*r^v *^-jrf» S*' : #£ ^2 it £•*." 'i - ^?j s r " *?&■«■ As » '■Jr&Ffe ifej LB tyatmll Itttocrattg Sahtarg Jtljara, Jf em fork jL.L6./>..a-ty./to£:&. UriTE DUE ,"i >1 kod 0:1 Nm L.2 1953 HO .MP SB ! U MAY Ati R RAPR2/^ Cornell University Library LB1607 .N84 A comparison of tendencies in secondary olin 3 1924 032 709 978 A COMPARISON OF TENDENCIES IN SECONDARY EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AND THE UNITED STATES By James William Norman Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Philosophy Columbia University C- I 3-l West desires political and economic studies for "their revelation of the fundamental laws of government and business." Flexner desires a study of industries and of civics for a clearer "understanding of the social and industrial foundations of life." Both men believe in history but with this difference: West stresses ancient history, while Flexner would lay chief emphasis upon an understanding of the present. This foreshadows the main difference in the position of the two men. West is an ardent advocate of Latin and Greek while Flexner accords them no place in the modern school. Flexner would, however, have the classics taught in translation. [171, Vol. 25, p. 285.] Flexner and West are both in favor of modern languages. Flexner mentions music and art. West mentions neither. Both would of course give a place to the mother-tongue. With this analysis and comparison one feels justified in concluding that both these men are in favor of a curriculum whose chief pur- pose is social welfare. The New York Times [204, July 6, 1919] comparing West's posi- tion with that of H. G. Wells reaches a conclusion almost identical with the one just presented, that is, that the positions are not as dissimilar as they seem. "The American Classical League," says the Times, "in which Dean West is a leading force holds that education worthy of the name 'involves training of the mind, not for the sake of money, place, or power, but in order to develop our boys and girls to their highest mental and moral excellence, to make them masters in thought and expression!' From such a statement," continues the Times, "to the educational theories of H. G. Wells may seem a far cry. But is it? In his recent pam- phlet on 'The Elements of Reconstruction' Wells says: 'The Selection of Content 119 antagonism of science versus the classics in education is perhaps the most mischievous, and certainly the silliest, of all confusions of issue.' The clear issue is that we shall know 'about the mind of man, the purpose of his life, the nature of the universe.' Is not this also humanism?" Whatever else may be said its main purpose is to select subject matter according to social values. This is seen still more clearly in what follows: "The humanism of Wells," continues the Times, "is concerned less with the study of dead languages than the clas- sicists would perhaps desire. His idea is that mankind shall study man directly, in the closest possible contact. 'Philosophy; the history of the world from its problematic beginnings to the present; the story that physical science has to teach — ethnology and archaeology, anatomy, embryology, biology; these, together with the social sciences that necessarily spring out of historical and biological teaching, constitute and alone can constitute the liberal education which must be the substance of a nation's culture.' This is the essence of humanism." It seems, therefore, from these two comparisons that it is agreed that social values, human interests, human relationships and human needs will be the dominating principles by which sub- ject matter will be selected in the future both in England and America. Social Studies Becoming Prominent From considerations of this nature certain writers believe that "the lesson we all need to learn is a lesson taught by some broad social science," and are advocating "that the curriculum be made over so that the individual studies shall radiate from and center about a study of society." [99, 161.] Judd recommends that we add to training in the liberal and industrial arts a third and more comprehen- sive kind of education. This inclusive education is to give to each indi- vidual knowledge of his fellows who work in other spheres. This inclusive education is to offer to each member of society a view of his own place in the scheme of national life. Seeing himself, the individual will see also others and there will grow up in all minds thus trained a sympathy broader than that which comes from cultivation of either the industrial arts or the liberal arts. . . . It is the duty of our people to know themselves and be unsparing in detecting their own failures and wise in evaluating their 120 Secondary Education in England and the United States own successes. In order that this may be possible there must be a steady conscious effort to instill into the thinking of every child an appreciation of society and its structure. Whatever else may be true it seems that this is the standard to which all educational movements eventually return, and "each revival of the humanistic spirit has been the result of a new revela- tion of the way in which men living together may master the world" for human ends. [99, 161.] Judd's reason for advocating such a change is that he would like to see "the children in the lower schools taught about the work and interest of their fellows. I should like to have every boy and girl know that the federal government is not made up merely of Congress and the President and the Supreme Court, but that there are at Washington great economic agencies in the Department of Agriculture and in the Department of the In- terior which are transforming the United States from a frontier into a productive civilized land where men may live and the arts flourish." [99, 161.] It is coming to be realized that any subject that is worth teaching at all may and should be taught so as to attain this end. The social sciences on account of their peculiar position in a socialized curriculum have within the last two decades come into very great prominence in the United States and bid fair to rank with English as the two leading subjects in the curriculum of the American secondary schools. To meet the needs of democracy in politics, in economics, and civic enlightenment is their definite purpose. A frequently expressed aim of history is to throw light on the present, and in the hands of the most advanced his- tory teachers it becomes a study of the present interpreted in the light of the past. The other social sciences are a direct study of the present. These studies are fundamental to the development of the new conception of humanism because they touch life at every point. The reason for thinking that the social sciences will be prominent in the future is that everybody in the United States, and to an extent also in England, seems to accord them a place in the curricu- lum. It was shown above that both Flexner and West give them a prominent place in the curriculum. Judd's position has already been given. Others take the same position. Selection of Content 121 The process of socialization will require greater emphasis on the social studies in our schools. The linguistic-mathematical core of the classical curriculum must give way to a social core. It is not to be supposed that the languages and mathematics will not find a place in the socialized cur- riculum but merely that their place should be subordinated to social studies in point of emphasis and requirement. . . Furthermore since mutual dependence has become the central feature of oursociety the central feature of our school course should be the studies most directly fitted to develop the spirit of cooperation necessary to live and become efficient under such conditions. Community civics and government, history, and economics, and such phases of psychology and sociology as deal with vocational fitness and the analysis of ordinary social problems must be elaborated, applied to actual social conditions, and made to function in the formation of social aptitudes and the stimulation of social service. [172, July 13, 1918, p. 38.] President Butler thinks [33, 68] that Ethics, Economics and Politics must lie at the heart of an effective education which has learned the lessons of the war. To these all other forms of instruction are either introductory and ancillary, or complementary and interpretative. Literature, history, art, and philosophy will continue to preside over them all. . The doctrine of reconciliation between Ethics and Economics will include a study of how men have attempted to find ways and means of living to- gether in harmony and helpfulness, how far they have succeeded, in what respects and to what extent they have failed, and how they may carry forward the great experiment of their own time to more fortunate results by making ethics, economics and politics not three distinct and mutually exclusive or contradictory disciplines but rather three aspects of one and the same discipline which is that of human life. In an investigation which occurred recently in the Xew York Times [May 25, 19 19], facts were given to substantiate the claims that in the colleges of the United States, "stress is being laid on the course which makes for better citizenship and service to the state rather than academic scholarship." l The same tendency is evident in secondary schools, already history ranks third in num- ber of students enrolled. [208, 1917, p. 14.] English literature and rhetoric rank first and second, respectively. When one con- siders the fact that a short time ago Columbia College discontin- 1 Of course it should be maintained that a pursuit of such studies does not pre- clude the acquisition of scholarship, for these studies advance scholarship as certainly as anything else. 122 Secondary Education in England and the United States ued its practice of requiring Latin or Greek either for entrance or for graduation and has recently established a general information course in the social sciences, this course to be required of all freshmen, it seems at least an indication that the center of gravity- is shifting from the classics to social sciences. English has for some time in many places in the United States been the only sub- ject required of all students, but it is being seriously proposed in many places that a certain amount of social sciences should be required of all students in the high school. The social sciences have not developed such a prominent place for themselves in England, but the English are beginning to recog- nize their importance. The following quotation shows an atti- tude similar to that in America. "No sane man wishes to destroy the intellectual discipline of school studies, or imagines that complete comprehension of the industrial and political world is within the range of school boys; but the question may be asked seriously whether attention should be directed more fully to the way in which this civilization of ours has arisen, to the great social movements and recent triumphs of recent years, and to the immediate problems which will require special knowledge, fine temper, and trained judgment for their solution." [5I-447-] It is not the aim in the United States to give a "complete comprehension" but the "aim of community civics is to help the child to know his community life, what it does for him and how it does it, what the community has a right to expect from him and how he may fulfill his obligations, meanwhile cultivating in him the essential qualities and habits of good citizenship." [127, 699.] According to the Regulation for Secondary Schools for 191 8 in England, history is the only one of the social sciences that has a place in the curriculum, but much of what is accomplished in the United States by the social sciences is attempted in England by modern languages, or "Modern Studies" as they are now called. The definition of such studies that was given by the Committee to Inquire into the Position of Modern Languages in the Educational System of Great Britain follows [43, p. xxiii]: "We shall use the term 'Modern Studies' to signify all those studies (historical, economic, literary, critical, philological, and others) which are directly approached through modern foreign languages. 'Mod- Selection of Content 123 ern Studies' are thus the study of modern people in any and every aspect of their national life of which the languages are an instrument as necessary as hands, and feet, and heart, and head." It is thought that a simple study of the languages is no longer sufficient for the needs of modern international democracy. The Committee itself explains its position [43, 16]: "The study and practice of the use of language as a fine art is an admirable school of thought and taste. The study of literature, critical, aesthetic, or scientific, should not fail to develop imaginative sympathy, and it is one of the principal avenues to the knowledge of a foreign people. But the study of words as words, of language as lan- guage, of books as books, and the art of the language for its own sake, even altogether, form too limited an objective for Modern Studies at the university. These studies should be in the widest sense historical, and embrace a comprehensive view of all the larger manifestations of the past and present life of the people selected for study." [43, 16.] "Thus treated, the history and literature of a modern people may do for our own pupils what the literature of Greece and Rome have done for many generations of their most enlightened ancestors." [43, 30.] "The pupils who elect to specialize in Modern Studies should not confine them- selves to authors whose merit has been approved by time. They should read chiefly the best but the new as well as the old. . . . If they read the authors from various periods with a receptive mind they will insensibly acquire that important part of historical knowledge which consists in familiarity with the manners, the ways of thought, the ideals, and all the atmosphere of a people as conveyed by its literature. But they should also receive by instruction the continuous story of the people since it began to be a people." [43, 29.] The Times Educational Supplement [203, October 24, 1918] dreads the "possible degradation of modern languages to com- mercial and utilitarian purposes, no imaginary danger," but although the Committee claims that Modern Studies "subserve the purpose of industry and commerce" [43, 8] they make it plain that "it will not suffice to base the claims of Modern Studies solely on the practical needs of individuals or even of the nation. We need an ideal such as inspires the highest classical studies. The best work will never be done with an eye to material profit." [43. 16.] 124 Secondary Education in England and the United States In the United States there is a similar belief. "The study of foreign languages does not always, but it ought, do a great deal towards widening the mental horizon and deepening the intel- lectual life of the learner." [172, March 9, 1918, p. 279.] One other quotation will be sufficient to show the American position. "When a boy studies literary style, I would have him learn that language is the product of social living. I would have him think of the influence which spoken and written words exercise in moving men to action. I would have him study the printing- press and the United States mails. I would have him realize that without the mechanical appliances of modern life there could be no books or journals. The trouble with the present study of words is that very often the pupil has no outlook on the social group which is held together by language." [99, 161.] The Content of the Course in Science Selected for Its Social Value The same conception seems to be behind the teaching of science both in England and the United States. There are, to be sure, a few ardent enthusiasts of science who think of it simply for its utilitarian value. Then there are others who recognize that there are both useful and cultural elements in science and that it should be taught in such a way that each of these values may be attained. In other words, science must serve a higher motive than commercial and trade relations. Benson says [15, 134-5] that "there is something horrible and terrifying in the doctrine so often preached, reiterated of course by speaker after speaker at the 'Neglect of Science' meeting, that science is to be preferred because of its utility. If the choice were between dead classics and dead science, or if science is to be vivified by an infusion of a commercial utilitarian spirit, then a thousand times rather let us keep to the classics as the staple of education." 1 On the other hand, the scientist claims that "it is hard to get into the mind of the classical headmaster the fact that the man of science is fight- ing for the broadening of the basis of education." [203, May 2, 1916, p. 61.] 