iiiiyi!ii!iiiiii!iiii!!iyiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiyi I lll{;i!! liiiyJil lliiyilii i ijjiii 'IjIi 1 lillliillliliiil lillli 1 iiiiliiiiii 1 I IP! ili'ii I. Mil ! 'nip I" yiiy; liir ill. '' 1i iilliiiliiilil^ !li!li!!!i!i!i. 11 I yi ! ■il y y ! R. B. HiNMAN COLLECTION Professor of Animal Husbandry 1921-1943 New York State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. Cornell University Library S 531.M88 1910 Soils and crops of the *a™. 3 1924 001 040 280 Cornell University Library The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001040280 L Soils and Farm Crom. II. FiRH Animals and their ProducM in. Fabu Businbss. Soils Sn3^^©s------..-__ of the Farm By GEORGE E. MORROW, M A. ftofessot CHAPTER IV. mPBOVEMENT OF SOIL BY MANXTBINa. The growth of crops does not necessarily decrease the fertility of soils, if the product is not removed but is allowed to decay on the land. In moat cases soils improve so long as they are not cultivated by man. The growth of plants through ages has been a chief cause of the fertility of many soils. The mineral matter drawn up from the sub- soil by the roots of plants remains near the surface when the plants have decayed. The supply of carbon and nitrogen in the surface soil is also increased. In most cases the phys- ical properties of soils which have long produced nat- ural crops, whether of trees, grass or weeds, are such as well to fit the soils to continue producing them in abundance. On hill-sides the best of the soil may be washed away. There may be no accumulation of plant food on coarse, porous, sandy soils. But gen- erally either prairie or forest soils are fertile in a marked degree, when first brought into cultivation. Cropping Reduces Fertility. — The work of the farmer tends to reduce the fertility of the soil. The crops grown are removed from the soil ; or, if con- sumed by animals, the animal product is removed. In either case plant food has been removed from the soil. There may still remain an abundant supply. At the famous Experiment Station, at Eothamsted, Eng- land, after wheat had been grown on the same ground for about fifty years, without the application of plant food, the crop sometimes nearly equaled the average 49 60 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. yield of wheat in the United States. On some fer- tile soils in this country grain has been profitably grown for more than a half-century without the di- rect application of plant food. On' many soils, how- ever, a decrease in the yield of crops is noticed after they have been cultivated for a few years, unless some return of plant food is made. The term "exhaustion of soUs," although often used, is somewhat misleading. Continuous cropping may reduce the fertility of the soil so that it may not be profitable to cultivate it longer, but it is not probable any soil could be exhausted, that is, made absolutely barren, by the cultivation and removal of crops. As has been said, the soil is not a finished product. The supply of plant food in the soil is not like grain in a bin, continued use from which exhausts the supply. The forces of nattu-e are continually manufacturing available plant food in the soil. More or less of this may be washed away, or leach into the sub-soil; some of it passes into the air; man may rem.ove some of it in crops. But all soils, properly so-called, contain plant food enough to support something of a crop. It may be said that all soils have a "natural fer- tility." Under like conditions each will produce a crop not greatly varying from year to year. As a consequence of the growth and decay of forest trees or prairie grasses, virgin soils have accumulated a large supply of material for the growth of plants, either available for their use or capable of being made available. This may be called "surplus fertility," "ac- cumulated fertility" or "natural manuring. " Cropping without return of plant food may exhaust this surplus store and reduce the land to its natural fertility. IMPROVEMENT OF SOIL BY MANUBlNa. 61 It should be kept in mind that a part of the plant remains on the soil in almost all cases. The roots and stubble of grain and hay crops do much to keep up the supply of humus in the soil and keep the sur- face in a good physical condition. Classification of Manures. — To manure land, according to the original meaning of the word, was to cultivate it by manual, or hand labor. Tillage or cul- tivation, properly done, does increase the fertility of the soil. Probably crops were grown for centuries before the practice of applying plant food to enrich the land was thought of. Now, by manuring we mean the application of something to increase the fertility of the soil. Manures may act in three ways: 1. They may directly add plant food to the soil. Manure is sometimes defined as plant food aui this is the most common thought in regard to it and its action. 2. They may hasten decomposition and chemical changes in the soil by which available plant food is prepared from material which has been lying dor- mant. 3. They may improve the physical condition of the soU. The application of pure sand to a clay soil, or pure clay to a sandy soil, does not add plant food, nor directly affect chemical action in the soil, but by making the one soil more open, and the other more compact, the fertility of each may be largely increased. Manures may be divided into two classes : General and special; or complete and pavtial. They are also sometimes divided into "vameral" and "oigwii*" classes. 52 . THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. A complete manure is one which contains all the elements of plant food. Such a manure will increase the growth of alm.ost any crop if applied to almost any kind of soil. It may increase the growth of the stalk and leaves at the expense of the seed. Stable or barn-yard manure is the typical, complete or gen- eral manure. A special manure is one which supplies some but not all the elements needed by plants, or which is specially prepared for certain classes of crops or of soils. This class is known as artificial manures, chemical manures or commercial fertilizers. They may be by-products of manufacturing establishments ; they may be specially compounded, or they may be ob- tained from the great stores of possible plant food na- ture has stored up, as in beds of marl, of gypsum, or of phosphatic rocks. Stable manure ordinarily acts in all three of the ways named. Artificial manures usually are help- ful by directly adding plant food, or by aiding chemi- cal action in the soil, thus hastening the preparation of a sufficient supply of available plant food. It has already been stated that the only mineral elements of plant food probably in insufficient sup- ply in the soil are phosphorus and potassium; and that nitrogen, in a form in which plants can make use of it, is the only gaseous element of which plants find it difficult to secure a sufficient supply. To sup- ply some one, or two, or all three of these scarce or "precious" — because scarce — elements, is the purpose of most artificial manures. If prepared to supply one or both the mineral elements, they may be called by their names; if to supply all the mineral elements IMPROVEMENT OP SOIL BY MANURING. 53 needed by plants, they are called complete mineral manures. Wood ashes are a good specimen of such a manure. If the supply of nitrogen is the chief pur- pose of the manure, it may be called a nitrogenous manure. The commercial value of artificial manures is esti- mated from the quantity of phosphoric acid, potash and nitrogen they contain. A sample of such a ma- niure may be said to contain a given percentage of potash, of "soluble phosphoric acid," or of "nitrogen, equivalent to ammonia." The number of pounds of each of these substances contained in a ton can then be determined. By multiplying this by the prices at which they can be bought from manufacturing chem- ists, the estimated value per ton of the manure is obtained. This expression is often misunderstood and its com- mon use is unfortunate. It is not meant that if a farmer uses an artificial manure his crops will be increased in value to the amount the manure is said to be worth. This may or may not be true. On soils already well supplied with plant food it may not perceptibly increase the yield. Thus in experiments with several kinds of arti- ficial manures at the Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion in Illinois, on the fertile prairie soils of that State, and at the Station in Ohio, on equally fertile river bottom soil, little or no increase of yield was found by liberal use of manures which produce re- markable results on many soils. Even if the crop is increased by the use of the manure, the money value of the increase varies greatly in different parts of the country. 64 THE SOILS AND CROC'S OP THE FARM. It would be better, in speaking of manures or of the manurial value of foods, to say that the valuable plant food elements they contain would cost a given sum, rather than that the manure is worth that sum. The actual value of any manure for a given piece of land or for a particular crop on that land, can only be de- termined by repeated trials. The physical effects of stable manure and some other manures is often quite as important as the addition of plant food by their use. In some countries where the soil has long been cul- tivated and lands are high-priced, the purchase of manures by farmers is the rule rather than the excep- tion. Writing especially of English farrm'ng, War- ington says: "The farmer is generally obliged to purchase manures for the land in exchange for the crops and stock sold off it." This practice is be- coming more common in the United States but it is still the exception rather than the rule, taking the country as a whole. It is most common in the older settled portions of the country, near large cities, or where attention is largely given to special crops. The practice of purchasing both stable manure from cities and artificial manures will doubtless become increasingly necessary and profitable In some cases, but m^ore commonly among market gardeners than among general farmers, manures are applied in such quantity as considerably to increase the fertility of the land, even above that it possessed when first cultivated. IStable llannre. — The chief reliance of most farm- ers in the United States, in the way of direct applica- tion of manures, is stable or yard manure. The value of this depends on its composition, condition and the method of application. IMPEOVEMENT OP SOIL BY MANURING. 65 The composition will depend on the kind and quan- tity of food used, the kind and quantity of litter used, and, to some Extent, on the kind of animals fed. la general, the more nutritious the food, the more valua- ble will be the manure. That from grain- fed animals will be worth more than that from animals only straw- fed. A large quantity of litter reduces the value of the manure; an insufficient supply usually makes it less valuable because of probable loss of the liquif* manure. Manure from mature animals, especially those being fattened, is somewhat more valuable than that from growing animals or those giving milk, be- cause the latter use more of the mineral substances needed by plants and found in the food. Manure from horses, unless there is a too large supply of straw or other litter, is usually more valua- ble than that from cows, because the horses have a larger proportion of grain food, and there is less water in their excrement. Horse manure is "heating;" cow manure is cold. The manure from hogs is concen- trated and very valuable. That of sheep is also valua- ble. The droppings of poultry are especially valuable, largely because the solid and liquid excrement is voided together. Often it is better to mix the manure from all classes of farm animals than to use that of each separately. The urine is often fully as valuable as the dung of animals. It contains more nitrogen than does the solid excrement. Treatment of Manure. — Before stable manure can act as plant food it must not only be brought into close contact with the roots of the plants but must also have been decomposed — ^well rotted. The appli- cation of straw or of grain to land may make the ee THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAEM. physical condition better or worse, but plants cannot feed upon them until they have rotted. In many cases it is wise to immediately apply stable manure, but it cannot act as plant food until fermentation has com- menced. Fermentation begins promptly. Especially horse manure and this loosely piled, will very soon become hot, and carbonic acid will rapidly pass into the air, greatly reducing the weight and bulk, but with- out much reducing the direct value of the manure, unless it has been too dry and "flre-fanged." If kept saturated with water, fermentation is checked unduly. Unless litter is freely used there is a consid- erable loss of ammonia while the manure is fresh. The use of gypsum or even of earth will check this loss. Keeping the manure moderately moist and well compacted will best prevent loss of nitrogen. If necessary to keep it in heaps for a considerable time, covering the heaps with a layer of earth will still further prevent loss. In many cases the loss from water is much more important than that by evaporation or vaporization. If manure is scattered about yards or piled under the eaves of stables, more than half its value may be lost in a few months. The water carries away much of the nitrogen and some of the potash. Manure kept under cover, if kept sufficiently moist, is more valuable than that kept in the open air. Many farmers, with present arrangements, cannot keep the mianure in either boxes or under sheds. If they keep it in reasonably compact piles, not exposed to washing from eaves of buildings, the loss will not be especially serious. IMPEOVEMENT OF SOIL BY MANURING. 67 In very many cases, the best practice is to draw the manure direct from the stables and spread it on the land. Top-dressing grass lands is a practice deserv- edly growing in favor. Applying the manure to land which is to be plowed later, even if it be stubble- land, is often good practice. Some nitrogen passes into the air, but there is a great saving of labor, and the loss is believed to be less than was formerly sup- posed. The laborious methods formerly much recom- mended, of frequent stirring the manure; of drawing it to the field and there putting it in heaps, etc., are less in favor than formerly and not adapted to the con- ditions under which most American farmers work. Comparatively fresh and unfermented manure may more advisably be applied on stubble-land some con- siderable time before it is to be plowed, than well- rotted manure. Barn-yard manure, unlt3ss very thoroughly rotted, is bulky and heavy in proportion to the quantity of plant food it contains. Often three-fourths of its weight is made up of water. But it will probably long remain the most general reliance of farmers in this country, and in most cases it is, especially when produced on the farm where it is to be applied, the cheapest and best manure that can be used. Its value in keeping the soil in good physical condition is to be considered as well as its value in supplying plant f ood> liime is an essential element of all soils and of all plants. Most soils in the United States have suffi- cient lime to supply crops with all they need. When used as manure the chief value of lime, as a rule, is probably in its indirect effects in hastening decompo- sition of vegetable matter in the soil and in correcting 68 SOILS AND OROPS OF THE FARM. acidity. Over much of the United States lime is rarely used and its cost, in many regions, will prevent its use. In some parts it is largely used. English writers usually attach more value to it than do Ameri. can farmers. Oypsnm, or sulphate of lime, often called land plaster, is a valuable manure on some soils, especially on clover. On many soils it has no perceptible effect. Ashes may be called a com.plete mineral manure, but are especially valued for the potash they contain. Where attainable at moderate price their use can be safely recommended. Coal ashes are not considered of much value as manure. Bones are valued especially for phosphoric acid. They also contain nitrogen. The principal objection to their use is the long time required before they decom- pose in the soil. The finer they are crushed the bet- ter in this respect. Steamed bones have less nitrogen but the phosphoric acid is more readily soluble. iSuperphosphate of liime may be formed by treating bones with sulphuric acid or by so treating any mineral phosphate. The bone superphosphate is often called dissolved bone. On many soils this is one of the best manures. On others it has little ef- fect. Generally speaking, its use is not profitable on naturally fertile land still in good condition. Df itrate of Sodinm and iSnlpIiate of Ammo- ninm are two manures valued for their nitrogen. They are quick-acting manures, and on some spils, usually clayey soils, have a marked effect both on grain and grass crops. It is advised that they be used generally in connection with superphosphate. Large quantities of valuable manures are made IMPROVEMENT OF SOIL BY MANUEINa. 59 from the refuse at the great slaughter houses ia largd cities. The blood, bones, pieces of flesh, etc., may all be utilized. The manure is usually offensive in smell but is valuable on many soils. No attempt is made here to fully discuss the value or methods of applying any of these manures. Probably the best possible place for any manure, so far as fitting it to furnish the largest quantity of plant food to crops is concerned, would be near but not on the surface soil. The roots could then readily get access to the manure; loss by evaporation would be lessened or prevented by the layer of soil over the manure; loss by leaching would be less than if the manures were more deeply covered. There is always some loss if nitrogenous manures are applied on the surface. There is almost always some loss if the manures are covered several inches in the soil. In wet weather, on porous soils, especially if the manures are applied when there is no growing crop on the land, the loss by leaching may be great. It wUl be com- paratively little in dry weather, on compact soils, or if the manure is applied while a crop is growing, or shortly before the crop is sown. Stable manure, bones, superphosphate and ashes are slow acting manures. They may continue to pro- duce good effects for several years. Nitrate of sodium and sulphate of ammonium are quick acting manures, rarely producing any considerable effect except during the year they are applied. It is unwise to apply these long before the crop can make use of them, ortocovw them deep in the earth. CHAPTER V. BOIL tUPROVEMENT BY DRAINAaE ASD IBSIOATltM. Water in the soil is essential to the growth of crops. There are soils which are barren simply from lack of sufficient moisture. An excess of water in the soil is always injurious, sometimes fatal to crops. There are plants which thrive in soils saturated with water, or even covered with it, but these are not the common crops of the farm. Before any land can be used to the best advantage it must be able, either naturally or by artificial means, to rid itself of surplus water. The rain-fall is the primary source of the water in the soil. If a piece of land is too wet, it is because the water which comes to it cannot readily enough flow off or through it. The immediate source of the water may be either the direct rain-fall or water which flows from higher lands. This last may flow down over the surface, or come up from below in springs; in some cases it may ooze out from hillsides or up from the sub-soil. Some soils have good natural drainage, even when the rain-fall is abundant. The natural tendency of water is to flow downward, either directly into the soil, or over the surface if this be inclined. If the surface soil admits water freely and the sub-so^l is open to a considerable depth, or if a porous soil be underlaid with rocks with many crevices in them, even level land will rid itself readily of surplus water. In Buch soils there will be little or no water, even after ieavy rains, in holes dug in the ground; there may «o SOIL IMPEOVEMENT. 81 fae no necessity for providing aids to drainage of cellars. Sometimes the surplus water so readily passes down to a great depth that it is difficult to get water from wells. There are vast areas of farm landa in the United States where, in a few hours after a heavy rain-fall, the soil is in good condition for cultivation. There is no need that man should undertake to do that which nature has done well for him. Reasons for Drainage. — By far the larger part of the land in the United States east of the Missouri river either has needed or still needs more or less arti- ficial drainage. Without this much now valuable land would have been comparatively worthless. Probably no one thing has done more to increase the value of the farm lands of several of the central west- ern states than has the extensive work recently done in them in the way of land drainage. Obviously swampy land, or that with ponds, or that on which water stands for a considerable time after heavy rains, is not naturally well-drained and should have work done to it in this direction. Much land which does not show the signs of need of better drain- age may be greatly improved by either surface or un- derground drainage. A wet soil is a cold soil. If the surface water can not flow off or down into the deep sub-soil, it can be removed by evaporation only. Evaporation is a cooling process. Much heat is consumed in causing the evaporation of stagnant water in wet soils. Water is, relatively, a poor conductor of heat. Warming a vessel of water by applying heat at the top is a slow process. The heat from the sun's rays has much less effect in warming a wet soil than it has on a dry soiL 62 THE SOILS AND CBOPS OF THE FAEM. Stagnant water in the soil checks chemical action ani the preparation of plant food. It prevents the acceaa of air. The roots of most plants make only slow and feeble growth in such a soil. The yield of farm crops is much reduced, and often the quality of the produce is made poorer. Land which is too wet to be profit- ably cultivated may give a fair return if kept in grass, but the quality of the pasture or the hay is usually not so good as that grown on well-drained land. The working season is often shortened if the land ifl wet. The land cannot be cultivated so early in spring. Heavy rains may unfit it for being tilled for days at a time when the crops are in need of cultivation. la many cases such land is cultivated when too wet, to the serious injury of the crop. On fairly level land the presence []of a few small ponds or swampy places may indicate that drainage of the whole tract is needed; for, although the water stands on the surface over only a small per cent of the area, the soil may be saturated with water to with- in a few inches of the surface over much of the tract. Drainage of wet land tends to make the region more healthful for both man and the domestic animals. In general, it may be said, well-drained land can be cultivated at less cost, with more ease, and will give larger yields of a larger variety of crops, with less danger of loss during bad weather or from frosts, and that it is often more healthful and always more at- tractive than undrained, wet land. Surface and llndergronnd Drainage. — The good results from improving the surface drainage of wet land, by straightening and clearing the natural SOIL IMPROVEMENT BY DRAINAGE. 63 water courses, opening ditches, running furrows through the fields, etc., have long been known and Buch work has generally been done to some extent in all civilized countries. Sometimes improving the sur- face drainage may be all that is necessary or desirable. It is better, however, that the surplus water, unless in great excess, should pass down through the soil rather than over it. Water flowing over the surface washes away more or less of the best of the soil and of manures which have been applied. It may seriously wash the surface. It is also true that while stagnant water in the soil is almost always injurious, moving water, in reasonable quantity, is beneficial. While the stagnant water makes the soil cold, the rains in spring are often warmer than the soil and increase its temperature by passing down into it. The rain carries with it am- monia and carbonic acid from the air. It aids in the preparation of plant food. The air will freely follow the water as it could not if the water remained saturat- ing the soil. When the surface has become dryer than the deeper soil water will be carried up again by capillary action, which cannot go on in a soil full of water. Underground or covered drains have advantages over open ditches. They do not lessen the area to be cultivated nor interfere with the passage of teams. They do not iavite the growth of weeds. Oftentimes they are more effective than open ditches of equal depth. miatevial for Drains.— Many classes of material have been used in making underground drains, but nothing is so good a- round tile made of clay, usually 64 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAKM. in pieces about one foot long. Where stones are aoun- dant and it is desired to get rid of them, they may b« used, sometimes giving good satisfaction. Boards, poles, brush; even straw may be worth using under exceptional circumstances. "Mole drains," made by drawing a conical shaped piece of iron or wood through the soil at the desired depth, have done good work for years in fairly retentive soils. In most parts of this country, however, there is little reason for using anything else than the ordinary drain tile, or "pipes," as they are called in England. The use of drainage tile was not common until about fifty years ago, and comparatively few had been used in this country until after the civil war. Within the last few years there have been more than eight hundred facto- ries for their manufacture at work in Illinois. For- merly they were made in the shape of a horseshoe, at first without, afterward with a "sole." Now round tiles are almost universally used. It has been found that good tile can be made from any clay suited for brick-making. The most desirable qualities in drain tile are that they shall be straight, smooth on the inside, with the ends squarely cut off, free from cracks and fairly hard burned. As the water enters the tile almost entirely at the joints in any case, the porosity of the tile is a matter of little importance. Method of Action of Tile Drains. — Lands are wet because the water is held on or near the surface of a soil so compact it cannot freely enter it; or be- cause the soil is underlaid with rock, clay, hard-pan, or other substance nearly impervious to water. The land may be wet on hillsides becaase the impervioua SOIL IMPKOVEMENT BY DEAINAGE. 05 cub-soil comes near the surface and causes a discharge of the water which has passed into the soil on the higher land. In time of heavy rains land, such as has been described, becomes full of water, and be- comes dry slowly by the aid of evaporation from the surface and the slow passage of water through the re- tentive soil and sub-soil. If an open ditch be cut in such a soil, with the bottom having a uniform slope to a stream or other free outlet, it is evident it will rapidly carry off the water until the line of saturated soil, near the ditch, is on a level with its bottom. As the water cannot move freely through the soil the line of satura- tion gradually rises on either side, until at a dis- tance depending on the depth of the ditch and the character of the soil, no appreciable effect is produced by the ditch. If the ditch were cut in very retentive soil, it could carry off the water very slowly. If the surface soil be open, but the ditch be cut into the impervious sub- soil, it is evident the water can only enter it by flow- ing along the top of the compact sub-soil until the ditch is reached. If the surface slope up on either side of the ditch, it will affect the soil to a grepter distance than if the surface be level. If a line of tile be placed in the bottom of the ditch, with their ends so close together that dirt cannot be washed in, and care is taken to see that therj is a uni- form fall toward a good outlet, and the ditch be filled up, the action will be much the same as in the case of the open ditch. The efficiency of tile drains depends on many things, aa the character of the rain- fall, the reteativeness of 66 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OP THE FAEM. the soil, the size of the tile, the distance apart and the depth of the drains, as well as on the rate of fall, the skill with which the work is done and the character of the outlet. The total rain-fall for a year is of less consequence than the quantity which may fall in twelve or twenty- four hours. It is useless to undertake to carry off at once the water which may fall in extraordinary cases. Comparatively little harm is done by standing water if it be removed in a few hours. The percentage of water which will pass through the soil depends not only on the amount which falls but upon the character of the soil. Size of Tile. — Smaller tile are used in England than in this country. Those one inch in diameter were formerly used, and two-inch tile are not un- common. In many parts of this country tile less than three inches in diameter are rarely used. A two-inch tile is abundantly large for use in many places, but there is danger of mistakes in deciding this point and errors in laying small tile are more serious in their effects than with large tile; hence it is safer to use larger sizes. The carrying capacity of tile varies with the square of their diameter. Thus a six-inch tile will carry four times as much as a three-inch tile; in fact somewhat more, because the resistance from fric- tion against the sides is relatively less in the larger tile. It is a mistake to lay a long line of tile all of the same size. The quantity of water to be carried increases as the line extends, and the rate of fall is rarely great enough to allow an increase in velocity. For ordinary farm drainage, tile varying from three to six inches in diameter are most commonly used in SOIL IMPROVEMENT BY DRAINAGE. 67 this country, with larger sizes for mains in most casea In the central Western States til« twelve, fourteen or sixteen inches in diameter are not uncommon in main drains on large farms, or where several farmers have united in a system of drain&ge. Depth and Distance Apart of Drains— There is a close relation between these two points. The deeper the tile is laid, ordinarily, the greater may be the distance between the drains. Shallow drains cannot affect the land to any considerable distance, and will not lower the line of saturation sufficiently to give the best results. The tile may be injured by frost. Little good comes from cutting deep drains in very retentive soils. Frequent, shallow drains are best for such. In open, porous soils, such as those of the prairie States, drains laid three feet deep will ap- preciably affect the soil for 100 feet or more on either side. In some very compact English clay soil drains are laid not more than 15 feet apart. Usually a deep laid drain wUl begin to flow sooner when rain comes, after a period of drouth, will con- tinue to flow longer, and will carry off somewhat more water in a given time than a shallow drain. The reason these statements are true will be apparent if the results of pouring water into a barrel filled with earth, and with holes bored into its sides at different depths, be thought of. The cost of digging ditches rapidly increases with their depth. There is no advantage, and some disad- vantages, from lowering the line of saturated soil far below the surface. In practice three feet is a desir able depth for tile drains in ordinary soils. The nature of the soil and other conditions vary so much 68 THE SOILS AND CROPS OP THE FAKM. that it is not wise to attempt to specify the best di» tance apart. In prairie soils, 100 feet apart is usual- ly a safe distance, even when the land is quite wet. Cost of Tile Drainage.— What is known as "thorough drainage" is rare in this country. The cost would be so great that the practice is not advis- able on lands of moderate price. In many cases the cost would be greater than the price of lands equally desirable and not needing much drainage. Drainage is a permanent improvement, and if a fair interest on the amount invested in it be returned by the in- creased crops, the outlay is advisable. With drains three feet deep and with tile obtainable near the farm, using the sizes most common, the total cost of the work may vary from fifty to seventy-five cents per rod. Rate of Fall.— A line of tile laid on an exact level in wet land would carry off much water, if one end were open. A slight fall would greatly increase the carrying capacity of the tile. It is difficult to have tile laid with accuracy; hence more fall is de- sirable. A fall of one foot in one hundred of length is abundance. Good work is done by many ditches where the fall is not one-tenth this rate. On level land a safe rule is to get all the fall practicable, but not to leave the work undone because the fall is slight. In case of very slight fall the rate can be increased by making the ditch shallower at the upper end. Planning and Making the Drains.— It is wise to lay out the plan for a system of drains for the farm; but the work may commence where it is most needed. The advice and work of a drainage engineer is helpful but not essential. A good outlet isessentitil SOIL IMPROVEMENT BY DKAINAGE. 69 No drain, can do good work without a free outlet. The main drains should follow the lowest land, the natural water courses, unless this line be very crooked. Side drains should, usually, run up and down the slope. Where the surplus water mainly comes from higher land, it is often possible to cut it off by a line of tile run- ning across the slope. The tile for the main drains should be selected with reference to the water they may be ultimately required to carry, and not simply with reference to present needs. Digging the ditch and laying the tile should commence at the outlet. A leveling instrument is advisable, but good results can be obtained by noticing the flow of water in the bot- tom of the ditch. The tile should be placed as close to- gether as possible. The side drains should enter tha main at an acute acgle, and a little above the bottom. The plow may often be profitably used for opening the ditch. A common mistake in digging is in mak- ing the ditch wider than is necessary. Another is in determining the depth by measuring from the sur- face. Many machines for digging ditches for the tile drains have been invented. Some do good work un- der favorable conditions. The great mass of the work is still done by hand labor. In exceptional localities ponds and swamps may be drained or good outlets secured for tile drains by openings through the compact subsoil into beds of sand or other porous subsoil underlying the impervi- ous strata. Where there are large areas of level, wet lands, large open ditches often have to be made as outlets for the farm systems of tile drains. la some States great tanals many miles in length and often thirty feet vide have been dug for this purpose. 70 THE SOILS AND CROPS OP THE PAKM. liOsses trom Drainage. — The great benefits from underground drainage are accompanied with some loss. There is, sometimes, a considerable loss of nitrogen in the drainage water. It is possible that, if the water level is reduced to the depth of several feet, the surface soil may be dryer during drouth, as the soil cannot draw water up by capillary power from a great depth. Usually, however, a well drained soil has rather more than less moisture in it during dry weather, than an undrained one. It is possible that drainage of large areas may have some efPect on the climate, possibly afPecting slightly the rainfall. Wherever done with ordinary discretion, it. may be safely afiSrmed that tUe drainage wUl do much more good than harm. Irrigation. — Where the rainfall is insufficient or comes at long intervals irrigation is necessary for profitable farming. The practice is very ancient. Perhaps it was first introduced along the valley of the Nile. In England the practice is most common in the case of low-lying grass lands, often called "water meadows," on which water is kept for a considerable time in winter. In this country irrigation is practiced with remarkable success in what is termed the "arid region," and on the plains of California. The water from rivers or large streams is carried along hillsides by canals and ditches and from these distributed over the land, sometimes by means of elaborate systems of shallow ditches. In some parts of the country great supplies of water are obtained from artesian wells. As yet, however, the regions in which irrigation is practiced, while actually large, are relatively but a very small fraction of the country, and the methods SOIL IMPROVEMENT BY DBAINAGE. M adopted vary greatly in different parts of the coun- try. The fact that the yield of crops where the land is irrigated are often surprisingly large, coupled with the fact that the rainfall is uncertain in many localities, makes the problem of irrigation one of importance to farmers in many parts of the country. For excep- tional crops profitable use of irrigation by water pumped from wells by means of windmills or steam engines has been secured. The utilization of streams on hillsides or other high-lying land may already be profitably attempted in some parts of the country. However, irrigation is a problem of the future rather than the present so far as most farmers in this conn- Ixy are coooeraecL OSAPTEB VL TILLAOE. The farmer is called a tiller of the soiL Agrioul tore is defined as the culture of the field. The soil ia no more essential to crop production than is the air, water, heat or light. But the farmer can directly af- fect the condition of the soil, making it more suitable for crop production, and, through it, can make the sup- plies of air, heat and water more helpful. The abundant natural vegetation in forest and on prairie shows that tillage is not essential to the growth of many plants. But nature is very prodigal in seed- ing. Often not one seed in a thousand of those which fall to the ground produces a plant. Most crops cul- tivated by farmers would scarcely maintain themselves without the aid of man. Objects of Tillage, — The chief objects of tillage operations are: 1. To prepare a suitable seed bed and properly cover the seed sown. 2. To keep the soil in good condition during the growth of the crop. 3. "Tillage is manure." The first object is accomplished by stirring, pul- verizing, often inverting the surface soil, and by cov- ering grass, weeds, stubble or manure growing or de- posited on the surface. The second object is generally accomplished by keeping the surface loosa and preventing the growth of weeds. 7a TILLAGE. 73 That proper tillage or cultivation of the soil often increases its productive power is undoubtedly true. The ability of a soil to produce crops is often as di- rectly increased by tillage as by the application of manures. The saying that "tillage is manure" as un- derstood by Jethro TuU and by an occasional writer of modern times — that is, that good tillage makes ma- nuring unnecessary — may lead to bad practice. Good tillage, liberal manuring, and good drainage combined are much more likely to continue to give satisfactory crops than if one places chief reliance on either op- eration. Some of the reasons why cultivation makes soils more productive are easily seen. Stirring and pul- verizing' a hard, compact soil enables the roots of plants to penetrate it more easily and greatly increases the quantity of plant food reached by the roots. These operations also permit air and water to enter the soil more freely and thus increase the supply of available plant food. Autumn cultivation exposes the loosened surface to the action of the frost. Prof. Wrightson says: "No implement is so effective in pulverizing the ground as frost." Sometimes tillage greecily improves very open, coarse textured soils by making them more compact, increas- ing the number and reducing the size of the pores. This increases the capillary power of the soil. Surface cultivation, keeping the surface soil loose and dry, causes it to act as a mulch, retarding evapora- tion. The destruction of weeds prevents their robbing the crop of food and water. Plowing. — The plow is the typical farm imple' 74 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. ment. The story of its development forms one of the most interesting pages in the history of agriculture. Many attempts have been made to introduce substi- tutes for it, and these have been largely successful so far as cultivation of the soil while crops are growing is concerned; but the plow is still the chief reliance ia preparing soils for crops. The modern plow cuts, lifts, and turns a furrow. Sometimes it does a good deal in the way of breaking up and pulverizing the furrow slice. There is much difference as regards this last point be- tween the common practice in the United States and in England. American plows, especially those designed for use in loose soils, take a wide and comparatively shallow furrow, crumbling the earth in stubble land, sometimes leaving it in fair con- dition for seeding without further tillage. Eng- lish plows, as a rule, take a narrower and deeper furrow and the effort is made, especially in autumn plowing, to expose as much surface to the air as pos- sible, by laying the furrow slice at an angle of about forty-five degrees. Nine inches is a common width of furrow slice in England; twelve, fourteen or sixteen inches, the latter for three-horse plows, are common in the United States, especially in prairie boUs. An acre to an acre and a quarter is counted a good day's work in plowing in England. In this country, twice as much is often done with a pair of horses. Plows have been much improved in recent years. The draft has been reduced and the quality of work done improved. But the best plows are not perfect working implements. Plowing is relatively slow and ooetly work. A man and team will go over a greater TILLAGE. 76 area in a day in almost any other tillage operation than in plowing. There is a tendency to compact the subsoil unduly by the trampling of the horses and the pressure of the plow. At the best, the plow imperfectly pulverizes the soil. The spading principle seems bet- ter, but this has not been successfully applied in gen- eral practice, although some ingenious machines for the purpose have been introduced. Depth of Plowing. — Plow deep has often been given as sound advice for all farmers. Sometimes it is very bad advice. In some soils deep plowing is worse than shallow plowing; in many more it is no better in its results, while it always costs more. The statement that the deeper the good soil into which roots may descend for food the better for the crops, is a sound one. Where the soil is of like qual- ity to a considerable depth, and is not naturally suffi- ciently loose, deep plowing will generally be advisable. Sometimes excellent results come from mixing a por- tion of the subsoil w ith the surface soil, by deep plowing. Plant food which has been carried down several incheS in the soil will ba brought to the surface. Exposing a portion of the deeper soil to the action of the frost during winter often is a great help to productiveness. Deep plowing is rarely advisable on wet, undrained soils. Often this simply increases the depth to which the soil bacomes saturated with water, which must escape by evaporation. In shallow soils, with a poor subsoil, any marked increase in depth of plow- ing at one operation will almost certainly do harm. Gradually deepening the soil by increasing the depth of plowing about an inch each year, may be helpfuj in such soils. 