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CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
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^ 
 
 PRACTICAL RHETOEIC 
 
 FOB INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 English Composition and Eevision 
 
 COLLEGES AND INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS 
 
 J. SCOTT CLARK, A.M. 
 
 FROFESSOB OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN THE NORTH- 
 WESTERN UNIVERSITY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 1893. 
 
COFTRIGBT, 188e 
 
 BY 
 
 HBNBY HOLT & CO. 
 
 Tnowa 
 
 PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COHPANYf 
 NEW YORK. 
 
TO HER WITHOUT WHOSE PATIENT HELPFULNESS THE FOL- 
 LOWING PAGES COULD NOT HAVE BEEN PBEPABED, 
 THEY ABE INSCBIBED BY THE AUTHOR 
 AS AN ACT OF SIMPLE JUSTICE. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The only reason for venturing to add another to the al- 
 ready long list of text-boofcs on English composition, is the 
 desire to aid in giving to the rhetorical training in our 
 schools a more practical character. That much of this 
 training is, and has been, impracticable and fruitless is the 
 verdict of our ablest thinkers on the subject. It is agreed 
 that to be practical, a text-book on Ehetoric must be so con- 
 structed that, after a careful study of its principles and a 
 thorough drill in its exercises, the student shall write better 
 English than he wrote before taking up the book. That 
 most of our current text-books on this subject do not meet 
 this test is the belief of the author, after a careful, extended, 
 and impartial trial of nearly all of these. That the average 
 man, even of so-called "liberal education," composes and 
 punctuates badly, often almost incomprehensibly, is known 
 to every editor. Perhaps no other fact has caused so much 
 adverse criticism by the press upon college graduates and 
 our system of collegiate education as has the kind of Eng- 
 lish often contributed by those graduates. That this state 
 of things is not due to any lack of attention to the branch 
 of Khetoric, an examination of the curricula of any ten of 
 our prominent seminaries and colleges will prove. In too 
 many text-books, the pupil is led through a labyrinth of ab- 
 stractions bearing such names as "Invention," "Taste," 
 "Deduction," "Simplicity," "Partial Exposition," "Peel- 
 ing," "Perfection," "The Sublime," "The Picturesque," 
 " The Graceful," " The Novel," " The Wonderful," and so 
 on, until he becomes lost in a theoretical maze, while ha 
 
Vi PREFACE. 
 
 goes on -writing and speaking in the same obscure, clumBy 
 forms that he used before he ever saw a Ehetoric. 
 
 Opposed to this artificial process comes the fact, patent 
 to every careful observer, that the boy learns to think and 
 to express himself, with tongue or pen, just as he learned to 
 walk — unconsciously, by imitation and observation ; that he 
 obtains his methods and means of "invention" from a 
 hundred sources too subtle and too widely varying ever to 
 be analyzed or classified ; that his style is largely formed, 
 as is his character, by surrounding influences. And it is 
 well that this is so; for it is this very subtlety and variety 
 in the sources of invention that gives to every man that 
 individuality which is too sacred to be destroyed or muti- 
 lated by inflexible theories. 
 
 In Herbert Spencer's essay on "The PhUosophy of Style," 
 — an essay that should be carefully read by every student 
 of English composition — after admitting that "good com- 
 position is far less dependent upon acquaintance with its 
 laws than upon practice and natural aptitude," the author 
 says: "Yet, as facilitating revision, a knowledge of the 
 thing to be achieved — a clear idea of what constitutes a 
 beauty and what a blemish — cannot fail to be of service." 
 
 In this quotation will be found the thought that under- 
 lies the following pages. It is the belief of the author that 
 the only practical rhetorical training must be largely nega- 
 tive ; that the ability to revise, readily detect, and quickly 
 rectify any blemish in what has already been written, is the 
 flrst requisite ; that continual practice of this kind will en- 
 able the pupil to avoid, unconsciously, the most common 
 faults in form and style ; that aside from certain language 
 lessons in the lower grades, what is generally called " inven- 
 tion" cannot be taught in the class-room ; that those deli- 
 cate graces of style which give to a composition that which 
 makes it a classic cannot be obtained from either text-book 
 or teacher ; in a word, that Rhetoric must be an analysis 
 rather than a synthesis. This, in fact, is the very kind of 
 "rhetoric" that is being put into actual daily practice in 
 every newspaper office in the world. 
 
FBEFACE. yij 
 
 The book is not intended for grades lower than our high- 
 schools and seminaries ; neither is it intended for use by 
 any teacher who is the mere servant of his test-book. 
 Throughout, an effort has been made toward such conden- 
 sation as shall leave to the teacher the most room for exposi- 
 tion and independent work. For example, the sections in 
 Chapters III. and IV. of Part II., treating, respectively, 
 of prepositions and word-formation, will be found each to 
 contain work enough to occupy an average class many weeks. 
 Therefore, unless there is ample time for completing the 
 work in the remaining chapters, it would be wise to omit 
 most of that in the above-named sections. 
 
 The book is intended, moreover, not merely as a class 
 text-book, but as a manual in criticising and correcting the 
 compositions that may be required of the student. It is 
 hoped that, by adopting the method here given, he will learn 
 to detect and rectify his own errors, and so to avoid them 
 later — an end that is too rarely attained. 
 
 Of the examples for practice in Parts I. and II., less than a 
 dozen have been in print before. They have been selected 
 from about seven hundred undergraduate essays, taken at 
 random from several thousand which it has been the fortune 
 of the author somewhat minutely to criticise. It is believed 
 that an advantage is here gained over the common method 
 of selecting examples for practice from those writers, of more 
 or less reputation, whose surroundings, characteristics, and 
 habits of thought must have been widely different from 
 those of the undergraduate of to-day. 
 
 Few new principles have been introduced. The book 
 aims to be rather an application and a more practical adap- 
 tation of principles already enounced. In selecting and re- 
 stating these principles, use has been made of the works of 
 Aristotle, Blair, Campbell, Whately, Kames, Angus, Trench, 
 Bain, Spencer, Abbott, Quackenbos, Bancroft, Swinton, 
 Welch, Phelps, Kellogg, White, A. S. Hill, D. J. Hill, 
 Hart, Haven, Bardeen, and others. In case any failure has 
 been made to accredit points taken directly from other 
 
Viii PREFACE. 
 
 writers, the author will be thankful for information of the 
 fact. 
 
 It is, perhaps, needless to say that Part IV., on "Versifi- 
 cation," is based on the chapters devoted to that subject in 
 Abbott and Seeley's "English Lessons for English People ;" 
 a work that, for reference at least, is inyaluable. 
 
 J. S. 0. 
 College of Libekal Arts, 
 
 StBACHSB UNrVEBSITY, 
 
 April, 1886. 
 
SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 In order to adapt the work to the needs of those teachers in 
 our intermediate schools who prefer to take up the simpler rules 
 for punctuating, gaining clearness, etc., before dealing with essay 
 outlines and with the more complex principles governing the dif- 
 ferent kinds of composition, it has been thought best, in arrang- 
 ing the parts, to, deviate slightly from a strict logical order, by 
 placing the discussion of the thought after that of form and style. 
 
 It has been the custom of the author to begin with the first 
 three chapters of Part III. , assigning for the first essay a descrip- 
 tion of some object or collection of objects that has actually been 
 seen; then, after the first essay has been presented, to take up 
 Parts I. and II., successively, by placing the marginal numbers 
 upon the essay according to the suggestions on pages 3 and 55. 
 So much of the time of the class as is not employed in discussing 
 the errors in the essays is then devoted to fixing the principles 
 of form and style by means of the exercises under the various 
 heads. The second essay assigned is a narrative, and Chapter IV. , 
 Part III., on narration, is taken up before the class begins writing, 
 and so on; taking the remaining chapters of Part III., from time 
 to time, as a preparation for the corresponding essays, and re- 
 returning meanwhile to the practice of applying the principles of 
 form and style. 
 
 In view of resxdts obtained by this method, the author feels 
 warranted in urging its use with aU students of college, or even 
 of advanced high-school grade. 
 
 With younger pupils, where the chapters are taken consecu- 
 tively from the beginning, the same method of studying the prin- 
 ciples will be found most satisfactory. 
 
 Let every exercise under both form and style be placed upon a 
 slip of paper or a card, vMhout the numbers in parentheses. 
 Let each member of the class draw one of these slips or cards 
 as his name is called, and let him place upon the board his cor- 
 
X SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 rected rendering of the sentence. After the sentences assigned 
 for the recitation are all corrected, with such review slips as may 
 be used, let each pupil give (1) the original form of his sentence, 
 (3) the corrected form, (3) his reason (the rule) for every change 
 made. Then throw the corrected version open to the entire class 
 for criticism, if any be necessary. In this way every member of 
 a large class may be set at work as promptly as in a recitation in 
 mathematics, and the attention of every member may easily be 
 held throughout the hour. By taking, successively, the three 
 steps jiist enumerated, quibbling and useless discussion over dif- 
 ferent versions may be avoided. 
 
 By this use of cards or slips the principles of form and style 
 will become fixed more easily and more thoroughly than by as- 
 signing them to be arbitrarily memorized. The exercises are 
 published separately, printed only on one side, in pamphlet form, 
 so that by cutting these pages into slips the teacher may be saved 
 the labor of copying the exercises. The reference numbers can be 
 obliterated if the teacher prefers. 
 
OOISTTENTS. 
 
 PAKT I. 
 
 THE FORM. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FAOB 
 
 SFAdETG AND UlTDEBSCOKIira. 3 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 SFELLma 5 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 The Use op Capitai-b 10 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Punctuation 13 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Uses of Italics. 27 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Paragraphing 28 
 
 PAET II. 
 
 THE STYLE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 CiaiAJiNESa 47 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 POECE 63 
 
XU CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Precision ^2 
 
 CHAPTER rV. 
 
 PCKITY 107 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Propriety 185 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 TJnitt 141 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Euphony 145 
 
 CHAPTER Vm. 
 General Exercises 159 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Rhetorical luAaERY 187 
 
 PART III. 
 THE THOUGHT. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 The Selection of a Subject 341 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 The Outline— Its Importahob— Methods of Construction. 248 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Description 3Q3 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Narration 275 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 EJCPOBITION 900 
 
CONTENTS. xiii 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Pebsuasion 288 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Oral Discotibsb— Its DisTiNGUisHiNa Chabactebibticb 299 
 
 PAET lY. 
 VEBSIFICA TION. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Poetic Diction— Rhythm 303 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Metbe 316 
 
PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
Note. — On entering college, if not on entering the inter- 
 mediate school, the student is supposed to he ahle to spell, 
 capitalize, and punctuate correctly and to put his manu- 
 script generally in good form. Unfortunately, too many 
 of our instructors proceed upon this hypothesis. Careful 
 observation shows, however, that a large proportion of 
 American under-classmen, to say nothing of graduates, 
 have not this ability. To assume that they have, and to 
 proceed upon this basis, is only to do irretrievable injury 
 to all concerned. We therefore begin with the principles 
 governing the external form of a composition. 
 
 For convenience in reference, the rules (except those in 
 spelling) are numbered consecutively in heavy type in the 
 margin. By this means, in criticising an essay, the in- 
 structor needs only to place in the margin, opposite any 
 error in form, the number of the paragraph explaining 
 the principle violated, leaving the pupil to correct his own 
 errors by applying the rule, and so to do his own thinking. 
 Then let him justify his corrections in the presence of the 
 
PART 1. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 SPACINC AND UNDERSCORma 
 
 In producing a good first impression, the character of 
 its outward, material dress is as important to the composi- 
 tion as that of his personal appearance is to the speaker. 
 A man may have the scholarship of an Aristotle or the elo- 
 quence of a Demosthenes, but if he is careless and slovenly 
 in dress he will always be at a disadvantage. Just so, a 
 written article, however good in thought and style, will fail 
 to secure the most respectful attention, if it be careless in 
 form. 
 
 Perhaps the most palpable feature of this carelessness is 
 that cramping as to space, which so many" writers practise, 
 either from mere stupidity or from a petty economy of 
 paper. An article such as is often presented to the teacher 
 or editor, with no intervening space between the statement 
 of the formal subject and the first paragraph, produces an 
 impression as unpleasant as that of a dwarf whose head is 
 set down between his shoulders, with no intervening neck. 
 Such an impression no writer, and especially no young 
 writer, can afford to make. 
 
 1. Not less than lialf an inch of clear space should he left 
 between the theme of an essay, chapter, or paragraph, in 
 manuscript, and the subject-matte': 
 
 Correlative with the necessity of spacing comes that of 
 propel underscoring. It is fair to presume that the writer 
 knows better what words he wishes in italics or capitals than 
 does the printer, who often works by mere rote. An article 
 
4 PRACTICAL BHETORIC. 
 
 with its title in small letters looks like an otherwise fully 
 developed man wearing the head of a small boy. The rules 
 for underscoring are general and simple: 
 
 2. (1) To put a word or expression in italics, underscore 
 it once. 
 
 3. (2) To put a word or expression in small capitals, 
 underscore it twice. 
 
 4. (3) To put a word or expression in LARGE CAP- 
 ITALS, or " CAPITALS/' as they are commonly called, 
 underscore three times. 
 
 The last rule applies to the subject of an essay. 
 
CHAPTEE II. 
 SPELLING. 
 
 5. The ability to spell correctly seems to be largely in- 
 stinctive ; it certainly is a power wholly lacking in a few 
 people, who are otherwise fairly educated. Perhaps the most 
 practical method for one who has left the grammar-school 
 without acquiring the ability to spell, is to make a careful 
 list of the words found misspelled in any written exercise 
 that is criticised by an instructor, and then to review these 
 words from day to day until they become thoroughly 
 familiar. Such a practice, followed carefully for two or 
 three years, will remedy the worst defects in spelling. 
 
 The actual vocabulary used by any writer will be found, 
 upon examination, to be much smaller than he supposes ; 
 and so the number of his commonly misspelled words will 
 be found not so great as to be impossible of correction. 
 
 6. There are, moreover, certain words, adopted from 
 foreign languages, whose plural forms are liable to be mis- 
 spelled by any who are not familiar with those languages. 
 We quote the following list from President Hill's elementary 
 work : * 
 
 WORDS "WITH FOREIGN PLURAL FORMS. 
 
 [Words marked thus t have a plural in s also.] 
 
 LATIN. 
 
 Addendum, addenda. 
 Alumna, alumnae (fem.) 
 Alumnus, alumni (masc.) 
 Apex, apices. 
 Appendix, appendices. + 
 Aquarium, aquaria. 
 Axis, axes. 
 
 Basis, bases. 
 Calculus, calculi. 
 Calyx, calyces, t 
 Centumvir, centumviri. 
 Cloaca, cloacse. 
 Crisis, crises. 
 Cumulus, cumuli. 
 
 * "Elements of Rhetoric and Composition," pp. 45-47. 
 
6 
 
 PRACTICAL RUETOBIC. 
 
 OurriciLli:m, curricula. 
 Datum, data. 
 Decemvir, decemviri. 
 Desideratum, desiderata. 
 Dictum, dicta. 
 Effluvium, effluvia. 
 Emporium, emporia. 
 Erratum, errata. 
 Focus, foci. 
 Foramen, foramina. 
 Formula, formulse.t 
 Fulcrum, fulcra, t 
 Fungus, fungi, t 
 Genus, genera. 
 Gymnasium, gymnasia. 
 Herbarium, herbaria.! 
 Hippopotamus, hippopotami, t 
 Ignis fatuus, ignes fatui. 
 Lamina, laminse. 
 Larva, larvas. 
 Magus, magi. 
 Maximum, maxima. 
 Memorandum, memoranda. 
 
 Minimum, minima. 
 Momentum, momenta. 
 Nebula, nebuto. 
 Nucleus, nuclei. 
 Oasis, oases. 
 Ovum, ova. 
 Papilla, papillse. 
 Polypus, polypi, t 
 Badius, radii.t 
 Bhombus, rhombi.t 
 Eostrum, rostra. 
 Sarcophagus, sarcophagi. 
 Scholium, scholia, t 
 Sensorium, sensoria.t 
 Spectrum, spectra. 
 Speculum, specula. 
 Stadium, stadia. 
 Stamen, stamina. 
 Stimulus, stimuli. 
 Stratum, strata. 
 Terminus, termini. 
 Vertebra, vertebrae. 
 
 GREEK. 
 
 Analysis, analyses. 
 Antithesis, antitheses. 
 Aphelion, aphelia. 
 Automaton, automata. 
 Oantharis, cantbarides. 
 Chrysalis, chrysalides. 
 Criterion, criteria. t 
 Diaeresis, diaereses. 
 Helix, helices. 
 
 Hypothesis, hypotheses. 
 Metamorphosis,metamorphoses. 
 Parenthesis, parentheses. 
 Phasis, phases. 
 Phenomenon, phenomena. 
 Stoma, stomata. 
 Synthesis, syntheses. 
 Thesis, theses. 
 
 FRENCH. 
 