1 Since this was written, however, the ultra-radical claims of science as well as of all subjects have been toned down by the conferences which resulted in the production of Sir F. G. Kenyon's book, Education, Scientific and Humane. Selection of Content 125 Matthew Arnold, long ago when the controversy between the classicists and the scientists first became acute, made the state- ment that "so long as the realists persist in cutting in two the circle of knowledge so long do they leave for practical purposes the better portion to their rivals, and in the government of human affairs their rivals will beat them." [138a, 165.] There seems to be a growing realization that this is the case. For "all would agree that 'humanistic' studies should be scientific and 'scientific' studies humane." [173,389.] It is now thought that the facts of science "become significant and even useful only when they are used to illuminate a right view of the purpose of the life of man." [203, March 7, 1916, p. 33.] Natural science should, therefore, not be substituted for the "humanistic" studies but should be complementary to them. [110,11.] The Committee on Science complained that "much is given to a narrow classical education that does not lead to national service" [203, April 18, 1918, p. 169] and it was their belief that "a better service can be done and a like refreshment gained by those whom we hope to see educated on the wider lines, laid down in our Report. The humanizing influence of the subject has too often been obscured. We are, however, confident that the teaching of science must be vivified by a development of its human interest side by side with its material and mechanical aspects, and that while it should be valued as the bringer of prosperity or power to the individual or the nation, it must never be divorced from those literary and historical studies which touch most naturally the heart and the hopes of mankind." [44, 19.] The Committee says later in the Report [44, 23] that "up to the age of 16, the Science taught should be kept as closely connected with human interests as possible." Therefore, instead of a conflict between the human- ities and sciences, science has now been included among the humanistic studies, because it touches life at all points, [no, 5.] This conception is also brought out in the following statement [203, March 7, 1916 p. 33] "Science may be a way of seeing the wonder and glory of the universe, or it may be a way of making money, or it may be merely making 'stinks.' We want it to be the first of these and not the second and third ; but we want every- thing else to be the first of these also." To accomplish these purposes science will not be taught simply as so many facts and experiments for the pupil to perform but the 126 Secondary Education in England and the United States influence of science on civilization will be a chief part of the study of science. For it is thought that "all branches of science can be taught so as to indicate the principles of scientific method, and thus secure a proper scientific training. If, therefore, the work in addition have a definite direct relation to the present day life of man, so much the better." [51 , 448.] This will give the pupil an insight into the part that science may play in producing progress. The lives of great scientists and how they went about their work will be a legitimate part of the course, thus giving a compre- hensive conception of scientific method. "Read Archimedes. Read the researches of the heroes of science. Read Faraday's papers. Take his papers on electrolysis and mark the long pro- cession of experiments, the number and wonder of the stuffs, the diversity of methods, the trials, failures, uncertainties, doubts and suggestions, the atmosphere of discovery. Read his electro- magnetic researches and watch the belief, patience, openness of mind, inventiveness." [117, 213-14.] Such a study would be humanistic in the truest sense of the term. Science in America has similar aims. " The indispensable counterpart of science teaching as a means of grace and growth is the master calling of living, in both of its aspects the individual and the collective." [172, Vol. 7, p. 662.] "The expansion of the course upward into the study of life — and especially of man and his relation to his environment — is a big step in advance." [150a, 707.] "The aim is to familiarize the pupil with his environment and with the laws which govern the world ; to teach him principles by a study of natural forms, that he may be master not only of himself, but of the resources supplied him." [92a, 796.] "It is to be studied in institutions like this which aim at contributing to the perfecting of the individual, not because it helps to explain the world we live in, to make nature more intelligible, and to teach the pupil to grasp one kind of truth." [172, July 20, 1917, p. 62.] "They need less the scientific thinking of meditation; they need most the scientific thinking of participation in the fundamental activities of modern life." [10, 11.] The whole "General Science" movement may be said to be an attempt to give as far as possible a rational, orderly, scientific understanding of the pupil's environment. If it is to be a course in general science the human and social element is to be the unify- ing factor around which the course is organized. It is not to be a Selection of Content 127 •selection of bits from various sciences. It is thought that no longer should the attempt be made to make every one a scientist but to give him an appreciation of his environment. Content of the Course in Manual Training Since the new conception of humanism includes doing as well as knowing, manual training and home economics have both become a part of the curriculum. The reason that manual training and not vocational education has been included as an integral part of the English program of studies is because manual training has come to be considered ' ' an organic part of the edu- cative process." Paton [15, 6] explains this position as follows: "The child. is interested in things. It wants first to sense them, or as Froebel would say 'to make the outer inner'; it wants to play with them, to construct with them and along the line of this inward propulsion the educational process has to act. The 'thing studies' if one may so term them, which have been intro- duced into the curriculum, such as gardening, manual training, (with cardboard, wood, metal), cooking, painting, modeling, games and dramatization, are it is true later introductions, adopted mainly from utilitarian motives; and they have been ingrafted on the original trunk, being first regarded as detestable extras, but they quickly showed that they were an organic part of the real educative process; they have already reacted on the other subjects of the curriculum, and have, in the earlier stages of education become central. . . . All this is part of the most important of all correlations, the correlations of school with life," (Italics not in the original.) The following quotation sounds like formal discipline but behind it the same general idea prevails. "One of the develop- ments which we need is the far freer use of manual and productive work as a means of education in the strictest sense; as a means, that is, of developing human faculty quite irrespective of the practical or commercial value of such faculty when developed." [198, 572.] In the United States manual training is intended to develop social values just the same as other subjects are so intended. "When a boy takes a manual training course, I would not only have him study the tools and materials with which he comes in 128 Secondary Education in England and the United States contact, but I would also have him see that tools and materials are the instruments which human skills have employed in making possible a richer life for the community." [99, 161.] The Content of the Course in Home Economics In home economics there is the same movement, though some deplore the fact that it is not more widespread. In a review of a recent text-book on the subject the reviewer says [172, August 3, 1918, p. 148]: "The pages of this book show clearly that, in general, so-called home economics or domestic science consists essentially of the technical process of cooking and feeding, gar- ment making and repairing, scrubbing and laundry work. There is hardly a hint of the child in the home, of social value, of civic relationships. It is recipes, and more recipes, cooking and more cooking with not a thought given to the intense industrial, com- mercial, civic, political and social changes which in recent years have shaken the very foundations of the home. . . . The same general comment may be made as to the education of girls for industrial and commercial pursuits. The narrow technical training will no longer suffice." Judd's opinion is similar. It is not ability merely to cook and sew that is needed in home economics. It is the human side of cooking and sewing, a "broad outlook which sees in all domestic activity industrial society striving to meet human ends." [99, 163-] The Classics Not Completely Socialized It has frequently been claimed especially by the classicists that the practical tendency of the age is about to destroy the cultural subjects. On the other hand, quite as much complaint has been made that the classics, because they are technically taught, do not render service in giving an insight of rich significance into the present day life of man proportionate to the time spent upon them. They do not give a full life experience. The following quotations show the trend of the thinking: Perhaps no greater mistake in terms is made in our educational practice today than to say that the high school student who has had four years of Latin, three of Greek, four of English, two of ancient and medieval history,, two of mathematics, and one year of mathematical physics has pursued a liberal-culture course of study. As a matter of fact, his course has been Selection of Content 129 narrowly technical in that it leads to but few selected occupations; and he is in no sense liberally educated, for he knows little about the modern world in which he lives. [47, 463. See also 186, 575ff.] The classics in the colleges and universities ought, I believe to be taught far less as they have been in the past years from the point of view of phil- ology, and more from the point of view of humanity, that is, of the thought of men as individuals and as communities, especially in their bearing upon present day civilization. [216a, 167.] Those in whose keeping the classics are placed must fix their minds much more on matters of human interests, human conduct, and human feeling, and much less on matters of technical linguistic accuracy and skill. [33, 76.] It is, therefore, fair to contend that the classics are not the only means through which humanism may be acquired, that although comparative philology may have been the first it is not the last word in humanism. Since the social sciences and English by their very nature are best suited to the kind of treatment here represented, it is prob- able that they will constitute the leading subjects in the curricu- lum of the future. The classics are certainly losing ground both in England and in the United States, if the fact that both Oxford and Cambridge in England, and Yale and Princeton, the two strongest representatives of classical instruction in the United States, are receding from their strict requirements in Latin and Greek, is any indication. One need only make a comparison of the number of teachers of these subjects with their full classrooms with the number of teachers of other subjects with their enrol- ment, to see the drift of the times in the colleges and universities. The secondary schools sooner or later usually follow the lead of the higher schools. It seems certain, therefore, that in the future social studies will be prominent and that all others, whatever their chief characteristics may be, must be made to contribute to the dominant philosophy of the age, that is, socialization. Certain Phases of Educational Method Demand That Subject Matter Be Socialized Besides the preceding discussion the reasons for believing that subject matter will in the future be selected according to this newer conception of humanism are : (a) The controversy over the doctrine of formal discipline, so far as it relates to the curriculum, 130 Secondary Education in England and the United States is being settled on these lines, (b) The same is true as to the doctrines of interest and effort. These will be discussed in order. One's philosophy of certain phases of educational method may influence the choice of subject matter in several ways. If the doctrine of formal discipline be accepted at its face value the subject matter chosen will be far different from that chosen by one who accepts the contrary belief that subject matter should be closely related to the needs of the pupil. Form will be stressed rather than content. If one accepts the doctrine of effort as opposed to interest the subject matter will be different from that chosen by one who thinks that effort should be reinforced and directed by interest. Also, if one denies in practice that pupils differ radically in their makeup, the content of his curriculum will probably be different in kind, and it will certainly be different in scope. Finally, if the fundamental principle of democracy, that of socialization, be accepted, then the subject matter chosen will reflect the desire to achieve this aim. One of the causes of the failure of the traditional secondary school has been a widespread misunderstanding of the meaning of mental discipline, and in clearing up this misunderstanding one comes around to the view that subject matter should be selected according to the principles already enunciated. This misunder- standing has arisen from two sources. On the one hand, there has been a widespread belief in formal discipline. On the other hand, there has been an erroneous and narrow interpretation of the contrary position. In either case the work of the school has been narrow and specific. Those who have believed in formal discipline have thought that there are certain subjects better suited for the training of the mind than others. Hence they tend to disregard content. As formal discipline has usually gone hand in hand with the traditional curriculum, life in a modern democracy has had little place in the work of the school. Present social and political needs, local, national and international, have not been taken into consideration. The only concern for second- ary education was, so the advocates of formal discipline thought, to bring the mind to a keen cutting edge and all other things would be added unto it. The development of insight into the meaning of present conditions was not a concern. The outcome of this belief was that a few subjects, and they usually of the traditional type, have monopolized the curriculum, and have been taught in Selection of Content 131 a narrowly technical manner. (See quotation from Cubberley above, pp. 128.) It is true that disciplinary values have also been claimed at times for almost every one of the secondary school subjects. Whenever this was done, however, it was prima facie evidence that there is the same lack of connection between the content of these courses and life outside of school, as was noted in the case of the traditional curriculum. The purpose of the teachers of these subjects under such conditions has not been democratic needs but to impart subject matter disassociated from a social content. Whenever this is the case, even literature, art, and religion "are just as narrowing as the technical things which the professional upholders of general education strenuously oppose." [56, 79-] The work of the school will also be inadequate if the opposing position is too narrowly interpreted. The revolt against formal- ism is so strong that the rebound carries far toward a narrow specific discipline. Although the doctrine of formal discipline attacked on the ground that it was devoted too exclusively to a few subjects and they not connected with life's problems, the advocates of specific discipline in trying to be specific have tended to set up aims that could be seen and counted. The needs of the pupil are interpreted to be only the apparent ones. The primary and immediate vocational needs are given undue prominence, and the less obvious needs of living with one's fellows, of taking one's part in the community in which one lives, of developing broad intellectual sympathies, are neglected. Both sides of this controversy are coming more nearly to an agreement that subject matter should be selected for its social values. Traditional studies must be pursued more for the insight they give into social affairs than in the past. Gonzalez Lodge, [120, 111-121] gives a splendid account of the way in which Latin may do this. The specific disciplinists also claim that vocational studies (see analysis of Dewey's position in chapter IV) , home economics and manual training may also do the same thing as was shown above. It seems, therefore, that so far as subject matter is concerned it is agreed that whatever concerns human beings will bring about the most general train- ing. The following from Dewey [56, 77] will make the matter clear : 132 Secondary Education in England and the United States Such powers as observation, recollection, judgment, aesthetic taste, represent organized results of the occupation of native active tendencies with certain subject-matters. A man does not observe closely and fully by pressing a button for the observing faculty to get to work (in other words by 'willing' to observe); but if he has something to do which can be accomplished successfully only through intensive and extensive use of eye and hand, he naturally observes. Observation is an outcome, a con- sequence, of the interaction of sense organ and subject matter. It will vary accordingly, with the subject matter employed. It is consequently futile to set up even ulterior development of faculties of observation, memory, etc., unless we have first determined what sort of subject matter we wish the pupil to become expert in observing and recall- ing and for what purpose. And it is only repeating in another form what has already been said, to declare that the criterion here must be social. We want the person to note and recall and judge those things which make him an effective, competent member of the group in which he is associated with others. Otherwise we might as well set the pupil to observing care- fully cracks on the wall and set him to memorizing meaningless lists of words in an unknown tongue — which is about what we do in fact when we give way to the doctrine of formal discipline. If the observing habit of a botanist or chemist or engineer are better habits than those which are thus formed, it is because they deal with subject matter which is more signifi- cant in life. . Wherever an activity