76 THE SOILS AND CROPS OP THE FA.BM. Much of the fertile prairie soils of the central west and some alluvial soils in other parts of the country often show no increase of yield from deep plowing. Deep plowing is less common on the black prairie soil of Central Illinois, for instance, than it formerly was. These soils are so open in texture that neither roots, air nor water find difficulty in descending to a consider- able depth, Bepeated experiments have shown that good crops may be grown on such soils without plow- ing; in fact without other preparation than covering the seed, it being imderstood that the surface must be freed from rubbish in some way. This practice is not advised, but it illustrates the fact that the physical condition of some soils may be as good without tillage as that of others after much work has been done by the farmer. The latter may produce as large crops as the former, but it is at the cost of more labor. There is a disposition to over-estimate the depth of plowing. For many soils six inches may be called deep; comparatively few soils need frequent plowing deeper than eight inches. Fall plowing may usually be deeper than is advisable when the work is done in the spring. Subsoil and Trench Plowing, — Subsoil plow- ing is loosening the subsoil without bringing it to the surface. In trench plowing the loosened subsoil is laid on the surface. Neither of these operations it commonly practiced by American farmers. Many thousands of acres are annually so treated, but the to- tal is but a small percentage of the cultivated area. Subsoiling is probably advisable on a larger variety of soils in this country than is trench plowing. On iindrained soils it often is worse than useless, unless TILLAGE. n ta rare cases, where there is a thin layer of compact soil above a porous soil. In heavy clay soils the effects are not permanent. In deep, loose soils the practice may do some good but not always enough to repay the extra cost. SubsoUing may be done either by a separate plow or an attachment to the ordinary plow. A double plow with a small share and mold board in front which cuts and turns over a shallow furrow, followed by a larger plow which covers this furrow with a deeper furrow, gives good satisfaction to many farmers, especially in plowing sod land. Time for Plowing. — There are some obvious advantages in fall plowing lands designed for spring sown crops. The pressure of work in the spring is lessened. The crops can often be put in more promptly. Exposing the upturned surface to the freezing and thawing, to the snow and rain of winter, often helps much. Some insects may be destroyed by the process. With some soils replowing in spring may be advisable, but this is not the rule. For fall sown grains, as wheat and rye, it is generally thought best to plow as long before time for seeding as is con- veniently practicable; these crops often doing better when the seed bed, while well pulverized, is well com-, pacted. On the other hand there are advantages, in many cases, when plowing ground in the spring, fron planting or sowing the crop very promptly after thg plowing is done. This is especially true if there ia little moisture in the soil. If a crop of clover or other green manuring crop is to be turned under, the plow- ing will naturally be delayed as long as possible to allow greater growth to the manure crop. ?8 SOILS AND CROPS OF THE EARM. Summer fallowing, or plowing land in the spring or fall and allowing it to lie during the summer, either with or without further cultivation, is only ex- ceptionally practiced in this country, and is not gener- ally growing in favor. Where soils are badly infested with weeds difficult to eradicate, or are especially com- pact and tenacious, or have only a small supply of available plant food, this practice may be advisable. The condition of the soil may be improved; mineral plant food may accumulate; nitrogen will be absorbed from the air and brought to the soil by rains, or by the decay of vegetable matter. But, if the soil be open textured, and if there be much rain, more nitro- gen will be lost than is gained. There is the additional great practical objection that the land makes no re- turn in crop during the year. Few soils can be plowed when wet without injury. Some sandy soils are little affected, but clay soils are much injured by this practice. It is often almost impossible to get a compact clay soil in good condition after it has been plowed, or even much trampled by live-stock when wet, until it has been exposed to the action of frost. Harrotring. — ^Harrowing with any form of toothed harrows affects the soil only to a moderate depth. The operation is cheaply done. The same force of men and teams may go over ten timee hf much ground when harrowing as w^en plowing. It is a good method of leveling the s'u-face, helping pulverize the clods, covering seeds, and of destroying weeds. The best of the toothed harrows, however, only slowly and imperfectly pulverize land where there are hard slods, and have aluicst no effect at a greater depth TILLAGE. 7» than three or four inches. For clay land especially it is better to harrow promptly after plowing if a crop is to be soon sown. In recent years there has been a great increase in the number aaid variety of implements or machines which, instead of pushing the soil about as does the harrow tooth, cut it by means of blades or revolving disks. For many purposes such implements are very Taluable. They pulverize the surface more effectually than the harrow, and often loosen it to a greater depth. They do not leave the surface smooth and level as will a good harrow. They are being increasingly used instead of the plow for preparing loose soils, when comparatively free from stubble, for spring -sown small grain crops. Rolling. — On many soils a good roller is one of the most useful of farm machines. Used soon after the land is plowed, when the surface is neither wet nor thoroughly dry, it quite effectually breaks up clods and tends to level and compact the surface. Eolling cloddy, compact soils which have been plowed when wet, may do some good, but the tendency is to push the clods into the ground rather than to pulverize them. Eolling light soils tonds to check evaporation. Seeds are often better covered if the land be rolled after the seeds have been harrowed in. Eolling grass, clover or small grain in the early spring often greatly reduces injury from freezing and thawing, as well as makes the surface smoother for mowing. A roller of large diameter is better for this last use; one of equal weight but less diameter will be more effective in pul- Verizing the surface soil. Instead of rollers, many farmers use what may be 90 THE SOILS AOT) CROPS OP THE FARM. called "smoothers." These are made ia many forms, A cheap and effective form is made by fastening two or three planks together, preferably with some dis- tance between them, and dragging them, broadside, over the surface. For leveling the surface and pul- verizing clods such an implement is often better thaa either harrow or roller. Tillage Daring Crop Orowth. — The state- ment that a large part of the cultivation of a crop should be done before it is planted, and that of the rest a considerable part before the crop has started to grow, may seem extravagant, but it suggests a truth— that many farmers do not prepare the ground suffi. ciently before sowing or planting the crops. As a rule the only cultivation soil designed for small grains, grass or clover receives is that given before sowing the seed. These crops may be lightly har- rowed in the spring with possible benefit, but the practice is not a general one. For the cultivated crops, as Indian corn, work in pulverizing the soil and destroying weeds can often be done to better advan- tage before planting than afterwards. One chief object in cultivating the soil while a crop is growing is to prevent the growth of weeds. The best time to kill a plant is soon after it has commenced its growth. A weed or grain seed will withstand much rough treatment without apparent injury. A plant when well established, may lose much of its roots or top and yet live. A slight disturbance will usually kill a plant just starting to grow. Harrowing or otherwise stirring the surface after the crop has been planted will often kill many weeds just starting, without injuring the deeper covered seed of the crop, TILLAGE. 81 The longer weeds are allowed to grow the greater the loss of food and water which the crop might otherwise have made use of. Another chief purpose of crop cultivation is to keep the surface of the soil loose and porous. Some soils "bake" or ''cake" on the surface, especially if they have been stirred whUe wet. Shallow cultivation is all that is needed in such cases. If the soil has been deeply plowed or is naturally loose, it will hardly be- come too compact while the crop is growing. The roots of such plants as corn often grow more rapidly than do the stalks while the plant is young. Close^ deep culture necessarily injures or destroys many roots. Eoot pruning is almost always injurious ta the crop. It may be a necessary evil, but no more of it should be done than is necessary. Deep culture should be given, if at all, while the plants are small. The relation of cultivation to soil moisture and its evaporation is important. Improving the capillary power of the soil may be accomplished by tillage in many cases, by compacting too open soil, and loosen- ing too compact soils. This work, except at the sur- face, should be done before the crop is planted. At- tempts to improve the physical condition of the soil to the depth of six inches after the crop has well started its growth will usually do more harm than good Stirring the surface soil during drouth causes some loss of moisture by increase of evaporation. If it is desired to have a pan of wet sand dry rapidly, it is well to stir it. But the loosening of the surface soil and its becoming quite dry saves the moisture in the soil by the dried surface acting as a mulch and thus checking evaporation. A thin coating of finely di- 82 THE SOILS AND CBOPS OF THE FARM, vided dry earth will have much effect in this direction. Deeply stirring the soil causes the loss of piore mois- ture, injury to more roots and little increase in the benefit in the way of checking evaporation. Com- paratively shallow cultivation while crops are growing is very generally better than deeper cultivation. So long as the ground is kept free from weeds and does not become hard or very compact, there seems no good reason for constant or very frequent cultivation. Many crops are injured by lack of suffix cient cultivation; more by improper cultivation; some undoubtedly receive more than is profitable. The labor of men and teams may be more profitably em- ployed than by repeated culture of a field already free from weeds and with the soil in good condition for growth of the crop. The condition of the soil and the crop is a better means of determining whether addi- tional cultivation is needed than is the number of times the land has been stirred. Of recent years there has been a marked increase in the number and popularity of the tools which stir the whole surface but only to a moderate depth, as com- pared with the small plows or large shoveled cultiva- tors, which stirred the soil to a greater depth. Hand hoeing of field grain crops is not common in this country. The work can be better done than by horse power, but the cost is too great. CHAPTER VIL ROTATION OF CROPS. A. rotation of crops implies not only change, but change in a regular order; that is, that different crops shall be grown in something like a regular order through a longer or shorter series of years, finally get- ting back to the starting point. The practice is believed to be very ancient. It is said that, hundred of years ago, it was the custom in parts of England to divide the land into three parts, allowing one to lie in bare fallow ; having one in fall-sown and the third in springs sown grain, thus making a three years' rotation. Probably the first approach to rotation would be the abandonment of a field after it had been cultivated for some years, thus allowing it to become covered with natural vegetation, the decay of which would tend to increase its fertility. Botation not Essential. — A rotation of crops is not absolutely essential to large harvests or, in some cases, profitable farming. It has been noticed that Sir John B. Lawes has grown wheat on the same ground for about fifty years, and that, even where no manure has been applied, the land still produces a fairly good crop. Like trials have been made with barley and roots, although not for so many years, with similar results. The need of helping the fertility of the soil in some way has been clearly shown in the ease of each crop. But where either stable or arti- ficial manures have been regularly applied, it has been shown to be possible to produce large crops for a 83 84 THE SOILS AND CROPS OP THE FARM. long series of years, without change, or rest to the land. In a good many eases in this country, where some special crop has been thought particularly pro- fitable, it has been shown possible to grow it annually Cor many years on the same land, by reasonable use 9f manures. In exceptional cases such a course of continued cropping without change may be wise and profitable. The general practice of good farmers and abundant experimental evidence, however, show that a rotation of crops is usually wise. Reasons for Rotating; Crops,— The reasons why a rotation of crops is usually good practice may be divided into two classes: Those which concern the convenience and probable immediate profit of the farm work, and, secondly, those which relate to main- taining or increasing the fertility of the soil. Aside from the usual arguments in favor of produc ing something of a variety of crops on a farm, such as that this practice reduces the risks of the farmei; since it is not probable that all will be poor in yield or low in price, and that it better distributes the wort' of the year, enables the farmer better to provide for live-stock, etc., all of which have some bearing on ro tation, it is also true that one crop may more profit- ably follow another than itself, from itr leaving the soil in better condition. Land long kept in crops which are not cultivated while growing is liable to become infested with weeds. The most important reason for rotation is that the practice helps keep up the productiveness of the land. Three reasons why this is true may be given: 1. WhUe all farm crops are made up of the same ROTATION OF CHOPS. 85 chemical elements the jjroportion in which they use these varies greatly. So, also, the quantity and pro- portion of these they leave on the soil, in the stubble or refuse, differs much. 2. The range of the roots and the power of assim- ilating plant food differs much in different crops. 3. Farm crops differ much in the length of time required to come to maturity, and in the time of year in which they make much of their growth. An ordinary grain crop will take from the soil much less potash than will a crop of clover, potatoes or any of the root crops. A crop of oats will take more pot- ash than will one of wheat or Indian corn. A crop of clover will take considerably more phosphoric acid than will a grain crop, while one of mangels or tur- nips will take considerably more than will the clover. Obviously there is an advantage so far as the supply of these substances is concerned in alternating crops which take less with those which take more. The red clover plant, in a suitable soil, sends its roots down to a greater depth than the mass of the roots of such a grass as Kentucky blue grass. A long, large mangel or sugar beet sends its roots much deeper than a round turnip. The strong growing, far- reaching roots of corn go deeper than those of oats. The deep and shallow-rooted plants will obtain much of their mineral food at different depths. A well established crop of red clover would obtain a large part of its food from a depth scarcely reached by a crop of white clover or potatoes. The unusual depth to which clover sends its roots, and the large size of these roots, which greatly in- creases the stock of vegetable matter left in the soil, 86 THE SOILS AND CROPS 01^ THE FARM, are reasons for the high esteem in which clover is hel3 as a valuable crop in any system of rotation. Another important reason is found in the fact that the clovers and other leguminous crops,such as peas and beans, are able to assimilate greater quantities of nitrogen than are the cereal, grass, or root crops. In recent years it has been shown that leguminous plants have the power, not possessed by other plants, of assimilating the free nitrogen of the air. It is believed that thia power is the result of the action of minute organisms which cause the formation of tubercles on the roots of plants of this order. It is a remarkable fact that, although a crop of clover hay will often contain twice as much nitrogen as will a crop of wheat, oats, corn or grass, it leaves so much nitrogen in its roots and stems that the soil contains more of this especially valuable element than it had before the clover was grown. A good crop of clover may be grown on soil which, because of lack of nitrogen, would not produce a good crop of wheat. After removing the hay, the soil may be fitted to give a good grain crop the next year by plowing under the stubble. It has already been stated that there is a loss of nitrogen from the soil in drainage water or by its be- ing washed into an open subsoil. In wet weather, especially where there are warm and wet winters, the loss in this way may be considerable. The loss is greater on soils free from vegetation than on those on which a crop is growing. The roots of the growing plants take up and make use of nitrogen which other- wise might be lost. Especially is this true of deep- rooted plants. The roots of red clover have been called "nitrogen traps." Obviously crops like pasture BOTATION OF CEOPS. 8) grasses, or clover, which continue to grow from early spring until late autumn,can make use of more nitrogen than those which finish their growth in early summer, as wheat. Indian corn, in this respect, has a great advantage over the small grains. It makes much of its growth after wheat has fully matured. It is thus able to make use of the supplies of available nitrogen which are being formed during the summer. Still more is this true of grass or clover, which continue to grow still later in the season. It seems reasonable to believe that plants which have a long season of growth can thrive fairly well on soils with a less supply of available plant food of any kind than can those which make their growth in a short time. In soils with loose, open subsoils or where manure with much nitrogen has been applied, especially in regions where there is considerable rain in the autumn and early spring, there is good reason for following early ripening crops with some fall-growing crops, as wheat or rye, or for seeding the land with clover or grass. Oreen Mannring. — One form of rotation of crops which is often highly recommended is the growth of crops with sole reference to their manurial value. In this country, sowing a crop of clover or buckwheat, or of cow peas in the Southern States, in the spring, or of rye in the fall, and plowing the crop under when it has made a good growth, are the most common methods of green manuring. The effects are often very noticeable. The store of vegetable matter in the soil is largely increased. Sometimes this much im- proves the physical condition of the soil. Always the 68 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. decay of this matter increases the humus and, ulti. mately, the supply of available mineral plant food near the surface. The objection to this practice is that no direct re- turn, aside from the increase of fertility of the soil, is made for the time, labor and seed used, or, in many oases, the land brings no money crop for a year. Sowing clover with small grain crops and plowing this under in preparation for a wheat crop in the fall or corn crop in the spring is a practice becoming more and more common. The only extra expenditure in this case is the cost of the seed. Some one has said the only objection to this practice is that, as a rale, it would be still better practice to allow the clover to stand another year, utilizing the crop for pasturage or hay, and then plowing under the sec- ond growth. Fortunately it is not usually necessary to use a crop solely for manuring. A part of the growth may be utilized for hay or, better, for pasture, with little loss of the manurial value of the crop, it being under- stood that the manure made from the crop taken oft is to be returned, as well as the part of the crop not removed plowed under. Choice of Crops in Rotation. — The crops to be used in a rotation will be selected with reference to the ease with which they can be grown, and their market or feeding value, as well as their value in maintaining fertility, and the needs of the soil of the locality. Fixed rotations have never been so common in the United States as in Great Britain, and, even there, more variation is allowed than formerly. Soil and climate must have large influence, but the relative ROTATION OF CE0P3. 89 value "of different crops, the facilities for marketing them, the greater or less price of live-stock products and the present money needs of the farmer, often must determine the exact rotation he adopts. The alternation of grain with green crops; of culti- rated with uncultivated crops, are fundamental prin- ciples in theoretical rotations. So far as maintaining fertility is concerned it would probably never be best to repeat a grain crop without an intervening green crop, but in practice it is often best to cultivate tha same crop two. sometimes even more, years in suc- cession. In Great Britain roots are the chief cultivated crop. In the United States, Indian corn is the principal cultivated crop. Unlike as maize and root crops are in other respects this one point in common makes each prominent in the best systems of rotation in the country in which they are grown. The "Norfolk" four course, or four years rotation, has been very popular on light land in England. The order of cropping is: Roots; grain, usually barley; "seeds," that is, a mixture of clover and grasses; grain, usually wheat — each one year. The .roots are turnips, or mangels, and are often eaten by sheep on the ground where they grew. Sometimes, clover, rye, turnips, or vetches are sown after the wheat is harvested and these crops followed by the regular root crop. On poorer soils, or where it is not desired to have a grain crop so frequently, the "seeds" may be left two or three years, as is the usual practice in this country. In some parts of England the rotations are very elaborate, lasting several years and intro; ducing a variety of "catch crops." 90 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAEMi Prof. Wrightsoa gives the following speci'men rota- tions for clay lands in England: Poor clays — Fallow, bare or cropped; wheat; beans, or oats, or clover. Better clays — Fallow; wheat; beans; oats. Bieh clays — Fallow;, wheat; beans; wheat; clpver; wheat. In each case the fallow land may be cultivated throughout the season or have a "catch crop" on it in the latter part of the season. In this country "roots," even including potatoes, are little grown in comparison with the cereals. Peas and beans also form but a very small percentage of the crop acreage. Over much of the country the choice in rotation is practically limited to grass "and clover, as the green crop; the small grains, usually either wheat or oats or both, and Indian corn as the hoed or cultivated crop. In a rotation made up of these, the grass, and especially the clover, will be the "manuring crop," the corn the "cleansing crop," and the small grains will be, as a VThole, the most "ex- hausting crops." There are large regions to which these statements do not apply — as in the cotton, sptecial' potato, or tobacco-growing regions, but the to- tals of these, lar^e as they are, are relatively small. Where it is adapted to the soil and climate, red clover is the most valuable crop in a rotation for this country. It gives a large crop of good food for either pasture or hay. It leaves a large quantity of vegetable matter' on and in the soil, in its roots and stubble. This contains much nitrogen, and the min- eral matter has largely been (brought from a lower depth of soil than the roots of some" crops readi; The decay of the roots not only increases the stock of humus in the soil but helps its physical condition. ' EOTATION OF CROPS. 9l The nsaal meadow and pasttire gfrassea^lso do good, if well managed. Where live-stock ia pastured on a gi'asa field comparatively little VEilnable matter is carried ofE. If the animals are well fed with grain, their droppings may make the soU more fertile. The quantity of both nitrogen and ash ingredients in the Borface soil will be considerably increased. That an old pasture ground, when broken up, will usually give a fine com crop is well known. Permanent pastures are-not so common in this country as in Great Britain, the pasture lands here .being usually included in the rotation. As a whole, this tends to' keep up the fertility of the whole farm. Hay-making and selling is more exhaustive than pasturage, and a continuance of this practice without manuring the meadows is not advisa- ble, but the accumulation of humus and readily cvaila- ble mineral plant food ia the roots and stems of the grass' is such that when an old meadow is plowed it frequently gives a good yield of grain, notwithstand- ing the loss of plant food by the sale of the hay. Indian com is now generally thought a less ex- haustive crop than it was formerly believed to be.* The longer period of growth, as compared with ths small grains; the fact that it can make use of nitrogen supplies made available during the summer and early autumn j the fact that it has abundant, vride- spreading and deep running roots, and the fact, that, in many parts of the country, only the grain is removed, the stalks, leaves and husks being left on the ground, help ex- plain why it does not decrease fertility so rapidly as its large yield might suggest. Oats are popularly supposed to be exhaastive, but Hke oat crop is th© one crop the application oft ma-» 92 THE SOILS AND OBOPS OF THE FABM. mure to which, when grown on lands of moderate fer- tility, is often injurious. The growth of straw ia liable to be unduly stimulated and the crop to fall down.- The great maize growing states are also great cattle rearing regions, hence tkera is much pasturage and meadow required. In these states the following rota- tion is not uncommon: Thi'ee years in grass and clover, two years corn, one year small grain (wheat or oats), seeded with grass and clover. If less stock is kept the grass and clover may be kept but two years. If the small grains are more prominently grown, wheat may be grown two years in succession. If the land is not so well adapted to corn, there may be but one crop of this. Commonly, however, the second crop is fully as good as the first. While not considered so good practice, three or eVen more com crops are not unfrequently t'lisn in saccession, on fertile prairie or alluvial soil. In this general rotar tion the manure is usually applied to the land while in grass, either as a top dressing for its benefit, or to be plowed under for the corn crop. Where pasturage is the main feature, or where the laud is thinner and not so well adapted to corn, the land may remain in grass several years, -the clover usually mainly disappearing. Over some considerable areas a four-course rotation but with many modifications, is practiced. It may be: Corn; oats or fallow; wheat; clover and grass. In this case the manure will be applied to the fallow ground or the oat stubble for wheat. Even in the almost exclusive grain- growing regions some benefit is tound to result from alternating the com and the small grain crops. EOTATION OF CROPS. 93 Doable cropping is not common. Sometimes a crop of corn or sorgiium or millet may be grown after wheat and removed in time for anotber wheat crop. As has bflen stated, the practice of sowing clover in the spring on the wheat or oats ground, whether the land ib designed for wheat the next fall or is to be put in corn the next year, is growing in favor. Clover alternated with some one grain or with the potato crop is an uncommon but successful rotation. With a careful rotation, especially if clover have a prominent place in it, land of naturally fair quality, if well tilled, may be cropped for many years without ehowing much, if any, rsduction in yield. Some in- telligent farmers think that, with a good rotation and good tillage, the application of manures is unneces- Eary. It may be for a considsrable number of years, but depreciation of fertility vfill finally come. Good tillage, a good rotation, and liberal manuring, com- bined, are the best security against ultiroate loss. OHAPTEB VHL TBE OHOIOE AND litFUOTHXENT 6f CROPS. There is a large variety of crops grown on the farms of the United States. A very few, however, occupy most of the acreage What is popularly called the grass crop — including many varieties of grasses and the clovers — grown for pasturage and hay, occupies the largest area and has the greatest value. Next to this come the three great cereals, com, ■wheat and oats. The acreage in corn is about twice that in wheat and three times that iu oats. Cotton comes next in acreage. Large as is the acreage in some other crops there is none which makes any considerable percentage of the total cultivated area. A million of acres is a very large tract of land, but it is insignificant when compared with the hundreds of millions of acres in the farms of the country. There has been rapid increase in the cultivated acreage of the country and some changes in the pro- portion given to different crops, but there is little reason to believe that the time will soou come when grass, com, wheat and oatg vrill not be the leadj'ng crops of the country, at least so far as extent of acre- age is concerned. Almost every crop now grown on the farms of the United States had been grown to some extent before the revolutionary war. Improvements in methods of culture or in machinery for utilizing the crop have brought some crops into greater relative importance. ^l!his has beeg noticeably true of cotton, and it ia CHOICE AND IMPKO YEMENI OF CE0P8, 95 much to be hoped may be true of beets and sorghum for the maaufactore of sugar. The possibilities of crop production depend mainly on climate and soil. Of these the climate is the more important. Manuring, culture, or drainage may great- ly modify the soil and make it fit for crops for -which it was Dly prepared. Plants, like animals, have great adaptability; they may become acclimated and do fairly well where neither soil nor climate is like that in their native land. Usually, however, it is unwise to attempt the growth of any crop which experience has shown to be illy adapted to the climate and soil of a given region; at least as a leading crop. The profitableness of the growth of a given crop de- pends not only on the climate and soil, but very largely on the market facilities, and, so far as the in- dividual farmer is concerned, largely on his tastes, experience and capital. The farming in many parts of this country has greatly changed, not because of soil exhaustion or changes of climate, but becaiise of changes in the market demands. Usually, in regions recently settled, where land is low-priced and trans- portation facilities are poor, farmers devote them- selves to grazing cattle or sheep or to the production of crops, like com and wheat or cotton, which can be readily transported long distances. Where the soil and climate are favorable wheat has been a favorite crop with new settlers, because a considerable acre- age can be grown with comparatively little expendi- ture of money or labor, and a money return can be secured more quickly than if stock-raising be selected as the chief business. As the land advances in value, eBpecially near large cities, the production of cropd 86 THE SOILS AND CROPri OF THE FARM. which give a larger money return for the acreage and of such as cannot be carried great distances without in- jury becomes more common. Thus supplying milk to large cities is now a chief business on farms formerly devoted to grain growing. The general practice is usually the safest guide. There are many exceptions to this, but no safer rule can be given to one about commencing farming in a region with which he has little acquaintance than to follow the practice of the most successful farmers in the vicinity, at least in the beginning of his work. As stated, there are many exceptions. It not infrequently happens that the most profitable farming in a com- munity is that by some one who has introduced a new industry, or sought to give a home supply of some article which has hitherto been brought from a dis- tance. A. man of special skill and intelligence may sometimes wisely work against peculiarities of climate and soil. It often happens that those who are first to see the probable value of a crop new to the region, or first to adapt their farming tci changing conditions, are much more successful than their neighbors. Specialties or Oemeral Farming. — For most farmers the production of several crops is safer and wiser than giving nearly exclusive attention to one crop. Here again there are many exceptions. A wisely selected specialty often gives much larger profits than come to the farmer who divides his efforts between several branches of farming. The specialty farmer oufjht to learn more about produc- ing and disposing of his one crop than if he looked after several. He has a better opportunity of making a good reputation and of getting somewhat higher CHOICE AND IMPEO'VEMENT OF CEOPS. 97 prices. He may be able to produce more cheaply by a better use of machinery. General farming usually enables the farmer to dis- tribute his labor and that of his employes and teams to better advantage throughout the year. It gives the advantages of a rotation of crops, and, if stock feeding be a part of the system, of retaining much of the manurial value of the crops on thet farm. It is something of a safeguard against poor yields and poor prices. It rarely happens that all the crops give poor yields and also bring low prices. This may hpppen with a specialty in any one locality. The attempt to produce a little of each of a large variety of crops on any farm is almost always unwise. The' safe rule is to give the chief attention to one or two or three crops, but not limit the farm work to these. The tendency in farming, as in almost all classes of business, is toward specialization of eflFort and di- vision of labor. This is wise, but it may be carried too far. It is not now wise for farmers to attempt to clothe themselves with the wool or cotton produced on their own farms or to produce all that they eat; but it is not the best management for the largest number of farmers in this country to buy any large part of the food of their teams or other live-stock on their farms. For reasons which need not be discussed here, bnt largely because the feeding of farm animals on the farm is one of the best methods of preventing de- crease of fertility, animal husbandry in some form should be a part of the system of management on the majority of the farms in the country. Meat, milk or wool is most cheaply produced where the animals get 98 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAEM.x most or all their food by grazing in good pasfurod. Hence liberal provision for grass or some of the clo- vers should be made on most stock farms. In most cases it is also best that the greater part of the grain or other food given them should also be produced on the farm. The by-products of manufactures are com- ing more and more in use, and it is well this is so. Oil cake or tneal, whether of linseed or cottonseed, will doubtless become a still more popular food than it now is. Bran, etc., may often be purchased with profit^ but corn and oats will long remain the chief grain food for farm animals. Wheat will probably long continue to be the great bread grain for civilized man. The great majority of the farmers north of thirty-five degrees or thirty-six degrees north latitude will do most wisely, so long as present conditions continue, to make some or all of these crops the chief product of their farms. There are large areas in which minor crops may be more profitable than these great staples, and in very many neighborhoods a few farmers may do well to se- lect some special line of work. Thus in the neighbor- hood in which this is written, large profits were former- ly made on broom-corn. Now this crop is scarcely grown in this vicinity, but the presence of a large cordage manufactory makes the culture of hemp an especially profitable branch of farming, and a number of farms are almost exclusively devoted to this crop. Cotton will certainly continue to be the chief farm crop of some Southern states, and it is probable the area in the Gulf states in which sugar cane is most largely grown will extend. It is believed, however, that more variety of crops, allowing some rolatioii, would be better in these regions. 'CHOICE AND IMPEOVEMENT OF CROPg.^ 99 Potato culture and the growing of what are caHed market garden crops, as well as fruit growing, are more profitable than ordinary grain growing in a good many localities; but important as these crops are they are still minor crops and engage the attention of but a comparatively small percentage of the farmers of the country. Specific rules which shall be applicable to all parti of the country cannot be given. The great staple crops can safely be grown where soil and climate are adapted to them and where there are reasonable trans- portation facilities. "When practicable a rotation is better ttian continuous growth of any crop, and it is very desirable to give a place in the rotation to clo- ver or some plant of the same family. Generally the crops of which the larger part is retained on the farm are to be preferred. The growth of broom-corn, where only the brush is sold and this cut before the seed has matured, is less exhaustive to the soil than is the continued culture of Indian corn where the grain is sold. The order of cropping which will give em- ployment during most of the year is ordinarily to be preferred. Specialities which .require most of intelligence and skill may give largest profits, with possibilities of large losses. ImproTement of Farm Crops. — Probably there is no grain, grass, fibre, or root crop cultivated in the United States which has not been greatly changed since it was a wild plant. In recent years many new varieties have been produced, differing in marked de- grees from those formerly cultivated. Farmers gener- ally do not actively interest themselves in the improve- 100 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE EAEM. ment of their crops; are not always careful to main- tain them in their present standard of excellence. Much can be done in this direction. It is often un- necessary to rely on specialists or to pay high prieea for improved varieties. A frequent change of seed is not necessarily a good thing; certainly it is not neces- sary to obtain seed from distant parts of the country for a region where the soil and climate is well suited to the crop. If the region is not well adapted to the crop frequent new supplies of seed may be helpful or even essential. Probably no part of the world is bet- ter adapted to Indian corn than is much of the central Mississippi Valley. There would seem to be no good reason for changing seed of corn in this region. Much of this same region is not equally well suited for the oat crop. The climate is too dry and hot. The oats are much lighter than those produced in more moist and ceol regions. Obtaining seed oats from regions where the crop does better is good business management. Three methods of crop improvement are commonly used. These are selection, cultivation, and crossing. With some crops, as Indian corn, all these methods are easily practiced. With some, as with the small grains and grasses, crossing is more difficult; With plants, as with animals, the rule is that like produces like, or the offspring resembles the parent. Many things may causo variation but the tendency is toward almost exact reproduction. Persistent selection of seed from plants possessing any characteristic will tend to fix that characteristic until it will almost certainly be reproduced. Much less attention is paid to selection of most seeds than is given to selection in animal breed- ing, but like results may be expected to follow. CHOICE AND liiPEOYEMEXT OP CEOPS. 101 It is not aloae the character of the seed but of the whole plant that may be affected by selection. Selec- tion simply with reference to the size or shape or color of the seed is faulty. The character of the plant pro- ducing the seed should also be determined. Selection before or at the time of harvesting is wiser than se- lection from the granary. In this way the size, form, time of maturing, and prolificacy of the plant may be determined. Good cultivation will tend to improve varieties; at least tend to prevent deterioration. Thick or thin seeding has a marked effect on the quantity of seed produced. The best varieties may become poor if given poor treatment. The production of new varieties by cross-fertiliza- tion may unite good qualities of both or secure im- provement. Sometimes greater vigor of plant or pro- ductiveness is thus secured. Occasional production of new varieties of potatoes from the seed seems almost essential. Sometimes a single plant of grain, grass, clover or other crop may, from some unknown cause, present some desirable quality in unusual degree. Selection of seed from such a plant is not "small business." It may prove a profitable step. Some widely famous varieties of grain had their origin in this way. A definite idea of what is wanted, careful and per- sistent selection with reference to the possession of the desired qualities, and then good cultivation, is often a wiser method of getting good varieties of farm crops than purchasing new varieties from a distance and at bigb prices. CHAPTEB IX, WHEAT. History. — The cultivation of wheat is much older than the history of man. Very ancient monuments, much older than the Hebrew Scriptures, show its cul- tivaticm already established. The Egyptians and Greeks attributed its origin to mythical personages. The earliest lake dwellers of Western Switzerland cul- tivated a small grained variety of wheat as early as the stone age. The Chinese grew wheat 2,700 B. C, and considered it a direct gift from Heaven. Wheat is one of the species used in their annual ceremony of sowing five kinds of seeds. Chinese scholars believe it to be a native of their country. The existence of different names for wheat in the most ancient languages confirms the belief in its great antiquity. It has been asserted that wheat has been found growing wild in Western Asia, but the evidence is not conclusive. The Euphrates valley is believed by De Candolle to be the principal habitation of the species in prehistoric times. So far as known wheat was not grown in America before its discovery by Columbus. Its ease of cultivation; its adaptation to a climate favorable to the beginning of civilization; its quick and abundant return; its ease of preparation for use; its abundant supply of nutritious substance; possibly its rapid improvement under cultivation and the fact of its being paniferous, or possessing that special quality which adapts it above any other grain to the making of light bread, were probably some of the reasons 102 WHEAT. 103 which caused primitive man to begin and continue its cultivation. In addition, its wide adaptation to dif- ferent soils and climates has made it one of the prin- cipal foods of mankind. Production. — The average wheat production of the world is from 1,500 to 1,700 million bushels annually. Europe produces annually about 1,200 million bushels; about 3.5 bushels per inhabitant. The largest five wheat producing countries of Europe, are, in order of importance, France, Bussia, Austro-Hungary, Spain and Italy. Germany and Great Britain were formerly more important wheat producers than at present. The United States and India are the only other large wheat producing coun- tries. The United States produces a large surplus of wheat annually, and must compete in the markets of the world with other nations. Europe is our foreign market. She requires nearly four bushels per inhabi- tant, or about a half -bushel per inhabitant more than she produces. Each country of Europe, however, does not import equally and some export in considerable quantities. The principal importing countries are Great Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, Italy and the Nether- lands. The average total net import of wheat of the various countries of Europe for the ten years, 1880 to 1889, was 203 million bushels annually. Half of this import went to Great Britain. During the same ten years, the average net export has been 88 mUlion bushels, most of it coming from Russia and Eoumania. Outside of Europe the principal wheat exporting countries are the United States and India. Australasia, Canada, Algeria and Egypt export small quantities. 104 THE SOILS AND CBOPS OF THE FARM. The wanta of Great Britain control the wheat mar. ket of the world. Of the wheat consumed in Great Britain one-third to one-half is home grown. Fifty years ago only three per cent was imported. In that time the price has fallen thirty- five per cent, and the consumption has increased thirty-two per cent per inhabitant. The consumption per capita is given at 5. 5 bushels. Other grains used increase the quantity to the equivalent of ten bushels of wheat per inhabitant. The United States raises the most wheat of any nation on the globe. The following presents the es- sential statistics for the average of ten years, 1870- 1879, and 1880-1889: 1870-79. 1880-89. Area, acres 25,000,000 37,000,000 Yield, bushels 312,000,000 450,000,00(1 Value, dollars 327,000,000 372,000,000 Value per bu., dollars 1.05 0.83 Vield per acre, bu 12.4 12.1 Value per acre, dollars 13.00 10.00 The yield during this decade increased forty-four per cent over that of the previous decade. The value of the crop increased only fourteen per cent. The value per bushel was twenty-two cents less during this decade than during the previous one, and the value per acre was three dollars less. The yield per acre has not materially decreased. According to recent estimates forty-two per cent of the wheat grown in this country is consumed in the county in which it is grown. Of this eleven per cent is required for seed. About one-fourth of our crop is usually available for export. About one-third of the crop, therefore, is consumed in this country outside of the county in which it is grown. While wheat is grown in every State in the Union WHEAT. 