 Aide-de-camp, aides-de-camp. 
 Beau, beaux. 
 Billet-doux, billets-doux. 
 Flambeau, flambeaux. 
 Gendarme, gendarmes or gens- 
 
 d'armes. 
 Jet d'eau, jets d'eau. 
 
 Madame, mesdames.t 
 Monsieur, messieurs. 
 Morceau, morceaux. 
 Plateau, plateaux. 
 Kouleau, rouleaux. 
 Savant, savants or savans. 
 Tableau, tableaux. 
 
SPELLING. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 
 Banditto, banditti. 
 Cicerone, ciceroni. 
 Conversazione, conversazioni. 
 Improvisatore, improvisatori. 
 Libretto, libretti. 
 
 Scudo, scudi. 
 Soprana, soprani. 
 Soprano, soprani. 
 Virtuoso, virtuosL 
 
 The following have two plurals with different significa 
 tions: 
 
 Brother, brethren, brothers. 
 Die, dice, dies. 
 Genius, genii, geniuses. 
 Index, indices, indexes. 
 Medium, media, mediums. 
 
 Pea, peas, pease. 
 Penny, pennies, pence. 
 Phalanx, phalanges, phalanxes. 
 Stamen, stamens, stamina. 
 Vortex, vortices, -vortexes. 
 
 RULES OF SPELLING. 
 
 Of the common rules of spelling, those that apply to 
 derivative words will be found of the most practical value. 
 We give these mainly as condensed by Swinton.* 
 
 Rule I. Final "e" followed by a votoel. — Pinal e of a 
 primitive word is dropped on taking a suflBx beginning 
 with a vowel; as, blame + able = blamable; guide + ance 
 = guidance; come + ing = coming; force + ible = forci- 
 ble; obscure + itj = obscurity, 
 
 Exception 1. — ^Words ending in ge or ce usually retain 
 the 6 before a suffix beginning with a or o, for the reason 
 that c and g would have the hard sound if the e were 
 dropped; as, peace + able = peaceable; change + able = 
 changeable; courage + ous = courageous. The e is re- 
 tained in a few words to prevent their being confounded 
 with similar words; as, singe + ing = singeing (to pre- 
 vent its being confounded with singing). 
 
 Exception 2. — Words ending in oe retain the e to pre- 
 serve the sound of the root; as, shoe + ing = shoeing; 
 hoe 4" ing = hoeing. 
 
 Rule II, Final ^'e" followed hy a consonant. — Final e 
 of a primitive word is retained on taking a suffix beginning 
 
 * " Word Analysis," p. 6. 
 
8 PR ACTIO AL BHETOBia. 
 
 with a consonant; aSj pale + ness = paleness; large + ly 
 = largely. 
 
 Exception 1. — ^When the final e is preceded by a vowel, 
 it is sometimes omitted; as, due + ly = duly; true + ly 
 — truly; whole + ly = wholly. 
 
 Exception 2. — A few words ending in e drop the e before 
 a suffix beginning with a consonant; as, judge + ment = 
 judgment; lodge -j- ment = lodgment; abridge + ment = 
 abridgment, etc. 
 
 Rule III. Final "y" preceded iy a consonant. — Pinal y 
 of a primitive word, when preceded by a consonant, is gen- 
 erally changed to i on the addition of a suffix; as, manly + 
 ness = manliness; courtly + ness = courtliness. 
 
 Exception 1. — Before ing or ish the final y is retained to 
 prevent the doubling of the i; as, pity + ing = pitying. 
 
 Exception 2. — Words ending in ie, and dropping the e 
 by Eule I., change the i into y, to prevent the doubling of 
 the i; as, die + ing = dying; lie + ing = lying. 
 
 Exception 3. — Final y is sometimes changed into e; as, 
 duty + ous = duteous; beauty + ous = beauteous. 
 
 EuLB IV. Final "y" preceded by a vowel. — Final y of a 
 primitive word, when preceded by a vowel, should not be 
 changed into an i before a suffix; as, joy + less = joyless. 
 
 Ettle V. Doubling. — Monosyllables and other words ac- 
 cented on the last syllable, when they end with a single 
 consonant, preceded by single vowel, or by a vowel after 
 qu, double their final letter before a suffix beginning with a 
 vowel; as, rob + ed = robbed; fop + ish = foppish; 
 squat -}- er = squatter; prefer -f ing = preferring. 
 
 Eule VI. F and I at the end of monosyllables and stand- 
 ing immediately after single vowels, are geheraUy doubled ■; 
 as in staff, cliff, hill, toll, etc. In similar circumstances s 
 is generally doubled except when forming the possessive or 
 plural of a noun or the third person singular of a verb. 
 Other final consonants are doubled in a/ew words • as ebb 
 ^dd, egg, add, inn, err, mitt, butt, etc. 
 
 Exceptions. — X final, being equivalent to hs, is never 
 
aPBLLINO. 9 
 
 doubled; and when the derivative does not retain the ac- 
 cent of the root, the final consonant is not always doubled; 
 as, prefer + ence = preference. 
 
 Rule VII. No Doubling. — A final consonant, when it is 
 not preceded by a single vowel, or when the accent is not 
 on the last syllable, should remain single before an ad- 
 ditional syllable; as, toil + ing = toiling; cheat + ed = 
 cheated; murmur + ing = murmuring; etc. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE USE OP CAPITALS. 
 
 Note. — While the following statement of principles is not in- 
 tended for beginners, but only as a review, it will be found in 
 practical form for the instruction of those who may have neg- 
 lected the study of capitalization in the lower grades. Definite 
 examples are purposely omitted. In place of these, let certain 
 pages be assigned in any well-edited book possessed by every 
 member of the class, and let each be asked to come prepared to 
 give the reason for the use of any and every capital letter to be 
 found in those pages. This will be found an excellent method 
 of fixing the principles. 
 
 Setting aside disputed cases, capitals are generally used 
 for the following purposes: 
 
 7. (1) To begin the first word of every complete sen- 
 tence. 
 
 8. (2) To begin every proper noun and every adjective 
 derived therefrom. This includes the names of the months 
 and the days of the week. The names of the seasons are 
 not considered proper nouns. 
 
 8a, Exception. — When the proper adjective has, by con- 
 stant use, lost its primary reference to the noun from which 
 it is derived, the capital is not used. Examples of this are 
 seen in the adjectives "herculean," "stoical," "platonic," 
 "galvanic," "hymeneal," and the like. 
 
 9. (3) To begin every title of office, honor, or respect, 
 when used in connection with the proper name or in direct 
 address, but not when used simply as a common noun. 
 
 10. (4) To begin a common noun when joined, with or 
 without a preposition, to a proper noun, and meaning the 
 same thing; e.g., Hudson Eiver, Lake of the Isles, etc. 
 
THE USE OF CAPITALS. H 
 
 11. (5) To begin the names of the cardinal points when 
 these refer to whole districts, or to the residents of thosfe 
 districts, but not when expressing mere direction. 
 
 13. (6) To begin a common noun when strongly personi- 
 fied. 
 
 13. (7) To begin the first word of every line of verse. 
 
 14. (8) To begin all direct appellations of the Deity, 
 whether nouns, adjectives, or both combined, and the pro- 
 nouns standing for His name. Usage differs as to the pro- 
 nouns in the oblique cases. 
 
 15. (9) To begin the first word of every direct, formal 
 quotation. Where words, though quoted exactly, are 
 united with outside matter in the same grammatical con- 
 struction, no capital is used. 
 
 16. (10) To begin every noun, adjective, and verb in the 
 titles of books and in the headings of chapters, as well as 
 every prominent word in a hand-bill or advertisement. 
 
 17. (11) To begin the prominent word or words of a sub- 
 ject when repeated in the body of the article, chapter, or 
 paragraph. This rule is liable to abuse, and should be fol- 
 lowed with great caution. In case of doubt use the small 
 letter. 
 
 18. (13) To express the pronoun / and the interjec- 
 tion 0. 
 
 "O" and "oh," says Welch,* "are both emotive: but the 
 former is commonly used only before the names of objects ad- 
 dressed, is seldom succeeded by punctuation, and must always be 
 a capital ; the latter is used by itself, expresses a deeper feeling, 
 has a comma or an exclamation-point after it, and, except at the 
 commencement of a sentence, begins with a small letter." 
 
 19. (13) To begin specific words denoting important 
 events, historical epochs, peculiar phenomena, noted writ- 
 ten instruments, and the like. 
 
 20. (14) To begin each item of a series when distinctly 
 numbered with the cardinal numbers, or when placed in 
 
 * " Essentials of English," p. 153. 
 
12 PRACTICAL IIHETOBIC. 
 
 tabular form. "Where parentheses are used instead of 
 periods after the figures, the capitals are not needed ,- this 
 is the preferable method. 
 
 21. (15) To begin the first word of the latter part of a 
 broken line, as in the subscription of a letter; and some- 
 times after inferior points of punctuation when particular 
 attention is to be called to some beginning. 
 
 SPECIAL CASES. 
 
 A few words, while coming strictly under one or another 
 of the foregoing rules, deserve particular notice. 
 
 22. The word "heaven," when referring to the abode of 
 the blessed, begins with a capital; when meaning the sky, 
 with a small letter. Eecent writers employ the capital only 
 when " Heaven" is used by metonymy for the Deity. 
 
 > 23. So the word "bible" begins with a capital when 
 used specifically and with reference to its divine origin, 
 otherwise with a small letter; e.g., "Milton reverenced the 
 Bible;" but, " The clerk sold five bibles." 
 
 24. Again, appellations of the Deity and of Satan, when 
 used in the plural, and when referring to mythological 
 beings, begin with a small letter. 
 
 25. The words "academy," "college," "university," 
 "state," etc., when used specifically, either as nouns or as 
 adjectives, begin with capitals; otherwise with /small letters. 
 
 26. In a compound word made up of a proper noun, or 
 adjective, and a common noun, the common noun or ad- 
 jective begins with a capital if it comes first, otherwise 
 not; e.g., Low-German, God-man, etc. 
 
 27. Most of these peculiar cases can be embraced under 
 one simple rule, namely: when any word, or combination of 
 words, is used as a permanent individual name, a capital or 
 capitals are used, 
 
 27a. In criticising essays, this number will be used to 
 indicate superfluous capitalizing. 
 
CHAPTEE IV. 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 TJnfoetunatelt, there exists, even among some educated 
 men, a tendency to place a light estimate on the necessity 
 of careful punctuation. Owing to a failure thoroughly to 
 master the science in early years, many have become so 
 perplexed by a few puzzling cases that they even declare it 
 to be impossible to reduce punctuation to a system of defi- 
 nite rules. 
 
 Others, partly from inability, and more from a dislike to 
 put forth the mental effort required, prefer to " leave that 
 to the printer;" while still others excuse their inability or 
 carelessness by claiming that the authorities differ so widely 
 that it is useless to try to follow any one of them. A 
 candid examination of the facts does not warrant any one 
 of these conclusions. Only he who has but a superficial 
 knowledge of the subject will claim that accurate punctua- 
 tion is either impossible or impracticable. That the au- 
 thorities and the customs of different large publishing- 
 houses are contradictory on certain points is admitted; but 
 these are neither the essential nor the common questions of 
 punctuation. There are certain general principles on which 
 authorities and publishers mainly agree, and adherence to 
 which is sufficient to insure clearness and finish. It is only 
 beyond these points that individual taste asserts itself. 
 
 In reference to the importance of punctuation, it is a 
 fact capable of demonstration that business letters, concern- 
 ing large transactions, are constantly written in which an 
 imperfectly punctuated sentence may have either one of two 
 opposite meanings, and where the absence of any punc- 
 
14 PRACriCAL RUETOBIC. 
 
 tuation compels the receiver to act with no light save what 
 may he thrown upon the letter by his reason and imagination. 
 It is needless to picture the evil results of such omissions. 
 
 It is also a fact that very many expensive legal contests 
 might be avoided by more careful punctuation. Hardly a 
 session of any civil court is held where an important 
 decision is not based upon the actual or construed punctua- 
 tion of some will, contract, or other document. A case has 
 been known, even, where a man was convicted of perjury 
 and imprisoned because the jury construed a semicolon, 
 standing in an affidavit, as indicating the complete close of 
 the sentence. In a recent will case, in a western city, the 
 disposition of a million dollars is said to have been settled 
 by the position of a single comma. 
 
 In the light of such facts as these, the slighting remarks 
 often made about the importance of punctuation are both 
 senseless and injurious. But even if material interests 
 were not often involved, the writer is in duty bound to use 
 every practicable device, both of form and of style, to render 
 his sentences perfectly intelligible to the reader. 
 
 I. TJSES OF THE PEKIOD. 
 
 Note. — ^The following rules are intended more as a review than 
 as a full discussion of the principles generally admitted and 
 observed. "While a few sentences are given for positive practice, 
 it is suggested that the equally important negative practice be not 
 omitted. To secure this, let certain pages from some text-book, 
 common to the class, be selected and assigned, as in capitalizing; 
 and let each member of the class come prepared to give a reason 
 for every punctuation-mark of any kind to be found upon those 
 pages. This should precede the positive practice with the gen- 
 eral exercises, as thus the rules there to be applied will have be- 
 come fixed in mind. 
 
 28. (1) After every complete declarative sentence not 
 connected in a series. 
 
 29. (3) After every abbreviation. Where two or more 
 words are abbreviated, as many periods are used ; but where 
 a letter is doubled, as in blh, LL.D., and /ip., no period is 
 
rUNCrUATION. 15 
 
 used between them. The period so used does not dispense 
 with other punctuation-marks required, except at the end 
 of a sentence ; here, the period alone is not repeated. 
 
 30. (3) After titles, headings, and side-heads, whether 
 the last be expressed in words or in figures. 
 
 31. (4) After every Eoman numeral, except when used 
 in paging; and before a decimal. The word after the 
 decimal should be in the singular when the number is less 
 than a unit: thus, 4.327 tons; but .796 Ion. 
 
 II. USES OF THE INTEEEOGATION-POINT. 
 
 32. (1) After every complete question, whether asked by 
 the writer or quoted directly. 
 
 33. When several direct questions have a common de- 
 pendence, the sense being thereby suspended, only one 
 mark of interrogation is needed, the clauses being separated 
 by commas; but where the questions are made distinct, by 
 successive interrogative words or otherwise, there should 
 be an interrogation-point after each. 
 
 Example. — ""When was such a promise made? By whom? 
 With what assurance of fulfilment?" But, "When, by whom, 
 with what assurance, was such a promise made ?" 
 
 34. (3) In parentheses, to express doubt. This usage 
 
 applies mainly to dates, and must not be construed as a 
 
 warrant for that weak attempt at wit which sometimes 
 
 manifests itself in this way. 
 
 Example. — "In the time of Homer, 850 (?) B.C., Rome was as 
 yet unthought of." 
 
 III. USES OF THE EXCLAMATION-POINT. 
 
 35. (1) Generally, after interjections except " 0," and 
 after every word or combination of words expressing strong 
 emotion. This includes vocative clauses. 
 
 36. In a series of emotional expressions, where each mem- 
 ber is complete, each should be followed by an exclamation- 
 point ; but where the members are incomplete, only one 
 point is needed, and that at the end of the series. 
 
16 PRACTICAL BHETOniC. 
 
 J^asampZe.—" How beautiful was the night ! How still ! How 
 serene !" But, " How beautiful, how still, how serene was the 
 night !" 
 
 Note. — The form of language in declarative, interrogative, and 
 exclamative expressions is very often identical : in such a case, 
 the meaning conveyed by the writer will depend entirely upon 
 the punctuation, and too much care cannot therefore be exer- 
 cised. 
 
 IV. trSES OF THE COLON. 
 
 37. (1) Between the members of a compound sentence, 
 where the connection is very loose. The general conditions 
 of this looseness are, that no connective be used, and that 
 each member have for its subject a distinct substantive. 
 The colon used in the title-pages of books really separates 
 abbreviated compound sentences. Eecent usage, however, 
 omits punctuation in title-pages. 
 
 Example. — "Education is like money: the more one has, the 
 more he wishes." 
 
 38. (3) Before a formal enumeration of particulars. This 
 formality is usually determined by the presence of such in- 
 troductory forms as "thus," ''as follows," "these," etc. 
 
 Example. — " The subject is treated under three heads, as fol- 
 lows : first, the history of the tariff ; second, the present condi- 
 tion of the tariff system ; third, features of the present system 
 that are capable of improvement." 
 
 39. (3) This principle is extended so as to authorize a 
 colon after any expression which indicates that an addition 
 is to follow : e.g., after the address at the beginning of a 
 letter, and the like. "Yes" and "No" often stand in 
 such a relation. If the enumeration is long, a dash should 
 follow the colon. 
 
 40. (4) Before a long formal quotation. If the quotation 
 consists of several paragraphs, a dash is used in addition to 
 the colon. 
 
