name the principal seaports of Italy on the 
 Mediterranean. What country adjoins Greece on the north? What 
 
 large island lies to the south-east of Greece ? From what country does 
 the Archipelago separate Greece ? How is Athens situated ? Sparta ? 
 Corinth ? Corfu ? Draw, as well as you can, a map of Greece, shewing 
 its shape, principal capes, islands, &c. 
 
64 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 merly the residence of the Turkish Pacha, and the capital of 
 the Morea, but was destroyed by the Turks. Corfu, (18,000,) 
 in the island of the same name, is the capital of the Ionian 
 Islands, and is beautifully situated and strongly fortified. 
 Zante (20,000) makes large exports of currants. 
 
 What is the area of Greece? 
 Population? Size? Capital? How 
 is Greece bounded ? Point out the 
 boundaries on the map. Describe 
 the surface. What celebrated 
 mountains are in Greece, and 
 •where are they situated ? Describe 
 the outline of Greece. Point out 
 the principal features on the map. 
 What islands belong to Greece ? 
 Where are they situated? Point 
 
 them out on the map. Name the 
 principal gulfs and capes ? Point 
 them out on the map. Where are 
 they situated? Describe the cli- 
 mate. The soil and products. Ex- 
 ports. Industry and manufactures. 
 What is said of the political his- • 
 tory of Greece? For what is Greece 
 interesting? Describe the chief 
 towns. Where are they situated ? 
 Point them out on the map. 
 
 TURKEY IN EUROPE. 
 
 Area, 207,400 square miles; population, 15,500,000; persons to a square 
 
 mile, 74 ; nearly the size of Quebec. 
 
 Capital, Constantinople. 
 
 Turkey, or the Ottoman Empire, comprises posses- 
 sions in Europe, Asia, and Africa. European Turkey- 
 is bounded on the North by Kussia and Austria ; on 
 the West by Austria and the Adriatic Sea ; on the 
 South by Greece, the Archipelago, and the Sea of Mar- 
 mora ; and on the East by the Black Sea and Kussia. 
 Moldavia, Wallachia, and Servia are tributary pro- 
 vinces, and Montenegro nominally so, although in 
 reality independent. 
 
 Turkey is a mountainous country, although diversified with 
 rich and fertile valleys and extensive plains. The principal 
 mountains are the Balkan, extending from east to west through 
 the centre of the country. From the west end of that range 
 the Dinaric Alps extend north-west, and the Pindus Mountains 
 south ; and from about the middle of the same range, the 
 Despoto or Bhodope Mountains stretch south-east, and another 
 chain north-west, to the Carpathians, meeting them at the 
 Iron Gate on the Danube. The Pindus range extends into 
 Thessaly in Greece, and contains the celebrated mountains 
 Ossa, Pelion, and Olympus. 
 
 The great river of Turkey is the Danube, flowing into the 
 Elack Sea, with its tributaries the Save and Morava on the south 
 bank, and the Sereth and Pruth on the north bank. TkeMaritza 
 and Vardar flow south into the Archipelago ; the Vale of Tempe 
 is near the mouth of the Salembria, a small river flowing 
 through Thessaly. 
 
 The principal lakes are Scutari and Ochrida, in the west. 
 
 The chief features of the coast are the Gulfs of Saloniki, 
 Contessa, and Saros, in the south ; and the Sea of Marmora, 
 connected with the Archipelago, by the Dardanelles, and with 
 the Black Sea by the Bosphorus. 
 
 Most of the European islands in the Archipelago belong to 
 Greece, but Turkey possesses Candia, (the ancient Crete,) 
 Lemnos, &c, besides a number of others more generally con- 
 sidered as belonging to Asia. 
 
 The climate is warm and delightful, especially south of the 
 Balkan Mountains. The soil is excellent ; but owing to the 
 bad government of the country, agriculture is very backward, 
 and more attention is given to pasturage. The products are 
 chiefly grain in the north, and wine, olives, cotton, tobacco, 
 and fruit in the south. 
 
 Commerce and manufactures are chiefly in the hands of 
 foreigners, being despised by the Turks themselves. 
 
 The government is a despotism, the Sultan being the head 
 of the state, with the Grand Vizier as prime minister, and 
 Pachas as governors of the provinces. There is no aristocracy, 
 all preferment depending on the will of the Sultan. Only 
 about 2,000,000 of the whole population are Turks, and about 
 4,500,000 Mohammedans ; the remainder consists of a mixture 
 of the Greek, Bulgarian, and Sclavonic races, belonging to the 
 Greek Church. The late war between Turkey and its allies 
 against Russia arose from the pretensions of the Czar of Russia, 
 the head of the Greek Church, to a protectorate over the in- 
 habitants of Turkey belonging to that Church. The Turks are 
 very ignorant, education with them being simply the reading 
 of the Koran, which may be said to constitute their religion, 
 laws, and literature. Great reforms have, however, been lately 
 introduced. 
 
 Constantinople, (715,000,) the capital, one of the largest 
 cities in Europe, is beautifully situated on the Bosphorus, or 
 Strait of Constantinople, and possesses a magnificent harbor, 
 called the " Golden Horn." The city presents a splendid 
 appearance from the water, owing to its numerous mosques, 
 glittering domes, and graceful minarets ; but the interior is 
 poorly built, and dirty. The houses are in general built of 
 wood, and the streets are narrow. Constantinople was for- 
 merly the capital of the eastern division of the Roman Empire, 
 but was taken by the Turks in 1453. Adrianople, (100,000,) on 
 the Maritza, is the second city in importance, and was formerly 
 the capital of the Ottoman Empire. Gallipoli, on the Darda- 
 nelles, and Saloniki, (the ancient Thessalonica,) are important 
 seaports. Sophia is a large and important city in Bulgaria. 
 Shumla is strongly fortified, and Varna, a fortified seaport on 
 the Black Sea, near which the allied French and English 
 armies were encamped before proceeding to the Crimea in 1854. 
 Belgrade, Widdin, Rustclmk, and Silistria, are strongly fortified 
 cities on the Danube. Bosna Serai is the chief town of Bosnia. 
 Bucharest, (60,000,) the capital of Wallachia, is a large and im- 
 portant city. Ibrail, or Brailov, and Galatz, export large quan- 
 tities of grain. Jassy (60,000) is the capital of Moldavia. 
 
 What is the area of Turkey? 
 Population ? Size ? Capital ? What 
 does Turkey comprise ? How is it 
 bounded ? Point out the boun- 
 daries on the map. What pro- 
 vinces belong to Turkey ? Where 
 are they situated ? Describe the 
 surface of Turkey. The principal 
 mountain chains. Trace them on 
 the map. Describe the principal 
 rivers. Trace their courses on the 
 map. What are the principal 
 lakes ? Where are they situated ? 
 
 Describe the chief features of the 
 coast. Where are they situated? 
 What islands belong to Turkey? 
 Where are they situated ? Describe 
 the climate. The soil and pro- 
 ducts. What is said of commerce ? 
 Of the government? Of the people? 
 Of the religion ? Of the late war ? 
 Of the state of education, &c. 
 Describe the chief towns. Where 
 are they situated ? Point them out 
 on the map. 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Southern Europe — What countries adjoin 
 Turkey on the north ? On the south ? How is Turkey in Europe separ- 
 ated from Turkey in Asia? How is Turkey separated from Austria? 
 Erom Italy? How is Constantinople situated? What large cities are 
 
 on the Danube ? In what direction from Constantinople is Athens ? 
 Rome ? How are Wallachia and Moldavia separated from the rest of 
 Turkey? Point out Varna? Silistria? Belgrade? What would you 
 call the portion of land about the mouth of the Danube ? . 
 
ASIA. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Area, about 17,140,000 square miles, about one-third of the land surfa 
 and from north to south, 5300 miles ; 
 
 Asia is bounded on the North by the Arctic Ocean ; 
 on the "West by the Ural Mountains, Ural River, Cas- 
 pian Sea, Mount Caucasus, Black Sea, Sea of Mar- 
 mora, Mediterranean, and the Eed Sea ; on the South 
 by the Indian Ocean ; and on the East by the Pacific 
 Ocean. 
 
 It is the largest and most populous of the great divisions of 
 the globe, and is particularly interesting as having been the 
 first abode of man, and the scene of most of the important 
 events recorded in the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 Its great physical features are also as remarkable as its extent, 
 the rivers being of great length, and only equalled by some of 
 the largest in America; while its mountains are the highest in 
 the world, and its high table-lands are nowhere equalled for 
 their vast extent or height above the sea. 
 
 The two great chains of the Himalaya and Altai Moun- 
 tains, extending across the broadest part of the continent from 
 west to east, under various names, form the most striking 
 feature of the continent, and divide it into three regions, — viz. , 
 a great northern plain, sloping towards the Arctic Ocean, 
 through which the Obi, Yenisei, and Lena Eivers flow ; a 
 central mountainous region, which is subdivided by other 
 mountain chains ; and a southern slope towards the Indian 
 Ocean, divided into three great peninsulas. Between the two 
 great ranges the slope is eastward, and this vast valley contains 
 the minor parallel chains of the Thian Shan and Kuenlun, and 
 the mountains of China, forming the basins of the great rivers 
 Amoor, Hoangho, and Yantse-kiang ; a smaller western slope 
 is shown by the course of the Amoo and Sir, flowing into the 
 Sea of Aral. From the Himalayas and their continuations 
 southwards, is a southern slope, as shewn by the courses of 
 the rivers Mekon or Camboja, Saluen, Irrawady, and other; 
 in Farther India ; the Ganges, Brahmapootra, and Indus. 
 in Hindostan ; and the Tigris and Euphrates in Asiatic ^, 
 Turkey. 
 
 Besides the great chains already mentioned are the Hindoo 
 Koosh, extending south-west from the western end of the Hima- 
 layas, and separated from them by the valley of the Indus ; the 
 Bolor Tagh, stretching north from the eastern extremity of the 
 Hindoo Koosh, and forming the dividing line between the east- 
 ern and western slopes of the central region; the Elburz range, 
 extending from the Hindoo Koosh to the southern extremity of 
 the Caspian Sea ; the mountains of Armenia, in which is the 
 celebrated Mount Ararat ; the parallel chains of the Taurus 
 and Anti-Taurus Mountains, in Asia Minor; and from the 
 eastern extremity of the Taurus range, the mountains of 
 Lebanon extend southwards along the coast of the Mediter- 
 ranean, and are continued by smaller chains to Mount Sinai, 
 at the head of the Bed Sea. 
 
 The Himalayas are the highest mountains of Asia and of 
 
 :e of the globe ; greatest extent from east to west, 5200 miles, 
 population, about 700,000,000. 
 
 the world, about fifty of their peaks rising over 20, 000 feet in 
 height. Mount Everest is 29,000 feet and Einchinfunga, 
 28,000 feet high. The Hindoo Koosh Mountains do not ex- 
 ceed 23,000 feet, the Caucasus 18,500 feet, the Elburz range 
 18,500 feet, and the other ranges generally from 5000 to 10,000 
 feet in height. 
 
 The principal rivers of Asia already mentioned, although of 
 great length and volume, are of much less importance than 
 those of America, as they are of comparatively little use for 
 navigation, owing to the height of their sources, and the 
 mountainous nature of the regions through which they flow. 
 Those of Siberia, moreover, are inaccessible, since they flow 
 into the Arctic Ocean. AU are valuable, however, for irriga- 
 tion and agricultural purposes. 
 
 The table-lands of Asia are of great extent, and occupy » 
 large portion of the continent, extending from the Mediter- 
 ranean Sea to the Sea of Japan, a distance of upwards of 5000 
 miles, and varying from 400 to 2000 miles in breadth. The 
 largest and most elevated is the great central plateau between 
 the Altai and Himalaya Mountains, including the Desert of 
 Gobi or Shamo, from 4000 to 10,000 feet high. "West of it 
 are the Desert of Iran, in Persia and Afghanistan, and tha 
 table-lands of Armenia, Asia Minor, and Arabia. 
 
 The principal Lakes are : — 
 Baikal and Balkash, in Siberia, I the inland salt lakes, the Sea of 
 and the Dead Sea, in Syria, besides | Aral, and the Caspian Sea. 
 
 Like Europe, the outline or coast-line of Asia is much broken, 
 and has many islands, seas, gulfs, bays, and straits. 
 
 The principal Peninsulas are : — 
 AsiaMinor, onthe west ; -4 ratio, I and Annam, on the south ; and 
 Hindostan, Malaya or Malacca, \ Coreas.ndKamsch.atka, on the east. 
 
 The principal Islands are : — 
 
 in the Levant or eastern 
 p f the Mediterranean : Ceylon, 
 iii&n&adive, Maldive, Andaman, 
 v anri Nicobar Islands, in the Indian 
 Ocean ; Sumatra, Java, Borneo, 
 Celebes, the Moluccas or Spice 
 
 Islands, and Philippines, in the 
 Eastern Archipelago; and Hai- 
 nan, Formosa, Zoo Choo Islands, 
 the Japan Islands, Saphalien, Ku- 
 rile, and Aleutian Islands, in the 
 Pacific. 
 
 The principal Seas and Gulfs are: — 
 
 The Levant, Bed Sea, Arabian 
 Sea, Persian Gulf, Gulfs of Cutch 
 and Cambay, Bay of Bengal and 
 Gulf of Martaban, China Sea and 
 
 Gulfs of Siam and Tonquin, Tel- 
 low Sea, Gulf of Pechdee, Japan 
 Sea, and Sea of Okotsk. 
 
 The principal Straits are : — 
 Babclmandeb, Ormus, Gulf of I of Malacca and Corea, Gulf of 
 Manaar, and Palk Strait, Straits \ Tartary, and Behrina Strait. 
 
 [The principal Capes are: — 
 Baba, the most westerly point of | rin, Romania, Camboja, Lopatka, 
 Turkey in Asia, Has al Had, Como- \ East Cape, and North-East Cape. 
 
 The climate of Asia is, in general, warmer than that of North 
 America in the same latitude ; but the high table-lands are 
 subject to violent extremes. In the north it is excessively 
 cold ; in the middle it is dry, and almost rainless : and in the 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Asia. — What oceans wash the shores of 
 Asia ? How is Asia separated from Europe ? From Africa ? From 
 America (see Hemisphere) ? By what isthmus is Asia joined to Africa ? 
 What oceans wash the shores of Asia? What five seas are on the 
 
 east 1 What seas and bays are on the south ? What countries are in 
 the south 1 In the east 1 In the north 1 In the west ? In the interior 1 
 What large islands are off the east coast ? Off the south-east ? la what 
 direction do the mountain chains principally extend ? 
 
66 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 south hot. In the east it is more moist than in the west ; in 
 the south the seasons are divided into wet and dry, and their 
 changes are accompanied by a change in the winds, called the 
 monsoons, or season winds. 
 
 The northern plain of the continent is a treeless desert, ex- 
 cept in the south and east, where it is more wooded. The 
 plateaux of the central region are generally sandy, or covered 
 with grass, and admirably adapted for pasture: but little 
 grain is grown on them. On the southern slope of the Hima- 
 layas vegetation becomes most luxuriant, producing the plants 
 and grains of all the zones, according to the elevation. China 
 is famous for its tea and rice : in the southern part of the con- 
 tinent, and in the islands, coffee, cotton, rice, ginger, pepper, 
 and spices are produced in great abundance ; while the forests 
 furnish palm, teat, sandalwood, gamboge, and caoutchouc 
 trees. Jungles cover a large part of the country in the south 
 and south-east, affording refuge to the lion, tiger, leopard, 
 elephant, and great numbers of large and venemous serpents 
 and reptiles. In the north are found the bear, wolf, reindeer, 
 ermine, marten, and many other fur-bearing animals ; horses, 
 camels, and dromedaries abound in the middle region. Iron, 
 tin, copper, coal, and other minerals are found in various parts, 
 but are little worked. Precious stones are found in India. 
 Manufactures are not numerous, the principal being silks, 
 cottons, Cashmere shawls, porcelain, and small carved articles 
 of ivory and wood. 
 
 The most densely peopled parts of Asia are China and Hin- 
 dostan. The inhabitants of Asia are generally of the Cauca- 
 sian race in the south-west ; Mongolians in the middle and 
 south-east ; and Malays in Malacca and the East India Islands. 
 They are almost all either heathens, professing the worship of 
 Brahma or Buddha in the south, and the system of Confucius 
 in China ; or Mohammedans in the west, which is the centre 
 and cradle of Mohammedanism. 
 
 The Countries of Asia are : — 
 
 Chinese Empire, including Ti- 
 bet, Chinese Tartary, &c. 
 
 Independent Tartary, or Tjjr- 
 kestan. 
 
 Russia in Asia. 
 
 Japan Islands. 
 
 Turkey in Asia. 
 
 Arabia. 
 
 Persia. 
 
 Afghanistan. 
 
 Beloochistan. 
 
 HlNDOSTAN. 
 
 Eastern Peninsula, comprising 
 Burmah, Biam, Annam, &c. 
 
 The islands of Asia are generally considered as forming part 
 of Oceanica, the fifth great division of the earth. 
 
 What is the area of Asia? The 
 extent ? Population ? How is it 
 bounded? Point out the boundaries 
 on the map. For what is Asia 
 interesting ? What is said of its 
 physical features 1 What great 
 mountain chains intersect the 
 country? How do they divide it ? 
 Point out the divisions on the 
 map. Describe them. Trace the 
 mountains and rivers on the map. 
 Describe the other mountain 
 chains. Trace them on the map. 
 What is said of the height of the 
 mountains? What is said of the 
 rivers ? What is said of the table- 
 lands ? Describe them, and point 
 them out on 'the map. Name the 
 principal lakes, and point them 
 out on the map. What is said of 
 
 the coast-line of Asia ? Name the 
 principal peninsulas. Point them 
 out on the map, and state where 
 they are situated. Name the 
 principal islands. Point them out 
 on the map, and state where they 
 are situated. Name the principal 
 seas and gulfs. Point them out 
 on the map, and state where they 
 are situated. Name the principal 
 capes. Point them out on the 
 map, and state where they are 
 situated. What is said of the cli- 
 mate of Asia ? Of the seasons ? 
 Of the soil ? Of the productions ? 
 Of the animals ? Of the minerals ? 
 Of the manufactures ? Of the 
 inhabitants? Name the countries 
 of Asia. Point them out on the 
 map. 
 
 TURKEY IN ASIA. 
 
 Area, about 660,000 square miles ; population, 16,000,000 ; peisons to a 
 square mile, 24 ; as large as Canada and British Columbia. 
 
 Turkey in Asia is bounded on the North by the 
 Black Sea and Russia ; on the "West by the Grecian Ar- 
 chipelago and the Mediterranean Sea ; on the South by 
 Arabia ; and on the East by Persia. 
 
 It comprises Asia Minor, Armenia, Syria, (including Pales- 
 tine,) Kurdistan, the ancient Assyria, Irak-Arabi, the ancient 
 Chaldea, and Algeziras, the ancient Mesopotamia. These 
 countries are all celebrated in the records of the Holy Scrip- 
 tures, both Old and New, and for that reason form a peculiarly 
 interesting study. 
 
 It also includes the Islands of Cyprus and Rhodes, in the 
 
 Mediterranean, with Mitylene, Scio, Samos, and all the Asiatic 
 
 Islands of the Grecian Archipelago. 
 
 ancient countries do they corres- 
 pond? For what are they cele- 
 brated ? What islands belong to 
 Turkey? Point them out on the 
 map. Where are they situated ? 
 
 What is the area of Turkey in 
 Asia ? Population ? Size ? How 
 is it bounded ? Point out the 
 boundaries on the map. What 
 countries does it comprise? To what 
 
 ASIA MINOK. 
 
 Asia Minor comprises the peninsula between the Black 
 Sea and the Mediterranean. The greater part of the country 
 consists of a high plateau, enclosed by the Taurus Mountains , 
 on the south, and the parallel range of the Anti-Taurus on 
 the north, both extending close along the coast. The former 
 are the highest, some of the peaks reaching to 13,000 feet in 
 height. 
 
 The rivers, owing to the mountainous nature of the country, 
 are naturally small and rapid, but are numerous, and all cele- 
 brated in ancient history. The principal are the Kizil Irmak, 
 the ancient Halys, formerly the boundary between Lydia and 
 Media ; the Sakaria, flowing into the Black Sea ; and the 
 Meander and Sardbat, flowing into the Archipelago. There 
 are several salt lakes in the interior. 
 