106 the greater part is raised in the Mississippi Valley. IThe progress of wheat-growing is steadily westward. In 1849 the central line of production passed through Eastern Ohio; in 1859, through Eastern Indiana; in 1869, through Eastern Illinois; in 1879, through Central Illinois, and in 1889, the central line was on the western side of the Mississippi river. In 1849 only three per cent of the wheat was produced west of the Mississippi river. The fortieth parallel nearly divides the crop into northern and southern halves. Wheat production has been stimulated by three prominent causes: 1. The possession of large areas of fresh lands, easily brought into cultivation; 2. The extension of railway construction, and 3. A period of several years of poor crops in Western Europe. The first cause is fast disappearing, and the second is be- coming less important. The third is as uncertain as the seasons. Structure. — The wheat plant belongs to that class of plants in which the first leaves of the embryo are alternate, technically known as monocotyledons. The family to which it belongs is characterized by having hollow stems with closed joints, alternate leaves with their sheathes split open on the side opposite the blade. The flower of the wheat has three stamens, the anthers, which contain the pollen or fertilizing ele- ment, being suspended on thread like filaments. The stigma, which receives the pollen and conveys it to the ovary, or female element, is in two parts and is feathery. It is necessary for the ovary to be fertilized with the pollen before any seeds can be formed. It is believed that it is better for the ovary of a given 106 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OP THE FARM. flower to receive the pollen of some other flower rathei than its own. This is accomplished in the case of wheat and other cereals by the wind. At the proper season, this pollen may be seen floating in the wind over the wheat fields. Whether varieties of wheat mix by natural methods when sown near together is one of the disputed ques- tions. That they do not do so readily seems fairly well established. Wheat varieties may be crossed or hybridized by conveying the pollen of one variety to the stigma of another by artifi- cial means. The ovary, stigma and stamens are enclosed in two chaffy parts called palets. The parts collectively con- stitute the flower of the wheat. Three or more of these flowers are enclosed by two more chaffy and harder parts called glumes. This is called coliectively a spikelet. These spikelets in the grass family are arranged in two ways, viz. : On a more or less lengthened base, as in the oat, when the whole head is called a panicle, or joined directly to the stem as in wheat, when the head is called a spite. Several species of the grass family, including wheat, have the spikelets in a spike arranged alternately at the joints of a zigzag jointed stem, the joints being alternately excavated on the side next the spikelet. The reader should study a head of wheat in connection with this description. FiiOWEB Paets of Wheat. (After Gray.) WHEAT. 101 In the genns Triticum, to which wheat belongs^ there is but one spikelet at each joint and it is placed flatwise, usually on a single spike. We have in this country some wild species which are usually placed in this genus. They are perennial. Wheat is not only annual but the experiments of Lawes and Gilbert in- dicate that artificial cultivation is essential to its growth. Sir John Lawes is wont to say that if man should disappear from the earth wheat would follow him in three years. The process of milling consists in separating that portion of the wheat berry which is desirable for bread-making from the undesirable portion, and re- ducing it to an impalpable powder. The wheat berry is covered by a light, colorless, spongy envelope composed of cellulose, which is the principal ingredient in wood and straw. The en- velope is about three per cent, of the entire berry and is almost, if not quite, indigestible. Botanically it is not a part of the seed proper, but is equivalent to the pod of the bean or the shell of the hickory nut. Within this envelope is the testa, or true cover- ing of the seed, which is finer but similar in structure, except instead of being colorless its cells are filled with two coloring matters, one a pale yellow and the other an orange yellow. These pigments give to the berry its color, which varies according to the relative abundance of the two. The testa is about two per cent, of the berry. It is the portion which gives millers so much trouble, as a surprisingly small amount makes the flour dark and the bread darker. The two envelopes described constitute the bran and together make about five per cent, of the wheat. The Mte THE SOILS AND CBOPS OF THE FAEM. LcwGiTUDiNAii Section of Wheat Bekby — (After Chester) (Highly magnified.) WHEAT. 109 bran of commerce contains about 75 per cent, of other materials; that is to say, 15 per cent, of the nutritive portion of wheat; otherwise bran would be practically valueless as a food for stock. Within these envelopes, and next to them, is a row of irregular, cubical cells. This row of cells is sup- posed to be simply an expansion of the embryo and has been called the embryonic envelope. The cells are filled with phosphate of lime, and a solvent sub- stance called cerealine, which assists in germination. The body of the grain or endosperm consists of large thin- walled cells, filled mostly with starch but contain- ing also gluten and other albuminous material. This is the portion from which flour is made and is 75 to 80 per cent, of the whole berry. In the modern pro- cesses of milling, besides the bran proper, the germ or embryo, the embryonic envelope and seven per cent. or more of the endosperm is separated from the re- maining endosperm, the latter only being made into flour. About 70 per cent, of the berry is made into flour. Chemical and Physical Properties. — In chemical composition wheat is very variable. It is probably more susceptible in this respect to surround- ing conditions than any other grain. The following may be given as the average of over 800 analyses of American wheat: Pounds Per Cent. per ton. Total dry matter 89.46 1789.2 Albuminoids 11.80 236.0 Crude fat 2.11 42.2 Nitrogen-free extract (starch, etc.) 71.89 1437.8 Crude fibre 1.80 36.0 Aflb 1.86 S74 110 THE SOILS AND CROPS OP THE FABM. 'x'ne spring wheats contain a somewhat larger per- ceuiage of albuminoids than the winter wheats. In individual instances there is considerable variation. Flour made from the hard spring wheats is richer in albuminoids than the winter wheats. The lightness of bread depends upon the per cent, of albuminoids, and it is for this reason that, with the modern process of milling, spring wheat makes the best floar. High weight is almost always an evidence of high quality, but^not always of large, plump, well-matured grains. The hard spring wheat of the Northwest, which is small in size, and not well-motured in the sense of having a large, plump berry, is very heavy in its weight per bushel; while the large plump wheat of Oregon, which is very starchy, is light in weight. The weight of a bushel may vary from 55.5 to 65.5 pounds. In the majority of oases where trials have been made the weight varies vrith the percentage of albuminoids. Hence we find weight, together with the comparative uniformity of the kernels and cleanliness, fixes the grade of wheat. The shape rather than the size of the kernel affects the weight per bushel. Richardson found, as the result of nearly 400 determinations, that there were about an average of 12,000 kernels in a pound of wheat; in some samples there were less than 8,000, while in others 24,000 kernels to the pound. Obviously one bushel of seed in the one case would be equivalent to three bushels in the other. The analyses of wheat given show that wheat con- tains 10 to 11 per cent, of water. This represents the moisture in the samples as analyzed, often after they have stood in the dry-room of the laboratories. What percentage of water wheat "WHEAT. Ill contains as it goes on the market cannot be stated, but it has been shown to vary largely from day to day ■with the varying conditions of the atmosphere. In California, where the atmosphere inland is very dry at harvest, this subject is a matter of considerabl* commercial importance. It is claimed that the mois- ture that this California wheat will absorb during a voyage from San Francisco to Liverpool will some- times increase its weight enough to pay the entire cost of the freight. Wheat bought inland and kept in warehouses all the season would increase in a sim- ilar manner. Experiments by Hilgard and O'Neil, of the TJniver- eity of California, indicated that wheat of the inland of California might increase twenty-five per cent in weight by the absorption of water when transported to a temperate climate, while a gain of five to fifteen per cent might be looked for with absolute certainty. A difference of nine per cent was observed in twenty- four hours. Brewer found a diif erence of from five to eight per cent between the water in wheat in a furnace heated room in February and the moist air of New Haven freely circulating in the same room in Septem- ber. Eichardson found that two days were sufficient to equalize the moisture in samples of flour which varied from less than eight to over thirteen per cent originally. Afterward the water in the samples fluctuated with the humidity of the air. Wheat absorbs forty- five per cent of its weight of water in germinating. The lowest temperature at which wheat will germinate is forty-one degrees; the highest temperature one hundred and ten degrees; and the best temperature for the germination of wheat is about eighty-four degrees Fahrenheit OHAPTEE X. WHEAT. Climate. — The yield and quality of wheat and hence its successful growth, agriculturally considered, depends mainly upon these six conditions: climate, soil, variety, method of cultivation, liability to disease, and attack of insect enemies. The quality of wheat may be affected by the cli- mate, as is evidenced by the difference between the hard spring wheats of Dakota and the soft winter wheats of Washington. Richardson found one sample from Dakota to contain eighteen per cent of albumin- oids while one from Washington contained only 7. 7 per cent of albuminoids. Differences exist else- where, but in a less marked degree. It has been shown that the climate of Colorado modifies the qual- ity of wheat brought from other climates. Climate and soil, however, are intimately connected, so that it may be laid down as a rule that localities having widely different climate and soil produce their pecu- liar varieties and modify those which are brought to them. It is believed by some that the annual renewal of the seed from a desirable and favorable source often makes it possible to raise cereals where other- wise the climate and other unfavorable conditions would render their profitable cultivation impossible through reversion. According to the tenth census of the United States seventy per cent of the wheat of the United States was grown where the average January temperature was 112 WHEAT. 113 below freezing; eighty-five per cent was grown where the average July temperature was between seventy and eighty degrees and sixty-five per cent where the mean annual temperature was between forty-five and fifty-five degrees. We must be car eful not to attach too much weight to this, as the soil, particularly its ease of cultivation, has greatly affected the distribu- tion of wheat. However, although there are some noted exceptions, as California, Egypt and India, most of the wheat of the world grows in regions of cold winters. The wheat plant for its best development needs to have its early growth in the cool part of the year. It is only early in its growth, during cool weather and slow growth, that wheat tillers. A long period of growth consequent upon cool weather gives it better opportunity to get sufficient plant growth. A cool, prolonged but not too wet spring is probably best. According to the investigations of Lawes and Gil- bert, there is a nitrifying agent in the soil which pro- duces a supply of nitrates necessary to produce the crop. Suppose a maximum crop requires twenty-four pounds of nitrates besides those already formed in the soil, and throughout the growing season four pounds are produced per month. Six months of growth would be necessary to produce a maximum crop. If a warm growing season should force the crop to maturity in five months, it would not have enough food to produce a full crop. The loss of ni- trates during wet seasons has been found to be greater and the amount taken up by the wheat smaller. On this account comparatively dry seasons should be favorable for the production of large crops of wheat. 114 THE SOILS AND CKOPS OF THE FARM. Wheat of hot, sunny climates, with dry weather during the latter part of the growth, is brighter and makes a better quality of flour the world over. The United States is particularly favored in this respect. In a country of cold winters it is better to have the ground covered continually with snow. Alternate freezing and thawing with the plant exposed to the wind is very destructive to wheat. Winter wheat kills in two ways, by being frozen to death and by being heaved out by alternate freezing and thawing. When the soil is bare, that about the roots will reach nearly the temperature of the air above, but if the soil is covered with a couple of inches of snow, the temperature of the soil will be little if any below the freezing point. Soil and Manures. — The character of the soil affects the yield more than the quality of the wheat. Light clay soils are eminently adapted to wheat. A large propor lion of the wheat is grown in this country on what is known geologically as drift soil, the con- trolling reasons being ease of cultivation and adapta- tion to the use of light machinery. In the United States very little manure, compara- tively, has been applied directly to wheat land. In many places wheat is grown continuously without manure. Undoubtedly a change from this practice must take place eventually. Exporting over one hundred millions bushels annually, besides one-half the home consumption going to the cities to be lost, must be decreasing the fertility of the soil. In many places wheat forms a part of a rotation of arops, stable manure being applied to the other crops, Ach as corn. In some places, although less freqneot' WHEAT. 118 ly, stable manure is applied directly to the wheat where wheat formB a part of the rotation. Clover is used in many places as a part of the rotation and with good results. In some looalities, potatoes and wheat are grown alternately, large quantities of ma- nure being applied to the potato crop. In some lo- calities clover is sown with the wheat and then plowed under in August, another crop of wheat sown and clover sown again. The drilling of a couple of hundred pounds of commercial fertilizers with the wheat is not an un- usual practice in the Eastern States, and the quantity used seems to be increasing, which indicates that farmers believe that they are getting profitable re- turns. Commercial fertilizers are comparatively rarely sown with wheat in the "Western States. The Experiment Stations of New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, Maryland, Ohio, Kentucky, Indiana and Illinois are among those which have made field tests with the various approved forms of commercial fertil- izers for the production of wheat. The general re- sult at these Stations has been that the increase in yield of wheat produced by the application of the various forms of commercial fertilizers has not given a profitable return for money invested, at the price of wheat and of fertilizers during the ten years 1880 to 1889. An increase in the price of wheat or a decrease In the price of fertilizers would tend to make their use profitable. Of the three single ingredients usually considered valuable in commercial fertilizers, phosphoric acid has generally given the largest increase, and potash \^ ieagi- A complete fertilizer — that is, one com- lie THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAEil. posed of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid — has usually given the largest increase bat at a more than coijresponding cost. Usually, but not always, barn- yard manure has given a large increase in yield; con- sidered entirely as a waste product, it has beeq applied profitably. This does not preclude the possibility that it may be more profitably used on some other crops. That commercial fertilizers have not been profita- ble in the instances given does not show that they would not be profitable on other soils and under other conditions, but the results indicate that it would be prudent for every farmer beginning the use of commercial fertilizers on wheat to apply them in a limited way and in such a manner as to make it evident whether their application was profitable on his soil. While advocated by some, mulching wheat with straw or other material for the purpose of winter pro- tection has not been generally practiced. The Ohio Experiment Station has been testing the question of mulching during the past decade, and has found no practical benefit from the use of a mulch. In severe seasons the benefit has been very slight, while in mild seasons the mulch has usually been harmful. A heavy mulch was more harmful than a light one. In exposed situations and localities where there is little snow upon the ground a light mulch is beneficial to the wheat. But where there is considerable snow and the temperature more uniform the mulch is pretty certain to do more injury than good. Tariety. — There are two cultivated forms of the genus Triticum. First, the form in which the paleta WHEAT. 117 are freely removed when the grain is threshed. This is known as wheat. Second, the form in which the palets adhere to the kernel, as they do in barley jand oats. This form is known as spelt. According to Vilmorin, there are four forms, or, as some authors claim, species of wheat, and three forms of spelt, as follows: 1. Common wheat — Triticum vulgar e, Villars; Triticum hybernum and T. cestivum, Linn. 2. Turgid or Egyptian wheat — Triticum turgidum and T. compositum, Linn. 3. Hard wheat — Triticum durum, Desfontaines. 4. Polijh wheat — Triticum polonicum, Linn. 5. Spelt — Triticum, spelta, Linn. 6. Starch wheat — Triticum dicoccum, Schrank; Triticum, am,yleum, Seringe. 7. One grained wheat — Triticum, monococcum, Linn. The Turgid or Egyptian wheat is known as the Wheat of Miracle or Wheat of Abundance, because of its branching spikes. It is said to be much culti- vated in the valley of the Nile at the present time. Hard wheat has been long cultivated in Central Europe and Northern Africa. Polish wheat is chiefly cultivated in Eastern Europe and Northern Africa. Spelt is not now as commonly cultivated as formerly. It is chiefly cultivated in the mountain regions of Europe and Asia. Starch wheat is cultivated for its starch in Switzerland. It is said to be especially hardy. There seems to be reasonable evidence that the different forms of wheat are but races of one spe- cies, produced by long cultivation. It will be noticed that common wheat has two Latin <18 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OF THE FAilM. names, Tritioum. hyhernum and Triticum (Bstivumi Linnseus applied T. hyhernum to winter wheat and T. cestivum to spring wheat. It has been shown, how- ever, by direct experiment, that winter wheat may be changed to spring wheat and spring wheat to winter wheat M. Motiries sowed winter wheat in the spring and out of one hundred plants four alone ripened seeds. These were sown and re-sown and in three years plants were reared which ripened all their seeds. Conversely, nearly all the plants raised from spring wheat sown in the autumn perished from the cold, but a few were saved and produced seed. In three years this spring variety was converted into a winter variety. This is a striking example of the climatic adaptability of wheat. It shows that a variety which possesses valuable characteristics, although lacking hardiness, may be worth attempting to grow until it becomes adapted to the climate. The variety has very much to do with the success- ful culture of wheat in each individual instance. Ex- cept in the possible extra outlay for seed, it costs no more to raise twenty bushels from a good variety than ten bushels from a poor variety. If, on the other hand, the yield is increased by the use of fertilizers, or by better preparation of seed-bed, the increase is made at some expense, more or less considerable. The question, What is the best variety? has never been answered. There is no best variety for the whole country. Not only do good varieties in one locality prove poor varieties in another, but often a variety which one year gives the largest yield of fifty varieties, sown the next year in the same locality is one of tbs poorest yielders. WHEAT. 119 Another reason which makes the comparative merits of varieties so confusing is that many names are given to the same variety. It is not unusual for old and well-known varieties to be put on the market with high-sounding names and extravagant praises. Proba- bly the re-naming of old varieties is to some extent intentional deception, but doubtless much of it ia through ignorance. A wheat raiser procures fresh seed from some source without knowing the name of it, and finds after growing it a year or two that it is better than that grown by his iomaediate neighbors. This leads to a local name, given either by the grower or the buyers. The better the variety and the more extensively it is grown, the larger the number of names it is likely to receive. Different varieties, also, although less frequently, sometimes have the same name. There are varieties which for a given locality will do better during a series of years than will others. It is of great importance for wheat growers to discrimi- nate between the good and the poor. It is not within the scope of this book to name even the varieties which are raised in this country, and it would be impossible to make out lists of desirable varieties for so large a country with any substantial accuracy. What is a variety ? The fallowing are some of the characteristics which may be taken to constitute vari- ety differences: color of berry, color of glumes, glumes bearded or smooth, growth of the straw, and time of ripening. If grown under like conditions probably the size of the berry when the differences are marked should be considered. With winter wheat the time of ripening is not a very important characteristic. laO THE SOILS AND CEOPS OP THE FARM. The first three characteristics are probably the most important and it will be seen that a classifica- tion according to these three characteristics would make eight groups, thus: — ■■■■(Be,.-.!— jiiiEf^ Different varieties coming in any one of these groups will usually resemble each other very closely and need to be subjected to a rigid test to determine their right to be called separate varieties. Varieties with red berries and white glumes without beards seem to be the most common. It has been pretty conclusively demonstrated that there is practically no difference in yield between red or white, or bearded or smooth wheat. Starting with any good variety, the important thing is by cultivation and careful selection of seed to keep the variety from deteriorating and, if possible, to improve it. The evidence is universal that, for want of careful selection and proper cultivation, any pure variety of wheat will in a few years after its in- troduction become comparatively worthless. It is a popular belief among farmers that a variety "runs out," becomes gradually poorer, when grown contin- uously on the same land or in the same locality for a number of years; and that a change of seed is essen- tial — at least beneficial. While this is possible the effect of the change of seed must be slight as com- pared with intelligent, methodical selection. The benefit that a farmer usually derives fiom a change WHEAT. 121 of seed comes from the fact that he buys from some one who has taken more pains in growing and select- ing his seed. "With wheat very little selection is practiced beyond occasionally grading the wheat and sowing the larger grains. While doubtless this is beneficial it is not the logical method. A large kernel may come from a head with a very few kernels, while a small kernel may come from a head with many kernels and much more weight of grain. The latter would be likely to produce much more wheat than the former. The logical method would be to use for seed the offspring of that seed which produced the largest progeny of best quality. If a plant produces five heads, each containing thirty to forty berries, and another pro- duces but one head containing but twenty berries, the seed of the former will probably be more productive than the latter. The well known law that like pro- duces like is true with plants as well as animals. Whether the law is equally available for purposes of improvement is not probably fully settled, but it is much more available than is usually recognized. OHAtTER XI. WSEAT. Culture. — The ideal seed-bed for wheat, in the opinion of the majority of intelligent wheat raisers, is one that is compact below, being pulverized at the surface merely. When the soil is loose and open below, ttxe spaces fill with water in the winter time and the freezing and thawing heave the plants and kill them. On the other hand, in times of drouth the soil dries out more completely down to the solid earth below and below the mass of the roots, to the injury of the plant, while, if the surface merely is pulverized, the soil immediately below, and that which is in con- tect with the bulk of the roots, remains moist. Drilling wheat in the standing corn is practiced in some localities where there is a friable loam soil. In this case the soil has the proper surface pulverization from the cultivation of the corn, and is compact be- low. The wheat is sown by drawing a five-hoe drill between the rows of corn. Afterward, at the proper time, the corn is husked. In the winter or spring, when the ground and stalks are frozen, the stalks are broken off by drawing a heavy drag over the surface. In some cases the corn is cut and shocked before the proper time to sow the wheat and the wheat sown with the five-hoe drill between the rows of stubs. This method makes it possible to fol- low corn with winter wheat and the expense of putting in the wheat is small. It is thought also that the stalks are some protection to the wheat at times in 122 WHEAT. 123 preventing the snow from drifting off the wheai It is doubtful, however, whether the yield of wheat is so great as when a good seed-bed has been prepared by plowing. Burning stubble when wheat follows small grain is sometimes advocated because it is possible to obtain a more compact and finer seed bed, and because it burns weed seeds, insect enemies and germs of plant diseases. Against the practice it is urged that organic matter and nitrogen are lost by burning. It would seem that the desirability of burning the stubble would depend upon the relative importance of these various elements in a given locality. There are some instances of very good results from burning stubble. It is generally conceded to be good practice to plow as early as practicable after the previous crop has been removed, so that tiie soil may become compact before the seed is sown. Just before seeding the land should be thoroughly pulverized with some suitable implement. The kind of implement will de- pend upon the nature of the soU. Both practice and experiment show that drilling is better practice in seeding winter wheat than sowing broadcast. The wheat is more uniformly distributed and covered and is sown at a more even depth. It is believed also to be less easily winter killed either by freezing or heaving. The drill makes little furijows in which the snow lodges and is prevented from be- ing blown away. The amount of snow held in the furrows is suffi.cient to modify the temperature of the soil considerably. The wheat is less likely to be heaved out from freezing and thawing. The soil at the bottom of the furrow offers greater resistance to 124 THE SOILS AND CBOPS OF THE PAEM. the heaving than does that at the top of the ridga The movement of the soil will take place at the poinS of least resistance, whish will be at the top of the ridge, thus leaving the plant at the bottom of the fur- row undisturbed. Just how much effect this has practically one year with another is not knowa, but in some trials where the furrows were obliterated by rolling the yield was not materially' affected. The time of sowing depends, of course, upon the lo» cality. It is possible to sow later as we go south, and necessary to sow early as we go north. When sown too late the wheat has not sufficient vitality to stand the cold weather. When sown too early its growth ia so rank and succulent as to be injured by freezing. In some localities, early sown wheat is subject to at- tack from the Hessian fly. This may be avoided by later sowing, especially if delayed until there is a slight frost, and also by sowing early some strips of wheat, where the Hessian flies will congregate and may be destroyed by plowing under the wheat. Neither is there any best time for a given locality, as very much depends on the season prior to and after seeding. It may be said that as a general rule, although late sowing is often as good as early sowing, it is seldom better, while early sowing is often better than late sowing. On the fortieth parallel, at an altitude of 500 to 1000 feet, winter wheat should gen- erally be sown between the first and twentieth of Sep- tember. Doubtless the richer the soil, the later the seeding may be done with safety, as the rich soil would produce the growth needed in a shorter time. Spring wheat should be sown as early as the ground can be got in fit condition for seeding. WHEAT. 125 The depth of sowing will vary with the kind of soil, the moisture in it and the levelness and firmness of the seed-bed. It may be planted deeper in a sandy soil than in a clay soil. It is necessary to plant deeper in a dry than in a wet soil. An uneven and cloddy soil would require that some be planted deeper than is desirable in order that all may be covered. From one to three inches may be said to be the extremes at which wheat should be sown. It is reasonably well established that the nearer the seed approaches the former depth the better, under ordinary circumstances. The quantity of wheat to be sown per acre will vary with the character of the soil, climate, time of plant- ing, seed-bed, size, quality and variety of seed and method of seeding. If sown early less would be re- quired than when sown late, because each plant would become larger, tiller more, and thus cover more ground. If the seed-bed is well prepared and the vitality of the seed good, a larger percentage of seeds will grow than if the seed-bed and seed are poor. A bushel of one variety may contain three times as many kernels as another. A variety which tillers pro- fusely could be sown thinner than one which does not. If drilled a less quantity could be sown than if sown broadcast. The yield will not be at all in proportion to the seed sown. The wheat plant adjusts itself to its surroundings. If sown thickly it tillers but -little and produces but few heads per plant. If sown thinly it stools more and the heads are larger, often sufficiently to counterbalance the thin seeding. In climates where the winters are uniformly mild 123 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FABM. mucli thinner seeding may be practiced than where the winters are severe. The fact seems to be that when the winters are mild the plant largely adjusts itself to its surroundings, so that it makes but little difference how much seed is sown, but if the winter is severe and the wheat partly killed, if the wheat ia sown thickly there may be still wheat enough left to raise a fair crop. The Statistician estimates the average quantity of winter wheat sown as 13-8 bushels per acre, and of spring wheat 1^ bushels per acre. Pro- fessor Brewer found by means of circular letters sent to representative farmers throughout the country that the amount sown in the middle Atlantic States was 7 to 9 pecks, in the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys 8 to 8 pecks, and in California 3 to 8 pecks, the smaller amount being used in the drier regions. Winter wheat may be rolled in the spring, when there is much heaving of the soU, in order to pack the soil about the roots. The cost of thus smoothing the surface may often be repaid by the increased facility with which the crop can be harvested. When grass- seed is sown with the grain, rolling should never be neglected. Wheat is sometimes harrowed in the spring but it is a practice that cannot be recommended. The cul- tivation of wheat, much as we cultivate corn in this country, is not unusual in England, although less usual than formerly. Cultivation of wheat has been tried in this country to a limited extent, but it has almost always been harmful rather than beneficial. Harvesting. — The wheat harvest of the United States begins in Texas in the early part of May and WHEAT. 127 ends in Dakota and Washington in August. In Cali- fornia the harvest begins about June 1st and lasts till August 1st. Everywhere east of the great plains wheat is cut as soon as, or a little before, it is ripe, and the harvest extends on any one farm not longer than two or three weeks, the wheat being cut as fast as it is ready. In California, where there is no dan- ger from storms, the harvest extends for many weeks after the wheat is ripe, some of it standing even ten weeks after it is ripe enough to cut. The usual practice in the eastern half of the United States is to cut when the straw begins to turn yeUow and the kernels in the dough, soft enough to be easily indented with the thumb nail and hard enough not to be easily crushed between the fingers. Investigations indicate that there is a continuous increase of the plant during its growth untU the plant is entirely ripe. There is a continuous increase in the weight of the kernel fr«m the time it is formed until it is hard and dry. The increase in weight of kernel is most rapid up to the time when the kernel can be crushed between the thumb and finger. The increase seems to be decided and of economic importance up to the time when the kernels indent but do not crush under the pressure of the thumb nail After that time the increase is slight. It has been proven beyond question that at the earlier stages of seed formation a considerable trans- fer of material from the straw to the kernel may occur after cutting, if the wheat is placed in condition simi- lar to the shocking and capping of bound sheaves. So far as getting the maximum yield is concerned, the tesnlts indicate that it is better to allow the wheat to 228 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. get nearly, if not entirely, ripe, but if it is necessary to out at a much greener stage, shocking and capping would probably be beneficial. Of course there is al- ways danger from over-ripe grain shelling out in har- vesting, also danger from lodging. It has been found that, in general, there is a de- crease in percentage of albuminoids, fibre and ash as the wheat becomes ripe. This is doubtless due to the starch or endosperm developing later^in the growth of the wheat. The germ develops first, and later, when the endosperm develops, the percentage of albuminoids becomes less, although the actual amount may remain the same, or, as is probably the case, may increase. The higher per cent, of albuminoids in the spring wheats may be due to a less full development. Plant Diseases. — Wheat is subject to three com- mon diseases: rust, stinking smut or bunt and black smut. Bust is caused by, or rather is, the general term for several species of fungi, the best known of which is called by botanists Puccinia graminis. The life his- tory of this fungus is supposed to be about as follows: Certain forms of the plant grow in the leaves of the barbary plants and perhaps other plants. On the leaves of the barbary plant there appears in the spring certain orange-colored spots. These spots are com- posed of many spores which, getting upon the leaves of the wheat, in some way not well understood, enter through the breathing pores. The spores produce microscopic plants which grow within the wheat plant and upon its substance. A wheat plant infected with the rust plant has not only to support itself but also to support the rust plant. This it is more or leas on* "WHEAT. 129 able to do and the result is a lessened yield of wheat, very much in proportion to the vigor of the rust plant. Anything which will favor the growth of the wheat, without favoring the growth of the rust plant in Bed met spores of wheat rust. (After Bolley.) Black rost spoie of wheat mat. (After Bolley.) a corresponding degree, enables the wheat plant to resist the ravages of the rust plant. About the time the wheat is in the milk, elongated, orange colored spots appear upon the leaves and stems 130 THE SOILS iND CEOPS OF THE FAEil. of the wheat. This is the red rust of wheat and other cereals. These spots are one of the fruiting stages and are composed of spores (Uredspores) which repro- duce themselves quickly, thus spreading the disease rapidly. About the time the kernels begin to harden or in about two weeks from the time the red rust ap- pears, long black lines appear upon the leaves and stem. This is the black rust. These lines are com- posed of spores (Teleutospores) which live over winter and convey the disease to the barbary bushes. Ked and black rust are different fruiting stages of the same plant. The red rust spores can produce the rust plant in the wheat directly but have not generally been supposed to stand freezing weather. The black rust spores live over winter but have not generally been supposed to cause the disease directly. From this brief history it would seem that in order to prevent the disease it would only be necessary to eradicate the barbary bushes, upon which appear the first stage of the disease. This has been done in many places in England, where stringent laws on the subject have been enacted. On the other hand, how- ever, there .are, without doubt, in this country places where for a radius of fifty miles a barbary bush never grew and yet wheat and other cereals rust. It seems probable that there are other plants upon which the first stages develop — perhaps common weeds — or that it is not necessary for the plant to go through always all the stages of its'development. There is no known remedy against the disease. Moist, damp weather causing succulent growth when the wheat is developing the kernel, seems to be favor- able to the growth of the rust. Damp weather is, WHEAT. 131 doabileBS, favorable to the growth and distribution of the red spores, thns augmenting the trouble where it already exists. There is no such thing as a rust proof variety of wheat. Although in a given season Loosii Shut of Wheat. Smut op Oats. (After Kellerman & Swengle.) Bome varieties rust more than others it cannot be said that the same will be true of the same varieties another year. The wheat plant is infected by the rust after the 132 THE SOILS AND CROPS OP THE FARM. wheat germinates. The seed is not infected, and n# treatment of it would be of any avail. Black, or loose smut, is a disease afPecting the ker- nel of wheat and other cereals and is caused by a aicroscopic plant of a somewhat different nature from rust, known as Ustilago Tritici. In black smut the whole kernel and even the chaffy parts are reduced to a black powder, as is commonly seen in oats. The black powder is the fruiting stage of the smut and is composed of myriads of spores. These spores are blown about by the wind and fall on the ground, when they are ready to infect a succeed- ing crop. More or less remain sticking to the unin- fected berries, which when the seed is sown causes the disease again. The remedy is obvious and complete. Sow on ground not previously infected and sow seed which has not come in contact with the smut, or sow with seed on which the smut has been killed. The same methods which are employed in purify- ing smutty grains, in the case of stinking smut, given below, are recommended by some experimenters foi this form of smut, but their efficacy is denied by others. Stinking smut or bunt is caused by eiiher of two fungi, Tilletia foetena and T. tritici, some, what related to the loose smut above described. This form of smut instead of reducing the berry to a powder and blowing about is retained within the coat of the berry, often through all the processes of har- vesting and marketing. The infected kernels when npe are more or less awollen and of a brownish color. As they are large; WHEAT. 133 Stinsing Smw OF Whuk (After Kellerman & Swengle.) 134 SOILS AND CHOPS OP THE FARM. thaa the normal kernels of wheat they make the head somewhat larger in diameter, and the kernels can be seen more plainly. The kernels are filled with a rather dull, brownish powder, which has a very dis- agreeable and penetrating odor. The disease is spread by the use of smutted seed and is to be prevented by sowing on clean ground and with seed free from smut spores. The infected seed may be practically if not entirely freed from the disease. The methods used consist in soaking the seed in certain solutions, or simply in hot water. The most common solutions are a saturated solution of common salt and a five per cent solution of copper sulphate. The wheat should be placed in Backs or baskets and these put into the solution and allowed to stand twenty-four to thirty-six hours, when the wheat should be spread out to dry. More recently the Danish investigator, Jensen, has introduced the method of soaking the wheat in water at the temperature of from 127 to 133 degrees Fahrenheit for five minutes. American experimenters recommend fifteen minutes. CHAPTER XDL INDIAN OOSN. History*— Indian corn, or maize, is pretty cer- tainly of American origin. It has been introduced into Europe, Asia and Africa since the discovery of America. After its introduction into the old conti- nent it spread very rapidly across Northern Africa and Southern Europe and across Asia into China. The rapidity with which it spread gave rise to disputes as to its origin and considerable confusion as to its name. It has been known by the following curious names in Europe: Turkish corn, Italian corn, Boman wheat, SioUian wheat, Indian wheat, Spanish wheat, Barbary wheat, Guinea and Egyptian wheat. These names Were given it in various places on account of the country in which it was supposed to have originated. It simply indicates the country from which and through which it was introduced. The names, with the exception of Indian, are those of places bordering on the Mediterranean Sea. It seems to indicate that Indian com was brought from America in vessels which sailed into the Mediterranean Sea and landed in the various countries indicated. The climate on both sides of the Mediterranean is fairly well adapted to the growth of Indian corn. The rapid introduc- tion into these countries of so striking a plant and its spread therefrom is not a matter of surprise. The word "corn" is used in Europe with the signifi- cation that the word "grain" is used in America. All 13ft 188 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. the cereal grains in the former countries are called corn, and Indian corn is called maize. The records of the early voyagers prove that In- dian corn was cultivated on the American continent from Maine to Chili at the time of its discovery. It was then the great bread plant of the New World. Numerous varieties of corn have been found in the ancient tombs of Mexico, Peru and New Mexico. These monuments are supposed to be two thousand years old. As there were many varieties at this time, the cultivation of corn must have been considerably more ancient, although not necessarily so ancient aa that of wheat. There was a semi-civilized race of people in Peru, Mexico and even in New Mexico, who made considerable use of Indian corn, using it boiled and roasted when green, and grinding it and making it into bread when ripe. Indian corn was the salvation of many of the early colonies, preventing the colonists and their stock from starving. The tame grasses had not been introduced, so that besides corn stover their stock had nothing but salt marsh hay. The early settlers learned the cultivation of com from the Indians. The James Eiver settlers, under the tuition of the Indians, began to raise corn in 1608, and within three years they appeared to have as many as thirty acres under cultivation. The pilgrims found it in cultivation by the Indians on their arrival at Plymouth, and began its cultivation in 1621, ma- nnring as the Indians did with fish. "According to the manner of the Indians we ma- nnred our ground with herrings, or rather sbadaii INDIAN COEN. 137 which we have ia great abundance and take with ease at oar doors. You may see in one township a hundred acres to- gether set with these fish, every acre taking a thous- and of them, and an acre thus dressed will produce and yield as much corn as three acres without fish." In the Jamestown settlement they planted pumpkins and melons in the hUl with the corn. No wild type of the corn is known, so that its origin is ,aa much unknown as that of wheat. Some have contended that the pod com, in which each kernel is covered with a husk, was the original type of corn. It has been suggested that the original type of com produced the kernels in the tassel as is sometimes seen, especially in suckers. The pod corn has a very marked tendency to produce kernels and fairly well formed ears in the tassel. The transition from ker- nels in the tassels, each covered with a husk, to ker- nels on an ear without husks on each kernel, is not dif- ficult to imagine. Production. — The Indian corn production of the world is not accurately known, but it is probably 2,800 to 3,000 million bushels, or about one-half more than that of wheat. Of this quantity the American conti- nents raise three-fourths to four-fiiths. Europe raises most of the remainder. There are five states in this country each of which raises more than any nation of the eastern continent. The largest corn-producing nations of Europe are Austro-Hungary, Italy and Russia. Other com-produoing countries are France, Spain, Portugal, Boumania, Algeria, Australia, Mex- ico and Canada. Great Britain and Ireland raise no Indian com, except occasionally in gardens for table 138: THE SOILS AND CEOPS OF THE FAEMi nse. There is not enough heat and Bun8hine_dTu:iiig the growing season to mature the crop. In- the United States the corn crop occupies one- third the tillage area. There are 41 acres of corn raised for each 1,000 acres of superficial area as egainst 20 acres of wheat. The average annual production of Indian corn in the United States for ten years, 1870-79, and for ten years. 