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 699 
 
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 Library 
 
 The original of tiiis book is in 
 tine Cornell University Library. 
 
 There are no known copyright restrictions in 
 the United States on the use of the text. 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924051184699 
 
THE RURAL SCHOOL PLANT 
 
The Rural School Plant 
 
 FOR 
 
 RURAL TEACHERS AND SCHOOL BOARDS, NORMAL 
 
 SCHOOLS, TEACHERS' TRAINING CLASSES, 
 
 RURAL EXTENSION BUREAUS 
 
 BY 
 
 S. A. CHALLMAN 
 
 COMMISSIONER OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS FOR MINNESOTA 
 
 % 
 
 MILWAUKEE. WIS. 
 THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 
Copyright, 1917 
 BRUCE PUBLISHING CO. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Investigations of school systems made in recent years have 
 revealed a number of physical conditions which are wholly in- 
 defensible. Many of these conditions might readily be remedied, 
 if the problems connected with them were properly understood 
 by the people who are responsible for their existence. These 
 problems are very much the same in all elementary schools, 
 whether in urban or rural localities. Their importance, however, 
 is ordinarily more appreciated in the urban than in the rural com- 
 munity. 
 
 For this reason a presentation of the conditions necessary to 
 make the rural school a better physical plant and an institution 
 of greater service to the community is worthy of our best efforts.^ 
 We may differ as to the means whereby this can most success- 
 fully be accomplished. We may even feel that the effort to 
 redeem the one- and two-teacher rural school from its short- 
 comings is a questionable policy, in view of the greater efficiency 
 of the consolidated school. But with our democratic form of school 
 government we can not hope to eliminate the small rural school, 
 until we can build up an appreciation of what a better plant can 
 give us. In many instances this appreciation can best be secured 
 by increasing the efficiency of the existing rural school plant. In 
 a great many other cases it is the only means whereby the rural 
 school population of this and possibly the next two or three 
 decades can hope to secure such a training as will give it an 
 inkling of the real problem of school education. 
 
 As long as only feeble efforts are made to improve the. rural 
 school as it exists in most of the localities where it is established, 
 or as long as the efforts made reach beyond the vision of the 
 rural voter, hundreds of thousands of boys and girls in poor 
 schools will grow up with such narrow conceptions of the mis- 
 sion of the public schools that improvements which should come 
 within a generation are delayed for a century. Timely and well 
 directed efforts to improve the rural school are sure to bring their 
 rewards not only in increased opportunities to the children who 
 attend, but also in an enlarged vision of the value of the public 
 school to the community as a whole. 
 
 S. A. Challman. 
 
 Minneapolis, Minn., June i, 1917. 
 
 5 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Primary Considerations 13 
 
 Planning the Building— Simplest Type of Building— Acceptable Type 
 of Building — Desirable Type of Building — Advanced Type of Build- 
 ing—Consolidated Type of Building— Size of Site — Shape of Site- 
 Physical Conditions of Site — Accessibility of Site — Water Supply 
 and Drainage. 
 
 CHAPTER H. 
 
 Cost of Buildings 36 
 
 Plans — Clearing of Site — Excavation — Sand — Gravel or Broken 
 Stone — Portland Cement — Sidewalks — Cement Blocks — Simple 
 Cement Test — Brick — Stone — Lime — Plaster — Plaster of Paris — 
 Shiplap — Board Measure — Siding or Weatherboard — Dimension Tim- 
 ber — Lath — Shingles — Flooring — Millwork — Nails — Paint — Weight of 
 Materials — Sundries — Table of Diameters, Circumferences and 
 Areas of Pipes and Cylindrical Ducts — Heating Plant — U. S. Stand- 
 ard Gauge of Iron and Steel — Fuel Bins — Water Tanks — Cisterns — 
 Labor and Supervision— Plumbing and Sewage Disposal — Water 
 Supply — Another Method of Estimating Cost. 
 
 CHAPTER HI 
 
 Legal Requirements 49 
 
 Sale of Bonds — Form of Advertisement — Circular of Information — 
 Advertisements for Bids — Form of Proposal for Building — Form of 
 Contract — Form of Surety Bond — Heating and Ventilating Contract. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Building Standards S8 
 
 Size of Buildings — Construction Work — Windows — Walls and Ceil- 
 ings — Stairways and Exits. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Essentials and Non-Essentials 62 
 
 Durability — Health and Safety— Exterior Appearance— Shape of 
 Room — Size of Room — Unilateral Light — ^Shades — Blackboards — 
 Walls and Ceilings — Wainscoting — Coatrooms — The Library — Fuel 
 Room — The Roof— The Belfry— Flagpole — Enlargement— Sidewalks 
 —Toilet Facilities. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Types of Buildings 75 
 
 Alabama — 'Arkansas — California — Georgia — Illinois— Iowa — Kansas — 
 Michigan — Minnesota — New Mexico — North Carolina — Oklahoma — 
 Oregon — Pennslyvania — South Carolina — Texas — Vermont — West 
 Virginia — Wisconsin. 
 
 7 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Heating and Ventilation 148 
 
 Room Heater — Warm Air Furnace. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Care and Use of Building 163 
 
 Characteristics of Schools — The School Library — Traveling Libraries 
 — Library Hours — Agriculture — Manual Training — Home Economics 
 — Sewing Outline — Cooking Outline — Community Clubs. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Furniture and Supplies 180 
 
 Stationary Desks — Adjustable Desks — Location of Desks — Movable 
 Desks — Supplies — Permanent Supplies — Annual Supplies. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Improvement and Use of Site 189 
 
 What Trees to Select — What Shrubs to Select — What Vines to 
 Plant — How to Plant Trees and Shrubs — The School Garden — 
 Annual Flowers — Perennial Flowers — Playground Apparatus — Plat- 
 ting the Grounds. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 The Teacher's Home 209 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 Water Supply 218 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 Toilets 230 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Supervision of Health 233 
 
 The Recognition of Physical Defects — Defective Teeth — Defective 
 Eyes — Defective Hearing — -Enlarged Tonsils — Adenoids — Nervous 
 Disorders — Anaemia — Communicable Diseases. 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 FIGURES PAGES 
 
 1. Floor Plan, Simplest Type of Building i6 
 
 2. Floor Plan, Acceptable Type of School Building 17 
 
 3. Floor Plan, Desirable Type of School Building 19 
 
 4. Basement Plan, Desirable Type of School Building 19 
 
 5. The Model Rural School at the State Normal School, Kirks- 
 
 ville, Missouri 21 
 
 6. Floor Plan, Kirksville 22 
 
 7. • Basement Plan, Kirksville 23 
 
 8. Attic Plan, Kirksville .' 24 
 
 9. Model Rural School Building, State Normal School, Mayville, 
 
 N. D 26 
 
 10. Floor Plan, Mayville 27 
 
 11. Floor plan, Two-Teacher Consolidated School Building 30 
 
 12. Two-Teacher Consolidated School Building 31 
 
 13. Foundation Footing ; 59 
 
 14. Foundation Footing 59 
 
 15. Floor Construction 60 
 
 16. Wall Construction 60 
 
 17. Alabama One-Teacher School 76 
 
 18. Floor Plan of Alabama School 76 
 
 ig. Front Elevation and Floor Plan of Alabama Two-Teacher 
 
 School 11 
 
 20. Arkansas One-Room School Building 79 
 
 21. Floor Plan, Arkansas One-Room School Building 80 
 
 22. Floor Plan, California Two-Room Rural School 82 
 
 23. Perspective of School Designed by W. H. Weeks 84 
 
 24. Georgia School 86 
 
 25. Floor Plan, Georgia School 86 
 
 26. Georgia Two-Teacher School 87 
 
 27. Floor Plan, Two-Teacher Georgia School 87 
 
 28. Illinois Country School 88 
 
 29. Floor Plan, Illinois Country School - 90 
 
 30. One-Room Rural Schoolhouse, B. F. Egbert, Architect 91 
 
 31. Floor Plan, Iowa School 92 
 
 32. Two-Room Rural Schoolhouse, B. F. Egbert, Architect 93 
 
 Zi- Floor Plan of a Two-Room Schoolhouse including Rooms for 
 
 Domestic Science and Manual Training 93 
 
 34. Kansas Model Rural School 95 
 
 35. Floor Plan, Kansas Model Rural School 95 
 
 36. Emporia Type of Rural School 97 
 
 ZT- Floor Plan of the Emporia Type 98 
 
 38. Fort Hays Plan of Rural School 98 
 
 39. Floor Plan of the Fort Hays Type 98 
 
 40. The Michigan Schoolhouse 100 
 
 41. Floor Plan, Michigan Schoolhouse loi 
 
 42. Design No. I, Minnesota Standard School Plan 103 
 
 43. Floor Plan, Design No. I, Minnesota Standard School Plan 103 
 
 44. Basement Plan, Design No. i, Minnesota Standard School Plan. . 103 
 
 45. Basement Plan, Design No. 2, Minnesota Standard School Plan . . 104 
 
 46. Floor Plan, Design No. 2, Minnesota Standard School Plan 105 
 
 47. Minnesota Standard School Plan 106 
 
 9 
 
FIGURES PAGES 
 
 48. Design No. 3, Minnesota Standard School Plan 107 
 
 49. Floor Plan, Design No. 3, Minnesota Standard School Plan 107 
 
 50. Basement Plan, Design No. 3, Minnesota Standard School Plan. . 107 
 
 51. Design No. 4, Minnesota Standard School Plan 109 
 
 52. Floor Plan, Minnesota Standard School Plan 109 
 
 53. Basement Plan, Minnesota Standard School Plan 109 
 
 54. Design No. S, Minnesota Standard School Plan no 
 
 55. Floor Plan, Minnesota Standard School Plan no 
 
 56. Basement Plan, Minnesota Standard School Plan in 
 
 57. Design No. 6, Minnesota Standard School Plan 112 
 
 58. Floor Plan, Design No. 6, Minnesota Standard School Plan 113 
 
 S9- Design No. 7, Minnesota Standard School Plan 114 
 
 60. Floor Plan, Minnesota Standard School Plan 1 14 
 
 61. Basement Plan, Minnesota Standard School Plan 114 
 
 62. Design No. 8, Minnesota Standard School Plan iiS 
 
 63. Floor Plan, Design No. 8, Minnesota Standard School Plan 116 
 
 64. Design No. 10, Minnesota Standard School Plan 117 
 
 65. Floor Plan, Design No. 10, Minnesota Standard School Plan 118 
 
 66. Basement Plan, Design No. 10, Minnesota Standard School Plan. 119 
 
 67. Design No. 13, Minnesota Standard School Plan " 120 
 
 68. Floor Plan, Design No. 13, Minnesota Standard School Plan.... 120 
 
 69. Basement Plan, Design No. 13, Minnesota Standard School Plan. 121 
 
 70. New Mexico School 122 
 
 71. Floor Plan, New Mexico School 123 
 
 72. North Carolina School 124 
 
 73. Floor Plan, North Carolina School 125 
 
 74. Oklahoma School 12s 
 
 75. Floor Plan, Oklahoma School 126 
 
 76. Oklahoma Two-Room School 127 
 
 77. Floor Plan, Oklahoma Two-Room School 127 
 
 78. Oregon Design of One-Room School 128 
 
 79. Floor Plan of Oregon One-Room School 128 
 
 80. Oregon Design of Two-Room Rural School 129 
 
 81. Floor Plan, Oregon Two-Room School 130 
 
 82. Elevations, Pennsylvania School 130 
 
 83. Side Elevation, Pennsylvania School 131 
 
 84. Floor Plan, Pennsylvania School 132 
 
 8s. South Carolina School 133 
 
 86. Floor Plan, South Carolina School 134 
 
 87. Texas Model One-Room Schoolhouse 137 
 
 88. Floor Plan of Texas Model One-Room Schoolhouse 137 
 
 89. Perspective View of One-Room Schoolhouse, Louis Sheldon 
 
 Newton, Architect, Hartford, Vermont 139 
 
 90. Plan of One-Room Schoolhouse, Louis Sheldon Newton, Archi- 
 
 tect 140 
 
 91. West Virginia School 142 
 
 92. Wisconsin Rural School 144 
 
 93. Floor Plan, Wisconsin Rural School 144 
 
 94. Wisconsin Rural School 14S 
 
 95. Floor Plan, Wisconsin Rural School 145 
 
 96. Wisconsin Rural School 146 
 
 97. Floor Plan, Wisconsin Rural School 146 
 
 98. Wisconsin Rural School '. 147 
 
 99. Floor Plan, Wisconsin Rural School • 147 
 
 100. Circulation Obtained by Ventilating Room Heater IS4 
 
 loi. Furnace Heat and Rotation of Air 156 
 
 102. Furnace Heat and Air Mixture Device IS6 
 
 ]0 
 
FIGURES - PAGES 
 
 103. Furnace Heat and Heat Waste 158 
 
 104. Furnace Heat and Poor Circulation 158 
 
 105. Furnace Heat and Good Circulation 159 
 
 106. Primary School In Brittany. — Geoff roy 164 
 
 107. Lincoln. — St. Gaudens 167 
 
 108. The Declaration of Independence. — Trumbull i68 
 
 109. Stationary Desk ". 184 
 
 no. Adjustable Desk 185 
 
 111. Movable Desk 186 
 
 112. Giant's Stride 202 
 
 113. Travelling Rings 202 
 
 114. The See-Saw 202 
 
 115. Horizontal Bar 203 
 
 116. Inclined Steel Poles and Ladder 204 
 
 117. The Chute 204 
 
 118. Parallel Bars 204 
 
 iig. Flying Rings 205 
 
 120. The Swing : 205 
 
 121. Oregon Plan for Rural School Grounds 207 
 
 122. Minnesota Plan for Rural School Grounds 208 
 
 123. Model Teacher's Cottage, Commonwealth of Washington 210 
 
 124. Floor Plan Model Teacher's Cottage, Washington 211 
 
 125. Schoolhouse and Teacher's Home. . . .'. 212 
 
 126. First Floor Plan, School with Teacher's Home 213 
 
 127. Second Floor Plan, School with Teacher's Home 213 
 
 128. Basement Plan, School with Teacher's Home 214 
 
 129. A Four-Room Cottage for a Teacher 216 
 
 130. Floor Plan, Teacher's Four-Room House. . , 216 
 
 131. The Common Drinking Cup 219 
 
 132. Picturesque, but not Sanitary 220 
 
 133. Pollution of a Poorly Constructed Dug Well 221 
 
 134. Pollution of a Poorly Constructed Bored Well 222 
 
 135. Pollution of a Poorly Constructed Drilled Well 222 
 
 136. Drilled Well Properly Constructed 223 
 
 137. Bored Well, Properly Constructed 224 
 
 138. Dug Well, Properly Constructed 225 
 
 139. Pollution of Spring 226 
 
 140. Spring, Properly Protected 227 
 
 141. Cistern, Properly Constructed 228 
 
 142. Typical Rural School Sanitary Drinking Fountain 229 
 
 143. Floor Plan of Outbuilding 232 
 
 11 
 
The Rural School Plant 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 PRIMARY CONSIDERATIONS. 
 
 The rural school building too often gives evidence of little or 
 no planning. The popular idea in too many places seems to have 
 been that any kind of building makes a suitable schoolhouse. In 
 fact, the problem is generally considered so simple that plans and 
 specifications are liable to be looked upon as superfluous. Many 
 school officers resent even the suggestion that plans drawn by an 
 architect should be secured, as any builder in their estimation can 
 put up a schoolhouse, if given the outside dimensions of the 
 proposed building. The questions of height of ceiling, size of 
 schoolroom, size and location of windows, size and location of 
 chimney, means of- heating and ventilation, and other matters 
 relating to the health, progress, and welfare of children, are 
 considered merely incidental to the structural problems. The 
 builder who takes- the contract for such a building generally helps 
 to confirm this opinion in the minds of people with whom he 
 comes in contact. There being no plans according to which 
 materials or workmanship can be gauged, no valid criticism can 
 be made of any work he does. He generally does the best he 
 knows how. 
 
 But even if no criticism attaches to the structural features of 
 the building, which to the credit of many builders may be said to 
 be gratifyingly true, it is hardly ever true that the sanitary and 
 educational features, which are equally important, have been 
 recognized in any satisfactory manner. If perchance some of 
 these features are right, it is more often due to accident than to 
 intelligent planning. The insanitary, unsuitable, and unattractive 
 rural school building so often seen throughout the country is a 
 sad and grim blot upon the landscape. But worse than this, it is 
 a stumbling block in the path of the very children whom it is 
 designed to help, and makes the education which it should dis- 
 seminate dull, uninteresting, and in many cases unprofitable. By 
 reason of poor light and wretched ventilation it lays the basis for 
 
14 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 physical ailments which blunt intellectual acumen and stunt 
 laudable ambition. 
 
 The little schoolhouse at the cross roads may not have much 
 that will commend it to the efficiency expert of the present genera- 
 tion, but such as it is, it influences the intellectual development of 
 more than one-half of the children in the United States. The 
 conditions which will enable children to gain from the varied fields 
 of human knowledge and experience, the best fruits of generous 
 growth and wholesome living, may not be there but these children 
 must grow and take their places in society like their more fortu- 
 nate brothers and sisters in the urban schools. Other educational 
 conditions may be better, and the small rural school may have 
 almost outlived its usefulness, like many other human institutions ; 
 but the fact remains, that it is still with us and promises to stay, 
 until the two factors of the sparseness of population and prevail- 
 ing local sentiment have undergone sufficient change to warrant 
 its elimination. It is, therefore, imperative that it should be made 
 as serviceable as possible, under the social conditions which exist. 
 
 PLANNING THE BUILDING. 
 
 The purpose and organization of the school are the first 
 matters to be considered in its planning. This implies that the 
 health, mental development, moral and social capacity, and in- 
 dustrial efficiency of the children shall be the governing factors 
 in determining the features which are to be incorporated in the 
 building. No paltry considerations or abitrary notions should be 
 allowed to influence those charged with the adoption of plans so 
 that these ends may in any way be thwarted. On the contrary 
 every possible advantage should be made use of, so that the 
 building may give opportunities for a complete and wholesome 
 development of all the purposes for which the school stands. 
 These purposes may be summed up in the old Latin quotation: 
 "A sound mind in a sound body." 
 
 Many sketches of school buildings have been worked out, 
 particularly by educators who have understood to an appreciable 
 extent the rural problem, but unfortunately they have not been 
 as familiar with the sanitary and structural features of building 
 requirements. Many architects to whom the building problem 
 has presented no difficulties have also worked out plans which. 
 
Primary Considerations. 15 
 
 however, have fallen short of adequate sanitary and educational 
 standards. On this account many plans which embody excellent 
 features are badly marred by unfortunate mistakes of one kind 
 or another. The seeming simplicity has proved a delusion and 
 a snare, and the little rural schoolhouse, strange to say, still 
 continues to be a building problem. 
 
 The ideal way to plan a rural school is to employ a school- 
 house architect. This means an architect who knows the rural 
 problem in its educational, industrial, social, and sanitary aspects. 
 He may not be within a stone's throw, but he is not altogether a 
 creature of the imagination. He can be found, and he is worth 
 the fee he asks, when one considers that in order to plan the 
 schoolhouse properly he must view the site and design a building 
 in harmony with the natural surroundings or with such landscape 
 transformation as may be considered desirable. The time 
 required for such a survey, as well as for a study of features 
 which should be incorporated in the building, is always consider- 
 able. The drafting of sketches to allow the school board some 
 choice should also be given consideration. Taking it all in all, 
 this very desirable method is liable to prove impractical, except 
 in places where travel is not an appreciable factor and where an 
 unconventional type of building is desired. 
 
 No building, however, should be constructed without a careful 
 analysis of local conditions, so as to secure for the community 
 all that can be rightfully expected for its children. Economy 
 must necessarily be considered, but after all that building is most 
 economical which embodies such facilities for educational develop- 
 ment as lie within the power of the rural school to give. It is 
 also economy to use good materials, and to adhere to substantial 
 methods of construction. Extravagance consists in incorporating 
 features which do not add to the use, comfort, or attractiveness 
 of the building. It is as much a part of planning to avoid useless 
 and grotesque' features as it is to include fundamental and well 
 established standards of educational authorities, sanitary experts, 
 architects and builders. 
 
 For the greatest number of our schools, it will be found 
 advisable, if the building is to meet the various requirements, to 
 select some of the standard plans of schoolhouses which are 
 furnished by state or national authorities or by reputable private 
 
16 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 agencies. Sufficient variation can be secured by careful selection 
 so as to avoid monotonous repetition of exterior design in school 
 districts adjacent to each other. 
 
 |tdpi| 
 
 •3CHOOI.R.OOM 
 
 ■ zsoVae'-o" . 
 
 ■3S POPlLi- 
 
 SIMPLEST TYPE OF BUILDING. 
 
 The simplest type of a rural school must provide a schoolroom, 
 a coatroom, and a vestibule. A building no larger than 24 feet 
 by 36 feet can be arranged to provide for 35 children and afford 
 space for a coatroom and vestibule. One way of doing this is 
 shown in Fig. i. 
 
 The coatroom is necessary, 
 as children's outer clothing 
 should have a space where it 
 may be out of the way and, at 
 the same time, be readily 
 available. Care of clothes and 
 neatness of surroundings is an 
 important lesson in early life. 
 Besides, a separate coatroom 
 is a necessity if the school- 
 room is to be used to its full 
 advantage. If wall space in 
 the schoolroom is used for 
 hanging clothes, it is space 
 which is very much needed 
 for school purposes. 
 
 The Vestibule is also a 
 necessity, as it permits of en- 
 trance into the building under 
 conditions which engender a 
 feeling of personal composure 
 before stepping into the school- 
 room. It also increases the respect for the building on the part of 
 those who enter it. It is a decided advantage on stormy and 
 rainy days. 
 
 The coatroom and vestibule should never be combined, as the 
 children's clothing should be kept in' a warm room where there is 
 constant circulation of air. This is'impossible to secure in a room 
 
 •PIMEHSIOnj- 
 ■24'-0"x36"-0"- 
 
 t^e>N 
 
 A 
 
 Fig. 1. Floor Plan. 
 Simplest Type of Building. 
 
Primary Considerations. 
 
 17 
 
 where, during the cold months of the year, the opening of the 
 outside door interferes with both heat and circulation of air. 
 Besides, there is no gain in space by combining the two, as the 
 vestibule need not be large, and a small space partitioned off for 
 the vestibule woud prove an effective means on many occasions 
 of protecting the schoolroom as well as the coatroom from cold 
 winds. 
 
 ACCEPTABLE TYPE OF BUILDING. 
 
 The slightly better school adds a room for a library, in which 
 the books for general reading may be kept. This room is really 
 a valuable feature of a country school. It makes possible the 
 realization on the part of many children of having a room fur- 
 nished neatly and attractively, to which they may go and really 
 enjoy reading without being annoyed by the recitations of other 
 children. In many schools it is needed as a study room for older 
 pupils, evfen when the capacity of the schoolroom is' not taxed. 
 In other schools, it will serve at times as a recitation room, for a 
 class which the teacher may wish to place in charge of one of the 
 older pupils. It should be made inviting, and be equipped with 
 proper library furniture. It 
 is the proper place for the 
 school board to hold its 
 meetings and keep its rec- 
 ords. In fact, many of the 
 buildings now in use have an 
 amount of waste space 
 which, if it could be made 
 available, would give ample 
 floor space for a library. 
 Schoolrooms of wasteful 
 shapes and dimensions have 
 robbed many a building of 
 this very desirable feature, 
 without giving anything 
 whatever in return. In real- 
 ity the simplest type of a 
 school which was first men- 
 tioned ought not to be built 
 
 Fig. 2. Floor Plan. 
 Acceptable Type of School Building. 
 
18 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 at all; but the very smallest rural schoolhouse should be so 
 arranged that it will have a schoolroom, a coatroom, a vestibule, 
 and a library. 
 
 If such a schoolhouse is designed to provide for thirty pupils, 
 a building 32 feet by 32 feet, with a porch in front permits of a 
 very satisfactory interior arrangement as shown by the floor plan, 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 The heating and ventilating of either of these types of build- 
 ings can be accomplished quite satisfactorily by means of a 
 ventilating room heater. This consists of a stove, generally a 
 cylindrical pattern of upright type, without r.ims or projection. 
 Surrounding the stove at a distance of a few inches is a cylindrical 
 shield. Air from outdoors as well as from the room is admitted 
 inside this shield, and the heat from the stove causes the air to 
 rise. The air nearest the floor is drawn partially inside the shield 
 and partially out through the ventilator. The warmer air is 
 delivered through the top of the shield and distributed at the 
 ceiling of the room. This gradually drops lower, and a steady 
 circulation is established. By this means the schoolroom, library, 
 and coatroom may all be successfully heated and ventilated. 
 
 DESIRABLE TYPE OE BUILDING. 
 
 A schoolhouse which, in addition to the arrangement of rooms 
 already given, provides a basement, makes on the whole a desir- 
 able type of building. The heating plant, generally a warm-air 
 furnace, can be placed in the basement in a room by itself with 
 fireproof walls, ceiling and floor. This insures both cleanliness 
 and safety. A fairly large room, which may be lighted by win- 
 dows on two or three sides, may also be secured in the basement, 
 if care is exercised in planning. This room will give the children 
 and the teacher an opportunity to sit down together to a warm 
 lunch during the noon hour. Eitted with tables and chairs and 
 equipped with dishes, knives, forks and spoons and other neces- 
 sary utensils, this room may become a valuable educational factor 
 in teaching table manners and politeness. The girls may be given 
 practical training in cooking and serving. The children will be 
 made happier and will be better nourished by sitting down to a 
 warm meal instead of a cold lunch. A kerosene, gasoline, alcohol 
 
Primary Considerations. 
 
 19 
 
 or other suitable stove may be put in and even a kitchenette pro- 
 vided, if it is desired. This basement room can be made as 
 attractive as a room in a home. It will make a pleasant room 
 for games on stormy days, and add considerable to the social 
 enjoyment of children. When properly built it can be made 
 damp-proof, so that any objections on this score may be readily 
 overcome. This room can also be used for small evening gather- 
 ings, either in conjunction with the schoolroom above or sepa- 
 rately. 
 
 Such a building may be secured by having the basement 8 feet 
 high, with the floor of the basement not more than 4 feet below 
 
 f^LOOR PLAH 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 Floor Plan. Fig. 4. Basement Plan. 
 
 Desirable Type of School Building. 
 
 the grade level. To accommodate 35 pupils, a building 36 feet 
 by 34 feet with a porch in front will give a comfortable and satis- 
 factory interior arrangement. The floor plan of such a building 
 could be laid out as shown in the diagram Fig. 3. 
 
 The basement plan would necessarily have to conform, in the 
 main, to the arrangement of rooms above, in order to get proper 
 support for the floor joist. This gives a furnace and fuel room 
 under the library, and a kitchenette under the girls' coatroom. 
 
20 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 The diagram Fig. 4, will show one of the most economical as well 
 as convenient arrangements. 
 
 When the rural school is large enough to require two school- 
 rooms, the large room in the basement affords a desirable place 
 for community gatherings and social enjoyment. Although, in 
 the school building with but one schoolroom, indoor toilets may 
 be provided, .it is only in rare instances that such provision is ever 
 made. In the building with two schoolrooms, however, the 
 tendency is now toward providing indoor toilets. This feature 
 of schoolhouse construction should receive careful attention oil 
 the part of school boards, as the possibility of such installation, 
 the protection of health that goes with it, and the reasonable cost 
 of water supply, toilet fixtures, and means of sewage disposal are 
 powerful arguments in its behalf. School hygiene may accom- 
 plish much without modern toilet facilities, but it will never 
 accomplish what it should, until the outdoor toilet has been elimin- 
 ated, and the use of the lavatory taught with the same care and 
 drill that characterizes instruction in the multiplication table. In 
 order to avoid repetition of illustrations, floor and basement plans 
 of such buildings are reserved for future consideration, when 
 various types of buildings will be fully discussed. 
 
 ADVANCED TYPE OF BUILDING. 
 
 In some instances the school which employs but one teacher 
 may be justified in adding a joint workroom for boys and girls; 
 or better still two workrooms, one for boys and one for girls. 
 This implies that one teacher has the training and ability to handle 
 both the academic and the industrial work in a school of about 
 thirty or thirty-five pupils. That there are teachers with these 
 qualifications must be conceded. They are not numerous, how- 
 ever, and it is difficult to retain them in such positions. Being 
 versatile and practical, they soon receive offers of promotion, 
 and it is but natural that they should accept these positions. 
 However, a community which desires to secure such a teacher 
 can ordinarily obtain one, and for such a community the school 
 building should be designed so as to facilitate both academic and 
 industrial work. 
 
 Such a school building was erected in 1907 at Kirksville, 
 
Primary Considerations. 
 
 21 
 
 Missouri, under the direction of President John R. Kirk of the 
 Kirksville Normal School, and has been in continuous operation 
 since that time. The building is not large, but it demonstrates 
 very effectively what, can be done by careful planning and judi- 
 cious attention to a compact arrangement. Through the courtesy 
 of President Kirk the illustrations. Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, have been 
 secured. 
 
 Fig. 5. The Model Rural School. 
 At the State Normal School, Kirksville, Missouri. 
 
 President Kirk gives the following description of this build- 
 ing : "The Model Rural School building exemplifies the simplest 
 and yet the most complete, practical, and economical features of 
 a rural school. The building contains as effective facilities for 
 instruction as the best city schools of our country have. Tlie 
 children are transported from their farm homes several miles 
 away in a covered wagon. The purpose is to solve at least some 
 of the problems of country life. 
 
 "The one-room school will doubtless be with us always. The 
 
22 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 tendency toward consolidated schools can not increase too fast. 
 But the one-room school being a permanency, its problems are 
 among the gravest. In solving the one-room school problem 
 and the one-teacher problem there is little doubt that the problem 
 will be solved for the consolidated rural and village school. 
 
 "The schoolroom is 23 by 27 feet in the clear. The children 
 face the east. Mild light in abundance is admitted from the 
 north or left side of the children ; ground glass window at rear 
 admits sunlight for sanitation. 
 
 CAST S4D£ 
 
 FIRST FLOOR PLAN 
 
 Fig. 6. Floor Plan, Kirksville. 
 
 "The schoolroom has adjustable seats and desks on separate 
 movable platforms. There is a telephone on the teacher's desk. 
 A stereopticon is hung in the wall at the rear. A screen is pro- 
 vided in front. An alcove, or closet, is built on the east side for 
 books, teacher's wraps, etc. 
 
 "The school has a small organ, ample bookcases, shelves and 
 apparatus. Pure air enters above the children's heads and passes 
 out at the floor, into a ventilating stack through the fireplace. 
 Warm water wall radiators contribute to heating — radiation half, 
 warm air half. 
 
 "In the drawing observe the toilet rooms. Each one has all 
 the ordinary fixtures : Wash bowl with hot and cold water, pres- 
 
Primary Considerations. 
 
 23 
 
 sure tank for hot water and for heat, shower bath with hot and 
 cold water, ventilating apparatus, looking glass, towel rack, soap 
 box, etc. Each toilet room is reached by a circuitous passageway 
 furnishing room for children's wraps, overshoes, etc. The 
 scheme is for perfect privacy in toilet rooms. All toilet room 
 walls contain air chambers to deaden the sound. Toilet rooms 
 are clean, decent, and beautiful. They are never disfigured with 
 vile writing or other defacement. 
 
 "The main entrance is through a porch. There is also a small 
 
 COLD AIR DUCT- 
 WKTERTWJK 
 400,CAL. 
 
 1 S WITCH' BOARD^\ 
 WDGHTI CAROLINE ENGINE 
 t~MAINPUMP 
 
 DRYING ROOr^ 
 
 GYMNASIUM I2KX23. 
 
 BASEMENT PLAN "S' ^">^ 
 Pig. 7. Basement Plan, KirksvUle. 
 
 porch on the west side especially for the girls. All rooms are 
 wired for electricity and piped for gas. The walls are adorned 
 with pictures. The hallway contains drinking fountains. 
 
 "The basement is 28 by 36 feet, outside measurement — eight 
 feet from floor to ceiling. The floor is concrete underlaid with 
 porous tile and cinders. The tile leads into a sewer. 
 
 "The walls are of concrete, protected from undue moisture by 
 an outside tile a foot from the walls, and averaging from 3 to 7 
 feet beneath the surface of the ground, sloping rapidly into the 
 main sewer. The ditch above the tile is filled with cinders. 
 
 "The outside entrance to the basement is of concrete, with 
 an outside drain through the lower step into the sewer. The steps 
 
24 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 of the outside entrance to the basement, and all other steps, are 
 of uniform height and tread, about 7-inch riser and ii-inch tread. 
 "The basement has eight compartments : ( i ) Furnace Room, 
 containing a furnace enclosed by brick walls, also a cold air duct 
 with an electric fan, also a gas water-heater; (2) Coal Bin 6 by 8 
 feet; (3) Bulb or Plant Room 3 by 8 feet for fall, winter, and 
 spring storage; (4) Dark Room 4 by 8 feet for developing 
 pictures, with drain, and drying apparatus; (6) Play room 13 by 
 23 feet; (7) Tank Room, containing a 400-gallon pneumatic 
 pressure tank, a storage battery for electricity, a hand pump for 
 
 4.8- ■ K2D 
 SKV LIGHT 
 TABLE 
 
 SJIK 
 
 
 \\l// 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 SANITARV 
 
 DRINKING*-' 
 rOUNTAM 
 
 .© 0. 
 
 "^WASH QOWL 
 
 <I.TR.BEHU 
 
 
 ITRBENCti 
 
 46X20 
 SKV LIGHT 
 
 ATTIC PLAN "ST SIDE 
 
 Fig. 8. Attic Plan, KirksvUIe. 
 
 emergencies, a water gauge, sewer pipes, a floor drain, etc. ; 
 (8) Engine Room, containing a gasoline engine, a water pump, an 
 electric generator, a switch board, a water tank for cooling the 
 gasoline engine, a weight for gas pressure, a gas mixer, batteries, 
 pipes, wires, etc. 
 
 "The pumps lift water from a well into pressure tank through 
 pipes below frost line. Gasoline is admitted through pipes 
 beneath the frost line from two 40-gallon tanks underground, 30 
 feet from the building. Rooms are wired for electricity and 
 piped for gas. 
 
 "The basement in all parts is thoroughly ventilated. A study 
 of the basement plan is well worth the time of any person living 
 
Primary Considerations. 25 
 
 in a farm home or connected with a rural school. Many farm 
 houses duplicate the fundamental features in the basement, main 
 floor and attic of this demonstration rural school. Eight years 
 ago some of the most prominent men of national reputation said 
 the water system, the electric lighting system, and the heating 
 system of this demonstration school were all impossiblities. They 
 said the warm water radiators would freeze up, that the toilet 
 bowls would freeze up, that the water tank would give trouble, 
 that the pump and the dynamo would get out of fix and that it 
 would take a fifty-dollar per month engineer to run the machinery. 
 
 "Since that time boys and girls have learned to run automo- 
 biles and motorcycles, and if they were left free to themselves 
 they would soon run the gasoline engines on the farm. Nothing 
 but positive isolation of a dynamo or a gasoline engine would 
 prevent a 14-year-old boy from learning as much about it as a 
 man can learn. Boys and girls have curiosity. They learn faster 
 than grown people. We see them every day running machines 
 on the street that grown people couldn't run a half dozen years 
 ago. Ten years ago the automobile was a 'devil-wagon.' Now 
 it is the farmer's necessity. Ten years ago the gasoline engine 
 was a novelty. Now it is a common, every-day utility. 
 
 "Every rural schoolhouse has an attic, but this seems to be 
 the only one whose attic was ever discovered. This attic is 35 by 
 15 feet, inside measurement, all in one room, as shown by the 
 attic plan above. The distance from floor to ceiling is seven and 
 one-half feet in middle part. 
 
 "The attic is abundantly lighted through gable lights and roof 
 lights. It contains modern manual training benches for the use 
 of eight or ten children at one time. It has a gas range and other 
 apparatus for experimental cooking. It is furnished with both 
 gas and electric light. 
 
 "It has a wash bowl with hot and cold water, a looking glass, 
 towels, etc. It has a large sink such as a good kitchen usually 
 contains. It has a drinking fountain, but no drinking cup either 
 common or uncommon. It has cupboards, boxes, and receptacles 
 for various experiments in home economics. 
 
 "It has a disinfecting apparatus and a portable agricultural 
 chemistry laboratory, and numerous other equipments. Its 
 utilities will grow in number and improve in quality. It is pro- 
 
26 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 perly heated and ventilated. It has a disappearing bed which 
 slides out under the lower roof when it is not in used. This attic 
 is in every way sanitary." 
 
 In 191 3 the Mayille, N. D., Normal School, completed a rural 
 school building, the purpose of which, as given in an official pub- 
 lication of the school, is "to illustrate in all essential respects, 
 taking into account the modern practical demands upon education, 
 the best that is practical and feasible in a typical, well-to-do 
 country locality, in the way of a building for an ungraded, one- 
 teacher school." 
 
 This school is in session during the summer as well as the 
 winter. Through it the normal school tries to illustrate the best 
 
 Fig. 9. Model Rural School Building. 
 State Normal School, Mayville, N. Dak. 
 
 features in building construction, in grounds, in equipment, in 
 course of study, in daily program, in methods of instruction, in 
 management of children, and in social activities. 
 
 The total cost of this building (Fig. 9) without any equipment 
 was about $4,000. The dimensions of the building, exclusive of 
 the porch or the rear entrance to the basement, are 38 by 34 feet. 
 
 The basement extends under the entire building. The build- 
 ing is heated by means of a warm-air furnace, located immediately 
 below the schoolroom and almost in the center of the basement. 
 The fuel room is in the front part of the basement. A cistern 
 divided into three compartments is built along one of the base- 
 ment walls. Into two of these compartments rain water from 
 
Primary Considerations. 
 
 27 
 
 the roof is gathered, and into the compartment between these two 
 collecting reservoirs, water is filtered. This filtered water is used 
 for drinking and also for cleaning purposes. 
 
 The main floor (Fig. lo) is arranged very conveniently. 
 Alcoves for domestic science, manual training, and agriculture 
 
 PLOOfL PLAH 
 
 Fig. 10. Floor Plan, Mayville. 
 
 adjoin the schoolroom, which has seating space for 24 pupils. 
 In securing this arrangement, however, the proper location of 
 windows and the amount of glass area have been sacrificed. This 
 could be remedied by means of a skylight. The vestibule is 
 divided by a short partition, on either side of which are the doors 
 to the coatrooms with adjoining toilet rooms. Sanitary dry 
 closets are used in the toilet rooms and emptied when necessary 
 
28 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 on fields near by. Its ventilation system is of a design which could 
 be materially improved. The building is equipped with a gas 
 system, the gas being supplied from storage tanks. The domestic 
 science room has. a household range. An electric gong, with a 
 push button inside the building, takes the place of the old-tirne 
 bell in the cupola. 
 
 Each building of this type is really a problem in itself, and a 
 school board contemplating the erection of such a building should 
 secure an architect who will provide plans of a building suited to 
 the locality, properly arranged, correctly lighted, hygienically 
 ventilated, and supplied with a, sewage disposal system that is 
 scientifically constructed and ample in capacity. Such a building 
 seldom costs more than a building in which these conditions have 
 been aimed at but missed. The building will be a silent educator 
 in itself, a fact which is bound to result in a better conception of 
 what a real school education ought to be. That which has been 
 considered outside of the sphere of the school becomes closely 
 identified with it, and the school gets that touch with living con- 
 ditions which should insure for the children an intelligent appli- 
 cation of the knowledge they acquire. 
 
 CONSOLIDATED TYPE OF BUILDING. 
 
 The consolidated school takes its name from the fact that its 
 establishment was originally due to the union of two or more 
 school districts. The name originally also implied that two or 
 more teachers were employed in the same school building, and 
 that, in consequence, academic work done in these schools was of 
 a better character than that previously done in the little district 
 school taught by one teacher. In many places the name now 
 carries with it a much broader significance. The consolidated 
 school is an institution not only for the children, but for the 
 community as well. It is the new speedometer of educational 
 progress. The term implies that such a school embodies the 
 progressive educational ideals by means of which it is hoped to 
 make rural life more desirable and efficient. It seeks to connect 
 its courses and the contents of the subjects taught with the life 
 of the community, insofar as this is possible, and offers instruction 
 in the time-honored school subjects as well as in agriculture, 
 
Primary Considerations. 29 
 
 manual training, cooking, and sewing. On this account the 
 smallest consolidated school must have not only its schoolrooms, 
 coatrooms, and modern toilet rooms, but it must provide an 
 assembly hall for public gatherings, and include in the building 
 rooms and equipment for a community library, and for home 
 economics, manual training and agriculture. 
 
 This is a day of cooperative efforts. That which can be done 
 more easily and more efiEciently by cooperative means is much to 
 be preferred over the difficult and less satisfactory results obtained 
 by individual application. We have already come to recognize 
 this fact in our cooperative creameries and elevators in particular, 
 as wejl as in a number of other community enterprises. Statistics 
 furnished by "The Federal Office of Markets and Rural Organi- 
 zation" show that in 191 5 the organized marketing and purchasing 
 of American farmers reached nearly a billion and a half dollars. 
 In Minnesota one out of every five farmers is said to market his 
 wheat in farmers' elevators, and thirty per cent of all Minnesota 
 grown wheat is received at cooperative elevators at country sta- 
 tions. Ninety-five per cent of these elevators are so organized 
 as to protect farm control permanently. Minnesota's cooperative 
 creameries were pioneers in the movement and have prospered 
 and multiplied wonderfully. 
 
 A generation ago our relations to each other were largely 
 determined by the individualistic conditions which then prevailed. 
 Homes were far apart as compared with today. Each family 
 sought to provide for itself, by producing from the soil or in the 
 home, such articles as it needed for its own use. Purchases were 
 limited, to a large extent, to those things which could not readily 
 be grown or made at home. 
 
 Today the farmer does not seek to raise any but the most 
 remunerative products. He is not primarily concerned about 
 what he needs for the farm and the home, but what he can sell. 
 He is virtually as much of a purchaser as the man who lives in 
 the city. He buys and sells in the market. He owns stock in 
 banks, creameries, elevators, and other business enterprises. He 
 uses the telephone and the telegraph. He reads his daily paper. 
 He travels by rail and automobile. He makes use of labor-saving 
 machinery. In fact, he is as much a citizen of the world as his 
 city neighbor. 
 
30 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 The progressive man, wherever he may be, will eventually 
 find a good place in which to live. Such a place is always char- 
 acterized by the opportunities given for making a good living and 
 living a good life. It acts like a magnet in bringing together 
 people who work in harmony for their mutual advancement. 
 They seek with one accord public improvements, commercial 
 advantages, industrial growth, social enjoyment, spiritual advance- 
 ment, and educational progress. To them the consolidated school 
 appeals as one of the rural agencies which will not only make 
 
 Fig. 11. Floor Plan, Two-Teacher Consolidated School Building. 
 
 school education more valuable, but at the same time place the 
 proper ideals before the community. Consolidation and coopera- 
 tion are the two poles of a powerful battery which, equipped with 
 proper electrodes and a human dynamo, will move the wheels of 
 rural progress in the right direction to a useful end. 
 
 A consolidated school with an organization which provides for 
 but two teachers and an enrollment not to exceed 75 pupils may 
 
Primary Considerations. 
 
 31 
 
 be established, but the plan of such a building must facilitate the 
 means whereby the same teachers can handle both the academic 
 and the industrial work to the best advantage. This can be 
 accomplished by an interior arrangement which provides for all 
 the features of school and community activities on one floor. 
 
 This floor plan (Fig. ii) provides for a corridor ii feet, 6 
 inches wide, nearest the door, and i6 feet, 6 inches wide at the 
 entrance to the schoolroom. A drinking fountain is placed in 
 
 rig. 12. Two-Teacher Consolidated School Building. 
 
 the corridor. The library is at the right of the entrance and the 
 lunchroom or dining-room at the left. The library is 17 by 12 
 feet, and is placed near the entrance so as to be easily accessible 
 to the people of the community. In a school of this type, one of 
 the older pupils or some person in the community would naturally 
 be selected as librarian, and would be in charge during certain 
 hours each day. Books needed for reference in the schoolrooms 
 would be in cases in the schoolrooms. The library would be 
 available for committee meetings and small gatherings ; and could 
 be opened as a reading room, where magazines, agricultural 
 
32 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 journals, and newspapers would be kept on file for the people of 
 the community, as well as for the children in school; The lunch- 
 room is also 17 by i 12 feet, and though not large, will afiford 
 sufficient space for serving a warm lunch, by dividing the children 
 into two groups and serving each group at separate times. The 
 home economics room or kitchen immediately adjoins, and is a 
 room 21 feet, 9 inches by 18 feet. This room can be used to take 
 care of the possible few who may be crowded out of the lunch- 
 room. The kitchen is arranged so as to have its own chimney, 
 which makes possible the installation of a kitchen range. It is 
 equipped with hot and cold water. The manual training room is 
 the same size as the home economics room, and has an outside 
 entrance of its own. The toilet-rooms are each 21 feet, 4 inches 
 by 7 feet, 8 inches. The coatrooms are 25 feet, 8 inches by 7 
 feet, each. The schoolrooms are standard size for forty pupils, 
 each, and are 31 feet, 4 inches by 23 feet. Every room is 
 properly lighted and well ventilated. 
 
 The two schoolrooms may be combined into an assembly room 
 which will seat comfortably two hundred people, if movable 
 furniture, which is recommended for this kind of school, is used. 
 At the extreme south end is a platform 23 feet long and 9 feet, 
 5 inches wide. This platform is 18 inches above the floor level 
 of the schoolroom, and is shut off from the schoolroom by two 
 series of hinged doors or by a rolling partition. Thus by merely 
 combining the schoolrooms and the platform, this assembly room 
 becomes available at any time for joint exercises by the children 
 of both rooms, or for lectures, evening entertainments, concerts, 
 social gatherings, agricultural meetings, and other activities of a 
 similar nature. A door at the rear of this assembly room pro- 
 vides a means of entrance and exit, if it is found desirable to close 
 the rest of the building when a public meeting is held. It also 
 provides an emergency exit in case of fire or panic. 
 
 The outside dimensions of this building (Fig. 12) are 75 feet 
 by 62 feet, 6 inches. 
 
 The basement may be only partially excavated, and is to be 
 used only for the heating plant, engine and pump. The building 
 is best heated by means of a low pressure steam system or a 
 vapor system. For ventilation in connection with a steam or 
 vapor system either a gravity or mechanical system may be in- 
 
Primary Considerations. 33 
 
 stalled. Either system will cost about the same amount of money. 
 If a warm air furnace system with gravity heat is desired, the 
 entire basement should be excavated and four furnaces installed 
 in order to get satisfactory results. If a warm air furnace system 
 with blower is preferred the furnaces, probably not more than 
 two, should be arranged in a battery and given the most advanta- 
 geous location in the basement. It would be unwise to attempt 
 to heat this building by means of ventilating room heaters. 
 
 The water supply and sewage disposal system for this building 
 should be designed so as to insure the most sanitary conditions 
 possible. These features must be worked out independently for 
 each locality, and the advice of the State Board of Health should 
 be secured before either system is installed. 
 
 SIZE OF SITE. 
 