 41. (5) To separate the major divisions of a sentence, 
 when the minor divisions are made by semicolons. This is 
 not a logical rule, for it assumes that the division by semi- 
 
PUNCTUATION. 17 
 
 colons has already been made. It should be used only in 
 revising, and then only for the sake of clearness, when no 
 other rule applies. 
 
 V. USES OF THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 42. (1) Between the members of a compound sentence 
 when they are loosely connected. The application of this 
 principle must depend largely upon the judgment of the 
 writer. 
 
 43. To warrant the use of a semicolon instead of a colon: 
 (1) some connective should generally be present ; (3) the 
 subject of the second or later member may be either a dis- 
 tinct substantive or a pronoun referring to the subject of 
 the first member. To warrant its use instead of a comma, 
 the members should generally be of medium length, and 
 should not be intimately connected in thought. 
 
 44. (2) Between the particulars in a formal enumeration, 
 when introduced by a colon. 
 
 Ex. — See example under T 38. 
 
 45. (3) Before a short, iniormal enumeration of par- 
 ticulars. That is, where a mere enumeration of items is 
 made without a formal introductory word. 
 
 Ex. — "There are three forms of utterance; the effusive, the 
 expulsive, and the explosive. ' 
 
 46. (4) Before the word " as" when introducing an ex- 
 ample. 
 
 Ex. — " Can indicates possibility; as, ' I can read.' " 
 
 47. (5) Between clauses having a common dependence 
 on some other clause or word. Or, as some authorities ex- 
 press it, " Between clauses having a logical but not a 
 grammatical connection." This principle applies especially 
 in the construction of summaries and the like. 
 
 Ex. — ' ' When education shall be made a qualification for suffrage ; 
 when voters shall cast their ballots, not for parties but for men; 
 when politicians shall give place to statesmen; — then, and not 
 tiU then, will the highest development of our government be 
 reached." 
 3 
 
18 PE ACTIO AL miETORIG. 
 
 48. (6) Between the major divisions of a sentence where 
 the minor divisions are made by commas. This, like the 
 fourth principle under the colon, is of very doubtful logic; 
 and is to be used only for the sake of clearness, and when 
 no other principle will apply. 
 
 VI. USES OF THE COMMA. 
 
 Note. — Certain uses of the comma maybe called absolute; that 
 is, they admit of no material variation according to individual 
 tastes and conceptions. Others may vary slightly to suit the in- 
 terpretation of the writer. For example, adverbial phrases and 
 expressions are to be set off by commas only when they break the 
 flow of the sentence; but that which breaks the flow of a sentence 
 for one reader may not for another. In dividing the principles 
 into absolute and relative, however, it is not intended to attrib- 
 ute any lack of practical value to those under the latter head. 
 
 Absolute Uses. 
 
 49. (1) To set off negative clauses and expressions when 
 
 introduced by way of contrast. 
 
 Ex. — "Fluency in speaking is obtained, not by a study of prin- 
 ciples, but by constant practice." 
 
 50. (2) To denote the omission of one or more words. 
 This generally applies to the omission of verbs and of con- 
 junctions in series of words. 
 
 Ex. — "Conversation makes a ready man; writing, an exact 
 man." 
 
 51. (3) To separate a word, phrase, or clause in appo- 
 sition, when the appositive form is not one of the following: 
 (a) a common noun attached to a proper name without a 
 preposition; (J) a pronoun other than " I " joined to a sub- 
 ,stantive; (c) a word or expression necessary to complete the 
 sense; {d) a part of a compound proper name written in its 
 regular order. 
 
 ^a;.—" Gordon, the hero of the African campaign, was an 
 earnest Christian." 
 
 52. (4) To separate scholastic titles and degrees from 
 proper names and from each other. This may perhaps 
 be construed as coming under the principle just given. 
 
 Ex.—" Richard Strong, D.D., LL.D." 
 
PUNCTUATION. 1^ 
 
 53. (5) To set off words used in the form of direct 
 
 address. 
 Ex. — " These allusions, brethren, are not from pride." 
 
 54. (6) To set off clauses in the absolute construction, 
 
 especially absolute participial clauses. 
 
 Ex. — "Judged by his appearance, he was quite forty-five 
 years old." 
 
 55. (7) To separate short, closely connected members of 
 
 a compound sentence. 
 
 Ex. — "Now and then he raised his eyes, and they were large 
 and dark." 
 
 56. (8) Before " or," introducing an equivalent. 
 
 Ex. — "Much attention is now given to Ethnology, or the 
 science of races." 
 
 57. (9) To separate the same parts of speech when con- 
 trasted and in the same construction. 
 
 Ex. — "It is a practicable, sensible plan." 
 
 58. Care must be exercised not to insert a comma after 
 an adjective that modifies both another adjective and a 
 following noun. Thus, "The windows were fitted with 
 heavy red shutters." 
 
 59. (10) To separate words repeated for emphasis. 
 Ex. — " Practice, practice, practice is what we need." 
 
 60. After every pair of words when more than one pair 
 
 are used. 
 
 Ex. — "White and black, rich and poor, old and young, all 
 were welcome." 
 
 Although this principle is often disregarded, ambiguity 
 may thus result. 
 
 61. (12) Before short formal quotations, and before 
 clauses resembling a quotation in form, especially those 
 introduced by "that." The latter part of this rule is not 
 imperative. 
 
 Ex. — "The Bible says, ' God is love.' " 
 
 62. (13) To separate numbers, except dates, into periods 
 of three figures each. 
 
20 PB ACTIO siL RHETORIO. 
 
 63. Unless such numbers are very large, the best usage 
 is to express them in words rather than in figures ; but 
 statistics, however small, and sums of money where both 
 dollars and cents are expressed, should be written with 
 figures. 
 
 Ex. — "He is twenty-five years old." But, " In a population of 
 60,000. the taxes are %'ii.5T per capita." 
 
 Relative Uses. 
 
 64. (14) Before the conjunction connecting the last two 
 of a series of words. 
 
 The meaning of the following sentence from the Nation 
 would be entirely changed if the last comma were omitted : ' ' The 
 following republicans voted nay with the democrats : Bowen of 
 Colorado, Chace of Bhode Island, Conger, Hall, Jones of Nevada, 
 Sherman, Teller, and Wilson of Iowa. 
 
 65. (15) To set off parenthetical words, phrases, and 
 clauses, whether at the beginning, middle, or end of a 
 sentence. This includes the case of a broken quotation. 
 Where the parenthetical expression is exclamatory or inter- 
 rogative, parentheses must be used instead of commas. 
 Where the adverbial expression is thought not to break the 
 even flow of the sentence, the comma may be omitted. This 
 principle is so broad as to be liable to abuse, and should be 
 quoted only when no other principle definitely applies. 
 
 Ex. — " His beard, once of the deepest black, was streaked with 
 white." 
 
 Ex. — "He's a comical old feUow," said Scrooge's nephew, 
 " that's the truth." 
 
 66. (16) After such a word as "yes," "no," "again," 
 "moreover," "first," "second," etc., when it stands at 
 the beginning of a sentence and refers to the whole. 
 
 Ex. — " Indeed, there were more people than there were pews." 
 
 67. (17) To set off dependent clauses introduced by "if," 
 
 "unless," "until," "when," etc. 
 
 Ex. — "Unless public opinion supports the law, it is of no 
 avail." 
 
 68. (18) To set off relative clauses when not restrictive/- 
 
PUNCTUATION. 21 
 
 that is, when introduced by the "divisible relative." A 
 divisible relative, like "who" or "which,"' is one so used 
 that a demonstrative and a conjunction ("and he," #and 
 they," "and it") might be substituted for the relative. 
 Some authorities place a comma before any relative having 
 several antecedents. 
 Ex. — " He has made this proposition, which is certainly fair." 
 
 69. (19) After a surname, when preceding the given 
 name or names. 
 
 ^CB.— " Eobertson, J. V." 
 
 70. (20) After transposed words and clauses. 
 
 Ex. — "To wealth, many a man has sacrificed all the noblest, 
 possibilities of his soul." ' 
 
 71. (21) After the logical subject when ending in a verb; 
 when very long, or when made up of several parts divided 
 by commas. 
 
 Ex. — " He who wisely acts, must think." 
 
 72. (22) To separate the parts of a compound predicate. 
 Ex. — "Then it moved toward me, and stood over my head." 
 
 73. (33) To separate members of sentences that contain 
 correlative terms, expressed or implied. This principle has 
 many exceptions, especially the forms "so — ^that," "so — 
 as," "rather — ^than," and "more — than." 
 
 Ex. — " Though He slay me, yet will 1 trust in Him." 
 
 74. (24) Some writers authorize a comma before "to" 
 when it means "in order to." This seems necessary only 
 in particular cases where, otherwise, ambiguity might re- 
 sult. 
 
 Ex. — " He went to Germany, to study the school system." 
 
 75. (25) Betwe5li-the parts of an informal enumeration. 
 Ex. — See paragraph 45. 
 
 76. (26) In general, a comma should be used where 
 clearness demands it, even if none of the foregoing rales 
 seem to apply. In case of doubt whether or not to uiQ any 
 punctuation-mark, it is better to omit it. 
 
22 PBAOTIGAL REETOBIC. 
 
 VII. USES OF THE DASH. 
 
 Note.— ITo other punctuation-mark is so constantly misused 
 as the dash. Its use as a substitute for any and all of the other 
 marks is a cover for ignorance of the real principles of punctua- 
 tion as common as it is transparent. At the same time, there 
 are cases where it must be purely a matter of private judgment 
 whether to use the dash or the parentheses, while other uses of 
 the dash depend upon its emotional significance, and cannot be 
 reduced to rules. In the latter uses, the dash has been called 
 "the thought-stroke." 
 
 77. (1) To mark a break, suspension, or sudden transi- 
 tion in the sense. 
 
 Ux. — " She never slumbered in her pew — 
 But when she shut her eyes." 
 
 78. (2) Sometimes to mark a mere rhetorical pause. This 
 applies especially to those cases where "that" or "namely 
 is conceived as omitted. 
 
 Ex. — "There it stood above tlie warehouse door — ' Scrooge and 
 Marley.' " 
 
 79. (3) After the period following a side-head, and the 
 
 period between a citation and its authority ; after the colon 
 
 preceding a long formal quotation, and sometimes after 
 
 other pauses to increase their time. 
 
 Ex's. — "Oornhill. — A well-known thoroughfare in London." 
 "Never try to tell what you don't know; — Ufe is too short." 
 
 80. (4) Before abrupt or hesitating repetitions, 
 
 Ex. — " I have known him walk with — I have known him walk 
 with Tiny Tim upon his shoulder very fast indeed." 
 
 81. (5) To denote the omission of letters in a word. In 
 this case the letter or letters, with the dash, do not con- 
 stitute an abbreviation, and so are not to be followed by a 
 period. 
 
 Ex. — " In the village of C — lived a queer old woman." 
 
 82. (6) To include an expression parenthetical to one 
 
 already in parentheses. 
 
 Ex. — " Sir Smug," he cried (for lowest at the boards 
 Just made fifth chaplain of his patron lord: 
 His shoulders witnessing by many a shrug 
 How much his feelings suffered — sat Sir Smug), 
 " Your office is to winnow false from true: 
 Come, prophet, drink, and tell us what think you." 
 
PUNCTUATION. 23 
 
 83. (7) At the end of a series of clauses each dependent 
 
 upon a common final clause. 
 
 Ex. — "To live simply; to walk humbly; to labor earnestly; — 
 these are the duties of the true Christian." 
 
 84. (8) To separate the speeches of different persons in 
 a dialogue, when these are written on the same line. 
 
 Ex.—'' Well, sir, I thank you"—" Thank, me, sir? for what?" 
 
 85. (9) Between two numbers to show that they are the 
 extremes of any inclusiye series. 
 
 Ex. — " During the war period, 1861-5, gold rapidly advanced." 
 
 86. (10) In general, the dash is used to separate hetero- 
 geneous words or ideas when occurring in the same sentence. 
 
 VIII. USES OF THE PAKENTHESIS. 
 
 87. (1) To set ofE inserted expressions having no essen- 
 tial connection with the main sentence. These marks do 
 not supersede other punctuation-points. 
 
 .Eb.— " And sometimes (but then I was a child) I have wept in 
 my bed at night." 
 
 88. Words written in parentheses are to be punctuated 
 exactly as if they formed an independent sentence, ex- 
 cept next to the last parenthetical mark. There, if any 
 mark is needed, it should be placed (1) inside, if it refers 
 only to the parenthetical expression, and (2) outside, if it 
 refers to the preceding part of the main sentence, as well 
 as to the parenthetical expression. 
 
 Ex's. — " We are all of us (who can deny it ?) partial to our own 
 faiUngs." 
 
 " Indeed, as Mrs. Crotchit said, with great delight (surveying 
 one small atom of a bone upon the dish), they hadn't ate it all 
 at last." 
 
 89. (3) To include proper names, and marks of approval 
 
 or disapproval by an audience. 
 
 Ex. — " Mr. Speaker, the gentleman from Nevada (Mr. Jones) 
 says that the English language is to extend to every land under 
 the Eun. But Alaska can hardly be considered as lying under 
 the sun. (Laughter.)" 
 
24 PBACTIOAL RHETORIC. 
 
 90. (3) To include mimerals used for the sake of more 
 clear enumeration, and interrogative marks expressing 
 doubt. 
 
 For an example, see paragraph 34. 
 
 IX. USES OF THE APOSTROPHE. 
 
 91. (1) To indicate the possessive case, except in pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 92. When a possessive phrase follows its object, the 
 apostrophe must be placed over that phrase, and not over 
 a word or clause in apposition. Thus : 
 
 " He bought the hat at Johnson's, a well-known and highly re- 
 spected dealer." 
 
 In most cases this awkward construction can be avoided 
 by a rearrangement. 
 
 93. (2) To denote the omission of one or more letters 
 where the word does not become a regular abbreviation. 
 
 Ux. — O'er, tho', etc. 
 
 94. (3) To indicate the omission of syllables and words 
 in contracted forms. 
 
 Ux. — 'Twas, I've, etc. 
 
 95. (4r) To denote the plural of figures, letters, and 
 sometimes of words that might otherwise be confounded 
 with those similarly spelled. 
 
 JEx. — "Dot your i's and cross your t's." 
 
 96. (5) To indicate the omission of the century in ex- 
 pressing dates. 
 
 Mc.—" The boys of '76." 
 
 X. USES OF THE HYPHEN. 
 
 97. (1) Between syllables in a broken line, 
 
 98. (3) To connect a compound word when it has not 
 been used as such sufficiently to lose one of its accents. 
 Much room is here left for individual judgment. 
 
 Even the dictionaries disagree on such words as ' ' brickwork" oi 
 "brick- work," "brasswork" or " brass- work," etc. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 26 
 
 99. (3) To distinguish words of similar spelling but dif- 
 ferent pronunciation and meaning ; and sometimes, in place 
 of the diaeresiSj between vowels belonging to different syl- 
 lables. 
 
 Ex. — " Ee-creation," "co-ordinate," etc. 
 
 100. (4) To separate syllables for rhetorical purposes, as 
 in the syllabication of dictionaries. 
 
 Ex. — " Hy-poth-e-cate," " ex-tem-po-re." 
 
 XI, USES OF QX70TATI0K-MAEKS. 
 
 101. (1) To enclose direct, formal quotations; that is, 
 quotations where the exact language of another is repeated. 
 
 102. When the form of expression is slightly altered, 
 single marks are used. When the quotation ends the sen- 
 tence some writers omit the marks, and leave the quotation 
 to be indicated simply by the capital at the beginning; 
 others print quoted paragraphs in different type and attach 
 the name of the author. Where several paragraphs are 
 quoted, some writers repeat the inverted commas at the be- 
 ginning of each, but place the apostrophe after the last 
 only. In this respect usage varies greatly. 
 
 103. A quotation within a quotation takes single marks, 
 and one within the second, double marks again. 
 
 Ex. — "He proceeded with such ' masterly inactivity ' as is sel- 
 dom seen." 
 
 104. (2) To enclose the titles of books, and those of 
 magazines and papers, where italics are not used. 
 
 Note. — Crocker states that in examining The Atlantic, Nation, 
 Seribner^s Monthly, Harper's, Appletons' Magazine, Lippirveott's, 
 Popular Science Monthly, Galaxy, Eclectic, N. A. Review, 'New 
 Englander, London Quarterly, British Quarterly, Westminster 
 Review, Edinburgh Review, Contemporary Review, and The 
 Fortnightly Review, he found that thirteen of these use quotation- 
 marks, and four italics, in referring to the titles of books; eleven 
 use italics, and sis use quotation-marks, in referring to mag- 
 azines and papers. 
 
 105. (3) Matter within quotation-marks is to be punctu- 
 ated as if it were independent. 
 
26 Pit ACTIO AL RHETOBIG. 
 
 106. If an interrogation or an exclamation point is re- 
 quired at the close of a quotation, it is to be placed inside 
 the marks, when it refers to the quotation alone, and out- 
 side when it refers both to the quotation and to the rest of 
 the sentence. The other points, when coming at the end 
 of a sentence, are placed inside the quotation-marks. 
 