 The climate on the plains is hot and dry, but healthy, and 
 in the mountain lands cool and pleasant. The soil is fruit- 
 ful, especially in the valleys, but much neglected. Grain, 
 tobacco, cotton, and all southern fruits, such as figs, olives, 
 grapes, and pomegranates, grow in abundance. The elevated 
 parts of the country afford excellent pasturage to large flocks 
 and herds of cattle. Along the shore of the Black Sea a dense 
 forest covers the land. 
 
 The commerce of the country is chiefly in the hands of the 
 Greeks, Armenians, and Jews. The people are chiefly Moham- 
 medans, but a. large number belong to the Greek Church. 
 The population is about eleven millions. 
 
 Smyrna (130,000) is the chief commercial city of Asia Minor, 
 and makes large exports of dried fruits. It is situated on a fine 
 bay, and claims to have been the birthplace of Homer. Scutari, 
 opposite Constantinople ; Brusa, (60,000,) near the foot of 
 Mount Olympus ; Kutaya and Angora, on branches of the Sa- 
 karia, — the latter celebrated for its silky -haired goats, — are the 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Asia.— What large rivers flow southwards ? 
 Eastwards 1 Through what zones does Asia extend ? What parts of 
 Asia are in the same latitude as Canada ? 
 
 Turkey in Asia.— How is Asia Minor separated from Turkey in 
 
 Europe? What sea is on the north ? On the south? What islaDd is 
 off the southern shore ? What mountains are in the south-east ? What 
 gulf is between Asia Minor and Syria? How is Smyrna situated? 
 Scutari ? What ports are on the Black Sea ? On the Mediterranean ? 
 
most important towns ; Trebizond and Sinope are ports on the 
 Black Sea ; Toiat has copper mines and manufactures. Tar- 
 sus, celebrated as the birthplace of St Paul, is on the southern 
 coast, opposite the island of Cyprus. 
 
 What is comprised in Asia 
 Minor? Describe the surface of 
 the country. The principal moun- 
 tains. Trace them on the map. 
 What is said of the rivers ? De- 
 scribe the principal. Trace their 
 courses on the map. What is said 
 
 of the lakes ? Describe the cli- 
 mate. The soil and products. 
 What is said of the commerce of 
 the country? Of the people? De- 
 scribe the chief towns. Point them 
 out on the map, state where they are 
 situated, and for what celebrated. 
 
 ARMENIA. 
 
 Armenia lies to the east of Asia Minor, between it and Per- 
 sia, and adjoins the Eussian province of Georgia, south of the 
 Caucasus Mountains. It much resembles Asia Minor in 
 physical features, climate, and productions, but is still more 
 mountainous. The land of Eden is supposed to have been 
 in Armenia ; and Mount Ararat, upon which the ark rested 
 after the flood, is on the borders of Armenia, Persia, and 
 Georgia. It rises in two peaks, the highest being over 17,000 
 feet high. The river Euphrates rises in the mountains 
 of Armenia, and flows southwards into the Persian Gulf; 
 and the Kur, with its tributary the Aras, flows into the 
 Caspian Sea. 
 
 Erzroum, (50,000,) the largest city, is situated on an ele- 
 vated plain, 6000 feet high, near the source of the Euphrates. 
 Kars, in the north-east, is celebrated for its gallant defence 
 against the Russians by the Turks, under General Williams, 
 in 1S55. 
 
 Where is Armenia situated ? In 
 what does it resemble Asia Minor ? 
 What remarkable place is said to 
 be in Armenia 1 Describe Mount 
 Ararat. Eor what is it noted? 
 
 Describe ' the principal rivers. 
 Trace their courses on the map. 
 Describe the principal towns. Point 
 them out on the map, and state 
 where they are situated. 
 
 SYRIA AND PALESTINE. 
 
 Steia extends southwards from the Taurus Mountains, along 
 the eastern shore of the Mediterranean, and includes also Pales- 
 tine, or the Holy Land. 
 
 From the Taurus range the mountains of Lebanon stretch 
 southwards in two parallel chains, called the Libanus, and Anli- 
 Liianus, — the latter terminating in Mount Hermon, 10,000 
 feet high, its peak covered with snow for the greater part of 
 the year. Between these ranges lies Ccele-Syria, or Hollow 
 Syria. Mount Carmel, on the coast, forms a bold and lofty 
 promontory to the south of the Bay of Acre. In the north, 
 the river Orontes rises, and flows past Antioch into the Medi- 
 terranean. Near Mount Hermon are the sources of the Jor- 
 dan, which flows southwards through the Sea of Galilee, or 
 Tiberias, so celebrated in Scripture for the stirring scenes 
 which occurred there during the life of our Lord upon earth. 
 From this lake the Jordan flows into the Dead Sea, after a 
 course, including many windings, of 200 miles. The Dead Sea 
 is a lake nine times Salter than the ocean, and occupying the 
 place where Sodom and Gomorrah, the cities of the plain, 
 formerly stood. This lake is 1300 feet below the level of the 
 Mediterranean, and the Jordan, for the greater part of its 
 
 ASIA. 6T 7 
 
 course, is also below the level of the sea, being the only known 
 instance of such an extraordinary depression. The mountains 
 of Lebanon are continued southwards by the mountains of 
 Judah and Moab ; and still farther by the mountains of Seir, 
 terminated at the extremity of the peninsula at the head of 
 the Bed Sea by Mount Sinai, where Moses received the Ten 
 Commandments. Near Mount Sinai is Mount Horeb, where 
 Moses saw the burning bush ; and to the east of Jerusalem is 
 the Mount of Olives, the favorite resort of our Saviour. 
 To the east and south of Syria, is a great sandy desert, ex- 
 tending into Arabia, and inhabited by -wild and rapacious 
 tribes of Arabs, who live by pasturing their flocks and by 
 plunder. 
 
 During the life of Christ the northern part of Palestine was 
 called Galilee, the centre Samaria, and the southern part Judea. 
 Before the ten tribes were carried into captivity, they possessed 
 the country afterwards named Galilee and Samaria, but then 
 called the kingdom of Israel. 
 
 The climate in the valleys is hot, and the soil is naturally 
 rich, but it is poorly cultivated, and, owing to long neglect, 
 has become sterile and barren. Grain, olives, figs, grapes, 
 and pomegranates grow abundantly with but little labor, and 
 the land would be literally a "land flowing with milk and 
 honey," if its resources were developed. 
 
 The mountains of Lebanon are inhabited by two independ- 
 ent tribes: the Maronites, a kind of Christians; and the 
 Druses, a brave and warlike race, with a religion peculiar to 
 themselves. 
 
 Damascus (110,000) is the largest and most important city of 
 Syria, and one of the oldest in the world, having been in exist- 
 ence in the time of Abraham. It lies on the route of^the 
 caravans to Mecca, and carries on a large trade in silks, 
 jewellery, &c. Beyrout is the seaport of Damascus, and has 
 also a large trade in silks, oil, and wine. Aleppo (80,000) 
 is the capital of Syria, and carries on an extensive trade in 
 cotton and silk manufactures. In 1822 it was nearly de- 
 stroyed by an earthquake, and 20,000 persons lost their 
 lives. Antioch, on the Orontes, was formerly a city 
 of great importance. Baalbec, near Beyrout, and Palmyra, 
 the Tadmor of the Old Testament, in the Syrian desert, 
 130 miles north-east of Damascus, are remarkable for the 
 remains of their ancient temples and buildings. Jerusalem, 
 (20,000,) the celebrated capital of ancient Judea, is now 
 sadly fallen in importance. Only about one-fourth of its 
 inhabitants are Christians, and the Mosque of Omar now 
 occupies the site of the ancient Jewish temple. It is only 
 half the size it was before its destruction by Titus. Most 
 of the interesting spots memorable in the life of our Lord 
 are still pointed out, and churches have been erected upon 
 them. It is much visited by pilgrims and travellers. 
 Jaffa, the port of Jerusalem, is the ancient Joppa. Tyre and 
 Sidon, formerly important cities and seaports on the coast, are 
 almost deserted; Bethlehem, the birthplace of our Lord, six 
 miles south of Jerusalem, is now a straggling village. Hebron 
 is ten miles farther south. Nazareth and Tiberias are miser- 
 able villages ; while of Bethsaida, and Capernaum no ruins even 
 
 Exebcises on the Map— Tukkey in Asia.— What celebrated moun- 
 tain is in Armenia ? What celebrated river rises in Armenia ? Where 
 does it flow? Where is Erzeroum situated? Kars? How is Syria 
 separated from Algeziras ? What country does it adjoin on the south 1 
 
 What sea is on the west ? What mountains are along the west coast ? 
 What celebrated river flows southwards ? How is Damascus situated ! 
 Antioch 1 Aleppo ? Jerusalem ? What ports does Syria possess V In 
 what direction from Jerusalem is Damascus ? Jaffa I Tyre ? Antioch f 
 
68 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 remain, so great is the general desolation which has come over 
 the land. Nahlous is the ancient Shechem, near which was 
 Jacob's well. Acre, on the coast, near Mount Carmel, is famous 
 in later times for the sieges it has withstood. Gaza, to the 
 south-west of Jerusalem, is still an important town, carrying 
 on trade between Palestine and Egypt. 
 
 How is Syria situated ? How is 
 it bounded? Describe the moun- 
 tains of Syria. Trace them on the 
 map. Describe the course of the 
 Jordan. The Dead Sea. The 
 mountains in the south. Point 
 them out on the map. What is 
 east and south of Syria ? How was 
 
 Palestine formerly named? De- 
 scribe the climate. Soil and produc- 
 tions. Inhabitants of the moun- 
 tains of Lebanon. Describe the 
 principal towns, and places of in- 
 terest. Point them out on the 
 map, and state where they are 
 situated and for what noted. 
 
 KURDISTAN, IRAK-ARABI, AND ALGEZIRAS. 
 
 These countries, representing the ancient Assyria, Chaldea, 
 and Mesopotamia, occupy the south-eastern part of Turkey. 
 Kurdistan, on the borders of Armenia, is mountainous ; but 
 the greater part of the country is a, level plain, through 
 which the Tigris and Euphrates flow south-east into the Per- 
 sian Gulf. These rivers overflow their banks when the. snow 
 melts on the mountains, and for a brief period the plains are 
 covered with vegetation ; but the hot sun soon scorches it all 
 up. Along the course of the rivers, vines, rice, and date palms 
 flourish, but the rest of the country is desolate, and is infested 
 by warlike tribes of plundering Arabs. 
 
 Lake Van, in the north, is 5500 feet above the sea, and about 
 one-fourth the size of Lake Ontario. 
 
 JBassora, (or Bussorah,) (60,000,) near the Persian Gulf, has a 
 large trade with Persia and the East. Bagdad, (65,000,) on the 
 Tigris, was long the capital of the Mohammedan Caliphs, and is 
 an important starting-point for caravans. Mosul, (40, 000, ) on the 
 Tigris, has fine cotton manufactures, and from it muslin derives 
 its name. Opposite to it the interesting remains of ancient 
 Nineveh were discovered by Layard. Diarbekir has copper 
 mines. Hillah occupies the site of ancient Babylon. Near it 
 is Birs Nimrod, supposed to be the ruins of the famous Tower 
 of Babel. 
 
 What ancient countries do Kur- 
 distan, Irak-Arabi, and Algeziras 
 represent ? Describe their situ- 
 ation. How are they bounded ? 
 Describe the country. Trace the 
 courses of the principal rivers. 
 
 What is said of vegetation ? 
 Of the soil and people ? What 
 lake is in the north ? Describe 
 the principal towns. Point them 
 out on the map, and state where 
 they are situated. 
 
 ABABIA. 
 
 Area, 1,200,000 square miles; population, about 8,000,000; persons to 
 
 square mile, over 6 ; three times the size of Ontario and Quebec. 
 
 Capital, Mecca. 
 
 Arabia is a peninsula bounded on the North by 
 Turkey in Asia ; on the "West by the Isthmus of Suez 
 and the Red Sea ; on the South by the Indian Ocean ; 
 and on the East by the Persian Gulf and Irak-Arabi. 
 
 It is a vast sandy desert, rising in the interior into a high 
 table-land, from 5000 to 8000 feet high, and sloping principally 
 towards the Persian Gulf. It is most abrupt on the west and 
 south coasts. A narrow strip along the shore is all that is per- 
 manently inhabited or cultivated. The interior is in the 
 
 possession of wandering tribes of Arabs, who live by plunder- 
 ing the caravans and by pasture. 
 
 The Strait of Babelmandeb is at the entrance of the Bed Sea, 
 and the Strait of Ormus at the entrance of the Persian Gulf. 
 Cape Has al Had is the south-eastern extremity. Mounts Sinai 
 and Horeb are in the peninsula extending into the Bed Sea at 
 its northern extremity. 
 
 The climate is excessively hot, and the simoom, or burning 
 wind of the desert, renders travelling very dangerous, as the 
 sand sometimes moves like the waves of the sea, overwhelming 
 everything. The soil on the coast is fertile, producing coffee, 
 myrrh, frankincense, dates, and various other fruits. In the 
 Persian Gulf are valuable pearl fisheries. Arabia is celebrated 
 for its horses. The camel is the only animal which can endure 
 the fatigue of traversing the deserts. 
 
 The south-west belongs to the Imam of Yemen ; the south- 
 east to the Sultan of Muscat ; the north-west to Turkey ; and 
 the rest of the country is divided among petty tribes. 
 
 Mecca, (30,000,) the birthplace of Mohammed, 60 miles from 
 the Bed Sea, and Medina, containing his tomb, farther north, 
 are the holy cities of the Mohammedans, and are visited by vast 
 numbers of pilgrims, as Mohammedans are enjoined to visit Mecca 
 at least once in their lives. Jeddah is the seaport of Mecca. 
 
 Sana is the capital of Yemen, and Mocha, celebrated for its 
 coffee, is the chief seaport. Aden, at the entrance of the Strait 
 of Babelmandeb, has belonged to Britain since 1839, when 
 steam navigation was opened to India. 
 
 Muscat, (40,000,) on the east coast, is the capital of the most 
 enterprising and maritime countiy in Arabia, and even in 
 Western Asia. It carries on an important trade in gums, 
 myrrh, and frankincense, a large portion of which is brought 
 from Africa, where the Sultan has extensive possessions. 
 
 The ruins of Petra, the ancient capital of Edom, in the north, 
 about midway between the Dead and the Bed Seas, consist of 
 a long street or narrow valley, in which houses, temples, and 
 all the buildings are hewn out of the solid rock ; and are 
 amongst the most interesting ancient remains in existence. 
 
 What is the area of Arabia ? scribe the climate. Soil and pro- 
 
 Population ? Size ? Capital ? How 
 is Arabia bounded. Point out the 
 boundaries on the map. Describe 
 the surface of Arabia. Describe 
 the principal physical features. 
 Point them out on the map. De- 
 
 ducts. For what is Arabia famous ? 
 How is Arabia divided ? Describe 
 the chief towns. Point them out 
 on the map, and describe their 
 situation. Describe the ruins of 
 Petra. 
 
 PEESIA 
 
 Area, 600,000 square miles; population, 7,000,000; persons to a square 
 mile, 15 ; about one-third larger than Canada and Newfoundland. 
 
 Capital, Teheran. 
 Persia is bounded on the North by Russia, the 
 Caspian Sea, and Turkestan ; on the West by Turkey ; 
 on the South by the Persian Gulf ; and on the East by 
 Afghanistan and Belooohistan. It was formerly a nation 
 of great importance, celebratedfor advancement in civili- 
 zation and the fine arts, but is now sadly reduced, and 
 seems to be steadily decreasing in population. The 
 area and population are variously estimated from A\ to 
 6£ thousand miles, and from 5 to 10 millions of souls. 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Turkey in Asia. — What large river flows 
 nearly parallel to the Euphrates? What cities are situated on it? 
 Where is Hillah situated ? 
 
 Asia.— How is Arabia separated from Africa ? What isthmus is en 
 
 the north-west ? How is Arabia separated from Persia? From Eeloo- 
 chistan? What cape is on the south-east ? What famous mountain is at 
 the head of the Red Sea? Where is Mocha situated? Indiana? What 
 large town is in the south-east ? What part of Arabia belongs to Britain ? 
 
ASIA. 
 
 69 
 
 The surface is mountainous, especially in the north and west, 
 where the Elbnrz Mountains extend from Afghanistan to the 
 mountains of Armenia. The highest summit is Mount Dema- 
 vend, 21,000 feet high. The interior is a high plateau about 
 3000 feet above the sea, forming part of the great Desert of Iran, 
 which extends into Afghanistan. The rivers are few and small, 
 and either lose themselves in the sand, or flow into lakes so 
 salt that fish cannot live in them. Along the shore of the 
 Caspian Sea, and wherever there is water, vegetation is 
 luxuriant, and cotton, the sugar-cane, and mulberry, fig, and 
 pomegranate trees abound. In the south it is hot, dry, and 
 arid, and the date palm is the only tree that will grow. 
 
 The Persians are .1 gay, polite, and hospitable people, and 
 carry on large manufactures in fine silks, carpets, and 
 brocades. Two-thirds of the people are engaged in pastoral 
 pursuits. The sheep of Persia are famous for their size. 
 Trade is chiefly in the hands of the Eritish and Russians, the 
 latter having almost exclusive control of the navigation on the 
 Caspian Sea. The government is a despotism, under a ruler 
 called the Shah ; and the religion is the Mohammedan. 
 
 Ispahan, (150,000,) the largest city, is situated on a high 
 plain in a well-cultivated district. Teheran, (100,000,) the 
 capital, is in the desert, where the climate is so hot and un- 
 healthy, that in summer the city is almost deserted. Shiraz, 
 near the Persian Gulf, is in the centre of a fertile and beauti- 
 ful valley. North of it are the ruins of Persepolis, among 
 which are supposed to be those of the, palace of Darius, de- 
 stroyed by Alexander the Great. Bushirc, on the Persian 
 Gulf, is the chief port. Tabriz, near the salt lake Urumeyah, 
 Yezd, and Hamadu n . the latter on the caravan route to Bagdad, 
 are important towns. Rcshd and Astra-had are ports on the 
 Caspian. 
 
 What is the area of Persia ? 
 Population ? Size ? Capital ? How 
 is Persia bounded ? Point out the 
 boundaries on the map. For what 
 was Persia formerly celebrated ? 
 Describe the surface. The moun- 
 tains and rivers. Trace them on 
 the map. Describe the soil and 
 
 products. What is said of the 
 people ? Of the sheep of Persia ? 
 Of the trade ? Of the government 
 and religion? Describe the chief 
 towns. Point them out on the 
 map, and state where they are 
 situated. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN. 
 
 Area, 225,000 square miles ; population, about 5,000,000 ; persons to a 
 square mile, 22; rather larger than the province of Quebec. 
 
 Capital, Cabool. 
 
 Afghanistan is situated between Persia and the 
 northern part of Hindostan. It is mountainous in 
 surface, and in the south-west the Persian desert ex- 
 tends into the country. In the north-east are the 
 Hindoo Koosh Mountains, some of them rising 20,000 
 feet in height ; and from these the Suliman Mountains 
 extend southwards into Beloochistan. 
 
 Owing to the elevated position of the country, it is subject 
 to great extremes of heat and cold, but the mountains enclose 
 many rich and fertile valleys. Two famous mountain-passes 
 lead from the high plateaux of Afghanistan to the valley of 
 
 the Indus. They are the Khyber Pass and the Bolan Pass, and 
 are on the great road between India and the West. 
 
 The towns are chiefly inhabited by Persians and Hindoos, 
 who carry on the trade ; while the Afghans are principally 
 priests or soldiers, holding trade in contempt. They are 
 divided into a number of independent tribes, but unite for the 
 common defence of the country. They were formerly very 
 powerful, and had possession of a large part of Western 
 India. The British invaded the country in 1839 to restore a 
 rightful heir to the throne ; but in 1842, after heavy losses, 
 retired, not however without inflicting a severe lesson on the 
 Afghans. 
 
 Cabool, (60,000,) the capital, is situated 0100 feet above the 
 sea, and is surrounded with gardens. It is the key of Hindo- 
 stan on the west. Candahar and Herat are the principal towns. 
 Herat carries on extensive manufactures, and is an important 
 station on the caravan route between Persia, Tartary, and 
 India. Its occupation by the Persians caused the war of 1856. 
 
 What is the area of Afghanistan ? 
 Population? Size? Capital? How 
 is Afghanistan bounded ? Point 
 
 out the boundaries on the map. 
 Describe the surface and principal 
 physical features. Trace the latter 
 
 on the map. Describe the climate 
 and soil. What is said of the in- 
 habitants ? Of the British inva- 
 sions ? Describe the chief towns. 
 Point them out on the map, and 
 describe their situations. 
 