is broad in scope (that is, involves the co- ordinating of a large variety of subactivities) , and is constantly and unex- pectedly obliged to change direction in its progressive development, general education is bound to result. For this is what 'general' means; broad and flexible. In practice, education meets these conditions and hence is general, in the degree in which it takes account of social relation- ships. A person may become expert in technical philosophy, or philology, or mathematics or engineering or financiering, and be inept and ill-advised in his action and judgment outside of his specialty. If, however, his con- cern with these subject matters has been connected with human activities having social breadth, the range of active responses called into play and flexibly integrated is much wider. Isolation of subject matter from a social context is the chief obstruction in current practice to securing a general training of the mind. Dewey finds that the controversy over the relation between interest and effort may be solved in the same way, that is, by selecting subject matter so that it will be relevant to the normal activities of children, which means in the last analysis, that subject matter should be selected for its social values. "The remedy," Selection of Content 133 says Dewey, "is not in finding fault with the doctrine of interest, any more than it is to search for some pleasant bait that may be hitched to the alien material. It is to discover objects and modes of action, which are connected with present powers. The func- tion of this material in engaging activity and carrying it on con- sistently and continuously is its interest. If the material operates in this way there is no call either to hunt for devices which will make it interesting or to appeal to arbitrary, semi-coerced effort." [56, I49-] It seems certain, therefore, that the subjects on which there is agreement of this nature will become prominent in the future. These subjects, or rather main fields, will, it seems now, be lan- guages, English of most importance, social sciences, natural sciences, and vocational subjects, and in each of these the domi- nant aim will be to show its relation to the life of man. In England the social sciences, as such, are not taking such a large part in the secondary schools, but in Modern Studies, as has been shown, the aim is to study the life of the people who speak these languages, both past and present, which is social in its nature. According to the Regulations for Secondary Schools for 191 8 of the English Board of Education the subjects of study are to be: English, at least one language other than English, history and geography, science and mathematics, art and manual training. Just as in the United States these studies are to be pursued for the insight they afford into human relationships. The similarities between the English and American systems are close. The differences are that England values the traditional and the past more than the United States does and does not accord vocational subjects the place that the United States does. CHAPTER VI EDUCATIONAL METHOD It has been shown in a previous chapter (Chapter II) that Eng- land and the United States are attempting to solve the problems of Educational Administration in accordance with democratic principles. In later chapters it was likewise shown that in the organization and selection of the Program of Studies they are attempting to keep the needs of democracy in mind. The third element of the educational trinity — Educational Method — is now to be considered. It too, when rightly conceived, has a part of its own to play in a democratic school system. That is, educational method has a part to play over and above the mere impartation of information. The Function of Educational Method in a Democratic School System To think independently, to meet life's situations unselfishly, to be capable of taking the initiative, to be original, to assume duties and responsibilities, are each and every one qualities which are considered desirable, if not essential in a well-rounded democratic citizenship. It is a correlative function of educational method in a democratic school system to provide a medium and regimen in which pupils are permitted and encouraged to develop such quali- ties, so that every pupil will be living in school a consciously social life wherein, as a contributing member, sharing constantly in socially educative group activities, he would be learning the lessons, seeing the vision and feeling the joy of citizenship within an intelligent and well-directed democracy. According to this conception educational method is not a mere device to be used as a means to some remote end. It may be a direct instrument of democratization, nay of the worthy life itself. It is insofar an end rather than a means. It is in this respect fundamentally an ex- emplification of the conception that living worthily day by day in school is within itself a legitimate aim ; not, however, without the added belief that living worthily in school is the best preparation i34 Educational Method 135 for living worthily after one has left school. In other words, to express the same thing in more familiar terms, education is life itself rather than a mere preparation for life. Educational Method in an Autocracy Contrasted with Educational Method in a Democracy The ideal of education in an autocracy coincides readily at even,- point with the ideal of life in an autocracy, but hitherto the ideal of democracy has not coincided in every particular with the democratic ideal of life. Ordinarily our school government has been monarchical rather than democratic. In an autocratic school system the pupil is trained in habits, attitudes and feelings that are suited to life in an autocracy, but in developing a conception of educational method that will serve as a direct instrument of democratization unthinking obedience to a merely external author- ity is an ideal inherited from former autocratic systems that still survives. It is, therfore, ill-adapted to modern conceptions of social relationships. During the Middle Ages emphasis was laid upon institutions as a means of shaping and curbing the individual. In every walk of life there was some external author- ity to govern and direct the actions of the masses of the people. In industry it was the feudal lord ; in politics it was the king and his agents; in religion it was the Church. Under these conditions unthinking obedience to such external authority was a necessity. Xot that these people accepted unwillingly such authority but that their souls had been stunted through the lack of opportunity for growth. Authoritarianism reigned supreme. The education of the young was in accord with the spirit of the times. Now, however, feudalism is dead. The last of the kings, at least in the old sense, are gone. Authority of this kind is everywhere on the decline and it is such authority that the allied nations have fought to overthrow. A new regime is the order of the day in the world outside the schoolroom, but the school, since it, as hitherto conceived, is a conservative agency, notoriously lags behind the process of development. Educational practices in a democracy have not kept pace with the democratic ideal of life. Instead of such unintelligent obedience to a merely external authority as just described democracy must develop a more intel- ligent procedure, obedience to laws and principles well-tested and accepted. That is, democracy demands an informed rather than 10 136 Secondary Education in England and the United States an uninformed procedure. The prevailing rule of life in a democ- racy should be intelligent self-direction in a give and take of shared experiences. It is not a question of giving commands by- some and receiving them by others, of obedience or disobedience, but intelligent co-partnership, for in a democracy the people must both make and obey the laws. In other words, as Judd says, [99, 164] "We must develop an educational system which will make many people of many minds and many abilities co-workers in an intelligent social order." On the other hand, so long as people live in groups there will always be need of some way of coordinating their actions so that they may live in peace and harmony. Such directive agencies as the old in relation to the young, of the mature to the immature, of the knowing to the ignorant, will always hold an important place in society. Education is of necessity by the older and more mature for and to an extent imposed upon the immature. This means that the teacher must in some measure choose and decide for the pupil. However, the necessity of such guidance lends itself so readily to the natural disposition of those in authority to lord it over those under their control that it tends to develop into a system of total direction by the teacher, of complete and to a large extent blind obedience on the part of pupils. For this reason it is probable that autocratic practices are likely to hold out longer in the field of educational method than anywhere else in the whole educational program. Educational administration and the curriculum, since they are more formal and objective, invite corrective criticism and can more readily be put upon a democratic basis, but coercion and force of one kind or another still hold sway in many classrooms. Although subject matter may be selected with nice discrimination to the end that pupils may study about the kind of activities that should characterize a democracy, still at the same time this same subject matter is sometimes taught by methods that dogmatically impose it on them. This may be true however accurately the subject matter may have been se- lected to meet the needs of democracy. In other words, one may believe that pupils should be brought ultimately to live according to democratic principles but may afford them little opportunity in the schoolroom for living according to such principles, and may use the most arbitrary and dictatorial methods in realizing this hoped-for result. Whenever democratic policies or informa- Educational Method 137 tion about democracy are thus imposed on others by autocratic means, whether in government or education we have one element of the educational process, method, facing in one direction, and the other, subject matter, facing in the opposite direction. They work at cross purposes. English and German Practices Compared Some of the English writers declare that this is the case in Eng- land. For a severe indictment of this kind of procedure the following is taken from the Nineteenth Century. [88,970.] "It is here that we are weak as a nation, especially as compared with Germany. The German ideal of education coincides at every point with the German ideal of life. Our ideal of education, so far as we can be said to have one, is opposed to our ideal of life. As educationalists we believe in the type of education that Ger- many has idealized and transformed into a philosophy of life. We believe in dogmatic direction and the discipline of drill." This has reference to England but certainly is largely true as well of educational practices in the United States. The following is in complete agreement with Holmes [203, Octo- ber 17, 1918, p. +41]: "It is now too little perceived that it is not in virtue of science or knowledge of science or the application of them to this or that object that the Germans have grown strong. They had grown strong because they had set certain ends clearly before them and had sought and used the means by which those ends could be achieved. And, what is far more im- portant, their ends had been coordinated, unified." Much has been said and written in explanation of Germany's strength. That offered by these two writers seems to have been accepted in certain quarters as assuredly the best. In achieving these results Dean Russell of Teachers College is of the opinion that German methods have counted for more even than the content of the German curriculum. "In the making of Germans," he says [164, 120], "little weight is attached to the content of the curriculum. What one studies may have an important bearing on one's future career. The peasant attends one kind of school, the business man another, and the future scholar still another, but all must be made first of all Germans. It follows, therefore, that the secret of training for the common good is to be found in the methods of instruction rather than in 138 Secondary Education in England and the United States its content. Herein is a characteristic of German education which in its universality and thorough-going comprehensiveness is not approached in any other National system that I have ever known. The principle that methods of teaching and modes of discipline make the man, while what he learns determines his career, will surprise some Americans who have delighted to deride methods as a hobby of those who have nothing to teach. Their idolatry of German scholarship, moreover, would be more intelligible if they knew the significance of German methods of instruction." Germany, therefore, had no such conflict in educational princi- ples as that described by Holmes as characterizing the English educational system. Both the method and the subject matter worked harmoniously toward autocracy. The glory of the Fatherland, the benevolence of the ruling class, and the suprem- acy of the States were the main purposes of the curriculum. On the other hand, to train obedient subjects was the chief aim of educational method. "By example and precept, by persuasion if possible or by force if necessary, the German teacher attained the end to which his profession leads 'the making of God-fearing, patriotic, self-supporting subjects of imperial Germany.' " [164, 121.] The teacher's duty was to give instruction in subject matter that had been chosen for a special purpose. It is a signifi- cant fact that Froebel's philosophy of education with its emphasis on self-activity and initiative, desirable qualities in a democracy, early gained imperial hostility and has never made headway in Germany, but has found its greatest welcome in the democratic countries, England and the United States. As the " formal steps " of Herbart are especially well-adapted to giving instruction but not so well-adapted to developing self-direction and initiative the Herbartian methods have had much greater influence in Ger- many. These methods are admirably suited to an autocratic country. Since England and the United States aim to develop an educational method that is as well-suited to democratic ideals as the German methods were to autocratic ideals, Froebel's philosophy is being emphasized more and more as the years pass, but is as yet far from universal acceptance. 1 The main trouble with the German system was that its ends were un- 1 The Herbartian methods had wide sway in the United States in the last quarter of the nineteenth century but in recent years what may in general be described as Froebel's conception of educational method has been in the ascendency. Educational Method 139 wisely chosen. Germany wished to train "obedient subjects" not citizens. England and the United States desire most of all intelligent citizens not subjects, for the rise of democracy means among other things: (1) The development of one's personality so that he may choose wisely in accordance with the principle that one's conduct should be designed for the good of all; (2) The principle of the autonomous will, the inner acceptance of the outer rule. Can a school system develop an educational method of such a nature as to achieve these results? Present Texdexcies ix Educational Method ix Exglaxd If Holmes is right (see above p. 137) England has not yet developed such a conception of educational method. At least she has not consciously isolated those aspects of educational method that are as suitable for democracy as the German methods were for autocracy, and made them the working basis of the whole school procedure. The English are, however, beginning to real- ize that the corporate life of the school, exemplified since Arnold's time by athletics and self-government, can and should penetrate into other activities of the school. Thus J. L. Paton [15, 8] asserts with regard to its "wider applications, it is capable of trans- forming the spirit of the classroom activities as well as the activi- ties of the playing field." This phase of English public school life has for decades been considered by some as the best part of English education. For it tends to put one mainly on his own re- sources but at the same time one's activity finds expression in a social milieu. "Personality, after all, is best defined as 'capacity for fellowship,' " and unless "he functions socially, the individual develops into eccentricity, negative criticism, and the cynical aloofness of the 'superior person.' " [15, 8.] Another growing tendency bids fair to play a much larger part in English education in the future than hitherto. This is the "movement towards self-expression and self-development — post- ulating for the scholar a larger measure of liberty in thought and action, and self-direction than hitherto." [15, 7.] Of this move- ment Holmes is perhaps the leading spirit. Montessori is having considerable influence in the lower schools, the freedom phase of her work attracting most attention. This movement has the backing of the Workers' Education Association. "We believe," writes the Rev. William Temple [219, 325. See also article by 140 Secondary Education in England and the United States G. Bernard Shaw in the same], "that just as education is essential to freedom so is freedom essential to education." On the other hand, England has her "duty and discipline movement" just as the United States has. Sir Dyce Duckworth thinks that [64, 334] "there is reason to fear that we are already suffering from too much independence granted to young people of both sexes, and I think we may note