 Ex's. — Why do you sit here amid the sad surroundings of this 
 "Gods Acre"? 
 
 " When will you come ?" asked Walter. 
 
 " The treatment of the native servants in India by their English 
 masters is but another example of ' man's inhumanity to man.' " 
 
 In conclusion, it should be noted that punctuation is to 
 be used only as a matter of necessity. It is dependent, not 
 primaiy. The sentence that is so constructed as to need 
 the least punctuation in order clearly to be understood is, 
 other things being equal, the best sentence. "Punctua- 
 tion," says Kames, " may remove an ambiguity, but will 
 never produce that peculiar beauty which is perceived when 
 the sense comes out clearly and distinctly by means of a 
 happy arrangement." 
 
 106«. In criticising essays, this number will be used ta 
 indicate superfluous punctuation. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 USES OF ITALICS. 
 
 107. Oke of the errors most common to the young writer, 
 and especially to one of vivid imagination, is to underscore, 
 and thereby to italicize, too many words. The temptation 
 is constantly to trespass upon the domain of Elocution, and 
 to indicate beforehand all particular emphasis ; moreover, 
 to emphasize everything is to emphasize nothing. This 
 practice is ofEensive to the reader in two ways ; it belit- 
 tles his intelligence, and it irritates him by imposing arbi- 
 trary emphasis with which he may not agree. At the same 
 time, the use of italics is of the greatest importance in cer- 
 tain particular cases : — 
 
 108. (1) To distinguish foreign words, titles, and sen- 
 tences. This rule is invariable. 
 
 109. (2) To indicate the titles of magazines, papers, and 
 sometimes those of books. (See note under uses of Quota- 
 tion-marks, T 104.) 
 
 110. (3) Italics are frequently used to indicate the names 
 of ships, railway coaches, engines, etc. This usage extends 
 to any inanimate object having a peculiar individuality. 
 Quotation-marks are often used here instead. 
 
 111. (4) To Indicate side-heads and the titles of para- 
 graphs and sections. 
 
CHAPTEK VI. 
 PARAGRAPHING. 
 
 'No feature in tlie material dress of a composition re- 
 quires more constant and careful thought than does the con- 
 struction of logical paragraphs. One may become so famil- 
 iar with the principles of punctuation or capitalization as 
 to apply them almost without mental effort; but two prob- 
 lems in paragraphing are rarely, if CTer, exactly alike. The 
 paragraph consists of a group of sentences that are closely 
 related in thought. It is indicated by beginning the first 
 line a little to the right of the margin, and generally by a 
 wider space between it and the last paragraph than is left 
 between the lines of the paragraph itself. The object of 
 the paragraph is to inform the reader where the considera- 
 tion 9f any particular point begins and ends; it is, there- 
 fore, a material aid to clearness. 
 
 The fundamental ideas in the paragraph are tmity and 
 sequence. Its very nature forbids digressions and the in- 
 troduction of irrelevant matter. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 112. (1) Make each main division of the outline the sub- 
 ject of a paragraph. To the writer who has constructed a 
 good preliminary outline, the work of paragraphing is 
 simple and easy. Each main division of the outline gives 
 the subject of a distinct paragraph, so that the sentences 
 written under this head are simply to be grouped together, 
 and the paragraph is formed. Without an outline, how- 
 ever, the work of paragraphing becomes difficult, if not 
 impossible. 
 
 113. (3) Let the opening sentence indicate the subject of 
 the paragraph. This will often consist merely in piutting 
 
PARAQBAPHINO. 29 
 
 the outline heading into the form of a declarative sentence. 
 Skill should be used here to conceal the formal divisions. 
 Because a house must have a framework, it does not fol- 
 low that all or any of the timbers are to be visible from 
 the outside. " Art is to conceal art." 
 
 114. (3) Make the opening sentence sJiort. The attention 
 and the interest of the reader must be secured before he is 
 willing to wind through the mazes of a long sentence. 
 
 115. (4) Let the bearing of each sentence upon what 
 precedes be clear and positive. This end will be secured if 
 the outline is logical and complete. The smaller subdivi- 
 sions will often give the subjects of sentences under the 
 main head. 
 
 116. (5) Connect the sentences of the paragraph smoothly. 
 — This most important requisite can be secured only by 
 thoughtful practice. To master the art of smooth connec- 
 tion is to insu!re an elegant style. Disconnectedness is to 
 be avoided on the one side, and pleonasm on the other. 
 
 The Cumulative can-lunctiaQB — "and," "also," "a.gaiii," 
 "besides," "likewise," "further," etc. — connect a new 
 statement when its bearing is similar to that of the preced- 
 ing. 
 
 The Adversative conjunctions — "but," "still," "only," 
 "yet," "however," "nevertheless," etc. — indicate the mu- 
 tual relation of consecutive sentences. 
 
 The Illative conjunctions — " therefore," " accordingly," 
 "hence," "consequently," etc. — express a relation of effect 
 or consequence. 
 
 While these distinctions appear so simple as almost' to 
 need no mention, it is well, before using a conjunction of 
 either class, to apply to the clause in question the tests here 
 given. 
 
 In some cases connectives are purposely omitted. This 
 is admissible especially where one sentence iterates or ex- 
 plains its predecessor, where the statements are cumulative, 
 and where a statement of consequence is foreseen from 
 the statement of the antecedent. Campbell remarks that 
 
30 PRACTICAL RHETORIO. 
 
 " connectiTes can best be omitted when the connection is 
 either yery close or very distant." 
 
 117. In addition to the regular connectives, and often 
 as desirable substitutes for them, are to be noticed such 
 phrases as " even though," " in this case," " it follows," etc. 
 
 118. Another valuable substitute for connectives is the 
 use of an inverted form at the beginning of a sentence. 
 For example: instead of writing, "And he never heard the 
 sound," etc., we may have, " That sound he never heard." 
 This method of securing connection generally involves a 
 repetition of some word or idea from the previous sentence. 
 
 119. (6) Make each paragraph cumulative and progres- 
 sive. Every paragraph is, in one sense, a distinct composi- 
 tion; and the general principles that apply to the develop- 
 ment of a narrative or an argument apply equally well to 
 the paragraph. (See Suggestion 7, under "Oral Dis- 
 course.") 
 
 119a. In criticising essays, this number will be used to 
 indicate superfluous paragraphing. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF PAEAGEAPH. 
 
 120. As to the different methods exemplified in existing 
 paragraphs, D. J. Hill makes the following comments on 
 examples taken from Angus's " Hand-book of the English 
 Tongue:" 
 
 (1) Sometimes an expanded sentence constitutes a para- 
 graph. 
 
 ^^ Prayer is an action and a state of intercourse and desire 
 eooaotly opposite to this charaoter of anger. Prayer is an action 
 of hkeness to the Holy Ghost, the spirit of gentleness and love — 
 like simplicity, an imitation of the holy Jesus whose spirit is 
 meek, up to the greatness of the biggest example ; and a conformity 
 to God, whose anger is always just, and marches slowly, and is 
 without transportation and often hindered, and never hasty, and 
 full of mercy. Prayer is the peace of our spirit, the stillness of 
 our thoughts, the evenness of recollection, the seat of meditation, 
 the rest of our cares, and the calm of our tempest. Prayer is 
 the issue of a quiet mind, of untroubled thoughts; it is the daugh- 
 ter of charity, and the sister of meekness. . . . Anger is a per- 
 
PARAGRAPEINQ. 31 
 
 feet alienation of the mind from prayer, and therefore is contrary 
 to that attention which presents our prayers in a right line to 
 God." — Jeremy Taylor. 
 
 (2) Sometimes a general statement is followed by a specific, 
 and that iy an individual, instance. 
 
 "[General] Music among those who were styled the chosen 
 people was a religious art. [Specific] The Songs of Zion, which 
 we have reason to think were in high repute among the courts of 
 Eastern monarchs, were nothing else but psalms that adored or 
 celebrated the Supreme Being. [Individual] The greatest con- 
 queror in this holy nation, after the manner of the old Grecian 
 lyrics, did not only compose the words of his divine odes, but 
 generally set them to music himself; after which, his works, 
 though they were consecrated to the tabernacle, became the 
 national entertainment, as weU as the devotion of his people." — 
 Addison. 
 
 (3) Sometimes the hint of each successive sentence is 
 
 suggested by a previous word. This is liable to degenerate 
 
 into tedious expansion. 
 
 "The other sort of men were the politicians. To them, who 
 had reflected on the subject but little or not at all, religion was 
 in itself no object of love or hatred. They disbelieved it, and that 
 was all. Neutral with regard to that object, they took the order 
 which in the present state of things might best answer their pur- 
 poses. They soon found that they could not do ■wit'hout philoso- 
 phers; and the philosophers soon made them sensible that the 
 destruction of religion was to supply them with means of con- 
 quest, first at home and then abroad. " — Burke. 
 
 (4) Sometimes the theme is stated, and then proved or 
 
 illustrated. 
 
 "[Theme] When most disguised and depressed, the wisdom of 
 the gospel has been modifying our philosophy and teaching a 
 loftier system of its own. [Illustrations and Proofs] A Howard, 
 sounding and circumnavigating the ocean of human misery, is 
 only an obedient agent of its philanthropy. A Clarkson and a 
 Wilberforce have only given utterance to its tender and righteous 
 appeals for the slave. A Raikes, a Bell, and a Lancaster have 
 simply remembered its long-neglected injunction, 'Suffer httle 
 children to come unto me.' " — Harris. 
 
 (5) The theme is sometimes proved by showing the results 
 of the contrary. 
 
 " [Theme] I am fully persuaded that one of the best springs of 
 generous and worthy action is to have generous and worthy 
 thoughts of ourselves. [The contrary] Whoever has a mean 
 
32 PBAGTICAL ItUETOMIC. 
 
 opinion of tlie dignity of his nature will act in no higher a rank 
 than ho has allotted himself in his own estimation. [Besult of 
 this contrary] If he considers his being as circumscribed by the 
 uncertain term of a few years, his designs will be contracted into 
 the same narrow space he imagines is to bound his existence." 
 
 EXEECISE IS PAEAGEAPHING. 
 
 Note. — Arrange the following group of detached statements 
 into three logical paragraphs, first constructing an outline giving 
 the subject of each. 
 
 Clio was regarded by the ancients as the eldest ■ daughter 
 of Memory. A talent for history may be said to be born with 
 us. History has always ranked among the highest arts. In a 
 certain sense aU men are historians. History lies at the root of 
 all science. Every memory is full of annals. History never 
 stood higher than at the present. History is the earliest expres- 
 sion of what can be called Thought. Our speech is curiously his- 
 torical. Of old, History was directed mainly toward the gratifica^ 
 tion of our ideas of the wonderful. The Sibylline books, though 
 old, are not the oldest. Most men speak only to narrate. All 
 nations have some History, whether they have prophecy or not. 
 Once, History was a minstrel, now she is a schoolmistress. De- 
 prived of Narrative, conversation would languish. History has 
 been written with feather-pictures and with wampum-belts. We 
 do nothing but enact History; we say little but recite it. Every 
 man of every tribe and people lives between two eternities. All 
 inquiring minds gather around the foot-stool of History. Really, 
 all knowledge is only recorded experience. Every man wars 
 against oblivion. Poetry, Divinity, Politics, Physics, have each 
 their adherents and adversaries. Every man tries to unite him- 
 self with the Future and the Past. 
 
 EXERCISES IN FORM. 
 
 Note. — The following exercises are taken from actual essays. 
 The appended numbers refer to the corresponding principles. It 
 is suggested that the sentences, with the reference numbers ob- 
 literated, be cut up into slips and given to pupils for correction at 
 the board. See special index on page 43. 
 
 1. "As we were now near Schenectady we began to collect 
 our i^arcels preparatory to landing." (70.) 
 
 2. "Father suggested that it would be cold down in the 
 gulley as they called it." (65, 101.) 
 
EXERCISES. 33 
 
 3. "We were up earlier than usual that morning and 
 everyone knew that Young America had an important 
 project in view." (55.) 
 
 4. "Ed. was enthusiastic over some hollows in the rock 
 which he declared to be petrified Indian tracks." (101.) 
 
 5. " However we trudged along without the gun taking 
 the left fork of the ravine." (54, 65.) 
 
 6. "I am not old, I shall never be old, but my step is 
 not so firm as it was forty years ago." (42.) 
 
 7. " Our leader was a brave and careful man and with 
 three companies of soldiers we felt safe." (55.) 
 
 8. " The night was sultry and we younger members of 
 the party did not wrap ourselves in blankets till a late 
 hour." (55.) 
 
 9. "We buried him by the side of William Atherton and 
 left a stone to mark the spot." (73.) 
 
 10. " Ofi to the left of these on the hill side we perceived 
 the surface to be dotted with huge boulders." (65, 98.) 
 
 11. " Here he foimd one of the finest specimens of the 
 Spirifer Arenosus that I have ever seen." (108.) 
 
 12. " The summer had come in all its oppressiveness and 
 I had determined to set out with three companions for the 
 South Woods." (55, 65.) 
 
 13. "Through all her years of hard service she was patient 
 and faithful and, in her diary, she speaks of the Queen 
 with respect and affection." (42.) 
 
 14. " Her mother taught her the pater Noster and the 
 Ave Maria and she was quite apt in repeating them." (55, 
 108.) 
 
 15. " She thought that she was obeying God and she 
 considered His commands of more importance than those 
 of her parents." (55.) 
 
 16. " She possessed great capabilities for enthusiasm im- 
 agination and zeal." (57, 64.) 
 
34 PBAGTICAL BHETOniG. 
 
 17. " For during his ministry in order that he mighb not 
 he a burden to his brethren he often engaged in tent mak- 
 ing." (65, 98.) 
 
 18. " His reserve was an unfortunate trait for by it he 
 often lost friends." (55.) 
 
 19. " He was early taught the importance of care in se- 
 lecting his books and in his leisure moments he eagerly 
 studied Milton, Shakespeare, Tennyson and such writers." 
 (43, 64.) 
 
 30. " Till at last he was called home by the Master whom 
 he had served so long and well." (68.) 
 
 21. " The religious improvement of the poor and the 
 openly vicious, had been greatly neglected." (106a.) 
 
 23. "They have become so esthetic in their religions 
 opinions that they look with disdain upon these uncouth 
 attempts." (73.) 
 
 23. " The apparent lack of reverence in their services, is 
 a serious objection." (106ff.) 
 
 34. " A few miles farther on a cry is heard and the sig- 
 nal is given to stop." (55, 70.) 
 
 35. " They are placed but a few feet from each other and 
 look like old railroad embankments." (73.) 
 
 36. " In some places they are leveled to the ground in 
 others they are apparently as perfect as when first thrown 
 up." (43.) 
 
 37. " Here on the North side are several lines of en- 
 trenchments deep ditches with sides nearly perpendicular." 
 (11, 51, 65.) 
 
 38. "The tale is a creation of the author's mature years 
 and engaged his sympathies and his mind completely dur- 
 ing its writing." (73.) 
 
 39. "Dr. Monette had incurred the displeasure of the 
 Marquiss brother." (91.) 
 
 30. "Darney is recognivicd and is thrown into prison 
 by the rabble as an aristocrat." (73.) 
 
EXERCISES. 35 
 
 31. " Thus it is with human character, when it is per- 
 fected and developed it becomes beautiful and noble." (43.) 
 
 33. "He does not gain the respect of his fellow men; 
 but rather embitters his own life." (72.) 
 
 33. " Born in the State that produced the Father of his 
 country he loved that State more than his country." (10, 
 27«, 54.) 
 
 34. "Notwithstanding her timidity Miss Burney had a 
 great desire for distinction and as she had confidence in 
 her powers she wished to have her writings appear before 
 the public." (42, 65, 73.) 
 
 35. " The quietness and quaintness of the town are re- 
 markable, all appears to be harmony." (37.) 
 
 36. " Their friendliness to each other is as general as to 
 strangers, and taken altogether it stands as a monument to 
 right living." (65.) 
 
 37. "About five miles South East of S and one mile 
 
 West of the village of J is a most beautiful valley." 
 
 (98, .11.) 
 
 38. "Beyond are seen high, rocky cliffs covered with 
 shrubs and ivy, a place where the Botanist finds much to 
 interest him." (42, 27a.) 
 
 39. " Last in the chain but not least in beauty is Green 
 lake." (10, 49.) 
 
 40. "At the South Western end of the valley is a for- 
 mation called the Palisades." (11, 98, 101.) 
 
 41. " The scene in the autumn is most beautiful, for 
 when the frost has begun its work on. the foliage the lake 
 is like an emerald set in gold." (42.) 
 
 42. " As a Summer resort it should be visited by all, es- 
 pecially those who are interested in the natural sciences, for 
 it offers an inviting field to the Geologist." (8, 27a.) 
 
 43. "Indeed the points are so regular for the first ten 
 miles that they have been named from one to ten respec- 
 tively." (66, 65.) 
 
