CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
 3 1924 085 657 546 
 
The original of tliis bool< is in 
 tlie Cornell University Library. 
 
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 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924085657546 
 
g^partmmt 0f (^grimlture, 
 
 VICTORIA. 
 
 COURSE OF LECTURES 
 
 DELIVERED BY 
 
 OITICEES OF THE DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE, 
 
 DUEING- THE TEAR 1891, I IPP/lpV' 
 
 " CORNELL mmi 
 
 THE WOEKme MEN'S COLLEGE, MELBODENE. 
 
 ROBT. S. BRAIN, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, MELBOtmNE. 
 
 4781. 
 
The following course of Lectures was delivered in the Working 
 Men's College, with the object of creating in the minds of dwellers 
 in the metropolis an interest in Agriculture and kindred subjects. 
 
 All the lectures were well attended, and great attention was given 
 by the hearers to the subjects of the lectures. 
 
 As the subjects are of interest to others than persons residing in 
 Melbourne and its suburbs, the lectures have been printed by 
 direction of the Minister of Agriculture, on the suggestion of the 
 Committee of the Working Men's College. 
 
 Copies may be obtained gratis, on application to the undersigned. 
 
 D. MARTIN, 
 
 Secretary for Agriculture. 
 
 A 2 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Irrigation Development in Western America, by J. West ... 5 
 
 A Farmer's Soil, by K. Hedger- Wallace ... ... ... 12 
 
 Fruit Cultivation, by D. A. Crichton ... ... ... ... 36 
 
 Dried Fruits, by J. West ... ... ... ... ... 49 
 
 Some Points in Breeds of Farm Stock, by R. Hedger- Wallace ... 67 
 
 The Citrus Family, by D. A. Cricliton ... ... ... ... 87 
 
 Some Arguments in favour of Vine Culture, by F. de Caatella ... 99 
 
 The Dairying Industry, by D. Wilson ... ... ... ... 110 
 
 Points Requiring Consideration by Intending Planters, by F. de 
 
 Castella* ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 116 
 
 Soils and their Cultivation, by A. N. Pearson ... ... ... 128 
 
IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN WESTERN 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Bt J. West. 
 
 The subject that I have to deal with to-night is that relating to 
 the question of irrigation development, a subject ■which is just now 
 engaging a great deal of public attention in the colony. I was sent 
 over last year by the Department of Water Supply to study the irriga- 
 tion practices in operation in Western America, and it is the results of 
 that investigation that I intend to lay before you to-night. The ques- 
 tion of irrigation has assumed a very large position indeed over the 
 whole of Western America, because the scanty rainfall over immense 
 areas in that portion of the United States has rendered agricultural 
 efEorts uncertain without the aid of artificial watering. While it is 
 true that irrigation practices have attracted a very great deal of atten- 
 tion throughout the whole of the Western States of the Union, there are 
 three of those states that have gone furthest and fastest in irrigation 
 development — these three states are California, Colorado, and Utah, and 
 it is of the results and the methods of irrigation, as I had the privilege of 
 seeing them there, that I wish to speak about to-night. And chiefly, too, 
 in so far as they relate to California, where the natural conditions of the 
 country are so remarkably like those of Victoria. California is a long 
 strip of country, running down the western side of the United States, 
 and embracing within her boundaries about 156,000 square miles, 
 against 86,000 square miles which we have in Victoria, so that in regard 
 to area California is nearly twice as large as Victoria. Her population 
 is 1,200,000, against 1,140,000 which we have in this colony, so that ia 
 so far as population is concerned (and that is a very important factor in 
 dealing with any new agricultural efEorts), we stand on just about the 
 same footing as California. And, singular to say, the history of the 
 development of that state has been remarkably like the development 
 which has taken place with us. As we all know, it was the gold 
 discoveries which first attracted population in large numbers to our 
 shores. And it was the gold discoveries which first attracted population 
 to California, and about the same time, too, as in our own case, because 
 while our first discoveries took place in 1851, those in California took 
 place about two years earlier, or in 1849. And then followed the 
 steps of progress that have taken place with us — first the efibrts of the 
 people were given over entirely to the mining industry ; then came an 
 era in which pastoral pursuits were largely added to those of mining-; 
 then came a later era, in which agriculture played a prominent 
 part, and in which cereal cultivation formed the major part of those 
 
efforts ; lastly came the greatest and brightest development of all — 
 that of the irrigation enterprises, and the great industries of fruit and 
 vine culture, -which depend so largely upon irrigation for their success. 
 There was this important difference, however, between the early settle- 
 ment of California and that of Victoria, viz., that when bright people 
 began to pour into the state, attracted by the gold discoveries, from all 
 parts of the world, they found already settled in the country a 
 remarkable band of men. This band of men were none other than a 
 body of Roman Catholic priests or missionaries, who went out from 
 Mexico at the time that California was part of the Mexican territory, 
 and governed by the Mexican people, for the purpose of christianizing 
 the Indians who were settled throughout the country. They established 
 their old mission buildings at intervals of a couple of hundred miles 
 apart, and began their heroic labours. They not only taught the 
 precepts of religion to the Indians and the Mexican settlers who fol- 
 lowed in their wake, but they taught them also the principles of 
 agriculture, and of agriculture based upon irrigation for their success. 
 And now, when the old mission fathers are dead and gone ; when their 
 old mission buildings are everywhere crumbling into ruins and decay ; 
 when their very existence has been almost forgotten by the American 
 people, the great object lesson which those men set bears fruit to-day, 
 in the fact that what was once the most arid and barren part of the 
 state has to-day, by the enterprise and energy of the American people, 
 and the help of those very same practices which the mission fathers 
 established, been transformed into by far and away the richest part of 
 California, and has been made a beauty spot besides. 
 
 I cannot do better, perhaps, in order that I may bring the subject- 
 matter of the lecture clearly before you, than trace the line of investi- 
 gation which I took while travelling through the country, and describe 
 some of the results that have been attained from well-developed irriga- 
 tion schemes. I will begin first with Fresno, a centre situated 200 
 miles south of San Francisco, in a district with a limited rainfall (but 
 9 inches per annum), and situated, too, on what was originally a tree- 
 less plain, where nature, indeed, had done little for the settlers. It is 
 wholly by means of irrigation that Fresno's success has been built up. 
 It fortunately resulted that some of the first settlers who happened to 
 take up their residence in this district were men of great courage 
 and enterprise. They had the pluck to lead the water out from the 
 King River, which passed through the district, and to experiment 
 with it upon their soils, to try the cultivation of the variety 
 of products which the mission fathers years before had shown 
 could be so cultivated; and so little by little, overcoming difficul- 
 ties as they cropped up, they have attracted attention and settlement 
 to the district, and to-day they have the satisfaction of seeing Fresno 
 a fine town with 10,000 inhabitants and the centre of a thriving 
 and thrifty community of people. Here one of the great indirect ad- 
 vantages, if I might so term it, of a successful irrigation scheme comes 
 home very forcibly to the visitor. That is, that it enables people to settle 
 on comparatively small areas, and thus closely together. Here and 
 
at many of the other irrigatioa colonies the areas of the holdings are 
 generally 20, 30, 40, 50, and 80 acres apiece. This enables the people 
 to enjoy many of the social and intellectual advantages which we now 
 only obtain in our great cities, and this, together with the infinite diver- 
 sity and the elevating tendencies of the industries irrigation renders 
 possible in districts where the climate is warm, brings a greater brighfc- 
 ness and attractiveness into the home surroundings of the country life ; 
 and, as a result, great numbers of the younger men are settling down in 
 these areas to the cultivation of the soU, instead of crowding the 
 avenues of labour in the cities. This is a great and substantial gain to 
 the State, and I look forward to similar results accruing from our own 
 irrigation systems. At Mildura, in the Goulburn Valley, the Wimmera, 
 Tragowel, and similar districts they will enable similar results to 
 those obtained at Fresno to be built up as time goes by ; and thus useful 
 careers will be opened up f or^ our young men in helping to establish 
 what ought to be the great natural products which nature intended for 
 development in such districts. Around Fresno, the chief industry is 
 the cultivation of the raisin grape, and, in addition to this, the apricot 
 and peach for drying, prunes, and other similar fruits. The methods 
 adopted for drying and preparing these products for market I shall 
 reserve for a second lecture on " Dried Fruits," which I am to give in 
 this hall on a subsequent date. The soils of Fresno are grey and sandy, 
 the subsoils, at varying depths, containing strata of water-worn boulders, 
 sometimes of great thickness. An interesting result of how these 
 strata have filled up by continuous irrigation is shown in the fact that 
 whereas twenty years ago, when they began irrigating, no water could 
 be obtained by sinking under a depth of 70 feet, now fresh water can be 
 procured all over the settlement at 10 feet to 15 feet ; and several 
 thousand acres, which at one time would grow nothing without irrigation, 
 can now do without water. 
 
 Leaving Fresno, I next had the privilege of visiting Bakersfield, which 
 is situated 100 mUes further south than Fresno, in a district where the 
 average rainfall is but 4 J inches per annum, sometimes getting down to 
 2 ; and you know how little can be done in the way of agriculture with 
 a rainfall of that character. Here again by means of irrigation a thriving 
 and thrifty community has been established. Here, too, for the most 
 part, people are settled on comparatively small areas, running from 50 to 
 100 acres each, and here the chief efforts of the people are given over to 
 the raising and fattening of stock by the cultivation of lucerne. Settled 
 at Bakersfield is one of the most enterprising fcms that ever 'turned a 
 sod in California — Carr and Haggin by name. Wealthy squatters we 
 would call them — Ranch men they caU them. They obtained some 
 60,000 acres of the Bakersfield country — bonght it for the low price of 
 10s. per acre. Then they set to work " to devielop " it, as the Americans 
 say. They led the water out from the Kern Eiver in a main channel 
 33 miles long, 100 feet wide, from 2 to 4 feet deep. At every quarter 
 of a mile along its course they laid ofi" distributing channels 16 feet 
 wide on the bottom, and they had to check up both the distributories 
 and the main channel with stop bars at short intervals, in order to break 
 
8 
 
 the fall of the land, which is 10 to 12 feet to the mile, and reduce it 
 from 20 to 30 inches to the mile — a suitable grade for irrigation 
 purposes. Then they sowed the whole of this tremendous area with 
 lucerne, and laid the land oflE into 7, 8, and 10 acre blocks or plots, 
 running round each of these plots what they call a " levee " — we would 
 call it a bank or crown — it is raised 9 to 1 2 inches high, 8 feet across, and 
 sloped off gradually on both sides in order to allow their harvesting 
 machinery to pass esaily over them, and in this way so perfect are their 
 arrangements that they can successfully irrigate the whole of this area. 
 I saw during my visit at one of their out-stations called Poso, which is 
 a solid block of 25,000 acres of lucerne, 25,000 head of bullocks grazing 
 upon it, or at the rate of a bullock to the acre ; they had 18,000 tons of 
 the lucerne hay in the stacks for the winter feeding of the bullocks; and 
 outside their line of fence a hundred acres would not keep a bullock 
 alive. (Applause.) My next visit was to the second city in California, 
 a city bearing the pretty name of Los Angeles, which means in the 
 Spanish language, " the city of the angels." And the city of the angels 
 is well laid out and contains a population of 50,000 people, and her 
 commercial enterprise rests largely on the great fruit industries which 
 have been established by means of irrigation in the districts around her. 
 The people here are largely engaged in the cultivation of oranges and 
 lemons, apricots and peaches for drying, the soft-shelled walnut and the 
 raisin vine. And here I want to tell you a very interesting story, 
 indeed, in relation to the orange industry of this district. It illustrates 
 in a remarkable manner the splendid enterprise of the American people 
 when they have difficulties to overcome, and enables me to pay a well- 
 deserved tribute to the memory of a deceased Australian scientist (the 
 late Mr. Fraser Crawford, of Adelaide), who did so much for entomology 
 throughout Australia. It happened that some years ago a number of 
 orange trees were imported to the Los Angeles district from Sydney. 
 The trees had upon them a very destructive insect pest called the 
 " cottony cushion scale." No one in that district knew anything of its 
 life history, no one took notice of it, and by-and-by it began to spread 
 from tree to tree and from grove to grove, and to work tremendous 
 destruction. I saw during my tour through the district hundreds of 
 acres of valuable orange trees that had previously been turning into 
 the growers £40 to £50 per acre per annum, having to be grubbed out 
 for firewood because of the ravages of this pest. The growers tried 
 every efEort to get rid of the scale, but without effect. The city corpo- 
 ration of Los Angeles offered a reward of a thousand dollars to any one 
 who would take a single tree in an infected grove and permanently rid 
 it of the pest. Several tried, but no one claimed the reward. The 
 growers were in despair, when Mr. Crawford happened to hear some- 
 thing of their troubles. He had been studying the life history of the 
 pest, and knew that here in its native home there were other predaceous 
 insects which preyed upon it and kept it in check. He wrote to the 
 State Board of Horticulture in California, and suggested that they 
 should endeavour to obtain some of these natural enemies of the scale 
 and thus fight the pest with nature's weapons. And so a very able 
 
man, Professor Koebele, came out to Australia during the progress of 
 the last Melbourne Exhibition and travelled through the fruit districts 
 in Australia and New Zealand, searching for the natural enemies of the 
 scale. He finally discovered in New Zealand, preying upon the scale 
 with great avidity, a little Australian ladybird — and I have no doubt 
 many of you are familiar with the ladybird — they are little round- 
 backed beetles. We have a number of varieties of them, and they are 
 all insect destroyers, and whenever they are seen in orchards they 
 should be carefully preserved. Professor Koebele shipped over to the 
 Los Angeles district several colonies of the ladybirds; they were set in 
 the infected groves, and then the eyes of Southern California were upon 
 their work, because on the success of the experiment depended the 
 living of hundreds and hundreds of families. They soon found that 
 the ladybirds began to devour the scale and breed with great rapidity. 
 Then the growers came in from all parts of the south and begged for a' 
 few of the little Australian ladybirds to set in their groves and help 
 them to fight the scale. So thoroughly has the little saviour done its 
 work, that in eighteen months after the first colony was set out-^at the 
 time of my visit — there was not a single scale left alive in Southern 
 California; more than that, so completely had the work been done, that 
 the State Board of Horticulture which was conducting the experiments 
 had to set to work and breed a limited quantity of the scale to order to 
 keep the ladybird alive for future contingencies. (Laughter and 
 applause.) 
 
 Leaving the Los Angeles district, I next visited Riverside, one of 
 the show colonies in California. The land upon which Riverside has 
 been created was bought, in 1870, for 20s. per acre. It is situated in a 
 dry district, with a 9-in. rainfall, and is 600 miles from the metropolis. 
 Here, by means of irrigation, and the prodigious energy of the people, 
 a thriving and thrifty colony has been again established. So successful 
 has been their efforts that the bare land in Riverside is selling to-day 
 for £50 to £75 per acre, and purchasers can afford to pay that price and 
 make a living out of its cultivation. Strange to say there were two 
 serious difficulties at the outset of Riverside's career that threatened the 
 colony with disaster; and yet it has so happened that these two 
 difficulties have, more than anything else, perhaps, contributed to the 
 ultimate success of the settlement. The first was a shortness of water 
 supply. At the end of two or three years the settlers found that when 
 they had taken every drop of water from the stream which they tapped, 
 there was not sufficient to properly irrigate every holding. IJhey then 
 set to work, and, at great cost, put tunnels into the mountain side, in order 
 to collect the seepage or drainage waters, so that they might supple- 
 ment their ordinary supply, and then, cemented every inch of their main 
 channel from the source of supply, some miles distant, to the colony, in 
 order that every drop that would otherwise have been lost by percolation 
 into the soil might be carefully husbanded. This scarcity of water 
 taught the Riverside people a proper economy in the use of irrigation 
 waters. They discovered, what other irrigationists have since learned 
 throughout California, that the best results are obtained in irrigation 
 
10 
 
 where the water is applied at the right time, and in just suflftcient 
 quantities to keep vegetation thrifty and healthy. The other difficulty 
 was tliat they had a very stiff and heavy soil to work. But this taught 
 them the valuable lesson which all Californian fruit-growers now know 
 — the immense importance of the constant surface stirring of the soil in 
 all orchard and vineyard work. They say, and truly say, that if you 
 have not irrigation, cultivation is the best substitute for it ; if you have 
 irrigation cultivation must go hand in hand with it to obtain the best 
 results. At Eiverside, and everywhere else now, as soon as they can 
 get the horses on the land after each irrigation, they put in the scarifier, 
 obliterate the furrows by which the water was distributed, and keep a 
 nice tilth on the surface. At Riverside the people are cultivating 
 the orange and the lemon, the apricot and peach for drying, and the 
 raisin vine. The average of the holdings, taking the large with the 
 small, would not exceed 35 acres each, and yet, because their yields 
 have been uniformly high and steady, the settlers are thriving and 
 prosperous, and their home surroundings exceedingly beautiful, as I 
 hope to show you presently by means of the lime-light views. 
 (Applause.) I next had occasion to visit Utah, the territory which 
 has been virtually wrested from the great American desert, by the 
 energy and enterprise of the Mormon people. I found around the 
 great Salt Lake City, which they have founded, and which is one of 
 the show cities of Western America, that the people were again 
 settled on very small areas, ranging generally from 40 to 80 acres 
 each. I found, too, that, with a fine system of water supply, with a 
 good knowledge of how to apply irrigation waters, with a good soil, 
 and, apparently, a good climate, the efforts of the settlers were given 
 over to the cultivation of low-priced products — cereals, lucerne, root 
 crops, and potatoes. I naturally inquired, just as any one of you gentle- 
 men would have done, how it was that, with such, facilities, they were 
 not cultivating the orchard and vineyard products which were enriching 
 Southern California. The answer came with all its significance in this 
 fact — and it shows how richly favoured by nature we have been in com- 
 parison to some communities — that the average elevation of their lands 
 was 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the sea-level. As you know, elevation 
 plays a very important part in all vegetation.- It has limited here, and 
 with an iron hand, for all time, the amount of products the people may 
 successfully produce. And yet here and throughout Colorado, the state 
 immediately to the east of Utah, and which is largely governed by the 
 same conditions, because the settlers were " playing the soil for all it 
 is worth," as the Americans say — getting all that was to be obtained 
 out of it by the intense and perfect cultivation of small areas — ^they 
 have established thriving communities ; and all who have a right to 
 speak with authority on the subject say that two of the most progres- 
 sive communities in Western America to-day are the people of the 
 territory of Utah and the state of Colorado. Colorado has 1,200,000 
 acres under cultivation, and every acre cultivated has to be irrigated, 
 because of the aridity of the climate. They have a very much better 
 and more stable system of water laws than in California, and because of 
 
11 
 
 this, and despite the fact that the elevation of the land limits the 
 number and variety of products very seriously, British capital is flowing 
 into Colorado for investment in irrigation enterprises. 
 
 And now I want to briefly refer to the methods of distributing 
 irrigation waters in Galifornia. There are two methods usually 
 adopted — by furrow and flooding. The latter is practised where 
 lucerne and cereals are watered, while the furrows are almost invariably 
 used in orchards and vineyards. The usual way in flooding is to lay 
 the land off into " checks," as Carr and Haggin do at Hakersfield, and 
 it is a rule that the smaller the head of the water, the smaller should be 
 the " check." With channels 3 feet or 4 feet wide, and with the water 
 standing in them 6 inches or 8 inches above the level of the surround- 
 ing land, it is the practice to have the " checks " two or three acres in 
 extent. With a larger channel and a greater body of water the 
 " checks " may be increased in size up to 8 and 10 acres in each, with 
 channels 12 feet to 16 feet wide. In irrigating fruit trees or vines the 
 water is run down in a furrow on each side of the row of trees or vines, as 
 the case may be, from 2 feet to 4 feet away from the row. The furrows 
 are made deep enough to prevent the water spreading out on the 
 surface. It is an axiom that the stiffer your soil the smaller should be 
 the streams in the furrows, and the -longer they should run at each 
 watering. At Riverside, where the soil is very stiff and retentive, 
 they draw four or five furrows between every two rows of trees, and 
 allow the water to run in these for a period of 30 to 48 hours at each 
 watering. Then, as soon as the horses can be got on the land, they 
 put the scarifier in, obUterate the whole of the furrows, and the next 
 time irrigation is required the furrows are drawn over again, and the 
 whole operation repeated. And this is the practice throughout 
 California. The Constant surface stirring of the soil accompanies 
 irrigation everywhere. They say that if you have not irrigation, culti- 
 vation is the best substitute, and if you have irrigation, only the best 
 results can be obtained by cultivation going hand in hand with it. To 
 illustrate the immense importance which California growers place upon 
 the constant stirring of the soil, I cannot do better than quote an agree- 
 ment made by a gentleman named Hatch, who has his orchard kept in 
 order at so much an acre per annum. Here it is : — Ploughing away 
 from the trees once, followed by harrowing ; ploughing towards, the 
 trees once, followed by harrowing ; five scarifyings ; three culti- 
 vations with the light cultivator, and five hand-hoeings around 
 the trees — and that all in one season. 
 
12 
 
 A FARMER'S SOIL; OR, SCIENCE IN 
 FURROWS. 
 
 Bt R. Hedger-Wallace. 
 
 The subject of my lecture to-night will, as no doubt many of you have 
 surmised, deal with agriculture — or rather the scientific principles 
 which underlie and are the basis of all rational farming, whether it be 
 carried on in this country or in countries differing entirely both in 
 nature of soil, climatic effects, and wants of the population. The sub- 
 ject may appear at the first glance uninviting for a town audience, but 
 it is one, I think, which claims special attention from them. 
 
 The interests of agriculture affect both those in town and country, 
 though in variable degrees. I have no doubt many dwellers in cities 
 derive their ideas about agriculture and farming life from the great 
 so-called educative media of the present day, the three-volume novel of 
 the circulating library. 
 
 But this medium is not, as a rule, a very reliable one. We have too 
 many representations of farmers' daughters as immaculate beings, per- 
 fect in form and features, who are distinguished for the ability by which 
 they so clothe themselves in homespun as to add a charm to their 
 natural graces, and who are always discovered in a statuesque attitude, 
 feeding poultry, when the noble lord passes by. 
 
 I trust my hearers will for one evening forget such dream-idols — the 
 product of a volcanic eruption of lady-novelists under which we are 
 sufiering — and be satisfied with some commonplace facts. 
 
 We all know what a plough is — when we use the word ploughman 
 we have some idea of his vocation — and it is to be regretted that we 
 do not give it a more honorable status amongst the trades and vocations 
 by which all of us, in some form or other, do our best to gain a living. 
 When we turn to ancient Eome, and find that the heralds from the 
 Senate sent to call Cincinnatus to the Dictatorship found him in a field 
 ploughing, and that Attilius Serranus, who rose to the Consulship 
 from being a simple farmer, and who got his surname of Serranus for 
 his skill in sowing seed — when we turn to -these names, and compare 
 the meaning a Roman of the pre-Christian era and a Britisher of the 
 
 present day would attach to the simple phrase " He is a ploughman " 
 
 we must own to being retrogressive in our ideas. 
 
 Any traveller looking out of his railway carriage, whether he be in 
 England or Victoria, will see, especially in the fall of the year, ploughs 
 all over the land, silently turning over the sod, marking fields with 
 brown furrows. 
 
 If your traveller be intelligent, he will have an idea that this is the 
 first step in the production of some article which is an unit in our 
 food demands. 
 
13 
 
 The land is prepared for seed — seed is sown — crops are raised — and 
 the ear or root stored. 
 
 But in this railway car our traveller may have as a companion one of 
 those fussy and yet interesting men who are always desirous of getting 
 to the bottom of everything, one of those gentlemen who are for ever 
 repeating that little word " Why." " Why are they ploughing the 
 land ? Why are they putting manure into the land ? Why are they 
 not sowing seed in the same way as they do in Timbuctoo .'' " 
 
 To answer this gentleman I will, with your leave, sketch what 
 modern science tells us as to what I might call the " land life and the 
 plant life of a farm." 
 
 What science has taught us, still very little, yet it is the basis of anj 
 agricultural theory. 
 
 Now theory may be defined as the outcome of practice, a placing 
 together in our minds of our most improved knowledge, from which we 
 infer that the best results may be deducted. Our present knowledge of 
 agriculture is due to nothing more than the experience of those who 
 have gone before us, together with the lessons taught by the experi- 
 ments of scientific men of the present day ; and we have this advantage 
 — we begin on the fruits of past years. 
 
 Professor Huxley, in an address to the British Association in 1868, 
 asserted that the man who knew the true history of a bit of chalk 
 which the carpenter carries in his breeches pocket had a truer and 
 therefore better conception of his relationship to a world in which he 
 must exist than the most learned student deep-read in the book records 
 of that world. Professor Huxley's reasoning is just as applicable to 
 agricultural studies, and the man who knows something about the soil 
 of his farm, and the animal life and plant life which exists on it, will 
 find that in competition with his fellow-men he is better able to get 
 ahead of them, which means that if he puts his knowledge to good 
 purpose he wiU look with satisfaction on the £ s. d. column of his 
 books. 
 
 To understand thoroughly what soil is we must have some knowledge 
 of geology, mineralogy, chemistry, and physics. 
 
 Geology and mineralogy teach us the origin ; chemistry and physics, 
 the composition and function of soils. 
 
 The study of soils is known as agronomy ; it is not a science, but 
 expresses the bearing of the sciences I have named upon the study of 
 soils. 
 
 Speaking of soils, my audience may desire to hear an American fable 
 on the difference in soils. 
 
 One day a peasant carried a basket of potatoes to a field, and dug 
 holes in the soil and planted them. His young son watched operations 
 for a time, and then inquired: — 
 
 " Pap, why do you put those 'taters in the ground ? " 
 
 " By so doing each one will bring me back ten," replied the father. 
 
 The boy went away, and when his father came up to dinner he found 
 him digging in the yard, and asked : 
 
 " Sonny, what are you seeking for ?" 
 
14 
 
 " Why, pap, I have planted the clock, the boot-jack, two umbrellas, 
 the tea-pot, your Sunday hat, ma's shoes, and a table-cloth, and each 
 one will bring me back ten." 
 
 " You young idiot, come out and be paralyzed !" shouted the father, 
 and he tanned the boy up and down, and crosswise and sidewise, 
 until the supply of peach-tree limbs gave out. 
 
 " Pap planted 'taters to get back ten," mused the boy as he sat down 
 under the low shed to think ; " but I planted clocks, hats, and shoes to 
 get a licking. It must be the difference in the soil." 
 
 Moral. — And the next fall, when the father cut down his corn-stalks 
 to save them, and the son cut down the currant bushes for the same 
 object, he got licked again. 
 
 But we must turn from fables to facts, and look for the difference in 
 another direction. Geologists tell us that there has been an age when 
 there was no soil. 
 
 Ths world had cooled down sufficiently for a crust to be formed on 
 what was previously a liquid expanse, and this crust was our primary 
 rock. 
 
 These primitive or crystalline rocks form the basis on which all 
 other rocks and soils have been built, and this disintegration has been 
 a very slow process, considering that, as calculated by Liebig, the 
 great German chemist, it would require 1,000 years to form a layer of soil 
 on4- twelfth of an inch deep. As a primary fact, it may be stated that the 
 entire mineral matter of soils has been derived from the gradual decay 
 or disintegration of rocks, or it may be said from the decay of crystal- 
 line or primitive rooks, because from these all intermediate and newer 
 rocks have been derived. The decay of a crystalline rock may yield 
 material which by slow deposition forms in the course of long ages a 
 compact sedimentary rock, which in the course of time may be again 
 exposed to decay, and will yield a soil which must be regarded as 
 primarily derived from the original crystalline rock. The origin of our 
 soils then is the decay of original or primitive rocks. The first soil 
 which the decay gave has undergone many changes ; it has been 
 formed into rocks and again turned into soil by their decay, changed 
 again into rock, and again into soil ; and this has been taking place 
 over and over again, and is taking place now. 
 
 Let us look at the table, classifying rocks according to their mode of 
 origin. 
 
 I would ask you to bear in mind that rocks formed by the agency of 
 water are termed aqueous ; those produced by the action of earth's 
 heat igneous ; and, again, those rocks which were originally aqueous, 
 but, through the combined influences of pressure, heat, and steam have 
 now assumed an igneous character, but are not really so, are termed 
 metamorphic. 
 
 Another simple classification which may be useful is that aqueous 
 rocks are — 
 
 1. Stratified, that is in layers. 
 
 2. Have a granular texture. 
 
 3. Contain fossils of plants and animals. 
 
16 
 
 On the other hand, igneous rocks are — 
 
 1. Unstratified, do not show larainationB. 
 
 2. Crystalline in texture. 
 
 3. Do not contain fossils. 
 
 Table I. — Classification of Eocks aocoeding ro their 
 Modes of Origin. — {Fream.') 
 
 IGNEOUS ■ 
 
 ■■Volcanic. 
 
 Examples — Dolerite, basalt, and all lavaa and trap rocks ; 
 trachyte, obsidian, phonolite, pumice, Yolcanic 
 ash. 
 Plutonic. 
 
 Examples — Granite, syenite, pegmatite, porphyry, f elsite, pitch- 
 stone, diorite, diabase, gabro, serpentine. 
 
 AQUEOUS 
 
 /Mechanically Eobmed or Sedimentary. 
 
 (a) ArgHiaceous or Clayey. 
 
 Examples — ^Mud, clay, till, boulder-clay,. Fuller's earth, 
 clnnch, loam, shale, marl. 
 
 (b) AreTiaceous, or Sandy, 
 
 Examples — Sand, silt, sandstone, flagstone, gritstone, 
 gravel, rubble, shingle, conglomerate, 
 breccia. 
 Chemically Eormbd. 
 
 Examples — Bocksalt, gypsum, trarertine, (river limestone or 
 calcareous tufa). 
 Organically Formed. 
 (a) BY animals. 
 ( I. Calcareous. 
 
 Examples — ^Limestones (shell-marl, coral-rock, chalk, 
 oolites, magnesian limestone, "mountain 
 limestone," &c.) 
 
 II. Siliceous. 
 Examples — ^Diatom-earth, flint, chert. 
 
 III. Phosphatic. 
 Examples— Guano, bone-breccia, phosphatic nodules 
 
 and beds (coprolites). 
 
 (5) BT PLANTS. 
 
 IV. Carbonaceous. 
 Examples — Feat, lignite, coal, oil-shale, petroleum 
 
 asphalt, graphite. 
 
 V. Ferruginous. 
 Examples — Bog-iron ore, clay ironstone. 
 
 META- 
 MOEPHIC 
 
 Examples — Crystalline limestone, (marble) dolomite, 
 quartzite, clay-slate, schistose rocks, 
 (mica schist, hornblende schist, talc 
 schist, chlorite schist, calc schist, gneiss) 
 certain serpentines, granite, syenites. -. 
 
 The preceding table shows us modes of origin. 
 
 The following tabulates for us geological epochs, with the evolution 
 of plant and animal life. 
 
 It is to be noted that in the oldest rocks we get the very lowest 
 forms of life, and as we follow the succession of rocks up to the recent 
 or historic so does life get higher and more developed. 
 
16 
 
 Table of the Successive Appearance of Typical Life-fobms. 
 From The Story of Creation. — Clodd. 
 
 Epoch. 
 
 System. 
 
 Animal. 
 
 Plant. 
 
 Primary or Palseo- 
 
 Laurentian ... 
 
 Eozoon - Canadense (?) 
 
 > 
 
 zoic 
 
 
 Foraminifera 
 
 
 (Earliest forms of 
 
 Cambrian 
 
 Sponges ; corals, Crus- 
 
 
 life known) 
 
 
 tacea, shell-fish 
 
 ■Sea-weeds, club- 
 
 
 Silurian 
 
 Huge Crustacea, the 
 
 lowest known 
 Vertebrates (ganoids or 
 
 mosses 
 
 
 
 armoured fish) 
 
 
 (Age of Ferns and 
 Fishes) 
 
 Devonian 
 
 Insects ; swarms of 
 
 
 Carboniferous 
 
 ganoids 
 Land vertebrates (laby- 
 rinthodonts) 
 
 Ferns, calamites, 
 cycads 
 
 
 Permian 
 
 Reptiles 
 
 
 Secondary or Meso- 
 
 Forassic 
 
 Immense reptiles ; sea- 
 
 
 zoio 
 
 
 lizards ; marsupial 
 mammals 
 
 
 (Age of Pines and 
 Keptilas) 
 
 Jurassic 
 
 Immense bird reptiles, 
 
 ■Conifers, palms 
 
 
 true birds 
 
 
 
 Cretaceous ... 
 
 Bony - skeletoned - fish. 
 
 
 
 
 large ammonites 
 
 
 Tertiary or Oaino- 
 
 Eocene 
 
 Huge placental mam- 
 
 S Trees, shrubs, 
 herbs, allied to 
 
 zoio 
 
 
 mals ; serpents, num- 
 
 
 
 mulites 
 
 ■ existing sub-tro- 
 
 (Age of Leaf -forests 
 
 Miocene and 
 
 True whales ; man-like 
 
 pical species 
 
 and Mammals) 
 
 Pliocene 
 
 apes 
 
 J 
 
 (Glacial epoch intervening and continuing into the — ) 
 
 <2uateruary 
 
 Post Pliocene.. 
 
 Becent or His- 
 toric 
 
 Mammoth and other 
 woolly quadrupeds ; 
 man 
 
 Existing species 
 
 ") Arctic and tem- 
 f perate 
 
 J Existing species 
 
 We may look on these tables as an introduction to the study of our 
 own geological map. 
 
 One^third of Victoria is composed of the older sedimentary rocks, 
 through which masses of granite protrude. 
 
 If we draw a line from Dergholm, on the (3-lenelg River near the 
 South Australian border, to Cape Howe, on the south-east of Albury on 
 the east, we will include all these older rocks. 
 
 Another one-third is occupied by the Murray River tertiary plains. 
 Roughly speaking, this includes all the north and north-west of our 
 line from Dergholm to Albury. 
 
 One-sixth of the colony, and perhaps the richest land in it, is com- 
 posed of lava and basaltic overflows. 
 
 This is the south-west area of the colony — west of the 145th meridian, 
 and south of our imaginary line from Dergholm to Cape Howe. 
 
 The remaining one-sixth is composed of coast tertiaries and mesozoio 
 coal rocks. 
 
 The area is east of the Idoth meridian, and south of our imaginary line 
 to Cape Howe. 
 
l; 
 
 The next question now is naturally — " What causes the disintegration 
 of rooks into soil ? " Various forces are active. 
 
 The first distinctive element which operates upon a rock is the 
 atmosphere or air. Our world is surrounded hy a gaseous envelope, 
 said '. to be 200 miles high, at the bottom of which we live, and the 
 covering of air presses on the earth's surface with a weight of 15 lbs. 
 on every square inch. 
 
 In 10,000 gallons of dry air there will be found about^ 
 7,900 gallons of nitrogen. 
 2,096 „ oxygen. 
 
 4 „ carbonic acid gas. 
 
 Two of these gases are very active bodies, i.e., oxygen and carbonic 
 acid. When the surface of a rock is exposed to the air, if there be any 
 iron or potash or soda in its composition, and they occur in almost every 
 rock, the oxygen and carbonic acid gas in the air combine chemically 
 with the iron, the. potash, and the soda, and form substances which dis- 
 solve in water and which the next shower of rain will wash away. 
 
 The action of, the atmosphere chiefly consists in oxidizing those 
 minerals which can contain more oxygen. The carbonic acid gas in 
 the atmosphere is dissolved from the air which contains it, through the 
 agency of snow, rain, dew, or mist, and thus rocks are brought into 
 constant contact with a diluted solution of it in water. 
 
 Let us now look at some of these chemical elements. 
 
 We take first the element, oxygen. This is an air or gas, invisible, 
 odourless, tasteless, and cannot ordinarily by the use of our senses be 
 distinguished from ordinary air. 
 
 Ftff. 1. 
 
 The above figure is the apparatus necessary for making this gas. 
 
 Take first a tube of glass about eight inches long and half an inch in 
 width, containing some red oxide of mercury, or some potassium-chlorate, 
 mixed with about one-quarter its weight of powdered black oxide of 
 manganese. 
 
 4781. B 
 
18 
 
 The mouth of the tube is fitted by a cork in which there is a narrow- 
 tube, the end of which passes into a tub nearly filled with water. 
 
 Over the free end of this narrow tube a pint bottle filled with water 
 is inverted, heat is then applied by a spirit lamp to the wide tube, com- 
 mon air is first expelled, and then oxygen gas comes over and displaces 
 the water in the bottle. From one ounce of potassium-chlorate about a 
 gallon of oxygen gas may be obtained. 
 
 Bottles when full may be corked and set aside, with their mouths in 
 tumblers of water. This gas is a great supporter of combustion ; this 
 is shown by the usual test for oxygen gas. 
 
 If we take one of these bottles, lift it mouth 
 upwards, and place in it a burning splinter of wood, 
 the flame will be increased in brilliancy. If we 
 now remove this splinter, blow out the flame, and 
 then replace the red glowing point in the bottle, 
 the splinter will be instantly relighted. We see 
 the efiect of oxygen as a supporter of combustion 
 when we blow a fire by bellows or create in some 
 way a draught. 
 
 This element is estimated to be the most abundant 
 body in nature. Professor Johnson says that it 
 forms eight-ninths of the weight of all the water 
 of the globe and one-third of its solid crust, its soils 
 and rocks, as well as the plants and animals which 
 exist upon it. Through it iron rusts, lead tarnishes, and wood decays. 
 One-fifth of the bulk of our atmosphere is made up of this gas. 
 
 The remaining four-fifths are made up of the next element, namely, 
 the gas of nitrogen, and it apparently is employed to temper and dilute 
 the active properties of oxygen. 
 
 The easiest way to obtain this gas is to remove 
 from common atmosphere its other component 
 part — oxygen. Take a soup plate, covering the 
 bottom with water half an inch deep, float on it 
 a piece of wood or cork on which is placed a 
 little hollowed-out bit of chalk ; in this chalk 
 place a pea of dry phosphorus, set it on fire by a 
 red-hot wire, and at once cover the plate by a 
 big glass bottle or bell jar. The phosphorus will 
 at first burn brilliantly, and the jar will get fiUed 
 with a snow-like cloud ; when the oxygen of the 
 air in the jar is all removed the combustion will 
 p 3_ cease, and the white fumes will fall and be ab- 
 
 sorbed by the water in the plate, leaving the jar 
 filled with nitrogen. 
 
 To show that we have now obtained a different gas we repeat the 
 experiment shown with oxygen (Fig. 2). In this case the burning 
 splinter when introduced immediately goes out, and the glowing point 
 is not affected. 
 
19 
 
 Oxygen sustains life — it is necessary for respiration, and -without it 
 animals and plants perish ; on the other hand, nitrogen does not sustain 
 life, will not maintain respiration, and animals oon&ied in it perish. 
 
 An easy method of preparing nitrogen gas is to dissolve about an 
 ounce of green vitriol in four or five ounces of water in a pint or quart 
 bottle, and into the bottle pouring two or three tablespoonsful of harts- 
 horn, cork tight, and shake well from time to time for half-an-hour. At 
 each shaking gently loosen the cork, and 
 the air will rush in. The process will 
 be complete when the rushing in of air 
 becomes insensible. The gas in the bottle 
 wDl be nitrogen, and will put out a lighted 
 taper. 
 
 The next substance is carbonic acid gas. 
 This is a compound body made up of 
 carbon and oxygen. It is a colourless gas, 
 iias a peculiar smell, and a slight sour 
 taste. To it is due the sparkling and 
 effervescence of beer or sodawater. 
 
 If we place small bits of marble or 
 limestone in a bottle, and drench it with 
 hydrochloric acid, carbonic acid gas will 
 
 escape, and if we fill the receiving glass with clear lime water, it will 
 show its presence by making it milky. 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 If we use a bottle as fitted in Fig. 5, we can collect this gas over 
 -water. 
 
 Carbonic acid does not support combustion, will extinguish burning 
 bodies, and animals die in it. It is half heavier than common air. 
 
 B 2 
 
20 
 
 If a lighted taper be put in a glass, and carbonic acid be collected 
 in another glass, the gas can be poured from one glass into another, and. 
 
 shown by the extinction of the taper. 
 In breathing, animals inspire the air 
 (oxygen and nitrogen) and respire car- 
 bonic acid gas. 
 
 If we fill a tumbler with clear lime 
 water and breathe through it with a straw, 
 the water will turn milky, showing the 
 presence of carbonic acid gas. On the 
 other hand plants inspire, by their 
 leaves, carbonic acid gas (carbon and 
 oxygen), retain the carbon to build up 
 their structures, and respire oxygen. 
 
 The atmosphere then is one agency, 
 changes of temperature is another. This 
 has a loosening influence on rocks by 
 causing alternate expansion and contrac- 
 tion. 
 
 When boiling water is cooled it con- 
 tracts or takes up less room, but when 
 it freezes or turns into ice it suddenly 
 expands. 
 
 If, for instance, we were to freeze 10 cubic feet of water we should 
 obtain 11 cubic feet of ice. Eain, fog, mist, or snow fill and soak all 
 the little holes and crevices in the rocks, and 
 when it freezes it expands with irresistible force, 
 splitting off innumerable fragments of rock. 
 
 Heat causes the rocks to expand, and cold 
 causes them to contract, and that with immense 
 force, so that one part of a rock being heated 
 more than another by the sun's rays may be 
 dragged away from the rest, causing a crack, 
 just as a glass cracks when hot water is poured 
 suddenly into it, one part expanding and tearing 
 away from another. 
 
 To the two forces already named we have to 
 add rain. This acts both chemically and mechani- 
 cally. Rain falling through the air brings down 
 some of the oxygen and carbonic acid. 
 
 Now, as many of the substances in rocks are 
 soluble in water, rain running over and through 
 rocks dissolves these substances and carries them away, and the rock 
 crumbles to pieces. By the sun's heat vapour is raised from the surface 
 of seas, rivers, lakes, snowfields, and glaciers. 
 
 This vapour is invisible till it rises to a stratum of air which cools it 
 below the dew point, and it appears to us as clouds. Further conden- 
 sation augments size of cloud particles, and they fall to the surface of 
 the earth, if liquid as rain, if solid as snow or hail, and if partly solid 
 and partly liquid as sleet. 
 
21 
 
 This falls on land and ocean alike, and again in due time arises as 
 vapour to fulfil its task. It is in fact a member of a vast system of 
 circulation, and every drop of water, both by its chemical and 
 mechanical action, is changing the surface of the earth. 
 
 Chemically speaking water consists of two gases, oxygen and 
 hydrogen, and it is remarkable that when in combination they will put 
 out all fire ; when separated the first (oxygen) as you have seen 
 sustains combustion, and the second 
 
 (hydrogen) as we shall see itself burns f^'ifl.t'^^'^'^ip'Ti'f^t 
 very readily. i 'cKfW^^^^"' ^""i 
 
 Hydrogen, like oxygen, when pure 
 has neither odour, taste, or colour, and 
 can be prepared by abstracting oxygen 
 from water. 
 
 If we throw a small pellet of the 
 metal potassium on the surface of water 
 in a basin it will swim, and at the 
 moment it touches a flame will arise 
 round the metal — this is the hydrogen 
 of the water which has been set free, 
 and is burning. 
 
 We can also obtain a supply of this 
 gas — by filling a bottle fitted with 
 cork, funnel, and delivery tube — with 
 zinc clippings and some water, and then carefully pouring in a little 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
 A brisk efiEervescence wUl commence, and hydrogen gas will escape 
 and can be collected in bottles filled, with water as was done with the 
 gas oxygen. 
 
 Great care must be ^^ - 
 taken in collecting this 
 gas. All the first por- 
 tions that come over 
 must be allowed to es- 
 cape ; this is due to 
 the fact that it will 
 be mixed with some 
 proportion of air, and 
 the mixture of air and 
 hydrogen forms a most 
 dangerous explosive. 
 
 Hydrogen will not 
 support combustion, but 
 is in itself inflammable, 
 and burns with a pale blue flame. It is the lightest substance known, 
 the gas employed for balloons, and, in contradiction to carbonic acid 
 gas, we can pour it upwards from one glass into another. 
 
 We can see for ourselves that water is simply made up of two 
 perfectly different substances known as oxygen and hydrogen, and 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
22 
 
 that it is made up in the proportions of two volumes of hydrogen 
 to one volume of oxygen, when we split up water by means of 
 electricity. 
 
 Take a large glass funnel, and place it as in illustration with a cork 
 at bottom, through which two platinum wires have been passed. ^^~ 
 
 The 
 
 j'SP^'n*' 
 
 funnel and two test tubes are 
 filled with acidulated water, so 
 as to allow the electricity to 
 pass easily. 
 
 The platinum wires end on 
 the one hand each in one of the 
 test tubes, and on the outside 
 of the cork are attached to the 
 copper wires from a battery. 
 On attachment bubbles will 
 rise in each of the test tubes, 
 and soon they will be filled 
 with gas — one containing twice 
 as much as the other. The 
 lesser, on experimenting with 
 a red-hot splinter, will burst 
 into flame, showing the pre- 
 sence of oxygen ; and the 
 other will show no action with 
 the red-hot spark, but when 
 brought into contact with the 
 flame of a taper will itself burn 
 with a pale blue flame — showing the presence of hydrogen. 
 
 The three forces we have just named, air, water, and frost, are the 
 chief agents which have formed the soil. If you notice the stones of a 
 building when first put up you will see that the corners are sharp and 
 the surfaces smooth and close. After a few years the sharp edges of 
 the stones become rounded oflf, and the surfaces are dotted over with 
 little holes or pits, and sometimes flakes of stone peel off and fall to the 
 ground. 
 
 In the same way the hardest rocks, even granite and basalt, are 
 broken into fragments. Take for example granite, and this rock in 
 general composition is supposed to be the nearest to our original 
 primitive rock. It is made of little grains of three minerals — quartz, 
 felspar, and mica. Quartz is almost pure silica, but felspar and mica 
 are complicated minerals. Now when granite is exposed to the air the 
 oxygen and carbonic acid seize upon the iron and potash in the felspar 
 and mica, and convert them into a powder which is easily washed out 
 by the rain ; this leaves little holes in the granite ; into these oxygen 
 and carbonic acid penetrate, and the same action occurs and re-occurs 
 till the rock crumbles to pieces. The grains of quartz being now set 
 free from the felspar and mica form sand, while the fine particles of the 
 other materials are washed together by rain and form clay. As the 
 
23 
 
 three forces named proceed in their action a superficial layer of variable 
 thickness is produced, and at an early stage vegetation begins. Lichens, 
 followed by mosses and grasses. Growing plants keep the mineral 
 matters amidst which they grow moist, and enable water to penetrate 
 and rot them. With their roots they insert themselves into joints and 
 crevices causing fragments to be detached, and by their own action dis- 
 solving and absorbing minute portions of the rock for food, and the plant 
 when dead and decaying has still a greater action. It absorbs moisture, 
 and keeps all bodies around it damp, gives off carbonic acid, which is 
 absorbed by rain water, carried down through the soil, and acts on the 
 mineral matters below. Thus gradually a soil is formed. With these 
 three principal forces we have also the action of running water, of 
 rivers, of the oceans, of glaciers, and of volcanoes, and these differ in 
 their transporting effects, which, when added to their disintegrating 
 action, renders them not only accountable for the origin, but for the 
 present position of many soils. 
 
 Soil then is simply rotted rock. If we would dig a deep trench in a 
 field, and thus expose a section vertically, we would find several 
 gradations. There would be — 1 st, a grass layer, and underneath it ^2nd) 
 a vegetable soil layer; below this would be (3rd) the Soil, which is 
 simply rotted subsoil ; and then the subsoil, which is rotting rock ; and 
 last of all the underlying rock. When the surface soil has been formed 
 directly from the underlying rock, the soil is said to be in situ or 
 sedentary or indigenous, that is to say, remaining in the position where 
 it was originally formed. When the soil has been formed from the very 
 rocks on which it rests, it corresponds closely in character with the 
 underlying compact rock. 
 
 But we often find surface soils which do not present any similarity 
 of appearance or character to the underlying rock, and these are known 
 as transported soils. 
 
 A sandy soil is formed on a bed of clay, or a clay soil on a limestone 
 rock. 
 
 Sometimes it is superior in quality to what we might have 
 expected. 
 
 Sometimes it is of a lower quality than we thought to find. We can 
 now tell our inquirer that the soil is obtained from some primitive rock 
 by the action of air — commonly known as weathering — and the action 
 of water, ice,, and frost, commonly called denudation ; and that he will 
 not find soils always on the top of the rocks from which they are 
 made. 
 
 It should be remembered that geological knowledge must not be 
 entirely relied upon. The mingling of formations together at their 
 edges, accumulation of drifted matter, occurrence of some fault or dyke, 
 or the outcrop of some strata not previously noticed, make numerous 
 exceptions to any rule which may be laid down with respect to soils and 
 geological formations. We have now traced the formation of our soil 
 — the next inquiry will be as to the ingredients. The proximate 
 
24 
 
 ingredients of which all soils are composed are five in number — sand, 
 clay, lime, vegetable matter, and mineral fragments (stones), whether 
 derived from the decay of chalk or sandstone. All fertile soils have 
 these five constituents, and the quality of the soil depends upon the 
 proportions in which these materials are mixed together. 
 
 Sand and clay are the two poles by which soils are classified, and 
 loam forms the agricultural equator, containing, roughly speaking, 50 
 per cent, of sand and 50 per cent, of clay. 
 
 The following table is one drafted by the late Professor Wilson, of 
 Edinburgh University, and is the simplest of the many classifications 
 that have been drawn up. 
 
 Classification of Soils, 
 bt peof. wilson. 
 
 A. Silicious = f Silica or sand. 
 
 B. Argillaceous ^ f Clay or silicate of alumina. 
 C Calcareous = | Chalk or carbonate of lime. 
 D. Humus = ^ Vegetable matter. 
 