 BELOOCHISTAN. 
 
 Area, 160,000 square miles ; population, about 1,000,000 ; persons to a 
 square mile, 6 ; rather less than Ontario in size. 
 
 Capital, Kelat. 
 
 Beloochistan lies to the south of Afghanistan, be- 
 tween it and the Arabian Sea. 
 
 It is mountainous and desert in the north, and along the 
 coast is a dry arid tract, where nothing but the date palm will 
 grow. The country is divided between the Belooches in the 
 west, and the Brahoes in the east. Both are pastoral, and 
 profess Mohammedanism. The Hindoos carry on the trade. 
 
 Kelat, (12,000,) in the north-east, is the chief town. It is 
 6000 feet above the sea. 
 
 What is the area of Beloochistan ? 
 Population? Size? Capital? How 
 is Beloochistan situated? Point 
 out the boundaries on the map. 
 
 What is said of the surface and 
 soil ? Of the people ? Where is 
 the capital situated ? Point it out 
 on the map. 
 
 INDIA, OR HINDOSTAN. 
 
 Area, l,5.j-3.000 square miles; population, 190,000,000; persons to a 
 square mile, 122 ; rather more than half the size of British North 
 America. 
 
 Capital, Calcutta. 
 
 India, or Hindostan is bounded on the North by the 
 Himalaya Mountains ; on the West by Afghanistan, 
 Beloochistan, and the Arabian Sea ; on the South by 
 the Indian Ocean ; and on the East by the Bay of 
 Bengal and Burmah. 
 
 The greater part of India is now in the possession of the 
 British, or tributary to them. It was formerly under the con- 
 trol of a large trading company called the East India Company, 
 but since 185S has been under the direct control of the British 
 
 Exercises ox the Map — Asia.— What countries adjoin Persia on 
 the east? On the north? On the west? What mountain is in the 
 north ? What sea is on the north ? What port is on the Persian Gulf ? 
 What ports arc on the Caspian Sea ? How is Ispahan situated? Teheran? 
 
 What mountains separate Afghanistan from India? What country is 
 to the south of Afghanistan ? What sea is on the south of Beloochistan ? 
 What mountains are in the north-east of Afghanistan ? How is Cabool 
 situated? In what direction ia Ispahan from Cabool ? From Muscat? 
 
 E 
 
70 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Government. The first factory of the East India Company 
 was established in 1615. 
 
 The country is naturally divided into three parts : the basin 
 of the Indus in the north-west ; the basin of the Ganges in the 
 north-east ; and the southern peninsula between the Arabian 
 Sea and the Bay of Bengal, including the Deccan, an elevated 
 table-land enclosed by the Eastern and 'Western Ghauts and 
 the Vindhya Mountains. 
 
 The enormous mass of the Himalayas extends along the 
 north, rising to their greatest height in the eastern part of the 
 range, where Mounts Everest and Kinchinjunga are over 
 28,000 feet in height, being the highest known mountains in 
 the world. The Western, Ghauts extend along the western 
 coast, and the Eastern Ghauts ajong the eastern coast at a dis- 
 tance of about forty miles from the sea. The western are the 
 highest, rising about 4000 feet, and their southern continua- 
 tion, the Neilgherries, rise to about 7000 feet. The Vindhya 
 Mountains and Aravulli Hills are in the west. 
 
 The general slope of the country is towards the east, as 
 shewn by the course of the rivers. India is well watered, but 
 owing to the height of the sources of the principal rivers, they 
 are not generally well adapted for navigation. The Ganges 
 rises in the Himalayas at a height of about 14,000 feet, receiv- 
 ing the Gogra, Jumna, and other tributaries, and flows into the 
 Bay of Bengal by a number of mouths, after a course of 1500 
 miles. It is navigable for steamers as far as Allahabad ; and so 
 is the Jumna as far as Delhi. The Brahmapootra and Indus rise 
 on the north side of the Himalayas in Tibet, and flow east and 
 west respectively, turning the ends of the Himalaya chain. 
 The Brahmapootra joins the eastern mouth of the Ganges, and 
 is a very rapid river, little useful for navigation. The Indus 
 receives the Sutlej with its tributaries, — which give the name 
 of the Punjaub, or "Five Rivers," to the country through 
 which they flow,— and falls into the Arabian Sea. The lower 
 part of its course is through a desert composed of sandy plains 
 and jungles. The other rivers are the Ntrbudda, flowing west, 
 and the Mahanuddy, Godavery, Krishna, and Cauvery, flowing 
 east. 
 
 The western coast is called the Malabar Coast, and the 
 eastern the Coromandel Coast. Cape Comorin is the southern 
 extremity of the continent. 
 
 The climate of India varies according to latitude and eleva- 
 tion above the sea. The great height of the Himalayas, and 
 the highlands sloping from them towards the south, which are 
 within the tropics, give every variety of climate, from that of 
 perpetual snow to that of the torrid zone. Like other tropi- 
 cal countries, the seasons are divided into the wet and dry, 
 and their changes coincide with the periodical monsoons or 
 season winds. The monsoons blow from the south-west in 
 summer, and from the north-east in winter ; and the changes 
 produce violent storms. 
 
 In Bengal the hot season is from March to the end of May, 
 and the wet season from June to October. Between these the 
 climate is temperate. On the south-west coast the fall of rain 
 is very great, owing to the prevalence of south-west winds, 
 which bring the moisture from the ocean. On the east coast 
 the fall of rain is not so great, as the north-east winds blow 
 
 chiefly overland, and instead of rain, bring great heat and 
 drought. During the heavy rains, the rivers, especially the 
 Ganges and Brahmapootra, overflow their banks to a great dis- 
 tance, rendering the soil very fertile. Bice is the great staple 
 and general food of all classes. Various other grains are also 
 produced according to the elevation. Opium, indigo, sugar, 
 and cotton are largely cultivated and exported. The teak, 
 banyan, bamboo, mangrove, and a variety of palms, are the 
 principal trees. The teak is as valuable for shipbuilding as the 
 oak. A single banyan tree covers a large space of ground, as 
 each branch extends downwards to the ground, takes root, and 
 produces other branches. The soil in many parts is not 
 cultivated, and is covered with jungles, affording a refuge for 
 tigers, elephants, and other wild animals. India is rich in 
 minerals, and especially in precious stones. The diamond 
 mines of Golconda and Orissa are famous. The Hindoos excel 
 in manufactures of ivory, silks, fine muslins, and cottons. 
 The shawls of Cashmere, made from the hair of the Cashmere 
 goat, are unrivalled. Hindoos form the greater part of the 
 population ; and although the country belongs to Britain, it 
 contains very few Europeans, and these are chiefly military. 
 The native soldiers in the pay of the British are called Sepoys. 
 The natives are mostly pagans, worshipping Brahma, Vishnu, 
 the Ganges, and many animals. Widows were formerly burnt 
 on the funeral piles of their dead husbands, and children thrown 
 into the Ganges, but the Government has now prohibited 
 these and many other excesses. In the north-west there 
 are great numbers of Mohammedans. The most remarkable 
 feature in Hindoo society is the division of the people into 
 four castes — Brahmins or priests, soldiers, merchants, and 
 laborers. None of these can intermarry, or even eat and 
 drink together. Those who have been degraded from their 
 caste are called pariahs, and are outcasts from society. 
 
 British India, with its dependencies, is divided into three 
 parts — the Bengal, Madras, and Bombay Presidencies. 
 
 What is the area of India ? 
 Population ? Size ? Capital ? How 
 is India bounded 1 Point out the 
 boundaries on the map. To whom 
 does the greater part of India be- 
 long? How is it divided by its 
 physical features? Describe the 
 principal mountain chains. Trace 
 them on the map. How does the 
 surface slope ? Describe the princi- 
 pal rivers. Trace their courses on 
 the map. What are the principal 
 features of the coast ? Point them 
 out on the map. Describe the cli- 
 
 mate of India. The seasons. The 
 winds. "What is said of the seasons 
 in Bengal? What do the different 
 winds cause ? What happens dur- 
 ing the rainy season ? Describe 
 the products of India. The vege- 
 tation. Animals. Minerals. Manu- 
 factures. What is said of the in- 
 habitants ? Of the native soldiers? 
 Of the religion and religious rites ? 
 What is a remarkable feature of 
 Hindoo society? How is British 
 India divided ? 
 
 PRESIDENCY OF BENGAL. 
 
 The Bengal Presidency is the largest and most populous of 
 the three divisions, and includes all the northern and north- 
 eastern parts of Hindostan and part of the eastern peninsula, 
 or India beyond the Ganges. It comprises the valley of the 
 Brahmapootra 'to the frontier of Tibet; the basin of the 
 Ganges ; Oude and the north-west provinces, including the 
 Punjaub ; the territories of Nagpore and Ajmeer, and other 
 provinces in Central India; and Cuttack, a narrow belt of 
 
 Exercises on the Map — DJdia. — How is India separated from Tibet ? 
 What sea is on the west ? What bay is on the east ? What large river 
 flows into the Arabian Sea ? What two large rivers flow into the Bay 
 of Bengal ? Which Presidency is in the north ? Which in the south- 
 
 east? Which in the south-west? What is the southern extremity 
 of India called? What island is off the southern point » How is it 
 separated from the mainland? What is the eastern coast called? 
 What the western coast ? What desert is in the north-west ! 
 
land along the Bay of Bengal, extending as far as Lake Chilka. 
 It is well watered by the largest rivers in India. Rice, 
 opium, indigo, silk, cotton, and spices are largely exported. 
 Railways are now being built between the most important 
 cities, and telegraphic communication extends across the con- 
 tinent. 
 
 At the mouth of the Ganges, and extending about 200 miles 
 up, is a swampy district, called the Sunderbunds, overgrown 
 with forests and jungles, and full of wild animals, such as the 
 tiger, rhinoceros, crocodile, &c. 
 
 Calcutta, (500,000,) the largest city and capital of India, is 
 situated on the Hoogly branch of the Ganges, about 100 miles 
 from its mouth. The river is there about a mile broad, and is 
 generally full of shipping. The citadel, spires, minarets, 
 temples, and villas, extending for a distance of five miles, 
 give it an air of great magnificence ; but the native part of the 
 city is low, dirty, and ill-built. A railway extends from it to 
 Delhi, nearly 1400 miles. The European population is about 
 8000. On the Ganges are — Moorshedabad, the former Moham- 
 medan capital of Bengal ; Patna, with large exports of rice and 
 indigo ; Benares, (250,000,) the holy city of the Hindoos ; 
 Allahabad, at the confluence of the Jumna ; and Cawnpore, 
 where the Europeans were massacred in 1857. On the Jumna 
 are Agra, (100,000,) the ancient capital of the Mogul Empire, 
 containing the magnificent structure, the Tajmahal; Delhi, 
 (160,000,) the capital after Agra. Lucknow (300,000) is 
 celebrated for its defence against the Sepoys in the Indian 
 mutiny ; at Meerut the Indian mutiny commenced. In the 
 Punjaub are — Lahore, (120,000,) the capital, near the Ravee, 
 one of the five rivers ; Amritsir, with the chief trade ; Pesh- 
 awur, an important fortified town; J\Iooltan, with manu- 
 factures of silks. 
 
 Nagpore is the chief town of Nagpore, and Cutlaek of the 
 state of the same name. About 42 miles south of Cuttack 
 is the famous temple of Juggernaut, formerly the scene of 
 fearful rites. 
 
 ASIA. 71 
 
 Madras, (about 500,000,) the only large city, is situated on 
 the coast, and is the capital. It has no harbor, and passengers 
 and goods have to be conveyed through the surf on rafts. Its 
 commerce is very large. Arcot is in the interior of the Car- 
 natic, near Madras. On the Cauvery are Trichinopoti and 
 Tanjore, the latter with manufactures of cottons and silks. 
 Calicut, the first port visited by Vasco da Gama, is on the Mala- 
 bar coast. 
 
 What is said of the Bengal 
 Presidency ? Where is it situated ? 
 Name the territories it comprises. 
 State where they are situated, and 
 point them out on the map. What 
 rivers flow through Bengal ? What 
 
 are the principal products ? What 
 is said of the railways, &c. ? What 
 is said of the Sunderbunds? De- 
 scribe the chief cities. Point them 
 out on the map, and state where 
 they are situated. 
 
 PRESIDENCY OF MADRAS. 
 
 The Madras Presidency includes the eastern coast of India, 
 from Lake Chilka to the Krishna River, called the Circars, and 
 the whole of the southern part of the continent south of the 
 Krishna, except the native tributary states of Mysore, Cochin, 
 and Travancore. 
 
 As the mountains on the west coast are the highest, the 
 slope of the country is towards the east; and all the rivers flow 
 in that direction. This is the hottest part of the continent, as 
 the western Ghauts intercept the rain and the sea-breezes from 
 the south-west. The forests of the Ghaiits furnish vast quan- 
 tities of valuable timber, teak, sandalwood, and other trees ; 
 and abound with tigers, elephants, the boa, and other wild 
 animals and reptiles. The chief exports are timber and 
 cotton. 
 
 What territories does the Madras 
 Presidency comprise ? Point them 
 out on the map. Where are they 
 situated ? Describe the surface of 
 the country. The mountains and 
 rivers. Trace them on the map. 
 
 What is said of the climate ? What 
 do the forests furnish? What is 
 said of the animals ? Of the ex- 
 ports ? Describe the chief towns. 
 Point them out on the map, and 
 state where they are situated. 
 
 PRESIDENCY OP BOMBAY. 
 
 The Bombay Pbesidency is the smallest, and occupies the 
 western part of India, including the extensive territory 
 round Bombay, separated from the Presidency of Madras by 
 the Portuguese settlement of Goa ; it includes also the pro- 
 vince of Scinde, on the Lower Indus. Gujerat and Cutch are 
 native states dependent on Britain. 
 
 The climate, owing to the prevailing sea-breezes, is more 
 healthy and cool than in the other parts of India. 
 
 Bombay, (about 500,000,) the capital, is situated on an island 
 adjoining the coast. It has a fine harbor, large trade, and 
 much shipbuilding. It is the station for the East India 
 steamships, and railways are in course of construction to 
 Madras, Calcutta, and the north. Poonah, east of the 
 Ghauts, is an important military station. At Surat, on the 
 Taptee, was established the first British factory in 1615. 
 
 Hyderabad, on the Indus, the capital, and Kurruchee, on 
 
 the coast to the west, the chief seaport, are the principal 
 
 towns of Scinde. 
 
 Where is the Presidency of 
 Bombay situated ? What territories 
 does it comprise? Point them 
 out on the map. What is said of 
 
 the climate. Describe the chief 
 towns. Point them out on the 
 map, and state where they are 
 situated. 
 
 NATIVE STATES. 
 
 These are either independent, or governed by native princes 
 dependent on the British, and more or less subject to their 
 control. 
 
 The Independent States are : — 
 
 Cashmere, Nepavl, and Bhotan, — all occupying the southern 
 slope of the Himalayas. 
 
 Cashmere lies north of the Punjaub, and contains many fertile 
 valleys. The famous Cashmere shawls are manufactured there. 
 Cashmere, the capital, is situated on the Jhelum, 5000 feet 
 above the sea. 
 
 Nepaul extends along the slope of the Himalayas at the 
 part where they reach their highest elevation. The lower 
 part is densely covered with forests. Katmandoo, situated in 
 a valley, is the capital. 
 
 Bhotan lies east of Nepaul, and north of the valley of the 
 Brahmapootra. It is separated from Nepaul by the small 
 
 Exercises on the Map — iNniA. — What islands are off the south-west 
 coast? What gulfs are on the north-west coast ? How is Calcutta situ- 
 ated? Bombay? Madras? What large cities are on the Ganges ? On 
 the Jumna ? On the Indus? What large cities are in the Punjaub (in 
 
 the north-west) ? In what direction from Calcutta is Delhi ? Madras ? 
 Bombay? Lucknow? In what direction from Bombay is Aden (see 
 Asia) ? Suez ? In what direction from Madras are Pondicherry ? 
 Tanjore? Hyderabad? Where is Allahabad ? Benares? 
 
72 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 tributary state Sikim. The Ghoorkas are the ruling race, and 
 are excellent soldiers. The capital is Tassisudon. 
 
 The Dependent States are : — 
 
 The Rajpoot States, a number of small states occupying both 
 sides of the Aravulli Hills in the west, with the British territory 
 of Ajmeer in the centre. 
 
 Scindia's Dominions, or Gwalior, are situated along the 
 Chumbul. Gwalior, with a famous hill fort, is the capital. 
 
 The Indore, or Solcar States, are along the Vindhya Moun- 
 tains. 
 
 Hyderabad, or the Nizam's Dominions, is between the 
 British territory of Nagpore and the Krishna River. Hyder- 
 abad is the capital. Near it is Golconda, famous for its 
 diamonds. Aurungabad is the chief town in the north. Near 
 it are the cave temples of Elora. 
 
 Gujerat and Cutch are small territories on the west coast. 
 Baroda is the capital of Gujerat. In Cutch is the Runn, a 
 district into which the ocean breaks during the south-west 
 monsoon, but which at other seasons is dry. 
 
 Mysore, the territory of the celebrated Hyder Ali, occupies 
 the south of the Deccan. The Christians form one-eighth of the 
 population, alarger proportion than in any other part. Mysore 
 is the capital. Seringapatam, on the Cauvery, is strongly 
 fortified. Bangalore is the largest town. 
 
 Cochin and Travancore are small states on the south-west 
 coast. Cochin is the capital of the first, and Trivandrum of 
 Travancore. 
 
 The foreign possessions in India, besides the British, are : — 
 Belonging to the Portuguese, Goa, on the Malabar coast, 
 
 with a capital of the same name ; JDiu and Damao in Gujerat. 
 The French possess — Chandernagore, above Calcutta ; Ya- 
 
 ■naon, at the mouth of the Godavery ; Pondicherry, the capital, 
 
 on the Coromandel coast; and Mahe, on the Malabar coast, 
 
 near Calicut. 
 
 What is said of the Native States ? 
 Describe the Independent States 
 and their chief towns. Point them 
 out on the map, and state where 
 they are situated. Describe the 
 Dependent States and their chief 
 towns. Point them out on the map, 
 and state where they are situated. 
 
 What possession have the Por- 
 tuguese in India ? Point it out 
 on the map, and state where it 
 is situated. "What possessions 
 have the Trench? Point them out 
 on the map, and state where they 
 are situated. 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 Ceylon is rather less than New Brunswick in size, and is 
 situated at the south-eastern extremity of India, with which 
 it is almost connected by a chain of shoals called Adam's 
 Bridge. The Gulf of Manaovr and Palk Strait are between it 
 and the mainland. 
 
 It is mountainous in surface, and possesses a much more 
 healthy climate than the mainland. It abounds with precious 
 stones. In the Gulf of Manaar are valuable pearl fisheries. 
 
 Colombo (40,000) is the capital and chief seaport, exporting 
 large quantities of cinnamon. Trineomalee possesses a magni- 
 ficent harbor. Candy is the ancient capital. 
 
 The Laccadive and Maldive Islands on the west, and the 
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal, are coral 
 
 islands. They are low, and of little importance. The Anda- 
 man Islands are well wooded, and yield valuable timber. 
 
 where they are situated. Describe 
 the other islands belonging to 
 India. Point them out on the 
 map, and state where they are 
 situated. Have they any pro- 
 ducts? 
 
 What is the size of Ceylon ? 
 Where is it situated? How is it 
 separated from the mainland ? De- 
 scribe its surface, climate, &c. 
 Describe the chief towns. Point 
 them out on the map, and state 
 
 THE EASTERN PENINSULA, OR INDIA BEYOND 
 THE GANGES. 
 
 Area, about 1,000,000 square miles; population, 25,000,000; one-third 
 the size of British North America. 
 
 The Eastern Peninsula includes the countries lying 
 between the Bay of Bengal and the China Sea. It 
 comprises Burmah, Siam, Laos, Annam, the Malay Pen- 
 insula, and the British provinces of Aracan, Pegu, &c. 
 
 Mountain ranges extend north and south through the 
 Peninsula, and between them flow large and important rivers : 
 the Irrawady and Saluen into the Gulf of Martaban, the 
 Meinam into the Gulf of Siam, and the MIelcon or Camboja 
 into the China Sea. From the south-west the narrow Malay 
 peninsula stretches southwards, [and is separated from the island 
 of Sumatra by the Strait of Malacca. Very little is known of 
 the interior. The climate resembles that of India : and the 
 soil is fertile, producing rice, cotton, sugar, and indigo. The 
 forests are very extensive, and the trees, growing to an enor- 
 mous size, include teak, sandalwood, rosewood, cinnamon, and 
 sago, and other palms. Laos produces benzoin and gumlac ; 
 gamboge is peculiar to Camboja. The forests are the haunts 
 of vast numbers of monkeys ; tigers and elephants also abound. 
 Gold, silver, copper, and tin are found, especially in the eastern 
 parts. 
 