36 PRACTICAL BHETORIC. 
 
 44. "■ These trees were at one time covered with a lux- 
 uriant forest growth and even now they produce considerable 
 quantities of pine." (55.) 
 
 45. "The handsome building on the hill is the mecca 
 toward which hundreds of students annually turn." (8.) 
 
 46. "A days trip up the St. Johns river is an experience 
 long to be remembered." (91.) 
 
 47. "We rode all day in a Southerly direction." (11.) 
 
 48. "Yonder, upon the huge trunk of a tree is an alliga- 
 tor the pleasant inhabitant of Southern waters." (11, 51.) 
 
 49. " But there is one serious drawback ; the difficulty 
 of getting about." (51.) 
 
 60. " The first question that arises in the mind of the 
 observer is this cannot this valuable land be reclaimed by 
 drainage." (33, 39.) 
 
 51. " There too may be seen along by the side of the 
 house the piles of wood ready for Winter use." (8, 65.) 
 
 53. " But the old stone like many people is seedy only 
 in appearance." (65.) 
 
 53. " He is astonished, and when, upon reading, he 
 learns that they have remained unchanged for 300 years, 
 he marvels." (43, 63.) 
 
 64. "The doctor is a Master Mind dispensing comfort 
 and consolation with his medicines." (37a, 64.) 
 
 55. "The village has no Parsonage because it has no 
 clergyman." (37a.) 
 
 66. " But whether our citizens abroad should not rather 
 glory in the cause which allows such a state of affairs than 
 blush at ihefact is not so certain." (107.) 
 
 57. "Germany and Prance are mutually fearful, each 
 fearing that the other may take the lion's share." (107.) 
 
 58. " Besides this the Chinese empire has a high regard 
 for labor and it is said that a slave is not known in China " 
 i&b, 55.) 
 
EXERCISES. 37 
 
 59. " It sometimes happens that a crop is pronounced a 
 success when if some other grain had been planted instead 
 the returns would have been greatly increased." (55, 65.) 
 
 60. "A fire-extinguisher is a dangerous plaything for 
 children, but on this account it is not discarded, the chil- 
 dren are rather taught to let it alone or to use it at the 
 proper time." (42. ) 
 
 61. " The battle is not always to the brave even though 
 they be the stronger, for Fortune often strangely directs 
 this game of chance." (42, 67.) 
 
 62. " It is thirty miles west of Elmira ; and is sur- 
 rounded on two sides by high hills." (72.) 
 
 63. " The chair and plough handle factory does a thriv- 
 ing business.'' (98.) 
 
 64. " The grand councils of the six nations were held 
 here until after the revolution when the meeting place 
 was changed." (19, 55.) 
 
 65. " In conclusion let me say that a few weeks spent 
 at this delightful spot will well repay the visitor." (65.) 
 
 66. " On the eastern side of these streets are the privates 
 tents." (91.) 
 
 67. " It was at the time when Napoleon I was emperor 
 of France." (9, 31.) 
 
 68. " It became the masters supreme delight to find, ac- 
 cidentally, some of Victor's productions." (91.) 
 
 69. " No other work has done so much toward abolish- 
 ing the gaUey prison system as has Les Miserables." (104.) 
 
 70. " The characters are not numerous yet there are 
 enough of them to give variety without burdening the 
 memory to retain them." (55. ) 
 
 71. "Near them live Godfrey Cass now a respected and 
 wealthy man, and Silas Warner no longer the miser of 
 former years." (65.) 
 
 73. " Posterity will chiefly remember him for his active 
 part in the anti slavery movement." (98.) 
 
38 PSACTIOAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 73. " His denunciations were most violent ; and his 
 eulogies most extravagant." (73.) 
 
 74. " This objection is not valid, because, no man has a 
 right to engage in such a business." (106a.) 
 
 75. "Near by in Beacon street a similar scene is enact- 
 ed." (65.) 
 
 76. " A Democrat in politics he favors civil service re- 
 form." (54.) 
 
 77. "At last I reluctantly withdrew to my room for a 
 nights rest." (66, 91.) 
 
 78. " They are controlled wholly by their feelings, they 
 never exercise their reason. '' (37.) 
 
 79. "If not, then the custom is not barbarous for we 
 have shown that the penalty is commensurate with the 
 crime of murder." (42.) 
 
 80. " How much more eagerly do we seek to become ac- 
 quainted with the domestic life of the people." (35.) 
 
 81. " He brings before us the domestic life of the freed- 
 men ; and describes the ancient festivals with great vivid- 
 ness." (73.) 
 
 83. " He finds, that, at the recent battle with the Cheta, 
 his life was saved by the poet." (106a.) 
 
 83. " This is also true in the case of the brick-carrier, 
 he climbs ladders walks along trembling scaffolds and is 
 constantly in danger." (43, 73.) 
 
 84. " Ten years of sabbaths is a life of seventy years ; 
 surely, the question of how to spend this time is an impor- 
 tant one." (35.) 
 
 85. " But when- one is hard pressed is he not excusable 
 for thus employing a few hours ?" (70.) 
 
 86. " How often do we find that the poor boy surpasses 
 his richer fellow in the race of life." (35.) 
 
 87. "With this ambition was united a will that uncon- 
 trolled, made him stubborn and disagreeable." (65.) 
 
EXERCISES. 39 
 
 88. " Just before the story opens, the present lord had 
 succeeded his brother as marquis of lossie." (9.) 
 
 89. " The life of Peter the great ' is intensely interest- 
 ing." (10.) 
 
 90. " Thqugh a navy is well called a sea army ; yet in a 
 political sense it differs from an army." (6?.) 
 
 91. " But what of the navy of the United States ; how 
 does it compare with those of other nations ?" (33.) 
 
 92. "So long as politicians vote log-rolling appropria- 
 tions . . . is it any wonder that the laying of our Atlantic 
 coast under tribute is a day dream of voung foreign naval 
 officers?" (98,101.) 
 
 93. " His labors arc so effectual that laws are passed for 
 the suppression of the liquor traffic ; and he becomes an 
 object of hatred to liquor men." (55.) 
 
 94. " He often employs simile with good effect, as when 
 he says 'there are some hours to mortals, when great 
 thoughts float upon them like the light of stars.'" (15, 
 40, 46.) 
 
 95. "It leads one gradually to the belief that he should 
 ' Practise then the rule an angel might in Heaven.' " (15.) 
 
 96. "The chief objections to the Salvation Army are 
 these. They parade the streets etc. etc." (27a, 39.) 
 
 97. " Contrary to some of Dickens works, the plot is 
 very simple." (91-) 
 
 98. "Alexander Pope has said: 'Order is Heaven's first 
 law.'" (61.) 
 
 1 99. "The objects of punishment are threefold . to pro- 
 tect society ; to reform the offender and to prevent him 
 from committing like crimes again." (45, 64, 75.) 
 
 100. " But we would ask them, if they would not con- 
 sider a physician a fool who should do thus." (106a.) 
 
 101. " This is very true but how does that palliate the 
 offence?" (55.) 
 
40 PBAOTIOAL RHETORIC. 
 
 103. " While this is undeniably a fact let us look at the 
 results." (67.) 
 
 103. "As its habits changed its limbs changed to suit 
 the habit." (73.) 
 
 104. " Phineas Fletcher the son of this Quaker is rep- 
 resented as the biographer of the sketch." (51.) 
 
 105. " There were two buildings of some importance in 
 Seven Oaks a factory, and a poor-house." (45.) 
 
 106. " How much more needful is an educational quali- 
 fication in those who direct our schools." (35.) 
 
 107. "The incidents, related in this story, occurred 
 during the Eevolution." (106a.) 
 
 108. "At this the questioner exclaimed 'Oh, then, you 
 are a native of England.' " (35, 61.) 
 
 109. " The following are the chief incidents, etc. etc." 
 (38.) 
 
 ItO. "Both of these stories are found in the 'Gesta 
 Romanorum.'" (108.) 
 
 111. "Instead of a generous unselfish person we find a 
 hard hearted avaricious Jew." (57, 70.) 
 
 113. " The following are the proofs first the power of 
 monopolies second over-taxation third party spirit." (38, 
 44, 66.) 
 
 113. " Mr. President these arguments are not relevant." 
 (53.) 
 
 114. "Heredity or the law of descent is now occupying 
 the attention of many of our thinkers." (56.) 
 
 115. " Bum rum rum is the root of all these evils." (59. ) 
 
 116. " 'Robinson R. J.,' called the clerk." (69.) 
 
 117. " The population of the city according to the 
 census of 1880 was 63570." (63, 65.) 
 
 118. " The man who hesitates is lost." (71.) 
 
 119. "Jew and Gentile Caucasian and Mongolian are 
 alike welcome." (60.) 
 
EXERCISES. 41 
 
 120. "Unless this can be accomplished all is lost." (67.) 
 
 121. "Asthy day is so shall thy strength be." (73.) 
 123. " The subject is discussed under three heads what 
 
 to read how to read and when to read." (45, 75.) 
 
 123. " Italics are used in writing the names of ships as. 
 
 Great Eastern Dolphin, etc. (46, 57.) 
 124 "Again the gate is opened, this time a youth looking 
 
 wistfully backward passes through." (42.) 
 
 125. " To-day America's fayorite general seems to have 
 received a new lease of life." (66.) 
 
 126. " When Innocent III became pope, he determined 
 to destroy the sect." (31.) 
 
 127. " Having found an excuse for the war they began 
 zealously to prosecute it." (54.) 
 
 128. " It was at a time when dame nature seemed to be 
 ' putting her best foot forward.' " (12.) 
 
 129. " Oh mistaken man all these will not avail thee." 
 (18, 35, 53.) 
 
 130. " it is sad, to think how many victims are claimed 
 by the rum-power every day." (18, 106a.) 
 
 131. " Bought of Hosmer and Estes 
 "three gallons of molasses 
 
 " one barrel of flour 
 
 "five pounds of crackers." (20, 38, 44.) 
 
 132. " The present incumbent is Prof. J. N. Eobertson, 
 LLD." (29, 52.) 
 
 133. " How noble ! how majestic ! how serene was his 
 bearing!" (36.) 
 
 134. " The general made the following demands : first, 
 the surrender of the city, second, the payment of a sub- 
 sidy of $5,000,000, third, the delivery of the leaders for exe- 
 cution." (44.) 
 
 135. " So long as our city governments are in the hands 
 of ringS) so long as the whiskey interest retains its power^ 
 
42 PB ACTIO AL RHETORIG. 
 
 just so long will our cities remain sores upon the body politic/' 
 (47, 83.) 
 
 136. " Camp X. L. was situated upon a small island in 
 the middle of the St. Lawrence." (101.) 
 
 137. "'I say, fellows,' said he, 'what's the programme 
 for to-morrow.' " (33, 106. ) 
 
 138. " ' Well it is of no use to cry over spilt milk,' said 
 he." (66.) 
 
 139. "We floated among the islands ; told stories ; sang 
 songs ; gathered water-lilies, and caught now and then a 
 fish." (73.) 
 
 140. " And so on entering the school I had written upon 
 the board a list of rules." (65.) 
 
 141. "After rowing from point to point we anchored 
 and were soon engaged in fishing." (72.) 
 
 142. " During my recent trip to Philadelphia occurred 
 the following incident." (38.) 
 
 143. "Finally Johnson yielded ; but compelled Clemens 
 to sign a written statement of the circumstances." (72.) 
 
 144. "Accordingly we took passage for a little out-of- 
 the-way place known as Forest Station." (65.) 
 
 145. " The scenery along the river as far as Hoffmans 
 Ferry is beautiful and picturesque." (91.) 
 
 146. " But the umbrella was broken in the operation and 
 the fish were all dead before we reached home." (55.) 
 
 147. " The inmates were more refined than we expected 
 to find on a canal boat." (98.) 
 
 148. "He endeavored not to destroy but to reform the 
 institution." (49.) 
 
 149. "He accordingly repaired to Washington to help 
 secure the passage of such a bill." (74.) 
 
SPECIAL INDEX TO PART I. 
 
 The following index will be helpful to both teachers and pupils in 
 applying to the exercises the suggestions given on page 3. Its titles 
 are included in the general index of the work. 
 
 The figures refer to paragraph numbers on pp. 9-30. 
 
 GENEBAL. 
 
 Spacing 1 
 
 One underscore 2 
 
 Two underscores 3 
 
 Three underscores 4 
 
 Spelling in general 5 
 
 Foreign plurals, spelling of. 6 
 
 Superfluous punctuation 106a 
 
 Superfluous capitals 37a 
 
 Superfluous paragraph 119a 
 
 CAPITALS. 
 
 Academy, college, etc 35 
 
 Broken line 21 
 
 "Bible" 33 
 
 Compounds of proper and 
 
 common noun 26 
 
 Common joined to a proper 
 
 noun 10 
 
 Cardinal points 11 
 
 Deity, appellations of 14 
 
 Deity, appellations of, in gen- 
 eral 34 
 
 Events, important, etc 19 
 
 Firat word of a sentence. ... 7 
 General rule — permanent, 
 
 specific names 37 
 
 "Heaven" 33 
 
 "rand"0"— "0"as"Oh" 18 
 
 Items of a series 30 
 
 Name, permanent individual 37 
 Proper names and adjectives. 8 
 Proper adjectives, etc. — capi- 
 tal dropped 8a 
 
 Personification, strong 13 
 
 Quotations, direct formal 15 
 
 Subject, prominent words of. 17 
 
 Titles of ofBce, etc 9 
 
 Titles of books, chapters, etc. 16 
 
 Verse, line of 13 
 
 THE PBMOD. 
 
 Abbreviations, double, etc. .. 39 
 Complete declarative sen- 
 tences 38 
 
 Roman numerals 31 
 
 Titles and headings 30 
 
 THE INTBKBOGATION-POmT. 
 
 Complete direct questions. . . 33 
 
 In parentheses 84 
 
 Several questions — common 
 
 dependence 33 
 
 THE BXCLAMATION-POINT. 
 
 Interjections and emotional 
 
 expressions 35 
 
 Incomplete members 36 
 
 THE COLON. 
 
 Addition, expressions indi- 
 cating an 39 
 
 Enumeration, before a formal 38 
 Major divisions, compound 
 
 sentences 41 
 
 Members loosely connected. . 37 
 
 Quotations, long formal 40 
 
 THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 "As,"before 46 
 
 Connection, conditions of.. 43 
 Dependence, clauses of com- 
 mon 47 
 
 Informal enumeration, be- 
 fore 45 
 
 Major divisions, between 48 
 
 Members loosely connected.. 43 
 
 Particulars, between 44 
 
 THE COMMA. 
 
 Adjective modifying another 
 adjective 58 
 
44 
 
 PRACTICAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 Apposition, words in 51 
 
 Compound predicate 73 
 
 Correlative terms 73 
 
 Clearness, demanded for. ... 76 
 Compound sentence, short 
 
 members of 55 
 
 Dependent clauses — " if," 
 
 "until," etc 67 
 
 Equivalents, " or" intro- 
 ducing 56 
 
 Enumeration, informal .... 75 
 
 Figures, to separate 63 
 
 Logical subject, after 71 
 
 Negative clauses 49 
 
 Omissions 50 
 
 Participial clauses, absolute. 54 
 
 Pairs of words 60 
 
 Parenthetical words, etc. . . . 65 
 Quotations, before short for- 
 mal 61 
 
 Repeated words 59 
 
 Relative clauses not restric- 
 tive 68 
 
 Series, before the last of a. . 64 
 
 Surname, after a 69 
 
 Same parts of speech 57 
 
 Statistics and sums of money. 63 
 
 Transposed clauses 70 
 
 Titles, scholastic, to set off. . 53 
 
 "To," as "in order to." 74 
 
 Vocative words, etc 53 
 
 " Yes," " no," etc., at the be- 
 ginning 66 
 
 THE DASH. 
 
 Break, suspension, transition. 77 
 Dependence, common, on 
 
 final clause 83 
 
 Dialogue, parts of 84 
 
 Heterogeneous words or 
 
 ideas 86 
 
 Omission of letters 81 
 
 Parenthesis within parenthe- 
 ses , 83 
 
 Period, colon, etc., after 79 
 
 Repetitions, hesita.ting 80 
 
 Rhetorical pause 78 
 
 Series, extremes of a 85 
 
 THE PAEENTHESIS. 
 
 Approval, mai'ks of, etc 89 
 
 Expressions, inserted 87 
 
 Interrogation-marks, enclos- 
 ing 90 
 
 Punctuation within pai'enthe- 
 
 theses 88 
 
 THE APOSTBOPHB. 
 
 Omitted letters 93 
 
 Omitted syllables and words. 94 
 
 Omission of century in dates. 96 
 
 Plural of letters and figures. 95 
 
 Possessive case 91 
 
 Possessive phrase after ob- 
 ject 93 
 
 THE HYPHEN. 
 
 Broken line 97 
 
 Compound word 98 
 
 Diferesis, for 99 
 
 Syllabication 100 
 
 QUOTATION-MABKS. 
 