the fruits of this in American training which in the main are not exemplary for us in this coun- try." The value of obedience is stressed by this writer but he does not give a comprehensive plan by which the democratic virtues of initiative and orginality are to be obtained. It is thought by some of the English writers [15, 8], however, that round the movements "towards a fuller liberty of self -fulfil- ment, and towards a fuller and stronger social life the form of the new system will take shape and grow." " It is a happy omen for our democracy that both these complementary movements are combined in the new life of the schools. To both appeals, the appeal of personal freedom, and the appeal of the corporate life, the British child is peculiarly responsive. " [15,8.] Little further indication of a tendency has been found in English educational literature consciously to isolate such socializing principles as are prominent in athletics and self-government, and to build round them a working philosophy of educational method which will serve as a basis for every phase of education in a democracy. Tendencies in Educational Method in the United States John Dewey, Such is not the case in the United States, for there has for years been a strong and growing tendency in the United States under the leadership of Dewey, and more recently of Kilpatrick, to find an educational method correlative of democ- racy in society with the belief that education is life itself rather than a mere preparation for life, and that practice in democratic living is the best preparation for democracy. Dewey [56, 15] makes a distinction between "changes in outer action" and "changes in mental and emotional dispositions of behavior." It is the latter and not the former that is desirable in a democracy. A dog or a horse may be trained to undergo changes in outer ac- tion but hardly in mental and emotional dispositions of behavior. And a human being may be educated to do both. The danger is that one may be trained like an animal rather than educated like Educational Method 141 a human being. "If a parent," says Dewey [56, 15], "arranged conditions so that every time a child touched a certain toy he got burned, the child would learn to avoid that toy as automatically as he avoids touching fire. So far, however, we are dealing with what may be called training in distinction from educative teach- ing. The changes considered are in outer action rather than in mental and emotional dispositions of behavior. The distinction is not, however, a sharp one. The child might conceivably gen- erate in time a violent antipathy, not only to that particular toy, but to the class of toys resembling it. The aversion might even persist after he had forgotten about the original burn ; later on he might even invent some reason to account for his seemingly irra- tional antipathy. In some cases, altering the external habit of action by changing the environment to affect the stimuli to action will also alter the mental disposition concerned in the action. Yet this does not always happen; a person trained to dodge a threatening blow, dodges automatically with no corresponding thought or emotion. We have to find, then, some differentia of training from education." This fact constitutes the chief stumbling block to the develop- ment of a democratic conception of educational method. A pupil may be compelled to perform a certain task and sometimes desir- able mental and emotional dispositions of behavior may accom- pany changes in outer action and the fact that this is so tends to encourage those who have a natural disposition to use force and coercion for the most part in dealing with the young. However, such desirable changes do not always take place when the pupil is under compulsion and even at times most undesirable disposi- tions result. As Dewey says [56, 31]: "His instincts of cunning and slyness may be aroused so that things henceforth appeal to him on the side of evasion and trickery more than would otherwise have been the case." Dewey concludes, on the one hand, [56, 29-31] that "purely external direction is impossible" ; that "in the strict sense nothing can be forced upon them or into them"; that to some extent, "all direction of control is a guiding of activity to its own end ; it is an assistance in doing fully what someorgan isalready tending to do." On the other hand, Dewey thinks [56, 31] that "the control af- forded by the customs and regulations of others may be short- sighted. It may accomplish its immediate effect but at the ex- 142 Secondary Education in England and the United States pense of throwing the subsequent action of the person out of balance. A threat may, for example, prevent a person from do- ing something to which he is naturally inclined by arousing fear of disagreeable consequences if he persists. But he may be left in the position which exposes him later on to influences which will lead him to do even worse things. . . . Those engaged in di- recting the actions of others are always in danger of overlooking the importance of the sequential development of those they direct." Dewey seems to summarize his position as follows [56, 32] : When others are not doing what we would like them to or are threatening disobedience, we are most conscious of the need of controlling them and of the influences by which they are controlled. In such cases, our control becomes more direct, and at this point we are most likely to make the mistakes just spoken of. We are even likely to take the influence of superior force for control, forgetting that while we may lead a horse to water we cannot make him drink; and that while we can shut a man up in a penitentiary we cannot make him penitent. In all such cases of imme- diate action upon others, we need to discriminate between physical results and moral results. A person may be in such a condition that forcible feeding or enforced confinement is necessary for his own good. A child may have to be snatched with roughness away from a fire so that he shall not be burnt. But no improvement of disposition, no educative effect, need follow. A harsh and commanding tone may be effectual in keeping a child away from the fire and the same desirable physical effect will fol- low as if he had been snatched away. But there may be no more obedience of a moral sort in one case than in the other. A man can be prevented from breaking into other persons houses by shutting him up, but shutting him up may not alter his disposition to commit burglary. When we con- fuse a physical with an educative result, we always lose the chance of en- listing the person's own participating disposition in getting the result desired, and thereby of developing within him an intrinsic and persisting direction in the right way. Since this is so, a scientific attitude towards education demands a more enlightened procedure than the imposition of a line of conduct from above upon pupils. Dewey suggests two steps in developing such a procedure. [56, 16.] "Setting up conditions which stimulate certain visible and tangible ways of acting is the first step. Making the individual a sharer or partner in the associative activity so that he feels its success as his success, its failure as his failure, is the completing step." Educational Method 143 William H. Kilpatrick. The second step is easily recognized as essential in the development of morale, which is only an- other way of saying morals. No amount of force and compul- sion can accomplish the results that morale can. Kilpatrick, who has given a more recent expression of the same kind of theory, names it "whole-hearted purposeful activity." In order that he may define more clearly the problem of educational method Kilpatrick describes the typical unit of the worthy life and then he organizes his conception of educational method around this ideal. He finds this typical unit, as was just said, to be "whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment." And since he is concerned more particularly with democracy he explains what he conceives to be the worthy life in a democracy. [112, 322.] "We scorn the man," he says, "who passively accepts what fate or some other chance brings to him. We admire the man who is master of his fate, who with deliberate regard for a total situation forms clear and far-reaching purposes, who plans and executes with nice care the purposes so formed. A man who habitually so regards his life with reference to worthy social aims meets at once the demand for practical social efficiency and of moral responsibility. Such a one presents the ideal of democratic citizenship. It is equally true that the purposeful act is not the unit of life for the serf or slave. These poor unfortunates must in the interest of the over mastering system be habituated to act with a minimum of their own pur- posing and with a maximum of servile acceptance of others' pur- poses. In important matters they merely follow plans handed down to them from above, and execute these according to pre- scribed directions. For them another carries responsibility and upon the results of their labor another passes judgment. No such plan as that here advocated would produce the kind of docil- ity required for their hopeless fate." Contrast this ideal of democratic citizenship with that ex- pressed in the following quotation which seems to be a contrary position [71, 109]: "While it is true that citizens of a democracy need to be taught to think, it is even more important, especially in the present crisis, (this was written during the war) that they be trained to revere and obey." Reverence and obedience are of course not within themselves harmful. It depends upon what one reveres and obeys. For within any group of people there are 144 Secondary Education in England and the United States many characteristics and institutions that deserve reverence and obedience but many that do not deserve reverence nor should the commands eminating from them be obeyed. Pork barrel and boss rule are instances and if one be taught in advance to obey in general there will be many occasions where he will unnecessarily surrender his own initiative and responsibility to others. This is exactly what is not wanted in a democracy. For democracy prizes freedom more than docility, initiative more than automatic skill, insight and understanding more than capacity to recite lessons or to execute tasks under the direction of others. Democ- racy demands not obedience as a general rule of life but intelligent self-direction, intelligent choice. It demands a type of procedure that will furnish better citizens "alert, able to think and act, too intelligently critical to be easily hoodwinked either by politicians or by patent medicines, self-reliant, ready of adaptation to the new social conditions that impend." [112, 334.] It cannot be said that we have ever attained a standard as high as this, for a large number of people, clerks, soldiers, school teach- ers and those who work for a salary are accustomed to taking commands from others and of executing tasks under their direc- tion. It is hard to get them to take an attitude of initiative and originality, but initiative and the resulting responsibility are essential in a thoroughgoing democracy. If one is taught to revere and obey "by wholesale" as it were, rather than to use intelligent self-direction and choice, an educational procedure better suited to autocracy than to democracy would be retained — a position from which every effort should be made to escape. Instead of this kind of procedure Professor Kilpatrick would have the pupil live in school, worthily engaging in purposeful activities and developing initiative now. This conception is seen in the following statement [112, 323]: "And if the pur- poseful act thus makes of education life itself, could we reasoning in advance expect to find a better preparation for later life than practice in living now? We have heard of old that 'we learn to do- by doing' and much wisdom resides in the saying. If the worthy life of the coming day is to consist of well-chosen purposeful acts, what preparation for that time could promise more than practice now, under discriminating guidance, in forming and executing worthy purposes?" There are those, however, who seem to fear the tendencies of. Educational Method 145 Kilpatrick's line of argument. It is their opinion that we have gone too far in the direction of freedom in education ; that we stress rights and privileges rather than duties and responsibilities. President Hopkins of Dartmouth says [93, 613]: "We have as a people specialized so completely in recent years on claiming rights, that our senses of obligation and responsibility have be- come atrophied." Bagley thinks that " contemporary education in spite of its prating about social efficiency is individualistic at basis. It talks of the common good, but it has no place for the concept of duty with its constant dread lest the child may by accident be required to do something that he does not want to do, it is gen- erating among our boys and girls individualistic doctrines that no amount of pupil self-government and no multiplicity of socializing devices in the recitation can counteract or cover up." [6, De- cember, 1914.] However, when Bagley and Judd unite in making the following statement they seem to feel that there is no necessary contradic- tion between their position and that described above: "Our school system," they say [4, 323], "should reflect at even- point the two fundamental and complementary principles of democ- racy — opportunity and obligation, opportunity for individual development, coupled with and paralleled by the obligation of the individual willingly to learn the lesson that all must learn in common if our democracy is to rest on a real community of ideas and ideals." It seems from the preceding statement that the solution which this group reaches is that there should be a just balance between habit and deliberate choice, between authority and freedom, between discipline and individuality, between opportunity and duty. If this is true then it seems that there is no real antago- nism between the positions of the two groups of thinkers. Xo American has made more of this social nature of education than has Dewey. He and Kilpatrick would, it seems, not object to this solution unless it carried with it the belief that in order eventually to acquire this balance the pupil should be subjected while in school to a total direction by the teacher. He must, they would claim, begin to live now the kind of life that it is desired that he later lead. "Learn to obey that you may learn to command" was a policy of an autocratic regime that they might the more 146 Secondary Education in England and the United States easily exploit a trusting people. This statement is contrary to the laws of learning, for one learns to do by doing, to command by commanding, to obey by obeying, not by doing the opposite. Attempts to Place Educational Method on a Democratic Basis There is no doubt that a great many American writers and teachers are convinced that educational methods should be a direct influence for democratization and are making attempts to bring this ideal about. In the new school it is expected that the pupil will do more of the thinking and planning, more of the talk- ing and discussing, while the teacher "will restrict himself to a thoughtful stimulation and direction of the process." [64a, x.] All that is being done along the line of "socialization," "motiva- tion," the "socialized recitation," "pupil self-government," the "problem" and "project" method, when examined in their theo- retical justification is found to have this purpose behind it. Each of these movements has the purpose of developing the pupil for democracy in and by means of a democratic medium. Of these proposals for educating pupils for democracy the proj- ect method, or the purposeful act, because it is more inclusive, seems to be attracting most attention at present, and since it is more inclusive it will be treated here as typical of the rest in ideals and purposes. It is more inclusive because a number of important related elements of the educative process are more completely unified in this concept. In the words of Kilpatrick who has more exactly defined the meaning of this method than any other the following is given [112, 320]: I began, he says, to hope for some one concept which might serve this end. Such a concept, if found, must, so I thought, emphasize the factor of action, preferably wholehearted vigorous activity. It must at the same time provide a place for the adequate utilization of the laws of learning, and no less for the essential elements of the ethical quality of conduct. The last named looks of course to the social situation as well as to the individual attitude. Along with these should go, as it seems, the important generali- zation that education is life — so easy to say and so hard to delimit. Could now all of these be contemplated under one workable notion? If yes, a great gain. In proportion as such a unifying concept could be found in like proportion would the work of presenting educational theory be facili- tated ; in like proportion should be the rapid spread of a better practice. Educational Method 147 From this quotation it is evident that the project method is in harmony with the ideals that should characterize a democratic school system as described above. One of its main purposes is to alleviate the ill effects of an educational method poorly adapted to life in a democracy. It attempts to see clearly the ideal of the worthy life as described by Kilpatrick and to adapt means to ends in achieving it. Since the ' purposeful act ' is the most essen- tial element in the worthy life it becomes the basis upon which the project method is built. Now the typical purposeful act is made up of four parts. "Pur- posing, planning, executing, and judging," and the pupil should as far as possible do each of