 A. and _B. = Loam (normal.) 
 
 A. A. B. ^ Sandy loam. 
 A. B. B. = Clayey loam. 
 
 B. and C. = Marl. 
 
 A. B. C = Sandy marl. 
 
 B. B. C. = Clayey marl. 
 D. and A. = Light vegetable soiL 
 
 D. A. B. = Garden vegetable soil. 
 
 It is so common to hear clayey soils called heavy, and sandy ones 
 light, that the sense in which the words are used are often mistaken. 
 We are apt to think that clay is really heavier than sand bulk for bulk; 
 the fact is that we' find sand to be constantly heavier than clay. One 
 cubic foot of sand weighs 110 lbs., while a cubic foot of clay weighs 
 only 75 lbs. Still clay is rightly called heavy when by heavy we meant 
 hard to work, difficult to dig, or to draw the plough through, and sand 
 called light or easy to work. We have yet to complete our knowledge 
 of the soil, by learning something of its chemical and physical pro- 
 perties. We will take it for granted that the soil contains all the 
 chemical elements necessary to sustain plant life, or if it did not we 
 would have to supply it artificially — the mere enumeration of names 
 woulcl occupy too much time, and would not be interesting. 
 
 We should note that soil consists of both organic and inorganic parts. 
 The former derived from the roots and stems of decayed plants, and 
 from the e:^creta and remains of animals, and the latter from the waste 
 of the rocks forming the earth's crust. 
 
 The organic matter can also be called atmospheric matter, and the 
 mineral matter earthy matter. Atmospheric matter is that which burns 
 away in the fire. Earthy matter is the ash left after burning. 
 
25 
 
 ^me of a candle the larger 
 
 If we take a straw and hold it in the 
 proportion of it will burn away as smoke 
 ---this being atmospheric matter — the 
 balance, which we call ash, is earthy or 
 mineral matter. 
 
 If we take some soil and expose it to 
 heat, as in illustration, the smaller pro- 
 portion of it will burn away, the major 
 part being left, as mineral or earthy 
 matter. 
 
 Of course, to obtain information as to 
 the kinds of plant food soil was rich or 
 deficient in, the chemist has to be called 
 in. Value of chemical analysis was ori- 
 ginally much misrepresented and mis- 
 understood. Full analyses of soils were 
 made, showing exactly the different sub- 
 stances of which it was composed, and 
 how much there was of each ; and when 
 you knew the composition of your crop, 
 you had only to compare the results and you would know exactly what 
 manures to select in order to supply any deficiency. Experience has 
 shown that this kind of analysis is 
 
 Fig.n. 
 
 It showed, perhaps, that there was 
 an abundance of silica, and yet wheat, 
 which requires much silica, would not 
 grow on the land ; or perhaps the 
 analysis showed that the soil was rich 
 in phosphate of lime, and yet it was 
 a very poor grass field, requiring the 
 addition of phosphate of lime to make 
 it into good pasturage. The fact is 
 we do not want to know the entire 
 composition of the soil only, but 
 require first of all the soluble portion 
 of the soil to be separated from the 
 insoluble, and then to be informed of 
 the chemical composition of each of 
 these portions. The term dormant is 
 applied to that part of the soil which 
 is not ready for immediate use as 
 plant food, or that portion of the soil 
 which is not soluble in rain water, or 
 in rain water containing a little acid. 
 This is by far the larger part. No 
 substance can be taken into a plant 
 unless it is first dissolved, for solid 
 particles are far too large to enter 
 into the rootlets. 
 
26 
 
 The active matter of the soil includes all those substances which are 
 ready to dissolve in rain water, or in rain water aided by weak acids, 
 It is on the nature, variety, and amount of the active part of the soil 
 that the fertility of the land depends. 
 
 For an animal to live, and grow, we must supply it with plenty of 
 food, and that of the right kind. It is just the same with plants. 
 Food is as necessary to them as it is to animals. Some attention must 
 be paid also to the physical properties of soils. 
 
 The first is porosity, and its benefits are the property of retaining 
 sufiicient moisture for the use of crops, and of overcoming the tendency 
 of rainfall to wash away from plants valuable fertilizing matters. The 
 next is capillarity, and this depends on porosity,- they go together, one 
 is the downward and the other the upward force. The action of 
 blotting-paper is a familiar example of capillarity. 
 
 In conjunction with the two physical forces named, we must also 
 take into account the force of tenacity, for we do not wish our soil to 
 be blown about, nor, on the other hand, to be so tenacious as to be 
 incapable of cultivation. 
 
 These forces all play a part in what is known as surface attraction. 
 Fresh particles detached by the action of air, water, and frost, in a 
 soluble state from the insoluble mass of the soil, are fixed at once by 
 this surface attraction and held for the use of plants. This available 
 plant food accumulates in a fallow field or permanent pasture, and the 
 ground becomes richer by rest. 
 
 By the removal of crops the available plant food becomes exhausted, 
 and the field ceases to be productive, but after a few years rest fertility 
 is found to be restored. During the interval of rest the soil has been 
 exposed to changes of temperature, to the action of air and moisture, 
 and it may be to the vegetable force in the action of roots of plants 
 which have taken possession of the surface. 
 
 The consequence is that under the combined influence of these forces, 
 fragments of quartz, felspar, apatite, phosphorite, gypsum, and other 
 mineral substances become weathered. 
 
 They part with small quantities of their substance, which pass over 
 into the soluble and available condition, and thus a store of plant food 
 once more accumulates. The mineral matter rendered soluble will not 
 wash through the soil, but will only be carried a short distance before 
 it is seized and appropriated by the force of surface attraction, and 
 hence we have a reason why rest restores land. Let us glance at what 
 we suppose our scientific agriculturist to know: — 
 
 1st. That he will have some idea of the origin and formation of 
 
 soils. 
 2nd. That he is able to classify his soil. 
 3rd. That he can understand a chemical analysis of his soil 
 
 showing the dormant and active constituents therein, 
 4th. That he appreciates the influence of the physical properties 
 of the soil. 
 
 What we have now to consider is the object with which the plough- 
 man is guiding his plough through the land. 
 
 Of course the immediate end is the provision of a proper seed-bed. 
 
27 
 
 He breaks up thei ground into furrow-slices, and turns them over io 
 such a manner that the greatest quantity of mould is exposed to the^ 
 disintegrating or weathering action of air, water, and frost. The soil 
 is triturated or broken into smaller portions, that partially becoma 
 soluble and available for plant food, and the effects of ploughing are 
 that the opening up of the soil allows a freer access of air and water, 
 inducing the dormant or inert materials, both organic and inorganic, to 
 become active or soluble, and it stirs and loosens the soil, so that the- 
 roots of plants may freely extend themselves in search of food. It 
 pulverizes the soil and mixes thoroughly its constituent parts, so as to- 
 increase its absorbent and retentive powers, and to effect an equal and 
 economical distribution of manure. It facilitates the passage of water 
 through the soil upwards to the roots of plants by capillarity, and down- 
 wards to be carried away when in excess. It destroys weeds and 
 foreign plants and those insects who work beneath the soil at the 
 roots of plants. 
 
 This is what the man behind the plough is doing, and to explain 
 what a furrow is he (unconsciously, perhaps) calls to his aid the follow- 
 ing sciences : — Geology, mineralogy, chemistry, physics, mechanics, 
 botany, animal and vegetable physiology, and natural history, and all 
 these sciences wiU lend their aid to explain a furrow, if they are di- 
 rected by common sense. In attempting the explanation of a furrow, it 
 must be borne inmind, as so ably expressed by Dr. Paley, that "Practi- 
 cal agriculture is one thing, inquiring into causes and reasoning from 
 facts, another ; the two branches of knowledge are different and inde- 
 pendent." Agriculture is just like a ship, the practice of it is the 
 rudder, and the science of it that which takes place on the bridge and 
 in the chart-room — the daily observations, reading the compass, calcu- 
 lating the latitude and longitude, laying down the courses and tracing 
 it on the chart — and to be certain of the ship agriculture you must not 
 only be able to turn her in the direction wanted, but you must 
 know when to turn her, 
 and where to turn her, 
 and be able to explain 
 why you have turned 
 her. 
 
 The action of a 
 plough may be de- 
 scribed as threefold. 
 First, the vertical cut 
 done by the coulter ; 
 second, the horizontal 
 given by the share; and 
 third, the turning over 
 of these cut portions by 
 the mould-board. 
 
 The diagram shows 
 the action of the three 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 parts of the plough named — A, the surface of the soil ; D E, the direc- 
 tion of the coulter cut; E F, the direction of the share cut ; B is th& 
 
28 
 
 side of the furrow cut by the coulter; Cthe side cut by the share; and 
 the action of the mould-board is to so expose these furrow slices, as 
 is shown at C B. There are various styles of furrows. For example, 
 the rectangular furrow, the crested or shoulder furrow, and the broken 
 furrow. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 In Fig. 17, we have the furrow as thrown up by a digging- plough. 
 In the rectangular furrow the width is greater in proportion than the 
 
29 
 
 depth. The crested furro-w is obtained by the deptha being unequal 
 at the two sides. The advantages of the rectangular furrow are: — 
 
 First. By means of it the greatest solid contents of soil along 
 with the greatest surface can be exposed with the least 
 amount of labour. 
 Secondly. The furrow slice being wide, time is saved in plough- 
 iug a given area of land. 
 The advantages advocated for the crested furrow are : — 
 First. That the grass is more easily buried. 
 Secondly. Because more mould is obtained, and less harrowing 
 
 necessary to get a seed-bed; and 
 Third. There is more compactness and less tendency of the 
 furrow to open up again after been Ifdd over. 
 
 Fiff. 17. 
 
 Fig 18. 
 
 These illustrations are examples of what is termed in America lap- 
 ploughing and flat-ploughing. 
 
 In the first, the furrow is cut, say, 10 inches wide and 7^ or 8 inches 
 deep ; in the second, it will be about 12 inches wide and 5| or 6 inches 
 deep. The plough in lap-ploughing throws the slice over on its edge, 
 grass side down, the edge lapping upon previous slices. 
 
30 
 
 In the flat-ploughing the slice Ib turned first upon its edge_ and then 
 flat over. In illustrations — G stands for grass, F for furrow, and S for 
 slice. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 The movement of a sod is here illustrated, and also the furrows laid 
 up in regularforder. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 This illustration shows the action of the plough in turning over the 
 soil. At A the soil has reached the mould-board, and as the plough 
 goes forward the slice is raised gradually till the end of the mould- 
 board lays it up against the preceding slice. 1 shows the action of the 
 hollow mould-board, and 2 that of the bulging form. 
 
 Following the plough we have only been looking at what, as I 
 previously stated, may be called the land's life. Plant life is just as 
 important. A seed contains an embryo, or 
 young plant, and a store of nourishment, 
 which is almost exactly like the white of an 
 egg in composition, called albumen. 
 
 The embryo consists of a plumule or young 
 bud, from which the stem will grow up into 
 the air ; a radicle or young root, which will 
 grow down into the soil; and one or two seed 
 leaves, which either hold the store of nourish- 
 ment or will push up above the soil and 
 become the first green leaves of the plant. 
 If we examine an egg we may understand 
 the nature of a seed. 
 
 An egg has a covering to protect its soft 
 contents from harm, and a seed also has a 
 tough coat. Within the egg lies a tiny spot, 
 or germ, or embryo, surrounded by a store 
 of albumen, intended to nourish it until the 
 chick can seek food for itself. There is just the same arrangement 
 in every seed. 
 
31 
 
 When the chick comes out it leaves an empty shell, so, too, the 
 seedling after it has put forth its first green leaves. 
 
 Three things are necessary to enable a seed to begin to grow : — 
 
 1st. Moisture — which soaks into the seed, causing it to sweUup 
 
 and burst its hard skin. 
 2nd. Air — from which the seed absorbs oxygen. 
 3rd. Warmth — of which some seeds need mare than others. 
 These are the requisites for germination. The parts of a plant are : — 
 
 1st. The root-hairs — it is through these very delicate fibrils that 
 
 the plant food from the soil enters the plant. 
 2nd. The root — by which the plant is firmly fixed in the 
 
 ground. 
 3rd. The stem — which supports the branches and leaves, and 
 furnish a channel by which tha liquid plant food may pass 
 from one part of the plant to another. 
 4th. The branches — these bear the leaves, and by the manner 
 they spread out they expose the leaves to the action of sun, 
 light, air and rain. 
 Sth. The leaves — these enable the plant to feed on a part of 
 the air. Their under surfaces are covered with little mouths 
 through which carbonic acid gas from the air is taken in, 
 and watery vapour and oxygen passes out. 
 6th. The flower — this bears the organs of fertilization. 
 7th. The fruit — this is formed by the ripening of the fertilized 
 flower, is the product of fertilization, and contains a seed or 
 seeds, the means of reproduction. 
 The composition of plants shows us that they are composed of 
 organic and inorganic matter. The latter is derived entirely from the 
 soil. The former is derived partly from the air and partly from the soil, 
 but it should be noted that the soil contains much inorganic matter, the 
 plant but little. 
 
 In the soil there is' little organic matter, in the plant there is 
 much. 
 
 If we burn 100 lbs. weight of dry wheat (ear, grain, and straw to- 
 gether) we shall find 4:^ lbs. of whitish ash or inorganic matter, and 
 95^ lbs. of organic matter will have escaped into the air. The food 
 lies then in the air and soil, and the next inquiry must be into the 
 machinery by which the plant is capable of absorbing it. The root is 
 an organ of absorption, and the best conception of a root as an organ of 
 absorption is that of a single fibril, or a dense mass of fibrils as fine as 
 a hair. The fineness of the root fibril, its growth near the tip, its 
 wonderful power of motion, are all adapted to admit of the fibril making 
 its way between the particles of the soil and extracting nourishment 
 from the fiuid surrounding them. These root-fibrils are often provided 
 with yet finer root-hairs, these, when their growth is stimulated by mois- 
 ture or presence of suitable plant food, occur in such numbers as to form 
 a dense cobweb-like surrounding to the roots. 
 
32 
 
 
 These are an illustration of a wheat plant at two stages of growth ; S, 
 the seed; B, the blade; E, roots covered 
 with root hairs to which the soil is 
 sticking ; W, the growing tips of the 
 root free from soil. 
 
 The food which plants absorb must 
 be liquid, this leads to the assumption 
 that water is necessary. And how 
 does the water pass into the root-hairs 
 and fibrils .'' 
 
 If spirit be poured upon water, the 
 two liquids will gradually mix, the 
 mixture being that a molecule of water 
 has displaced a molecule of spirit, 
 which in its turn has replaced the 
 molecule of water, and this displacement 
 and replacement has gone throughout 
 the .whole quantity of liquid till equi- 
 librium is restored, and diffusion is the 
 j'esult. In plant life the two liquids to 
 be mixed are protoplasm inside the 
 plant and water containing plant food 
 outside, but they are , separated by the 
 presence of a membrane, in the shape 
 of the cell wall. The water has to 
 pass through the membrane to reach 
 the protoplasm, and ingress is secured 
 by the process of diffusion. When 
 two liquids mix without aiiyintervening 
 membrane, the process is. called simply 
 diffusion ; when there is an intervening 
 membrane, the process is called osmosis. 
 This intervening membrane plays an 
 important part in plant life. Proto- 
 plasm is of a heavier density than 
 water; now when two fluids of different 
 densities are separated by a permeable 
 medium two currents will be established 
 — one outwards called exomose, and 
 one inwards called endomose; and these 
 two currents will continue till the fluids 
 are of equal density. 
 
 The fluid contents of roots are of 
 greater density than the water in the 
 soil. 
 
 An inward current is therefore estab- 
 lished, for which the working portion _ 
 of the fibrils are the medium, and it is ^^' 
 accompanied by a much sinaller outward current. As evaporation goes 
 
33 
 
 JSfifflJi^V '' 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 4781. 
 
34 
 
 on continually in the exposed portions of the plant, the fluids therein 
 are never reduced to the density of the medium in which they grow, 
 hence the inward current or power of absorption does not cease while 
 vital action ia unimpaired. The next part of the plant is the stem with 
 its subdivisions. 
 
 They all may be called pipes for distributing sap. In the machinery 
 necessary for nutrition stems play a secondary part. Boots and leaves 
 being the two great organs. What then is the use of a stem ? The 
 answer is that it acts as a go-between 'twixt the roots and leaves, and 
 between the leaves themselves. 
 
 The leaves, by their copious evaporating surfaces, act as suckers to 
 draw up the water from the soil by the roots. 
 
 The leaves are the organs by which the food brought up from the 
 roots is assimilated, or made like to the substance of the plant itself. 
 A leaf is covered on both sides with a thin transparent skin, having a 
 number of small holes or breathing pores. 
 
 Between the upper and under skins, the leaf consists of cells full of 
 ]uice. 
 
 The cells and pores contain minute grains of a green colouring matter 
 called chlorophyl. Through the pores leaves breathe in carbonic acid 
 gas from the atmosphere. The chlorophyl under the influence of 
 sunlight disunites the carbon and oxygen in the carbonic acid gas, retains 
 the carbon, and allows the oxygen to pass out again into the air. 
 
 So then the leaves are the meeting-places of the soil food and the air 
 food, and they meet here for the special purposes of combining together, 
 and in this workshop are built up the complicated substances, starch, 
 gum, cellulose, woody fibre, &c., of which the plant is composed. 
 
 We have now arrived at the stage where our agriculturist, knowing 
 the general principles of land life, and the functions of plant life, calls 
 in a chemist to tell him what are the elements which constitute his 
 plant, and what elements are to be found in his soil, for he reasons 
 that his plant to live must be supplied with all the elements which 
 compose it, and when he learns that some plants require a large 
 quantity of one mineral in their food, while others desire quite another 
 and a different substance, and that his soil is deficient in some sub- 
 stances, he reasons on these facts and produces two theories — that 
 of rotation of crops, and manuring of soils. 
 
 In rotation of crops, the principle simply is that one crop shall not 
 follow another which requires the same kind of food, and the principle 
 of manuring is simply the addition of any substance to the soil in order 
 
 to increase the amount of plant food — either directly or indirectly 
 
 available in the soU. 
 
 ■ I have no hesitation in stating that to be behind the plough, and 
 know generally the interdependencies of the various sciences which are 
 in your furrows, is far better than attempting to succeed by a never- 
 ending series of imitations of those whom you have seen or heard of. 
 A paragraph in the paper or in an agricultural journal, relative to the 
 special manuring a crop has received and the result thereof, leads some 
 one residing in another part of the country, whose soil and climate ia 
 diametrically opposed to that in which the experiment succeeded to 
 
35 
 
 follow out on his land the details given, result being a miserable failure, 
 for -which he will especially exempt himself from all blame. In this 
 way the agricultural atmosphere in all countries is very liable to be 
 enwrapped in a fog, and this fog obscures agricultural science, and 
 obstructs its development. When you don't know what crop your soil 
 will grow with advantage to itself and your pecuniary benefit, it is an 
 easy way to excuse yourself by becoming the advocate of some so-called 
 theory, which in reality only is, as well expressed by Professor Johnson, 
 " The fancies of an ignorant and undisciplined mind." The scientific 
 theory of agriculture is intended for the nearest possible approach to 
 the known truth, based on the stock of facts we have gained from 
 experience. It is not infallible, and on all hands it is yet acknowledged 
 to be still imperfect, mainly due to the cireumstancethat our knowledge 
 of facts is yet incomplete. 
 
 In scientific agriculture we endeavour to give a rational and well- 
 balanced interpretation of generally acknowledged facts : — 
 
 " Science is knowledge ; art is the application of knowledge^ 
 Science consists of facts ; art utilizes these facts. Science investi- 
 gates ; art adapts. Science is the foundation ; art is the superstructure. 
 Science is the mariner who sails out over the seas of ignorance, and 
 discovers fair islands and broad continents of truth ; art is the immi- 
 grant who comes later, and tills the soil, and builds the cities." 
 
 Note. — In the above lecture, I have drawn both for my matter and 
 illubtrations from many sources — English, American, and Australian — 
 which I do not acknowledge in detail, trusting that this gener^ 
 acknowledgment of my indebtedness will be accepted. 
 
 E. H. W. 
 
 C 2 
 
36 
 
 FRUIT CULTURE AS AN AGRICULTURAL 
 INDUSTRY. 
 
 Bt David A. Crichton. 
 
 As lecturer to the Department of Agriculture it is my duty to travel 
 through the colouy and direct attention to the improvement of farming 
 practice, and the introduction of various industries that may be better 
 suited to the requirements of settlers than those now generally 
 practised. It is generally admitted that the position of farmers is not 
 so satisfactory at the present time as it ought to be, and that a change 
 in practice is required to bring about some improvement. As long as 
 they continue in the old ruts of practice, and confine themselves to the 
 raising of ordinary crops such as wheat, oats, hay, and potatoes their 
 position is not likely to be much better, as these products are not only 
 very uncertain in their yields, but prices are also too low to afford 
 growers a fair profit. Though in the past these crops have no doubt 
 paid the farmer well as higher prices ruled, but now more produce is 
 raised very frequently than is required by our local markets, and 
 consequently rates rule low, to the discouragement of growers. There 
 are many industries that now receive l)ut little or no attention from our 
 farmers, but which may be carried on with advantage. In fact, there 
 is no part of the colony where some of these special industries cannot 
 be advantageously practised by our settlers. 
 
 - But the subject that I have to do with specially this night is " Fruit 
 Culture as an Agricultural Industry," and this I shall deal with in the 
 broadest manner possible. I shall endeavour to show you that this is 
 an industry specially deserving the attention of farmers, and one that 
 may be practised by every settler with advantage. The tillers of the 
 land are not wise to confine themselves to one or two ordinary cereal 
 or other crops, from which the returns are often very poor and always 
 uncertain, and they will do well to extend their energies to a wider 
 field of practice, so that if some ventures are unsatisfactory others may 
 succeed. A few acres of fruit trees or vines must necessarily place the 
 farmer who has them in a better position than the one without, as thev 
 will often give good yields when cereal or other ordinary crops fail. 
 Then, again, the produce of an orchard or vineyard is much more' 
 valuable according to the area occupied than the ordinary crop, and conse- 
 quently the grower can obtain a greater monetary return. As a matter 
 of course, I do not advise farmers to give up their ordinary crops in 
 favour of fruit culture, but let the latter be an auxiliary, and it is bound 
 to be a good one. 
 
 I know many people are under the impression that if fruit- 
 growing become general far more will be raised than is likely to 
 
37 
 
 be required, and that the produce will not be able to find markets ; but 
 1 do not attach much importance to this objection, as I am of opinion 
 that if a much larger, quantity of fruit were produced in Victoria 
 than at the present time the demand would be greater • and more 
 regular, and the returns to growers more satisfactory. This may seem 
 a paradoxical assertion, but I have no hesitation in saying that it will 
 be found correct. I do not seek to disguise the fact that in many 
 places growers do find some difficulty in getting rid of their fruit at 
 satisfactory prices, and it is often sacrificed for next to nothing. But 
 such a state of afEairs is through growers being too much isolated, and 
 being compelled to sell their produce in a limited local market where 
 the buyers are few. These growers are not able to obtain the best 
 market, as it will not pay them to send direct, as generally they have 
 only small lots to dispose of. But if instead of an isolated grower in a 
 locality there were a hundred, then it would pay metropolitan and 
 other buyers to seek them out and bid for their produce. As the pro- 
 duction of fruit increases so will the demand, as it will be utilized to a 
 much larger extent in a manufactured state than at present in various 
 forms, as also in a fresh state. 
 
 As regards the probable demand for fruit in the future, and the out- 
 lets for our produce, I may state, in the first place, that, though there 
 is a considerable amount produced in Victoria, yet we have not raised 
 sufficient for our own wants. Fruit in various forms — fresh, dried, and 
 otherwise preserved — is imported to the value of nearly £300,000 
 annually. Now with the exception of bananas, dates, and pine-apples, 
 which require a tropical or semi-tropical climate, we might have raised 
 this produce in Victoria. To make good this deficiency alone will take 
 a considerable acreage of fruit trees and vines. I am also happy to tell 
 you that the public seem to be realizing the value of fruit for dietary 
 purposes more than in the past. It would be well for us as a commu- 
 nity if we consumed far more fruit than we do, and less animal food, 
 and more especially during the hot season. Children, more particularly, 
 require a diet in which fruit is a prominent item. Fruit does not appear 
 so often ati our tables as it ought to do, and it would be well if in this 
 respect we followed the example of other countries; But the tendency 
 is in this direction, and probably in the near future we shall be more of 
 a fruit-eating people than we are at present. I think our growers may 
 safely calculate upon an expanding market from this tendency. In the 
 utilization of fruits by drying and canning our growers have outlets for 
 very large quantities of their produce. These industries are now 
 merely in their infancy, and must in the future assume large propor- 
 tions. Raisins and currants have, during the last two or three years, 
 been made in Victoria of a quality quite equal, if not superior, to the 
 imported articles, and it is only a question of time when we shall be 
 able to supply our own wants with these fruits. All the warm northern 
 regions of the colony are suitable for the production of raisins and 
 currants, and their culture can scarcely fail to prove remunerative. 
 There are many other fruits that may be utilized for drying, such as 
 figs, apples, pears, plums, apricots, peaches, cherries, &c. In the south. 
 
38 
 
 •f Europe, as also in the United States, large quantities of fruit are 
 preserved in this way, and finds a satisfactory market. I am quite sure 
 that there would be a great demand for this prepared produce locally, if 
 it were retailed at the grocery stores at moderate rates, and that it 
 would be sought after by Victorian housewives. A short time ago I 
 noticed a paragraph from an American paper, which stated that fruit 
 prepared in this way was in enormous demand in the United States, 
 and that in consequence more than six times the quantity of fresh pro- 
 dace is raised by the growers than was the case a few years back. I 
 think we may reasonably expect similar results here if the drying of 
 fruit is carried on systematically. For canned fruit there is also a very 
 wide field open for Victorian growers, and the demand for produce pre- 
 served in this way is likely to assume large proportions. At the present 
 time a considerable quantity of fruit is canned iu the colony, but the 
 trade done now is a mere trifle to what will probably be the case in the 
 near future. Several factories are already at work, whose output in 
 the aggregate is considerable; but I have been informed by some of the 
 proprietors of these establishments, that their operations are limited 
 through the supplies of suitable fruit not being equal to their require- 
 ments. I have also been informed that even with the present demand 
 these canning establishments could find markets for three times the 
 quantity of fruit if they could only obtain it. 
 
 Besides our own rapidly expanding demand for fresh, dried, and 
 canned fruit, I think we may also look forward to the development of a 
 profitable export trade with Europe. An export trade I consider to be 
 the safety valve for growers in the case of any of the special industries 
 to which they direct their attention. Our home market, though large 
 and expansive, may possibly in time be over supplied, and unless an 
 outlet can be found for the surplus produce prices must necessarily 
 fall very low. With an export trade, however, this contingency cannot 
 •rise, and growers need never trouble about a market for their products. 
 I can see no reason why we should not be able to develop an export 
 trade, and more especially with the United Kingdom. According to the 
 Imperial Custom-house returns, the imports of fruit in various forms to 
 the United Kingdom are valued at somewhat less than £7,000,000 sterling 
 per annum. Now I am sanguine that we may obtain a very fair slice of 
 this trade, if we like to set ourselves out for it. There is no reason why 
 we should not send fresh, dried, and canned fruits to the British market 
 in considerable quantities, when we have it to spare. As regards 
 fresh fruit you are, no doubt, aware that apples and pears have been 
 already successfully exported to the London market, and that very 
 satisfactory prices have been obtained for some of the consignments. 
 This is Sufficient proof that successful exportation is practicable. Now 
 as to the demand for these two fruits in the United Kingdom, I may 
 inform you that the imports annually amount to about 6,000,000 bushels 
 of apples, and about half that quantity of pears, or a total of some nine 
 million bushels. I think Victorian fruit-growers ought not to find 
 much difficulty in obtaining a very large slice of this trade, as, owing 
 to. the difference in our seasons, we can put our apples and pears on the 
 
39 
 
 London market at a time of the year when the supplies from Europe 
 and America are practically exhausted. In fact, for two or three 
 months in the year we can, to a very large extent, monopolizo the 
 British market with these fruits. I may also tell you that the London 
 market is the best in the world for obtaining high prices for various 
 kinds of fruit out of the ordinary seasons. Tasmania, as most of you 
 are doubtless aware from the newspaper reports, has already developed 
 a large trade in apples with England, and there is nothing to prevent 
 Victoria from finding this trade equally profitable. Possibly also, in the 
 future, we may also be. able to export oranges to the British market, 
 though it may be some time before this can be done. Should we ever 
 liave a surplus of this fruit there will be a market in the United 
 Kingdom, where some nine million bushels are imported annually. As in 
 the case of apples and pears, Australian oranges, owing to the difference 
 in our season, can be landed in England when the supplies from 
 Southern Europe are to a large extent exhausted. It is true that at 
 the present time the culture of citrus fruits has not received much 
 attention in Victoria, and that we import the greater portion of the 
 oranges and lemons consumed in the colony. There is no reason, 
 however, why these valuable fruits should not be largely cultivated in 
 Victoria, as they will thrive well in many localities if their requirements 
 are duly attended to. I tell you this from my own practical knowledge 
 as to the cultivation of citrus fruits. I may further tell you that, when 
 growing under favorable conditions, no fruits are more reliable or will 
 give better returns to the cultivator. 
 
 As regards the development of a trade in dried and canned fruits with 
 the United Kingdom, I believe it is only a question of time. I am 
 aware that some people are of opinion that the existing labour conditions 
 will prevent us competing successfully with produce prepared in the 
 -countries of Europe, where wages are very low. Too much importance 
 should not be attached to this objection, in my opinion, as one country, 
 California, where the labour conditions are very similar to our own, is 
 able to compete in the European markets with her dried and canned 
 fruits. Now, I say, if California can do this, why cannot Victoria do 
 the same ? I must also call your attention to the fact that, with 
 anything that we export we must be prepared to compete with the 
 produce of other countries. Unless we can compete it is useless to 
 anticipate an export trade with Europe. In whatever we send away 
 at the present time we have to bear this competition. Our wheat, for 
 instance, which is now exported to England in quantity, has to compete 
 with produce raised with low-priced labour in India, Russia, and other 
 grain-growing countries. Now, if a bulky commodity in proportion to 
 Its value like wheat can stand this competition, surely fruit, either 
 dried or canned, can do so. Something, I am glad to say, has been 
 done already towards the development of an export trade in canned 
 fruit, and a considerable quantity has been shipped during the past and 
 previous seasons to the London market. This trade, from what I can 
 learn from those engaged in it, is likely to assume large proportions in 
 & few years, if carefully pushed, I have also been informed that the 
 
40 
 
 shipments of Victorian canned fruit have favorably impressed English 
 buyers, who are now ready to purchase large quantities. 
 
 As a wine-producing country, I believe Victoria has a great future 
 before her, and it is only a question of time when grape-growing will 
 become a staple agricultural industry. A considerable advance has 
 already been made, and the vine-growing interest has been rapidly 
 expanding latterly, but I venture to say that a few years hence the 
 growers and the acreage under vines will have increased tenfold. It 
 has been proved that in Victoria we can produce superior wines of every 
 class that have obtained reputations in Europe. In the warmer 
 districts we can obtain strong wines rich in alcohol, similar to the port 
 and sherry of Southern Europe. The more elevated and moister regions 
 yield excellent light dinner wines of the hock, chablis, and claret 
 classes. Then, again, we have localities from which, as has been 
 proved, we can obtain wines similar in character to those that come from 
 the famous Rhine districts of Germany. There are but few districts in 
 Victoria where wines of some of these classes cannot be produced, and 
 the culture of the grape is an industry that cannot be too strongly 
 recommended to farmers. In this particular industry there need never 
 be any fear of over-production, as there is a market in the United 
 Kingdom for as much wine as can be produced in Victoria for many 
 years to come. Wine is a valuable commodity in proportion to its 
 bulk, and consequently the freight and other charges will be less felt 
 than those upon grain and other produce which has a less money value. 
 Then, again, wine is a commodity that can be kept for any length of 
 time, and has not to be forced upon unfavorable markets, as is 
 frequently the case with some other kinds of farm produde.' Possibly 
 some time may elapse before this large wine trade that I anticipate 
 with Great Britain will be developed, but it is bound to come even- 
 tually. Our growers, however, must improve their ways in some 
 respects before the wine trade can be based upon a sound and wide 
 basis. They must obtain greater uniformity in the classes of wine 
 grown in the colony, so that large purchasers in England can buy with 
 greater confidence. Though many of our growers at the present time 
 produce wines of high quality, yet it must be admitted that very inferior 
 kinds are too often made, that are quite unfit for any trade, and more 
 especially an export one. It is no uncommon thing for the growers in 
 a particular locality to each produce different wines, though each vine- 
 yard may contain the same kinds of grapes. But I am of opinion that 
 this state of affairs will be improved upon as vine culture becomes more 
 genera], as there will then be inducements for men possessing the 
 requisite capital and skill, who will be ready to undertake the manu- 
 facture of the wine. I am of opinion that in the case of the smaller 
 growers, more especially, this will be the better system, as the know- 
 ledge and skill required by the wine maker is quite distinct from that 
 which is necessary to the grower of the grapes. 
 
 Now I hope I have convinced you that there is a wide field open for 
 enterprise in the cultivation of fruits of various kinds, and that growers 
 need have no doubts as to finding markets for their products for 
 
41 
 
 many years to come. I am quite sure that the farmer who has a few 
 acres of fruit trees or vines will be in a much better position than the 
 one who is dependent entirely upon his ordinary crops. The returns 
 will be larger and more certain, and the farmer will not be so much 
 overweighted by bad seasons as when he trusts entirely to cereals. 
 Better and surer returns will also encourage the sons of farmers to settle 
 upon the soil, instead of leaving the parental homes, as so many do now, 
 to search for employment in Melbourne. It is a sad state of affairs 
 that so many of these young men should prefer to take employment as 
 railway porters or tramway men for low wages, when they ought to be 
 getting farms of their own, with the prospects of much better incomes. 
 Then, again, by means of fruit culture and other special industries to 
 make farming pay better than it does now, many people will be induced 
 to take to agricultural pursuits who now have a difficulty in finding 
 profitable occupation for their labour and enterprise. But though I 
 strongly recommend fruit culture as a profitable agricultural industry, 
 I must caution you against being too sanguine, and expecting fancy 
 returns that you are not likely to get. I know instances of people who 
 have got extraordinary ideas as to the profits of fruit culture, and I am 
 afraid these optimists will meet with great disappointments. Well- 
 meaning advisers, with but little or no practical knowledge of horticul- 
 ture, will have much to answer for in raising expectations that will 
 seldom be realized. Let the grower be satisfied with fairly good returns 
 and he will, taking an average of years, be well satisfied ; but if he 
 expects fancy prices, the result will too often be disappointment. 
 Though it is my business to point out the advantages of various indus- 
 tries, and show people that they will do well to try them, yet on no 
 account will I induce any one to do so with highly-coloured estimates 
 as to the probable returns. 
 
 I will now say something as to the way in which fruit culture should 
 be carried on, so that growers may make the business pay, and my 
 remarks shall be as concise as is practicable in dealing with such an 
 important subject. I may also say that the advice I give will not be 
 merely theoretical, but also practical, and the outcome of a very long 
 and varied experience as a cultivator in Great Britain, Victoria, and 
 New South Wales. Now in planting ,an orchard or a vineyard, the 
 selection of a site is a matter of some importance in many localities, 
 though in others it is of less consequence. In undulating country, and 
 more especially in the cooler districts, it is advisable, when practicable, 
 to select a site with an aspect between north and east. Such an 
 aspect gives the trees the full benefit of the early-morning sun, and 
 there will be less danger ffom late spring frosts, which in some localities 
 are so dangerous to fruit crops. T do not say that other aspects should 
 not be utilized, and very often the cultivator is limited in the choice of 
 a site, but the selection I have recommended will be the best. In the 
 warmer districts, where the land is mostly flat, the aspect is not of such 
 importance to either fruit trees or vines. The next question for con- 
 sideration is the preparation of the soil, and much difference of opinion 
 exists as to which are the best methods. Now the treatment required 
 
42 
 
 will in a large measure depend upon the nature of the land and 
 the subsoil. In dealing with heavy, retentive, and compact soils, I 
 would strongly recommend deep cultivation. Firmly-compacted ground 
 requires to be stirred deeply, in order to allow the air to penetrate and 
 render the plant-food available, and to permit the roots to find their way 
 through the soil without difficulty. Land of this description should be 
 stirred to a depth of at least fifteen inches, or more when practicable. 
 Hand trenching is undoubtedly the best means for preparing land for 
 fruit trees, but as farmers have to get the work done with horse-power 
 implements, they must use the plough and subsoiler, which will stir 
 the soil to the depth I have named. But though I recommend deep 
 cultivation I must caution you against turning a poor subsoil to the 
 surface. Many people have made this mistake, and, obtaining unsatis- 
 factory results, have condemned deep cultivation. These results, 
 however, have been brought about by the roots of the trees being placed 
 in poor soil not containing the requisite plant-food for their support, or if 
 material was there it has not been readily available, owing to its being 
 in an insoluble condition. Therefore, in cultivating deeply, it is 
 advisable to simply stir the undersoil and leave it in its original 
 position. 
 
 In the case of light open soils, or free gravelly, sandy, or limestone 
 subsoils, deep stirring is not so essential, as the ground will be suffi- 
 ciently open to allow the roots to extend freely, and the air to have 
 access to make the plant-food available. A deep ploughing will often 
 be sufficient for soils of this class. The next consideratioa will be to 
 provide for drainage when necessary. This is a most important matter, 
 but one that is too often ignored by cultivators. Fruit trees cannot pos- 
 sibly thrive with their roots in soddened ground for any length of time, 
 and many perish from this cause. The necessity for providing drainage 
 will, as a matter of course, vary considerably, according to the nature 
 of the ground and the subsoil. In sandy, gravelly, or other light 
 ground, or where there are free open subsoils, there is often sufficient 
 natural drainage, and, of course, there is no occasion for the cultivator 
 to go to the expense of providing it artificially. With heavy close soils 
 the ease is different, as the natural drainage is insufficient, and the 
 cultivator must make provision for letting the water run away quickly. 
 Wherever the water hangs in the land, provision should be made for 
 drainage. I cannot too strongly condemn the very common practice 
 of digging holes in heavy land, filling them up with soil, and planting 
 the trees in them. These holes, after very heavy rains, often become 
 like so many casks of water, and as a consequence the trees must suSer 
 through the maceration of their roots. In light open soils, where the 
 water can soak away quickly, there is of course less danger, but even 
 in this case hole planting cannot be commended. Trees not only suffer 
 in very wet soils from the soddening of their roots, but also from a 
 short supply of nourishment, through the air not being able to penetrate 
 the water-logged soil and make the plant-food soluble. Then, again, 
 it must be borne in mind that land deeply worked and well drained 
 will retain moisture for a much longer period during a drought than 
 
43 
 
 superficially cultivated ground, where the drainage is defective. The 
 temperature of the soil is also several degrees higher in the winter and 
 spring, which is an advantage to vegetation, and there is less danger 
 from frosts. These are great advantages that cultivators should not 
 ignore. They will do well to always work the ground deeply, and 
 provide drainage when necessary, and to Tememher that in planting an 
 orchard or a vineyard a good foundation is as essential as in building a 
 house. The sounder the base you work upon, the more thrifty and 
 ■durable are your trees likely to be. Any extra labour or capital spent 
 in preparing the land properly will always be a sound and profitable 
 investment. 
 
 The next consideration after the preparation of the land is the choice 
 of fruits, and the most suitable varieties. In the first place, the planter 
 should select such kinds as are suitable to the climate and other local 
 conditions. His selection must also be influenced by the objects he 
 has in view in the disposal of his fruit. If his object is to supply fresh 
 fruit to local markets, or Melbourne, he should plant such kinds as are 
 mostly in demand, and which are likely to yield the best returns. In 
 the warmer districts early varieties may pay better than any others. 
 On the other hand, growers in late districts will, as a rule, find early 
 varieties unsatisfactory, as before the fruits are ready for market they 
 will be anticipated by supplies from earlier localities. In the Tsackward 
 districts growers will do better to confine themselves principally to the 
 cultivation of late and good keeping varieties. Then, again, in the case 
 ■of dessert fruits, their appearance is a matter to be considered, as good- 
 looking kinds will generally fetch a higher price in the market than 
 ■others that are less taking to the eye. This will apply more especially 
 as regards apples and pears, either for the home or an export trade, 
 la growing fruit for canning — and there is sure to be a large demand 
 for this purpose — care should be taken to plant kinds that are specially 
 suitable. Fruit for this purpose should be firm fleshed and possess a 
 tough fibre, and some varieties are useless. In peaches, for instance, 
 the rhelting dessert kinds, which are so highly appreciated for the 
 <iessert, are comparatively worthless for canning. For drying the same 
 qualities in the main are required as for canning. The grapes suitable 
 for making raisins and currants are limited in number, the best variety 
 for the former being the Muscat of Alexandria, or Muscat G-ordo 
 Blanco as it is often called, though they are one and the same. The 
 ■same remark will apply to the Zante and Corinth, which are synony- 
 mous, for currants. If wine is the ol)ject due care should, as a matter 
 •of course, betaken to plant such kinds as are best adapted for the 
 locality and the requirements of the grower. I would strongly recom- 
 mend planters not to cultivate too many varieties of any kind of fruit. 
 This is a mistake that a great many have made to their sorrow. A 
 grower will obtain far more satisfaction from ten or a dozen sorts of 
 apples or pears than he will from a hundred. If he can send to market 
 a ton or more of a particular variety he will, as a rule, find a more 
 ready sale than if the lot was made up of twenty difierent varieties. 
 This will be the state of affairs more especially when an export trade 
 
44 
 
 is developed, and this is a certainty. The remarks will also apply to 
 fruit that is required for canning and drying. 
 
 The next consideration for the cultivator is to obtain well-formed 
 trees that are strong and vigorous, and worked upon suitable stocks. 
 There is some confusion in practice as regards the stocks used for 
 budding and grafting, and very frequently they are not suitable. We 
 know that in many cases the stock imparts a powerful influence ; but 
 horticultural science, I regret to say, is not sufficiently advanced to 
 allow of any perfect data. I have a theory, which is the result of a 
 long and diversified experience, that the closer the affinity between the 
 stock and the plant worked upon it the better. I prefer, as instances, 
 the apricot upon its own stock, instead of the plum as is of ten the case; 
 and the peach the same, instead of using the almond. According to my 
 experience the trees will be more durable when on stocks of their own 
 kinds, and I have met with many instances of them going off when 
 worked upon others. I admit that trees worked upon stocks other than 
 their own will often make good growth, and give satisfaction for a 
 time, but I contend that they will not be so thrifty and durable as when 
 the affinity is closer. I also admit that in the case of cold wet soils 
 the plum and the almond may prove useful as stocks for apricots and 
 peaches, but these are exceptional cases. I would advise that the roots 
 of trees should not be exposed more than can be avoided before they are 
 replanted. Too often the roots get withered considerably by long 
 exposure to sun and wind, and, consequently, the trees suffer. Now, 
 as regards evergreens, and more particularly the citrus family, exposure 
 of the roots for ten minutes to a drying atmosphere may cause the plants 
 to drop their leaves. The loss of foliage will throw them back for a 
 season, and may cause them to die off altogether. Many of the failures 
 among newly-planted orange trees are caused by this means. In 
 planting fruit trees care should be taken to remove all broken or bruised 
 roots, which if left on cannot possibly serve any useful purpose, but 
 may canker and injure the plants. Care must also be taken not to plant 
 the trees too deeply, and I am sorry to say that this is a too common 
 practice, to which many losses are attributable. The trees should be 
 planted with their upper roots just below the surface, and not with from 
 6 to 9 inches of their stems buried in the soil, as is too frequently the 
 case. Trees should be planted at such distances apart as will allow 
 ample room for development. Many trees will, under favorable con- 
 ditions, attain a great age and size. As instances, in Europe, apple 
 trees are known to have attained an age of from 100 to 150 years; 
 pears, from 150 to 200; the orange, from 300 to 400; and the grape 
 vine an equally great age. All these trees, therefore, require plenty of 
 room for development. A distance of 24 feet apart should be the 
 minimum for long-lived robust trees, and even 27 or 30 feet will not be 
 too much. Certainly, a few years must elapse before the trees require 
 all the space, and, in order to fully utilize the ground, trees may be 
 planted between, to be removed as ife necessary. Some growers prefer 
 to depend upon younger trees, and make provisions for renewing their 
 orchards after, say, some 20 years' growth. If this plan is adopted, as 
 
45 
 
 a matter of course the trees may be planted closer thaa if intended to 
 stand for a long period. As regard vines, I recommend them to be 
 planted 10 feet apart, in order that they may have ample room for 
 development. 
 
 Training and pruning are the next subject I shall deal -with. In 
 this part of the world trees should be invariably trained with low heads, 
 which aflford a better shade to the stems, which is a very important 
 matter in this climate. Low-headed trees also suffer less from the 
 effects of high winds than tall ones, and afford greater facilities for 
 gathering the fruit and pruning. Pruning is one of the most important 
 operations in horticulture, but I venture to say that, both in theory and 
 practice, it is very imperfectly understood. The theory of pruning is 
 to prevent development in particular directions by checking it in others. 
 This is effected by two methods — branch pruning which strengthens the 
 growth of wood, and root pruning which has the opposite effect. By 
 practising these two methods the cultivator has the greatest command 
 that it is possible to have over the growth of his fruit trees. Young 
 trees, as a rule, require more pruning than older ones, because for the 
 first few years the main object of the cultivator is a strong woody 
 growth in particular directions. He wants his trees to attain a large 
 size and assume the desired forms as quickly as possible. This 
 object is assisted by concentrating the strength of the plant into a few 
 channels by reducing the number of branches. For instance, if there 
 are twenty shoots and only ten are likely to serve a useful purpose, by 
 the removal of the surplus ones the others get more nourishment, and 
 consequently make a stronger growth. When trees come to the bear- 
 ing stage, the main object of the cultivator is fruit, and wood is the 
 secondary consideration. Many trees, such as the apple, pear, plum, 
 cherry, orange, and fig, if tliey have been well trained in their youth 
 will require but comparatively little pruning when they reach maturity 
 as a rule. Of course some pruning will be necessary, as for instance 
 when the branches get too crowded they should be thinned out ; if rank 
 shoots spring from the stems they must be removed, and when branches 
 are running away from their fellows they ought to 'be shortened back to 
 preserve the symmetry of the trees. Sometimes trees bear too heavily, 
 and do not produce suflSicient wood, when it may be advisable to shorten 
 the branches and get a fresh growth to start. Peaches and apricots 
 must be treated somewhat exceptionally, as in order to get fine fruit the 
 trees must have the previous season's shoots shortened back and reduced 
 in number. If these shoots are allowed to grow unchecked, growth be- 
 comes weakly, and, though there may be plenty of fruit, it will generally 
 be small in size and inferior in quality. In the case of other kinds, it 
 may also be necessary sometimes to reduce the number of shoots and 
 shorten others, in order to get superior fruit. Eoot-pruning is useful 
 ih the case of trees that make an over-luxuriant growth of wood and 
 produce but little fruit. This is a very common occurrence, and more 
 especially with pears, where trees are growing in very rich ground. 
 The best way of checking this tendency is by root-pruning, which 
 lessens the woody growth, and often throws the trees into bearing. 
 Eoot-pruning is most generally effected by cutting a semicircular trench 
 
46 
 
 round the tree, a spade wide, at such a distance from the stem as wilJ 
 depend upon its size, and separating all the roots that come within the 
 radius. The next season do the same with the other side of the tree. 
 By adopting this plan, refractory trees will often be brought into a 
 good state of bearing. It is a common practice to try to improve these 
 trees by severely thinning out and cutting back the branches, but this- 
 is precisely what ought not to be done, as the more the trees are cut the 
 more woody growth will they make. Summer pruning, or disbudding-^ 
 should be more generally practised, and more especially in the case of 
 young trees, as it saves a waste of energy in the formation of a number 
 of useless shoots that will have to be removed at the winter pruning. 
 The trees should be looked over soon after growth has started, and all 
 shoots not likely to serve a useful purpose ought to be removed. Care- 
 must, however, be taken not to bare the trees too much, as a certain 
 amount of foliage is required for shade, a very important matter. Then 
 it must also be remembered that the leaves are the lungs of the plant, 
 and unless it has sufficient foliage to allow it to breathe freely, there 
 cannot be healthy and perfect root action. Therefore it is safer to err 
 on the side of leaving too much foliage rather than not enough. 
 
 I am a strong advocate for keeping the ground between fruit trees- 
 and vines as free from weeds as possible. An undergrowth of vegeta- 
 tion is an extra tax upon the soil, and in the early summer it absorbs a 
 large amount of moisture that should be conserved as much as possible 
 for the use of the trees. As a practical man, I know full well that some- 
 times, owing to frequent rains, it is very difficult and often impossible 
 to keep weeds down, but I advise that it should be done to such an extent 
 as is practicable. But thpugb I advocate that weeds should be kept 
 under, I must protest against the common and, in my opinion, the bar- 
 barous practice of deeply digging or ploughing among the roots of fruit 
 trees, unless root-pruning is required. When these operations are roughly 
 performed with the plough or the spade, as they usually are, a large 
 proportion of the small fibrous roots near the surface are necessarily 
 destroyed. Now these roots are the mouths of the trees. Nature sent 
 them to assist in supplying the requisite food, and it stands to reason 
 that if fifteen or twenty per cent, of these are destroyed, the trees must 
 sufEermore or less. 1 would recommend that the work of keeping- 
 down the weeds shall be done with a light scarifier or hoe, rather than 
 the plough or the spadfe, and that the ground should only have the 
 surface stirred as lightly as possible. Even from an economical point 
 of view my recommendation is worthy of attention, as four or five light 
 stirrings will not cost more than one ploughing or digging. 
 
 Mulching is also a practice that I strongly recommend, as I have 
 found, by experience, that it is one of the greatest helps to the fruit 
 cultivator in this part of the world. When the surface soil is protected 
 from the direct efEects of a burning sun and harsh drying winds during" 
 the summer by a layer of litter, straw, or other suitable material, the 
 moisture is conserved for a much longer period than would be the case 
 if the ground was exposed, and this is greatly to the advantage of the 
 trees. But it is not wise to wait till the soil is dried up before applying 
 the layer of mulching, which should be spread over the ground before 
 
47 
 
 the hot weather has fairly set in. It is essential that the mulching- 
 material should be spread over the ground as far as the roots of the 
 trees extend, and not placed round the stems as is often done. In fact 
 the stems of the trees should be left clear. Care must also be taken 
 not to have an over-thick layer, three or four inches being quite deep 
 enough. When a very heavy layer is spread over the ground, and I 
 have often seen it ten inches or a foot deep, the warmth from the sun 
 cannot penetrate, as it ought to do, to the soil. 
 