 After the type of the proposed schoolhouse has been decided 
 upon, the next thing is to find a satisfactory site. Before locating 
 the site, the size of it should be carefully considered. No matter 
 how small the building, the site ought to be not less than one acre. 
 Picture a piece of ground just a little more than 200 feet by 
 200 feet, or one that it would take about seventy steps to pass on 
 one side. Such a piece of land hardly affords space enough for 
 good healthy children in which to romp around and enjoy them- 
 selves. As a matter of fact two acres is none too much, and the 
 statutes in a number of states specify two acres as the minimum 
 amount of grounds on which to build a public school; Where a 
 school garden is desired, at least another acre should be added, 
 and if an athletic field is to be included, not less than four acres 
 should be secured. 
 
 SHAPE OF SITE. 
 
 The most desirable shape of a school site is an oblong. This 
 will give the best opportunity for arranging the grounds both 
 with reference to beauty and to use. The front yard can be taste- 
 fully laid out with trees, shrubbery, grass and walks. The back 
 yard can be fitted up with apparatus for play, and when it is large 
 enough will provide also for a school garden. The best dimen- 
 sions of a 
 
34 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 One-acre tract are ten rods front by sixteen rods deep ; 
 Two-acre tract, sixteen rods by twenty rods ; 
 Three-acre tract, sixteen rods by thirty rods ; 
 Four-acre tract, twenty rods by thirty rods. 
 
 PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF SITE. 
 
 The best site of ample size should be selected. What does it 
 profit a child to acquire an education in a well designed building, 
 if the sanitary conditions of the site are such that they undermine 
 health and invite physical weakness ? The first consideration with 
 regard to healthfulness is that the site should be dry. It must not 
 be near a swamp, a barn, or any other location which may be a 
 source of unhealthful conditions. It ought not to be near a steam 
 railroad, a manufacturing plant, or any industry which is a source 
 of noise, smoke, or odors. On the other hand, though it must be 
 on high ground, it should not be unnecessarily exposed to cold or 
 to violent storms. 
 
 No site should be selected on a side hill, as it is expensive, 
 and often impossible to divert the 'drainage from the building in 
 a satisfactory manner. It may also interfere with proper light- 
 ing of the schoolrooms, in case it is found necessary to have the 
 windows face the hillside. 
 
 Though productivity of soil is sometimes a matter of cultiva- 
 tion and fertilization, and a poor piece of land can be made to 
 grow trees, barren tracts should never be selected. Trees, shrubs, 
 vines, and flowers should be grown on the school grounds, and 
 parts of the ground should be in lawn. There is no reason why 
 the site can not be made beautiful and, at the same time, afford 
 ample opportunity for a playground as well as an attractive 
 garden. The improvement of the site should receive the most 
 careful consideration, not only as an education for the children 
 but also for the community. 
 
 f ACCESSIBILITY OF SITE. 
 
 A central location is always desirable, but the question of ease 
 of access by roads which are main thoroughfares is really more 
 important. Travel on good roads is in reality a means of recrea- 
 tion, while on bad roads it is a form of medieval torture. School- 
 
Primary Considerations. 35 
 
 houses should invariably be built along the main highway. Such 
 a site is always possible, except in newly settled regions. The 
 unfortunate local disagreements which occasionally arise on 
 account of schoolhouse sites are frequently due to differences 
 of opinion in regard to matters which are not material. These 
 should by all means be avoided, as they prevent a calm and 
 dispassionate consideration of the actual factors that should enter 
 into the discussion. 
 
 WATER SUPPLY AND DRAINAGE. 
 
 Another matter which is vitally important is nearness to a safe 
 water supply. A pump on the school grounds is not always 
 possible, but it is very desirable. The question of water supply 
 should be carefully considered before the site is voted upon. In 
 the case of underground water we have wells and springs from 
 which to secure a supply of drinking water as well as water for 
 cleaning purposes. If we have to consider surface supplies, there 
 are cisterns or reservoirs to provide for. In this connection the 
 drainage must also be considered as well as the character of the 
 soil for foundation. The various factors that enter into these 
 problems give rise to a number of questions which are of sufficient 
 importance to warrant a much more complete discussion than can 
 be given in this connection. 
 
36 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 COST OF BUILDINGS. 
 
 The cost of any building varies with the locality in which it is 
 built, the contractor who builds it and the season of the year in 
 which it is built. The only safe way in which to estimate the cost 
 is to consider carefully the price of materials, the price of labor, 
 and other factors that may, enter into the problem. 
 
 In too many instances the estimate consists of merely a "rough 
 guess," and the general complaint is that a schoolhouse always 
 costs more than at first estimated. There are many reasons for 
 this. In the first place the rural voter is generally conservative 
 about the amount of money he is willing to vote for a new school 
 building. Too many people are ready to settle upon a definite 
 sum for a schoolhouse, without considering the number of pupils 
 to be provided for or the type of building to be constructed. In 
 the next place definite plans are not agreed upon, either as to size 
 or materials, before the appropriation is made, and in consequence 
 there is no reasonable basis on which to make an estimate. "A 
 rough guess" frequently becomes an under-estimate of what the 
 building really will cost and an over-estimate of what the money 
 will buy. Then again, considerable time is apt to elapse between 
 the voting of an appropriation and the letting of a contract. In 
 the meanwhile prices of certain materials have changed. Fre- 
 quently, also, public opinion has changed as to the type of build- 
 ing which should be constructed. Instead of a simple type, which 
 was uppermost in the minds of the people when the appropriation 
 was made, a superior type has been gaining in favor. Much of 
 this has been due to a greater familiarity with the schoolhouse 
 problem, after a new building had been decided upon. 
 
 Before venturing any opinion as to the probable cost of a 
 school building, the size and type should be carefully considered. 
 After this has been settled, the cost of each of the following items 
 should be ascertained: 
 
 1. Plans. 
 
 2. Clearing of site for building. 
 
Cost of Buildings. 37 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 lO, 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 
 17 
 18 
 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 
 Excavation per cubic yard. 
 
 Sand per cubic yard. 
 
 Gravel or broken stone per cubic yard. 
 
 Portland cement per bu. or bbl. 
 
 Brick per 1,000, or stone per cord. 
 
 Lime per bbl. 
 
 Shiplap per 1,000 feet. 
 
 Siding per 1,000 feet. 
 
 Dimension timbers per 1,000 feet. 
 
 Lath per bundle, or metal lath per sheet. 
 
 Shiplap per M. 
 
 Flooring. 
 
 Millwork. 
 
 Hardware. 
 
 Paint. 
 
 Sundries. 
 
 Labor, supervision of work, or contractors' profit. 
 
 Heating plant. 
 
 Plumbing and sewage disposal. 
 
 Water supply. 
 
 The person who makes the estimate must consider all these 
 matters and, in addition to this, he must be rible to calculate with 
 a reasonable degree of accuracy the quantity needed in each case. 
 It stands to reason that unless a person who makes the estimate 
 is paid for his time, or has a financial interest in the matter, he 
 cannot be expected to make any careful calculation as to cost. 
 As shown by the schedule a person must be well posted in regarH 
 to materials and labor to be able to make any satisfactory estimate 
 at all. 
 
 PLANS. 
 
 Some states furnish plans and specifications, free of charge, 
 and wherever they can be secured, a school district will do well to 
 get them. Other states furnish merely suggestive printed 
 sketches. These should be turned over to architects with instruc- 
 tions to work out complete plans and specifications. Plans should 
 be on a quarter-inch scale. A smaller scale' is not of much valine 
 to contractors, and leaves too many matters open to argument. 
 Standard plans may also be secured from architects and other 
 
38 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 private agencies at reasonable prices. When buildings of special 
 design are desired, an achitect should be employed to work out 
 the particular problems connected with the design. Such an 
 architect will also furnish an estimate of the cost of the proposed 
 building. 
 
 CLEARING OF SITE. 
 
 The cost of clearing a site, whenever such clearing is neces- 
 sary is a local problem, the value of which can be determined 
 only by having someone make an actual bid on this work. 
 
 EXCAVATION. 
 
 The cost of excavation will depend upon the season of the 
 year, the character of the soil, the length of haul and other con- 
 ditions. The average price for work of this kind with team and 
 scraper is about twenty cents per cubic yard. If excavation is 
 done by manual labor two men, under ordinary conditions, will 
 shovel and wheel 1.3 cubic yard in one hour to a distance of two 
 hundred feet. 
 
 SAND. 
 
 Two barrels clean, sharp sand are required for every barrel of 
 Portland Cement. Five-eighths cubic yard is required for every 
 barrel of lime. One-half to % cubic yard is allowed to 1,000 
 brick, kiln count. Sand should be free from clay or earthy 
 materials, and should be secured from a bank or pit. Sea sand 
 should not be used, as the salt in the sand causes efflorescence and 
 wall is apt to crumble. Washing of sea sand is sometimes 
 attempted, but ordinarily does not give satisfactory results. 
 
 GRAVEL OR BROKEN STONE. • 
 
 Gravel or broken stone is used in mixing concrete and to each 
 barrel of Portland cement five or six barrels of gravel, broken 
 stone, or burnt brick may be added, depending upon the use to 
 which the concrete is put. 
 
 PORTLAND CEMENT. 
 
 One barrel Portland cement is practically four bushels gener- 
 ally put up in four sacks, and contains four cubic feet. A barrel 
 
Cost of Buildings. 39 
 
 weighs about four hundred lbs., gross, and 376 to 380 lbs. net. 
 One bushel of Portland cement will cover 1% yds. to the depth 
 of I in. ; 1% yds. to the depth of % in. ; and 214. yds. to the depth 
 of % in. One bushel of Portland cement and one of sand will 
 cover 2I/2 yds. to the depth of i in : ; 3 yds., to the depth of % in. ; 
 and 4% yds., to the depth of 1/2 in. One bushel of Portland 
 cement and two of sand will cover 3% yds. to the depth of i in. ; 
 4y2 yds., to the depth of % in. ; and 6% yds., to the depth of 
 % in. Ordinary concrete is made by mixing 
 
 1 barrel Portland cement, 
 
 2 barrels clean, sharp sand, 
 
 6 barrels gravel, broken stone, or hard burnt brick. 
 The above amounts will yield 20 cu. ft. concrete. 
 
 SIDEWALKS. 
 
 Sidewalks built of concrete should have a bottom coat mixed 
 in the following proportions : 
 
 1 part Portland cement, 
 
 2 parts clean, sharp sand, 
 
 5 parts gravel or broken stone. 
 The surface coat should consist of : 
 
 I part Portland cement, 
 I part clean, sharp sand. 
 
 CEMENT BLOCKS. 
 
 Use as little water as possible and ram well into moulds in the 
 following proportions: 
 
 I part Portland cement, 
 
 6 parts clean, sharp sand. 
 
 SIMPLE CEMENT TEST. 
 
 Make two cakes % in. thick by mixing a handful of cement 
 with water. Let one cake dry in air for an hour, and then keep 
 in water for 24 hours. Keep the other cake in air 25 hours when 
 it should have become quite hard, and should break without 
 crumbling. The cake in water for the same length of time should 
 not have lost its shape, and should have become harder than when 
 it was put into the water. 
 
40 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 BRICK. 
 
 The ordinary brick is 2% by 4 by Sy^ inches. Each thousand 
 brick laid in the wall requires ii/^ to ii4' bbls. Portland cement 
 or one barrel good lime. For each square foot of wall with one 
 thickness of brick as usually laid allow yYz bricks ; for two thick- 
 nesses of brick allow 15 bricks to the square foot. If brickwork 
 is estimated by the cubic yard, an allowance of five hundred 
 bricks to the yard should be made. 
 
 STONE. 
 
 Quarry stone is either rubble or dimension stone. Cobble 
 stones are picked up in the fields. The cobble stone as well as 
 the rubble stone are much used for foundations. Rubble stone 
 is generally measured by the cubic yard. Cobble stone, on the 
 other hand, is often measured by the cord, and is supposed to lay 
 one hundred cu. ft. in the wall. 
 
 LIME. 
 
 Lime weighs about two hundred pounds to the barrel. Two 
 barrels will plaster one hundred sq. yds. one coat. Three and 
 one-half barrels will plaster one hundred sq. yds. two coats. One 
 barrel will lay one thousand brick, but must be good lime. Three 
 barrels will lay one hundred cu. ft. stone wall. 
 
 PLASTER. 
 
 For ordinary plastering, Keene's cement, a lime plaster gauged 
 with cement, is mixed with an equal quantity of lime putty and 
 sanded. A base coat on wooden lath covering one hundred 
 square yards requires four hundred pounds Keene's cement, four 
 hundred pounds lime, and two bushels of hair for scratch coat, 
 and the usual quantity of sand to make good mortar. Smooth 
 finish requires about three hundred pounds.. Smooth sand finish 
 will take about two hundred pounds and half as much sand in 
 bulk. Float finish will require about one hundred pounds and 
 twice as much sand in bulk. 
 
Cost of Buildings. 
 
 41 
 
 PLASTER OF PARIS. 
 
 Two- thirds barrel will hard finish one hundred square yards. 
 Mixed with vinegar, plaster-of-Paris will set much more slowly 
 than when it is mixed with water. 
 
 SHIPLAP. 
 
 Shiplap, flooring, and common boards will do for sheathing 
 frame work. It is used for walls, roofs and floors, and nailed 
 directly to studdings, rafters and joists. On top is placed the 
 insulating material, and then siding, shingles, or finished floor as 
 the case may be. For computing quantities needed the following 
 table will prove valuable. 
 
 BOARD MEASURE. 
 
 Width in 
 inches 
 
 4- 
 S- 
 6. 
 7- 
 8. 
 
 9- 
 
 10. 
 
 II. 
 
 12. 
 
 13- • 
 14- • 
 IS.. 
 i6.. 
 17 ■■ 
 i8.. 
 19.. 
 20. . 
 21. . 
 22. . 
 
 25- 
 
 24.. 
 
 25.. 
 
 26.. 
 27.. 
 
 30. 
 
 Length in feet. 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 4'-8" 
 
 S'-4" 
 
 6' 
 
 6'-8" 
 
 7'-4" 
 
 S 
 
 S'-io" 
 
 ' 6'-8" 
 
 7'-6" 
 
 8'-4" 
 
 9'-2" 
 
 6 
 
 7' 
 
 8' 
 
 9' 
 
 10' 
 
 11' 
 
 7 
 
 8'-2" 
 
 9'-4" 
 
 io'-6" 
 
 ii'-8" 
 
 I2'-I0" 
 
 8 
 
 9'-4" 
 
 io'-8" 
 
 12' 
 
 i3'-4" 
 
 14' -8" 
 
 9 
 
 io'-6" 
 
 12' 
 
 i3'-6" 
 
 IS' 
 
 i6'-6" 
 
 10 
 
 ii'-8" 
 
 i3'-4" 
 
 15 
 
 i6'-8" 
 
 i8'-4" 
 
 II 
 
 I2'-I0" 
 
 i4'-8" 
 
 i6'-6" 
 
 i8'-4" 
 
 20'-2" 
 
 12 
 
 14' 
 
 16' 
 
 18' 
 
 20' 
 
 22' 
 
 13 
 
 IS'-2" 
 
 i7'-4" 
 
 i9'-6" 
 
 2l'-8" 
 
 3->,'-10" 
 
 14 
 
 i6'-4" 
 
 18' 
 
 21' 
 
 23'-4" 
 
 25'-8" 
 
 1$ 
 
 i7'-6" 
 
 20' 
 
 22'-6" 
 
 2S' 
 
 27'-6" 
 
 16 
 
 i8'-8" 
 
 2 1 '-4" 
 
 24' 
 
 26'-8" 
 
 29'-4" 
 
 17 
 
 1 9'- 10" 
 
 22'-8" 
 
 25'- 6" 
 
 28'-4" 
 
 3i'-2" 
 
 18 
 
 21' 
 
 24' 
 
 27' 
 
 30' 
 
 33' 
 
 19 
 
 22'-2" 
 
 2S'-4" 
 
 28'-6" 
 
 31' -8" 
 
 34'-io" 
 
 20 
 
 23'-4' 
 
 26'-8" 
 
 30' 
 
 33'-4'' 
 
 36'-8" 
 
 21 
 
 24'-6" 
 
 28' 
 
 .3i'-6" 
 
 35' 
 
 38'-6" 
 
 22 
 
 2S'-8" 
 
 29'-4" 
 
 32,' 
 
 36'-8" 
 
 40' -4" 
 
 23 
 
 26'- 10" 
 
 3o'-8" 
 
 34'-6" 
 
 38'-4" 
 
 42'-2" 
 
 24 
 
 28' 
 
 32' 
 
 36' 
 
 40' 
 
 44' 
 
 2.T 
 
 29'-2" 
 
 33'-4 
 
 37'-6" 
 
 4i'-8" 
 
 \<- 10" 
 
 26 
 
 3o'-4" 
 
 34'-8" 
 
 39' 
 
 43'-4" 
 
 47'-8" 
 
 27 
 
 3i'-6" 
 
 36' 
 
 4o'-6" 
 
 45' 
 
 49'-6" 
 
 28 
 
 32'-8" 
 
 37'-4" 
 
 42' 
 
 46'-8" 
 
 Si'-4" 
 
 30 
 
 ,3S' 
 
 40' 
 
 45' 
 
 so' 
 
 55' 
 
 SIDING OR WEATHERBOARD. 
 
 Siding is either 6" or 4". Both sizes are standard, but the 4" 
 is more common. Siding is sometimes mitered at the corners 
 and when such is the case, the siding must be dry, as in case it is 
 
42 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 not, the joints will open in time. The same is true when corner 
 boards shrink, but this defect can be quite easily remedied by 
 taking off the old boards and putting on new ones. The board 
 measure previously given will aid in estimating quantity needed. 
 
 DIMENSION TIMBER. 
 
 For computing quantities needed for studdings, joists, rafters, 
 stringers, and girders the following table .will give the exact 
 number of feet in each piece. 
 
 Length in feet. 
 
 Size in inches 
 
 12 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 8 9* 
 
 I0» 
 
 12 
 
 i.V 
 
 14^ 
 
 16 
 
 17* 
 
 18' 
 
 20 
 
 21-' 
 
 24 
 
 10 11' 
 
 i,V 
 
 I.5 
 
 16" 
 
 18' 
 
 20 
 
 21" 
 
 2,3* 
 
 25 
 
 26" 
 
 30 
 
 12 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 .30 
 
 ?,2 
 
 .36 
 
 16 i8» 
 
 21* 
 
 24 
 
 26" 
 
 29* 
 
 32 
 
 34" 
 
 ?>7' 
 
 40 
 
 42" 
 
 48 
 
 20 23* 
 
 26" 
 
 30 
 
 33* 
 
 .36- 
 
 40 
 
 4.3* 
 
 46" 
 
 SO 
 
 5,3* 
 
 60 
 
 24 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 12 14 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 .36 
 
 18 21 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 39 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 54 
 
 21 28 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 30 35 
 
 40 
 
 4S 
 
 .SO 
 
 •S.S 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 36 42 
 
 48 
 
 S4 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 72 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 90 
 
 96 
 
 108 
 
 16 i8» 
 
 21* 
 
 24 
 
 26" 
 
 29* 
 
 32 
 
 34" 
 
 37* 
 
 40 
 
 42" 
 
 t 
 
 20 23* 
 
 26" 
 
 30 
 
 3.V 
 
 .36» 
 
 40 
 
 4,3* 
 
 46" 
 
 50 
 
 5,3* 
 
 24 28 
 
 ^2 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 48 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 32 37' 
 
 42" 
 
 48 
 
 .s,V 
 
 58» 
 
 64 
 
 69* 
 
 74" 
 
 80 
 
 8.5* 
 
 96 
 
 48 s6 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 80 
 
 88 
 
 96 
 
 104 
 
 112 
 
 120 
 
 128 
 
 144 
 
 36 42 
 
 48 
 
 S4 
 
 60 
 
 66 
 
 72 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 90 
 
 96 
 
 108 
 
 48 S6 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 80 
 
 88 
 
 96 
 
 104 
 
 112 
 
 120 
 
 128 
 
 144 
 
 64 74' 
 
 8S' 
 
 q6 
 
 106" 
 
 117* 
 
 128 
 
 138" 
 
 149* 
 
 160 
 
 i70» 
 
 192 
 
 . 80 93* 
 
 106' 
 
 120 
 
 13,3* 
 
 146" 
 
 160 
 
 17,3* 
 
 186" 
 
 200 
 
 21,3* 
 
 240 
 
 . 100 116' 
 
 133* 
 160 
 
 ISO 
 180 
 
 t66" 
 
 T«3* 
 
 200 
 
 '>^H' 
 
 -'22'' 
 
 250 
 
 oM 
 
 300 
 
 . 120 140 
 
 200 
 
 220 
 
 240 
 
 260 
 
 280 
 
 300 320 
 
 360 
 
 . 144 168 
 
 IQ2 
 
 216 
 
 240 
 
 264 
 
 288 
 
 312 
 
 336 
 
 360 384 
 
 432 
 
 . 168 196 
 
 224 
 
 252 
 
 280 
 
 308 
 
 336 364 
 
 392 
 
 420 
 
 448 
 
 504 
 
 . 196 228' 
 
 -'fir* 
 
 294 
 
 •J-JIS* 
 
 359 
 
 392 42A* 
 
 isv' 
 
 490 522' 
 
 s«x 
 
 . 256 298' 
 
 341* 
 
 384 426' 
 
 469* 
 
 512 
 
 554" 
 
 597* 
 
 640 682" 
 
 768 
 
 2 by 4. 
 5- 
 6. 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 12 
 12 
 
 14 
 16 
 
 10. 
 12. 
 
 4- 
 6. 
 8. 
 
 10. 
 
 12. 
 4- 
 5- 
 
 12. 
 
 6. 
 
 8. 
 
 8. 
 10. 
 10. 
 12. 
 12. 
 14- 
 14- 
 16. 
 
 LATH. 
 
 A bundle should have 50 pieces four feet long, 5/16 in. thick, 
 and 1% in. wide. For one hundred square yards 1,500 lath are 
 required. Metal lath comes in sheets and is sold by the yard. 
 
 SHINGLES. 
 
 If laid four inches to the weather, one thousand shingles will 
 cover one hundred square feet. To compute the shingles required 
 
Cost of Buildings. 
 
 43 
 
 for a roof double the rafters and multiply by length of building. 
 Multiply this by 9, if exposed four inches, by 8 if exposed 4% 
 inches, and by 7 1/5, if exposed five inches to the weather. 
 
 FLOORING. 
 
 The finished floor of rural school buildings is generally clear 
 maple flooring %" by 214" tongued and grooved. One thousand 
 sq. ft. of this flooring will cover a space of 750 sq. ft. and will 
 require ten pounds of 4d. bung head casing nails allowing one 
 nail for every twelve inches for each piece of flooring. 
 
 MILLWORK. 
 
 The millwork includes doors, windows, transoms, baseboard, 
 picture moulding, chalk rail, stairs, casing, hook strips, and 
 cornice. Stock patterns may be selected for all of these except 
 windows. Schoolhouse windows are larger than any stock 
 patterns, and an estimate of the cost should be obtained directly 
 from the factory. 
 
 NAILS. 
 
 Size 
 
 Kind 
 
 Lengt]i 
 inches 
 
 No. 
 to lb. 
 
 
 .3d 
 
 common 
 
 I '4 
 
 720 
 
 1,000 
 
 4d 
 
 t( 
 
 l'/2 
 
 432 
 
 1,000 
 
 6d 
 
 " 
 
 2 
 
 252 
 
 1,000 
 
 6d 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 8d 
 
 " 
 
 2/2 
 
 132 
 
 1,000 
 
 8d 
 
 It 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 8d 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 lod 
 
 tt 
 
 3 
 
 87 
 
 1,000 
 
 lod 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 rod 
 
 ti 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 lod 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 20d 
 
 tt 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 1,000 
 
 20d 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 8d 
 
 finish 
 
 2/2 
 
 190 
 
 1,000 
 
 lod 
 
 tt 
 
 3 
 
 137 
 
 1. 000 
 
 Required for 
 
 wooden laths 
 
 wooden shingles 
 
 sq. ft. 6" siding 
 
 sq. ft. 4" siding 
 
 sq. ft. 8" sheathing. . . . 
 
 sq. ft. flooring 
 
 lineal ft. furring, l"x2 
 
 sq. ft. flooring 
 
 sq. ft. sheathing 
 
 sq. ft. studding 
 
 pes. bridging 
 
 sq. ft. studding 
 
 sq. ft. joists 
 
 sq. ft. %" flooring 
 
 sq. ft. lYs" flooring. . . 
 
 No. 
 of lb. 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 30 
 6 
 40 
 25 
 15 
 SO 
 12 
 16 
 20 
 30 
 
 Other hardware needed for a school building, includes sash 
 weights, sash cord, hinges, mortised locks and door knobs, door 
 springs and checks, transom lifts, coat hooks, grilles for heat 
 opening, registers for cold air ducts, and louvres and screen for 
 fresh air intake. 
 
44 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 PAINT. 
 
 It is impossible to give a rule which will apply in all cases, 
 as the amount varies with the kind and thickness' of the paint, 
 the kind of wood or other material to which it is applied, age of 
 the surface, etc. The following is an approximate rule: 
 
 Divide the number of square feet of surface by 200, and the 
 result will be the number of gallons of liquid paint required for 
 two coats ; or divide by 18 and the result will be the number of 
 pounds of pure ground white lead required to give three coats. 
 
 WEIGHT OF MATERIALS. 
 
 Per cubic foot. 
 Name of Material. Avg. Weight in lbs. 
 
 Ash, American white, dry 38 
 
 Brick, common, hard 125 
 
 Brick, fire I37 
 
 Glass, common windows I57 
 
 Hemlock, dry 25 
 
 Maple, dry 49 
 
 Oak, white, dry 52 
 
 Pine, white, dry 25 
 
 Pine, yellow, northern 34 
 
 Pine, yellow, southern 45 
 
 Sand, well shaken 108 
 
 Sand, wet 130 
 
 Slate .• 175 
 
 SUNDRIES. 
 
 Insulation. If rosin paper or tarred felt is used between first 
 floor and finished floor, between sheathing and siding, and be- 
 tween roof boards and shingles, it is well to order twenty rolls 
 for each school building with one schoolroom on a basis of one 
 thickness of such paper or felt. A building with two schoolrooms 
 will require about 35 rolls. Special insulation material should 
 be computed according to manufacturers' rules. 
 
 Grounds are strips of thin board put up around doors, 
 windows, and under baseboards and blackboards. Grounds are 
 put up before plastering, and the plastering is floated flush with 
 
Cost of Buildings. 
 
 45 
 
 them. For wood lath they should be %" or %"; for brick or 
 tile %" or 1/2" ; for wire lath %". Grounds are usually 2 inches 
 wide. If grounds are not used, plaster will stain the wood, and 
 natural finish can not be obtained. 
 
 Sandpaper. About sixty to one hundred sheets of No. i 
 sandpaper will be required on every schoolhouse job. 
 
 TABLE OF DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES AND 
 AREAS OF PIPES AND CYLINDRICAL DUCTS. 
 
 Diameter 
 
 Circum- 
 ference 
 
 Area 
 
 One side 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 of a 
 Square 
 in Feet 
 
 Inches 
 
 in Feet 
 
 Sq. In. 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 I 
 
 .2618 
 
 -7854 
 
 .0054 
 
 .8862 
 
 2 
 
 ■5236 
 
 3-140 
 
 .0218 
 
 T.7724 
 
 3 
 
 ■7854 
 
 7.070 
 
 .0491 
 
 2.6587 
 
 4 
 
 1.047 
 
 12-57 
 
 .0873 
 
 3-45-i9 
 
 5 
 
 1.309 
 
 19-63 
 
 .1364 
 
 4-43" 
 
 • 6 
 
 I.S7I 
 
 28.27 
 
 .196-t 
 
 5-3 1 74 
 
 7 
 
 1.833 
 
 38-48 
 
 .2673 
 
 6.2036 
 
 8 
 
 2.094 
 
 50-27 
 
 -3491 
 
 7.0898 
 
 9 
 
 2.356 
 
 63.62 
 
 .44r8 
 
 7-9760 
 
 10 
 
 2.618 
 
 78.54 
 
 .5454 
 
 8.8623 
 
 II 
 
 . 2.880 
 
 95-03 
 
 .6600 
 
 9-7485 
 
 12' 
 
 3-142 
 
 113-1 
 
 -7854 
 
 10.6347 
 
 13 
 
 3403 
 
 132-7 
 
 .9218 
 
 11.5209 
 
 14 
 
 3.665 
 
 153-9 
 
 1.069 
 
 12.4072 
 
 15 
 
 3927 
 
 176.7 
 
 1.227 
 
 13-2934 
 
 16 
 
 4.189 
 
 201.0 
 
 1-396 
 
 14-1796 
 
 17 
 
 4-4SJ 
 
 226.9 
 
 I-S76 
 
 15-0659 
 
 18 
 
 4.712 
 
 254-4 
 
 1.767 
 
 15-9521 
 
 19 
 
 4-974 
 
 283-5 
 
 1-969 
 
 16.8383 
 
 20 
 
 5-236 
 
 314-1 
 
 2.182 
 
 17-7245 
 
 21 
 
 S-498 
 
 346-3 
 
 2.405 
 
 18.6108 
 
 22 
 
 S-760 
 
 380.1 
 
 2.640 
 
 19.4010 
 
 23 
 
 6.021 
 
 415-4 
 
 2.885 
 
 20.3832 
 
 24 
 
 6.283 
 
 452.3 
 
 3.142 
 
 21.2694 
 
 25 
 
 6.545 
 
 490.8 
 
 3-409 
 
 22.1557 
 
 26 
 
 6.807 
 
 530.9 
 
 3-687 
 
 23.04x9 
 
 37 
 
 7.069 
 
 S72.S 
 
 3-976 
 
 23.9281 
 
 28 
 
 7-330 
 
 61S-7 
 
 4.276 
 
 24.8144 
 
 29 
 
 7-592 
 
 660.5 
 
 4-587 
 
 25.7006 
 
 30 
 
 7-854 
 
 706.8 
 
 4-909 
 
 26.5868 
 
 31 
 
 8. 1 16 
 
 754-7 
 
 5-241 
 
 27-4730 
 
 32 
 
 8.378 
 
 804.2 
 
 5-585 
 
 28.3594 
 
 33 
 
 8.639 
 
 855-3 
 
 S-940 
 
 29-2455 
 
 34 
 
 8.901 
 
 907.9 
 
 6-305 
 
 30.1317 
 
 3.S 
 
 9.163 
 
 962.1 
 
 6.681 
 
 31-0179 
 
 36 
 
 9-425 
 
 1 01 7.8 
 
 7.069 
 
 31.9042 
 
 37 
 
 9.686 
 
 1075.2 
 
 7-467 
 
 32.9042 
 
 38 
 
 9-948 
 
 1134.1 
 
 7-876 
 
 33-6766 
 
 39 
 
 10.21 
 
 1 194-5 
 
 8.296 
 
 34-5628 
 
 40 
 
 10.47 
 
 1256.6 
 
 8.727 
 
 35-4491 
 
46 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 HEATING PLANT. 
 
 In school buildings three methods of heating are commonly 
 used, namely, ventilating room heaters, furnaces, and low pressure 
 steam heating plants. On each kind of installation estimates 
 should be secured from dealers. In order to compute diameters, 
 circumferences, and areas of pipes and cylindrical ducts the fol- 
 lowing rules are used: 
 
 1. To find diameter, divide circumference by 3.1416. 
 
 2. To find circumference, multiply diameter by 3.1416. 
 
 3. To find area, multiply square of diameter by .7854. 
 
 4. To find side of an equal square, multiply diameter by .8862. 
 
 5. To find side of an inscribed square, multiply diameter by 
 .7071. 
 
 The table given below will be found useful for the ordinary 
 computations met with in schoolhouse work: 
 
 U. S. STANDARD GAUGE OF IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 In order to determine the thickness and weight per square 
 foot of iron and steel ordinarily used in a school building the 
 following table is a valuable guide. The thickness of galvanized 
 iron is not exact, but that for iron and steel is. 
 
 No. of 
 Gauge 
 
 Thickness 
 
 in inches 
 
 Weight square foot 
 
 Fractions 
 
 Decimals 
 
 Iron 
 
 Steel 
 
 Galvanized 
 Iron 
 
 30 
 
 1/80 
 
 .0125 
 
 ■5 
 
 ■SI 
 
 ■6562 
 
 29 
 
 9/640 
 
 .0140625 
 
 .5625 
 
 ■S737S 
 
 .7187 
 
 28 
 
 1/64 
 
 .015625 
 
 .62s 
 
 ■637s 
 
 .7812 
 
 27 
 
 11/640 
 
 .0171875 
 
 .6875 
 
 ■70125 
 
 ■8437 
 
 26 
 
 3/160 
 
 .01875 
 
 ■75 
 
 ■765 
 
 .9062 
 
 25 
 
 7/320 
 
 .02187s 
 
 ■86s 
 
 ■8925 
 
 1031 
 
 24 
 
 1/40 
 
 ■025 
 
 1^00 
 
 1.02 
 
 i^i56 
 
 23 
 
 9/320 
 
 .028125 
 
 I^I25 
 
 1^1475 
 
 
 22 
 
 1/32 
 
 .03125 
 
 1-25 
 
 1-275 
 
 1^406 
 
 21 
 
 11/320 
 
 ■034375 
 
 1^375 
 
 1-4025 
 
 
 20 
 
 3/80 
 
 ■0375 
 
 I. SO 
 
 153 
 
 r6s6 
 
 19 
 
 1/160 
 
 ■04375 
 
 1^75 
 
 1.78s 
 
 
 18 
 
 1/20 
 
 ■05 
 
 2^00 
 
 2.04 
 
 2^156 
 
 17 
 
 9/160 
 
 ■05625 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.295 
 
 
 16 
 
 1/16 
 
 .0625 
 
 2^5 
 
 2.55 
 
 2656 
 
 IS 
 
 9/128 
 
 ■070312s 
 
 2.8125 
 
 2.8687s 
 
 
 14 
 
 S/64 
 
 ■07812s 
 
 3^125 
 
 3.1875 
 
 3^281 
 
 13 
 
 3/32 
 
 ■09375 
 
 3.75 
 
 3.825 
 
 
 12 
 
 7/64 
 
 ■109375 
 
 4375 
 
 4^625 
 
 4531 
 
 II 
 
 1/8 
 
 .125 
 
 5.00 
 
 5-1 
 
 
 , 10 
 
 9/64 
 
 .140265 
 
 5.625 
 
 5^7375 
 
 5^781 
 
Cost of Buildings. 
 
 47 
 
 FUEL BINS. 
 
 To compute the capacity of fuel bins it is well to know that 
 one cubic foot of anthracite coal, stove size, weighs about 57 
 pounds and one cubic foot of bituminous coal weighs from 47 to 
 50 pounds. Each ton of anthracite coal occupies, therefore, a 
 space of approximately 35 cu. ft., and each ton of bituminous 
 coal from 40 to 42.5 cu. ft. In view of the various kinds and 
 sizes of coal, these measurements should not be used for any 
 other purpose than that for which they are here given. 
 
 WATER TANKS. 
 
 To compute the capacity of water tanks and their weight when 
 filled the following data are of value: 
 
 One gallon of water weighs 8 1/3 pounds. 
 One gallon of water contains 231 cu. in. 
 7% gallons of water contain i cu. ft. 
 One cubic foot of water weighs 62^^ lbs. 
 
 To evaporate one cu. ft. of water requires the consumption 
 of 7% pounds of coal, or about one pound of coal to one gallon 
 of water. 
 
 CISTERNS. 
 
 Cisterns are generally ten feet deep. Those of the capacity 
 listed below may be figured to cost about 3.5 cents per gallon. 
 
 Table showing depth, diameter, and capacity in gallons of 
 round cisterns and tanks : 
 
 Depth 
 
 Diameter in Feet. 
 
 in feet 
 
 S 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 '8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Gallons 
 
 Gallons 
 
 5 
 
 7.35 
 
 1,060 
 
 1,440 
 
 1,875 
 
 2,380 
 
 2,92=; 
 
 3,550 
 
 4,257 
 
 6 
 
 881 
 
 1,270 
 
 1,728 
 
 2,250 
 
 2,85s 
 
 3,510 
 
 4,260 
 
 5,084 
 
 7 
 
 1,028 
 
 1,480 
 
 2,016 
 
 2,62s 
 
 3.330 
 
 4,095 
 
 4.970 
 
 5.931 
 
 10 
 
 1,175 
 
 1,690 
 
 2,034 
 
 3,000 
 
 3,805 
 
 4,680 
 
 5.680 
 
 6,778 
 
 II 
 
 1,322 
 
 I, goo 
 
 2,W2 
 
 S--''"^ 
 
 4,280 
 
 5,265 
 
 6,390 
 
 7,62s 
 
 12 
 
 1,469 
 
 2,110 
 
 2,880 
 
 3.750 
 
 4,755 
 
 5,850 
 
 7,100 
 
 8,472 
 
 8 
 
 i,6t6 
 
 2,320 
 
 3,168 
 
 4.125 
 
 5,230 
 
 6.435 
 
 7,810 
 
 9.319 
 
 9 
 
 T.762 
 
 2,530 
 
 3.4.56 
 
 4,500 
 
 5,705 
 
 7,020 
 
 8,S20 
 
 10,166 
 
48 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 LABOR AND SUPERVISION. 
 
 This is a purely local problem, and the opinion of some experi- 
 enced contractor should be secured with reference to this item. 
 
 PLUMBING AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 
 
 From catalog of plumbing company select fixtures by number 
 or other designation. Sewage disposal tank may be iron tank 
 sold by manufacturers, or tank built of concrete according to 
 plans. 
 
 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 Cost of drilling wells and installing pump, etc., should be 
 secured for each job from special contractors. 
 
 ANOTHER METHOD. 
 
 For the ordinary person the method previously outlined is too 
 cumbersome. He wants to arrive at an approximate figure by a 
 very much shorter route. Such a method may be based on the 
 number of pupils to be accommodated. On this basis a school- 
 house may be built for from $75 to $150 per pupil, if the smallest 
 building under consideration provides for not fewer than twenty 
 pupils. An up-to-date modern building may be put up for $150 
 per pupil, an amount which is not extravagant when one considers 
 that in villages and cities this sum is very often exceeded. Con- 
 sidering the value to the community, the state, and the nation, of 
 each law-abiding and taxpaying citizen, the permanent investment 
 of $150 per pupil will pay bigger dividends in a properly con- 
 ducted school than any other investment that the government of 
 this country has ever made or will ever be able to make. 
 Considering again that a building erected at a cost of $150 a 
 pupil should be serviceable for a period of 50 years at only a 
 nominal expense for maintenance and repairs, the actual invest- 
 ment under these conditions appears so small that no district can 
 very well justify a course which results in an ill-suited uncom- 
 fortable, inconvenient, and unsubstantial schoolhouse, even though 
 it may be sanitary and comply with all minimum requirements of 
 educational authorities. 
 
Legal Requirements. 49 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 LEGAL requirements: 
 
 Before taking any definite action, either with regard to the 
 site or the building, the members o£ the school board should 
 familiarize themselves with the provisions of law relating to school 
 buildings and sites. Each state has its own statutes which are 
 to be observed, and information in regard to them may be secured 
 from local school' superintendents or the state superintendent of 
 schools. As provisions of law are subject to change, it would 
 be inadvisable to recapitulate such provisions as are at present in 
 force in the various states, but the following outline may be made 
 the basis of an inquiry into the legal phases of this question : 
 
 I. Site 
 
 1. Size required by law, or by state department of education. 
 
 2. Restrictions as to location. 
 
 3. Method of selecting the site. 
 
 4. Manner of acquisition. 
 
 5. To whom deed should run. 
 
 6. Fund from which payment of site may be made. 
 
 7. If money for purchase of sit« is not available, how may 
 it be obtained? ■ 
 
 8. Financial benefits, if any, which may be secured from the 
 state by meeting certain requirements. 
 
 II. School Building. 
 
 I. How may money for erection of a building be obtained? 
 Forms used for sale of bonds.. 
 
 Laws and rules relating to schoolhouse construction. 
 Forms of advertisements and contracts. 
 Financial benefits, if any, which may be secured from the 
 state by meeting certain requirements. 
 
 SALE OF BONDS. 
 
 When money for the erection of a school building must be 
 secured through the sale of bonds in the open market, an election 
 is generally called for the purpose of authorizing a bond issue. 
 The provisions of the statutes should be carefully examined, and 
 
50 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 if a petition is required, it should be drawn up in proper form. 
 It should then be published and posted, as required by law. 
 Notice of the election should conform to provisions of the 
 statutes. The election should be conducted in compliance with the 
 provisions of law, and the ballot prepared and voted as specified 
 in the statutes. The law may require that the polls shall be kept 
 open for a certain number of hours, or during certain hours. The 
 closing of the polls and the canvass of the votes are matters of 
 importance. The result of the vote must in all cases be made a 
 matter of record, and the record signed by the proper officers. 
 
 After the bond issue has been authorized, an advertisement 
 of the bond sale should be inserted in newspapers and financial 
 periodicals. A good form of such an advertisement is as follows : 
 
 FIVE THOUSAND DOLLARS 
 SCHOOL BONDS FOR SALE. 
 
 Sealed bids will be received by the School Board of Common 
 School District No. 240, County of Washington, State of Minne- 
 sota, at the schoolhouse in said district at 2 130 P. M. Saturday, 
 April 7, 1917, for Five Thousand Dollars ($5,000) School Bonds, 
 the proceeds of which will be used for the erection and equipment 
 of a schoolhouse in said district. 
 
 The School Bonds wilhbe dated May i, 1917, to become due 
 and payable at a time not less than five years nor more than 
 twenty years from the date thereof, as desired by the purchaser 
 thereof, and will bear interest at the rate of four (4) per cent 
 per annum, payable semi-annually, and no bid will be entertained 
 for said bonds for a sum less than ninety-five (95) per cent of 
 the par value of same and accrued interest to date of delivery. 
 
 The right to reject any and all bids is hereby reserved. 
 
 A certified check for two (2) per cent of the par value of 
 the bonds bid for, made to G. H. Ink, treasurer of school board, 
 must accompany each bid. 
 
 A circular containing full particulars will be mailed upon 
 application. 
 
 Newport, Minnesota, March 17, 1917. 
 
 D. E. Fox, Clerk, School Board. 
 The circular should contain such information as will enable 
 
Legal Requirements. , 51 
 
 the purchaser to determine the questions of the safety and the 
 legality of the bond issue. The following form will give the items 
 which are ordinarily covered in such circulars : 
 
 CIRCULAR OF INFORMATION. 
 
 Regarding the sale of $5,000 school bonds by the School Board 
 
 of Common School District No. 240, Washington 
 
 County, Minn. 
 
 Bonds will be sold at the schoolhouse in said district on Satur- 
 day, April 7, 1917, and bids will be opened at 2:30 p. m. 
 
 Bids may be mailed to D. E. Fox, Clerk School Board, 
 Newport, Minn. All bids must be sealed in an envelope marked 
 "Bid for School Bonds". This envelope with its contents should 
 be enclosed in another envelope addressed as stated above. 
 
 Bids must state denominations desired, and bonds will be 
 issued in denominations of $50, $100, $500, and $1,000 to suit the 
 purchaser. 
 
 Interest and principal are payable at the First National Bank, 
 St. Paul, Minn., or its successor. 
 
 The bonds are tax exempt in the State of Minnesota. 
 
 The proceeds of the bonds will not be used for any other 
 purpose than that specified in the advertisement. 
 
 There has never been any default or compromise in the pay- 
 ment of the obligations of the above named -district, nor has any 
 previous issue of bonds been contested. 
 
 There is no controversy or litigation pending or threatened 
 concerning the validity of the bonds herein described, the cor- 
 porate existence or boundaries of the school district abov^ named, 
 or the title of the present officers to their respective offices. 
 
 No additional bond issue is advertised or contemplated at the 
 present time. 
 
 The State of Minnesota was admitted into the Union May ir, 
 1858. The act authorizing the formation of the above named 
 school district is Chapter 24, Laws of 1861. This district was 
 organized April 24, 1872, as evidenced by the records of the 
 county board of commissioner* at the courthouse of Washington 
 County in the city of Stillwater, Minn. This bond issue is author- 
 ized by Chapter 10, Sec. 1968, Gen. Stat. Minn. 19 13. 
 
52 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 The bonded indebtedness of above named school district 
 exclusive of the bonds now to be sold, is $1,000.00. The floating 
 indebtedness is $200.00. The accrued interest on said indebted- 
 ness is $52.00. 
 
 The assessed valuation, 1916, of the above named district was 
 $82,562.00. Of this amount $70,105 is real valuation, and the 
 balance personal. 
 
 The population of the school district, 1915, was 150 and the 
 school enrollment 40; 
 
 This bond issue becomes a taxable lien against all real property 
 of the above named school district. 
 
 The above statement is true and correct to my best knowledge 
 and belief. 
 
 Dated at Newport this 17th day of March, 1917. 
 
 D. E. Fox, 
 Clerk, School Board Dist. No. 240, 
 Washirigton County, Minnesota. 
 
 If bond sale can be made to the state the special provisions 
 of law governing such sale and the blank forms to be used may 
 be obtained through the office of the State Superintendent of 
 Schools. 
 
 BIDS. 
 
 After plans and specifications have been accepted by the school 
 authorities, legally authorized to erect the building, an advertise- 
 ment for bids on such plans and specifications should be inserted 
 in the newspapers and some trade journal. This advertisement 
 may read as follows : 
 
 PROPOSAL FOR SCHOOL BUILDING AT NEWPORT. 
 
 Sealed proposals will be received at the home of A. B. Cox in 
 the town of Newport, by the school board of Common School 
 District No. 240, County of Washington,). State of Minnesota, 
 until two p. m. (2 p. m.) Monday, April 16, ■1917, for the erection 
 and completion of a school building on Sec. 24, Tp. of Newport, 
 R. 5W, County of Washington, State of Minnesota. Bids must 
 be accompanied by a certified check for four per cent (4 per cent) 
 of the amount of the bid, payable to the Treasurer, School Board 
 
Legal Requirements. 53 
 
 of Common Schoof District No. 240, County of Washington, State 
 of Minnesota, which check will be returned, when building con- 
 tract is executed, or when said school board does not accept the 
 bid. 
 
 The school .board reserves the right to reject any or all bids. 
 
 Copies of plans rand . specifications of this building may be 
 seen at the home of the clerk of the school board and at the office 
 of J. K. Long, Attomey-at-law, Newport, Minnesota. 
 
 Newport, Minnesota, March 26, 1917. 
 
 D. E. Fox, 
 Clerk, Dist. No. 240, Washington Co., Minn. 
 
 The school board may prescribe the form of bid which it will 
 Eeceive and in such case may elect to use the following form : 
 
 PROPOSAL FOR BUILDING. 
 
 St. Paul, Minn., April 16, 191 7. 
 School Board, District No. 240, 
 
 Washington County, Minnesota. 
 Gentlemen : — 
 
 The undersigned hereby agrees to furnish all labor and 
 material for the construction of a school building on a site located 
 on Sec. 24, Tp. of Newport, County of Washington, according 
 to plans and specifications on file in the office of the clerk of the 
 school board, complete in every detail, for a consideration of Four 
 Thousand Two Hundred Dollars ($4,200) except that the heating 
 and ventilating plant is to be furnished and set up as may other- 
 wise be directed by the school board. 
 