these for himself. This requires a cer- tain amount of freedom, for freedom is necessary if one is really and truly to purpose, plan, execute and judge. It is not a ques- tion, however, as to whether the pupil shall be left free to do any and ever\*thing he wishes. That would produce chaos and we should not get anywhere in that way. It does mean that the vital point of attack is the purposing of the child. Until the pupil really purposes in his heart to earn- to completion a line of activity there is little hope of educating that pupil in that line. It is probably true that no one has ever really been educated in any line until he in some way either of his own free will did pur- pose to be educated, or was led by suggestions, questions or stim- ulations to purpose. After the child has in some way purposed, this purpose will give unity and coherence to his planning, exe- cuting and judging. The teacher's function then is to make his first and main point of attack on the purposing of the student. Get purposes going somehow, should be the watchword. Then the teacher should if necessary enrich this purpose. The same things may be said of the teacher's function in the pupil's plan. If the student is capable his plan will likely be rich in significance. If he is not so capable his teacher may need to render more assist- ance, in the form of suggestions, questions, stimulations, etc., but at the same time the teacher should take care that the activity of the child be not crushed or he come to depend too much on the teacher. The same will apply to the child's executing and judg- ing. In other words, it is in the last analysis the child's purpose, the child's plan, the child's executing, and the child's judging that is important; but this does not mean that the teacher shall stand idly by and let the child go his own way. The teacher's role is to 148 Secondary Education in England and the United States enrich the meaning and significance of the activity, to encourage and assist. The balance is very delicately drawn. To work with and not for the child, to assist and not carry, to keep his ac- tivity, that is, his purposing, planning, executing and judging, at a high pitch and at the same time directed toward a well-defined end is the acme of good teaching. Itwas said above that the main point of attack in all good teach- ing is the pupil's purposing and that the teacher should get pur- poses somehow or other. There are some ways, however, better than others for getting purposes. If a scale be drawn with utter compulsion at one end and "ethical identification with the group" at the other, with praise, approval, cajolery, flattery, fear, threats, etc., between, it would be found that those students who would have to be dealt with on the basis of utter compulsion would not be so easily educated as those at the other end of the scale, but if compulsion should prove the only means to get them to purpose then compulsion and coercion should be used. It should, how- ever, be recognized that this is seldom the only means of dealing with pupils who have progressed farther along the scale. Just as high a means should be used as possible, all the time working toward the upper end of the scale. If the teacher as a rule ap- peals to the pupil on the basis of coercion and fear some of the pupils will be injured for they would be educated from a higher to a lower stage. It is the inability of teachers to see education in its totality that causes so much confusion. One appeals on the basis of coercion solely and all those pupils who might be appealed to on a higher basis will be pulled down to a lower level, while another is so afraid of the lower rungs of the scale that certain pupils go untouched and unmolested. This is perhaps the reason why there are so many conflicting opinions in regard to educa- tional methods. One teacher stresses one part of the scale while another stresses another part. There is no assurance that any and every teacher can get pur- posing, and there is none that if a teacher does get purposing the purposes will be worthy, but there is every assurance that if the pupil does wholeheartedly purpose all the factors for effective education are present. Educational Method 149 The Purposeful Act as a Corrective of the Mi sconce ption of the Doctrine of Interest and Effort When the project method is examined for its possible results one finds that it tends to remedy many of the defects of the tradi- tional secondary school, and since it proceeds in a social environ- ment it also educates the pupil for group life, for co5peration, and hence for democracy. One of the causes of the failure of the traditional school has been due to a misunderstanding of the relation of "interest" and "effort" in education. Another has been the widespread belief in the doctrine of formal discipline. It can be shown that the project method will eliminate many of the defects of school practice. As regards interest and effort there has been too much dualism between the two in the thinking of school men. Those who advocate interest have too often been unable to see anything but "drudgery" and " disagreeable- ness" in a doctrine of effort. They forget the possibility of entering wholeheartedly into an undertaking, as Edison did when he was inventing the electric light, or the engineers did while they were inventing the Liberty Motor. It is exactly under such con- ditions that true effort is best found. Those who contend for the traditional curriculum are to some extent to blame for this atti- tude, for they have too often claimed as one of the virtues of this unattractive subject matter that it required hard work, effort, "uncoaxed and uncomplimented." They leave out the purpose- ful part of the activity. On the other hand, the advocates of effort have felt that the doctrine of interest would lead inevitably into "soft pedagogy." They do not wish the pupils to be "fed with a spoon." They too forget that a pupil may enter wholeheartedly into an activity and in so far are anxious to push the work themselves. This state- ment is repeated because it is in wholehearted purposeful activity that each side may find the solution to the difficulty. Certain shortsighted advocates of the doctrine of interest have to a large extent been to blame for the attitude of their opponents. They have tried to make subject matter selected without any regard to its suitability for the pupil's stage of development or with- out relation to those things with which the pupil is familiar the basis for schoolroom procedure. Having selected the sub- ject matter with a view to its supposed future usefulness they 150 Secondary Education in England and the United States have then proceeded to find devices by which the pupil might be instructed as easily as possible in this subject matter. In this way they have tried to "make it interesting" for the pupils. They have "sugar-coated"; they have amused; they have en- tertained; and when the pupils seemed interested, they took it to be a sign of success, forgetting that they seem just as interested at a vaudeville theater. These misguided teachers have thus selected all kinds of devices by which the pupil might get along with as little effort as possible. Interest and Effort are Mutually Complementary. There has too often been a thorough misunderstanding of the relation be- tween these two aspects of method, instead of seeing that the two are really complementary aspects of the same on-going move- ment, that true interest is the sign of real motive and should in turn mean more effort. This is but the same tendency conceived as pushing ahead in the face of difficulties and should result in worth while purposes. From such a procedure joy and happiness will result, and be an impetus for still more effort. The tendency has been to make the two antagonistic to each other, but as a matter of fact they are supplementary to each other. In explana- tion, take the case of Edison inventing the electric light. No one doubts that he worked, and worked hard, that he put forth effort as few men can. The motive force back of it all was, however, one with his absorbing interest in the subject, so absorbing that he forgot everything else. In other words, his interest created effort, and effort put forth to accomplish a definite purpose brought with it satisfaction at work well done, thus arousing more interest which created more effort, etc. This is wholehearted purposeful activity. This is the view of interest taken by Dewey. "To be inter- ested," he says [56, 148], "is to be absorbed in, wrapped up in, carried away by, some object. To take an interest is to be on the alert, to care about, to be attentive. We say of an interested person both that he has lost himself in some affair and that he has found himself in it. Both terms express the engrossment of the self in an object." This is not the view of interest that those have in mind when they speak of interest in a depreciatory way. Interest is then taken to mean "merely the effect of an object upon personal advantage or disadvantage, success or failure. Separated from Educational Method 151 any objective development of affairs, these are reduced to mere personal states of pleasure or pain. Educationally, it then follows that to attach importance to interest means to attach some feature of seductiveness to material otherwise indifferent; to secure attention and effort by offering a bribe of pleasure. This procedure is properly stigmatized as 'soft' pedagogy; as a 'soup-kitchen' theory of education." [56, 149.] Dewey adds [56, 150]: "To make it interesting by extraneous and artificial inducements deserves all the bad names which have been applied to the doctrine of interest in education." The project method since it proposes to make wholehearted purposeful activity the basis for educational procedure makes easy the elimination of this dualism between interest and effort. For no one can be both wholeheartedly and purposefully active without becoming engrossed in the activity, that is, without being interested in his purpose to the extent of working at it with all his might. In other words, it would not be interest to the neglect of effort and vice versa but both to maximum degree. There is no real antagonism between the two, but through interest the pupil persists in the face of difficulties, that is, he puts forth effort, while difficulties successfully overcome result in satisfaction and keep the interest at a high pitch all the time. From the standpoint of a purely mental and psychological development there is little doubt that this is true, but the race has placed, and continues to place, such value upon certain attainments that all would agree that those things must be at- tained at any cost. It is conceivable though not probable that a pupil might be better developed mentally at the age of fourteen if he should not stop to learn to read and write, but few educators would be willing to take the risk. Society demands reading and writing. Suppose now that one's purposing, one's native inter- ests, never led a pupil into reading and writing. The question thus developed is not, therefore, one of effort for all agree to that. The question is whether the pupil's native interests, needs and present powers shall be a factor, and to what extent a con- trolling factor in determining what the pupil shall do in the schoolroom; shall we attempt to use the interests and impulses which already move a pupil to action or disregard them? One side would say that a pupil should learn to do what he ought to do when he ought to do it, whether he wishes to or not. This 1 52 Secondary Education in England and the United States side may go so far as to say that the pupil should learn to wish to do what he ought to do when he ought to do it. President Lowell of Harvard is, for instance, of the opinion, that "every young man needs to acquire a habit of concentration, and a devotion to purpose without considering too much whether he enjoys the process, or whether he himself always perceives at the moment its direct relation to what is to come afterward. . . . He must learn to put forth effort, because he has faith in the end to be attained, not because the means to that end suit his taste." {120a, 621.] And further in the same article [120a, 621] he says: "A man's education ought to teach him not to seek for the things that will entertain or interest him, and avoid others ; but to take an interest in, and throw his force into, whatever is best for him to do." Lowell here seems to consider that the pupil's interests are not the true basis for the selection of subject matter. He would, however, consider it fortunate if the student might select in line with his interests and felt needs rather than contrary to them. He would only contend that the pupil's interests should not be the final basis for determining the activities in which he should engage. On the other hand, Eliot is of the opinion that the surest way of eliciting effort is to take advantage of interests which the pupil already has. He says [66, 360], "that power to apply one's self and to work hard mentally is the main object of education; but nearly everybody also has come to know that inspiration or stimulation of interest in any mental work will produce this power to work hard more quickly and more thoroughly than any driving process, no matter what the means of compulsion — rattan, ruler, staying after school, holding up to ridicule, deprivation of play or holidays, or copying pages of French or Latin." Nothing has been found in this investigation to indicate that educational leaders hold a different view. Dewey is of similar opinion, as appears in the following [60, 23; and 34-35]: "I know of no more demoralizing doctrine — when taken literally — than the assertion of some of the opponents of interest that after subject-matter has been selected, then the teacher should make it interesting. This combines in itself two thoroughgoing errors. On one side, it makes the selection of subject-matter a problem quite independent of the question of Educational Method 153 interest — that is to say of the child's native urgencies and needs; and, further, it reduces method in instruction to more or less external and artificial devices for dressing up the unrelated materials, so that they will get some hold upon attention. In reality, the principle of 'making things interesting' means that subjects be selected in relation to the child's present experience, powers, and needs; and that (in case he does not perceive or appreciate this relevancy) the new material be presented in such a way as to enable the child to appreciate its bearings, its relation- ships, its value in connection with what already has significance for him. It is this bringing to consciousness of the bearings of the new material which constitutes the reality, so often perverted both by friend and foe, in 'making things interesting.' " He says further [60, 34-35]: "The mistake . . . consists in overlooking the activities in which the child is already en- gaged or in assuming that they are so trivial or so irrelevant that they have no significance for education. When they are duly taken into account the new subject-matter is interesting on its own account in the degree in which it enters into their opera- tion. The mistake lies in treating these exciting activities as if they had reached their limit of growth ; as if they were satisfactory in their present shape and simply something to be excited; or else just unsatisfactory and something to be repressed." The Purposeful Act as a Corrective of Misconceptions of Discipline The project method will also go a long way toward eliminating another of the causes of the failure of the traditional school. This is the widespread faith in the value of coercion and driving generally. The question of the value of military training and discipline, has, as might have been expected, come prominently to the fore during the war. It was noticed how much could be learned in a short time under military organization, and the natural conclusion was that by driving and compulsion more could be learned in the same time than in any other way. Those who held this position failed to take all the elements into consideration. In the first place there was a definite purpose in mind which the soldier understood and appreciated. To accomplish this purpose the soldiers entered wholeheartedly into their work. There was a strong "inner 154 Secondary Education in England and the United States urge" animating those in training. The mind 'set' of the soldiers was an item that could not be disregarded. The military organ- ization was only a framework in which this 'inner urge' might express itself. As soon as the armistice was signed there was a sudden change and no amount of driving and compelling was as efficacious as before. There was not such rapid learning after that. [113, December 1, 1918.] The final decision on this question of discipline will, it seems, be very much the same as wholehearted purposeful activity. By the project method, so its advocates think, the pupil's mind will be disciplined in the only way in which a mind can be disciplined, that is, by engaging it in purposeful acts; at least, disciplined for the kind of life needed in a democracy. The very nature of democracy requires that its members shall have purposes and be free to plan how they may carry their purposes into execution, so long as their purposes and plans are in line with the good of the whole. Democracy demands a constructive program of all its members. In other words, the only kind of discipline that is worth while is that which enables a person to "purpose, plan, execute, and judge" in a social environment. At every step in working out a project the student must think, and hence, the type of activity proposed by the advocates of the project method is essential in developing the kind of mental training suitable in a democracy. The issue, therefore, in the