 The inhabitants are chiefly Buddhists, except the Malays, 
 who are Mohammedans. In Annam they assimilate more to 
 the Chinese. All the native governments are very despotic. 
 
 Bukhah, or Ava, lies to the north-east of the British pro- 
 vinces. The hills are low, but densely covered with forests of 
 teak and other valuable timber. Rice is the chief production 
 and food. Burmah contains about 5,000,000 inhabitants. 
 
 Ara, (50,000,) the capital, is situated on the Irrawady, 
 about 400 miles from its mouth. Near it are large wells of 
 petroleum. Amarapura, a little north-west of Ava, was the 
 former capital. Bhamo, in the north, carries on the principal 
 trade with China. 
 
 Siam lies to the south-east of Burmah, and is watered by 
 the Meinam River. It includes also the northern part of the 
 peninsula of Malacca. The country is very fertile, producing 
 rice, sugar, cocoa and other palms, and fruits in great abund- 
 ance. It exports gamboge and gumlac. It is inhabited by 
 a mixed population of about 11,000,000, consisting of Siamese, 
 Chinese, Malayese. They are mostly Buddhists. The Siamese 
 portion is about 4,000,000. 
 
 Bangkok, (400,000,) the capital, is situated on the Meinam, 
 about 20 miles from its mouth. A great part of the city is on 
 the river, and is built upon bamboo rafts, each supporting 
 
 Exercises on the Map— India. — Describe the position of the follow- 
 ing independent states : — Cashmere, Nepaul, the country of the 
 Ghoorkas. Describe from the map the country of the Sikhs. Point out 
 the following dependent states : — Mysore, Gujerat, Cutch, Gwalior, 
 
 Travancore, Rajpootana. Where is Scinde ? Where Scindia ? Where 
 is Cochin? Where Cochin China? Where Trichinopoli? Seringapatam » 
 Golconda mines? Kurrachee (Port)? Agra? Mooltan? In what 
 direction do the Aravulli Hills run ? The Vindhya Mountains ? 
 
ASIA. 
 
 several houses, and arranged into streets. Yulhia, the former 
 capital, is situated on an island formed by the Meinam. 
 
 Laos and the Shan States occupy the country watered by the 
 upper part of the Meinam, north of Siam. They consist of a 
 number of independent states. The country t is fertile, but 
 little known. Most of the trade is with Siam. 
 
 Annam comprises three provinces— Tonquin on the north, 
 Cochin China on the east coast, and Camboja in the south. It 
 is watered by the Mekon. In the north and west are vast al- 
 luvial plains, very fertile and well cultivated. Cochin China 
 is more mountainous. It produces rice, sugar, cinnamon, and 
 gamboge. The population is about 12,000,000. 
 
 Sue, (100,000,) the capital, is situated about ten miles from 
 the east coast on a navigable river, and is strongly fortified. 
 Saigon, in the south-east, has lately been taken possession of by 
 the French, with the adjoining territory. Kesho, in the north, 
 has a considerable trade. 
 
 The British Provinces me—Aracon and Tenasserim, taken 
 from Burmah in 1S20, and Pegu, in 1853, forming part of the 
 Presidency of Bengal ; and the Eastern Straits Settlements, in- 
 cluding Penang, or Prince of Wales Island, Province Wellesley, 
 Malacca, and the Island of Singapore. Rangoon, near the 
 mouth of the Irrawady, and Moulmein, at the mouth of the 
 Saluen, are important seaports. Martaban is opposite Moul- 
 mein. Mergui is the capital of Tenasserim. The islands op- 
 posite it supply timber and coal. Singapore, on the island of 
 the same name, is now the seat of a large amount of com- 
 merce. Georgetown, on Prince of "Wales Island, is the capital 
 of the Straits Settlements. 
 
 The Malay peninsula is traversed by mountains from north 
 to south. It is divided amongst a number of petty states. 
 The inhabitants are Mohammedans, and are the parent stock of 
 one of the five great families or races into which mankind is 
 generally divided. They formerly lived by piracy, but the in- 
 fluence of Britain has put an end to it. The forests supply 
 timber and gutta percha, but trade and industry are altogether 
 neglected. 
 
 What is the area of the Eastern 
 peninsula ? Population ? Size ? 
 How is it bounded ? Whatcountries 
 does it comprise ? Describe the 
 surface. Trace the courses of the 
 rivers on the map. Describe the 
 Malay peninsula. What is said 
 of the interior of the country ? Of 
 the climate? Of the soil and pro- 
 ducts ? Of the forests? Of the 
 peculiar productions? Of the ani- 
 mals? Of the minerals? Of the 
 inhabitants ? Describe Burmah. 
 How is it situated ? Describe its 
 
 chief towns. Point them out on 
 the map. Describe Siam. How is 
 it situated ? Describe its chief 
 towns. Point them out on the 
 map. Describe Laos and the Shan 
 States. How are they situated? 
 Describe Annam. How is it situ- 
 ated? Describe its chief towns. 
 Point them out on the map. Name 
 the British provinces. How are 
 they situated ? Describe the chief 
 towns. Point them out on the 
 map. Describe the Malay penin- 
 sula, its inhabitants, &c. 
 
 CHINESE EMPIEE. 
 
 Area, 4,600,000 square miles; population, 415,000,000; one and a half 
 
 times the size of British North America. 
 
 Capital, Pekin. 
 
 The Chinese Empire consists of China Proper in the 
 South-east; Tibet in \h.e South-west; Chinese Tartary 
 
 in the West ; Mongolia in the North 
 and Corea in the North-east. 
 
 73 
 
 and Manchooria 
 
 It occupies the great central and eastern slope of Asia, is en- 
 closed on three sides by the highest mountains, and watered 
 by the three greatest rivers of Asia. On the north are the 
 Altai Mountains, on the south the Himalayas, on the west 
 the Bolor Tagh Mountains. From the west the Euenlun and 
 Thian Shan Mountains extend eastward in two parallel chains 
 through the centre of the country ; and in China proper the 
 Peling and Nanling Mountains extend also in the same direc- 
 tion. Between these mountain chains flow the Amoor in the 
 north, the Hoangho in the middle, and the Yan-tse-kiang and 
 Chookiang in the south. 
 
 In the west are high table-lands, from 4000 to 10,000 feet 
 above the sea. The centre is an extensive elevated sandy plain,, 
 called the desert of Shamo or Gobi. Towards the sea-coast the 
 land is lower and more level. 
 
 "What is the area of the Chinese 
 Empire? Population? Size? Capi- 
 tal ? How is it bounded ? Of what 
 territories is it composed? Point 
 them out on the map. What part 
 
 of Asia doei the Chinese Empire 
 occupy ? Name the principal 
 mountains and rivers. Trace them, 
 on the map. Describe the sur- 
 face. 
 
 CHINA PROPER. 
 
 Area, 1,300,000 square miles; population, variously estimated from 
 150,000,000 to 400,000,000; persons to square mile, 115 to 300; 
 nearly half the size of British North America. 
 
 China Proper is the most important part of the country, and- 
 lies in the south-east, north of Burmah and Annam. In the 
 west it is mountainous, but more level towards the coast. Be- 
 tween Pekin and Nankin is a vast level plain, which is the 
 most densely populated part of the empire. The country is 
 watered by the Peiho, Hoangho, Yan-tse-kiang, Chookiang, and-, 
 other rivers ; and the cultivation of the ground is much as- 
 sisted by numerous large canals. The great canal extends 
 from Hangchow to a branch of the Peiho, and is over 700 
 miles long. It is 200 feet broad on the top, with varying 
 depth, and is carried over all obstructions, making the deepest 
 and largest canal in the world. The coast is washed on tha 
 south by the China Sea, and on the east by the Yellov) Sea 
 and Gulf of Pechelee. In the south the climate is hot, and is- 
 subject in summer to typhoons, or terrific hurricanes ; but in. 
 the north it is milder, although the extremes of heat and cold 
 are great. The soil is fertile, and is most carefully cultivated,, 
 no part being allowed to lie idle, in order to be able to support 
 the vast number of inhabitants. China supplies the world 
 with tea, exporting over 100,000,000 pounds every year. Rice 
 forms the principal food of the inhabitants ; but wheat and 
 other grains are also cultivated. The mulberry, tallow, and 
 camphor trees — the two latter peculiar to China — are culti- 
 vated. Opium is used by all classes, and is imported chiefly 
 from India. Gold, copper, coal, and other minerals are found 
 in various parts. The Chinese are celebrated for their manu- 
 factures of silks, porcelain, cotton, ivory, and paper. The 
 manufacture of paper and gunpowder, the art of printing, 
 and the mariner's compass, were known in China long be- 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Burmah, &c. — What sea is on the east of 
 the eastern Indian peninsula? What bay on the west? What gulf on 
 the south ? What country on the north? What peninsula extends to 
 the south? How is it separated from Sumatra? What British posses- 
 
 sion is on the south of it? What large rivers flow southwards through 
 the eastern peninsula? How is Ava situated ? Bangkok? Rangoon? 
 Martaban? Prince of Wales Island ? In what direction from Calcutta 
 is Rangoon ? Singapore 1 What islands are west of Tenasserim! 
 
74 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 fore they were discovered in Europe, and great advancement 
 had been made in astronomy ; but for centuries the Chinese 
 have been at a stand-still, and making no further progress. 
 
 Trade with foreigners was formerly confined to the port of 
 Canton ; and it was not till 1860, when Pekin was taken by 
 the British, that the country began to be opened up. Iron, 
 steel, woollens, and other goods are imported from Europe, 
 and cotton and opium from India. 
 
 China is the most densely-peopled country of its size in the 
 world, although England, Belgium, and other small countries 
 contain a greater number of persons to the square mile. Ac- 
 cording to the highest estimates, it contains nearly one-third of 
 the whole population on the globe, although less than one-half 
 the size of the United States in extent. 
 
 For two centuries China has been governed by a Tartar 
 dynasty ; but a great rebellion is now being carried on, with 
 what results it is difficult yet to say. The Great Wall on the 
 northern frontier, 1400 miles long, is supposed to have been 
 built 200 years before the Christian era, and is carried over 
 hills and valleys. It was intended to protect the country from 
 the inroads of the Tartars. 
 
 Learning and parental authority are held in high esteem by 
 the Chinese ; and the chief men, or mandarins, are selected for 
 their proficiency in learning. The language is monosyllabic, 
 and requires a distinct written character for every word, ren- 
 dering it the most remarkable, as well as the most difficult, in 
 the world. The government is a despotism ; the religion of 
 the people is chiefly Buddhism, and that of the learned men 
 the system of Confucius, who flourished about 500 years be- 
 fore Christ. 
 
 Pekin, (2,000,000,) the capital, on the Peiho, is about 50 
 miles south of the Great Wall. It is divided into two separ- 
 ate towns, the Tartar and Chinese — the former containing the 
 imperial palace and gardens. In 1860 it was captured by an 
 allied English and French force ; and the British ambassador 
 now resides there. Nankin (500,000) is on the Yan-tse-kiang, 
 about 100 miles from its mouth. Nankin contained a famous 
 porcelain tower, which was destroyed by the rebels a few years 
 ago. It is the chief seat of learning, and is noted for its 
 manufactures. 
 
 Canton (1,000,000) until lately was the only port with which 
 Europeans could trade. It is situated on the Chookiang 
 River, about 70 miles from its mouth. A large part of the 
 population live in boats on the river. In 1842 there were 
 opened to foreigners, Amoy, situated on the coast opposite the 
 Island of Formosa, with a magnificent harbor ; Fooclww, 
 farther north ; Ningpo, with silk manufactures ; and Shang- 
 liae, near the mouth of the Yan-tse-kiang, with the principal 
 foreign trade. In 1858 a large number of other ports were 
 opened. 
 
 Islands. — Hainan, (1,500,000,) to the south, is a large 
 island at the eastern extremity of the Gulf of Tonquin. It is 
 mountainous, and exports timber, rice, sugar, pearls, and 
 coral. 
 
 Formosa, separated from China by the strait of the same 
 name, is a large and fertile island, with numerous volcanic 
 mountains. It exports rice, camphor, salt, &c. 
 
 The Loo-Choo Islands, a group lying 400 miles to the east of 
 the mainland, belong to China. 
 
 Hong-Kong, a small island at the mouth of the Canton 
 River, 37 miles from Macao, and 100 from Canton, became a 
 British settlement in 1842. The chief town is Victoria. 
 
 Macao is a Portuguese settlement, at the mouth of the 
 Canton River. 
 
 What is the area of China? 
 Population? Size? Where is it 
 situated ? How is it bounded ? 
 Describe its surface. Name its 
 principal rivers. Trace their courses 
 on the map. Describe the great 
 canal. Describe the chief features 
 of the coast. Point them out on 
 the map. Describe the climate. 
 The soil. The chief products. 
 Whatisbroughtfromlndia? What 
 is said of the minerals of China? Of 
 the manufactures? For what are 
 the Chinese remarkable? What 
 is said of trade with foreigners ? 
 
 Of the population? Of the political 
 state of the country ? Of the 
 Great Wall? Of learning, Ac? 
 Of the language ? Of the govern- 
 ment? Of the religion? Describe 
 the chief cities. Point them out 
 on the map. Where are they 
 situated ? What ports are open to 
 foreigners ? Point them out on the 
 map. Where are they situated? 
 Describe the islands belonging to 
 China. Point them out on the 
 map, and describe where they are 
 situated. 
 
 Tibet lies between the Kuenlun and Himalaya Mountains. 
 It consists of high table-lands, from 10,000 to 14,000 feet 
 high. 
 
 Many of the large rivers take their rise in Tibet, as the 
 Indus, Sutlej, Brahmapootra, or Sanpoo, and | Yan-tse-kiang. 
 Lake Palte is a remarkable ring of water round an island 100 
 miles in circumference. 
 
 The climate, owing to the great elevation, is in winter cold 
 and dry, but in summer hot ; and owing to the refraction of 
 the heat from the plains, the snowline on the Tibet side of the 
 Himalayas is nearly 3000 feet higher than on the south side. 
 The country is well adapted for pasturage, and large flocks of 
 the yak, sheep, deer, and Cashmere goat are reared. Part of 
 the west is subject to Cashmere. 
 
 Tibet is the chief seat of Buddhism, and the Grand Lama, 
 or Dalai Lama, supposed to be an incarnation of Buddha, lives 
 at Lassa in great splendor. The government is in the hands 
 of the Chinese, and the Viceroy also lives at Lassa, which is 
 the capital and only city of importance. 
 
 Where is Tibet situated ? Point 
 it out on the map. How is it 
 bounded? Describe its surface. 
 Name the rivers rising in Tibet. 
 Trace their courses on the map. 
 
 Describe Lake Palte. What is 
 said of the climate ? Of the soil 
 and animals? For what is Tibet 
 famous? What is said of the 
 government, &c. ? 
 
 CHINESE TARTABY. 
 
 Chinese Taktaky, or Little Buchakia, lies between the 
 Kuenlun and Thian Shan Mountains. The whole of the 
 country forms part of the elevated table-lands of Asia, and in 
 the east is the vast desert of Gobi or Shamo, extending into 
 Mongolia. The country is cold, owing to its elevation, and 
 only adapted for pasturage. The inhabitants are Tartars, but 
 are subject to China. 
 
 Yarkand, (150,000,) the capital, is situated in a'fertile plain, 
 and is the chief centre of the caravan trade between China 
 and Western Asia. Cashgar, in the north-west, was the former 
 capital. 
 
 Exercises on the MAr — CnraA, &o. — What countries adjoin China 
 proper on the south? On the west? What two seas are on the east? 
 What gulf is on the south-east? In the north-east ? What large rivers 
 flow through China ? What large island is to the east? How is it 
 
 separated from China ? What mountains are in the south of China 
 proper? In the west? Where is Hong-Kong? Canton? Pekin? 
 Nankin? Fowchow? In what direction from Hong-Kong is Pekin? 
 Nankin ? Calcutta ? What ocean is between China and America ? 
 
ASIA. 
 
 75 
 
 DzwHffuria lies to the north of the Tliian Shan Mountains. 
 It is mountainous in surface, and is peopled by the Mongol 
 Tartars. 
 
 Where is Chinese Tartary situ- 
 ated? How is it bounded? De- 
 scribe its surface. Climate, &c. 
 Inhabitants. Chief towns. Point 
 
 the latter out on the map, and state 
 where they are situated. "What is 
 said of Dzoougaria ? 
 
 MONGOLIA. 
 
 Mongolia extends from the Khinghan Mountains, which 
 separate it from Manchooria, to Dzoougaria; and from the 
 Altai Mountains to Tibet. The country is an elevated table- 
 land, bordered by mountains, and a great part of it is covered 
 by the desert of Gobi. The people are pastoral, possessing 
 numerous herds of horses, oxen, and camels. They are chiefly 
 Mongols, descendants of the fierce warriors who, under Zenghis 
 Khan, overran and conquered a great part of Asia. The trade 
 is principally with China. 
 
 Oorga, (50,000, ) south of Lake Baikal, is the capital. South- 
 west of Oorga are the ruins of Karakorum, the former capital 
 of Zenghis Khan. 
 
 Where is Mongolia situated ? I towns. Point the latter out on 
 How is it bounded? Describe the | the map, and state where they are 
 surface of the country. The I situated. 
 people. The trade. The chief | 
 
 MANCHOORIA AXD COEEA. 
 
 Manchooria, and the peninsula of Corea, slope towards the 
 Sea of Japan. The surface is mountainous, and covered with 
 forests. The Amoor flows through Manchooria. The climate 
 is cold, and wheat will scarcely grow. Oats and millet are the 
 chief produce. The Manchoos conquered China in 1644, and 
 still hold the imperial crown. 
 
 Moukden is the chief town, and the former capital of the 
 Manchoo dynasty. Kingkitao is the capital of Corea, and ex- 
 ports rice, furs, and coal to Japan. 
 
 Where are Manchooria and Corea I ducts. The people. The chief 
 situated? How are they bounded? | towns. Point the latter out on the 
 Describe the surface. The princi- 1 map, and state where they are situ- 
 p-.l river. The climate and pro- 1 ated. 
 
 TURKESTAN, OR INDEPENDENT TARTARY. 
 
 Area, S00,000 square miles ; population 6,000,000 ; persons to a square 
 mile, 7 ; about twice the size of Ontario and Quebec. 
 
 Turkestan is situated between the Caspian Sea and 
 Chinese Tartary, from which it is separated by the 
 Bolor Tagh Mountains. The Hindoo Koosh Mountains 
 form the southern boundary, separating it from Af- 
 ghanistan. The greater part of the country consists 
 of sandy steppes, or plains, except in the south and 
 east, which are more mountainous. The Rivers Sir 
 and Amoo flow westwards into the Sea of Aral, an in- 
 land salt lake about the size of Lake Superior, but 
 which is said to be decreasing in area. 
 
 The extremes of heat and cold are great, and the only fertile 
 parts of the country are those along the courses of the rivers. 
 The most fertile districts are Kokan, on the Sir, and Bokhara 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Asia.— How is Tibet separated from Hindo- 
 stan ? From Chinese Tartary ? How is Mongolia separated from 
 Chinese Tartary ? From Russia in Asia ? How is Manchooria separated 
 from Russia in Asia ? How is Turkestan separated from Chinese Tar- 
 
 and Khiva, on the Amoo, where rice, silk, and cotton are 
 produced. 
 
 Turkestan forms part of the ancient Scythia. In the north, 
 round Lake Aral, the inhabitants are of the Kirghis tribe, 
 and are wandering and nomadic. The country is divided into 
 a number of petty independent states, the principal of which 
 are the Khanates of Khiva, Bokhara, and Kokan. The in- 
 habitants are fierce and treacherous, the governments despotic, 
 and the religion Mohammedan. The trade is chiefly carried on 
 by caravans with Russia, China, and Persia. 
 
 Bokhara (1C0, 000) is the centre of the caravan trade, and 
 manufactures cottons and silks. Samarcand, to the east of 
 Bokhara, was the capital of the famous conqueror Timour, or 
 Tamerlane, and contains his tomb. Kokan and Tashkend, on 
 the Sir, are the centres of fertile districts. Ballch, in the 
 south, was the ancient Bactria, supposed to have been built 
 by Cyrus, the founder of the Persian empire. It is now a 
 mere village. 
 