 Respectfully submitted, 
 
 M. N. Olds, 
 (Contractor) 
 Accepted by the school board this 20th day of February, 1917. 
 
 Signed : 
 
 A. B. Cox, Chairman. 
 D. E. Fox, Clerk, 
 '' ^ G. H. Ink, Treasurer. 
 
 After having accepted a bid, the school board should enter 
 into a formal contract with contractor, and'the various provisions 
 of such a contract are embodied in the following : 
 
54 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 FORM OF CONTRACT. 
 
 ' FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A SCHOOLHOUSE. 
 
 This Agreement made and entered into this i6th day of. 
 April, 1917, by and between M. N. Olds, hereinafter designated 
 contractor, as party of the first part and the School Board of 
 Common School District No. 240 of Washington County, Minne- 
 sota, hereinafter designated school board, as party of the second 
 part. 
 
 WITNESSETH That, Whereas plans and specifications of a 
 schoolhouse to be erected in said district have been prepared and 
 placed on file with the clerk of said school board which plans and 
 specifications are hereby referred to and made a part thereof. 
 
 And Whereas, the contractor has proposed in writing to con- 
 struct and complete said schoolhouse, excepting as to heating and 
 ventilation, in accordance with said plans and specifications for a 
 consideration of Four Thousand Two Hundred Dollars; 
 
 Now Therefore, for the consideration herein recited, said 
 contractor covenants and agrees with said school board to con- 
 struct and complete said schoolhouse and furnish all work and 
 materials, excepting the heating and ventilating plant, according 
 to said plans and specifications; and said school board agrees to 
 pay said contractor the sum aforementioned in orders drawn by 
 the clerk of said school board upon the treasurer ; 
 
 Provided That this contract shall not be binding upon said 
 school board until, said contractor has'given his bond in the penal 
 sum of not less than the consideration herein recited for the 
 faithful performance of this contract and a compliance with, all 
 existing laws, ordinances, and rules pertaining to the erection of 
 said schoolhouse. 
 
 In Testimony Whereof the said contractor has executed this 
 contract and said school board has caused this contract to be 
 executed by its officers, pursuant to a resolution adopted by said 
 board on this i6th day of April, 1917. 
 
 M. N. Olds, 
 
 Contractor. 
 A. B. Cox, Chairman, 
 
 J. K. Long, D. E. Fox, Clerk, 
 
 P. F. Ross, G. H. Ink, Treasurer, 
 
 Witnesses. School Board. 
 
Legal Requirements. 55 
 
 The bond given by the contractor may be either that of 
 individual free holders who qualify as sureties or that of a cor- 
 poration which _makes it a business to furnish such bonds for a 
 consideration. The form of such bond and acknowledgments 
 before a notary public should in the main conform in context to 
 the following: 
 
 FORM OF SURETY BOND. 
 
 FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF A SCHOOLHOUSE. 
 
 Know All Men By These Presents, that M. N. Olds of 
 St. Paul, Minn., as principal, and S.' T. Ure of Newport and V. 
 Ward of Newport, as sureties, are jointly and severally held and 
 firmly bound to the school board of Common District No. 240 of 
 Washington County, Minnesota, in the penal sum of Four Thou- 
 sand Two Hundred Dollars, lawful money of the United States 
 to the payment of which well and truly to be made, we hereby 
 bind ourselves, and each of us, and each of our heirs, executors, 
 administrators, successors, and assigns firmly by these presents. 
 
 The condition of the above obligation is such that whereas the 
 above bounde'n principal has entered into a contract to construct 
 a schoolhouse for said school district according to plans and 
 specifications, now on file in the office of the clerk of said school 
 board; 
 
 Now, Therefore, if said principal shall faithfully execute 
 said contract without fraud or deceit and pay all just claims to 
 all persons doing work or furnishing skill, materials, tools, or 
 machinery for the performance of said contract in accordance 
 with its terms and in compliance with existing laws, ordinances, 
 and rules and the school board shall accept the building when 
 completed, then this obligation shall be void ; otherwise, to remain 
 in full force and effect. 
 
 In Witness Whereof we have hereunto set our hands and 
 seals the sixteenth day of April, in the year one thousand nine 
 hundred seventeen. 
 
 M. N. Olds, [Seal] Principal, 
 S. T. Ure, [Seal] Sureties, 
 V. Ward, [Seal] Sureties, 
 G. H. Ink, [Seal] Treasurer, 
 
56 , The Rural School Plant. 
 
 School Board Dist. No. 240 of Washington 
 County Minnesota. 
 Signed, sealed, and delivered in the presence of : 
 
 J. K. Long, 
 P. F. Ross, 
 
 Witnesses. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 
 
 State of Minnesota, ) 
 
 ? ss 
 County of Washington, i 
 
 On the i6th day of April, 1917, before me, a Notary Public, 
 within and for said county, personally appeared M. N. Olds, S. 
 T. Vre, V. Ward, and G. H. Ink, to me known to be the persons 
 described in and who executed the foregoing instrument, and 
 acknowledged that they executed the same as their free act and 
 deed. 
 
 X. Y. Zeck, Notary Public. 
 My commission expires July i, 1924. 
 
 State of Minnesota, ) 
 
 SS 
 
 County of Washington,! 
 
 S. T. Ure and V. Ward being duly sworn, says each for him- 
 self, that he is a freeholder and resident of the state of Minnesota, 
 and is worth the sum of money set opposite his name, over and 
 above all just debts and liabilities and responsibilities, and exclu- 
 sive of his property exempt from execution. 
 S. T. Ure, $20,000. 
 V. Ward, $15,000. 
 Subscribed and sworn to before me this i6th day of April. 
 1917. 
 
 X. Y. Zeck, Notary Public. 
 My commission expires July i, 1924. 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATING PLANTS. 
 
 The contract for a heating and ventilating plant of a rural 
 schoolhouse usually consists of an order given to a firm on its 
 own blank, in which order the plant is described. The company 
 
Legal Requirements. 57 
 
 generally guarantees that under certain specified conditions, the 
 plant will heat and ventilate the schoolhouse in a proper manner 
 to a temperature of 70 degrees Fahrenheit in the coldest weather. 
 This order and guarantee constitute the contract for a heating 
 plant, and is ordinarily signed by the officers of the school board 
 and a representative of the firm selling the plant. 
 
58 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 BUILDING STANDARDS. 
 SIZE OF BUILDINGS. 
 
 I. School for 30 pupils: 
 
 1. Schoolroom — 20 feet by 27 feet, or 23 feet by 23 
 feet 6 in. — 18 square feet per pupil. 
 
 2. Coatroom — not less than 5 feet wide — wall space 
 for 30 hooks — one outside window. 
 
 3. Library — not less than 60 square feet of floor 
 space. 
 
 II. School for 35 pupils: 
 
 1. Schoolroom — 21 feet by 30 feet, or 23 feet by 27 
 feet 6 in. 
 
 2. Coatroom — not less than 5 feet wide — wall space 
 for 35 hooks — one outside window. 
 
 3. Library — not less than 80 square feet of floor 
 space. 
 
 III. School for 40 pupils: 
 
 1. Schoolroom — 23 feet wide by 31 ft. 4 in. 
 
 2. Separate coatrooms for boys- and girls with wall 
 space for 40 hooks — one outside window for each 
 room. 
 
 3. Library — not less than 80 square feet of floor 
 space. 
 
 IV. School for 60 pupils : 
 
 1. Two schoolrooms — each 20 feet by 27 feet, or 23 
 feet by 23 feet 6 in. 
 
 2. Two coatrooms, each having a window — wall space 
 for 60 hooks. 
 
 3. Library — not less than 100 square feet. 
 
 V. School for 70 pupils: 
 
 1. Two schoolrooms — each 21 ft. by 30 ft. or 23 feet 
 by 27 ft. 6 in. 
 
 2. Two coatrooms each having a window — wall space 
 for 70 hooks. 
 
 3. Library — not less than 100 square feet. 
 
Building Standards. 
 
 59 
 
 VI. School for 80 pupils : 
 
 1. Two schoolrooms — each 23 ft. by 31 ft. 4 in. — to 
 be combined as one assembly room. 
 
 2. Two coatrooms each having a window — wall space 
 for 80 hooks. ' • 
 
 3. Library — not less than 120 square feet — in con- 
 solidated schools not less than 200 square feet. 
 
 VII. Workrooms in schools : i ■^ 
 
 10 pupils need 360 square feet floor space for manual 
 training, 360 square feet for home economics, and 
 200 square feet for agriculture. 
 
 VIII. Height of ceilings of all schoolrooms and workrooms 
 
 not less than 12 feet. ' > 
 
 CONSTRUCTION WORK. -rw -^^- 
 
 IX. Foundation : -;?-. 
 
 1. Bearing capacity in tons per square foot of differ- 
 ent soils. Soft clay i ton 
 
 Firm clay, fine sand, or layers of sand and clay, 
 wet 2 tons. Clay or fine sand, firm and dry . 3 tons 
 
 . Hard clay, coarse sand, gravel 4 tons 
 
 2. Walls: 
 
 For one-story buildings 28 feet by 28 feet or 
 smaller, walls of brick, concrete, or hollow tile 
 9 inches thick. 
 
 For one-or-two-story buildings, walls of brick, con- 
 crete, or hollow tile 13 inches thick. 
 
 Rubble stone, 18 inches thick for all buildings. 
 
 3. Footings : 
 
 Two types (Figs. 13, 14). 
 
 Fig. 13. •* tooting. 
 
 Fig. 14. Footing. 
 
60 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 X. 
 
 XI. 
 
 Timber Schedule : 
 
 1. Box sill of floor joists, with beam filling. 
 
 2. For buildings for 30 pupils or less. 
 
 Studdings 2x 4-^16" o. c. 
 
 Floor Joists... .2x10 — 16" o. c. — 20 ft. span with 
 girder. 
 
 Girders ,8x10". 
 
 Ceiling Joists. .2x10 — 16" o. c. — 20 ft. span. 
 
 Rafters 2x 4 — 16" o. c. 
 
 Stringers j3xi2 — 16" o. c. 
 
 3. For building for 40 to 80 
 pupils, one story high. 
 
 Studdings 2x 6 — 16" o. c. 
 
 Floor Joists... .2x12 — 16" o. c. 
 
 — 24 ft. span with girder. 
 Floor Joists .... 2x14 — 12" o. c. 
 without girder. 
 
 Girders 8x10". 
 
 Ceiling Joists. .i2xio — 16" o. c. 
 — 24 ft. span. 
 
 Rafters 2x 6 — 16" o. c. 
 
 Stringers ,3x12 — 16" o. c. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 XII. 
 
 Floors : 
 
 On top of the joists lay, 
 diagonally, shiplap, 
 then insulating mater- 
 ial, and then finished 
 floor. Fig. 15. 
 Outside walls : 
 
 Nail diagonally across 
 joist shiplap, then in- 
 sulating material, and 
 then siding. Fig. 16. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 WINDOWS. 
 Location : 
 
 1. Not less than 3 feet from floor in all schoolrooms 
 and placed on long side of room. 
 
 2. Not less than 4 feet from floor in coatroom. 
 
Building Standards. 
 
 61 
 
 XIV 
 
 XV. 
 
 3. All windows for lighting schoolroom on one side 
 of schoolroom only — preferably on east side; 
 second choice, west side ; never on north or south 
 side. 
 
 4. Distance from top of window to floor, not less 
 than one-half the width of the room from window 
 to opposite wall. 
 
 5. Workroom windows may be from any direction 
 and windows may be on any walls. 
 
 6. Toilet room windows should be to the south when- 
 ever possible. 
 
 Amount of Glass Area: 
 
 1. In schoolrooms, workrooms, and library not less 
 than one-fifth of floor area. 
 
 2. In other rooms not less than one-tenth of floor 
 area. 
 
 Shades — Translucent shades only — color preferences : 
 White, cream, gray, lemon, straw, light olive green 
 must harmonize with walls. 
 
 WALLS AND CEILINGS. 
 
 XVI. Color — Ceiling white — Walls: Cream, gray, lemon, 
 
 straw, light olive green. 
 XVII. Blackboards : Slate or Manufactured Board — 42 inches 
 
 wide — chalk trough 26 inches from floor. 
 XVIII. Picture Moulding — Around entire schoolroom about 
 
 one foot below ceiling. 
 XIX. Baseboard 8 inches high — no wainscoting necessary. 
 
 STAIRWAYS AND EXITS. 
 
 XX. Width of stairways — not less than 36 inches. 
 XXI. Runs from story to story — two with landing full width 
 
 of stairway. 
 XXII. No storage closets under stairways. 
 
 XXIII. Risers not more than 6 inches, treads including nosings 
 
 not less than 10 inches, nor more than 12 inches. 
 
 XXIV. Doors from schoolroom, 3 feet by 7 feet, made to swing 
 
 out. 
 
62 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 CHAPTER V: 
 
 ESSENTIALS AND NON-ESSENTIALS. 
 
 if! 
 
 In considering a new building there are a number of features 
 which are essential and others which are purely optional. The 
 essential features relate principally to the health, safety, and con- 
 venience of the pupils, while the non-essentials pertain chiefly to 
 waste of floor space and to idiosyncrasies of design. 
 
 DURABULITY. 
 
 The materials used in a rural school building ought to be the 
 best. The building will, in most cases, continue to be used for 
 thirty or forty years. In a rural district it is not always easy to 
 get workmen who can make repairs in a proper manner. It is 
 seldom that any member of the school board has* the time or the 
 inclination to look after the upkeep of the building. The result 
 is that the school building is generally neglected; and the poorer 
 the materials the shabbier the building. It is actually economical 
 to build of first-class material and in a first-class manner, as 
 subsequent expenditure for repairs is thereby considerably 
 reduced. At the same time the children have had the benefit of 
 being housed in a comfortable building which has been easy to 
 heat and to keep clean. Double floors with insulation between 
 them, walls warmly constructed, and ceilings which permit of no 
 perceptible leakage of heat, are of great value in any school. The 
 satisfaction to both pupils and teachers of doing school work in 
 such a building is very great from a mental as well as physical 
 point of view. 
 
 HEALTH AND SAFETY. 
 
 It would hardly seem necessary to refer to these two items in 
 connection with a public school building, but in states where the 
 law does not require that buildings be properly lighted and venti- 
 lated, that furnace rooms be made fireproof, that drinking water 
 be secured from a safe source, that sewage disposal plants be 
 approved by the state board of health, and that outdoor toilets 
 
Essentials and Non-Essentials. 63 
 
 be constructed so as not to become sources of infection, there is 
 generally the greatest laxity about living up to established stand- 
 ards. It does seem almost criminal to force a child to attend 
 school under conditions where health and safety are not assured. 
 In a few states buildings that are unfit or unsafe may be con- 
 demned by proper authority. 
 
 EXTERIOR APPEARANCE. 
 
 The American public has a right to expect high ideals realized 
 in all its public buildings, and the very highest of these in its 
 school buildings. Here the children receive most of their lasting 
 impressions of what an education means. They will forget many 
 things that are taught in the schoolroom, but the impression which 
 the school building itself makes seldom, if ever, fades from their 
 memories. Its attractiveness, its adaptation to its purposes, its 
 inspiration to local patriotism, its blessings in affording the best 
 means for the healthy development of physical, mental, and moral 
 powers cannot be overestimated. 
 
 SHAPE OF ROOM. 
 
 Among the factors to be considered in determining the shape 
 of the schoolroom, there are first the physical conditions affecting 
 hearing and sight. The length of the room is necessarily 
 restricted to the distance at which spoken words may be readily 
 heard, by the normal ear, under ordinary conditions. Repeated 
 tests made in various schoolrooms demonstrate that words spoken 
 in an ordinary tone of voice are not easily comprehended beyond 
 a distance of thirty feet. Thirty feet is also the maximum dis- 
 tance at which written work on the blackboard with letters about 
 an inch and a half high can be seen by the normal eye with proper 
 conditions of light. Allowing ample space for an aisle in the 
 rear, it becomes evident that, for the reasons given, the school- 
 room ought not to exceed 32 feet in length. 
 
 The width of the room is restricted to the distance which will 
 give a sufficient amount of light to the pupils in the row farthest 
 from the windows. The generally accepted standard in European 
 countries is to allow one and one-half feet in width of room for 
 every foot of height to the top of the window. This standard is 
 
64 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 also used lin determining the width, of the classrooms in the New 
 York City pitlblic schools. The usualvAmerican standard permits 
 two f eet irivtwidth for every foot in heigiit as far as the top of the 
 window. <i Schoolrooms are ordinarityjtwelve feet in height; and 
 windows extend usually within six inches of the ceiling. Using 
 eleven and a half feet as the hfeight we would be restricted to 
 seventeen feet three inches in width according to the European 
 standard, and twenty-three feet in width according to our Ameri- 
 can standard. All things considered, the twelve foot ceiling is 
 from a physical as well as an economical point of view generally 
 considered to give quite satisfactory results, and according to our 
 American standard the maximum width of schoolrooms would 
 be restricted to twenty-three feet. This is also a good widlh 
 considering the most advantageous lengths of wood floor joist. 
 
 We thus have an oblong room which should not exceed twenty- 
 three feet in width, thirty-two feet in length, and twelve feet in 
 height. Such a room can be ventila,ted without much difiiculty 
 so as to provide for a complete change of air as often as is 
 required by the building codes of the various states. 
 
 SIZE OF ROOM. 
 
 To be economical in size, the room should be wide enough to 
 allow for five rows of seats, whether these be fixed or movable. 
 It should also allow for six aisles in order to facilitate convenience 
 of movement about the room and a means of rapid dismissal. In 
 the ordinary school taught by one teacher there should be provided 
 not less than three sizes of seats. The five rows will require about 
 eight feet two inches of the width of the room. The aisles 
 between the seats should have a minimum width of twenty inches 
 each. This for the four aisles means six feet ten inches, or a 
 total of fiffeen feet for seats and inside aisles. The outside aisles 
 ought never to be less than two feet six inches each. The five 
 feet for outside aisles added to the fifteen feet for seats and inside 
 aisles will give twenty feet as the minimum width of any school- 
 room. Such a room to seat thirty pupils should, on a basis of 
 eighteen square feet per pupil, be twenty-seven feet long. This 
 will give six seats in each of the five rows, and allow for ample 
 
Essentials and Non-Essentials. 65 
 
 space in the front of the room as well as give a sufficiently wide 
 aisle in the rear. 
 
 In providing for 35 pupils there are two sizes of rooms which 
 have been found satisfactory. A room twenty-one feet wide and 
 thirty feet long will give ample space for the ordinary rural school 
 of small children. If large seats are used, a room 23 feet wide is 
 better, as it will give more generous aisles. The length of the 
 room can then be made 27 feet, 6 inches. In either room there 
 will be five rows of seats with seven seats to the row. A school- 
 room large enough for 35 pupils is as large as any schoolroom 
 ought to be, since one teacher will have all she can do with that 
 number of children. Often, however, school districts insist upon 
 providing room for forty pupils. In such a case the width of 
 the room should remain twenty-three feet and the length, to be 
 exact should be thirty-one feet, four inches. This will give five 
 rows of seats with eight seats to the row. Under no condition is 
 there any justification either from a hygienic, a pedagogical or an 
 economical point of view for making a schoolroom wider than 
 twenty-three feet or longer than 32 feet. Occasionally there may 
 be some community purpose which would justify a larger room, 
 but as a general rule the size of schoolrooms should be restricted 
 to the best dimensions for ordinary school purposes. 
 
 UNILATERAL LIGHT. ' 
 
 The adequate and proper lighting of schoolrooms is a most 
 important consideration both from a hygienic and a pedagogical 
 point of view. Numerous investigations go to show that about 
 twenty-five per cent of the children in rural as well as village and 
 city schools suffer from defective eyesight. These same investi^ 
 gations indicate that this condition generally existed before the 
 children were admitted to school. While the schools, therefore, 
 cannot be said, to be responsible for this unfortunate situation, 
 they may be held justly responsible if by improper and inadequate 
 means of lighting, they aggravate this physical defect. School 
 tasks in their very nature require a constant and arduous use of 
 the eyes. To see quickly and accurately is a necessity, if proper 
 progress is to be made. It is a great handicap to a child with 
 normal vision to be compelled to do his work in a room which is 
 insufficiently or improperly lighted, and it is a great injustice to a 
 
66 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 child with weak eyes to require him to study in a room which will 
 overtax his powers of vision. 
 
 To avoid cross lights, unequal sources of light, shadows, and 
 irritation of the optic nerve by light shining into the eyes of the 
 pupils, the windows should all be placed to the left of the pupils 
 as they are seated. This means that the teacher is equally pro- 
 tected, as no windows of any kind are to be placed at the rear of 
 the room. Occasionally someone will advocate high windows at 
 the rear of the schoolroom in order to increase the amount of 
 light on dark days; not considering that the high windows are 
 the very ones which are apt to injure the teacher's eyesight, since 
 her position in the schoolroom is generally within a distance which 
 allows the direct rays from the top of these windows to enter her 
 eyes. Then again, others advocate high windows on the right of 
 the pupils for purposes of ventilation. As the front wall will not 
 give sufficient space for blackboards, it is necessary to use the wall 
 at the right of the pupils for this purpose, and we are then 
 confronted with the difficulty of having the pupil seek to focus 
 his eyes on the board while at the same time the light from the 
 windows destroys his focus. Taking all these things into con- 
 sideration, unilateral light, though not wholly without its dis- 
 advantages, offers the best means for protecting the eyesight of 
 pupils and at the same time it affords ample light in which rapid 
 and accurate work may be done. 
 
 The chief reason for having the light enter the room to the 
 left of the pupils is that it will prevent the shadow of the hand 
 from falling on the work when the pupil is writing. Left-handed 
 pupils would of course be at a disadvantage, and so is the teacher 
 if she is- right-handed, but on the principle of the greatest good 
 to the greatest number this arrangement can be successfully 
 defended. . By using movable desk chairs instead of stationary 
 desks-' fastenied to the floor, anyone can have light" from the left 
 by putting the chair in the proper position to secure it. 
 
 Overhead lighting by means of skylight has also been sug- 
 gested for schools, and a few buildings of this type have been 
 constructed. So far no definite results have been announced, 
 showing the advantage of skylight over unilateral lighting. Aside 
 from the fact that such a room generates in some pupils a cooped- 
 up feeling, it also takes away the pleasure derived from being 
 
Essentials and Non-Essentials. 67 
 
 able to look out thru the window, if one should desire to do so. 
 The value of skylighted buildings will be an interesting study in 
 school architecture. 
 
 The amount of glass area considered requisite for accurate 
 and rapid work without unnecessary strain of the eyes has been 
 fixed by investigators at not less than one-sixth of the floor area. 
 This means that the light is not obstructed in any way, and each 
 pupil has direct light at his desk. In view of the fact that many 
 times the light is not unobstructed, a requirement of one- fourth 
 of the floor area has by many been considered essential. The 
 mean between the two has, however, come to be accepted as the 
 proper ratio between glass area and floor area of a schoolroom. 
 Nearly all the states which make any requirement in regard to the 
 amount of light have fixed upon one-fifth of the floor area as the 
 most desirable standard, and nearly all school plans meet this 
 requirement. Plans which do not should be revised so as to 
 provide this amount of glass area. 
 
 The direction from which the light should come into the 
 schoolroom has been and still is a fruitful source of argument. 
 To the thoughtful it would seem that some one direction should 
 possess decided advantages over the others. 
 
 In many parts of our country a southern exposure will give 
 the schoolroom on bright sunny days so much direct sunlight that 
 it becomes a serious problem how to shut out the dazzling rays 
 and still allow enough light to enter. The annoyance and dis- 
 comfort, not to speak of possible injury to the eyes, from this 
 source, is a cause of frequent complaint. 
 
 The north light has been advocated because of its evenness 
 and because it would obviate any use of shades, and thus affords 
 a means for the maximum amount of light without requiring any 
 attention on the part of the teacher. This is undoubtedly a strong 
 argument in favor of north light, and appears incontrovertible, 
 particularly when one has just emerged from a room with a 
 southern exposure, where the dark green shades had to be drawn 
 to shut out the dazzling rays of the sun, and semi-darkness had 
 prevailed. The north room then looks cheery and bright, and the 
 absence of shades a most fortunate condition. But the north light 
 has its disadvantages. The wholesome and disinfecting rays of 
 the sun never enter a schoolroom with a northern exposure. 
 
68 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 There is a uniformity about the light which becomes actually 
 oppressive, when one has to remain in such a room day after 
 day. Besides, a large area of glass on the north side of a building 
 adds to the cost of heating. 
 
 Leaving, therefore, both north and south light out of the 
 question, let us consider whether light from the east or the west 
 offers better facilities for ordinary school work. The east light 
 is bright on sunny days in the morning, and the west light is in 
 the afternoon. On the whole, the east light is the more easily 
 controlled by shades than any other light, and gives no occasion 
 for drawing the shades except for about two hours in the morn- 
 ing. It has the advantage that the schoolroom can be flooded 
 with sunlight before 9 o'clock in the morning, and generally at 
 recess. With translucent shades the light can be controlled, and 
 it leaves the greater part of the day without any care as to 
 regulation of light. Almost the same can be said of the light 
 from the west, except as to the time of the day when it enters 
 the schoolroom. The west light is perhaps not as easily controlled 
 as the east, but the harder tasks of the day have been done when 
 the dazzling rays of the sun interfere with the school work, and 
 the effect of the light in the afternoon is after all not such a 
 serious consideration. For these reasons schoolhouses when 
 fronting north or south, should have cloakrooms or some other 
 rooms beside schoolrooms in front, so as to allow for a pleasing 
 facade; and schoolhouses fronting either east or west should 
 have the schoolroom windows in front or in the rear. This will 
 allow for east and west light, regardless of the frontage of the 
 site. 
 
 SHADES. 
 
 The use of the window shade in the schoolroom does not seem 
 to be well understood. Dark, opaque shades which shut out the 
 light are most frequently seen. Such a selection is most likely 
 due to impressions that have been gained from conditions in the 
 home and the business place, and there an opaque shade has its 
 use, because it generally serves the purpose of shutting off the 
 view of the interior from the street, particularly during the 
 evening. A schoolroom seldom, if ever, needs a shade for such 
 a purpose. The amount of light admitted through the windows 
 
Essentials and Non-Essentials. 69 
 
 of a schoolroom should never be diminished except for good 
 reasons; and only when the bright rays of the sun interfere with 
 the work should a shade be drawn. At all other times the window 
 should be free from anything that will interfere with the light. 
 Sash curtains are objectionable, because they reduce the light, 
 particularly on dark days, and for the more important reason that 
 they collect dust. Venetian blinds, once quite common, now only 
 occasionally seen, are even more objectionable, because they shut 
 out the light to a greater degree than sash curtains and collect 
 more dust. The schoolroom needs a shade that, when drawn, 
 will exclude the glare of the sunshine, but nevertheless transmit 
 a maximum of light. Such a shade may be secured by using 
 light waxed muslin or other translucent material, and its use is 
 becoming more common as the subject of schoolroom lighting 
 is receiving more attention. 
 
 The practice of hanging shades from the top of the window 
 ought to be discouraged, unless an adjustable shade is used. 
 There are several of these shades on the market, and they merit 
 consideration. For those who prefer stationary shades, there is 
 no better plan for a schoolroom than the use of two rollers 
 fastened halfway up the window. This allows one shade to each 
 separate sash. One moves downward and the other upward. 
 This arrangement of shades will also serve a good purpose in 
 breaking up the vicious habit of having the shade drawn to cover 
 the upper sash at all hours of the day. There is certainly nothing 
 more unfair in the matter of distribution of light than pulling the 
 shades halfway down, thus depriving the pupils more than ten 
 or twelve feet away from the windows of all direct light. 
 
 BLACKBOARDS. 
 
 Blackboards should always run across the entire front of the 
 room. There is so much use in the modern school for the front 
 board that its omission or partial omission becomes a serious 
 handicap. The side wall should also have all its available space 
 set aside for blackboard. Under no circumstances should black- 
 boards be placed between the windows. In attempting to read 
 what may be written on such a board, the eyes are subjected to 
 the irritation of the rays of light from the window at a time 
 
70 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 when they should be focused on the wall. The difficulty of 
 adjusting the vision under these conditions causes a nervous dis- 
 tress which is wholly unnecessary and may prove injurious to 
 the eyes. In rural schools the blackboard which is placed with 
 its lower edge twenty-six inches above the floor and is forty-two 
 inches wide is really the most 'serviceable. The top of such a 
 board is five feet eight inches above the floor, a height which 
 the majority of the children can conveniently reach. Slate boards 
 are the most desirable as they require the least attention after 
 they have once been installed, but boards made of pulp and sold 
 under various trade-names make for a time at least a serviceable 
 substitute for slate. 
 
 WALLS AND CEILINGS. 
 
 The walls and ceilings are most satisfactory when plastered. 
 Three coats are necessary on lath and two coats on brick or tile. 
 The first coat is known as the scratch coat, the second as the 
 brown coat, and the third as the finish coat. On brick or tile the 
 scratch coat is usually omitted. The finish coat should not be 
 rough, as the rough surface collects dust. A smooth, hard finish 
 in a light tint is the most desirable wall, and a smooth white 
 ceiling the best reflector of diffused daylight. 
 
 A pleasing color scheme is a fine disciplinarian. Not only is 
 light impaired by bad color schemes, but certain feelings ^ and 
 moods are excited by them. Red awakens the feeling of aggres- 
 siveness and hostility, blue gives an impression of coldness and 
 incivility, orange promotes discord and dissatisfaction. On the 
 other hand cream, gray, lemon, straw and light olive-green 
 suggest cheerfulness and vivacity, harmony and good taste. 
 These tints can be used effectively almost anywhere, the green 
 being the only one which might be questioned in certain rooms. 
 
 WAINSCOTING. 
 
 In the days of "The Hoosier Schoolmaster" there may have 
 been some excuse for wainscot of beaded and matched lumber 
 around the room, but in our present buildings reasons for it are 
 scarce as hens' teeth. A school is no "rough house", and there 
 is no occasion to protect the walls near the floor any more than 
 
Essentials and Non-Essentials. 71 
 
 the walls near the ceiling. Children will respect the plastered 
 wall in the schoolhouse in much the same way as they respect the 
 wall in the house. The plain or beaded wainscot adds nothing 
 to the appearance of the schoolroom, the coatroom or the library. 
 On the contrary it detracts materially from the pleasing impres- 
 sion which a tastefully tinted wall makes by the ugly break which 
 is made by the moulding at the top of the wainscot. A pleasing 
 and attractive wainscot is made of hardwood with paneled effects. 
 If a wainscot is wanted, this should by all means be selected, and 
 the room finished according to well established principles of 
 architectural design. 
 
 COATROOMS. 
 
 One coatroom is absolutely essential with each schoolroom. 
 In one-room rural schools separate coatrooms for boys and girls 
 are desirable. Comfort, neatness, order, and care of clothing 
 can best be promoted by having a room five feet wide, with hooks 
 along walls spaced about one foot apart. This room should have 
 no door to the vestibule, and would serve its purpose best if it 
 had two openings to the schoolroom, so that children might pass 
 in through one opening and out through the other. Such an 
 arrangement is a material aid to the teacher in maintaining 
 discipline. 
 
 THE LIBRARY. 
 
 The rural school library room has not yet attained the recogni- 
 tion it deserves. Many teachers and superintendents still fail to 
 realize the actual need and the splendid possibilities of such a 
 room. And yet if such a room is provided and a well selected 
 class of books secured, which are of interest to people of different 
 ages and of various inclinations, the library would soon become 
 as great an educational factor as the school itself. 
 
 FUEL ROOM. 
 
 No matter whether a ventilating room heater, a furnace, or a 
 steam heating plant is used, a well-located fuel room is a necessity. 
 This room, if placed within the building, an arrangement which is 
 always advantageous when a warm-air furnace or a steam heating 
 
72 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 plant is installed, should be both dustproof and fireproof. If it is 
 built fireproof it will naturally be dustproof. In small rural 
 schools heated by ventilating room heaters it may not be possible 
 to provide a roorn in the building, although this is highly desirable. 
 It may be that the outdoor toilets and the fuel room can be 
 combined in one building, by placing the toilet rooms at each end 
 and the fuel room between the two toilet rooms. A fuel room 
 may well be incorporated in a school building on the same floor 
 as. the schoolroom, if the building is designed with this idea in 
 mind. Teachers, who are generally obliged to do the janitor 
 work in the country schools, are entitled to such consideration as 
 will enable them to build and keep fires going without unnecessary 
 hardship. 
 
 THE ROOF. 
 
 Unnecessary gables, towers, and fanciful roofs do not belong 
 to school design, though it might seem at times as if the country 
 school had secured a monopoly of these undesirable features. 
 The best buildings always have the simplest and least ornate roof 
 design. Money is wasted when features of school design serve 
 no useful purpose. Mere ornament cannot be defended in school- 
 house construction. Everything about a school building should 
 have a purpose. As the Germans say : "Art should never degen- 
 erate into artifice." 
 
 THE BELFRY. 
 
 The belfry is a relic of the time when the school and the 
 church were closely associated in men's minds. It served a 
 useful purpose when reliable watches and clocks were uncommon, 
 and telephones and gongs were unknown. The call of the school 
 bell was then a timely reminder of the hours of the day when 
 pupils would be on their way, and when school was called and 
 dismissed. Today it is an unnecessary expense in connection 
 with any school building, as a gong of ample size will give equal 
 service, at only a slight expense as compared with the cost and 
 upkeep of a belfry. Most homes are now supplied with reliable 
 clocks and the telephone gives a ready means of verifying the 
 correctness of the time. From an architectural point of view 
 the belfry seldom adds anything to the attractiveness of a build- 
 
Essentials and Non-Essentials. 73 
 
 ing, but more often becomes a grotesque excrescence on an 
 otherwise pleasing exterior. It has long since disappeared from 
 the modern school in the village and the city, and progressive 
 rural communities are no longer incorporating this useless feature 
 in their new buildings. 
 
 FLAGPOLE. 
 
 No school building should ever be erected without providing 
 for a flagpole either on the building or on the grounds. No day 
 of national, state, or local importance should go by without having 
 the flag displayed. Whether the law requires it or not, our 
 patriotism should prompt us to exhibit our national emblem in 
 such a manner that the children may learn both to respect and 
 cherish it. 
 
 ENLARGEMENT. 
 
 In some localities it is advisable to plan a building in such a 
 manner that an addition may be built without serious incon- 
 venience. In such a case the plan of the completed building 
 should be kept in mind, in order that waste spaces and dark rooms 
 may not result. The unilateral lighting of the schoolrobms simpli- 
 fies the question of planning additions, as it is very easy to arrange 
 the interior in such a way that the wall opposite the windows is 
 blank. The greatest difficulty is encountered in designing the 
 front of such a building. When plans are looked over, there- 
 fore, this featjire should be carefully considered. 
 
 SIDEWALKS. 
 
 Every schoolhouse should have a sidewalk from the road to 
 the front door; and two sidewalks from this door, or from the 
 rear door if there is one, to the outdoor toilets. The neglect of 
 sidewalks in this respect is due more to inattention than to any 
 other cause, as the cost of such walks is comparatively slight. 
 Cement walks are the only walks that should be considered, as 
 after they are once put in they seldom require any further atten- 
 tion. 
 
74 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 TOILET FACILITIES. 
 
 Of all the questions connected with rural schoolhouse con- 
 struction, the matter of toilets is the most diiificult to handle. In 
 most places the outdoor toilet is still considered the only possible 
 solution. The indoor flush closet with its pneumatic pressure 
 tank and its sewage disposal plant might readily be made a part 
 of the equipment of any rural school, if provision were made for 
 it at the time of building, and the principles of the system were 
 properly understood by people in general. It is to be hoped that 
 with the dissemination of information in regard to sanitary condi- 
 tions the outdoor toilet may be entirely eliminated. 
 
Types of Buiu)ings. 75 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 TYPES OF BUILDINGS. 
 
 The demand for definite information in regard to the con- 
 struction of rural schoolhouses has prompted state departments 
 of education and other educational agencies to prepare bulletins 
 and circulars dealing with this problem. These publications 
 discuss more or less in detail the modem ideas of sanitation, 
 ventilation, lighting, educational advantages, and other desirable 
 features which should be incorporated in the rural schools. 
 Several states furnish complete plans and specifications of stand- 
 ard designs, and other states have prepared suggestive sketches 
 for the guidance of architects and builders. All of these have 
 served and are serving a useful purpose not only in arousing an 
 intelligent interest in the need of better rural school conditions, 
 but in actually securing better rural school buildings. 
 
 Instead, therefore, of presenting some general types of build- 
 ings not already offered or suggested in these publications, it has 
 seemed advisable to cull from these bulletins some of the more 
 attractive exterior designs and most carefully planned interiors 
 as well as to quote from the description and directions given. 
 These have been arranged in alphabetical order by states, so as 
 to facilitate reference to them. 
 
 ALABAMA. 
 
 In this state the laws provide a certain amount of state aid 
 for the erection, repair, and equipment of school buildings con- 
 structed according to plans furnished by the Superintendent of 
 Education or plans approved by him. A valuable manual pre- 
 senting "the elementary questions involved in school architecture, 
 together with standard plans and specifications for the erection 
 of one, two, three, four and five-room school buildings and 
 suggestions for the rearrangement and repair of old ones" was 
 issued by State Supt. Wm. F. Feagin in 1916. The illustration 
 and floor plan (Figs. 17, 18) which follow show one of the attrac- 
 tive designs of a one-teacher school. 
 
76 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 Fig. 17. Alabama One-Teacher SchooL 
 
 Supt. Feagin has well said: "An attractive school building 
 on ample and well kept grounds is the finest public asset in any- 
 community. Inasmuch as the state is now giving aid more 
 liberally than ever before, and for the further reason that the 
 
 nrnmoump 
 ommcmQVp 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 18. Floor Plan of Alabama School. 
 
! ! 1 I i I i I i I I 1 1 1 i 1 1 11 1 
 C1^A33 ROOM 
 
 ! i i i i : I ■ : t ' ! i i ! i i j I I 
 
 IIIIIIMI'MMIII 
 CI-A-3:3., KOOJH 
 
 iiiiiiiiirii!|iiii[i 
 
 H 
 
 WORK koom: 
 
 I2« 2-4' 
 
 FL-OOR PLAN-N9-2.A 
 
 Fig. 19. Front Elevation and Floor Plan of Alabama Two-Teacher School. 
 
 school is the only building in the community that belongs to all 
 and reflects the prevailing civic standards, it is highly proper to 
 require that school buildings shall be constructed with appropriate 
 regard for beauty and fitness, and for efficient service." 
 
 ■ In speaking of the schoolhouse, the manual places the prin- 
 ciples that should govern squarely before its readers in the follow- 
 
78 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 ing words: "The country school should be as sanitary and as 
 well constructed as the best home in the community. It should 
 be pleasing in appearance, in its appointments and surroundings, 
 so that pupils and teachers will take pleasure in attending the 
 school and in caring for it, and the whole community will take 
 pride in it. Conformity to modern day requirements is absolutely 
 necessary to the pride and self-respect of the community, and the 
 attainment of the standards required by the educational authorities 
 of the state should be considered a social and civic duty." 
 
 The illustration of the two-teacher school shown in Fig. 19 
 presents a neat, attractive and compact plan of a rural school. 
 Speaking of the planning of the building the manual outlines the 
 chief consideration that should govern in the following words : 
 "The classroom should be the unit of consideration in planning a 
 schoolhouse. The required number of rooms should be assembled 
 to the best architectural effect, and under no condition should the 
 opposite principle control. The windows should be massed or 
 grouped on the left side of the room, because we are a right- 
 handed nation, and the area of glass should be from one-fifth to 
 one-fourth the floor area. The windows should be is close 
 together as possible and should extend to, within six inches of the 
 ceiling. The groups should be such that the window nearest to 
 the front of the room will not be ahead of the line of the front 
 desk, while the base of the windows should be about three and 
 one-half feet above the floor. 
 
 "No school building can be well lighted if it is not first 
 properly placed with reference to the cardinal points of the com- 
 pass. If the windows of the classroom are placed on the northern 
 side of the building, very little direct sunlight will ever enter the 
 schoolroom, and the light so entering will have lost its power as 
 a germicidal agency. Direct sunlight is the most powerful and 
 reliable disinfectant known, and for this reason sole dependence 
 upon north light should be avoided, if possible. 
 
 "It should not be inferred, however, that classrooms facing 
 towards the south would be the most acceptable. With direct 
 sunlight streaming into a schoolroom during the entire day the 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 79 
 
 shades would have to be down so that it would be impossible to 
 furnish good light to all the pupils in the room. Many kinds and 
 qualities of window shades have been devised to meet this con- 
 dition, but none has been developed that will properly condition 
 the direct rays of the sun so as to guard the children from eye 
 
 Fig. 20. Arkansas One-Eoom School Building. 
 
 strain, and at the same time permit satisfactory illumination in 
 all parts of the room. 
 
 "Our dependence, therefore, should be upon either east or 
 west light, preferably the former. This will permit the morning 
 sun to take the chill out of the room before school begins, and, 
 since there are as a rule, fewer cloudy mornings than afternoons, 
 rooms having windows towards the east will get a better sunning 
 than those with windows towards the west. In buildings with 
 
80 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 east exposure, the troublesome direct rays from the sun will have 
 disappeared early in the morning, and the shades can then be 
 rolled up for the' rest of the day. The choice between east and 
 west windows will depend somewhat upon surroundings. A 
 range of hills and mountains might raise the horizon line so that 
 the sun would not appear above it until late in the day. An 
 
 SCHOOL EOO/^ 
 
 Pes^ 
 
 FUEL 
 
 CO/IT Xff H/(LL, CCHtiriSrtl 
 
 "Boff/rs 
 
 Fig. 21. Arkansas One-Room School Building. 
 
 attractive outlook is better than an ugly one, and it sometimes 
 happens that this consideration should control. For example, 
 if a lot must be selected near a busy, dusty roadway, relief from 
 the dust, noise, and disturbance might be secured by facing the 
 windows in the opposite direction. These are matters to be 
 determined by local conditions, but it will always remain true that 
 as a rule it is safer to depend upon east or west light than on 
 north or south light." 
 
Types of Buildings. 81 
 
 ARKANSAS. 
 
 In 1911 State Supt. Geo. B. Cook issued a valuable pamphlet 
 on school buildings, which he dedicates to school directors, 
 teachers, and school children of Arkansas in the interest of better 
 public school facilities, believing as he does that, "next to the 
 home, the school should be a place of comfort and' beauty, cleanly, 
 sanitary, well heated, perfectly lighted — a place in which the 
 children and the entire school community should take pride, and 
 which should stand forth as a true index of the social, civic, and 
 even moral standards of the community." 
 
 The front elevation shown in Fig. 20 is of a building of 
 pleasing substantial type. It suggests a school. The interior 
 arrangement as shown on the floor plan (Fig. 21) is excellent, 
 and is highly endorsed by those who have made a study of rural 
 schools. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 State Supt. Edward Hyatt issued in 1914 a pamphlet called 
 "School Architecture in California". In this pamphlet, to use 
 Supt. Hyatt's own words, "is shown in graphic way some excel- 
 lent examples of the different types of school buildings that are 
 being constructed in California, so as to build up in the minds of 
 the people a distinct ideal of what modern schoolhouses ought 
 to be." 
 
 The pamphlet contains the report of a jury of architects 
 appointed by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction to 
 select the most desirable types of school buildings which could 
 be used, as standards of design by school boards. It also contains 
 a report of the Oakland inquiry as to features of schoolhouse 
 design. The first report is written by Architect C. H. Cheney of 
 San Francisco. From this admirable report the following 
 extracts which are especially noteworthy, are selected: "School 
 architecture is a special problem. The practical requirements are 
 many and diverse and the solution of the planning problem alone 
 requires an experienced and well trained architect. While Cali- 
 fornia in most parts of the state does not present the rigorous 
 climatic conditions of the Eastern States, the problems of school 
 
82 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 design are nevertheless very much the same throughout the 
 country. 
 
 "There are two distinct sides of the architect's problem: 
 Planning, and the design of the exterior and interior. While 
 from the practical standpoint the plan has the preponderance of 
 importance, the problem of obtaining an attractive and dignified 
 building is also of final consequence to every school board. 
 
 "The problem of the one.-room school is a good deal more 
 difficult to handle than may be supposed. If reduced to its first 
 
 
 *«iu'j-'ttiu'r 
 
 
 Fig. 22. Floor Plan, California Two-Room Rural School. 
 
 elements, it is almost an axiom of a school building that the best 
 light is obtained from' one side of a room. Most of the mistakes 
 seen in our rural schoolhouses would immediately be eliminated 
 if this were adhered to, but unfortunately the fact that the one- 
 room school usually has three exposed sides seems to offer 
 temptations to use them all for lighting, causing bad cross lights 
 and generally bad cross draughts." (Fig. 22.) 
 
 The report of the Oakland inquiry is written by Architect 
 J. J. Donovan of Oakland, and in this report the size of school- 
 
Types of Buildings. .83 
 
 rooms is given special consideration. The report says : "Taking 
 the classroom as the first unit and following the recommendations 
 of the committee, a model room has been developed. The size 
 of the room is 20 feet 6 inches wide by 31 feet 6 inches long and 
 13 feet high in the clear. Light should enter the classroom only 
 from one side of the room, and that should be on the left of the 
 pupil, with the windows toward the rear of the room as far back 
 as possible and permissible with good construction and design. 
 In no room should the light enter from more than one side, for 
 if windows are placed at the back of the room not only is it 
 disagreeable for the teacher, but cross lights will occur on the 
 desks of the pupils. 
 
 "Classrooms have but one entrance and the doors have been 
 made 3 feet 6 inches in width. The wardrobe is inside the class- 
 room and free from the corridor in order to give the teacher 
 control and discipline. This too, prevents petty pilfering, and 
 in time of danger from panic the teacher has many advantages 
 at hand to preserve order." 
 
 i 
 In the report of Supt. Hyatt for the year 1906 there is a 
 
 reprint of an article written for the "Architect and Engineer of 
 
 California" by Architect W. H. Weeks. The following extracts 
 
 from this article are indicative of the best conclusions which have 
 
 been reached by educators, architects, sanitarians and others who 
 
 have studied the schoolhouse problem. 
 
 "The lighting of the classroom is the most important problem 
 in school building. Under no circumstances should a pupil be 
 forced to face the light, and in the best planned schoolrooms the 
 teacher is equally favored. The only proper lighting is that intro- 
 duced over the left shoulder of the pupil. 
 
 "The woodwork on the interior of a model country school 
 should be as plain as possible, omitting all fancy molds and 
 quirks, as they are only dust catchers and add to the expense. 
 A natural finish makes the wood more beautiful and desirable. 
 The plastered walls and ceilings should have a good sand finish, 
 as it is more sightly than hard finish and is freer from cracks. 
 The tinting shows to much better advantage when placed on such 
 a surface. 
 
84 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 "The color of tint for walls and ceiling should be selected to 
 harmonize with the wood finish and blackboards; the exposure 
 should also be taken into account. Light olive-green is a very 
 good color for an eastern exposure, but if green blackboards are 
 used, the painter will find difficulty in getting the shades to 
 harmonize. Rather than risk having the shades clash, it would 
 be better to use some soft shade of brown or tan, with a light 
 cream ceiling. 
 