 Cultivators must bear in mind that it is not sufficient to bring the 
 trees to a bearing stage and then neglect their wants. Some people 
 seem to think that when the trees reach maturity they have nothing 
 to do but to take crops off year after year for all time, without return- 
 ing anything to the soil. This is most unreasonable, as it is impossible> 
 for the trees to grow and bear crops unless they are properly supplied 
 with food. ThoBgh at starting the soil may eontain a large amount of 
 plant-food, which the cultivator may draw upon for a considerable time^ 
 yet sooner or later the supplies must become exhausted, unless they 
 are replenished. Fruit is really a very exhausting crop, though not 
 generally supposed to be, as the same materials are being extracted 
 from the soil year after year. In the case of ordinary farm and garden 
 crops, by adopting a system of rotation, the drain is equalized, as one 
 plant has different requirements from another. Sometimes land will 
 become unproductive through lack of some particular material, though 
 all the other essential ones may be there in abundance, as the minimum 
 governs the whole. Trees require for their growth that certain mineral! 
 substances should be in the soil, such as lime, potash, silica, phosphates, 
 &c., and it often happens that one of these may become exhausted. 
 Any of these particular deficiencies should be made good without loss of 
 time, as the longer the delay the more will the trees suffer. Either of 
 them can readily be made good by means of special fertilizers, and often 
 at a very small cost. Cultivators, however, should be careful in the use 
 of special fertilizers, as it may do more harm than good to apply them 
 to land that does not require them. It should be clearly ascertained 
 what the soil contains, and what it lacks, before any one of them are used.. 
 Farm-yard or stable manure is a safe application for any trees, in every 
 kind of soil, as it contains all the materials for plant growth. Very often, 
 however, this manure cannot be obtained in sufficient quantity, and it 
 must be supplemented with other kinds. Again, deficiencies in the soil 
 can often be made good at a less cost, with special fertilizers, than with 
 ordinary manure. Old plantations of fruit trees or vines often fail or 
 cease to bear profitable crops because they have not sufficient food to^ 
 allow them to thrive. In fact many trees fail prematurely, either 
 wholly or partially, through lack of the necessaries of life, or sheer 
 starvation. In manuring fruit trees it is better to give annual light 
 dressings than heavy ones applied at intervals of two or more years. 
 Steady and moderate growth is required more than over-luxuriance at 
 one period and a stand-still at another. 
 
 As regards the use of water in fruit culture by irrigation or otherwise 
 some judgment is required. Irrigation is a question that has received a 
 
48 
 
 deal of attention during the last few years, and great good is likely to 
 result in nianv parts of the colony from the various water schemes that 
 are being carried out. In fact, by means of irrigation in many of the 
 drier parts of Victoria, where the rainfall is light and uncertain, the 
 command of water will be of immense service to cultivators. By the 
 aid of irrigation they will be able to raise crops with some certainty, 
 where otherwise their returns would be very precarious. But water 
 should be used carefully in fruit culture, and must be given at the right 
 times, or otherwise more harm than good may be done. ^ Some people, 
 without practical experience are under the impression that if a 
 cultivator has water at command he is sure of heavy crops, but this is 
 wrong. If too much water is u^ed the quality of the fruit is deteri- 
 orated, and sometimes it loses the peculiar high flavour that belongs to 
 it ; it becomes more tender and easily damaged, and will not keep so 
 well as when grown under ordinary conditions. When fruit attains its 
 full size the period of decay at once commences. The ripening period 
 is the commencement of the decaying period, and the trees want to be 
 rather dry than otherwise. Another ill result produced by watering 
 deciduous trees too much is that it causes them to make a prolonged 
 weakly growth of wood, which lessens their vigour in future years. 
 Water may be serviceable while the fruit is swelling, if the soil is 
 deficient of moisture, but it should not be given at a later period ; 
 neither should it be applied when the trees are at rest in the winter, nor 
 when they are in blossom. Evergreens, and more especially the citrus 
 family, require somewhat different treatment, as growth is always more 
 or less active, and they require more continuous supplies cf water to 
 replace the moisture they absorb from the soil. Care must, however, 
 be taken not to water these trees in excess ; and as a rule the ground 
 should never be allowed to get soddened. In the use of water care 
 must be taken that the ground has effective drainage, as otherwise 
 irrigation may do more harm than good. 
 
 The important subjects of insect and fungoid pests require special 
 lectures to treat them properly, and, as other gentlemen belonging to the 
 Department of Agriculture deal with them specially, my remarks will 
 be very brief. I will merely say that, if, by careful cultivation and due 
 attention to their requirements, trees are kept in a healthy and vigorous 
 condition they will suffer the minimum from the attacks of insects 
 or fungi. In the vegetable world, as in the animal, a healthy subject 
 is not nearly so liable to the attacks of parasites as one that is out of 
 health. I do not mean to say that all pests can be kept down by good 
 cultivation. It will not keep away the codlin moth, caterpillars, 
 locusts, and others, but it will help to keep down scale, thrip, mealy 
 bug, and other troublesome insects. Prepare the ground properly, 
 plant healthy trees, keep them free from weeds, never let them suffer 
 from excess of water at their roots, or the lack of congenial food, and 
 the trees will suffer less than if grown under less favorable conditions. 
 
49 
 
 DEIED FEUITS. 
 
 Bt J. West. 
 
 I AM pleased to meet you this evening, and to see such a large 
 gathering. I think it is a matter for congratulation, both on the part 
 of the authorities of this college and of the Department of Agriculture 
 that this series of lectures appears to be taking so well with the public. 
 This is a very significant fact, I think, because it indicates that the 
 question of the development of our agricultural resources is now attract* 
 ing a great deal of attention throughout the whole of the colony. All 
 thinking citizens see clearly that in this direction lies a tremendous 
 amount of good, if we but use properly the great natural resources that 
 have been given to us. 
 
 In dealing with the question to-night, the siibject that I have to 
 address you on is the drying of fruits, one of thO' charming industries 
 that is capable of being developed to a very great degree, I believe, in 
 our colony, and one which will bring into our agricultural life very 
 much more softness and refinement than is usually found now in our 
 agricultural practices — in our remote districts, at any rate. And it 
 will do more-^it will prove a source of health, profit, and enjoyment to 
 those who have the courage to go into it, to a far greater degree than 
 our present practices do. 
 
 In addressing you to-night I will deal with my subject as briefly and 
 as clearly as I can, and draw iny principal facts from the practices as I 
 saw them carried on in California, a new country like our own, and one 
 in which the conditions of settlement are so very much like those which 
 obtain in our own colony. After I have given the subject-matter of 
 the lecture, I will invite questions upon any points I may miss ; and, 
 finally, by means of the limelight, will show you a series of views 
 illustrating the processes of drying and cultivating fruits as I saw them 
 carried on in California. 
 
 The principal' fruits I want to speak to you about to-night are — 
 firstly, the charming industry of raisin cultivation j secondly, that of 
 apricot and peach drying ; thirdly, prune cultivation ; and lastly, fig 
 curing. 
 
 All these subjects are foreign to our practices in the colonies to a 
 very great degree, and this is somewhat singular, because we have been 
 richly gifted by nature for carrying them out successfully. So richly 
 have we been gifted, indeed, that we might well arouse the envy of some 
 of the countries of Europe that have been supposed for a thousand years 
 to have a monopoly in these industries. But the reason why we have 
 made little progress, I think, is this, that the people who have pioneered 
 this country are the descendants of British people. They came from a 
 country vvhere it was not possible to carry out these practices, where 
 they saw nothing of them, and where it was believed that they could 
 
 4781. D 
 
60 
 
 only be carried out successfully by a Frenchman or an Italian. But 
 out here we find conditions vastly different from those which obtain 
 in Great Britain, and conditions which largely approach, in a very 
 great portion of our territory, those which have enabled the people of 
 Southern Europe to carry out these operations successfully, .and thus 
 build up a great source of national wealth. The Californians have 
 recently shown the world that the monopoly in the dried fruits industry 
 does not belong exclusively to Southern Europe, but that in California 
 they can produce these fruits as well as they can be produced in Italy, 
 Spain, or Greece; and that they can get as large results and as great 
 benefits both to the individual and to the State as some of those countries 
 have been obtaining since the Christian era. And it rests with us, who 
 are pioneering these young countries which contain all the conditions 
 necessary to success, to see whether we can improve on our present 
 methods of husbandry by developing these splendid industries ; and 
 then, as surely as the night follows the day, we shall do what the Cali- 
 fornians are doing across the Pacific, and what the people of Southern 
 Europe have been doing for centuries — we shall foster and develop 
 these industries which will bring us national wealth as a community, 
 and put into the hands of our settlers a powerful factor in beautifying 
 the whole of the country districts, and making our country life more 
 eheerful and attractive for our young people. (Applause.) 
 
 To show you what a large part the dried fruit industries have played 
 in the history of some nations, I cannot do better than briefly outline 
 some of the great raisin-producing centres in Europe. Spain is one of 
 these great centres, and there for centuries past they have made a 
 reputation for themselves in what are known as " Dessert Muscatels," 
 or by their trade name as " Malagas. '^ They are also called " Deheza 
 Layers," these being arbitrary words which have been attached to these 
 particular products because they happen to have been produced in par- 
 ticular districts in the first instance. The word " Deheza " means the 
 pasture lands. In the early days when the Moors conquered the south 
 of Spain they obtained some of the richest tracts of the country, and 
 for years used them entirely as pasture or grazing lands, calling them 
 " Deheza plots," or some term to that effect. AJterwards, when the 
 Moors were driven out and the Spaniards went back again to tlie 
 cultivation of the soil, some of those old pasture lands, that had for 
 years and years been grazed by sheep, turned out to afford some of 
 the finest raisins ever produced. The term " Deheza '' was given to 
 them, and it is now applied to the very finest muscatels produced in 
 Spain to-day. 
 
 Then, again, Greece has been famous since the Christian era for the 
 production of currants. As perhaps some of you may not be aware 
 the little currant of commerce which we use for puddings is the pro- 
 duct of two particular varieties of the vine, and not of the British, 
 currant as some people imagine. Those two particular varieties of the 
 vine, called the Zante and Corinth, are natives of Greece, and since the 
 Christian era have been cultivated very largely in that country for the 
 production of currants. For years the whole of the currant industry 
 
51. 
 
 belonged to Greece alone ; but the Califomians are waking up to the 
 immense importance of this industry and are going in for it largely, 
 and I am pleased to say that in Victoria, at Mildura and other centres 
 of our northern districts, our farmers are now beginning to take up this 
 industry, and I have no doubt that by-and-by we shall be rivals of 
 the Grecian people in the production of currants. (Applause.) 
 
 Another great centre for the production of raisins is Asia Minor. 
 The raisins produced in Smyrna are known by the name of Elemes. 
 Asia Minor has been known to fame chiefly for the production 
 ■of figs. Nearly all the figs consumed throughout the civilized 
 world come from Asia .Minor. But although her fig production is 
 large, her raisin production is still larger ; and the great bulk of her 
 raisins goes into Russia, a very small quantity being consumed in 
 British communities. Of late yeiars they have been coming very rapidly 
 to the front, and " Elemes " now occupy a high position in commerce 
 in countries that consume raisins largely. 
 
 According to Mr. Gustav Eisen, a high authority on the raisin industry 
 in California, the statistics of 1890 show that the production of the 
 world in raisins and currants was 312,000 tons. Greece produced 
 125,000 tons of currants ; Smyrna came next with 120,000 tons of 
 Elemes. Then came the various districts of Spain; Valencia produced 
 28,000 tons. The word Valencia is applied to pudding raisins that are 
 dried or " dipped " in a particular manner, about which I will have to 
 speak more fully presently. They may be made from the same vine as 
 the "Malagas" or muscatels, but by being dipped and treated in a 
 •different manner they are made into pudding raisins, and go by the 
 name of Valencias. Chili, where the trouble is now going on, has 
 beaten Aastralia altogether in the production of raisins by producing 
 a thousand tons ; and California, which is rapidly coming to the front, 
 reached the splendid total of 10,000 tons last year, and is planting 
 vineyards faster than ever. In 1871 she was just entering upon this 
 industry, and year by year she has gradually developed it, until in 1890 
 she has no less than 60,000 acres under raisin grapes, and produced the 
 splendid total of 10,000 tons of raisins. The whole makes up a total 
 production for the world of 312,000 tons ; and 1 regret to say that 
 Australia, a country richly favoured by nature for the cultivation of this 
 fruit, which will return a reward of from £20 to £30 per acre per 
 annum, scarcely cuts a figure at all in the world's production. Indeed, 
 we are sending the immense sum of £200,000 annually to Europe and 
 California for this charming product, which we could produce as well 
 as any of the countries I have named on our own soil and in our own 
 colony. (Applause.) 
 
 And now, in dealing with the processes of drying these fruits, I will 
 describe as briefly as I can the Californian methods, because California 
 is situated much as we are. It is a country with a limited population, 
 where the wages are high and labour limited, and where they have to 
 adopt rough and ready methods of dealing with their products. I was 
 pleased to find, in travelling through that country, that the varieties of 
 vines there cultivated for raisins are varieties that we have here. For 
 
 D 2 
 
52 
 
 the muscatels they grow the "Gordo Blanco" chiefly, the Muscat 
 Alexandria, the Raisin des Dames, and the "Seedless Sultana;" and for 
 currants the Zante and the Corinth. Now these are the methods of 
 drying. For the dessert muscatels, those raisins which we eat at the 
 table off the bunches, the practice is to pull the grapes when ripe, 
 choosing, of course, the finest bunches, and to spread them upon wooden 
 trays, three feet long and two feet wide, made of ordinary soft-wood 
 lining boards (those half-inch boards we use in our buildings), by simply 
 nailing the boards to two cleats of wood. It is the practice in the 
 Californian vineyards to plant the vines ten feet apart each way, and to 
 use neither stakes nor trellis. The low crown which the vine naturally 
 has, owing to its not being tied up, enables the growers to dry the 
 muscatels between the rows where they are picked. They choose the 
 finest bunches and place them on the trays, which are laid between the 
 rows and tilted slightly towards the point from which the greatest 
 sun heat comes (which in that country would be the south, but in 
 this country, of course, the north) by clods of earth being placed 
 underneath. They take from 18 to 21 or 22 days to dry, according 
 to the amount of sun heat. They are turned during the drying 
 process by simply taking an empty tray, placing it over a full one, 
 and reversing the whole at one operation, so that it is done quickly 
 and the operator does not handle the fruit, which would remove the 
 bloom. In nice, steady weather it takes from 18 to 21 days to 
 dry the fruit ; and after the drying period an important process is 
 carried out, and one that is carried out with all dried fruits. The 
 raisins are gathered up, brought into a handy packing place, and placed 
 in what are called " sweat-boxes." The sweat-boxes are made 3 feet 
 long, 2 feet wide, and 8 inches deep, and hold about 100 lbs. of the 
 dried fruit. The dessert muscatels are put carefully in the sweat-boxes 
 in layers of about 2 to 4 inches thick, and a sheet of brown paper 
 placed between each layer. They are then placed in any close room — 
 a simple boarded room will do — that they may be shut up for a fort- 
 night in order to sweat. The virtue of the sweating process is that the 
 raisins that are overdried take up and absorb some of the moisture from 
 those that are underdried ; and thus the whole bulk is nicely equalized. 
 The raisins assume a uniform softness and appearance, and the stems 
 are toughened so that in the after packing the berries do not fall off in 
 handling. After the sweating they are brought into the packing-house, 
 and, largely by the assistance of women and children, sorted out, all 
 deformed or overdried berries being taken off the bunches. They are 
 then packed in neat layers, in very nicely made boxes, holding o, 10, 
 15, or 20 lbs., as the case may be, and with very bright and attractive 
 laijels. The Californians seem to excel in this ; they make a very 
 great point of making the package, as they call it, as attractive and 
 pleasing to the eye as they possibly can. They say that in all cases 
 it helps to sell their fruit, and I believe they are right. And I may 
 here point out one of the indirect advantages that comes from this 
 pleasing industry. The work is so light and so attractive that it can 
 be carried on as well by women and children as by men. There is a 
 
§3 
 
 very pretty custom in California in the fruit districts, as for instance 
 the great district of Fresno, of closing the schools that we should 
 call State schools for a period of five or six -weeks during the harvest. 
 The little ones can turn into the factories, which are always built where 
 the raisins are produced, and do the work just as well as grown-up 
 persons, and earn a nice little sum to keep them in clothing, besides 
 being taught from the very first habits of thrift and industry. I have 
 no doubt that by-and-by, when we have established this and kindred 
 industries in our northern districts, the same practice will obtain here, 
 and I hope the results that have been obtained in California will accrue 
 to us. (Hear, hear.) 
 
 When packed the raisins are ready for consumption, ready for send- 
 ing to market, so that there is no long waiting for the money after the 
 product is turned into a commercial article; and the processes are so 
 simple that an ordinary grower, without any previous practice, can soon 
 obtain a knowledge of the whole of them, and can derive large assist- 
 ance from his family in carrying out the operations — in fact, the larger 
 his family the better for himself. (Laughter.) And then, after it is 
 turned into a commercial article, he can become his own middleman, and 
 put his product on the market without any waiting, as in the case of the 
 wine industry, and the results, I am pleased to tell you, throughout 
 California and throughout our own colonies where the industry has 
 been tried, are sufiiciently good to warrant our growers here taking it- up 
 iji an earnest manner. In our wholesale markets in Victoria and most of 
 the other colonies we can obtain for the lowest grade of pudding 
 raisins 4Jd. or 5d. per pound, while in California they say they wilL 
 grow raisins for ever, of the best qualities, for 3|d. per pound, and even 
 at that price their net profits throughout the Fresno district and many 
 others range from £20 to £40 per acre per annum. 
 
 And now with regard to pudding raisins, which, as I said before, may 
 be made from the same vine, as the Gordo Blanco, the Alexandria, and 
 one or two other firm-fleshed grapes that have not the muscat flavour; 
 as, for instance, the Raisin des Dames and the Waltham Cross. Some 
 of our growers have been experimenting With these, and I have no 
 doubt we shall soon find out which is the best for this country. The 
 great essential in making pudding raisins is to have grapes that are not 
 too watery, with a firm flesh and good skin. The practice in making 
 pudding raisins is to pull the grapes when ripe; but this time, before 
 being spread out upon the wooden trays, they are dipped in what is 
 called a boiling lye. It is made by adding one pound of concentrated 
 lye, which can be obtained from any chemist, to fifteen gallons of 
 water. This is brought to a boiling point, and while it is boiling the 
 grapes are dipped in it for a period of from fifteen to twenty seconds. 
 The virtue of 'the dipping process is that it opens the skin of the grape 
 in minute cracks, and allows the water, which has to be evaporated in 
 dried fruits, to escape very much more readily than would be the case 
 if not dipped. And so it happens that pudding raisins, although 
 perhaps taken from the same vine, when dipped will dry in from ten, to 
 twelve days, in contrast to the undipped ones which take from eighteen 
 
54 
 
 to twenty-two. There is thus avast saving of time and risk; because 
 during the drying period growers are subject to danger from wet 
 weather, as to which I shall speak presently. In order to get that 
 bright amber colour into the pudding raisins that you see in the 
 imported Valencias, the Californians have adopted the practice — and 
 I have no doubt it exists in Spain also — of running their trays into- 
 a sulphur box, shutting the door, and burning sulphur in a vessel 
 at the bottom for a period of 30, 35, 40, or 45 minutes, as the 
 case may be ; and the result is that the fumes of sulphur penetrate 
 the fruit, and brighten and fix the colour, so that it does not 
 darken and become unattractive in the after-drying process. After 
 the dipping and the sulphuring they are spread upon wooden trays, 
 this time made a little larger, but always made of soft-wood lining 
 boards, and they only take from ten to twelve days to dry. They are 
 turned once by reversing the trays; and after the drying process, and 
 before being placed in the sweating-boxes, they are run through two 
 clever machines which the Californians have invented for the purpose. 
 One is called a raisin-stemmer, and with the assistance of several men. 
 several tons of raisins can be run through in a day, the machine cleverly 
 rubbing off the stems. The other machine, which is called a grader, 
 takes the refuse and stems out of the raisins, and grades them into two- 
 or three di£Eei:ent sizes, dropping the first quality into one box, the 
 second into a second box, the third into a third, and, the lowest or small 
 useless raisins out at the tail-board. And I am pleased to tell you that 
 through the enterprise of our Department of Agriculture these machines 
 have been imported. They were put into use by some of our raisin- 
 growers this year, and have done splendid work here as well as in 
 California. (Applause.) 
 
 After .the stemming and the grading the pudding raisins are also 
 placed in the sweat-boxes, like the dessert muscatels, and put away for 
 a fortnight to sweat ; they are then ready for boxing and sending to 
 market. 
 
 The currant industry holds to the raisin industry a relation similar to 
 that which hay -making holds to the wheat harvest. With us the 
 farmer can get his hay dried and into the stacks before he starts on his 
 main crop of wheat at all. This is a great advantage where labour i» 
 scarce, because we are enabled to spread our efforts over a longer 
 period. Well, then, it fortunately so happens that the currants ripen 
 very much earlier than the raisins. They only take half the time to 
 dry, as being very small berries without much pulp they will dry in- 
 five or six days in the sun without being dipped at all ; so that the 
 grower can get them stemmed, graded, and into his sweat-boxes, and so 
 out of the road before he starts on the main crop of raisins at all. And 
 this industry again is a profitable one, for, although perhaps it does not 
 give so large a yield as the raisins, in a well-cultivatM currant vineyard' 
 the returns should run from something like 15 and 16 to 18 ewt. per 
 acre ; and at 2d. to M. per lb., the profits, which you may figure out for 
 yourselves, are very handsome. So that, by-and-by, when we have 
 gone into the development of these industries, we shall find that the 
 
55 
 
 cultivation of currants should go hand in hand with that of raisins — and 
 more particularly in British communities, because for every pound of 
 raisins we British people consume, I suppose we consume 4 or 5 lbs. of 
 currants in every household. I therefore hope to see the currant 
 industry established on a very large basis in our northern districts by- 
 and-by, and become one of the great staple industries of Victoria. 
 (Applause.) 
 
 I spoke of the danger from a period of wet weather during the 
 drying process, and that is a trouble we are never altogether free from 
 in any country or under any conditions. They have found this diflBculty 
 cropping up in California. We have found it here in Victoria and South 
 Australia ; and we are compelled to combat it in some way. The 
 universal practice is to erect what are called " drying kilns." A drying 
 kiln is a simple structure which will enable you to apply artificial heat 
 to the product, at the rate of 120 to 140 degrees during the drying 
 period. This may easily be attained in a variety of ways. The great 
 difficulty is to get a uniform temperature through the building, so that 
 the raisins will not be cooking at one end and undried at the other. 
 The CaHfornians have experienced great difficulty in this respect, and 
 in Order to get over the trouble have had to use expensive fanners 
 and other methods of distributing the atmosphere through 'the building. 
 The usual practice is to erect a long, narrow building, using inch boards 
 dropped into grooves, simply constructed and without elaboration of 
 any kind. The method of heating is to put in at one end of the build- 
 ing what is called a furnace, constructed of brick, and instead of taking 
 the flues straight up they take them along the floor and up at the other 
 end. The flue usually consists of a wrought-iron pipe, about 12 inches 
 in diameter, and thus the heat and smoke passes through this pipe and 
 up at the other end, and in that way distributes the heated temperature 
 through the building. But the difficulty has been to distribute it 
 properly; and they. have found that they may be burning the raisins at 
 one end and not have sufficient heat at the other. They have therefore 
 had to erect fanners in order to keep the air in circulation, and to drive 
 it through the building. I am pleased to tell you that it was reserved 
 for Australians to improve on this method. Mr. Thomas Hardy, of 
 South Australia, who is yirtually the father of the raisin industry in 
 Australia — (Cheers.) I am glad that you approve of that, because if 
 there be one man who can be called a citizen of Australia to-day. I 
 believe Mr. Thomas Hardy to be the man. (Hear, hear.) For 35 years 
 he has had to grope in the dark, and as step by step he has gained his 
 information as to the best methods of dealing with these products, he 
 has given that information to the whole of Australia. (Applause.) Mr. 
 Thomas Hardy built his iiln simply of sun-dried bricks or mud. He 
 heated it from one end, and found the difficulty which the Calif ornians 
 experience ; and in thinking the matter over he discovered that it 
 would be better to have a furnace at the opposite end also, 
 and have a flue running in the reverse direction to that of the 
 other flue. And so it happened that when Mr, Kavanagh and other 
 gentlemen pioneering the raisin industry in Victoria went over, 
 
56 
 
 about four years ago, to South Australia to • learn what they could 
 from Mr. Hardy, Mr. Hardy suggested to Mr. Kavanagh that he 
 should make his kilns in this way — with a furnace at each end and 
 the flues running along each side of the building in a reverse direction. 
 Mr. Kavanagh did so, and the result has been a complete success ; and 
 whilst the Californians are experiencing difficulty with their fanners, we 
 are enabled in Victoria to get a perfect and uniform temperature right 
 through the drying kiln. (Cheers.) 
 
 I may perhaps briefly describe Mr. Kavanagh's kiln, because it may 
 be of interest to those who intend to go into the industry. It is built 
 simply of sun-dried bricks, and has what are called in California adobe 
 walls, about a foot thick. The earth was ploughed out by horses, and 
 mixed with straw and water, the horses mixing it by tramping through 
 it. It was then simply placed iu a mould, and the walls built as we 
 have seen in many of our country buildings. The furnace was put in 
 at one end, and the wrought-iron pipe taken through the building and up 
 at the opposite end, and then the whole operation reversed; and he has 
 been getting a nice even temperature all through the building. For the 
 drying of most fruits the temperature requires to be from about 120 to 
 140 degrees. It should never exceed the latter, or the fruit is liable to 
 be injured. How long the fruit will take to finish off in the kiln depends 
 altogether on the length of the period during which it has been cut in 
 the sun before being placed in the kiln. Light showers which quickly 
 dry up will not hurt the fruit, and neither does the light dew at night ; 
 but in the event of broken weather lasting several days the practice is 
 to stack the trays one upon the other to an even height, slightly tilting 
 them so that the water will run ofE, and covering them with tarpaulins 
 or anything else that happens to be handy. If the bad weather con- 
 tinue, they run the trays into the kilns and place them on racks made 
 for the purpose extending to the roof, and then apply the artificial heat. 
 It takes in this way from 18 to 30 hours to finish them off, and then 
 they are ready to be dealt with as if they had been sun-dried. 
 
 With regard to the currants, the artificial drying is scarcely ever 
 required, as they dry so very quickly and are so easily disposed of that 
 Tery little trouble occurs from broken weather. 
 
 With regard to the training of the vines, the practice largely followed 
 in California is that which obtains in Spain. In Spain they do without 
 any stakes or trellis. The practice is to let the vines grow very close 
 to the ground, and they have frequently to scoop out a little of the 
 earth in order to allow the grapes to hang and dry properly. We have 
 generally followed the more expensive practice of stakes and trellis. 
 How far that is an advantage I am not prepared to say, but I believe 
 we shall yet learn to adopt the cheap and rough-and-ready methods 
 that have been adopted in California. 
 
 Now there is one comparison that I want to make here, and it is of 
 value. It is often urged, as against the introduction of these industries 
 into our own country, that the labour is too expensive here to enable us 
 to carry them out successfully. Now I am bound to say that I don't 
 believe there is a word of truth in that. I was pleased to find that 
 
57 
 
 labour was just as dear in California as it is with us. lu the great 
 fruit districts, where the Chinese are employed somewhat largely — more 
 largely than our people would care to employ them — they pay them os. 
 per day ; they find themselves. Where they employ white labour they 
 give 7s., 7s. 6d., and 8s. per day ; where they employ them by the week 
 they give them from 25s. to 30s. per week and their food. You will 
 see, therefore, that labour is very much the same there as it is with 
 us, and yet they can successfully compete with the cheap labour 
 of Southern Europe. Indeed, this is remarkably illustrated in 
 California. It is often said the Californians have such a splendid home 
 market. They certainly have a great home market' in the eastern 
 states, but to reach that market they have to pay 37 cents. (Is. Sjd.) 
 freight on a 20-lb. box of raisins. The duty in that highly-protected 
 country is only a cent, (^d.) per lb. on raisins, as against 2d. per lb. in 
 Victoria. The freight from Spain to New York by water (and it is 
 always very much less by water) is only 7 cents. (3^d.) on the 20-lb. 
 box. So that you will see that it costs, the Spaniards very much less 
 than the Californians to reach the market, and the balance is altogether 
 in favour of Spain; yet the Californians are completely beating the 
 Spanish product out of the market. Although they have not yet entirely 
 displaced it in the eastern market, a return that I have is intensely 
 interesting as showing what they have done. It was in the year 1871 
 that the Californians began to turn their attention to the production of 
 raisins, and they had a tremendous fight for ten years before they could 
 overcome the prejudice against the local article. There were people 
 in that country — as in our own — who believed that nothing produced in 
 the country could be nearly so good as that which was imported ; and 
 so they were slow in believing that the Californian raisins were as good 
 as the Spanish. And thus for ten years they fought the battle of 
 beating the foreign produot out of the market, aud they succeeded to 
 this extent that, whereas in 1871 the importation of Malaga Layers 
 (Dessert Muscatels) was 16,000 boxes, in 1880 it had dropped to 3,000 
 and in 1885 to 500 boxes. (Cheers.) And I believe that we shall 
 achieve like results. Instead of sending that immense sum of £200,000 
 annually to Europe for these products, when we have learned to produce 
 them — as Mr. Hardy, Mr. Kavanagh, and the people at Mildura have 
 proved that we can — we, too, shall beat the foreign product out of 
 our own market. (Cheers.) 
 
 And, now, with regard to dried apricots and peaches — a product we 
 know but little of in Australia, even in the way of consumption. This 
 product in California forms one of the great safety valves against low 
 prices in the green fruit market. They find that when prices become 
 non-paying in the green fruit market they can turn round and, by 
 means of the large assistance afforded by their families, turn this pro- 
 duct into a commercial article, which will enable them to watch and 
 wait their opportunity of placing it upon the market. And I am 
 pleased to say that the varieties of peaches and apricots cultivated for 
 drying purposes are varieties well suited to the gieen market, so that 
 the grower has a double chance ; and they are varieties that we may 
 
58 
 
 obtain here. In apricots they cultivate Oullin's Early Peach, Moorpark, 
 and Mansfield Seedling. In peaches for drying and canning they 
 always like flrm-fleshed and comparatively dry peaches, such as the 
 Salway and Lady Palmerston. These are comparatively dry species, 
 have not much juice, are firm in texture, and hold their shape nicely 
 ■when dry. In addition to the Salway (which they dry very largely) 
 they also use the early and late Crawford, which we have here. There 
 are one or two other varieties which I am glad to say our enterpris- 
 ing Department of Agriculture has imported with a view to our grower* 
 getting hold of them. These are the Muir and Foster for drying, and a 
 very fine variety which they "call Nicholl's Orange Cling for canning. 
 
 The process of drying is to pull the fruit whein ripe ; but it must not 
 be too ripe on this occasion — it must be firm so that when dried it wiU 
 hold its shape nicely. It should be as firm as if it were being packed 
 to send a little distance to market. After picking they divide the 
 fruit with a little knife made for the purpose, remove the stone, and 
 spread the fruit with the cut side upwards on wooden trays made of 
 softwood lining boards as before, but this time made 3 feet wide and 
 8 feet long. They run the fruit into a sulphur box, shut the door, 
 and sulphur it for 40 or 50 minutes in order to give it a bright colour. 
 After the sulphuring it is spread out in the sun to dry. The apricot 
 and peach harvest comes on in California, as it does here, at midsum- 
 mer — at a time when we have the greatest maximum of sun heat. It 
 only takes from three to five days to dry the fruit, and it would only 
 take that time in this country. The fruit is turned once by reversing 
 the trays, and after being dried is put away for ten days or a fortnight 
 into the sweat boxes to sweat. Aiter that it is ready for boxing and 
 sending to market. In boxing they choose the very best apricota 
 or peaches (as the case may be) for the top. The fruit is packed in 
 neat layers, and the box when filled is placed under a press, which 
 gives a gentle and uniform pressure, flattening out the fruit and giving 
 it a nice appearance when opened. It is boxed in 20 and 40 lb. boxes, 
 and is then ready for sending to market. Here, again, the processes- 
 are simple, easily mastered, and easily carried out; and there is no long- 
 waiting for your money when you have turned the fruit into a com- 
 mercial article. (Applause.) 
 
 And here I will give you a remarkable illustration of the fact that 
 you can create your own market for these products. When the 
 Californians started drying fruits there was not a very great home 
 consumption; but as they began to turn out these products in large 
 quantities, in uniform bulk and of uniform quality, the taste for dried 
 fruits began to develop, and the consumption increased year by year ;. 
 and to-day dried apricots and peaches are consumed in every household 
 in California and the eastern states and found on the table of every 
 hotel when fi'uits are out of season. The Californians are shipping 
 these products to-day to China, Japan, and even to Australia. 
 (Applause.) 
 
 Now with regard to prunes — another of the very many industries we 
 hope to see cultivated in our own colony shortly. " Prune " is but 
 
59 
 
 another word for plum, and you know how. well plums thrive in Vic- 
 toria. Prunes are particular varieties of plums that will dry easily, are 
 sweet when dried, and will separate easily, if need he, from the stone. 
 There are several varieties of plums that make good prunes. These are 
 cultivated largely in California, and pay magnificent profits — up to £50 
 and £60 per acre per annum. These varieties may be obtained in this 
 colony. They are the French prune, the Fellemberg, De Montfort, 
 and last, hut perhaps best of all, what we know here as Coe's Golden 
 Drop — a yellow plum, a beautiful sweetmeat even when hanging on the 
 tree. It is called in California the Silver Prune, but it is none other 
 than our Coe's Golden Drop, that may be obtained in any quantity from 
 the nurserymen in this colony. 
 
 The drying processes are so simple that they will surprise you. The 
 fruit is pulled wh,en ripe — and it has to be very- ripe. It is dipped for 
 fifteen second^ in a boiling lye, made, as in the case of the raisins, by 
 adding lib. of concentrated lye to fifteen gallons of water. The 
 virtue of the dipping is that it opens the skin of the fruit, and allows 
 the water to evaporate much more rapidly than would be the case if the 
 fruit were not dipped. That is shown by the fact that when dipped it 
 only takes from nine to twelve days to dry, whereas it takes from 
 eighteen to 25 days if not dipped. 
 
 The Silver Prune has to be sulphured in order to give it a bright 
 amber colour. For the other prunes no sulphuring is required. They 
 are turned during the drying period by reversing the trays. After 
 being dried they are gathered up, placed in sweat boxes, and put away 
 for a fortnight in a close room to sweat. They are then ready for boxing 
 and sending to market. Before being packed they are dipped for from 
 three to five seconds in boiling hot water, to which a little glucose and 
 glycerine has been added to give them a glossy appearance. Then they 
 have another little machine called a " prune grader." This machine 
 cleverly grades the prunes into three qualities. Prunes of the first 
 quality are those which run 50 to 60 to the pound, those of the second 
 quality 60 to 70, and the third 70 to 90. They are then put in boxes 
 that have neat attractive labels, and are ready for sending to market. 
 In this case the processes are very simple. There is no long 
 waiting for the money, and prunes are worth to the growers up to 
 £50 to £60 per acre per annum. We, unfortunately, are sending 
 oiu" money to France and Italy for a product that we could as well 
 produce ourselves in this colony as it can be produced on any part of 
 the globe. (Applause.) 
 
 And now, lastly, with regard to figs. And here the Californians have 
 not quite' succeeded to their satisfaction. Their failure is not owing to 
 the difiiculty of the processes, but, because of some peculiarity of their 
 soil or climate, or perhaps both, they have not yet been able to produce 
 a fine fig. Strange to say, whilst in most of their commercial fruits 
 the quality, flavour, and texture seem quite equal to anything we can 
 grow in these colonies, the best figs that I saw there^ — the White 
 Adriatic, a new variety they have introduced — were certainly inferior 
 both in quality and texture to those we are producing in the northern 
 
60 
 
 districts of Victoria ; and I hope that by-and-by, -when we have 
 mastered the proper processes of curing, we shall even beat the Califor- 
 nians in this product. (Cheers.) 
 
 This is their method of drying: — The figs are pulled when ripe, and 
 they have to be very ripe. They are sulphured for fully an hour, to give 
 them a bright colour. They are then spread out in the sun on wooden 
 trays to dry, and turned once by reversing the trays. At the end of 
 nine or twelve days they are gathered up, placed in the sweat boxes, 
 and put away for a fortnight to sweat. They are then brought out for 
 packing. They undergo then a very important process. They are 
 dipped for from three to five seconds in a boiling hot solution of salt. 
 They make a strong brine, bring it to a boiling point, and while it is 
 boiling they dip the fruit that has been dried and sweated into it for 
 from three to five seconds. The virtue of that dipping is that it softens 
 the fruit, so that the packer can flatten it out nicely in packing. It 
 also kills any insect germs that may be in the fruit. The packer has a 
 basin of salt water close to him, into which he dips his fingers to 
 remove the stickiness. He takes each individual fig in his hand, and 
 with his two thumbs flattens it out carefully, and with the two fore- 
 fingers sHghtly splits the fruit on the under side, as you will see in the 
 first imported fruit that you examine closely. He then packs them 
 neatly in layers in the boxes, until he gets the top layer standing well 
 above the top of the box, perhaps a quarter or half an inch. He then 
 puts in a false top, which fits nicely inside the box, and places the box 
 under a press, which gives a gentle and uniform pressure to the fruit 
 so as to give it a nice flat appearance. A single leaf of the green bay 
 tree is placed . in the centre, and the lid is nailed on. The boxes 
 are stacked away for a couple of months to allow the natural sugar of 
 the fruit to properly permeate the whole mass, and then the fruit is ready 
 to be sent to market. 
 
 And now I have done. You see that these various industries are as 
 simple as possible ; and it is only because they have not been in 
 operation in Grreat Britain, and that we, who are the descendants of 
 British people, have not been familiar with them, that we have not 
 developed them largely hitherto. But there can be no question that 
 to-day in the world's progress the fact is being emphasized that the 
 food products of the peoples of all countries are being drawn from 
 every remote-producing centre of the globe ; and that the splendid and 
 ever-increasing facilities for ocean transport that now exist, and that 
 have brought Australia into direct communication, not only with Great 
 Britain but with many of the great commercial countries of Europe 
 and America, are now bringing every producing centre on the face of 
 the globe into touch with the great markets of the world. And it 
 remains for an intelligent and progressive people, such as I hope we 
 are, to take a note of this fact — to find out the products that the people 
 of the world require and that we can supply, and then produce those 
 articles ; and then, as surely as night follows the day, these great 
 facilities for ocean transport that we possess, and which year by year 
 are being improved, and the triumphs of science that are opening up 
 
61 
 
 ne-w methods of dealing -with products, will assuredly give us a chance 
 of reaching those great markets with our products. There cannot be any 
 one fact surer than this : that the race to-day belongs to the people, 
 not with the greatest opportunities, but with the courage and enterprise 
 to make the most of the opportunities they possess. (Applause.) 
 
 We are a young country, and I do not think we have sufficiently 
 realized as a people the immensity of the splendid natural resources at 
 our command ; and I would say to those who wish a career in some of 
 our country districts that there are splendid facilities to-day in many 
 of our northern districts for carrying on these industries ; that the time 
 is now ripe ; and that there is a splendid destiny awaiting any young 
 man of courage, pluck, and enterprise in the cultivation of some of 
 these charming industries. (Loud applause.) 
 
 In reply to questions the lecturer stated that he did not necessarily 
 mean by the term " northern districts " that that was the only region in 
 the colony where dried fruits could be successfully produced ; but, in 
 his opinion, the conditions north of the Dividing Range were more 
 favorable, because the greatest maximum amount of sun heat was 
 obtained there. The greatest prune district in California, however, 
 was called the Santa Clara Valley, and was within a few miles 
 of San Francisco. It had a coast climate, was subject to coast 
 influences, and was liable to fogs to a very great degree. Whilst he 
 was there, in the middle of summer, there was a fog every day at nine 
 o'clock in the morning — a thing which never occurred in Victoria. But 
 in spite of these difficulties, and with a maximum summer temperature 
 not greater than that arpund Melbourne, this district excelled in prune 
 cultivation. From that he would infer that, as far as prune drying was 
 concerned, many of the districts round the south of Melbourne were 
 eminently adapted for the purpose. 
 
 It was only in recent years that peaches had been a failure in Vic- 
 toria. At one time the peach had been one of our most successful 
 products, but an insect pest — the aphis — had got into and devastated our 
 orchards. But the Californians had fought with this pest and conquered 
 it, and many of the leading horticulturists of Victoria thought that 
 this difficulty would soon be surmounted. In apricots, he recommended 
 Oullin's Early Peach, Moorpark, Heemskirk, arid Mansfield's Seedling. 
 These were favorites with the Californians and with Victorian growers. 
 For peaches he would recommend the flrm-fleshed dry varieties like 
 the Salway, the Early and Late Crawford, and other varieties that could 
 he obtained in Victoria. Mr. Martin, the energetic Secretary of the 
 Agricultural Department, had imported two varieties known as the 
 Muir and the Foster. The Californians said that they regarded the Muir 
 as the finest drying peach they had ever got hold of, as it lost less of its 
 weight in drying than any other peach, and in this respect was very 
 valuable. There was also a variety known as NichiolFs Orange Cling, 
 which was only suitable for canning purposes. 
 
 As to figs, the Adriatic had not yet been tried in Victoria, and he 
 was doubtful as to whether it would be so great a success as had been 
 imagined. To his mind the White Genoa — a variety more extensively 
 
62 
 
 distributed in the colonies than any other — ■would be the beat commercial 
 fig for cultivation in Victoria. The Brown Turkey was, in his opinion, 
 too dark in colour. The White Genoa was a large brown fig, and a 
 beautifully light colour could be given to it by a slight sulphuring. He 
 had seen the White Genoa growing everywhere in California, but, 
 singularly enough, wherever he had seen it the fruit was decidedly 
 inferior to the White Genoas grown in Victoria. This was, doubtless, 
 owing to some defects in soil or climate, and he was hopeful that 
 Victoria would be able to excel California in the quality of its dried 
 figs. (Applause.) 
 
64 
 
 pj ^/>i-yj!> i iij BiB u ;. i}a ' ^ ^^'^^;^ii^^jg^ 
 
 
66 
 
67 
 
 SOME POINTS IN BREEDS OF FARM STOCK. 
 By R. Hbdgee-Walulce. 
 
 The subject I have taken for my lecture is one of great importance. 
 Live stock may be looked upon as the specialty, of the British farmer. 
 Many a farmer iji the old country looks to cattle breeding as the only 
 profitable, venture that is now open to him. WUl you look at this 
 question for a moment with an English farmer's eye. Taking the 
 ■whole meat production of the United Kingdom, the average carcass 
 ■weight for fat cattle and calves is 640 lbs. and for fat sheep and lambs 
 72 lbs. On looking at the average for imported meat, the English 
 farmer finds cattle only to average 560 lbs. and sheep 56 lbs. This is one 
 consolation, as this imported meat is in fact from the same breeds of 
 cattle found at home, and also it has been noticed that the lower animal 
 creation depreciate in character and constitution if 'taken from their 
 natural habitat. This is looked upon as being the great safeguard of 
 the English breeder. He has no fear that other countries will supplant 
 him for stud animals or for females to carry on special races, as breeders 
 all over the world outside the United Kingdom are continually sending 
 for pedigree animals so that they may be able to keep up the quality 
 of their stock. A French writer (Mr. La Trehounais) says — " If one 
 thing more than another characterizes practical English skill — it might, 
 indeed, be termed genius — it , is undoubtedly the perfection achieved 
 in the breeding of live stock of all descriptions;" and, further, he 
 •writes — " I have often heard disappointed exhibitors, pointing to a 
 prize animal exhibited by a more fortunate rival, exclaim 'Ah ! it is 
 no -wonder ; it has English blood.' . This was especially so at the last 
 Paris fat cattle show, where the immense majority of the prize-takers 
 ■were avowedly, as in the cross-bred classes, and implicitly admitted 
 in most others to be, the offspring of ,shorthorn sires." In , France, 
 Belgium, and Germany the well-known Britislj. -shorthorn has of late 
 years obtained a high position, and is accepted as a standard race. In 
 America also the British farmer is looked up to as being the only pure 
 source from which to obtain an animal bred purely to the type of the 
 difierent breeds that are to be found in G-reat Britain. We, may safely 
 say that our live stock is taking a place nearly equal to that occupied 
 by the British thoroughbred horse, whose superiority is so ungrudgingly 
 and unanimously recognised by all nations. 
 
 The subjpet of live stock, in an ordinary course of lectures on agri- 
 culture,, is generally treated towards the close of the course, and does 
 not perhaps receive the attention it deserves. I' would like, however, 
 to place befoi;e you to-night some elementary facts which may be of 
 interest. 
 
 E 2 
 
68 
 
 Now, in Natural History, we have two kingdoms called the Invertebrata 
 and Vertebrata, and it is with the latter we have to deal, as the animals 
 included in it are fishes, reptiles, birds, quadrupeds, and man. 
 
 Every vertebrate animal poesesses in the centre of its body an a,xis 
 of cartilage or bone which forms a skeleton or support. _ Below is a 
 cavity, containing the organs of digestion, circulation, respiration, &c., 
 and above a smaller cavity in which lie the brain and spinal marrow, 
 the central organs of the nervous system. 
 
 The primary divisions of vertebrates are two in number. One is 
 termed the headless or heartless, and contains only one form ; the 
 other is termed " head-bearing" and includes all the vertebrata. 
 
 There are five classes of head-bearing vertebrate animals — fishes, 
 amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Fishes and amphibia are 
 sometimes united into one division, as they agree in breathing by 
 gills at some period in their life. Reptiles and birds are also placed in 
 a division as they agree in being oviparous with large eggs containing 
 much food yolk, and never breathing by gills. Fossil forms are known 
 which link the fishes to the amphibians and birds to reptiles. 
 
 Of the fivp classes named, in agriculture we have to deal with the 
 highest, i.e., mammals. These vertebrate animals are warm blooded, 
 and have glands for the purpose of secreting a fluid called milk for the 
 nutrition of the young, till they are able to seek out other nutriment 
 for themselves. 
 
 There are seventeen orders of mammals at present living. The 
 first two orders, containing the spiny anteater and the kangaroos, are 
 grouped as non-placental mammals, the rest, fifteen in number, being 
 placental. 
 
 Of the seventeen orders we have to deal with the Ungulata, which order 
 includes all those herbivorous mammals whose extremities are used 
 solely as organs of progression, and in which each toe ends in the hoof 
 or broad case of horny epidermis. These ungulates are divided into 
 two sub-orders — odd-toed mammals and even-toed mammals. The odd- 
 toed is represented by the horse, tapir, and rhinoceros. The even-toed 
 is again subdivided into two classes — those having simple stomachs 
 with knobs on the grinding teeth, called Bunodonts, and represented by 
 pigs ; and those having complex stomachs and the hardest layer of teeth 
 arrayed in crescents, called Ruminants, and represented by amongst 
 others, cows, antelopes, goats, and sheep. 
 
 We have now to look a little into the details of the order Ruminantia 
 as with it the agriculturist deals very largely. Their distinct charac- 
 teristic is their digestive system. The food is re-chewed — they chew the 
 cud. They have a divided hoof, are gregarious, living in herds or fiocks 
 are herbivorous, and, as a rule, are horned. There are some hornless 
 ruminants, and they can be easily divided — as in the class of camels 
 Giraffes are horned, but have horns of a peculiar character, beina- uer- 
 sistent, truncated — rivet-headed at top — covered with a scalp of skin 
 and narrowly placed on the frontal bones of the skull. ' 
 
69 
 
 , The next order is known as Cervida, and includes all the species of 
 deer — fallow, red, or roe. These have horns, bony, solid, and deciduous 
 — that is, they shed their horns. 
 
 Following this order comes the Antelopidee — antelopes, which have 
 hollow horns, having at the base annular rings. The horn is a horny 
 sheath surrounding a bony core, which is porus. 
 
 Antelopes may be divided into four classes : — 
 
 I. True antelopes, light and graceful in form. 
 II. Bush antelopes, having heavier shoulders and hams, 
 
 III. Boriform antelopes, still heavier, resembling oxen. 
 
 IV. Capriform antelopes, resembling goats or sheep. 
 
 Immediately following the antelopes come the Bovidce (oxen). 
 These have hollow horns, growing on a bony core, with annular 
 rings, a long tail terminated by a tuft of hair, and four teats set in a 
 square form. 
 
 Following the oxen come the Capridce — the class of goats and sheep. 
 These have short horns, rough and angular, and a short tail, and two 
 teats. 
 
 As the Bovidce or oxen class is the most characteristic of all true 
 ruminants, and of most interest to the agriculturist, we will now look 
 at some of the species. 
 
 One species is known' as the Bos Aurochs, or Urochs, or Bos ZJrus. 
 This is the European bison, and is found in Poland, where it is pre- 
 served by strict game laws. Then we have the Bos Americanus, the 
 American bison, the native ox of America. Again, we have the Bos 
 Gaurus, the large Indian bison, which is the largest species of the 
 whole ox tribe. Neither the Bos Uroehs or Americanus is now held 
 to be the original type of cattle. The peculiarity of the bison is the 
 length of dorsal vertebrae, which gives great depth to the animal. It 
 is deep from top of withers to floor of chest. Its forepart being 
 clothed with a long mane, it naturally holds its head near the ground, 
 and looks formidable in front, but falls away behind. 
 
 Following this species we have the Bos Indicus, or our humped 
 cattle, also called Zebus. These have a fatty hump on the withers, 
 differ in colour and size, but agree in having no dewlap. The voice is 
 a subdued grunt, and they have not the instinct of standing knee-deep 
 in water. 
 