 What is the area of Turkestan ? 
 Population ? Size ? Where is it 
 situated ? How is it bounded ? 
 Describe its surface. The rivers. 
 Trace their courses on the map. 
 Describe the Sea of Aral. Where 
 is it situated ? Describe the cli- 
 mate. Soil and products. What 
 
 is said of Turkestan? Of the in- 
 habitants in the north ? How is 
 the country divided ? What is said 
 of the people? Government and 
 religion ? Of the trade ? Describe 
 the chief towns. Point them out 
 on the map, and state where they 
 are situated. 
 
 RUSSIA IN ASIA. 
 
 Area, 5,000,000 square miles; population, 8,500,000; rather more than 
 three persons to 2 square miles ; nearly twice the size of British North 
 America. 
 
 Eussia in Asia is bounded on the North by the 
 Arctic Ocean ; on the West by the Ural Mountains 
 and Ural River; on the South by Tui'key, Turkestan, 
 or Independent Tartary, and the Chinese Empire ; and 
 on the East by the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 It is divided into Eastern and "Western Siberia, and the 
 Trans-Caucasian ' provinces, or those south of the Caucasus 
 Mountains. It is rather larger than Europe in extent, but 
 owing to the severity of the climate, by far the larger portion 
 is but thinly peopled. 
 
 The north of Siberia consists of vast, frozen, treeless steppes, 
 but in the south it is mountainous, and covered with forests. 
 The slope of the country is northwards. In the south are the 
 Cat* casus Mountains, between the Black and Caspian Seas; 
 and the Altai Mountains, extending from Turkestan in anorth- 
 easterly direction, and continued to the Pacific under the 
 names of the Yablonoi and Stanovoi Mountains. The rivers are 
 large, but slow, owing to the level nature of the country, and 
 all flow north into the Arctic Ocean. They are unfit for navi- 
 gation, as in the lower part of their courses they are continually 
 covered with ice. The principal are the Obi, Yenisei, and 
 Lena. The principal lakes are Aral, Balkash, and Baikal, all 
 in the south, the two first being only partly in Russia. The 
 peninsula of Kamschatka extends from the north-east into the 
 Pacific, and encloses the sea of Okotsk. The Aleutian Islands 
 are a volcanic chain, extending to the North American coast. 
 In the Arctic Ocean are the Liakhov Islands, which are unin- 
 
 tary ? What sea is on the west of it? What peninsula is on the east 
 of the Chinese Empire ? What large islands are near the eastern 
 coast ? How are they separated from the mainland ? Where is Yar- 
 kand situated 1 Where Oorga? Where Bokhara? Gobi DeserU 
 
7G 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 habited, but contain remarkable fossil remains of elephants. 
 The northern part of the Island of Saghalien belongs also to 
 Russia. 
 
 The climate is intensely cold, becoming more so towards the 
 east. East of the Lena is the coldest inhabited region in the 
 "world, being much more so than any part of the American 
 continent. In the south the mountains are covered with 
 forests ; and in the valleys are fertile tracts, especially along 
 the Amoor, which forms the boundary between the Russian 
 and Chinese empires. 
 
 The country derives its importance from its valuable mines 
 of gold, silver, platinum, copper, and iron, which are found in 
 the Ural and Altai Mountains, and from its trade in furs. 
 The mines are under Government control, and are worked by 
 criminals. Fur-bearing animals abound — such as the ermine, 
 sable, beaver, marten, and others. Bears, wolves, wild boars, 
 and the argali, or wild sheep, are numerous. The inhabitants 
 are chiefly of Tartar origin in the south, and Samoieds, re- 
 sembling the Esquimaux, in the north ; the Kirghis tribes 
 roam over the land north of the Sea of Aral ; the people of 
 Kamschatka are of short stature, and use the dog for drawing 
 their sledges. The towns are principally inhabited by Euro- 
 pean Russians, who carry on the trade of the country. Poli- 
 tical and other criminals are banished from Russia in Europe 
 to Siberia. 
 
 In Western Siberia, Tobolsk (17,000) is the chief town and 
 centre of commerce. It is situated at the junction of the Tobol 
 and Irtish, tributaries of the Obi. Omsk is the capital, and 
 Tomsk is a considerable town. Ekaterinburg has valuable 
 mines. 
 
 In Eastern Siberia, Irkutsk, (20,000,) on Lake Baikal, is the 
 capital, and Kialcta the chief station on the route between 
 Russia and China. Nertehinsk, on the Amoor, lias valuable 
 mines. Yakutsk, on the Lena, and Okotsk, on the river of 
 the same name, are considerable towns. JPetropaulovski is a 
 port in Kamschatka. 
 
 The Trans- Caucasian provinces consist of Georgia and part 
 of Armenia, lying to the south of the Caucasus Mountains, 
 between the Black and Caspian Seas, and were taken posses- 
 sion of in 1802. The Circassians inhabit the Caucasus Moun- 
 tains, and are almost continually at war with Russia for tlieir 
 liberty. They are generally Mohammedans, while the Georgians 
 belong to the Greek Church. 
 
 South of the Caucasus are Tijlis, on the Kur, the capital ; Eri- 
 mn, on a branch of the Aras ; and Baku, on the Caspian Sea. 
 
 What is the area of Russia in 
 Asia ? Population ? Size ? How 
 is it bounded? Point out the 
 boundaries on the map. How is 
 it divided? "What is said of its ex- 
 tent, &c. ? Describe the surface of 
 Siberia. Describe the principal 
 mountains and rivers. "Where are 
 they situated ? Trace them on the 
 map. Name the principal lakes. 
 Point them out on the map, and 
 describe their situation . What 
 notable physical feature does Si- 
 beria possess on the east? Point 
 it out on the map. Describe the 
 principal islands belonging to 
 
 Russia in Asia. Point them out 
 on the map, and describe their 
 situation. What is said of the 
 climate of Siberia? Of the soil? 
 From what does Siberia derive its 
 importance ? What animals are 
 found in the country ? What is 
 said of the inhabitants ? Describe 
 the| chief towns. Point them out 
 on the map, and state where they 
 are situated. 
 
 Describe the Trans - Caucasian 
 provinces. What is said of the 
 Circassians and Georgians? De- 
 scribe the chief towns. Point them 
 out on the map. 
 
 JAPAN. 
 
 Area, 16\O0O square miles ; population estimated at 35,00P,00D; persons 
 to a square mile, 219 ; rather less than Ontario in size. 
 
 Capital, Jeddo. 
 
 The Empire of Japan consists of the Islands of Yesso, 
 (or Jesso,) Niphon, Sikohf (also written Sikok and 
 Sikopf,) and Kiusiu, with numerous small islands, 
 dependencies of the larger ones. The southern part of 
 the Island of Saghalien, and the more southerly of the 
 Kurile Islands, belong also to Japan. 
 
 The Japan Islands are separated from Corea and Manchooria 
 by Corea Strait and the Sea of Japan. The main islands are 
 traversed by lofty mountains, rising to the height of 12,000 
 feet, and covered with perpetual snow. Some of them are 
 volcanoes. 
 
 Yesso and the northern islands are cold, and not very pro- 
 ductive ; but in the southern islands the land is very carefully 
 cultivated, and produces rice, tea, cotton, and silk. As in 
 China, the country is densely peopled ; and even every moun- 
 tain is cultivated as far as possible, in order to supply the- 
 wants of the large population. The Japanese are famous for 
 their japanned and lacquered wares ; porcelain and silk are 
 also extensively manufactured. Gold, silver, copper, and tin 
 are found in considerable quantities. 
 
 Like the Chinese, the Japanese are highly civilized, and have 
 made great progress in manufactures and sciences ; but their 
 civilization now advances no further. They are very exclusive, 
 and up to 1854 only a few Chinese and two Dutch vessels were 
 allowed annually to trade at Nangasaki. Since then the Amer- 
 icans in 1854, and the British in 1858, concluded treaties with 
 them, by which several other ports were opened for foreign 
 trade. 
 
 The government is a, despotism, and consists of two sove- 
 reigns—a spiritual emperor, called the Dairi, or Mikado, who 
 is looked upon as semi-divine, and is invisible to the people, 
 and who resides at Miako ; and the temporal emperor, called 
 the Tycoon, who resides at Jeddo, both in the island of Niphon. 
 The nobles, or Daimios, are very powerful, and are almost 
 independent princes. 
 
 Jeddo is the largest town, and, being the seat of the execu- 
 tive government and council, and the residence of the Tycoon, 
 may be considered as the political capital. Miako, the sacred! 
 capital, where dwells the Mikado, is the principal manufac- 
 turing and commercial town in Niphon. Matsmai is the 
 chief town of Yesso. Simoda and Kanagawa, in Niphon,, 
 Nangasaki, in Kiusiu, and Hakodadi, in Yesso, are the prin- 
 cipal ports now open to foreigners. 
 
 What is the area of Japan? 
 Population? Size? Of what is 
 the Empire of Japan composed ? 
 Point out the principal islands on 
 the map. Describe their position 
 and their surface. The climate. 
 The soil and products. "What is 
 said of the people ? For what are 
 
 the Japanese famous ? What mine- 
 rals are found? What is said of 
 civilization in Japan? Of the ex- 
 clusiveness of the people ? Of the 
 government ? Of the emperors and 
 nobles ? Describe the chief towns. 
 Point them out on the map, and 
 state where they are situated. 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Asia.— What ocean is on the north of 
 Siberia ? What seas on the east ? How is it separated from Russia in 
 Europe ? From the Chinese Empire ? What large rivers flow north- 
 wards through Siberia ? What peninsula is in the east ? What large 
 
 island is on the eastern coast ? What seas are in the south-west 1 How 
 is Irkutsk situated ? Petropaulovski ? Tobolsk ? Which is the largest 
 of the Japanese Islands? From what countries does the sea of Japan 
 separate them ? On what island is Jeddo ? Simoda ? Hakodadi ? 
 
I. A It&Louhri- _ 
 
 20 fangitude *S**10 
 
 longitude East 10 of Gre*narich. 20 
 
 JAMES CAMPBELL & SQU.TOKQN - 
 
AFEICA. 
 
 77 
 
 AFBICA. 
 
 Area, 11,500,000 square miles, comprising about .one fifth part of the land surface of the globe ; greatest length from north to south, 5000 miles, 
 and from east to west, 46j0 miles ; population estimated at about 109,000,000. 
 
 Africa forms a vast compact peninsula of a tri- 
 angular form, almost entirely surrounded by water, 
 and connected only with Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. 
 It is bounded on the North by the Mediterranean 
 Sea ; on the West by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the 
 South by the Southern Ocean ; and on the East by the 
 Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. 
 
 It may be divided into — 
 
 Northern Africa, or the Barbary States, comprising Morocco 
 Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, and Barca. 
 
 The Kile Region, comprising Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia. 
 
 Central Africa, or Nigritia. 
 
 Western Africa . 
 
 Southern Africa, including Cape Colony, Natal, &c. 
 
 Eastern Africa. 
 
 Less is known of Africa than of any other of the great divi- 
 sions of the earth ; but as several enterprising travellers, such 
 as Livingstone, Barth, Burton, Grant, Speke, Baker, and others, 
 have lately made it the subject of their explorations, it is hoped 
 that our knowledge of the country will soon be increased. 
 
 The mountains of Africa generally occur, as far as is 
 known, in detached ranges but a short distance from the sea- 
 coast, and do not extend inland, but partially enclose a vast 
 plain or level land in the interior, much of which is desert, 
 and unfit for cultivation or habitation, but in many parts well 
 watered and fertile. 
 
 The Atlas Mountains, in the Barbary States, extend east- 
 wards from the Atlantic parallel to the Mediterranean Sea, ris- 
 ing to their greatest height in Morocco, over 11,000 feet ; and 
 smaller ranges extend from them nearly' to the borders of 
 Egypt, but do not rise higher than 3000 feet. The moun- 
 tains of Abyssinia, in the east, rise in irregular groups from a 
 high table-land, some of them reaching 15,000 feet in height. 
 They are more abrupt in the south than in the north. Parallel 
 to the Gulf of Guinea, and about 150 miles inland, rise the 
 Kong Mountains, and farther south, on the shores of the Bight 
 of Biafra, are the Cameroons. The Nieuiceld Mountains, and 
 some other smaller chains, extend from east to west across the 
 northern part of Cape Colony, rising, in Compass Berg, 10,000 
 feet high. On the east coast of Africa are several chains of 
 mountains, some of which rise to a great height, but are yet 
 little known. Mounts Kilrnundjaro and Kenia, a little south 
 of the equator, are about 20,000 feet high. Owing to the gene- 
 ral proximity of the mountains to the coast, the rivers are not 
 as numerous, nor, with few exceptions, as important as in the 
 other great continents. The principal is the Nile, which has 
 two sources — the Blue Nile, rising in Abyssinia, and the "White 
 Nile, the sources of which have lately been explored by Cap- 
 tains Speke and Grant, and Mr (now Sir) S. W. Baker. In 
 
 1858 Captain Speke discovered the Victoria Nyanza Lake, and 
 issuing from it a river which he supposed to be directly con- 
 tinuous with the White Nile. In 18G2 he, in company with 
 Captain Grant, still farther explored the lake. In 1804 Mr- 
 Baker discovered, farther westward, a much larger lake, which 
 he called the Albert Nyanza. He found that the Somerset, or 
 the portion of the Nile so called, empties, with many other 
 waters, into the Albert Nyanza, and that from it the White Nile 
 proper flows. The White and Blue Niles unite in Nubia, and 
 flow north, through Nubia and Egypt, into the Mediterranean 
 Sea. The Nile is nearly 3000 miles long, and receives several 
 tributaries, but none lower than 1400 miles from its mouth. 
 The Niger, or Quorra, rises on the north side of the Kong 
 Mountains, receives a large tributary, the C'hadda, and flows 
 round the eastern end of that range into the Gulf of Guinea. 
 The Senegal flows into the North Atlantic Ocean ; the Zaire, 
 or Congo, and the Orange, or Gariep, into the South Atlantic 5 
 and the Zambesi into the Mozambique Channel. 
 
 The principal lakes of Africa, as far as are yet known, are — 
 Dembca, in Abyssinia ; Chad, in the interior; Albert and Vic- 
 toria Nyanzas, under the equator; and Tanganyika, Nyassa, 
 or Nyinycsi, and Shirim, with Ngami, farther south. With 
 the exception of the first, they are but imperfectly known. 
 
 The coast-line of Africa is very even and unbroken, with but 
 few indentations. 
 
 The principal Bays, Gulfs, <£•<•., are: 
 
 On the north, the Gulfs ofSidra 
 and Cabes. 
 
 On the west, the Gulf of Guinea, 
 including the Bights of Benin and 
 Biafra. 
 
 On the south, Table Bay and 
 Algoa Bay. 
 
 On the east, Sofala Bay, Gulf of 
 Aden, and the Red Sea. 
 
 The principal Straits are; — 
 Gibraltar, between M ovocco and I land ; Strait of Babelmandeb, be- 
 Spain ; Mozambique Channel, be- tween Abyssinia and Arabia, 
 tween Madagascar and the main- j 
 
 The principal Capes arc : — 
 On the north, Bon. Blanco, Ceula. On the east, Corrientes, Delpado, 
 On the west, Blanco, Verde, and Guardafai ; and Capes Amber 
 
 Palmas, Lopez, and Frio. and St Mary, the north and south 
 
 On the south, Good Hope and points of Madagascar. 
 
 Aoulhas. 
 
 The climate of Africa is in general hot and dry, more than 
 three-fourths of the continent being within the tropics. To- 
 wards the middle and south the seasons are alternately dry and 
 wet, as in other tropical countries ; but in the vast sandy deserts 
 no rain ever falls. The Great Desert of Sahara extends from 
 the Atlantic Ocean to Egypt, and occupies an area equal to 
 five-sixths of British North America. It is here and there 
 diversified by fertile spots or oases, which are inhabited by a 
 few wandering tribes of Moors and negroes. The western 
 portion is the most desolate, and scorching winds blow, called 
 the Harmattan and Samicl, across it into the neighboring 
 countries. Along the shore of the Mediterranean the climate 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Africa.— What ocean is on the west of 
 Africa? What ocean on the east? How is Africa separated from 
 Europe? From Asia? What is the southern point of Africa called? 
 What is the most westerly point called ? "What is the most easterly 
 
 point called? What large island is off the east coast? How is it 
 separated from Africa 1 In what zone is the greater part of Africa ? 
 What countries or states are on the Mediterranean ? On the Atlantic ? 
 On the Indian Ocean ? On the Red Sea ? Around Lake Chad 1 
 
78 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 and productions resemble those of Southern Europe j but in 
 the interior it becomes hotter, and the products vary. South 
 of the Great Desert, especially on the coast, vegetation is rank, 
 and the climate most unhealthy for Europeans. Cape Colony 
 being within the southern temperate zone, is cooler and more 
 healthy. The soil of Africa along the courses of the rivers is 
 fertile, producing trees of great size, many of them indigenous 
 to the country, and many valuable plants. There are the shea, 
 or butter-tree, baobab, or monkey bread-tree, (a gigantic tree 
 sometimes thirty feet in diameter,) oil-palm, and other trees. 
 Cotton, indigo, maize, rice, and yams grow in abundance; 
 south of Abyssinia is the native country of the coffee plant. 
 
 Africa possesses a large number and variety of wild animals, 
 such as the lion, leopard, hyena, giraffe, elephant, hippopotamus, 
 rhinoceros, crocodile, monkey, &c, besides a, great variety of 
 antelopes. 
 
 The inhabitants of Africa consist of different races, varying 
 in complexion from the tawny Moor to the blackest negro. 
 The negroes are the most numerous, constituting almost the 
 entire population of Eastern, "Western, and Central Africa. In 
 the Barbary States the Moors belong to the Caucasian race, 
 while the Egyptians and Abyssinians in the Nile region, with 
 the Kaffirs in Southern Africa, seem to form the connecting 
 links between the negro and Caucasian races. In the south 
 are also the Hottentots, a stunted, degraded race. The inhabi- 
 tants in the north are chiefly Mohammedans; and, except 
 where settlements of Europeans have been made, all the rest 
 are pagans or heathens. 
 
 The trade and products of the country are trifling, owing to 
 the ignorance and generally degraded state of the inhabitants. 
 The Barbary States export grain and leather ; Egypt exports 
 cotton and grain ; and the west and south yield palm oil, ivory, 
 and a little gold dust. On the south-west and east coasts the 
 inhuman trade in slaves is still carried on to some extent, not- 
 withstanding the vigilant efforts of the British to put it down. 
 
 What is the area of Africa? Ex- 
 tent ? Population ? What is the 
 form of Africa? How is it hounded? 
 Point out the boundai-ies on the 
 map. How may it be divided ? 
 What is said of Africa? Of the 
 mountains? Describe the princi- 
 pal mountains. Point them out on 
 the map. Where are they situated ? 
 Name the principal rivers of Africa. 
 Trace their courses on the map. 
 Describe the course of the Nile and 
 recent discoveries connected with it. 
 Name the principal lakes of Africa. 
 Point them out on the map. De- 
 scribe their situation. Describe the 
 coast-line of Africa. Name theprin- 
 
 cipal bays, gulfs, &c. Point them 
 out on the map, and state where 
 they are situated. Name the prin- 
 cipal straits. Point them out on 
 the map, and describe their posi- 
 tion. Name the principal capes. 
 Point them out on the map, and 
 describe their situation. Describe 
 the climate of Africa. The Desert 
 of Sahara. What is said of the 
 winds from the desert ? Of the cli- 
 mate in the north ? In the south ? 
 In Cape Colony ? Describe the soil 
 and vegetation. The animals, &c. 
 The inhabitants. The trade and 
 exports of the country. 
 
 NORTHERN OR BARBARY STATES. 
 
 MOROCCO. 
 
 Area, 270,000 square miles ; population, 8,5^0,000 ; oneand a half 
 
 times the size of Ontario. 
 
 Capital, Morocco. 
 
 The Empire of Morocco occupies the north-western 
 corner of Africa, between the Desert of Sahara and the 
 Atlantic Ocean. It is the most important of the Bar- 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Africa. — Which is the principal river of 
 Africa? Where does it flow? What rivers flow into the Atlantic? 
 What river into the Indian Ocean? What lakes are in the interior? 
 How is Morocco separated from the Great Desert ? How from Spain ? 
 
 bary States in power and population. These states 
 were celebrated in ancient history under the name of 
 Mauritania, but have now been long sunk under 
 tyranny and oppression. Their power has declined, and 
 their naval force, long used for piratical purposes, has 
 been destroyed by the British and other European 
 Powers since the beginning of the present century. 
 