 Altered quotations 103 
 
 Books, titles of 104 
 
 Direct formal quotations. . . . 101 
 Quotation within a quotation. 103 
 Punctuation within a quota- 
 tion 105 
 
 Punctuation before the last 
 marks 106 
 
 ITALICS. 
 
 Foreign words 108 
 
 Papers, magazines 109 
 
 Peculiar individuality 110 
 
 Superfluous italics 107 
 
 Side-heads, etc Ill 
 
 PARAGKAPHINa. 
 
 Connect smoothly 116 
 
 Connective phrases 117 
 
 Cumulative form 119 
 
 Inversion, connective 118 
 
 Outline, advantage of 113 
 
 Opening sentence, introduc- 
 tory 113 
 
 Opening sentence, short 114 
 
 Reverse bearing 115 
 
PART II. 
 THE STYLE. 
 
 mTEODUCTION. 
 
 The term "style" doubtless conveys to the average 
 mind but a vague idea. Many who recognize the difEer- 
 ence between a good and a bad literary style, when read- 
 ing or listening to a production, would be at a loss to state 
 just what constitutes either the one or the other. Text- 
 book definitions of style, like those of poetry, are not want- 
 ing; yet grave objections may be found to most of these. 
 We quote a few: 
 
 " The peculiar manner in which a writer expresses his 
 thoughts by means of words is called style." — Quackenbos. 
 
 "The secret of good style in writing is, that words be 
 used purely in their representative character, and not at all 
 for their own sake." — Hudson. 
 
 " Style, in my sense of the word, is a peculiar recasting 
 and heightening, under a certain spiritual excitement, a 
 certain pressure of emotion, of what a man has to say, in 
 such a manner as to add dignity and distinction to it." — 
 Matthew Arnold. 
 
 "The best definitions of style make it consist in the 
 unconscious but unavoidable and indispensable smack of 
 individuality in the writer." — Bardeen. 
 
 "The right choice and collocation of words; the best 
 arrangement of clauses in a sentence; the proper order of 
 its principal and subordinate propositions, the judicious 
 use of simile, metaphor, and other figures of speech; and 
 the euphonious sequence of syllables." — Herbert Spencer. 
 
46 PRACTICAL BHETORIO. 
 
 The definition last quoted, though not stated formally 
 by Mr. Spencer as such, will be found the most definite 
 and practical of the list. Laying aside those finer in- 
 dividual peculiarities that must be acquired outside of the 
 schoolroom, by general reading and otherwise, all rhet- 
 oricians admit that a good English style must have cer- 
 tain positive qualities. These qualities have been variously 
 named and classified. Perhaps the most common classifi- 
 cation is as follows: Clearness, Force, Precision, Purity, 
 Propriety, Unity, and Euphony, This is not a strictly 
 logical division. One of these qualities often shades into 
 another, and two often cover the same ground. It is 
 doubtful, however, whether the recent attempts to formu- 
 late a more logical division are to be regarded as success- 
 ful. 
 
 The lack of accuracy in the common classification is 
 not sufficient to be a material hindrance in its practical 
 application. "We shall therefore take up these requisites in 
 the order already given, calling attention, in detail, to 
 cases where their demands are identical, ^nd giving practi- 
 cal suggestions and exercises under each. Rhetoric, least 
 of all sciences, admits of dogmatic statement. In view of 
 this fact, the principles found in the ensuing sections are 
 stated merely as suggestions. There are individual cases, 
 perhaps, where each may not be found valid. Common- 
 sense and a due consideration of the circumstances of the 
 individual case are presupposed. For the same reason, the 
 altered forms of the exercises used for illustration are called 
 "improved" rather than corrected forms. There are, 
 doubtless, cases where other methods of treatment would 
 produce equally good results. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 CLEARNESS. 
 
 The primary aim, in clearness especially, as well as in 
 the other requisites of good style, is that of economizing 
 the reader's attention. "We quote from Spencer's admira- 
 ble essay: "A reader or listener has, at each moment, but 
 a limited amount of mental power available. To recognize 
 and interpret the symbols presented to him requires part 
 of this power; to arrange and combine the images pre- 
 sented requires a farther part; and only that part which 
 remains can be used for realizing the thought conveyed. 
 Hence, the more time and attention it takes to receive and 
 understand each sentence, the less time and attention can 
 be given to the contained idea, and the less vividly will that 
 idea be conceived." * 
 
 To secure clearness, it is not enough that a sentence 
 be so constructed that it shall convey to the reader or 
 hearer but one probable meaning, nor so that its meaning 
 depends upon its punctuation. What is probable to one 
 mind may not be probable to another. By reading and 
 reflection the writer becomes so thoroughly conversant with 
 his theme that he is liable, unconsciously, to base his un- 
 derstanding of a sentence on some underlying and unex- 
 pressed idea; forgetting that the casual reader or hearer, 
 being unfamiliar with the underlying idea, may not grasp 
 the meaning. The only safe rule is, as far as possible, so 
 to construct a sentence that it can have but one meaning. 
 
 * "Philosopliy of Style," p. 5. 
 
48 PRACTICAL RHETOBIO. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 121. The most common violation of clearness is found in 
 the ambiguotis use of the demonstrative pronoun, in either 
 the nominative or the oblique cases. A sentence should be 
 so constructed that there can be no doubt as to what is the 
 antecedent of each demonstrative. 
 
 Original.— " Her home was near the Tillage church, and this 
 seems to have had great influence over her religious character." 
 
 Improved. — Her home was near the village church, a circum- 
 stance which seems to have had great influence over her religious 
 character. 
 
 122. Construct the sentence so that there can le no doubt 
 as to what is the antecedent of each relative. 
 
 Original. — " Unlike the Quakers of our day, he recognizes no 
 good in any one that he cannot see." 
 
 Improved. — Unlike the Quakers of our day, he recognizes no 
 good in any one unless it can be seen. 
 
 123. Use " that " wherever the relative cannot be divided 
 into a demonstrative and a conjunction ("and he," "and 
 they," etc.); in the latter case use "who" or "which," as 
 the case may be. This principle may be violated for the 
 sake of euphony, when there is no danger of ambiguity. 
 It is not sufficient to make the distinction merely by punc- 
 tuation. 
 
 Original. — "The provisions of the new city charter which re- 
 quire the approval of the legislature await its assembling." 
 
 Improved. — The provisions of the new city charter that require 
 the approval of the legislature await its assembling. 
 
 124. Place the adverbs " only" and " alone" immediately 
 before the words that they modify, or as nearly in that posi- 
 tion as euphony allows, without violating clearness. It is 
 wise, also, to avoid placing " only" between two emphatic 
 words and to avoid using " only" where " alone" can be 
 used instead. 
 
 Original. — " A man can only attain to distinction in one line 
 by devoting his whole life to that line." 
 
 Improved. — A man can attain to distinction in one line only by 
 devoting his whole life to that line. 
 
 Original. — " Virtue only gains the reward at last." 
 
 Improved. — Virtue alone gains the reward at last. 
 
CLEARNESS. 49 
 
 125. Always place the correlative conjunctions "not 
 only — lut also" before the same parts of speech. 
 
 Original.—" M.a,j these words not only be spoken to the living, 
 but to the dead." 
 
 Improved. — May these words be spoken, not only to the living, 
 but to the dead. 
 
 126. Be careful to place such expressions as "at least," 
 "always," and "at all events," where their relation to the 
 rest of the sentence will ie clear. In most cases, they 
 should come immediately before the words they modify. 
 
 Original. — " The street demonstrations of the Salvation Army 
 at least are as lawful as those of the average political organiza- 
 tion." 
 
 Improved. — The street demonstrations of the Salvation Army 
 are at least as lawful as those of the average pohtical organiza- 
 tion. 
 
 127. Avoid the tcse of verbal nouns wherever euphony 
 permits. They make, at best, but a clumsy construction, 
 and are in danger of being mistaken for participles. The 
 demands of clearness and of euphony are here often identi- 
 cal. 
 
 Original. — " It seems to me that woman's seeking to vote, and 
 her maintaining her right to vote, place her in too conspicuous a 
 position. " 
 
 Improved. — It seems to me that, in seeking to vote, and in 
 maintaining her right to vote, woman places herself in too con- 
 spicuous a position. 
 
 128. Xeep tvords and clauses that are grammatically con- 
 nected as close together as possible. 
 
 Original. — "Wereadof the able general teaching classes of boys 
 at his own home whom he had himself rescued from the gutter." 
 
 Improved. — We read of the able general teaching at his own 
 home classes of boys whom he had rescued from the gutter. 
 
 129. Repeat the subject, or a 2uord relating thereto, when 
 the omission would violate clearness. Obscurity is especially 
 liable to occur after a relative standing as a subject, and 
 when there is but one subject for several verbs. 
 
 Oi'iginal. — ' ' He claims to be working for the temperance party, 
 which is really being injured by his action, and is unwilling that 
 any one else should take his place." 
 
 Improved. — He claims to be working for the temperance 
 4 
 
50 PBAOTIOAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 party, which is really being injured by his action, and he is un- 
 willing that any one else should take his place. 
 
 130. Repeat the relative when it is the subject of several 
 
 verbs. 
 
 Original. — ' ' His eloquence was not that of a Cicero, after whose 
 orations people would depart only to praise the orator, but rather 
 of a Demosthenes." 
 
 Improved. — His eloquence was not that of a Cicero, after whose 
 orations people would depart only to praise the orator, but rather 
 that of a Demosthenes. 
 
 131. When a comparative is followed by "than," the 
 thing compared must aliuays be excluded from the class of 
 things toith which it is compared, by the use of "otlier" or 
 some such toord. 
 
 Original. — "No English poet has ever equalled Shakespeare 
 in his portrayal of character." 
 
 Improved. — No other English poet has ever equalled Shake- 
 speare in his portrayal of character. 
 
 132. Tlie superlative degree in comparison must be used 
 
 only of objects in the same class. 
 
 Original. — "Gordon was the bravest of all the other generals." 
 Improved. — Gordon was the bravest of all the generals. 
 
 133. Repeat the article and its accompanying adjective, 
 if any, before the second of two connected noions, when the 
 nouns refer to different objects. 
 
 Original. — "The religious training of the poor and openly 
 vicious had been greatly neglected." 
 
 Improved. — The religious training of the poor and the openly 
 vicious had been greatly neglected. 
 
 134. Do not put before a possessive an adjective belonging 
 to the thing possessed. 
 
 Original.— "They sat listening to the silvery bell's note in the 
 distance." 
 
 Improved.— Thej sat listening to the bell's silvery note in the 
 distance. . 
 
 135. Place the participle so that there can be no doubt as 
 to ivhat ioord it modifies. 
 
 Original. — " I saw your friend Jones this morning when I was 
 in Brooklyn walking down Fulton Street." 
 
 Improved. — While in Brooklyn this morning I saw your friend 
 Jones walking down Fulton Street. 
 
CLEARNESS. 51 
 
 136. Where the context allows more than one meaning to 
 a participial phrase, resolve the phrase into a clause. 
 
 Original. — " Seeing his friend in the audience, he determined 
 to play his part through." 
 
 Improved. — When he saw his friend, etc. ; or, AltJvmgh he saw, 
 etc. ; or, Because he saw, etc. 
 
 137. Repeat the preposition after an intervening con- 
 junction, especially if a verb and its object intervene. 
 
 Original. — " It has ever been the policy of our Government to 
 refrain from foreign acquisitions, and train the people to depend 
 upon themselves." 
 
 Improved. — It has ever been the policy of our Government to 
 refrain from foreign acquisitions, and to train the people to de- 
 pend upon themselves. 
 
 138. Distinguish the infinitive of purpose from the mere 
 sign of the infinitive mode by using the phrase " in order 
 to," or the finite form introduced by " that." 
 
 Original. — " I intend to call at my office, to give my secretary 
 some instructions, and to go from there to the station." 
 
 Improved. — I intend to call at my office in order to give my 
 secretary some instructions, and to go from there to the station. 
 
 139. Place the word "not " directly in connection with 
 the word or words expressing the idea denied. 
 
 Original. — "No objection is made to the man, but to his 
 methods." 
 
 Improved. — Objection is made, not to the man, but to his 
 methods. 
 
 140. Avoid employing a universal subject with a negative 
 predicate for a partial subject with a positive predicate. 
 This is only an especially important form of the last prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 Original. — "Every temperance man is not a prohibitionist." 
 Improved. — Not every temperance man is a prohibitionist. 
 
 141. Ill making comparisons, only such objects must be 
 taken as belong to the same category. 
 
 Original.— ''There has been, during the present century, no 
 better statesmanship than Bismarck." 
 
 Improved. — There has been, during the present century, no 
 better statesmanship than that of Bismarck. 
 
 142. Never use an adjective as the 'antecedent of a rela- 
 
53 PRACTICAL BHETOniC. 
 
 tive or demonstrative. The antecedent must be a substan- 
 tive of some form. 
 
 Original. — " He was kind, diligent, and very patient. This, 
 however, was frequently tried." 
 
 Improved. — He was Idnd, diUgent, and very patient; but his 
 patience was frequently tried. 
 
 143. Repeat the antecedent in some new form tvJiere there 
 is danger of ambiguity. This is especially necessary after 
 a negative, or where the relative is implied in a participle. 
 
 Original. — "He reported that the majority seemed to be 
 against me, for which I was not unprepared." 
 
 Improved. — He reported that the majority seemed to be against 
 me ; a statement for which I was not unprepared. 
 
 144. Unite only similar constructions by co-ordinate con- 
 junctions, so far as euphony permits. This applies most 
 frequently to the use of " neither'' and "nor." 
 
 Original. — "He neither reached this conclusion hastily nor 
 willingly." 
 
 Improved. — He reached this conclusion neither hastily nor 
 willingly. 
 
 145. Use "or" to express only alternation or disjunction. 
 
 Original. — "All her foreign business can be conducted as de- 
 sired, provided that, in so doing, she harms no other nation, or 
 tramples upon the rights of her subjects." 
 
 Improved. — All her foreign business can be conducted as de- 
 sired, provided that, in so doing, she harms no other nation, and 
 tramples upon the rights of none of her subjects. 
 
 146. When the conjunction governs several widely sepa- 
 rated iierls, repeat it with each. 
 
 Original.—" Because, then, he had great provocation, he acted 
 for the best interests of his people, and had before him many ex- 
 amples of successful revolt, and revolt instigated with less cause, 
 — therefore Eiel ought not to be too severely condemned." 
 
 Improved.— BeasMBe, then, he had great provocation; because 
 he acted for the best interests of his people; and because he had 
 before him many examples of successful revolt, and revolt insti- 
 gated with less cause,— therefore, Eiel ought not to be too severely 
 condemned. 
 
 147. In using such words as "certain," " some," "any," 
 etc., make it clear by the context which of the two meanings 
 is intended. 
 
CLEARNESS. 53 
 
 Original. — "As the morning advanced we perceived certain in^ 
 dications of a storm." 
 
 Improved. — As the morning advanced we perceived sure (or 
 some) indications of a storm. 
 
 148. In quoting the words of others, use the direct dis- 
 course, except in those rare cases tohere ambiguity would he 
 
 Original. — "He told his neighbor that he had learned that his 
 cattle were in his lot." 
 
 Improved. — He said to his neighbor, "I have learned that your 
 cattle are in my lot." 
 
 149. Place adveris next to, generally before, the words 
 that they modify. This suggestion might be combined 
 with several others in the general rule, to place modifiers 
 near the words modified. 
 
 Original. — "He arose suddenly, concealing the letter that he 
 had been reading." 
 
 Improved. — He suddenly arose, concealing the letter that he had 
 been reading. 
 
 150. Avoid placing a substantive betiveen another sub- 
 stantive and its relative or other pronoun. 
 
 Original. — "General Thomas, one of the division commanders 
 under General Grant, who ordered this charge, relates the follow- 
 ing incidents." 
 
 Improved. — General Grant's division commander, Thomas, who 
 ordered this charge, relates the following incident. 
 
 151. Repeat either the verb or the preposition after the 
 conjunctions "as," " than," etc. 
 
 Original. — " The American boy of eleven years understands as 
 much about a repubhcan form of government as the average 
 immigrant." 
 
 Improved. — The American boy of eleven years understands as 
 much about a republican form of government as does the average 
 immigrant. 
 
 152. Avoid confounding dependent toith independent 
 clauses. This error may generally he prevented by repeat- 
 ing either the pronoun or the conjunction, as the case may 
 be. 
 
 Original. — "But you forget that the prisoner has a fair and 
 deliberate trial, and during this time, usually about a year, he has 
 ample time to repent." 
 
54 PRACTICAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 Improved. — But you forget that the prisoner has a fair and de- 
 liberate trial, and that during this time, usually about a year, he 
 has ample time to repent. 
 
 153. In a long sentence, repeat the subject or some word, 
 such as a pronoun, referring to the subject, as a summary 
 of what precedes. Sometimes both the subject and the 
 transitiye verb need to be repeated. 
 