 Next in succession we have the Bos Gaviens, the Gayal or Jungle 
 ox or Indian cow, which is generally of a creamy or light colour, 
 shaded on haunches and sides, and is high in the withers. This is a 
 domesticated quiet animal. Following this comes Bos Bentiger, which 
 is, I believe, the white-buttocked Java bullock. 
 
 Then comes Bos Bubulus, or the common buffalo, which is domesti- 
 cated in Europe, and supposed to have been brought from Asia by the 
 Huns and Goths, and other hordes from the East. It is found now in 
 
70 
 
 Turkey, Hungary, Austria, Greece, Italy, Spain, and South of France. 
 It is more ox-like in general figure than the bison, heavier and stronger 
 than cattle, and of a uniform black hue, having a black skin, hair, hoofs, 
 horns, &c. In character the buffalo is more ferocious than the ox, and 
 is easily angered. The love of water never forsakes him. He is largely 
 used in agriculture, both in India and the continental States I have 
 mentioned, and also in the Southern States of America. BufEalo flesh 
 is technically said to be mossy in flavour, and the milk is esteemed a 
 luxury. 
 
 The last in order is the Bos Taurus Domesticus, the common cattle 
 of Europe, to which all our breeds belong. 
 Let us go through these species in order — 
 
 1st. Bos Urus, or European Bison. 
 
 2nd. Bos Americans, or American Bison. 
 
 3rd. Bos Gaurus, or Indian Bison. 
 
 4th. Bos Indicus, or Zebus (humped cattle). 
 
 5th. Bos Gaviens, or Gayal (jungle ox). 
 
 6th. Bos Bentiger, or Java bullock. 
 
 7th. Bos Bubulus, or common bufEalo. 
 
 8th. Bos Taurus, or common cattle. 
 
 But the cattle of our day cannot claim a common ancestor. 
 
 Bos Taurus Domesticus is supposed to have been derived from three 
 now extinct types, i.e. (o) The Bos Primigenius, a type still found in the 
 old country, and known as the wild cattle of Chillingham Park, also 
 called Bos Sylvestris, or Scotch-park cattle ; (b) the Bos Longifrons 
 (long-horned cattle) — the ancestors of our long-horned breeds ; and 
 (c) the Bos Frontosus, having a protuberance on the forehead. Both 
 the Bos Longifrons and Frontosus are now extinct, but their skeletons 
 are to be found in cave dwellings. 
 
 If I have been followed to this point it will be found that I have 
 been tracing the evolution of our cattle. I shall refer more fully to this 
 theory afterwards, but I now desire to place before you materials to 
 build up the theory of domestication and variation. 
 
 The Bos Primigenius is represented by the Chillingham Park cattle 
 or Hamilton Park cattle. The Hamilton Park cattle are of a dun- 
 white colour, and the muzzle, the inside of the ears, the tongue, and the 
 hoofs are black. In the Chillingham Park cattle the muzzle, eye- 
 lashes, hoofs, and tip of horns are black, the body being of a light 
 silvery grey, lighter in tint than the Jersey cattle found in our dairies. 
 These cattle show the instinct of a wild race in four different ways. 
 1st, their mode of hiding their young ; 2nd, the calves when in 
 danger have the power of sinking far down, so as to be lost to sight, 
 crouching on the grass like fawns ; 3rd, when in danger the bulls come 
 forward and make a ring round the females. The American bison 
 when pursued in herds does this also ; ith, wheij pursued they place 
 the inequalities of the ground between themselves and their pursuers 
 and generally make for the lower grounds. These wild cattle, as we 
 
.71 
 
 mow see them, are probably smaller than their ancestors, owing to con- 
 finement within park walls and enforced in-breeding for centuries. 
 
 Among the domesticated cattle of Britain, which are closely related 
 to or descended from the Bos Primigenius, we might name the following 
 ■breeds : — [a) The Pembrokes of South Wales, which are black in 
 .colour ; (6) the Devons, blood-red in colour without any white ; 
 (c) the Sussex, red in colour, often mixed with white on the face and 
 body ; and {d) the Herefords, with flesh-coloured nostrils, the face, 
 forward part of back, throat, belly, inside and lower part of legs and top 
 of tail being white, and the remainder rich red. The horns are black- 
 tipped. 
 
 Highland cattle, also known as Kyloes, are supposed to be descend- 
 .ants of the Bos Longifrons. They have long spreading horns and 
 thick, shaggy coats, and in colour are of various shades of dun, red- 
 brown, black, and brindle. It may here be noted that profusion of horn 
 is generally accompanied by a shaggy coat, and vice versd, and this may 
 be taken as a case of correlation. 
 
 So far I have treated of breeds (the Herefords, the Sussex, and the 
 Devon) which may be said to have arisen by natural selection. We 
 have a good example of artificial selection in the Shorthorn, but before 
 ■noticing this race, which may be looked upon as the product of man, I 
 will place before you four points in animals which would Influence any 
 one producing an animal of the well-known type of the shorthorn. The 
 points are those of pedigree, quality, character, and carcass. • 
 
 I. Points of Pedigree. — Pedigree influence is a combination of two 
 natural laws, i.e., (a) that of reversion or atavism, and (6) that of 
 ^heredity or transmission of qualities. By. pedigree we get direction 
 and precision in breeding. Pedigree influence is always seen in nature; 
 there it is paramount, controlled and directed by the requirements of the 
 environment. Pedigree is a guarantee for the fixity of type, and the 
 Talue of a pedigree depends upon the intrinsic merit of each link 
 through which it passes, and it is this th?,t weighs in the sale ring. 
 Leaders in the breeding of pedigree animals are very strict in this 
 matter. No matter how good an animal might be, if it is partly, for ex- 
 ample, of the Booth strain and partly of another — say the Bates — the 
 " fancy " is not pleased, because they consider that links in the pedigree 
 are wanting. They consider that the animals should all be descended 
 from a common ancestor, that the Booth strain or the Bates strain should 
 not be mixed. With corn crops we find that tail wheat or barley gives 
 as good results as big grain. The seed may be puny, shrivelled, and 
 «lefective in appearance, but the germ is there, and the resulting entire 
 plant is satisfactory. The same law applies also to animals. 
 
 II. Points of Quality. — This will pass the ordinary observer. Let us 
 take touch as an illustration. A pliant, soft, not papery skin moving 
 .exceedingly freely on the tissues beneath, with hair in abundance, 
 *' mossy " to the touch— rthese are aU points of quality. 
 
72 
 
 III. Points of Character. — Character not only in the individual, but 
 also in the herd or flock. Character is in the head, the expression, the 
 way the head is carried ; in fact it is explained by the saying, " They 
 are as like as peas." 
 
 IV. Points of Carcass, or case of beef. The animal must be 
 thoroughly well filled up at every point, and it is here that fat covers a 
 multitude of faults. Carcass points are numerous, but the whole idea 
 is a parallelogram — square from every point of view. Looked at from 
 the sides, front, or rear, and, if it were possible, from above, it should 
 fill up nearly every point of a square. A very objectionable type of 
 animal would be one whose carcass viewed from before or behind was 
 triangular, or razor backed. 
 
 Having noticed some points of animals, we come now to note the 
 Durham or Teeswater, as improved and known as Shorthorns. These 
 came into notice at the end of last century, and were improved by 
 Colling, who gave them the name of Shorthorns in contradis- 
 tinction to Bakewell's improved breed known as Longhorns, the 
 Dishley breed of Craven cattle. Colling lived to see the rise and fall 
 of the Longhorns. The cattle on which he experimented were 
 bought at the fairs of Yarmouth, Darlington, Sec Colling cannot be 
 compared with Bakewell for boldness and originality of design, but he 
 was more fortunate in bis selection of a basis for his breed. Colling 
 seems to have regarded size in his animals as a quality secondary and 
 subordinate to those which he wished to communicate, and to have 
 directed almost exclusive attention to beauty and utility of form and 
 development of the properties of early maturity and facility of fattening. 
 At Eryholme he got his first good cattle, now known in the herd-books 
 as " Strawberry " and " Young Strawberry," and the animal which 
 made his mark, and which has made the shorthorn breed what it is, was 
 " Hubback," now classed in the shorthorn herd book as 319. He was 
 purchased as a calf from a poor man who grazed his cow on the sides of 
 the road. This bull was small and of a yellowish red and white colour, 
 and is regarded as the father of the present race of improved short- 
 horns. The singular fact about this bull was that he possessed the 
 power of prepotency, that is, the power of transmitting his own 
 characteristics down to many agencies or generations. This power, 
 along with the law of heredity, explains the occurrence of a crooked 
 finger in a family for generations, or the lip of the Hapsburgs, the hare 
 lip found in the royal family of Austria. The two valuable charac- 
 teristics that were handed down in the shorthorn breeds through 
 " Hubback " were early maturity and fattening powers. Another good 
 animal which came into the hands of our early breeders was the bull 
 " Favorite " (252). One practice was common to the early breeders 
 of shorthorns — they bred closely-:-adopted in-and-in breeding. This 
 close breeding is objected to by some, and it is admitted that if there 
 be any weakness present it will thus be brought out and intensified 
 but if the animals are pure and strong there is no reason why they 
 
FRONT. 
 
 SIDE. 
 
 t 
 
 TOP. 
 
 REAR. 
 
 TRIANGULAR OR RAZOR-BACKED. 
 
f 
 
73 
 
 should degenerate. Colling and our early breeders had to adopt inter- 
 breeding so as not to weaken any point of pedigree. In our own day. 
 Col. Gunter's- Duchesses are all in-bred. The effects of interbreeding 
 are : — • 
 
 1. It diminishes size of the animal. 
 
 2. It increases beauty of form. 
 
 3. It increases propensity to fatten. 
 
 4. It diminishes fecundity. 
 
 5. It diminishes supply of milk. 
 
 6. It often impairs the constitution. 
 
 Shorthorns of good pedigree are now of a mixed colour, red, white, or 
 roan, but never black or brindled. Their forms are particularly square, 
 front and behind; back straight as aline; flat massive straight buttocks; 
 massive fore-end; great width across withers, and hairs silky and mossy, 
 turned in different directions by licking. The skin is pliant, and will 
 lift in folds, but is not in such perfection as in the Devons or Herefordsl 
 The horns are crescent shaped, and not too protuberant. They are 
 white or faint yellow to the tip, and the base shows blood marks as if 
 the horn were dipped in blood and then scraped with a knife. Sweet- 
 ness of expression is desired in the female, and grandeur in the male; 
 fine carriage, shoulders well thrown back, head bold, neck muscular, and 
 fine curls of hair on forehead. With these points before them our 
 breeders have to secure by breeding a succession of animals which in 
 quality and shape are not inferior to their ancestry. The shorthorn 
 adapts himself to all districts, and has the peculiarity of being the only 
 breed that combines the valuable properties of being good meat 
 producers and good milkers. In the highest strains millcing has been 
 lost or neglected; but the unpedigreed shorthorns to be found in many 
 parts of England and about the Portland district in this colony are 
 good milkers. In the districts of Cumberland, Northumberland, and 
 Durham, where the shorthorn is bred for milking purposes, the farrners 
 will not admit that the Ayrshires are their superiors, looked at from 
 any point of view. 
 
 For beef the shorthorn is good all round, although the meat is not of 
 such good quality as from some of the other breeds; as for instance, 
 the Sussex or Hereford breeds. But the beef is obtained more quickly 
 from the shorthorns ; that is to say, it is easier to get year old or four- 
 teen months' beef. In the opinion of Professor Wrightson, an authority 
 in the old country, fashion has a good deal to do with the position held 
 by the shorthorns, as they have been taken up by the landed proprietors 
 of the country, and they have gone Jar beyond what he deems their 
 intrinsic or real value. 
 
 We must therefore look upon the shorthorn as a type of artificial 
 selection. But before looking at the various theories that arise, I would 
 like just to touch on what we may term " animal physiology," which 
 will teach us how animals are formed and developed. 
 
 The young animal arises by the fusion, within the egg or germ cell, 
 of an extremely minute particle derived from the male parent with an 
 
74 
 
 almost equally minute particle derived from the germ cell produced by 
 the female, and the body formed by their fusion is termed the segmen- 
 tation nucleus. 
 
 From the segmentation nucleus, and from corresponding changes 
 which occur in the protoplasm of the egg which surrounds it, other cells 
 arise by division, and these also multiply by division. 
 
 These cells arrange themselves in course of time into layers which 
 are termed the germinal layers. From these layers arise all the tissues 
 and organs of the body, both in its embryonic or young and adult stages 
 ■of life. Professor Sir Wm. Turner says, " The starting point of each 
 individual organism, i.e., of each new generation, is the segmentation 
 nucleus. Every cell in the adult body is derived by descent from that 
 nucleus by repeated division. As the segmentation nucleus is formed 
 by the fusion of material derived from both parents, a physical con- 
 tinuity is established between parents and offspring. But this physical 
 continuity carries with it certain properties which cause the offspring to 
 reproduce not only the bodily configuration of the parent, but other 
 characters. This transmission of characters from parent to offspring is 
 summarized in the well-known expression ' Like begets like,' and it 
 a'ests upon a physical basis." 
 
 The extract I have just read is from Sir Wm. Turner's Presidential 
 Address to the British Association. I cannot go into further details 
 here, but I would ask you especially to note that with the fusion of the 
 male and female germs two things are found to be intimately associated ; 
 the one is heredity, that is the transmission of characters common to both 
 parent and offspring ; and the other is variability, that is the appear- 
 ance in an organism of certain characters which are unlike those 
 possessed by its parents. Heredity is defined as the perpetuation of the 
 like and variability as the production of the unlike. 
 
 The young animal brings into use after birth organs which were 
 ■before inactive ; and at this stage sound views on nutrition are of value 
 to the breeder. Its organs are now brought into an active state, the 
 result being loss of material in many ways — by friction during motion ; 
 by oxidation through breathing, so as to keep up its heat ; and by 
 •exertion — and yet, in spite of all this waste, the young animal grows. 
 We know that with us, as with animals, there are three stages of life 
 a,ffected by feeding. In the young, the. process of repair in the system 
 is more active than that of waste ; in the adult the two actions are 
 about equal ; and in the aged the wasting process is so active that it is 
 very difficult for the repairs to keep pace with it. 
 
 Now, in order that young animals should have the full benefit of 
 their power to appropriate food, the amount and kind of aliment the 
 system requires must be supplied. The whole secret of early maturity 
 lies in taking advantage of the remarkable aptitude shown by young 
 stock to assimilate food and grow thereby. In the animal's body there 
 are several organs which are engaged in special work. There are 
 the digestive, circulatory, breathing, absorbing, and excreting organs 
 controlled and directed by the nerve organs. By the action of the 
 
75 
 
 digestive organs the food is reduced to such a condition as fits it for 
 nutrition. The absorbing organs take up the dissolTed and prepared 
 food constituents and carry them into the blood streams. By the aid 
 of the heart, this blood is pumped through the vessels over the body 
 Snd back/again, and the nutrient material which it carried is brought 
 into contact with the tissues, and these take what they require for their 
 own support and leave the rest. The breathing organs take in supplies 
 of air, and the blood abstracts the oxygen and carries it to the tissues 
 where heat is generated, and carbonic acid gas and water left, after the 
 heat has been diffused, as useless products. The excretory organs 
 exist to remove all waste or effete materials, including the products of 
 combustion. Through the intestinal canal pass out all undigested or 
 unused food. Soluble waste matter is removed by the kidneys in the 
 form of urine, and by the skin through the sweat glands. The lungs 
 excrete carbonic acid and all impurities which assume the gaseous 
 form. This, in a few words, is an outline of the physiology of animals 
 applicable to the live stock on any farm. 
 
 I may note also what is generally accepted to be the cause or source 
 of disease, whether in an animal or in man. The greatest authority 
 upon this subject is a G-erman, Professor Virchow, a man whose name 
 came prominently before the public lately as antagonistic to Koch's 
 theory, which has attracted so much attention. He announced the 
 doctrine years ago that in disease no new structures are formed, but 
 existing structures are misplaced ; that the selective functions are 
 perverted, and certain tissues no longer take what is proper to them, 
 but utilize the elements of other structures and suffer disturbance ac- 
 cordingly. The theory of the selective power of tissues is as follows : — 
 Blood, when circulating through the body, contains in suspension or 
 solution the materials necessary to repair the body-»-bone, muscle, fat, 
 tendon, nerve, gland, skin, horn, and hair. Out of the channels the 
 blood finds its way to the tissues, and these have the power of taking 
 out of this complex fluid the material it wants, and leaving what it does 
 not require to be carried further on. Now what occurs in the animal 
 body when the nutritive functions of certain parts, become deranged, 
 and the selective power is perverted, is simply what we call disease. 
 The brain tissue, instead of selecting the proper materials, might select 
 fats and white fibre, and so form what is called a " fibrous fatty tissue." 
 In turn the lungs or liver might choose brain matter, and we should 
 find what is termed an " encephaloid tumour." Various parts of the 
 body might select bony matter, and we would have ossific deposits; or 
 the bones might select fleshy material, and we would have what is 
 called by the pathologist osteo sarcoma. All this and much more 
 that might be termed the physiology of breeding should be of interest 
 to high-class breeders, whether they breed pedigree or ordinary stock. 
 In both cases the breeding will be by artificial and not natural selec- 
 tion, aiid the breeder can mould and shape to his own will; and as the 
 responsibility rests with him, he should be fully equipped at all points. 
 •Our breeders may not be scientific men, and have made many a 
 
76 
 
 lucky hit, but they have displayed what might even be termed genius 
 in making oue family rise on another, or, to use a common expression, 
 make one nick in with another. 
 
 It mav be of some assistance if I place before you the following 
 tables, taken from Jonson's "Agriculture." We look first at the 
 process of digestion in cow or sheep. 
 
 Process. 
 
 1. Food partly chewed and moistened with saliva 
 
 in the mouth 
 
 2. Food swallowed and passed into paunch to 
 
 macerate 
 
 3. Food made into pellets by honeycomb bag, 
 
 passed back to the mouth, again chewed and 
 mixed with saliva 
 
 4. Food again swallowed and passed into many- 
 
 plies; finer portions proceed to fourth or true 
 stomach; coarser parts returned to paunch to 
 be re-chewed 
 
 5. Food in fourth stomach acted upon by gastric 
 
 juice becomes chyme 
 
 6. Chyme passed into intestines, acted on by bile 
 
 and pancreatic juice, becomes chyle 
 
 Effect. 
 
 Starch changed to sugar by action 
 
 of saliva 
 Softening of food 
 
 Food finely divided, and more 
 starch changed to sugar by 
 action of saliva 
 
 Separation of coarse and finely 
 divided portions of food 
 
 Part of starchy and nitrogenous 
 matters absorbed into the blood 
 
 Fats rendered soluble and all 
 nutritious portions absorbed into 
 the blood and other vessels 
 
 We also look at the process of digestion in ahorse or pig, they being 
 examples of farm animals who do not chew the cud : — 
 
 1. Mastication 
 
 2. Insalivation 
 
 3. Swallowing 
 
 4. Ghymification 
 
 5. Chylification 
 
 Agents Employed. 
 
 Teeth and muscles of mouth... 
 
 Salivary glands 
 
 Muscles of throat and gullet 
 
 Stomach and its glands 
 
 Intestines, small and large, 
 with their secretions — 
 
 1. Intestinal juice 
 
 2. Bile 
 
 3. Pancreatic fluid 
 
 Effects. 
 
 Thorough grinding of 
 food 
 
 Partial solution and change 
 of starch to sugar 
 
 Food passed from mouth 
 to stomach 
 
 Nitrogenous foods dis- 
 solved and assimilated 
 
 Fats rendered soluble, 
 nitrogenous foods dis- 
 solved, and starch con- 
 verted to sugar 
 
 These two tables show us how food is utilized by the animal, 
 quantity of food supplied to animals will vary — 
 
 The 
 
 1. With the size of the animals themselves. 
 
 2. The amount of exertion they undergo. 
 
 3. The amount of shelter they receive from inclement weather. 
 
77 
 
 We have already noted that the waste matters of foods are excreted in 
 the solid excrements, the waste matters of the body being excreted by 
 the lungs, kidneys, and skin. These waste matters consist of carbonic 
 acid, water, and urea. 
 
 Lungs. Kidneys. Skin. 
 
 Excrete much carbonic acid, Excrete much water and Excretes much water, and 
 and but little water and urea, and but little but little carbonic acid 
 urea. carbonic acid. and urea. 
 
 We have in this country a large number of breeds of domesticated 
 animals, and their diversity and perfection of form, accompanied by 
 economy in feeding, have been brought about by our breeders, and these 
 animals retain their vigour and their constitution. If they are tender, and 
 if they require any pampered conditions as to food or shelter, then 
 they are not improved races of cattle, sheep, or pigs. Our best breeds 
 should retain their hardihood, vigour, activity, frugality, and constitution. 
 The best shorthorns will wade about in open yards, live in primitive 
 houses, and thrive on poor food and hay, and on this they show their 
 blood by doing better and laying on flesh quicker than the ordinary 
 animal. If an animal is brought up under certain pampered conditions 
 it will miss them when placed under difEerent circumstaaces, but our 
 improved stock ought to do as well on the same ground as our common 
 stock. As soon as a breed of cattle or sheep become delicate they 
 should be done away with. You will find it stated in the text-books 
 of Professor Tanner that our fine breeds are said to have small lungs 
 and liver. I mention this only to add that his brother examiner, Pro- 
 fessor Wrightson, states that this is not according to fact, and that he 
 believes our well-bred animals to be as strong and as healthy as any 
 other class of animals. 
 
 Now, the first theory we have to notice is that of evolution. The 
 principles regulating the successful breeding of cattle are closely con- 
 nected with the doctrine of the development of species by variation 
 and selection, known as the Darwinian theory, and its two fundamental 
 propositions are: — 
 
 1. Variations arising in any part of the organism, however 
 
 minute, may be transmitted to future generations under 
 certain definite and discoverable laws of inheritance. 
 
 2. By artificial selection, or by breeding from individuals pos- 
 
 sessing any particular variation, man, in successive genera- 
 tions, can produce a breed in which the variations wiU be 
 permanent, the divergence from the parent style being 
 usually intensified by the process of inter-breeding. The 
 races thus artificially produced by man are often as widely 
 different as are distinct species of wild animals. 
 Connected with the theory of evolution, we have that of domestica- 
 tion, and variation under domestication. We notice a wonderful 
 uniformity in wild races, and great difierences in character between wild 
 and domesticated cattle. When cattle are wild and have escaped from 
 domestication they become of an uniform colour. The variety of colour 
 
73 
 
 amongst our cattl6 is -well known. The Cream colour with dark 
 shadings on flanks, thighs, and upper back which seems to denote the 
 wild state are noticed in the Chillingham Park cattle, the Jerseys, 
 Hungarian oxen, and in many races of Austrian,. Swiss, Spanish, and 
 Tyrolese cattle ; also in the cattle running wild in the pampas of South 
 America and the Falkland Isles. Another example of colour is the wild 
 boar {Sus Serofa) which is tawny red in colour ; and the nearest 
 approach to him now is the Tamworth breed. Our domesticated pigs 
 are generally white, black, or piebald. The horse, again, was originally 
 of a mouse-grey colour, or a creamy-grey more or less striped, as in the 
 case of the Norwegian ponies of our own day. All our pigeons have 
 been bred from the Rock dove ; that is, the blue rock with black bars 
 across the wings. Wild rabbits are of an uniform colour ; tame ones 
 vary in colours and points. 
 
 This sporting from the original is now accepted as a well known fact. 
 There are special reasons why naturally animals should not vary ; for 
 if there be a disposition to alter, the alteration generally becomes fatal 
 to the animal. A white rabbit will fall an easier prey to its enemies 
 than those marked like the rest of their species. Here we have the 
 germ of the theory of natural selection, or the survival of the fittest. 
 Variation in domesticated animals arises from the fact that man has cut 
 them off from their usual surroundings. Still, there is a wonderful 
 amount of variation to be seen in nature. There is what may be termed 
 individuality ; every leaf differs from every other leaf ; races have got 
 certain features and characters. There is a law of variation as well as 
 similarity. For instance, it is through this law that bees know each 
 other and destroy outsiders. Variation is distinct in nature to enable 
 animals to recognise one another. Under domestication this assumes a 
 very marked character, for under domestication artificial selection 
 comes into play. The shorthorn, of which I have been speaking, is a 
 composite breed, many races being engaged to establish the type as we 
 now see it. The wild boar, crossed with Neapolitan and Chinese pigs, 
 gave us our improved breeds of pigs. Hampshire ewes crossed with 
 Cotswold rams gave us the Oxford Down sheep; and the Enghsh 
 thoroughbred horse owes his origin to the Arab, Turcoman, and Barb. 
 The Clydesdales are the product of Flemish stallions and Lanarkshire '''■ 
 mares. This selection by man has been a great factor in the making of 
 our domesticated animals. He has taken advantage of certain peculiari- 
 ties which appeal to the eye or other senses, such as beauty, strength, 
 disposition to lay on flesh or fat, or earliness of maturity. 
 
 These have been developed by him. He has bred for courage the 
 bull-dog, or for quaintness the pug dog; for the faculty of pointing, the 
 pointer or setter ; and for tumbling, the tumbler pigeon. All these are 
 examples of artificial selection. Any modification or peculiarity of 
 habit, structure, &c, in an animal may be perpetuated, initiated or 
 intensified by careful breeding. 
 
 The desired result may be brought about in two ways, either by care- 
 ful in-and-in breeding or cross breeding. By in-and-in breeding we 
 produce a succession of animals all descended from the same original 
 
79 
 
 parents. Breeding in the line agaiii means breeding from selected 
 animals of pure and separate families, all descended directly from a. 
 common ancestry; Breeding in and in will ennoble the stock and impart 
 fixity of type or character, but when this is carried out to too great an 
 extent it has many drawbacks. Breeding in the line is a system- 
 adopted to keep up the purity, and to impart fresh constitutional vigour 
 by the infusion of fresh but equally pure blood. The influence of an 
 animal on its offspring is in proportion to the antiquity of its particular 
 kind and pedigree (as found in stud, or herd-books). A herd-book is- 
 simply a list of the ancestors of particular animals for the purpose of 
 showing their long descent from and adherence to pure types. 
 
 "Pedigree," says Professor Tanner, "depends entirely upon a fuller 
 development of the principle of ' like producing like,' by which cattle^ 
 produce stock possessing the character of their predecessors, whether 
 good or bad. The character of a breed becomes more and more con- 
 centrated and confirmed in a pedigree animal, and this character is 
 rendered more fully hereditary in proportion to the number of genera- 
 tions through which it has been transmitted. By the aid of a pedigree 
 purity of blood may be insured, and a systematic plan adopted by 
 which we can perpetuate distinct families, and thereby obtain a change 
 of blood without its being a cross." 
 
 Domesticated animals are also affected by peculiarities of soil or 
 climate. For instance, there is a good deal of difference between a 
 Clydesdale and a Shetland pony. They both had but one prototype, so that, 
 the size must be influenced by the soil or climate. Mountainous regions 
 and small islands have small races, and small sizes are also due to a 
 severe climate and scant herbage. To these causes are due, then, thor 
 sizes of Zetland and Kerry cattle, and Corsican, Norwegian, Shetland, 
 and Welsih ponies. Certain breeds also hke certain soils. The Down 
 breeds of sheep seem natural to the chalk formation or chalky soils. 
 The differences in soil, food, climate, and situation, and their effect on 
 the animal world is a matter of controversy among the scientific men 
 of the present day, the leaders in the controversy being the well-known 
 naturalist, Mr. Alfred Russell .Wallace and Professor Eomanes. Twa 
 papers were read in England, at the Newcastle meeting of the British 
 Association of Science, which were of direct interest to all desirous of 
 understanding the scientific principles affecting live stock. I have 
 already referred to one paper, that by Sir Wra. Turner on " Here- 
 dity," the other is by Professor Romanes, on " Specific characters as 
 influenced , by selection, climate, food, isolation, and laws of growth." 
 Deviations in a breed are not to be wondered at when we remember 
 that in most breeds many of their peculiarities are primarily induced 
 by climatic influences and the nature of their food. The distribution 
 of groups of species on the earth and their limitation to definite areas 
 is distinctly traceable to a great law of nature. From these definite 
 areas they have not extended, as a general rule, beyond a certain point. 
 Nevertheless, under the influence of man, some may be removed from 
 their own habitat, and not only exist and flourish, but even destroy the 
 indigenous species, as seen in the myriads of wild horses inhabiting the 
 South American plains, all descended from a few European horses 
 
80 
 
 introduced a few centuries ago; in fact, to get illustrations we need not 
 look beyond our own part of the world. 
 
 Under this subject, acclimatisation has to be considered ; and in a 
 general way successful acclimatisation may be said to depend on the 
 maintenance, with perhaps only a slight modification of size, fertility, 
 external covering, proportions, and general well-being, of animals under 
 the altered conditions of climate and soil. 
 
 As we modify the characters given to an animal by nature by the 
 method of artificial selection we do not perfect them, but rather make 
 them convenient for our purpose ; by this modification we are apt to 
 develop a want of health and energy. We produce an abnormal 
 condition, and, when the limit is overstepped, we produce a delicate 
 state in the animal. This is termed loss of constitutional strength ; 
 and the acknowledged plan for maintaining it is the infusion of fresh 
 blood from a suitable and equally pure strain. 
 
 Now, it is on this that the English farmer or stock-breeder bases his 
 hopes for the future. He thinks that the races that have gone abroad 
 to this colony, to America, and Other lands will not be kept up to the 
 original standard unless they go back to him to get an infusion of pure 
 fresh blood. He is therefore hoping that the raising of pedigree 
 animals will be of more value to him in the future than it is in the 
 present day. 
 
 The strong family resemblance seen amongst animals related to each 
 other is due to the natural law that " like begets like." Heredity or the 
 force of inheritance is strongest in old and well established pure breeds, 
 where inferior animals are weeded out by the breeder; and his selection 
 acts much in the same way amongst domesticated animals as the law of 
 the survival of the fittest does amongst wild ones. 
 
 Another scientific subject that here comes under discussion is that 
 termed atavism, or throwing back ; that is, the occasional appearance 
 of an animal with points denoting the ancestry of an ancient or native 
 breed ; or the acquiring by the animal of some character which the 
 immediate parents had not. Many illustrations of this may be given 
 from cases in which our best pedigree and purest breeds have produced 
 an animal of the Chillingham Park type, or with the markings of a 
 wild native breed. 
 
 Another principle applied to an animal to be fattened is to develop 
 those properties which have relation to the earliest maturity of muscle 
 and fat. The principle of fattening is to apply to the animal the 
 largest quantity of nutriment from birth to maturity consistent with the 
 preservation of his health, or which the means of feeding at our com- 
 mand may allow. 
 
 The objects of the successful breeder of cattle are four in number: — 
 
 1. He may be breeding stock for pedigree power only, i.e., for 
 
 pedigree purposes ; or 
 
 2. For meat for the butcher; or 
 
 3. As milk producers; or 
 
 4. For their wool. 
 
 In breeding for pedigree, that is, high hereditary power, the purest 
 breed and best special animal of the required breed is selected ; it being 
 
81 
 
 borne in mind that any peculiarities, good or bad, Trill be perpetuated 
 and intensified. 
 
 Wben breeding for meat, the object is to produce as large a quantity 
 of meat and fat, and as little bone and ofial, as possible in the shortest 
 space of time. In this case the breeder has to take advantage of three 
 distinct powers: — (1) Fat or flesh producing ; (2) Eapid growth; 
 and (3) Reproductive power. When the object in view is breeding 
 for milk a cow is selected which has good milking tendencies, and 
 a bull with fattening ones — the offspring should be a good milking 
 animal. It is well to feed the cow upon rich food, which stimulates 
 the formation of milk; we then intensify in the offspring the tendency 
 already existing in the parent. When breeding for wool, animals are 
 selected possessing the required peculiarities and with the greatest 
 reproductive powers. 
 
 The objects of special breeding vary with different animals — for ex- 
 ample, the sheep is "bred for mutton and wool, cattle for meat and milk, 
 horses for strength or fleetness or both, and pigs for meat. Overbred 
 is a term used when a certain definite object, which the breeder had 
 before him, is passed and left behind, simply from his going too far 
 in one direction and overshooting the mark. When usefulness is 
 neglected in favour of fancy combinations upon paper, we may safely 
 term it overbreeding. One authority says — " Whilst the right object of 
 selection, the maintenance or the increase of intrinsic merit, is kept in 
 view, the pedigree does not grow too long; but as soon as the breeder 
 goes past that object, and uses his materials so that the pedigree shall 
 be pleasant' reading, whatever the animals may be, he overbreeds." 
 
 The conclusions arrived at by practical men are summarized by 
 Professor McConnell under eight heads — 
 
 1. Man has the power of controlling and modifying the forms of 
 
 all animals. 
 
 2. Such modified forms can be handed down to the progeny; 
 
 but, being departures from the primitive or natural type, this 
 form can only be maintained by "artificial selection." 
 
 3. It is best to seek for improvement through the male. 
 
 4. Qualities of form and character become hereditary in propor- 
 
 tion to the frequency of repetition in past generations, but 
 high pedigree will not make up for important defects. 
 
 5. Animals closely related may be paired, provided that they are 
 
 healthful, well formed, without hereditary taint, and that 
 the practice be not continued through many generations. 
 
 6. Young females should be paired with the best of their own 
 
 kind, at the first, to avoid re-appearance of stain in future 
 progeny. 
 
 7. Science has not as yet revealed any rule by which the pro- 
 
 portion of sexes can be pre-determined and secured. 
 
 8. The sire exercises m'ost influence on the size, muscular power, 
 
 and general conformation, while the dam influences the 
 nervous system and constitution, and is more likely to 
 impart hereditary diseases or weakness to the offspring. 
 
 4781. F 
 
82 
 
 It may be of some interest to simply mention the English breeds of 
 cattle. Before doing so, I draw your attention to a list of the recognised 
 breeds of farm animals, which has been drawn up by the United States 
 Department of Agriculture, giving you the name of the breed, the country 
 where bred, and the name of the record book, where such book has been 
 established: — 
 
 Eecognised Breeds of Farm Animals. 
 
 HOBSBS. 
 
 Thoroughbred, Great Britain, British Stud-book. 
 Hackney, Great Britain, Hackney Stud-book. 
 Shire, Great Britain, Shire-horse Stud-book. 
 Suffolk Punch, Great Britain, Suffolk Stud-book. 
 
 Clydesdale, Great Britain, Clydesdale Stud-book of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 Select Clydesdale, Great Britain, Select Clydesdale Stud-book. 
 Cleveland Bay, Great Britain, Cleveland Bay Stud-book. 
 
 Yorkshire Coach, Great Britain, Stud-book of the Yorkshire Coach-horse Society. 
 Shetland Pony, Great Britain, Shetland Pony Stud-book. 
 Peroheron, France, Percheron Stud-book. 
 Normande, France. 
 French Coaqh (Demi-sang), France. 
 
 Oldenburger and Hanoverian or German Coach (Halbblutpferd), Germany. 
 Belgian Draft, Belgium. 
 Orloff, Russia. 
 Arab and Barb, Turkish. 
 Pedigrees are carefully kept but not published. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Shorthorn, Great Britain, Coat'es' Herd-book. 
 
 Hereford, Great Britain, Hereford Herd-book. 
 
 Devon, Great Britain, Herd-book of Devon Cattle Breeders' Society. 
 
 Sussex, Great Britain, Jersey Herd-book. 
 
 Guernsey, Great Britain, Guernsey Herd-book. 
 
 Red Polled, Great Britain, Red Polled Herd-book of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 Longhorn, Great Britain. 
 
 ■V\^elsh (two classes). Great Britain, North Wales Black Cattle Herd-book. 
 
 Ayrshire, Great Britain, Ayrshire Herd-book. 
 
 Aberdeen- Angus, Great Britain, Herd-book of Polled Cattle Society. 
 
 Galloway, Great Britain, Galloway Herd-book. 
 
 Highland, Great Britain, Herd-book of the Highland Cattle Society of Scotland. 
 
 Kerry and Dexter Kerry, Great Britain, Kerry Herd-book. 
 
 Normande, France, Herd-book de la Race Bovine Normande pure. 
 
 Bretagne, France, no published herd-book (record kept by private pedigrees). 
 
 Brown Swiss (Schwytz), Switzerland. 
 
 Appenzeller, Switzerland. 
 
 Holstein-Friesian (Frisian), Netherlands, Frisian Herd-book. 
 
 Angeler, Denmark and Friesland (vid Hamburg). 
 
 Simmenthal, Germany. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Merino, France, Spain, and Australia. 
 
 Hampshire Down, Great Britain, Hampshire Down Flock-book. 
 
 Oxford Down, Great Britain, Oxford Down Flock-book. 
 
 Shropshire, Great Britain, Shropshire Flock-book. 
 
 Suffolk, Great Britain, Suffolk Flock-book. 
 
 Wensleydale, Great Britain, Wensleydale Flock -book. 
 
 The following sheep are bred purely. But few, if any, of their pedigrees are kept 
 m flock-books duly established for the breed : — 
 
 Leicester, Border Leicester, Cotswold, Lincoln, Southdown, Dorset Horn, 
 Romney Marsh or Kentish, Devon Lougwool, Ryelaud, Dartmoor, Exmoor, 
 Cheviot, Lonk, Herdwick, Black-faced Heath, Welsh Mountain, all bred in 
 Great Britain ; Roscommon, bred in Ireland. 
 
83 
 
 SWTNE. , 
 
 Tamworth, Great Britain. 
 Large York, Great Britain. 
 Middle York, Great Britain. 
 Small York, Great Britain. 
 Suffolk, Great Britain. 
 Dorset, Great Britain. 
 Gothland, Sweden. 
 Berkshire, Great Britain (promoted by the British Berkshire Society). 
 
 AH the other pure breeds of British swine are under the care of the National Pig 
 Breeders Association. 
 
 The breeds in the old country useful as beef producers are, roughly 
 speaking, seven in number' — 
 
 1. Shorthorns. 
 
 2. Longhorns. 
 
 3. Herefords. 
 
 4. Devous 
 
 5. West Highland or Kyloes. 
 
 6. Scotch Polls — (1) G-alloway ; (2) Aberdeen- Angus. 
 
 7. Welsh Cattle— (1) Glamorgan ; (2) Pembroke or Castle- 
 
 Martin ; (3) Anglesea. 
 
 The milking breeds pure and simple are — 
 
 1. Ayrshires. 
 
 2. Jers'eys, sometimes called Alderneys. 
 
 3. Gruernseys. 
 
 The following breeds are good milkers in comparison to size : — 
 
 1. Kerry and Dexter -Kerry. 
 
 2. Shetland or Zetland. 
 
 Two other breeds remain, and they are both good meat-producers and 
 milkers, viz. : — 
 
 1. The Eed Polls— Norfolk and Suffolk. 
 
 2. The Sussex. 
 
 Shorthorns. — They now include the Holderness and Teeswater or 
 Durham breeds. They are the favorites of the present day, being the 
 best variety for general purposes, and being able to suit themselves to a 
 wide range of localities. As I have already remarked, the pedigreed 
 strains are not good milkers, having been bred specially for beef, but 
 the ordinary shorthorn cow will make a good animal for the dairy, 
 Variety in colour markings is a distinguishing feature of shorthorns — 
 they may be red or white, or combined into roan, but never black. 
 
 Longhorns. — This is the Craven or Dishley breed of Bakewell's. It 
 is a large breed, with long down-curving horns, sometimes touching the 
 cheek or jaw. In colour they are deep red or dun, pied and brindled 
 with a white streak along the back. They are fairly good milkers. 
 Bakewell neglected this quality for fine form, and they are now more 
 suited for fattening. 
 
 Herefords. — This breed is described as an aboriginal race, indigenous 
 to the soil of the county from whence they take their name. While 
 
 F z 
 
84 
 
 herds of shorthorns are in the hands of landlords and the moneyed 
 classes, the Hereford has been and is principally in the hands of tenant 
 farmers. In colour they are dark-red or roan, with white stripe along 
 spine, white face and belly, inside and lower parts of legs, also tip of 
 tail white. They are great beef producers — some consider that in 
 quality they are first; but the great defect in a Hereford is deficiency in 
 internal fat. They are hardy, but not a good dairy breed. 
 
 Devons. — The Devon breed is supposed to have descended from the 
 same original stock as the Hereford and Sussex cattle. They are 
 medium-sized, blood red in colour, with a white udder or scrotum. 
 They fatten well and make good beef. They are bad milkers, but the 
 milk is very rich in cream. They are very hardy in constitutiou, and 
 superior animals for draught purposes, and have been long used to it in 
 their native district. There is a smaller variety, termed North Devons, 
 found in the cold and hilly districts. 
 
 Kyloes. — This breed has long been peculiar to the mountainous 
 districts of Scotland. They were known as " black cattle," this being 
 the prevailing colour, though brown, brindled, grey, and dun will be 
 found. They are covered with a very shaggy coat, have large upright 
 and wide-spreading horns, a shaggy-haired head, with big piercing 
 eyes. The milk is small in quantity, though rich in quality. After 
 three years old they are good meat producers, and their supporters say 
 make the finest beef. 
 
 Galloways. — These cattle are indigenous to the country from which 
 they derive their name ; at any rate they were known as early as the 
 sixteenth century. They are a black polled breed, sometimes red, 
 brown, or dun, smaller than the Aberdeen-Angus, rougher in the coat, 
 and the poll capped with a knob, on which is a rough tuft of hair. 
 Formerly fattened off in Norfolk and Suffolk, now finished at home. 
 The beef is tender, and has the fat and lean well mixed together. They 
 have the reputation of being bad milkers, the milk being deficient in 
 quantity though excellent in quality. 
 
 Aberdeen- Angus. — The breed is a comparatively new one, founded in 
 this century from the animals known as the Buchan and Angus 
 " doddies." They are black all over, rarely brindled or red, are horn- 
 less, and have an exceedingly compact square frame. They are hardy, 
 mature early, and are good beef producers. Milking qualities have 
 been neglected. McCombie, of Tillyfour, was the great supporter of 
 the breed, their greatest triumph being the award to them of the special 
 prize at the Paris International in 1878 for the best group of beef- 
 producing animals. 
 
 Glamorgan. — In character and antiquity they rank with the Here- 
 fords and Devons. In colour they were black, or a mixture of rich brown 
 and red. As a race they are now extinct. 
 
 Pembroke or Castle-Martins. — This is a breed of great antiquity. 
 Darwin says — " The Pembroke race in England closely resemble in 
 essential structure Bos primigenius, and no doubt are its descendants." 
 The colour is black, and they resemble generally the West Highlanders. 
 
85 
 
 Their supporters state that the meat produced by them cannot be sur- 
 passed in texture and quality, and that in milking qualities they are 
 equal, if not superior, to those of most modern improved breeds. 
 
 Anglesea or North Wales breed. — This race is another one of great 
 antiquity. They are nearly allied to the Pembrokes of South Wales, but, 
 in the opinion of Darwin and Sir Richard Owen, they have their origin 
 in Bos longifrons. The Isle of Anglesea, in ancient days called Mona, 
 is famous as the home of this breed. In this respect it differs from the 
 Isle of lona, in Scotland, which, in ancient times, was remarkable for 
 its want of cows. Tradition says that in lona they were prohibited by 
 St. Columbus, who said that " Where there is a cow there will be a 
 woman, and where there is a woman there will be mischief." The 
 breed is pure black, with long and wavy coat. They are good grazing 
 animals, known in mid England as " Welsh runts," but dairying qualities 
 have been neglected. 
 
 Ayrshires. — This breed is indigenous' to the country, but the origin 
 of the present celebrated breed dates from about 1780. The true 
 Ayrshires were small and black, with white spots on their faces, back, 
 and other parts of the body, and they have been changed in colour and 
 shape by crossing with the Teeswater and Dutch bree4s. In colour 
 now they are brown, red, white, black, or these mixed in patches, but 
 never roan, the most common being red with white patches. They 
 are hardy, and accustomed to poor land and inferior food, showing this 
 in being big bellied. In form they are wedge shaped — a good milking 
 but b^d fattening feature — and have large square udders with big teats 
 and well-developed milk veins. They are the best general cheese-dairy 
 breed. 
 
 Jerseys. — Probably this breed is descended from French animals, but 
 since 1763 it has been kept pure. They have been bred for generations 
 with a view to develop dairy qualities, especially butter production. 
 They are fawn or silver-grey in colour, with sleek short hair, deer -like 
 heads, and slender frames. Like the Ayrshires, they are "wed^e- 
 shaped," and the udder, when distended with milk, stretches in form 
 like the arc of a circle, from a point high up between the thighs to, 
 and well forward under the belly. They yield milk very rich in 
 cream, and of a deep yello,w tint. Advocates of the breed state that 
 the Jersey cow will produce a larger quantity of butter from a given 
 amount of food than any other animal, the churn to be accepted as the 
 simplest and best test. 
 
 Guernseys. — The breed is allied to the Jerseys, but are coarser and not 
 so good milkers, but better flesh formers. The colours vary from light 
 red to fawn and dun, with a few black, the prevailing colour being 
 yellow. In G-uernsey, from the age of two years till within six months 
 of going to the butcher, they are worked in the cart and plough. 
 
 Kerry and Dexter-Kerry. — The heads of ancient cattle show that 
 four breeds existed in Ireland in early days. They were the straight 
 horned, the curved or middle horned, the short horned, and the hornless. 
 The latter, the polled variety, may be still met with under the name of 
 " Moyles," but the sole modern representative of these ancient breeds 
 now is the Kerry, belonging to the curved or middle horned. In colour 
 
86 
 
 they are generally black, with white streaks along the back and belly,, 
 hardy, and very small, not exceeding 40 inches in height at the 
 shoulder. The Kerry is yery easily kept, and yields an astonishing 
 quantity of milk, and has earned the title of " the poor man's cow."^ 
 The Dexter-Kerry is not so leggy as the common Kerry, having more 
 substance and more hair. The Dexters are so named after Mr. Dexter, 
 a land agent, who introduced them. 
 
 Shetlanders. — This is another very small breed like the Kerrys. They 
 are very hardy, have rough shaggy coats, generally of a black colour, 
 take on flesh readily, and have abundant milk in comparison to size. 
 
 Norfolk and Suffolk Polls. — The original cattle of Norfolk were 
 horned and blood red in colour, those of Suffolk being polled and dun 
 in colour. The present breed is a modern one, derived by crossing the 
 old native Suffolk poles with the Galloways. In colour they are a 
 deep rich red all over, seldom dun. They are excellent milkers and 
 good beef producers. 
 
 The Sussex. — It is undecided whether Sussex cattle are an original 
 breed, or are descended from the Devons, to whom they bear a strong 
 resemblance. This animal was formerly bred principally for draught 
 purposes, and is still useful for work. It is larger and coarser than the- 
 Devon, yields good meat, and are fair milkers. Their colour was 
 formerly both light and dark-red, but cherry colour seems now to be 
 the favorite. 
 
 I did intend to go a little further into the subject to-night, and to 
 take up in detail the difierent breeds I have mentioned, but as I have 
 already a little overstepped my time, and I have the recollection of 
 having trespassed a good deal on your patience when I last addressed 
 you, I will close by a quotation from Darwin's Origin of Species. 
 He says: — "We cannot suppose that all breeds were suddenly produced 
 as perfect and as useful as we now see them ; indeed, in many cases we 
 know that this has not been their history. The key is man's power 
 of accumulative selection. Nature gives successive variations ; man 
 adds them up in certain directions useful to him. In this sense he may 
 be said to have made for himself useful breeds." 
 
 I have now placed before you some of the scientific principles and 
 teaching applicable to a special branch of agriculture, and, in conclusion, 
 can only say that I am sure many of the subjects I have touched upon 
 will be found of interest and worthy of being studied for themselves. 
 Agriculture, as I accept the term, opens up an unbounded field for 
 correlating the experience of the practical man with the knowledge of 
 the scientist. 
 
 Note.— This lecture is based on one I delivered in Edinburgh under 
 the presidency of Professor MacFadyean, of the Royal (Dick's) Veteri- 
 nary College, as an introductory address to a class. Should there be 
 any references or quotations in the text which I have not indicated, I 
 trust this note will be accepted as an acknowledgment of my 
 indebtedness. 
 
 E. H. W. 
 
 Melbourne, 23rd July, 1891. 
 
87 • 
 
 THE CITEUS FAMILY. 
 
 Bt D. a. Crichton, Esq. 
 
 The question I am about to deal with to-night is, I venture to say, one 
 of great importance; and I hope that the cultivation of Citrus fruits will 
 in the future receive a great deal more attention in Victoria than it has 
 been accorded hitherto. Of the many valuable, fruits in cultivation, I 
 do not think that any are worthy of more attention than this particular 
 family. Citrus fruits — more especially oranges and lemons — are in more 
 general use than any others. They are more generally consumed than 
 any of our other fruits, as they are in season the greater part of the 
 year; and they can be enjoyed by everybody, whether sick or in robust 
 health, and sometimes are the only fruits that invalids can take. 
 
 One great advantage that these fruits have, as compared with others, 
 is that they will hang for weeks upon the trees after they are ripe; other 
 fruits must, as a rule, be gathered and utilized as soon as they are 
 matured. They may also be packed for transport with less risk than 
 other fresh fruits, and will keep for weeks after they are gathered. 
 They are, therefore, admirably adapted to an export trade, whenever 
 circumstances allow us to enter upon one. T may also add that the 
 fruit of this family is less liable to the attacks of insects and small birds 
 than any other, as there is a peculiar property in the rind that causes it 
 to be obnoxious to those small pests. I need scarcely say that this 
 peculiarity should alone be a very great recommendation to the culture 
 of the Citrus family. The fruit, in fact, is exceedingly valuable and in 
 such general demand that I am sure no other kind offers greater 
 advantages to cultivators. 
 