 The Atlas Mountains traverse the country in a direction 
 nearly parallel to the coast. They attain their greatest height 
 in Morocco, and several of their peaks are covered with snow. 
 Mt. Miltsin, near the city of Morocco, is over 11,000 feet high. 
 In the mountains are many beautiful and fertile valleys, and 
 between them and the coast grain grows abundantly, as well as 
 olives, grapes, dates, cotton, and tobacco. Beyond the moun- 
 tains all the country is barren and desolate, covered for some 
 distance with coarse grass, which gradually disappears in the 
 sand. The ridges of the Atlas Mountains yield silver, copper, 
 iron, and antimony. The climate is in general warm, but 
 healthy, resembling the south of Europe. 
 
 The people are chiefly Moors and Berbers, professing Moham- 
 medanism. Jews are numerous in the seaports. 
 
 The government is an absolute monarchy, the emperor 
 having unlimited power over his subjects. 
 
 Spain possesses four ports on the: north coast, the principal 
 of which is Ceuta, opposite Gibraltar. 
 
 Morocco, (80,000,) situated in a fertile plain, is the capital ; 
 Mequinez (50,000) is an imperial residence ; Fez (100,000) cele- 
 brated under the ancient Saracen monarchy, is now considered 
 a holy city, and contains 200 mosques. Mogadore and Tangier 
 are small seaports ; Tafilet is situated in a fertile district in 
 the interior. 
 
 What is the area of Morocco ? 
 Population? Size? Capital? How 
 is Morocco situated ? Point out 
 the boundaries on the map. What 
 is said of the importance of Mo- 
 rocco? Of the former position of 
 the Barbary States ? Of their pre- 
 sent position and their navy? De- 
 scribe the mountains. Trace them 
 
 on the map. Describe the valleys 
 and their productions. The coun- 
 try beyond the mountains. The 
 minerals. The climate. Thepeople. 
 The government. What posses- 
 sions are held by Spain in Moroc- 
 co ? Describe the chief towns. 
 Point them out on the map, and 
 describe their position. 
 
 ALGERIA. 
 
 Area, 160,000 square miles; population, about 3,000,000; rather 
 
 less than Ontario in size. 
 
 Capital, Algiers. 
 
 Algeria lies to the north-east of Morocco, along the 
 shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It has been in the 
 possession of the French since 1830, but requires a 
 large army to keep it in subjection. About 150,000 of 
 the inhabitants are French, but great efforts have been 
 made within the last few years to colonize it more ex- 
 tensively. 
 
 It is divided by the French into three provinces — Algiers, 
 Oonstantine, and Oran. 
 
 It is traversed by the continuation of the Atlas Mountains, 
 the northern slope of which is very fertile. Between them 
 and the coast is a narrow strip of rich land, called the 
 
 What point is opposite Gibraltar ? What country adjoins Morocco on 
 the east ? What islands are to the east of Morocco ? Where is Morocco 
 situated ? Where Fez ? Where Tangier ? In what zone are the French 
 possessions on the north coast of Africa? Cape Colony? 
 
AFKICA. 
 
 73 
 
 " Tell," or grain country, where large quantities of wheat are 
 grown for export. In the south, in soil and climate, it re- 
 sembles Morocco, and the chief occupation of the inhabitants 
 is pasturage. 
 
 Algiers, (60,000,) on the Mediterranean, the capital, is strongly- 
 fortified, and was long a formidable nest of pirates. It was 
 bombarded and taken by the British under Lord Bxmouth in 
 1816. Constantine, Oran, and Bona are also considerable 
 towns. 
 
 What is the area of Algeria? 
 Population? Size? Capital? Where 
 is Algeria situated? How is it 
 bounded ? To whom does it be- 
 long ? How is it divided ? By 
 
 what mountains is it traversed ? 
 What is said of the " Tell ?" Of the 
 climate, soil, &c. ? Describe the 
 chief towns. Point them out on the 
 map, and describe their position. 
 
 TUNIS. 
 
 Area, 75,000 square miles; population, about 1,500,000 ; twice the 
 
 size of Newfoundland. 
 
 Capital, Tunis. 
 
 Tunis is situated to the east of Algeria. It is 
 governed by an hereditary Bey, and is tributary to 
 Turkey. It is the most important of the Barbary 
 States for commerce. In ancient times it was one of 
 the granaries of the Roman Empire, and now exports 
 wool and olive oil largely. In climate, soil, and produc- 
 tion it resembles Algeria. Caravans from the interior 
 visit it regularly with ivory, gold dust, &c. 
 
 Tunis (150,000) is an important commercial city on the Lake 
 of Tunis, which is connected with the Mediterranean. 30,000 
 of the inhabitants are Jews. About ten miles to the north-east 
 are the ruins of ancient Carthage, the once formidable rival of 
 Rome. Cairu-an, about seventy miles south of Tunis, is the 
 centre of the inland trade. 
 
 What is the area of Tunis ? 
 Population? Size? Capital? How 
 is Tunis situated ? How is it 
 bounded ? What is said of its 
 commerce ? Of its climate, soil, 
 
 &c. ? Of the caravans ? Describe 
 the chief towns. Point them out 
 on the map, and describe their 
 position. 
 
 TBIPOLI AND BABCA. 
 
 Area, 250,000 square miles ; population, 1,500,000 ; about the size of 
 
 the provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick. 
 
 Capital, Tripoli. 
 
 Tripoli lies to the south-east of Tunis, along the 
 shore of the Mediterranean, between the Gulfs of Sidra 
 and Cabes. Its dependency, Barca, lies between it and 
 Egypt. Both are tributary to the Sultan of Turkey. 
 
 The desert here approaches very close to the coast, so that 
 there is only a narrow strip of fertile land between them. 
 
 Tripoli, (20,000,) the capital, is regularly visited by the 
 caravans from the interior. There are two great routes, — one 
 by Ghadamis, 200 miles to the south-west ; and the other by 
 Mourzool, 500 miles to the south. 
 
 belong? Describe the surface of 
 the country. The chief towns. 
 Point them out on the map, and 
 describe their position. 
 
 What is the area of Tripoli and 
 Barca? Population? Size? Capital? 
 How are they situated ? How are 
 they bounded » To whom do they 
 
 NILE REGION. 
 The Nile Region comprises Egypt, Nubia, Abys- 
 sinia, and a number of petty states round the sources, 
 and along the upper part of the White Nile. 
 
 It is over 2000 miles in length, with a varying breadth of 
 from 350 to 600 miles. The Nile Proper is formed in Nubia, 
 by the junction of the White and Blue Niles. It is of the 
 greatest importance to the country, on account of its annual 
 inundations, caused by the tropical rains at its sources. These 
 inundations last from June to the end of November, and render 
 the surrounding country luxuriantly fertile. On account of the 
 great drought, they are annually looked forward to by the in- 
 habitants with great anxiety ; and defect or excess are alike 
 disastrous. Above the southern frontier of Egypt, the catar- 
 acts and high banks of the river prevent its overflowing ; 
 and as it does not receive a single affluent during the last 1400 
 miles of its course, its volume gradually decreases, on account 
 of the evaporation, and the quantity of water drawn off for the 
 irrigation of the land. 
 
 What states are comprised in the 
 Nile Region ? What is the extent 
 of the region ? Describe the Nile. 
 Trace its course on the map. For 
 
 what is the river valuable ? What 
 is said of the inundations? Describe 
 the course of the river above Egypt. 
 What is said of its volume ? 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Area, 75,800 square miles ; population, 5,000,000 ; rather less 
 
 than Ontario in size. 
 
 Capital, Cairo. 
 
 Egypt is bounded on the North by the Mediterranean 
 Sea ; on the West by Barca and the Great Desert of 
 Sahara ; on the South by Nubia ; on the East by the 
 Bed Sea and Isthmus of Suez. 
 
 The great feature of Egypt is the Nile. Its course is through 
 a long narrow valley enclosed by hills on each side, beyond 
 which are sandy deserts. About 100 miles from the Mediter- 
 ranean, it divides into two branches, forming a delta or triangle, 
 each side of which is from 100 to 150 miles in length. 
 
 The climate is the driest in the world, rain seldom falling, 
 and in summer the heat is excessive. The soil is very fertile 
 where it is overflowed by the Nile, producing wheat, rice, 
 cotton, barley, and the sugar-cane in great abundance. Great 
 efforts have lately been made by the Pacha to improve 
 agriculture and manufactures, but hitherto without much 
 success. 
 
 The country is governed by an hereditary Pacha, nominally 
 tributary to Turkey. The inhabitants are composed of native 
 Egyptians, (called Copts,) Turks, Arabs, and a few Europeans, 
 and are much oppressed by the rulers. The prevailing religion 
 is the Mohammedan. 
 
 The Isthmus of Suez, connecting Egypt with Asia, is on 
 the great overland route between Britain and India. It 
 is a sandy tract about 60 miles wide, sloping towards the 
 Mediterranean, which is about 25 feet lower than the Eed 
 Sea. French engineers are now endeavoring to construct a 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Africa. — What European countries are 
 directly north of Algeria? Of Tripoli? What island belonging to 
 Britain lies between Tripoli and Sicily ? What gulfs are on the north of 
 Tripoli' What are the most northerly points of Africa called? What 
 
 islands lie between them and Prance ? How is Algiers situated ? 
 Tunis ? Tripoli ? What towns are in the interior ? What large river 
 gives a name to the eastern part of northern Africa ? Through what 
 countries does it flow ? Where does it rise ? Where does it empty ? 
 
80 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 canal to connect the two seas. A railway extends from Alex- 
 andria to Cairo, 131 miles, and from Cairo to Suez on the Red 
 Sea, 91 miles. 
 
 Egypt is one of the most interesting countries in the world, 
 from its connexion with sacred history, and from its early 
 civilization. Its pyramids, temples, obelisks, and hieroglyphics, 
 which, owing to the extreme dryness of the climate, are ad- 
 mirably preserved, render it a favorite resort of travellers 
 from all parts of the world. 
 
 Cairo, (250,000,) the capital, situated on the Nile, about five 
 miles above the head of the Delta, is the largest city in Africa. 
 It is poorly built, but its numerous and elegant mosques give 
 it a very magnificent appearance. Near it are the celebrated 
 pyramids. Alexandria, (60,000,) on the coast, is an ancient 
 city, originally founded by Alexander the Great, through which 
 all the trade with Europe passes. Near it are Pompey's Pillar 
 and Cleopatra's Needle. Here Euclid taught 320 years before 
 the birth of Christ. Here, also, Abercromby fell in 1801 ; and 
 at Aboukir, 15 miles to the east, Nelson gained the famous 
 battle of the Nile in 1798. Hosetta and Damietta are consider- 
 able towns to the east of Alexandria. Siout, Kenneh, Esneh, 
 and Assouan, in Upper Egypt, are principally trading stations 
 for the caravans. South of Kenneh are the ruins of Thebes, the 
 ancient capital of Egypt, and the temples of Karnac, Luxor, and 
 Dendereh. In the oasis of Siwah, 320 miles west of Cairo, are 
 the ruins of the temple of Jupiter Amnion. 
 
 What is the area of Egypt? 
 Population ? Size ? Capital ? How 
 is Egypt bounded? Point out its 
 boundaries on the map. "What is 
 said of the Nile? Describe the 
 climate. Soil and products. What 
 has been done by the Pacha ? 
 What is said of the government ? 
 
 Of the people? Of the religion? 
 Describe the Isthmus of Suez. 
 How is it traversed ? For what is 
 Egypt interesting? Describe the 
 chief cities and places. Point them 
 out on the map, and describe their 
 position. 
 
 NUBIA. 
 
 Area, 250,000 square miles ; population, about 400,000 ; less than the 
 provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick. 
 
 Nubia lies to the south of Egypt, between it and 
 Abyssinia, and extends from the Great Desert to the 
 Eed Sea. 
 
 The northern part resembles Egypt, being very dry, and only 
 a narrow strip on each side of the Nile is fit for cultivation. In 
 the south, where the tropical rains fall, it is more fertile, and 
 wild animals abound. It was conquered by Egypt in 1820-22, 
 but many of the tribes are still independent. 
 
 Khartoum, (15,000,) at the confluence of the two branches of 
 the Nile, is the capital. Scnnaar, the former capital, from 
 which the caravan route lies westward through the Desert to 
 Darfour and the east of Lake Chad, was destroyed by the 
 Egyptians. Ipsambul is famous for temples cut out of the 
 solid rock. New Dongola is a considerable town on the Nile, 
 and Massowah is the principal port on the Red Sea. At Soua- 
 Idn, Mohammedan pilgrims usually embark for Mecca. 
 
 What is the area of Nubia ? southern part ? To whom does it 
 
 Population? Size? Capital? How belong? Describe the chief towns, 
 
 is Nubia situated? How is it Point them out on the map, and 
 
 bounded ? What is said of the describe their position, 
 northern part of Nubia? Of the 
 
 ABYSSINIA. 
 
 Area, 245,000 square miles ; population, 4,500,000 ; about the size of 
 
 the provinces of Quebec and New Brunswick. 
 
 Abyssinia lies to the south of Nubia, also on the 
 shore of the Eed Sea. It is a mountainous country, 
 sloping towards the north. Like Nubia, it is subject 
 to the tropical rains, but from its great elevation it 
 possesses almost every variety of climate and produc- 
 tions. 
 
 The Blue Nile rises in the mountains, and takes its name 
 from the color of its mud. The most fertile part of the coun- 
 try is on the shores of Lake Dembea, a large inland lake. 
 
 It is divided into a number of petty independent states, the 
 principal of which are — Tigre in the north, Amhara in the 
 centre, and Shoa in the south. The people are an ignorant and 
 savage race, professing a form of Christianity analogous to the 
 Greek, but intermingled with many Jewish rites, and many 
 superstitions. 
 
 Abyssinia has recently been brought into notice by the 
 British expedition of 1S67-68 for the release of a few British 
 subjects imprisoned by King Theodore, at which time Mag- 
 dala, Theodore's capital, was destroyed. Antalo, the old 
 capital, is half-way between Magdala and the coast. 
 
 None of the towns contain 10,000 inhabitants. Gondar is 
 the capital of Amhara, Adowa of Tigre, and Ankdbar (situated 
 8000 feet above the sea) of Shoa. 
 
 out on the map. How is Abyssinia 
 divided ? Name the states and 
 chief towns, and describe their 
 positions. What recent event has 
 brought Abyssinia into note ? 
 
 What is the area of Abyssinia? 
 Population? Size? Where is it 
 situated ? How is it bounded ? 
 Describe its surface. Its climate, 
 &c. Describe the Blue Nile. What 
 is said of Lake Dembea? Point it 
 
 CENTKAL AFKICA. 
 
 SOUDAN, OB NIGEITIA. 
 That part of the continent of Africa lying to the 
 south of Sahara, is called Soudan, or Nigritia, the coun- 
 try of the blacks. It is composed of a large number of 
 independent states, but little is yet known either of 
 their extent or population, or of the physical features 
 of the country. 
 
 The principal states known are — Borgou, Boussa, Yarriba, 
 and Nyfi, on the Lower Niger ; Bambarra and Timbuctoo, on 
 the Upper Niger ; Houssa and Bornou, between the Niger and 
 Lake Chad ; and Kanem, Bcghermeh, Bcrgou, Darfour, and 
 Kordofan, between Lake Chad and Abyssinia. These states 
 contain many towns of considerable size. 
 
 The Niger is the principal river of the country. It rises to 
 the north of the Kong Mountains, and, after a circuitous course, 
 falls into the Gulf of Guinea. It receives, on the east bank, the 
 Chadda, a large river rising south of Lake Chad. Lake Chad 
 is nearly twice the size of Lake Erie. It is shallow, studded 
 with islands, and receives several rivers. A number of towns 
 of considerable size are situated on its shores. 
 
 The countries on the upper part of the Niger, and on the 
 Sen egal, (a river flowing into the Atlantic, and forming the 
 
 Exercises on the Map— Africa. — What sea is on the north of 
 Egypt ? What on the east of Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia ? How is this 
 sea connected with the Indian Ocean ? How is Egypt joined to Asia ? 
 What countries of Asia does it adjoin? Name the principal cities on 
 
 the Nile in Egypt. In Nubia. What seaport is in Nubia? What city 
 of Arabia is opposite to it ? What seaport is in Abyssinia ? What lake 
 is in the centre of Africa? What rivers are in the west of Africa? Into 
 what ocean do they now ? What mountains are in the west ? 
 
AFKICA, 
 
 northern boundary of Senegambia,) are luxuriant in vegetation, 
 and densely peopled ; wherever there is water the soil is fertile, 
 and the people numerous. 
 
 The inhabitants are chiefly negroes, and trade with the Bar- 
 bary States and countries of the Nile by caravans of camels, 
 which are conducted across the desert by the Arabs. The trade 
 is chiefly in cotton, grain, indigo, ivory, and gold dust. Tini- 
 buctoo is the most important town on the caravan route be- 
 tween Guinea, Senegambia, and Barbary. 
 
 South of Nigritia and Abyssinia, under the equator, is a high 
 table-land, or mountain range, containing a lake about as large 
 as Lake Michigan, which has been called Victoria Nyanza, and 
 a still larger one, the Albert Nyanza, in which lakes the White 
 Nile takes its rise. South of this is another lake, Tanganyika, 
 330 miles long, and from 30 to 40 miles broad. Still farther 
 south are Lakes A'yassa or Nyinyesi, and Shinea, neither of 
 which has as yet been definitely explored. 
 
 What part of Africa is called 
 Soudan? How is it composed? 
 Name the principal states. Point 
 them out on the map, and describe 
 theirposition. Describe the course 
 of the Niger. Trace it on the 
 
 map. Describe Lake Chad. Where 
 is it situated ? Describe the 
 countries watered by the Niger 
 
 and Senegal. Describe the inhabi- 
 tants. The manner of trading. 
 Products. What is the most im- 
 portant town on the caravan route? 
 Describe the country south of Ni- 
 gritia and Abyssinia. The moun- 
 tains and lakes. Point them out on 
 the map, and describe their position. 
 What interest attaches to them ? 
 
 WESTERN AFRICA. 
 SENEGAMBIA. 
 Senegaiibia comprises the country watered by the 
 Senegal, Gambia, and Rio Grande, which flow west- 
 ward from the Kong Mountains. 
 
 The climate is hot, and very unhealthy for Europeans. The 
 Harmattan, a scorching sandy wind, blows at intervals from the 
 Desert. The soil is fertile, and on the banks of the rivers vege- 
 tation is rank and luxuriant. Palms, baobab or monkey 
 bread-fruit, caoutchouc trees, and other tropical trees and 
 plants, abound. The Senegal and Gambia are navigable into 
 the interior. 
 
 The British possess Bathurst, and other forts on the Gambia ; 
 the French, Goree, with St Louis and other forts on the Senegal ; 
 and the Portuguese, Bissao, and other forts near the mouth of 
 the Rio Grande. 
 
 and products. The rivers. What 
 possessions are held by European 
 countries, and where ? 
 
 How is Senegambia situated? 
 Trace the courses of the principal 
 rivers. Describe the climate. Soil 
 
 UPPER GUINEA. 
 
 Upper Guinea lies to the south-east of Senegambia, 
 between the Kong Mountains and the northern shore 
 of the Gulf of Guinea. 
 
 In climate, soil, and productions it resembles Senegambia. 
 
 It comprises Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ashantee, Grain Coast, 
 Ivory CoojJ, Gold Coast, Slave Coast, Dahomey, Benin, and 
 Ca'alaj: The exports are indigo, ivory, palm oil, and pepper. 
 
 Sierra Leone is a British settlement, founded in 1787 as a sta- 
 tion for the suppression of the slave trade, which was largely 
 
 81 
 
 carried on between the native chiefs of Guinea, and the Por- 
 tuguese and others ; but which is now much reduced, owing 
 to the vigilance of the British war vessels. Freetown is the 
 capital. 
 
 Liberia was originally founded by the United States for free 
 negroes and emancipated slaves. It was formed into an inde- 
 pendent republic in 1847. Monrovia is the capital. 
 
 The British possess most of the Gold Coast, and have four 
 settlements, of which Cape Coast Castle is the chief. 
 
 Where is Upper Guinea situated ? 
 Describe its climate, 4c. What 
 states does it comprise ? Describe 
 
 Sierra Leone. Liberia. Point out 
 their capitals on the map. What 
 possessions are held by the British ? 
 