question of educational method in a democratic school system is not whether there shall be effort, vigorous, wholehearted effort. All agree to that. The issue is how to secure it. One side would select activities and problems of such a nature as to get the pupil engrossed and wrapped up in his work. They believe it more probable that vigorous activity will more likely be secured if the native tendencies, interests and needs of the pupil are made use of. The other side seem rather to believe in the dead lift of the will. The pupil must do some things in life that he does not want to do and, therefore, he should practice now so they contend. The former would say that this does not achieve the desired results, unless beginning as a disagree- able task it quickly develops into a genuine case of wholehearted purposeful activity. Otherwise what Thorndike calls the law of effect is disregarded. Going through a task against the grain may produce an attitude of distaste and permanent annoyance.. Educational Method 155 and hence of idleness and laziness. Practice under such condi- tions does not make perfect. If the pupil has been practiced in seeing the various possibilities of his purposes and plans in their fulness, of becoming engrossed and wrapped up in the develop- ment of his purposes, then, so it is thought, he will develop the habit of looking for such a state of absorption in all he undertakes. "There were many interesting things in working out the other project, I guess they will be here too," will be the pupil's attitude. The development of such an attitude as this is what Kilpatrick calls [1 12, 326] a concomitant value of the project method. Other such values may also result, such as, faith in one's ability to carry to completion an activity once it is undertaken ; the determination not to be overcome by an obstacle; patience; endurance in the face of difficulties. This may still not be the total possibility of the project method, that is. of wholehearted purposeful activity, but it takes into consideration much more than the mere primary responses that are necessary for the bare completion of a task. Whether or not the pupil will thereby be developed in ideals of "duty and discipline" may remain a disputed point, but the advocates of the project method see no conflict between the ideals of a freer development and that of duty and discipline. In fact they expect a better sense of duty and a more intelligent discipline to be developed thereby. At least they think that the educational outlook from such a procedure is much broader than will be the case when a doctrine of discipline, especially of the formal type, is rigidly adhered to ; and also when the position of specific disci- plines is too narrowly interpreted. The project method when so conceived is not a device to be used as a means to an end. It is a fundamental conception of the right way to live. One is prepar- ing for democracy by living in a democratic manner day by day. That is education, is life itself, rather than a mere preparation for life. It will be a great gain for democracy if an educational method for secondary schools can be developed so that pupils may be educated in the schools to the point that they will be sufficiently intelligent to take their places as efficient citizens in a democracy. This will require, not servile obedience to another, thus leading the way to exploitation, nor yet a capricious regard for one's own whims and passions, thus breaking down every possibility of a strong system of cooperation among the members of democracy, 156 Secondary Education in England and the United States but an intelligent self-direction and an intelligent cooperation; both a give and a take in a shared experience. Both England and the United States seem inclined to search for an educational method as well suited for democracy as Germany's was suited for autocracy, but at present such attempts seem to be still in the experimental stage. CHAPTER VII THE MEANING OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN A DEMOCRACY Changes of widespread influence are taking place in the pro- gram of secondary education as regards Educational Adminis- tration, the Organization and Selection of Subject Matter, and Educational Method as shown in previous chapters. These changes, in some cases even to the point of confusion, are taking place in every sphere of educational activity especially in the United States. In England the situation has been more stable, but even there old ideals are breaking down. In the United States change is the ever present rule in every walk of life, and adjustment to changing needs is the outstanding feature of the educational situation. President Hadley, in describing the American situation, has said [84, 107]: "We have never been quite sure what was required or expected of our high schools and colleges. We were in the position of a rifleman shooting at sev- eral different targets and never definitely deciding which one he should try to hit." Consequently, new principles have been promulgated, new standards set up, new plans made, and prin- ciples, standards and plans scrapped together and a new start made. [161, 370.] As a result of this ever present tendency to remodel the school program all kinds of educational policies and all kinds of educa- tional practices have been advocated. Only one item in the philosophy of secondary education in the United States seems to be definitely fixed and settled. This is universal free secondary- education, which if accepted inevitably leads to wide diversity in educational practice, unless guided by a clearly conceived and definitely stated philosophy of secondary education. This is exactly what we do not have either in England or the United States. [141,261. Also 14, 1293.] A Comprehensive Theory of Secondary Education in the Making The philosophy of secondary education is not yet made but in the making. Confusion in educational ideals and values must i57 158 Secondary Education in England and the United States be added, therefore, to the other indications of a confused state of affairs in educational matters. Fortunately, a new philosophy of secondary education is developing but before it takes final shape, many traditional ideals and customs will have to be recast so that they will be in harmony with the needs of democracy. The old conception of a liberal education and of culture must be reformulated and such reformulation is taking place. The whole conception of humane studies must be re-examined, and new aims and new standards must be set up to the end that the results at- tained may be not less but more cultural, not less but more humane. Considerations presented in the preceding chapters indicate that the education of the future will be based on a new conception of the place and function of education in a democratic society. This new conception of education has been variously termed "new humanism" or "social efficiency" or even as "education for human ends broadly conceived." The name is of little signifi- cance, the conception is all important. There are three main characteristics of this conception, (a) From the social stand- point the education of the future is to be an engine of social prog- ress rather than a mere transmitter of the heritage of the past. (b) Its dominating purpose is an intelligent participation in con- temporary life, (c) From the standpoint of the individual, edu- cation is to be conceived as a process of growth or as "activity leading to further activity." These characteristics constitute a conception of education that purposes to make of itself the con- scious directive agency in building a new civilization based on democracy. Its ideal is the past and the present and the future for social service. It purposes mainly, however, to build a civili- zation rather than to admire past civilizations. Building a Worthy Civilization as an Aim in Education This new conception of humanism is just as much concerned about human beings as any other conception of humanism. Per- haps it would be safe to say that it is even more concerned than other conceptions as it recognizes the welfare of all classes of people. In fact, it will include all those things of interest to man, all that makes for human welfare to-day, and will attempt to make all such activities significant to pupils in the present. All subjects will be treated so as to develop an insight into human Meaning of Secondary Education 159 relationships, human interests and human needs. This concep- tion will not, as the term " humanism" might indicate, necessarily favor the classicist or the "humanist" so-called, because a pro- gram of study selected by them may unduly emphasize the re- mote past at the expense of the near past and the present, of the acquisition of information at the expense of constructive thought and activity. It will not necessarily rule out of consideration the vocationalist, for trades, vocations, industries and occupations may be pursued because such studies when pursued for their social significance may enrich very markedly one's understanding of a most important part of the life of man. (See exposition of Dewey's views in Chapter IV.) It will rule out each of these groups whenever the type of education advanced by them is not designed for human ends broadly conceived. "Education for human ends broadly conceived " is only another way of expressing the new conception of education here under consideration. It is thought that a subject is worthy of study only as it has this broad outlook and that all subjects that are worth teaching at all may and should be taught so as to bring out their human relationships. So far there is no difference between this conception of human- ism and any other, but it does not, as the older conception of humanism did, revert to a past age for its inspiration. One writer explains the difference as follows [213, 670]: "The 'new humanism' that is needed in the twentieth century differs in several respects from the humanism of the Renaissance. In the first place, the men of the Renaissance had to return exclu- sively to the life of the Greeks and Romans to find worthy cultural achievements to study and emulate. We now have in addition the cultural achievements of recent centuries." This in part explains the difference between the new and old conceptions of humanism but it does not go far enough. The new conception is anticipatory rather than reminiscent, and it hopes to refine the social heritage as it transmits it. The ten- dency to revert to the past for one's inspiration explains much of the condemnation of the present age for its industrial and com- mercial tendencies. When such condemnation is made, present crude conditions are compared with past accomplishments. The ideal of civilization that such men had was so colored by what they knew of past ages, that they tended to emphasize the crudeness of the present and to idealize the attainments of the past. They 160 Secondary Education in England and the United States did not emphasize the possibilities for future development; that is, what was capable of becoming. They admired the gems that had been polished and brought to perfection. They did not see the diamond in the rough. The following is a case in point. It is claimed [15, 1] that the nineteenth century "with all its brilliant achievements and scientific discovery and increase of production was spiritually a failure. The sadness of that spiritual failure crushed the heart of Clough, turned Carlyle from a thinker to a scold and Matthew Arnold from a poet into a writer of prose." There is no doubt that the nineteenth century did create a situation different from any in the world's history and that there was much in it that fell short of spiritual ideals but there is like- wise no doubt that out of that situation there were possibilities for developing as high a degree of culture and civilization as the world has known. If it was spiritually a failure it was because there were certain forces at work which could not be, or were not, directed to the accomplishment of this purpose. The conception of education that is here under consideration proposes to find out what these forces are, to get them under control, and direct them toward the attainment of human ends. Its chief emphasis is on building, on becoming a directive agency for social progress. Dewey agreeing in the main that the present age is crude, that we have "no culture of our own" and "can neither beg nor bor- row one without betraying both it and ourselves" declares that there is nothing left for us to do but to build one of our own. The beginning of such a culture "would be to cease plaintive eulogies of a past culture, eulogies which carry only a few yards before they are drowned in the noise of the day, and essay an imaginative in- sight into the possibilities of what is going on so assuredly although so blindly and crudely. . . . To transmute a society built on an industry which is not yet humanized into a society which wields its knowledge and its industrial power in behalf of a demo- cratic culture requires the courage of an inspired imagination." [55. 215.] Judd seems to be in complete agreement with Dewey's position. "Our modern humanism after the great war will not turn back to civilizations of the past, for there was no true democracy in earlier days. We must build in the future a social structure for which there is no pattern. The humanism of the future will be de- pendent, not on imitation, but on self-determination." [99, 161.] Meaning of Secondary Education 161 Such an ideal is exactly what must be accepted if education is to be an engine of social progress rather than a mere transmitter of the heritage of the past. This would make education anticipa- tory, forward-looking rather than reminiscent. Those who ac- cept this conception would claim that our age is crude not because we have not studied about past ages but because we have not learned that every great age of culture has made its education anticipatory rather than reminiscent. They have built their civil- ization out of the heart of the present with a look to the future. Only by meeting their present problems as well as and as skill- fully as they could, have they been able to develop a high degree of culture. This was true of the Periclean Age, the Gothic Builders, the Renaissance. The same is true of any age. Social Participatiox as ax Aim in Education The quotations from Dewey and Judd show that social progress, social building, is the aim of the new conception of education. To achieve this broader aim social participation in contemporary life is necessary. Mr. Cloudesley Brereton [26, 1310] asks this question: "When will people remember that the intellectual and the aesthetic sprang originally and is forever springing out of the utilitarian, and that all art and intellect which are not constantly renewing their contact with the utilitarian and with daily life must inevitably perish of pernicious anaemia?" This is taken to mean that education should make the present its point of departure and that building from the present to the future should be its main purpose. Mr. A. Clutton-Brock states that "functional" beauty pre- cedes and is the origin of "artistic" beauty and enlarges upon this position as follows: "But how does this functional beauty come into objects of use?" he asks [39, 74] and answers the question as follows: "It comes when those objects are designed as well as they can be designed for their purpose, and made as well as they can be made. It is the result of science and of labor that spare no pains in a practical task. And then the man of science turns into the artist because he recognizes beauty and values it. It is the reward of his work, and expresses his thankfulness for it and his delight in it is his art. So it was with the great Gothic build- ers who were impelled on by their passion for their own science of building and who gave thanks for the beauty of that science in 1 62 Secondary Education in England and the United States their art." Again he says [39, 76]: "It is always out of works of utility, achieved as well as they can be achieved with the best conscience of the designer and the workman, that beauty grows, just as it grows out of the utilities of nature"; and [39, 75] "We never think of the engineer as the man who ought naturally and inevitably to become an artist. The artist, in the arts of use, is to us one who designs not objects of use so much as ornament. If he designed plain objects of use perfectly fitted for their func- tion we should not think of him as an artist, even tho he laid the most exquisite and delighted emphasis on their functional beauty." Bonser has expressed a similar view. ' ' We have about learned , ' ' he says [21, 159], "that we do not get culture by the study of culture subjects. Culture is rather the quality and refinement and richness of daily life as it is lived in occupation, in citizenship, in the home, in hours of leisure." Mr. Clutton-Brock has isolated for emphasis certain elements which are vital to the new conception of humanism. " It (func- tional beauty) comes when those objects are designed as well as they can be designed for their purpose, and made as well as they can be made." " It is always out of works of utility, achieved as well as they can be achieved with the best conscience of the de- signer and the workman, that beauty grows." These statements are exactly in accord with those of Dewey and Judd. These are the elements that have always made for growth and development in the past. Our museums have great numbers of works of art from the silversmiths and goldsmiths and other workers of the Middle Ages which are admired even to the present day just be- cause they were "designed as well as they could be designed, and made as well as they could be made." The new conception of humanism makes its attack at this point. It proposes to build a civilization no less worthy than that of any past