 All the varieties of the Citrus family that are in use have originated 
 in some parts of Central Asia or China. We are not quite sure as to 
 their origin, but we know they came from some of those regions. The 
 fruit appears to have been quite unknown to ancient nations, as no 
 mention is made of it by the old writers. We first hear of it as being 
 introduced from Palestine into Europe by the returning Crusaders. It 
 is supposed to have been introduced to Western Asia by the Arabs; and, 
 according to historical accounts, that people was the first to utilize it. 
 Not only did they utilize the fruit, but they extracted various kinds of 
 products from it. We have, no other record of this family till about the 
 fourteenth century, when it appears to have been introduced into Southern 
 Europe; where (as in all countries suited to it — that is, those having 
 comparatively mild climates) the fruit soon became popular, and ever 
 since has been generally cultivated. The Citrus family is now largely 
 cultivated in Italy, Greece, Spain, Portugal, and other countries on the 
 Mediterranean, and their cultivation is an important industry in those 
 coimtries. 
 
88 
 
 Now there is nothing to prevent the trees being grown in this colony 
 on an extensive scale. Although many suppose that the climate of 
 Victoria is not so well adapted to their growth as that of other colonies, 
 I am sure thej might be grown in some parts of Victoria quite as well 
 as in New South Wales; and I speak from a long experience, for I was 
 cultivating this family upon a large scale over a quarter of a century 
 ago. I hope to see the day when we shall be able to supply our own 
 wants, and have a surplus to spare; and I am quite sure the sooner people 
 turn their attention to the cultivation of this fruit, the better it will be. 
 The trees of this family will adapt themselves to a comparatively wide 
 range of climate and soil — in fact, more so than people generally sup- 
 pose. They will stand a few degrees of frost, and if you provide for 
 them in other respects, according to their requirements, you need have 
 no fear in cultivating them in many comparatively cool climates. 
 
 Under favorable conditions orange trees will attain a great age. In 
 Spain and Italy many instances are known of trees attaining an age of 
 150 to 200 years. A tree growing at Kome is said to have attained the 
 age of 600 years; and in Nice there was another tree over fifty feet in 
 height, and yielding six or seven thousand oranges every year. In 
 England we have instances of trees having very long lives, of course, 
 under glass. At Hampton Court Palace trees have been known to 
 attain the age of 200 years; and there was a tree called the Grand 
 Bourbon, growing at Versailles, in France, which is known to have been 
 over 450 years old. It was raised from seed, which, according to the 
 record, was sown in 1421. Of course, these are extreme instances, but 
 I mention them to show you that, under favorable conditions, the trees 
 are very long lived. Even in this part of the world, although we may 
 never get trees to attain such ages, we have some that are pretty old. A 
 few months ago I saw in the orchard of the late Mr. Pye, at Parramatta, 
 New South Wales, trees that were planted over 80 years ago. These 
 trees were over 40 feet in height, with diameter in proportion, and 
 looked remarkably vigorous and healthy. I have two specimens that 
 were taken from one of these trees. A tree growing in Australia, and 
 now over 80 years of age. (Cheers.) We need, not fear, therefore, that 
 'they will be very short lived, if we give them the treatment they 
 require. 
 
 Now, as you are all aware, the fruit of the Citrus family is put to a 
 variety of uses. The fresh fruit is utilized to a very large extent. 
 Oranges and lemons, as you all know, are in great and general demand; 
 and in this connexion I might state that nearly all the oranges that are 
 consumed in Victoria — and the quantity is considerable — are imported 
 from the other colonies. I venture to say that this will not be so in 
 the future ; we shall supply our own wants. (Cheers.) 
 
 The fruit can also be utilized in many other ways. There is the 
 Seville orange, which can be grown as easily as the common one. It 
 is quite as vigorous and prolific. No doubt you are aware that that is 
 the kind most used for making marmalade. And with regard to 
 marmalade, I do not think it reflects much credit upon us as a com- 
 munity, when we can grow this fruit so well, that we should import so 
 
89 
 
 much from Aberdeen and Dundee. The produce of Spain and Italy is 
 taken to those cities, where it is manipulated, and it is then sent here. 
 It would certainly be more natural, I think, seeing that yre can grow 
 the fruit so easily, if we made enough to supply our own wants. 
 
 The flowers of the orange tree are also largely used in manufacturing 
 perfumery. We might, perhaps, in this direction find an outlet for 
 some' of our industrial labour. I do not say that we can do that yet ; 
 but in some parts of Southern Europe, and more especially Italy and 
 France, the growth of orange trees for this purpose is a very important 
 industry. Perhaps the day will come when we shall cultivate the 
 flowers for perfumery purposes. I do not think there is auything to 
 prevent us. According to Balfour, a ton of flowers will yield attar — 
 or " otto " as it is sometimes called — to the value of £30. A valuable 
 perfume is also extracted from the rind. All the species of the Citrus 
 family may be utilized as perfume-yielding plants, but the kind 
 generally used is- the Seville or Bitter Orange, the flowers of which 
 yield of " attar " about one-third more than the other kinds. 
 
 As to oranges and lemons, I have no hesitation in saying that they can 
 be profitably grown in Victoria, and that a good local market can be found 
 for these fruits for many years to come. And when in the course of time 
 ■we produce more than is necessary to supply our own wants — and these 
 are very considerable indeed — I think we may safely calculate on 
 finding a market in the United Kingdom for any surplus we may have. 
 The_United Kingdom imports annually about seven million bushels of 
 oranges and lemons ; and I do not see why we should not, when we 
 have the produce to spare, obtain a fair share of that trade. We shall 
 be able to send fruit to England at a time of the year when the supplies 
 from Southern Europe and the Azore Islands are exhausted, and for 
 this reason I think we shall find a very good market for whatever we 
 can send. But perhaps I am looking a little too far ahead. It may be 
 some time before we are able to do this, and the other colonies are 
 certainly before us ; still, I think we have a right, when dealing with 
 the subject, to look at all the probabilities of the future ; and I think 
 we may with certainty look upon an export trade becoming one of the 
 safety valves against over production. (Cheers.) 
 
 I need scarcely say any more as to the desirability of growing this 
 fruit more generally, and I have already said that many parts of this 
 colony are well adapted for its growth, provided the proper conditions 
 are supplied. But you must understand that the varieties of the 
 orange family are peculiar in their growth. The treatment they require 
 is somewhat different to that necessary for ordinary deciduous trees ; 
 but if you provide the proper treatment, I have not the slightest hesi- 
 tation in saying that you will meet with success. I have seen many 
 examples during the past year or two of the orange flourishing in 
 Victoria. Last week I saw, in the St. Arnaud District, trees that had 
 been planted as a mere experiment flourishing and promising to yield 
 as well as those in the orange-growing districts of the neighbouring 
 colonies. I have seen them flourishing in the Wimmera District, in the 
 country round Echuca, and even at Beechworth and Bright. A few 
 
90 
 
 years ago I actually found a flourishing plantation of orange trees at 
 Kjlmore, a district not specially well adapted to the purpose ; but the 
 proper conditions having been provided, the trees, as a consequence, 
 were flourishing. 
 
 Now the question is, what are the conditions that are essential to 
 success in the cultivation of these trees ? In the first place you require 
 a suitable soil. As I said before, the orange will adapt itself to a fair 
 variety of soils ; still, it will not do in every kind. The very best soil 
 for the orange is a rich mellow sandy loam. It may do fairly well in 
 a sandy or other fairly good soil, provided there is sufficient vege- 
 table matter and other materials in it to support plant life. But the 
 very best soil is a sandy loam upon a gravel or a limestone subsoil. 
 I think any limestone district is specially well adapted for these fruits. 
 
 The next point is, the ground must be placed under the best possible 
 conditions for the growth of the trees. You must start well by laying 
 a good foundation before you plant. The ground generally wants 
 stirring deeply. This must always be done except in cases where you 
 have very loose, friable soils, sands, or open graveils. In such cases a 
 superficial cultivation may be sufficient; but when you are dealing with 
 retentive soils there is nothing like stirring them deeply. Trenching, 
 no doubt, is the best possible way of preparing the ground ; but the 
 settler who is planting a large area and whose means are limited cannot 
 go to the expense of trenching by hand labour, and must do the work 
 as well as he can by horse-power. In any case the ground should not 
 be stirred to a depth less than fifteen inches, whenever it is of a reten- 
 tive character, and if it can be worked deeper so much the better. 
 
 A good foundation is quite as necessary in planting an orangery as 
 in building a house, and I would here caution any one about to plant 
 against the practice of making a bit of a hole and sticking the tree in. 
 If you are dealing with light open soils, where the water can get away 
 freely and the roots have no difficulty in extending themselves, that 
 may be all very well ; but in retentive soils you will find that after 
 abnormal rains, such as we sometimes have, these places become so 
 many casks of water. The trees cannot possibly thrive when their 
 roots are saturated for long periods. Drainage is absolutely necessary 
 in cultivating this family. It is good for all trees ; in fact, it is 
 required for all, but much more so for this particular family ; and you 
 will never get an orange nor a lemon to thrive if its roots are in 
 saturated ground for any length of time. You must have a quick outlet 
 for the water. Of course, in the preparation of the soil we must be 
 guided in a large measure by its nature ; but let me advise you to do 
 whatever work may be necessary well and thoroughly. 
 
 In planting an orangery J should certainly advise you, if you have a 
 choice of sites, to choose an aspect that will enable the trees to get the 
 morning sun. The early morning sun is a great advantage in fruit 
 culture, and more especially in the cultivation of these trees ; and I 
 may tell you that even four or five degrees of frost will not hurt the 
 orange tree, when well established, provided it has such a site as I have 
 mentioned and good drainage. And I may further tell you that when 
 
91 
 
 tlie trees are soddened they are affected to a much greater degree by 
 frost than when they are in ■well-drained ground ; and good drainage 
 enables the ground to hold more moisture during the summer than it 
 would if it vrere soddened with water in the winter. This may seem 
 somewhat paradoxical, but it is a fact. At the same time, the tempera- 
 ture of drained land is several degrees higher in winter, and this is a 
 very great advantage in the cultivation of all trees, and more especially 
 those of the Citrus family. 
 
 Now you must provide shelter for trees of the Citrus family, or you 
 will never do any good with them. Shelter is absolutely essential. 
 To plant the trees in exposed bleak situations is perfectly useless. 
 You will be ooly wasting your time and money. You must have 
 effective shelter from strong winds. I desire to impress this particu- 
 larly upon you. If you have no natural shelter you must provide it by 
 means of break-winds, and this can easily be done by most cultivators. 
 There are many quick growing trees that will afford'effectual protection 
 by acting as break-winds, and these maybe planted round your orchard, 
 and more especially along the sides on which the strongest winds blow. 
 If you are planting on a large area, it ' is better to have cross break- 
 winds in addition to those on the boundaries. The fruit is sometimes 
 materially altered in character when grown in exposed situations. 
 Sometimes the choicest varieties, naturally thin-skinned and very sweet, 
 when grown fully exposed to high cold winds, become thick-skinned 
 and harsh in quality. It seems as if nature provides them with a thicker 
 coat to enable them to withstand these influences. Many people who 
 have planted superior varieties, and who, through not attending to these 
 requirements, have obtained inferior fruit, have been under the impression 
 that they did not get the right sorts in the first instance ; but it is th& 
 treatment that the trees receive that makes all the difference, and is of 
 all importance in this matter. Of course, you must plant the trees that 
 are intended to act as break-winds at such a distance from your fruit 
 trees that they will not interfere with their roots ; because in th© 
 vegetable world, as in the animal, if there is any competition for 
 moisture or food, the big one i§ bound to win and obtain the lion's 
 share. 
 
 Supposing now that you have prepared the ground in the best possible 
 manner, and made provision for shelter, the next point for consideration 
 is, what kinds are you going to plant ? In the selection of trees you must 
 be guided by local circumstances, such as soil, climate, and the probable 
 market. There is a very great variety of Citrus fruits, but only a few 
 kinds are likely to prove profitable in Victoria. In oranges, I think that 
 the best varieties you can plant for general purposes are the common 
 Parramatta and Siletta. These oranges are very hardy and prolific, and 
 you can generally depend upon them for a crop. I have never known 
 these particular kinds to fail, and according to my experience they are 
 better adapted for this colony than other colonies. I grew them for 
 many years upon a large scale, and I can safely say that there is no 
 fruit more to be depended upon than the more hardy varieties of this 
 femily. Those I have named to you are very good oranges, being juicy-. 
 
92 
 
 sweet, well-flavoured, of fair size, and are in general demand. I think 
 also that they are oranges that we might safely send elsewhere, if we 
 ever have any to spare. The navel oranges are of a finer quality, but 
 are more tender, and are not nearly so hardy as the ones I have 
 recommended. They are very delicious oranges, and in warmer districts 
 where they can be grown successfully they are very profitable; but they 
 are not so prolific, and are more tender than the Parramatta and Siletta, 
 and this must be borne in mind when planting. There is a supposed 
 variety known as the Washington navel, of which I exhibit a specimen. 
 Much fuss is being made about this, and it is claimed by some people 
 that it is a distinct variety. But I must tell you candidly that I am 
 rather sceptical about it. I really believe myself that it, like many other 
 things, is merely an old sort come back again with a new name. I can 
 see no difference in it myself, and many practical orange growers are of 
 the same opinion. I would not say positively that there is no difference, 
 but I certainly have my doubts about it. It is claimed by some people 
 to be very superior to the ordinary navel, but that remains to be proved. 
 There are many other excellent varieties of the sweet orange, but they 
 are scarcely so hardy as the two I have named. In the warmer parts 
 of the colony they might prove valuable. The principal of these are 
 the St. Michaels, Malta, Tahiti, Queen, Pye's Acme, Alsop's Gem, 
 Pearce's Gem, Holdfast, and the White Orange. 
 
 The Seville orange is quite as prolific as the common one. It bears 
 ]ust as freely, and is just as hardy. But, of course, it can only be used 
 for making marmalade. It migbt be worth cultivating by some people 
 for this particular purpose. There is also a variety called the poor 
 man's orange. It is a very large orange, and a very good one. It 
 belongs to the Seville type, and is useful for making marmalade. If 
 you intend to go in for that particular business, you must either plant 
 the Seville itself or the poor man's, which is only a variety of the 
 Seville. There is also a rather curious variety, a cross between the Seville 
 and the navel, of which I now exhibit a specimen. It was raised in the 
 Parramatta District, has the bitterness of the Seville, and the shape of 
 the navel, and seems to be a very good orange. It would be, however, 
 somewhat premature to say anything about it yetj as its value has not 
 been suflBciently tested. 
 
 I may also tell you that the Seville orange is the one used for 
 perfumery purposes. If ever we arrive at that stage, when we shall 
 be able to grow the plant for use in the manufacture of perfumes, that 
 is the kind we must use for the purpose. Perfumery may be made 
 from all the varieties of the Citrus family, but the Seville yields a 
 much larger proportion than other kinds. 
 
 The Mandarin oranges, of which there are several varieties, are very 
 useful, and well worthy of your attention, if anything they are more 
 hardy than the Parramatta and Siletta. They are not so large in 
 growth, but are very prolific, and I think they might boused with great 
 advantage in ornamental gardening. There is no prettier shrub than 
 the Mandarin orange. It always looks cheerful, and you not only have 
 the ornamental effect, but something more substantial in the way of 
 
93 
 
 fruit. There are several varieties of the Mandarin, but I would only 
 recommend you to plant one or two. The Emperor Mandarin is deci- 
 dedly the finest of the lot, and is far superior to the others. The only 
 other one I would recommend is the Thorny Mandarin, which is also 
 very good. Both these varieties are free, and regular bearers. All the 
 other kinds have very small fruit, and of course this is detrimental to 
 them, as there is more difficulty in finding a market. .The fruit is very 
 good, but being small is not so saleable. I would strongly recommend 
 the Emperor and the Thorny varieties of the Mandarin, and they are a 
 good deal more hardy than even the common orange. The Mandarin is 
 a distinct species from the sweet or bitter oranges, and is known bbtani- 
 caUy as ■ Citrus Nohilis. The Kumquat is another distinct species. 
 Citrus Japoniea. It is dwarf in habit, and has very small fruit which 
 is useful for preserving, but this kind is of but little value for commer- 
 cial purposes, though the plant makes an ornamental shrub. 
 
 Now, as regards lemons, the only variety worth your attention is the 
 Lisbon, which is superior to any other. The Lisbon will pay you very 
 well, as there is always a great demand for this lemon and always likely 
 to be one. 
 
 The stock upon which most of the varieties of the orange family are 
 worked is known as the common lemon, of which I now show specimens. 
 This plant is used extensively by the nurserymen in New South Wales 
 for this particular purpose. It is not of much value for its fruit, because, 
 although the juice may be used and the peel candied or utilized in 
 making marmalade, it is, comparatively speaking, a worthless kind. 
 
 There is but a limited demand for citrons, and I don't think that they 
 will be much required for manufacturing purposes. I'hey are only 
 serviceable for their peel and for making marmalade. What is known 
 as the long citron is decidedly the best of its kind. There is a smaller 
 one, called the short citron. In quality they are very much alike, but I 
 give the preference to the larger one. 
 
 The lime is principally used in making lime-juice. I do not antici- 
 pate that we shall be able to do much with it in Victoria, as it requires 
 a warmer climate. The most desirable variety is the small-fruited 
 West Indian, samples of which I now exhibit. 
 
 As I told you just now, the oranges are nearly always worked upon 
 the stock of the common lemon, the reason being that this plant throws 
 out a great many more root fibres than the others, and, as a consequence, 
 the trees lift with a large proportion, and there arenot so many go-backs, 
 as the nurserymen technically call them. Consequently there is not so 
 much chance of the plants afterwards going ofl\ But I think it would be far 
 better if oranges were worked, upon their own stocks. I believe the 
 orange would give a more desirable stock, because a more natural one; and 
 I have a theory that the closer the affinity the better. I firmly believe 
 that if orange stocks were more generally used it would be better for 
 cultivators, but as long as the growers in New South Wales (who supply 
 most of the trees used in Victoria) find that their trees worked upon 
 these plants are taken they will, as a matter of course, continue to 
 grow them in that way, because they are more easily raised. T myself, 
 
94 
 
 however, do not believe in lemon stocks for oranges. Some 20 years 
 ago or more a great many of the trees in New South Wales became 
 diseased, and the theory was started that they should be grafted upon 
 the Seville stock, and a great many peoJ)le had trees worked in that 
 manner. But I am sorry to say the results have not been altogether 
 what was expected. Trees worked in that manner have not given the 
 satisfaction they were expected to give. In fact, I find that they are 
 not a bit better than those worked upon the common lemon. I have 
 been over many of the orangeries in the Parramatta District, and speak 
 from experience on this point. 
 
 I should also recommend you if you can — and you may have some 
 difiiculty in the matter — to get budded trees in preference to grafted 
 ones. My experience is that these give the best plants. The trees 
 often suffer from a rotting at the junction of the scion and the graft. 
 This takes place generally just below the surface of the soil. 
 
 If the trees are worked high enough, as they must necessarily be by 
 budding, you avoid this risk. The New South Wales nurserymen pro- 
 bably will not care to change their system readily. They are running 
 in beaten tracks, and, as in the case of other trades, are. likely to be 
 conservative in practice, and somewhat difficult to move; but if you 
 specially want these trees you may get them. Under ordinary circum- 
 stances you will get grafted trees, but I would strongly advise you to 
 get budded ones if possible. Of course all the stocks should be seed- 
 lings. Stocks from cuttings or layers will never give such strong and 
 thrifty trees as seedling plants. 
 
 In planting an orangery it is necessary to have worked plants. Tou 
 may get very good seedlings if you sow pips. Tou will get trees, and 
 they will bear fruit in time. But in the case of seedlings ypu never 
 know what you are going to get till the fruit appears ; then you may 
 get a variety equal to its parent, and perhaps superior. Still, you may 
 get an inferior one. There is an uncertainty about it, and therefore 
 you must have worked trees. The worked tree also comes into bearing 
 very much sooner than the one that is raised from seed. I suppose 
 there is about three years' difference in the time — a matter of some 
 consequence to growers, as a rule. 
 
 You should insist upon your trees being carefully packed when you 
 receive them. This is a thing that is too often neglected. Trees are; 
 very often sent out vsdth a very imperfect covering on the roots, and^ 
 as a consequence, they suffer severely. The roots of evergreens should 
 never be exposed, even for ten minutes, to a dry atmosphere, and the 
 more carefully they are protected till they are put into the ground the 
 greater the probability of meeting with success. When the roots of 
 these trees are dried, even for a short time, they are almost sure to lose 
 their leaves, and the loss of foliage means a serious check to growth. 
 They will be many months before they recover themselves, and possibly 
 the check may be the death of them. Only last week I saw several 
 instances of trees having perished, and I am quite sure the cause 
 has been want of care in this respect. The trees were sent out by the 
 nurseryman insufficiently covered; and to this neglect, and that alone, 
 
95 
 
 I attribute their failure. This may seem a small detail to speak about, 
 but you must understand that successful cultivation is built upon a 
 number of small details, all of ■which are more or less essential. 
 
 The distance apart at ■which trees of the Citrus family should be 
 planted is a matter that must be duly considered. 
 
 No-w, the larger kind of trees — the Siletta, Parramatta, Navel, and 
 others — should have plenty of room for development. I have already 
 told you that these trees ■will attain a great age and size under favor- 
 able conditions, and you must give them ample room for development. 
 I think the minimum distance apart at ■which you should plant these 
 trees is 24 feet; and if you plant at 27 feet, or even 30 feet, there ■will 
 not be any ground ■wasted. The Mandarin section do not gro^w so 
 large, and a space of about 20 feet bet^ween ■will be sufficient. 
 
 The lemon is also not so strong in growth, and you may plant 18 or 
 20 feet apart. That ■will be ample for all requirements. Lemons are 
 not so long lived as oranges, and ■will never attain such a size. 
 
 I should also advise you to be very careful that you do not put 
 your trees too deep in the ground. This is a very common mistake. 
 People think that they should cover them up ■well, but they often kill 
 them ■with' kindness in this respect. If you place the cro^wns of the 
 roots just a little belo^w the surface, slightly lo^wer than they ■were in 
 the nursery beds, that is quite sufficient; but to bury the roots 6 or 
 8 inches deeper than is necessary may mean death to the trees. The most 
 favorable time for planting is early in the autumn, if the trees can be 
 shifted; but this is not often the case, as there ■will be too much soft 
 gro^wth iipon them. The next best time is early in the spring, and on 
 no account should they be planted during June or July — the dead 
 winter months. 
 
 As to pruning, the trees do not require such a great deal of attention 
 after having been formed. As a matter of course, young trees must be 
 trained in the way they should go. They want their branches reduced, 
 and the sap directed into few channels, so that you can obtain a strong 
 growth in the required direction as soon as possible. When the trees 
 arrive at a bearing stage very little pruning is required by this fiamily. 
 All that is necessary is to thin out the heads when the branches are too 
 numerous, removing all these in the centres of the trees. These are of no 
 use for any practical purposes, and should be taken away. If any rank 
 shoots spring up from the roots or stem these should also be removed. 
 If any branch runs away from its fellows, you should nip it back, so as to 
 keep the trees symmetrical. That is all the pruning these trees require, 
 as a rule. In fact the excessive use of the knife yrill be detrimental 
 to them, unless you have some particular purpose to serve. 
 
 It is necessary that you should keep your trees as clean as you pos- 
 sibly can. The roots come very near the surface, and grass or any other 
 vegetation is, of course, a serious drawback to the trees. This growth 
 absorbs a lot of moisture and plant food from the soil, which is required 
 by the trees; and at some periods of the year this may be absolutely 
 ruinous to them. It is not a good thing to allow weeds to grow among 
 any fruit trees, bufwith this family you must be particularly careful. 
 
96 
 
 You must also take great care, in keeping weeds down, not to treat 
 thesfe trees roughly. Do not disturb the roots to any extent, because 
 they are all provided for a purpose. They are the mouths of the tree. 
 Nature sends them for the purpose of supplying food, and all are 
 required. If you take away a large percentage of them — as you must 
 do by rough digging or ploughing — the trees must necessarily suflFer. 
 Trees are often injured by this barbarous practice. If you do take 
 the roots away the tree at once makes efforts to restore them. I may 
 also tell you that the roots near the surface are the very best feeders 
 that the plants have. They are far better than the deeper ones, and 
 I would not disturb one more than is necessary. For years I made 
 it a practice in cultivating Citrus plants never to use a plough or 
 spade. The only implements I employed were the scarifier and the 
 hand hoe. 
 
 You cannot do better in this part of the world than protect the roots 
 of your trees as much as possible during the summer season by mulch- 
 ing. The best plan is to cover the ground with stable manure, grass, 
 straw, or any other material most easily obtained. Cultivators very 
 often have but little choice, and must utilize whatever material they can 
 get. This practice is very beneficial, and I consider it one of the 
 greatest aids the cultivator has in this part of the world. By covering 
 the surface soil during the dry weather rapid evaporation is checked, and 
 the moisture is retained for several weeks longer than it would be if 
 the surface were exposed to the effects of a burning sun and drying 
 winds; and the retention of this moisture for three or four weeks 
 longer than usual in the early summer may be of material importance 
 to the trees. I should advise you to follow the practice as much as you 
 possibly can. I, myself, am so enamoured with it that I adopt it in 
 every case with fruit trees, and even in the vegetable garden, as far as 
 is practicable. I take good care that I cover the surface soil as far as 
 I can to protect it during the dry weather. Don't wait till the ground 
 is parched before you do this. Many people wait till the ground gets 
 dry and then apply the covering. That is like shutting the stable door 
 when the horse has bolted. Apply this material early in the summer, 
 before the hot weather fairly sets in, and then you will get the maximum 
 benefit from it. You should not allow October to pass by without 
 putting this covering on the soil. I must caution you also against 
 making the layer too deep. That is an error made by many people. 
 Only last season I saw many instances of this, the people evidently 
 thinking there was nothing like having plenty of a good thing. I have 
 seen this layer made about 1 foot or 15 jnches thick, so that the warmth 
 from the sun was not allowed to penetrate to the soil. That is not 
 what is wanted. You want a layer to break the direct force of the 
 sun and drying winds. But it must not be so thick as to prevent the 
 warmth of the sun penetrating it. If your layer of mulching material 
 is 3 or 4 inches thick that will be quite sufficient. I should also 
 advise you strongly not to place it round the stems of the trees. Some 
 people make this error. Never allow it to touch the stems of your 
 trees, they should be kept quite clear. 
 
97 
 
 Water is very important in the cultivation of oranges, and I have no, 
 doubt that in some irrigation colonies it will be found of great servic.e. 
 These trees require more water than ordinary fruit trees, because, being 
 evergreen, they are always growing. There is always a crop upon 
 them, and sometimes two. It is a very common thing for the embryo 
 fruit of one crop to be on the tree before the last is off. That, of 
 course, is a serious drain upon the soil, and the loss must be replaced 
 by assistance. The orange may require water at any time of the year, 
 provided circumstances necessitate it. You may even water in the 
 depth of winter if the trees require it, whereas deciduous trees do not 
 need a drop of water during the winter season. This is not so with 
 evergreens. But you do not want to deluge your trees with water. If 
 you have to apply water artificially you -must be extra careful in pro- 
 viding proper drainage. It will not do to apply water in large quantities 
 unless you have a fairly quick get-away for it, otherwise the soddening 
 of the soil may prove injurious to the trees. 
 
 I am, however, much afraid, though I admit that water is of very 
 great service, that in some of the irrigation colonies there will be trouble 
 through its injudicious use. Water will do much to make certain dis- 
 tricts flourish, but if water is used in excess, or at the wrong times, it 
 will certainly not be beneficial to the trees. 
 
 If you grow orange trees you must bear the fact in mind that they 
 require a great deal of attention in the way of feeding. They want 
 more nourishment than any other trees I know of. Ton must feed 
 them, or they will never give you satisfactory returns. Although on 
 starting you may have a rich soil, containing large deposits of vegetable 
 matter and other plant food, yet these deposits will in time become 
 exhausted, and unless you are constantly giving to the soil the trees 
 cannot bear satisfactorily. But you do not need to give manure to the 
 trees in large amounts at one time. They want their food gradually. 
 The orange family requires light and frequent applications of manure. 
 Do not give the trees heavy doses of strong manure ; supply them 
 gradually, and by that means you will feed your trees every season, and 
 keep them up to the standard of excellence. If you do not feed them 
 in this way you are not likely to get good results, and I have no 
 hesitation in saying that the reason why many trees do not bear satis- 
 factorily is that they want the necessaries of life. These trees more 
 especially must have the necessaries of life or they cannot thrive. 
 
 There are several insect and fungqid pests that attack orange trees, 
 and that are very troublesome. I believe the worst of these are various 
 species of scale. But, as a rule, I think that this insect and many others 
 can be kept in check by good cultivation. My experience is that if 
 you keep the trees thoroughly healthy by attending to all their wants 
 you will not suffer to any very great extent from these pests. Good 
 cultivation will not keep them away altogether, but it will materially assist 
 in doing so. The trees have a circulation of sap which corresponds to 
 the circulation of our blood, and if you keep this in good condition by 
 proper attention it will prevent them suffering from insect or fungoid 
 pests. Prepare the ground well, put the trees in carefully, take care 
 
 4781. ^ 
 
98 
 
 that they do not suffer from excess of water at their roots or the lack of 
 it, supply them with suitable food, and in other ways let them 
 receive proper attention, and they will suffer the minimum of harm from 
 the pests. 
 
 But I shall not go at length into that subject to-night, because the 
 Department of Agriculture is doing something in that direction. A 
 book has been published, which may be obtained from the department 
 by anybody interested in fruit culture. This work deals with these 
 pests exhaustively, and particularly with those that are troublesome to 
 fruit trees. I will, therefore, content myself with repeating that good 
 cultivation will do much to mitigate the evils wrought by these pests. 
 
 I do not think I will weary you much longer. I have rambled over 
 my subject as long as is necessary, and I shall be most happy if any- 
 thing I have said will induce you to enter upon the cultivation of this 
 family. I' feel quite sure you will find it one of the most profitable 
 pursuits that ever received attention. (Loud applause). 
 
 In reply to questions, the lecturer said he would recommend the 
 cultivation of the Parramatta .and Siletta oranges in the cooler districts, 
 these being the most hardy varieties. The St. Michael was a more 
 tender variety. A.s to the Queen, he saw little diflFerence between it 
 and the Parramatta. 
 
 Stable manure was best for the trees, but if this could not be obtained 
 bone-dust was suitable. This, however, depended upon the nature of 
 the soil. A special fertilizer would not suit every soil. Bone-dust was 
 suitable more especially for clay or loam, but was in most cases a fairly 
 safe application if not given in excessive doses. Lime was absolutely 
 necessary to the growth of the trees, and any deficiency in this respect 
 would have to be made good. Sometimes soils were deficient in par- 
 ticular minerals, such as potash. These deficiencies might easily be 
 supplied if it was known what they were; and fortunately we lived in 
 a time when a paternal Grovernment employed agricultural chemists, who 
 could supply this information at a very trifling cost. 
 
 Speaking as to the profits of orange cultivation, he would not advise 
 those intending to go in for this business to expect fancy returns ; but if 
 they would be satisfied with fair ones they would have no cause for 
 complaint. He, however, had known some extraordinary returns in his 
 own experience. He had taken 5,000 oranges from a single tree. 
 These he had sold to a Sydney dealer at 6d. per dozen, realizing thus £20 
 from the tree. If this were multiplied per tree per acre, the crop would 
 be worth about £1,500 per acre. In another case which recently came 
 under his notice the owner of a well-cultivated orangery in the Parra- 
 matta District, extending over 40 acres, had received £1,400 for a season's 
 crop. He only mentioned these as instances of what might be done. 
 (Applause.) But he advised inlending cultivators not to expect returns 
 like these, as they were exceptional. Let them be satisfied with 
 moderately good returns, and they would not be disappointed in the 
 culture of the Citrus family. 
 
 The meeting terminated with votes of thanks to lecturer and chair- 
 man. 
 
99 
 
 SOME AEGUMENTS IN FAVOUR OF VINE 
 
 CULTURE. 
 
 By F. de Castella, Esq. 
 
 When I was asked by the Council of the Working Men's College to 
 deliyer a few lectures on viticulture, I was somewhat at a loss to know 
 what subjects to choose. Viticulture is a vast study, and to endeavour 
 to impart a complete practical knowledge of it to you in the brief space 
 of two lectures would, of course, be out of the question. The majority 
 of those present do not intend to go in for viticulture. I suppose that 
 only a few intend to devote themselves to rural pursuits, and of these, 
 perhaps, only two or three have any definite idea of planting the vine. 
 To give a complete course of technical instruction on the subject would, 
 therefore, be of little use to you. On this account I propose, in to- 
 night's lecture, to Umit myself to the general aspect of the subject, and 
 to bring forward a few arguments in favour of the cultivation of the 
 vine ; to give you some idea of what vine culture really is, and to point 
 out to you how admirably suited our glorious colony of Victoria is for 
 the purpose, so that it should, in course of time, become second to none 
 amongst the wine-producing countries of the world. In a subsequent 
 lecture I will endeavour to show you what are the leading points to be 
 observed in the cultivation of the vine; and the manner in which the 
 surrounding circumstances influence the wine : as well as a few other 
 points which may serve as some guide to those who are already seriously 
 thinking' of devoting their time and attention to the cultivation of this 
 wonderful plant. 
 
 Since the 'publication of the reports of the Vegetable Products Com- 
 mission a great many young Australians have been directing their 
 attention to new cultures ; and although vine-growing cannot be said to 
 be a new industry in Victoria, it has evidently received a fresh Impulse 
 within the last few years. Our new vine-growers are recruited from 
 young men who have some capital, but find it difficult to turn it to 
 good account in the over-crowded cities ; and also from farmers, who 
 find that the cultivation of cereals is becoming less remunerative every 
 year, owing to the competition of other countries and various causes 
 unnecessary to enumerate here. 
 
 Amongst other cultures, that of the vine presents itself as being of 
 the most remunerative, and it is this which has induced so many to 
 go in for it ; we shall consider to-night how far they are justified in 
 doing so. 
 
 Before enumerating the different advantages we may expect to derive 
 from the cultivation of the vine, it will not be out of place, in order 
 that persons having no knowledge of viticulture may be able to follow 
 
 G 2 
 
100 
 
 me, to give a brief description of the yearly cycle of development of the 
 vine, and the different cultural operations which its peculiar habits and 
 methods of growth necessitate. 
 
 We will suppose a vine in full bearing. A vine ought, under favor- 
 able circumstances, to begin to bear in its third year (from planting). 
 We will suppose a vineyard in full bearing, and follow its development 
 and treatment throughout the year. In the spring the first activity of 
 the vine manifests itself by a rise in the sap, which is due to a variety 
 of causes, but chiefly to the increase in the amount of heat the plant 
 receives. This sap, acting on the materials left in the dormant buds at 
 the close of the previous season, brings about the emission of leaves and 
 shoots, which grow rapidly for the first few months. As the number 
 of biids left on the vine is considerable, and, in addition to the ones left 
 intentionally, a considerable number of adventive ones usually develop 
 themselves on the main stem and crown of the plant, so that the number 
 of shoots is far greater than is necessary or even beneficial, the first 
 operation of disbudding becomes necessary. This operation, as its 
 name implies, consists in removing from the vine all shoots not bearing 
 fruit (the future bunches are distinctly visible as soon as the young 
 shoots have attained a length of four or five inches), or which would 
 not be required for wood at the ensuing pruning. If the vine has been 
 properly formed and pruned it will be found necessary at disbudding 
 time to remove almost every shoot which does not bear fruit. Some 
 vines require far more disbudding than others. This is due to the fact 
 that some kinds give rise to a great many shoots off the old wood, 
 whilst others only send out a very limited number. In a general way, 
 European vines of northern origin may be said to require more atten- 
 tion in this respect than those coming from the south. The vines 
 burst into leaf in this country about the month of October. The dis- 
 budding process should be completed by the end of November. About 
 the middle of November the vines come into blossom, and, as this 
 function regulates the formation of the future fruit, it is one of the most 
 critical periods of the whole year. 
 
 The presence of fungus diseases on the delicate fructifying organs of 
 the vine having a fatal effect, and as the oidium usually makes its first 
 appearance about this time, it is advisable to give a thorough applica- 
 tion of sulphur ; this being the most efficacious remedy for oidium. It 
 has been found in France, by practical experience, that such a course 
 has the most beneficial effect on the setting of the fruit. During all this 
 time care must be taken to keep down any weeds which might grow in 
 the vineyard, for which reason scarifyings must be given, varying in 
 frequency with the rapidity with which weeds grow in the district. 
 Care must, however, be taken not to disturb the soil when spring frosts 
 are to be feared, nor near the flowering time of the vine, as it has been 
 found that the resulting lowering of the temperature has an unfavorable 
 effect at these times. It must not be thought that the object of summer 
 cultivation is only to keep down weeds; it also serves the most impor- 
 tant purpose in a dry country of facilitating the absorption of water 
 during rain, and its retention during the dry summer months. In the 
 
majority of cases — we may say in every case, except when vines are 
 allowed to spread freely over the ground, which can only be done in 
 soils where weeds do not grow freely — they must be tied back with 
 stakes or wires, or else be cut back, gooseberry fashion, about the end of 
 the month of November, or as soon as the flowering is completed. In 
 a future lecture we shall consider the advantages and defects of these 
 different systems. 
 
 Once these operations are concluded — which should be by about the 
 middle of December — the vineyard can, if all goes well, be left to look 
 after itself. The only operations which may be required being an 
 occasional scarifying should weeds begin to grow, or if irrigation is 
 practised, or such operations as sulphuring or spraying, in order to 
 combat fungus or insect pests. These latter, I am happy to say, only 
 give trouble in a limited number of cases. We are much less troubled 
 by them here than they are in the old wine-growing parts of Europe. 
 
 During the greater part of the summer the vine has nothing to do 
 hut to increase in size and prepare and mature its fruit. The leaves 
 under the influence of light and heat decompose the carbonic acid of the 
 air, taking the carbon to form the difEerent complex substances to be 
 found in the plant. At the same time the roots are, on their side, 
 sending up the mineral substances which are required, and which enter 
 them through the absorbent hairs dissolved in water. It may. seem 
 strange, but it is none the less true, that not 8 per cent, of the weight 
 of the plant is derived from the soil, the remainder being derived from 
 the air, and consisting of water, which of course also comes from the air 
 in the form of rain. The leaves thus play an important part in the 
 growth of the plant and in the production and maturation of the fruit. 
 The importance of the leaves is often overlooked by practical men who 
 fancy they are merely ornamental appendages, or destined merely to 
 shelter the grapes from the hot sun during the summer months, and cut 
 them off ruthlessly with great injury to the unfortunate vine. 
 
 The difEerent substances produced by the plant and the way in which 
 these difEerent substances, especially those found in the mature fruit 
 are formed, are very complicated, and even yet are not thoroughly 
 understood. Sufiice it to say, that the fruit continues to increase in 
 size until perfectly ripe. The maturation of the grapes is characterized 
 by a diminution of the amount of acid and an increase in the proportion 
 of grape sugar or glucose. I may mention here that it is most important 
 to pick the grapes for wine-making purposes only when perfectly ripe. 
 It has been recommended, in order to make lighter wines, to pick them 
 before complete maturity. But the unripe grape contains a considerable 
 proportion of acid which diminishes in ripening, and therefore the wine, 
 although lighter if made from imperfectly ripe grapes, is generally crude 
 and unpalatable. 
 
 When the grapes are thoroughly ripe the most important operation of 
 the year comes round — the vintage or harvest. The grapes are gathered, 
 brought in, crushed, and allowed to ferment spontaneously; that is to 
 say, without the addition of yeast. For white wine the juice is usually 
 fermented alone ; but for red the skins and pips are allowed to ferment 
 
102 
 
 with it, in order to impart colour to the wine. With the exception of 
 a very limited number of sorts, the juice even of the red grapes is 
 colourless, and if fermented alone would give a white wine, as the 
 colouring matter contained in the skin is insoluble in it. As an example 
 of this I may mention that nearly all the best champagne is made from 
 black or red grapes. By allowing the juice to ferment with the skins 
 the alcohol formed by the fermentation dissolves their red colouring 
 matter, which is soluble in alcohol, and the result is, of course, a red 
 wine. 
 
 Vinous fermentation consists in the splitting up of grape sugar into 
 two simpler products, namely, alcohol and carbonic acid. The alcohol 
 remains in the wine, while the carbonic acid escapes as gas. It is this 
 earbonic acid that gives the effervescence to champagne and cider. 
 This fermentation takes place through the action of yeast, which is, as 
 most of you are aware, a microscopic plant, a fungus in fact, or, as we 
 may say in popular parlance, a " microbe." This however, is one of 
 the usaful ones. It is known by the botanical name of Saccharomyces, 
 which is the generic name given to nearly all the different yeasts, of 
 which there are several species. Saecharomyces Cerevisece is the fer- 
 ment of beer, whilst the most important one in the fermentation of grape 
 juice is the Saecharomyces Ellipsoideus, although many others are 
 eapable of bringing about the same changes. In short, the Saecha- 
 romyces produce alcoholic fermentation, which takes place, under the 
 most favorable circumstances, at from 75 to 85 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 In addition to alcoholic ferments there are several which change the 
 grape sugar into other substances ; as, for instance, the lactic, which 
 converts it into lactic acid, the acid of sour milk. It is needless to 
 observe that these are noxious ferments, and the vine-grower must use his 
 skill in order to prevent their development. The study of fermentation 
 is a most important one, but the consideration of it would lead us a great 
 deal too far to-night ; and besides, it does not require to be so seriously 
 considered before the vineyard is planted as other things. It may be 
 said, in order to re-assure beginners, that the smaller the scale on which 
 the wine is made the less danger is there of these objectionable fer- 
 ments, as the smaller the cask the more regular the fermentation. 
 
 Once the grapes are gathered the work of the vine is done for the 
 year. The leaves hasten to turn red or yellow and fall off. The sap 
 of the vine which was not required for the maturation of the fruit con- 
 centrates itself in or about the buds, where it remains until the rise of the 
 sap in the ensuing spring causes the same cycle to be entered on once 
 more. The work of the vine is now completed for the year, and the 
 winter is passed in a state of inaction by the plant ; but not so by the 
 vigneron, who has the important operations of ploughing and pruning 
 to attend to. The ploughing may be done according to two systems. 
 If the climate be hot and dry, it must be done in such a way as to 
 oppose as much obstruction as possible to the passage of water, which 
 will then be absorbed by the soil. If, on the other hand, the ground be 
 too moist, the ground must be ploughed in such a way as to let the 
 surplus water run ofE quickly, and without carrying the soil away with 
 
103 
 
 it. The pruning is perhaps the most important of all the vineyard 
 operations, so much so that several lectures might be devoted to it 
 alone. Several objects are kept in view in pruning. These are, to 
 increase the yield of fruit ; to improve its quality ; and to keep the vines 
 in a symmetrical form, so as to render the necessary cultural operations 
 possible. The way in which these objects will be best obtained will 
 not be the same 'in every climate, and, consequently, the methods of 
 pruning must vary with the conditions under which the vine is grown. 
 These different methods will be passed in review in the next lecture. 
 For the present it will suffice to say that the pruning of the vine consists 
 in cutting back all the shoots sent put during the previous year, reduc- 
 ing a few to two eyes each, the others being removed entirely. The 
 pruning of vines iS thus far more severe than that of fruit trees. 
 Once the pruning is accomplished the work of the year is completed, 
 and the vine-grower has no more to do than to wait till the vines begin 
 to bud, when the same cycle must be gone through again. 
 
 To put the whole thing in a shorter form, we have the vine bursting 
 into leaf in September, beginning to blossom in November," and the 
 fruit maturing in February or the beginning of March. The vigneron, 
 on his side, must attend to the scarifying and disbudding processes in 
 October, as well as occasional scarifyings during the summer months. 
 Sulphuring and tying-up or topping must be, attended to in November; 
 vintage in Marfch; and ploughing and pruning during the winter 
 months. 
 
 Such is a very brief sketch of the annual work which must be gone 
 through on a vineyard, and I think any one will agree that, though 
 there is plenty of it to be done, it is neither arduous nor uninteresting. 
 
 As any one before going into any business is likely to ask in the first 
 place what profits he may expect, I shall now proceed to give you a 
 few figures relative to the cost of establishing a vineyard, the cost of 
 working it, and also the annual profits that may be derived from it. It' 
 is often said that figures may be made to prove anything. I trust, 
 however, that the figures I am going to give you are not misleading, 
 and, in order to, be on the safe side, I have, if anything, overrated the 
 expenses and underrated the revenue to be anticipated. 
 
 The establishment of a Tineyard is somewhat expensive. The 
 usual cost may be set down as follows : — , 
 
 Clearing and subsoiling ... ... £8 
 
 Cuttings, plantings, &c. ... •■• 2 
 
 Stakes or wire ... ... ••• 3 
 
 Cultivation for three years, or until vine 
 
 begins to bear ... ... •■• 15 
 
 Total per acre ... ... £28 
 
 This may be set down as a fair estimate of what it costs to establish 
 4he vineyard and look aft^r it until the vipes begin to bear. Of course, 
 
104 
 
 certain factors may modify this estimate considerably, such, for 
 example, as the climate, or soil, whether thickly timbered or not, &c. 
 As a rule it costs more to establish a vineyard in a cool than in a warm 
 district, as the number of vines per acre, and consequently the number 
 of cuttings, as well as the labour required to plant them, must be far 
 greater in the first than in the second case. If a man plants his 
 vineyard himself and establishes it gradually, putting in a few acres 
 every year, it stands to reason that it will cost him considerably less 
 tnan if he were obliged to employ labour to establish it. The working 
 expenses should not under any circumstances, if labour be enlployed, 
 amount to more than £7 per acre per annum in the coldest parts of the 
 colony where vines are planted closely. In fact, they may with good 
 management be reduced to £6. On an average they may for the 
 whole colony be said to amount to £5 per acre, that is, if hired labour 
 alone be employed. Of course if the proprietor be his own vigneron 
 the cost will be considerably reduced. The average yearly cost of 
 running a vineyard, including annual expenses and interest on outlay 
 at 5 per cent., should not be more than £6, or, say, with interest on 
 cellars and appliances, £7 per acre. 
 
 Now for the profits, A well-conducted vineyard should certainly be 
 capable of producing 250 gallons of wine per acre in the fourth year, 
 if properly trained from the first, and when in full bearing ought to give 
 300 gallons per acre. To be on the safe side, let us rely on an average 
 crop of 250 gallons per acre. I may mention that in France crops of as 
 much as 3,200 gallons per acre have been obtained. But let us be content 
 with our 250 gallons. This wine when three months old, or, as is said in 
 cellar language, after the first racking, ought to be vyorth Is. 6d. per 
 gallon. We thus find that the vineyard brings in £18 I7s. per acre 
 per annum. After deducting from this amount the sum of £7 for 
 expenses and interest on outlay, &c., this leaves the handsome sum of 
 £11 17s. per acre, or let us say in round numbers £12 per acre. In 
 this calculation I have not considered the cost price of the land. This 
 is so variable that it would be impossible to set it down at an average. 
 Excellent vine land can be obtained in some parts of the colony for as 
 little as £3 per acre, whilst land in reality of no more value for viticul- 
 ture, but nearer town, may command from fifteen to twenty times that 
 price. If we put the price of the land already planted at £30, the above 
 figures show a net profit of 40 per cent, per annum on the original out- 
 lay, and if the holding be small, and the grower capable of doing a 
 considerable amount of thp work himself, he may considerably reduce the 
 cost of establishment and the working expenses, thus enabling him to 
 obtain still better results. I must repeat that these figures are con- 
 siderably under the mark in several respects. Many vine-growers of 
 experience will tell you that feven employing labour the cost of estab- 
 lishing and bringing a vineyard to bearing will not exceed £10 per 
 acre. Although under certain circumstances it may be possible to do 
 this, I think the former estimate is a safer one to rely on, more especially 
 as the work being done more thoroughly heavier crops may be expected. 
 I know myself many vineyards throughout the colony where the annual 
 
yield exceeds 400 gallons, whereas we have calculated it at 250. And 
 I may repeat that in France as much as 3,200 gallons per acre has been 
 obtained^ Many vignerons at present obtain a far higher price than 
 Is. 6d. per gallon or 3d. per bottle for their wine, but it will not do for 
 us to rely upon a larger figure. Our market must ultimately be 
 London, and although a higher price may be obtainable, it wUl be quite 
 safe for us to rely upon Is. 6d. per gallon for good sound wejl- 
 fermented wine, such as any one can make, provided he be suflBciently 
 careful and attentive to the more important details. 
 
 Such is a brief outline of the financial aspect of viticulture. By its aid 
 the capitalist who has to employ labour may make as much as 40 per cent, 
 per annum at least out of his money, provided he spend it judiciously, 
 whilst the working man, who can do a considerable portion of the 
 work himself, can realize still handsomer profits. In exceptional cases 
 profits may rise to a far higher figure than that given above, but we will 
 not rely upon them, as it might possibly lead to disappointment. I think 
 you will all agree that 40 per cent, is a very handsome profit, and that 
 very few industries are started that are expected to pay half or a 
 quarter as well. Many people who invest in mines would be very 
 glad if every one they invested in would give them even half these 
 profits, and yet they continue to invest in these very uncertain institur 
 tions, whilst the vine, which if planted under proper circumstances 
 cannot fail to yield very handsome profits, is looked at askance and 
 with distrust. 
 
 Many persons say that they refrain from going in for viticulture, not 
 because they are afraid of the vine — they understand bow to grow 
 other plants, and see no reason why they should not be as successful 
 with the vine — but because they are afraid of the wine-making, of 
 which they have had no experience. Let me here reassure persons 
 who hold this opinion. Wine-making is not, as they imagine, a scien- 
 tific process requiring a thorough knowledge of chemistry, biology, &c. 
 Doubtless the more scientific knowledge one possesses the better. It 
 will always come in useful, and may help to clear up many otherwise 
 obscure points. But is not this the same in all cases .'' Wheat-grow- 
 ing will, no doubt, benefit by scientific knowledge, but if you ask 
 practical farmers who have made handsome profits out of it if scienti- 
 fic knowledge is necessary, I feel sure that you would be answered 
 in the negative. Provided proper care be paid to the more important 
 details — or, in other words, that certain rules (which will differ in 
 diflPerent districts having different climate conditions) are conscien- 
 tiously observed — there is no reason why the wine should not be of 
 uniform quality; and for the encouragement of small growers, I may 
 inform them that the smaller the scale on which the wine is made the 
 more likelihood is there of it being of good quality. Nearly all the 
 wine that goes bad in the colonies is the result of careless and slovenly 
 management, rather than want of technical knowledge. All that is 
 necessary is care in the vineyard and care and cleanliness in the cellar, 
 in order to enable the handsome profits of 40 per cent, on the original 
 outlay to be confidently relied on. 
 