 "A building erected for any purpose should indicate its 
 essential use by its appearance, especially a building designed for 
 educational purposes, which should not only indicate its use by 
 
 Fig. 23. Perspective of Scliool Designed by W. H. Weelss. 
 
 its appearance, but set an example of good taste and dignity for 
 the community. A school building so designed will cultivate in 
 the young that perception of proportion and relation to utility and 
 adornment, that constitutes taste in architecture and will fulfill a 
 large part of its mission. 
 
 "In the small country school, as well as in the schools of the 
 large cities, the best example of architecture should be seen. The 
 building should not be elaborate in detail, nor severely plain. 
 Still it must have beauty, grace and dignity, be symmetrical in 
 outline with well-proportioned parts and with as little ornament 
 as the style employed will justify." 
 
 Architect Weeks has prepared a number of rural school plans, 
 
Types of Buildings. 85 
 
 and the perspective, Fig. 23, shows one of his attractive designs 
 of a two-room schoolhouse. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 That the simplest kind of school building can be given an 
 attractive and pleasing exterior and also arranged satisfactorily 
 as to its interior is quite evident from the perspective and floor 
 plan shown in Figs. 24 and 25. 
 
 The exterior of this building shows a classic treatment which 
 has always been regarded as a suitable expression of artistic taste 
 in connection with public buildings. 
 
 The schoolroom is 24- feet by 32 feet, and shows an arrange- 
 ment whereby seating capacity is secured for 48 pupils. As a 
 general rule, however, seating capacity should be limited to 40 or 
 42 pupils. There are separate coatrooms for boys and girls with 
 a vestibule between them. The building has one-side light for the 
 schoolroom, and is equipped with a ventilating room heater. The 
 coatrooms each have one window. 
 
 With respect to this and subsequent sketches of Georgia rural 
 school buildings. State Supt. M. L. Brittain has aptly said: 
 "Simplicity and economy of construction and logical planning 
 may well be combined with good proportions and pleasing effects. 
 Inexpensive features can be incorporated in the planning of the 
 simple schoolhouse that will not only add to its beauty, but also 
 will serve as a practical means in arousing the interest of the 
 pupil. Experience has taught that one of the strongest appeals to 
 the pupils is to interest them in beautifying the' school. Well- 
 designed, well-built schools with something of artistic grace and 
 beauty, manifest in structure and grounds, will have an influence 
 for good, not only upon the pupils, but upon the entire community. 
 Preventable ugliness is a sin, especially when it is forced upon 
 children in the formative years of their lives, and the pity of it is 
 that the barn-like houses, in which so many of our children are 
 taught, would cost little if any more, if something of taste and 
 beauty was evident in the schoolhouse and the grounds. Let us 
 
86 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 0/4E- QOCVA.' OCHOOL" 
 
 Fig. 24. Georgia School. 
 
 cDOOQcDOQC 
 
 GLASO T200n 24' 
 
 I 
 
 xoz 
 
 IM M 
 
 Fig. 25. Floor Plan Georgia School. 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 87 
 
 ■Two • 12oo/Vi' School: 
 : -C- 
 
 Fig. 26. Georgia School. 
 
 make the school what it should be — the most attractive place in 
 the community." 
 
 A two-room building in a similar style of architecture is also 
 given in this bulletin. The perspective and floor plan are as 
 shown in Figs. 26 and 27. 
 
 *^ ^000000150= 'f'^>^ t'^^-^f"- 
 
 J 
 
 00000000= 
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 OOOQOOOO^ 
 
 UcHDoaooaO' 
 
 CLAD-> Qoon 24.32 
 
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 |LlU|i 
 
 Dooaoooo^ 
 
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 Fig. 27. Floor Plan Georgia School. 
 
88 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 bo 
 
Types of Buildings. 89 
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 The rural school of Illinois was at once recognized by State 
 Supt. Blair immediately after assuming the duties of his office 
 as the one great problem which required careful and timely 
 adjustment to the altered conditions of rural life. He appointed 
 as assistant superintendent U. J. Hoffman, a county superintend- 
 ent of recognized ability. In 1910 a bulletin on "One-room 
 Country Schools in Illinois", prepared by Mr. Hoffman was issued 
 by the Department of Public Instruction. A revised edition of 
 this bulletin was issued in 1916 on "One-room and Consolidated 
 Country Schools of Illinois." The following extracts are indi- 
 cative of the importance which the Department of Public Instruc- 
 tion of Illinois attaches to the country school. 
 
 "It is generally believed," writes Mr. Hoffman, "that the 
 farm home is the best place for the proper rearing of children. 
 Nevertheless farmers who desire the best schooling for their 
 children are too apt to believe that better facilities may be found 
 in the town. Even if the parents do not move to town to school 
 their children, they' arrange to send them there. The country 
 school has just as great advantages as does the country home, 
 provided that all is done that may be done to make it the best 
 possible school. 
 
 "In planning this one- room school building, (Fig. 28) diligent 
 care has been taken to provide one that meets all the requirements 
 of a comfortable, sanitary, convenient schoolhouse for the chil- 
 dren. The architect has succeeded in devising an exterior which 
 is most pleasing. It suggests a home as well as a school. A 
 number of houses have been built after this plan and they are 
 fully up to expectation. The house can be built of wood, brick, 
 or concrete blocks. 
 
 "The outside dimensions of this building are 32 by 33I/2 feet. 
 The schoolroom is 23 by 31 feet. The library is 8 by 9 feet. 
 One coatroom is 4% by 9 feet and one 6 by 9 feet. The vestibule 
 is 6 by 9 feet. 
 
 "Separate coatrooms for boys and girls are essential. Coat 
 hooks should be strong and fastened to the wall. The only 
 entrance to the coatrooms should be in view of the teacher. This 
 arrangement greatly lessens the difficulty in discipline. 
 
90 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 "The library room is one of the most useful parts of the 
 country school. Book shelves should be built into the walls. 
 There should be a table and a few chairs. Occasionally a class 
 of older children may be allowed to use the room when they have 
 work to prepare that can be done best when they have freedom 
 to converse. When the schoolroom is used for public meetings, 
 
 3- 
 
 5CH00UR.OOn 
 
 D 
 
 XVbsk. 
 
 Mg. 29. Floor Plan Illinois Country School. 
 
 the children's books can be locked up in this room. If sewing 
 is taught this room becomes very convenient. 
 
 "The fuel room should have a concrete floor. The door to the 
 room should be close fitting so that dust does not enter the school- 
 room when coal is being placed in the fuel room. When building 
 a new schoolhouse the cost of this room is much less than a 
 separate coal house, and the convenience of it is worth much. 
 It is a great hardship for women teachers to have to carry coal 
 from a distant part of the yard." 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 IOWA. 
 
 91 
 
 State Supt. Albert M. Deyoe has issued an excellent bulletin 
 on "Iowa Schoolhouses and Grounds". The bulletin is prepared 
 by Inspector Melvin R. Fayram and the plans of the one- and 
 two-room buildings by Architect B. F. Egbert. (Figs. 30, 31, 
 32, 33-) 
 
 Fig. 30. One-Room Rural Schoolhouse. B. F. Egbert, Architect. 
 
 With regard to the floor arrangement, the bulletin says : "The 
 one-room schoolhouse should be provided with small rooms to 
 the rear or side of the main room for domestic science and manual 
 training. These rooms, in fact, are to be a part of the main room. 
 By such an arrangement the pupils may work in these rooms 
 during the noon hour, and yet be under the direct supervision of 
 the teacher. The rooms may be opened at any time it is con- 
 venient to conduct the work in these subjects. The domestic 
 science room may be used to advantage in serving lunch at the 
 various social gatherings which are held in the schoolhouse. The 
 floor plans in Fig. 31 indicate the arrangement." 
 
92 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 DOMESTIC 5CIEHCE. 
 
 KANUAL TRMMING 
 
 In regard to lighting of schoolrooms Inspector Fay ram writes : 
 "There has never been any time in the history of education or the 
 industrial world when the demands have been so great on the eyes 
 especially of school children. 
 
 "It must be held in mind that the problems of heating, ventilat- 
 ing, and lighting 
 schoolhouses is far 
 more complex than 
 the same problems of 
 the home. Whatever 
 can be done to better 
 any of these condi- 
 tions will lessen fa- 
 tigue and increase the 
 child's efficiency. 
 
 "The study rooms 
 should be placed on 
 one side of the build- 
 ing so as to admit 
 either the morning or 
 the afternoon sun. 
 The south light is too 
 constant and the 
 teacher cannot regu- 
 late the shades so as 
 to prevent injurious 
 pencils of light com- 
 ing into the room. 
 Even the flat blinds 
 or adjustable shades 
 will not remedy this 
 condition. The fol- 
 lowing is good ad- 
 vice : 'Do not con- 
 struct your school- 
 house in such a way that windows will open from any study 
 room toward the south.' 
 
 "The windows of each study room should be placed as close 
 together as possible; that is, banked, and near the rear of the 
 
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 n n □ o □ 
 n □ □ □ □ 
 
 rEACHERS 
 SE.SK 
 
 SRtNKINa 
 r<«lNTRIH 
 
 ® 
 
 OIKLS 
 WARDROBE. 
 
 vestibule! 
 
 BOYS 
 
 Fig. 31. Floor Plan Iowa School. 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 93 
 
 Fig. 32. Two-Room Rural Schoolhouse. B. F. Egbert, Architect. 
 
 KINDERSARTCN 
 
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 ASS 
 
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 C1.ASS ROOK 
 
 DOMCSTIC 
 SCItNCt 
 
 MANUAL 
 TRAINING 
 
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 CLASS ROOJiT 
 
 nnDDQD 
 nnnnnii 
 nnnnni 
 
 Fig. 33. Floor Plan of a Two-Room Schoolhouse including Rooms for Domestic 
 Science and Manual Training. 
 
 room. The glass space should never be less than one-fifth of the 
 floor space. 
 
 "The rooms which are in continuous use, should during some 
 part of the day receive the direct rays of the sun, as sunlight is 
 one of the greatest disinfectants. This is the principal reason 
 why the north light is unsatisfactory." 
 
94 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 The contributions to tiie literature of the rural school in 
 Kansas come from the office of the state superintendent of public 
 instruction and the state normal schools at Hays and Emporia. 
 A bulletin on "School Buildings, School Grounds, and their Im- 
 provement" was issued by Supt. E. T. Fairchild in 1911. In 
 regard to the. type of school building selected as a model for the 
 state of Kansas the bulletin says : "Children are much influenced 
 by their school surroundings. Decent schoolrooms and outbuild- 
 ings are conducive to decent habits, and beauty of • environment 
 begets beauty of life. The transition is now being made from 
 the 'box style' of school architecture to the style that is sanitary, 
 useful and attractive. 
 
 "The interior arrangement that kefeps in view the pupil and 
 classroom requirements is far more important than the ext-erior 
 appearance. Hence school buildings should be planned from 
 'within out' and not from without in'. 
 
 "The modern type of rural school, in which agriculture, 
 domestic economy and manual training are taught, requires a new 
 type of school building. A number of attempts have been made 
 to construct school buildings aidapted jx> the modern notion of a 
 rural school. The new features in general include an improved 
 system of lighting, heating and ventilation, a cloakroom, a work- 
 room, shelves for books built into the wall, a reading table, a 
 storage closet, and a small teacher's closet. Some of the plans 
 are more complete and include a modern dry closet or water 
 closet system and hot and cold water. 
 
 "In making floor plans the usefulness of the space and the 
 proper lighting are to be kept chiefly in view. A modern school 
 building is usually not so much a matter of cost as of selecting 
 good plans. 
 
 "The classroom is the unit upon which the planning of the 
 school building depends. The size of the modern school building 
 will depend upon the number of pupils to be accommodated. If 
 the classrooms are built smaller than the standard sizes suggested, 
 they will sooner or later be overcrowded." 
 
 The plan shown in Figs. 34 and 35, is by Architect J. H. Felt, 
 Kansas City, and with reference to the plan he says : "The 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 95 
 
 MiJCCL 0;i!: Q''::jn(i'ti-/-L- b 1 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 — 
 
 - .3CrtOOL - ROOK ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 ■Wo£K -Boon- 
 
 ^v^ 
 
 •Model • Eucal- .school -Di-dq • 
 
 ■TVOOC-PLAN -.SCA.LE-.^'-l-o" 
 -J-H-riLT-5-CO-KBCnT5-K.M13-ClTYHo- 
 
 . ^ . n A3on • City ■ Iowa 
 Fig. 35. 
 
96 The Rural School Plaxt. 
 
 system of lighting is what is known as the unilateral or one-side 
 lighting, by which the light is brought from a number of windows 
 located at the left of the pupil, and set as close to the ceiling as 
 practicable. The high windows shown at the rear are not essen- 
 tial, as the proper amount of glass surface is contained in the 
 bank of windows to the left. 
 
 "The workroom is large and well lighted and heated directly 
 from the school heater, and is separated from the main school- 
 room by a rolling partition or sliding door, permitting the same 
 to be thrown into the main schoolroom when desired." 
 
 The bulletin in discussing the lighting of the model school 
 says : "The common arrangement of windows on both sides of 
 the schoolroom is universally condemned as being injurious to 
 the eyes. It usually requires pupils to look at blackboards with 
 a glare of light from an adjacent window shining into their eyes. 
 
 "Data from schools with windows arranged according to 
 standard requirements indicate that insufficiency of light and- 
 improper arrangement of light, and not the amount of use of the 
 eyes, are mainly responsible for the defective eyesight among 
 school children. Since there is no additional expense in arrang- 
 ing windows properly when new buildings are erected there 
 should be no excuse for the erection of school buildings that are 
 improperly lighted. 
 
 "In planning the lighting of school buildings the south side 
 is not desirable as a source of light, on account of the large 
 amount of direct sunlight. The north side is most desirable for 
 the banking of windows. The east side has the advantage of 
 affording the sanitary eflfect of the sunshine in the morning, 
 when it is most welcome. A west exposure for the windows is 
 less desirable in this respect." 
 
 The rural school building as developed by H. M. Culter, 
 Director of the Rural School Bureau at the State Normal School 
 at Emporia, is shown in Figs. 36, 37. With regard to this school- 
 house and its use Prof. Culter says : 
 
 "We American people do not study economy, at least we do 
 not practice it. In no way are we more extravagant than in the 
 use of our schoolhouses. We use them six or eight hours out 
 of the 24, five days in the week, for two-thirds or three-fourths 
 of the year, and the remainder of the time they stand idle. No 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 97 
 
 Fig. 36. Emporia Type of Rural Scliool. 
 
 private business treats its capital in this fashion, and why should 
 we as communities do so with our schoolhouses ? Why should 
 they not be the social centers of the neighborhood? This is 
 especially important in rural communities where no other place 
 
 I- 
 
 Sc.HOOl-R.OOM 
 
 TH.OOie.'PLAM' 
 
 Fig. 37. Floor Plan of the Emporia Type. 
 
 yT^ 
 
98 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 Ii"ig. 38. Fort Hays Plan of Rural School. 
 
 Fig. 39. Floor Plan of the Fort Hays Type. 
 
Types of Buildings. 99 
 
 can be had. With a little forethought and a little more money, 
 a schoolhouse may be so planned that it will serve the school 
 admirably and also the social needs of the community. The 
 Emporia plan lends itself to these uses. 
 
 "It is very desirable that children in all schools be given the 
 opportunity of doing a good deal of handwork. This will not 
 detract from their bookwork, but on the other hand, if well 
 ordered, will enforce and give zest for the intellectual work of 
 the school. This may well be done in a country school where it 
 is necessary to have a workroom. This may be separated from 
 the main schoolroom by folding doors with a glass panel in the 
 upper half of the door. If these arrangements are adhered to, 
 the workroom may at all times be under the eye of the teacher, 
 and it may be opened into the main room at times when extra 
 seating space is needed for the main room." 
 
 The Normal School at Fort Hays has also prepared plans of 
 a rural schoolhouse shown in Figs. 38 and 39. These plans have 
 been worked out under the direction of Prof. R. S. Parker. 
 
 MICHIGAN. 
 
 In 1914 State Supt. Fred L. Keeler issued a manual in which 
 he gives some very valuable suggestions in regard to schoolhouse 
 construction. This was followed by another in 191 5 on "Stand- 
 ard Schools". The plans of the building shown in Figs. 40 
 and 41 are made available to school boards in the state. With 
 regard to this particular building the manual states : "The entire 
 design is suggestive of the purpose for which the building is 
 to be used, yet it has a homelike touch. It presents a most 
 pleasing appearance from any direction. It will harmonize with 
 rural scenery of alrhost any description. The plan is desirable 
 for frame construction, brick, or hollow tile with stucco exterior. 
 Hollow tile is perhaps the most desirable, as it offers several 
 advantages over brick and the stucco exterior can be made 
 very attractive and artistic in appearance. Such a building sug- 
 gests the idea of permanence and will be cheaper than a wooden 
 building to heat and keep in repair. 
 
 "Two outside doors with vestibules, in which steps up to the 
 main floor are placed, furnish access to the schoolroom direct. 
 
100 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 101 
 
 All outside steps are done away with, the steps required being 
 inside and protected from the weather. The doors leading into 
 the schoolroom have a glass panel, thus enabling the teacher to 
 watch the entrances and prevent hall trouble. The teacher also 
 has direct supervision over the cloakrooms which open from the 
 schoolroom, yet are so near the entrances that there is no passing 
 through the room. A toilet room off from each coatroom is 
 provided, suitable for the use of indoor chemical closets or 
 regular sanitary closets where a water supply and sewage are 
 
 .F-LOOR PLA/i. 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 available. Doors to the cloakrooms are open at the top and 
 bottom to provide sufficient heating and ventilation. The location 
 of the toilets is to be the same whether a basement is constructed 
 or not. The workroom is near the teacher's end of the room and 
 as the door has a glass panel there will be proper supervision. 
 Pupils can work here without disturbing the remainder of the 
 school in the least, even if the work requires noise. In connection 
 with the workroom is a teacher's closet with a built-in bookcase 
 for supplies. 
 
 "Experiments have clearly proven that best results in heating 
 and ventilating can be secured only with heat and vent registers 
 
102 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 at the side of an inner partition and at the center of the room. 
 This explains the location chosen for the heating room, which has 
 a good sized fuel room on one side and the workroom on the 
 other. The workroom may be heated as a register in the wall 
 of the heating room will permit the warm air to enter. The 
 heating room plan is particularly good in that dirt, smoke, and 
 dust are kept out of the schoolroom." 
 
 MINNESOTA. 
 
 Rural school problems as related to buildings have been given 
 marked attention in this state for a number of years. The agita- 
 tion for an improved rural school system supported partially 
 by money from legislative appropriations brought with it a 
 demand for better physical conditions as to buildings. Various 
 requirements were made of schools as to heating, ventilation and 
 equipment, and upon the meeting of these requirements depended 
 in a large measure the allotment of state money. Finally in 1910 
 State Supt. C. G. Schulz issued a bulletin with suggestive plans 
 of rural school buildings. In 1912 this was followed by a much 
 larger bulletin on rural and consolidated schools. The following 
 year he secured from the legislature the enactment of a law which 
 gave the state superintendent the power to make all rules relating 
 to school buildings and approve all plans and specifications of 
 new and remodeled buildings. These wider powers of the state 
 superintendent gave an opportunity to direct the planning of these 
 buildings. A number of designs of one- and two-room schools 
 were, therefore, prepared by the Department of Education under 
 the direction of a commissioner of buildings. These plans have 
 been made available to school districts, and complete blueprints 
 and specifications are furnished school boards in the State free 
 of charge. 
 
 In speaking of the rural school. State Supt. Schulz says in 
 one of the bulletins issued: "The problems connected with 
 schoolhouse construction have become more complex as our 
 school system has developed. Not only have we entered upon 
 a more comprehensive scheme of education, which requires care- 
 ful attention to the planning of school buildings, but many physi- 
 cal, social, and moral questions which afifect pupils in school have 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 103 
 
 Pig. 42. Design No. 1, Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
 £aoC,Mb.nT pLftK- 
 
 Figs. 43, 44. Design No. 1. Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
104 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 been forcibly brought to our attention by repeated mistakes in 
 buildings year after year. The children have a right to be housed 
 in buildings that are inviting from the standpoints of location, 
 exterior appearance, and inside arrangement. The best that our 
 economic conditions warrant should find expression in our public 
 school buildings." 
 
 In planning its rural schools both with regard to their interior 
 arrangement and their exterior appearance, Minnesota has recog- 
 nized two conditions, in particular. These are the direction from 
 which the light is to enter the schoolroom and the method used 
 for heating the building. In all of its designs the windows of 
 the schoolroom face the east, and as to heating and ventilation it 
 
 Fig:. 45. Design No. 2, Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
 recognizes in its one-room buildings the use of ventilating room 
 heaters and warm-air basement furnaces. It has, therefore, pre- 
 pared designs with each of these forms of heating for each 
 direction of the compass, making eight designs in all of one-room 
 rural schools. 
 
 The building shown in Figs. 42, 43, 44, is planned to face the 
 west and to be heated by means of a basement furnace. The 
 foundation walls are designed especially for cobble stones, and 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 105 
 
 the wall in front is run up so as to give the building a pleasing 
 appearance. Range stone or brick may be substituted for cobble 
 stones, if desired. The front part of the building containing the 
 coatroom, library, vestibule, and porch is ten feet high inside, but 
 the rear part containing the schoolroom is twelve feet. 
 
 The diagrams. Figs. 43, 44, show the interior arrangement. 
 
 OCttOOLIfOOM- 
 
 vaK 
 
 •FL001? FLAM- 
 
 ■DE31SN NOZVRrt- 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 Design No. 2, Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
 The entrance to the basement is from the porch. A vestibule 
 six- feet wide leads directly to the schoolroom. From the school- 
 room there are two entrances to the coatroom allowing pupils to 
 pass in and out without obstructing either entrance. The library 
 is in front and is well lighted. The basement has a furnace and 
 fuel room and also a playroom. This playroom is eight feet high 
 and can be used to advantage for evening gatherings. The 
 location of the stairway permits a convenient arrangement of 
 
106 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 these rooms and isolates the furnace and fuel rooms, which are 
 built with fireproof walls, ' ceiling and floor. A metal, or metal- 
 covered, door is specified for the furnace room. 
 
 The building shown in Fig. 45 is also planned to face the west. 
 It has no basement and is to be heated by means of a ventilating 
 room heater on the floor of the schoolroom. This design has 
 proved to be most popular in the state and is one of the two 
 original plans prepared by the Department of Education. The 
 
 foundation is of brick or 
 concrete. 
 
 The floor plans as 
 shown in Figs. 46 and 47 
 are for two sizes of the 
 same building. The larger 
 plan is for a schoolhouse 
 designed for forty pupils 
 and the smaller for a 
 building with a capacity 
 of thrtiy pupils. The 
 larger building is 36 feet 
 8 inches by 32 feet 8 
 inches, the smaller 28 feet 
 by 28 feet. The school- 
 room in each building is 
 standard size for the 
 number of pupils to be 
 provdied for. 
 
 The schoolhouse shown 
 in Figs. 48, 49, 50 is 
 adapted to a location 
 where a south front is desired, and where warm-air furnace heat 
 is preferred. Unlike many rural schoolhouses this building pre- 
 sents a pleasing appearance from any side, owing to the happy 
 distribution of its windows. On the east are six windows for the 
 schoolroom, on the west three windows for the library, on the 
 south two windows for the coatrooms. The north, which in this 
 climate is the coldest side during the winter months, has but one 
 window, and this provides light for the basement stairway. The 
 
 n.aa/r fu^vf 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 Minnesota Standard Scliool Plan. 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 107 
 
 Fig. 48. Design No. 3, Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
 Floor Plan 
 
 QEsiON no J 
 
 Fig. 49. Fig. 50. 
 
 Design No. .3. Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
108 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 building is designed to provide for 35 pupils and is 34 feefby 44 
 feet, including the porch. 
 
 The floor plan (Fig. 49) shows a convenient arrangement, 
 with coatrooms on either side of the vestibule. The teacher's 
 desk is in the south end of the room near the outside door, an 
 arrangement which affords certain advantages in the matter of 
 school discipline. The schoolroom is standard size for 35 pupils, 
 but this building may be easily enlarged or reduced in size. The 
 library is of generous dimensions, but none too large. A library 
 of this size is a decided convenience, as it will afford an oppor- 
 tunity to the teacher to use this as a recitation room for a class 
 which may be placed in charge of one of the older pupils. It 
 may also serve as a study room for older pupils, and is a splendid 
 room to have when the schoolroom has been taxed to its capacity. 
 It is large enough to serve for meetings of a Mothers' Qub and 
 provides a good room for meetifigs of the school board. Designed 
 as it is for a library, it will afford ample space for as large a 
 collection of books as is likely to be required in any community 
 supporting a one-room school. 
 
 The basement plan (Fig. 50) shows a large playroom, a 
 furnace and fuel room, and also a storeroom. If desired, the 
 storerpom may be used as a kitchen, and the playroom as a lunch 
 room. 
 
 Another design of a building with a south front is shown in 
 Fig. 51. It is offered to districts that desire to use a ventilating 
 room heater and do not wish to build a basement. This plan 
 has also proved very popular, and numerous buildings of this type 
 are scattered all over the state. The building is well propor- 
 tioned, meets all sanitary requirements for its type, and is econ- 
 omical in construction. The foundation may be of stone, brick 
 or concrete. 
 
 The building has seven windov^s on the east wall for lighting 
 the schoolroom, and four windows on the west wall for the 
 coatrooms and the library. There is also a window on the north 
 wall for lighting the fuel room. The vestibule projects out on 
 the porch. 
 
 As shown by the floor plans in Figs. 52 and 53, this building 
 has been planned in two sizes, so as to provide for either thirty 
 or forty pupils. The schoolrooms are standard size for this 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 109 
 
 Fig. 51. Design No. 4, Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
 Fig. 52, 
 
 Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
110 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 • PE:51Gri • 11? -J- 
 
 Fig. 54. Deslgu No. 5, illnnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
 •Flooe PLAH 
 
 •PEilGH no-3- 
 
 Fig. 55. Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 Ill 
 
 number of pupils, on a basis of eighteen square feet per pupil. 
 The floor plan of this building has been highly commended as 
 convenient and compact by county superintendents and others, 
 who have looked into the merits of the design. 
 
 A building facing the east and heated by means of basement 
 furnace presents a problem in heating and ventilation which must 
 be carefully gone into before the plan is sketched. The arrange- 
 ment must be as compact as possible in order to avoid long hot 
 air leaders. This plan (Fig. 54), has been worked out with the 
 idea in mind of bringing the schoolroom, the library, the coatroom 
 and the vestibule so close together that the furnace may be placed 
 almost immediately under the warm-air ducts leading to each of 
 these rooms. At the same time the outward appearance of the 
 building has been carefully designed to secure proper architectural 
 proportions. In addition to this, the enlargement of the building 
 has been kept in mind, and another schoolroom may be added on 
 
 BA^EMeiiT PLAM- V 
 • PE^icri no.5- 
 
 I I 
 
 I I ' 
 I L. 
 I 
 
 Fig. 56. Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
112 
 
 The Rural School Plaxt. 
 
 the north side by duplicating first the vestibule, coatroom and 
 library, and then the schoolroom. As a two-room building, this 
 plan will permit of indoor toilets by using the new room corres- 
 ponding to the library as a girls' toilet room, and either of the 
 small rooms under the entrance as a boys' toilet room. 
 
 The floor plan (Fig. 55) shows the various features as to 
 location of rooms, doors, windows, heat ducts, chimney and vent 
 duct. The schoolroom is the standard size for forty pupils. The 
 
 Fig. 57. Design No. 6, Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
 building covers 1,165 square feet. The basement is easily acces- 
 sible from the front entrance. The large room in the basement, 
 (Fig. 56) which is eight feet high, gives an opportunity for com- 
 munity gatherings, and the small room under the entrance can 
 be used as a kitchenette.. The furnace and fuel room are made 
 fireproof. 
 
 The conditions that generally confront a school district which 
 has a site facing east, and which desires a building without a 
 basement, are practically met in Minnesota Design No. 6. (Fig. 
 57.) The main entrance and the windows of the schoolroom 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 113 
 
 are to the east. A rear door is provided from the fuel room. 
 The north and south walls are alike, each having three hinged 
 windows. The roof construction is simple and, at the same time, 
 adds considerably to the pleasing exterior appearance of the 
 building. 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 The schoolroom in the floor plan shown here (Fig. 58) has a 
 seating capacity for forty pupils. The room is oblong and will 
 permit of the installation of five rows of single seats with eight 
 seats to each row. The aisles nearest the outside walls can each 
 be made a trifle more than three feet wide, and the aisles between 
 the seats will be from twenty to twenty-four inches wide, accord- 
 ing to the type of desk used. The light will come in at the left 
 of the pupils when they are seated, thus insuring the best light 
 for writing, drawing, or any other kind of work which is affected 
 by shadows thrown by the hand. The teacher's desk is at the 
 south end of the room. The vestibule is in the southeast corner 
 of the building, and immediately adjoining is a coatroom with a 
 capacity for forty hooks. At the north end of the building is a 
 small library room and a fuel room. 
 
114 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 •pcsiGri nor- 
 
 Fig. 59. Design No. 7, Minnesota Standard Scliool Plan. 
 
 Fig. 60. Fig. 61. 
 
 Minnesota Standard ScliooI Plan. 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 115 
 
 The illustration in Fig. 59 is of a schoolhouse which does 
 not differ materially in outside appearance from many school 
 buildings which have been erected throughout the country. The 
 interior arrangement (Fig. 60) and the size of the schoolroom 
 windows on the east side are, however, matters which have been 
 materially changed from what was customary in the old type. 
 The building is simple in construction, correct in outline, well 
 proportioned, and economical to build. The interior is carefully 
 planned and conveniently arranged. The building is designed to 
 face the north. 
 
 Fig. 62. Design No. 8, Minnesota Standard Scliool Plan. 
 
 This floor plan (Fig. 60) is for a school with a seating 
 capacity of forty pupils. The schoolroom is 23 feet wide and 
 31 feet 4 inches long. It will afford ample space for five rows 
 of seats with eight seats to the row. The library is 16 feet 9 
 inches by 8 feet, and is well located. A good teacher will appre- 
 ciate this room, and make it very serviceable in the regialar school 
 work. It is a splendid room in which to hold school board meet- 
 ings as well as committee meetings of various community organ- 
 
116 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 izations. Regular meetings of the school board should be held 
 once a month, and no place is better suited for such meetings than 
 the library room in the schoolhouse. In the library there should 
 also be a telephone. The stairway in the rear of the coatroom 
 leads to an outside door and also to the basement. The basement 
 of this building is planned with the same idea in mind as the 
 furnace-heated buildings previously described. 
 
 The illustration, Fig. 62, is of another building designed to 
 face the north, but heated by means of a room heater. Owing 
 
 to the cold winds which gen- 
 erally come from the north or 
 northwest in the northern sec- 
 tion of our country, the 
 schoolroom should be located 
 so as to be out of the way of 
 the direct wind currents, or 
 as sheltered as possible. To 
 accomplish this, the library 
 has been placed in the notth 
 end of the building, but near 
 enough to the room heater to 
 insure sufficient heat for this 
 room during the day. The 
 coatroom and the fuel room 
 have been placed along the 
 west wall. This gives the 
 schoolroom its outside walls 
 on the south and east side. 
 
 The floor plan shown in 
 Fig. 63 is for a school with a 
 seating capacity of 35 pupils. 
 The schoolroom itself is 21 
 feet wide and 30 feet long. 
 This will permit of the installation of five rows of seats with 
 seven seats in each row. The teacher's desk is at the south end 
 of the room. The library in this building is well located to serve 
 the needs of the community as well as the school. It can be 
 entered from the vestibule and also from the schoolroom, and can 
 be used to advantage even during school hours by people in the 
 
 -pLooe PLAn 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 117 
 
118 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 community without interfering with the school work. The coat 
 room is sufficiently large to provide for the clothing of the chil- 
 dren. The fuel room is ample and easy of access both from the 
 outside and from the schoolroom. 
 
 The building is planned with a view of .heating the school 
 room, the coatroom, and the library by means of a room heater. 
 The location of the heater and the chimney are shown lipon^the 
 plan. The library is provided with a transom above the door, 
 which permits heated air from the schoolroom to be drawn in, 
 and a register in the chimney flue at the floor which permits the 
 cold air to be drawn ofif. 
 
 The building shown in Fig. 64 is designed to front south. The 
 plan may also be used for a building to face north. The windows 
 
 Fig 
 
 of the schoolroom are on the east and the west side of the building 
 and the schoolrooms are provided with light from one side only. 
 In one room the teacher's desk is at the south end of the school- 
 room and in the other in the north end. No windows are placed 
 at the north end of the rooms as the light from the windows 
 would in one room be in the teacher's eyes and in the other in the 
 pupils'. 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 119 
 
 The floor plan shown provides for two schoolrooms for 
 forty pupils each, two coatrooms each 23 feet by 6 feet, and a 
 library 18 feet 3 inches by 12 feet. From the vestibule the 
 stairway in the center leads to the floor on which the schoolrooms 
 are located, and the two stairways at the sides lead to the 
 basement. (Fig. 65.) 
 
 The ba^sement has two playrooms which may be used during 
 stormy weather. These rooms are well lighted and heated. The 
 toilet rooms adjoin the play room, and the furnace room may be 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
 reached from either one of the play rooms. The engine room, 
 in which may be installed a motor, a gasoline or a hot air engine, 
 a pump, and a pressure tank, is very well lighted and conveniently 
 located. (Fig. 66.) 
 
 The entire heating and ventilating plant has been worked out 
 with a view of securing the best possible results. The warm air 
 furnaces are advantageously located. The foul air is carried out 
 through- a register near the floor, into a flue which is heated by 
 
120 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 Fig. 67. Design No. 13, Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
 
 FLOoff Flan 
 
 Fig. 68. Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 121 
 
 means of a metal smoke stack in the center. All the air for 
 ventilating the building is taken in from the outside. 
 
 The design of the building shown in the illustration, Fig. 67, 
 is distinctly modern, depending for its esthetic effect upon good 
 proportions and outlines. Economy of construction, with a view 
 of securing the maximum floor space needed for the ordinary 
 type of rural school taught by two teachers, have been kept stead- 
 ily in mind. At the same time the general plan of the building 
 adheres closely to the well established standards for safety, 
 healthfulness, comfort, and convenience. The building is designed 
 
 Basement Plan 
 
 Fig. 69. Minnesota Standard School Plan. 
 
 for eighty pupils, is a complete unit in itself, and will not permit 
 of future additions. 
 
 The floor plan above shows the general arrangement. The 
 building faces the west, a position which will allow for lighting 
 the schoolrooms from the east. The plan may also be used for a 
 building facing the east, in which case the schoolrooms will be 
 lighted from the west. (Fig. 68.) 
 
 •Each schoolroom seats forty pupils, and the rooms may be 
 
122 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 combined for public gatherings. The folding doors designed to 
 separate the two rooms are doubled, in order to prevent the sound 
 from passing from one room to the other. A rolling partition 
 may be substituted for the doors. The coatrooms are ample in 
 size, and afford space for forty hooks each. They may be entered 
 only from the schoolroom, and are thus placed under the 
 immediate supervision of the teacher. The library is conven- 
 iently located, and may be entered from either schoolroom. 
 Entrance to the basement is by two separate stairways. 
 
 The basement is planned to provide for a playroom, toilet 
 rooms, and furnace rooms. The most economical and efficient 
 way to heat this building is by two furnaces. No wholly satis- 
 factory plan can be made by means of which a building of this 
 type can be heated by one furnace with a gravity system. Steam 
 heat may be substituted for the furnaces. 
 
 NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Before coming into statehood. New Mexico began disseminat- 
 ing information in regard to schoolhouse construction. Terri- 
 
 JTig. 70. New Mexico School. 
 
 torial Supt. J. E. Clark issued a bulletin prepared by Johnston 
 Brothers, architects, at Alma, Nebraska, in 1909. This bulletin 
 contains a number of different plans of which the illustration 
 above is typical. (Fig. 70.) 
 
 In speaking of schoolhouse construction Supt. Clark deplores 
 "the unpardonable waste of money, material, and effort, as well 
 as the irreparable injury to teachers and pupils physically, due 
 to ill-construction of so many of our public school buildings" 
 
Types of Buildings. 
 
 123 
 
 The bulletin discusses the various features of the plans given in 
 the following words : "The size of schoolrooms are 24 feet by 
 30 feet. Such a room will easily seat forty pupils. A teacher 
 having charge of more than this number cannot do satisfactory 
 work — especially in a rural school. A room should be no wider 
 than 24 feet, for the lighting would then be poor for pupils sitting 
 at the farther side of the room. 
 
 "A vestibule is found in each building. This has its advan- 
 tages at all times, and in a windy country especially is almost 
 indispensable. Otherwise the wind would get a full sweep down 
 the halls, whenever the outside door was opened. 
 
 ■ 1 ■ 
 
 TOetK 
 
 ^CHCCfL nOOM 
 
 Fig. 71. Floor Plan New Mexico School. 
 
 "Ample cloakrooms are too often wanting in our school build- 
 ings. The offensive odors given off from cold, damp wraps while 
 drying are often very disagreeable and should never be brought 
 into the study room. Cloakrooms which are shut off from the 
 main schoolroom, as well as protected from the outside cold, 
 should be found in every building. 
 
 "One closet for the teacher's supplies, and one or two for 
 pupils' lunch pails and other -articles, are found in or adjoining 
 each schoolroom. These closets are each provided with lock and 
 
 key. 
 
 "The lighting is uni-lateral. 
 
 "In some localities, especially in the South, where the south 
 light is very strong, it would seem advisable to face the building 
 
124 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 so that the schoolroom light will come from the east or the west. 
 For this reason the building shown in the plan should face either 
 north or south. 
 
 "The teacher's desk is in front and on the lighter side of the 
 room. In this position she does not obstruct the pupils' view of 
 the front blackboard, and can see all of the pupils seated without 
 looking directly toward the full light of^the window. 
 
 "Plenty of blackboard space is a great advantage to both 
 teacher and pupils. Unilateral lighting allows space for black- 
 boards on two or even three sides of the room. The blackboards 
 are not a part of the decorative scheme, although many teachers 
 persist in so using them. They should be so placed that the light 
 falls on them from one side only to avoid cross lights, and' should 
 never be placed between two windows as is so often done. They 
 should be of slate 42 inches wide, and should be placed 26 inches 
 above the floor in rural schools where all grades must use them." 
 
 Fig. 72. North Carolina School. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 State Supt. J. Y. Joyner issued in 1914 a valuable bulletin on 
 'Plans for Public Schoolhouses and School Grounds". A number 
 
Type of Buildings. 
 
 125 
 
 Fig. 73. Floor Plan North Carolina School. 
 
 of desirable plans were presented in this bulletin and made avail- 
 able to school districts in the state. Among these is the plan 
 given below (Figs. 72 and 73) which gives evidence of pleasing 
 architectural outline, correct lighting, and convenient interior 
 arrangement. 
 
 Fig. 74. Oklahoma School. 
 
126 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 OKLAHOMA. 
 
 A bulletin issued by the State Department of Public Instruc- 
 tion of Oklahoma in 1913 contains a suggestion for an attractive, 
 modest rural school. It embodies all the essential features of 
 the simplest type of building, with its standard size of schoolroom, 
 its two coatrooms, vestibule, built-in book cases, unilateral light- 
 ing, and ventilating room heater. 
 
 Fig. 75. Floor Plan Oklahoma School. 
 
 In presenting a design for a two-teacher school the bulletin 
 says: "The plan of the two-room building follows the same 
 general principles with reference to lighting, heating, and ventila- 
 tion as the modern one-room plan. Provision is made for a roll 
 
Type of Buildings. 
 
 127 
 
 - •■-...-, 
 
 i—i^cii'- •-•'■"- -^^2^r:iiteJlI ■■■' -■:'"^^"'?'2''i»«— .V.- 
 f\FT7- ^r^.- ■■_■'-— ;^ . r~~"*<- ■>-' -= _• .-",*;*C.>5~ ' ' 
 
 Fig. 76. Oklahoma Two-Room School. 
 
 partition between the two rooms, thus making an auditorium 23 
 by 60 feet with seats permanently arranged to face the speaker's 
 platform. The necessary library shelves are built in the wall, 
 and the vestibule and the cloakrooms are conveniently arranged." 
 
 'Fig. 77. Floor Plan Oklahoma Two- Room School. 
 
128 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 Fig. 78. Oregon Design of One-Room School. 
 
 OREGON. 
 
 Several varied and attractive designs of rural schoolhouses 
 are found in a bulletin on "School Architecture" issued by State 
 Supt. J. A. Churchill in September, 1916. In speaking of these 
 designs Supt. Churchill says : "We hope to have throughout the 
 state of Oregon, within a comparatively short number of years, 
 a type of rural school building which shall be noted for its beauty 
 of architecture and the utility of its floor plans, having withal 
 
 U0iibiiDEjDncnt5nt> 
 Qbntfibi>nbt]cppDD 
 
 f I. O Vf£Bj C> O 
 
 F^M 
 
 Fig. 79. Floor Plan of Oregon One-Room School. 
 
Type of Buildings. 
 
 129 
 
 an ample and well-equipped playground. It will add very little 
 to the cost of a school building to have it attractive, well lighted, 
 properly heated and ventilated, and surrounded by a large and 
 well-kept playground. Such a school plant will be a valuable 
 asset to any community, and the direct benefit to the children 
 cannot be overestimated." (Figs. 78, 79.) 
 
 Six other designs of one-room schools are given in the bulletin. 
 All of them provide for the entrance to the building and the 
 schoolroom windows in a way similar to that shown in the floor 
 
 Fig. 80. Oregon Design of Two-Koom Rural Scliool. 
 
 plan above. It is interesting to note how many pleasing varia- 
 tions in exterior design are possible with this type of building. 
 The Oregon chapter of the American Institute of Architects, the 
 Department of Art and Architecture of the Oregon Agricultural 
 College, and the Department of Architecture of the University of 
 Oregon, by whom the plans have been prepared, have given the 
 state a valuable contribution to school architecture by this collec- 
 tion of designs. 
 
 Six designs of two-room schools have also been prepared, all 
 
130 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 Ml M IM yi. 3M=a 
 
 CaTOn^OTn 
 
 CTf^r 'WDM/ 
 
 ciD3ncQOClCl<CO 
 
 »»-oJE6'-o''87«* 
 
 QllanWW^Odpdtl 
 
 c0cQcnqnanc«]Qci 
 
 iwtnDnpEiitjappi) 
 nc]fODqpi]DncaciD i 
 
 ^^M^^^^^B 
 
 Fig. 81. Floor Plan Oregon Two-Room School. 
 
 of them embodying the generally accepted educational and sani- 
 tary features of modern schoolhouse construction. One type of 
 these buildings is shown in Figs. 80 and 81. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 The latest bulletin issued by the State Board of Education in 
 1915 on "One, Two, Three, and Four-Room School Buildings" 
 
 BtAE. tUtVATrON" 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
 FEONT EJ^tVATION 
 
Type of Buildings. 
 
 131 
 
 contains a number of original designs of schoolhouse plans and 
 a valuable discussion of elementary principles of school archi- 
 tecture. The following quotations are particularly timely and 
 true : "People living in rural and suburban districts are demand- 
 ing that the schoolhouses shall be made more comfortable and 
 shall be better adapted for good school work. Time is wasted 
 and energy is dissipated when school children are crowded in 
 buildings constructed without regard to sanitary and hygienic 
 requirements. 
 
 "An attractive schoolhouse, surrounded by large and well 
 kept school grounds is the best public asset in any community. 
 A substantially built schoolhouse designed to meet the needs 
 
 J*IDE.' CUEVATION 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
 and purposes of the children with due regard for modest artistic 
 effects of grace and beauty, will profoundly influence the whole 
 community life. (Figs. 82, 83, 84.) 
 
 "To secure the best light the windows of the schoolroom ought 
 to face toward the east or the west. Every schoolroom ought to 
 have direct sunlight during some period of the day to keep it 
 healthful and wholesome. Sunlight is a great germ destroyer. 
 An eastern or a western exposure gives this for a part of the day. 
 
 "In considering the floor space of a building, the matter of 
 cloakrooms, vestibules, library, and fuel room ought to receive 
 careful attention. These are essential elements in the planning 
 of any school building of whatever size or material. Separate 
 cloakrooms for boys and girls should be arranged. They should 
 be provided with hooks for the hats, cloaks and coats, and shelves 
 for the dinner basket. The doors of the cloakrooms should open 
 
132 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 into the main room. To ihave them open only into the vestibule 
 adds considerably to the problem of discipline. It is especially 
 important to keep the cloakrooms in a sanitary condition. To 
 that end ample light and ventilation should be provided. 
 
 "A small room for library and storage purposes has come 
 to be one of the most useful agencies of the rural school. With 
 very little additional expense such a room niay be provided with 
 books, bookcases, reference works, a table and a few chairs. This 
 will give a place for the older pupils to study when they have 
 special work to prepare. The library room is an indispensable 
 part of the modern country schoolhouse." 
 
 >!)TANDAED .3CHOOL HDU^L PLAN^) 
 
 TYPL A NUMDLE- SIX 
 
 PLNN^LVANIA SV<Jh DQABD OF EDUCXTION 
 
 HA^ISDUEG B\ 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 At the request of the State Department of Education, Clemson 
 Agricultural College has issued a bulletin prepared by Prof. R. 
 E. Lee on "Rural School Buildings". In the preface to this 
 bulletin State Supt. Swearingen says : "The designs are well 
 adapted to conditions in South Carolina and their use will pro- 
 mote the growth and efficiency of our public schools. The use 
 of any design recommended in this bulletin guarantees state and 
 county aid to any district planning a new school building. Where 
 trustees and teachers supply one-half the cost the county gives 
 one- fourth and the state one-fourth up to a total of $1,200 from 
 
Type of Buildings. 
 
 133 
 
 the three sources combined. The consoHdation of two schools 
 or two school districts will secure an additional bonus of $ioo. 
 The one-room schoolhouse will always be a necessity. The first 
 design (Fig. 85) is especially recommended to trustees, for school 
 buildings without cloakrooms, a workroom, and a teacher's room 
 should no longer be tolerated. Houses containing only one class- 
 room should be put up, however, only after careful consideration, 
 and after all efforts to maintain a two-room, two-teacher school 
 have failed." 
 
 The bulletin is replete with valuable information in regard to 
 school buildings, and Prof. Lee in speaking of the rural school 
 says with a hopeful enthusiasm: "The time will come when 
 every schoolhouse will be a building of great symmetry and 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 beauty, overshadowed with trees and embellished with shrubbery, 
 with well-kept lawns and gravel walks, where the esthetic side 
 of the child will be cultivated, and experiences connected with 
 such schools will be a pleasant memory in after life. The school 
 is not built for a day, and as it concerns more intimately a larger 
 number of persons than any other public building, and since its 
 design may afifect for better or for worse the health, happiness, 
 and even the morals of the pupils, it is important that the school 
 board make a careful study of the conditions and obtain the best 
 plan available. It is poor economy to build too cheaply. 
 