1880-89, is given below: 1870-9. ' 1880-9. ' Area, acres - 44,000,000 71,000,000 Yield, bushels 1,184,000,000 1,703,000,000 Value, dollars 505,000,000 669,000,000 Value per bushel, dollars. ... 0.43 0.39 Yield per aero, bushels 27.1 24.1 Value per ^cre, dollars 11.54 9.18 It is a curious fact that the increase in yield of corn during the past decade over that of the previous one has been in the same ratio as that of wheat; namely, 44 per cent, and that the total value of the crops has increased in nearly the same ratio as that of wheat, be- ing but a fraction of a per cent less; namely, 13.3 per cent. The value per bushel has decreased four cents, and the yield per acre has decreased three bushels. The average gross'value of an acre of corn has been less during both decades than that of wheat; ■while the production of wheat has increased between five and six times during the past fifty years, corn has increased between four and five times during the same interval. The seven states — Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, IowEj Missouri, Kansas and Nebraska, produce . about two- thirds the crop of the United States, and are known as the corn surplus states, because they are practically INDIAN COEN. 139 the only states which supply the commercial centers with com. In most of the other states the com is largely consxuned where raised and need not be taken into consideration in the commerce of this crop, except as these states need more or less from the surploa Etatea for consumption. Very little, comparatively, of the corn raised in the United States is exported. Since 1870 the export has varied from 1 to 6.5 per cent and has averaged about four per cent. In 1889, up to that time, the year of our greatest crop, it was about five per cent. This very small proportion amounted to more than 100 million bushels. The amount required for consumption is a very variable quantity, depending on price, other and cheaper feeding materials being largely used when the price is high. The average consumption for ten years past has been about 1,600 million btishels, or 28 bushels per head of population. This is the heavi- est rate of consumption of any cereal by any people in the world. It is nearly twice as much, according to population, as the consumption of all the cereals in Europe. The quantity of com stover or stalks raised in the United States is never even approximately ascertained by the gatherers of crop statistics. The yield has been estimated from experimental evidence at about one and one- third pound of corn stalks for each pound of grain produced. On this basis there has been raised annuc'Jy during ten years, 1880-89, 51 million tons of com stover. The average annual production of hay during the same time has been about 42 million ton& Use.^The chief use of the Indian corn crop is 89 140 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAKM, food for stock. It is, in connection with grass, the great pork and beef producing material of the United States. The fact that five-sixths of the crop is con- sumed within the county in which it is raised indicates that it is largely used for this purpose. Sir John B. Lawes once said that the natural food of the civilized hog was barley meal. If he had lived in America he would have said that ear-corn was the natural food of the civilized hog. The wonderful development of our pork industry is directly related to our com crop. For the production of pork there is no single stock food equal to Indian com. While of secondary importance a considerable quantity of corn is used in the aggregate as food for man. Corn bread and hominy are- common articles of food, especially among the colored population of the South. The ratio of corn to wheat is greater in the South than in the North and there it makes a very consider- able part of the diet of the colored people. Corn is suited to primitive methods. It can be ground for the purpose of making corn bread by very simple ma- chinery, and hominy is made by soaking the corn in the lye of wood ashes, which removes the outer coat. Some attempts have been made to bring Indian corn into more general use, especially among Eu- ropeans, by preparing a variety of attractive dishes from it. At present, however, it is used there as a human food only in limited quantities. Corn preserved in its green state has become an article of considerable importance. There are exten- sive canning establishments in various parts of the country which use in the aggregate millions of bushels INDIAN COEN. 141 of corn, mostly of the larger varieties of sweet corn. Glucose, starch, alcohol, whjsky and malt. liquors are also made from Indian com. Formerly but very little use was maae of the corn stalks other than to allow the cattle to roam in the fields after the corn was husked, and eat the ears which were misged and a few of the leaves. To-day a large part of- the 51,000,000 tons of corn-stalks still go to waste. Their use is increasing, however, either as cured fodder or as ensilage. Strnctare. — Indian corn, or maize. Known ootanic- ally as Zea mais, belongs to the same family as wheat, oats, barley, timothy, etc., namely: the grass family. It is distinguished from most of the other plants of this family by its solid or pith-filled stems or stalks, by having the ovaries or female part of the fiower on the side of the stem, and by its larger growth. The tassel bears the pollen or male part of the flower. The ovaries are r ranged in pairs on the cob which, upon being fertilized by the pollen, develop into kernels. These pairs of ovaries are fertilized with such certainty that under normal conditions an odd number of rows never result. There are always 8, 10, 12, 14, etc., rows and never 9, 11, 13, 15, etc., rows. Corn, like wheat, is wind fertilized: that is, the wind carries the pollen from the tassel to the silks (pistils) of the ear, frequently to ears of different stalks than that producing the pollen^ so that the corn is naturally freely cross-fertilized. The pollen falling upon the silks, which is sometimes as much as a foot long, most, it is believed, grow down through the silk nntil it reaches the ovary before the ovary can develop iato a kernel; at least one pollen grain, it is believed, 142 (JPHE SOILS AND CHOPS OP THE FARM.T must grow down the length of each ovary that pro- iJuoe's a kernel. . Under the circumstances it is sur- prising that there are sp few undeveloped ears. ^ The great quantity of pollen produced, and the ease with which it is carried in the wind, accounts for the readiness with which different varieties are cross- fertilized, or, as. we say, mixed. In some cases the effect of the cur- rent cross is ap- parent ; that is, the pollen of one variety, so affects the ovary of the other variety as to be plainly visi- ble in the devel- oped kernel. The color is often af-_ fected when yellow and .white varieties are crossed. Where sweet corn is crossed with other varieties the current cross usually, .phows variation from the female type, the result often being unlike either parent. The general- rjile, ho.wever, is that the current cross causes but little, if any, variation from the female parent or variety producing the ear. Corn raised from the result of the current cross generally shotrs variation from the female parent. In some cases the variations are striking. On account of the ease VTith which varieties cross it is difficult to grow several varieties on one farm, or in one neighborhood, and keep the varieties pure. It Eight Eowed. INDIAN COEN. U9\ 18 oa tbis account, probably, that the corn of ft given neighborhood tends to assume a common type. It is probable that the different plants of the same variety in a field cross each other freely, and the laws of breeding indicate that this is desirable. It has been proved, however, that the com plant may be fertilized with its own pollen and produce a well developed ear. Physical Stmctare. — The physical structure THtBTY EOWED. both of the whole plant and of the kernel is the most variable of our cereals. The plant may vary from two to twenty feet in height; a variation of from six to twelve feet is not uncommon. Along the Missis- sippi river, south of the 40th parallel, it is not un- ^isual to see corn growing on which the ears are so high that a man of ordinary height can barely reach them, and some ears cannot be reached. In the northern latitudes of the United States, as in New 114 TUE suits AND CROPS OF THE FARM. England, muoH corn grows so low as to make it nec- essary to stoop to reach the ears. The ears may vary from one-half an inch to sixteen inches long and may have from six to forty rows. A variation of from four to twelve inches in length and from eight to twenty-four rows is not uncommon. Chemical Composition. — The (ihemical compositiQn of Indian corn varies but little. From a chemical standpoint, at least, there is no evidence that yellow corn is better than white, or vice versa, or that flint and dent corn are unequal in quality. Sweet corn has more protein and fat and less starchy substance than the flints and dents. There are no exact data that show any difference in the feeding value of white and yellow corn or dent and flint corn. From its composition it would appear that sweet corn is a superior food to either, but, as usu- ally grown, the yield is so much less and the difficulty of properly .curing and stor- ing it makes it less desirable as a stock food. The average composition of Indian corn as deter- mined by American analyses is about as follows: Pel* cent Pounds In Pounds in 1 OO. a ton. Water; 10.46 209 .2 Albuminoids 10.56 211.2 Crudefat 6.45 ,109.3 Starch, etc 69.90 1398.0 Fibre 2.09 41. J Ash 1.54 30.0 BURAI. THOBOUOH- DW4BP BBED FuNT. Golden. ShowlnR variation In lengtb of ears, '4 natnral size. INDIAN COEN. I4fi Flint corn contains less fibre than dent corn. The- hardness of flint com is due, as will be hereafter shown, to the densen^s of the starch grains and not to the greater proportion of fibre. The per cent of water in com is extremely vari- able, being the only ingredient which varies suf- ficiently to be of practical moment. When com has dried for a year in a crib it will contain under ordin- ary conditions from 10 to 11 per cent of Tater. But as it is husked it contains very much more. For example, the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station found, during 1888, 1889 and 1890, the aver- age per cent of water in varieties of different maturities to be as follows: No. of Tarie- Ave. per cent ties tested. of water. Early maturing varieties 44 17.1 Mediam maturing varieties 103 21.3 Late maturing varieties 45 26.4 Non-maturini? varieties 23 36.8 On this basis, 1,000 bushels of medium maturing com. would lose, upon becoming thoroughly air-dried, a weight of water equivalent to one hundred and fif- teen bushels of shelled com If this 1,000 bushels of shelled com could be sold for fifty cents when gathered, it would be necessary to get fifty-seven cents a bushel when thoroughly air-dry in order to get the same amount for it. Different varieties vary greatly in regard to the percentage of moisture which they contain. Two varieties of maturing corn have been grown the same season which contained 16 and 34 per cent of water respectively. In the former case 1,000 bushels of shelled com when husked would make 945 bushels 146 THE SOILS AND CKOPS OF THE I'AIJM. wheu air-dry, while in the latter case 1,000 busbele) would make only 740 bushels when- air-dry. la the first it woiild take 70 pounds of ears as husked to make a bushel of air-dry shelled corn, while in the last instance it would take 97 pounds of ears to make a bashel of air-dry corn. The weight of corn as husked does not, therefore, iadicate accurately its food value. CBAJ?TER Xm. ISDIAS OOSli. Tarieties. — The structure of the oora kernel is in general like that of the wheat kerael. There is the outer covering which corresponds to the pod of the pea or edible part of the cherry. Inside there is the testa or true seed coat, which contains the coloring matter and gives the kernel its color. Inside the testa is the row of irregular cubical cells, the so-called embryonic envelope. These cells are not so large as in the wheat. Inside this row of cells is the germ or embryo and the endosperm. The endosperm consists of thin walled cells of cellulose packed full of starch grains and very little nitrogenous material. In eweet com, instead of the cells of the endosperm be- ing packed full of starch grains, the latter are changed to glucose, and the shrinking caused by the jtransforma^ion makes the sweet com kernel wrinkled. Apart from pod corn, there are five types or classes of Indian corn. The. differences in these types are Tariations in the shape of the kernel and in the ar- rangement of the starch cells of the endosperm, ex- cept in the sweet com, where, as just explained, it is a modification of structure. If a kernel of dent corn is split open through its longest two diameters, the endosperm will be seen to consist of two- parts. In the central part, the endosperm will appear white, while on each side it is glossy. An examination with a microscope will show the structure to be the. same in both. The diffaience ll47 148 THE SOTLS AND CROPS OF THE FAEM. 'tNDUN CORN. 149 is j3ue to difference ia compactness of the starch grains, just as the more compact crystals of ice pro- duce a glossy appearance, while the crystals of snow, being less compact and containing more air, more perfectly reflect the light, and thus produce a white appearance. Dr. Sturtevant first pointed out the relation between the interior arrangement of the kernels and the types of com, which he called agricultural species, and gave Latin names to them. He has not been followed by other writers. The types of corn are as follows : 1. Dent corn is that type in which the split kernel shows the germ, the glossy starch on each side and the white starch extending to the top of the ker- nel. The kernel is indented on the top, evidently because the softer starch shrinks in the center, while the denser starch on the sides holds th» sides in a straight line. The, kernels of dent corn are more or less wedge-shaped. 2. Flint corn is that type in which the split kernel shows the germ, the white starch and the glossy starch surrounding. The surrounding dense starch prevents the kernels from indenting. The kernels are hard, smooth and more or less oval. 3. Pop corn is that type in which all, or almost all, the endosperm or starch is glossy. The kernel is an elongated oval in outline and extremely hard. 4. Soft com is that type in which the endosperm is entirely white. The shape of the kernel is similar to that of the flint corn, and the starch grains in the endosperm being loosely arranged the kernel is easily crushed. 160 THE SOILS AND CROPS OP THE FASM, ?ZFJE5 o? isDUs Cobs. INDIAN C0E2f. ■(■'fifc. tuMjjfliSi'if e uo w Dent. REO RIVER. WHlTE~p:EAffL Sweet. VzFEs or Indian Oo£& 152 THE SOILS A.ND CBOPS OP THE FARM. 5. Sweet com is that type in whicli the endosperm is translucent and horny in appearance, the starch having been more or less reduced to glucose. The kernels are wedge-shaped and usually very much wrinkled. Almost all the field com of the United States, com- paratively speaking, is of the dent type. [Flint com requires a smaller number of days to mature a crop and hence it is used in the more northern latitudes and at higher altitudes. It is the common field crop of New England. Bach of these types has its place, but wherever the common varieties of dent com will ripen flint corn is not usually desirable. For example, at the Pennsylvania Agricultural Ex- periment Station eleven varieties of flint com and fif- teen varieties of dent corn have been tested from one to three years. The altitude is 1,200 feet; the season, therefore, is comparatively cool and short,and not espec- ially adapted to the growth of dent varieties. The following table gives the yield of dry matter in pounds from ears and stover. Flint. Dent. Ears 1,750 3,012 Stover 1,691 3,258 Total 3,441 6,370 Soft com is groTvn to some extent by the Indians. It can be made into meal rather readily by crude methods and it is said also to be eaten whole by the Indians. It is also known aa "squaw corn." The Brazilian flour corn is of this type. The ease with which varieties of corn mix, the ex- treme variability within certain limits, and the ease with which any type may be obtained within these •JTDIAN CORN. 153 limits by careful selection, results in infinite varieties of corn, many of which are much alike. Every lo- cality has its peculiar varieties, some of which] are usually well adapted to the surrounding conditions. There seems to be good evidence for believing that for any given locality a medium maturing variety will yield more bushels of dry corn than an earlier or a later maturing variety. The later maturing variety will often yield a greater weight when husked, but the ex- tra quantity of water contained may, and often does, more than counterbalance the increased weight. The danger of injury from frost is also greater. It is, probably, a good rule to plant varieties which will ripen ten days before the usual date at which killing frosts occur. A good ear of dent corn should be as nearly cylin- drical as may be, so that it may hold the largest amount of com in proportion to the size of the junc- tion with the stalk. Ears that taper rapidly also have usually less corn in proportion to the cob. Both the tip and butt should be well filled. A good sized ear is eight to nine inches long and from six and one-half to seven inches in circumfer- ence at two-fifths its length from the butt. Ten inches is rather long for an ear of dent corn, while seven inches is a good length for smaller varieties. It is a good ear that weighs three-fourths of a pound. It takes about 100 good ears to make a bushel of shelled com. A good size for the circumference of the cob is from tiiree and two-thirds to four and one-third inches. The cob should be neither too large nor too small. It is evident that of two ears of equal size and com< 154 THE SOILS AKD CEOPS OP THE PABM. pactness the one vrith tlie small cob will contain tho most corn. A large cob is not especially objectionable, however, if it is surrounded by a correspondingly larger supply of com. Although ears with small cobs usu- ally contain the larger proportion of com the total yield is often less. In a good ear the shelled corn will oc- cupy the same space as the ear before it ia shelled. It is a good relationship where the Space between rows well filled. length of the kernel is half that of the diameter of the cob. On an ear of dent corn there should be but little space between the rows of kernels and they should be solidly and compactly placed. To this end the kernel should be as nearly wedge-shaped as possible. An average sized dent kernel is five- eighths of an inch wide. A smooth ear is pleasanter to husk, although there are some excellent varieties whose ears are rough. The kernels which cause rough ears are usually longer but somewhat less compact than those causing smooth rows. Space between rows not Well filled. INPIAN COBS, M5 There is no evidence that color afteota th- Field White varieties are more common in the sonther n por- tion end the yellow varieties are more common in tho northern portions of the United States. Of two stalks bearing the same quantity of corn the smaller stalk is to be preferred, where grain is the principal object sought. The larger the stalks the more food material necessary to produce them, the more ground is shaded, and, consequently, a less num- ber can be raised per acre. In some localities the ear may be too high on the stalk to be easily husked. The stalks are also more easily blown down. Four feet above the ground is a good height for the ears of medium sized varieties of dent com. Two-eared varieties of dent com have not been commonly grown, and it has not been satisfactorily shown in what way it is easier for a stalk of corn to elaborate the material for two ears of corn than it would be to produce the same com on one ear. As ordinarily harvested varieties bearing but one ear on a stalk are to be preferred, unless the two or more eared varieties yield an appreciably larger quantity of corn. A varying percentage of the stalks of a field are barren — do not bear any ears. The percentage of barren stalks on a given soU varies with the thickness of planting and the season. Barrenness does not seem to be a variety characteristic. Starting with a good variety for a given neighbor- hood it is important to maintain its excellence and to improve it by continued and careful selection. The most important thing is to select good ears according to the standards just given. The next thing is to giye 156 THE SOILS AND OEOPS OF THE FARM. due consideration to the stalk upon which it grew. It' is very much better to select the ears for seed in ad- vance of the general husking, when it can be done leisurely and carefully, and before there has been any hard freezing. In the more northern latitude thor- ough drying by hanging in an airy place or by arti- ficial heat is almost necessary to obtain good seed. In more southern latitudes storing in narrow cribs is all that is essential. The vitality of the seed is injured by freezing be- fore the kernels are thoroughly dry. It is the water in the kernel that freezes and thereby destroys the tissue. The vitality may be preserved in two ways : 1: by thoroughly drying; or, 2: by not subjecting to a low temperature. The former is the only generally feasible method. If the corn is first thoroughly dried it does not matter how low a temperature it is sub- jected to. It is hardly needful to state that the vitality of all seed corn should be carefully tested before using it. The vitality may be injured and the seed still grow. The seed should not only sprout but it should sprout strongly. The less the percentage of seeds sprouting the less the vital power. For illustration: the Illinois Agricultural Experimental Station found in the case of sweet corn that where 95 per cent of the seed grew in the green-house but 75 per cent of the seed which grew in the green-house grew in the field, while where 52 per cent grew in the green-house test only 55 per cent of those which grew in the green-house grew in the field. Climate. — The com plant is the most variable, according to the climate to which it is adapted, of INDIAN COEN. 157 any of our farm crops. The differences in size be- tween the corn of northern and southern latitudes has already been mentioned. These differences existed when the country was discovered, and we have no evidence that varieties have been modified in modern times by climate alone. Differences in the number of days required to ma- ture a variety exist similar to the differences in size. The smaller varieties require less and the larger more time. The time may vary, at least, from 90 to 150 days in different parts of the country. In general it may be said that as we go north or south of a given latitude, a variety becomes one day later or earlier for each tea miles of travel. That is to say, a variety which ripens two weeks before a kill- ing frost in a given locality, would only barely ripen if taken 140 mUes farther north, the altitude remaining the same. Care should be taken, therefore, in select- ing new varieties, to get them from the same latitude. If obtained from much farther north they may ripen too early, and consequently be too small. If obtained from much farther south they may not ripen. Professor Brewer shows that nearly nine-tenths of the crop of 1879 was grown where the July temper- ature is between 70 and 80 degrees Fahrenheit. Bain-fall affects the yield of corn more directly than does the temperature, while the temperature more directly affects the maturity of the crop. The best condition for the growth of corn is comparatively heavy rains at considerable intervals, with clear weather in the meantime. Twenty inches of rain-fall are desirable during the five corn-growing mouths: May, June, July, August and September. 158 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. iSoil and Manure. — ^A large proportion of the Indian corn crop is grown on the drift soil to which it is so well adapted. For its best growth Indian com requires a soil that is easily drained and does not bake during drouth. The water table should be some dis- tance below the surface, say at least three feet, but the capillary attraction should be such as to bring the water up freely during the period of fastest growth. The corn plant uses large quantities of water dur- ing its growth, especially during July and August, and unless th e physical conditions of the soil with reference to soil and water are the best it is apt to suf- fer from a lack of water, or, in other words, from drouth. A large supply of humus increases the capillary power of the soil and it is probably one reason why stable manure is generally found beneficial. The corn plant requires a fertile soil and through- out the region where the bulk of the crop is grown it is planted on the most fertile soil. Stable manure is more frequently applied to land to be put into corn than to any other. Grass and clover are usually fol- lowed by corn. Throughout the main corn belt a good rotation is corn two years, oats or wheat one year, timothy and clover three years. In some local- ities in the eastern' states the rotation is: corn, oats, wheat and clover with timothy, each one year, the stable manure being applied to the wheat. The use of stable manure, and the rotation of crops in connection with stock raising, are the chief means of keeping the land in good condition to grow corn. Generally speaking, commercial fertilizers have not been profitably applied to corn. This is almost Sweepingly true ly^st of ft^ Allegheny Moqotaiiig, CHAPTER XIV. INDIAN CORN. Culture, — The time and depth at which to pre- pare the seed-bed will vary with the soil, climate, the particular season and, in some instances, with the pre- vious crop grown on the land. In general, fall plow- ing is advisable. When plowing in the spring there is a practice, which seems to be a good one, of plow- ing immediately before planting. The land is plowed, immediately dragged and rolled, and then harrowed and planted while the surface is still fresh and moist. When the plowing is done earlier in the spring the surface becomes hard and it requires more labor to get a good seed-bed than when the plowing is done later. It is a question of labor merely. The main point is to get a deep, well pulverized seed-bed. The more well directed labor there is put on the seed-bed before planting the better. Corn will sprout at 47 degrees Fahrenheit. It will grow and produce chlorophyll at 54 degrees Fahren- heit. It will grow more readily as the temperature increases up to, at least, 80 Fahrenheit; but Sachs gives 115 degrees Fahrenheit as the highest tem- perature at which corn will sprout. The soil should be at least 60 degrees Fahrenheit at the depth of planting before the corn is planted. But it is not enough to consult the thermometer. The almanac should also be consulted. A change in the weather may follow even after the temperature of the soil is at 60 degrees Fanrepheit. The old Indian sign, which 159 160 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. is to plant corn when the leaves of oak trees are as big as a squirrel's ear, is not much at fault. There is fairly good evidence that in the main corn belt there is a period of three or four weeks within which the time of planting does not materially afiFect the yield. Very early planting, however, has been found to require more ciiltivation to keep the land free of weeds. Through the main corn belt from the 10th to the 20th of May is the usual time of planting. Where corn is planted on old sod-land the corn should be planted later to avoid cut worms and allied insects. Experiments have shown that there is little differ- ence in the yield, whether the seed is from the butt, middle or tip of the ear. The tip kernels being smaller have less food material to supply the develop- ing plant. Beyond this there seems to be no reason why they should not produce plants which would yield as abundantly as kernels from any other part of the ear. The kernel does not reproduce itself but the ear from which it was taken. In practice it is found bet- ter not to use tip and butt kernels, especially the former, in order that the planting with the ordinary planters may be more regularly done. Corn may be planted from one to four inches deep. In exceptionally dry seasons, planting six inches deep has been known to give better results than shallow planting, bat usually one iach deep is better than deeper so far as the growth of the plant is con- cerned. When planted by machinery it is usually necessary to plant somewhat deeper in order that all the corn may be covered. Hence the desirability of a uniform seed-bed. Where it is the practice to har- row the land after planting the corn, it is probably INDIAN CORN. 161 better to plant deeper than, one inch so as not to move or drag out the hills. The depth of planting has merely to do with the plants getting properly started. If the corn sprouts and comes up equally well, no difference in yield need be expected on account of the depth of planting. The depth of the roots is not materially affected by the depth of planting. "When a kernel sprouts, three or four roots are produced at the kernel. No matter what depth the kernel is planted the second whorl of roots, or the crown roots, are produced at about an inch from the surface, varying somewhat, probably with the nature of the soil. The deeper the kernel is planted the greater the distance between the first two whorls of roots. The stem between these points is usually about one- sixteenth of an inch in diameter, while above the crown, in plants 15 laches high, the stem is about three-eighths by five-eighths of an inch in diameter. The roots at tiie kernel die in a few weeks, so that the roots which ulti- mately nourish the plant grow at the same dis- tance from the surface without reference to the depth at which the kernel is planted. Nothing is gained, therefore, by deep planting, unless necessita- ted by the dryness of the soil. It only requires of the plant extra force and time to reach a position where the roots which eventually nourish the plant will grow. The thickness of planting depends upon the soil, climate and variety. In some of the southern states com is planted in hills five feet apart and one stalk produced per hill. In the New England states corn may be planted three feet apart and three stalks raised per bill. 162 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OP THE FARM. In one experiment at the Georgia Experiment Station a larger yield of dent corn was obtained where 2,184 stalks were raised per acre than by the thicker planting. In another experiment, at the Connecticut Experiment Station, a larger yield of dent corn was obtained with 21,780 stalks per acre than by thicker or thinner planting. In other words, the best results with dent com were obtained in Connecticut, 'with ten times as thick planting as in GeorgiOi Experiments indicate that for the main belt, at the rate of three or four stalks per hill, at a distance of 42 to 44 inches apart each way, is the most desirable for the production of grain. Planting too thickly re- duces the yield both by reducing the size of the ears raised and by reducing the number of ears raised in proportion to the number of stalks. If the largest quantity of material is desired, stalks included, exper- ience seems to indicate that from one-half to as much more seed should be planted as where the grain is the principal object. Of course, in any given locality the larger-growing varieties need to be planted thinner and the smaller varieties thicker to get the best results. The Indian method of planting was to plant four kernels in hills four feet each way. This method they taught the colonists. The usual method in the eastern states is to plant in drills. In the surplus corn states the practice is divided, but the larger part is planted in hills. The chief reason why corn is planted in drills in the eastern states is that on ac- count of the unevenness of the surface and the com- parative smallness of the field, the check rowing planters do not readily check straight cross rows, INDIAN CORN. 163 and that while a oue-horse machine which will drill corn rapidly enough for eastern requirements can be bought for from flO to |12, a two-horse corn planter, such as is found economical in the larger and more level fields of Ohio, Mississippi and Missouri valleys, would cost from $30 to $40. The difFerence in method is one of economical farm management rather than any difference in the growth of the corn. Experiments show that it makes little, if any, dif- ference whether the corn is planted in hills or drills so long as the land is kept equally free of weeds. It is only a question, therefore, by which method the com can be raised at the least cost, and, at the same time given equally effective cultivation. The key-note to the cultivation of corn is to keep the land as free as possible from any growing vegeta- tion, except the corn, and to do it with the least pos- sible disturbance of the roots. Much less stirring of the soil after the corn is planted is necessary or even desirable than has been formerly supposed. Cultivation does two things: it stirs the soil and kills the weeds. These are entirely separate things, although doing the former accomplishes the latter. In the chapter on weeds the way in which weeds may be injurious is discussed and it is shown that probably the principal damage that ordinary weeds do in a corn field is in exhausting the water from the soil. Stirring the soil admits the air more freely, so that more plant food may, perhaps, be made available. It also loosens the earth so that the roots may penetrate it more freely. These things are, doubtless, import- ant, but if we stir the soil to a depth that will benefit the roots in these ways, we mutilate them. It baa 164 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAEM. been shown that, ia the ordiaary prairie drift soil, a large proportion of the roots are between two and five inches deep at a point where they are likely to be disturbed by cultivation, and that by far the larger portion of these are between two and four inches deep. It has also been clearly demonstrated that, by cut- ting off these roots to the depth of four inches, at six inches from the center of the hill the yield of corn ia decreased in a marked degree. The decrease in yield may vary from one- eighth to one- third the crop, and a decrease of one-sixth to one-fourth the crop may be expected. Cultivating with an ordinary cultivator does nd prune the roots so completely as may be done by di- rect methods, so that as much injury from deep culti- vation as from root pruning need not be expected, but that the injury is often considerable has been shown in many places. The following table shows the aver- age yield of corn during three years at the Illinois Experiment Station from deep and shallow cultiva- ted plats, and from a plat receiving no cultivation after the corn was planted but having the weeds re- moved by scraping the surface with a hoe: At. bo. Kind of Ooltlvatlon. per aoie dun 3 yra. Shallow, averages plats .., 82 Deep, average 3 plats 74 None, one plat 79 The practice of shallow cultivation is becoming much more common than formerly, machinery having been perfected for this purpose, and now many farm- ers never cultivate their corn over two inches deep. Stirring a soil dries out the portion that is stirred INDIAN CORN. 165 but keeps the water ia the soil below the stirred por- tion. If two inches of cut straw are spread upon the surface of the soil, the evaporation, will be checked for obvious reasons. Two inches of pulverized soil acts ia much the same manner, although much less effectively, as direct experiment has shown. Indeed, the saving of moisture by surface calti'v^tion will de- pend very largely upon the nature of the weather. If this pulverized surface is frequently moistened by rains, the evaporation from the stirred portion may be greater than the evaporation that is thereby checked from the soil below. On the other hand, if the sur- face is kept loose more of the water which falls upon it will pass into the soil and less will run off than upon a hard surface. In any case the evaporation that is checked by the stirring of the surface is small compared with the quantity of water taken from the soil by an ordinary growth of weeds. The killing of weeds is much more important, therefore, in conserving moisture than is stirring the soil. That this is true is indicated by the fact that, on certain soils, at least, good crops of com can be raised without any stirring of the soil, provided the land is kept thoroughly free of weeds. In ordinary practice it is essential to stir the soil ia order to kiU the weeds. It may be laid down as a rule, therefore, that the soil should not be stirred deeper than is essential to a thorough eradication of the weeds. There seems to be pretty good evidence that the cultivation need not be more frequent than is necessary for their complete destruction. Harvesting. — When the corn is grown for the grain, it is not harvested until entirely ripe and lee THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAEM. growth has ceased, usually for a considerable tirae. Experiments show that the weight of dry matter is increased in the corn up to the time it is perfectly ripe. Indian corn is our only cereal crop in which the harvesting is done almost exclusively by hand. At least two hundred billion ears are separately handled annually. When harvesting for fodder the practice is to cut when the ears begin to dent or glaze, and lower leaves begin to get dry. Although less total dry mat- ter is harvested than if allowed to ripen, the assump- tion is that the fodder is more digestible and more palatable than when riper. Plant Diseases. — The most common and gen- erally known plant disease to which tie com is sub- ject is corn smut. (Ustilago Maydis.) The black sooty mass which is familiar to every one is composed of myriads of microscopic spores which spread the disease. These spores are supposed to germinate and penetrate the corn plant when it is small and the smut plant grows inside the corn plant, the former feeding upon the latter. The part which we see coming upon the plant so conspicuously during August is merely the fruiting part of the plant. Methods of prevention are not well understood. Sowing with seed and upon land which is free from the spores of the disease should apparently accom- plish the object. Seed corn being hand selected is less likely to have the spores of corn smut upon it, than oats, for example, are to have oat smut upon them. Rotation of crops might be expected to rid the land of the spores. Stable manure, especially where corn fodder is fed, may be expected to contain an INDIAN COEN. 167 abundance of the spores. None of the preventives suggested, however, have been effectual. The disease is much worse some seasons than others. Com smut is not an active poison, as it has been fed to cattle in numerous instances in large quanti- ties for a considerable period of time without appar- ent injury. Com, like other cereals and grains, is subject to rust, although it does not seem to be materially in- jured thereby. Besides this there is known to exist in Illinois, and is supposed to exist in other western states, a bacterial disease of com, which is known not only to do considerable damage to corn in some lo- calities, but it is also supposed that the germ which causes the disease in the com is able to cause a sud- den and fatal disease in cattle. This is known as the corn-stalk disease. The first indication of the disease is the dwarfed condition of the young plants. This commonly occurs in spots of various sizes, and is found in rich places, rather than in those of poorer quality.- The young diseased plants, besides being smaller than the healthy ones, are uniformly yellow- ish in color, the lowest leaves showing worst. Af- fected plants are easily pulled from the ground on account of the death of the lower roots. The inner tissue of the lower part of the stalk has a uniform dark color, while on the surface there are brownish corroded spots. After midsummer the leaf sheaths become spotted with various sized patches of a wa- tery brown, half -rotten in appearance, which are most conspicuous from the inner surface. The ears are, at least occasionally, affected. Internally, in the worst stage, the whole ear is reduced to a moist state I6S THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. of corruption. Very often these ears subsequently be- come mouldy, penetrated through and through by a close, very white, felt-like fungus. These mouldy ears are, in certain seasons, very numerous, and are irea(Ely recognized by the husker. No remedy is known. There appears to be in a considerable number of cases more injury on land which has been planted with corn the preceding year. CHAPTER XV. OATS. History. — While the origin of the cultivation of wheat can be traced with some probability to a warm climate and that of rye to a cold climate, oats we find occupying an intermediate position. They were not cultivated by the ancient Egyptians or the He- brews as was wheat. Neither the ancient Greeks nor the ancient Romans cultivated them. They were likewise unknown to the ancient Chinese or the peo- ple of India. All evidence points to eastern temperate Europe, and possibly Tartary, in western Asia, as the probable place of their first cultivation. They were cultivated by the prehistoric inhabitants of. central Europe, but did not appear, it is believed, until long after wheat and barley. Hence they were less important in the early history of our race than either of the last-nam.ed crops or rye. When central and northern Europe became civilized the cultivation of oats became vastly more important, becoming in some of the cool, moist climates north the most important cereal used for man's food. In Scotland it occupies one-third the land in cultivated crops, excluding land in pastures and meadows. In Ireland it constitutes one-half of all the grain and green crops. Production, — Oats stand third in acreage and value of product and second in number of bushels of the cereals of the United States. The annual pro- 169 170 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. auction for the two decades, 1870-79 and 1880-89 is given below: 1870-79. 