106 
 
 Many persons object that very probably in the course of a few 
 years there will be a great depreciation in the value of wine, owing to 
 over-production. I cannot, however, see anything to justify the fears 
 of such persons. On the contrary, in my opinion the demand for our 
 wines is bound to improve, and in a few years will be considerably 
 better than it is now. At the present moment the market for Aus- 
 tralian wine is very unsettled. AH admit that the London market is 
 the one on which we chiefly rely, and to satisfy which we must use 
 our best endeavours. The production of wine in Victoria is so insignifi- 
 cant that up to the present we have not been looked upon as a wine 
 source by the London merchants. This, however, is correcting itself. 
 The amount of wine that we shall in a few years produce will be very 
 considerable, and it is absurd to suppose that every grower will then be 
 his own wirie merchant, maturing and retailing his own wine as he 
 ■often has to do at present. Instead of this unsatisfactory state of 
 things, there will be purchasers as soon as the fermentation is properly 
 terminated and the wine is in a fit state to travel. This will necessi- 
 tate greater uniformity in the wines produced in each district, and 
 already a decided change is to be noticed in this direction in some 
 districts of the colony. Instead of the host of conflicting names at 
 present given to the wines in each district, there will be one, or at most 
 two— say, one white and one red. Instead of this greater uniformity 
 causing growers to interfere with one another, they will materially 
 assist each other, as they will render it possible for merchants to obtain 
 a suflScient quantity of the same wine to enable them to supply their 
 customers with an article of unvarying character. Not only is the 
 home demand improving, but the local consumption is also steadily 
 increasing. It is very gratifying to observe the way in which wine is 
 gradually beginning to supersede other drinks with a great many 
 Victorians. It is needless to remark that the effects of this change of 
 opinion are as beneficial to the consumers as to the producers of the 
 wine, for nobody now attempts to deny that sound natural wine is more 
 wholesome than any other beverage man is in the habit of consuming. 
 There is no justification for the fears of some excellent members of 
 society that the increase in the consumption of wine will have an 
 injurious efiect on the rising generations of the colony. On the con- 
 trary, the great cause of temperance will be most powerfully assisted 
 by a more general use of pure light wine, which, replacing alcohol 
 that in a more concentrated form ruins the constitutions and soddens 
 the brain of so many of our fellow countrymen, would strengthen and 
 do good to all who employ it. I do not wish to enter on a discussion 
 -on this subject to-night, as it might lead us a great deal too far, but 
 will only remind you that the wine-drinking people of Southern France 
 are tar more temperate than the alcohol drinkers of the more northern 
 districts. And t may also state that children in wine-producing 
 <!ountries are brought up accustomed to wine from their childhood, 
 they come to look upon it as one of the ordinary necessaries of life, and 
 ao not rush for it on every possible occasion as men who in theu' 
 joung days were taught to avoid all liquor as poison. In reality, the 
 
107 
 
 temperance Bocieties and the wine-growers should go hand in hand, as 
 their interests, from a higher than a monetary point of view, are closely 
 connected. 
 
 Many other arguments might be brought forward in favour of the 
 cultivation of the vine. I will content myself with pointing out one or 
 two of the principal ones that we have not already touched upon. 
 
 Vineyard work is, as we have had occasion to see, very evenly 
 distributed through the year. This enables one man to look after a 
 far larger acreage than would be the case if all the work had to be 
 executed in a shortf time, the rest of the year being passed in com- 
 parative idleness. In a general way one man — that is, of course, an 
 industrious one — should be able to properly cultivate twenty (20) acres 
 of vines. The only extra assistance he would require would be a few 
 children at vintage time to help him to get in his crop. 
 
 The vine-grower has a great advantage over many other agriculturists, 
 as his slack time comes between Christmas and vintage time, or the 
 hottest part of the year when he feels less inclined to work. This also 
 enables him to attend to his harvest, if he has put any cereals in as 
 well as vines. 
 
 Viticulture enables one to make use of the poorest soUs. In many 
 cases soils that are looked upon as worthless for wheat-growing or 
 even for grazing purposes may be made to yield very payable crops of 
 wine. Very often these poor soils produce wines of excellent quality. 
 Indeed, it may be said that, as a general rule, wine grown on poor lands 
 is of better quality than that grown on rich. All poor soils are not 
 equally well suited for the vine, while some that would scarcely yield 
 any cereals give very heavy crops, others again would give very small 
 yields of wine. The explanation of this is that the vine does not 
 require the same food as other plants usually cultivated on farms. It, of 
 course, must have the natural elements necessary for plant life — viz., 
 potash, nitrogen, phosphorus, and lime; but it does not require them in 
 he same proportions as cereals, for example. In other words if we name 
 them in order of their importance, say for the cultivation of cereals, 
 that order would be reversed for the vine. It is, however, necessary 
 to mention that the potash is far more important for the vine than the 
 other elements. Poor soils, in the general acceptance of the term, are 
 those that only contain a limited proportion of nitrogen. Here you can 
 plainly see the difference between an absolutely and a relatively poor 
 soil. Another characteristic of the vine which enables it to take 
 advantage of poor soils is the great depth to which its roots penetrate, 
 thus placing a far greater cube of soil at its disposal than is the case 
 with other plants, provided, of course, the soils be well drained and 
 sufficiently porous to enable the roots to spread with facility. It is for 
 this reason that sandy soils, although poor, are capable of giving large 
 yields of wine. The fact is proved by the custom which prevailed in 
 parts of the south of France in olden days of only allowing the vine to 
 be planted in a soil which had been proved to be unfit for other 
 culture. 
 
Another argument in favour of vine-growing is to be found in the 
 example of older countries. In most of the temperate parts of Europe, 
 and in the south of France in particular, every acre of land was planted 
 with vines where they could be profitably cultivated, and there is not 
 the slightest doubt that it is this industry that has raised the French 
 nation to the high position it now occupies amongst the other nations 
 of Europe, from many points of view. With the decline of the industry, 
 through the phylloxera, there is a decline in the general prosperity of 
 the French nation, such as makes French statesmen anxious about the 
 future. There is not the slightest doubt that Australia, and Victoria, 
 in particular, is destined to become one of the leading wine-producing 
 countries of the world. Blessed as we are with a magnificent climate 
 and with a soil in every way suited to the growth of the vine, it is a 
 subject for wonder that the acreage already planted is so small. I have 
 now travelled over the greater part of the colony, and it is surprising 
 to see the vast amount of land lying idle that is eminently suited for 
 the cultivation of the vine. There is probably no country in the world 
 better suited than Victoria for the cultivation of this plant, both as 
 regards climate, soil, and also a market for the wine. England is 
 beginning to consume more wine every year, and it is not- unreasonable 
 to suppose that if our wines are equal in quality they will be taken in 
 preference to foreign ones. There is no doubt that our wines can be 
 made equal in quality to any in the world; even now they are superior 
 to any but a very limited few, which in Europe can only be placed 
 within the reach of very rich persons or crowned heads. But the great 
 bulk of our wines can, no doubt, be made superior to the bulk of those 
 grown in Europe, and even better than the average wines of France. 
 
 The freedom from phylloxera which we enjoy will also give an 
 immense .advantage over nearly every other vine-growing country. 
 There is no doubt that this freedom can be preserved, if only the proper 
 steps are taken to do so. In fact, the advantages which Victoria 
 possesses over other countries for viticulture are so great and so 
 numerous that I might detain you all night naming them. This, how- 
 ever, I do not intend to do. I think I have already detained you long 
 enough, and so I will conclude by telling you that any one requiring 
 more detailed information on the subject of viticulture can obtain it 
 gratis from the experts attached to the Board of Viticulture — either 
 from Signer Bragato or myself— on application to Mr. Shillinglaw, the 
 Secretary of the Board. I may also mention that I have just compiled 
 a short handbook on Viticulture, which is now available to any one 
 applying for it to the Secretary of the Board of Viticulture. I must 
 thank you sincerely for the kind attention you have accorded me. 
 (Applause.) 
 
 In reply to questions, the lecturer stated that the distance at which 
 the vines should be planted from each other would vary with the 
 district in which they were grown. He would recommend that they 
 should be planted about 10 x 10 on the Murray, and about 5 x 5 in the 
 vicinity of Melbourne. It would cost considerably more to plant 4x4, 
 as in some parts of France, than 10 x 10. The land in France that 
 
109 
 
 produced 3,000 gallons per acre was planted closely. In the south of 
 France vines ■were planted on an average about 4x4, but in the 
 northern parts thej -were only about a foot apart. In the latter case 
 the ■work had to be done by hand, as it was impossible to use horse- 
 power. Wire, on an average, would cost about £3 per acre, two wires 
 to a post. It was unnecessary to use a greater number of wires. One 
 wire should be about as high as the crown of the vine, and the other 
 15 inches higher. The vines might, if necessary, be grown in bush 
 form, but for his part he preferred the stakes. 
 
 As to the aspect of the vineyard, this depended entirely on the 
 climate. For a cool climate he would recommend a slope with a 
 northern or north-eastern aspect, in order to get as much heat as 
 possible. In warm, climates it was often advisable to get a southern or 
 fiouth-western aspect. 
 
no 
 THE DAIEYING INDUSTRY. 
 
 By Mr. D. Wilson. 
 
 I HAVE much pleasure in appearing before you to-night, in answer to 
 the request of your council, to address you on one of the oldest and 
 most important industries of the colony — and, I might say, the world — 
 namely, dairying ; and perhaps you will bear with my shortcomings, 
 when I tell you I expect to have more difficulty in making myself 
 understood than if I were addressing an audience of practical dairying 
 people, and although it is a subject that cannot be exhausted in one 
 lecture, I will endeavour to interest you for a short time, and perhaps 
 you might find a few crumbs of information on this valuable subject. 
 I propose first saying a few words on the value of milk, describe briefly 
 the old method of making butter, taking notice of a few of its deficiencies. 
 Then explain a few of the benefits of the new, or what is called the 
 factory and creamery system. Then mention a few of the advantages 
 of dairying over other husbandries, A word or two on the benefits 
 of ensilage making and feeding for stock. Answer any questions 
 thought desirable. Illustrate with the aid of the limelight a few features 
 of my subject. And lastly, explain the working of those modern dairy 
 appliances you see before you ; and, knowing the value of the last hours 
 of a Saturday night, I will endeavour to be as brief as possible. Of 
 all the various foods used for the support of human life milk is one of 
 the most perfect. It is almost the only food that will, when used alone, 
 support life and maintain health and vigour for an indefinite length of 
 time. The earliest records of our race tell us of flocks and herds, and 
 it may be assumed that not only the milk of animals but that the pro- 
 ducts of milk in some form have been employed in the diet of man 
 from the most remote times. But while milk is the natural food of 
 the young of all mammalia, and has been for ages, both in its natural 
 and manufactured state, a blessing to the poor and a luxury to the rich, 
 little was known comparatively of its behaviour as a concentrated article 
 of food until recent times. Dairy produce is one of the most important 
 products of the colony, and one for which there is an ever-increasing 
 demand for both local and foreign markets is butter. Its importance 
 to the new selector cannot be over-estimated, for with the aid of a few 
 cows, he is enabled to provide for his family the necessaries of life 
 while he is engaged in fencing and getting his land in condition to give 
 him a return. How many of those who have attained positions of 
 affluence in Victoria can call to mind the time when they subsisted 
 entirely upon the produce of a few cows, that their wives, rising early 
 and sitting late, had to earn ; and yet, in no other branch of industry 
 in the colony is the result of want of knowledge more apparent. Not in 
 any other way can we account for the large amount of inferior butter sent 
 
Ill 
 
 to market, especially in summer. The fact of such a large quantity of 
 butter being sold in our cities at that time, realizing ruinous rates, shows- 
 the want of care and manageiaent in a great many of our dairies. How- 
 ever, it is cheering to think, in contrast to this state of things, that 
 many butter-makers who exercise care and judgment are and have 
 always been realizing payable prices all the year round. I will now 
 try to explain how butter is made under the old system, and, above all 
 things, cleanliness is the first and most important rule in connexion with 
 the dairy. Constant scalding with boiling water is necessary. All 
 vessels used in connexion with the dairy must be scalded before being 
 used. Milk pails, milk pans, cream jars, churn, butter-table, and butter- 
 worker should be scalded effectually. No rinsing with lukewarm water, 
 but a thorough cleansing with the water boiling hot in which soda has- 
 been dissolved. Failure in this respect is one of the causes of much 
 deterioration in the quality of butter produced. The milk should be 
 drawn from the cows by milkers with clean hands, who should have a 
 vessel with clean water and a cloth always near to wash their hands 
 after adjusting the leg-rope, and, if necessary, to wash the cow's udder 
 before milking. The defilement of the milk by any want of cleanliness 
 at this stage renders it impossible to make a clean and sweet butter. 
 While on this point I may tell you there is a report to hand lately of 
 a large milk company formed in Denmark for the purpose of giving the 
 consumer a purer milk than hitherto, and they describe a plan of 
 running all their milk through a series of sponges before delivery ; 
 the result they tell us is, that out of 9,000,000 gallons of milk 
 run through, they obtain five tons of filth, no doubt the result of 
 unclean milking. The next thing of importance is the dairy build- 
 ing, because in our climate heat is the most powerful chemical agent, 
 and decomposes everything that exists; and if the solid metals and rocks 
 are forced apart by heat, how much less readily may such a complex 
 and unstable fluid as milk, or so changeable a mixture of fats and 
 volatile acids as butter, resist the effects of this extraordinary chemical 
 agent ? Consequently, in the season the dairyman needs to exert all 
 patience, skill, and experience in evading the effects of the high tem- 
 perature of our dairy buildings ; and I may here state that I am often 
 amazed at the utter carelessness of our farmers and others in not pro- 
 viding a proper dairy building apart from the house, where it can obtain 
 pure cool air and shade. Even in our city suburbs, where our merchant 
 princes' mansions are, you will find beautiful outhouses for almost 
 everything but a dairy. Although they may have two or three cows, 
 and perhaps the health of young children depending upon the purity of 
 the milk, yet probably you will find the dairy in some confined old 
 corner of the house, with a stuffy hot atmosphere not fit to keep old 
 boots in. 
 
 Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the merits of deep and 
 shallow setting of milk for this purpose. Each process has its admirers ; 
 but I think that where the dairyman has not the means of artificial 
 cooling, the exposure of the large surface to the atmosphere as in shallow 
 pans setting is preferable, as it allows the milk to cool quicker to 60 deg., 
 
112 
 
 which is the proper temperature for the treatment of it in all the manu- 
 facturing stages of milk; cream or hutter handled much hotter will 
 never turn out first-class goods. Another point must be borne in mind, 
 that cream for butter-making should never be allowed to stand on milk 
 till it is sour, because you can never free the caseine from it, and the 
 butter will not keep. We will now suppose you have skimmed a nice 
 sound cream, say three days old, and that the temperature of the dairy 
 it has been in has been kept about 60 deg. Fahr._ We will now 
 get it into the churn, and the pattern of this used is also a matter 
 of choice; every style has its admirers. I think the square box 
 without any works inside is the best wo know of at present. A very 
 prolific cause of want of success in churning is not attending to the 
 reading of the thermometer. This is an indispensable instrument in 
 the dairy, although I have known plenty of experienced dairymaids 
 who would look with disdain if you doubted their ability to tell the 
 exact heat with the hand. When commencing to churn the cream 
 should be tested, and if the reading is above 60 deg. steps should be 
 taken to reduce it. In cold weather the cream should be gathered and 
 kept about that temperature. This is much better than adding hot 
 water on churning-day. We will now suppose the cream to be in the 
 churn under these conditions. Start turning the churn slowly for the 
 first quarter, letting the air out frequently, then go on probably from 
 30 or 40 minutes ; watch from the sound or the clearing of the glaas- 
 hole when the butter comes the size of grains of wheat. Then the 
 butter-milk should be drained ofl^, and the granules covered with clear 
 cold water. Take care to keep the butter in its granular form till the 
 last water comes away perfectly clear. The butter is now removed to 
 the butter-tub, the revolving table not being in general use yet by this 
 system. Salt is now added, which should be well rolled, and the pro- 
 portion of from half-an-ounce to one ounce per lb. worked in, then print 
 by hand, and the butter is now ready for market. I may tell my hearers, 
 however, that this system has many faults. I will just name a few of 
 them. The large accommodation wanted for milk dishes, the exposure 
 of so large a surface of cream to dust and insect life, the souring of the 
 milk before half of thd cream has risen, the constant handling of what 
 ought to be a delicacy of human food, the constant labour, worry, and 
 loss, and where great care is not taken (which is the exception and not 
 the rule) inferior quality of produce, make this system of butter- 
 making, as yet almost general, anything but child's play. On the other 
 nand, our factory system comes to the rescue. By the aid of that 
 beautiful piece of simple machinery, the cream-separator, we are now 
 able to take all the cream off the milk, winter and summer, in as many 
 minutes as it takes days by the dishing-up system. By the use of 
 steam we can now have the butter churned, washed, salted, weighed, 
 printed, and packed with 50 per cent, less labour and cost, and the quality 
 of the goods produced a superior and more suitable article than has 
 hitherto been obtainable for an export market — all this done without the 
 human hand ever coming in contact with the butter. And through the 
 exhibit by the Agricultural Department of the first butter factory in the 
 
113 
 
 colony, two years ago, at the Centennial Exhibition, and the aid of the 
 bonus system, I am happy to say that we have now not less than 100 
 of these factories, providing work to the mechanic in their construction, 
 at an outlay of £50,000, bringing a ready-money market to something like 
 2,500 farmers for their milk, producing not less than 2,000 tons of good 
 butter annually, and exporting to England last season 1,000 tons, which, 
 brought into the farmers' pockets something like £100,000 in hard cash. 
 Besides this, in myopinion, there is no description of farming that promises 
 better prospects of remuneration than the dairy, where thousands grow 
 certain products and compete with each other in the great markets of the 
 world. If one happens to be possessed of land, perhaps irrigated, in the 
 immediate vicinity of towns and cities, upon which market-gardening 
 may be conducted with facility, that land may without doubt be put to 
 more profit in growing vegetables than in dairying. Fruit land, 
 eligibly situated and intelligently managed, may also be a source of 
 greater profit. Limited specialties of this kind, in which only the few 
 comparatively engage, cannot be embraced in this statement. But 
 compared with other great interests of the country, such as the produc- 
 tion of wheat and other cereals, the rearing and fattening of stock, hop- 
 growing, and the like, each and all are inferior in their remunerative 
 prospects to the dairy. The milk -producer also enters the great 
 markets of the world with less competition than he who is engaged in 
 almost any one other branch of farming, and has a wider range and a 
 more diversified product to dispose of. Then, if there is any profit in 
 fattening stock for market, animals which fail in milk for the dairy can 
 be sold for butchering purposes. Pigs are also a profitable adjunct to 
 dairying. Again, the yield of cows takes three forms of a commercial 
 product, each of which enters into universal consumption, and is regarded 
 both as a luxury and a necessity — milk, butter, and cheese. The last 
 two are highly-concentrated forms of food, and are less bulky for 
 transport than other articles of food of the same 'value, for 200 lbs. of 
 butter, worth £10, will occupy no more space in a railway truck or ship 
 than a bag of wheat, worth 16s.; in other words, the £10 worth of 
 butter can be carried as cheaply to market as the 16s. worth of wheat. This 
 alone is an enormous advantage, for, when the farmer comes to deduct 
 freight on a low-priced bulky product, together with commission to the 
 middleman for handling, there will then remain little profit for the 
 producer. On the other hand, the dairyman can count pretty accurately 
 upon what his farm will yield when stocked with an average lot of well- 
 fed cows, and his land, not so liable to be exhausted as that devoted to 
 grain-growing, and also with an abundant source of manure at his com- 
 mand, should be growing more and more productive from year to year. 
 Now I can give you a few figures to show the immense importance this 
 industry is to Victoria, and as they were made up last year, I have no 
 doubt they are very much larger now. The estimated quantity of milk 
 produced was 146,000,000 gals., taken at 8d., come to £4,866,660 
 sterling. The household consumption, at three-quarters of a pint per 
 head per day, would total up to 41,062,300 gals, yearly, valued at 8d., 
 equals £1,368,750 sterling. This would leave us 87,500,000 gals, for 
 
 4781. H 
 
114 
 
 butter, and 17,500,000 gals, for cheese, of a value for these two articles 
 alone, roughly speaking, of £3,000,000 sterling ; so that the total value 
 of this industry at present is twice as valuable as our gold production, 
 and three times that of our grain. Now these figures will show you, I 
 think, that for profitably finding employment for our male and female 
 population, dairying stands in the front rank of our colonial industries. 
 Perhaps I might say a word here about profits to the producer, and on 
 account of the many different ways farmers have of feeding, breeding, 
 manufacturing, and marketing it is very hard to get a correct estimate 
 of profit, but I have no doubt it will vary from £3 to £8 per head. 
 What I and a good many others who pay attention have done for years 
 is to feed well in autumn and winter, and cull out of the herd all cows 
 that won't yield 1 lb. of butter per day. We have frequently seen it 
 stated in the press that the exporting of butter was the cause of high . 
 rates prevailing to consumers here, and you know an alarm of this sort 
 creates much attention by our housewives. Let me cite a few facts to 
 show the fallacy of this idea. In 1888 we exported next to nothing ; 
 price for good fresh butter for a portion of that year was 2s. 6d. per lb. 
 The following year we exported 400 tons, and the price remained about 
 the same. Last season, after exporting 1,000 tons, the price has been 
 lower than the two previous years. As an experiment this year, 
 there were 100 tons kept for local requirements in the cool chamber 
 at Newport ; 20 tons of it, owned by one factory, were divided, 10 
 tons being exported by the last boat in January, realized Is. per lb. 
 The highest ofier for the 1 tons kept here was 6d. per lb., and hundreds 
 of tons besides, now lying in stock, can be bought for less. There is 
 every reason to believe that, had this butter been exported also while it 
 was good, it would have realized payable rates. And now, with all the 
 stock of salt butter in our markets almost unsaleable, good fresh print 
 butter commands fair prices. The fact is, our butter trade in the colony 
 is rapidly changing. Few merchants will buy forward now at anything 
 like a satisfactory price. Old butter is little required. The heavily- 
 salted butter of a few years ago is now almost unsaleable. And the 
 time is fast approaching when every week must find its own supply of 
 good fresh butter. In the face of this change of taste, what is to be 
 done with our large surplus for three months in the spring ? We can- 
 not keep it fresh for months till the consumer requires it, and if it is 
 salted, casked, and kept through the summer, 50 per cent, of it would 
 turn out inferior, fit only for third-class pastry. Without doubt, the 
 only cure is to export what is not required locally, and when it is good 
 and new. And by the aid of ensilage and green fodder feeding, keep 
 up the supply of what is demanded — good fresh butter all the year 
 sound. 
 
 Ensilage. 
 
 !^I will now say a few words on the silo, or pit system of preserving 
 green forage for stock, known to the ancient Romans. The Mexicans 
 also have practised the same process for centuries, and still preserve a 
 ferge bulk of their fodder in this way. The attention of the English 
 
115 
 
 farmer was first drawn to this subject by the translation of a work 
 written by a Mr. Goffart, a distinguished member of the Agricultural 
 Society of France. Speaking from practical experience for a number 
 of years, the profitableness of ensilage will double the stock-carrying 
 capacity of our farms. Its advantages to the dairyman are incalculable. 
 We can double the stock, and thus increase the fertility and value of 
 our farms. Stock can be kept on ensilage for one-half the cost of 
 other food. Thirty and forty tons of fodder can be ensilaged ofi one 
 acre, which is worth more than 20 tons of hay for milch cows. I may 
 here state there are two recognised varieties of ensilage, viz., sweet 
 and sour. By the term " sour " it must not be understood to be in 
 any way offensive ; it merely implies that the ensilage has a pale 
 greenish-yellow colour and a slightly vinous odour. Sweet ensilage, 
 on the other hand, is of a brown colour, and of a sweet luscious odour. 
 The former has been found the most suitable for animals producing 
 milk. To produce sour ensilage the crop must be cut before any of the 
 moisture has escaped, chafEed into the pit or silo, and have weights 
 applied inside three days, at the rate of 200 lbs. to the superficial foot, 
 and the temperature should not be allowed to rise higher than 90 degrees 
 Fahr. Gentlemen, I am afraid it would be trespassing on your time too 
 much to tell you the many advantages of this indispensable fodder. But 
 I will be happy to give any person, as he retires, a copy of ,a pamphlet 
 issued by the Agricultural Department that will give full instructions 
 on the subject. And although the department, the Vegetable Products 
 Commission, and the press have been hammering at the farmers for 
 years on the benefits and the necessity of their making this fodder, the 
 result is- but small as yet, and when we know, for want of this system 
 being adopted, we had to import from New Zealand 200 tons of fresh 
 butter this last summer, when prices were at their best, it seems 
 almost suicidal that they will not wake up to their own interests. For, 
 as I noticed before, there is now a large number of well-to-do consumers 
 in and around our city, that must have a good fresh butter all the year 
 round, to the exclusion of the old salt stuff, come from where it may. 
 In fact, the whole structure of our dairying depends on two planks — 
 export and ensilage. I will now finish by giving a parting word to the 
 farmers, that by availing themselves of the waiting-to-be-used aids of 
 intelligent autumn and winter dairying, in connexion with the butter 
 factories and creameries, the farmers of Victoria would lift themselves 
 from a plane of agricultural depression to a position of substantial and 
 permanent prosperity that was never equalled in the palmiest days of 
 wheat growing. 
 
 At the conclusion of the address, several questions relative to the 
 subject were asked and answered, and a vote of thanks to the lecturer 
 was unanimously carried. 
 
 H 2 
 
116 
 
 POINTS EEQUIRING CONSIDERATION AT THE 
 HANDS OF INTENDING PLANTERS. 
 
 Bt F. de Castella. 
 
 In the last lecture which I delivered in this hall I brought forward a 
 few arguments in farour of the cultivation of the vine, and endeavoured 
 to prove that it was well worth the attention of those who intend 
 devoting themselves to a rural life. In to-night's lecture I propose to 
 indicate to you what are the principal points which require considera- 
 tion at the hands of persons who have made up their minds to go in 
 for viticulture, so that, when looking about them for a suitable locality 
 for the future vineyard, they may know what are the principal require- 
 ments they must keep in mind, and not be led away by considerations 
 of no practical importance. 
 
 In order that the best returns may be obtained from a vineyard, it is 
 necessary that the grower should combine quality with quantity. 
 These attributes are, unfortunately, antagonistic to a considerable extent, 
 or in other words, in the majority of cases the vineyards which produce 
 the best wine only give scanty yields, whilst those whose yields are 
 abundant produce wine of medium if not of inferior quality. 
 
 It is, however, possible to combine the two to some considerable 
 extent, and to obtain very fair yields of excellent wines, but the 
 grower must not hope for the maximum of quality and quantity in any 
 particular locality. 
 
 The grower will, in many cases, have to sacrifice somewhat of either 
 quality or quantity, and I must here emphatically recommend him to 
 sacrifice the latter, and warn him against devoting himself to the 
 production of abundant crops of small value, instead of a smaller 
 yield of superior wine. It pays a man better to obtain 250 gallons 
 per acre of wine, for which he can obtain 2s. per gallon, than 500 
 gallons per acre of wine only worth Is. per gallon ; the absolute 
 return per acre will be the same in both cases, but the smaller yield, 
 entailing less expense in gathering, vintaging, and casks, leaves a larger 
 margin for profit. 
 
 The successfuL vine-grower of the future will be the one who 
 devotes himself to the production of high-class wines. At present the 
 market is unsettled, owing chiefly to our small production, and, conse- 
 quently, wines of really very dissimilar values often selling for the same 
 price, it may be more remunerative to produce larger quantities of an 
 inferior article. 
 
 With the largely increased production, which is sure to result from 
 the extensive planting of the last year or so, a re-arrangement of prices 
 is bound to come, tending to raise the price of superior wines and 
 lower that of wines of ordinary quality. 
 
117 
 
 A time will come when the grower who sacrifices quality to quantity- 
 will find difiiculty in getting rid of his wine, whilst for a superior 
 article there will always be a demand. 
 
 We thus see that it is a high-class wine which the intending grower 
 must use his best endeavours to produce, but, in addition to this, the 
 wine must be suited to the requirements of trade. 
 
 There are many different high-class wines produced in the many 
 wine-growing countries of the world, but they are not equally profitable 
 to produce, especially in Australia. 
 
 In Europe strong wines are going out of fashion every day and giving 
 place to lighter ones ; people preferring a claret, of which they 
 can drink a bottle without inconvenience, to a strong wine of a port or 
 sherry type, which does not quench the thirst, and of which only a 
 couple of glasses may be taken with impunity. In Australia the taste 
 for strong wine still continues, although lighter ones are coming more 
 into favour every dskf. 
 
 A light wine is the one for which there is and always will be the 
 greatest demand ; it is destined to be the universal drink of all classes, 
 being more beneficial, cheering, and invigorating than any other. The 
 great bulk of strong wines are devoted chi-efly to blending purposes, 
 with the exception of a few high-class ones, which always command 
 good prices, as liqueur wines or ports. 
 
 Sweet wines must be included in the same category as strong wines, 
 since a wine cannot remain sweet unless it contains enough alcohol to 
 prevent the fermentation of the unchanged sugar. 
 
 Eed wines are in greater demand than white, although wines of the 
 type of a Chablis or Hock meet with a ready sale. In short, the wine 
 the future grower will find the most profitable to make will be a dry 
 red wine — the lighter the better — above a certain limit, of course. 
 
 Victoria is destined to be the greatest wine-producing portion of 
 Australia, if not of the Southern hemisphere. We will therefore be the 
 suppliers of wine to many tropical and semi-tropical countries, such as 
 India, Queensland, Northern Territory, &c., and it stands to reason that 
 these places, on accoqnt of the climate, must necessarily become large 
 consumers of light wines. 
 
 Persons going in for viticulture are not all good judges of wine ; if 
 they are not, they should endeavour to get the opinion of some qualified 
 judge, and not say to themselves, " I like this wine — I will try to make 
 my wine like it." By adopting such a course they may find themselves 
 in the unfortunate position of producing a wine which they find some 
 diflSculty in disposing of. 
 
 A point which deserves serious consideration, and which receives but 
 little at present, is the nomenclature of our Victorian wines. The 
 hopeless confusion which at present exists in the names of our wines is 
 much to be deplored, and will in time have to give .way to a more 
 rational system of calling the wine by the name of the district in which 
 it is made. 
 
 The present method is to call the wine by the name of the kind of 
 grape from which it is made — a course which gives rise only to 
 
118 
 
 confusion, no indication as to the character of the wine being conveyed 
 to the purchaser. For example, two Rieslings, one grown on the Yarra 
 and the other on the Murray, differ as much as hock and sherry. In 
 each district there will be one class of wine which will surpass all others 
 in point of excellence, and it is this type which the grower should 
 endeavour to produce. Different districts will doubtless produce dis- 
 tinct types of wines, but all the vine-growers of a district should 
 endeavour to make their wines of the same type — the type suited to that 
 district. 
 
 I already touched upon this matter in the previous lecture, but it is 
 of such importance that I have to refer to it again. 
 
 Each district now has its vine-growers' association ; let the new 
 vine-grower going into a district join it, and let the members agree 
 amongst themselves to produce one class of wine, or say two at most — 
 one red and one white — and instead of having the confusion of names 
 mentioned above, such as Hermitage, Shiraz, Carbinet, Burgundy, 
 Chasselas, Riesling, Tokay, &c., the wine will come to be known by the 
 name of the district in which it is grown. We should have, for 
 example, Rutherglen, G-reat Western, Bendigo, Mooroopna, and so 
 forth. Such a change will inevitably come, and the sooner it comes the 
 better. A man will then have some idea of the contents of a bottle 
 from the label on the outside. 
 
 Having fixed upon the class of wine to be made, the future vine- 
 grower must look about him to see what are the conditions which the 
 site of his future vineyard must fulfil. In order that he may do this it 
 is necessary that he should know what are the factors which influence 
 the growth and more especially the products of the vine, principally, of 
 course, the wine, which varies more than most agricultural produce 
 according to the conditions under which it is grown. 
 
 The conditions which influence it are naturally very numerous and 
 complex, but the important ones are simple enough, and we need only 
 consider the factors — climate, soil, variety, and method of cultivation, 
 more especially pruning. 
 
 Climate. 
 
 The climate is the most important of these factors, governing as it 
 does the very possibility of growth of the vine. In a general way the 
 most important effect of an increase in the amount of heat and light the 
 plant receives, or, in other words, of transporting it from a colder to 
 a warmer climate is to increase the strength of the wine. It is for this 
 reason that the wines of Northern France are lighter than those of 
 the south, which are in turn lighter than those of Spain ; or, taking 
 Victoria, that the wines of northern districts are stronger than those of 
 southern ones. During the ripening of the fruit the percentage of acid 
 diminishes, whilst that of glucose increases. To sum up the effect of 
 climate, in a few words, we may say the colder it is the more acid ; 
 the warmer it is the more alcohol the resulting wine will contain. As 
 excess in either direction is bad, it foUows that the best wine can, 
 as a rule, be produced in a temperate climate. 
 
119 
 
 A false impression has got hold of a good many Victorians, who seem 
 to fancy that it is only in the warmer parts of the colony that vine- 
 growing can be profitably carried out or good wines made. As a matter 
 of fact, it is only in the cooler parts of the colony that wines of a 
 delicate character, liable to be mistaken by true connoisseurs for the 
 celebrated wines of France and Germany, such as Bordeaux, Burgundies, 
 Hock, &c., can be produced. In France it is only the central portions 
 which produce the above wines. None of those produced in the south 
 or in any part of Spain, Portugal, or Italy, are equal to a first-class 
 Bordeaux, for example. 
 
 It is a surprising thing that the cool part of Victoria, which is so 
 favorably situated for the produqtion of light wines, and in which it 
 is not impossible that some privileged spots may yet be found capable of 
 producing wines equal to the celebrated Chateaux Latour, Margaux, 
 and Lafitte, of Bordeaux, has been so greatly neglected >by persons de- 
 voting themselves to viticulture. The greater part of North-eastern 
 Gippsland would come into this category, yet there are not twenty acres 
 of this vast district planted with vines. 
 
 The greater part of Victoria on the coast side of the Dividing Range 
 is similiar, as regards climate, to central France, and I may tell you that 
 Bordeaux and the district around it, which is universally admitted by 
 the best judges to produce the best wines in the world, is consider- 
 ably cooler than Melbourne, and the Burgundy district is colder stilL 
 In fact, there are very few parts of Victoria, if we except the high 
 mountain ranges of Gippsland, where the climate is too cold for the 
 profitable cultivation of the vine. 
 
 The cooler part of Victoria has thus a decided advantage as regards 
 the quality of the wine — a most important point, as we have already 
 seen. It must not, however, be thought that the other districts have not 
 also special advantages to recommend them ; on the contrary, much is to 
 be said in their favour. As regards quality, many excellent wines are 
 produced in them, although, as a rule, of a somewhat stronger descrip- 
 tion. Their main advantage lies in the fact that the yield is greater, and 
 the expense of cultivation, as well as that of first estabhshment of the 
 vineyard, is considerably less. The climate being drier as well as 
 warmer, it follows that the vines are far less liable to fungus diseases, 
 which are one of the chief scourges of the cool parts, and which com- 
 pensate in no small degree for the excellent quality of the wine. 
 
 It is impossible to find a perfect district. Each one has its advan- 
 tages and its drawbacks, and it is the business of the planter to carefully 
 consider these things and choose for himself. 
 
 It will be found convenient to roughly divide the colony of Victoria 
 into three climatic regions — in reality there are many more, as the pas- 
 sage from one to the other is insensible — but, for the sake of convenience, 
 three are quite sufficient, and less confusing. These would be as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 First, or cool region, embracing the greater part of the colony 
 situated on the coast side of the Dividing Range, and similar, 
 as it has already been pointed out, to Central France. 
 
120 
 
 Second, or intermediate region, comprising the greater part of 
 the central district of Victoria, with a climate similar to 
 Southern France, Bendigo, Great Western, and similar dis- 
 tricts -would come within this region. 
 Third, or warm region, where the climate is more similar to that 
 of Spain, Portugal, or Italy, and comprising such places as 
 Eutherglen, Mildura, and in a general way most of those 
 situated in the northern and north-western parts of the 
 colony. 
 
 When speaking of climate we must consider two important points, 
 which, although not coming absolutely under this head, can conveniently 
 be treated here — these are aspect and irrigation. On almost level land 
 the influence of aspect is insignificant, but, if the ground be hilly, it may 
 become considerable. 
 
 It is evident that the side of a hill facing the north will be far 
 hotter than that facing the south. In some parts of Europe the eastern 
 aspect is considered superior to any other. This is due to the fact that 
 vegetable functions are more acted on by light than heat. The eastern, 
 side is exposed to the morning light, always more intense than that of 
 the afternoon. 
 
 The importance of aspect depends upon the climatic region in which 
 the vineyard is situated. In the first a northern or north-eastern is to 
 preferred; in the second, flat ground, will frequently give excellent 
 results; whilst in the third, where it is frequently advisable to endea- 
 vour to reduce the strengtii of the wine, a southern or south-western 
 aspect is to be preferred. 
 
 The aspect is of more importance in the first than in the second and 
 third regions. • 
 
 We now come to the subject of irrigation, and on this subject I only 
 intend to touch very briefly to-night. Mr. West has already told you 
 much on the subject, but principally with reference to raisin growing 
 and the practical side of the question. A few words will not be amiss 
 bearing on its influence upon the quality of the wine. 
 
 Irrigation, as applied to vineyards, has given rise to much discussion 
 most persons, especially in this country, holding diflferent opinions as 
 to the results to be expected from it. Although most persons agree 
 that it largely increases the yield, there is a great diversity of opinion 
 as to whether its adoption is advisable or not. Some recommend it, 
 others denounce it in emphatic terms, saying that it facilitates the 
 development of fungus diseases of the vine, and ruins the character of 
 the wine. There is much to be said on both sides. Moderation must 
 be observed in this as in most other things. It would be absurd to 
 condemn the irrigation of vineyards on this account, and every com- 
 mon-sense person who studies the question will find that, in the case 
 of a deficient rainfall, the application of a few inches of water in an 
 artificial manner, can only be attended with beneficial results if the 
 water be applied judiciously and at a proper time. 
 
 An excessive amount of sap in the plant at flowering time, or a chill 
 immediately after the setting of the fruit, being usually attended with 
 
121 
 
 disastrous results, either promoting the non-setting or the partial setting 
 of the fruit, care should he taken not to apply water until this 
 dangerous period has safely passed, and the berries are of the size of 
 small shot. The application of water too late in the season, just before 
 Tintage, is also injurious, and oug'ht to be avoided. 
 
 The question is really one of climate, or, more strictly speaking, of 
 rainfall. As a general rule we may say that in the first region the 
 irrigation of vineyards is totally unnecessary, and may only be beneficial 
 in very exceptional circumstances. In the second region it is also 
 unnecessary, although it may prove beneficial in a dry season if applied 
 with great pioderation ; whilst in the third region, in many cases great 
 good will result from its judicious application, although in a deep free 
 soil it is not necessary, except in exceptional cases. 
 
 Many of the opponents of irrigation urge that it is not used in France; 
 this, however, is incorrect. In several parts of the south of France 
 irrigated vineyards have existed for many years, and even in cold 
 Switzerland, in the Canton du Valais, they irrigate, and have irrigated 
 vines for very many years, the water for the purpose being brought 
 from a considerable distance. 
 
 The failure of irrigated vineyards is usually caused by an excessive 
 application of water and neglect of cultivation. For irrigation to be 
 successful, the water must be applied seldom but thoroughly, and must 
 be followed by thorough cultivation, for which it is by no means a sub- 
 stitute, as many persons seem to think. 
 
 On the whole we may say that irrigation of vineyards is, in many 
 cases beneficial, although rarely necessary; it enables the cultivation 
 of the vine to be carried.out in localities where it would be impossible 
 under the prevailing climatic conditions; it largely increases the yield, 
 and at the same time enables a lighter wine to be made in the warmer 
 parts of the colony. In the second or central region it may sometimes 
 prove beneficial, although by no means necessary, whilst in the cool 
 first region it must, in the majority of cases, be considered rather 
 injurious than beneficial. 
 
 Soil. 
 
 The soil naturally exercises a great influence on the quantity and 
 character of the wine. We saw in the last lecture that the vine may 
 be profitably cultivated, ajid even made to yield large crops, in what 
 are usually looked upon as very poor soils, the chief requisite being a 
 sufiicient proportion of potash. Eich soils, in the ordinary acceptance 
 of the term, are those which are rich in organic matter, and con- 
 sequently in nitrogen. 
 
 A poor soil nearly always gives a wine of superior quality, and as a 
 rule a stronger wine than a rich one. 
 
 With reference to the physical nature of the soil, the looseness or 
 friability is the chief requisite. 
 
 The advantages of a friable over a compact soil are manifest. The 
 drainage is better, the absorption of water greatly facilitated, and, as it 
 
122 
 
 can be cultivated with far greater ease, it enables one to cheek the 
 evaporation of moisture during the dry season, as nothing favours the 
 retention of moisture so much as keeping the surface in a thoroughly- 
 loose state. 
 
 Thorough drainage is perhaps the most important physical requisite 
 in the soil ; for this reason, where possible (unless in a dry climate) 
 hillsides should be preferred to flats for the establishment of a vineyard. 
 Hillsides usually produce a better wine than flats, for several reasons ; 
 the soil is poorer, the drainage is better, and the vines healthier and 
 freer from fungus diseases — this on account of the better drainage. 
 
 The geological origin of the soil is of considerable assistance in 
 determining its nature ; but a consideration of the difEerent formations 
 would lead us a great deal too far to-night. In a general way, a sandy 
 soil produces a light wine, and a clay soil a stronger one ; a limestone 
 soil produces a stronger one than even a clay. 
 
 Soils containing pebbles or gravel are always, and in all countries, 
 highly esteemed for viticultural purposes. This is borne out by the 
 fact that many of the most celebrated vineyards are planted in soils 
 containing a considerable proportion of pebbles of various kinds. In 
 the best Burgundy vineyards they are calcareous ; at Bordeaux, quartz; 
 on the Rhine, granitic; and in the Champagne, chalky. In some of 
 the most celebrated vineyards the soil is so stony that it would be 
 unfit for any other culture than that of the vine. At Chateau Lafitte 
 the proportion of water-worn quartz pebbles in the soil is 71 per cent. 
 
 Such are the main points requiring consideration with regard to the 
 soil ; there are other minor ones which need not be considered here. 
 Some of these points are so difiicult to define as to be only noticeable 
 in the wine itself, and not apparent otherwise. 
 
 Chemical analysis enables us to find out all the elements in a soil, as 
 well as the proportions in which they exist; by adding certain elements 
 to one soil, however, so as. to make it identical with another, we cannot 
 be sure of obtaining the same results from it even if the other condi- 
 tions of climate, &c., be the same. 
 
 In many European wine-growing districts, it is common to find two 
 vineyards, only separated by a wall, planted with the same varieties of 
 vines and cultivated in the same manner producing wines of very 
 difierent commercial values. No addition of substances to the soil wiE 
 enable the proprietor of the inferior vineyard to produce wine equal to 
 that of his more fortunate neighbour. When one thinks of the largely 
 increased profits which would be obtained were such a course possible, 
 and the skill brought to bear upon all viticultural operations in the old 
 country, it is evident that the attempt has often been made, but never 
 successfully. There is a subtle something in the soil which gives this 
 superiority, and which it is impossible to impart by artificial means. 
 Most beneficial results may be obtained by the addition of certain sub- 
 stances with a view of increasing the yield, but the quality of the wine 
 cannot be similarly controlled. 
 
123 
 
 Variett/. 
 
 The third factor we have to consider is the variety of vine, and it is 
 considered by some to be the most important one ; it, however, is at the 
 discretion of the grower, and more properly takes third place, the 
 climate and soil being what may be termed fixed factors. 
 
 The variety of vine is generally termed in French " Cepage," a very 
 convenient term, as the differences between them are often so slight that 
 they do not form distiAct varieties in the strictly botanical sense of the 
 term. 
 
 It is necessary to distinguish between choice and common varieties. 
 Here again quality and quantity are antagonistic. The former are 
 those from which high-class wines are made. The latter are devoted 
 to the production of ordinary wines of commerce; they make up for the 
 inferior quality of their product by being much heavier bearers and 
 hardier than the more delicate choice varieties. It is to be regretted 
 that many person^ tempted by the prospect of heavy yields, plant 
 common to the exclusion of choice varieties, thus sacrificing quality ta 
 quantity — an injudicious course of action, the evil effects of which will 
 invariably be felt as soon as competition begins to be active. I am 
 glad to be able to say that in Victoria the selection of sorts is mado 
 with a considerable amount of judgment, more especially in the newly- 
 planted vineyards, although in many cases there is yet room for improve- 
 ment. 
 
 The distinction between choice and common varieties is not always 
 absolute, it may be relative, and depend upon the other factors, such as 
 soil and climate. For example, a vine which is a heavy bearer, and 
 which only produces a common weak watery wine in the first region, 
 may give excellent results in the third region, or a sort may be a choice 
 one on one soil and a common on another, as, for instance, the Gamay 
 of Beaujolais and the Pinot of Burgundy. The soil of the Beaujolais is 
 granitic and schistose, whereas that of Burgundy is calcareous. In the- 
 former the Gamay gives a superior wine to the Pinot, but in the Burgundy 
 district things are reversed, and it is the Pinot alone which gives the 
 celebrated wines which make the name of Burgundy a household word 
 throughout the world, whilst the Gamay is looked upon as an inferior 
 sort. 
 
 The chief characteristic which must interest the intending planter is 
 the strength of the wine he will make. Under the same conditions of 
 soil and climate different sorts will produce wines differing greatly in 
 alcoholic strength ; it follows that different sorts are specially suited 
 for each climatic region. Other features also require consideration, 
 such as whether the sort be early or late, and so forth, as the vine- 
 must suit the peculiar character of the district in all these respects. I 
 may give you the names of a few different varieties of vines, together 
 with the regions for which they are suited. 
 
 First region. — The different sorts of Pinots, both red and white, 
 usually called Burgundy out here. The Gamay, Cabernet Sauvignon, 
 
124 
 
 Shiraz or Red Hermitage, Verdot, Merlot, and Malbeok ; and for -white 
 the Chasselas, Eiesling, White Hermitage or Roussaince, and Tokay. 
 
 For the second region. — A good many of those above mentioned will 
 give good results, as well as some which would not ripen in the first 
 region. Such are Mataro, Dolcetto, Black Prince, &c., which can be 
 advantageously blended with the others, so as to render the resulting 
 wine lighter. The Red Hermitage or Shiraz, although producing a rather 
 strong wine if grown alone in this region, may be said to be one of the 
 best sorts for it, combining as it does to a great extent quality and 
 quantity. 
 
 In the third region few of the sorts mentioned in the first should be 
 grown, such sorts as Mataro, Carignane, Marrastel, Oeillade, and 
 Grenache forming the basis of the vineyard, whilst for white Doradillo, 
 La Folle, and Sweetwater give good results. 
 
 Mode of Training. 
 
 We now come to the last factor, viz., mode of training. In the first 
 place we will consider the height the crown of the vine ought to occupy. 
 This varies with the district. The higher the crown or, in other words, 
 the farther the grapes are from the ground the less sugar will they contain, 
 and, consequently, the lighter the wine. In many parts of Victoria, 
 especially in the, third region, the crowns are often too near the ground. 
 The vines were formed, for the greater part, by vignerons coming from 
 the colder parts of Europe, where the requirements of the district render 
 low crowns necessary. These men, not adapting themselves to the 
 change of climate, have continued to adopt the same course. In a 
 general way the crown should be higher in the second than in the first 
 region, and still higher in the third than in the second. 
 
 Pruning. 
 
 We now come to the influence of pruning on the character of the 
 wine. In a general way the greater the number of branches there are 
 on the vine the lighter the wine will be. It is possible by pruning to 
 regulate, to some extent, the number of branches on a vine, so we come 
 to the question of long or short pruning, which I may tell you is one 
 of the vexed questions of viticulture. 
 
 In order to enable you to understand the difference between the two 
 I must briefly explain the operation of pruning, and in order to do this 
 more easily I have prepared a few diagrams illustrating the more im- 
 portant points relating to this operation. 
 
 Once the vine has attained its state of full bearing it must be cut 
 back every year to the same extent, or, in other words, it is cut back 
 in the same manner year by year. The vine produces a great 
 quantity of wood, consequently a large amount must be removed from 
 it every year. 
 
125 
 
 The essential point to be observed is only to leave wood which is 
 capable of bearing fruit, unless we consider that necessary for the 
 replacement of an arm which has become unduly elongated. 
 
 The vine produces its fruit on the young wood of the current year, 
 which, grows off the wood of the previous year, which in turn grows 
 off the two-year-old wood. Any shoots growintc directly off the old 
 wood are incapable of producing fruit, it follows that at pruning time 
 the only wood which can be left is that which grows off the wood of 
 the previous year. In order to illustrate this to you more clearly I 
 will explain with the help of the diagram which I have prepared for 
 the purpose. 
 
 In reviewing the different methods of pruning we first come to th© 
 simplest one, or ordinary short spur pruning, which consists in cutting 
 back all the wood of each arm to a spur bearing two eyes ; this is illus- 
 trated in the diagram. The spur left in the previous year has given nse 
 to three shoots— two of these are removed and the lower one is cut back 
 to two eyes. 
 
 NOTK-The letter* in the above diagrams are explained in the Handbook 
 of Viticulture. 
 
126 
 
 In the next two diagrams I have depicted an entire vine, pruned 
 according to this system, both before and after pruning. 
 
 This is short pruning, and, 
 pruning is represented in this 
 
 you see, it is very simple. Long 
 
 Note.— The letters in the above diagrams are explained in the Handbook of 
 Viticulture. 
 