 "Each pupil should have a desk, and the floor area should 
 not be less than 18 square feet per pupil, with at least 216 cubic 
 feet as the minimum cubic volume per pupil — 20 square feet and 
 260 cubic feet, respectively, are better figures for all except the 
 
134 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 lower grades attended by small children. Thus for a 40-desk 
 classroorft, a room 24 feet by 32 feet, 13 feet high in the clear, 
 would represent excellent practice, and we will adopt it as a 
 standard. Six rows of seven desks each can be conveniently 
 placed in a room of the above dimensions. More than seven or 
 eight desks in a row place the rearmost pupils too far from the 
 teacher and blackboard. 
 
 "The windows should be massed or grouped on the left side 
 of the room, and the area of glass should be from one-fifth to 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 im 
 
 njCLA35 ROOMTTI 
 
 iiiiiniiiiirn 
 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I] 
 
 •Wpt>l tOOM 
 
 fLOOR. PLAN 
 
 O.C.R_VE.AL SCHOOL 
 
 ■DCyiGN N- 
 
 Vt Lt L Ar^HlTtCT- C LrM/OH- COLLtGi: .5 C 
 
 Fig. 86. 
 
 one-fourth of the floor area. They should extend up to within 
 six inches of the ceiling, as it is the height of the top of the 
 window that determines the lighting efficiency. The group should 
 be placed so the window furthest to the front will not be ahead 
 of the line of the front desk. The sill should not be more than 
 three and one-half feet above the floor, as it is desirable that the 
 pupils be able to rest their eyes by looking at more or less distant 
 objects. 
 
 "It is considered good practice in this country to allow double 
 the height of the window head for the width of the classroom. 
 
Type of Buildings. 135 
 
 In other words, the section of adequate lighting is a right triangle 
 having a base equal to twice its altitude — this is, with an acute 
 angle of 28° 15' — and the desks should be so placed that the one 
 furthest from the window should have its top partly within this 
 triangle. This gives 25 feet of width for a ceiling height of 13 
 feet, the window head being 12% feet above the floor." 
 
 TEXAS. 
 
 With a vision characteristic of a broad and intelligent con- 
 ception of what a great state owes its citizens of immature years, 
 the Conference for Education of Texas issued in 1910 a bulletin 
 which made a valuable contribution to the literature of rural 
 school betterment. In this bulletin Mr. C. E. Evans refers to the 
 physical problems of the rural school in the following language : 
 
 "The physical condition of the school must be favorable to 
 mental and moral growth, if satisfactory results in the training 
 of children are to be expected. Unsanitary, poorly-arranged, and 
 uncomfortable schoolhouses impede the physical development of 
 children. A schoolroom that fails to provide adequate ventila- 
 tion, lighting, and heating injures the eyesight of pupils, spreads 
 contagious diseases, and impairs the general health of both 
 teachers and pupils. 
 
 "In addition to physical weaknesses that follow from poorly 
 planned school buildings, the educative influence of environment 
 must be taken into consideration. It is highly important that the 
 sense of beauty be developed in children. The love of the beauti- 
 ful is an indispensable element in an educated man or woman. 
 School children are the prospective builders of homes, cities and 
 towns, and country communities, updn which depend public wel- 
 fare and private contentment. Children trained to appreciate the 
 beautiful will later, apply their knowledge in designing neat homes 
 and in promoting comfort and attractiveness in the lives of those 
 with whom they come in contact. Is it not the business of the 
 school to develop the esthetic side of children? Can this be done 
 in unsightly school buildings? 
 
 Further on in the bulletin this condition is discussed from a 
 moral and economic point of view in the following language : . 
 "Teachers and children are influenced by their surroundings. An 
 
136 . The Rural School Plant. 
 
 unsightly room, unsatisfactory in its ventilation, lighting, and 
 heating must be regarded as morally reprehensible. That children 
 are reluctant to go to school and anxious to get away from school 
 is easily explained when the aspect of the school premises is 
 forbidding. The spirit of lawlessness and vandalism will most 
 likely assert itself in poor, dilapidated, dust-begrimed, filthy 
 schoolrooms ; for there is nothing in such rooms to command the 
 respect of the children and there is little to appeal to the artistic 
 side of their lives. On the other hand, beautiful and well- 
 arranged school buildings have an educational value. A neat 
 schoolhouse and attractive surroundings are a stimulus to both 
 teachers and pupils and contribute to moral betterment. 
 
 "It costs less to heat and ventilate a modern schoolroom than 
 to heat one poorly-constructed and improperly ventilated. When 
 children are kept in a schoolroom that is not sujfficiently heated 
 and ventilated, parents may expect to pay for these conditions in 
 medicines, doctor's bills and in irregular attendance of their 
 children. When children are forced to sit in rooms facing 
 windows, or with cross-light, or with insufficient light, parents 
 may expect to pay for this short-sighted policy in oculists' bills 
 and eyeglasses. 
 
 "It has been estimated that a pupil in a well-lighted, ade- 
 quately-heated, and well-ventilated room will accomplish from 
 one-fifth to one-third more work than he can accomplish in 
 imperfectly constructed schoolrooms. For illustration, assume 
 that pupils do one-fifth more work under good conditions of 
 ventilation, light, and heating than they do under poor conditions.. 
 The schools of the common school districts of the state have an 
 average daily attendance of about 30 children each. If each 
 child's time is estimated to be worth a minimum of one dollar 
 per day under poor conditions, a day's work would be worth $30 
 per school, and a year's work for the average rural school term 
 of III days would be worth $3,330 per school. Under good 
 conditions, a day's work would be increased in value $6 to $7.50 
 per school, and a year's work would be increased $660 to $825 per 
 school. In addition to diminishing mental efficiency of both 
 teachers and pupils, poor conditions of lighting, heating, and 
 ventilation, impair health, weaken powers of resistance to 
 disease, and produce defective vision; A school building that 
 
Type of Buildings. 
 
 137 
 
 •wS* 
 
 
 Fig. 87. Texas Model One-Eoom Schoolhouse. 
 
 Fig. 88. Floor Plan of Texas Model One-Eoom Schoolhouse. 
 
138 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 conforms to the standard requirements of school architecture is, 
 therefore, a direct contribution to efficient work." (See Figs. 87, 
 88.) 
 
 State Superintendent W. F. Doughty in speaking of the 
 lighting of schoolrooms has this to say: 
 
 "Since- the demands upon the eyes of school children are 
 greater now than ever before, whatever is done to improve the 
 light obtainable will serve to make school work less fatiguing and 
 correspondingly more beneficial. 
 
 "If pupils are forced to sit facing a light the effect is to 
 fatigue the nervous system and to lower the working capacity. 
 The effect of such a constant stream of light into the eyes will 
 ultimately result in very serious eye strain. The same trouble 
 arises from too low window sills. If the window sills are less 
 than three and one-half or four feet from the floor the light shines 
 directly up into the eyes of the pupils. It is desirable to have the 
 window sills high enough to force the light to fall from a level 
 higher than the pupil's eyes when he is seated at the desk. 
 
 "If the windows extend to within six inches of the ceiling 
 additional downward light is secured. A foot of light falling 
 from the top of the window will do more to light the room 
 throughout. than several feet of light coming from the bottom of 
 the window. Another advantage of the high window top is that 
 the light is thrown further into and across the room. In a 
 schoolroom 24 feet wide the top of the windows should be' not 
 less than twelve feet from the floor, thereby enabling the pupils 
 in the darkest parts of the room to secure adequate light." 
 
 VERMONT. 
 
 The Vermont State Board of Health issued a special bulletin 
 on schoolhouses in 1914.. In speaking of the general design of 
 school buildings the bulletin says : "A school building to properly 
 serve its purpose should include in its plan and arrangement- 
 whatever may be necessary to permit the school work, for which 
 it is intended, to be carried on under the most healthful and 
 efficient conditions. The health and convenience of both teachers 
 and scholars should be carefully considered. Due regard must be 
 paid to economy in both the construction and the maintenance of 
 
Type of Buildings. 
 
 139 
 
 the building. This means the use of good materials and sub- 
 stantial methods of construction. It is poor economy to use 
 inferior materials and erect a cheap building which in the end 
 will be expensive on account of the greater cost of maintenance 
 and repair. No committee will gain any lasting credit from 
 erecting this kind of structure. A school building that is to be 
 satisfactory from all standpoints must have some attention paid 
 to its architecture so that its finished appearance may be pleasing. 
 A well designed and properly equipped schoolhouse should arouse 
 a local pride in the structure and should stimulate a greater 
 
 Fig. 89. Perspective View of One-Boom Schoolhouse, Louis Sheldon 
 Newton, Architect, Hartford, Vermont. 
 
 interest in the work for which it stands. In planning a new rural 
 school building it would be well to keep in mind the possibility 
 of the use of the building as a social center for the community. 
 The schoolhouse is usually the only place of meeting for any 
 purpose outside of the village, and the building might easily be 
 made of great service in this respect." 
 
 The design as shown in Figs. 89 and 90, is described in the 
 .bulletin as follows: "Mr. Newton's design of a one-room build- 
 ing shows in an excellent manner the possibilities for an artistic 
 
140 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 treatment of this class of structures. The features of the build- 
 ing as indicated on the floor plan are the separate entrance for 
 boys and girls, lighting of the room from the left side only with 
 the outlook on the playground; the special room for the heater 
 adjoining the fuel room which keeps the dust from fuel and ashes 
 out of the classroom ; the provision for necessary ventilation ; the 
 hbrary room and closet for storage; ample provision for black- 
 boards ; the two toilet rooms with corridor connections giving the 
 extreme of privacy and at the same time protection from incle- 
 
 JU ••. 
 
 aiiaiTtJiw- 
 
 GLASS "KoOM 
 24-34. 
 
 ,.1 « , » ..^:«„-....,s[.: 
 
 iMMMMHRIK. .7. JHSMt 
 
 Fig. 90. Plan of One-Koom Schoolhouse, Louis Sheldon Newton, 
 Architect. 
 
 ment weather. The last feature is especially desirable, where 
 possible, in Vermont schools on account of our severe weather 
 conditions." 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA. 
 
 State Supt. M. P Shawkey has rightly said: "School 
 architecture is an art. Too often we make the mistake of suppos- 
 
Type of Buildings. 141 
 
 ing that any architect or carpenter is able to devise a suitable 
 home for a school and all its activities. Many times our archi- 
 tects plan school buildings by taking into consideration propor- 
 tions, gables, architectural effects, lumber, brick and stone, and 
 either forget or fail to understand the children and their work — 
 the very things for which the house should be erected. Those 
 with professional knowledge concerning the requirements for a 
 modern schoolhouse should prescribe the general standards, and 
 from these let architects determine the other features of school 
 buildings." 
 
 Referring to the design on page 142 (Fig. 91) Supt. Shawkey 
 says in a bulletin issued in 1910: "This is an ideal one-room 
 building. The windows are grouped, a library and storage room 
 are supplied, and the exterior design lifts the building from the 
 commonplace, making it an ornament to any village or farming 
 district. While the porch can be eliminated without seriously 
 affecting the plan, it is not to be recommended, as the shelter 
 provided is a convenience to early arrivals in inclement weather. 
 Large and well placed blackboard space is provided. 
 
 "A building like this one may seem expensive, but when its 
 durability, convenience and influence are considered, it gives more 
 for each dollar invested than does a cheap, unattractive, uncom- 
 fortable house. The beauty and comfortableness of such a school 
 home will cause better attendance on the part of the pupils and 
 better work on the part of the teacher. A farmer, carpenter, 
 clerk, or any other workman cannot do a good day's work without 
 proper tools and equipment. The same is true of pupils and 
 teachers. Lack of proper light, heat, desks, blackboard, and 
 equipment will make the most effective work impossible. How- 
 ever, the chance to do more work which such a building affords, 
 is not the chief reason for its construction. The influence it has 
 upon the habits and character of the pupils is well worth the extra 
 money expended. In many communities the boys and girls look 
 upon the school building as a dingy prison and they take as much 
 delight in abusing it with knives, chalk and mud balls, as they 
 would in hurting an enemy. When the taxpayers prove tfieir 
 faith in boys and girls by providing so liberally for them, the 
 pupils are sure, under the guidance of a sensible teacher, to look 
 
142 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 j ¥ w • ' ' ■ ■ m ^nm 
 
 WR 
 
 
 i#f - **! 
 
 Fig. 91. West Virginia School. 
 
Type of Buildings. 143 
 
 with disapproval upon any careless one who abuses the school- 
 house, the pride of the school. 
 
 "Most crimes are committed in dark and dirty places; filthy 
 habits are natural in filthy places. People do not clean the mud 
 from their shoes when entering a muddy street or an unkept 
 barn. They do not feel at ease with soiled clothes or rude habits 
 in a fine church or home. Neither do boys and girls have any 
 inclination to be neat in appearance when they must step directly 
 from the road into a schoolroom that is as dirty as the road. 
 The outside beauty, the walk, the porch, the vestibule and the 
 final cosy classroom of this schoolhouse will invite cleanliness 
 and neatness. Such habits will be so deeply impressed during 
 school years that they will be carried through life. H'ow import- 
 ant then it is to cast such uplifting influences about the youth of 
 the country while their minds and souls are sensitive alike to good 
 and bad impressions. Such a building and grounds stand as con- 
 stant reminders of the business judgment, the belief in schools, 
 the neighborhood pride, and the liberality of the communities 
 which provide them." 
 
 WISCONSIN. 
 
 In 1909 State Supt. C. P. Gary caused a number of plans to 
 be prepared for the Wisconsin schools. These plans embody 
 modem educational ideals and are characterized by pleasing archi- 
 tectural design. Four of these designs are shown in the illustra- 
 tions on pages 144-147. (Figs. 92-99.) 
 
144 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 Fig. 92. Wisconsin Bural School. 
 
 rLOOR ruin 
 
 Fig. 93. Floor Plan Wisconsin Rural School. 
 
Type of Buildings. 
 
 145 
 
 Fig. 94. Wisconsin Rural School. 
 
 Fig. 95. Floor Plan Wisconsin Rural School. 
 
146 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 Fig. 96. Wisconsin Eural ScliooL 
 
 A 
 
 CLA35 BOO/T 
 
 COAT 
 
 ■epori 
 
 A 
 
 COAT 
 JSOOM 
 
 CLA53 J?oojr 
 
 fJE^T-r-LOO^-PLAli 
 
 USeAKY 4/ TSACHCftS 
 
 Fig. 97. Floor Plan Wisconsin Rural School. 
 
Type of Buildings. 
 
 147 
 
 Fig. 98. Wisconsin Rural School. 
 
 =■=■= 
 
 CUI^S BOOM 
 
 M ■ 
 
 CLAiS eOO/1 
 
 =d 
 
 90 f» a>ATs 
 
 &/ei.s co^trs 
 
 Fig. 99. Floor Plan WlsconsiH Rural School. 
 
148 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 The means now used for the heating and ventilation of school 
 buildings have been of slow growth, and may still be in their 
 formative period. Many failures have been made in the past, 
 much money has been wasted in useless experimentation, many 
 well-directed efforts have been thwarted, many fake schemes have 
 been exploited ; but much valuable information has been gathered, 
 much inertia as to better sanitary conditions has been overcome, 
 some devices for the successful heating and ventilation of school 
 buildings have been carefully worked out, and some gratifying 
 results have been achieved. We must not, however, delude our- 
 selves with the idea that we have as yet reached any scientifically 
 accurate standards. Investigations are still going on, and it may 
 be that the ideas we cherish and defend today will by scientific 
 investigation be thrown on the scrap heap of tomorrow. 
 
 During this period of investigation, however, we ought not 
 to assume an attitude of either inactivity or impatience. It is 
 easy to say that because no indisputable standards have been 
 fixed, it is not worth while to do anything. It is also easy to 
 become impatient with those who are endeavoring to secure 
 better sanitary conditions, because of the changes which- they 
 advocate in building and equipment. Many times even those who 
 advocate better sanitary conditions do not agree as to the means 
 whereby these conditions are to be secured, and to the ordinary 
 observer this looks suspicious. As a matter of fact it merely 
 indicates that we are making some progress, and while we are 
 progressing, we are also making some mistakes. This is a com- 
 mon experience in our industrial life and ought not to be looked 
 upon as peculiar to school problems which have in view the best 
 means for promoting the wholesome growth of the children while 
 in school. On the other hand, we ought not to accept without 
 qualification the statements often made in regard to special 
 devices for heating and ventilating rural schools. We ought to 
 
Heating and Ventilation. 149 
 
 confer with those whose information and experience is broader 
 than ours, particularly with county superintendents of schools and 
 state departments of education. If after exercising our best 
 judgment in the matter it is clearly demonstrated that we are in 
 error, it is not unmanly to admit that we have been mistaken. 
 Cicero has said : "Anyone is liable to make mistakes, but no one, 
 except a fool will persist in his error." Disraeli once wrote: 
 "Youth is a blunder; manhood, a struggle; old age, a regret." 
 It is evident to any man who has accomplished something that 
 mistakes are inevitable. Napoleon is quoted as saying : "I make 
 so many mistakes, that mistakes no longer trouble me." The 
 immortal Lincoln summed up the philosophy of his own as well 
 as the mistakes of others in the epigrammatic remark: "Hind- 
 sight beats foresight."' By making use of the best means at our 
 disposal we are aiding in the progress that is being made and at 
 the same time providing for the children better conditions than 
 those they have previously enjoyed. 
 
 But in order to make progress we must be willing to discard 
 worn-out ideas both as to heating and ventilation. We must give 
 time to the study of the principles involved and the means 
 whereby the desired results may be obtained. We must recognize 
 advantages as well as disadvantages from more than one point of 
 view. In the matter of ventilation we must necessarily consider 
 temperature and other weather conditions as well as the kind of 
 clothing worn by children. When conditions are favorable, 
 window ventilation may well be used, but when a cool wind is 
 blowing or the temperature has fallen so that heat is needed for 
 comfort, window ventilation is inadequate and unsatisfactory. 
 In fact, we have long since passed the milestone where natural 
 ventilation by means of windows and doors can be defended as a 
 proper method of schoolhouse ventilation. While advocates of 
 natural ventilation are still among us, and many times make 
 extravagant claims as to what can be accomplished by this means, 
 the fact that this form of ventilation has at no time shown as 
 good results as a system of ventilation properly connected with 
 the heating plant is quite conclusive evidence as to its inefficiency. 
 
 In a modern rural school building heating and ventilation are 
 inseparable so far as the means used for securing a satisfactory 
 temperature and a wholesome air supply are concerned. In 
 
150 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 practice it often happens, largely on account of ignorance, that 
 the devices for securing ventilation are not made use of, and 
 many schools with heating and ventilating plants use only that 
 part of the plant which will give the necessary temperature to 
 the air of the room. Some save fuel by this means and waste 
 human energy, because the former can be demonstrated in dollars 
 and cents, while the latter can be proved only by the results which 
 it takes years to establish ; and then it is too late to get any direct 
 benefit from the results. Others again waste both fuel and 
 energy and go through life as living examples of what unsophisti- 
 cated blunderers will do when they are left to their own devices. 
 
 Heat is distributed by means of air currents. If, therefore, 
 the air currents are cut off or reduced by dampers, there is not 
 only a loss of ventilation but of heat as well. But the air 
 currents may be maintained by rotating air from room to heater 
 and back again any number of times, until the air becomes stale, 
 putrid, nauseating and repellant. The room may in this manner 
 be kept at the proper temperature and the heater be recommended 
 as remarkably efficient. As a ventilating apparatus it is a miser- 
 able failure, not because it was intended to be so, but because 
 somebody saw fit to make it such. 
 
 The exclusion of outside air from the schoolroom is an offense 
 against cleanliness, if not against health. It may not be possible 
 to show that air which has been expired by one individual and 
 mixed with other air is dangerous to . the health of another 
 individual. But we do know that when a number of people are 
 congregated in a room, a feeling of oppression and discomfort 
 arises, unless there is a circulation of air. None of us would, 
 like to endorse a circulation which would distribute air expired 
 from the lungs of those about us. We can not help thinking 
 of such air as polluted and unfit for use. Cleanliness is next to 
 godliness, even though the application be restricted to air. Clean 
 air is as much our right as clean water or clean food. In the 
 country there is generally an abundance of clean, wholesome air 
 just outside the building. To close the damper in order to shut 
 this air out, and instead to recirculate air in the schoolroom, is 
 on a par with eating food which is on the verge of being spoiled, 
 when there is plenty of good wholesome food to be had. No 
 matter what our ideas may be as to the means for circulating air, 
 
Heating and Ventilation. 151 
 
 there ought to be no question as to the source of the air supply 
 for the schoolroom. As long as the school is in session and parti- 
 cularly while the children are sitting in their seats, there ought to 
 be an abundance of fresh air delivered every minute. 
 
 We have for various reasons come to regard 30 cubic feet 
 of air per minute, for each person, as a standard quantity. We 
 ought not to abolish this standard without good and sufHcient 
 reasons. While the basic idea on which this amount was first 
 determined has been pretty well abandoned, later investigations 
 indicate that the amount is really necessary in order to obtain a 
 movement of air which will prove refreshing both to the lungs 
 and to the body. 
 
 The question of proper air for the lungs of the human system 
 was first thought to be a purely chemical one. It was a matter of 
 determining the chemical elements of inhaled and expired air. 
 In nature's laboratory it was found that approximately twenty 
 per cent of the air was oxygen and eighty per cent nitrogen. In 
 air expired from the human lungs a chemical analysis showed 
 that, aside from a watery vapor, there was but sixteen per cent 
 of oxygen, but practically the same per cent of nitrogen as in 
 good air. There had, however, been added about four per cent of 
 carbon dioxide. This substitution of carbon dioxide for oxygen 
 naturally came to be looked upon as a suspicious exchange of 
 chemical elements, and it was not long before carbon dioxide was 
 labeled as the index of the condition of the air. On account of 
 its inability to support life, and its close association with carbon 
 monoxide, which is a poisonous gas, carbon dioxide soon became 
 branded as a poison by the ignorant but enthusiastic advocates of 
 schoolhouse ventilation. This was a serious mistake, as carbon 
 dioxide is bad enough itself without being charged with qualities 
 which it does not possess. It is sufficient to know that carbon 
 dioxide will not support combustion even to the extent of per- 
 mitting a lantern to burn near the bottom of a well where this 
 gas sometimes is found in unusual quantities. An accumulation 
 of this gas in sufficient quantities to make it dangerous is how- 
 ever, an improbability in school buildings under ordinary condi- 
 tions. We have consequently nothing to fear from carbon dioxide 
 itself. 
 
 The factors which are at present considered essential to good 
 
152 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 ventilation are such as aid in securing the greatest human comfort 
 and efficiency. These are circulation, temperature, and humidity. 
 Unless air is in motion sufficiently to carry oif the heat emanating 
 from the body as well as from the air expired from the lungs, a 
 feeling of discomfort and indisposition to work is engendered. 
 This is a common experience on a warm still day in summer, and 
 on this account we resort to the use of a fan to keep the air in 
 motion, especially around the face. When the temperature rises 
 above 70 degrees Fahrenheit most people begin to feel a certain 
 degree of discomfort, but the better the circulation the less is the 
 discomfort, until the temperature rises above 80 degrees Fahren- 
 heit. As a matter of fact most people experience the greatest 
 comfort as well as the best incentive to work, when the tempera- 
 ture is between 65 and 70 degrees Fahrenheit. This is particu- 
 larly true when the humidity of the atmosphere approximates 50 
 per cent, or a point of saturation that most nearly coincides with 
 a pleasant, agreeable day out of doors when the thermometer 
 records about 70 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 The heating and ventilating plant of a rural school should, 
 therefore, insure a continuous movement of air, not only for the 
 purpose of giving the lungs a good wholesome supply of invigor- 
 ating air, but also for the purpose of stirring up any quiescent 
 air which may form a casing about the body of the individual. 
 To do this, good air must be admitted through an advantageous 
 opening into the room, and objectionable air must be drawn off 
 through an equally advantageous outlet. 
 
 ROOM HEATER. 
 
 When a room heater is used, much depends upon its location 
 in the room, and care should be taken to plan the location of the 
 chimney so that the heater may be operated to the best advantage. 
 Numerous installations in schoolhouses, as well as scientific 
 investigations, have demonstrated that the heater and the chimney 
 should both be in the same end of the room. On general prin- 
 ciples this should be the end of the room nearest the outside door, 
 but this is not absolutely essential. When the heater and the 
 chimney are in the end of the room nearest the outside door, the 
 Opening of the door causes the warm air nearest the top of the 
 
Heating and Ventilation. 153 
 
 door to rush out, and cold air to rush in near the floor. If the 
 heater is in close proximity to the point where this exchange of 
 warm and cold air takes place, it soon restores the circulation 
 which was temporarily interfered with. If the heater is at the 
 other end of the room, it will require a little more time to make 
 up for heat loss occasioned by the opening of the door. One 
 factor which should also be considered is the direction of the 
 prevailing winds; in consequence the end of the room against 
 which these winds blow is often the best place for the heater. 
 
 Everybody knows that warm air rises and cold air falls. The 
 schoolroom is always warmest at the ceiling and coldest at the 
 floor. Removal of the air nearest the floor will cause the warmer 
 air to drop lower. For this reason every schoolroom should be 
 supplied with an air duct for drawing off the air nearest the 
 floor. This duct is generally spoken of as a ventiduct. 
 The ventiduct should have an opening or a register near 
 the floor so as to provide an outlet for the air from the 
 room. The duct should extend through the roof so as to permit 
 of a rapid discharge of air. Sometimes this duct is combined 
 with the smoke flue, and the cold and foul air is accelerated in 
 its upward course by the heat from the smoke and gas in the 
 chimney. If an opening is used into the flue, a damper should 
 be placed in the duct so as to allow for shutting off the upward 
 current of air, when school is not in session. If a register is 
 used, this should be closed for the same reason as the damper. 
 Whether the register or the damper is used, it should be opened 
 shortly before school begins in the morning, and remain open as 
 long as school continues in session. Upon intelligent attention to 
 the damper or register will depend in a large measure the 
 efficiency of the plant both as to heating and ventilation. 
 
 Other means besides admitting the air to the smoke flue are 
 also made use of. In each case, however, the upward current 
 of air is induced by heat in one way or another. Heat is essential 
 to the proper operation, of a ventiduct, and the device which can 
 in the most economical manner bring about a rapid discharge of 
 air from the floor of the schoolroom will give the most satisfac- 
 tory service, provided the heater has the proper capacity for 
 heating and ventilating the schoolroom. 
 
 No plant, however, will give results without intelligent opera- 
 
154 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 tion. The grate must be kept free of ashes, and the ash pan 
 should never be more than half full at any time. When the fire 
 does not burn as it should and the stove smokes, it is better to 
 look for some cause, before declaring that the plant is "no good". 
 Look into the chimney. See whether it is full of soot or clogged 
 with mortar or brick. Look at the smoke pipe, and see how far 
 it extends into the chimney. If it is pushed in too far, so that 
 the end of the smoke pipe sticks out beyond the brick wall, there 
 is not sufficient space for the discharge of the smoke. Notice 
 whether the smoke pipe is in sound condition. Four years is 
 about the life of the ordinary smoke pipe in a schoolhouse. Then 
 go outside and see whether the chimney is high enough, and notice 
 what the condition of the wind is when the stove smokes. The 
 
 Fig. 100. Circulation Obtained by Ventilating Room Heater. 
 
 top of the chimney must be high enough to escape all down 
 currents of air due to roof construction. 
 
 In order to secure the advantages of both the heating and the 
 ventilating part of the plant, the fire should receive proper 
 attention. This does not mean constant firing or undue care, 
 but merely an adjustment to the variations of weather condi- 
 tions, so that the fire does not become too hot at one time and 
 too low at another. The draft must be closed when the tempera- 
 ture becomes comfortable, and the damper must be opened when 
 the temperature begins to drop below 70 degrees. The ther- 
 mometer must be observed, and the fire regulated accordingly. 
 The fresh air intake pipe must be kept open every minute the 
 school is in session, and also the ventiduct. By getting rid of 
 
Heating and Ventilation. 155 
 
 the air next to the floor through the ventiduct, and introducing 
 fresh air to be heated and distributed, the room is not only venti- 
 lated but also provided with the most effective and rapid means 
 of heating. Figure loo shows the motion of the air. 
 
 The arrows above the school desks indicate the course taken 
 by the warm air through the room. As the temperature of this 
 aid is lowered it gradually sinks to the floor, and takes the place 
 of the air near the floor which is drawn off through the ventiduct. 
 The arrows at the floor show the air on its way to the ventiduct, 
 covered by a grille in the wall. 
 
 WARM AIR FURNACE. 
 
 When a furnace installation is made, it often happens that 
 owing to ignorance as to the principles governing the circulation 
 of air, ducts and openings to ducts are improperly placed. 
 Numerous experiments which have been conducted with great 
 care show conditions which are best interpreted by the illustra- 
 tions which follow. 
 
 The above illustrates an installation not uncommon in the 
 rural schools. No air from outdoors is taken into the furnace, 
 but schoolroom air with dirt and dust from the floor is taken 
 through a floor register into the basement furnace and heated. 
 It is then returned to the schoolroom, where it gathers more dust, 
 and possibly some odors from soiled garments, is reheated and 
 sent back to the schoolroom time and again until its strength 
 becomes too powerful for endurance. Windows are then thrown 
 open, and after some time the room is "aired out". More often 
 one or two windows are kept slightly open most of the time in 
 order to lessen the offensiveness of the air, and in this unwhole- 
 some atmosphere children are expected to thrive physically, 
 develop mentally, grow morally, improve socially, and acquire 
 an appreciation of cleanliness, beauty, and worth. Will they do 
 it? If so, why do they do it? Surely not because they had any 
 reason to do it so far as the school was concerned. Just look 
 at the dirt in one of these ducts in the next schoolroom you visit. 
 It is bad enough to have to rebreathe the air which has been 
 
156 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 II Ml \ll\IMKIKIKIklklUk.'[Lk-ILIU 
 
 (SCS 
 
 ^^■■c::-:?-^r~^^-|a ^^t 
 
 Fig. 102. Furnace Heat and Air Mixture Device. 
 
Heating and Ventilation. 157 
 
 stewed from the exhalations of twenty or forty pair of lungs, but 
 to have to take with it a great amount of dirt is inexcusable. No 
 floor register should ever be tolerated in any schoolroom. 
 
 The installation shown in Fig. 102 is quite common. The floor 
 registers remain as a part of the circulation system, and the 
 dirt travels as before; but, in order to do away with the opening 
 of windows, a plan which causes objectionable drafts, a fresh 
 air intake is provided which permits of a mixture of fresh air 
 with fetid air. When the furnace is large enough the device 
 may operate sufficiently well to dull the powers of perception; 
 and a listless, uninteresting, careless, and unsympathetic school 
 is the result. Generally, however, the heating capacity of the 
 furnace is too small, and the fresh air intake is closed up, because 
 the volume of cold air which it admits cannot be heated to a 
 satisfactory temperature during the winter months. Often in 
 order to make sure that no teacher shall tamper with the fresh air 
 intake, some furnace men and occasionally some board members 
 nail a cover over the intake, and thus exclude all outside air from 
 the furnace. We then have a condition identical with that first 
 shown, where air is merely rotated. 
 
 But suppose the heating capacity of the plant is large enough, 
 what valid objection is there to this form of installation? Aside 
 from the fact that it rotates dust laden air through floor registers, 
 the main objection is that it provides for no escape of foul air, 
 but invariably returns all such air to the furnace and sends it 
 back to the schoolroom. This feature is sufficient to condemn 
 the installation of either of the two arrangements for heating 
 which have been shown. 
 
 Only occasionally is an installation like that shown in Fig. 103 
 found in school buildings. It belongs to a period when foul air 
 in the estimation of some superficial observer was thought to 
 ascend to the ceiling. As a matter of fact the bulk of the heated 
 air passes in a diagonal line upward from the he:at inlet to the 
 outlet on the opposite wall, and the schoolroom is generally inade- 
 
158 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 Fig. 104. Furnace Heat and Poor Circulation. 
 
Heating and Ventilation. 
 
 159 
 
 MMKIKIklkl klkll^l^l^l 
 
 Fig. i05. Furnace Heat and Good Circulation. 
 
 quately and unequally heated and very poorly ventilated. This 
 arrangement is referred to here because every once in a while a 
 discarded idea in regard to heating and ventilation is incorporated 
 in a new building, because of lack of information as to its actual 
 working conditions. 
 
 Fig. 104 represents a form of installation which is not un- 
 common in schools where a serious attempt has been made to 
 conform to modern ideas in regard to circulation of air. The 
 heat enters the room about eight feet above the floor, and 
 the foul and cold air is drawn out through an opening on the 
 opposite side of the room. Here again the heated air follows in 
 the main a downward diagonal from the heat inlet to the air out- 
 let. The result is that the distribution of air throughout the room 
 is poor, and the operation of the plant is expensive. 
 
 Everything considered, the form of installation shown in Fig. 
 105 will yield the best results. The heated air enters the room 
 about eight feet above the floor, and the air next to the floor is 
 
160 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 drawn off through a ventiduct on the same wall as the inlet. The 
 air consequently makes a complete circuit of the room before it is 
 discharged through the ventiduct. Only air from outdoors is 
 drawn into the furnace, and after the air has made the circuit of 
 the room it is discharged into the open air from the ventiduct 
 which extends through the roof. By this arrangepient the air is 
 kept as clean as it is near the outside intake ; and after it has been 
 polluted by the exhalations from the lungs and the bodies of the 
 people in the schoolroom, it is discharged into the open air. 
 There is no possibility of rotating the air and compelling the 
 children to rebreathe polluted air. With this arrangement of 
 ducts a furnace of ample capacity will heat and ventilate any 
 schoolroom satisfactorily on the coldest winter day. 
 
 It is urged that as an economical feature a return duct from 
 the schoolroom to the furnace should be provided, to be used only 
 when school is not in session. There is no gain-saying that this 
 will result in some saving of fuel, and if operated only when 
 school is not in session it is not an objectionable feature. The 
 danger is, however, that if such an installation is made, it will 
 be used to rotate air during school hours, and the provision for 
 the introduction of good wholesome air will be neglected. It is 
 only when janitors and teachers realize their responsibility, and 
 operate the system intelligently, that such a feature can be safely 
 added to the heating equipment. 
 
 There is also in many schools a dissatisfaction with having 
 the warm air inlet eight feet above the floor, because children 
 who have become chilled on the way to school have no means of 
 warming themselves. While this, in many cases, is more of a 
 question of protection against the cold by means of proper 
 clothing, the fact remains that children do come to school in such 
 condition that they feel the urgent need of some means for 
 warming -themselves quickly. On this account it has been urged 
 that there should be a warm air register somewhere in the floor, 
 over which such children might stand and get the benefit of the 
 heat. As has been already stated, such a register is objectionable 
 because of the dirt which it collects in the flue under it. There 
 is also the objection that such a register can seldom be made 
 large enough to accommodate more than one or two pupils at a 
 time. A better arrangement is to provide a seat in the coatroom 
 
Heating and Ventilation. 161 
 
 and in the side under the seat provide a grille which will permit 
 heated air to stream out, and thus warm their feet. This grille 
 can be placed six or eight inches above the floor, and the dirt can 
 thus be kept out of the flue. Another way in which this same 
 result can be obtained is to place two grilles in the warm air duct 
 to the schoolroom, one at a distance of six or eight inches from 
 the floor, and the other eight feet above the floor. Immediately 
 above the lower grille a damper should be placed which will 
 prevent the air from rising higher in the flue, and the warm air 
 will then come out low enough so that children may have the 
 benefit of its warmth. It may be contended that the upper grille 
 might as well be omitted ; but this point is not well taken, because 
 wherever such installation has been tried, the heat becomes un- 
 endurable to the children sitting nearest this grille in the school- 
 room. The upper grille is needed to distribute the heat at a 
 point where it can be mixed with the other air in the room so 
 that by the time it reaches the breathing level it has cooled down 
 to a comfortable temperature. 
 
 When a steam plant is installed, the same arrangement of 
 heat flues and ventiducts should be used, and both ducts should 
 be on the same side of the room. Generally speaking, the side 
 opposite the windows will give the most satisfactory results. 
 
 With a good circulation there must also be a comfortable 
 temperature. To aid in its maintenance a thermometer should be 
 placed somewhere in the room at a height from the floor no 
 greater than the breathing plane. Probably the most satisfactory 
 place for the thermometer is on the teacher's desk, as it is then 
 uninflupnced by the temperature of the walls. Such a thermome- 
 ter mounted on a wooden stand can be fastened to the teacher's 
 desk so as to avoid breakage. Some teachers prefer to suspend 
 the thermometer with a cord from the ceiling. This is also a 
 good way, ii a place can be found where it will not interefere 
 with the movements of children about the room. Frequently, 
 however, this necessitates placing the thermometer six or six and 
 one-half feet above the floor, a height which is about three feet 
 above the breathing plane of the children. As a general rule, 
 with a good heating and ventilating plant and a reasonably well 
 built building, the difference in temperature between the floor 
 
162 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 level and the breathing plane does not exceed one degree F. for 
 each foot in height. 
 
 The third important factor in ventilation is that of humidity 
 of the atmosphere. When cold air is heated, the relative 
 humidity of the atmosphere is necessarily lowered. Some means 
 must, therefore, be found to add moisture to the heated air. For 
 small plants the only means yet devised is the evaporating pan, 
 which is so placed that the water in the pan is heated and the 
 vapor added to the heated air. This makes it necessary for the 
 water to be brought to a higher degree of temperature than the 
 atmosphere of the room. This is accomplished with room heaters 
 by placing the evaporating pan inside the casing and as near the 
 heater as possible, or even on top of the heater. With basement 
 furnaces this pan is generally placed in the casing near the firebox 
 with provision for filling the pan from the outside of the casing. 
 Care should be taken that the pan be kept supplied with water, 
 so as to allow for a maximum amount of evaporation. With 
 steam heating plants in small buildings a similar device is hung 
 on each radiator in the room. Much depends on the attention 
 that these evaporating pans receive ; and in each case they should 
 be as large and shallow as it is possible to make them for the 
 particular plant for which they are designed. 
 
 There are also two contributing factors which should be con- 
 sidered in this connection which, however, are not a part of the 
 heating and ventilating plant. These factors are daylight and 
 sunlight. Each room should have ample daylight at all times 
 and sunlight during some part of the day. A poorly lighted 
 room, even though well ventilated, calls for an unnecessary 
 degree of exertion, which detracts from the energy required for 
 the work to be accomplished. Such a room is always discourag- 
 ing to work in, and robs pupils of a part of the incentive to 
 persist in their tasks. Although sunlight is a valuable factor as a 
 wholesome disinfecting agent, still the schoolroom should be so 
 located that the direct rays of the sun do not interfere during too 
 long a period with the proper lighting of the room. 
 
Care and Use of Building. 163 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 CARE AND USE OF BUILDING. 
 
 Every schoolhouse represents an , investment that, at the time 
 it was made, was considered the most profitable use of public 
 money possible under the conditions which then prevailed. 
 Whether or not the money was wisely spent is another question, 
 but the fact that the building was construc'Jed' carfifes with it a 
 responsibility to care for the property so l^at it may not become 
 an eyesore and dangerous to the health, safety, and morals of the 
 children. A building may retain its original advantages for such 
 period of time as the materials of which it is constructed usually 
 withstand the elements, provided it is kept in repair and painted 
 whenever necessary. From a purely economic point of view it 
 is poor policy to allow the plastering to fall for want of a few 
 shingles to repair the leak. It is equally poor economy to permit 
 timbers to rot, or metal to rust, from want of attention at the 
 time when the injury is first noticed. A little care at the proper 
 time will add to the comforts which should be enjoyed, and will 
 maintain the respect for neatness and cleanliness which is a most 
 valuable educational factor. 
 
 The exterior appearance of any building carries with it an 
 immediate impression of the general characteristics of the people 
 who use the building. If outside walls are kept well painted and 
 clean, if steps, porch, or stoop, and doors, are free from dirt, 
 the interior will ordinarily show the same characteristics. A 
 clean entrance to a schoolhouse is a more powerful reminder of 
 the necessity of personal neatness of shoes and clothing than the 
 most impressive admonitions that can be given. It is certain that 
 the less dirt there is carried into a schoolhouse, the less dirt there 
 is to carry out. 
 
 Foot scrapers should, therefore, be in evidence before the 
 child reaches the entrance to the building. Daily attention must, 
 however, be given to the removal of dirt from these scrapers, 
 or they will soon be useless. Mats of sufficient size and proper 
 
164 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 a 
 
 to 
 
Care and Use of Building. . 165 
 
 material should next be placed outside of each door, and these 
 also cleaned daily. In this way ready means are at hand for 
 eliminating dirt from the interior, and children form habits of 
 cleanliness which are of value not only for school but for life 
 as well. 
 
 Soft wood interior finish gathers more dirt and requires more 
 attention than hardwood finish. The money saved in construction 
 by using soft wood is later on spent time and again in keeping 
 the room and the floor in proper condition, and even when so kept, 
 it fails to give the degree of satisfaction which a plain hardwood 
 finish' invariably produces. Hardwood always appears to best 
 advantage in a natural finish. Soft wood may be stained to 
 resemble oak and given a varnish finish, which should afterwards 
 be rubbed down so as to avoid a glossy appearance. 
 
 The floor will need attention if it is to be kept in good condi- 
 tion. A soft wood floor should have an application of light 
 mahogany or light oak stain before it is used. Even an old floor 
 may be put in shape, if after it has been thoroughly cleaned and 
 allowed to dry, it is scraped until it is even. A crack filler such 
 as is made by firms marketing varnishes and floor wax should 
 be obtained and applied according to directions. The stain 
 should then be put on and the floor sandpapered with No. o 
 sandpaper. A stained paste filler should next be rubbed in, and 
 this followed by a first-class floor varnish. A hardwood floor, 
 particularly a maple, which is really the best floor for a school- 
 room, should in the case of a new floor first be scraped, then 
 filled, and then given two coats of linseed oil. The oil must be 
 applied with care, as it is apt to give the floor a spotted appear- 
 ance, if the room is too cold while the work is done, or the work 
 is carelessly performed. An old maple floor should be thoroughly 
 cleaned and allowed to dry, after which it should be treated in 
 the same manner as a new floor. 
 
 The use of so-called dustless oils for floors is a matter which 
 has been a subject of much controversy. The facts in the case 
 would indicate that there are such oils, which when properly 
 applied are not objectionable, but there are also oils of this kind 
 that are very undesirable, because they are dark, and resist the 
 removal of dirt from the floor by the broom or brush. Whenever 
 it is considered advisable to use any of these oils, the grade and 
 
166 * The Rural School Plant. 
 
 characteristics of the oil should be thoroughly investigated before 
 an order is placed. 
 
 The plastered walls should always be kept fresh and clean 
 looking. An application of calcimine, paint, or whatever is 
 applied to the wall, is never a great expense, but it is a great 
 comfort and satisfaction to do school work in a clean, cheerful 
 room. 
 
 The periodic scrubbing which some schoolhouses get and the 
 periodic neglect which the great majority receive are both un- 
 desirable. A schoolhouse should be cleaned when it is dirty, no 
 matter when this condition arises. Much of the cleaning would 
 be easily done, if water were only available, but too often it is- 
 more of a task to get the necessary amount of water for 'the 
 purpose than it is to do the work of cleaning itself. Then, too, 
 facilities for cleaning should be available. The broom, the brush, 
 the mop, the mop-pail, the water-pail, soap, soap-powders, dust- 
 ing cloths, and other articles which are needed for cleaning 
 should be a part of the school equipment. 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 Too many buildings are new in material but old in design. 
 Schoolhouses should be something more than buildings. They 
 should have community characteristics. The rural school should 
 be the most potent factor in the upbuilding of rural life and the 
 preservation of the American spirit of democracy. A cohesive 
 influence is needed in every community to bind together the 
 various elements of divided interests represented by cliques of 
 nationality, religion, political parties, and social distinction. This 
 can be done by the rural school, if the boys and the girls can 
 secure in their own school district the advantages of intellectual, 
 social, moral and industrial development, and if the people as a 
 whole enter upon a plan whereby their common interests may 
 be served by meetings of various ,kinds at the schoolhouse. The 
 schoolhouse must have a new meaning, and it must afford 
 facilities for exemplifying what this new meaning is. 
 
 The interior of the building should have a pleasing and attrac- 
 tive appearance. This may in part be secured by the putting up 
 of a few pictures. Every schoolroom should have at least three 
 
Care and Use of Building. 
 
 167 
 
 wall pictures. These should be selected with care and provided 
 with good frames. The frames should be plain rather than 
 ornamental, as they will then be likely not to gather7dust, and 
 
 i 
 
 :m>:s 
 
 Fig. 107. Lincoln. — St. Gaudens. 
 
 they will set off that which is really beautiful ; namely, the picture. 
 The pictures should also be hung where the light will fall on them 
 to the best advantage. In no case should the lower edge of the 
 picture frame rest on the moulding above the blackboard, as 
 
168 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
Care and Use of Building. 169 
 
 this makes an unseemly combination of line which is certain to 
 offend the esthetic eye. 
 
 Reproductions of masterpieces may be secured for very little 
 money, and for those who desire to have a list from which to 
 select no better choice can be made for a schoolroom than a few 
 of the following: 
 
 Bonheur Ploughing. 
 
 Bonheur Deer in Forest. 
 
 Corot Spring. 
 
 DagnanBouveret.At the Watering Trough. 
 
 Douglas Mother and Daughter. 
 
 Dupre Escaped Cow. 
 
 Dupre Haying Time. 
 
 Geoffroy Primary School in Brittany. 
 
 Jacques The Sheepf old. 
 
 Landseer A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society. 
 
 Landseer Shoeing the Bay Mare. 
 
 Leutze Washington Crossing the Delaware. 
 
 Mauve Spring. 
 
 Millet Feeding Her Birds. 
 
 Millet The First Step. 
 
 St. Gaudens Lincoln. 
 
 Stuart Washington. 
 
 Trumbull Declaration of Independence. 
 
 Vandyke Children of Charles I. 
 
 Watts Sir Galahad. 
 
 Whistler Little Rose. 
 
 THE SCHOOL LIBRARY. 
 
 No school building is complete without its separate room for 
 the school library. No library room can serve its purpose with- 
 out good books. These books should first of all meet the needs 
 of the children, as it is principally for them that school is 
 established. But in addition to these books there should also be 
 books of general interest to the public. These books should 
 relate chiefly to philosophy, sociology, science, art, literature, 
 history, and other subjects, particularly those of local interest. 
 
 The selection of books for the community ought to be left to 
 
170 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 a committee selected at some community gathering, as such a 
 committee will have in mind the particular needs which ought to 
 be met. 
 
 The children's library is a matter which has received con- 
 siderable attention in a number of states of the Union. The 
 state lists, whenever found, should always be made the basis for 
 selection, according to the suggestions of the school or library 
 authorities. 
 
 Laws governing the establishment of public school libraries 
 have been enacted in 39 states. Twenty-two of these states 
 grant a certain amount of aid to school districts, provided the 
 school board appropriates at least a minimum amount for the 
 purchase of new books. Every school library ought in the very 
 nature of the case to profit by such an arrangement, and school 
 officers should acquaint themselves with the provisions of the law 
 in regard to this matter. 
 
 TRAVELING LIBRARIES. 
 