1880-89. Area, acres, 11,000,000 22,000,000 Yield, bushels 314,000, 000 584,000,000 Value, dollars, 111,000,000 181,000,000 Value, per bushel, dollars 0.35 0.31 Yield, per acre, bushels, 28.4 96.6 Value per acre, dollars, 10.00 8.22 While the increase in the yield of wheat and corn during the last decade over the previous one was 44 per cent, the increase in the yield of oats has been 86 per cent. The area sown to this crop has doubled. This is the largest increase of any of our cereal crops. Ihe total value of the crops has increased 63 per cent. The value per bushel has decreased four cents ftnd the yield per acre less than two bushels. The average value of an acre of oats is less than any other of our more important cereal crops. Oats occupy about one-eighth of the tillage area of the United States. The principal oat-raising states are New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Wisconsin, Dlinois, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas and Nebraska. These twelve states raise over four-fifths of the crop. The only other important oat-raising state is Texas. New York raises more oats than any other cereal. We export very few oats, usually less than half a million bushels annually. In 1889, however, we ex- ported ten million pounds of oatmeal. The proportion of straw may vary from one to three and one-half pounds of straw for each pound of grain. Probably two pounds of straw for each poun^ OATS. 171 of grain would be a fair average. Thia would make the average yield of oat straw in the United States about seven- eighths of a ton per acre. The total yield of oat straw annually during the past decade would be 18 million tons, or a little less than one-half the yield of hay. Structure. — The oat plant (Avena sativa) is dis- tinguished from wheat and barley by the heads being in panicles instead of in spikes. The spikelets, con- taining two or more grains, are joined to the stem by an elongated base instead of being directly joined to it. It differs from wheat and rye and agrees with barley in that usually the kernel is enclosed within the palets, which are not removed in the ordinary methods of thrashing. The comparatively large glumes are thin and membraneous. The lower palet nsually has an awn of more or less length, according to the variety and conditions under which it is grown. Use. — Oats have become the greatest of all grain foods for horses. In this country oats are used in con- nection vnth and interchangeable with com. If one is more plentiful, and, therefore, cheaper than the other, it is used more abundantly. So in consider- ing the possibility of a rise or fall in price of either we must ascertain the combined yield of the two cereals. In the United States, oatmeal was formerly but sparingly used. Its consumption has increased enor- mously in recent years, its use having become thor- oughly diffused in a moderate way throughout the country. It is manufactured in many places. Oat straw is preferred to wheat or rye straw as food 172 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FA.BM. for cattle, and for bedding. It is less valuable than rye straw for the manufacture of paper, and than wheat straw also, although some paper mills are said to prefer it to wheat straw. In the south, where it is difficult to grow our tame grasses, oats are frequently cut green for hay. Composition. — It would be reasonable to sup- pose, that as oats deteriorate so readily and are appar- ently so easily influenced by their surroundings, great variations would be found in their chemical compo- sition under different climatic conditions. Analyses show that there is very little variation in the kernel itself, that is, the residue after the palets or hulls are removed. Taking the kernel alone, oats have a considerably larger per cent of albuminoids and fat than any other of our cereals. Taking the whole berry as we feed it to our stock, oats differ from corn principally in having a larger per cent of crude fiber at the expense of the starch. As prepared for human food it is the most nutri- tious of our cereals. It is especially adapted to peo- ple living in northern climates or those who have plenty of out-door exercise. It is said that in eastern Scotland the unmarried plowmen lived solely on oat- meal and milk, except in the winter, when tliey some- times got potatoes. They were allowed seventeen and one-half pounds of oatmeal weekly, and three to four pints of milk daily. This formed their sole diet with no other cooking than boiling water stirred into the meal. These men were strong and healthy. The witty Dr. Johnson sarcastically remarked: "Oats is a grain fed to horses in England, but eaten by men ia Scotland." "Yes," said a Scotchman, "and I have noticed that OATS. 173 they grow the best of horses in England and the besf of men in Scotland." The quality of oats depends principally upon the proportion of hull to kernel. The per cent of hull •will vary in different varieties from at least 20 to 45 per cent. The per cent of hull will depend both upon the variety and upon the conditions of growth. American varieties contain'on an average about 30 pei. cent of hull and 70 per cent of kernel. About 50 pounds of oatmeal are made from 100 pounds of oats. While at first thought it is a matter of some sur- prise, it has been pretty satisfactorily demonstrated that those varieties with long, slender, light berries and light weight per bushel contain an appreciably larger per cent of kernel than those varieties with short, plump, heavy berries and heavy weight per bushel. In other words, those varieties which sell best on the market or take the premiums at exhibi- tions have the least food value. Oats may vary in weight from 25 to 50 pounds per bushel, the lighter weights being found in the more southern climates. Richardson found the average weight per bushel of 166 varieties gathered from the various sections of the United States to be 37 pounds. Climate, — Oats are naturally adapted to a cooler climate than wheat, barley or corn. The climate needs to be both cool and moist. Oats grow fairly well in the south, where, while warm, it is moist, but in California, where both warm and dry, oats do poorly. Oats grow to perfection in the cool, moist climate of Scotland, Norway and Sweden. It is from these countries that we get our new varieties as a role. It is on account of the adaptability of the 174 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAEM. oat plant to a cool, moist climate that early sowing is found especially advantageous. It is curious that while the cultivated oat does poorly in California the wild B^ecies, Avena fatua, L., should become an abun- dant and valuable wild pasture grass in that state. The physical properties of oats seem to be readily afPected by climate. The southern varieties are larger, less plump, often of a dirty dun color, with long- awns. Of course there are all degrees of plumpness, from the very short, plump, smooth berries of the more northern olimate to the long, slender, long awned southern varieties. The fact that short, plump, smooth, heavy berries have the largest market value has led to the importation of varieties from Scotland, Norway and Sweden. Probably more new varieties of oats are imported and distributed by seedsmen than of any other cereal. Soil. — The character of the soil upon which oats are sown is of less importance probably than with any other crop. Almost any tillable soil will bring a fair crop of oats. It is on this account and because oats are liable to lodge on very fertile soil, that they are sown on the poorer soils and on soils in the most exhausted state of fertility. In the American systems of rotation they usu- ally follow corn. Fertilizers are seldom applied to this crop, both because they grow too rank and because it usually pays better to apply the manure to some other crop. Oats respond, however, very readily to an application of manure where applied when needed. Varieties. — Oats may be classified according to their date of ripening, according to the color and OATS. 175 shape of the berry, and upon the way in which the spikelets are arranged on the stem. In some varieties, the spikelets are distributed on all sides of the stem and are spreading. Other varieties produce the spike- lets on one side of the stem and are not spreading, but are erect and close against the stem. The former may be said to be varieties with open panicles, and the latter varieties with closed panicles. The latter VABIEPr WITH VAEIETT "WITH OPEN OiiOSKD Panicle. Panicle. are also known as side oats. These two types of oats have been considered distinct species by some writers. There are, however, all degrees of variation between the varieties with open and closed panicles. There is still another type of oats in which the palets or hulls are removed upon thrashing, and there only remains the hulless kernels. These are called 176 THE SOILS AND OltOPS OF THE FA.BM. hulless oats, and are the so-called Bohemian oats. This kind is usually considered a distinct species Avena nuda, L. It is not generally raised, as the yield is considerably less than of the varieties in which the palets or hulls are not thrashed off. One reason, of course, why the yield is less is because the palets or hulls go into the straw instead of with the grain. Experiments seem to indicate that there is no ma- terial difference in yield between varieties with open or closed panicles, between varieties of different color, or between varieties having short, plump ber- ries and those having long, slender berries, and con- sequently between varieties of different weights per bushel. In America there are more early maturing varieties with short, plump, white berries and open panicles than any other kind, such as White Swede, Early Lackawanna, Canada White, White Bonanza, White Victoria, Welcome, Clydesdale, Hopetown, White Wonder, Prize Cluster, Badger Queen, White Belgian, Hargett's White and Centennial. There is little practi- cal difference in the varieties named. They have the advantage over later maturing varieties, in that their growth and maturity are during the cooler portion of the season, and also because they may often be har- vested so as to avoid storms which injure the late va- rieties. In some localities early maturing varieties are desirable in order that they may be harvested in time to prepare for the succeeding crop. There is a difference of about two weeks in the market varieties of this country. Early varieties also usually have shorter Bteras r.nd are, therefore, less likely to lodge. Culture. — It is not customary to prepare the seed- oiTs. m bed so deeply for oats as for wheat, rye, barley or corn. In the eastern states the land is usually plowed. In the western states many acres are sown on com land without plowing. The oats are sown broadcast on the unprepared land and covered with a corn cultivator, disc harrow or similar implement. Sometimes the corn-stalk land is cultivated once before sowing the oats and then cultivated once or twice afterward. Good crops are grown in this way, but very much de- pends upon the nature of the soil and something up- on the seasoa When the soil is naturally compact plowing is better. Some times oats are sown on the uncultivated surface and the land shallowly plowed. Unless the land is plowed oats must, of course, be sown broadcast. On plowed land the practice is divided, but broadcasting is probably the most general, the controlling reason being that they can be some- what more cheaply sown in this way, than if "the drill is used. In the south fall and winter varieties are sown. In some localities in the south oats are sown in Novem- ber, December, January and February during the same season. The bulk of the crop in this country, however, is from spring seeding. Oats should be sown as early in the spring as possible. Experiments indicate that there is a marked decrease both in the yield and the weight per bushel when the seeding is delayed. With corn, the time of planting, within four or five weeks, any season is not especially important. Such a diifarence in the time of sowing oats may make the difference between success and failure. The depth of sowing, between one to four inches, does not seem to be important. The same principles apply here as with com and wheat. 178 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. The yield withia certain limits is not materially modified by the thickness of planting. The oat plant, like the wheat plant, has the ability to adapt itself to its surroundings, so that where it is thinly planted it stools more than when thickly planted. On some soils, at least, the thinly sown oats are later in matur- ing and the proportion of straw is greater. No definite rule can be laid down, but sowing from two to three bushels according to circumstances may be taken as a safe guide. The number of berries in a pound of oats has been found to vary with different varieties from about 11,000 to about 30,000. The oat plant is generally exceptionally free from insect enemies and plant diseases. It is subject to rust in a way similar to wheat, and for which, as in wheat, there is no known remedy. It is subject to the loose smut, similar to that described under wheat. This is much more common and destructive on oats than on wheat. The same treatment is efficacious. CHAPTER XVL BABLEY AND RTS. History of Barley. — The culture of barley ia very ancient. Both it and wheat were cultivated be- fore we have any history of man. In ancient Egypt it was used as food for man and beast, and also made into beer. It was the chief bread plant of all those nations from which we derive our civilization. Bar- ley continued to be the chief bread plant of continental Europe down to the sixteenth century. The intro- duction and wide cultivation of potatoes and the rapid development of the growth of wheat has brought about a decline in the use of barley. Barley was used to some extent by both man and beast in the early colonies of this country. Production. — Barley is the fourth cereal crop in the extent of its production in the United States. It is much less important, however, than either wheat, corn or oats. The acreage of wheat is about one-hal^ that of oats less than one-third, and that of barley only about one-thirtieth that of corn. The average yield of barley during the past decade was 22 bushels per acre. From 35 to 40 bushels per acre may be considered a fairly good yield. Fifty bushels per acre is not extraordinary. The average price during past decade has been 59 cents per bushel, a decrease of 15 cents from previous decade. The average annual value per acre of wheat, corn, oats and barley during the past decade has been: wheat, $9.97; corn, $9.48; oats, $8.22; barley, $12.79. 17» 180 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OF THE FAEM. The significance of these figures may be illustrated by assuming the cost of raising either an acre of wheat or barley at eight dollars. On this basis the profit from an acre of wheat would be $1.97, while from an acre of barley it would be $4.79. Practical experience has demonstrated that barley is a paying crop in regions to which it is adapted, but the distribution of barley is very peculiar. It is a maxim that like causes produce like effects. Here is an example of unlike causes producing like effects. A few years ago California and New York were the largest two barley -producing states. The large pro- duction in California is due to the fact that the climate is favorable for barley and not favorable for the pro- duction of corn and oats, nor for the ordinary cul- tivated tame grasses. Barley is the forage crop of California. In New York the climate is not especially adapted to barley, and is well enough adapted to oats, corn and tame grasses. The partial failure of the wheat crop from the ravages of the Hessian fly, the competition of the western wheat-raising states and probably the demand for barley for malting purposes, are some of the causes which have led to the increased acreage in New York. On the other hand, New York produced in 1888 sixteen times as much barley as Pennsylvania, although the two states are otherwise much alike in their cereal production. Seven states raised six-sevenths of the crop in 1888, the order of the greatest yield being: California, Wisconsin, Minnesota, New York, Dakota (north and south), Iowa and Nebraska. Our average annual import since 1870 has been eight million bushels or about one- fifth of our annual BAELET AXD EYE. 181 production. The imjDorted barley comes almost en- tirely from Canada. Strncture. — Barley agrees with oats in having bhe palets adherent. The hull is somewhat different in texture from that of the oat and has a long barbed awn or beard, which makes barley a very disagreeable crop to handle. The hull is very closely attached tft the kernel and is not so easily removed as in case of oats. The hull may form from 12 to 18 per cent of the berry, 15 per cent being about an average. Use. — Barley is very little used in this country as an article of human food, and then only as pearl bar- ley. It is largely used as a stock food and for malt- ing purposes. Except on the Pacific Slope its use as a stock food is not general as compared with corn or oats. In Europe it takes the place largely which Indian corn does in America. It is also used for malt- ing purposes, and on the continent, especially in the southern part, is used as a human food. Composition. — Barley differs from Indian corn principally in having a less per cent of fat. Oats contain about three times as much crude fibre as barley, yet it is essential to grind barley before feed- ing it, while it is not necessary to grind oats. Other- wise, as compared to oats, it has less fat and more starch, the starch taking the place of the extra crude fibre in the oats. The highest priced barley is used for malting pur- poses. For this use barley should be mealy instead of glossy, light in color, and have a low percentage of albuminoids. As sold in the market, however, the grade depends upon its plumpness, its weight and its color, the latter two being the most important. The 182 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OF THE FA.BM. greater the weight and the lighter the color, the higher the grade. The best barley for feeding purposes is the poorest for malting. As the price is fixed by the demand for malting, the best feeding barley is the lowest in price. The price varies more with the grade than is the ease with any other cereal. The weight per bushel depends much upon the thoroughness with which the beards are removed. To accomplish this the grain is often run through the thrashing machine a second time. So important is the weight that at elevators where much barley is shipped special machinery is used for thoroughly scouring and cleaning it. The legal weight in most states is 48 pounds. The color is darkened by rains or heavy dews after the barley is ripe. To produce a high grade of barley it is important to get it dry and in stack as soon as possible after cutting it. Climate. — Barley is successfully cultivated in a wider range of climate than any other cereal. It is cultivated from Iceland to semi-tropical California. Although an important crop in Norway and Sweden, it was formerly the bread plant of the people border- ing on the Mediterranean Sea. It is said to grow at the extreme north where the soil only melts a few inches deep. It seems, however, to be best adapted to a warm, dry climate. Professor Brewer shows that the greatest produc- tion of barley is with a smaller amount of annual rainfall, and also a smaller amount of rainfall during the growing season, than in the case of any other cereal. An abundance of rain, however, does not deter it from successful growth. Soil. — Whether the peculiar distribution of barley BAEIiEt AND BYE. 183 in the United States is in any way dependent upon the soil has not, and possibly cannot be satisfactorily ascertained. The general impression is that the nature of the soil makes more difference with barley than with our other cereal crops. English experi- ence would indicate that rather sandy and well drained soils are better than clay soils or soils not well drained. It needs a fertile soil and will stand liberal manuring. There is good reason for be- lieving that if stable manure is applied directly to barley it should be well rotted. It is probably better, however to apply the manure to a previous crop, such as com or wheat. The roots of bar- ley grow near the surface of the soil, and although they grow rapidly they are comparatively feeble and short- lived. The fertilizing ingredients, therefore, need to be in a soluble condition. Barley is considered aa exhaustive crop. Tarieties. — There are at least, four types of barley which are somewhat ' distinct, and have been considered species. The four types, with the botanical names given them, are as follows: 1. Two-rowed barley, Hordeum distichon, L. 2. Foux-rowed barley, Hordeum vulgare, L. 3. Six-rowed barley, Hordeum hexastichon, L, 4. Naked barley, Hordeum distichon nudum, L. TWOEOWED BAEtET. Srx-EowED Babt.by. 184 THE SOILS AND OEOPS OP THE FARM. It is the six-rowed type that is generally raised in this country. In England the two- rowed type is prin- cipally used for malting, the six-rowed being used there for grinding and feeding. The two-rowed type has been found to yield more malt-extract than the six-rowed. The leading six-rowed varieties are Mansbury, Scotch and Imperial. The hulless or naked barley is grown only for feed. It does not seem so prolific as varieties with hulls. Culture. — The seed-bed should be deeply and thoroughly pulverized. To this end the land should be plowed fairly deep. A well prepared seed-bed is essential for barley. Barley is sown in the fall in Europe along the Medi- terranean sea, but in America practically only spring barley is sown. The temperature required for the germination of barley is about the same as that of wheat. The barley plant when young, however, is rather more susceptible to cold than wheat. A light frost just after it is up is likely to injure it. In the spring wheat regions barley is generally sown after wheat is sown and before oats are sown. Two bushels is the usual quantity of seed sown per acre. It is generally sown broadcast, although some raisers prefer to use the drill. Harvesting. — Formerly the barley crop was usually cut with a self-rake reaper, and laid off in small gavels or in continuous swaths. These were allowed to dry a day or so, as required, and then raked together, or, more usually, placed in piles by hand with large wooden, four-tined forks. The aim was to get the barley dry as quickly as possible, so that it might be subject as little as possible to the rains and dews BAKLEY AND EYE. 185 before reaching the stack. The severity of the beards and the shortness of the straw made it almost impos- sible to bind by hand. With the self-binder it is the easiest and pleasantest of our cereal crops to bind. The shocking is now the most unpleasant operation. Barley of as good color cannot be obtained when the sheaves are bound as when they are left open, chiefly because it is necessary to allow it to be longer exposed to the weather before stacking. For malting purposes, especially, barley should be thoroughly ripe BO that all the kernels will germinate at the same time. The barley plant is generally rather free from at- tacks of plant diseases and insect enemies. BYE. The cultivation of rye is not nearly so ancient as that of wheat and barley. It was unknown to the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Greeks did not know it. Its introduction into the Roman Empire was hardly earlier than the Christian era. The origin of its cultivation is supposed to be Northeastern Europe. Within modem times rye was formerly a more im- portant crop. Even as late as the middle of the pres- ent century rye was said to have formed the principal sustenance of, at least, one-third the population of Europe, this one-third inhabiting the northern half of Europe, barley taking its place in the countries nearer the Mediterranean. It was usually sown with wheat and is yet to a large extent mixed with wheat in grind- ing, and the [^resulting flour is called meslin. The mixture of com and rye for bread was common in New England. Relatively rye was formerly much more important in England and the United States. Production, — The amount grown in the world is 186 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OF THE PABM. yet very large. It has been estimated at about 1,200 million bushels, or about three-fifths that of wheat. One- half this quantity is raised in Russia, while about five-sixths of all the rye raised in the world is raised in Russia, Germany and Austro-Hungary. Bussia raises more rye than the United States does wheat. In France and England it now holds a sub- ordinate position. The average annual acreage in the United States during the past decade has been only about two million, or a trifle less than that of barley, with an average yield per acre of 12 bushels, at 62 cents per bushel, making the least average value per acre of any of our cereals, considering the grain only. Penn- sylvania. New York and New Jersey raise over one- fourth this quantity, while Illinois, Wisconsin, Kan- sas, Iowa and Nebraska raise about one-half the crop. In the eastern states especially the straw is an im- portant item in its culture. Near the large cities it is put to various uses which are made of straw, particu- larly where long, straight, unbroken straw is needed. The manufacture of paper from rye straw is also an important item, a paper mill becoming the center of its culture for this purpose. A ton of straw is an or. dinary yield per acre, and ten dollars is a common price per ton in eastern paper mills. The use of the grain is confined almost entirely to the making of bread and spirituous liquors. Fifteen to 20 bushels per acre is a fair, and 20 to 30 a good crop, for most parts of the country. In the western states rye is frequently grown where winter wheat is a precarious crop, as it is an advantageous distribution of labor to sow a fall crop, BARLEY AND EYE. 187 and even where wheat is grown somewhat the fact that it ripens before wheat lengthens the grain har- vest, which is often desirable. As a soiling crop and as a crop for green-manuring it has been highly es- teemed. Indeed, in any thorough system of soiling. it is almost an essential as furnishing green food un- til clover is large enough to cut. While there is evidence which tends to show that the yield of green rye used as a soiling crop is not so great as that of medium red clover, and that it is less rich in albu- minoids, yet in practice it has been found very satis- factory. This is especially true in the production of milk for city delivery, where it is important that the milk be acceptable to the taste. There are many ways in which rye may form and does form an important, although subordinate part, of a system of mixed husbandry. Composition. — Analyses show that rye in the kernels is less nutritious than wheat, and that the dif- ference in their respective flour is still greater. Eye bran is much richer in albuminoids than wheat bran. Coarse rye bread is more nutritious than fine rye bread. Fine rye bread is less nutritious than fine white bread. Oil the European continent, where coarse rye bread is largely eaten, it has always been considered more nutritious than wheat bread. Rye is not so variable as wheat in chemical compo- sition and is not very susceptible to climatic condi- tions. In structure it is more like wheat than any other cultivated plant. Climate. — Eye is a very hardy plant. It stands severe winters better than wheat. It is naturally a plant of cold climate, just as barley is one of com- paratively warm climate. 188 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OF THE FARM. There is only one species of rye {Secale cereale) and not many recognized varieties. There are both spring and winter varieties, the latter being sown almost exclusively. Soil. — Rye is adapted to light, sandy soil It will thrive on much poorer soils than wheat, com or bar- ley. This is so well recognized that the expression, "it is too poor to grow rye," is used to indicate extreme poverty of the soil. Professor Brewer says that the feel- ing that poor soil and the growth of rye are connected, prevents many farmers raising it for purely senti- mental reasons. Such a sentiment in the west has not been observed although a similar sentiment seems to exist in parts of Pennsylvania with reference to buck- wheat. Cnltnre — The same principles apply to the pre- paration of seed-bed and the seeding of rye as in the case of winter wheat. Ordinarily, where both wheat and rye are sown, the rye is sown first. One and one- half to two bushels are sown, preferably drilled, per acre. It may be sown in standing corn and used for . pasturage and afterward plowed under for green ma- nure. It should not be sown until the com is suf- ficiently matured to allow access of the sun. If sown earlier the shade of the corn retards its growth so that no advantage is derived from the earlier sowing. Plant Diseases. — Rye is not particularly subject to insect attacks but is subject to a plant disease which needs special mention. Ergot, known also as spurred or homed rye, is readily recognized by the very much enlarged and changed appearance of the kernel, caused by the growth of the fruiting spores. Rye containing ergot should not be fed to animals or eaten BAKLEY AND KYE. 189 by persons, because of the serious efPect which inaj' follow from such use. Eye contatiing ergot should aot be sown and land producing ergot should be used for some other crop. CHAPTER XVIt ORASSSS. History. — The cultivation of wheat, com, oats^ barley and rye ia very ancient; that of wheat and bar- ley perhaps antedating the others. The sowing of grass and forage crops is of comparatively recent origin. Permanent pastures have existed for many centuries, in the civilized countries, but the custom of sowing grass seed to produce pasturage and hay is scarcely a hundred years old. The lack of any cultivated grasses was one of the difficulties that the early colonists had to contend with in this country. The introduction of red clover into England did not take place till 1633; that of white or Dutch clover, not till 1700. Of the natural grasses our well known timothy was first brought into cultivation in this country, and it was not cultivated in England until 1760. The culture of orchard grass was first intro- duced into England from Virginia in 1764. There is no evidence of any systematic or artificial cultivation of grasses there until the introduction of perennial rye grass in 1677, and no other variety of grass-seed appeared to have been sown for many years, not, in- deed till toward the close of the last century, upon the introduction of timothy and orchard grass.* The average weight of cattle and sheep sold in 1710 in Smithfield Market, which in many senses bears the same relation to England as the Chicago Stook-Yard market does to America, was: beeves *"A Hundred Years Progress," U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1872, p. 277. 190 GEASSES. 191 370 lb., calves 50 lb., sheep 28 lb., lambs 18 lb. That the improvement in grass culture has in a large mea- sure made possible the wonderful improvement in stock since that time cannot be doubted. Production. — Grass is not only the greatest of all our crops, but the greatest source of wealth of any single crop. There were 35 million acres of hay harvested annually during the past decade against 37 million acres of wheat. The average value of an acre of wheat was S9.97, while the value of an acre of hay was §11.09, so that the total value of the hay crop was 389 million dollars, against 372 million dollars for wheat. Eleven per cent of the total farm area, or about 60 million acres, was in permanent pastures and meadows. This is exclusive of pastures and meadows in rotation, of woodland pastures or ranches beyond the western border of the pioneer homesteader. In 1890 there were 53 million cattle and 44 million sheep. If we do not consider the horses, mules and swine and allow one acre of pasture for each animal of the ox-kind of whatever age, and one acre for five sheep of any age, we would have 62 million acres of pasturage. It is probably entirely within bounds to say iiiat there are as many acres of grass land for pasturage and hay, exclusive of ranches, as there are of com and oats raised annually. A large proportion of the land devoted to pasturage is, for one reason or another, not well adapted to till- age crops. The land is either too uneven or too stony to be easily tilled, or is broken by streams, or more or less covered with trees. 193 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAKM. In the west large areas are grazed in advance ol approaching cultivation, or in regions where the rain- fall has not been considered sufficient for successful cereal production. The native grasses of the plains produce a nutritious diet, although often scanty as compared with the grass produced in cultivated regions. It has not been uncommon for a rancher to control 25 acres for each head of cattle that he raised. Permanent pastures are not the rule in this coun- try on land capable of easy tillage. Occasionally, but not often, there will be found a piece of tillable land in the older settled regions which has never been broken, but has been constantly in pasture since it was in prairie grasses, tame grasses having sup- planted the wild ones. As a matter of convenience also, such as proximity to farm buildings, land is kept more or less permanently in pasture. The rule in this country, however, is to make the grass on the tillable lands a part of a more or less systematic rotation of crops. In England it is quite the reverse. There are many pastures in that country which have been down so long that there is no record of the date of seeding. The land was once cultivated, however, as is shown by the furrow marks which still remain. There they consider that the pastures improve from century to century. The acreage of permanent pasturage has increased considerably in Great Britain during the past quarter of a century, while the acreage of grain crops has been diminished. Manure. — The value of grass crops, besides their iotrinsic worth aa a crop, is in maintaining the for- GEASSES. 193 tflity of the soil. There is a Flemish proverb, "No gjrass, no cattle; no cattle, no manure; no manure, no crops." Constant pasturage by cattle not otherwise fed may slowly reduce the fertility of the soil. A crop of hay will remove more of the "precious" ele- ments than will the grain of a crop of wheat. Selling hay has not been considered by many, therefore, as good farm practice. Of late years, however, the prac- tice of selling hay has been looked on with more favor, both because it has been relatively more profitable than grain crops, and because it has not been found in practice to be harder on land than selling grain crops. The fact is it is not what a crop takes off the soil but what it leaves in the soil when it is taken off that determines whether it depletes the fertility of the soil. Probably there is no way, considering the expense involved, of so profitably manuring land as by top- dressing grass lands. Stable manure has been applied to pasture and to meadows as a top-dressing with good results, applying it lightly, say ten loads per acre. It does not seem to injure materially the pala- tability of the pasture grass. With hay crops, there is danger, if not well spread, of getting the manure raked up with the subsequent crop of hay. Fattening animals on pasture, or feeding grain food to milch cows while on pasture, increases the fertility of the soil by returning more to it than is taken from it. Although the manure is not as well distributed as if the land was top-dressed, there is no expense for spreading. Experiments have been made by Lawes and GObert which show that different kinds of fertilizers favor 194 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. different grasses and clovers. They find that the most complex herbage occurs on unmanured lands; that potash and phosphoric acid increase the propor- tion of leguminous plants; nitrogen and yard manure increase the proportion of grasses proper. The yield of hay was increased more by the use of yard manure and nitrogen than by the use of mineral fertilizers. It is evident that if different kinds of lertUizers fa- vor different pasture plants, the character, as well as the quantity of the pasturage, may be affected by the kinds of food fed to the stock vsrhich feed upon it. The kinds and purposes for which the stock are used may affect the character of the pasture for a similar reason. Seeding. — The usual method of sowing grass seed (using the term in its general and not its botanical sense), is to sow with grain crops. Undoubtedly this is good practice for most regions. Usually no crop of hay can be harvested the first year. If sown alone the land is not sufficiently shaded by the grass to pre- vent the growth of weeds, which it is necessary to mow at considerable expense. The crop of hay the suc- ceeding year is no better than if grain had been sovm with the crop the preceding year. This is especially true of our leading hay crops, timothy, medium red clover, mammoth red clover and red top. A crop of grain, also, is obtained at little additional expense. In some regions, however, timothy sown alone in fall will produce a fair crop of hay the following sea- son. When sown with wheat, it produces so much hay as to interfere with the harvesting of the crop, as well as materially reduce the yield of wheat. In such regions the custom is to sow the timothy alone. GRASSES. 195 These localities are the exception rather than the rule. Generally the practice of sowing the grass seed with the grain crop is based on sound business prin- ciples. The desirability of sowing two or more kinds of grass seed together must depend largely upon the adaptability of the grasses to the locality and the purpose for which the crop is grown. The plants should mature at about the same time. It may be laid down as a rule, that for hay it does not pay to grow one plant with another when it is not in itself adapted to the conditions under which it is grown when sown alone. If it does not pay to sow alone it will not pay to sow with another crop. The introduction of such a plant reduces the yield, by oc- cupying land which could have been more profitably occupied by a plant adapted to the conditions existing there. In this respect it is a weed. It is a plant out of place. Boots never fully occupy the soil. Those of difper- ent plants occupy different portions of it. The roots of timothy grow near the surface. Olover roots grow deeper. Thus to a certain extent they do not inter- fere with each other. "When medium red olover is sown with timothy the former usually dies after the second crop, leaving the decaying roots and stems to furnish their acquired fertility to the timothy and succeeding crops. The holes left by the decaying roots may perhaps in some cases improve the mechaa- ical condition of the soil. In some localities timothy does not reach its best development until it has been down two or three years. In the meantime the clover may oocnpy 196 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. a portion of the ground with no serious ultimate dis. advantage apparently to the timothy. The seeding with a miscellaneous mixture of grass seeds of varieties of little or no yalue when sown alone, has neither practical nor experimental evidence in this country to commend it. The seeding of lim- ited quantities of several varieties merely to add va- riety may be justifiable. For pasturage several varieties may be desirable in order to furnish a succession of herbage throughout the season. The chief difficulty in America is to find varieties adapted to our soil and climate which will do this. The time of seeding will depend largely upon the climate and the variety and will be discussed under varieties. Grass seeds must not be sown so deeply as cereals. The smaller the seeds the shallower they must be sown. They have less starch with which to support the plant until it is up. The plant is so much more delicate that it cannot overcome the resistance of the soil. These facts make a well-prepared seed-bed or a great waste of seed imperative. Much seed is sown without any covering, although a light covering is generally advantageous. Probably better average results would be obtained with deeper covering than is usually practiced, if the seed-bed is carefully prepared. In continued moist, rainy weather the covering is not important. The great difficulty in securing a stand is from the drying of the surface soil just when the seeds are sprouting and the plants are becoming es^jablished. The seeds being so near the surface the soil may in a few days become dry enough to kill the plants. GBASSES. 197 The quantity of seed that it has been found neces- sary in practice to sow is very much more than is theoretically necessary for a perfect stand. In field culture only a small portion of the seeds sown pro- duce mature plants. This may be illustrated by giving the number of seeds per square foot where a given number of pounds are sown per acre. Many more might be given but the following list will suffice: Lbs. seed No. seeds Name. sown per per sq. acre. foot. Timothy 15 490 Red top 30 2850 Orchard grass 35 370 Kentucky blue grass 40 2000 Meadow foxtail 40 915 Fall meadow oatgrass 40 140 Meadow fescue 30 190 Sheep's fescue 30 540 Sweet vernal grass 30 440 Perennial rye grass 60 335 Italian rye grass 60 380 Medium red clover 10 85 Mammoth red clover 10 75 Alsike clover 10 150 White clover 10 200 Alfalfa V 10 85 The rate of seeding timothy varies from nine to fifteen pounds per acre, thus making from 300 to 500 seeds to the square foot. The rate of seeding clover may vary from six to ten pounds, making from 50 to 85 seeds per square foot. This quantity has not been found too much in practice. This of course, shows the crudeness of the present method of seeding. The greater delicacy of the smaller seeds is also well illustrated. This is, in partj 198 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. due to the great lack of vitality of the smaller seeds. Many of the smaller seeds sold are incapable of growing under the most favorable conditions. HarTesting. — The proper time to harvest hay is manifestly when the largest quantity of the best qual- ity can be secured, provided the expense is not thereby increased. The quantity may be sacrificea to improve quality. Quality may be sacrificed to increase the yield or to decrease expense in harvesting. The ex- pense and risk of securing timothy may be greater if it is cut early, as it requires more handling and longer exposure in curing than if cut late. If hay is to be marketed it is important to distin- guish between food value and market value. A ton of early cut hay may contain more nutrients than a ton of late cut hay. As a food for milch cows the former would doubtless be better than the latter. Yet the later cut timothy hay may have the higher market value. Growth signifies an increase of weight. A crop of grass increases in weight of dry substance until it is ripe. There may be a greater loss in weight in the matured plant from the loss of seed, in the case of timothy, or in the loss of leaves and finer parts in the case of clover, than if cut earlier. When ripe the hay is practically straw. A summary of experiments made in this country shows that there is an appreciable increase of yield of the true grasses from the period of full bloom until seeds are formed. There is an increase of all the food nutrients, but the increase is most marked in the crude fibre, starch, sugar and allied substances. With timothy, orchard grass and meadow fescue an increase GRASSES. 199 has been found in some instances of one- fourth, from the period of full bloom until seeds were formed. With the clovers, there has been found a decrease in all the nutrients, with the exception of crude fibre, in which there is sometimes an appreciable increase. The loss of the leaves and finer parts in handling while curing is sometimes sufficient to render the clo- ver hay well nigh worthless. There is both a loss of weight and loss in quality. A farmer with 150 acres of hay to harvest cannot harvest it all at the theoretically best time. If he sells part of his hay it is prudent to sell the later cut hay. It has less food value pound for pound, especially for growing stock and milch cows. In many localities it has a greater market value. In such cases it is usu- ally intended for matured horses, for which purpose it is better suited. The aim in curing a fodder crop is to preserve the nutrient elements with the least loss, and in as di- gestible and palatable a form as may be. In practice, it is desired to secure bright clean hay. The quality may be reduced by the direct washing and dissolving by rains ; by bleaching, through the alternate wetting by rains and dews, just as linen is bleached; by becoming musty through heating or fer- mentation, or by the loss of the more delicate and more valuable parts, as the leaves, when the hay is too thoroughly dried. As before indicated the latter is an important reason why the quality of clover is improved by cur- mg in shocks. When it is spread thinly on the ground the leaves become dry much sooner than the stems, and every time the clover is handled the leaves are 20O THE SOILS AND CROPS OP THE FARM. broken off and lost. If, on the other hand, the clo- ver is put in shocks before the leaves become dry, the stems and leaves transpire or evaporate the water through the leaves, much as they do when the plant is growing. The moisture of the stems passes off through the leaves. This is the sweating of hay. The water collects on the outer surface of the stems and leaves, because it is imprisoned there by the sur- rounding material. It is not feasible in many places, however, to cure hay in the shock, on account of the extra labor neces- sary. Much hay is now put in the barn or stack on the day after it is cut. Hay rakes, loaders and forks make it possible to do this with but little hand labor, while if put in shock much hand work is necessary. On the other hand, where only a limited quantity is to be handled, it is often more convenient and more economical to put the hay in shock. The method of handling hay depends much upon circumstances, the main element being the cost of a given method under given conditions. Other things equal, the less the hay is handled the better the quality, as at every movement some of the finer parts may be lost. CHAPTER XVIIL GBASSES. Tarieties. — Probably not one farmer in a thbns. and east of the one-hundredth meridian in the United States knows any other cultivated grass by name than Timothy, Red top and Kentucky blue grass, or any other clover than medium red clover and white clover. Fortunate is the farmer who has no need to know any other. There are considerable areas of the United States, however, in which none of these thrive particularly well, notably the South Atlantic and Gulf States, and much of that vast area west of the one-hundredth meridian. Probably in no other country are the cultivated grasses and clovers grown in such purity as in the United States. Yet a considerable part of herbage of this country consists of native grasses and forage plants. The herbage of the ranges is composed of a large number of species of grasses and grass-like plants. These grasses have the common characteristics of growing in a dry climate and producing a nutritious herbage which retains its nutritious qualities when dried standing. This is probably in part due to the climate rather than to the kind of grasses. Fermen- tive and putrefactive changes of all kind take place less rapidly than in a moist climate. The most common grasses of this character on the Great Plains are Grrama or Mesquite grass {Boute- 301 202 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAEM. loua oligostachya ), Buffalo grass {Buchloe dacty- loides ), and the bunch grasses of which those belong- ing to the genus Stipa and to the genus Oryzopsis art leading types. Koeleria cristata, Deschampsia Coespitosa, and several species of the genus Festuca are wide- ly diffused. Blue - joint {Calamagrostic canadensis) is one of the best and most productive on moist soils and in cool climates. There is space for only a brief description of some of the better known cultivated species. Timothy. — Herd' s grass, meadow cat's-tail grass, are common names given to the grass plant known botanicaUy as Phleum pratense, L. The most common name is Timothy. Timothy is widely distri- buted. It is universally ad- mitted, however, that timothy was first brought into cultiva- tion in this country. As the story goes, Timothy Hanson, of Maryland, first introduced the plant from England in 1720. About forty years later Peter Wynch took seed of it from Virginia to England. Its cultivation began there. It is claimed also that a man named Herd found it growing wild in a swamp in New Hamp- shire as early as 1700 and began its cultivation. TIMOTHI. GRASSES 903 Timothy is not adapted to swamp lands. The reason for the name cat's-tail grass is snfSciently obvious from the appearance of the head or spike. Nowhere in the world is timothy so well and favor- ably known as in America. It is pre-eminently the hay plant of the grass family in the United States. No other plant in the grass family compares with it in extent of production for hay. North of the Gulf states it is almost exclusively the hay of commerce in the eastern half of the United States. Red top and clover hay is of course, sold to some extent, but the amount is small as compared with timothy. The great popularity of timothy as a hay crop is due to the very satisfactory reason that it produces an abundance of hay of good quality over a large territory, and on a considerable variety of soils. It is easily and cheaply grown and the hay can be har- vested cheaply and with comparatively small risk to quality. The fact that it can usually be put into the bam or stack so soon after it is cut makes it possible to handle it with a minimum amount of labor, and decreases the risk of having the hay spoiled during inclement weather, It takes from nine to fifteen pounds of timothy seed to sow an acre, while with most of the other grasses grown for hay from thirty to forty pounds are required with present method of seeding. As timothy often produces from six to ten bushels of seed per acre, the price per bushel is moderate. The price of a bushel of timothy and a bushel of orchard grass seed is about the same, say $1. 