127 
 
 It consists in leaving one or more rods each mth considerably more 
 than two buds on them on the vine. These rods must be selected -with 
 care. They must of course fulfil the condition of being capable of 
 bearing fruit, but, in addition to this, they must be so chosen as to 
 provide against the undue elongation of the arm which bears them. The 
 growth of the vine tends to be greatest at a considerable distance from 
 the old wood, so that if the rod alone were left the lower buds of it might 
 not grow, and a considerable amount of old wood would have to be left 
 each year when a fresh rod was brought down. 
 
 To provide against this a short spur is left at the base. In this way 
 the vine can be kept under control and not allowed to increase the 
 length of its arms. 
 
 The question of long or short pruning has given rise to much dis- 
 cussion. In Victoria the tendency is to err in favour of short-pruning, 
 more especially in the warmer parts. 
 
 The question is influenced in many cases by the sort of vine grown 
 — some being specially suited for short and others for long pruning, 
 the former, when grown in a warm district, should be allowed room to 
 expand by giving them a greater number of arms, whilst the latter must, 
 of course, be pruned long in any case, but more extension left to them 
 in a warm climate. Other sorts again thrive with both long and short 
 pruning, so that the mode to be adopted depends simply on the climate 
 — in a cool one it should be short, in a warm one long. 
 
 Such are the principal points to be observed when pruning, and they 
 regulate the arrangement of the vines ; if the climate be cold these 
 must be placed closer together than if it be warm, in which case the 
 vines, requiring more room for extension, will want more space. 
 
 Such are the main points which the intending planter must endeavour 
 to familiarize himself with, we may recapitulate them as follows: — It 
 is of importance that the grower should endeavour to make a light 
 wine, and with this end in view should pay most attention to the factors 
 which influence the strength of the wine. The factors which increase 
 the strength of the wine are a warm dry climate, a hillside sloping north 
 or east, a rather stiff soil especially a limestone formation, and vines 
 planted close together, pruned short, with low crowns. The factors 
 which diminish the strength of the wine are a cool moist climate, 
 a southern or western aspect, sandy soil, and vines planted far apart, 
 and pruned long, with high crowns. 
 
 Such are the principal points, and I may say that any one who gives 
 •them careful consideration will in after years congratulate himself for 
 having done so. 
 
128 
 
 SOILS AND THEIR CULTIVATION. 
 
 By a. N. Peaeson. 
 
 LECTUEB I. 
 When I was a boy, it seemed to me very strange that such beautiful 
 things as fresh green plants with their delicately petalled flowers 
 should grow out of such dirty, muddy, gritty stufE as the soil. It was 
 one of those mysteries I often pondered over without being able to 
 understand. As one learns more, the mystery becomes explained, the 
 strangeness disappears, and we find that, instead of there being incon- 
 gruity between the plant and the soil, there is a quite natural con- 
 nexion and adaptation of the one to the other. The conception of the 
 soil as so much dirt and inert mud is a false one. The soil is a 
 wonderfully complex thing, composed of many substances both lifeless 
 and living,'all of which substances bear definite and important relations 
 to one another. If we could contract ourselves into little microscopic 
 beings, and enter the soil, wandering about in its interstices, we should 
 find ourselves in a veritable new world ; we should meet with islands 
 of sand and continents of rock, we should sail through little rivers and 
 pools, and observe their ebb and flow, we should breathe a peculiar 
 atmosphere, inhaling at times delicious perfumes, and we should meet 
 with an astounding number of forms of life, all denizens of the soil, and 
 all busily competing amongst themselves for the means of existence, 
 just as we find to be the case in our own world. Far from being an 
 inert mass, the soil is another of nature's laboratories, in which there 
 are at work processes so varied and complex that it will yet take many 
 years to completely investigate them. In many directions a study of 
 the soil would lead into interesting paths of thought, but it is our 
 present business to consider the soil as a source of wealth, as indeed the 
 first amongst the material sources of a nation's prosperity. We derive 
 most of the essentials of our material existence from the soil, and we 
 also derive much from it that is conducive to the higher manifestations 
 of our life. Almost all our food is obtained by cultivation of the soil. 
 Plants grow in the soil, and these plants we eat, either directly as in 
 the case of grain, or indirectly, as when the plants are given to animals 
 which in, their turn serve as food for man. From the practical point of 
 view then we have to consider the soil as the growing place of plants ; 
 and successful cultivation consists in adapting the nature of the soil 
 and the requirements of plants to each other. We shall endeavour to- 
 night to briefly indicate some of those facts which should guide us in 
 adapting the soil to the requirements of plants. We can do little more 
 than touch the outskirts of our subject, for a lecture such as this is 
 not the proper means for detailed instruction. Our considerations will 
 readily fall under three headings namely : — 
 
 1st as to the nature of the soU. 
 
 2nd „ „ plants. 
 
 3rd „ adaptation of the one to the other. 
 
129 
 
 The Nature of Soils. 
 
 We have here before us a number of samples of soil. You will at 
 once see that they present great diversity of character. There are 
 various colours, from a pale dirty yellow, dark-yellow, red, to buff 
 colour, dark-brown, dark slatey blue, and absolute black. Then there 
 are some which are nothing but loose sand; others are in hard intrac- 
 table lumps, from the size of a pea to the size of a large potato ; others 
 are in a pasty maSs ; while here is one which is a mixture of moderately 
 fine earth with larger lumps of a friable nature which can be readily 
 crushed with the fingers. Let us examine into the causes of these 
 differences and their significance in practical agriculture. 
 
 We will commence by examining the last sample, which is what is 
 called a fine sandy loam. It appears to be dry ; but on putting some of 
 it into this flask, and warming it, we see that a considerable amount of 
 water arises from it and trickles down the sides of the flask in the form 
 of condensed steam. Thus we find that one of the constituents of the 
 soil is moisture. If we were to test any of the samples in the same 
 way we should obtain moisture from them, though of course much more 
 would be obtained from some than from others. We will now subject 
 the sample to a higher degree of heat, in this platinum crucible ; 
 presently we observe that gases arise from the crucible, which ignite 
 and burn like ordinary coal gas. Thus we flnd that there is burnable 
 matter in the soil. On turning some of the sample out of the crucible, 
 we see that it is now of a black colour ; this blackness is due to the 
 charcoal produced in the soil during the burning. This burnable sub- 
 stance is the decayed vegetable matter which has accumulated in 
 the soil ; when plants are removed from the ground, their roots 
 remain in the soil, die, and decay ; leaves also fall on the surface, 
 decay, and become washed into the soil ; and in a forest fallen 
 branches and rotting trunks all eventually become incorporated with 
 the ground, and form the burnable portion of the soil. This decayed 
 vegetable matter in the soil is called humus. We shall see eventually 
 that this humus plays a very important part in the constitution of a 
 good poil. Some soils are composed almost entirely of humus; as, 
 for instance, this peat from the Western District., On placing it in 
 the crucible, and subjecting it to the heat of the lamp, it gives off" a con- 
 tinuous stream of highly luminous gas. By the distillation of this peat 
 in districts where it occurs and where coal can be imported only at a 
 high price, gas could be obtained cheaply and other valuable by-products 
 also obtained. From an agricultural point of view, however, this peat 
 contains too much humus. Going back to our original sample, and 
 burning it in the crucible at a still higher temperature, we burn ofi' all 
 the charcoal, and then obtain a light coloured sand, which is the non- 
 volatile non-combustible portion of the soil. 
 
 On examining this sandy substance closely we find that it consists of 
 particles of various sizes, from coarse gritty sand up to the finest flour. 
 We have here an apparatus for separating the constituents of a soil 
 according to the degrees of fineness. The soil, having been first broken 
 
 4781. I 
 
130 
 
 up by prolonged boiling in water, is placed in the smallest of those glass 
 vessels (b). Water from the reservoir (a) enters at the bottom of the 
 vessel and flows in a gentle stream until it fills the vessel, when it 
 
 passes over into the next one (c), carrying with it the finer particles 
 and leaving the larger ones behind ; the next vessel being deeper than, 
 the first and widening out more at the top the current of water flows 
 through it more slowly, and hence carries away with it only still finer 
 particles, those which are too heavy to float iu such a current remaining 
 behind ; and in this way, by passing successively through the vessels 
 (d) and (e), and finally into the receiver (/), the particles of the soil 
 become graded according to their size. It would take us too much time 
 to follow the -experiment to the end ; but I have here in these bottles 
 the components of this soil separated out in the manner described. 
 The first you will see is coarse sand, then we have finer sand, and 
 lastly nothing but the very smallest particles, which consist mostly of 
 clay. 
 
 Thus, then, we have found the soil to consist of water, decayed vege- 
 table matter or humus, coarse sand, fine sand, and clay. The proportions 
 
10 
 
 per cent. 
 
 9 
 
 j> 
 
 10 
 
 )) 
 
 56 
 
 » 
 
 15 
 
 )) 
 
 131 
 
 of these materials vary in different soils ; in the one now before us they 
 would be something as follows :~ 
 
 Water 
 
 Decayed vegetable matter or humus 
 
 Coarse sand 
 
 Fine sand ... 
 
 Clay ... ... ... ..; 
 
 100 
 
 This represents the results of what is called the mechanical analysis 
 .bf a soil. We shall understand its significance as we progress in our 
 inquiries. 
 
 But this method of analysis does not tell us everything about the 
 soil ; by subjecting it to other tests we shall find other substances in it. 
 I have here a bottle containing a solution of ammonia, which is readily 
 recognised by its pungent odour. On holding above the mouth of the 
 bottle this piece of paper, which has been dipped in red litmus and is 
 moist, you see that the paper turns blue ; in this other bottle is contained 
 a strong solution of an acid called hydrochloric acid or, as it was once 
 termed, " spirits of salt," because it was obtained from common salt. 
 On holding a drop of this acid near to the open mouth of the ammonia 
 bottle a white smoke immediately appears, due to the combination of 
 the vapour arising from the acid with the vapour arising from the 
 ammonia. Thus, then, we have two tests for ascertaining the presence 
 of ammonia. We will now take some of the soil, mix it with a little 
 quicklime,' and moisten it. The strong pungent odour of ammonia 
 immediately appears, and on applying the litmus and hydrochloric acid 
 tests you see that they- also certify to the presence of the ammonia. If 
 we had time I could show you that the ammonia is contained in, or 
 rather is produced from, the decayed vegetable matter in the soil. All 
 vegetable matter, and indeed all animal matter, will produce ammonia 
 . in this way. If we were to take a piece of grass, or wood, or a piece 
 of meat, and subject it in the same way to the action of quicklime we 
 should get the characteristic ammoniacal odour, just as we have done 
 from the soil. Now what is ammonia ? It is a compound substance 
 containing the two elements known by the names of nitrogen and 
 hydrogen. We may take the ammonia then as an indication of the 
 presence of nitrogen in the soil. 
 
 I have here in this flask some of the soil which is being boiled in 
 hydrochloric acid. We will pour the liquid out of the flask on to this 
 filter. You will observe that the soil remaining behind after the liquid 
 has been poured oflE does not much differ in outward appearance from 
 the original soil. Here, in this bottle, is a quantity of the soil which 
 has been boiled in hydrochloric acid, washed, and then dned. It is not 
 by its general appearance easily distinguishable from the original; yet, 
 whereas the original was very rich and fertile, if we were try to cultivate 
 it after treating it in this way we should find that nothing would grow in 
 it. From this simple fact. you will gather that the quality of soils is 
 
 I 2 
 
132 
 
 not indicated by their outward appearance alone; two soils may- 
 seem to the eye very much alike, and yet be very different in quality. 
 
 Let us now take a little of this soil that has been boiled in the hydro- 
 chloric acid, and burn it in the crucible ; the result you see is a perfectly 
 white sand, quite different from the coloured sand obtained on burning 
 the original soil. The colour has disappeared from the sand, evidently 
 indicating that the something which caused the colour has been re- 
 moved. That something we shall find in the solution which has passed 
 through the filter. Let us see if we can get any of it out of the solution. 
 We add a quantity of ammonia, and immediately a dark cloudy mass 
 appears in what was before a clear solution. This cloudy mass is 
 formed by solid matter which the ammonia has thrown out of solution ; 
 in chemical language we say it has been precipitated, and the solid 
 substance thus thrown down we call a precipitate. Any one having an 
 elementary acquaintance with practical chemistry will at once recognise 
 that precipitate as consisting to a large extent of iron and alumina. We 
 will now ppur it on to this clean filter, and allow the clear liquid to run 
 through, the precipitate being held back on the filter. To the clear 
 liquid that has run through we add another solution, and immediately a 
 white cloudiness appears, which is a precipitate of lime. Thus we have 
 found three other things in the soil — namely, iron, alumina, and lime. 
 
 We could not to-night make a complete analysis of the soil. It 
 would take us some days to go through all the processes properly, and 
 so I must ask you to be content with my telling you the various things 
 that we should find in it. We should find water, humus (containing 
 nitrogen), oxide of iron, alumina, lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phos- 
 phoric acid, sulphuric acid, chlorine, carbonic acid, soluble silica, and sand 
 (which consists of ordinary quartz, and also of certain insoluble substances 
 composed of quartz combined with lime, magnesia, potash, soda, &c., and 
 which are known as silicates). The proportions of these substances 
 vary in different soils, but the following will pretty nearly represent 
 the proportions in a good soil such as the one before us : — 
 
 Water ... ... 10,000 in 100,000. 
 
 Humus ... ... 9,000 
 
 (Containing Nitrogen 300) 
 
 Oxide of Iron and 
 
 Alumina ... ... 4,500 
 
 Lime ... ... 800 
 
 Magnesia ... ... 400 
 
 Potash ... ... 250 
 
 , Soda ... ... 150 
 
 Phosphoric Acid ... 170 
 
 Sulphuric Acid ... 200 
 
 Chlorine ... ... 10 
 
 Carbonic Acid ... 300 
 
 Soluble Silica ... 250 
 
 Insoluble Silicates and 
 
 Sand ... ... 73,970 
 
 100,000 
 
133 
 
 There -would also be very minute quantities of some other substances, 
 but they are insignificant from an agricultural point of view. 
 
 There is still another substance which I have not mentioned, and 
 which is never taken into account in an analysis of the soil ; that 
 substance is air. No cultivable soils are so compact and densely com- 
 pressed that there are not considerable air spaces between the lumps 
 and particles. Nor is this the only way in which the presence of air 
 is to be accounted for. You may have heard of the curious property 
 possessed by charcoal, by virtue of which it can condense within its 
 pores many times its volume of air and of other gases. If freshly- 
 prepared charcoal be exposed to the air for about 24 hours it will be 
 found to gain weight, and by suitable methods of analysis it can be 
 ascertained that it will have condensed within itself over six times its 
 volume of' atmospheric gases. Soils in the same way condense from 
 two to five times their volume of air in their small interstices. There 
 are two substances in the soil which possess this property in a remark- 
 able degree. The one is carbonate of magnesia and the other is oxide 
 of iron, precipitated, as we saw done, out of the soil solution and 
 then dried. Carbonate of magnesia can condense over twelve times its 
 volume of air, and the precipitated oxide of iron can condense over 
 30 times its volume. 
 
 Notwithstanding the many things we have found in the soil we have 
 still omitted to consider a very important element, namely, the forms 
 of life that exist in it. One must go to a considerable depth below the 
 surface in order to obtain a sample of earth free from some form of life. 
 Whenever a dry summer occurs cracks form in the ground, and the 
 smaller seeds of plants which may be then liberated from the pod are 
 able to roll down these cracks to a great depth. Seeds may in this 
 way be preserved for many years; and it is said to have been observed 
 that in making railway cuttings pMnts have grown on the sides of the 
 cuttings which were long since extinct and unknown in the district. As 
 we get nearer to the surface we find, in addition to seeds, the eggs of 
 insects and of other low forms of animal life. Then there are earth- 
 worms, many kinds of subterranean grubs, and burrowing animals, such 
 as crickets, moles, and crabs. All these exercise an influence on the soil, 
 and are not to be regarded as unimportant factors in agriculture. Then 
 there are the spores of various mildews and fungi, which may attack 
 plants, causing diseases of root, stem, leaf, or fruit. But the most 
 important of all the forms of life are to be found near the surface. I 
 should like to have been able to show experimentally some of the 
 effects of these, but our time is too limited; and I must be content with 
 stating that the surface soil when in proper condition is pervaded with 
 teeming multitudes of those microscopic ferment-causing organisms 
 which are commonly called microbes, and which are almost unceasingly 
 at work in producing important chemical changes in the soil. 
 
 This must end for the present our consideration of the nature of the 
 soil. As to the uses of the various constituents, and their behaviour 
 under different conditions, we shall examine further after we have 
 inquired into. 
 
134 
 
 The Nature of Plants. 
 
 First, as to the composition of plants. We have here some fresh 
 grass in a flask immersed in a hot-oil bath. You see the water escaping 
 from the flask in the form of steam. Thus we find that the plant, like 
 the soil, contains water. We have here some of the dried grass in a 
 platinum dish. Exposed to the heat of the lamp it gives off combus- 
 tible gases, and blackens, as did the soil; and on burning off the charred 
 mass, we get a quantity of incombustible matter or ash, just as we did 
 with the soil. Thus, as in the soil, so also in the plant we flnd water, 
 combustible matter, and incombustible matter or ash. But the propor- 
 tions are very different. The water in the plant is very much greater 
 than in the soil, and the ash or incombustible matter is very much less 
 indeed. Thus, in the fresh grass we should get something like the 
 following: — 
 
 Water ... ... ••• ■•• 72 per cent. 
 
 Combustible matter ... ... 26 „ 
 
 Ash 2 
 
 100 per cent. 
 
 In turnips and cabbages we should find the proportions to be some- 
 thing like the following: — 
 
 Water... ... ... ... 90 per cent. 
 
 Combustible matter ... ... 9 „ 
 
 Ash ... ... ... ■■■ 1 „ 
 
 I have already, in an earlier part of the lecture explained, that plants 
 contained nitrogen, as is evidenced by their giving off ammonia with 
 quick-lime. Now, where and how does the plant get its water, its 
 combustible matter, and its ash ? In order to answer this question we 
 must examine into the structure and growth of the plant. 
 
 I have here some grains of wheat in various stages of germination. 
 On examining them it will be seen that the germ or embryo of the seed 
 has sprouted out in two directions, forming two buds. Were we to 
 watch these germinating seeds for a few days we should flnd that, in 
 whatever position the seed be placed, one of the buds will proceed in 
 an upward direction, and the other in a downward direction. The 
 upward bud becomes green in the light, and produces the stem, leaves,: 
 blossom, and seed ; this upward bud we will call the shoot. The down-' 
 ward bud remains white, and produces the roots, which, if the seed' be 
 planted in the earth, burrow their way into the soil. It is a remarkable 
 fact that the shoot wUl always grow upwards and the root downwards.- 
 If , after the little plant has grown in one position for a time, it be turned 
 upside down the growing part of the shoot will turn round and proceed 
 to grow upward again, and the growing part of the root will similarly; 
 turn round and proceed to grow downward. A plant may be grown in 
 a flower-pot for some time in an ordinary upward and downwardi 
 
Fig. 4. 
 
 Growing Point of Grass Root 
 
 (Antho-xanthum OdoraUm) 
 
 ah. Region of growth, c, Root cap. 
 
 d. Boot hairs, magiufieid 
 
 about 50 diameters. 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Root of Wheat Plant 
 
 about fire weeks old. 
 
 (After Sachs.) 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Wheat Seedling 
 (after Sachs). 
 
135 
 
 direction; if the pot then be laid on its side the growing part of the shoot 
 -will be found in a day or two to have turned at right angles to its 
 former position, and to be growing upwards ; and on taking the plant 
 out of the pot, and carefully washing the soil from the roots, it will be 
 found that the root also has turned at right angles and grown down- 
 wards. Thus it is the natural tendency of the root to grow downwards* 
 and find its way into the depths of the soil. 
 
 We need not further consider the shoot at present. It is with that 
 part of the plant which finds its way into the soil — namely, the root — 
 that we are at present concerned. Here is part of a full-grown wheat 
 plant which has been pulled out of the ground ; the roots you will see 
 as a btindle of stiff fibres. To an ordinary observer that appears to be 
 the whole of the root of a wheat plant, but there is probably not more 
 than one-thirtieth part of the whole root seen here. The greater 
 portion — in fact, almost the whole of it — has been left in the ground. 
 Here is a grain of wheat which has been growing for the last five days, 
 You see the root has already several fibres, each of which considerably 
 exceeds in length the small shoot. In the diagram (Fig. 2) we have a 
 drawing of a young wheat plant at this stage of growth. After it has 
 grown for about four weeks the roots will appear as shown in the next 
 diagram (Fig. 3). 
 
 Looking at these roots more closely, we find that each fibre is tipped 
 with yellow; and if this yellow tip were examined under a magnifying 
 glass it would be seen as shown in diagram Fig. 4, where will be seen at 
 c a little mass of material of difierent appearance from the rest. This 
 material is of a somewhat homy consistency, and, although its lower 
 surface becomes rapidly worn away as the root burrows along through 
 the soil, it is not worn so rapidly as the tender portion behind would 
 be. This horny point is being constantly pushed down into the soil by 
 reason of the growth of the living matter behind it. It is not, how- 
 ever, the whole of the root that grows, but only the portion immediately 
 behind the horny tip, namely, the portion from a to 6. The usefulness 
 of this method of growth can be readily understood, for if the whole 
 length of the root were to grow at the same time, it would make no 
 progress at all in the soil, but would become crumpled up along its whole 
 length. The upper portion, however, having grovm, becomes stiff and 
 comparatively rigid, and fixed in the soil. This stifiened part serves as 
 a purchase to the growing tip, which pushes against it and so forces its 
 way further into the soil. The force with which the little root tip 
 pushes its way is great, and it can overcome considerable resistance. 
 
 On again examining the roots of our young seedling, we observe that 
 they arfenveloped in sand; and even on shaking them the sand does 
 not Ml off. On miscroscopically examining the rootlets the cause of 
 this becomes apparent. I have some young wheat plants growing n 
 hese botS, ^Z their roots in water ; the roots in t^e- -u .^^ jXl 
 seen and they appear to be enveloped in a cloudy coating of fine floss 
 ofwooT SniSing this woolly coating, it is found to consist of myriads 
 
136 
 
 of exceedingly delicate hairs growing out of the sides of the rootlets. 
 These hairs are roughly shown in diagram (Fig. 5) ; they are seen on a 
 larger scale in diagram (Fig. 6). It is owing to the sand being entangled 
 in them that we find the sand clinging to the rootlets, as we saw in 
 this specimen. Now, these fine hairs are, as regards the life processes 
 of the plant, the most important part of the root. 
 
 If we were to examine one of them, highly magnified, it would present 
 the appearance in Fig. 7. 
 
 It is a sort of long sac, or, as it is called by botanists, a cell. All 
 ordinary plants are built up of such cells, of various sizes and shapes. 
 Occasionally these cells are large enough to be handled with the fingers 
 and seen with the naked eye, as in the case of the cells composing the 
 pulp of oranges and lemons ; but, as a rule, they are of microscopic size. 
 Such cells can be seen on the outer surface of the rootlet shown in this 
 sketch, arranged against each other like bricks ; and every one of the 
 outside cells of the rootlets, except those at the tip, has a long outward 
 sac-like prolongation, which is the root hair. The skin of these cells 
 is lined on the inside with a layer of soft slimy substance, which is the 
 living matter of the plant, and out of which all the other materials 
 which go to form the plant are elaborated. The outer skin of the cell 
 allows water and solutions of salt to filter through it readily, and the 
 inner soft slimy substance absorbs water, and swells up much the same 
 as seaweed or the skin of bladder swells up when placed in water. 
 Inside the slimy layer is a solution of salts, which is call the cell sap. 
 
 We have now to consider the function of these root hairs. I have 
 here a piece of bladder tied tightly to the end of a glass tube (see Fig. 8). 
 The bladder was filled with coloured brine, and then immersed in the 
 glass vessel containing water. When first immersed in the water 
 the bladder was creased and crumpled, but now you see that it has 
 swelled out and stretched to its full size, and the brine has risen in the 
 glass tube to a considerable height. The water has passed through out 
 of the vessel into the bladder and up the tube. We cannot at present 
 stop to explain why it is that the water has passed into the bladder 
 and risen in the tube ; but it is the process that always takes place 
 where a moderately strong solution contained in an absorbent skin such 
 as the bladder is immersed in water or in a weaker solution. Now, 
 these root hairs and the young outer cells of the rootlets act like this 
 bladder, the slimy inner layer taking the place of the bladder skin in the 
 experiment. Thus, the water passes from the soil into these cells, from 
 these in a similar manner it passes to the inner cells, and is transmitted 
 by them upwards through the stem until it reaches the leaves. Having 
 reached the leaves, it is passed out into the atmosphere and evaporated. 
 Thus it will be seen that a plant is a sort of pump, drawing up water 
 from the interior of the soil, and passing it out into the air. The 
 quantity of water brought up in this way is very great. It has been 
 estimated that a moderate-sized cabbage will transpire 25 ozs. in twelve 
 hours, that a square foot of grass sod will give ofi" from 2 to 5 lbs. in 
 
r \ i 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Showiag root hair in the soil, aa^ Boot hair. 
 
 b, Outer cells of root fibre^ ,cc, Particles of soil. 
 
 dd, Soil water, ee, Air bubbles. Highly magnified, 
 
 (After Sachs. ) 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 Young Wheat Roots 
 showing root hairs. 
 
 ^A2? 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Root hairs, highly magnified. 
 
 The fine particles of soil are seen 
 
 almost grown over and enclosed 
 
 by the living hairs. 
 
Fig. 8. 
 
 Bladder tied to end of tube showing 
 action of plant cells. 
 
137 
 
 24 hours, that a flo-wering tobacco plant, or a sunflower, 6 feet high, 
 will transpire from one to two pints on a warm day, and that an oak 
 or a poplar may transpire from ten to twenty gallons in a day ; and it 
 has been shown that such plants as wheat, barley, clover, peas, and 
 beans, when properly grown, may, during the course of their growth, 
 have transpired more than 300 lbs. of water for every pound of dry 
 substance they contain. 
 
 The root hairs, however, do something more than take up water, for 
 the water in the soil is not pure, but contains very small quantities of 
 substances dissolved from the soil. Some of these substances are taken 
 with the water into the root hairs, and are passed on to various parts of 
 the plant. 
 
 But the root hairs do even more than this, they exude an acid juice 
 by means of which they may dissolve, from off the surface of those soil- 
 particles with which they come in contact, substances which may not 
 already be dissolved in the soil water. 
 
 These root hairs have only a brief existence, they make their appear- 
 ance just above the growing portion of the root, do their work for a 
 few days, and then die off j their work being taken up by new hairs 
 growing lower down on the root. Thus, as will be seen on referring 
 to diagram (Fig. 3), the upper portion of the root is devoid of hairs. 
 In these portions the absorbent surface is replaced by a hard skin, 
 which protects the inner portion of the root fibre from communication 
 with the immediately surrounding soil, thus forming a channel for the 
 transmission of the liquid absorbed at the lower portion of the rootlet.' 
 In this way, new portions of the soil are constantly being drawn upon 
 by the plant. The extent to which the roots may traverse the soil is 
 siu-prising. Instead of the root consisting only of the little bunch of 
 fibres which are seen when a plant is pulled violently out of the 
 ground, they approximate in bulk to the part of the plant which grows 
 above ground ; indeed, they form from 25 to 45 per cent, of 
 the total weight of the dried plant. The way to see the roots is not to 
 tear the plant out of the ground, but to dig an excavation 6 or 8 
 feet deep around the plant, and then carefully wash away the soil from 
 about the roots with a stream of water. Schubart, a German investi- 
 gator, adopted this plan, and he found the roots of rye, beans, and 
 peas, at a depth of 4 feet, presenting the appearance of a mat or felt of 
 white fibres^ In this way he saw wheat roots going down to a depth 
 of 7 feet. Thus, not only do the roots proceed to a considerable 
 depth, but they ramify into a thick mass. I have here a piece of soil 
 taken out of a field which had just been cleared of a crop of mangolds 
 and then ploughed. The freshly upturned sods were thickly interlaced 
 with delicate fibres, on which, in many parts, the fine velvety pile of 
 root hairs could be seen. The rootlets in the specimen are now dead 
 and dried, and no longer present so beautiful an appearance, but they 
 can still be seen thickly interlacing through the soil. Thus, with their 
 ramifications and progress downwards, putting out their absorbent root 
 
138 
 
 hairs in constantly new parts, they bring, not certainly every particle of 
 the soil, but a very considerable proportion of them under tribute, 
 absorbing the soil -water, with the dissolved substances therein, and 
 taking also substances which may not be already in solution. 
 
 The question now is, what are the substances which the plant takes 
 from the soil through its ramifying rootlets and root hairs ? We saw 
 that the soil consisted of water, burnable substance, with its contained 
 nitrogen, unburnable substance, and also air of various kinds ; we have 
 seea also that the plant consists of water, burnable substance, with its 
 contained nitrogen, and unburnable substance or ash. We might also 
 have shown that plants also contain air of various kinds in them. Do 
 they derive all these substances from the soil ? The answer is, briefly. 
 No, they do not. The water, which forms by far the greater portion of 
 the substance of plants, we have already seen they derive from the 
 soil ; and the only matter of any importance that they gain from the 
 soil besides the water is the nitrogen and the unburnable substances. 
 In fact, if we supply these substances by other means, we can grow 
 plants without any soil at all. 
 
 I have here in this bottle a young maize plant growing in the way 
 shown in Fig. 9. The bottle contains water, with certain substances 
 dissolved in it. The roots are in the water, and are absorbing it and 
 the dissolved substances the same as they would the soil water. This 
 method of growing plants is known as water culture : and it was in 
 great part by means of water culture that the early investigators into 
 the science of agriculture learnt what it was that plants took from the 
 soil. The solution in this bottle is made by taking a pint of pure 
 distilled water and adding to it — 
 
 10 grains of nitrate of potash (common saltpetre, containing 
 
 nitrogen and potash). 
 5 grains of chloride of sodium (common salt, containing chlorine 
 
 and soda). 
 5 grains of sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts, containing 
 
 sulphuric acid and magnesia). 
 5 grains of sulphate of lime (gypsum, containing sulphuric acid 
 
 and lime). 
 5 grains of phosphate of lime (the basis of bones, containing 
 
 phosphoric acid and lime). 
 ^ grain of sulphate of iron. 
 
 Thus of the various substances contained in the soil we have here 
 the water, nitrogen, iron, lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric acid, 
 sulphuric acid, and chlorine. With these substances the plant will 
 grow perfectly provided due care be taken, and will produce eventually 
 a normal crop of grain. You will naturally ask if all or any of these 
 substances are absolutely necessary for the growth of the plant. We 
 have here a series of bottles containing solutions, out of which various 
 constituents have been omitted. In this bottle there is nothing but 
 
Fiu. 9. 
 
 Plant growing in 
 Nutritive Solution. 
 
139 
 
 distilled water, this next bottle contains all the substances except 
 nitrogen, out of the third bottle the phosphoric acid has beeii omitted, 
 out of the fourth the potash, out of this the soda, out of another the 
 magnesia, out of this the lime, and out of this the iron. Unfortunately 
 the plants have not been- growing long enough to show the effect of 
 these omissions ; the young seedlings are still feeding on the original 
 store of nourishment contained in the seeds. But in a few days they 
 will begin to show dijQferences. Already in the bottle containing pure 
 distilled water a difEerence is discernible in the length of the rootlets, 
 which seem to be extending out rapidly, as though in search of food. 
 The final outcome of the experiment, if it were complete, would be to 
 show that all these substances are indispensable ; and that nothing else 
 is indispensable. These substances are not all taken up in the same 
 proportions by any means ; only a very little of iron is taken up ; and 
 the soda and the chlorine need be given in only small proportions. 
 Plants also take up silica from the soil, but they seem to do so because 
 the silica is there, not because they want it, for they can complete their 
 existence without it. 
 
 With the exception of the nitrogen, these substances form the ash 
 that is left on burning a plant. Some idea of the proportions in which 
 they are taken up can be seen by analyzing the ash. Thus wheat grain, 
 on being burnt, leaves about 1^ to 2 per cent, its weight of ash, and this 
 on being analyzed is found to contain on an average the following : — 
 
 Oxide of Iron ... ... ... IJ 
 
 Lime ... 
 
 ... 4 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 ... 10 
 
 Potash 
 
 ... 32 
 
 Soda ... 
 
 ... 2i 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 ... 47 
 
 Sulphuric Acid... 
 
 ... 1 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 ... i 
 
 Silica 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 100 
 
 Dry wheat straw leaves about o per cen 
 
 t, of ash, which contains 
 
 Oxide of Iron ... 
 
 ... 1 
 
 Lime... 
 
 ... 5i 
 ... 2| 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Potash 
 
 ... 11 
 
 Soda... 
 
 ... 3 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 ... 5 
 
 Sulphuric Acid... 
 
 1* 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 ... 2 
 
 Silica 
 
 ... 68^ 
 
 100 
 
140 
 
 The silica in the straw is in relatively high proportion, but as we 
 have already stated it seems to serve no useful purpose, for the plant 
 can grow quite well without it. Both in the straw and in the grain the 
 substances present in largest quantity are the phosphoric acid, potash, 
 lime, and magnesia. These, together with the water and nitrogen, are 
 the main substances which the plant takes from the soil j yet also the 
 other substances, namely, the iron, soda, sulphuric acid, and chlorine, 
 though taken in smaller quantities, are fl,lso indispensable. 
 
 We have thus seen that of the 72 per cent, of water, 26 per cent, of 
 combustible matter, and 2 per cent, of incombustible matter, the plant 
 obtains from the soil the water and the incombustible matter or ash, 
 together with the nitrogen in the combustible matter, amounting to 
 about 2 per cent. Whence then comes the remaining portion of the 
 combustible matter, namely, the 24 per cent. First of all, it is necessary 
 to ask what this combustible matter consists of ? When burning it 
 becomes blackened, forming charcoal or carbon; evidently, therefore, one 
 of its elements is carbon. Another element we have already seen is 
 nitrogen, which the plant obtains from the soil. The other elements 
 are, it may seem surprising to learn, those which constitute water ; and 
 the plant obtains them from that water which it derives from the soil. 
 The 26 parts of combustible matter consist approximately of two parts 
 of nitrogen and thirteen parts of the elements of water obtained from 
 the soil, and eleven parts of carbon. Whence is this carbon obtained ? 
 It is obtained from the air, by the green parts of the plants. There are 
 about'four parts of carbonic acid gas in 10,000 parts of air. It seems a 
 very small proportion, but the carbon contained in this carbonic acid is 
 what the plant feeds upon; and notwithstanding that it is present in 
 very small proportion, yet there is an ample supply of it, for as fast as 
 the plants can remove it it becomes re-supplied by the breathing of ani- 
 mals, and by the decay of animal and vegetable matter. It is present in 
 considerable quantities in the eoil, where it is produced by the decom- 
 position of decaying roots and humus, and it is probably exhaled from 
 the soil into the atmosphere. 
 
 We have thus seen then that the plant takes from the soil certain 
 substances which are essential to its growth and existence, these sub- 
 stances being water, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, magnesia, lime, 
 and small quantities of soda, sulphuric acid, and chlorine. Now the one 
 object of cultivating the soil is to facilitate the plants obtaining these 
 indispensable substances. And in considering how this is to be done we 
 come to the final section of our lecture, namely, that which treats of the 
 
 Adaptation of the Soil to the Requirements of Plants. 
 
 There dan be little doubt that originally the cultivation of the soil was 
 intended simply to supply a seed-bed. Instead of throwing the seed on 
 the bare ground, exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather and to the 
 fowls of the air, the earth was scratched an inch or two deep with a 
 piece of pointed hard wood, which, as discoveries advanced, was 
 
141 
 
 improved by being shod with a piece of metal. Thus originated the 
 process of ploughing and all the various highly-developed methods by 
 which to-day the soil is tilled. In our present practice of tilling there 
 is still this much resemblance to its earliest progenitor, namely, that its 
 main object is to prepare a good seed-bed. But as agriculture advances, 
 the thoughts of agriculturists are being given, not only' to the few inches 
 below the surface, but also to the underlying depths; and it is being 
 asked what influence have these depths on the plant, what condition 
 mus't they be in for the general well-being of vegetable growth, and 
 how is it possible to exercise any control over that condition? As the art 
 of soil culture develops, attention is paid not only to the few inches 
 depth of the seed-bed, but to what extends below; and not only to the 
 good lodgment of the seed, but to the requirements o^ the plant 
 throughout the whole course of its career. What these requirements 
 are we have already seen; the plant needs to get water, and it needs 
 certain other substances which are essential to it as food. 
 
 Let us consider first of all how it is to obtain water. The amount of 
 water in the surface soil varies considerably at different times of the 
 year, and in different districts. Sometimes the soil is quite wet, and 
 sometimes quite dry. But if at any season we dig deep enough, we shall 
 find that however dry the soil be at the surface, there is moisture below; 
 and the deeper we get the moister we shall find it; and by going deep 
 enough, we shall eventually come to a level where the soil is saturated 
 with water. If we dig deeper than this, the water will fill the hole up 
 to the level. This level is called the water plane or water table. It is 
 not constant, sometimes it is close up to the surface as in a swamp, 
 sometimes it may be ten or twenty feet below the surface, and in arid 
 regions may be even considerably deeper. Now during the winter and 
 spring, when the surface soil is generally wet, plants growing with 
 their roots near the surface are generally sure of a supply of moisture. 
 But as the summer advances, the soil near the surface dries; what 
 is the plant to do then ? There are four ways in which it might be 
 possible to meet the case. One way is to water the soil by irrigation ; 
 another is to prevent the soil from drying so rapidly; a third is 
 to cause the roots to go down to the water-table; and a fourth is to 
 cause the water to rise from the water table up to the roots. Irrigation 
 when economically practicable is about the best of these four expedients. 
 But even with irrigation, when we have to pay for the water, we 
 shall find it advisable to prevent the waste which may result from a 
 rapid drying of the soil. One cause of the rapid drying of soils 
 is the presence of plants growing in them. We have already seen 
 that a plant acts as a pump, lifting the water out of the soil and pass- 
 ing it into the atmosphere. We should therefore take care to have no 
 plants in the soil except those we wish to grow. Hence weeds have 
 to be removed, and weeding becomes an indispensable portion of soil 
 cultivation. Another way of preventing the rapid drying of the soil 
 would be to improve its water-holding and water-retaining qualities. 
 It is well known that some soils remain moist longer than others. We 
 have here a little tin containing a certain weight of the yellow clay 
 
142 
 
 which is exhibited in Sample No. 5, and we have in this other tin an 
 equal weight of the sand exhibited in Sample No. 8. Now to show 
 the different holding capacities of these soils, I will pour an equal 
 quantity of water on to each, and then run off and measure what is not 
 absorbed. Having done so, we find that the clay absorbs 45 measures 
 of water, whereas the sand absorbs only 30 measures. In these two 
 tins I have the same soils which were moistened in this way two days 
 ago, and have since been allowed to dry as much as they would. You 
 will see that the sand is already so dry as to be in loose particles, 
 whereas the clay has retained its moisture better, and is still quite wet . 
 and plastic. Peat soils, which consist in great part of humus or decayed 
 vegetable matter, are similar to clay in this respect. We should 
 imagine then that if we mixed some clay and humus with the sand we 
 should prevent its drying so rapidly. To test this I have mixed some 
 of this sand in the proportions of 8o| sand, 5j clay, 5f peat, and 2| 
 lime. The lime was put in for a purpose which I will explain after- 
 wards. I have a quantity of this mixture in this tin, and, on testing 
 its water-holding capacity in the same way as the others, we now find 
 that it absorbs about 42 measures, that is to say almost as much as 
 the clay did, and as to its retaining capacity this tin has been sub- 
 jected to the same drying treatment as the other two, and we find that it 
 is still quite wet. This, then, is one method by which a non-retentive 
 soil may be made to keep moist for a longer time. There are many 
 sandy soils which rest on beds of clay; in fact, this is very commonly 
 the case with sands. It is the case with the sandy soils at Brighton 
 and to the south-east of Melbourne generally. Now if trenches were 
 cut through these soils down to the clay subsoil, and the clay then 
 dug out and thrown over the surface so as to be afterwards worked in 
 with the plough or washed in w:ith the rain, the water-retaining 
 capacity of those sands would be greatly improved. 
 
 This drying of the soils is not due solely to the evaporation from the 
 surface; it is also due to the sinking of the water down through the 
 interstices. In the case of a sandy soil on a gravelly subsoil the rain 
 which falls on the surface rapidly percolates through both soil and 
 subsoil. Now difierent soils have different degrees of permeability. 
 Here in this glass tube, I have some of the same sand as was taken in 
 the previous experiment, and in this other tube some of the same clay 
 as was taken before. On pouring water on to them it is seen to 
 rapidly iilter through the sand, but only very slowly through the clay. 
 We can make loose sandy soils less permeable by mixing them with 
 clay and also with humus. I have in this tube some of the sand 
 mixed with clay and peat and lime as before ; and, on testing its 
 freedom to percolation in comparison with that of the original sand, 
 you will see that the water runs through it much less rapidly. Thus 
 we again see how in the cultivation of a sandy soil it is advisable if 
 possible to mix it with a little clay. 
 
 Let us now consider how it would be possible to draw the water up 
 from the water-table towards the roots. I have here a number of small 
 
143 
 
 glass tubes tied together in a bundle. Some of these tubes are as fine as 
 hairs ; hence these tubes are called capillary tubes, from the Latin 
 capillus, a hair. On dipping these tubes into this cup of ink, you observe 
 that the ink quickly rises in the tubes ; you will observe also that in 
 some of them it rises higher than in others ; those in which it rises 
 highest are the tubes of smallest diameter. This rising of the liquid 
 in small tubes is due to what is called capillary attraction. Now, the 
 little particles and grains of soil lying near to each other enclose 
 between them channels which act like these little tubes, and the water 
 will rise in them by capillary attraction. But it will not rise in all 
 soils to the same degree. Much depends upon the size of the particles 
 of soil. If these be so large as to produce large interspaces, then the 
 capillary channels will be wide; but, as we saw in our experiment, the 
 liquid does not rise so high in large tubes as in small ones. Then, again, 
 much depends upon the nature of the particles. Dry sand, like glass, 
 wUl attract the liquid ; but dry humus, as, for instance, dry particles 
 of peat, will repel it, and until the peat has become moist the water 
 cannot ascend it. Whether the surfaces of dry clay particles repel or 
 attract water in the capillary channels I do not know, but it is certain 
 that, for a time at least, water rises very much more rapidly in sand than 
 in clay. I have here a number of glass tubes, stopped at the bottom 
 with perforated corks (See Fig. 10), and containing soils of different 
 
 kinds. \ They rest with their bottom ends in a glass vessel, and on 
 pourings water into this vessel, you see it begin to rise immediately in 
 the sand ; it rises more slowly in the loam and in the chocolate soil, 
 and goes up very slowly indeed in the clay. 
 
144 
 
 2 '■ 
 
 / 
 
 6 0»yj 
 
 5 ■' 
 
 * ■■ 
 
 3 ■■ 
 2 ■' 
 
 18 Hourn, 
 
 4.5 M/MuTf; 
 
 15 
 
 — -BfTl 
 
 How high the -water could rise in soils by simple capillary attraction 
 I cannot say. I have here (See Fig. II) two long tubes, theone filled 
 
 ■with a sandy soil, the other with 
 a clay soil. They .were set in 
 water more than five months ago, 
 and the water is still rising in them, 
 but it rises very slowly now as 
 compared with what it did the 
 first day. There are strips of 
 white paper marking the height 
 to which it has risen each day or 
 week, and you will see that the 
 amount it has risen at each suc- 
 cessive interval has become less 
 and less. You will also observe 
 that whereas during the first 
 quarter of an hour the water rose 
 four times as rapidly in the sand 
 as in the clay, afterwards it began 
 to rise more quickly in the clay 
 than in the sand, so that at about 
 the fourth week the water in the 
 clay overtook that in the sand, 
 and at the end of the twenty- 
 third week was 3f inches ahead. 
 The soils that were placed in 
 these tubes were very dry. It 
 is possible that if they had been 
 a little moist the water would 
 have risen in them more rapidly. 
 If a soil be fairly moist to start 
 with, and the little capillary 
 channels be not obstructed or cut 
 off by some impermeable sub- 
 stance, such as a layer of impene- 
 trable hardened clay, then the 
 water may be continuously sup- 
 plied to the upper parts of the 
 soil even to a height of 2 feet 
 from the reservoir at the water- 
 table. In fact, it may rise close 
 up to the surface. Let us ask 
 what would happen if it did ? 
 Here in this tube (^, Fig. 12) 
 the water had thus risen up to 
 the surface. Now suppose the 
 top of the soil in that tube were 
 
 6 Otrs 
 5 
 
 # ,■ 
 3 ■ 
 
 /8 HouHi 
 
 9S MtNurc5 
 
 IS 
 
 lO ■■ 
 
 5 ■ 
 
 Sanr Clay 
 Fig II 
 the surface of an open field, and that the wind was playing over it< 
 That wind would rapidly evaporate the water at the surface ; and to 
 
145 
 
 a 
 
 ^ f^ic IZ^ 
 
 supply the place of that evaporated water more water would rise 
 from below, and in time, this continuing, the water at a depth would 
 become considerably evaporated, and instead 
 of merely the surface being dried, the soil 
 throughout a great depth would become 
 seriously impoverished of its water. This, 
 in fact, has occurred with the soil in the 
 tube A : that soil, you will see, is now dry. 
 It has however, taken a long time for it to 
 dry, because it has been kept in closed 
 rooms with a still atmosphere ; had it been 
 placed in the open air, with the wind 
 playing over it, it would have dried more 
 quickly. Now, how can this drying of 
 the soil to great depths owing to surface 
 evaporation be prevented ? It can be pre- 
 vented by the simple expedient of breaking 
 the capillary connexion between the sur- 
 face and the soil underneath. In this tube 
 (B, Fig. 12) I have covered the soil with 
 fragments of straw to represent mulching, 
 so that the surface exposed to the air is not the top of the soil (a), 
 but the top of the straw (6). The water has risen by capillary 
 attraction up to the top of the soil (a) ; but the interspaces between 
 the straw are too large to admit of capillary ascension — in other 
 words, the capillary connexion is broken, and the water cannot rise to 
 the surface (6) and there become evaporated. The result is, as you see, 
 that while the soil in A is dry, the soil in B is still quite moist. 
 
 There is another way besides mulching by which the capillary con- 
 nexion can be destroyed, and that is by hoeing the surface so as to form 
 at the surface a layer of comparatively large lumps of soil, the inter- 
 spaces between which will be so great that they will not form capillary 
 channels for the water to rise in. We have already, in a former part of 
 the lecture, referred to hoeing; and you will now see that by this 
 operation the moisture of the soil is conserved in a twofold manner, 
 firstly, by the removal of useless weeds, which would pump up the soil 
 water and transpire it into the air; and, secondly, by breaking the 
 capillary connexion between the surface and the undersoil, and so pre- 
 venting the soil water from rising to the surface and there being 
 evaporated. The hoeing for this purpose must, however, be done 
 judiciously; it should be shallow, and the sods should not be overturned. 
 If it be deep, and large sods be overturned with their moist sides 
 upwards, of course a greater loss of moisture will occur than if there had 
 been no hoeing at all. 
 
 4781. 
 
146 
 
 SOILS, AND THEIR CULTIVATION. 
 
 LECTURE n. 
 
 In our last lecture we found, by means of a few simple experiments, 
 that soils contained moisture, burnable substance, and unburnable 
 substance. The burnable substance, which consisted of decayed 
 vegetable matter, was. called humus. Proceeding to examine soils 
 further in detail, we saw that they could be analyzed in two ways, 
 according as we wished to ascertain their mechanical or their chemical 
 constitution. From the mechanical point of view, we saw that soils 
 consisted of moisture, humus, coarse sand and gravel, fine sand, very 
 fine sand and clay. From the chemical point of view, we found that a 
 soil consisted of water, humus (containing a small proportion of 
 nitrogen), alumina, oxide of iron, small quantities of lime, magnesia, 
 potash, soda, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, chlorine, carbonic acid 
 and soluble silica, and a considerable quantity — amounting on an 
 average to about 75 per cent. — of insoluble silicates and sand. 
 
 We saw also that plants, like soils, consisted of water, burnable 
 substance, and non-bumable substance ;* but, whereas, in soils, the 
 non-burnable matter largely preponderates over the other substances, 
 in plants it forms only a small proportion, amounting on an average to 
 about 2§ per cent, of the whole. As in the soil, so in the plant, the 
 non-combustible matter was found to consist of oxide of iron, lime, 
 magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, chlorine, and 
 silica ; of these — the phosphoric acid, potash, and lime, were present in 
 largest quantity. The combustible matter we found to consist of the 
 elements of water in combination with carbon and" nitrogen. We learnt 
 that plants derived all the substances of which they were built from 
 the soil, except in the case of carbon, which they obtained from the 
 air. 
 
 We examined into the nature of plant roots, and found that the 
 active portion of them consisted of ramifying fibres, which threaded 
 their way through the interstices of the soil down to depths often 
 exceeding 5 or 6 feet, forming in many cases a white interwoven felt- 
 like mass. These root-fibres we saw were built up of minute cells,, 
 or sacs, some of which were lengthened out in the form of fine hair- 
 like projections, called root hairs. These root hairs, and the outer cells 
 of the root-fibres, absorbed the moisture from the soil, and with that 
 moisture took in also a good deal of the dissolved substance of the 
 soil. 
 
 * strictly speaking, it is not correct to divide the substances into burnable and unburnable, but 
 rather into substances which hum away, and substances whioh.remain behind after burning. 
 