 In many states in the Union a traveling library consisting of a 
 case filled with books is available for a limited time to any school 
 district or responsible organization by making application to the 
 state library commission, or some similar organization. Cata- 
 logs or books in these traveling libraries are ordinarily available, 
 and school boards or committees may make such selection from 
 time to time as may seem fitting. The number of different 
 traveling libraries of this kind is generally sufficient to keep a 
 district supplied continually, as new books are constantly being 
 purchased for these libraries. The expense connected with them 
 is seldom more than transportation charges. In addition to these 
 libraries a number of counties and municipalities in several states 
 also maintain co-operative or rural extension libraries which, as 
 a rule, are deservedly popular. 
 
 LIBRARY HOURS. 
 
 It is essential that the school library should be open at all 
 hours when school is in session, and in some localities it is advis- 
 able that it should be open also after school hours, and at times 
 during vacation for the general public. Books can be of value 
 
Care and Use of Building. 171 
 
 only in the hands of readers, and the lock and key so common in 
 many small libraries is a most formidable barrier to an acquaint- 
 ance with the books in the library. Even if a few books are lost 
 owing to lack of vigilance, it seems infinitely better that they 
 should be lost rather than that the people who have developed a 
 taste for reading should be deprived of their use. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 "Agriculture is the groundwork of our civilization" is one of 
 President Grant's epigrammatic sentences in a message to Con- 
 gress. Recognizing this as indisputable, either as an expression 
 of fact or a well conceived pun, we naturally ask ourselves to 
 what extent agriculture should form a part of the course of study 
 of a rural school. The farm work is familiar to the children. 
 Farm problems are discussed off and on as occasion arises. Farm 
 products and yields per acre are constant topics of conversation. 
 
 If agriculture is to be studied, the course need naturally not 
 include these matters, but it ought by all means amplify the 
 information gained at home. From the known to the unknown is 
 an old established principle of teaching. From the farm work 
 which is done to the better and quicker means of doing the same 
 tasks, from the problems which arise to the problems which must 
 be met under other social conditions, from the products now 
 rotated and the farm animals now kept to the returns which a 
 better understanding of soil and market conditions will bring 
 about, are the big tasks before the rural school of today. Some 
 think that an appreciation of better conditions can be secured in 
 rural schools taught by one or two teachers, and advocate the 
 training of teachers for this work. It goes without saying that, 
 wherever it can be done, it should be done. There is no question 
 that work already done in the rural schools shows, in many 
 instances, a gratifying appreciation of the vital issues before the 
 rural community with its changed economic conditions. 
 
 It is evident that any work in the rural schools must deal in 
 the first place with such exercises as are in themselves educative, 
 and also such as inspire an interest in the home problems of farm 
 life. Local conditions will, therefore, govern to a great extent 
 what' should be taught; but there are certain fundamental prin- 
 
172 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 ciples which are largely common to all study of agriculture. Such 
 exercises as the taking of weather records, collection of seeds, 
 collection of leaves of trees, study of roots, germination of seeds, 
 identification of breeds of horses, cattle, sheep, swine and poultry, 
 are of great interest and value to children at different periods 
 of their advancement. The study of insects and other pests that 
 prey upon the crops, and the best means of fighting them, are 
 likewise interesting and valuable to children. In a number of 
 schools, children are directed to prepare in connection with their 
 language work booklets on grains, farm animals, trees, foods, and 
 other agricultural subjects. The preparation of these booklets 
 always gives opportunity for reading, conference with parents 
 and others, and are exceedingly valuable both as a means of 
 gathering information and making pupils self-reliant. Bulletins 
 issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, as well 
 as bulletins issued by the State Agricutural Colleges, can be used 
 to advantage in this work. 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING. 
 
 County and state fairs all over the country exhibit each year a 
 great variety of handwork done by children in the country schools. 
 The paper and cardboard construction, the weaving and the 
 basketry, the woodwork, all speak of the training of the hand in 
 admirable manner, and demonstrate that children can learn to do 
 useful things as well as imbibe useful knowledge. In many cases 
 the handwork done in the schools has been a powerful stimulus to 
 boys to remain, when other school tasks have failed to interest 
 them. If has tided them over a period of apathy for intellectual 
 pursuits, until they have found themselves. 
 
 In the country school with the workroom on the same floor 
 as the schoolroom, or in a well-lighted basement, the facilities for 
 doing woodwork are within reach, provided the school board will 
 secure a competent teacher, who can handle the industrial as well 
 as the academic work. Given the teacher, the next step is to 
 secure benches, tools, and lumber. Sometimes teachers have 
 considerable difficulty in securing these means whereby the train- 
 ing is made possible, because some men persist in figuring the 
 manual training equipment as an expense, instead of an invest- 
 
Care and Use of Building. 173 
 
 ment. Some country schools have enough useless charts lying 
 around for which a sufficient amount of money has been spent 
 to purchase two or three good manual training outfits. 
 
 The objects of the manual training work in the rural schools 
 may be briefly summarised as educational, economic and social. 
 It adds to the information which a pupil needs for doing some 
 things which are of use to him when he grows to manhood. It 
 develops his ability to think, because he must put his thoughts 
 into the work he is doing in order to secure some practical 
 results. It shows him that he must be both mentally and physi- 
 cally in good condition in order to achieve the results for which 
 he is striving. It trains him in ability to perform certain work, 
 and cultivates his appreciation of the fitness and beauty of an 
 object. It enables him to put an early value on his work, as he 
 compares the object he has made with those which are found 
 upon the market. It gives him that respect for labor which is 
 necessary for social happiness. It cannot, however, in the very 
 nature of the case, make him a master of any trade or shorten 
 the period of his acquisition of a trade. Neither can it in any 
 way determine his possible choice of a vocation in life. 
 
 Any course in manual training must recognize the age and 
 interest of the pupil and the conditions of his home life. Not 
 every boy should be required to make a foot stool. A milk stool 
 is a much more needed article in a rural community. It must also 
 develop a proper handling of tools and the care of the same. It 
 should be closely associated with work in drawing and the study 
 of the various kinds of wood used for making various articles. 
 
 Boys in rural schools should be trained to make the things 
 which will be of the most value- to the home. A gate, a bird- 
 house, a fly trap, a seed box, a shoe box, a necktie rack, a flower 
 box, a sled, a kite, a swing seat, a window screen, a bag holder, 
 a chicken coop, a brooder, a bee hive, a tool chest, a nail box, 
 a saw horse, and various other articles for use or play, will give 
 to the boys from the beginning something definite to work for and 
 look forward to. They should also receive training in setting 
 window glass, gluing furniture joints, wiring electric bells, 
 soldering tin pans, painting houses, polishing wood, brass, copper, 
 and other metals. The work may also well extend to a study of 
 agricultural machinery, pumps, warm-air furnaces, home lighting 
 
174 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 plants, gasoline engines, electric motors, automobiles and any 
 other machine or device which may be of local interest. The 
 main thing is not to get too far away from home or beyond the 
 capacity of the pupil. 
 
 Such work as outlined above will, in the estimation of many 
 men who have received their training in actual life instead of in 
 school, appear rather out of keeping with the well established 
 ideas of school discipline. To many it will seem as if these things 
 could be done better at home than in school. But are they done 
 at home? What is after all the chief end of school discipline? 
 Is it that the boys should grow up to be useful citizens ? Any dis- 
 cipline and any work which will bring about this result is really 
 the thing to be sought, even though it may collide with our pre- 
 conceived ideas of what a school should be. Not to give a boy 
 some manual training in school is to deprive him of one of the 
 opportunities to which he is by nature entitled. 
 
 HOME ECONOMICS. 
 
 Can home economics he taught in the rural school? After 
 seeing what is done in the city schools where special rooms, 
 ample facilities, and special teachers are provided, one is 
 prompted to answer the question in the negative. When one 
 further considers the preparation of the rural school teacher, the 
 number of classes which she has each day, the time which she 
 needs to prepare for her regular work, and the time she has to 
 spend in correcting children's papers, one is still more convinced 
 of the fact that the question cannot be answered in any other way 
 but in the negative. When added to this, one is squarely con- 
 fronted with the situation that there is no room in which the work 
 can be done with any degree of convenience, and further that 
 there is no hope of securing any equipment from the school board, 
 and finally that mothers and fathers are rather averse to having 
 their girls spend their time on any subjects outside of the tradi- 
 tional curriculum, the conclusion seems inevitable that home 
 economics cannot be taught successfully in the rural school. 
 
 And still some schools have overcome the difficulties in various 
 ways, and are teaching home economics with gratifying results. 
 It must be admitted that the teachers in each of these schools are 
 
Care and Use of Building. 175 
 
 not of the common type. In some of these schools there is no 
 practical demonstration of the work. The practice work both in 
 cooking and sewing is done at home, and the instruction as to 
 how it is to be done is given in school. The girls report upon 
 their work and in some schools are given credit for it, in much 
 the same way as they receive credit for arithmetic or spelling. 
 In other schools an oil stove is secured and placed in a corner of 
 the schoolroom or in an ante-room, or if the school is fortunate 
 enough to have a properly finished basement, then in some part of 
 the basement. Somewhere else room is found for a sewing table ; 
 and, strange as it may seem, some teachers succeed in getting 
 work of this kind done without slighting their other work, in a 
 manner which compares favorably with the work done in city 
 schools. Even warm lunches are served in some of these schools 
 at the noon hour. 
 
 In some places the situation is met by having certain centers 
 where home economics is taught, and the girls go to the center 
 one afternoon of each week. In some instances girls from several 
 adjoining schools meet together one afternoon each week in a 
 Home Economic Club at such a center, or at a consolidated school 
 where teachers, room and equipment are available. 
 
 Granted that the work may be done, what should be its char- 
 acter so as to be really valuable ? The following outlines of work 
 in sewing and cooking have been actually followed in rural 
 schools and may be looked upon as representative of what the 
 work ought to be. 
 
 SEWING OUTLINE. 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6, 
 
 7 
 8. 
 
 9 
 
 lO- 
 
 Sewing Bag. 
 
 Doll's Apron. 
 
 Doll's Pillow Case (sewing on lace). 
 
 Doll's Blanket .(blanket and catch stitch). 
 
 Spoon Case (Christmas present). 
 
 One-breadth Apron (checked gingham). 
 
 Needle book. 
 
 Towel — Hemming and darning in pattern. 
 
 Darning on stockinet. 
 
 Darning a stocking brought from home. 
 
176 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 11. Uniform for cooking class work. 
 
 12. Holder. 
 
 13. Over-sleeves. 
 
 14. Cap. 
 
 15. Apron. 
 
 16. Marguerite for self, cut from pattern. 
 
 17. Hemmed Patch. 
 
 18. Dress darning on cashmere. 
 
 19. Garment needing mending brought from home. 
 
 20. White underskirt for self. 
 
 21. Buttonholes. 
 
 22. Combination work-bag and apron. 
 
 23. Nightgown, cut from pattern. 
 
 24. Mitered and squared corner — handkerchief. 
 
 25. Hemstitching. 
 
 26. Rolling hem and ruffle. 
 
 27. Hemming table linen. 
 
 28. Use of sewing machine. 
 
 29. Simple shirt waist and skirt. 
 
 30. Fancy work, if girls stay long enough. 
 
 COOKING OUTLINE. 
 
 September : 
 
 1. House cleaning. 
 
 2. Measurements used in cooking. 
 
 3. Potatoes in various forms — warm and cold. 
 
 4. Canning. 
 
 October : 
 
 5. Coffee, Tea, Cocoa. 
 
 6. Vegetable soups. 
 7. . Pickling. 
 
 8. Corn bread. 
 
 November : 
 
 9. Baked apple. 
 
 10. Boiled and stuffed onions. 
 
 11. Brown Betty pudding. 
 
 12. Boiled rice — Tomato sauce. 
 
Care and Use of Building. 
 
 177 
 
 December : 
 
 13. Cranberry sauce and jelly. 
 
 14. Baked macaroni and cheese. 
 
 15. Christmas candy — fudge and white'taffy. 
 
 16. Rice pudding. 
 
 January : 
 
 17. Toast and eggs. 
 
 18. Baking powder biscuits. 
 
 19. Hamburg steak. 
 
 20. Corn chowder and gelatine dessert. 
 
 February : 
 
 21. Baked custard. 
 
 22. Fish balls. 
 
 23. Griddle cakes. ^ 
 
 24. ^'luffins. 
 
 March 
 
 
 25- 
 
 Chocolate corn starch pudding. 
 
 26. 
 
 Utilizing stale bread. 
 
 27. 
 
 Doughnuts. 
 
 28. 
 
 Cream soups — Tomato or Vegetable 
 
 April : 
 29. 
 
 Hot water ginger bread. 
 
 30. 
 
 Meat and rice croquettes. 
 
 31- 
 
 Cup cakes. 
 
 32. 
 
 Meat stews. 
 
 May: 
 
 33. Salad with dressing. 
 
 34. Sandwiches. 
 
 35. Yeast bread. 
 
 36. Strawberry shortcake. 
 
 COMMUNITY. CLUBS. 
 
 The organization of clubs of some kind or other can next be 
 proposed, and if the library and the industrial experiments have 
 had their anticipated effect, it will not require much work to 
 organize such clubs. Owing to the previous acquaintance with 
 
178 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 the library and the practical demonstrations of home and farm 
 conditions, the community will soon find a means for conducting 
 its clubs without relying upon the teachers for any great amount 
 of help. The basement room in many schoolhouses makes an 
 admirable place for most of these meetings. The character of 
 the club will have to be determined by the local conditions. It 
 may be well to begin with an agricultural or a horticultural club, 
 a parents' association, a dairy association, or a home garden asso- 
 ciation. If the local industries are somewhat specialized, interest 
 may best be created by organizing a Potato Club, a Beet Club, a 
 Poultry Club or some other club for a special purpose. 
 
 Meetings of this kind should follow some definite plan of 
 procedure, and the following order of business is suggested as 
 suitable for most meetings : 
 
 (a) Call to order. 
 
 (b) Reading and adoption of minutes of last meeting. 
 
 (c) Program. 
 
 (d) Reports of committees. 
 
 (e) Old business. 
 
 (f) New business. 
 
 (g) Voting in new members, 
 (h) Adjournment. 
 
 (i) Recreation or refreshment. 
 
 Such a club does not need many officers, but those named 
 below with their respective duties are essential to, any organiza- 
 tion: 
 
 1. President: 
 
 (a) Calls all meetings to order. 
 
 (b) Announces the order of business. 
 
 (c) Puts all questions and motions. 
 
 (d) Decides the votes. 
 
 (e) Calls another member to the chair if he or she wishes 
 to take part in the debate. 
 
 2. Vice-President : 
 
 (a) Performs all the duties of the president in case the 
 president is absent. 
 
Care and Use of Buiuding. 179 
 
 3. Secretary : 
 
 (a) Keeps the minutes of all meetings. 
 
 (b) Handles all correspondence. 
 
 (c) Sends or posts notices for meetings. 
 
 (d) Reads the minutes of the previous meeting. 
 
 (e) Acts as chairman in case both president and vice- 
 president are absent. 
 
 4. Treasurer : 
 
 (a) Collects all dues and moneys. 
 
 (b) Keeps an account of all moneys collected or paid out. 
 
 (c) Pays bills when ordered by the president or secretary, 
 after such bills have been allowed by the club. 
 
 5. Executive Committee (Generally composed of the officers 
 
 above named) : 
 
 (a) Plan the work of the club. 
 
 (b) Are financially responsible for the management of the 
 club. 
 
 (c) Are responsible for the use of the schoolhouse. 
 
 If the organization of a club for the older people does not at 
 once meet with a ready response, it might be well to organize the 
 school into an improvement club. At some time or other this 
 should be done regardless of the community club. The school 
 improvement club can arrange for spelling contests, declamatory 
 contests, sewing contests, manual training contests, corn contests, 
 canning contests, and a number of other contests of a similar 
 nature. It can provide for traveling art exhibits, school picnics, 
 school fairs, debates, reunions of old pupils and other social 
 features. 
 
 If these means have not succeeded in getting everybody in- 
 terested, there are still possibilities of reaching the prodigals by 
 organizing reading circles and school extension courses. The state 
 department of education can be relied upon for help in organizing 
 reading circles, and the agricultural colleges stand ready to assist 
 in the formation of school extension courses. 
 
180 Thes-Rural School Plant. 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 FURNITURE AND SUPPLIES. 
 
 The furniture of a schoolroom includes a teacher's desk and 
 chair, pupils' desks, three chairs for visitors, and a small book- 
 case for the reference books. The library room should have 
 ample bookcases, a long table, and a sufficient number of chairs 
 to go around the table. 
 
 The selection of all of these pieces of furniture is compara- 
 tively simple except that of the pupils' desks. These present 
 some difficulties, owing to the number of conditions that must 
 be met. There are entirely too many desks on the market that 
 are made without proper regard for the pupil's health, comfort, 
 or development. The main feature of these desks is their sub- 
 stantial construction. Salesmen make much of this fact and 
 often put their sample desks to most unusual strains in order to 
 demonstrate this fact to their prospective purchasers. There is 
 no doubt that every school desk should be substantial, but this 
 is not the only nor even the main consideration. 
 
 Desks should first of all be hygienic. Defective desks are, 
 in a measure, responsible for a number of chronic ailments. 
 According to physicians of note, faulty sittings contribute to 
 curvature of the spine, female trouble, uneven shoulders, flat 
 chest, round shoulders, predisposition to tuberculosis, weak in- 
 ternal organs due to cramped positions, and even defective eye- 
 sight due to positions assumed by children in leaning over their 
 books, which cause congestion because of interference with the 
 circulation of the blood. 
 
 Two questions then naturally arise. What is to be avoided? 
 What must be secured? Briefly stated, the following constitute 
 the chief faults of defective school desks : 
 
 1. The seat is either too flat or improperly tilted. 
 
 2. The seat is either too narrow or too wide from front to 
 back. 
 
 3. The back support is not properly rounded for comfort 
 and correct position. 
 
Furniture and Supplies. 181 
 
 4. The desk is either too high or too low, causing the child 
 to raise the arm unduly while resting the fore-arm on the desk, 
 and thus compressing the chest; or else requiring that the child 
 lean forward, with the result that the muscles of the neck become 
 sore, the internal organs of the chest and abdomen are cramped, 
 and the spine is curved backward. 
 
 The features incorporated in hygienic desks are substantially 
 the following: 
 
 1 . The seat is tilted slightly backward for comfort and gently 
 curved so that the lowest part is at angle of about two to two 
 and one-half degrees with the highest part of the seat. The 
 front of the seat is curved slightly forward in order to secure 
 freedom at the bend of the knee. This shape of the seat is also 
 necessary in order to overcome the tendency of the child to slide 
 forward while working at his desk. 
 
 2. The width of the seat from back to front permits of a 
 position whereby the child receives support for the small of the 
 back, and at the same time it allows for a bend of the knee at 
 right angles, without pressing into the muscles below the knee. 
 
 3. The back of the seat is so constructed that it supports the 
 small of the back and also that part of the back which is just 
 below the shoulders. These two supports will afford the required 
 bracing for keeping the body in correct posture with the least 
 tendency to fatigue. 
 
 4. The desk is of a height which will permit the child to 
 place the fore-arms on the desk and yet allow the lower vertebra 
 of the back to rest against the back of the seat. 
 
 In purchasing school desks these features should be carefully 
 looked into, as a good school plant in other respects may bring 
 untold misery, because of its defective school desks. At the same 
 time not all the evils of bad sittings are overcome by purchasing 
 hygienic desks, since these very desks may be so placed as to 
 cause many of the same physical deformities as defective desks. 
 This is especially true of the desk which is fastened to the floor. 
 
 A difficulty with this type of desk often seen in our rural 
 schools is that the seat is placed too far from the desk. In order 
 to write or read the child is compelled to move forward in his 
 seat to such an extent that he has no support for his back. This 
 
182 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 condition is due largely to the fact that school de^ks are arranged 
 without reference to the directions which manufacturers of desks 
 generally furnish. Oftentimes it is also due to the fact that desks 
 of different manufacturers are placed in the same row. It is 
 seldom possible to place desks of different makes the same dis- 
 tance apart. The child's natural position in his seat, if observed, 
 will furnish the necessary data for correct seating in this respect. 
 Ordinarily about two inches between the body and the edge of 
 the desk is all that any child requires. 
 
 Another difficulty with the desk fastened to the floor is that 
 desks of different sizes are placed in the same row, and the seat 
 is either too high or too low for the desk in front of it. This 
 unfortunate arrangement is often due to a mistaken notion of 
 symmetry which some people seem to think is secured by having 
 smaller desks in front, a larger size back of them, and the largest 
 desks are at the rear. This idea of symmetry becomes so all- 
 important that health, comfort, discipline, and good pedagogic 
 practice must be sacrificed in order that it may be secured. 
 Watch a child bending over a desk two or three inches lower 
 than it should be, and notice the lack of comfort, the menace to 
 health, and the recalcitrant expression of the face. Notice also 
 the attempts of the teacher to hold the attention of the pupils 
 in the rear half of the room during recitation, and the annoyance 
 to the children in the front part of the room when such recitations 
 are conducted. The natural arrangement is to have stationary 
 desks of the same size in separate rows, and have each class so 
 seated that some member pf the class is in the front seat and the 
 othei-s are seated behind him. With adjustable seats and desks 
 this arrangement of seats is not essential, as the plan is to have 
 each seat fitted to the child. The seating, however, would con- 
 form to the same general plan with regard to rows as for 
 stationary desks, in order to facilitate the conduct of recitations. 
 
 Still another difficulty for which there is less excuse, is the 
 placing of children in seats where their feet do not reach the 
 floor, or where they must occupy a cramped position. Aside 
 from the physical inconveniences, not to speak of the possible 
 injuries which may result from such incorrect seating, the slovenly 
 habits which such seating invites are a serious detriment to the 
 child and a disturbing factor of school discipline. The correct 
 
Furniture and Supplies. 
 
 183 
 
 height of a seat from the floor is the distance from the child's 
 knee to the floor. 
 
 Much careless work and apparent disregard of authority as 
 well as loss of self respect, due to careless posture, can be traced 
 back to the evil of incorrect seating. Efficient mental work can 
 be done only under proper physical conditions. 
 
 STATIONARY DESKS. 
 
 The old wooden home-made desk and bench gave way years 
 ago to the factory-made school desk of the stationary type; It 
 is spoken of as stationary to distinguish it from a later type of 
 desk, known as adjustable, which permits the seat and desk to be 
 raised or lowered at will. At first this desk was always made 
 sufficiently wide so that two pupils might occupy the same seat, 
 sitting side by side, and they are therefore referred to as "double 
 desks". While they are still being sold, the market for these 
 desks is rapidly disappearing. The "single desk", occupied by but 
 one pupil, is the most common type of stationary desk today. 
 The desks are screwed to the floor or to strips which permit of 
 their being skidded when the floor is swept or cleaned. 
 
 These desks are generally manufactured in six sizes. The 
 two smallest sizes are ordinarily made for children from 5 to 9 
 years of age, the next larger size for children 10 to 11 years, the 
 still larger for children 12 to- 14 years. Then follows a size for 
 children from 15 to 18 years, while the largest size is for adults. 
 With slight variations the dimensions of stationary desks are 
 about as follows : 
 
 Size 
 
 Height of 
 Seat 
 
 Height of 
 Top 
 
 Width of 
 Top 
 
 Length of 
 Top 
 
 Floor 
 Space 
 
 Age 
 Accommod'd 
 
 I 
 
 17 in. 
 
 29I 
 
 16 in. 
 
 24 in. 
 
 28 in. 
 
 Adults 
 
 2 
 
 16 in. 
 
 28f 
 
 16 in. 
 
 24 in. 
 
 27 in. 
 
 15 to 18 
 
 3 
 
 15 in. 
 
 27 
 
 14 m. 
 
 21 in. 
 
 26 in. 
 
 12 to 14 
 
 4 
 
 14 in. 
 
 25i 
 
 14 m. 
 
 21 in. 
 
 24 m. 
 
 10 to II 
 
 5 
 
 13 in. 
 
 22f 
 
 12 m. 
 
 18 in. 
 
 22 in. 
 
 7 to 9 
 
 6 
 
 12 in. 
 
 2li 
 
 12 in. 
 
 18 in. 
 
 21 in. 
 
 5 to 7 
 
184 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 In most rural schools only the four small sizes are needed. 
 If at some time a larger seat and desk may be required, this can 
 be secured by placing a wooden base under the castings. The 
 rear sitting will naturally be chosen for such alteration, and the 
 seat in front of the desk is thus made valueless as a school sitting, 
 since the seat becomes too high for the desk in front of it. This, 
 however, is not a material inconvenience, as only a few rural 
 schools are seated to their full capacity, and the alteration is 
 merely for a year or two at most, while some large pupil is 
 attending school. Provided stationary desks meet hygienic 
 requirements in other respects, there can be little objection to a 
 great many of them on the score of their construction, design, 
 or size. 
 
 As not all children, however, 
 conform to a standard height for 
 their age, the main difficulty with 
 stantionary desks is that a num- 
 ber of children are misfits in the 
 desks assigned to them. Children 
 naturally desire to be seated with 
 their classmates. The undersized 
 arid the overgrown occupy seats 
 of the same size as children of 
 normal development. Very few 
 schools with stationary seats have 
 thern arranged in a satisfactory 
 manner so that an intelligent 
 teacher can make use of them to advantage. Very few teachers 
 in the rural schools have paid enough attention to the 
 matter of proper seating of children to be able to profit by 
 a good arrangement of seats. If the smallest desks were placed 
 in the center row, and rows of larger desks were placed on either 
 side, it would not be a difficult matter to arrange the seating so 
 that a child of normal size would occupy a seat between the over- 
 grown on one side and the undersized on the other. By intelligent 
 care on the part of the teacher the majority of pupils can be 
 properly seated in stationary desks, provided the school board has 
 made a happy choice of sizes of school desks in the first place. 
 
 Fig. 109. stationary Deslc. 
 
Furniture and Supplies. 
 
 185 
 
 ADJUSTABLE DESKS. 
 
 So much depends upon the good judgment and the foresight 
 used in buying stationary desks, and so much also depends upon 
 the ability of the teacher to see the possibilities of advantageous 
 seatings, that on the whole the stationary desk, even though 
 hygienically constructed is not without its serious drawbacks. 
 This has given rise to the manufacture of an adjustable desk 
 which, within certain limits, can be graduated both as to seat and 
 desk, so as to fit the individual child. Several diflferent kinds of 
 this type of desk are on the market ; they merit careful considera- 
 tion, as they overcome many of the objections made against the 
 stationary type. 
 
 Children of the same height, 
 for instance, do not necessarily 
 have the same length of trunk 
 or legs. The stationary seat 
 cannot provide for those who 
 vary from the normal type in 
 these respects, while the adjust- 
 able seat can readily be made 
 to meet these variations. 
 
 Only the two smallest sizes 
 of the adjustable desks need be 
 purchased for a country school, 
 
 as these two can be so modified as to meet ordinary conditions. 
 These desks are generally made in three sizes only. (Fig. no.) 
 
 The use of adjustable desks for certain schools is required in 
 some states. This indicates clearly the attitude toward them on 
 the part of state educational authorities. It is, however, neces- 
 sary that some provision be made for having the desks fitted to 
 the children about twice each year. Otherwise they will be no 
 better than stationary desks. As the adjustment of most of 
 these desks is an easy matter, requiring but little time, there is no 
 excuse for neglecting this very vital part of the means whereby 
 the health and comfort of the children may be materially pro- 
 moted. 
 
 Fig. 110. Adjustable Desk. 
 
186 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 LOCATION OF DESKS. 
 
 Whenever desks are to be fastened to the floor or to movable 
 strips, it is necessary to consider the direction from which day- 
 .Hght enters the room. For reasons which are well founded in 
 theory as well as in practice, it is essential that no shadows fall 
 on the papers on which children are writing. As writing consti- 
 tutes a very large part of the work in the modern rural school, 
 this fact must of necessity become the controlling factor in locat- 
 ing the seats. In order to secure the best advantage of location, 
 it will be readily seen that the desks should be so placed that the 
 light may enter the room to the left of the pupils when they are 
 seated, as the shadow of the hand will then fall beyond and 
 below the writing. 
 
 Aisles should also be provided of sufficient width to facilitate 
 ease of movement about the room and at the blackboard. The 
 outside aisles, which would be next tp windows on one side and 
 next to the wall with a large amount of blackboard on the other, 
 ought to be from 30 to 36 inches wide. The aisles between the 
 seats. should be from 18 to 24 inches in width. Such an arrange- 
 ment of seats and aisles will give five rows of seats in all rooms 
 of standard width. A greater number of rows is not desirable 
 either from the standpoint of school discipline or personal com- 
 fort, or of an adequate amount of light for those seated furthest 
 from the windows. 
 
 MOVABLE DESKS. 
 
 Of late years there has been a 
 decided revolt on the part of many 
 thinking people against the prevail- 
 ing custom of fastening school desks 
 to the floor. It has been argued that 
 the child should have the greater de- 
 gree of freedom which may be 
 secured by having a movable desk. 
 (Fig. Ill,) The chief advantages 
 of such desks may be briefly sum- 
 Fig. 111. Movable Desk. marized as follows : 
 
Furniture and Supplies. 187 
 
 1. They permit a shifting of position so as to secure light 
 from the most advantageous angle. 
 
 2. Children can move out of the reach of drafts or direct 
 rays of the sun, which it is sometimes difficult to exclude from the 
 room. 
 
 3. Children in the same classes may be seated conveniently 
 near each other, regardless of whether they are of normal size, 
 undersized, or overgrown, as each child is fitted with his own seat 
 and desk. 
 
 4. The room may be cleared at any time for games, physical 
 exercises, or recreation of any kind. 
 
 5. The movable desk will make possible the use of any 
 schoolroom for social center purposes, which could not be done 
 with rooms in which small stationary or adjustable desks have 
 been placed. 
 
 6. The movable desk has"^ wholesome disciplinary influence 
 over the child, by the freedom of movement which it permits. 
 
 These advantages naturally presuppose hygienic construction 
 of desks, and a fitting of pupils to their seats. The various desks 
 of this type now on the market are made in from six to eight 
 sizes as to height of seat. The desk only is adjustable, and may 
 be tilted so as to allow for any reasonable angle at which the 
 book or the paper may be placed while reading or writing. In 
 some instances the desk may be drawn nearer the body or pushed 
 farther away, an important consideration not only as a matter of 
 personal comfort but also as a matter of health. The desk is 
 ordinarily detachable, so that the seat may be used to advantage 
 for community or social center purposes. 
 
 SUPPLIES. 
 
 The ordering of supplies is generally an arduous task for the 
 clerk of the school board, because not only is he linfamiliar with 
 the nature of the supplies needed, but generally also with the best 
 place from which to secure them. The teacher is naturally the 
 person to whom he looks for information both as to the amount' 
 and nature of supplies, and the best place from which to order. 
 As a general rule the order for supplies should be made up by 
 the teacher just before closing school in the spring. She has 
 
188 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 then before her the needs of the school, and can be governed as 
 to the amount required by the quantities used during the past 
 year. The clerk should send in the order early in June, with a 
 request for delivery and date of invoice for the middle of August. 
 This will give school supply companies an opportunity to serve 
 their customers in a satisfactory manner, and give the pupils the 
 benefit of the supplies from the day they enter school in the fall. 
 A list of supplies ordinarily required in a rural school would 
 include the following: 
 
 PERMANENT SUPPLIES. 
 
 Every rural school stands in 
 which should always be on band : 
 Blackboard erasers. 
 Flag (size 5x8), 
 Wastepaper basket, 
 Thermometer, 
 Globe, 
 
 Rubber stamp printing outfit, 
 Dictionary holder, 
 Clock, 
 Pointer, 
 
 Hand bell. 
 
 need of the following articles 
 
 Drinking fountain, 
 Pencil sharpener. 
 Door mat. 
 Mop, 
 Pails, 
 
 Floor brush. 
 Scissors, 
 School register. 
 Window shades, 
 or gong. 
 
 ANNUAL SUPPLIES. 
 Each year the order for supplies should include the necessary 
 
 quantities of the following : 
 Crayons, 
 Colored crayon. 
 Paper for writing, drawing, 
 
 and examination. 
 Ink, 
 Pens, 
 Pencils, 
 
 Penholders, 
 
 Paste, 
 
 Sweeping compound, 
 
 Broom, 
 
 Soap, 
 
 Paper towels. 
 
 Toilet paper. 
 
Improvement and Use of Site. 189 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 IMPROVEMENT AND USE OF SITE. 
 
 There are thousands of school sites in the United States that 
 are fifty years old or more on which no perceptible improvement 
 has ever been made. What a story they tell of neglect and pro- 
 crastination ! It would not have taken much effort to beautify and 
 utilize to advantage these as well as every other unimproved site 
 in the country. What a wonderful incentive even yet, each 
 might become, if the improvement was made with a distinct aim 
 in view. 
 
 There are three things to consider in planning any improve- 
 ment of a school site. These are attractive grounds, playgrounds, 
 and gardens. .The value of the last named may not seem apparent 
 in our present stage of development, but is in reality a great 
 educative factor. There are many who shake their heads, because 
 the schoolhouse is not in use during the summer months, and 
 the garden therefore useless. As I shall try to show later on, the 
 schoolgrounds need not be neglected because school is not in 
 session. 
 
 To make grounds attractive, we need first of all, trees. James 
 Wilson, our first secretary of agriculture, said in 1901 : "Much 
 sentiment has attached to trees in all lands and in all ages. 
 Acorns from the oaks of Mt. Vernon were presented to the Czar 
 of Russia by a brother of the late Senator Sumner. They were 
 planted by order of the Czar in the imperial preserves of St. 
 Petersburg and there grew into fine trees, the acorns from which 
 were in their turn brought back to the United States by Mr. 
 Hitchcock, then ambassador to Russia, later Secretary of the 
 Interior. These acorns will be planted at Mt. Vernon, near their 
 "grandparents". After a visit to England, Senator Hoar of 
 Massachusetts brought back young British oaks from the royal 
 forest of Dean and chestnuts from the estates of the Earl of 
 Ducie. These will be studied by our foresters as they grow in 
 the mall at Washington. Within the enclosure of the Botanical 
 Gardens at Washington many trees, planted by prominent Ameri- 
 
190 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 can statesmen, have grown to be objects of great interest and 
 beauty ; Charles Sumner planted a European hornbeam ; Thaddeus 
 Stevens^ an oriental plane tree ; Senator Beck, an American elm ; 
 President Hayes, a rare variety of oak ; Senator Hoar a cedar of 
 Lebanon ; a scotch plane tree planted by Senator Frye is pointed 
 out to all visitors." 
 
 There is probably no permanent effect which may be secured 
 at a smaller expenditure of money than that of setting out trees. 
 The cost is trifling as compared with the actual value obtained. 
 The Minneapolis Park Board has found that the cost and care of 
 trees for the first three years amounts to $6.46 per tree. After 
 the first three years the trees will take care of themselves, except 
 for pruning, which need not become an appreciable item. In 
 many places the total cost will not approach even this figure, as 
 trees are readily available, and teachers and children will care for 
 them if given the proper incentive. 
 
 Over against the cost of setting out trees, there is the actual 
 commercial value of shade trees, without which no school grounds 
 would be complete. According to a bulletin of the Massachusetts 
 Forestry Association, expert tree appraisers say that a shade tree 
 in good condition and well placed is worth one dollar per square 
 inch of cross section measured at breast height. At that rate 
 a tree one foot in diameter is worth $113, while a tree two feet 
 in diameter is worth $452. On this basis consider the value of 
 a school site with sixteen rods frontage and trees fifty feet apart 
 on the front line only, a placing which would mean four or five 
 trees. But trees would not be restricted to the front part only, 
 and consequently the value of a school site would become even 
 greater than this. 
 
 In some sections of the country it is well to plant trees so as 
 to provide a windbreak. They should then be massed in such a 
 way as to make the arrangement of the trees both pleasing and 
 effective. No trees of any kind should be nearer the school 
 building than fifty feet, as the sunlight about the building is one 
 of nature's most beneficent contributions to the happy, healthful 
 development of growing children. The schoolroom needs the 
 direct rays of the sun for a small part of each day, and trees 
 should be so located that they do not entirely exclude the sunlight 
 from the room. 
 
Improvement and Use of Site. 191 
 
 The planting and care of trees on school, grounds should be 
 a public duty for which every man in a school district should 
 hold himself responsible. Permit me to quote from Oliver 
 Wendell Holmes, who believed that the best verses he had pro- 
 duced were the trees he had planted, this choice bit of sentiment. 
 "When we plant a tree, we are doing what we can to make our 
 planet a more wholesome and happier dwelling place for those 
 who come after us, if not for ourselves. As you drop the seed, 
 as you plant the sapling, your left hand hardly knows what your 
 .right hand is doing. But Nature knows, and in due time the 
 Power that sees and works in secret will reward you openly." 
 Let me also remind you of Humboldt's appreciation of trees when 
 he says : "Trees have about them something beautiful and attrac- 
 tive even to the fancy. Since they cannot change their plan, they 
 are witnesses of all the changes that take place around them; 
 and, as some reach a great age, they become, as it were, historical 
 monuments, and, like ourselves, they have a life, growing and 
 passing away, not being inanimate, and unvarying, like the fields 
 and the rivers. One sees them passing through various stages, 
 and at last, step by step, approaching death, which makes them 
 look still more like ourselves." 
 
 WHAT TREES TO SELECT. 
 
 Much, of course, will depend upon the selection of trees, and 
 in general it should be said that on school sites the selection 
 should practically be restricted to native trees ; and of those, only 
 the best should be selected. To guide the inexperienced, I ven- 
 ture the following suggestions from which to make a selection' 
 of trees for a school site: 
 
 I. The American Elm is a graceful tree, attractive in summer 
 and winter; tall and stately, with strong, arching branches. It 
 grows rapidly in rich, well-drained, moist soil, but is adapted to 
 many soils. It should be planted according to soil conditions, 
 usually about 50 feet from another tree. It is very liable to attack 
 by the elm leaf beetle. 
 
 "The elm in all the landscape green, 
 Is fairest of God's stately trees ; 
 She is a gracious mannered queen, 
 Full of soft bends and courtesies." 
 
192 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 2. The While Ash is hardy and is suited to various kinds 
 of soil. It has a fairly rapid growth, and under favorable con- 
 ditions reaches a height of 120 feet, a fact which causes Walter 
 Scott to refer to the ash as "rearing its airy crest". Its leaves 
 are broadly willow-shaped, and grow in pleasing, irregular masses. 
 The tree has few enemies. The spacing depends upon the local 
 height obtained, and should vary from forty to one hundred feet. 
 
 3. Oaks of which there are about sixty species in North 
 America, are excellent shade trees. The most desirable, as well as 
 the most common, are the red, the scarlet, the black, and the 
 white. The ruggedness and strength of the oak makes it parti- 
 cularly desirable for school grounds. Oaks should be planted 
 fifty feet apart. 
 
 The monarch oak, the patriarch of the trees, 
 Shoots rising up and spreads by low degrees. 
 Three centuries he grows, and three he stays 
 Supreme in state; and in three more decays. 
 
 — Dryden. 
 
 4. Maples. The largest and most beautiful are the red, the 
 hard or sugar, and the black. All three are hardy, but somewhat 
 sensitive to dust and smoke. Foliage colors are particularly 
 brilliant in the autumn. Red maples may grow to a height of 
 over a hundred feet. Sugar or hard maples, with their rounded 
 symmetrical heads, reach a height of seventy feet. Black maples 
 grow about as high as the hard maples. Maples are fairly free 
 from the ravages of insects. Black and hard maples ought to be 
 from forty to forty-five feet apart, and red maples from sixty 
 to seventy feet. 
 
 The maple puts her corals on in May, 
 
 While loitering frosts about the lowlands cling, 
 
 To be in time with what the robins sing. 
 
 Plastering new log-huts 'mid her branches gray ; 
 
 But when Autumn southward turns away, 
 
 Then in her veins bursts most the blood of Spring, 
 
 And every leaf intensely blossoming, 
 
 Makes the year's sunset pale the set of day. 
 
 — Lowell. 
 
 5. The Basswood is a very desirable shade tree, and should 
 be planted so as to leave about 35 feet between trees: 
 
Improvement and Use of Site. 193 
 
 6. Birches are trees for school grounds. The canoe birch 
 is of peculiar interest to children, because it has played an import- 
 ant part in the domestic arts of the Indians. The red birch is 
 interesting because of its value in the manufacture of furniture, 
 being much used as an imitation of mahogany. Lowell speaks 
 of its foliage being like the tassels of a dryad. It prefers moist 
 soil, and so is not well adapted to school grounds, which must 
 have a dry surface. It may, however be encouraged to grow in 
 soil which does not possess an excessive degree of moisture even 
 for school grounds. Trees should be planted about thirty feet 
 apart. 
 
 7. The Hackberry is a medium-sized, symmetrical tree, and 
 not exacting as to soil, moisture, or climate. It is slow of growth, 
 but fairly free from pests and diseases. Trees should be placed 
 about thirty feet apart. 
 
 8. Sweet Gum. This tree, well known to Southern girls and 
 boys, has a compact form, and a beautiful foliage, particularly in 
 the fall. Ordinarily, it is free from insects. The spacing of these 
 trees should be about thirty-five feet. 
 
 9. The Wild Plum is a small tree which is particularly attrac- 
 tive in spring. It grows to a height of from ten to twenty feet. 
 Plum trees may be set about twenty feet apart. 
 
 ID. Evergreens are well suited to school grounds and in 
 sections of the country where the magnolia, the Norway pine, 
 the holly, and the hemlock are native, they may well be selected. 
 Longfellow characterizes the hemlock as an emblem of faithful- 
 ness, which is 
 
 "Green not alone in summer time, 
 But in the winter's frost and rime.'' 
 
 II. The Mountain Ash, related to the apple and hawthorn, is 
 an ornamental tree which is very desirable for any school ground 
 for which it can be secured. The fruit of this tree consists of 
 little red berries, quite like the apple in outward appearance. 
 ■ There are two varieties of the tree, differing only slightly as to 
 the shape of the leaflets and the, size of the fruit. These trees 
 should be planted among other trees and shrubbery, to add to the 
 variety of the scenery,- instead of being grouped as are some of 
 
194 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 the other trees. Care should be taken not to plant them too close 
 to tall trees where the shade is deep. 
 
 12. The Walnut is a fine tree, which attains a height of from 
 forty to one hundred feet, according to the locality in which it 
 is found. The butternut belongs to the same family of trees, and 
 is equally well suited to school yard planting. Both trees are. 
 sure to be popular with boys on account of their nuts. They 
 should be planted about fifty feet apart. 
 
 13. The White Hickory, or shell-bark, will prove equally 
 popular with the walnut, on account of the nuts it bears. This 
 tree often grows to be a hundred feet high. The trunk attains 
 a diameter of two feet at the base. It is one of the most valuable 
 of hardwood timbers, and is used in the manufacture of wagon- 
 tongues, plow-handles, ax-handles and other wood products for 
 which tough and strong wood is required. As in the case of other 
 trees of its height, a spacing of not less than fifty feet is desirable. 
 
 14. The Beech, which is restricted to small areas where it is 
 native, is much admired for its smooth gray bark and deep green 
 foliage. The nuts of this tree are sweet-flavored. The wood is 
 hard and fine grained. In favored locations it may be found one 
 hundred feet high, and should be spaced accordingly. 
 
 15. The Chestnut is another edible nut-bearing tree which 
 may well be selected for the school grounds. It is a large tree 
 with wide spreading branches and ornamental in appearance. 
 The famous chestnut tree on the slopes of Mt. Etna which more 
 than a hundred years ago had a circumference of 190 feet, should 
 be called to the attention of every child that becomes fan^iliar 
 with the chestnut tree on the school grounds. 
 
 WHAT SHRUBS TO SELECT. 
 
 The same general principle should be followed in selecting 
 shrubs as in selecting trees. The native shrubs are to be pre- 
 ferred, and there is such a number of these in various parts of 
 the country that no list can well be compiled which will include 
 all that are desirable. The following common shrubs are safe 
 to select, and will add to the beauty of the school ground. 
 
 I. Alder. There are four kinds of American alder. They 
 look very much like willows, and if allowed to grow rank be- 
 
Improvement and Use of Site. 195 
 
 come unsightly, but if kept trimmed they make an attractive 
 shrub. They are classed by botanists with birches, oaks, and 
 hazels. 
 
 2. Arbor Vitae. No more sightly shrub can be found for 
 a hedge than arbor vitae. It is also beautiful in clumps. It 
 improves noticeably when mulched with chips. In the northern 
 part of our country it is likely to winter-kill, but in most sections 
 it can withstand exposure with impunity. 
 
 3. The Japanese Barberry is an excellent shrub to plant in 
 front of other shrubs or flowers which need protection, as the 
 prickly branches are repellant in their nature. 
 
 4. The Burning Brush or Strawberry Tree grows to a height 
 of about seven feet, has broad foliage, with small but showy 
 flowers in clusters. Blooms in June. 
 
 5. Choke-cherry. When left to grow without pruning, the 
 choke-cherry develops into a rambling tree, but it may be trained 
 into a beautiful bush which will prove an acquisition to any 
 school ground. 
 
 6. Cranberry. The high bush cranberry is an ornamental 
 shrub which may well find a place in the school yard. It has 
 large white flowers and blooms in May. 
 
 7. The Dogwood, of which two varieties are quite popular, 
 namely the red and the yellow, are particularly attractive in 
 winter on account of their bark. They flower in May, and their 
 dark green foliage turns crimson in autumn. 
 
 8. Elders are handsome shrubs, and have an enlivening 
 effect when grouped with other shrubs. They are plants of rapid 
 growth and dense foliage. 
 
 9. Flowering Currants are shrubs of deserved popularity. 
 The bush is showy, and the flowers spicily fragrant. There are 
 several varieties some of which bloom in May, and others from 
 this time on until July. 
 
 ID. Forsythias are very desirable because they bloom in 
 April and May. They grow to considerable height, some varieties 
 attaining twelve feet. The foliage is a deep, shining green, and 
 the flowers bright yellow and trurripet-shaped. The bush is also 
 known as the Golden Bell. 
 
 II. Hydrangea. This shrub is particularly showy in August 
 and September, when schools open. It has immense heads of 
 
196 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 creamy white flowers, which turn to pleasing shades of red with 
 the approach of winter. 
 
 12. Japan Quince is a desirable shrub for early spring effects. 
 It blooms in April, has scarlet flowers, and is showy in appear- 
 ance. 
 
 13. Kerria is a graceful shrub which grows to a height of 
 three or four feet. Its different varieties have flowers generally 
 white or yellow, which remain in bloom ordinarily from July to 
 October. 
 
 14. Lilacs are old favorites, well known and much prized in 
 early spring. The common flower is a beautiful purple, and 
 varieties have been developed of darker and lighter shades, one 
 variety being pure white. 
 
 15. Mock Orange is a very showy shrub in June, very sweet 
 scented, and of strong, rapid growth. 
 
 16. The Pearl Bush is a shrub which grows to a height of 
 ten or twelve feet. It blooms in May, and has pure white flowers. 
 
 17. The Snowball, a common and rightly popular shrub, 
 blooms in June. It may attain a height of from twelve to fifteen 
 feet, and has snowy white flowers. 
 
 18. The Snowberry is an excellent small shrub for shaded 
 places. It grows to be only about three or four feet high. Its 
 rose-colored flowers in July and August are followed by white 
 berries which, if unmolested, remain until winter. 
 