50 per bushel. One- third of a bushel, or fifteen pounds of timothy, wonld 204 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAEM. be as good a seeding as two and one-half bushels, or 35 pounds, of orchard grass. In other words, the cost of seed to sow an acre of orchard grass would be seven and one-half times as great as to seed an acre of timothy. Timothy produces but one crop in a season, and does not produce much aftermath. It often grows very little for a couple of months after the crop is harvested. In dry, hot seasons the lack of vegetation, especially when mown close to the ground, causes the plant to be injured. It is better, therefore, where such danger exists, to mow rather high. Timothy does not start to grow early in the spring, which, coupled with the last mentioned feature, and the fact that if not cropped closely it becomes coarse and woody, makes it less disirable for pasturage than some other grasses. In some localities it does not seem to be strictly perennial. That is, it disap- pears without being replaced by other grasses when constantly pastured. In England, Sutton says, the only objection to it for a rotation is the trouble of get- ting rid of it when the meadow is broken up. Timothy is what is called a late grass,being ready to cut in July. This is a great advantage for this coun- try as it can be much more easily cured and with so muchlessriskof injury to quality than if it was cut in June, both because it cures more quickly and because there'are in general a less number of days of rain-faU in July than in June. It has been customary to recommend that timothy Bhould be cut in bloom or just passed bloom. The following table gives the yield per acre of the dry mat- ter or water-free substance of timothy cut at djf- GRASSES. 205 ferent datea as determined by three experiment sta- tions: Connecticut. lUinola. Pennsyl- vania. Well headed out 2,750 Full bloom 3,300 3,385 2,585 Out of bloom 3 115 3,425 Seed in dough 4,010 Seed nearly ripe 3,615 4,065 3,065 There was not only an increase in the total weight of dry substance in each instance, but there was in general also an increase of each of the food nutrients, although the percentage of nitrogenous matter de- creased as the plant became ripe. Data with reference to the digestibility of timothy at different stages of maturity are meagre, but the indications are that the digestibility does not decrease to any great extent up to the time the seed is in the dough. Practical experience shows that for horses, at least, the palatability is not materially decreased. The indiea'.,lon is, therefore, that the cutting of timo- thy may be safely postponed until after it is well past bloom. All things considered, probably when the seeds are in the dough would be the best time to mow timothy. Timothy may be sown either in the fall or in the spring with any small grain that is sown at the time. A good stand will be obtained oftener, probably, by sowing in the fall. The seed should be well covered, and probably more deeply than is the general prac- tice. Sowing the seed in front of the hoes of the wheat drill brings good average results in some local- ities. Probably rye is the best and oats the poorest crop With which to sow timothy. In some localities it is 206 THE SOILS AND OKOPS OF THE FAKM. sown alone in the autumn and a crop harvested the following summer. Kentucky Bine Orass — (Poa pratensis, L.) There is a large number of species of Poa which grow more or less abundantly in this country, but the principal one is Kentucky blue grass. Poa pratensis is also known as June grass, spear grass, green grass, smooth stalked meadow grass and blue grass. In some locali- ties wire grass (Poa compressa) is known as blue grass, and Ken- tucliy blue grass is known as green grass. This gives rise to much con- fusion and mis* blueGbass, understanding, grass in such regions being be- something entirely different from Kentuokt Kentucky blue lieved to be either. Kentucky pasture grass abundance of a wide territory. blue grass is pre-eminently the of America. It produces an pasturage of the best quality over It makes a con^pact sod. The leaves are fine, succulent, palatable and nutritious. It is one of the earliest grasses to start in the spring and one of the latest to grow in the fall. GKASSES. 207 In the more temperate climates it makes excellent winter pasture by keeping stock off it a while in the fall. When thus dried standing it is a formidable rival in nutritive qualities of the grasses of the arid regions. Its greatest fault is a lack of supply of good pas- turage during July and August. During hot, dry periods, the growth almost, if not entirely, ceases. The return of wet weather brings the apparently dead grass to life again, and it continues its growth until late in the fall. It stands a large amount of tramping and very close pasturage without injury. On lawns the close and frequent cutting is an apparent improvement. As a lawn grass it is unexcelled. The plant throws up seed stalks, usually about two feet high but varying greatly under different condi- tions. It ripens seed in June. The quantity of hay produced is small although of excellent quality. It is seldom cut for hay. The plant not only reproduces by seed, but spreads by underground root stalks. It often takes possession of the soil when the land is put in pasture. Probably few of the blue grass pastures have been artificially seeded. For commercial purposes the seed is obtained by stripping the heads with hand or horse machines made for the purpose. The heads thus obtained are dried in sheds and afterward cleaned by improved machinery. Commercial seed is frequently poor, either because it is stripped when too green or is allowed to heat after stripping. It is easier to strip and clean whea gathered green. 208 THE SOILS AND OKOPS OF THE FARM. There are fourteen pounds of Kentucky blue grass seed in a bushel. Two and one-half bushels per acre or about 2,000 seeds per square foot has not been found too much to sow of commercial seed when it is sown alone. Seed of good quality should require much less. It is probably bettei! to sow a small quantity, say one- half bushel, with other grasses. The blue grass will spread gradu- ally and take possession of the ground. Even when sown alone it takes possession of the soil slowly and requires several years to produce a compact sod. Red Top.— The plants o£ the genua Agrostis seem quite variable and there is some dispute as to the proper classification of the cultivated species. Beal recog- nizes three, although in the case of two of them he says the speci- fic difference is questionable. However that may be, what is known to botanists as Agrostis Vulgaris, With., is commonly called red top and is the species generally cultivated. It is also known in some places as Herd's grass, Burden's grass, summer dew grass, fine top, fine bent, bent, Ehode Island bent, and furze top. As a hay crop it is next to timothy in importance among the true grasses in this country. It often, perhaps usually, forms a large part of the herbage of BmTop. GRASSES, 209 permanent meadows. It is widely distributed. It bears its seed in a panicle, and thus has a superficial resemblance to Kentucky blue grass. The general observer may distinguish it from the latter by the purple color of the panicle and the smaller and more numerous spikelets. It does not grow as tall as timo- thy, but rather taller than Kentucky blue grass. It ripens about the same time as timothy. It is adapted to low, moist lands and is usually grown on the poorer lands of this sort. It produces a fairly good quantity of hay, but the quality is not considered as good as timothy. Buyers are not favorably disposed toward it. In some places where it grows readily farmers take the precaution to keep it out of their timothy meadows, because even a little of it reduces the market value of the hay. It makes fair pasturage. It produces a better sod and more pasture, probably, on suitable soils, than timothy, although the plants do not take possession of the soil so quickly. As a pasture grass it is more im- portant where Kentucky blue grass is not adapted. There are ten pounds of red top seed per bushel. Two to three bushels are recommended for seeding. This is from two to three thousand seeds per square foot. The seeds are extremely small and are apt to have poor vitality. Orchard Orass or rough cock's foot {Dactylie glomerta, L.) is a much praised but little cultivated grass in this country. It has been cultivated in this country, at least since 1764, when we are told it was brought into notice in England by its re-introduction from America. While it has been cultivated in this souutry more or less since that time, it has not been 210 THE SOILS iVND CEOPS OF THE FARM. known commercially and is so little grown that but few farmers know it. If it was especially adapted to the conditions of our agriculture it would seem that its cultivation would have been universal by this time. The fact that it has zealous advocates may indicate that there are special conditions of soil and climate over limited areas in which it pro- duces favorable results. Orchard grass pro- duces an abundance of leaves early in the sea- son, which are in bunches or tussocks. It throws up seed culms about as high as those of timothy, but they are produced rather sparingly, especi- ally the first few years after being sown. The result is a comparatively light yield. Oeohaed Geabs.— (Aiter°Va8ey!) It ripens about the time of medium red clover, and hence is better in this respect for mixing with medium red clover than is timothy. The abundance of leaves, however, has a repressing influence on the clover so that less clover is produced than when the same amount of seed is sown with timothy. It starts up with marvelous rapidity after a crop is removed and is not easily affected by drought. Judged by analyses the quality of the hay is GRASSES. 211 enperior to timothy. The hay has the reputation ct being less readily eaten by stock, although it is claimed this may be remedied by cutting it earlier, For pasture it does not take the place of Kentucky blue grass, timothy or red top. There are fourteen pounds of seed in a bushel "When sown alone not less than two and one-half bushels should be sown per acre. Otherwise sow as in the case of timothy. Bermuda Grass (Cynodon Dactylon) is "A low, creeping perennial grass, with abundant short leaves at the base, sending up slender, nearly leafless, flower stalks or culms, which have three to five slender, diverging spikes at the summit." It is a tropical plant, and has no value north of the 37th parallel. South of that and especially south of the 35th par- allel it is a most valuable ^rass, both for hay and pasture. :7^ Beemuda Gbass.— (After Vasey.) It has been avoided by farmers because the roots take such a strong hold upon the soil as to make the land generally unsuited to a rotation. It spreads by its rooting stems, but does not gener- ally produce seed in this country. It is usually 212 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAEM. propagated by cutting up the rooting stems in a feed cutter and sowing broadcast and plowing in, or plant- ing in rows or hills like potatoes. It stands the hot- test weather and the severest drought and makes its best growth during the summer months. The tops are easily killed by frost. Fescues. — There are many species of the genus Festuca. Taller fescue, {Festuca elatior, L.,) and meadow fescue ( Festuca pratensis Huds, ) are for practical purposes very similar. The former grows somewhat taller and coarser. The manner of growth is very much like Kentucky blue grass. They produce a compact sod. They start to grow early in the spring and ripen their seeds in June. Their seed culms, however, are con- siderably taller and look more like chess than Ken- tucky blue grass. They yield a rather larger quan- tity of hay. The hay is of good quality. They de- serve a trial wherever timothy and Kentucky blue grass are not well adapted. Sheep fescue {Festuca ovina, L.,) is a small, low growing plant which makes a compact sod and is very much prized in Great Britian for pasturing sheep, especially on the poorer soils. Vasey says it and sev- eral other species of festuca form a part of the vege- tation on the ranges. Rye Grasses. — The perennial rye grass ( LoKum perenne) and the Italian ryegrass (Lolium Italicum) are much used in England both for hay and pasturage, the former being the oldest and best known and the most highly esteemed. Lolium perenne was the first grass gathered separately for agricultural purposes. In this country, while they have been repeatedly GEASSES. 213 tested they have not been much used and do not seem adapted to our agricultural conditions. They make an abundant growth the same season the seed is sown, and are good varieties to sow where this is de- sirable. The yields the succeeding seasons are apt to be poor, as the plants do not seem to be permanent in this country. Sixty pounds of seed per acre are re- quired. The seed should be sown very much like oats, only perhaps not as deeply covered, and should not be sown with a grain crop. Where it is desirable to get a piece of land into pasture at once it might be advisable to sow permanent rye grass in place of the grain crop, sowing also the other desired grasses. Tall Meadow Oat Grass (Ar- rhenatherum avenaceum Beauv) is one of the earliest grasses to start in the spring. It is a tall growing grass. It may grow five feet high. The stems are rather coarse and appear woody. It will produce a large yield of hay. There is considerable difference of , opinion as to its quality, but the weight of evidence seems to be that it is of ipoor quality. The hay is apt to be bitter. Pebenotal Beal states that he has raised this grass IiAter Vasey.) on rather light sandy soil at Lansing, Michigan, for twelve or more years and thinks that the reason for the conflicting opinion is, that it is adapted to the hotter, drier climates, while the finer succulent grasses thrive better in a moist climate such as England. Sutton 214 THE SOILS AND CROPS OP THE PAEM. considers it superior to Italian rye grass. It is much grown in France under the name of ray grass. Forty pounds of seed may be sown per acre under the same conditions as timothy. The seeds are com- paratively large and should be well covered. It is not always strictly peren- nial. It will probably never be widely used in this country. Meadow Fox - tail (Alopecurua pratensis) is the only cultivated grass that it is at all possible to mistake for / timothy. It matures fully a month earlier, the seed culms are not so tall, and the spikes or heads are not so long. It is one of the earliest grasses to start in the spring and it produces an abun- dant aftermath. , The seed is expensive, '^ Meadow generally of poor vitality, with which it (iUter TaSy.) is difficult to obtain a stand. In Great Britain it is highly prized for pasturage. It is the Kentucky blue grass of England. It is s«l- dom seen growing in this couiitry. CHAPTER XIX CLOVERS. Use. — The clovers are of vast importance to our agriculture. They are important as a part of a whole: 1. They help to balance our food ration. The great bulk of our agricultural productions in the United States, either in grain or coarse fodder, are from plants belonging to the grass family. These plants produce an abundance of starch and other heat- forming substances, but are relatively deficient in albuminoids or muscle-forming foods. The clovers and other plants belonging to the pulse or clover family produce in the whole plant, as well as in the seed, a large percentage of the albumi- noids. Feeding these tends to correct the otherwise one-sided ration. It is desirable to feed growing cat- tle clover hay with Indian corn, for the same reason that we eat meat with potatoes. Too much clover hay or too much meat would be undesirable. The following table, giving the number of pounds of the different nutrients which may be found in a ton, will show the contrast between the grass and clo- ver families: GBASS OLOVEE FAMTTjr. FAMrDT. Com. Timothy Pea Clover Hay. MeaL Hay. Total dry matter 1554 1524 1791 1449 Albuminoids 184 100 405 228 Cmdefat 95 63 24 103 Starch, etc 1212 751 1022 609 Fibre 36 512 287 389 Ash 27 100 53 129 215 tie THE SOILS AND OEOPS OP THE FARM. 2. A ton of clover hay eoatains more nitrogen than does a ton of timothy hay, or corn fodder, or even a ton of corn or oats. Nitrogen being the most ex- pensive of the "precious" elements, the manure pro- duced from clover hay is more valuable than that pro- duced from the other food material. 3. A crop of clover leaves in and on the soil a larger quantity of vegetation than does the cereal crops. This organic matter contains a large quantity of the precious elements, which become available with the decay of the vegetation. The land is thus in a more suitable condition to grow a succeeding crop than if the crop had not been grown. Grass crops also leave a considerable quantity of vegetation be- hind them, sometimes a greater quantity than the clover plant, but usually not so rich in the preciout elements. 4. It seems to be satisfactorily determined that through the agency of the clover plant the free but inert nitrogen, which constitutes about four-fifths of the atmosphere, may be converted into active nitrogen; that is, it may become combined with oxygen. The virgin fertility of the soil was largely due to the nitrogen combined with organic matter. This fer- tility has been collected through countless ages. The clover plant is an agency through which this fertility may be in a measure maintained. The clover plant is only the indirect source of this beneficent property. The direct power of converting atmospheric nitrogen into an available form for plant food lies in certain low or- ganized plants called microbes or bacteria, which are found in the root tubercles of clover plants. These tubercles are characteristic of the plants of the clover family. OLOVEBS. 217 5. The organic matter whicli is left in the soil also improves the mechanical condition of moat soils. There are soils which contain all the fertilizing in- gredients necessary to a fertile soil, but which do not produce because of their mechanical or physical con- dition. Probably the most important single physical property is that with reference to the retention and passage of water in the soil. The decay of vegeta- ble matter modifies this property to a considerable extent. Varieties. — The true clovers (Trifolium), includ- ing possibly one or two other similarly growing plants, are more important agriculturally in this country than the large number of other valuable plants of the clover family, because they are adapted to general and profit- able culture over a wide range of territory. A brief description of the more important is given. Bed Clover (Trifolium pratense, L.) is also known as broad clover, broad leaved clover, com- mon clover and meadow trefoil, and also as mediimi red clover, to distinguish it from mammoth red clover. It was one of the earliest forage plants to be brought into systematic cultivation, having been in- troduced into England in 1633 or about half a century before perennial rye grass. Ked clover is a plant of temperate climate. It is widely diffused through Europe. It is successfully cultivated throughout the United States east of the one hundredth meridian and north of the Gulf states. In this region it is cultivated for hay almost to the exclusion of the other clovers and similar forage plants. Where it is grown successfully it is not re- placed by any other clover or similar plants, unless^ 218 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAEM. nnder some circumstances, the closely allied species, mammoth clover. The plant is described by some as a biennial and by others as a perennial of a -few years' duration. The plant varies considerably in this and other re- spects in different localities. It is usual when timothy and clover are sown together for the first crop to be largely clover; the second year about half and half clover and timothy, and third year largely, if not quite wholly, timothy. This is particularly the case when sown with spring grain. If timothy is sown with the fall grain it is somewhat more predominant from the first. Red clover is easily affected by drought. It does not thrive on wet, undrained land. It grows '^on soils of all states of fertility except the poorest. The fer- tility of the soil may be correctly ascertained by the appearance of the clover plant, assuming a proper quantity of rain-fall. It is not entirely hardy, espe- cially on poorly drained land. Red clover produces two crops annually, one in June and one in August. The second crop varies in quantity with the season, the rain-fall being the con- trolling element. Frequently the second crop does not pay for cutting. It is wise to be able to pasture the aftermath of clover meadows. In some localities the second crop is considered with disfavor; in others it is used with good results. Probably the second crop is usually cut when too ripe. The first crop usually contains very little seed. The second crop is frequently cut for seed. The quantity varies greatly. Frequently only half a bushel, occasionally eight to ten bushels per acre, is CLOVERS. 219 obtained. Red clover requires the agency of some insect to produce seed. This is usually the bumble bee. There are few bumble bees abroad when the first crop is in bloom. The pollen of one flower is placed on the stigma of another flower by them as they visit the flowers for nectar. The purpose of the brightly colored flowers is to attract insects for the purpose of cross-fertilizing the plants. Darwin aptly says that the beef supply of England depends upon the old maids. The beef supply de- pends upon the clover, the clover depends upon clover seed, clover seed depends upon bumble bees, bumble bees upon field mice, field mice upon cats. Old maids keep cats. Beal says that it is not improbable that the time will come when queen bumble bees wiU be reared, bought and sold for their benefit to the crop of clover seed. It is doubtful whether honey bees aid materially in fertilizing medium and mammoth clo- ver. They do help to fertilize white and alsike clover. Red clover should be sown ia the spring. The young plants do not usually withstand the winter when sown in the fall. If sown with spring grain the seed should be covered with the harrow- Even in fall grain, the ground may be harrowed with a light har- row without injury to the grain and to the benefit of the clover. EoUing is usually advisable. Good judgment is required as to the time of sow- ing. Much depends on the season. The young plants may be killed by a sharp freeze, or by a dry spell of a few days duration, particularly if the seed has not been well covered. In general drought is most to be feared. Henoe early sowing is usually advisable. Sowing on a late 220 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OP THE FAKM. Bnow often gives good results. The seeds sink into the liquid mud produced by the melting snow. The quantity of seed varies largely with the local- ity. Ten pounds per acre, or about 85 seeds per square foot, may be given as about the average when sown alone. Twice the quantity is said to be sown in some localities. When sown with timothy or othei grass seed six pounds will usually suffice. llammoth Clover has generally been consid- ered a distinct species under the Latin name Trifo- lium medium. Sutton denies that Trifolium medium, or zig-zag clover has ever been tnown in commerce and states that the cow grass of England is but a perennial variety of medium red clover. It is distinguished from red clover by its larger and coarser growth and by its ripening three to five weeks later. Typical specimens have less hairy stems, narrower and more pointed leaves, and more conical and darker colored heads, which may be raised on short stalks. These distinctions are not well main- tained. Mammoth clover ripens about the time of timothy, and is, therefore, in this respect more suitable for sowing with timothy than is medium red clover. When medium red clover is sown with timothy the crop can not be harvested when they are both in the best condition. The danger is that the crop will be harvested when the clover is too mature and before the timothy has reached its proper growth. With mammoth clover the best condition of each can be obtained. Clover can generally be more readily cured in July than in June, both on account of the greater heat and. drier atmosphere. CLOVERS. 221 Mammoth clover usually yields but one crop in a season. It produces seed plentifully in this country. The seed can not be distinguished from that of me- dium red clover. One crop of mammoth clover may not yield as much as two crops of medium clover. The one crop of the former may be more economical than the two crops of the latter. Mammoth clover grows rather coarse on rich soils. The quality of the hay is in such cases not so good as that of medium red clover. It is best adapted to relatively poor soils. Its deep roots and coarse growth gives it a large manorial value. White Clover ( TrifoUum repens) holds the same relation to Kentucky blue grass as red clover does to timothy. It is suitable for pasture only. For pasture it is, in connection with Ilentucky blue grass, unexcelled. It is not largely sovm but finds its way into pastures which are suited to it. It is very un- even in its distribution, evea in the samti field, and grows very unequally in different seasons . It needs warmth and moisture but stands drought better than red clover. It seeds freely. The seed may remain in the soil several years. The seed is supposed to make horses slobber on account of their acid nature, a character- istic common to all clover seeds. There are about twice as many seeds in a pound as of red clover. It roots readily from its creeping stems. It is perennial. It is frequently called Dutch clover because it was iirst brought into cultivation in the Netherlands. Alsike or Swedish Clover {Trifolium, hyhri- dum) is a finer, smaller clover than medium red clo- ver, with blossoms of small reddish white beads. la 223 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. growth it is about half-way between medium red ol 228 SlXiAGE AND FOBAGE CBOPS. 229 plies almost eqnally well to it as a silage crop. There is, however, much difference of opinion and practice concerning varieties, thickness of planting and time of harvesting, when the crop is to be used for summer feeding or put into the silo. Formerly broadcast sowing of the crop was not uncommon, as much as three or four bushels of seed being sometimes used per acre. With fertile soil a large yield was received in this way, but the stalks did not have so good de- velopment as when planted in rows, and the crop cultivated. At present the more common practice is to plant in rows three to four feet apart, and at the rate of one kernel every four or even six inches in the row. The kind of stock to which the crop is to be fed, and the time at which it is to be used, have much to do with determining the thickness of planting. If to be fed to supplement the pasturage in the sum- mer or to dairy cattle liberally supplied with grains, comparatively thick planting is often preferred. If to be fed in the autumn to hogs or to fattening cattle or to be put into the silo for feeding to beef cattle, thin- ner planting is advisable. It is believed the great- est food value is received if the crop be not planted so thick as to prevent the formation and develop- ment of small ears. The quantity of dry matter in the plant and its total food value increases until it has nearly reached maturity. There is some loss in palatabUity, possibly some in digestibility and danger of considerable loss from the falling of the leaves, if the crop is allowed to mature before cutting. If the fodder is to be kept in shocks or stacks it is better to leave it until the 230 THE SOILS ANL CROPS OF THE FARM. kernels have become fairly hardened. If to be put into the silo it may be cut at a somewhat earlier stage. Ensilage is best preserved if the crop is cut when it has neither a great nor small percentage of water in it. The young and rapidly growing corn-stalks have very little dry matter in them. In experiments at the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station it was found that when the stalks of a medium sized dent variety had reached half the total height they had but one- fourteenth as much dry matter as when fully matured, and when they were in full tassel only about one-third as much. Early cutting involves a considerable loss of possible feeding value of the crop, but gives a very palatable food, often produced more cheaply than any other crop of equal value. The larger varieties of sweet corn are sometimes grown as a fodder crop. They have the advantages of early maturity and of greater palatability than the ordinary field corn varieties. The chief objection is that the yield is relatively small. They may be planted more thickly in the rows and with the rows closer together than when larger varieties are used. Many growers of corn for ensilage prefer the large, late maturing varieties grown as field corn in some of the Southern states. On fertile land and with good culture enormous yields are secured. The stalks are sweeter than those of the medium sized dent varieties. An objection is that a longer season is required for maturing and there is danger of injury from frost in Northern states if the crop is not cut until the ears have somewhat matured. Many farmers prefer to use the larger varieties of field com adapted to SILAGE AND FORAGE CEOPS. 231 tbeir region. There is considerable difference in these in adaptation to use as fodder crops. Those with the largest number of joints and greatest per- centage of leaves should be selected. In some cases a crop of corn may be grown for cutting green or for ensilage, on ground which has produced a crop of wheat, rye or barley. If there is sufficient moisture in the soil to permit germination and fairly vigorous growth of the young plants a fair yield may be secured, but there is not often sufficient time to allow the crop to mature. Large as is the yield of good food from a well managed crop of corn grown for soiling or ensilage, it is probably generally over-estimated. Reports of yields of 20 or 25 tons per acre are commonly made and in some cases are correct. But these are much above average results, even under favorable con- ditions. For the country at large 15 tons per acre is a good crop in fields of fair extent. SSorgliam. — The sweet sorghum has been highly recommended as a crop for soiling or for ensilage and is grown to some extent for these purposes. Ex- cept in regions with deficient rain-fall it is not the equal of Indian corn. The yield is not greater, and in the great corn-growing regions the culture is rather more costly because of the slower growth of the young plants, often making hand hoeing necessary to free the hills of weeds. The crop is more difficult to cure for use as dry fodder, and in most cases the ensilage made from it has not been so satisfactory as that from corn. Good results have been had when sorghum has been grovra in Western Kansas, Nebraska and other 232 THE SOILS AND CROPS OP THE FARM. regions with fertile soil but not abundant rain-fall, It is there sometimes grown as a cultivated crop, and sometimes sown broadcast, harvested with a mowing machine and treated as a coarse hay crop, often being left in the fields in large shocks until needed for use. In parts of the country where the winters are mild and growth commences early in spring, the practice of sowing the seed in the autumn has been recom- mended, thus securing an earlier growth. Several varieties of the non-saccharine sorghums have been grown, to some extent, as fodder crops in different parts of the United States for years. They are known by many names. There are several varie- ties of Durra, spelled also in three or four other ways. Some of these are grown in enormous quantities in Africa, India and China, where the seeds are a staple food of multitudes of men. Under such names as Millo maize, Guinea corn, Egyptian corn, Jerusalem corn, different varieties of these non-saccharine sorghums have been introduced, and extravagantly praised, both as seed and fodder- producing plants. No one of them has come into common or continued use in this country, except in some of the Western States, in parts where the rain- fall is not always sufficient for the safe culture of corn. For such regions they promise to be very val- uable. The yield of the seed, which is a valuable food for any class of stock, is often equal to that of corn in the same region, and the fodder is valua- ble. They are sometimes sown broadcast, and treated as a hay crop, or may be planted in drills and cul- SILAGE AND FORAGE CKOPS. 233 tivated. When cut early for summer feeding, some varieties mil give a second crop. Millet. — Several varieties of millet are grown to a limited extent as hay crops or for a soiling crop. There is much confusion as to the common names. Hungarian grass {Setaria Italica) is probably the most generally known. The German millet is larger and coarser in stalk and leaf, and requires a longer time to come to maturity, but yields more abun- dantly. Some varieties have been cultivated for cen- turies in Europe and in parts of Asia, They were brought to this country at a comparatively early period and have been generally tried. In no part of the older settled portions of the country are they largely grown and it is not probable they will ever in- crease much in popularity for these regions. The crop is so well adapted to hot climates and withstands drought so well that it is probable the larger varieties will be somewhat largely grown on the western plains, where they are now cultivated to a fair extent. They are worthy of attention as minor crops in the great grain-growing regions, especially where the soil is light and well drained. The crop is not well adapted to heavy clay or wet soils, nor to a cold climate. It should not be sown until the soil has become warm. With a very moderate supply of moisture it grows rapidly. In from six to ten weeks after sowing the crop may be harvested. On good soil from three to five tons per acre may be cut. The seeds are nutritious, but sometimes not well digested when fed to cattle or horses. There ift a largely unfounded prejudice against feeding the crop. Sometimes excessive feeding has produced bad 234 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAEM. results and probably the short, stiff hairs or bristles so abundant about the heads may cause injury in some cases. If cut before the seeds have ripened hay of good quality is secured. A recommendation of millet is that it may often be grown as a "catch crop," following a crop of wheat or one of rye which has been grown for pas- turage or soiling. The millet may be removed in time for a fall sown crop of grain. Millet also does well sown on prairie sod when first broken. If sown for hay from half a bushel to one bushel per acre may be sown. If the grain is the chief con- sideration from one to two pecks per acre will give better results than thicker seeding. Bye. — Rye, which has been treated of as a grain crop, is a favorite crop in some regions for soiling and also to be used for fall, autumn and early spring pas- turage. It does well on almost any soil, is little liable to injury by freezing and thawing in winter, often makes a good growth in the fall, giving good pastur- age for four or six weeks, and is among the very first of soiling crops to be ready for cutting in the spring, or it may be pastured for a time in the spring and give a fair yield of grain. Comfrey. — The prickley comfrey {Symphytum asperrimum) has been brought to this country from Europe more than once, and introduced with ex- travagant praise. It has not come into more than the rarest use and it is not probable it will become gen- erally popular. It is a coarse growing, fleshy stalked, broad, coarse leaved plant, producing large crops. It is very hardy, of easy cultivation and perennial. On the grounds of the Illinois Experiment Station neg- SILAGE iND FORAGE CROPS. 235 lected plants make a vigorous growth annually al- though growing in a thick blue grass sod. Farm animals usually do not like the plant, rarely eating it voluntarily until accustomed to its use by hav- ing it mixed with other food. It is believed there are more valuable plants for cultivation by farmers in this country. It is not suited for pasturage and not especially for ensilage. It is readily grown from small slips from the roota These may be planted in rows far enough apart to permit cultivation, for the first year, at least. Rape. — Rape {Brassica napus) is a plant of the turnip kind, but has not the enlarged root of the edible turnips, and is grown for its seeds and stalk and leaves. It is prized in parts of Great Britain and the continent of Europe, and is well spoken of in reports from the Ontario Agricultural College. It has been tried to a limited extent in the United States but has not come into practical culture. It is, probably, much better adapted to a cool and moist climate than to one with hot and dry summers. It grows rapidly, can be sown in the very late spring or early summer, either broadcast or, better, in drill rows and cultivated. The crop can be cut and fed at the stables or used for the pasturage of sheep or calves. Cattle like it well but injure the crop by trampling it. The crop is not injured by moderate frosts. It seems worthy of further trial, especially in the more northern states. OHAPTEE XXI. THE POTATO. Histoi-y — -The potato {Solanum tuberosum) is one of the few food plants of great value to the world which was native to America. It has been foTind growing wild both in South and North America, from Chile to New Mexico. It had been cultivated in a rude way by the natives of parts of South America before the discovery of the continent by the Spaniards. It is not certainly known that it had been so cultivated in what is now the United States. It is thought it was introduced into some of the early settlements by the Spaniards, who also took it to Europe, probably about 1550. It was grown in a very small way in several countries in the west of Europe, but attracted little attention until near the end of the sixteenth century. Sir Walter Ealeigh took some of the tubers to Eng- land in 1586 and brought them to the attention of Queen Elizabeth. The culture of the crop was a long time in becom- ing general. It was first grown largely in Ireland. It is scarcely more than one hundred years since its culture became general in the west of Europe. Even in America it was long in attracting the attention it deserved. It is now largely grown in many parts of the civilized world. Although best adapted to a tem- perate climate, it is grown in tropical regions and also very far north. Next to the cereals it is the most im portant food plant for man. While there are many varieties and great differencerf 23G THE POTATO. 237 between them, it is not believed there have been any radical changes in the potato since its cultivation be- came common. The name potato is probably derived from batata, the name by which the sweet potato was formerly known. It is often called "Irish potato," probably because of its general cultivation by the Irish people. Production. — The average acreage on which po- tatoes are grown in the United States is not far from 2,250,000. In some years it has exceeded 2,500,000. The crop has not reached 200 million bushels more than two or three times. The crop of 1891 is the largest ever grown, the best estimates placing it at about 225 million bushels. The average yield per acre, for 1891, is placed at ninety-four bushels. The average for a series of ten years was only seventy-six bushels. It has never reached 100 bushels for the whole country, although the average in some states has frequently been above this figure. Yields at the rate of 1,000 bushels per acre have been recorded, and reports of crops of from 400 to 600 bushels per acre are not infrequent. A yield of 150 to 200 bushels per acre is to be considered good. New York, Pennsyl- vania, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa and Kansas are the chief potato states, but not always in the order given. In 1888 these states produced a little more than half the crop of the whole country. New York is easily first in acreage and yield. In 1888 it produced more than one-seventh of the total crop. While the average price per bushel for a series of years has been only fifty cents, the value per acre of the potato crop is greater by far than that of any of the cereals, and is only exceeded, among the chief as8 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OF THE FARM, crops of the country, by tobacco. The cultivation of potatoes does not increase so rapidly in the "United States as does that of other leading crops. In ten recent years the increase of acreage was about 25 per cent. Germany is the greatest potato-growing nation of the world. Russia, France and Austria each produce much larger crops than do the United States. Great Britain and Ireland, with a less acreage, also have a larger annual product than does this country. The crop of 1891 is believed to have been larger in Europe and America than that of any former year. Uses. — The potato is chiefly used for human food, but a large part of the crop is also used as food for cattle and hogs. The refuse potatoes in many coun- tries are fed to farm animals either cooked or uncooked, and sometimes the whole crop is so used if the price is especially low. Great quantities of starch are made from potatoes in this and other countries. Sometimes sugar or syrup is made from the starch. Considerable quantities of intoxicating liquor are distUled from potatoes in some countries. Potatoes are healthful, palatable and fairly nutri- tious as food for man. They have a large percentage of water. The chief defect for food is in the small percentage of albuminoids. The potato is not well adapted to be the exclusive diet of man. In parts of Ireland it has been so used at times. Tarieties. — The number of varieties of the potato is very great and is rapidly increasing. As in other somewhat similar cases there is confusion in regard to names. Varieties, which are much alike, are some- THE POTATO. 