147 
 
 The main constituent of plants we saw was water, amounting to 72 
 per cent, in fresh grass, and to as much as 90 per cent, in turnips and 
 cabbages. Not only was there this large amount of water, which 
 might be separated from the plants by means of drying, but we saw 
 also that the greater portion of the combustible matter of dried plants 
 consisted of the elements of water in combination with carbon and 
 nitrogen. From these facts it became apparent that the supply of water 
 to the plant was of paramount importance for its proper development. 
 We noted further, however, that the mere composition of the plant gave 
 us a very inadequate idea of the amount of moisture really required by 
 plants during the period of their growth; that, in fact, plants acted as 
 pumps, drawing up water from the soil by means of their roots, and 
 passing it through their leaves into the air. The amount of water 
 transpired by plaats in this way was truly astonishing, amounting 
 sometimes to more than 300 lbs. for every pound of dry substance 
 formed in them. From all these facts we were led to understand how 
 the regulation of soil moisture, so as to insure a constant supply of water 
 to the plants, must be the primary consideration in the cultivation of 
 soils. 
 
 We then explained how some soils naturally held mdre moisture than 
 others, a certain weight of an ordinary clay soil, for instance, absorbing 
 45 measures of water as compared with only 30 measures absorbed by 
 the same weight of a sandy soil. We saw also how the sandy soil 
 dried much more quickly than did the clay. 
 
 We saw how by digging down into any soil we would come to a 
 certain level, below which the soil was saturated with water. This 
 level was called the water plane or water table. And we illustrated by 
 experiment how the water naturally tended to rise from this plane 
 towards the surface of the soil by means of capillary attraction. If 
 the water in this way reached the surface it would be evaporated into 
 the air, and a loss of soil water would result. To break this it was 
 necessary to break the capillary connexion between the surface and the 
 soil underneath. 
 
 What is meant by breaking the capillary connexion ? I have here 
 two tubes similar to those used in the last lecture (see Fig. 10.)' One of 
 these contains some fine sand in which the capillary interspaces are 
 very small, the other contains coarse sand in which the interspaces or 
 pores are large. On pouring water into the dish in which the tubes are 
 standing, you will observe that it rises rapidly in the coarse sand up to 
 a height of about 1 inch, but there it stops and will go no further. In 
 the fine sand, however, although it rises much more slowly, yet it goes 
 on rising, and, for anything we know to the contrary, might continue 
 to do so until it reached a height of 3 or 4 feet. I have, here also two 
 similar tubes, one containing finely-powdered clay and the other coarse 
 particles of clay. The same thing will be observable in them also, 
 except that there is this difference : lYi the coarse sand each particle is 
 , solid and impermeable by water, so that the only way the water can 
 ascend in the sand is by means of the interspaces between the grains ; 
 in these it quickly rises to the height of 1 inch or so, and there remains ; 
 
 K a 
 
148 
 
 but in the coarse clay each particle is itself very finely porous, and can 
 suck up the water, so that while the water quickly rises in it to a height 
 of 1 inch or so through the interspaces between the grains, it does not 
 stop there, but afterwards rises, although only very slowly, through the 
 very fine pores in the grains themselves. In this experiment we see 
 that the wider the spaces between the particles of the soil the less will 
 be the height to which the water will rise in them, and by making the 
 lumps of soil coarse enough, so that the spaces between them shall be 
 sufficiently large, the water will not rise at all. This may be done in 
 practice by hoeing the surface of the soil, so as to break it into coarse 
 lumps, and in this way we should break the capillary connexion of the 
 surface with the soil underneath. The same end may be attained by 
 mulching with straw, brushwood, or leaves, as illustrated by the 
 experiment in the last lecture (Fig. 12). A layer of stones strewed 
 over the surface will serve the same purpose. I have seen excellent 
 crops growing in fields which seemed to be nothing but a mass of 
 stones. 
 
 The contrast between hoed and unhoed ground may, as Professor 
 Storer points out, sometimes be seen very instructively in a field where 
 the man in hoeing has walked forwards over the ground he has hoed 
 instead of backward ; every footstep that he has made may sometimes be 
 afterwards recognised by the weeds growing on it ; the reason being 
 that by treading on the soil he has restored the capillary connexion, 
 and the moisture rising to the surface has enabled the seeds of weeds 
 lying near the surface to germinate wherever he has planted his feet. 
 
 The soil moisture is so important to plants that we may classify soils 
 according to their moisture characteristics. We have already seen 
 that in this respect there are two very distinct types of soil, namely, 
 sands and clays. We have seen that clays hold more moisture than 
 sands and retain it longer. Water filters through sands very rapidly, 
 through clays very slowly; and it rises by capillary attraction in sands 
 up to a height of about 10 inches very rapidly, but in clays more 
 slowly. There are also other opposite features possessed by these two 
 types of soil. Thus sands are very loose and open, too much so in 
 fact, they do not hold together well enough; whereas clays are too stiff 
 and dense, and are not sufficiently permeable either by water or by roots. 
 Lumps of clay when dry are very hard, and cannot then be worked by 
 spade or plough ; when wet they are too sticky, clinging to the plough 
 and being wholly unworkable ; they are very intractable, and it is only 
 at certain seasons when they are neither too dry nor too wet that 
 they can be cultivated at all. Now can these excessive qualities in 
 the two types of soil be by any means moderated ? 
 
 First, let us see how the excessive looseness and porosity of sands 
 may be lessened ? It would quite naturally occur to us to try the 
 effect of mixing some clay with "the sand. We have here a mixture of 
 nine of sand with one of clay. I have some of this mixture and some of 
 the original sand in these two filtering tubes ; and on pouring an equal 
 height of water into each tube, it is seen to filter more slowly through 
 
149 
 
 the mixture of sand and clay. We might have tried the same experi- 
 ment -with a mixture of sand and peat or humus, and we should have 
 got a similar result. But neither the clay nor the humus would have 
 been found to much increase the cohesiveness of the sand. If, how- 
 ever, we add a little lime, even only 2 per cent., we shall find that it 
 will bind the sand together. In my last lecture I showed you a mixture 
 of 85| per cent, sand, 5f clay, 5| peat, and 2| slaked lime; we have 
 some of that mixture here, and you see that when dry the lumps still 
 hold together, the same as they do in a good loam; in fact, we have thus 
 artificially produced a loam. Thus, small quantities of lime serve to 
 bind sands together. This mixture also, as we saw in our last lecture, 
 will absorb much more moisture than will the sand, and will retain it 
 longer, and it allows water to filter through it much less rapidly. 
 
 Let us now consider the case of clay ; can its impermeability, its 
 stiflfhess, its hardness when dry, and stickiness when wet be moderated ? 
 Lime, we saw, has the quality of rendering sands firmer, but with clays 
 it acts in the opposite direction, making them more friable. I have 
 here two samples, one of clay and the other of the same cla^y mixed 
 with 5 per cent, of slaked lime. You observe that in the original clay 
 soil the dry lumps are exceedingly hard, very difiicult to break with the 
 fingers ; but the dry lumps of the mixture of clay and lime are friable, 
 and can be broken up with comparative ease. On moistening the two 
 samples and working them with a knife into a paste, the mixture of 
 clay and lime is found less sticky than the clay by itself. On testing 
 the two mixtures in the filtering tubes it is found that the water filters 
 through the limed clay about twice as quickly as through the unmixed 
 clay. There are other substances which may be used for ameliorating 
 clays — such substances as humus," gypsum, and salt; but none do the 
 work so well as lime. Clays also may be ameliorated by burning them. 
 This process may be efEected in two ways. One way is by digging pits 
 in the clay, allowing the clay taken out to dry, putting brushwood and 
 other waste fuel into the pit, lighting it, and throwing the clay on to 
 the fire, continuing to put on alternate layers of clay and fuel. The 
 other way is by paring a thin slice about 1 inch thick off the surface 
 of the soil, allowing the sods to dry, and burning them in small heaps 
 by the aid of a little dry fuel, the dried weeds and roots in the sods 
 making less fuel necessary than in the process of pit burning. The clay 
 must not be over burnt ; the heaps should only smoulder. The burnt 
 clay is afterwards spread on the soil and harrowed in. Clay burning 
 is too costly for a k.rge farm, where labour is scarce ; but on small 
 holdings or small paddocks which are to be cultivated to the highest 
 extent it may be adopted with advantage. It increases the fertility 
 of the clay and renders it as friable and permeable as an ordinary loam. 
 
 It is interesting to inquire into the manner in whioh lime, gypsum, 
 salt, and such like substances effect this alteration in the character of 
 clays. On examining these two moistened specimens of unmixed clay 
 and of limed clay, and cutting them with a knife, it is observable that 
 the cut surface of the clay is smoother than that of limed clay ; the 
 latter looks as though it had a granular structure ; in fact, the clay in 
 
150 
 
 it is no longer so uniform and continuous as it was in the original 
 sample, but is broken up into little flakes, and it is therefore said to be 
 flocculated or coagulated. This operation of flocculating clay is seen 
 to take place where muddy water is clarified by adding to it a little 
 alum or a little lime. The finely-suspended clay in the water is thereby 
 caused to gather together in little flocculent masses like snowflakes, 
 which are then by reason of their weight able to sink to the bottom. I 
 have here a number of bottles containing water rendered milky by 
 shaking it up with white clay. To one of these I will add a little lime, 
 to another a little alum, to another a little salt, and to another a little 
 gypsum, and I will have one bottle without anything added to it. In 
 a very short time you will see that in all those to which- substances 
 have been added the water begins to get clearer, and, on holding them 
 up to the light and looking closely, the clay in them will be seen to be 
 falling down in flakes like miniature snow showers. It is owing to 
 this flocculation or coagulation that the mechanical condition of clay 
 soils becomes ameliorated by liming, burning, and other similar measures. 
 
 There is one other feature of clays which often influences in a very 
 important manner the circulation of soil water. T refer to the property 
 which clays have of becoming puddled and rendered absolutely imper- 
 vious to water — a quality which is taken advantage of in the construction 
 of dams for retaining water. I have here a filtering tube containing 
 some clay the surface of which was puddled and tamped down ; there 
 are now 6 inches of water standing on it ; that water has been there 
 for the last ten days, and I expect it to remain until it disappears by 
 evaporation. Such puddling and tamping of clays may be brought 
 about in practical agriculture in various ways. It may, for instance, 
 result from the beating of rain on the surface. We had an excellent 
 illustration of this in Melbourne during the rains which accompanied 
 the recent disastrous floods. Many people expected on going out after 
 those rains to find the roads in a frightfully muddy state, and were sur- 
 prised to find them clean and firm and hard. The continuous heavy rain, 
 had beaten down the clay in them until it was quite compact. Clay 
 may become puddled on the surface, also through irrigating, the irriga- 
 tion water softening and breaking up the lumps, and as it flows along 
 depositing the fine clay in a smooth continuous surface which on drying 
 becomes hard and impenetrable. This can be prevented by delivering 
 the water in channels or furrows or even by means of underground 
 pipes, instead of allowing it to flow over the whole surface of the 
 ground. Clays cannot be puddled if they have been burnt or well limed 
 or contain a large amount of humus. 
 
 One of the most common causes of the puddling and tamping of 
 clays is the practice of ploughing always at the same depth. The sole 
 of the plough passing year after year over the same layer of clay 
 makes the surface of that layer hard and impenetrable, so that neither 
 roots nor water can pass through it. Such a hardened layer at a little 
 depth below the surface is called by farmers a hard pan. Hard pans 
 may be due to various causes. That caused by the plough is commonly 
 distinguished by the name of plough pan. A plough pan, you will 
 
151 
 
 readily understand, entirely stops the circulation of soil water, prevent- 
 ing it from either sinking down from above or rising up from below. 
 I have here two filtration tubes (Pig. 13), which clearly illustrate the 
 
 Fic 13 
 
 nature and evil effects of a plough pan. Both tubes have been filled 
 with sand up to (a and 6) about 5 inches, from the bottom. At this 
 point a layer about § inch thick of clay has been put in. In the tube 
 B this layer has been puddled. Both tubes have then had 6 inches 
 more of sand put on the top of the thin baud of clay. On pouring 
 water into the two tubes it is seen to filter through A fairly rapidly; 
 but through B, in which the thin band of clay has been puddled, it will 
 take several days to pass through. That thin layer of puddled clay at 
 B represents a plough pan, and you now see how effectually a plough 
 pan stops the circulation of soil water. When such pans get moderately 
 dry they become hard and impenetrable by anything less formidable 
 than a pick or crowbar. To prevent the formation of plough pans in 
 clay soils the ploughing should be done at slightly different depths 
 each year, and the subsoil should be occasionally broken up by plough- 
 ing deep, the mould-board being taken off the plough so that the sub- 
 soil may not be brought up to the surface. 
 
 From our considerations so far you will readily understand that an 
 ideal soil for cultivation would be a mixture in fair proportions of sand, 
 clay, humus, and lime. Such a mixture is often effected naturally, and 
 the properties of natural soils vary according to the varying propor- 
 tions of these ingredients. We have, on the one hand, what are called 
 
152 
 
 Bandy soils, but these are not pure sand, for they all contain small 
 quantities of clay, humus, and lime. Then -we have, on the other hand, 
 what are called clay soils, but -which are not pure clay, since they all 
 contain a considerable quantity of sand and also some humus and lime. 
 Then there are soils composed mainly of humus, ,these are known as , 
 peat soils. And there is still a fourth type, in which the main constituent 
 is lime; these are known as limestone soils; they are very uncommon in 
 Victoria. These are the four types of soils, and all soils may be classi- 
 fied as belonging to these types or to mixtures of the same. We may 
 then draw out a list of soils as follows : — 
 
 r (1) Very little clay, mostly sand 
 
 Type 3 (2) Much clay, little sand 
 
 soils. 1 (3) Mainly limestcne ... 
 
 I, (4) Mainly humus 
 
 Sandy soils. 
 Clay soils. 
 Limestone soils. 
 Peaty soils. 
 
 Mixtures. 
 
 (5) More clay than in No. 1, and less sand Clayey sand. 
 
 (6) Still more clay, but more sand than in Sandy clay. 
 
 No. 2 
 
 (7) Mixtures of No. 3 withNos. 1 and 5 
 
 (8) Mixtures of No. 3 with Nos. 2 and 6 
 
 (9) Mixture of No. 4 with Nos. 1 and 5 
 
 (10) Mixture of No. 4 with Nos. 2 and 6... 
 
 1) """ ■ " ' " 
 
 Calcareous sands. 
 Calcareous clays (otherwise 
 
 known as marls). 
 Sandy loams. 
 Clayloama. 
 (llj Mixture of Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4 in fair Loam. , 
 
 proportions 
 (12) Clays containing 20-35 percent, oxide Chocolate soils, 
 of iron 
 
 We have used the word loam to indicate a due mixture of all the 
 four principal ingredients ; yet the term does not so much indicate the 
 composition of the soil as its general appearance and mechanical 
 properties. A loam is neither too stiff nor too friable ; it is always 
 porous and open, and contains a good proportion of humus. 
 
 The last class, called chocolate soils, are formed by the decomposi- 
 tion of volcanic lavas, containing a large amount of iron, and they 
 consist principally of clay, mixed with a large amount of oxide of iron. 
 This oxide of iron ameliorates the clay somewhat, making it more 
 porous and friable when moderately dry; but these soils are very sticky 
 and muddy, when wet, and may be puddled the same as ordinary clays. 
 
 We have now learnt sufficient to enable us to understand the impor- 
 tance of giving attention to the mechanical condition of the soil, as 
 indicated by what we called the mechanical analysis, since the porosity 
 and permeability of the soil, and, consequently, the due circulation of 
 the soil water is dependent upon it. 
 
 In our last lecture we pointed out how the water could rise by 
 capillary attraction from the water table, so as to supply the roots in 
 the upper layers of the soil with the requisite moisture. But this 
 fact must not be accepted without due reflection. By referring to our 
 two long tubes (Fig. 1 1) it will be seen that while the water rose in the 
 sand to a height of 11 inches in 24 hours, it took three and a half months 
 to rise another 8 inches. It is obvious, therefore, that for practical 
 purposes we cannot count upon the water rising to any great height. 
 But to compensate for this we have the fact that the roots may go 
 down to considerable depths in search of water, provided the soils be 
 
153 
 
 suflSciently permeable. This was shown in a very striking manner by 
 the experimenter Henrici, who took a young raspberry seedling, and 
 planted it in a glass funnel containing some garden 
 soil, as shown in Fig. 14. The throat of the funnel 
 at (o), was closed with filter paper, and the long, stem 
 of the funnel reached down nearly to the bottom of 
 a long ^lass jar, where it just dipped into some water, 
 as shown at (b). The soil was at first kept moderately 
 moist by occasional waterings ; the plant remained 
 fresh and grew slowly ; after the lapse of several 
 weeks, four strong roots pierced through the filter 
 paper and passed down the funnel tube until they 
 reached the water at the bottom of the jar, where they 
 ramified and spread rapidly. From this time the soil 
 in the funnel was no longer watered, but the supply 
 of water at the bottom of the jar was kept up. Not- 
 withstanding this, the roots in the soil continued 
 vigorous, so that the plant derived its water by means 
 of the water roots at the bottom of the jar, and its 
 plant food by means of the soil roots in the almost 
 dry earth in the funnel. The fact is further illus- 
 trated by the common experience of drain-pipes being 
 choked up by roots. Horse-radish roots have been 
 found ramifying in a drain pipe 7 feet below the 
 surface; and a drain 16 feet deep has been found 
 stopped up by the roots of gorse growing at a little 
 distance away from the drain. 
 We have now considered that most important of soil constituents, 
 the soil water, and we have got a fairly comprehensive view of its 
 relation to plant needs, and have seen how, by attention to the porosity 
 and permeability of soils, the regular supply of moisture to the roots 
 may be much facilitated. 
 
 We have now to consider the other constituents, namely, the nitrogen, 
 iron, lime, magnesia, potash, soda, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, and 
 chlorine. We said in our last lecture that all soils contain these con- 
 stituents. But do they contain them in su£Scient quantity to insure 
 the most luxuriant growth of crops ? Some natural soils do contain 
 them in sufficient quantity, but there are not many such soils. The 
 majority of natural soils need the addition of plant foods to render 
 them suitable for cultivation. It is often a matter of surprise to people 
 that soils which bear an abundant natural growth, which in their virgin 
 state were clothed with giant forests, should grow comparatively poor 
 crops when under constant cultivation. The explanation, however, is 
 simple. Cultivated crops have only a short season in which to grow, 
 and therefore require their food to be readily accessible. Moreover, 
 these crops are taken bodily ofE the soil, and sent to the market, carry- 
 ing with them the plant food which they have absorbed from the soil, 
 whereas the natural forests die on the spot, and return everything back 
 again to the source from whence they derived it. In entering upon the 
 
 /> C /f 
 
154 
 
 cultivation of a soil, then, we should naturally desire to know whether 
 or not it were deficient in any or all of these plant foods. How could 
 we find this out ? A very simple test is to add more plant food to a 
 portion of the soil, and observe the difference between the growth with 
 this added plant food and without; if the plants thrive better with it, 
 then we can safely conclude that the plant foods naturally in the soil 
 are deficient. If, on the other hand, there be just as good a growth 
 without the addition as with it, then there is no doubt that the soil is 
 rich enough already. 
 
 This test may be very conveniently carried out by means of a few 
 small pots. In the diagram, Fig. 15, an accurate drawing is given of 
 such a test as carried out in my laboratory. Eight small pots were 
 taken, and about 7oz. of dry soil weighed out for each. To the soil of 
 each of the four pots on the right hand there was added 1^ grains of a 
 properly proportioned mixture of plant foods, and then a single seed of 
 wheat, previously germinated, was planted in each pot. The diagram 
 shows very accurately the difference in the growth due to this addition 
 of plant food. At the end of the 20th day the plants were cut and dried 
 and weighed, when it was found that those which had received the 
 additional plant food were more than twice as heavy as the others. 
 This is a very simple test, which any one with proper care can oarry 
 out for himself. 
 
 But this test does not give us sufficient information, for the soil may 
 not be deficient in all the constituents, but only in one or two. It 
 might, perhaps, be deficient only in nitrogen, for instance ? How should 
 we find this out ? We might suppose that it would serve our purpose if 
 we took two pots, and to the one added nitrogen, while to the other we 
 added nothing, and then observed the difference in the growth. But 
 this would not give us a satisfactory answer; for the soil, besides being 
 deficient in nitrbgen, might also be deficient in, for instance, phosphoric 
 acid; and, as we explained in our last lecture, when describing the method 
 of water culture, plants will not grow if even only one constituent be 
 absent. We must, therefore, proceed thus : — We take three series of 
 pots, and to the one we add all the plant foods, then to another we add all 
 except nitrogen, while to the third we add nothing. Then, if in all the 
 pots we get the same growth, we shall know that the soil is rich enough 
 without the addition of anything, for that which has been added has 
 done no good; but, if there be a greater growth, in the first series than 
 in the third, we shall know that it needs the addition of something; and 
 if in the second series, to which no nitrogen has been given, we get no 
 more growth than without the addition of anything, we shall know that 
 the something wanting in the soil is nitrogen. If, however, in the 
 second series we get the same growth as in the first, we shall know that 
 it is not the nitrogen only that is deficient, there must be some other 
 constituent also. We shall, therefore, require other pots in order to 
 test for the other constituents. 
 
 But if we had to test in this way for each of the nine essential 
 plant foods, we should require a large number of pots, and much trouble 
 would be involved. This trouble is, however, greatly lessened by the 
 
155 
 
 
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 6^1 1 1, 
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156 
 
157 
 
 discovery of a very important fact — a fact proved not only by innumer- 
 able soil analyses, but also by many practical experiments — namely, that 
 soils contain an abundance of all the- plant foods except three, ■which 
 are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. There may be a fe-w cases 
 in which soils do not coatain suflScient > magnesia, but such cases are 
 very rare. The analysis of plants and of plant ashes shows that these 
 three substances, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and,,potash are taken up by 
 plants in greater quantity tha,n any other of the plant foods ; and, for 
 practical purposes, we may confine our test to these three. 
 
 In Fig. 16 we have some copies from photographs, published by Dr. 
 Wagner, of the agricultural experiment station at Darmstadt, in Ger- 
 many. This diagram illustrates what I have been saying in regard to 
 the method of testing the soil requirements. One soil has been tested 
 in series A, and another in series B. Referi-ing to the series A, 
 the first two (pots marked 0) have had nothing added to them. 
 The last two pots marked (iV, Ph. F) have had the three plant foods 
 added, and you will observe the very large increase in growth 
 that has resulted. Evidently this soil needs the addition of some 
 plant food. The next thing is to ascertain which of the three 
 plant foods it requires. Let us see if it requires nitrogen. If 
 in order to test this we had added nitrogen only to one of the pots, 
 as has been done in the second two of the pots (marked N), we should 
 have got an apparently negative answer. Such a method, as already 
 explained, would have been inconclusive and misleading. On turning, 
 however, to the fifth pair of pots (marked Ph. P.) which have received 
 phosphoric acid and potash, but no nitrogen, and comparing it with the 
 last two pots which have received nitrogen as well as the, other two 
 plant foods, we get a very definite and unequivocal answer. We see, 
 then, that the growth where no nitrogen has been given is very much 
 less than where it has been given. Plainly, nitrogen is required in th^is 
 soil. Similarly, on turning to the sixth pair of pots, we find that the 
 soil is lacking in phosphoric acid ; indeed, it is seen to be more deficient 
 in this than it is in nitrogen, for in these pots to which no phosphoric 
 acid has been added the growth is no greater than in the first pots, to 
 which nothing was added ; whereas in the fifth pots to which no nitrogen 
 was given, but which received phosphoric acid and potash, there was 
 some increase of growth as compared with the first pots. The seventh 
 pair of pots (N. Ph.) tells us that the soil was not deficient in potash, 
 for it yielded just as well without the addition of potash as with. An 
 examination of the' series {B) shows that the soil there tested was 
 deficient in both nitrogen and phosphoric acid, being somewhat more 
 deficient in the former than in the latter ; it was fully provided with 
 potash. 
 
 Instead of using pots for testing the soil we may carry out the experi- 
 ment on a larger scale by means of plots measured out in the open field; 
 and this method has the advantage of the other, inasmuch as it takes 
 into account the climate and other natural conditions, of the district. 
 Such test plots are being adopted by several enterprising farmers in this 
 colony, and are much appreciated. You will find them fully described 
 
158 
 
 in ray little pamphlet, The Farmer's Guide to Manuring. There are 
 ten of the plots in a set; four of them devoted to finding out -which 
 of the three plant foods are required, four to finding out how much is 
 required, and two to finding out if the soil needs liming. They are laid 
 out as follows: — 
 
 ("Plot 1 receives a complete mixture, light dreasing. 
 Quantity J » 2 m n n twice as mucn as in plot 1. 
 
 plots J II 3 II nothing. 
 
 V, II 4 II a complete mixture, three times as much as in plot 1.. 
 
 /■plot 5 receives the same as No. 2, but without nitrogen. 
 Quality J n 6 n n n II phosphoric acid. 
 
 ""'"''■ ) II 7 II Ti II II potash, 
 
 v. II 8 II nothing. 
 
 9 is limed and manured the same as plot 2. 
 10 II II II II 5. 
 
 plots 
 
 Limed 
 plots 
 
 { 
 
 J) 
 
 3 
 
 5) 
 
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 4 
 
 J) 
 
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 5 
 
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 6 
 
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 JJ 
 
 99 
 
 8 
 
 >1 
 
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 9 
 
 ti 
 
 J> 
 
 10 
 
 J) 
 
 4, 
 
 which 
 
 recei 
 
 From what has been already said you will find little difficulty in- 
 understanding the mode of basing a judgment upon the results of these 
 plots; but I will explain the matter further by reference to some of the 
 results actually obtained. 
 
 At Childers, in Gippsland, on the farm of Mr. Thos. Whelan, the 
 following crops were gathered from the different plots in 1889-90: — 
 
 Plot 1 yielded potatoes at the rate of 4'44 tons per acre. 
 2 „ „ 5-8 „ 
 
 3-16 
 
 7 
 
 4-75 
 
 3-88 „ 
 
 5-38 
 
 3-76 
 
 5-98 „ 
 
 5-12 
 
 lived the heaviest dressing, gave proportionately 
 the heaviest yield, and showed that the whole of the heavy dressing 
 was required. Plot 5, without nitrogen, yielded less than plot 2, with 
 nitrogen, showing that nitrogen was needed. Plot 6 showed in like 
 manner that phosphoric acid was needed ; but plot 7, without potash, 
 yielded almost as well as plot 2 with potash, showing that only a little 
 potash was required. 
 
 Now, referring again to plot 4, we see that it yielded 3*54 tons more 
 per acre than the average of the two unmanured plots, 3 and 8. This 
 increased yield, due to the manuring, would, at the rate of £3 per ton, 
 be worth £10 12s. 5d. The manure actually used on plot 4 would cost 
 as follows : — 
 
 £ «. d. 
 3 cwt. of the nitrogen manure at 18/ ... ... 2 14 
 
 4^ „ „ phosphoric acid manure at 8/ ... 1 16 
 1 „ „ potash manure at 18/ ... ... 18 
 
 £5 8 
 
159 
 
 Tkus the increased yield due to the addition of the plant food showed 
 a handsome profit on the outlay. But was the whole of the plant food 
 given necessary ? On comparing the yield from plot 5 with the yield 
 from plot 2 and with the average of the two unmanured yields, we find 
 that though it was less than where nitrogen was given, yet it was not 
 so little as where no manure at all was given ; hence we conclude that 
 the whole of the nitrogen in the complete mixture was unnecessary ; 
 instead of giving 3 cwt. we may give about 1| cwt. From plot 6 we 
 judge that the whole of the phosphoric acid was necessary ; and from 
 plot 7 we conclude that only a small quantity of the potash was needed. 
 We may therefore revise the composition of the mixture given on plot 
 4 as follows: — 
 
 1# cwt. nitrogen manure at 18/ 
 
 4^ „ phosphoric acid manure at 8/ 
 
 i 
 
 potash manure at 18/ 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1 11 
 
 6 
 
 1 16 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 £3 13 
 
 6 
 
 Thus by adding plant fo6d to the soil to the value of £8 13s. 6d. per 
 acre we should judge from this test that, aU things going well, there 
 would be obtained an increased yield of potatoes to the value of £10 
 12s. 5d. The investment would seem to be a profitable one. 
 
 The following are some results obtained by Mr. John Goldie at Port 
 Fairy, in 1889-90 :— 
 
 Plot 1 yielded mangolds at the rate of 29-^ tons per acre. 
 
 2 4.1 s 
 
 w 3 „ „ 21y „ 
 
 A. XA 3 
 
 J> * J) « **T^ 5) 
 
 j> 5 „ ,, oyj „ 
 
 J) 6 „ „ 27if „ 
 
 7 4.4.4 
 
 )j ' J) » ^^T JJ 
 
 » 8 „ ,, 19^ . „ 
 
 5J y 99 9) ■^^ 99 
 
 99 10 „ „ 23-J „ 
 
 Plot 1, which received the lightest dressing of manure, gave an 
 increase of 9 tons per acre as compared with the average of the two 
 unmanured plots, 3 and 8. It is possible that, owing to its having been 
 an outside plot, the growth was a little irregular, and we may. suppose 
 that had it been regular the increase would have been at the rate of 10 
 tons to the acre. On plot 2 there was double the amount of manure, and 
 there was an increased yield of 21 tons as compared with the unmanured, 
 that is to say double the increase obtained on plot 1 . Clearly then the 
 medium dressing of manure was fully as profitable as the light dressing.- 
 Plot 4, which was manured three times as heavily as plot 1, did not have 
 three times the increase of yield, although the manure oh this plot gave a 
 profitable return still it was not so profitable as on plot 2. If the farmer 
 
160 
 
 had a limited amount of land and plenty of capital, he would have 
 invested his capital profitably by manuring the land as in plot 4 ; 
 but if he had a large area of land and proportionally small amount of 
 capital, it would be best for him to manure as in plot 2. These plots 
 have treated only of the general quantity of the manure to be given. 
 As regards the quality, that is to say number and proportions of the 
 ingredients : — Plot 5, without the nitrogen, yielded almost as well as 
 plot 2 with the nitrogen ; hence the greater part of the nitrogen was 
 not needed. Plot 6, without phosphoric acid, yielded considerably less 
 than plot 2 with it, hence all the phosphoric acid should be used. 
 Plot 7, without potash, yielded even better than plot 2 with potash, 
 hence the potash was unnecessary. The mixture used on plot 4 in this 
 case was the same as that used on the Childers plot of the same num- 
 ber, and cost £5 8s. per acre. Revising it according to the results of the 
 above experiment we get the following : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 I cwt. nitrogen manure at 18s. ... 13 6 
 
 4j cwt. phosphoric acid manure at 8s 1 16 
 
 £2 9 6 
 
 The increased inangolds obtained amounted to 2^\ tons, which, 
 valued at 10s. per ton (a very low valuation), would be worth £1 1 15s. 
 The mangolds taken from the adjoining plots, 7 and 8, in this experi- 
 ment were placed in separate heaps and photographed. Fig. 17 is a 
 copy of this photograph. 
 
 This series of experiments which I have just described were par- 
 ticularly interesting, for the reason that the plots were used the next 
 year without any further addition of manure for the growth of wheat, 
 in order to see if the whole of the plant food given to the mangolds 
 were exhausted by that crop. The results obtained the following 
 harvest, namely, in 1890-91, were as follow : — 
 
 Plot 1 yielded wheat at the rate of 33|^ bushels per acre. 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 
 42 
 
 28 
 
 44f 
 
 39i 
 
 30i 
 
 38i 
 
 281 
 
 391 
 
 38 
 
 Thus it will be seen that there were as striking differences due to 
 the residue of the plant foods remaining from the previous year as 
 though manures had been applied direct to the wheat crop. 
 
 These experiments were rendered still more interesting for a reason 
 that is worth our briefly considering, although it will cause us to digress 
 
161 
 
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162 
 
 slightly from our present line of thought. You will observe that the 
 -wheat on these plots was grown after a crop of mangolds had been 
 taken off the ground. There are many reasons why it is good to have 
 change of crops instead of growing the same crop successively year 
 after year in the same soil ; and it was decided to make the above- 
 mentioned plots serve for testing specifically to see what was the advan- 
 tage of sowing wheat after mangolds instead of after wheat. Another 
 series of plots were therefore laid out in another portion of the same 
 paddock, where, however, wheat had been grown the previous season; 
 these plots were manured in 1890, and the wheat grown on them was 
 harvested in 1891 with the following result : — 
 
 Wheat directly manured, but grown after Wheat. 
 
 Plot 1 yielded at the rate of 19 J bushels to the acre. 
 
 2 J) )j 22^ „ „ 
 
 3 )) J, 12 „ „ 
 
 4 „ „ 26§ „ „ 
 
 5 » „ ^' >) j> 
 
 O ,) )J Alg ^, ,, 
 
 ' » 1! ^^ » » 
 
 8 » )j "3 » It 
 
 Although this wheat was directly manured, yet the yields were in 
 all cases very much less than in the previous case, where the wheat had 
 been preceded by a crop of mangolds. It is right to state the variety 
 of wheat was (by an oversight) different on the two sets of plots, 
 being Steinwedel in the former case and White Tuscan in the latter ; 
 but this does not account for the whole of the difference between the 
 two series, and the results remain as a striking instance of the 
 usefulness in soil cultivation of what is known as the rotation of crops. 
 
 Now, having ascertained by means of tests such as above described 
 the requirements of the soil in regard to plant foods, the next matter 
 to be considered is how to supply them. At one time it was thought 
 that it was possible to supply them only by means of the very bulky 
 stuff known as farmyard and stable manure. This material is not only 
 bulky, but it is costly to prepare, and it is costly to apply; and the 
 amount of plant food contained in it is very small,-amounting to from 
 ^ per cent, in badly-prepared stuff to 2^ in the best. The great bulk 
 of it consists of water and vegetable matter. Such bulky materials can 
 be used to the best advantage only in the immediate neighbourhood of 
 their production, where they will require but little transport. The 
 plant foods are now generally given in a concentrated form — such as 
 the salts known as sulphate of ammonia, which contains 21 per cent, 
 of nitrogen; or finely-powdered bones, which contain from 25 to 30 per 
 cent, of phosphoric acid ; or concentrated potash salt, which contains 
 over 60 per cent, of potash. All materials which are used for the 
 purpose of supplying plant foods to the soil are called fertilizers. The 
 
163 
 
 following is a complete list of the fertilizers now used. There may be 
 many fertilizers bearing difEerent names, but their names are only giyen 
 them by manufacturers as a trade mark. They are all made from 
 materials in the following list : — 
 
 List of Feetilizees. 
 Mainly Nithooenous. 
 
 Nitogenonly ( Sulphate of ammonia. 
 
 ^ •' I Nitrate of soda. 
 
 NiTHOGEN PBEPONDEBATING, but contain- Farmyard and stable manure, night-soil, 
 ing also smaller quantities of phosphoric dried blood, desiccated slaughteryard 
 acid and potash refuse, and fish manure. 
 
 NiTROSBN AND Potash ... ... Nitrate of potash (saltpetre). 
 
 Mainly Phosphoeio Aoid. 
 
 Phosphoric aoid only 
 
 (a) Phosphoric aoid difficultly soluble: Bone 
 ash, bone char, mineral phosphates, 
 Thomas Slag, some guanos. 
 
 (6) Phosphoric acid readily soluble : Super- 
 phosphates made from bone ash, bone 
 char, and mineral phosphates, and some 
 guanos. 
 
 /"(a) Phosphoric acid difficultly soluble: Bone 
 Phosphoeio Acid pkepondeeating, but \ dust, bone meal, and some guanos, 
 containing also smaller quantities of < (5) Phosphoric acid readily soluble : Super- 
 nitrogen J phosphates made from bone dust and 
 
 V from some guanos. 
 
 Potash Manukes. 
 
 ( Crude and impure, such as kainit. 
 Potash salts ... ... ... ...■< Pure and concentrated, such as muriate of 
 
 (, potash. 
 
 A WELL-BALANOED Feetilizbe ... Compost heap madS from decayed yege- 
 
 table matter, such as decayed wood, 
 kitchen refuse, road sweepings, weeds, 
 fallen leaves, and forest gleanings. 
 
 You will notice that in this list several of the fertilizers are soluble. 
 Thus the nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, potash salts, and various 
 superphosphates are all soluble ; and the question may present itself 
 to you as to whether there is no risk when using soluble materials 
 such as these of their being washed out of the soil by heavy rain and lost. 
 Except in the case of the nitrates of soda and potash there is no risk, 
 for the reason that the soil has a fixing power which enables it to 
 hold them in its pores. This fixing power is ~ easily demonstrated. 
 I have here a very black-looking liquid, which has been formed by pouring 
 various inks' and dye stuffs into some water. This black liquid we wiU 
 pour into one of our filtering tubes containing about 6 inches depth 
 of soil, and you presently observe that it filters through quite clear and 
 limpid at the bottom, the soil having fixed in its pores the various 
 matters that were dissolved in it. 
 
 There is, however, one precaution which needs to be observed in 
 using these soluble concentrated manures — they must not be given in 
 
164 
 
 too large a quantity nor when there will not be sufficient rain or soil 
 moisture to make a dilute solution of them for presentation to the 
 plant roots. One reason for this can be readily demonstrated. In our 
 last lecture, when describing the action of the hairs and absorbing cells 
 of the roots, we made use of a small bladder containing a solution of 
 brine ; and found that, when this was placed in a basin of water, the 
 water passed through the skin of the bladder into the brine, causing 
 the bladder to swell out. If, instead of this arrangement we had had 
 the water in the bladder and the brine outside, then the water would 
 have passed out of the bladder into the vessel, and the bladder would 
 have shrunk and collapsed. The same reversal of the current would 
 have occurred if there had still been brine in the bladder but it had 
 been immersed in a stronger solution of brine. Now this reversal of 
 the current may take place in the root cells if we make the soil solution 
 too strong. 
 
 In Fig. 18 we have some drawings of the cell of a plant as observed 
 through the microscope, showing how it behaves when placed in solu- 
 tions of different strengths. You will see that there are two linings 
 to the cell — an outer and an inner. The outer one is clear and trans- 
 parent — it is composed of what is called cellulose, the same substance of 
 which cotton wool is composed ; water can filter through it readily ; and 
 it is elastic, capable of stretching when under strain, but shrinking to 
 its original size when relieved. The inner layer consists of whitish 
 slimy material, which is the living substance of the cell. This layer 
 acts as did the bladder in our experiment. At A, in the figure, the cell 
 is shown in its original condition ; when the cell was placed in a very 
 dilute solution of nitrate of potash, it swelled out to the size shown at 
 B ; but when placed in a 6 per cent, solution of the same salt, it not only 
 shrank to its former dimensions, but the inside slimy lining shrank still 
 further, as shown at C ; and when placed in a 10 per cent, solution, the 
 inner lining became drawn up into a little globule, as shown at D. 
 Now if concentrated soluble manures be given in too large quantities, 
 as, for instance, if they be thrown in spadefuls on to the bared roots 
 of fruit trees (as I have known to be done), or if there be not sufficient 
 soil moisture or rain to make a dilute solution of them, then this 
 reversal of the circulation of the cell sap may occur, and a temporary or 
 complete stoppage of the life processes of the plant result. 
 
 One of the plant foods may be supplied in quite a different way from 
 what we have described above. That plant food is nitrogen. Tou 
 know that the air we breathe consists to the extent of four-fifths of its 
 volume of nitrogen. But plants cannot apparently take their nitrogen 
 from the inexhaustible supplies of the atmosphere. But thpre are some 
 microscopic organisms which grow plentifully in association with the 
 roots of such plants as peas, beans, vetches, lupines, lucerne, clover, &c. 
 — plants known as leguminosse — and these microscopic organisms are 
 able to feed on the nitrogen which is in the atmosphere. In the 
 neighbourhood of leguminous roots they grow and multiply with 
 marvell6us rapidity, absorbing nitrogen from the air ; the nitrogen 
 thus absorbed is made use of by the roots of the leguminous plants, 
 
Fig. 18. 
 
 A Plant. Cell ; showing effect of different 
 
 strengthB of Nutritive Solution 
 
 (after Sachs), 
 
165 
 
 ■wliich thrive vigorously thereon. To enrich a soil in nitrogen, there- 
 fore, one need only sow leguminous plants such as peas or beans, 
 and plough in the crop. Fig. 19, copied from a photograph 
 
 Mamured with 
 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 
 and Potash. 
 
 Manured with 
 Phosphoric Acid, 
 Potaeh, and Nitro- 
 gen; the nitrogen 
 being given as 
 Nitrate of Soda. 
 
 Manured with 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 and Potash. In 
 the previous season 
 mustard was grown 
 in these pots and 
 afterwards du^ in 
 as green manuring. 
 
 Manured with 
 Phosphoric Acid 
 and Potash. In 
 the previous season 
 vetches were 
 grown in these 
 pots and after- 
 wards dug in as 
 green manuring. 
 
 published by Dr. Wagner, shows very clearly the efficacy of this 
 method. The photograph speaks for itself and needs no further 
 description. It is not necessary, however, to plough in the leguminous 
 crop green, although there is an advantage in doing it. Even if the 
 crop be allowed to ripen and the seeds be gathered the soil will be 
 enriched by the stems and leaves and dried pods ; and even if the 
 whole crop, including stem and leaves, be removed from the soil still 
 the roots will remain to enrich it. 
 
 We may, however, place additional plant food at the service of plants 
 by another method than that of adding it to the soil ; we may render 
 more readily available that which is already in the soil. The plant 
 food already contained in the ' soil may be so combined and locked np 
 that plants cannot easily make use of it. If we take steps to decom- 
 pose the soil, to dissolve it, to set at liberty its contained plant foods, 
 and to place them at the service of the plants, we shall, until we have 
 exhausted the reserve stores of the soil, obtain the same end as though 
 we added plant food to it. There are various ways in which this de- 
 composing and unlocking of the soil may be effected. It is an interest- 
 ing fact, and one which considerably simplifies our studies, that all 
 those methods which we found would serve for ameliorating and im- 
 proving the physical or mechanical condition of soils, rendering them 
 more porous, and favouring in them the proper circulation of soil 
 water, will also serve for unlocking the plant foods contained in them. 
 Thus we found that the addition of humus, lime, gypsum, and salt 
 might improve the mechanical condition of some soils, they also serve 
 
166 
 
 to decompose soils and liberate the contained plant food. We noticed 
 also that by cultivating and breaking up a soil its mechanical condition 
 was improved, but cultivating opens up the soil to the action of the 
 air, and the air in a variety of ways tends to decompose it. 
 
 When we add such substances as lime, gypsum, and salt to soils, 
 although these substances may then be called manures, yet we must 
 carefully distinguish between these substances which merely act by 
 altering the condition of the soil, and those other manures which act as 
 plant foods. We may divide manures into two classes, the one we call 
 fertilizers or plant foods, and the other soil alteratives. I have said it 
 is important to distinguish between these two classes of manures, and 
 the reason of this importance is that -they operate in directly opposite 
 ways, which must never be confounded. The fertilizers operate by 
 adding to that which is in the soil — their tendency, therefore, is to 
 enrich it ; the alteratives, on the other hand, operate by setting at 
 liberty that which is already in the soil — their tendency, therefore, is to 
 impoverish it. 
 
 Of the soil alteratives, gypsum and salt are of minor importance; they 
 may be used with advantage in special cases, particularly where they 
 are cheap. But the alteratives of chief importance are humus and lime; 
 and, we may also add, air ; and we may in conclusion briefly refer to 
 the manner in which these three substances operate. 
 
 The action of humus is manifold. In the first place, it is of an acid 
 character, and of itself dissolves some of the soil substances which are 
 insoluble in ordinary soil water. This fact has been proved experi- 
 mentally by using insoluble mineral phosphates in soils containing much 
 humus, such as peat soils, and in soils containing but little humus. In 
 the peat soils the phosphates were dissolved and caused an increased 
 growth of crop, but no such result followed where the humus was 
 deficient. In the second place, humus itself is constantly undergoing 
 decomposition, and in doing so gives rise to another acid, known as 
 carbonic acid, which also exercises a solvent action on the soil. Then 
 again humus, when not present in excess, tends to open up stiff soils, 
 rendering them porous and open to the decomposing influences of the 
 air. Fourthly, it helps to retain moisture, which, in conjunction with 
 soil acids and the action of the air, is an important aid to the decom- 
 position and solution of the soil. Fifthly, it renders the soil warmer. 
 Warmth of soil when not excessive is favorable both to the decom- 
 position of the soil and to the growth of plants. The influence 
 of warmth on a plant may be well illustrated by placing the stem of a 
 wilted flower in hot water, the stem and leaves and petals will stiffen out 
 again as if by magic. Humus renders a soil warmer by altering its colour. 
 Franklin's experiment of placing coloured cloths on snow is now 
 classical, and possibly you will all have heard how the snow melted 
 quickest under the black cloth and most slowly under the white cloth. 
 The black cloth absorbed more of the heat of the sun's rays. So a 
 dark soil, provided it be not wet, becomes warmer under the influence 
 of the sun. The influence of the colour of the soil on plant growth was 
 illustrated by Lampadius, who was able to ripen melons, even in the 
 
167 
 
 coolest summers, at Freiburg, in Saxony, one month earlier by strewing 
 coal dust over the surface of the soil. And finally, humus operates by 
 encouraging the growth of certain microscopic organisms which carry 
 on essential fermentations in the soil; these organisms cannot flourish 
 without a sufficient supply of decaying vegetable matter. 
 
 In regard to lime, we have already,, in an earlier part of this lecture, 
 considered its action upon the ' mechanical qualities of soils. In 
 opening up and rendering porous heavy ■ clay soils, it, like humus, 
 enables the air with its decomposing influences to penetrate into them. 
 But besides this indirect action, it operates directly on clays by changing 
 places with some of the essential plant foods, such as potash, magnesia, 
 and soda, and setting them at liberty. It also decomposes the vegetable ' 
 , matter in the soils, setting at liberty the nitrogen contained-in it. 
 
 As regards the operation of air in the soil, we staifeds in our 
 first lecture that it was one of the most important - ingredients of a 
 soil ; indeed,' no soil will grow profitable crops SunleBs ,i it be 
 properly aerated. Air is especially necessary in the se'M^^'elj(.. which 
 must be specially light and porous, for without a sufficient ■'Slipply of 
 oxygen seeds cannot germinate. Air is necessary also for the gi:bwth of 
 those ferment-producing organisms of which I have already sjjoken. 
 It is necessary also for the decomposition of the vegetable matter and 
 humus in the soil, which decomposition, as already observed, is neces- 
 sary for the liberation of its contained nitrogen, and for the full action 
 of its solvent powers 'on the soil. In addition to this, however, a certain 
 amount of oxygen is necessary to the roots of plants. The influence 
 of air in the soil in promoting the growth of plants was demonstrated 
 by Stockhardt and Peters, who took four jars 2^ feet in height, and 
 perforated at the bottom. In each of these jars they placed an equal 
 quantity of a loamy soil containing much humus, and sowed in them 
 equal quantities of a mixture of oats and peas. No. 1 jar received no 
 further treatment. But through the perforation in the bottom of No. 2 
 jar they blew in daily 3| pints of air; through No. 3, the same aniount 
 of a mixture of f air and J carbonic acid; and through No. 4, the same 
 amount of a mixture of ^ carbonic acid, ^ oxygen, and ^ air. After a 
 period of 3^ months the plants were taken out, dried, and weighed, 
 with the following results: — 
 
 1. 2. 3. 4. 
 
 Oats 
 
 Jtr63'S ••• ••• 
 
 Roots 
 
 Totals - ... 5-89 10-49 12-35 8-97 
 
 Thus the air alone produced nearly double the result obtained with- 
 out it, while the mixture of air and carbonic acid produced more than 
 double the growth. No. 4 showed that too large a proportion of 
 oxygen in the soil atmosphere was somewhat injurious, and the useful 
 effect of carbonic acid mixed with the air was indicated by No. 3. 
 This carbonic acid is produced in the soil by the decomposition of 
 
 3-9 
 
 7-65 
 
 8-49 
 
 5-11 
 
 1-72 
 
 2-46 
 
 3-26 
 
 3-49 
 
 -27 
 
 ■38 
 
 -6 
 
 •37 
 
168 
 
 humus ; hence we see again the importance of having a sufficient supply 
 of humus. The proper aeration of the soil is to be brought about in 
 practical agriculture by thorough breaking up with the plough, the 
 scarifier, or the spade. Labour expended in this kind of cultivation 
 will, in almost all eases, be repaid. 
 
 From all that we have said, both in the earlier and later portion of 
 this lecture, it will be gathered that the best condition for a soil is 
 attained when it is in a finely granular state, not too loose and not too 
 dense ; in fact, the condition of a loam is the one to be aimed at. In 
 this condition the moisture can circulate in the soil and the air pene- 
 trate, the plants can extend their roots freely, and use to the best 
 advantage the foods contained in the soil, whether those foods be such 
 as are present naturally or given artificially. 
 
 The first thing to do in entering upon the cultivation of a soil is to 
 dig a few pits into it at various places to a depth of 6 or 7 feet, and 
 learn all one can about its mechanical and chemical nature at difEerent 
 depths, especially attending to anything that wUl indicate the nature of 
 the circulation of the soil water. The next thing is to apply a few test 
 plots, both for the purpose of finding out its requirements as regards 
 plant foods, and in order to see which of the staple crops will grow in it 
 to the best advantage. If these steps be taken at the outset, and the 
 work be carried on with watchfulness and care, good results may be 
 insured. 
 
 You will- now, I think, agree with me that I was justified in saying 
 at the outset that the conception of the soil as so much dirt and inert 
 mud was a false one — that it is, indeed, one of nature's laboratories, in 
 which there are many various and complex processes at work which 
 are so nicely adjusted that not one can be varied without some variation 
 in the practical results attained. I may by this time have exhausted 
 your patience, but I have by no means exhausted my subject. It is, 
 indeed, like an inexhaustible soil which will always be fertile in results 
 to those who will cultivate it by the methods of careful observation and 
 study. To those who wish to read further on the subject, I would 
 recommend such books as Johnson's How Crops Grow, and How Crops 
 Feed, Storer's Chemistry in some of its Relations with Agriculture, 
 Wagner's Some Practically Important Manure Questions, about shortly 
 to be published by the Department of Agriculture ; also the writings of 
 Liebig, the great pioneer in the fields of agricultural science. His 
 writings contain a fund of excellent sense and reasoning, although in 
 some respects the details of his work have been improved upon by those 
 who have succeeded in the paths of investigation opened out by him. 
 
 By Authority: Robt. S. Bkain, Government Printer, Melbourne.,