 Original. — " Kestrictions, rules, penalties, threats, and espio- 
 nage are not the wisest methods of school management." 
 
 Improved. — Eestrietions, rules, penalties, threats, and espion- 
 age, — these are not the wisest methods of school management. 
 
 154. Avoid ambiguous phrases. 
 
 Original. — ' ' New York State is composed one fifth of foreigners, 
 while Vermont is helow par in foreigners." 
 
 Improved. — New York State is composed one fifth of foreigners, 
 but Vermont has less than the average number of foreigners. 
 
 155. Avoid the use of circumlocutions in place of proper 
 names, except for poetical effect. 
 
 Original. — " The father of natural philosophy has hardly been 
 equalled in originality by any scientist who has appeared since." 
 
 Improved. — Archimedes has hardly been equalled in originality 
 by any modern scientist. 
 
 156. Clearness is often violated by the omission of a 
 necessary word; an omission that often results from over- 
 condensation. 
 
 Original. — " It bears us back eighty-two years, when the eyes 
 of the whole world were turned toward France." 
 
 Improved. — It bears us back eighty-two years, to a time when 
 the eyes of the whole world were turned toward France. 
 
 157. Avoid giving to a word dijferent senses in the same 
 clause. 
 
 Original. — "She found the most and most luscious berries of 
 any one of the party. " 
 
 Improved. — She found the most berries of any one of the party, 
 and those the most luscious. 
 
 158. So far as possible, avoid using technical words, unless 
 addressing those who practise some peculiar art or trade. 
 
 Original. — " He closely resembles Chatterton, the ephemeron of 
 English literature." 
 
 Improved.— ^G closely resembles Chatterton, the butteriiy of 
 English literature. 
 
CLEARNESS. 55 
 
 159. Avoid the use of equivocal tvords. 
 
 Original. — " It has become an important factor in the political 
 concern of aU Europe." 
 
 Improved. — It has become an important factor in the legislation 
 of all Europe. 
 
 160. Two clauses, each perfectly clear in itself, may, 
 tofien taken together, become ambiguous by the very fact of 
 that union. 
 
 Original. — ' ' Try this gun once, and you will never use another," 
 Improved. — Try this gun once, and you will never be satisfied 
 with any other. 
 
 161. Avoid long parentheses. 
 
 Original. — " His foolish idea of uniting (with a view to their one 
 day standing at the head of the Saxon confederacy) the noble 
 Athelstane and the beautiful Eowena, shows his patriotism." 
 
 Improved. — His patriotism is shown by his foolish idea of unit- 
 ing the noble Athelstane and the beautiful Kowena with a view to 
 their one day standing at the head of the Saxon confederacy. 
 
 EXERCISES im CLEARNESS, 
 
 Note. — Let the following exercises, and those in the seven suc- 
 ceeding chapters, be placed upon slips of paper, without the num- 
 bers in parentheses; and in the class-room let the student place 
 upon the board, or give verbally, his improved rendering of the 
 sentence in hand, giving his reasons for every change made. 
 The numbers in parentheses refer to the previous, corresponding 
 paragraphs. 
 
 1. ''It is within the last few years that all the wonder- 
 ful powers of electricity have been discovered. They (121) 
 have found so many new uses for paper that now it is made 
 into barrels and car- wheels." 
 
 2. "To become skilled in all the arts of war; to gain the 
 acquaintance and the influence of prominent military men, 
 and eventually to fill a high place in the royal army (153) 
 was his ambition." 
 
 3. "The leaders of the rebellion were condemned to 
 either exile or death." (137, 144.) 
 
 4. "Above the door- ways of the cathedrals are statues 
 of saints and bishops, left like apostles, (138) to us by a 
 former age." 
 
56 PBAOTIOAL RHETOBIC. 
 
 5. "The general told him that he thought he (121) had 
 come none too soon." 
 
 6. " She is always a true friend to David, and finally (156) 
 his wife." 
 
 7. "This hill forms a very pleasing part of the picture, 
 but the most pleasing part of it (131) is the trees that sur- 
 round these houses." 
 
 8. "But it is the undercurrent of plaintive sadness which 
 (133) thrills one." 
 
 9. "The army may be at fault in much and yet (156) 
 based upon lasting principles: the object with which they 
 (131) have started is twofold." 
 
 10. "In some places they only (134) succeed in getting 
 themselves into trouble." 
 
 11. " Finally all are on board, but when it (131) tries to 
 start it (131) is found to be again on a sand-bar." 
 
 13. " The first characteristic brought to our notice is ar- 
 rogance (156) seen in his demanding and enforcing (137) 
 obedience from all." 
 
 13. "A sister of charity nurses him back to life, healing 
 both (138) the wounds of body and mind." 
 
 14. " He had the power of impressing as much by speech 
 as by silence, and in England, where his position called for 
 speech-making (156) acquitted himself with honor." 
 
 15. "He was bom in 1608 and died in 1674, during 
 which (133) occurred the overthrow of Charles IV." 
 
 16. " So great is his genius and (156) noble personal char- 
 acter that it seems as if he had been placed on the earth by 
 the Almighty for the purpose of describing sacred scenes." 
 
 17. "But the boy is taken to America by his parents, 
 (138) where his father dies in about a year." 
 
 18. "They then urged the princes and laic (158) lords to 
 drive the heretics from their domains." 
 
 19. "But in the centre is the room of the society which 
 (133) has already celebrated its semi-centennial, and they 
 
CLEARNESS. 57 
 
 (121) naturally declare that they are the strength of the 
 foundation." 
 
 20. " In the fourth story we find the parlors of the ladies' 
 societies, who (123) hold that if the young men are the 
 foundation they are the crowning glory." 
 
 21. "They had either to sentence him to be hung or 
 (137) admit that he was not a spy." 
 
 22. " 'Sot only (125) should we consider the outside show 
 but also the foundations." 
 
 23. " She is willing to leave the talking to others (128) 
 for which she has no time." 
 
 24. "Another degrading feature is adapting (127) sacred 
 words to popular tunes." 
 
 25. "When one looks upon this moyement charitably, 
 (142) which is expected of every Christian, he can overlook 
 little objections." 
 
 36. " How magical was the effect of his appearance and 
 (133) sound of his voice \" 
 
 37. " The chilling brightness only (124) served to make 
 the cold more visible." 
 
 28. " But whether our citizens abroad should not rather 
 glory in the cause or (145) blush at the fact, is not so evi- 
 dent." 
 
 29. "This patriotism begets patriotism and makes the 
 Kepublic a nation of patriots, which (122) becomes evident 
 when the occasion is presented." 
 
 30. " Her force and beauty of character are only (134) 
 equalled by her pure and unselfish devotion to her. 
 father." 
 
 31. "The lake is about half a mile in (156) its widest 
 part." 
 
 33. " Now, is this really the result of hard study ? In 
 most cases, I answer, no." (128.) 
 
 33. " For the most part, the streets are lined with trees; 
 
58 PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 and wlien one stands and looks up and down one of them 
 (131) it seems to be arched by them." (131.) 
 
 34. " Here are seen the varying shades of green and (133) 
 freshness of foliage which we only (126) find in America," 
 
 35. "It was only with quite an effort that we arose that 
 morning at the regular time, and with much regret soon 
 after on our way home." (156.) 
 
 36. " At this election he may only (134) vote for an Elec- 
 tor and not for the man whom he desires for President." 
 
 37. "Any country can afford to get rid of its lawless and 
 mischievous subjects by a small fare." (156.) 
 
 38. " Perhaps one of the truest but least honored in his 
 life (138) of poets was Kobt. Burns." 
 
 39. (156) " Oddities seem to have been one of his peculi- 
 arities, for he was always on the alert for quaint and odd 
 names." 
 
 40. " With this ambition was (156) a will that, uncon- 
 trolled, made him stubborn and disagreeable." 
 
 41. "He brings before us the domestic life of the f reed- 
 men and slaves as well as (130 and 137) the king and his 
 officers." 
 
 43. " He has been able to sail his ships or (137) carry on 
 commerce with other nations because he has a mighty 
 nation ready to protect him." 
 
 43. " The Christmas morning will also long be remem- 
 bered (128) when I heard a ring at the door, etc." 
 
 44. " Of the negroes on his plantation he always com- 
 manded the highest respect." (154.) 
 
 45. "This is its chief defect (156) out of which many 
 troubles with the city authorities have arisen." 
 
 46. "And any cause that tends to promote dissension or 
 deprive (137) the most lowly of these advantages is contrary 
 to the spirit of American institutions." 
 
 47. "Instead of four, now two only (134) stood between 
 him and the crown." 
 
CLEARNESS. 59 
 
 48. "He is a designing politician, playing a game of 
 State-craft, (156) the odds against him." 
 
 49. " "We had only (134) passed two or three deserted log 
 camps since we left the railroad." 
 
 50. "A mystical arm, holding a sword, arose from the 
 lake, and he rowed across and took it." (131.) 
 
 61. "By his kindness to the Indians, he won a lasting 
 peace for the settlement and (1^7) those people." 
 
 53. " There is no douht but that this excess was the cause 
 of his fall and (137) the humiliation of Sweden." 
 
 53. " Occasions were quite frequent when the goodness of 
 her heart and (156) tender sympathies were needed." 
 
 54. "They have rendered fertile large tracts of land 
 which were before unfit for cultivation and would (152) 
 probably have stood a long time before other laborers 
 would have undertaken such a task." 
 
 55. "The scene of " The Talisman" is (156) in Palestine 
 during "the third Crusade." 
 
 56. "No rank or (145) station is omitted." 
 
 57. " They should be made at least (136) to appear as 
 well as they are." 
 
 58. " The President endeavors to choose those men who 
 are most prominent in his own party and (156) will assist 
 most ably in carrying out his own policy." 
 
 59. " Nevertheless, he might have done more to obtain an 
 education which (133) in his case was very rudimentary." 
 
 60. " It is said by those who profess to be temperance men 
 that there is no use in trying ; (146) the amendment would 
 be voted down." 
 
 61. " When we study the character of a man, we naturally 
 turn to his childhood for the influences that have (156) the 
 most lasting effects upon his life." 
 
 63. " It was a time of heartache for his friends; for him 
 (138 and 139) of the death agony long drawn out." 
 
60 PB ACTIO AL RHETORIG. 
 
 63. '' The conductor told the brakeman that if he left the 
 road he would." (148.) 
 
 64. " Col. P. enjoyed the honor of building the first turo- 
 pike road and Major D (150) of erecting the first saw- 
 mill." 
 
 65. '" He only (134) seized power when he believed that it 
 was for the highest good of the people," 
 
 66. "In some theatres, intoxicating liquors are sold dur- 
 ing the progress of the play, thus dragging it (131) down 
 still lower." 
 
 67. " Ought the weekly holiday to fall on Saturday oi 
 (137) Monday ?" 
 
 68. " The driver declared that he had only (124) bar- 
 gained for twelve hours." 
 
 69. " They have the future in view while we are only 
 (134) considering the present." 
 
 70. " Suffice it to say he was endowed with a soul and 
 (133) intellect." 
 
 71. " He might be ever so sick, he only (134) received the 
 lash for cure." 
 
 73. " Cicero was not without his faults as a statesman and 
 (133) citizen." 
 
 73. " That man is great, who, as proved by his actions, is 
 superior to his fellows either morally or intellectually, and 
 (130) has left a permanent impress upon history." 
 
 74. " The novel deals with no public or (145) military 
 heroes nor with great national conflicts." 
 
 75. " As it is, we prefer to forget his weaknesses and (137) 
 remember him only as the scholar and the philosopher." 
 
 76. " In the State of New York, a system of examinations 
 in all branches of academic study is in operation (138 and 
 133) that is well worth careful thought." 
 
 77. "The only way to overcome this evil and its results 
 (139 and 133) which I propose to set forth, is by compul- 
 sory education.'' 
 
CLEARNESS. 61 
 
 YS. " I had only (134) burned a strip about a foot wide 
 along the edge of the grove." 
 
 'i^. " Are our schools so conducted that the poor can and 
 must attend ? Anyone who has visited American cities will 
 answer that they (121) do not, on account of their poverty." 
 
 80. " He devotes the whole of his salary for three years to 
 the furtherance of (156) public welfare." 
 
 81. " And since at least a part of the immigrants are pro- 
 vided with specie it (131) brings a considerable amount of 
 money to this country." 
 
 83. " They were free from fear of the reign of tyrants, 
 and (137) envy, the vice of republics." 
 
 83. "It was at this time, (156) her true character began 
 to show itself." 
 
 84. "Deserted by his followers, surrounded by a pathless 
 forest and (133) savage foe, it is not strange that he grew 
 disheartened." 
 
 85. "Russia was ruled by the dissolute Elizabeth and 
 (137) Catherine the Great." 
 
 86. "We must remember that Indians have souls and are 
 human beings, not beasts, and (152) therefore this question 
 has two sides." 
 
 87. "Her quickness of perception and (156) cleverness 
 matured into shrewdness and policy." 
 
 88. " Presence of mind is valuable not only in hours of 
 great danger, but it also (125) serves, if rightly used, in the 
 daily occurrences of life." 
 
 89. " He displayed, in the establishing and maintaining 
 (127) of so many churches, an organizing power that has 
 rarely been equalled." 
 
 90. " The style of the author is easy and natural. Of its 
 (131) popularity we may judge from its circulation." 
 
 91. "But the effect is not alone (134) seen in the drunk- 
 ard." 
 
62 PBACTICAL RHETOmO. 
 
 93. " He was very popular among his students at Hiram 
 College, which (156 and 122) is seen by the large number 
 that enlisted to go to the war." 
 
 93. "American liberty is doomed to extinction, or at best 
 (137) but a sham existence." 
 
 94. " His conversational powers partook of the same ful- 
 ness of mind which (133) distinguished his eloquence." 
 
 95. "I had turned the screw to the empty water-pipe, 
 and had not reversed it. The sounds came through this." 
 (131.) 
 
 96. " If theatre-going and dancing were a harm to the 
 church and to society in those days, so are they (156) of 
 the present." 
 
 97. " His mind is intensely alive to the attractions of his 
 daughter and (137) scientific research." 
 
 98. "When our pilgrim fathers landed they considered 
 (156) their first duty was to build a place of worship." 
 
 99. " Our high-schools and colleges have only (134) been 
 founded and endowed at a great expenditure of money." 
 
 100. " Soon we could point out the different buildings 
 which (133) we knew." 
 
 101. " People tell us that it is a waste of time to read 
 any but the best books; they say that such (121) corrupts 
 the mind." 
 
 103. "The land was so far distant as only (134) to be 
 seen with the aid of the most powerful glass." 
 
 103. " Not -even he who with his lyre (155) charmed the 
 wild beasts to silence could produce such music." 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 FORCE. 
 
 Clearness of style causes the reader fully to under- 
 stand the meaning of what is written. Force causes him 
 to feel, and incites him to act upon what is written. The 
 secret of securing force consists, to use the words of 
 Spencer, "in so forming every sentence that the sequence of 
 words shall he that which suggests the constituen*;s of the 
 thought in the order most convenient for the huilding-up 
 of that thought."* Other things being equal, the more 
 easily, quickly, and naturally an impression is received, the 
 greater will be its force. 
 
 SUGGESTION'S. 
 
 162. Use no more words than are necessary fully to ex- 
 press the idea. Each word added beyond this necessity is 
 only an added draft upon the reader's attention. 
 
 Original. — " The deep interest he took in all branches of natural 
 history made his society agreeable to men of learning." 
 
 Improved.— Ris deep interest in all branches of natural history 
 made his society agreeable to men of learning. 
 
 163. As a rtile, avoid closing sentences and clauses with 
 short or unim.portant words. The most common and 
 well-authorized exceptions to this principle are : {n) That 
 of closing with a preposition when the object of the prep- 
 osition is a pronoun, expressed or understood, e.g., "A 
 bad government to live under;" (S) That of closing inter- 
 rogative forms with a preposition, e.g., "What are you 
 looking for?" 
 
 Original. — "The jury return a verdict of 'not guilty,' and 
 Charles Darney becomes a free man again." 
 
 * " Philosophy of Style," p. 11. 
 
64 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 Improved.— The jury return a verdict of "not guilty," and 
 Charles Darney becomes again a free man. 
 
 164. Construct the sentence so as to heep the reader in 
 suspense. The essential characteristic of a rhetorical period 
 and of each of its component sentences is, that the sense 
 shall not be strictly complete until the last word shall have 
 been read. The demands of force are here identical with 
 those of euphony. Suspense, however, must not be so 
 great as to weary the reader's memory. In the words of 
 Spencer, "Force will be gained by so arranging the mem- 
 bers of a sentence that the suspensions shall at any moment 
 be the fewest in number, and shall also be of the shortest 
 duration."* One of the most common violations of this 
 principle is to add a short or unimportant clause after the 
 sense is reaUy completed. Subordinate clauses, in general, 
 should be placed before the principal clause, unless the sub- 
 ordinate clauses are numerous (compare 165). 
 