239 times called by the same name, while one variety, or potatoes practically alike, may be known by several names. The difference between varieties is often marked. The habit of growth of the plant; the size, shape, color, flavor and texture of the potatoes; the mimber produced, and the time of maturiog, all differ. New varieties are obtained by planting the seed produced abundantly by some varieties and sparingly, or not at all, by others. Seed from the same ball may produce varieties much unlike, or they may consider- ably resemble the parent variety. For the last quar- ter or third of a century much attention has been paid to the production of new varieties by cross-fertilization of the flowers. In this way desirable qualities of two varieties are frequently combined. Many thousands of varieties have thus been produced by single ex- periments. One of the first to give especial attention to the pro- duction of new varieties in the United States was Eev. C. E. Goodrich, of Utica, N. Y., who began the work nearly fifty years ago, and produced and tested nearly 15,000 seedlings. He obtained several varieties of potatoes from. Chile and other South American countries. Few of the varieties produced by him were especially valuable, but from some of them, seedlings were produced which became very popular. In later years large sums of money have been paid for new varieties. It is noticeable that no variety of the potato has long retained popularity in this country. Probably no variety gjrown fifty years ago is now cultivated. The Early Eose retained wide popularity for about twenty-five years, and is still largely grown. The 240 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OF THE FARM, Beauty of Hebron and Early Ohio are other examples of varieties which have been popular favorites over much of the country for a considerable number of years. In many cases varieties have been introduced, highly praised, widely disseminated, largely grown, and then dropped out of favor within a half-dozen years. Few varieties brought from Europe have done well in this country. Some American varieties have become popular in Great Britain. In the opinion of many it is impossible to long cul- tivate any variety without some deterioration in qua- lity, hardiness or productiveness. Other successful growers believe that the general deterioration is the result of lack of care in selection or poor cultivation. Among the qualities desired in a variety are, vigor of growth and abundant leaf surface of the plant; the production of tubers of uniform size and shape, either round or oval, and free from protuberances, with com- paratively few " eyes," and these shaLow. Potatoes with a bright, light color are most attractive, but some of the best varieties have a dark and unattractive skin. In quality dryness and mealiness, when cooked, are important points. Some of the most popular varieties have no decided flavor. Early maturity and produc- tiveness are most desirable qualities, rarely united in any remarkable degree in one variety. Generally varieties producing tubers of very great size are not of first-class quality. Single tubers, weighing two or three pounds each, have been produced, but those weighing not more than one-half pound each are usu- ally preferred. Cnltare. — The potato does best in a cool and moist climate. The average yield per acre is greater THE POTATO. 241 in the northern than in the southern states ; and greater in Canada or Great Britain than in the United States. It can be grown in the far north, but the yield is small and the quality poor. The crop will do fairly well on a large variety of soils, but best on the light, warm and well drained, naturally fertile or well manured. Large crops of po- tatoes of excellent quality are grown on some sandy soils with little natural fertility, by the liberal use of manure. The dark colored prairie soils, so well adapted to the production of corn, is not the best for potatoes. Planting on land which has been in grass or clover is a favorite practice with many farmers. Well rotted stable manure is the cheapest fertilizer in many parts of the country. The so-called complete artificial manures are largely used in the older potato-growing regions. While a potato crop requires much potash, the appHcation of manures containing much potash often gives less satisfactory results than when super- phosphates are used. Securing a good condition of the soil is as import- ant as for almost any other crop. Fall plowing is preferred by many. Disk harrowing and the use of the roller, or some other clod-crushing implement, is advisable. Early planting generally gives the best results. The date will vary with the region of country, but they may safely be planted as soon as the soil can be put in good condition and danger of severe freezing is past. The crop is best adapted to a moist, cool climate; drouth injures it much, especially while the plants are young. With few farm crops are there greater differences 242 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. in practice, so far as thickness of planting and quan- tity of seed is concerned. The habit of growth of different varieties is to be considered. Usually the largest yields are secured from rather thick planting. In field culture the rows may be from two and one-half to three feet apart, with the pototoes dropped from one foot to eighteen inches apart in the row. Some- times they are plaated in hills so as to permit cultiva' tion each way. The weight of evidence from a very large numbel of experiments is in favor of the use of medium sized tubers, cut into pieces with two or three eyes each, leaving as much as possible of the potato on each piece. Large yields of excellent potatoes have been secured by planting small pieces with single eyes, or from planting very small potatoes. Planting large potatoes uncut frequently secures a large yield, but often the average size of the potato.es is reduced. The large quantity of seed required is a sufficient objection to this practice. Many successful potato growers use small potatoes and claim that no loss is sustained in either quantity or quality of the produce, even if the practice is continued for years. Hand dropping is the most common practice, al- though there are machines which do the work well if the potatoes or pieces used are of fairly uniform size. Moderately deep planting is recommended, especially on dry, sandy soils. Planting in trenches in which manures are spread, and only partially filling the trench at first, has given good results in many cases. Level culture is better than "hilling up" for most soils. Hand hoeing may be made very effective but is costly. In good soils there is little need of deep cultivation; THE POTATO. 243 deep and close cultivation after the tubers have begun to grow often does harm. Keeping the soil free from weeds and the surface loose are the points! desired. The implements used and the frequency of cultivation difPer greatly in different regions. Harvesting. — Potatoes may often be left in the ground until there is danger of frost, but it is safer to harvest them as soon as they have thoroughly ripened. There are several machines for harvesting the crop, which answer the purpose fairly well. Some simple and low-priced ones are somewhat like a sub-soil plow, with rods running back from the shovel, between which the earth passes while the potatoes are carried to the surface. Other machines are larger and more complicated. In all cases the potatoes must be picked from the ground and sorted by hand labor. The sorting is best done in the field. The potatoes may at once be placed in barrels or boxes, in which they are kept until sold, or they may be stored in bins or pits in the ground. A dry, cool place, with as little change of temperature as may be, is essential to their best preservation. SWEET POTATOES. The sweet potato [Convolvulus batatas) L., is of aQ« certain origin. Dr. Candolle gives the preference to America, but admits the strength of the arguments in favor of an Asiatic origin. It was taken from America to the south of Europe by the Portuguese or Spaniards. It is now largely grown in the warm climate regions both in the new and old world. In parts of the southern states it is more common than the white po- tato. It can be successfully grown in the more 244 TBffi SOILS AND CROPS OP THE FARM. northern states, but is not an important crop north of the f^tieth parallel. It does best in sandy or loam soil, but good crops may be grown on well drained clay soil. When, the soil is quite loose there is a probability that the roots will grow long and slender. To check this, shallow plowing, leaving a compact sub-soil, is often advised. The crop is grown from sprouts or sets, produced abundantly by the roots when they are placed in hot- beds. These are set in ridges or hills; when grown as a field crop in the central states the ridges are pre- ferred. These may be made by throwing two furrows together with a common plow, after the soil has been put in good condition. It is helpful, but not essen- tial, to finish the ridge-making with the hoe. Narrow, sharp-topped ridges are preferred. They may be three to four feet apart. The plants are put twelve to eighteen inches apart in the ridges. In dry weather it is helpful to "puddle" the roots before planting, but this is not essential if the ground is fairly moist. A mason's trowel is an excellent tool for use in mak- ing the holes for the plants, which are put in before the trowel is withdrawn. The soil should be well firmed about the plants. Often little cultivation is needed. A large, single- shoveled plow may be run between the ridges or hills; the weeds being removed from between the plants with the hand hoe. If the plants show much tendency to send out roots at difPerent places they should be lifted or moved occasionally. Often the surface is completely covered by the vines and leaves. On the other hand, a fair THE POTATO. 245 crop of the potatoes is sometimes produced wl^eii the tops have made but small growth. 4 The crop should be harvested before frost. If frost unexpectedly comes the vines should at once be cut close to the ground. The sweet potato requires more careful handling than the common potato. It should be well dried be- fore being stored, and must be kept warmer than is desirable for the common potato. Under favorable conditions the yield is enormously large; the average vield is greater than that of the common potato. OHAPTEE XXII. SOOT OBOPS. The cultivation of root crops for use in feeding farm animals has long been advocated by intelligent farmers, practiced by a considerable number with satisfactory results, but has never become common over any con- siderable area in the United States. In Great Britain and in parts of the European continent root crops are very largely grown; often one-fourth or more of the cultivated area of farms of large size will be in roots. In parts of Canada their cultivation is more common than in the United States. Large crops or either of several kinds of roots can be grown; they are palatable and healthful food for all classes of farm animals. While all are watery the total yield of dry matter is large. The long winter feeding season over much of the country makes some succulent food very desirable. These and other points in favor of extensive field culture of roots have been urged for many years, but without effecting general practice. The climate of the United States is not the best for root crops of any kind. They do best in cool and moist climates. Their most successful culture requires a good deal of hand labor, which is relatively high- priced in this country. The ease, certainty and cheap- ness with which food for live stock can be secured by the growth of Indian corn is a chief reason for the lack of popularity of root crops for stock feeding. The growth of the practice of preserving com in siloe, 246 BOOT CE0P8. 847 fhns secnring it in a succulent state for winter nse, removes a chief objection to it and makes it more nearly supply the place of roots. On many American farms com takes the place in the rotation of crops occupied by roots in Great Britain. The severity of American winters in the Northern States prevents the practice of out-door feeding roots and makes their preservation more difficult. The large percentage of water in the roots almost makes them less desirable as food in very cold weather. More than 100 pounds of turnips are sometimes given daily to a fatting ox in Great Britain. BEETS. The beet {Beta vulgaris, L.) has long been grown for human food. For more than two hundred years it has been grown in England as food for farm ani- mals. There are very many varieties, differing much in form, size and percentage of sugar contained in the juice. In general the larger growing varieties are coarser textured, have a larger percentage of water, and much less sugar than the small varieties grown for human food or the manufacture of sugar. Some of the larger varieties of what are called sugar beets are extensively grown for stock feeding and sometimes reach a great size, but the mangel-wurzel, sometimes written mangold- wurzel, is more commonly preferred. This is believed by many to be simply a modification by culture of the common beet. There are a number of varieties of the sugar beet for stock and very many of the mangel-wurzel. The most striking diilerence, aside from color, is in shape. Some are long, others oval. Those of the latter shape are generally of better quality, but the long varieties 248 TFTE SOILS AND CROPS OP THE rAEM. frequently give the larger crops. Single roots weigh ing sixty pounds and crops of nearly one hundred tons to the acre have been produced under favorable cir- cumstances. In this country crops of twenty-five to thirty tons per acre are not uncommon, without espe- cially favorable circumstances. Cnltnre. — All varieties of beets do best in rich, loamy or sandy soils. They do not thrive on wet or very compact soils. Liberal manuring with well rotted stable manure is a safe practice unless on very fertile soils. Fairly deep plowing is desirable, except on naturally loose soils. Getting the surface finely divided and moderately compact is desirable. Planting should be done fairly early, before rather than after corn planting. A fair degree of moisture is needed to insure germination. Dry weather while the plants are young greatly retards growth. The seeds may be put in rows from fifteen to thirty inches apart. When the ease of cultivation is of more consequence than the area of land used, the wider planting is advisable. Five or six pounds of seed per acre are required. They may be sown with a seed- drill or dropped by hand — a slow and tiresome pro- cess. They should be covered from one to two inches deep, unless the soil is quite moist. If the soil is dry, compacting'lthe soil about the seed by the use of a roller is desirable. In some cases the seed is soaked in water for twelve to twenty-four hours before plant- ing. Hand hoeing is often necessary while the plants are small; afterward the culture may be chiefly by horse cultivators. The plants should be thinned to Bingle plants from eight to twelve or more inches BOOT CEOPS. 949 apart, according to the size of the variety grown. Thia thinning may be done in part with a hoe, but hand picking is necessary to some extent. Sometimes thin- ning is delayed until the roots have grown to a dia- meter of a half-iach or more, when they can be polled and fed to cattle or pigs. HarTesting. — Beets may be left in the ground unto, there is reason to expect the approach of frost The tops may be cut with a hoe, but it is safer to have them twisted off by hand, as cutting the top of the beet increases the probability of its rottiog. Some va- rieties grow with a large part of the root above the sur- face and can easily be pulled. With others it is better to loosen the roots by plowing a furrow close to them, throwing the earth from the row. The roots may be laid on the ground or at once carried to the place in which they are to be stored. The leaves have some value as food for stock. They may be fed green or preserved ia sUos. Beets are easily injured by frost. They may be stored ia cellars or ia out-door pits. Except for re- gions in which the weather is very cold in winter, pits are preferred to cellars by many. They are best made long and narrow, with divisions of earth at frequent intervals, so comparatively small quantities only are exposed to the air at any one time. When extreme cold weather is to be expected, cellars or houses espe- cially constructed for the purpose are essential. The roots should be dry when stored and it is well to have ventilation for the cellar, except in extremely cold weather. TURNIPS. Turnips [Brassica), one of many varieties and sev- 250 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. eral species. Those most coinmonly grown as food foi stock are some of the many varieties of the common turnip, Brassica rapa, L., and the larger, coarser ruta-bagas or Swedish turnips, Brassica Campestris, L. The turnip is of European origin. Some species have long been cultivated in Europe and parts of Asia. The field cultivation of turnips as food for stock was introduced into England from the conti- nent about 1650, and made great changes and im- provements in British agriculture. A moist, cool climate is best for turnips and the crop is especially subject to attack by insects. The uncertainty of securing a good stand of the plants; the small percentage of solid matter and consequent low feeding value, compare'd with bulk and weight, and the. impracticability, in most parts of the United States in which the summer climate is suitable, of having the crop eaten, where it grows, by sheep, a com- mon practice in England, have all tended to prevent popularity of the crop among American farmers gen- erally. Culture. — The largest and best crops are grown where the seeds are sown in drills far enough apart to permit cultivation. But in many parts of the country, especially where the land is comparatively low-priced, broadcast sowing is more commonly practiced. The seed may be sown in July or August, some- times in the early part of September. Ruta-baga seed should be sown earlier; in June or early in July. The soil should be finely pulverized. For the flat or globe-shaped varieties deep culture is not necessary. The seed should be very slightly covered. It is desira- ble to sow while the soil is moist. Dry weather at BOOT CROPS. 251 Ihe season at which the seed should be sown is often the cause of a poor stand of the plants. The crop is sometimes sown among the standing com, soon after the last cultivation, especially when it is expected to cut and remove the corn compara- tively early in the autumn. It may follow wheat or other small grains, or a crop of early harvested pota toes. When the soil is naturally loose the surface should be compacted with the roller before or after seeding. The harvesting and storing of the crop is much the same as with beet crops. Turnips are less injured by freezing than are beets. Oattle and sheep usually eat turnips readily. Horses and hogs care less for them. Feeding large quantities of turnips to dairy cows sometimes gives an unpleasant odor to the milk. CASBOTS. The carrot {Daucus carota) is much liked by many as food for horses, and is relished by most farm animals. It is especially liable to injury by dry weather and its early growth is slow and feeble. Careful hand labor in weeding the young plants is usually necessary. This is a chief obstacle to its growth by farmers generally. It gives large yields, 500 to 700 bushels per acre often being harvested. It is less easily injured by frost than are beets. It does not require so rich land as the beet The methods of culture and storing the crop are much the same as those found best for beets. There are many varieties. The long orange and the white Belgian are populai rarieties. 852 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FAKM. PAESNIP3. The parsnfp (Pastinaca edulis) has a pleasant flavor, is well liked by stock, is especially recom- meaded for dairy cattle. Unlike most other roots it is improved rather than injured by freezing, and may be left in the ground untU spring. Its culture is the same as for the carrot. The seed should be sown early in the spring. If the ground is dry, soaking the seed before sowing is advisable. JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. The Jerusalem artichoke {Helianthus tvberosus, L-) is a coarse, strong growing species of sunflower, producing tubers which resemble potatoes in size and shape. The plant is almost certainly of Amer- ican origin. It was cultivated both in America and Europe at least two hundred years ago. The word Jerusalem in the name is said to be a corruption of the Italian name for sunflower. It is supposed to have been called the artichoke from some likeness of flavor of the tubers to that of the true artichoke. Extravagant claims as to the value of this crop as food for stock, especially hogs, have often been made. The tubers are offered for sale by most seedsmen^ The plant is entirely hardy, easily cultivated and gives enormous yields of tubers, well liked by hogs. Once established the crop continues to occupy the ground year after year. But probably not one farmer in ten thousand in the United States has cultivated the crop, and many who have tried it have abandoned it. It is not probable this tuber will ever be com- monly grown, but there is so little cost in caring foi it that it may be well to grow it on a small scale* ROOT CROPS. 253 The tubers may be planted in the same way as pota- toes, as early in the spring as is convenient. The rows should be three to four feet apart. The crop can be cultivated in the same way as corn until the stalks have made a fair growth. The food value of the tubers is low, and often it is not profitable to dig the crop and store the tubers. The stalks may be cut with a mowing machine and the tubers plowed to the surface and eaten by pigs turned in the field. Hogs will dig them from the ground. They are not injured by frost. Usually enough of the iubers are left in the ground to continue an abundant growth the next season. The surface may be leveled in the springy and, after the crop has fairly started to grow, by the use of the plow or cultivator the plants may be killed, except in rows. Farmers have often complained of the difficulty in getting rid of the crop, while it has given little trouble to many others when the land was planted with some other cultivated crop. There are several varieties, differing in size, color and shape of the tubers, but little attention has been paid to selection or improvement of the tubers. GHAPTEE XXm. SUOAR PLANTS. The use of &igar as an article of diet is almost en? tirely modern. As an ordinary food its use was nc- where common for one hundred years after the dis^ covery of America. It came into use in the sixteenth century in connection with the use of tea and coffee. The annual output of sugar in the world during the five years, 1885 to 1890, is estimated at rather more than five million tons. The plants from which sugar is made, maple trees excepted, have been cultivated from very remote times. The plants which produce sugar (sucrose) are beets, sugar cane, sorghum, the date palm and sugar and other maples. A large number of the fruits contain sugar but it is not extracted for commercial use. More sugar is made from date and similar palms than from sorghum. Fifty years ago almost all the sugar was made from sugar cane. There is now more sugar made from sugar beets than from sugar cane. Sugar is produced in the United States from cane, sorghum, beets and the sap of maple trees. It ia principally made from cane. A good article of syrup has been made from watermelons. The United States produce about one-twentieth of the world's supply of sugar. Louisiana is the princi- pal BUgar-producing state. An act of Congress taking effect July 1, 1891, pro- ▼ides that for fourteen years a bounty shall be paid to persons producing more than 500 pounds of sugai r254 SUGAR PLANTS. 255 annually from beets, sorghum, sugar cane or maple sap. Two cents a pound is paid on sugar containing not less than ninety per cent, of pure sugar and one and three-quarters cents on that containing not less than 80 nor more than 90 per cent, of pure sugar. Un- der this law there are 4,770 licensed sugar producers, of which 4,025 produce sugar from maple sap, 731 from sugar cane, 8 from beets and 6 from sorghum. SUGAR CANE. The cultivation of sugar cane {Saccharutn offlcinar. ium) is very ancient. It was known to the Chinese and to the people of India in very remote times. It was cultivated in the countries bordering the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages and sugar was made from it. The manufacture of sugar did not become commercially important, however, until the sixteenth century, at which time the plant was introduced into the West Indies. It is estimated that the annual production of sugar from cane during the five years, 1885 to 1890, was about two and one-third million tons. The United States produces one-quarter of a million tons. A ton of sugar cane may produce from 150 to 800 pounds of sugar. The average in Louisiana is proba- bly somewhat over 125 pounds, with one-half to two- thirds as many pounds of syrup. There has been great improvement in the methods of sugar-making in the past decade, and consequently in the number of pounds of sugar obtained from a ton of cane. A varia- tion of from ten to forty tons of cane per acre is not extraordinary. An acre of cane may, therefore, pro- dace from 1,000 to 8,000 pounds of sugar. 256 THE SOILS AND CKOPS OF THE FARM. Structure. — The sugar cane belongs to the grass family. It resembles Indian corn somewhat in its general appearance and growth. It may grow six ten in August and continue until killed by frori in November. The cotton is picked by hand from time to time as a sufficient number of bolls become open to make it pay to go over the field. The most and best cotton is picked in September and Octo- ber. The Sea Island or long staple cotton, Gossypium Barbadense, is produced to a limited extent along the coast of South Carolina and Florida. It is char- acterized by a fine, soft, sUky staple nearly two inches long. It commands a higher price than the upland cotton but does not Tlsually yield as much per acre. This is more largely produced in the West Indies. There are a great many varieties of these species and in some instances considerable care is taken to produce good varieties and to plant with seed of im- proved varieties, but in the majority of cases very lit- tle attention is paid to the kind or quality of the seed. The quantity of seed planted is enormous. From a bushel to three bushels, per acre, containing from 100,000 to 150,000 seeds per bushel, is a very general practice. The excess of seed is a valuable fertilizer. Culture. — Land which has been in other crops is sometimes fall plowed, cotton land seldom. The depth of plowing varies greatly, but is often only two to four inches deep. Cotton is almost universally planted in ridges. Frequently the land is not pre- viously plowed. Furrows are opened into which may be placed any rubbish or fertilizer as desired. Over these furrows the land is thrown into ridges by back forrowjng. The distance apart of the ridgec varies in extreme cases from two to seven feet. The richer PIBEE CROPS. 378 the Boil and consequently the larger the growth of the plant, the further apart the ridges. Four to five feet is usual. Sometimes the space between the ridges is not plowed, after-cultivation being depended upon. Thorough preparation of the seed-bed, how- ever, is desirable. When the planting is done by hand a furrow is opened on the top of the ridge with a small plow, in- to which the seed is scattered in profusion. The seed is covered about an inch deep with a light harrow or a plank attached to the bottom of a small plow. Cot- ton planters are now used successfully which with less seed plant uniformly in straight rows — important con- ditions in the after -cultivation. The time of planting varies with the latitude, the season and the soil, from the first of March to the middle of May. Much of it is planted in the first half of AprU. The richer the soil the later the plant- ing may be postponed. The germination is very variable. In general, about two weeks after the seed is planted the plants wUl be several inches high and have three or four leaves. It is then cultivated by plowing the land from the cotton, after which the cotton plants are chopped out with a hoe, leaving several plants in a place at distances varying with the nature of the soil and consequent growth of the plant. The distance may vary from ten to forty-eight inches, twelve to twenty-four inches being the most common distance. The plants are subsequently thinned to one or two in a place. In the thinning the weeds or grass in the row are removed as completely as may be. At the next ouiti- 274 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OF THE FARM. vation the soil is thrown to the row. Cultivation con- tinues until the plants shade the ground, which is usually in the latter part of July. The early culti- vation may be deep but the later cultivation should be as shallow as possible for thorough weed killing. Practically all the cotton of the world is raised by colored labor. FLAX. The history of flax is contemporaneous with that of wheat. The clothing of the ancient Egyptians and Hebrews was largely made of flax, and its culture has been handed down with our civilization. Its culture was introduced into Europe in very remote times. Flax fibre is comparatively much less important than before the general introduction of cotton. The princi, pal sources of supply are Eussia, Germany, the Neth- erlands and Ireland. The crop of 1891, which was probably the largest ever produced in the United States, was raised on a little less than two million acres, with an average yield of about eight bushels per acre. The acreage was about the same as that of barley, rye or potatoes. The crop is almost all raised west of the Mississippi Eiver, it having traveled westward with the pioneer farmer. Minnesota and South Dakota are at present the leading states. Flax is grown both for its fibre and for its seed, sometimes for the one, sometimes for the other, and sometimes for both. The seed yields twenty to twen- ty-eight per cent of oil of the best quality for use in painting. The residue, linseed meal, is used in cattle feeding, considerable quantities of it being exported. The fibre is obtained from the bark of the plant FIBRE CROPS. 275 and consists of the long straight lint called flax and the short tangled fibre which separates in dressing from the long lint, called tow. Coarse tow is made by simply removing the remaining part of the stem, and baling the tangled mass. It is used in upholster- ing, in making twine, bagging, paper, etc. Flax is almost entirely raised in the United States as a seed crop. In localities favorably situated coarse tow is produced. When not used in making tow the straw is allowed to rot, is burned, or stacked and eaten by stock. It is sometimes said to produce in- jurious results, although large quantities are eaten by stock without injury to them. Flax may be grown in any climate where wheat is grown, but for the best production of fibre requires a continuously moist but not excessively wet climate. In the United States it is a new land crop, especi- ally in spring wheat regions, where corn is relatively less productive. This production has been sufficient to supply the somewhat limited demand for seed and tow. Sandy loams are rather better than clay loams, although any soil adapted to cereal crops will grow flax. It has long been known that flax could not be grown continuously on the same land in some localities. This has recently been shown by Lugger to be due to some active principle in the plant which upon being absorbed into the soil is injurious to a succeeding crop of flax. At least five years should elapse before flax is again sown on the same land. Flax {Linum vsitatissimum) is a herbaceous plant, generally two or three feet high, with alternate, stem- less, entire leaves. The blue flowers are produced in 276 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OF THE FAKM. clusters at the end of the branches. Each seed pro- duces a single stem. Unlike the cereals the plant is much modified by the thickness of seeding. When the plants grow alone or thinly the stems produce many branches and consequently many seeds. When sown sufficiently thick no branches are produced ex- Thick Seeding. Flax Plaut Geowing Alone. eept at the top and but few seeds, but the fibre is of superior quality. When fibre is the chief object three to four bushels of seed are sown per acre, when seed only is desired two to three pecks. It is claimed that a satisfactory quantity of seed and fair quality of tow may be obtained by sowing six pecks per acre. FIBRE CKOPS. 277 There are three varieties of flax: perennial, winter and summer flax. Of summer flax there are two types. In one the seed bolls burst open and scatter the seed, in the other they do not. Only the latter is cultivated to any considerable extent. Of course there are varieties of this type. The culture of flax for seed is not essentially differ- ent from that of spring wheat. As the seeds are much smaller rather more care is needed in preparing the seed-bed and in distributing and covering the seed. It may all be done with ordinary machinery, however. It is a pleasant crop to harvest with the self-biad- er. It is not readily damaged while standing in the shock. It may be thrashed with the ordinary thrash- ing machine. When cultivated for its fibre, weeds growing in the crop reduce the value of fibre by their presence. It is essential that previous cultivation of the land be such as to free the land as much as may be from weed seeds. Where fine fibre is raised the crop is frequently weeded by hand. Som.etimes sheep are employed, as they will eat the weeds and not the flax The harvesting, which is usually done by pulling the plants; the retting, or rotting, which is done in a running stream or stagnant pool, and the scutching to remove the shives or the parts of the plant not fibre, will depend upon the demands of the market for which the crop is grown and need not be described here. HEMP. Hemp (^Cannabis sativd) a plant closely related to the hop and ramie, is a native of Western and Central 2?8 THE SOILS' AND CROPS OF THE FARM. Asia, and has been cultivated from remote times in China. It is now extensively cultivated in many countries for one or more of three purposes: (1 ) the fibre of its stems; (2) the resin exuded on leaves and stems; (3) and for its oily seeds. In some places it is grown chiefly for the resinous exudation, from which various intoxicating preparations are made. Five times the population of the United States get drunk on these preparations. Hemp was one of the first plants introduced by the American colonists. It is now considerably grown in the United States for its fibre, from which cordage and coarse cloth are made. Hemp bind- ing twine is becoming a regular article of trade. It has been chiefly raised in the blue grass regions of Kentucky, but it is now being raised in several north- ern states in connection with cordage and other fac- tories, notably in New York and Illinois. It thrives best in a temperate climate and on any soil adapted to Indian corn. Where the waste pro- ducts are returned to the land it is not considered an exhaustive crop. In some places it is raised contin- uously for many years on the same land. Hemp is a rough erect annual, eight to ten feet high, with male and female flowers on separate plants. The fibre is from the inner bark. The yield of fibre may be from 500 to 1,500 pounds, and of seed per acre ten to thirty bushels. It is usually sown broadcast at the rate of four to six pecks per acre between oat sowing and corn planting. It fully subdues all weeds. The harvesting depends somewhat on the rankness FIBRE CEOPS. 279 of the growth. It is cut with a mower or self-rake reaper when not too large, or it is cut by hand, as in the case of Indian corn. It is allowed to lie on the ground until retted or rotted by dews and rains, when it is shocked as Indian corn or tied in bundles and stacked. In some cases the hemp is broken in the field, thus leaving the waste products on the soil; in other cases it is carried to a central place where more rapid ma- chinery is used. BAMIE. Eamie {Boehmeria nivea) is a perennial shrub with herbaceous shoots belonging to the same family as hemp, which it somewhat resembles in general growth and appearance. It has been grown in Eastern Asia from very remote times in a limited way. The fibre is there extracted by hand by a slow and tedious process, and is used for cordage and other coarse manufactures as well as for making textiles of great beauty. It is capable of a great variety of uses. It is an inter- tropical plant, and gjrows readily in the Gulf states in any soil which has a good supply of moisture, coupled with thorough drainage. It is claimed that three crops per season may be obtained. The plant is propagated by seeds, cuttings or divi- sion of roots. If by seeds, the plants must be started in hot-beds. Cuttings of the ripened wood, including three buds, are set like willow cuttings, with the mid- dle bud at the surface of the ground. The propaga- tion by the division of roots of the fully matured plants is reconunended for this country. The plants should be placed about as thickly as hills of Indian corn. 280 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OP THE FARM. It is not, however, an established industry in this country, and cannot become one until some machine is brought into use which will economically extract the fibre from its tough, gummy stalk. JUTE. Jute has been cultivated in somewhat recent times in Southern Asia and tropical Africa. The most of the jute of commerce comes from Bengal. There are two species. Chorchorus capsularis is nine to ten feet high, and has short, globular pods, while Chorchorus olitorius is smaller and has elongated cylindrical pods. The fibre of both is practically the same. The leaves of the small species is largely used as a vegetable. Jute likes a moist, warm climate, and a rather sandy soil. It may be grown in the cotton belt. It is raised from seed, which may be sown about the same time as cotton. It may be drilled like wheat, using fifteen to twenty pounds of seed per acre. Like ramie, it will not become an established indus- try in this country until the fibre can be economically extracted from the stalk. SISAI,. Several species of the genus agave, to which the century plant belongs, have been cultivated by the na- tives of Central America for thousands of years, the most highly prized being Agave rigida var. Sisalana. Yucatan is the principal source of our commercial supply of sisal fibre. The fibre is obtained from the large thick leaves by crushing with crude machinery. The sisal or century plant grows on barren rocky land which is useless for other agricnltiual purposes. FIBRE CROPS. 281 Attempts were made to introduce its culture into Flo- rida over fifty years ago. The escaped plants are now growing wild in lower Florida. Further attempts are being made to establish the sisal industry in that state. Reports indicate that the climate and Boil are suitable to its growth. The question of its economical production is unsettled. CHAPTER XXV. MiaOBLLANSOUS OSOPS. BUCKWHEAT. Bnckwheat is a native of Northeastern Asia. Ita cultivation is of comparatively recent origin. Al- thoagh not belonging to the grass family, but to that of the smart-weeds and the docks, it is generally classified as a cereal. It is the least important of the six important ce- reals grown in the United States. It has less than half the acreage of barley and rye. Its gross valne per acre has been equal to that of oats. New York and Pennsylvania raise about two-thirds of the crop. In proportion to population it is much less important than fifty years ago. Formerly it was used as a cheaper substitute for wheat, now it is used as a lux- ury. The flour of buckwheat contains considerably less albuminoids, about the same per cent of oil and rather more starch than wheat flour ; hence it contains less muscle-forming and more-fat forming nutrients than wheat flour. Brewer suggests that inasmuch as plants of the buckwheat family are used for their medicinal properties, perhaps the cultivated species has some such property which affects its physiological value as a food. A constant use of buckwheat is supposed to produce a feverish condition of the sys- tem which manifests itself in eruptions of the skin. Buckwheat is often fed to fowls to stimulate tbeiz 2S2 MISCELLANEOUS CROPS. 283 egg-laying propensities. It is an important honey plant. The straw is practically valueless. Backwheat is produced in the moister, cooler and more elevated portions of the United States. The center of production lies further north than any of our other cereals. It is easily affected by drought and when sown late is apt to be caught by a frost. It will grow on comparatively poor land. Appar- ently sou has less effect on yield than does the climate, although a light, well drained soU is best. In- asmuch as it is sown in June or July it is often sown as a catch crop when some earlier crop fails. From two to five peeks are sown broadcast per acre. There are three cultivated species recognized, but the principal one and the one cultivated in this country is Fagopyrum esculentum. The varieties are not numerous. After the plant begins to flower, which is when it is rather small, flowering continues, if allowed, until stopped by frost. The crop is usually harvested when the first flowers ripen seed. It is not an especially easy crop to handle. Where the land will permit, a self- rake reaper is probably the most desirable implement, otherwise a cradle may Japanese Buckwheat. 284 THE SOILS AND CROPS OP THE FARM. be used. It may be set up ia shocks something after the manner of corn-fodder and thrashed as soon as dry. TOBACCO. Tobacco (Niootiana Tabacum) is an American plant, native of Ecuador and neighboring countries. Its cultivation is very ancient. The use of tobacco for smoking, chewing and snuff-taking was diffused over the greater part of the American continent at the time of its discovery. The crop of the United States has a greater com- mercial value than that of rye or barley, although the acreage is but one-fourth to one-third as great. The average annual production during the past decade has been about one-sixth that of cotton. The average yield per acre has been about 725 pounds, worth eight and one-half cents per pound. This makes by far the largest value per acre (161.50) of any of our important crops, potatoes standing nest. Kentucky raises about one-half this crop. The states bordering on Kentucky raise about two-thirds of the rest. Tobacco of high quality is raised in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Judging by the distribution, the climate affects the tobacco much less than does the'soil. Tobacco needs a fertile soil, a rather sandy loam being best. It is con- sidered a particularly exhaustive crop. In some lo- calities all the manure of the farm goes to the tobacco "patch," much to the injury of the rest of the farm, the same land remaining in tobacco for many years. Tobacco followed by wheat, with which clover is sown, and this allowed to remain a couple of years is gener- ally conceded to be a good rotation. In Kentucky MISCELLANEOUS CROPS. 285 exhausted tobacco lands are sometimes seeded to blue grass, and allowed to remain several years. Nitrogen and potash fertilizers have a marked effect apon the yield and quality of the tobacco in some lo- calities. Tobacco is an acrid narcotic, annual herb, with large, clammy, entire leaves, belonging to the same family as the potato, tomato, egg plant, ground cherry, henbane, and Jamestown weed. The quality, and consequently the price of tobacco, varies greatly with the soil and climate, and still more greatly with the method of handling and curing. Any variety is soon modified when grown under new con- ditions. There are, therefore, many varieties and sub- varieties. Tobacco is also classified according to the way it is cured, the use to which it is put, and the market which it supplies. Most varieties produce several grades. The classification of tobacco is, there- fore, intricate. The Havana or seed leaf, and the burley, each with the many different prefixes, are pro- bably the principal variety types. The culture of tobacco is similar to that of cabbage. The small seeds are sown in hot or sheltered beds in March. Care is required to have the bed as free of weed seeds as may be, because the plants are easily injured if disturbed by weeding. The plants are transplanted when about the size of cabbage, into hills about three by four feet, varying with variety, soil and method of cultivation. The plants require not only intensive soil culture, but also careful culture. Any disturbance of the plant is harm- ful. On this account some recommend exclusive hand cultuie, and thicker planting. 286 THE SOILS AND CKOPS OF THE FABM. The great expense of tobacco is in the care of the plant. It is attacked by the large tobacco worm, which must be constantly searched for during the season. When the plant begins to blossom, it must be topped, taking off the flowers and such leaves as ex- perience shows will not ripen in a given locality. Ten to sixteen may ripen. After topping, suckers appear in the axil of the leaves and must be removed. Some remove the lower leaves while growing, as they are of inferior quality. In about two weeks after blossoms appear, the leaves begin to turn yellow and get brittle. It is then ready to harvest. The whole plant is severed at the ground, and hung up (top downward) by various devices in an airy shed to dry. In some instances it is kiln-dried. The sheds are kept open in dry, and closed in moist, weather. During the warm moist weather in the winter, the tobacco is stripped, sorted, and packed for market. Every operation in connection with the culture, curing and handling of the crop requires technical knowledge and good judgment. BKOOM CORN. Broom com is an .American innovation, which is probably about old enough to celebrate its first cen- tennial. It is a more or less saccharine variety of sor- ghum, which is cultivated for its seed panicles. With these the well-known American brooms are made. The varieties used for broom are not materially different in appearance from the more distinctively saccharine varieties. The entire crop of the United States in 1886 was about 20,000 tons, nine-tenths of which was raised in MISCELLANEOUS CKOPS. 