 19. Spirea. This class of shrubs is of easy cultivation and 
 rapid growth. There are a great number of varieties, known 
 popularly as meadow sweet, hard hack, goat's beard, queen of the 
 meadow, ninebark, bridal wreath, Anthony waterer, etc. Prob- 
 ably the best and most popular of all spireas in the Van Houttei, 
 whose long slender branches, covered with masses of white 
 flowers, arch until the tips touch the ground. It is generally in 
 bloom throughout May and June. 
 
 20. Sumach is an ornamental, vigorous, bushy grower, and 
 has a splendid autumn coloring, with showy spikes. It has a 
 number of varieties and grows from five to ten feet in height. 
 
 21. Wild Honey Suckle. This fine shrub, which blooms in 
 June, occurs in a number of varieties, some having pink, others 
 creamy white, and still others bright red flowers. Looks well 
 either in a clump or a hedge. 
 
Improvement and Use of Site. 197 
 
 WHAT VINES TO PLANT. 
 
 Any of the following which may be secured are suitable and 
 these should be planted around the schoolhouse and around the 
 lattice fence in the rear : Bitter-Sweet, Boston Ivy, English Ivy, 
 Crimson Rambler, Dutchman's Pipe, Trumpet Creeper, Virgin's 
 Bower, Wild Grape, Wistaria, Woodbine. 
 
 HOW TO PLANT TREES AND SHRUBS. 
 
 The hole should be dug large enough to contain all the roots 
 fully spread out. A bent root is an added affliction to the shock 
 the tree has sustained in being moved. The hole should also be 
 deep enough to allow the tree to stand two or three inches deeper 
 than it grew as a seedling. The bottom of the hole should have 
 a covering of rich black loam after which it should be slightly 
 moistened. The tree or shrub, with as much soil as will adhere 
 to it, should then be set in the hole, and all roots carefully spread 
 out. The soil that is filled in around the roots should be pul- 
 verized, and packed solid with the foot. As this is done the tree 
 should be pulled gently upward in order to have the soil pack 
 close to the roots on all sides. The upper two inches of loam 
 should not be packed down but allowed to remain as a dust 
 blanket, so as to keep the moisture in the soil underneath. Of 
 course, the dirt should not be hilled up around the tree, but should 
 rather be hollowed out so as to catch the water. 
 
 A rainy day is the best day for planting trees and shrubs, 
 although there is such a thing as planting in too wet soil. Spring 
 planting is also generally more productive of good results than 
 fall planting. Trees and shrubs should be well pruned immed- 
 iately before setting out, in order not to throw too heavy a burden 
 of support upon the lacerated roots. Watering of newly sdt out 
 trees and shrubs is necessary only when the spring rains fail to 
 keep the ground in a moist condition. It is more essential to 
 .keep weeds and grasses away from the tree during the first 
 summer, and rake up the ground around the tree so as to keep 
 it finely pulverized. 
 
 The planting of trees and shrubs should be made an occasion 
 for public exercises. In a great number of states arbor day 
 bulletins are published by the office of the state superintendent 
 of education, and excellent programs for such exercises have 
 
198 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 been worked out in these bulletins. Educatioilal journals also 
 contain, at appropriate seasons of the year, valuable suggestions 
 for such exercises. 
 
 THE SCHOOL GARDEN. 
 
 The country school garden must, of course, be of a different 
 type from that of the city garden. In the country, children do 
 not as a rule, need any instruction in school as to preparation 
 of soil, plahting of seed, cultivation of plants, methods of harvest- 
 ing and storing for winter use. But in the country the children 
 lack the flower gardens and the walks of the city parks. They 
 have no place at home which corresponds in size or design to the 
 park. In order to have this there must be community ownership, 
 and the grounds must be open to all who choose to enter. 
 
 But the children have their own little flower gardens at their 
 homes, and they have in many sections of the country the magni- 
 ficent wild flower gardens which nature has so generously 
 scattered everywhere. Are not these sufficient? Why should a 
 city park idea be incorporated in a rural community? 
 
 These questions may well be asked, particularly as public men 
 frequently assert that the present day movement of rural improve- 
 ment does not contemplate the transplanting of city institutions in 
 rural soil. The stemming of the tide cityward, they say, cannot 
 be accomplished by bringing city attractions to the country, but 
 by substituting for the drudgery of country life the better way of 
 doing things, so that there may be some time for real living and 
 social enjoyment. The schoolhouse is naturally the community 
 center when school is in session. Why should it not also be the 
 center during the summer vacation? The only answer to this is 
 that there are no conditions at present which tend to make it the 
 center during the summer. The building is left uncared for, the 
 grounds are neglected ; and when a summer gathering is proposed, 
 some nearby village or city generally offers some inducement to 
 have the people from the surrounding country meet in a park or 
 grove suitable for such purpose. This promotes good fellowship 
 between country and city people, and should not be discontinued. 
 The participation in such gatherings is necessary in order to 
 overcome the effects of narrow and familiar surroundings. But 
 these gatherings do not come often enough, and smaller gather- 
 
Improvement and Use of Site. 199 
 
 ings of people who have local interests in common ought to be 
 possible near home. These meetings will tend to bring about a 
 social cohesion, by means of which local progress and develop- 
 ment will be made possible. With trees and shrubs and lawn 
 about the schoolhouse, and play apparatus for the children, why 
 should not the schoolhouse grounds be the ideal place for picnics, 
 outdoor sports, and neighborhood meetings? If added to these 
 features there is also a flower garden, a mighty incentive is 
 created to visit and enjoy this, and it becomes a comparatively 
 easy matter to make these community gatherings both possible 
 and popular. This, of course, implies that the school grounds 
 are ample in size, so that the playground does not encroach upon 
 the garden or the lawn. 
 
 Such grounds will naturally require care ; and the most satis- 
 factory way is to hire a man during the summer to look after the 
 school grounds, keep the lawn mowed, and the flower beds clean. 
 Measured by the results which may be secured, such expendi- 
 ture is as fully justified as the teacher's salary. In some states 
 the law provides that the school board shall have power to plant 
 trees and shrubs, and otherwise improve school sites ; and in such 
 states the expenditure is clearly within authorization by law. In 
 other states where there is no such provision, it will be necessary 
 to secure legal advice before making any contract for such ser- 
 vices. But if the grounds cannot be cared for in this manner, 
 there is still a way open by means of which each family in the dis- 
 trict may assume the responsibility for the school grounds for one 
 week and so pass the work around, until every family has had 
 its turn. By this means the work need not become burdensome, 
 as in many districts it will require two or three years to get 
 around to each family. 
 
 If provision is made for the care of the grounds when school 
 is not in session, teachers and pupils can do all the necessary 
 work of preparing the soil and putting in the seed in the spring 
 before school closes. By a judicious choice of annuals and 
 perennials, this work, after it has once been started, can be 
 handled very easily ; but the first year there should be a neighbor- 
 hood bee, when the men should get out and see that the grounds 
 are laid out according to plan, and prepared in the proper manner 
 for the planting of seeds. The following list of annuals and 
 
200 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 perennials, it is hoped, will prove helpful in making a choice of 
 flowers for the garden. 
 
 ANNUAL FLOWERS. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Ageratum 
 Amarantbus 
 
 Aster 
 
 Bachelor's 
 
 Button 
 Balsam 
 
 Candytuft 
 
 Canterbury 
 
 Bell 
 Castor Bean 
 
 Cosmos 
 
 Four O'clock 
 
 Heliotrope 
 
 Lobelia 
 
 Marigold 
 
 Mignonette 
 
 Morning 
 Glory 
 Nasturtium 
 Nasturtium 
 
 Nicotlana 
 
 Pansy 
 
 Petunia 
 
 Pink 
 
 Portuculaca 
 Salvia 
 Snapdragon 
 
 Stocks 
 Summer 
 Cypress 
 
 Sunflower 
 
 Sweet 
 
 Alyssum 
 Sweet Pea 
 
 Sweet 
 
 William 
 Zinnia 
 
 Height. 
 
 2 feet also 
 
 dwarf 
 2 to 3 feet 
 
 2 feet 
 
 16 to 24 
 inches 
 1 to 2 feet 
 
 1 foot 
 
 2 to 4 feet 
 
 3 to 10 feet 
 
 4 to 6 feet 
 2 feet 
 
 16 to 24 
 
 inches 
 6 inches 
 2 feet 
 8 to 12 
 
 inches 
 Twiner 
 
 Twiner 
 Dwarf 1 foot 
 
 2 to 3 feet 
 
 4 to 6 
 
 inches 
 8 to 12 
 
 inches 
 
 1 to 2 feet 
 
 2 to 6 
 inches 
 
 3 feet 
 
 18 t- 24 
 inches 
 
 1 to 2 feet 
 24 to 30 
 inches 
 
 1 to 9 feet 
 6 inches 
 
 2 to 10 feet 
 
 1 foot 
 
 2 feet 
 
 Color. 
 
 White, Blue 
 
 Leaves red and 
 
 spotted, no 
 
 flower 
 White, Blue, 
 
 Lavender, Red 
 Red, White, 
 
 Blue 
 White, Red, 
 
 Mixed 
 White, Lilac, 
 
 Red 
 Blue to Red 
 
 Apetalous 
 flowers 
 
 White, Pink, 
 
 Lavender 
 Purple, Red, 
 
 White 
 Tiny blue 
 
 Blue 
 Orange 
 All colors 
 
 White, Pink, 
 
 Purple 
 Orange, Crimson 
 Orange, Crimson 
 
 White, Violet 
 
 All colors 
 
 All colors 
 
 White, Pink, 
 
 Red, Maroon 
 All colors 
 
 Scarlet 
 
 White, Crimson, 
 etc. 
 
 Variety 
 
 Small red flower 
 
 Yellow 
 
 White 
 
 All colors 
 
 Crimson, White, 
 
 etc. 
 All colors 
 
 In Bloom 
 
 All Summer 
 .\I1 Summer 
 
 Aug.-Oct, 
 
 .\ug. to Frost 
 
 .Tuly-August 
 
 June- July 
 
 July 
 
 AH Summer 
 
 Aug.-Sept. 
 
 July-August 
 
 July-August 
 
 July-August 
 June- August 
 May to frost 
 
 July to frost 
 
 All Summer 
 AH Summer 
 
 All Summer 
 
 June- October 
 
 All Summer 
 
 AH Summer 
 All Summer 
 August-October 
 August 
 
 July-August 
 All Summer 
 
 July-October 
 
 July-September 
 
 June-October 
 
 ,1 ! . ■ .1 
 
 Early summer 
 July-August 
 
 Remarks 
 
 Unexcelled for 
 
 borders 
 Beautiful foliage 
 
 Very showy 
 Bushy 
 Tall stems 
 Branching stems 
 
 Good 
 
 background 
 Ornamental 
 
 foliage 
 
 Showy flowers 
 
 Hardy 
 
 Half hardy 
 
 Fine edging 
 
 Hardy 
 
 Start in house 
 
 Fence ornament 
 
 Trellis covering 
 
 Flowers 
 profusely 
 
 Brilliant 
 flowers 
 
 Diversity of 
 colors 
 
 Beautiful com- 
 bination of 
 colors 
 
 Brilliancy of 
 color 
 
 Sunny location 
 
 Bushy, needs 
 sunshine 
 
 Flower spikes 
 keep well after 
 being cut 
 
 Need rich soil 
 
 Bush changes 
 from green to 
 fiery red 
 
 Plant 3 feet 
 apart 
 
 Thrives every- 
 where 
 
 Popular and fra- 
 grant 
 
 Easy of culture 
 
 All situations 
 and soils 
 
Improvement and Use of Site. 
 PERENNIAL FLOWERS. 
 
 201 
 
 Name. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Color. 
 
 In Bloom 
 
 Remarks 
 
 Anemone 
 
 6 to 12 
 inches 
 
 All colors 
 
 All Summer 
 
 Produce abund- 
 ant flowers 
 
 Carnation 
 
 8 to 10 
 inches 
 
 All colors 
 
 August-October 
 
 Hardy and Half 
 hardy 
 
 Chrysanthe- 
 
 15 to 30 
 
 Red, Yellow, 
 
 Autumn 
 
 Fine Perennial 
 
 mum 
 
 inches 
 
 White 
 
 
 
 Coreopsis 
 
 2 to 3 feet 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Summer 
 
 Thrives any- 
 where 
 
 Columbine 
 
 18 to 36 
 inches 
 
 White, Blue, 
 etc. 
 
 Summer 
 
 Moist ground 
 
 Foxglove 
 
 4 to 5 feet 
 
 White, Red, 
 
 etc. 
 Yellow 
 
 Summer 
 
 Easy to grow 
 
 Golden Glow 
 
 4 to 8 feet 
 
 Summer 
 
 Very hardy 
 
 Goldenrod 
 
 3 to 5 feet 
 
 Yellow 
 
 Autumn 
 
 Very hardy 
 
 Hollyhock 
 
 4 to 10 feet 
 
 Pink, Rose, etc 
 
 All Summer 
 
 FreCLuently 
 winter-kills 
 
 Honeysuckle 
 
 
 Yellow, Red, etc. 
 
 Summer 
 
 Healthy grower, 
 climbs high 
 
 Iris 
 
 G to 36 
 inches 
 
 White, Crimson, 
 etc. 
 
 June-July 
 
 Perfectly hardy 
 
 Larkspur 
 
 12 to 18 
 
 Bright Blue, 
 
 July-August 
 
 Straight fine 
 
 
 inches 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 leaves 
 
 Lily 
 
 3 to 5 feet 
 
 White, etc. 
 
 Summer 
 
 Good rich soil 
 
 Peony 
 
 2 feet 
 
 Variety 
 
 Summer 
 
 Bush-like plants 
 
 Pink 
 
 1 foot 
 
 Variety 
 
 May-June 
 
 Vigorous 
 
 Phlox 
 
 1 foot 
 
 White, Pink, 
 Lavender, Red 
 
 June-August 
 
 Often falls over, 
 stalky and 
 hardy 
 
 Poppy 
 
 18 to 36 
 Inches 
 
 Yellow, White, 
 etc. 
 
 June-October 
 
 Hardy, gorgeous 
 
 Stokesia 
 
 18 to 24 
 Inches 
 
 White, Lavender 
 
 July-October 
 
 Open sunny loca- 
 tion 
 
 Verbena 
 
 1 foot 
 
 Blue, Pink, 
 White, etc. 
 
 All Summer 
 
 Half hardy 
 
 PLAYGROUND APPARATUS. 
 
 The equipment best suited to a playground should depend 
 largely upon the preference shown by children for different forms 
 of apparatus. While it is always well to use caution in making 
 the selection, the fact that children may get hurt in using the 
 apparatus should not be the controlling factor in arriving at a 
 choice, for in such a case all really desirable pieces of apparatus 
 would be eliminated. The natural instinct of self-preservation 
 will lead children to avoid danger, while accidents will happen 
 occasionally to a small number regardless of the precaiitions 
 taken to avoid them. The various pieces of playground apparatus 
 now on the market — and they are generally preferable to any 
 home made apparatus — have been tested out in so many places 
 that no one can very well go wrong in making a selection. 
 
 The argument is often advanced that country school children 
 
202 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 Fig. 112. Giant's Stride. 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 Travelling Rings. 
 
 Fig. 114. The See-Saw. 
 
Improvement and Use of Site. 
 
 203 
 
 have so little time to play during the day that play apparatus is 
 unnecessary. In the northern part of our country the argument 
 is also used that during the greater part of the school year the 
 weather is such as to preclude much use of the school playground. 
 Both of these arguments are based on too serious a view of the 
 actual conditions. Every child can and should, during recesses 
 and noon intermission, get in an hour of healthful play each day, 
 and while some days and even weeks in the winter are too cold 
 for the use of such apparatus, there is much time in the fall and 
 the spring of the year when children are able to enjoy the 
 apparatus without the slightest inconvenience. 
 
 Give them a chance for innocent sport, 
 Give them a chance for fun — 
 Better a playground plot than a court 
 And a jail when the harm is done! 
 Give them a chance — if you stint them now, 
 Tomorrow you'll have to pay 
 A larger bill for a darker ill, 
 So give them a place to play ! 
 
 — D. A. McCarthy. 
 
 It is not merely physical 
 exercise which they get, it is 
 not only a happy hour which 
 they spend, but it is a de- 
 velopment of mind and body 
 which results in a gener- 
 ous mental attitude towards 
 others and a physical excel-, 
 lence of which children feel 
 justly proud. The social 
 value of play is one of the 
 greatest of its benefits. 
 Watch a little tot 5 or 6 
 years old digging a solitary 
 
 hole in the ground, and notice how irritated he at once becomes 
 when someone else of his own age comes near and tries to dig 
 another hole. In a year or two at school this attitude has dis- 
 appeared. He seeks companionship in play, and endeavors to 
 excel his companions by competing with them under the rules of 
 
 
 Fig. 115. Horizontal Bar. 
 
204 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 Fig. 116. Inclined Steel Poles and Ladder. 
 
 Fig. 117. The Chute. 
 
 Fig. 118. Parallel Bars. 
 
Improvement and Use of Site. 
 
 205 
 
 Pig. 119. Flying Kings. 
 
 the game. He seeks his own individual advancement over that 
 of his fellows, and feels highly elated over others in so doing. 
 He dares others to follow where he leads. But a few years later 
 he has subordinated his individual interests to those of the team 
 to which he belongs. He has now begun to find himself as a 
 member of society, and the better he has learned to respect others 
 the more useful a member is he likely to become. At the play 
 apparatus he has learned to 
 take his turn, and he has 
 also learned that in order 
 to merit the approval of 
 others, he must show a 
 generous disposition to- 
 ward all with whom he 
 plays. Many children have 
 unfortunately been denied 
 the benefits of good whole- 
 some play, and as older 
 people they never appre- 
 ciate as they should the 
 real value it possesses. ^^^ 120. The swing. 
 
206 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 A complete equipment may be made a matter of growth. One 
 or two pieces of apparatus purchased each year for three or four 
 years will ordinarily result in securing all the really desirable 
 pieces for a country school. The illustrations given will enable 
 teachers and school boards to make such selection as may seem 
 desirable. The slide or chute, the giant's stride, the see-saw, the 
 swing, the horizontal bar, the flying rings, th"e traveling rings, 
 the inclined steel poles and ladder, are all worthy of a place on 
 the rural school ground. 
 
 PLATTING THE GROUNDS. 
 
 With the conditions clearly in mind as to the purposes for 
 which the school ground is to be used a plat should be made of 
 the entire site. The size of the site will determine the number 
 of features for which provision may be made. It is difficult to 
 give any general directions as to how a school ground should be 
 platted. Each site has its own problems as to shape, adjoining 
 roads, condition of soil, slope, suitable space for playground and 
 natural growth of trees and shrubs. If the platting is delayed 
 until after the schoolhouse has been erected, the location of the 
 building and the outhouses add to the difficulty of a satisfactory 
 arrangement. It may, however, be of interest to notice how 
 certain grounds have been laid out. 
 
 So many rural school sites consist of a square piece of land, 
 measuring one or two acres, that it seems desirable to take up 
 this form, although a site of such shape does not always permit 
 of a choice arrangement. The dimensions of such sites reduced 
 to feet would be for one acre 208.7 feet by 208.7 ^^^t and for 
 two acres 295.2 feet by 295.2 feet. 
 
 The schoolhouse cannot very well be placed in the center of 
 such site or on a center line, as the grounds in such a case would 
 not afford the most advantageous play spaces. Various attempts 
 at laying out such grounds have invariably resulted in locating 
 the schoolhouse well toward one side. Such is the arrangement 
 of the grounds in a number of rural districts in Illinois, Kansas, 
 and perhaps other states, where the subject has been given some 
 thought. Such is also the plan of the Oregon Chapter of the 
 American Institute of Architects shown in Fig. 121, which plan 
 
Improvement and Use of Site. 
 
 207 
 
 appears in a recent bulletin on school architecture issued by State 
 Superintendent Churchill. This plan is particularly well worked 
 out and deserves careful study. 
 
 The school grounds need not by any means be uniform, but 
 they should be characterized by: 
 
 Fig. 121. Oregon Plan for Rural School Grounds. 
 
 1. Open spaces for play. 
 
 2. Trees and shrubs in masses. 
 
 3. A small well-kept lawn. 
 
 4. Playground apparatus. 
 
 By keeping these features in mind a number of different 
 arrangements of walks, trees, shrubbery and playground spaces 
 may be worked out. 
 
208 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 An oblong site permits of a number of different arrangements, 
 and suggestions in regard to such sites are found in bulletins 
 issued for schools in Iowa and South Carolina. The plat given 
 below is one which has been planned for a Minnesota rural school 
 facing the south. (Fig. 122.) 
 
 'iik>M^.A-i:y, 
 
 Fig. 122. Minnesota Plan for Rural School Grounds. 
 
The Teacher's Home. 209 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE TEACHER'S HOME. 
 
 In most places the teacher comes into the community in which 
 she is to teach, a day or so before school opens. She confers 
 with the members of the school board or some other persons who 
 are acquainted in the school district, about a place in which to 
 live. It sometimes happens that she secures room and board in 
 a home where conditions are highly satisfactory, where she can 
 have a pleasant, comfortable room to herself, and where she is 
 made to feel at home. More often it happens that no such home, 
 open to the teacher, is found in the community. She has then to 
 live with some family which out of consideration for her open 
 their home, and do the best they can for her. She may have to 
 share her room with a daughter in the family, or take a room 
 which is not comfortably heated during the cold months of the 
 year. Many times the conditions under which she has to live are 
 such that she is unable to do her school work in a satisfactory 
 manner, as her home gives her very little opportunity for study 
 and self-improvement. 
 
 On this account there has sprung up a demand for a teacher's 
 home in connection with the school. Where single men have 
 been engaged as teachers, they have occasionally fitted up a small 
 room in the schoolhouse, and prepared their own meals as well 
 as slept there. Young women teachers in adjoining districts have 
 sometimes clubbed together and made a home for themselves in a 
 schoolhouse, or else have secured a house in which to live. As 
 this, however, is impossible in most rural districts, the question 
 of building a teacher's home is one which is receiving consider- 
 able attention at the present time. School boards are realizing 
 more than ever that, if good teachers are to be secured and 
 retained, it is necessary for them to have comfortable homes in 
 which to live. Sometimes a teacher may have a mother, a sister, 
 or a friend that desires to live with her, and in such a case a 
 teacher's home will be very much appreciated. Sometimes two 
 or three teachers have their schools close enough together so that 
 they may arrange to live together. 
 
210 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 A model plan for such a home has been suggested by State 
 Supt. Josephine Corliss Preston, of Washington, in a bulletin 
 issued in 1915. (Fig. 123.) 
 
 Fig. 123. Model Teacher's Cottage, Commonwealth of Washington. 
 
 In England, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, France 
 and Switzerland, country-school teachers are usually provided 
 with free homes, ranging from three-room suites to seven- or 
 eight-room houses. In this country the idea is comparatively new, 
 and Washington claims the distinction in having originated the 
 movement in this country in 1905. At the present time the state 
 has more than one hundred such cottages, and the movement has 
 spread into such states as Arkansas, California, Colorado, 
 Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, Mississippi, Mis- 
 souri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New York, North Carolina, 
 North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, South 
 Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, and Utah. 
 
 With regard to this cottage State Superintendent Preston says : 
 "This provides accommodation for two teachers, or a teacher and 
 his family. The living room is 13 by 19 feet, and is sufficiently 
 
The Teacher's Home. 
 
 211 
 
 large for the dining table in one end. This room is made large 
 so it may be used for receptions, meetings of the school classes, 
 mothers' meetings, and all such assemblies in the interest of the 
 domestic, social and educational life of the community. The 
 bedroom is provided with a feed alcove enclosed with folding glass 
 doors. The window at the end is large and is arranged to open 
 the whole size. With this arrangement the alcove may be con- 
 
 Fig. 124. Floor Plan Model Teacher's Cottage, Washington. 
 
 verted into a fresh air sleeping room by opening the window and 
 closing the folding doors. A large clothes closet is provided. 
 
 "The kitchen is arranged with a sink, cupboard with shelves, 
 drawers and a cool closet division. A bathroom is also shown. 
 The hot water tank for the bath and sink will be placed in the 
 bathroom. A small cellar is also provided. Both the front and 
 rear entrance have small porches." 
 
 In certain rural districts a home for the teacher has been 
 provided in the school building itself. She has occupied it with 
 some friend or relative or teacher of a neighboring school. Some- 
 
212 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 times this home has been secured by building an addition to the 
 rear of the school building, and at other times an unused school- 
 room has been partitioned ofif in such manner as to make fairly 
 comfortable living quarters. Such a home, however, is certain to 
 become unsatisfactory except as a temporary refuge from less 
 tolerable conditions. 
 
 If a teacher's home is to be made a part of the school building 
 it is necessary that it be made a part of the original plan. 
 
 Fig. 125. Schoolhouse and Teacher's Home. 
 
 Fig. 125 shows one type of schoolhouse in which a teacher's 
 home has been planned on the second floor over the front part of 
 the school building. The vestibule, library, coatrooms and a 
 girls' toilet room are on the first floor below the teacher's rooms. 
 These are eight and one-half feet high. The teacher's rooms 
 above are the same height. The schoolroom is, however, twelve 
 feet high. 
 
The Teacher's Home. 
 
 213 
 
 The schoolroom (Fig. 126) is of standard size for forty 
 pupils. The coatrooms, library and vestibule are sufficiently 
 large for the number of pupils for which the building provides. 
 The front entrance of the schoolhoUse is the front door of the 
 teacher's home as well. A side entrance is also provided on grade 
 level on the south side, at the first landing of the basement stair- 
 way. Immediately inside the front door is the stairway to the 
 basement. Just beyond this stairway is the door to the stairs for 
 the second floor. These stairs are in two runs and lead directly 
 
 SCHOOLE-OOn 
 
 UTtrmii»A9 
 
 ^IKST FLOOR- 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 to the teacher's living room. A kitchen and a bed room is found 
 on one side of the living room and a bath room on the other. 
 (Fig. 127.) 
 
 The sizes of the rooms are as follows : 
 
 Kitchen — 11 ft. 6 in. by 6 ft. 4 in. 
 
 Bed room — 1 1 ft. 6 in. by 6 ft. 4 in. 
 
 Living room — 9 ft. by 12 ft. 
 
 Bath room— 6 ft. 6 in. by 8 ft. 
 
214 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 The kitchen is furnished with a range, a cupboard, a table, 
 and a sink with hot and cold water. The bedroom is small, but 
 is well arranged so that a full sized bed may be placed next to the 
 partition between it and the living room. There is also plenty 
 of room for a dresser and chairs. A small closet adjoins the 
 bedroom. The living room has a built-in book case and a small 
 closet for hats and wraps. It also has a comfortable seat with a 
 heat register under it. The bathroom is equipped in accordance 
 with modern standards for a good and comfortable home. 
 
 It will be seen by looking 
 over the floor plans that the 
 toilet rooms have been' placed 
 one over the other, thus 
 effecting considerable saving 
 in the matter of plumbing. 
 The girls' toilet room on the 
 first floor has a door leading 
 directly to the schoolrbom, as 
 this room should be under the 
 teacher's immediate supervis- 
 ion. It will be noticed that 
 her desk is in the same end 
 of the room as this door. The 
 boys' toilet room is in the 
 basement and is entered from 
 the basement hall. All three 
 toilet rooms have south light 
 which is conceded to be the 
 most desirable direction from 
 ^^^- ■^^*- which to obtain light for these 
 
 rooms, owing to the germicidal effects of the sun's rays. 
 
 The water supply system includes a pump operated by a hot 
 air, or gasoline engine, a water pressure tank, and a hot water 
 tank. The sewage system consists of iron pipes inside the build- 
 ing and tile outside leading to a sewage disposal tank of a type 
 approved by the state board of health. 
 
 The heating system designed for this building is a warm air 
 gravity furnace. The furnace is very large, and the grate area 
 and heating surface is computed so as to heat the building 
 
 iAie:M£itT rtooe 
 
The Teacher's Home. 215 
 
 adequately in the coldest winter weather if properly operated. 
 The furnace, fuel, and pump rooms are made fireproof as to 
 walls, doors, and floor, and the ceiling is highly fire resistive. 
 
 The large room in the basement (Fig. 128) designated as play- 
 room is also the lunchroom, the social center room, and the 
 workroom for boys and girls. The small kitchen adjoining fur- 
 nishes a convenient means whereby the hot noonday lunch, or 
 the evening refreshments for social gatherings, may be easily 
 prepared. 
 
 The American School Board Journal contained in July, 1916, 
 an admirable article on teachers' homes, written by John Y. 
 Dunlop, Esq., Craighead, Glasgow, Scotland. This article, in 
 part, is as follows : 
 
 "In England it has been the custom for many years to erect, 
 in connection with rural schools, teachers' villas, and these, 
 whether on a combined plan or erected near the schoolhouses, 
 have no doubt well paid the communities for their enterprise. 
 
 "The English board of education has adopted a set of rules 
 to assist school boards and their architects to design and erect 
 compact, convenient and economical school villas, according to 
 their needs. These rules require that the teacher's home must 
 contain a parlor, a kitchen, a scullery and bedrooms. The smallest 
 dimensions which can be approved are : 
 
 Parlor, 12 feet by 12 feet. 
 
 Kitchen, 12 feet by 10 feet. 
 
 One bedroom not less than 12 feet by 10 feet. 
 
 One bedroom not less than 9 feet by 8 feet. 
 
 Minimum height of ceilings, 8 feet to wall plate; and 7 feet 
 to wall plate and 9 feet to ceiling where there is a camp ceiling. 
 
 "The house must be planned so that the staircase is immed- 
 iately accessible from an entrance lobby and from the parlor, 
 kitchen and each bedroom, without making a passage of any 
 room. Each bedroom must have a fireplace. The parlor should 
 not open directly into the kitchen or scullery. There should be 
 no internal communication between the residence and the school. 
 Windows should be carried up as near to the ceiling as practical. 
 There should be a separate and distinct yard with Office. 
 
 "Apart from these simple rules, the architect is advised to 
 make a thoroughly comfortable house. Every room must be 
 
216 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 Fig. 129. A Four-room Cottage for a Teacher. 
 
 Fig. 130. Floor Plan, Teacher's Four-room House. 
 
The Teacher's Home. 217 
 
 planned by itself and for its own use, and the designer is advised 
 to plot upon his plan the disposition of the furniture. 
 
 "In the houses which are most valued by teachers the primary 
 living rooms are a difiing room for meals, a drawing room for 
 ladies and a supplementary room for meetings on community 
 matters. 
 
 "In rooms intended for those purposes the board of education 
 has decided that there are three features in the plan to be con- 
 sidered, namely, the fireplace, one or more windows and the door. 
 Generally speaking, all the fireplaces are to be found in the middle 
 of one or other of the sides of the room. The window, or 
 windows, are placed in the middle of one of the other sides, and 
 the door on a side at right angles to the window." 
 
 "In this country one of the inducements to the rural teacher 
 is to be able to live in the country, and when a position includes 
 free house, coal and light, there is, as a rule, no end to applica- 
 tions for appointment. Not that the teacher expects to get the 
 same salary as the city teacher, plus the extras referred to. Most 
 country school boards reduce the salary by a small sum for the 
 use of the teacher's house. If the community has erected a house 
 at say, 500 pounds, it is entitled to recover sufiScient to pay the 
 tax, interest on the investment, upkeep and other expenses. 
 
 "Ample coal is usually supplied to the teacher for heating and 
 cooking. Light is another item which is granted free, although 
 in some districts a limit of expense is set by the school boards. 
 Such renovations as may be required from time to time are made 
 at public expense. 
 
 "The teacher's cottage has become an important feature in 
 the administration of rural schools, because the people take a 
 decided interest in it. They feel that the teacher's presence has a 
 marked influence upon the community, and that this influence is 
 broadened and strengthened when the teacher lives in a model 
 dwelling and works under the most wholesome conditions." 
 (See Figs. 129-130.) 
 
218 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 CHAPTER XI 1 
 
 WATER SUPPLY. 
 
 In the light of modern knowledge as to what constitutes a 
 safe water supply and the means for making this available for 
 drinking purposes, no valid excuse can longer be given for 
 neglecting to protect the children from any menace to health due 
 to contamination of either the source of supply or of the means 
 of placing the water within the reach of the children. 
 
 Clean, pure water is an absolute necessity to health and com- 
 fort. Nearly all the cells of our bodies live and thrive only in 
 water, and it is common knowledge that more than five-sixths of 
 our weight and bulk are made up of water. Each one of us 
 needs, in fact, six glasses of water a day to make up for the loss 
 of water we sustain in washing out the wastes from the tissues 
 and organs of the body and in evaporation from the skin. At 
 times we require even more than this. The supply should, there- 
 fore, be both generous and pure. 
 
 Drinking water must be clear, palatable, without odor, and 
 free from disease germs. Unless it fulfills all four of these con- 
 ditions, it is unsuitable for drinking purposes. Fortunately, 
 nature has provided us with water possessing these characteristics 
 in most places where we have chosen to live, and in most of the 
 rural districts it becomes largely a matter of properly protecting 
 the available supply. When contamination has taken place, the 
 water can be purified by boiling. Generally such water loses its 
 palatability, as the boiling drives off the air and precipitates most 
 of the salts. Domestic filters should not be depended upon for 
 continued use, as they are bound to become clogged and are 
 difficult to clean. The only satisfactory way is to secure a safe 
 supply and guard it from contamination. 
 
 The contamination most to be feared is that which produces 
 typhoid fever, dysentery, and hookworm. This is ordinarily due 
 to the fact that the germs of these diseases are conveyed to the 
 water supply from some one suffering from them. Too great 
 care cannot be taken in disposing of the bowel and bladder dis- 
 
Water Supply. 
 
 219 
 
 charges of those who have these diseases, as it is from compara- 
 tively fresh discharges that the infection takes place. Strong 
 disinfectants, like carbolic acid or formalin, should be poured into 
 the discharges, and a most careful washing of hands in water, 
 to which a few drops of carbolic acid has been added, should 
 follow on the part of those who care for the sick. Scrupulous 
 cleanliness is the only guarantee of immunity from these diseases, 
 except for vaccination against typhoid. But even so, all possible 
 care should be exercised that contagion may not spread. 
 
 Even with the source of supply well protected, there is still 
 danger of polluting the water in the pail or container from which 
 it is obtained for drinking purposes. Disease-producing bacteria 
 are very apt to be trans- 
 ferred from the common 
 pail or the common drink- 
 ing cup. Kansas was the 
 first state to prohibit the use 
 of the common drinking cup. 
 This was in 1909, and since 
 then nearly every state in 
 the Union has by law or 
 regulation abolished its use. 
 While the agitation against 
 the use of the common 
 drinking cup was at its 
 height, the cartoon given 
 
 herewith was much used in ^^S- 131. The common Drinking Cup. 
 
 the public press and bulletins issued by health authorities. The 
 cartoon is no exaggeration of this grave source of danger. 
 
 The supply from which drinking water is obtained in rural 
 districts is principally wells and springs. The water in the soil 
 is generally pure, unless it is too close to the surface to have 
 become polluted by drainage. A careful study of this question 
 has been made by the Division- of Sanitation of the State Board 
 of health of Minnesota, and a valuable pamphlet, issued first in 
 1915 and revised in 1917, entitled "Farm Water Supplies" has 
 been published and is available for distribution. The ten illus- 
 trations which follow have been generously furnished by the 
 Minnesota State Board of Health and show graphically condi- 
 
220 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 tions which insure safety as well as invite danger. (Figs. 132- 
 141.) 
 
 Ordinarily water from fifteen to twenty feet below the surface 
 is safe, as it is filtered by successive layers of soil, until animal 
 
 Fig. 132. Minnesota State Board of Health, DiTlsion of Sanitation. 
 Picturesque, but not Sanitary. 
 
 and vegetable impurities have been removed. It may have a 
 noticeable taste of salt, iron, or sulphur; but unless this is so 
 strong as to become offensive, the water is generally wholesome. 
 Hard water which holds in solution salts of lime and magnesia 
 is also safe, unless the minerals are present in unusual quantities. 
 
Water Supply. 
 
 221 
 
 Water impregnated with alkali such as is found in some of the 
 western states, is, however, unsafe and should not be used. 
 
 The well should always be located on ground which precludes 
 the possibility of any drainage towards it. The well should then 
 be constructed so that surface water may not get into it. The 
 
 WATELR BEARING. 
 
 SANb':,f.t^ 
 
 Fig. 133. Minnesota State Board of Health, Division of Sanitation. 
 Pollution of a Poorly Constructed Dug Well. 
 
 old form of a dug open well from which water was brought up 
 in a bucket (Fig. 132) attached to a rope or chain, made famous 
 by "The Old Oaken Bucket", is really a dangerous form, no 
 matter where it is located. The rope or chain is like to be soiled 
 by the hands, and the bucket by matter with which it comes in 
 contact at the surface. The well itself is liable to he polluted by 
 dust, leaves, and other material, which may be blown into it by the 
 
222 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 WATE.R BEARING 
 SAND 
 
 Fig. 135. Pollution of a Poorly Constructed Drilled Well 
 Minnesota State Board of Health, Division of Sanitation 
 
Water Supply. 
 
 223 
 
 wind. Lizards, toads, and other small animals are also liable to 
 get into it. 
 
 In order to make sure that foreign substances do not get into 
 a dug well, the cover should be made perfectly tight and the 
 ground should be sloped away from the well. The masonry 
 about the well must be made waterproof in order to prevent 
 leakage into the well below the cover. Owing to the difficulty of 
 protecting the water supply generally encountered in this form 
 
 stuffing Box 
 
 Hand Pump F'orce type 
 
 Pump bolted to 
 
 pump flange 
 Gasket 
 ■Pump flange . jcrevved 
 
 to casing 
 
 Concrete platfofm pourea 
 after pump is set 
 
 Well Cosing 
 Drop Pipe 
 
 Pump Cylinder 
 
 DRILLED WELL 
 
 PROPERLY CONSTRUCTED 
 Fig. 136. Minnesota State Board of Health, Division of Sanitation. 
 
 of construction, dug wells are not to be recommended. The com- 
 parative ease by means of which a bored, drilled, or driven well 
 may be constructed makes these much more desirable forms, and 
 the fact that the water supply can be much more easily protected 
 should result in the elimination of the dug well everywhere. 
 
224 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 ''■',' * • ■ • '."■■■ .'. , r* 
 
 
 m" 
 
 •a S 
 
 5 « 
 
 a a 
 
 o o 
 
 o o 
 B5 M 
 
 S 1 
 
Water Supply. 
 
 225 
 
 Pollution results from the failure to make the masonry walls 
 of the well water tight, as is shovwi by the illustrations, Figs. 133, 
 134. 135- 
 
 As can be readily seen, these dangers of pollution may be 
 
 -Vf«TtC-JbtALl«G.>.- 
 -J4 N J- o|C-pUVEL -■.■■;" 
 
 Fig. 138. Dug Well, Properly Constructed. 
 Minnesota State Board of Healtb, Division o( Sanitation. 
 
 overcome if care is exercised in construction, and the illustrations, 
 Figs. 136, 137, 138, show how this can best be accomplished. 
 
 Springs are not often available in the immediate proximity 
 of school buildings ; but as pupils occasionally carry water from 
 nearby springs, the illustrations (Figs. 139, 140) will show quite 
 convincingly how they may become polluted and how pollution 
 
226 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 may be avoided. It goes without saying that ground immediately 
 above the spring should be graded so that no surface water may 
 run in from rain or melting snow. Some springs, though well 
 protected from pollution on all sides, are left without a tight 
 cover. This omission is always dangerous, as pollution from 
 hands or feet may get into the water from those who fail to 
 realize the danger. Every spring should be fitted with a pipe, 
 from which the supply should be drawn. 
 
 Fig. 139. Pollution of Spring. 
 Jllnnesota State Board of Health, Dlvlsloa of Sanitation. 
 
 In places where cistern water must be used for drinking 
 purposes, it is necessary, first of all, to build the cistern absolutely 
 water tight, not only for the purpose of storing the supply, but 
 also to prevent pollution from without. A good cistern is con- 
 structed with two reservoirs, separated by a porus brick partition. 
 In the first reservoir the water is collected. It is filtered through 
 the brick wall, and is then drawn by means of a suitable pump 
 from the second reservoir, in which the filtered water is stored. 
 The down-spout from the roof should be fitted with a charcoal 
 filter in order to remove foreign substances which are liable to 
 
Water Supply. 
 
 227 
 
 be washed down. The spout should also be provided with a drain 
 which will allow the early rain to be diverted from the cistern, 
 because of the dirt which it carries down with it. Sometimes it 
 may be necessary to purify the water in the cistern, and in such 
 case the following procedure is recommended: For a cistern 
 with a capacity of loo barrels, dissolve one level teaspoonful of 
 chloride of lime in a cup of water. Pour it into a pail of water 
 
 Fig. 140. Spring, Properly Protected. 
 Minnesota State Board of Health, Division of Sanitation. 
 
 and let it stand until it settles. After it has settled, pour the 
 clear liquid into the cistern. The illustration which follows will 
 give a general idea of the best method of cistern construction and 
 the proper arrangement for securing a reasonably safe water 
 supply. 
 
 Ordinarily it is not a difficult matter to comply with the 
 requirements for a safe water supply. Nine-tenths of the prob- 
 lem consists in using good common sense with regard to the 
 selection of a site. For the remaining tenth it is only necessary 
 to secure the proper facilities for handling the water supply. 
 
228 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 The illustrations, previously shown, have included merely a 
 hand pump from which the water is drawn into a pail, because 
 this is still the common form, and is likely to be for a number 
 of years to come. The pail must, of course, be kept scrupulously 
 clean, and handled in such a way that no contamination may get 
 into the water. There are on the market a number of pressure 
 
 Fig. 141. Cistern, Properly Constructed. 
 Minnesota State Board of Health, Division of Sanitation. 
 
 fountains which have a container into which the water is poured 
 from a pail. The water from these fountains is made available 
 by releasing a valve that will allow the water to bubble from a 
 jet. If the water is pure when it is put into the container, it is 
 safe for drinking purposes. This form of water distribution is 
 a long step in advance of the stone jar with its faucet and the 
 
Water Supply. 229 
 
 individual cup. The individual cup is a serious matter to keep 
 clean and a still more serious matter to retain as an individual 
 possession. About the only way in which it can be made safe, is 
 to use paper cups which are kept in a clean receptacle and drawn 
 from there whenever they are needed. This is liable, however, 
 to prove more expensive in the long run than the fountain above 
 referred to. 
 
 Fig. 142. Typical Rural School Sanitary Drinking Fountain. 
 
230 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 TOILETS. 
 
 The notion that the country is a much more healthful place 
 in which to live than the city, and that conditions dangerous to 
 health are more common in the city than in the country is wide- 
 spread. It is, however, a question whether this notion is not 
 almost wholly erroneous. In many places in the country little 
 attention is paid to the proper disposal of wastes of the body. 
 The outdoor toilet is not always properly located with regard to 
 the water supply, and there is danger of contamination on this 
 account. Then again, the toilet is not built fly-proof, and another 
 very serious source of danger arises from the fact that flies carry 
 pollution from the toilet to the kitchen and the dining room. In 
 the city these dangers are quite generally averted by a sewage 
 system which carries away the wastes. In the country the danger 
 at the schoolhouse is even greater than at the home, because 
 children do not realize the gravity of such pollution ; and in the 
 fall of the year, in particular, they are liable to contract disease, 
 because the flies have carried disease germs from the toilet to 
 the noonday lunch or to the open waterpail. In the city such 
 a condition is not likely to occur, as the school is ordinarily 
 equipped with flush toilets. 
 
 There is a possibility of building a country schoolhouse with 
 provision for sewage disposal similar to that given in the city 
 schoolhouse, but the building must be kept warm so that water- 
 pipes will not freeze. It will also require a suitable tank to be 
 built for the proper treatment of the sewage, and a way of 
 discharging the treated sewage in the ground or on the surface. 
 Such tank should never be built without the approval of the 
 State Board of Health, as a mere reservoir which allows sewage 
 to flow through it, without treating it, is a very dangerous con- 
 trivance to have around. The tank must develop certain bacteria 
 which attack and destroy the bacteria harmful to human beings. 
 No general plans of such a tank can well be given, as local 
 conditions are likely to afifect the form of construction, and an 
 
Toilets. 231 
 
 engineer should be employed to lay out the entire system. Con- 
 solidated schools will, in most instances, be equipped with this 
 form of sewage disposal, and two-room rural schools may install 
 it, but the one-room school is likely for years to come to continue 
 to use the outdoor toilet. 
 
 How to build the outdoor toilet in safe manner is, therefore, 
 the important question. In some states the law or the rules of 
 the state board of health require that a vault be built of brick 
 or cement under the building, and that this vault be cleaned. 
 Other states merely require a fly-proof pit, which when filled 
 may be covered with earth, and the toilet moved to another 
 location. In most states no requirements of any moment are 
 made. Whatever may be the proper way of building the pit, 
 there is no question about putting up the building so that it may 
 be kept light and clean. It should be tight, and windows as well 
 as ventilation openings should be covered with screens. The door 
 should be equipped with a spring or weight which will keep it 
 shut when it is not held back. Seats should be built for children 
 and not for adults. In too many outdoor toilets the seats are too 
 high. This should be guarded against. In the boy's toilet there 
 should also be a urinal. This should never be a trough made 
 either of cement or galvanized iron, but should be a slanted non- 
 absorbent surface with a slit opening at the bottom;. Such a 
 urinal will not freeze up in winter, nor become offensive because 
 of the lack of water for cleaning as will be the case with the 
 trough. 
 
 There should always be separate toilets for the sexes, and 
 they should be far enough apart to avoid moral contagion. 
 Attempts to fix distance by arbitrary rules are unwise. The main 
 considerations are privacy and cleanliness. If these can be 
 secured, all other matters are secondary. A latticed enclosure 
 in front of the door to the toilet is always desirable. Shrubbery 
 and vines ought to be planted outside this lattice fence, which will 
 obscure the buildings from view. 
 
 Where a fuel storage room is required outside the building, 
 there may be an outbuilding put up which will provide for fuel 
 in the center of the building and toilet rooms at either end. The 
 floor plan given below will show the best interior arrangement 
 of such an out building. (Fig. 143.) 
 
232 
 
 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 In this type of building an open pit could not be used, as such 
 a building ought not to be moved. The water tight vault, which 
 could be emptied, would be one of the best ways of taking care 
 of the wastes from such a building. Another way would be to 
 place buckets under the seats. These buckets should be one-third 
 filled with a solution of formalin or other disinfectant. This 
 chemical will disinfect the excrements and a ventilation pipe from 
 the compartment in which the buckets are kept will carry away 
 all offensive odors. Such an arrangement is also deterrent of 
 flies. Before the bucket is completely filled, it should be carried 
 away and the contents buried. This is really the most sanitary 
 
 Fig. 143. Floor Plan of Outbuilding. 
 
 way in which to handle the problem of the outdoor toilet, as the 
 excrements are disinfected by the chemical at once, and danger 
 from contagion is removed. But it requires attention more often 
 than either the pit or the vault, though on the whole the time 
 consumed will be less in the aggregate than with either of the 
 other types. With the pit and the vault it is considered necessary 
 to scatter dust, ashes, or slacked lime over the excrements in order 
 to overcome the smell, absorb moisture, and deter flies. 
 