age. Pupils will be trained in school "to do better in life what they are going to do any way," and out of this kind of procedure a higher civili- zation will inevitably grow. Add to these two items the expressions "functional," and "de- signed for their purpose" and the core of the modern conception of humanism is given. One's work is to be done as well as it can be done, it is to be purposeful, and it is forward looking rather than backward looking, that is, it is building as well as it can in the present for the future. Such a conception requires that educa- Meaning of Secondary Education 163 tion be constructive as well as informational, that participation in contemporary life be a vital concern of education. Participation of course implies intelligent comprehension. In the past the definition of humanism came to be almost, if not quite, synony- mous with "a knowledge of the best that has been said and done in the past," and at times it was narrowed still more to include only the remote past. When such was the case education was not functional, it was not purposeful, it did not always enter into con- temporary life. There was a dualism between works of art and works of utility; between labor and leisure. Such a definition would inevitably develop sooner or later a belief in art for the sake of art, or knowledge for the sake of knowledge. It would not be functional or purposeful. Art for Art's Sake Unsatisfactory as Aim in Education. Such a definition does not satisfy modern democratic needs, first be- cause it does not include building as we have seen; secondly, because it does not include social participation but makes informa- tion or knowledge the sole criterion of culture. It puts no em- phasis on doing and hence tends to exclude the working class from the cultured group. It is a survival of past conditions when so- ciety was divided into laboring and leisure classes; but in a democracy there should be no such cleavage. A leisure class has no place in a democracy. It is demanded that every one should do something in the world's work, hence doing is now included in the conception of humanism. By the older conception of humanism one's daily work, except in favored professions, was considered to have no cultural value. "Dislike to employ scientific knowledge as it functions in men's occupations is still a survival of an aristocratic culture. The no- tion that ' applied ' knowledge is somehow less worthy than ' pure ' knowledge, was natural to a society in which all useful work was performed by slaves and serfs, and in which industry was con- trolled by models set by custom rather than by intelligence. Science or the highest knowing, was then identified with pure theorizing, apart from all application in the uses of life; and knowledge relating to useful arts suffered the stigma attaching to the classes who engaged in them." [56, 268.] By the newer conception whenever one's work develops an in- sight into social meanings it is humane. Knowledge is then considered "humanistic in quality not because it is about human 164 Secondary Education in England and the United States products in the past, but because of what it does in liberating human intelligence and human sympathy. Any subject matter which accomplishes this result is humane, and any subject matter which does not accomplish it is not even educational." [56, 269.] The conception of the function of education as building a new civilization is far different from the conception of education as "art for art's sake." The former requires that definite purposes, objectives be set up and attained. The latter sets up no pur- poses beyond itself. There was a time when this kind of educa- tional thinking was prominent. Applied science was considered less worthy than pure science; vocation was less worthy than leisure; knowledge for use was considered less desirable for cul- tural purposes than knowledge for its own sake. Knowledge for its own sake and art for art's sake as conceptions of the aim of education still have considerable backing, especially in England, though they seem to be losing ground in favor of a more purpose- ful education. The following quotation is typical of this atti- tude. "What we want to see is such a rational delight in knowl- edge for its own sake and such liberal acquaintance with some of the sources of knowledge that every hour of leisure for these young people shall be an hour of pleasure." [128, 392.] However high an ideal this may be it seems to place the whole emphasis of a liberal education on the enjoyment of leisure. Secondary education is not, it seems, to serve any purpose in carry- ing on the world's work, nor is one's work pursued that it may lead into and enrich one's leisure time. Knowledge for its own sake as an aim in education is an attempt to counteract the tend- ency of making the aim of education purely materialistic, and in this it is a worthy purpose, but instead of recognizing other pur- poses and consciously seeking to attain them it turns inward upon itself. This seems to be the case in the following quotation [117, 267] : "Some of those who are devoted workers in one or another field of science, and believe, as we do, that the natural sciences should hold a leading place in education, consider that to base the advocacy of this revolution on the facts of national success in the struggle for industrial and commercial supremacy and adequate national defense in war depends upon knowledge and skilful use of the discoveries of science is undesirable. They desire to see knowledge and the discovery of truth pursued for their own sake. They rightly hold that the highest efforts of the human mind in Meaning of Secondary Education 165 this direction are and must be independent of the incentives and demands of material conflict, whether commercial or military; that science should be pursued for the love of science as art for art's sake; and that only so can science escape misdirection and proceed to higher and more glorious development." The trouble here is that it rules out of consideration other pur- poses however high and noble they may be, and if knowledge is not to serve man, the inevitable outcome is that sooner or later subjects will be taught because it is considered a duty that we study them. They will become the ends and we the means. [Cf. E. C. Moore, School and Society, October 27, 1917.] "Art for art's sake" and "knowledge for the sake of knowledge" are forms of idolatry, pure and simple, just as much so as "money for money's sake" is a form of idolatry, and if adopted as aims they will exact their hecatombs of human sacrifices as in the past. They may be higher aims than "money for money's sake" but they are idols just the same. [134, 754-55-] In the United States it is frankly stated that secondary educa- tion should serve purposes and that art and knowledge, like the Sabbath, were made for man, not he for them. We do not owe it to any subject to give it attention. There is no danger that vo- cational education will crowd out the humanities as was stated in Chapter IV, but man is inherently built for action and growth. Growth in what? In the perception of meanings, and as Dewey says [56, 145], "There is perhaps no better definition of culture than that it is the capacity for constantly expanding in range and accuracy one's perception of meanings." This will be the ideal in the new conception of culture. The instinct of curiosity will force the individual to keep prying into the meanings of things, and this means growth, and the more this prying into meanings is of a nature that it leads to still further prying the greater the growth. Growth is the only legitimate criterion, not knowledge for its own sake or knowledge that will not lead to further growth. It is probably true that those who speak of knowledge for its own sake really have some further desire in mind. It is incon- ceivable to think that we are to have no purpose in mind other than just to know. Why should one know just to know? Lan- kester, for instance, [117, 197] says: "There is a contempt for knowledge for its own sake and arising out of that there is infi- nite waste, there is planlessness, there is a habit of 'muddling 1 66 Secondary Education in England and the United States through' which has at last brought us extraordinarily near to a crisis when it looks as though we should hardly muddle through at all." Knowledge for its own sake then is to "prevent infinite waste," is to take the place of " planlessness " and of "muddling through." It seems that after all knowledge is to serve purposes other than for its own sake. This seems to be a rather large program for knowledge to perform if it is to be pursued only for its own sake. It is just at this point that American educators part company with tradition. A subject is to be pursued because it serves real purposes but these purposes must be as broad as life itself. It is probable that after all there is not so much difference in the two opinions as at first seems possible. The American edu- cators wish to be exact in their procedure just as medicine and other professions are exact. They are pragmatic to the core. It is hard to see how men of high scientific ability can fail to realize that knowledge for its own sake is unscientific and purposeless. Growth and "activity leading to further activity" are much more purposeful and much more accurately stated. English educators think that "there is a danger at the present time that we are about to be plunged into great efforts for educa- tional development resting on purely utilitarian motives. Such efforts may succeed for a time, but in the long run they are doomed to failure for they take their stand upon a lie. Beauty, truth, and goodness cannot in the end of the day be sought for anything be- yond themselves." [198, 582.] They do not want their fate to be decided simply by the money test and it is just such a feeling that causes so much controversy when it is stated that education should be purposeful, should meet real needs. There is always a fear that this is plunging us straight into materialism but this fear is usually alleviated by stating that purposes of a higher type are intended. Some people seem to think that if an educational unit serves a purpose it is therefore reduced to a low and material- istic basis, but if there is no purpose beyond itself it is therefore worthy of highest consideration. From the Standpoint of the Individual Growth Should Be the Aim of Education Just as growth of civilization, world building, is the main aim of education when viewed from the social standpoint so growth of the pupil is the main aim when viewed from the standpoint of the Meaning of Secondary Education 167 individual, but both the individual and society finds its own best expression in the fulfilment of the other. One of the most inter- esting and perhaps the best expression of what modern educators are considering as a possible solution to the unsettled conditions in educational philosophy is the conception of a continuously developing activity (leading on) as the aim of education. It is the principle advocated by Dewey as ever continuing growth and by Kil patrick as "activity leading to further activity." This theory states that education is its own end, there being nothing to which education is subordinate save more education. That activity is desirable which leads to further activity and growth, and undesirable if the opposite is the case. " But if we start from the standpoint of the active powers of the children concerned," says Dewey [60, 63-4], "we shall measure the utility of new subject-matter and new modes of skill by the way in which they promote the growth of these powers. We shall not insist upon tangible material products, nor upon what is learned being put to further use at once in some visible way, nor even demand evidence that the children have become morally improved in some respect ; save as the growth of powers is itself a moral gain." This theory is built on the fundamental psychological fact of secondary neurone connections [199, 141] which is concerned with the connection of two primary neurone bonds. For instance, a child in investigating the objects around him, finds an electric button. The sight of the button becomes a "situation" for the "response" pushing. The bell rings and this becomes a "situa- tion" for the "response " listening, turning in the direction whence comes the sound or by a general state of satisfaction. Suppose at first the child does not connect his push with the ring. The result so far will be two separate and distinct primary bonds. Suppose later, however, that he comes to see that his push is the cause of the ring, or in other words, he sees that the first bond is in relation to the second as cause to effect. He has made a secondary neurone connection, and the satisfaction that results is much greater than resulted from either of the primary bonds. To translate this into ordinary language, it signifies that the child has grasped a meaning. Suppose now that the child has made three primary bonds. Call each Bi. Then according to the figure there are three pos- sible secondary neurone connections. If the number of primary 12 1 68 Secondary Education in England and the United States bonds be increased to four the number of possible secondary con- nections will be increased to six, and so on, according to the for- ft (ft 1 ) mula ■ • As the number of bonds increases the possibility 1.2 of a network of secondary connections becomes very complex. These secondary neurone connections are the psychological Bi— Bi Bi— Bi \ / I X | Bi Bi— Bi counterpart of "growth," of ever increasing insight into meanings, of "activity leading to further activity." This is, however, not the total possibility of secondary neurone connections. Suppose now that by the process just described a group of bonds have become interrelated with each other and at the same time another group has grown up as nearly as possible totally separated from the first. It sometimes happens that these groups as groups coalesce, or group one as a group becomes connected with group two as a group. The increase in the sig- nificance of each group is manifold. Sir Isaac Newton knew thoroughly the laws of falling bodies. Call this group one. He also knew the laws of planetary motions. Call this group two. By a stroke of genius he came to connect these groups and the meaningfulness of each was increased beyond description for him- self, and the world even to the present day. The making of many, many connections and interrelating them is just what is going on wherever a human mind is growing. Both primary and secondary connections are being made in an endless stream. The kind of activity that best lends itself to continuing growth is most desirable for school purposes. It is constantly ex- panding one's perception of meanings. The aim of education is to see to it that this forming of secondary connections takes place all the time, and not only in school but afterwards too. This is the aim of education but it is also education itself. Therefore, education is its own end, and is subordinate to nothing save to more education. The aim of education is thus seen not to be given in terms of vocation, or of particular kinds of subject matter, or "of art for art's sake," or in terms of external products which may be seen and counted, or offered for sale, but in terms of what takes place in the human nervous sytem. It is the dynamic con- ception of education. Meaning of Secondary Education 169 It is realised that one kind of activity may do this for one per- son and some other for another. There are different patterns of consciousness which are appealed to differently. In the United States it is insisted that each child shall have that kind of educa- tion that best fosters his growth. A trade may produce more growth in one person than anything else while Latin or mathe- matics may be best for another. This is exactly the reason why differentiated curriculums are the policy in the United States. It is thought that instruction should be adapted to the nature of the individual pupil or that particular pupil may not grow at all. But something of the same kind of philosophy explains the opposition to early specialisation in England. It is felt there that if a pupil pursues too narrow a line of work he soon exhausts the possibilities of growth in this line and goes to seed, a narrow specialist. The aims are the same but ap- proached from different directions. It seems then that in this respect both England and the United States are right. England is right in not wanting the pupil to be taught in such a narrow line that growth cannot take place. The United States is right in insisting that the individual pupil shall be given that kind of in- struction which will surely cause him to grow. England needs to retain her ideal of breadth, but at the same time to reach the indi- vidual child. The United States in reaching the individual child needs to remember that richness of experience is best conducive to growth. At this point lies the chief danger which those face who have repudiated the doctrine of formal discipline and have accepted the doctrine of specific disciplines. In trying to educate by spe- cific objectives they may be too specific; not too specific in the sense that they know what it is they want and the means of attain- ing it, but the objectives may be too narrow in scope. As a matter of fact those who oppose the doctrine of formal discipline have wished to correct just such a narrowness in practice. One of their principal contentions has been richness of content. They have al- ways insisted that if one in studying Caesar, for instance, con- centrates upon indirect discourse, he may learn indirect discourse, but if in addition to this, attention be directed to the geography of the country over which Caesar fought, perhaps in comparison with the campaigns of the recent war, the possibility of growth