287 lUiiiois, Kansas and Nebraska. A ton of brush from four acres is a fair return; twice this quantity may be obtained. The area of possible production is as wide as that of sorghum for molasses, but as the demand is limited it should not be attempted on any extended scale, ex- cept on rich corn land, and probably not much north of the fortieth parallel. Inasmuch as broom corn is harvested soon after the flowers have set, ihe crop is not an exhaustive one. It has been raised fifteen to twenty-five years continuously on the same land with- out apparent diminution of fertility. Insect enemies and fungus diseases, however, increase. The seed is too immature to be an important item of the industry, although it has some food value. The stalks furnish abundant fodder of fair quality. They are, probably, more frequently plowed under than burned. The planting and culture of broom corn is similar to that of sorghum. Thickness of planting modifies the quality of the broom. The thicker the planting the finer the brush. The proper thickness will depend upon the character of the soil, the variety and the qual- ity of the brush desired. This can best be learned for a given locality by experience. In general there may be three to five stalks every fifteen to eighteen inches, in rows three and one-half to four feet apart. Brush of a light color is desired and is obtained by cutting as soon as may be after the flowers have set. The early cut brush is also said to be heavier and more durable. The milk stage is as late as it may safely be allowed to stand. When the broom is ready to harvest two rows are 288 THE SOILS AND CEOPS OP THE FABM. bent across eaeli other at about right angles, so that the top part of the stalk is horizontal at about the height of a common table. The brush or seed pan- icle is then removed with about eight inches of the stalk. The brush is collected from the table where it is laid by the cutters and taken to the stripper, which removes the seed. The clean brush is then placed to dry in airy sheds arranged for the purpose. At some stage of the process, as found most convenient, the brush is sorted. When dry it is baled and is ready for market. The price is very unstable. Variations of from sixty dollars to one hundred and twenty- five dollars per ton have not been unusual in recent years and formerly they were much greater. The production of broom- corn is best engaged in only by those who make it a specialty after having studied the business carefully in all its details. HOP. The hop (Humulus lupulus) came into general cul- tivation in Europe in the Middle Ages. The produc- tion is in general about equal in weight to that of broom- corn, on a somewhat less acreage. Perhaps a thousand pounds is a fair yield and two thousand a large yield per acre. The variation in price is very marked. Some years it is a very profitable crop, in others it does not pay the cost of production. The quality of the hop deteriorates rapidly upon keeping. The plant is perennial and hence a yard once set may last many years. There are male and female flowers, borne on separate plants. The female flowers are borne at the base of scales which are arranged in clusters. It is these ripened clusters that are MISCELLANEOUS CEOPS. 289 known in commerce as hops. The male plants are planted among the female plants, say one male to 100 females, so that the female flowers will ripen seeds. Hops are planted on any good corn land. Shel- tered places with good exposure to sun are preferred. Bbanch of STAMINATE HOP-VrNE. Bedaced in size, and showing at the lower left-hand side a stogie flower of the natural size. Sets or roots may be obtained from an old plantation. Usually four, each with two or three buds, are placed in a hill. The hills may be seven to ten feet apart each way. 290 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE PAEM. The first year the land is usually planted with any cultivated crop and the few hops not picked. The second year two poles 15 to 20 feet high are usually placed in each hill, about 15 inches apart. Two vines are trained to each pole and rests are usually re- BEANCH or A PlSTHiLATK Hop-Vuw. (Shown in reduced size.) moved. In some cases a modified trellis is used. The land is kept cultivated to remove weeds. Each year the hills are opened and the plants pruned, leaving enough buds for the vines. Hops ripen in August and September and are picked when the seeds get hard. The vines are usu- MISCELLANEOUS CROPS. 291 ally cut near the base and the poles laid on a sup- port at a convenient height for picking. The hops are picked in large boxes and carried to kilns in sacks, where they are emptied in a large carpeted room or oven heated to about 180 degrees Fahrenheit, in which the hops dry in about 8 to 10 hours. When cool they are baled and marketed as soon as may be. FIELD PEAS. Field peas (Pisum arvene) are a somewhat im- portant field crop both in Canada and in Europe, but have never become so in this country. In Canada 35 to 40 bushels per acre are reported in individual in- stances. The plant belongs to the clover family, and hence has a similar renovating value for the land. The seeds, which are fed ground, have about twice as large a percentage of albuminoids as does Indian corn, and are therefore a desirable supplementary food for milch cows and growing stock. The manure from stock fed with peas would be more valuable than that of stock fed with cereal grains. The straw or haulms is of little value. Sandy loams are better than clay loams. On rich soils the plants are apt to lodge. Peas should be sown at the rate of three bushels per acre, as early in the spring as the soil will permit. Use an ordinary wheat drill, one which will not break the seeds in planting. Black-eyed, marrowfat, golden vine and multiplier are good varieties. In Canada they are sometimes cut -with a pea har- vester attachment to an ordinary reaper. A common practice there, also, is to use a sulky rake, one end only being used, in order that the horse may not be 292 THE SOILS AND CROPS OP THE FARM. compelled to walk upon the peas. Harvest when about two thirds the pods are yellow, and when dry stack un- der cover, or thresh immediately. They may be threshed with the ordinary thresher, although it chops the straw up rather fine. CHAPTER XXVI. WEEDS. Soil culture is an active warfare against weeds. This warfare occupies a great portion of the time of every tiller of the soil. A million of weeds may grow on an acre of land during a single season. Definition. — In ordinary usage any homely plant is called a weed. The ox-eye daisy is universally con- ceded to be a comely flower; the tomato a homely plant. Emerson once said in his quaint way that a weed was a plant, the virtue of which had not yet been discovered. The roots of burdocks have medicinal properties. Parsnips, mustard and hemp are examples of cultivated plants which are pernicious weeds under some circumstances. Perhaps the statement that a weed is a plant out of place is the most satisfactory definition of the term aa we ordinarily use it. The plant is not out of place in nature, but out of place so far as man is concerned; in the way, as it were. How Injurious. — Weeds are injurious in several ways. 1. They consume plant food. Every piece of land has a limited quantity of available plant food. If part is consumed by the growth of weeds, the amount of food is thereby restricted for the cultivated crop. It has been found that a ton of air dry pig- weed, Amarantus retrofexus, would contain as much phos- phoric acid, twice as much nitrogen, and nearly five times as much potash as a ton of ordinary manure. A 293 Q,di THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. tonof pig- weed contains as much phoBphoric acid as fifteen bushels of wheat, as much nitrogen as twenty bushels, and as much potash as seventy -five bushels. 2. Weeds shade the ground. Plants require a certain degree of warmth of the soil to grow satisfac- torily. By shading the ground, weeds may prevent it from obtaining the necessary warmth. 3. Weeds occupy space. Plants require a certain amoant of room, both for roots and tops. If occupied by weeds it cannot be occupied by useful plants. The Oanada thistle is probably more harmful in occupying space than in any other way. 4. Weeds take water from the soil. All growing plants transpire large quantities of water. The quan- tity will vary with the humidity of the air. Lawes found in England that 150 to 270 pounds of water were transpired for each pound of increase of dry sub- stance in different cultivated crops. Hellriegel found in Germany that about 300 pounds of water was tran- spired for each pound of increase of dry matter. Plants cannot reach their full development without an abundance of water throughout their entire growth. Weeds rob the soil of its water, and thereby restrict their growth. An area covered by vegetation evapor- ates much more water than bare soil, or even a similar area of water. Sturtevant says that the vineyardists on the uplands of New Jersey find weeds injurious; those on the low- lands do not. On the wetter land the transpiration by the weeds cause that dryness of soil that is bene- ficial to the grape. 5. Weeds are troublesome and injurious to stock. Xbe cockle burr is more troublesome to stock than it ia WEEDS. 295 injuriotis to cultivated plants. Wild barley (Hordeum vmrinuiii) causes much loss to stock ownersin the west by its pestiferous awned seeds. Weeds restrict the circulation of the air as well as taking plant food from it. The amount of carbonic acid which comes in contact with the cultivated cropa in a, given time is thereby restricted. Too little, however, is known of air chemistry and physics as related to plant growth to make it possible to hazard an opinion upon the effect of this on the growth of the crop. The amount of fertility which a crop of weeds takes from the soil may be supplied to the land and still the weeds will be injurious. Some crops are not injured by shading the ground, such as potatoes, which are raised in some localities by mulching with straw. It would seem that the space which the weeds occupy in a corn-field would not be injurious to com, yet weeds must be removed in order to get a full crop. Until there is further evidence it must be concluded, therefore, that the most important injury that weeds do ia in exhausting the water from the soil. Kinds "which are Injurious. — No one can tell with absolute certainty whether a weed will become troublesome in a given locality. Not more than one in twenty of our bad weeds is a native plant. Most of the foreign plants which have become troublesome here are of little importance in their native places. Plants indigenous to this country and not usually troublesome here have become great pests when intro- duced elsewhere. Evening primrose and water-cress are examples. The pernicious character of weeds varies in different 296 THE SOILS AND CEOfS OF tHE FAEM. Bections of our own coiintry. It is affected by both soil and climate. The Canada thistle and the ox- eyed - daisy are not especially troublesome in Ohio, Indiana and Illinois (because they usually do not produce seed) but to keep an eastern farm free of them re- quires eternal vigilance. Prolificacy. — The difficulty of eradicating weeds is due to at least four causes; viz.: their prolificacy, the vitality of the seed, their means of dissemination and the adaptability of the plant. The ordinary burdock burr will contain fifty seeds. Each seed may grow into a plant, producing thirty- five to forty thousand seeds. A common thistle-head may contain three hundred seeds. Each seed may produce a plant with fifty thousand seeds. The com- mon tumble-weed {Amarantus albus) grovring in some fence corner of a twenty acre field may have seed enough to supply one seed to every square foot of land in the field. Below are given a few common weeds, with the number of seeds produced on a single plant of not unusual size. Number of seeds on a plant, NATrvE — Annual— Eagweed 4,000 Foreign — Annual — Purslane 400,000 to 2,000,000 Jamestown weed. 100,000 Pigweeds 150,000 to 800,000 Pox-tails 16,000 to 45,000 Velvet leaf 8,000 Chess ......o 4,000 Cockle 3,000 FoBBiON — Biennial — Common thistle 10,000 to 65,000 Burdock • 38,000 to 50,000 WEEDS. 297 Knmber of seeds on a plant. FoBEiaN — Perennial — Canada thistle.., to 10,000 Ox-eye daisy 800 to 95,000 Sour dock 36,000 to 90,000 Vitality. — Under the proper conditions seeds may maintain their vitality for years. Jamestown weeds have been known to grow in a piece of land for ten years from a single seeding. A single plant contain- ing 100,000 seeds may, therefore, be the source of considerable annoyance, not to say expense. Beal buried twenty common varieties of weeds seeds twenty inches deep in pint bottles of sand. At the end of five years eight varieties failed to grow. Of the twelve remaining varieties thirty-one oat of fifty grew. Of purslane nineteen, of pig-weed twenty -one, fox-tail thirty-four and of sour dock forty- five out of fifty seeds grew at the end of five years. When, however, seeds are exposed to the usual con- ditions of heat, moisture and air, many either grow or rot. Our worst annuals are those which are prolific and have the power of resisting these influences for a long time. The reserve force of seeds is illustrated by the oockle-burr. Each burr has two seeds. Ordinarily Dnly one of these grow. But if the plant is destroyed fihe second seed grows. DisseminatiOlla — Most of our worst weedsbeing of foreign origin it follows that their presence de- pends on some means of dissemination. These are many and often curious and may be divided into two general classes: natural and artificial. Diitributioa by wiad is cae of the most familiar natural means. Many seed i of the sun-flower family, 298 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. such as the thistle, float in the air by means of their pappus. The tumble- weed is a familiar example of a whole plant being moved by the wind. Seeds drift with the snow. Water is a common source of distribution. Far- mers whose lands are over- flowed by spring freshets find it impossible to keep their land free of weeds grown by their neighbors farther up the stream. Co- operative efPort is here necessary. In 1882 the high waters brought the horse- weed {Erigeron canadense) to farms in the southern part of Ohio, where it was unknown before. There are many devices of the fruit of plants by which they stick to animals and are thus carried from place to place. Cockle-burrs, burdock burrs and span- ish-needles are familiar examples. Seeds are carried in the mud, clinging to the feet of birds and other animals. Many seeds are distributed by being swallowed but not digested. Birds may carry seeds long distances in this way. Doubtless farm animals which are transported from place to place may do the same. It may pay the careful far- mer to look to this matter. Some plants have the power within themselves by which seeds are disseminated to a slight extent. The seed-pods of the wood sorrel ( Oxalis stricta) explode, scattering the seeds. Plantain in moist weather ex- udes a gelatinous substance which carries the seeds to the ground and causes them to stick to passing ob- jects. The seeds of the bunch grass {Stipa) have a sharp point, and a long spiral awn which twists and un- twists with the moisture of the air, thus causing the WEEDS. 299 seeds to bury themselves in tte soil. They ofteD cause flock-owners much trouble by burying them- selves in the flesh of their sheep. By artificial means of dissemination are meant those in vrhich man is concerned. Weeds have been introduced by being grown for ornamental purposes, such as butter and eggs {Idnaria vulgaris), and velvet leaf (Abutilen avicennae). Others have escaped from, cultivation, such as parsnip and mustard. From being plants in place they have be come plants out of place. Common carriers are a source of weed distribution. Weeds and other seeds have followed the pioneer step by step along the lines of common travel. The pro- gress of many plants have been traced along these thoroughfares. Useful plants have also been distrib- uted. Thus Kentucky blue grass is known to have been introduced into one locality of Northern Illinois by the night camping of the pioneer. When first in- troduced it was thought to be a harmful weed which would ruin the country. Weed seeds are brought from the Eastern hemis- phere by the ballast which ships bring in their west- ern trips. The packing of marble shipped from Ver- mont has been known to bring Canada thistle seeds to Illinois. In honoring the dead the trials of the living have been increased. The army weed (Amarantus spinosos) is so called in Ohio because it was intro- duced into that state during the civil war. Impure seed is a common source of weed distribu- tion, and one that may in a great measure be avoided. Clover and grass seeds are a frequent source of trouble. Canada thistle, ox-eye daisy, and bearded plantain are 300 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. apt to be introduced in this way. Every farmer should avoid as much as possible getting grass and clover or even other seeds from a distance, or from unknown sources. Your neighbors' seeds may contain weed seeds, but they are not so apt to contain those that are not already on your farm. The importance of a few seeds is not realized unless their prolificacy is fully understood. The number is usually under-estimated. Lazenby found in a sample of seed wheat, nine thousand seeds of chess per bushel. If a bushel of wheat contains one pound of chess, it would contain as many seeds of chess as of wheat. Adaptability. — The adaptability of plants in their struggle for existence often prevents their extermina- tion. A fox-tail plant (Setaria) has been known to ripen seed at two inches in height (one to two feet is a common height) by being surrounded by other plants. A chess plant, standing alone, may easily produce four thousand seeds. When sown like small grain, it will hardly produce one hundred fold. When subdued by the generally stronger growing wheat probably much less will be produced. When prairie lands were broken up, far away from any other cultivated area, the striking horse weed (Erigeron canadense) often sprang up in profusion. This weed had not been seen there previously. The only explanatiou that can be given is that the plants were growing there, but were so kept in check by the other vegetation as to be passed unnoticed, just as would be the fox-tail above mentioned. Many weeds seed when they are very small. For- WEEDS. 301 slane begins to produce seed almost as soon as it has any top, so that it is often well nigh impossible to pre- vent seeds being formed. Eradication. — Weeds may be eradicated, but with our present system of farming, complete exter- mination is 'not practicable, certainly not essential to successful agriculture. Along the Mediterranean coast farmers are known to have fought the same weeds for three centuries without one species having been era- dicated. To eradicate certain kinds of weeds, often the most pernicious kinds, and to keep all kinds in subjection, is both possible and feasible. The more intensive the farming, the more completely this may be done. With annuals, the prevention of the plants from seeding, the destruction of the seed in the soil, and the prevention of the introduction of seeds from out- side sources, is all that is necessary. The reason for the difiSculties will be understood from what has gone ^)efore. Clean culture is the chief essential to success. It kills the weeds which are growing on the land, and hastens the destruction of the seeds in the land by causing them either to grow or rot. One great diffi- culty is that all the land is not, and can not be brought, into cultivation. Waste places, hedges and fence rows produce weeds abuadantly. A tumble weed grows along a fence row. A crop of oats, perhaps, is har- vested and the land plowed. On a windy day, the tumble weed loosens anchor, and freighted with 100,- 000 seeds, goes rolling across the land, literally sowing destruction m iss oasn. A thistle in a hedge, or a bur- dock in Zae corner oi a cornfield visited by cattle, are 302 THE SOILS AND CROPS OF THE FARM. sources of danger. Hedges, on account of concealing the growing weeds, are a constant menace to clean culture. As far as possible all waste places should be brought into cultivation, and the number of fences should be reduced as far as compatible with good husbandry. Early plowing of stubble gro^snd after harvest would prevent many weeds seeding. In place of this, burn- ing off the stubble would destroy both weeds and seeds. While there would be some loss of organic matter, in- cluding nitrogen, this practice has much to commend it. It not only destroys weed seeds, but also insect enemies and fungus diseases. Weedy roadsides are a source of much injury to the clean cultivator, as well as most unsightly, and should be kept mown by co-opera- tive effort, when in most cases useful grasses will soon displace the pernicious and unsightly weeds. Inasmuch as we can not hope to eradicate entirely our most prolific and thoroughly introduced weeds with our present methods of farming, we should try to arrange so as to give our crops the first and best chance, and the weeds the poorest. Rolling oat ground for example, in a dry time may firm it about the weed seeds near the surface, enough to cause them to grow without having any appreciable effect on the oats. If the land had not been rolled, the weeds might not have grown. It is often advisable to delay the planting of a crop until the land is warm enough to cause it to grow rapidly, so that it will out-strip the weeds in their race for place. If land infested with morning glories is planted with corn, the land should not be cultivated until both WEEDS. 303 corn and weeds have a good start. Before any other cultivation is given the morning glories should be re- moved with a hoe. With ordinary cultivation there- after the morning glories will not cause further trouble that season. Biennial plants require to be watched for two years in order to kill them. In practice it is best to cut them down when they begin to flower, cutting well into the ground. The root then dies. With perennials the plants must not only be kept from going to seed, but the plants themselves must be destroyed. No common flowering plant can live without leaves. Constant cutting of the tops so that no part appears above the ground will kill it. Some perennials, such as morning glories, may be killed on restricted areas by pasturing with sheep. Land may be left fallow or put in some hoed crop, and in either case given thorough cultivation. Heavily inanuring the land and growing some grain crop, fol- lowed closely by another, and perhaps still another, and afterward giving thorough cultivation, will often kill perennials completely. Rye and millet are good crops to use. In short, any method that prevents the plant from producing tops will kill it. With care and judgment it may be done without great expense. Successful farming in all its branches is an exact- ing business. It requires constant and careful watch- fulness. Weed destruction is not the least exacting of its many phases. INDEX. Page. Agare rigida var. Sisalane— See Sisal. AffToatis Vnlgarie— See Redtop. Alfalfa 22:1 Alluvial soils ;jj Aljiwcunis pratensis— See Mv adow Foxtail. Alfiike clover 221 Alnmina..., 35 Aluminum 35 nnunoniuai, Snlphateof 58 Annuals 28 Arrhenatherum. avenaceum— See Tall Meadow Oat Grass. Artietioke, Jerusalem 252 ABhes 53-58 Ash of Flaats — Chemical elements of 23 Quantity of 22 Barley, clunate for 182 Color 181 ComposiLion of 181 Culture of 184 Pour-rowed 183 Grading 181 Harvesting 184 History of 179 Manure for 183 Naked 183 Production of 179 Six-rowed 183 Soil for 18J Strnotureof 181 Two-rowed 183 Use of 181 Varieties of 183 "Weight of 182 BeetH, Cultureof 248 For stock 247 Varieties of 247 Harvesting 249 Beet sugar— See Sugar beet Bent 208 Bermuda grass 211 Beta vulgaris — See Beets Biennial-* 28 Blue grass 206 Blue joint 202 Boehineria nivea — See Ramie Bones 58 Bouteiooa oligostachya— See Grama grass. Brassica campestris— See Rutabagas. Braseica napuB — See Rape. Brassica rapa— See Turnips. Broadcasting wheat 123 Broad clover 217 Broad-leaved clover 217 Broom-com 286 Culture of 287 Buchloe dactyloides— See BufEalo grass. Buckwheat 282 BufEalo grass 202 Bunch grass 202 Bunt 132, 133 Bur clover 226 Burden's grass 208 Calamagrostic canadensis — See Blue joint, Cannabis sativa— See Hemp. Carbonfo acid 36 Page. Carrots 251 Chemical elements in plants 2'i Chemical properties of wheat 109 Chlorine 3S Chorchorus capsularis — See Jute Chorchorus olitorlus — See Jute. Climate, Crop production limited by 95 For barley 183 JTorcotton 219 On Indian Com, EfEect of 156 For oats 173 For rye 187 For sorghum 262 For sugar beets 266 For sugar cane 257 Fortobacco 284 On wheat, Effect of , 112 Clover, Alsike 221 Bni- 226 Crimson 223 Japan 226 Mammoth 220 Quantity of seed per acre 197 Red 217 Relation of bumble-bees to 219 In a rotation. Red 90 Seed, size of 197 White 221 Yellow 226 Clovers 215 Harvesting 198 Losses in curing 199 Use of 216 Varieties of 217 Combustible substances of plants. Chemical elements in 23 Quantity of 22 Comfrey, prickly 234 Common clover 217 Composition of barley 181 Of Indian corn 144 Of oats 172 Of rye... 187 Of soils 34 OE sugar cane 256 Consumption per capita of Indian com 139 Of wheat 103, 104 Convolvulus batatas — See Sweet po- tatoes. Com, bacterial disease of Indian.- 167 Composition of Indian 144 Consumption per capita of Indi- an 139 Cultivation of Indian, Reasons for 1G3 Culture of Indian 159 Dent 149, 151, 152 Depth to cultivate Indian 164 Depth of planting Indian 160 Diseases of Indian 166 Effect of climate on Indian 156 Effect of manures on Indian 158 Effect of rainfall on Indian 157 Effect of soil on Indian 158 Flint 148, 150, 153 For silage, Indian J2l Germination of Indian 159 Harvesting Indian 165 History of Indian 13C Production of Barley 1*9 Of Broom Corn 286 Of Buckwheat Z^-Z Of Cotton 263 Of Flax , 274 Of Indian Corn 137 Of Grasses 1^1 Of OatB 169 Of Potatoes 237 Of Rye 185 Of Sugar irom Sorghum 260 Of bugar from Sugar Beet 263 Of Sugar from Sugar Cane 255 Of Tobacco 284 Of "Wheat 193 Stainfall on Indian Com, Effect of, 157 ilamie 279 Rape 235 Red Clover 217 Redtop 208 Value of 208 Rhode Island Bent 20S Rolling 79 Rollins: Wheat 12S Root Crops 246 Adaptability to U. S 246 Roots in a Rotation 89, 90 Rothamsted, Experinienis at 49 Experim,entswith Fertilizers at, 49 Rotation, Choice of Crops in 88 Rotation of Crops 83 Four Tears 89, 92 Grasses in a 91 Indian Com ina 91 Norfolk 89 Not Essential 83 Oatsin a 91 Reasons for 84 Red Clover in a ^ 90 Roots in a 89,90 Six years 92 Rough cock's foot 209 Rust of wheat 128 Rutabagas 250 Rye, Climate for 187 Composition ot 187 Culture of 188 Diseases of 188 For forage 234 Grasses 212 HiBtoryof 185 Production of 185 Soil for 188 States, principal 186 Saccharum officinarium— See Su- gar cane. Sedentary soils 33 Seed-bed for wheat 122 Seeding of glasses 194 Seed, Quantity of wheat for 125 Setaria Italica— See Millet. Sheep fescue 212 Silage crops 228 Silica ^'5 Silicon 35 Sisal 280 Smooth stalked meadow grasa 206 Smut on wheat. Black or ioose.131, 132 Soda 35 Sodium , 35 Nitiate of 58 Soft com 149, 151, 152 Soilfor barley 182 Color of 48 Crop production limited by 95 Effect of, on Indian corn 158 For cotton 270 For oats 174 For the potato 241 Forrye , liJO For sugar beets 266 For Rugar cane 257 For tobacco 284 Improvement of by drainage and irrigation 60 IraiTcvementof, by manuring.. 49 On wheat, Effect of- 114 Relations of, to heat 47 Ri-lations of , to water 43 Usesot 38 Value of chemical analysis of... 37 Soils, Absorption of gases by 46 Alluvial 33 Chemical' composition of 34 Clay in 39 Condensation of gases by 46 Definition of 28 Distribution of 31 Drift 33 Effectofairon 31 Effect of carbonic acid on 3] Effect of ice on 31 Effect of water on 31 Exhaustion of... 50 Formation of 31 Heavy 40 Humus in 40 Kindsof 28 Light 40 Lime in 40 Physical properties of 39 Sand iu 39 Sedentary 33 Texture of 41 Vegetable matter in 34 Weightof.... 40 Soil water 60 Sorghum, climate for 262 Culture of 262 Difflculties Of the production of sugar from 2G1 For forage 231 Production of sugar from ....... 80 Sorghums, Non-saccharine 2.2 Sorghum sacchaiatum 26'i Sorehum for sugar 260 Varieties of 261 Spear grass 2C6 Spelt 117 Stable manure 52, 54 Stipa 202 Structure of barley 181 Of oats 171 Of plants 24 Of sugarcane 256 Sub-Koil, the 48 Sugar betts—See also Beets Climate for 266 Production of sugar fi'om 263 Soilfor 266 Varieties of 264 Sugarcane 255 Climate far 257 Composition of 256 Culture of 258 Fertilizers for 257 Production of sugar from. - 2f>5 Soilfor 257 Structure of 256 Sugar, Manufacture of 259 In a rotation, Indian 91 In hi Lis or drills. Indian lt>2 Maturity of Indian 229 Physical stracture of Indian 143 evd 147, ]50 Pop 149, 151 Production of Indian 137 Seed from tips or buttB of Indian 160 Varieties of Indian '£iO Size of ears of Indian 144, 153 Size of BtalkB of Indian 1-13 Smut 166 Soft 149, 151 152 Structure of Indian Ul Surplus Statea 138 Sweet 151, 153 Thickness of planting Indian.. 161 Time to plant Indian 159 Two-eared varieties of Indian.. 155 Types of Indian 147 Varieties of Indian 147 Water in Indian 145 Wild type of Indian 137 Cotton, Climate for 270 Cnltnreoi: 273 History of 268 Production of 268 Soil for 270 Uses of 269 Varieties of 271 Crimson clover 222 Crops, choice of 94 Improvement of 94. 99 Crop improvement, by crossing.lOO.lOl By cultivation 100. 101 Methods of 100 By selection 100, 101 Crop production— Effect of mar- kets on 95 Limited by climate and soil 95 Crops — Relative quantities in U.S. of farm 94 Rotation of — See Rotation of Crops- Culture of barley 184 Of oats 176 Of rye 188 Cynodon Dactylon— See Bermuda gra£s Dactylis glomerata — See Orchard grass Date Palms, production of sugar ■ from 254 DaucuB carota — See Carrots Dentcom 149,151, 152 Deschampsia Coeepitosa 202 Drainage, Cost of tile 68 Drainage and Irrigation, Soil im- provement by 60 Drainage, Losses from 70 Reasons for 61 Suifaceand underground 62 ^Orains. Depth of 67 Distance apart of 67 Making 68 Material for 63 Method of action of tile 64 Planning the 68 Rateof&ll 6G Sizeof tile 66 Diseases of Indian com 166 Of oats 178 Of rye 188 Of wheat 128 DriftsoUs 33 Drilling wheat , 125 Durra 832 Dutch clover 221 Egyptian com 232 Eagopyrum esculentum— See Buck- wheat Fallowing 78 Farming, general 96 Specialty 96 Fertilizers, commercial. .52, 53, 57, 58 Fertilizers at Rothamsted.Experi- mentBwith 49 On wheat. Effect of commercial. 115 Fertility^ accumulated 50 Cropping reduces 49 Natural 50 Fescues 212 Pestuca 202 Fffltnca elatior— See Taller fescue Festuca ovJna— See Sheep tescne Festuca pratensis-^See Meadow fescue. Fiber crops 368 Field peas 291 Fine bent 208 Fine top 208 Flax 274 Culture of 277 Production of 274 Quantity of seed per acre 276 Uses of. 274 Varieties of 27! Flint com 149,150. 152 Forage crops 228 Furze top 208 Gases by soil^, Absorption and con- densation of 46 Gterminatioa of seeds 27 Goseypiiun Barbadense. Goseypium herbaceum— See Cotton. Grama grass 201 Grasses as manures 192 Harvesting 198 Historof 190 Losses in curing 199 Manures -for 193 Mixtures of 195 Production of 191 Quantity of seed per acre ,. 197 In a rotation 91 Seeding of 194, 136 Seeding with grain crops 196 Varieties of 201 Grass seeds, Sizeof 197 Green grass 206 Green manuring 87 Guinea com 233 Gypsnm 58 Borrowing 78 Harvesting, Barley 184 Beets 249 Grasses and Clovers 198 Indian Com 165 Potatoes 245 Wheat 126 Heat, Relations of Soil to 47 HelianthuB tuberosus— See Jerusa- lem Artichoke. Hemp 277 Culture of 278 Uses of 271 Herd's Qraps 202, 208 History of Barley 179 Of Cotton 261 0£ Indian Com 13S History of Grasses 190 Of Oats 169 Of Potato 236 Of Rye 158 Of Wheat 102 Hop 288 Culture of 289 Hordeum disticbon — See Barley two-rowed. Hordeam disticliou nudum— See Barley naked. Hordeum nexaBtichon— See Barley six-rowed. Hordeum vulgare — See Barley. Hulls in Cats, Per cent of 173 HumiiluB lupulus— See Hop. Humus in Soils 40 Hydrogen 36 Irrigation 70 Soil Improvement by Drainage and 60 . Iron 35 Italian Rye Grass 212 Japan Clover 226 Jerusalem Artichoke 252 Jerusalem Corn 232 June Grass 206 Jute 280 Kentucky Blue Grass 206 Value of 20S Koeleria cristata 202 Lespedeza striata 226 Lime 35, 57 Lime in Soils 40 Superphosphate of 58 Linum asitatissimum, — See Flax, Lolium Italicum— See Italian Rye Grass. Lolium perenne — See Perennial Rye Grass. Lucerne 223 Maprnesia 35 Magnesium 35 Mammoth Clover 220 Mangel-wurzel 247 Manure, Composition of Stable..... 55 Fermentation in Stable 56 Stable 62, 54 Treatment of Stable 55 Under Cover, Stable 56 Value of Different Kinds of Sta- ble 55 Manures, Action of 51, 59 Artificial 52, 53, 57, 58 Classification of 51 Complete 51, 52 General 51 Grasses as i92 On Indian Com, Effect of 158 Mineral 51 , Organic 51 Partial 51 Special 51, 52 On Wheat, Effect of 114 Manuring, Green ,. .. 87 Improvement of Soil by 49 Meadow Cat's Tail 202 Meadow Fescue 2i2 Meadow Foxtail 214 Meadow trefoil... 217 Medic^o denticulata — See Bur clover, Medic^o lupulina — See Yellow clover. Medicago flatira— See Alfalfa. Medium red clover...,.., 217 Mesquitf} grass 201 Millet 233 Mi Ho maize 233 Mulching wheat. Effect of 116 Nicotiana Tobacum — See Tobacco. Nitrate of sodium 58 Nitrogen 36,52, 58 Oat-raising States, Principal 170 Oats, climate for 173 Composition of „ ..... 172 Culture of 176 Depth of sowing 177 Diseases of 178 History of 169 Per cent of hulls in 173 Production of 169 Ratio of grain to straw i71 Rotation gi Seeding 177 Soil for 174 States, pnncipal 180 Structure of „ 171 Thickness of seeding 178 Time of seeding 177 Use of 171 Varietiesof 174 Weightof 173 Orchard grasp 209 Value of 210 Oryzopsis 202 Oxygen 36 Parsnips 252 Pastinaca edulis— See Parsnips Peas, field— See Field peas Perennialrye grass 212 Perennials 28 Phleum, pratense — See Timothy Phosphorus 35, 36, 52, 58 Phosphoric acid 35, 36. 53, 58 On wheat, Effect of II5 Physical structure of Indian com 143 Physical properties of wheat 109 Pisum arvene —See Field peas Plant food 21 Sourres of 22 Plants, Chemical elements m 22 The structure of 24 Plow, Action of the 74 Improvement of the 74 Plowing 73 Dc-pthof -. 75 Subsoil 76 Time for 77 Trench 76 Poa compressa- See Wire grass Pott pratensis— See Kentucky blue grass Pod corn 147, 150 Popcorn 149, 151 Potash on wheat, Effect of Us Potassium 35, 3f, 62 Potatoes, Sweet 243 Potato, Culture of the 240 Harvesting the 243 History of.. 236 Production of 237 Quantity of seed 242 Soil for the 241 Time of planting 241 Use of the 238 Varieties of the 23J Prickly Comfrey a3| Fuccinia Graminis— See 'Wlieat Kust. Sugar plants 254 Kinds of 254 Sulphate of ammonium 58 Sulphur 35 Sulphuric acid 35 Slimmer dew grass 208 Superphosphate of liuae 58 Swedish clover 221 Sweet com 151, 152 Sweet potatoes 243 Symphytum asperrimum-See Jfrick- ly comfrey Taller Fescue 213 Tall meadow oat grass 218 Texture of soils 41 TUe, Size of 66 Tillage 72 During crop growth 80 Objects of 72 Tilletia f oetens tritici— See Bunt. Timothy 202 Time of cutting 205 Value of 203, 204 Tobacco 280 Culture of 285 Production of 284 Trifolium hybridum-See Alsike clover, Trifolium incarnatum— See Crimson clover. Trifclium medium— See Mammoth clover. Trifolium pratense— See Medium red clover. Trifolium, repens — See Dutch clover. Triticum aestivum 117 amylcum 117 compositum 117 dicoccmn 117 durum 117 hybemum 117 monococcum 117 polonicum 117 spelta 117 turgidum -.- 117 vulgare 117 Tornip, Common 250 Turnips. 249 Culture of 250 Swedish.... 250 TTRtilago Maydis— See Corn smut TJbtilaeo Tritica— See Smut on wheat, Black or loose. Varieties of Barley 183 Of Beets for Stock 247 Of Clover 217 Of Cotton 271 Of GraHses 201 Of Indian Com 147 Of Indian Corn for Silage 2:}0 Of Oats 174 Of the Potato 238 Of Sorghum.. 261 Of Sugar Beets 264 Of Plax 277 Vegetable Matter in Soils r 34 Water, Relation of Soil to , ^3 In the Soil 60 Quantity in Plants 21 Vi^ecds 293 Adaptability of 300 Definition of 293 Dissemmatioii of 297 Eradication of 301 How IniuiiouB 293 Kinds which are Injurious 295 Prolificacy of 296 Vitality of 297 Weight of Barley 182 Of Oats 173 Of Soils 40 Wheat of Abundance ^ -. 17 Of Miracle t^ Wheat, Best time to iiar-^a€ 7 Black or LiOose bmuw 0X1.. . '1^. i^? Broadcastmg .' .. i23 Chemsca^ Properties of ^,. 109 CiassiticatJcr. c. "lirictist , ;■" fjoni'mon.. ... . 317 Consumt)! ior. ije; ci.T:\ti .... ,0^^ "''- Cultivating : .. .., ' 126 Depth o* 3owii^g:- 125 ^Diseases c. ' 728 aSriUiiig... ".". 123 E^ect n;' Oiimateon 112 Efiieot of Commercial FertiliBers on. 115 E^Ct 0+' ilanures on 114 Etcect of Mulching 116 Bftect of Phosphoric Acid on 115 Effect of Potash ou 115 Effect of Soil on 114 Egyptian 117 Hard II7 Harvesting 126 History of.. 102 Loss of Water in Ill Milling 107 One Grained 117 Physcal Properiies of 109 Polish 117 Production of 1(3 Quantity of Seed 125 Rolling 126 ItuPt 128 Seed-Bed for l?n Selection of 122 Sizeof Kernels 110 Spring 118 Starch 117 Structure of 105 Time to Plow for 123 Time of Sewing 124 Turgid 117 Winter 118 White Clover 221 Wire Grass 206 Yellow Clover 226 Trefoil 226 Zeamais 141 Zig-aag Clover 22(1' STANDARD BOOKS PUBLISHED BV ORANGE JUDD COMPANY NEW YORK CHICAGO f39-441 Lafayette Street Marquette Building jyOOKS sent to all farts of the -world for catalog price. Discounts for large quantities on af fit- cation. Correspondence invited. Brief descriptive catalog free. Large illustrated catalog, six eentt. 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Belcher, M.D. In this book the author sets forth practical methods for the exclusion of bacteria from milk, and how to prevent contamination of milk from the stable to the consumer. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 146 pages, rioth. . ., . •_.«•..*-* .*.Jik... ...... $1.00 Bean Culture By Glenn C Srvsy, B.S. A practical treatise on the pro- duction and marketing of beans. It includes the manner of growth, soils and fertilizers adapted, best varieties, seed selec- tion and breeding, planting, harvesting, insects and fungous pests, composition and feeding value; with a special chapter on markets by Albert W. Fulton. A practical book for the grower and student alike. Illustrated. 144 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Celery Culture By W. R. Beattie. a practical guide for beginners and a standard reference of great interest to persons already engaged in celery growing. It contains many illustrations giving a clear conception of the practical side of celery culture. The work is complete in every detail, from sowing a few seeds in a window-box in the house for early plants, to the handling and marketing of celery in carload lots. Fully illustrated. 150 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Tomato Culture By Will W. Tracy. The author has rounded up in this book the most complete account of tomato culture in all its phases that has ever been gotten together. It is no second- hand work of reference, but a complete story of the practical experiences of the best posted expert on tomatoes in the world. No gardener or farmer can afford to be without the book. Whether grown for home use or commercial purposes, the reader has here suggestions and information nowhere else available. Illustrated. 150 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $0.30 The Potato By Samuel Fraser. This book is destined to rank as a standard work upon Potato Culture. While the practical side has been emphasized, the scientific part has not been neglected, and the information given is of value, both to the grower and the student. Taken all in all, it is the most complete, reliable and authoritative book on the potato ever published in America. Illustrated. 200 pages. S^'7 inches. Cloth $0.75 Dwarf Fruit Trees By F. A. Waugh. This interesting book describes in detail the several varieties of dwarf fruit trees, their propagation, planting, pruning, care and general management. Where there is a limited amount of ground to be devoted to orchard pur- poses, and where quick results are desired, this book will meet with a warm welcome. Illustrated. 112 pages. 5x7 inches. Poth. . . . . ,^_T-iT »••*..... $0.50 Cabbage, Cauliflower and Allied Vegetables By C. L. Allen. A practical treatise on the various types and varieties of cabbage, cauliflovi'er, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, kale, collards and kohl-rabi. An explanation is given of the requirements, conditions, cultivaLion and general management pertaining to the entire cabbage group. After this each class is treated separately and in detail. The chapter on seed raising is probably the most authoritative treatise oa this subject ever published. Insects and fungi attacking this class of vegetables are given due attention. Illustrated. 126 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Asparagus By F. M. Hexamer. This is the first book published in America which is exclusively devoted to the raising of aspara- gus for home use as well as for market. It is a practical and reliable treatise on the saving of the seed, raising of the plants, selection and preparation of the soil, planting, cultiva- tion, manuring, cutting, bunching, packing, marketing, canning and drying insect enemies, fungous diseases and every require- ment to successful asparagus culture, special emphasis being given to the importance of asparagus as a farm and money crop. Illustrated. 174 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 The New Onion Culture .By T. Geeiner. Rewritten, greatly enlarged and brought up to date. A new method of growing onions of largest size and yield, on less land, than can be raised by the old plan. Thousands of farmers and gardeners and many experiment stations have given it practical trials which have proved a success. A complete guide in growing onions with the great- est profit, explaining the whys and wherefores. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 140 pages. Cloth $o.sr The New Rhubarb Culture A complete guide to dark forcing and field culture. Part l-^By J. E. Morse, the well-known Michigan trucker and originator of the now famous and extremely profitable new methods of dark forcing and field culture. Part II — Compiled by G. B. FisKE. Other methods practiced by the most experi- enced market gardeners, greenhouse men and experimenters in all parts of America. Illustrated. 130 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth ^.50 Alfalfa By F. D. CoBURN. Its growth, uses and feeding value. The fact that alfalfa thrives in almost any soil ; that without reseeding it goes on yielding two, three, four and sometimes five cuttings annually for five, ten or perhaps lOO years ; and that either green or cured it is one of the most nutritious forage plants known, makes reliable information upon its pro- duction and uses of unusual interest. Such information is given in this volume for every part of America, by the highest authority. Illustrated. 164 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 Ginseng, Its Cultivation, Harvesting, Market ing^ and Market Value By Maurice G. Kains, with a short account of its historv and botany. It discusses in a practical way how to begin with either seed or roots, soil, climate and location, preparation, planting and maintenance of the beds, artificial propagation, manures, enemies, selection for market and for improvement, preparation for sale, and the profits that may be expected. This booklet is concisely written, well and profusely illus- trated, and should be in the hands of all who expect to grow this drug to supply the export trade, and to add a new and profitable industry to their farms and gardens without inter- fering with the regular work. New edition. Revised and en- larged. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . . $0.50 Landscape Gardening By F. A. Waugh, professor of horticulture. University of Vermont. A treatise on the general principles governing outdoor art; with sundry suggestions for their application in the commoner problems of gardening. Every paragraph is short, terse and to the point, giving perfect clearness to the discussions at all points. In spite of the natural difficulty of presenting abstract principles the whole matter is made entirely plain even to the inexperienced reader. Illustrated. 152 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Hedges, Windbreaks, Shelters and Live Fences By E. P. Powell. A treatise on the planting, growth and management of hedge plants for country and suburban homes. It gives accurate directions concerning hedges; how to plant and how to treat them ; and especially concerning windbreaks and shelters. It includes the whole art of making a delightful home, giving directions for nooks and balconies, for bird culture and for human comfort. Illustrated. 140 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture ^ A Compendium of Agricultural Science and Practice on Farm, Orchard and Garden Crops, and the Feeding and Diseases of Farm Animals 'Bif EARLEY VERNON WILCOX, Ph. Be and CLARENCE BEAMAN SMITH, M.S. Associate Editors in ibe Office of Experiment Stations^ United States department of Agriculture, T"' HIS is a new, practical and complete pres- entation of the whole subject of agricul- ture in its broadest sense. It is designed for the use of agriculturists who desire up-to-date, reliable information on all matters pertaining to crops and stock, but more particularly for the actual farmer. The volume contains Detailed directions for the culture of every important field, orchard, and garden crop grown in America, together with descriptions of their chief insect pests and fungous diseases, and remedies for their control. It contains an account of modern methods in feeding land handling all farm stock, including poultry. The diseases which affect different farm animals and poultry are de- scribed, and the most recent remedies suggested for controlling them. Every bit of this vast mass of new and useful information is authoritative, practical, and easily found, and no effort has been spared to include all desirable details. There are between 6,000 and 7,000 topics covered in these references, and it contains 700 royal 8vo pages and nearly 500 superb half- tone and other original illustrations, making the most perfect Cyclopedia of Agriculture ever at- tempted. Handsomely bound in cloth, $3.50; half morocco (.Vers samptnaus), $4.50, postpaid ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, ^''^mU^'^KKSl'^* m J { ii ill lllill i!i|: iililiiiiliilll ^I'l I ! i:|lil!|li I I liiliiiili I ill liiiii'iiiiii .lilli!llllll!l!ilillllj|ij||| iliilli llllll H I ! I