 LOWER GUINEA. 
 Lower Guinea extends from the Bight of Biafra to 
 more than 1000 miles south of the equator. 
 
 It comprises Biafra, Loango, Congo, Angola, and Benguela. 
 The last two countries belong to Portugal. The slave trade is 
 carried on along the coast, but not nearly to the same extent 
 as formerly. The country is well watered, and resembles 
 Upper Guinea in climate and production. The Cameroon 
 Mountains are immediately north of the equator, on the shores 
 of the Bight of Biafra, and rise to the height of 13,000 feet 
 above the sea. "Wild animals, such as the lion, leopard, ele- 
 phant, and hippopotamus, abound ; as well as the gorilla, 
 monkeys, and numerous birds of brilliant plumage. 
 
 Where is Lon-er Guinea situated? | country? Describe the Cameroon 
 What countries does it comprise ? i Mountains. Trace them on the 
 W hich belong to Portugal 1 What map. What is said of the animals 
 is said of the slave trade ? Of the of the country? 
 
 SOUTHERN AFRICA. 
 
 Southern Africa comprises the British possessions 
 of Cape Colony, including British Caffraria and Natal ; 
 the Trans Vaal and Orange Republics; Caffraria and 
 the countries of the Hottentots, Bechv.anas, and Nama- 
 quas. 
 
 In the south and east it is mountainous, and in the north 
 and west are vast level plateaux, almost destitute of water. In 
 these plateaux the rivers do not reach the sea during the dry 
 season. Three parallel ranges of mountains extend in a north- 
 easterly direction, rising one above the other from the south 
 upwards ; the first being from 20 to 60 miles from the coast. 
 The most northerly is that of the Nieuweld Mountains, whose 
 summits are generally covered with snow. Mount Compass 
 rises to the height of over 10,000 feet. The Orange, or Gariep, 
 is the principal river, rising in the Draktnbtrg Mountains west 
 of Natal, and flowing through level plains into the Atlantic 
 450 miles from the Cape of Good Hope. It receives a number 
 of small tributary streams. 
 
 What countries are comprised in i pal chain. What is their height ? 
 Southern Africa? Point them out Trace them on the map. Describe 
 on the map. Describe the surface. I theprincipalriver. Trace its course 
 The mountains. Name the princi- ! on the map. 
 
 Exercises ox the Map— Afeica — What states are on the west coast 
 of Africa? What is the most westerly point of Senegambia called? 
 How is Sierra Leone situated? Liberia? Intowhat gulf does the Niger 
 now? What island is opposite its mouth? In what direction is St 
 
 Helena from Cape Verde ? Prom the Cape of Good Hope ? What state 
 occupies the most southern part of Africa ? What British colonies are 
 situated to the north-east of it ? What river forms its northern bound- 
 ary ? How is Cape Town situated ? Gi'ahamstown ? Port Natal ? 
 
82 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 BRITISH POSSESSIONS. 
 
 Area, ; 
 
 8,000 square miles ; population, 740,000 ; nearly the size of 
 the provinces of Quebec and Ontario. 
 
 The British Possessions form the southern extremity 
 of the African continent, and extend about 900 miles from 
 east to west, and from 100 to 400 miles in breadth. 
 
 The country was originally colonized by the Dutch, hut since 
 1806 has been in the possession of the British. About one-half 
 of the population are Europeans, or their descendants ; consist- 
 ing of British settlers and Dutch boors or farmers. The re- 
 mainder are Hottentots, the most degraded race on the con- 
 tinent ; and in the east, Caffres. 
 
 The climate is dry, but not unhealthy, and European grains 
 and fruits have been successfully introduced. "Wine, wool, and 
 hides are exported. 
 
 Cape Colony comprises an area of 124,000 square miles, or 
 about two-thirds the size of Ontario, and has a population of 
 about 300,000. 
 
 Gape Town, (25,000,) on the south-west shore of Table Bay, 
 is the capital and seat of the colonial parliament. Table 
 Mountain, 3580 feet high, rises immediately south of the 
 town, and is so called from its flat summit. Vines are ex- 
 tensively cultivated on its slopes. The only other town of 
 importance is Graham's Town, 500 miles to the east of Cape 
 Town. 
 
 Natal was formed into a colony in 1845. It lies to the north 
 of Caffraria. Coal and iron are abundant, and cotton, indigo, 
 and sugar are easily cultivated. 
 
 Port Natal is the seaport, and Pietermaritzburg, 50 miles 
 inland, the capital. 
 
 British Caffraria was formerly a separate colony, but was 
 formed into a district of Cape Colony in 1865. It is separated 
 by the Great Kei River from native Caffraria. The Caffres 
 are a fierce and restless people, and are often at war with the 
 British. 
 
 To the north of Cape Colony are the Dutch republics, Trans 
 Vaal and Orange River. These are peopled chiefly by Dutch 
 boors or farmers, who have formed them into independent 
 republics. The country is chiefly a level plateau, 5000 feet 
 high. 
 
 Between the Dutch republics and the Atlantic is the coun- 
 try of the Bechuanas and Namaquas, an inoffensive, pastoral 
 people. 
 
 What is the area of the British 
 possessions ? Population ? Size 1 
 How are they situated ? What is 
 said of the country ? Of the peo- 
 ple ? Of the climate and produc- 
 tions? Describe Cape Colony. How 
 is it bounded ? Describe its chief 
 
 towns. Point them out on the 
 map. Describe Natal and its chief 
 towns. How is it bounded? De- 
 scribe British Caffraria. 
 
 Describe the Dutch republics. 
 Point them out on the map. What 
 countries are to the west of them ? 
 
 EASTERN AFRICA. 
 The countries on the eastern coast of Africa are still 
 very little known, although somewhat opened up by 
 recent enterprise. 
 
 Adel or Somali, between the Strait of Babelmandeb and 
 Cape Guardafui, is celebrated for its myrrh and odoriferous 
 spices, which are exported through Arabia. Ajan is barren 
 and desolate along the coast, but fertile in the interior. 
 Zanguebar is low and marshy, and very unhealthy towards 
 the sea. To the west of it are the ranges of mountains which 
 enclose the table-lands of Central Africa, with the peaks of 
 Kilmandjaro and Kenia, rising, it is said, 20,000 feet high. 
 The Sultan of Muscat, in Arabia, claims sovereignty over the 
 countries as far south as Cape Delgado. From there to Cape 
 Delagoa, including Mozambique and Sofala, the Portuguese 
 hold authority. They formerly possessed the whole eastern 
 coast, but have been gradually driven away. Their principal 
 posts are Sena and Tete, on the Zambesi Biver. 
 
 What is said of the countries on 
 the eastern coast of Africa ? De- 
 scribe Adel. Ajan. Zanguebar. 
 Point them out on the map. De- 
 
 scribe the principal mountains. 
 Point them out on the map. What 
 part of the country belongs to the 
 Portuguese? What are their ports? 
 
 ISLANDS OE AFRICA. 
 
 MADAGASCAR. 
 
 Area, 220,000 square miles; population, 4,000,000; rather larger than 
 the province of Quebec. 
 
 Madagascar is the largest of the African Islands, 
 and is separated from the East coast of Africa by the 
 Mozambique Channel. Its Northern and Southern 
 points are called Gapes Amber and JSt Mary. 
 
 Lofty mountains traverse it from north to south, approach- 
 ing nearest to the eastern shore. The climate is hot, and the 
 soil fertile, producing rice and sugar abundantly. Iron is 
 found in the mountains. The government is despotic, and 
 most of the people are heathens. Converts to Christianity 
 have been greatly persecuted, but are favored by the present 
 monarch. Tananarivo, the capital, is situated on a lofty 
 table-land, near the centre of the island. Tamatave, on the 
 east coast, is the principal seaport. 
 
 BRITISH ISLANDS. 
 
 Ascension, a small island in the Atlantic, frequented by 
 ships as a place of refreshment. St Helena, 800 miles south- 
 east of Ascension, is famous as the place of exile of the Em- 
 peror Napoleon Bonaparte, where he died in 1821. Mauri- 
 tius, (238,000,) a considerable island, formerly called the Isle 
 of France, about one-third the size of Prince Edward Island, 
 480 miles to the east of Madagascar. It makes large exports of 
 sugar and coffee. Port Louis (35,000) is the capital and sea- 
 port. Rodriguez, east of Mauritius, the Seychelles and Ami- 
 rante Islands, north-east of Madagascar, and the Chagres group, 
 farther east, are of little importance, and are dependencies of 
 Mauritius. 
 
 FRENCH ISLANDS. 
 Reunion, or Bourbon, (108,000,) rather larger than Mauri- 
 
 Exeecises on the Map — Aftlioa. — What ocean washes the eastern 
 shores of Africa ? What large river flows into it ? What large lakes 
 are in the interior ? What great river flows from them ? What is the 
 most easterly point of Africa called ? What large island is to the east 
 
 of Africa ? How is it separated from Africa ? What islands lie to the 
 east of it ? What islands lie to the north-east of it ? What islands are 
 to the north-west of Africa? How is Socotra situated? Ascension? 
 Cape Verde Islands ? What celebrated gulfs north of Tripoli ? 
 
OCEANICA. 
 
 83 
 
 tins, lies 90 miles south-west of it. It is of volcanic forma- 
 tion, and contains one active volcano in the south. It pro- 
 duces coffee and sugar largely. Mount Piton de Neiges, is 
 10,000 feet high. France also possesses some small islands in 
 the Comoro group, in the north of the Mozambique Channel, 
 and some on the coast of Madagascar, which are dependencies 
 of Reunion. 
 
 PORTUGUESE ISLANDS. 
 Madeira, (100,000,) a beautiful island, rising abruptly from 
 the Atlantic, 360 miles west of Morocco. It consists of a mass 
 of volcanic rocks, the highest summit being about 0000 feet 
 high. It is celebrated for its wines and its salubrious climate. 
 Funchal is the chief town. The Cape Verde Islands, (85,000,) 
 about 320 miles west of Cape Verde, are also of volcanic for- 
 mation. A volcano in Fogo, one of the islands, is about 9200 
 feet high. St Jago is the principal island. St Thomas and 
 Prince's Islands, in the Gulf of Guinea, also belong to Portugal. 
 
 SPANISH ISLANDS. 
 
 The Canaries, (234,000,) off the north-west coast of Africa, 
 seven in number, contain lofty volcanic mountains. The Peak 
 of Teneriffe rises about 12,200 feet high. Their chief product 
 is wine. Santa Cruz, in Teneriffe, is the capital, but Palma 
 is the largest town. Fernando Po and Annabon are small 
 islands in the Gulf of Guinea. 
 
 Socotra, in the Indian Ocean, about 120 miles east of Cape 
 Guardafui, is a large island belonging to Arabia, and produc- 
 ing the finest aloes. 
 
 What is the size of Madagascar ? 
 Population ? How is it situated ? 
 Describe it. Describe the climate. 
 Soil and products. Minerals. 
 Government. What is said of con- 
 verts to Christianity? Describe 
 the chief towns. Point them out 
 on the map. 
 
 Describe Ascension. St Helena. 
 Mauritius. Where are they situ- 
 ated ? What other islands belong 
 
 to Britain ? Describe their posi- 
 tion. 
 
 Describe the islands belonging 
 to Prance. Where are they situ- 
 ated ? 
 
 Describe the Portuguese islands. 
 Where are they situated ? 
 
 Describe the Spanish islands. 
 Where are they situated ? 
 
 Describe Socotra. How is it 
 situated ? 
 
 OCEANICA. 
 
 Area, 4,500,000 square miles, or one-twelfth part of the land surface of the globe ; population, about 30,000,000. 
 
 Oceajtica is the name usually given to a fifth great 
 
 division of the globe. It includes the vast number of 
 
 islands lying to the south-east of Asia, and those in 
 
 the Pacific Ocean. They are generally small, but very 
 
 numerous, and comprise an area one-fifth larger than 
 
 the whole of Europe. These islands are divided into 
 
 Malaysia, or the East Indian Archipelago, Australasia, 
 
 and Polynesia. 
 
 What is the extent of Oceanica ? I in Oceanica ? Describe the islands. 
 Population ? What is comprised ] How are they divided ? 
 
 MALAYSIA. 
 
 Malaysia, or the East Indian Archipelago, comprises 
 the numerous islands lying to the south-east of Asia. 
 The principal are — Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, the 
 Philippine Islands, the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, 
 Flores, Timor, &c. 
 
 These islands are volcanic in their formation, and are all 
 within the torrid zone. They are within the range of the 
 monsoons; and, owing to the sea breezes, the climate is not so 
 hot as on the adjacent continent. The soil is rich and fertile, 
 and large quantities of spices, sugar, coffee, and other tropical 
 productions are exported. 
 
 They are peopled chiefly by Malays — an active, but fierce and 
 treacherous race, much addicted to piracy. The natives of some 
 of the islands are negroes, a savage and very degraded race. 
 
 The whole population is estimated at 26,000,000. Most of the 
 islands belong to European nations. The Dutch possess Java, 
 with portions of Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes, besides a num- 
 ber of the smaller islands. The Spaniards possess the greater 
 part of the Philippines. Tho British have possessed the small 
 island of Labuan, off the coast of Borneo, since 1846. The 
 Dutch possessions were captured by the British in the be- 
 ginning of this century, but were restored at the peace of 
 1814. 
 
 Sumatra is a long narrow island, upwards of 1000 miles in 
 length, lying to the south-west and south of the Malay Penin- 
 sula, from which it is separated by the Strait of Malacca. It 
 is about half the size of Canada, and is directly under the 
 equator. It is traversed by chains of lofty mountains, some of 
 their summits rising nearly 14,000 feet in height. Most of the 
 surface is covered with dense forests, affording a retreat to 
 numerous wild animals. Between the mountain ranges are 
 large and fertile plains, producing coffee, pepper, rice, and 
 camphor, which are largely exported. The Dutch possess all 
 that part of the island lying south of the equator ; the remain- 
 der is occupied by native states. The principal Dutch towns 
 are Palembang, Padang, and the seaport of Bcncoolen. The 
 islands of Banca and Billiton, off the east coast, belong to the 
 Dutch, and contain valuable tin mines. 
 
 Jara lies to the south-east of Sumatra, from which it is 
 separated by the Strait of Sunda. It is about one and a half 
 times the size of Newfoundland, and is the most populous and 
 fertile of the Malaysian Islands. It is traversed by a lofty 
 chain of volcanic mountains, and has numerous fine harbors 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Asia. — What division of the world are the 
 Islands of the Malay Archipelago nearest to ? What sea separates them 
 from the mainland? How is Sumatra separated from the mainland? 
 Which is the largest island ? Which are the most northerly ? What 
 
 island lies to the south of Sumatra? To the east of Borneo? What 
 islands between Java and Australia ? What sea is between Celebes and 
 the Philippines ? What ocean is on the west of the Archipelago ? What 
 ocean on the east? What large city is on the Island of Luzon? 
 
84 
 
 OCEANICA. 
 
 and bays. Large quantities of coffee, rice, sugar, and cinna- 
 mon are exported ; and in the interior are extensive forests of 
 teak. The population is about 12,000,000, consisting chiefly of 
 Malays. It belongs to the Dutch, whose settlements are mostly 
 on the north coast. The chief town is Batavia, (60,000,) the 
 capital of the Dutch East India possessions. 
 
 The smaller islands lying to the east of Java, as Bali, 
 Lombok, Sumbawa, (with a remarkable active volcano,) 
 Sandalwood, Flores, Timor,' &c, belong to the Dutch, with 
 the exception of a small settlement in Timor belonging to the 
 Portuguese. 
 
 Borneo is the largest island in the world, with the exception 
 of Australia, and is about two-thirds of the size of Canada. 
 It is separated from Java by the Java, Sea, from Celebes by the 
 Strait of Macassar, and lies directly under the equator. The 
 heat on the coast is moderated by the sea breezes, and the soil 
 is fertile ; but a great part of the isla,nd is covered with dense 
 forests. The interior is but little known, but is said to be 
 mountainous. It possesses several large navigable rivers. The 
 western and southern, with part of the eastern coast, belong to 
 the Dutch. The district of Sarawak, in the north-west, was 
 ruled from 1841 to 1858 by Sir James Brooke, a British sub- 
 ject, as rajah, appointed by the Sultan of Borneo. There 
 are valuable mines of diamonds, gold, tin, iron, copper, lead, 
 and coal in the island. The population is estimated at 
 5,000,000, consisting of Malays, Chinese, and Europeans on 
 the coast, and Dyaks, the native race, in the interior. Borneo, 
 (22,000,) on the north-west coast, is the capital, and carries 
 on considerable trade with Singapore, China, and the Philip- 
 pine Islands. 
 
 Lahuan Island, belonging to Britain, is at the mouth of the 
 river on which the town of Borneo is situated. 
 
 Celebes lies to the east of Borneo, from which it is separated 
 by the Strait of Macassar, and between it and the Philippine 
 Islands is the Sea of Celebes. It is so deeply indented by 
 bays as to form four long peninsulas. It is rather larger than 
 Newfoundland. The surface is hilly, and the soil fertile, 
 yielding rice, sugar, and sago. It also supplies trypang or 
 sea-slugs, and edible birds' nests, considered great delicacies 
 by the Chinese. The south-western part of the island is held 
 by the Dutch, including the settlement of Macassar, with a 
 town of the same name. 
 
 The Philippine Islands lie to the north-east of Borneo. They 
 are estimated at about 1200 in number, and are traversed by a 
 chain of mountains. The climate is hot, but moist, and the 
 soil fertile. Violent hurricanes and earthquakes often devas- 
 tate them. The chief exports are rice, sugar, tobacco, and 
 Manilla hemp. They were taken possession of by the Span- 
 iards in 1305, and still form one of the most important of the 
 Spanish colonies. The largest island is Luzon, with Manilla, 
 (150,000,) the capital. The other islands of importance are — 
 Mindoro, Palawan, Mindanao, Satnar, &c. 
 
 The Moluccas, or Spice Islands, lie to the north-east of 
 Celebes, and are famous for their spices, nutmegs, cloves, &c. 
 The principal are Gfilolo, Amboyna, Coram, Booroo, and the 
 Banda Islands. They belong chiefly to the Dutch. Still 
 farther south are some smaller islands of little importance. 
 
 What islands are comprised in 
 Malaysia ? How are they situated ? 
 Point them out on the map. De- 
 scribe the islands. Climate. Soil 
 and products. People. To whom 
 do they belong ? What is said of 
 the Dutch possessions ? 
 
 Describe Sumatra. How is it 
 situated ? Describe its size. Sur- 
 face. Products. To whom does it 
 belong ? Point out the chief towns 
 on the map. 
 
 How is Java situated ? De- 
 scribe its size. Surface. Products. 
 People. To whom does it be- 
 long? What is the chief town ? 
 
 What islands lie to the east of 
 Java ? To whom do they belong ? 
 
 Describe Borneo. How is it situ- 
 ated ? Describe the climate. Soil. 
 
 Surface. What possessions are 
 held by the Dutch ? What is said 
 of the district of Sarawak ? Of 
 the mines ? Of the people ? De- 
 scribe the chief towns. What 
 island belongs to Britain ? 
 
 How is Celebes situated? What 
 is its form and size ? Describe its 
 surface. Soil and products. What 
 possession is held by the Dutch ? 
 
 How are the Philippine Islands 
 situated? Describe them. The 
 climate. Exports. To whom do 
 they belong? Name the principal. 
 
 How are the Moluccas situated ? 
 For what are they famous ? Name 
 the principal. To whom do they 
 belong? What other islands are 
 there ? 
 
 AUSTRALASIA. 
 
 Austealasia comprises the large islands of Australia, 
 Tasmania, or Van Diemen's Land, New Zealand, and 
 New Guinea, with a large number of smaller islands 
 lying to the east of New Guinea and Australia. 
 
 What islands are comprised in Australasia? 
 map, (the World.) 
 
 Point them out on the 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Area, 3,000,000 square miles; population, 1,330,000; about the same 
 size as British North America. 
 
 Australia is the largest island in the world, being about 
 four-fifths the size of Europe. It belongs to Britain, and is 
 divided into five colonies — Victoria, New South Wales, Queens- 
 land, South Australia, and Western Australia, besides North 
 Australia, which is not yet settled. 
 