would be greatly enhanced. And if in addition to all this the 170 Secondary Education in England and the United States reasons why Caesar was in Gaul should be taken up with the class, thus forming the basis for all that section of Roman history of the first century B. C, the growth might eventually be worth the time spent upon this study. The chief trouble with this sub- ject as with all other subjects of study has been that teachers have not been able to grasp their full possibilities for the pupil's growth. The older subjects were superior in that the teachers knew more definitely what to require of the pupil, but unfortunately except in the hands of a very skillful teacher the bonds were primary bonds. Secondary neurone connections were few. Meaning was sacrificed to technique. President Hadley says on this point [83, 540], "And even with the men to whose intellectual temper the old curriculum was best suited it did little for real culture. The student's time was so taken up with the solution of the mathe- matical problems before him that he lost sight of the bearings of mathematics on modern science and modern affairs. He was so absorbed in the work of translating sentences of Latin and Greeks that he missed the value of the contents of the books themselves." Growth, therefore, according to this theory does not take place when the pupil is narrowly trained in any one line, be it language, science, or vocation. It does not take place when the pupil crams fact after fact at the expense of meaning. These are the primary bonds. Meanings may be built from them as raw mate- rials but not necessarily so, unless this is a definite concern of the teacher. Growth does take place when the whole environment of the child is used in order to supply motive and meaning to his work. [54, 252.] This is what Dewey has in mind in his whole educational philosophy as shown above. (Chapter IV.) After the pupil has left school all too often he, as a worker, is cut off from the significance of what he is doing. He does his work mechanically with the money reward in mind, without any thought of its social significance. There are certain bonds necessary for the performance of his daily tasks. Let us say that this group of bonds is in perfect working order. There may be, and there will be if the worker is a healthy individual, a number of tentacles, or sprouts, figuratively speaking, reaching out from these bonds to connect with others. This is curiosity, a desire to know, a readi- ness of the bonds to act, but the worker may be situated in such a way that with every turn of the wheel his curiosity is dulled, the tentacles may be cropped as it were, prevented from connecting. Meaning of Secondary Education 171 with other bonds, and hence one's life becomes dull. He is not growing in the perception of meanings. His is not an activity that leads to further activity. The Conception of Culture Examined in the Light of Activity Leading to Further Activity. The conception of activity leading to further activity as the fundamental aim in education gives a new standard by which to examine the conception of culture. This conception puts the whole emphasis not on what the pupil has studied but on the effect produced in him. It is the psycho- logical conception of culture. If what one studies brings about growth it is cultural to that extent. The American ideal is first to meet the social and individual, the mental, moral, and physical needs of the child, and reformulate the definition of culture so that it will accord with the training thus received. In fact the term cultivation more nearly describes the American conception of cul- ture. Eliot expresses this position very clearly [66, 355]: "The idea of a cultivated person, man or woman, has distinctly changed during the past thirty-five years. Cultivation a generation ago meant acquaintance with letters and the fine arts, and some knowledge of at least two languages and literatures, and of history. The term 'cultivation' is now much more inclusive. It includes elementary knowledge of the sciences, and it ranks high the subjects of history, government, and economics." This idea is exactly in accord with activity leading to further activity. The different subjects may each contribute something toward culture. The amount would differ in degree, not in kind. Subjects would no longer be separated into cultural and non-cul- tural subjects. There would be no dualism between the culture of vocation and that of leisure for each would have a cultivating value. One of course might yield a greater return than the other. Eliot [66, 361] says that "there was a time when the principal part of the work of universities was training scholarly young men for the service of the Church, the Bar, and the State; and all such young men needed, or were believed to need, an intimate knowl- edge of Greek and Latin; but now, and for more than a hundred years, universities are called on to train young men in public service in new democracies, for a new medical profession, and for finances, journalism, transportation, manufacturing, the new architecture, the building of vessels and railroads, and the direc- tion of great public works which improve agriculture, conserve 172 Secondary Education in England and the United States the national resources, provide pure water supplies, and distribute light, heat and mechanical power." According to the more recent conception of culture those who have been adequately trained for the newer professions belong to the cultured class. If the above conception of the meaning of culture be accepted, it can no longer be said that the purpose with which a person studies a subject will determine whether or not it will be cultural. Thus Cubberley says [47, 463], "What is vocational for one is liberal for another. The study of chemistry, for example, which is usually classified with the technical-vocational group, and is so for the future chemist or engineer, is broadly liberal when pur- sued by the classical student. The same is true of geology, biology, economics, or modern industrial history. Conversely, courses in literature, world history, economics, and the life and literature of Greece and Rome would be liberal studies to the technical or the scientific student." It is plain that the basis for determining the cultural value of a subject here is the aim with which one pursues the subject. Ac- cording to the conception of education as growth it depends upon the effect that a subject produces upon one, not upon the purpose with which one pursues the subject, as to whether it will be cultural. The amount of cultivation received, even if the pupil has in mind some specialized vocational calling, is the true standard. If his range of the perception of meanings is expanded it is cultural, otherwise not. This is, however, a more advanced conception than the one that considers, since at some time or other, certain subjects have given fruitful results in developing children and culture has come to be linked with a pursuit of these subjects, that the definition of culture should be synonymous with the pursuit of them. The United States is not inconsiderate of culture, but is unwilling to accept a definition that is separated from the effect produced in pupils. Agriculture may for some pupils be more cultural than English literature even if they expect to make agriculture their vocation. What is the meaning then of culture in a democracy that is primarily engaged in industry and commerce? What is the culture demanded by the new citizenship? It will certainly include training of the hand as well as of mind and character; labor as well as leisure, doing as well as knowing; intelligent participation Meaning of Secondary Education 173 as well as intelligent comprehension. For this reason the primary purpose of the subjects that were formerly considered practical are now intended to be cultural. They are intended to develop an important side of one's personality. It is certain that the concep- tion of culture will include more than in the past as the quotation from President Eliot shows. Dewey thinks [55, 216] that any scheme is sure to fail that leaves industry out of consideration. " In short, our culture must be consonant with realistic science and machine industry instead of a refuge from them. And while there is no guaranty that an education which uses science and employs the controlled processes of industry as a regular part of its equipment will succeed, there is every assurance that an educa- tional system which sets science and industry in opposition to its ideal of culture will fail." This merely expresses the aims of education as broad as life, that is, total social efficiency. "Liberal education aims to ap- proach employment from the cultural side; vocational education plans to approach culture from the employment side. Both have the same ultimate objective in view; that is, total social efficiency. One holds that culture has been and will continue to be, based upon economic abundance; the other that prosperity should fol- low, rather than precede, culture as a determining factor of life. The vocationalist is likely to hold the culturist a dreamer; the culturist to accuse the vocationalist of being materialistic. One is accused of being impractical; the other of aiming too low." [180, 296.] In accordance with these principles the conception of culture and of a liberal education is therefore changing in the United States. In England there has also been a considerable reformula- tion of culture. A tradition of three hundred years has been superseded, a tradition which tended to identify culture with a knowledge of the remote past. The English conception of a liberal education is no longer identical with a knowledge of ancient times but it tends to be bookish, as it is considered essential to a liberal education that one should have received instruction in the subjects mentioned in the last part of Chapter III [Cf. ill, 16]. Science and Modern Studies and even manual training, it will be noticed are included in the list. It seems, however, that this con- ception tends to put too much emphasis on knowledge about what has been said and done, and stresses too little the doing side of life. 174 Secondary Education in England and the United States It is, however, more acceptable than one which identifies culture almost exclusively with a knowledge of ancient times, since it may also include a knowledge of recent times. The danger of such a conception is that it may degenerate into a belief in art for art's sake, or knowledge for its own sake, but from the broad program for the reorganization of secondary education which England has adopted, it seems that this danger has, at least for the time being, been successfully avoided. To prevent just such a situation is the reason why the Com- mission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education sets up objectives as the basis for reorganization rather than subject matter. By a comparison of the two pamphlets 1 from each of which extensive quotations have already been made one can gain an idea of the possible future educational development in the two countries. Each of these shows that there is a need for a clearer understanding of the meaning of secondary education in a democracy. There are, however, decided differences in their modes of attack. As was shown in Chapter III the basis of re- organization in England is that of the subjects of study, their place and function in the curriculum, while in the United States there is a new basis of organization, objectives and group dif- ferentiation. This difference in approach to the reorganization of secondary education gives a basis for making some fundamental comparisons between the two systems. The English emphasize the humanis- tic-cultural studies ; the Americans stress the social-civic and allied subjects. In other words England still defines secondary educa- tion as so much subject matter while in the United States in- telligent citizenship is the controlling idea. At the same time England aims to secure a high grade of citizenship, and the United States that pupils may have a broad outlook on life. In England the classics have for centuries been the humanistic studies and England still puts high evaluation on the traditional and the past, but now in addition it is thought that the sciences, modern stud- ies, and even craft culture may likewise be humane. The United States emphasizes the present and here all studies aim to secure socialization, as was shown in Chapter V. The danger in England 1 Sir F. G. Kenyon, Education Scientific and Humane, August, 1917, and Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education, Bulletin, 1918, No. 35, United States Bureau of Education. Meaning of Secondary Education 175 is that secondary education may become bookish. The danger in the United States is that it may become narrowly vocational and technical. In England the aim is to train leaders, the brightest pupils being selected wherever they may be found for secondary education, as was shown in Chapter II. In the United States the aim is to develop the whole mass of the people with the expecta- tion that leaders will emerge. The objectives which the United States sets out to achieve have already been given. There are likewise objectives which England seeks to attain. When the dif- ferent committees met to discuss the content of secondary educa- tion in 191 7 as reported by Kenyon they stated that the first ob- ject of secondary education is "to train human beings in mind and character as citizens of a free country." [no, 10.] In another place it is expressed as "a preparation for the whole of life." [no, 6.] In accordance with the last statement it has been agreed that "'humanistic' studies should be scientific, and 'scientific' studies humane." [110,9.] Consequently, in the formulation of the curriculum both science and humanistic studies should have a place. Conclusions In preceding chapters it has been shown that there is a decided difference between the English and American attitudes toward vocational education in the secondary schools. The comparison of principles shows why. The United States considers the prep- aration for vocations an essential ally of the social-civic objective. When given early, England does not consider it a necessary part of the humanistic-cultural ideal. It is even antagonistic so it is thought. The aims of secondary education are, however, not very well-defined in either country. This lack of clearly conceived aims is the main point of differ- ence between England and the United States, on the one hand, and Germany on the other. There was no such confusion in educational aims and purposes in Germany. The function of the school was definitely known. It was to be the servant of the aristocratic state in peace and war. In other words, there was a definite purpose and behind this purpose certain principles to be used as guideposts toward its attainment. Means were carefully adjusted to ends and towards the attainment of these ends every phase of educational administration, educational subject matter, 1 76 Secondary Education in England and the United States and educational method were mobilized. To organize all educa- tional resources as efficiently for democracy as Germany did for autocracy is the fundamental problem for school men in England and the United States. For as true democracy is a much harder form of government to conduct successfully than an autocracy, so a system of education suited to a democracy requires a much wiser organization than a system suited to an autocracy. 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School and Society, 8: 666-72, December 7, 191 8. 214. West, A. F. Immortal Conflict. School and Society, 8:31-35, July 13, 1918. 1 86 Secondary Education in England and the United States 215. West, A. F. Our Educational Birthright. School and Society, 7:61-6, January 19, 1918. 216. West, A. F. Our Birthright or a Mess of Pottage? Educational Review, 54:433-8, December, 1917. 216a. West, A. F. Valzie of the Classics. Princeton, 1917. 217. Whitney, E. R. The Necessity for Common Factors in the Educational Basis of a Democracy. School and Society, 4: 309-13, August, 1916. 218. Woodhull, J. F. Science Teaching by Projects. School Science and Mathematics, 15: 225-232, March, 1915. 219. Workers' Education Association Yearbook, 1918. VITA James William Norman was born December 20, 1884, in Elbert County, Georgia. He attended rural schools until 1899 when he entered the Hart- well High School, Hartwell, Georgia, where he received the high school diploma in 1901. Entering Mercer University, Macon, Georgia, in September, 1902, he graduated in 1906 with the degree of Bachelor of Arts. The year 1906-07 was spent in the Graduate School of Harvard University. He was co-principal of Hearn Academy, Cave Spring, Georgia, 1907-08, and held the chair of Mathematics and Education at Howard College, Birmingham, Alabama, 1908-1 1 . He attended the University of Chicago Sum- mer School in 1909, and reentered Harvard University in 191 1, receiving the degree of Master of Arts in 1912. He was Exchange Teacher to the Oberrealschule, Potsdam, Germany, 1912-13, at- tending lectures at the University of Berlin at the same time. He entered Teachers College, Columbia University, 1913, and took the preliminary examinations for the degree of Doctor of Philoso- phy in May, 1914. He held the chair of Education in Richmond College, Virginia, 1914-15. He taught in the Summer School of Howard College, Birmingham, Alabama, 1915, and was in- structor in the University of Minnesota from the fall of 1915 to October, 1916, when he accepted a professorship of Education in the University of Florida which position he still holds. He at- tended Teachers College, Columbia University from July, 1918, to August, 1919, being given a leave of absence from the University of Florida in the meantime. 187 '.a y^ «.*^^ w k *\>X' SWW