 Before proceeding with the erection of such buildings, it is 
 always advisable to look up the statutes .and such state regula- 
 tions as may be in existence. 
 
Supervision of Health. 233 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 _ SUPERVISION OF HEALTH. 
 
 The progress made in methods of instruction and organiza- 
 tion of schools is mainly due to the supervision exercised over 
 the educational features of the school. We think of the school, 
 first of all, as an institution established for the intellectual 
 advancement of children. Consequently we have emphasized the 
 intellectual processes by means of which progress has been 
 secured. This is perfectly logical, and has resulted in lifting the 
 content of the course of study from a fossilized level of isolated 
 facts to an animated atmosphere of related truths bearing upon 
 actual conditions of our social and industrial life. 
 
 In endeavoring, however, to determine the factors by which 
 progress has been made possible, other factors by which intel- 
 lectual development has been retarded have also come to light. 
 Some children have been found to be a year or more behind in 
 their studies, using accepted courses of study as a basis for deter- 
 mining their degree of advancement. After deducting such cases 
 as are plainly due to irregular and poor attendance and to sick- 
 ness, a great number still remain, where inability to keep up with 
 the work is painfully apparent. Too many such cases have 
 constantly been developing to make it possible to charge this 
 condition entirely to poor teaching. These children have, there- 
 fore, been set down as retarded and the question of the cause 
 of their retardation has naturally arisen. 
 
 In studying the various conditions which seem to bring about 
 retardation, it has been found that certain physical defects render 
 children less alert intellectually, and cause them to fall behind 
 other children who do not suffer from such defects. Gradually 
 we have, therefore, come to realize that, unless such physical 
 defects are remedied, children thus afflicted do not have an equal 
 chance with their more fortunate companions. We have also 
 come to realize that the prevalence of these defects is much 
 greater than one would naturally suppose. Investigations of 
 schools, both rural and urban, show that approximately seventy 
 
234 The Rural School Plaxt. 
 
 per cent of all school children are handicapped by one or more 
 defects. This does not mean that seventy per cent fall behind 
 in their work, because some children by sheer industry keep up 
 in their work, despite their handicap. Nor does it mean that 
 seventy per cent of each school can be said to be thus afflicted 
 as some schools show better conditions than others; but with the 
 schools of an entire county, for instance, as a unit, the percentage 
 above given has been repeatedly verified by a number of investi- 
 gators. 
 
 Admitting for"the sake of argument that the percentage given 
 is correct, it at once becomes apparent that intellectual advance- 
 ment alone would be materially promoted by having these defects 
 remedied. As in the case of educational supervision better con- 
 ditions have obtained, the inference is clear that better con- 
 ditions of health would naturally result from the proper kind 
 of supervision of health and better school work would follow. 
 
 Questioning the correctness of the number of children suffer- 
 ing from physical defects, there is still room for sufificient 
 argument in favor of supervision of health as the percentage 
 quoted is alarming and should be disproved, if unwarranted by 
 actual conditions. Furthermore, the true conditions ought to be 
 ascertained, in order that probable race deterioration may be 
 averted. 
 
 So far, investigations have been confined to the more common 
 and more easily recognized physical ailments of childhood. These 
 include defective teeth, eyes, and ears, enlarged tonsils, adenoids, 
 nervous disorders, anaemia, and contagious diseases. Not all the 
 cases have been sufficiently developed at one time to cause the 
 public to realize the gravity of the situation, and for this reason 
 it has been difficult to secure proper remedial measures. Every 
 family also rather expects that its children will have to contend 
 with certain physical ailments, whereas the opposite ought to be 
 true, since the natural thing to expect is health, not disease. 
 When, therefore, a child suffers noticeably from illness or some 
 physical defect, the general tendency is to accept the situation 
 and seeks to alleviate or remedy the condition of this one child, 
 without any reference to other children whose conditions may be 
 almost as bad, but have not become sufficiently acute to secure 
 similar attention. 
 
Supervision of Health. 235 
 
 What supervision of health is likely to reveal may be con- 
 jectured from various reports which have been compiler from 
 investigation made in various parts of our country. In 191 3 the 
 health department of the state of Pennsylvania through its chief 
 medical inspector, Dr. B. Franklin Royer, reported the results of 
 an examination of 300,000 rural school children in the state. 
 This report showed that approximately 
 
 30 per cent suffered from decayed teeth, 
 27 per cent from defective eyesight, 
 9 per cent from enlarged tonsils, 
 
 6.4 per cent from enlarged cervical glands, 
 2.9 per cent from defective hearing, 
 
 1.5 per cent from adenoids. 
 
 I per cent from malnutrition, 
 .2 per cent from tuberculosis, 
 .1 per cent from nervous diseases. 
 
 In his summary Dr. Royer shows that almost 75 per cent of 
 the children examined were suffering from some physical defect. 
 
 Another report of interest in this connection is one made by 
 Dr. N. K. Foster, Director of Health and Sanitation at Oakland, 
 California. Dr. Foster says : "We examined, in the school year 
 1911-12, 17,326 pupils. Of these 12,343 or 71 per cent were 
 more or less defective." A. tabulated report of defects shows 
 the following. 
 
 42.3 per cent suffered from decayed teeth, 
 29.9 per cent from enlarged tonsils, 
 20.6 per cent from defective eyesight, 
 
 7.5 per cent from enlarged glands, 
 
 6.6 per cent from defective hearing, 
 6.6 per cent from adenoids, 
 
 3.1 per cent from malnutrition, 
 
 .2 per cent from nervous diseases, 
 .01 per cent from diseases of the lungs. 
 
 Dr. Foster then gives a table of valuable information in regard 
 to the correction of these defects during the year 1911-12, as 
 follows : 
 
236 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 "Pupils reported for one or more defects 8,666 
 
 ]\ J response 4,395 5o.6 per cent 
 
 Responded 4,2/1 49.4 per cent 
 
 Glasses fitted ■ 385 
 
 Eyes treated 127 
 
 Throat or nose operations 572 
 
 Throat or nose treatment 245 
 
 Other operations 51 
 
 Skin treatment 137 
 
 Medical treatment 525 
 
 Hygenic treatment 508 
 
 Dental work 1,691 
 
 Christian Science treatment 30 
 
 4,271 
 In 1915, Dr. Healy, county health supervisor of Grand Forks 
 County, N. D., secured a school nurse who visited a number of 
 rural schools in the county and examined in all 824 pupils. Her 
 report showed the following conditions : 
 54 per cent suffered from decayed teeth, 
 29 per cent from enlarged tonsils, 
 26 per cent from defective eyesight, 
 15 per cent from adenoids, 
 6 per cent from enlarged glands, 
 5 per cent from defective hearing, 
 I per cent from malnutrition. 
 
 In March, 1913, State Superintendent T. H. Harris of 
 Louisiana sent out a letter in which he reported the results of an 
 examination made of the children in the Homer High School, 
 Claiborne parish. The medical examinations were made by Drs. 
 P. Gibson and W. L. Stone, assisted by Dr. W. M. Adams. The 
 dental examinations were made by Drs. Ford, Mitchell, and Nix. 
 Out of 308 children given the dental examination, 97 per cent 
 were found to have defective teeth. Out of 285 children given 
 the medical examination: 
 
 96 per cent suffered from defective eyesight, 
 
 42 per cent from defective hearing, 
 
 25 per cent from catarrhal or enlarged noses, 
 
Supervision of Health. 237 
 
 20 per cent from diseased tonsils, 
 
 12 per cent from adenoids. 
 
 In commenting upon these conditions state Supt. Harris 
 submits the following propositions as worthy of general accept- 
 ance. 
 
 "(i) An educated mind should be housed in a sound, healthy, 
 vigorous body. 
 
 "(2) Diseased children cannot make the proper advancement 
 in their school work, therefore, the state will save money by 
 seeing that school children are sound and healthy. A healthy 
 child can finish the school course a year or two ahead of a 
 diseased child. 
 
 "(3) Most parents will have their children treated when 
 attention is called to defects. Those who will not, should be 
 required to do so if they are able, and if they are not able, the 
 public should have the treatment administered. 
 
 "(4) Public school children will never be generally inspected 
 for physical defects until the law requires school officials to 
 employ experts to do the work." 
 
 Other reports might be cited, but these four have been 
 selected, because they represent conditions in widely distant parts 
 of the country. The variation in these reports may appear 
 singular, but the number of children examined as shown by the 
 last two reports is small as compared with the number in the 
 first two, and therefore the percentages can hardly be considered 
 to be on the same basis as those given in the first two reports. 
 It may seem unusual to find 97 per cent of the children suffering 
 from defective teeth, as shown by the examination of the Homer 
 High School pupils, but an investigation of the schools in the city 
 of Cleveland made in 1909 revealed identically the same condition. 
 It is also worthy of note that Dr. E. Jessen of Strassburg, Ger- 
 many, who is known internationally as a dental expert, gives, as 
 the result of his examinations of the school children of that city, 
 95.7 per cent as afflicted with defective teeth. 
 
 All of the reports, however, indicate the most urgent need of 
 supervision of health. It seems almost criminal that we permit 
 children to grow up with handicaps which we know greatly 
 reduce their physical, mental, and moral powers. How much 
 
238 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 better off would not the state be if it removed the handicaps so 
 that these people might render full service to society? Is it any 
 wonder that our charitable and correctional institutions are con- 
 stantly full, and at times more than full, when we neglect to 
 remove the conditions which in childhood render impossible the 
 complete physical, mental and moral development of our children ? 
 We cannot hope wholly to eradicate all defects, but we could so 
 greatly lessen their number that the maintenance of these institu- 
 tions would become much less of a burden than it is at the present 
 time. We are only reaping what we have sowed, and until we 
 have learned to sow properly, we shall continue to enlarge our 
 asylums and prisons. 
 
 Granting that supervision of health is necessary, that it would 
 increase individual efficiency, and that ultimately it would result 
 in a saving to the state by reducing the number of dependents 
 and delinquents, what would it cost per child ? So far no figures 
 are available which show what it would cost in rural districts, 
 but taking the reports for 191 5 we find that for the school systems 
 the per capita cost in the cities named below was : 
 
 Oakland $0.81 Chicago $0.53 
 
 New York 80 Boston 49 
 
 Pittsburgh . , 74 Philadelphia 46 
 
 Rochester 71 Milwaukee 43 
 
 Detroit 70 St. Louis 34 
 
 For rural schools it is reasonable to suppose that the cost 
 would be in excess of these amounts for the same kind of service, 
 on account of the greater distances which must be covered to 
 reach the same number of pupils. But even if the same kind of 
 service cannot be given, a beginning might well be made by giving 
 partial service, which would be a means of relief to a great many 
 children. Connecticut has a law which requires all teachers to 
 ascertain the condition of each child's sight and hearing. Ver- 
 mont, Massachusetts and Colorado have similar requirements in 
 their statutes. New York has a law, enacted in 1913, which 
 requires inspection of health in all public schools under the 
 direction of the school authorities. The state department of 
 Education advises that "in a rural school district, where it is not 
 feasible to employ a full-time inspector, the compensation of the 
 
Supervision of Health. 239 
 
 inspector may be made on a basis of the number of children 
 examined. The amount paid for each pupil should vary accord- 
 ing to the number of children to be examined, the distances which 
 inspectors are required to travel, the general accessibility of 
 schoolhouses, etc. The compensation should not exceed one 
 dollar for each pupil, and in many districts may be less." The 
 school nurse is also employed in rural districts under this law, 
 and is winning distinct recognition for her services. 
 
 Pennsylvania seems to have made the greatest progress of any 
 state in the Union in the matter of supervision of health of rural 
 schools. In this state the law provides for optional inspection 
 of health of pupils in rural schools, and the work is under the 
 direction of the State Commissioner of Health. During the first 
 year (1911) the law was in operation, 785 school districts out of 
 2,382 elected to have such inspection. The second year the 
 number grew to 1,500. The third year it included 1,800. In 1916, 
 2,256 districts provided for inspection of health of their children. 
 
 THE RECOGNITION OF PHYSICAL DEFECTS. 
 
 While the physician and the dentist are the experts upon 
 whose examinations alone reliable conclusions can be based as to 
 the physical defects of children, there are a great number of cases 
 which the teacher and the parent can quite readily determine, if 
 given the information as to symptoms and characteristics. There 
 are also a number of matters in connection with these defects 
 with which the public should become intimately familiar. The 
 children should also receive instruction in regard to many of the 
 conditions which arise from these physical defects or induce and 
 aggravate them. For these reasons a brief resume of the import- 
 ant aspects of these various defects seems desirable. 
 
 DEFECTIVE TEETH. 
 
 The first thing to remember is that the preservation of the 
 teeth is a matter of general health, good looks, and fluent speech. 
 The "baby" teeth, or the temporary set, must be well cared for, 
 in order that the permanent set may develop as it should. 
 Children should, therefore, be taught the use of the toothbrush 
 as early as possible. Clean teeth and clean gums make healthy 
 
240 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 mouths ; healthy mouths aid good digestion ; good digestion makes 
 possible a strong constitution. Toothache, gumboils, and other 
 mouth defects are entirely unnecessary, provided corrective 
 measures are taken at the proper time. Dr. Jay N. Pike, of 
 Minneapolis, a specialist in children's dentistry, has aptly said: 
 
 "The public must be taught that decay of the teeth is the most 
 prevalent disease on earth today and that it is causing untold 
 injury. In this country few people escape its ravages." 
 
 "In addition to decay of the teeth there are many other 
 problems in the mouth such as those involved in the development 
 of the jaws. The treatment of conditions known to the public 
 under such terms as crooked teeth, undershot jaws, and many 
 other terms denoting deformities of the face and jaws due to the 
 teeth, is an important work. This field alone has become one of 
 the specialties of dentistry and is known as^ Orthodontia. This 
 practice is known to the public as straightening teeth. In reality 
 it is correcting deformities and developing jaws for children and 
 stimulating the bone growth and general nutrition of the whole 
 child. We must not, therefore, continue to think of dentistry as 
 only the science of merely filling holes in teeth, and of the dentist 
 as a man who is expert simply in plugging these holes. We must 
 get the scientific viewpoint. The control of the mouth lies in the 
 teaching and the practice of preventive dentistry. There should 
 be a corps of trained dental nurses who take the children for 
 monthly cleaning and polishing of the teeth, for the reason that 
 decay of the teeth is a preventable disease, preventable by simple 
 methods, methods so efficient that one nurse properly trained can 
 prevent more cavities from forming in a year than twenty dentists 
 could fill in the same time. 
 
 "Such dentistry will hold a large place in the future. As an 
 economic measure think what it means. It will mean that a large 
 part of dentisty now done will be unnecessary because the 
 condition that calls for it will cease to exist. The children under 
 such a regime should be none the less under the care of exper- 
 ienced dentists. Our physicians should also assist in this work 
 for the benefit of our children. For instance in the mouth 
 hygiene movement a large part of their work would be in nose 
 and throat conditions, such as diseased tonsils and adenoids. It 
 is upon the proper attention to the nose and the throat that the 
 
Supervision of Health. 241 
 
 success of much of the dental work depends. This is so much so, 
 that the nose, the throat and the mouth must be treated and con- 
 sidered as one field, and from the surgical side vvill surely become 
 one of the medical specialties of the future." 
 
 To what extent disease is due to unclean mouths and defective 
 teeth can probably not be successfully demonstrated, but a great 
 number of our common ailments are traced by physicians to these 
 conditions. What we need is to wake up to the fact that our 
 physical well being and efficiency is, in a large measure, depend- 
 ent upon the condition of our mouths. We cannot expect to build 
 up healthy constitutions from a mixture of decayed food lodged 
 about the teeth and gums, and good nourishing food served at our 
 meals. Dr. William Osier, a physician of international reputa- 
 tion, and an author of numerous medical books, in speaking of the 
 comparative ejffects of alcoholic drinks and defective teeth, makes 
 this rather astounding assertion : "If I were to say whether more 
 physical deterioration was produced by alcohol or by defective 
 teeth, I would unhestitatingly say defective teeth.'' Judging from 
 the manner in which we are curtailing the sale of alcoholic 
 drinks by establishing "dry territory", we are in reality striking 
 at a lesser evil by this very desirable movement than we would 
 be if we established supervision of health as to teeth only. 
 
 The Rochester (N. Y.) Dental Society issued a small pamph- 
 let a few years ago in which it enumerates ten reasons for keeping 
 the mouth clean and the teeth in repair. These reasons are : 
 
 1. Good health, 
 
 2. Good digestion, 
 
 3. Good looks, 
 
 4. Good breathing, 
 
 5. Prevents swollen faces, 
 
 6. Prevents trouble with the throat, nose, ears and eyes. 
 
 7. Prevents catching disease, 
 
 8. Prevents consumption, 
 
 9. Prevents nervous diseases, 
 10. Saves money. 
 
242 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 DEFECTIVE EYES. 
 
 The eye is perhaps the most delicate organ in the human body 
 and yet it will endure more abuse without revealing its suffering 
 than almost any other organ in the body. For this reason when 
 children complain of headaches, bilious attacks, and dizziness, and 
 these conditions are due to defective vision, the cause is very 
 often not suspected. Even when such direct evidences as squint- 
 ing, watery eyes, and redness of the eyeball exist, it sometimes 
 requires repeated demonstrations to make some people believe that 
 the eyes are actually suffering. The idea is too common in many 
 places that children will outgrow these conditions, whereas the 
 opposite is generally the case. These conditions often become 
 worse by not being attended to in early life; and the person so 
 afflicted, never having known what good clear eyesight really is, 
 stumbles along after a fashion, not realizing the handicap with 
 which he is contending. 
 
 Teachers can render efficient service in detecting certain 
 defects of the eyes by means of the Snellen test card. This test 
 is simple, and after a few examinations by means of this card, 
 the teacher can determine with a considerable degree of accuracy 
 cases of near sight and far sight. 
 
 Dr. Lewis C. Wessels of the Bureau of Health, of Philadel- 
 phia, has presented the economic phase of eye defects in the 
 following graphic manner: "In Philadelphia each pupil costs 
 about $35 per year to teach. Under normal conditions a pupil 14 
 years old should reach the eighth grade at a cost to the State of 
 $280. If on account of defective vision the child only reaches 
 the fourth grade in that time it has still cost the State $280, but 
 with only $140 worth of result, a loss to the State of $140. The 
 loss to the child is considerably more, because at the age of 14 
 it is likely to be put to work, poorly equipped for the struggle 
 for existence, its earning power curtailed for the want of an 
 education, so that it can contribute but little toward its own 
 support, that of its family, or that of the State. So again the 
 state loses, and all for the want of suitable glasses. While it is 
 quite easy for the medical inspector or teacher to detect defective 
 vision, the recommendation for glasses cannot always be carried 
 out on account of poverty or ignorance. These cases can procure 
 
Supervision of Health. 243 
 
 free treatment at the dispensaries, but they are too poor or top 
 indifferent to buy the glasses prescribed, and so they continue to 
 struggle along greatly handicapped and fall behind on account 
 of their eyes." 
 
 Neither the state, the county, nor the school district has done 
 its full duty by the child, until it has pointed out the necessary 
 means whereby defective vision may be remedied, and has given 
 instruction as to the common symptoms which indicate such 
 defect. 
 
 DEFECTIVE HEARING. 
 
 Fortunately defective hearing is not as common as defective 
 eyes or teeth; and ordinarily those afflicted with poor hearing 
 make every effort to conceal the fact. A monotonous intonation 
 of the voice and poor enunciation are frequently indications of 
 defective hearing. Those totally deaf or nearly so do not enter 
 the rural schools, but a number of children who are partially 
 deaf in one or both ears do, and on this account the rural school 
 teacher should be able to give the "watch" or "whisper" test. 
 With little practice any teacher may acquire the ability to give 
 this test, which consists in having the pupil indicate at what 
 distance he can hear the tick of a watch or a moderate whisper. 
 In making the whisper test the pupil should be so seated that he 
 is unable to see the examiner, as in that case the test may be 
 vitiated by lip-reading. It is also necessary to be careful as to 
 the position of the pupil, so that some wall may not act as a 
 sounding board. 
 
 It might be interesting to know the causes of defective hear- 
 ing, and as these are likely to be the same for the partially deaf 
 as for those totally deaf or nearly so, the following data from 
 the public schools of New York City for the year 1913-14 are 
 instructive: Out of 284 children in special classes for the deaf 
 156 were totally deaf, 120 could hear loud sounds, and eight 
 could hear the human voice at close range. As to the causes 
 which brought about their condition the investigations revealed 
 that 87 had been born deaf, 76 had become deaf as a result of 
 spinal meningitis, 38 of scarlet fever, twelve of falls and blows, 
 twelve of unknown causes, ten of convulsions, ten of no definite 
 cause, but had gradually lost their hearing, nine of measles, seven 
 
244 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 of brain fever, seven of catarrK, five of infantile paralysis, four 
 of typhoid, four of abscesses, and three of pneumonia. 
 
 ENLARGED TONSILS. 
 
 The tonsils when normally developed can scarcely be detected 
 by the untrained eye. When, however, they become enlarged or 
 diseased they may be quite readiLy seen. . Enlarged tonsils are in 
 themselves not a serious menace, but they frequently become 
 sources of danger, because they afford an asylum to homeless 
 disease germs, which have been routed from the mouth. Con- 
 sequently the tonsils become diseased; and tonsilitis, or other 
 soreness of the throat develops, or else their diseased condition 
 brings on rheumatism or other ailments. Whether or,.not^ tonsils 
 should be removed is a matter for a physician to determine. 
 
 ADENOIDS. 
 
 Adenoids consist of overgrown tissue in the back part of the 
 nose. They generally appear before the child is ^ years old and 
 ordinarily disappear before he gets to be twenty. In the mean- 
 time, however, they have deformed the mouth," caused protruding 
 teeth, given the child a small or receding chin, and left him 
 subject to contagious and other diseases, because they have 
 lowered his vitality. Children who generally keep their mouths 
 open and breathe through the mouth are almost certain to have 
 adenoids. Children with adenoids do not suffer any pain, and 
 consequently make no complaint, except to state when asked about 
 their condition, that the nose seems filled up. They generally get 
 listless and fall behind in their lessons. An operation is, in most 
 cases, advisable. 
 
 NERVOUS DISORDERS. 
 
 Nervous disorders frequently show themselves in poor control 
 of muscles, nail biting, or a confused and frightened state of 
 mind, when the child is called upon to recite. Many children are 
 blamed for inattention and inability to maintain proper position, 
 when the real reason for their incapacity is due to their nervous 
 condition. Generally the handwriting shows cramped, shaky 
 
Supervision of Health. 245 
 
 writing, or large, irregularly shaped letters. The speech is either 
 rapid or stuttering. The general behavior indicates either irrita- 
 bility, excitability, or perplexity. 
 
 Children in such physical condition should not be required to 
 attend school. In many cases it is better for them to be at home 
 than in school, but the environment at home must afford them an 
 opportunity for freedom and recreation. It is always best to 
 secure a physician's advice and have the child examined from 
 time to time. 
 
 ANAEMIA. 
 
 Some children do not develop physically so rapidly as they 
 should, and many times the reason for such immature develop- 
 ment is difficult to assign. A child's weight is often a guide as 
 to his physical condition and the following table is generally 
 accepted as giving the standard weights of children in good 
 health : 
 
 Age , . Boys Girls 
 
 5 . , 41 pounds 39 pounds 
 
 6 45 " 44 " 
 
 7 -49 '■ 47 " 
 
 8 54 " 52 " 
 
 9 60 " 57 " 
 
 10 66 •' 63 " 
 
 II 72 " 70 " 
 
 12 80 " 81 " 
 
 13 89 " ,91 " 
 
 14 98 " 100 " 
 
 Anaemic children ought not to carry so much work in school 
 as other children, nor ought they to play so vigorously as the 
 robust. Their condition under ordinary circumstances requires 
 plenty of good, nourishing food, fresh air, and warm clothing. 
 A physician's advice as to the treatment of each case is always 
 desirable. 
 
 COMMUNICABLE DISEASES. 
 
 While a physician is always called in. case of a communicable 
 disease, and takes complete charge of the case, there is certain 
 
246 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 information with which teachers and the pubUc should be familiar 
 in order that a physician may be called as early as possible, and 
 treatment begun in time to secure proper recovery. The State 
 Board of Health of Vermont, recognizing the value of the dis- 
 semination of such information, issued a bulletin in March, 1914, 
 relating to schools and school buildings, in which is found an 
 article entitled: "Facts about Communicable Diseases for the 
 Use of Teachers and Parents." From this excellent article we 
 desire to quote as follows: 
 
 "The following facts are given in regard to the more common 
 communicable diseases in the hope that teachers and parents may 
 be able to recognize the early symptoms of such diseases and 
 thereby guard against their introduction into the school and 
 family. In order to make this available to everyone, a few terms 
 should be explained. 
 
 "Period of incubation means the time which elapses between 
 the exposure to the disease and the appearance of the first symp- 
 toms. Germs are very much like the seeds of plants which must 
 have time to "germinate" or "incubate'' after being planted before 
 they appear above the ground. In disease in humari beings this 
 time is called the period of incubation. 
 
 'General symptoms, are those which affect the whole body, 
 such as fever, weakness, etc. These are more or less "general" 
 or common to a great many diseases usually occurring at the very 
 beginning of the trouble. 
 
 "Local symptoms, on the other hand, are those which are 
 more characteristic of the particular diseases, such as a sore 
 throat or a rash. These may not appear for several hours or 
 several days and, in the meantime, it is often impossible to tell 
 what disease the child will have. The lateness in appearance of 
 these 'local symptoms' makes it very necessary that the 'general 
 symptoms' should be regarded as suspicious and the child kept 
 apart from other children until the local or characteristic symp- 
 toms develop and make the diagnosis clear. 
 
 "Infection really means the poison of the disease. It is the 
 seed or germ in the body. Some plants are fertilized by direct 
 contact ; insects act as carriers for others, and for sorhe the seeds 
 
Supervision of Health. 247 
 
 are blown into the air, and deposited in various places, some to 
 grow and some to die. In the same way, the 'infection' or the 
 seed of disease is carried by various means, but in most cases is 
 acquired by being near a person suffering with that disease, who 
 distributes the germs by means of coughing, sneezing, spitting,- 
 or kissing. Articles placed in the mouths of sick persons or 
 soiled by being coughed or spit upon, may carry disease. There- 
 fore, a mother or nurse who takes care of a child with a con- 
 tagious disease may carry it on her clothes to others of the family, 
 or to other families unless she uses great care. 
 
 "The following data of different diseases is worthy of careful 
 study : 
 
 "Small-Pox. This disease is also known as variola and, in 
 modified form, as varioloid. 
 
 "Period of incubation from seven to twenty days, usually 
 thirteen days. During this period, there are no symptoms. 
 
 "General symptoms. — The disease usually begins with a high 
 fever and chills, severe pains in the back, headache and vomiting. 
 In the presence of an epidemic, these symptoms suggest the 
 disease. There is some catarrhal inflammation in the throat and 
 nose, and these preliminary symptoms oftentimes appear like an 
 attack of grippe. Frequently the patient apparently recovers 
 before the rash comes on. 
 
 "Local symptoms. — The rash appears on the fourth day of 
 the disease, beginning with raised spots which appear on the 
 forehead at the border of the hair line, on the wrist's, and finally 
 on the entire body. These raised spots take about three days to 
 fill with a fluid which is first clear, and later like pus or matter. 
 They last for twelve or fifteen days and then gradually dry down, 
 making scabs. The disease is often so mild that very few spots 
 appear on the body, and the patient is oftentimes not sick enough 
 to be in bed. 
 
 "Infection is carried from person to person by contact and 
 also by clothing and other articles ; or by anything handled by, 
 or coming in contact with the patient. The exact cause of the 
 disease is not known. Small-pox is contagious throughout the 
 
248 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 whole course of the disease, including the four days before the 
 rash appears. 
 
 "Vaccination is an absolute preventative of small-pox, and 
 every child should be able to show a good vaccination mark and 
 'have a doctor's certificate as to the time the vaccination was done. 
 
 "Diphtheria. Period of incubation is from one to fourteen 
 days ; usually two to five days. 
 
 "General symptoms. — In some cases, the disease begins ab- 
 ruptly with a chill; or, in children, with convulsions. Usually, 
 However, the onset is marked by prostration, fever, and often by 
 digestive disturbances, such as nausea, etc. 
 
 "Locd symptoms. — Sore throat, flushed. face and sometimes 
 vomiting. When the throat is examined, the tonsils (at the sides 
 of the throat) are seen to be either very red or to have white or 
 greyish patches, sometimes a greyish film. This film or mem- 
 brane may be located on the soft palate or on the back of the 
 throat. There is a kind of diphtheria which is present only in 
 the air passages below the throat and cannot be seen. This is a 
 particularly dangerous kind, and in epidemics of diphtheria, all 
 children with sore throat and hoarseness should be regarded as 
 suspicious. It is sometimes called croup or membranous croup. 
 
 "Infection is carried by contact with the sick person, and also 
 by means of .clothing and other articles. The disease is caused 
 by the diphtheria germ, which is thrown off from the throat or 
 nose by coughing or sneezing, or carried on anything which has 
 been near the patient. The germs are sometimes present in the 
 throats of persons who are not sick, but they may give the disease 
 to others. The exchange of pencils, pens, etc., in school is 
 dangerous for this reason. 
 
 "Scarlet Fever. Period of incubation is brief, being from 
 a few hours to six or seven days, rarely exceeding this period. 
 
 "General symptoms. — The onset is usually sudden, being 
 marked by fever, sore throat and vomiting. This trinity of symp^ 
 toms should always excitp suspicion of scarlet fever. 
 
Supervision of Health. 249 
 
 "Local symptoms. — Sore throat and coated tongue. The 
 throat looks red, and sometimes through the coating of the tongue 
 appear minute red points Hke the seed-like points of a strawberry. 
 The rash comes on the body during the first 24 or 48 hours ; and 
 may, in mild cases, be only a blush, but the typical rash consists 
 of minute red points not elevated above the skin. The skin and 
 the mouth are usually white, making a very characteristic appear- 
 ance. 
 
 "Infection is carried by contact from one person to another 
 and also probably through clothing and other articles. The exact 
 cause is not known, but it is probable that the greatest danger 
 exists in the secretions from the throat and nose, and in the scales 
 which come from the body during the stage known as 'peeling' or 
 desquemation. 
 
 "Infantile Paralysis. This disease is also known as polio- 
 myelitis. 
 
 "Period of incubation is not known. Thus far, it has been 
 impossible to trace the method of infection; and, therefore, the 
 time from infection to beginning of symptoms cannot be esti- 
 mated. 
 
 "General symptoms. — These may be only slight; but, as a rule, 
 there is a fever, headache, general weakness, pei/haps vomiting 
 and sometimes convulsions. 
 
 "Local symptoms. — The disease usually begins with pain, and 
 within the first 24 hours paralysis of one or more limbs or of 
 some group of muscles is noticed. A common development is 
 that the child is a little feverish on retiring at night and is found 
 paralyzed in the morning. As a rule, the paralysis is at its maxi- 
 mum from the beginning, and may or may not gradually improve. 
 
 "Infection. — The method of infection is not known, although 
 it is not unlikely that it is spread by contact with the patient and 
 also by means of insects, probably stable flies. Since it is im- 
 possible to make known the method of spreading this disease, it is 
 very important that persons who have either directly or indirectly 
 come in contact with a case of infantile paralysis should be 
 examined by a physician at the first sign of any sickness. 
 
250 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 "Measles. Period of incubation is from seven to fourteen 
 days ; rarely as long as twenty days. 
 
 "General symptoms. — ^The child becomes listless and has the 
 symptoms of a hard cold. These are redness of and running 
 from the eyes, sneezing and running from the nose, hoarseness 
 and a dry cough. Sore throat is sometimes present. When 
 measles are prevalent, symptoms of the ordinary cold should be 
 considered as suspicious. 
 
 "Local symptoms. — The rash appears on the fourth day of 
 the disease, being seen first on the face and neck, and spreading 
 rapidly over the chest and body. It consists of small pinhead 
 spots, slightly elevated. Sometimes during the early stage, spots 
 can be seen inside the mouth at the back of the throat or on the 
 inside of the cheeks. When the rash subsides there is some 
 'peeling' of the skin. 
 
 "Infection is probably carried by discharges from the throat 
 and nose; and is most active during the early period before the 
 rash comes on, and when the child appears to have simply a hard 
 cold. It is, therefore, very necessary in the control of measles 
 that children who appear to have colds should be excluded from 
 school for a few days until a diagnosis can be made. 
 
 "Whooping Cough. Period of incubation is about two 
 weeks. 
 
 "General symptoms. — The disease begins with sneezing, 
 coughing and other symptoms similar to those of an ordinary 
 severe cold and these may continue without improvement from 
 one to three weeks. Then appears the characteristic paroxysmal 
 coughing (coughing spells) from which the disease is named. 
 The attack begins with a series (15 to 20) of coughs so rapid and 
 spasmodic that the child cannot breathe. After this series of 
 coughs, there is a long deep inspiration with a sound of the 
 'whoop'. In some cases, the 'whoop' comes first. In rare cases, 
 there is only a paroxysm of coughing without any 'whoop'. 
 Vomiting frequently accompanies the coughing, even in the early 
 stages of the disease, and these two symptoms coming together 
 should be regarded as suspicious. 
 
Supervision of Health. 251 
 
 "Ififecti'on occurs by contact with persons having the disease, 
 and may possibly be carried by various articles or by the nurse. 
 It is probable that the patient is dangerous throughout the whole 
 course of the disease, even before the 'whoop' begins. 
 
 "Chicken-Pox. This disease is also sometimes called vari- 
 cella. 
 
 "Period of incubation is commonly fourteen days, although it 
 may vary from ten to nineteen days. 
 
 "General symptoms: — They are usually mild in character, with 
 a slight fever and slight pains in the back and limbs. 
 
 "Local symptoms. — The rash appears within the first 24 hours 
 and is sometimes the first symptom noticeable. It appears first 
 on the back and chest, but also soon occurs on the face, neck and 
 hands. It consists of small raised spots which become filled with 
 fluid in a very few hours, and begin to dry up on the third or 
 fourth day. This rash also comes in 'crops' ; that is, the first 
 spots may be almost healed up and another lot appear. This does 
 not occur in small-pox. 
 
 "Infection is usually transmitted by contact, or may be carried 
 by persons or things coming from the vicinity of the patient. 
 The germ of this disease is not known, but it is certain that 
 chicken-pox and small-pox are separate diseases. 
 
 "Mumps. Period of incubation is between two and three 
 weeks. 
 
 "General symptoms. — Nausea or a spell of indigestion, rest- 
 lessness and prostration or weakness. 
 
 "Local symptoms become noticeable in from 24 to 36 hours, 
 although in some cases they precede the fever. The patient com- 
 plains of a feeling of tension about the throat, sometimes of pain 
 and tenderness in the gland just under the ear. This gland 
 (parotid gland) becomes swollen so that the lobe of the ear tips 
 out slightly. Swallowing and speaking aggravate the pain. There 
 may be sore throat and earache. It is usual for the inflammation 
 
252 The Rural School Plant. 
 
 to start on one side, the opposite gland becoming affected in a 
 day or so. Rarely both glands may become so at the same time. 
 Although the disease is generally mild, very serious complications 
 sometimes set in when the cases are neglected. 
 
 "Infection. — The cause of the disease is not known, but it is 
 certainly transmitted from one person to another by contact. The 
 disease is contagious during the whole course of the sickness. 
 
 "German Measles. Period of incubation is usually from 
 ten to twelve days but may possibly be earlier than this, and as 
 late as three weeks. 
 
 "General symptoms. — Mild fever, headache, sore throat and 
 a dry cough which may continue for a day or two. 
 
 "Local symptoms. — The characteristic rash appears at the end 
 of the first 24 hours of the disease and sometimes even earlier. 
 It consists of slightly elevated pin head spots or blotches, which 
 are red in color. This rash usually remains from two to five 
 days and then gradually fades, leaving a slight peeling of the skin. 
 
 "Typhoid Fever. Period of incubation is usually about two 
 weeks and occasionally as long as three weeks. During this time 
 there are no symptoms. 
 
 "General symptoms. — The disease begins with a feeling of 
 weakness accompanied by headache and pains in the back and 
 limbs. These symptoms all increase gradually, and the fever 
 gradually rises until the end of the first week. By this time, the 
 patient is usually sick enough to be in bed. The usual run of 
 typhoid fever is at least four weeks in length, and oftentimes 
 much longer. If typhoid fever is even suspected, a physician 
 should be called at once, as it is difficult to diagnose this disease. 
 Even very mild cases of typhoid fever are dangerous to those 
 coming in contact with the patient. 
 
 "Infection. — Infection of typhoid fever is carried entirely by 
 the discharges from the bowels and bladder of the patient, these 
 discharges containing the germs of the disease. No one can have 
 
Supervision of Health. 
 
 253 
 
 typhoid fever unless he takes into his mouth typhoid fever germs 
 which have come either directly or indirectly from such a source. 
 The germs are spread by water, milk, carelessness in handling 
 food after soiling the hands, and also by flies. Other members of 
 family and nurses are very liable to get the disease." 
 
INDEX 
 
 Acknowledgments, 56. 
 
 Adenoids, 244. 
 
 Agriculture, 171. 
 
 Air, Circulation, 152. 
 
 Air Inlet, 160. 
 
 Aisles, 186. 
 
 Alabama, 75. 
 
 Alder, 194. 
 
 Anaemia, 245. 
 
 Arbor Vitae, 195. 
 
 Architect, 15. 
 
 Area, how to iind, 44, 45. 
 
 Arkansas, 81. 
 
 Ash, 192. 
 
 Barberry, Japanese, 195. 
 Basswood, 192. 
 Beech, 194. 
 Belfry, 72. 
 Bids, Form, 53. 
 Birches, 193. 
 Bitter-Sweet, 197. 
 Blackboards, 69. 
 Board Measure, 41. 
 Bonds, Advertisement, 50. 
 Bonds, Surety, 55. 
 Brick, 40. 
 
 Brittain, Supt. M. L., 85. 
 Blair, Supt. F. G., 88. 
 Boston Ivy, 197. 
 Building Standards, 58. 
 Burning Bush, 195. 
 
 California, 81, 235. 
 Care of Building, 163. 
 Gary, Supt. C. P., 143. 
 Ceiling, 70. 
 Cement Blocks, 39. 
 Cheney, Architect C. H., 81. 
 Chestnut, 194. 
 Chicken-Pox, 251. 
 Choke-Cherry, 195. 
 Churchill, Supt. J. A., 128. 
 Circulation of Air, 152. 
 Circular of Information, 51. 
 Circumference, how to find, 45, 
 
 46. 
 Cisterns, Capacity, 47. 
 Clubs, Community, 177. 
 Coat Rooms, 71, 88, 123, 131. 
 Color Scheme, 61, 70, 84. 
 Community Clubs, 177. 
 Contract, Form, 54. 
 Cooking Outline, 176. 
 Cost of Schoolhouse, 36. 
 
 Cost of Supervision of Health, 
 
 238. 
 Cranberry, 195. 
 Crimson Rambler, 197. 
 Culter, Prof. H. M., 96. 
 Currants, Flowering, 195. 
 
 Desks, 180. 
 
 Adjustable, 185. 
 
 Hygienic, 181. 
 
 Location, 186. 
 
 Movable, 186. 
 
 Stationary, 183. 
 Deyoe, Supt. Albert M., 91. 
 Diameter, how to find, 45, 46. 
 Diphtheria, 248. 
 Diseases, Communicable, 245. 
 Dogwood, 195. 
 
 Donovan, Architect J. J., 83. 
 Doors, Schoolroom, 61. 
 Doughty, Supt. W. F., 138. 
 Drinking Fountain, 228. 
 Dunlop, John Y., 215. 
 Dutchman's Pipe, 197. 
 
 Egbert, Architect B. F., 91. 
 
 Elder, 195. 
 
 Elm, 191. 
 
 Emporia, Kansas, 97. 
 
 English Ivy, 197. 
 
 English Teacher's Home, 215. 
 
 Enlargement, 73. 
 
 Evans, C. E., 135. 
 
 Evergreen, 193. 
 
 Excavation, 38. 
 
 Eyes, Defective, 248. 
 
 Faygram, Inspector M. R., 91. 
 Feagin, Supt. Wm. F., 75. 
 Felt, Architect J. H., 94. 
 Flagpole, 73. 
 Flooring, 43. 
 Flowers, 200. 
 Forsythia, 195. 
 Fort Hays, Kansas, 98. 
 Fuel Bins, Capacity, 47. 
 Fuel Room, 71. 
 Furnace Heat, 155. 
 Furniture, 180. 
 
 Gauge of Iron and Steel, 46. 
 Georgia, 85. 
 German Measles, 252. 
 Gravel, 38. 
 Grounds, 44. 
 
 254 
 
Hackberry, 193. 
 
 Hays, Kansas, 98. 
 
 Health, Supervision of, '233. 
 
 Hearing, Defective, 243. 
 
 Heating and Ventilation, 148. 
 
 Hickory, 194. 
 
 Hoffman, U. J., 88. 
 
 Home Economics, 174. 
 
 Humidity, 152. 
 
 Hyatt, Supt. Edward, 81. 
 
 Hydrangea, 195. 
 
 Hygienic Desks, 181. 
 
 Illinois, 88. 
 
 Improvement of Site, 189. 
 Infantile Paralysis, 249. 
 Insulation, 44. 
 Iowa, 91. 
 
 Japan Quince, 196. 
 Joyner, Supt. J. Y., 124. 
 
 Kansas, 94. 
 
 Emporia, 97. 
 
 Hays, 98. 
 Keeler, Supt. F. L., 99. 
 Kerrla, 196. 
 
 Kirk, Pres. John R., 21. 
 Kirksville, Mo., 21. 
 
 Lath, 42. 
 
 Lee, Prof. R. B., 132. 
 Library, 71, 90, 132, 168. 
 Light- 
 Amount, 61, 67, 93. 
 
 Direction, 67. 
 
 East, 68, 79, 96, 104, 131. 
 
 Front, 83, 138. 
 
 Glass Area, 61, 67. 
 
 Left Side, 66, 78, 83, 134, 140. 
 
 North, 67. 
 
 Overhead, 66. 
 
 Rear, 66, 83. 
 
 South, 67, 78, 92, 96. 
 
 Unilateral, 65, 82, 83, 96. 
 
 West, 68, 80, 131. 
 Lilacs, 196. 
 Lime, 40. 
 Louisiana, 236. 
 
 Manual Training, 172. 
 Maple, 192. 
 
 Materials — Durability of, 62. 
 Materials — Weight of, 44. 
 Mayville, N. D., 26. 
 Measles, 250. 
 Measles, German, 252. 
 Michigan, 99. 
 Millwork, 43. 
 
 Minnesota, 102. 
 Mock Orange, 196. 
 Mountain Ash, 193. 
 Mumps, 251. 
 
 Nails, 43. 
 
 Nervous Disorders, 244. 
 
 New Mexico, 122. 
 
 Newton, Architect L. S., 139. 
 
 North Carolina, 124. 
 
 North Dakota, 236. 
 
 North Dakota, Mayville, 26. 
 
 Oak, 192. 
 Oklahoma, 126. 
 Oregon, 128. 
 
 Paint, 44. 
 
 Paralysis, Infantile, 249. 
 
 Pearl Bush, 196. 
 
 Pennsylvania, 130, 239. 
 
 Picture Moulding, 61. 
 
 Pictures for Schoolrooms, 168. 
 
 Pike, Dr. J. N., 240. 
 
 Planning a Schoolhouse, 14. 
 
 Plans, 37. 
 
 Plaster, 40. 
 
 Plaster of Paris, 41. 
 
 Playground, 206. 
 
 Playground Apparatus, 201. 
 
 Plum, 193. 
 
 Portland Cement, 38. 
 
 Preston, Supt. Josephine Corliss. 
 
 210. 
 Proposal for Building, 52. 
 
 Roof. 72. 
 
 Room Heater, 152. 
 Rules for finding diameters, etc., 
 46. 
 
 Sand, 38. 
 
 Scarlet Fever, 248. 
 
 School Garden, 198. 
 
 Schoolroom — Shape, 63. 
 
 Schoolroom — Size, 56, 64, 83. 
 
 Schulz, Supt. C. G., 102. 
 
 Sewing Outline, 175. 
 
 Shades, 61, 68. 
 
 Shawkey, Supt. M. P., 140. 
 
 Shingles, 42. 
 
 Shiplap, 41. 
 
 Shrubs, How to Plant, 197. 
 
 Sidewalks, 73. 
 
 Siding, 41. 
 
 Site- 
 Accessibility, 34. 
 Clearing, 38. 
 Improvement, 189. 
 
 255 
 
Legal Requirements, 49. 
 
 Shape, 33. 
 
 Size, 33. 
 Small-Pox, 247. 
 Snowball, 196. 
 Snowberry, 196. 
 South Carolina, 132. 
 Spirea, 196. 
 Stone, 38. 
 Storage Closet, 61, 
 Sumach, 196. 
 Supplies, 187. 
 Surety Bond, Form, 55. 
 Swearingen, Supt., 132. 
 Sweet Gum, 193. 
 
 Teacher's Home, 209. 
 Teeth, Defective, 239. 
 Temperature, 152. 
 Texas, 135. 
 Thermometer, 161. 
 Timber Measure, 42. 
 Toilets, 230. 
 Tonsils, Enlarged, 244. 
 Towers, 72. 
 Trees, 189. 
 
 Trees, How to Plant, 197. 
 Trumpet Creeper, 197. 
 Types of Schoolhouses — 
 
 Acceptable, 17. 
 
 Advanced, 20. 
 
 Alabama, 75. 
 
 Arkansas, 81. 
 
 California, 81. 
 
 Consolidated, 28. 
 
 Desirable, 18. 
 
 Exterior Appearance, 63. 
 
 Emporia, Kansas, 97. 
 
 Port Hays, Kansas, 98. 
 
 Georgia, 85. 
 
 Illinois, 88. 
 
 Iowa, 91. 
 Kansas, 94. 
 Kirksville, Mo., 21. 
 Mayville, N. D., 26. 
 Michigan, 99. 
 Minnesota, 102. 
 New Mexico, 122. 
 Oklahoma, 126. 
 Oregon, 128. 
 Pennsylvania, 136. 
 Simplest, 16. 
 South Carolina, 132. 
 Texas, 135. 
 Vermont, 138. 
 West Virginia, 140. 
 Wisconsin, 143. 
 Typhoid Fever, 252. 
 
 Unilateral Light, 65. 
 Use of Building, 163. 
 
 Ventilation, 148. 
 Vermont, 138. 
 Vines, 197. 
 Virgin's Bower, 197. 
 
 Wainscoting, 70. 
 Walls, 70. 
 Walnut, 194. 
 Washington, 210. 
 Water Supply, 218. 
 Water Tank, Capacity, 47. 
 Weatherboards, 41. 
 Weeks, Architect W. H., 83. 
 West Virginia, 140. 
 Whooping Cough, 250. 
 Wild Grape, 197. 
 Wild Honey Suckle, 196. 
 Windows — See Light. 
 Wisconsin, 143. 
 Wistaria, 197. 
 Woodbine, 197. 
 
 256 
 
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