 The surface consists chiefly of vast level plains, covered with 
 grass or thickly wooded, and arid sandy deserts ; the latter, 
 however, have been found, by the dear-bought discoveries of 
 Burke and "Wills in 18G0, to be less numerous and extensive 
 than was formerly supposed. There are several detached 
 chains of mountains near the coast. The principal is in the 
 south-east, where the Australian Alps extend northwards from 
 Bass Strait, at about 40 miles from the shore. Some of the 
 peaks, as Mounts Hotham and Kosciusko, rise about 6500 feet 
 high, and are covered with snow for a great part of the year. 
 Farther north the chain continues, under the name of the 
 Blue Mountains and Liverpool Range. In "Western Australia, 
 near the coast, are ranges of low mountains, extending inland 
 about 300 miles, and forming an elevated table-land. The 
 highest summit is about 5000 feet high. -Other small chains 
 occur in South Australia. 
 
 Australia, considering its great extent, possesses fewer navig- 
 able rivers than any other part of the world. The principal 
 and only river of any size is the Murray River, rising in the 
 Australian Alps, and flowing west into Encounter Bay. It is 
 about 1100 miles long, and is navigable for a considerable dis- 
 tance. It receives, on the north bank, the Darling, and the 
 Murrumlidrjee, with its affluent the Lachlan. On the eastern 
 coast are numerous small rivers, rising in the mountains and 
 
 Exebcises on the Map — Australia. — How is Australia separated 
 from New Guinea? From Tasmania? What sea is on the north-east? 
 What ocean on the east? What ocean on the west? What large gulf 
 is on the north 2 What large river flows into the ocean on the south ? 
 
 In what zone is the northern part of Australia? In what zone is the 
 southern part ? What large islands lie to the south-east ? What islands 
 lie to the north-west? What colonies are in the east of Australia ? In 
 the south ? In the west ? Between what colonies is Bass Straits ?' 
 
OCEANICA. 
 
 85 
 
 flowing east ; but they are naturally small, and of little im- 
 portance, owing to the proximity of the mountains to the 
 coast. In South Australia are several large lakes — Torrens, 
 Gairdner, and Gregory. 
 
 Australia is very compact in form, the only great indenta- 
 tions being the Gulf of Carpentaria, on the north, and almost 
 opposite, on the south, the Great Australian Bight. Besides 
 these are — on the east, Hcrvey Bay, opposite Great Sandy 
 Island, Morton Bay, and Port Jackson; on the south, Port 
 Philip, Encounter Bay, and St Vincent and Spencer Gulfs; 
 on the west, Geographe and Shark Bays, and Cambridge Gulf; 
 and on the north, Gulf of Van Bicmcn, opposite Melville 
 Island, and Melville and Castlereagh Bays. 
 
 Along the north-eastern coast, at a, distance of about 40 
 miles from the shore, the Great Barrier Beef a submarine 
 wall of coral, extends for a distance of 1200 miles. Australia 
 is separated from New Guinea by Torres Strait, and from Tas- 
 mania by Bass Strait. 
 
 The principal capes are — York, BToice, Wilson, Lecurin, and 
 Steep Point. Cape York Peninsula forms the eastern side of 
 the Gulf of Carpentaria. 
 
 The principal islands are — Melville and Bathurst, in the north- 
 west ; Groote Eiland, in the Gulf of Carpentaria ; Great Sandy 
 Island, in the west ; King Island, in Bass Straits ; and Kan- 
 garoo Island, near St Vincent Gulf. 
 
 The climate of Australia is various. The northern part of 
 the island is within the tropics, and is subject to the tropical 
 rains ; while the southern part, in the temperate zone, is very 
 dry and warm, but healthy. The seasons are exactly opposite 
 to those in North America — midsummer being in December, 
 and midwinter in June. Almost all the European fruits and 
 grains grow in abundance ; but the greater part of the country 
 is better adapted for pasturage. Vast herds of sheep are 
 reared, and wool forms one of the great staple exports of the 
 country. Australia also abounds in minerals, as iron, coal, 
 copper, lead, and tin ; but the most important of all are the 
 extremely rich gold mines or diggings, in Victoria and New 
 South "Wales. They were only discovered in 1851, and have 
 since surpassed the richest previously known in the world. 
 
 The native animals and vegetation are altogether different 
 from those of any other part of the world. Gum trees and 
 acacias are the principal trees, and yield valuable timber ; and 
 among the plants there is scarcely one useful for food. The 
 animals are peculiar, being nearly all marsupial, or provided 
 with pouches, in which to carry their young, a3 the kangaroo 
 and the opossum. The emeu, or moa, a large bird like an 
 ostrich, and other remarkable birds peculiar to Australia, are 
 now rapidly becoming extinct. 
 
 The native population belong to the Papuan or Austral- 
 negro race. They are very degraded, are nearly black, short 
 in stature, and repulsive in appearance. They live on roots, 
 shell-fish, and other similar substances. They have also been 
 in the habit of attacking the "runs" or pasturages of the 
 colonists, and have thus come into conflict with them; but 
 are otherwise inoffensive. They are now rapidly disappearing. 
 
 Australia, formerly called New Holland, was discovered by 
 the Spaniards and Dutch in 1606. The first British settlement 
 
 was made at Sydney in 1788, and was originally a penal settle- 
 ment. Since then all the island has belonged to Britain ; and 
 especially since the discovery of the gold-fields, it has advanced 
 very rapidly in population, wealth, and commerce. The im- 
 ports now amount to about 130,000,000 dols., and exports to 
 125,000,000. 
 
 The government of each of the colonies is the same as in the 
 British North American provinces, and consists of a governor 
 and executive council, with a legislative council and assembly 
 elected by the people. The governor of New South Wales 
 takes the precedence. 
 
 New South "Wales is the oldest colony, having been founded 
 in 1787. It is traversed on the east by the Blue Mountains 
 and Liverpool Range. Most of the largest rivers rise in these 
 mountains ; and around their sources, on the west side of the 
 mountains, are the valuable gold-fields. 
 
 Sydney, (100,000,) on Port Jackson, is the capital. It ex- 
 ports large quantities of gold and wool, and was the first 
 British settlement in Australia. Five miles to the south is 
 Botany Bay, formerly a penal settlement. Bathurst and Goul- 
 bnm are centres of the mining districts. Navcastle, on the 
 Hunter Biver, is a seaport. 
 
 Victoria, founded in 1836, occupies the south-eastern part 
 of the island, and is traversed on the east by the Australian 
 Alps, and some small ranges of hills on the west. The 
 remainder is level, and well adapted for pasturage. It 
 possesses also rich gold-fields. 
 
 Melbourne, (100,000, ) on the Bay of Port Philip, at the mouth 
 of the Yarra River, is the capital. It was only founded in 
 1837, has risen rapidly, and now has very extensive commerce. 
 Geelong (25,000) is also on Port Philip, 45 miles from Mel- 
 bourne. Ballarat and Castlemaine are considerable towns in 
 the mining districts. 
 
 Queensland is a large colony, to the north of New South 
 Wales, but is yet thinly peopled. It was formerly the More- 
 ton Bay district of New South Wales, but was made a separ- 
 ate colony in 1859. Brisbane, (13,000,) the capital, is at the 
 mouth of the Brisbane Biver, flowing into Moreton Bay. 
 
 South Australia is an important agricultural country, and 
 possesses very valuable copper mines. A range of hills extends 
 northwards along the eastern shore of St Vincent Gulf, and 
 several smaller detached ranges occur in the south. It con- 
 tains also several large lakes, Torrens, Gairdner and Gregory. 
 Grain is exported to the neighboring colonies, besides large 
 quantities of copper and wool to Europe. Adelaide, (35,000,) 
 the capital, is near the eastern shore of St Vincent Gulf. The 
 chief copper mines are the Burra Burra, 35 miles north-east 
 of the Gulf of St Vincent, and Kapunda, 40 miles to the 
 north-west. 
 
 Western Australia is the largest colony in the island, but 
 is yet unexplored, except along the coast, and contains only 
 about 20,000 inhabitants. Perth, the capital, is on the Swan 
 River, on the west coast. 
 
 Bxebcises on the Map— Australia, &c— How is New South Wales 
 hounded' What river separates it from Victoria? What rivers flow 
 through it? How is Sydney situated? How is Victoria bounded? 
 How is Melbourne situated ? In what direction from Melbourne is 
 
 Sydney ? What part of the island does Queensland occupy ? How is 
 Brisbane situated ? In what direction from it is Sydney ? What 
 colonies does South Australia adjoin on the east ? In what direction 
 from Melbourne 1 How is Hobart Town situated » 
 
 F 
 
86 
 
 OCEANICA. 
 
 What is the area of Australia ? 
 Population! Size? Describe Aus- 
 tralia. To whom does it belong? 
 How is it divided ? Point out the 
 divisions on the map. Describe 
 the surface. The principal moun- 
 tains. Trace them on the map. 
 What is said of the rivers of Aus- 
 tralia? Describe the principal. 
 Trace its course on the map. 
 What lakes are in Australia? 
 Point them out on the map. De- 
 scribe the outline of Australia. 
 Mame the principal bays,&c. Point 
 them out on the map. What is on 
 the north-western coast ? Name 
 the principal straits. Point them 
 out on the map. Name the princi- 
 pal capes. Point them out on the 
 map. Name the principal islands. 
 Point them out on the map. De- 
 scribe the climate of Australia. 
 The seasons. The soil and pro- 
 ducts. The minerals. What is 
 said of the gold mines ? Describe 
 
 the native vegetation. The ani- 
 mals. The people. What historical 
 account of Australia is given? 
 What is said of the progress of the 
 country ? Describe the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Describe New South Wales. How 
 is it situated ? Describe the chief 
 towns. Point them out on the map, 
 and describe their positions. 
 
 Describe Victoria. How is it 
 situated ? Describe the chief towns. 
 Point them out on the map, and 
 describe their positions. 
 
 Describe Queensland. How is 
 it situated? Describe the chief 
 town, and point it out on the map. 
 Describe South Australia. How 
 is it situated ? Describe the chief 
 towns. Point them out on the 
 map, and describe their positions. 
 Describe Western Australia. 
 How is it situated ? Describe the 
 capital, and point it out on the 
 map. 
 
 TASMANIA. 
 
 Tasmania, or Van DrEMEN's Land, is an island lying to the 
 south-east of Australia, from which it is separated by Bass 
 Strait. It is nearly as large as New Brunswick. The surface 
 is hilly, and the coast indented with fine bays and harbors. 
 The climate is mild and healthy, and the soil fruitful. 
 
 Hobart Town, (21,500,) the capital, is on the River Derwent, 
 flowing into Storm Bay, on the south-east of the island. It is 
 beautifully situated, being surrounded by hills. 
 
 Launceston is on the north side of the island, on the River 
 
 Tamar, which flows into Bass Strait. 
 
 How is Tasmania situated ? I the chief towns, and point them 
 What is its size ? Describe the out on the map. 
 surface. Climate, &c. Describe [ 
 
 NEW ZEALAND. 
 
 New Zealand consists of two large islands, and several 
 smaller ones, lying about 1100 miles south-east of Australia. 
 They are called North Island, or New Ulster, and Middle 
 Island, or New Munster ; and are separated by Cook's Strait. 
 South Island, also called Stewart Island, and sometimes New 
 Leinster, is small, and is separated from Middle Island by 
 Foveaux Strait. The area is about the same as that of Great 
 Britain and Ireland. Along the west coast of both of the large 
 islands extends an elevated chain of mountains, many of their 
 peaks covered with perpetual snow. Mount Egmont, in North 
 Island, is nearly 9000 feet high, and other peaks rise still 
 higher. There are a number of small rivers, some of them 
 navigable. The climate is mild and healthy, and the soil 
 fertile, producing most of the grains and fruits of Southern 
 Europe. There is scarcely any native vegetation, and there are 
 very few animals. The taro, sweet potato, and flax are culti- 
 vated, and sheep are extensively reared for their wool. 
 
 The population is about 175,000, of which 55,000 are natives. 
 These are called Maories, and are of the Malay race — a tall, 
 well-formed, intelligent race, brave and determined in war, 
 in which they are often engaged with the British colonists. 
 
 New Zealand is divided into nine provinces. In North 
 Island are Auckland, with a capital of the same name ; Tara- 
 
 naki, with New Plymouth, the capital ; Bawke Bay, capital, 
 Napier ; and Wellington, with a capital of the same name. In 
 Middle Island are Marlborough, with Picton and Blenheim; 
 Nelson, with Nelson, the chief place ; Canterbury, with Christ- 
 church; Otago, with Dunedin, near which are valuable gold- 
 fields ; and Southland, with Bivarton and Invercargill. 
 
 Norfolk Island, to the north of New Zealand, was formerly 
 a penal settlement, but now belongs to the Pitcairn islanders. 
 
 Chatham, Antipodes, (so called from being the land most 
 nearly opposite to Great Britain in the southern hemisphere,) 
 Auckland, and other Islands to the south-east of New Zealand, 
 are stations for the South-Sea whale and seal fishery. 
 
 Of what does New Zealand con- 
 sist ? How are the islands named, 
 and how separated ? Describe the 
 size. Surface. Mountains. Rivers. 
 Climate. Soil, Ac. What is said 
 of vegetation ? Of the population ? 
 How is New Zealand divided? 
 
 Name the provinces and their 
 capitals. Point them out on the 
 map, and describe where they are 
 situated. Describe Norfolk Island. 
 What other islands are mentioned ? 
 Where are they situated? Tor 
 what are they useful ? 
 
 PAPUA, OR NEW GUINEA. 
 
 Papua, or New Guinea, is a large island, about half 
 the size of Canada, situated to the north of Australia, 
 from which it is separated by Torres Strait. It lies 
 directly under the equator. 
 
 On some parts of the coast it is mountainous, but the in- 
 terior is still unexplored. It is not possessed by any civilized 
 nation, and 'is visited only by the Chinese and Malays for 
 trypang and edible birds'-nests. The beautiful bird of paradise 
 is a native of the island. 
 
 The numerous groups of islands lying to the east of New 
 Guinea and Australia are but little known. The principal are 
 Admiralty Islands, New Ireland, New Britain, Louisiade 
 Archipelago, Solomon Islands, Queen Charlotte Islands, New 
 Hebrides, and New Caledonia. 
 
 The French have possessed New Caledonia since 1854. 
 
 Describe New Guinea. Where I What other islands belong to 
 is it situated ? Describe the sur- Australasia ? Point them out on 
 face, &c. Its productions. What the map. Which island do the 
 bird is a native of the country ? [ French possess ? 
 
 POLYNESIA. 
 Polynesia is the name given to the vast number of 
 islands scattered over the Pacific Ocean, chiefly within 
 30° north and south of the equator. The larger islands 
 are volcanic, but most of the smaller ones have been 
 produced by the labors of the coral insect. 
 
 The principal groups north of the equator are — the Ladrone, 
 or Marianne, Pelew, Caroline, Marshall, Gilbert, and Sandwich 
 Islands. South of the equator are the Feejee, Friendly, or 
 Tonga, Navigator's or Samoa, Cook's or Harvey, and Society 
 Islands, the Low Archipelago, and Marquesas Islands. 
 
 The coral islands are generally very small, and are raised 
 but a few feet above the level of the ocean. They are often 
 semicircular in shape, with a lagoon of still water between the 
 land and the reefs. Those of volcanic formation are moun- 
 tainous, covered with luxuriant verdure, and with rich and 
 fertile valleys, as the Marquesas, Society, and Sandwich 
 
 Exercises on the Map — Australia, &c. — How many large islands 
 are comprised in New Zealand ? How are North and Middle Island 
 separated ? How is Auckland situated ? In what direction from New 
 Zealand is Norfolk Island ? What island is half-way between Norfolk 
 
 Island and Sydney 1 Where is Poveaux Strait ? Where is Wellington 1 
 Dunedin ? Bay of Plenty ? New Plymouth ? Three Kings Islands » 
 Mount Egmont ? In what direction from New Zealand are the Chatham 
 Islands ? New Hebrides ? 
 
OCEANICA. 
 
 87 
 
 Islands. In Hawaii, one of the latter group, there are two 
 volcanic mountains, rising upwards of 13,000 feet in height. 
 Although these islands are nearly all within the torrid zones 
 the climate is delightful and healthy, being tempered by tho 
 sea breezes. The soil is remarkable for its fertility, and pro- 
 duces the cocoa-palm, bread-fruit, plantains, bananas, yams, 
 and other tropical trees and fruits. 
 
 The natives are chiefly of the Malay race, and are well-made, 
 and active ; differing greatly, however, in disposition, being 
 mild and hospitable in some islands, and in others fierce and 
 treacherous. The Feejee Islands, as well as the Papuan Archi- 
 pelago, are inhabited by the Austral-negro race, who are among 
 the lowest and most degraded inhabitants of the world. In 
 the Feejee Islands they are still addicted to cannibalism. 
 
 The Sandwich and Society Islands are the most important 
 groups in Polynesia, and their inhabitants have made the 
 greatest advances in civilization. The Sandwich Islands have 
 a population of over 07,000. They are greatly under the in- 
 fluence of the United States. They are regularly visited by 
 whaling and other vessels, and trade in their own ships with 
 America and China. Otchyhee, or Hawaii, is the largest island, 
 and it was there that Captain Cook, the discoverer, was killed. 
 HonoJvhi. (7000,) on one of the smaller islands, is the capital. 
 
 The largest of the Society Islands is Tahiti, or Otaheite. It 
 contains a population of 10,000, and is memorable as the place 
 where the mutiny of the Bon at if occurred. Pitcaim Island, 
 where the mutineers settled, is south-east of the Low Archi- 
 pelago. The Society Islands are now under the control of 
 France. 
 
 What is comprised in Polynesia? 
 Describe the islands. Name the 
 principal. Point them out on the 
 map, and state how they are situ- 
 ated. Describe the coral islands. 
 The volcanic islands. "What is 
 said of Hawaii ? Describe the cli- 
 mate. The soil and products. 
 The natives. What is said of the 
 
 Feejee Islands and others ? Which 
 are the most important groups ? 
 Describe the Sandwich Islands. 
 Point them out on the map. Name 
 the principal island and the capital. 
 Describe the latter. Describe the 
 principal of the Society Islands. 
 Describe Pitcairn Island. Point 
 them out on the map. 
 
 ANTARCTICA. 
 
 This name is given to several extensive tracts of 
 land supposed to form a Southern Continent, and a 
 number of islands, which of late years have been dis- 
 covered in the Antarctic Ocean. 
 
 The principal tract of land is South Victoria, lying to the 
 south of New Zealand ; discovered in 1840 by Sir James Ross. 
 It is covered with glaciers and perpetual snow, and has lofty 
 mountains along the coast. Its most striking feature is the 
 great volcano, Mount Erebus, 12,400 feet high, the flames of 
 which rise high above its crater, and throw a fearful light over 
 these desolate regions, presenting a grand and awe-inspiring 
 spectacle. Farther east is Mount Terror, another volcano, 
 nearly 11,000 feet high. Both are named from the exploring 
 ships, Erebus and Terror. "West of these is the south magnetic 
 pole. 
 
 The other principal tracts are Adelia and Sabrina Lands, 
 south of Australia; farther west, Enderby and Kemp Lands, 
 south of Madagascar ; and Graham Land, GOO miles south of 
 Cape Horn. Round the coast of Graham Land are numerous 
 islands — the South Shetland, South Orkney, South Georgian- 
 Islands, and others. Besides these, there is also a large 
 number of small islands lying much farther north, but par- 
 taking of the same cold, barren, and desolate character. They 
 are chiefly volcanic in formation. Their shores are frequented 
 by the albatross and vast numbers of penguins ; and seals and 
 whales abound in the neighboring seas. The principal are — 
 Tristan da Cunha, Prince Edward, Marion, Crozefs, Kergue- 
 leu, Amsterdam, St Paul's, and Macquaric Islands. 
 
 What is comprised under the 
 name Antarctica ? Describe the 
 principal tract of land. Point it 
 out on the map, (the World.) What 
 are its most striking features '! 
 What is situated in this tract ? 
 
 Name the other tracts of land. 
 Point them out on the map. Name 
 the principal islands near these 
 tracts of land. Describe them. 
 Point them out on the map, and 
 describe their situations. 
 
 Exeecises os the Map— The World.— In what ocean are the Poly- 
 nesian Islands situated ? In what zone do they lie ? Point out the 
 principal groups north of the Equator. South of it ? Which is the 
 principal of the Sandwich Islands? In what direction from San Fran- 
 
 cisco are they ? In what direction from them is New Zealand ? Japan ? 
 What is the most southern land called ? In what ocean is it situated ? 
 Point out two volcanoes in Antarctica. Describe them. In what zone 
 is Antarctica principally situated? 
 
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