 Original. — ^" Play has its legitimate function in the life of 
 man," says Holland. 
 
 Improved. — "Play," says Holland, "has its legitimate function 
 in the life of man." 
 
 165. Wliere there are several sulordinate clauses, place 
 part before and part after the main clause. If all were 
 placed before, the suspense would be too great. 
 
 Original. — "By indomitable perseverance, in spite of every 
 obstacle, and contrary to the expectation even of his friends, he 
 at last won success." 
 
 Improved. — At last, in spite of every obstacle, and contrary to 
 the expectation even of his friends, he won success by sheer, in- 
 domitable perseverance. 
 
 166. In a conditional sentence, gain suspense by putting 
 the conditional clause first. 
 
 Original.—" His body becomes diseased and his mind morbid, 
 if he denies himself the recreation that nature enjoins." 
 
 Improved. — If he denies himself the recreation that nature 
 enjoins, his body becomes diseased and his mind morbid. 
 
 167. Gain suspense and force by introducing the clause 
 
 * "Philosophy of Style," p. 18. 
 
FOBCE. 65 
 
 or sentence with a participle, or iviUi an adjective modify- 
 ing the subject. 
 
 Original. — "He returns to his business, Dombey, his enemy, 
 being dead." 
 
 Improved. — Dombey, his enemy, being dead, he returns to his 
 business. 
 
 168. Sentences not regularly suspensive are often easily 
 made so hy the use of such suspensive conjunctions as 
 ''either," "not only," "■lohile," etc. The conjunction 
 " while" is especially valuable as an aid to smoothness of 
 style. The simple substitution of this word in place of 
 "and" will often completely transpose a sentence as to 
 strength and euphony. 
 
 Original. — "The suburbs of the city are as pleasant as one 
 would expect from so active a town, and the lakes near by afford 
 excellent picnic and excursion grounds." 
 
 Improved. — The suburbs of the city are as pleasant as one 
 would expect from so active a town, while the lakes near by afford 
 excellent picnic and excursion grounds.. 
 
 169. Put emphatic words, such as the subject and the 
 predicate, in emphatic places. Such places are (a) the be- 
 ginning; {b) the end of a sentence; (c) after an introductory 
 phrase like "it was/' etc.; {d) after a manifestly qualifying 
 clause. 
 
 Original. — "At our left, sunning hiniself upon a log, a large 
 snapping turtle may be seen. " 
 
 Improved. — ^At our left, sunning himself upon a log, may be 
 seen a large snapping turtle. 
 
 170. Avoid using two or more prepositions with the same 
 object. On this point White forcibly remarks: "The leav- 
 ing of words like 'by/ 'of/ 'through/ 'for,' 'at/ etc., 
 which present no complete thought apart from an object, 
 in the air like an unsupported wing of an army, is disas- 
 trous." 
 
 OrigirMl. — " This question has been referred to, and is to be de- 
 cided by a special committee. " 
 
 Improved. — This question has been referred to a special com- 
 mittee, by whom it is to be decided. 
 
 171. Avoid the use of "do" and "did" as expletives, 
 except in exclamations, interrogations, and very strong 
 
 5 
 
66 PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 assertions and negations. The demands of force, euphony, 
 and clearness are here often identical. 
 
 Original. — "It does not only please us, but it also aids the 
 understanding." 
 
 Improved. — It not only pleases us, but it also aids the under- 
 standing. 
 
 172. Where several adverbial modifiers are to occur in 
 succession, it is customary to place those of time first, those 
 of place second, and those of maimer last. 
 
 Original.—" Died, in New York City, of consumption, April 10, 
 1885, Mrs. Theodore Blair." 
 
 Bnproved. — Died, April 10, 1885, in New York City, of con- 
 sumption, Mrs. Theodore Blair. 
 
 173. Foj-ce i'3 often gained ly omitting the verb entirely, 
 or else putting it in a participial form. 
 
 Original. — "Others could only wonder what would be the next 
 development, who would be the next victim." 
 
 Improved. — Others could only wonder what would be the next 
 development, who, the next victim. 
 
 174. Force is sometimes gained by omitting both a subject 
 and its verb. 
 
 Original. — "She is a perfect child of nature, and is never so 
 happy as when she is in the open air." 
 
 Improved. — She is a perfect child of nature, and is never so 
 happy as when in the open air. 
 
 175. Force is often gained by omitting a conjunction. 
 Original. — " The one is like a rose planted in a well-arranged 
 
 garden ; and though it may differ in perfume and color, yet it 
 harmonizes with the rest of the flowers." 
 
 Improved. — The one is like a rose planted in a well-arranged 
 garden; though it may differ in perfume and color, yet it harmo- 
 nizes with the rest of the flowers. 
 
 176. Do not iise the conjunction "and" unless a new, 
 distinct statement is added to one already made. Where 
 the second statement is merely a repetition, in different 
 words, the whole is weakened by using "and." 
 
 Original. — "He is thoroughly conversant with the writers of 
 the Elizabethan era, and he refers to them often, and there is 
 hardly one of them from whom he does not freely quote." 
 
 Improved. — He is thoroughly conversant with the writers of 
 the Elizabethan era, and refers to them often; there is hardly one 
 of them from whom he does not freely quote. 
 
FORGE. 67 
 
 177. Amid the use of "and" before "which" and the 
 other relative pronouns. Avoid, also the- use of a substantive 
 immediately after a relative and meaning the same person or 
 thing. 
 
 Original. — "Dioah Morris, another niece of the Poysers', and 
 who has lived with Hetty, is a member of the new sect of the 
 Methodists." 
 
 Improved. — Dinah Morris, another niece of the Poysers', who 
 has lived with Hetty, is a member of the new sect of the Metho- 
 dists. 
 
 Original. — "He was nominated for president, which nomina- 
 tion he accepted." 
 
 Improved. — He was nominated for president and he accepted 
 the honor. 
 
 178. Avoid exaggerations. Hyperbole is sometimes al- 
 lowable, if carefully limited, but over-scatement is always 
 weak statement. 
 
 Original. — " If, on the other hand, he be unprincipled, as is 
 the case with the majority of political men, his power for injury 
 is great." 
 
 Improved. — If, on the other hand, he be unprincipled, as is the 
 case with many political men, his power for injury is great. 
 
 179. Avoid affectation and "fine writing." Young 
 writers of vivid imagination are apt to be partial to what 
 Brougham calls "long-tailed words in -osity or -ation." 
 Here, the demands of force and of purity become identical. 
 
 Original. — " Having partaken of a hearty dinner, we embarked 
 in carriages for a long ride through the city." 
 
 Improved. — After a hearty dinner we took carriages for a long 
 ride through the city. 
 
 180. Use particular instead of general terms. There is 
 no greater aid to force than this. Spencer observes : * "As 
 we do not think in generals but in particulars — as, whenever 
 any class of things is referred to, we represent it to ourselves 
 by calling to mind individual members of it — it follows that 
 when an abstract word is used, the hearer or reader has to 
 choose from his stock of images one or more by which he 
 may figure to himself the genus mentioned." 
 
 * "Philosophy of Style," p. 10. 
 
68 PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 Original. — " Near the lower end of the ravine is a fallen tree 
 with its roots partially fastened in the bank." 
 
 Improved. — Near the lower end of the ravine is a fallen oak 
 with its roots partially fastened in the bank. 
 
 181. Force is gained ly using the name of a particular 
 ■person or thing to represent a class. "Definite" and "indef- 
 inite are terms nearly synonymous with "strong" and"weai. " 
 
 Original. — " He was left without either clothing or shelter." 
 Improved. — He was left without a coat to his back or a roof to 
 cover his head. 
 
 182. Metaphor, if not overdrawn, is generally stronger 
 than literal statemsnt. 
 
 Original. — "The rules of common politeness make society en- 
 durable, and even desirable." 
 
 Improved. — Politeness is the oil that lubricates the wheels of 
 society. 
 
 183. The interrogative is often stronger than the de- 
 clarative form. 
 
 Original. — " The Christian Sabbath is the very corner-stone of 
 our Republic; and we wiU not stand idly by and see it removed." 
 
 Improved. — The Christian Sabbath is the very corner-stone of 
 our EepubUc; shall we stand idly by and see it removed ? 
 
 184. When the object is very emphatic, force is gained 
 hy placing it first, according to suggestion 169. 
 
 Original. — " He does not seem to have the ability to see both 
 sides of the question. " 
 
 Improved. — The abiUty to see both sides of the question he does 
 not seem to have. 
 
 185. Avoid mere trtiisms, trite sayings, and worn-out 
 figures. 
 
 Original. — " A cloud that appeared on the horizon no larger 
 than a man's hand, threatened her happiness." 
 Improved. — A cloud now arose to threaten her happiness. 
 
 186. Arrange words, clauses, and sentences to a climax. 
 Aside from words that are capable of climacteric arrange- 
 ment from their inherent meaning, it should be remem- 
 bered that indefinite are weaker than definite words, and 
 should therefore come first in a climax. The arrangement 
 of a climax also depends, often, upon the natural order of 
 circumstances. 
 
FORGE. 69 
 
 The fundamental idea of a climax is suspense; and sus- 
 pense inyolves the ready action of memory in the hearer. 
 In addressing an uncultivated audience, therefore, the 
 speaker must he careful hot to indulge too freely in this 
 figure. 
 
 Original. — " He was charitable even to Ms enemies, courteous 
 to strangers, and kind to his friends." 
 
 Improved. — He was kind to his friends, courteous to strangers, 
 and charitable even to his enemies. 
 
 187. Force is gained by the use of antithesis and by other 
 forms of balanced sentence; that is, by clauses that are simi- 
 lar in form and construction. 
 
 Original. — " In order to do great deeds, one ought to be will- 
 ing to take risks." 
 
 Improved. — In order to do great deeds, one ought to be willing 
 to take great risks. 
 
 188. 27*6 idea contained in a phrase may often be ex- 
 pressed more forcibly by a single word. 
 
 Original. — "With the introduction of this character, the plot 
 reaches its point of greatest interest." 
 
 Improved. — "With the introduction of this character, the plot 
 reaches its climax. 
 
 189. Brevity, and consequently force, may often be 
 gained by implying a statement instead of expressing it 
 fully. 
 
 OHginal. ' ' The king was arrogant by nature, and therefore 
 these conditions were very distasteful to him." 
 
 Improved. — These conditions were very distasteful to the nat- 
 urally arrogant king. 
 
 190. Force is often gained by substituting the imperative 
 mood for an " if clause." 
 
 Original. — "If you take from one of his lectures thd anecdotes 
 and illustrations, you will have very little left." 
 
 Impi-med. — Take from one of his lectures the anecdotes and 
 illustrations, and you will have very little left. 
 
 191. Tlie use of apposition, often does away with a con- 
 nective, and so conduces to brevity, and therefore to force. 
 
 Original. — "There is much of dialogue, and this always inter- 
 ests the reader." 
 
 Improved. — There is much of dialogue, a feature always inter- 
 esting to the reader. 
 
70 PBAGTIGAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 192. Force is sometimes gained ly repeating a prominent 
 word. 
 
 Original— "'Eaxih day has its history, that marks a turning- 
 point in the life of some individual." 
 
 Improved.— Eeiohda,y has its history; a history ih&i marks a 
 turning-point in the life of some individual. 
 
 193. Aside from the devices for brevity and force already 
 noted, there are: (1) the use of an adjective for an adjective 
 clause; (2) the use of a noun for an adjective; and (3) the 
 use of a prepositional phrase. 
 
 Original. — " There was no sound in the forest save that of the 
 wind, which went moaning through the tree-tops." 
 
 Improved. — There was no sound in the forest save that of the 
 moaning wind. 
 
 Original. — "We should give the preference to products of 
 domestic industry." 
 
 Improved. — We should give the preference to products of home 
 industry. 
 
 Original. — "The fundamental principle of evolution is that 
 only the fittest members of a class survive." 
 
 Improved. — The fundamental principle of evolution is the sur- 
 vival of the fittest. 
 
 194. Force is sometimes gained hy applying the same 
 verb to incongruous objects. 
 
 Original. — " Brutus obtained freedom for the State_and insti- 
 tuted the consulship." 
 
 Improved. — " Brutiis instituted liberty and the consulship." — 
 Gibbon. (This is reaUy a case of the use of epigram.) 
 
 195. Prepositional phrases may be changed, for the sake 
 offeree, to adjectives, adverbs, and nouns in the possessive 
 case, and vice versa. 
 
 Original. — " In matters of money, he seemed to have no more 
 discretion than a child." 
 
 Improved. — In money matters, he seemed to have no more dis- 
 cretion than a child. 
 
 196. Avoid the multiplication of negatives. 
 
 Original. — " He was not great, neither as a soldier nor as a 
 poet." 
 Improved. —He was great neither as a soldier nor as a poet. 
 
 197. In most cases, avoid introductory clauses telling 
 what is to follotv, unless these are required to insure clear- 
 ness. 
 
FORCE. 71 
 
 Original. — '' In the following discussion I will endeavor to 
 reach the negative conclusion. The principal arguments of the 
 aflBrmative are as follows:" 
 
 (If the speaker's arguments are worthy of the name, his hearers 
 will learn on which side he is speaking withoiit his teUing them 
 beforehand.) 
 
 198. Prefer short luords where there is any choice^ 
 Original. — " Next comes the scene of his inconspicuous career 
 
 as a leather merchant." 
 
 Improved. — Next comes the scene of his obscure career as a 
 leather merchant. 
 
 199. Avoid the unnecessary separation of grammatically 
 connected words. 
 
 Original. — "Scott, after leaving the pubUc school, studied a few 
 years under a private tutor. " 
 
 Improved. — After leaving the public school, Scott studied a few 
 years under a private tutor. 
 
 EXERCISES IN FORCE. 
 
 1. " In such buildings as this have many little seeds ol 
 talent started (199) that have grown into trees of genius." 
 
 3. " The common people think for these reasons (164) 
 that he must have dealings with the evilone." > 
 
 3. " Eomola (199 and 164) years after his death sums up 
 his character in these words." 
 
 4. " Black always brings the scenes he wishes to portray . 
 (163) vividly before the mind of the reader." 
 
 5. " There are not many men (163) who are indifferent 
 to fame." 
 
 6. " An engine detached from a train (163) runs down 
 to E ." 
 
 7. " Taking up our line of march (179) down the dusty 
 road, we kept on for about a mile farther." 
 
 8. "I (199 and 164), in company with another student, 
 might have been seen hurrying toward the depot." 
 
 9. " The forms of life here found would delight the heart 
 of an enthusiast in botany." (163.) 
 
73 PRACTICAL BEETOBIC. 
 
 10. " I seem to be near a massive gateway over which a 
 cloud of mystery hangs." (169.) 1,, ,1 r-' > 
 
 11. "Ceesar more cautiously (169) did his work, and 
 before the people realized their danger, he had, in effect, 
 destroyed their republic. " -, f y,, ' » ■ 
 
 13. " He let me drop and I fell (167) swiftly through the 
 air and struck the ground with a heavy thud." ;,,^ 
 
 13. " He warned us, in leaving, that we should (163) be 
 cautious in going through the next field." 
 
 14. "Ifot only is the plot novel, but the verse is also." 
 (169.) -A'-' ' ■■-'""" ^ '• ■ '■■'■ \ ' ''"' ^ ' 
 
 15. " Perhaps the most striking characteristic is pathos; 
 this certainly most strongly impresses the reader.". (169.) 
 
 16. " The sword of the gospel is a spiritual one (193), but 
 they used a temporal one." (163.) -^ ' . 
 
 17. " Take the passage in which Maggie's reading of ' The 
 Imitation of Christ' is described." (169.) 
 
 18. " The individuality .of a person (163) is to be admired." 
 
 19. " The first settlement was by the Dutch in 1661, and 
 (176 and 168) a fort was built at the presen'. junction of 
 Church and State streets." 
 
 20. " Euchre can be played with dominoes, and they are 
 gambled with (163) much more than cards." (178.) 
 
 31. " These things, though innocent in themselves (166), 
 are not the stuff of which manhood is made, nor should 
 they enter largely into it." (163.) 
 
 33. "The Fiji islander is an example of one who has 
 learned nothing from books, and has seen a great deal (163) 
 of nature." 
 
 33. " Thither the story is transferred after the Egyptian 
 episode is over." (163 and 163.) 
 
 34. " The morning hours were swiftly and pleasantly 
 spent, sitting within sight and sound of some babbling, 
 sparkling mountain rivulet." (163.) 
 
FORCE. 73 
 
 25. " The only personal anecdotes which we have (163) 
 of Shakespeare do not present his oharacter in a light at all 
 complimentary to him." (163.) 
 
 26. "The style is different, the characters new, and 
 places before unknown become familiar; and (168) the 
 thoughtful reader will find many new ideas." 
 
 27. " Here, amid the rugged mountain scenery the first 
 ten years of his life were passed." (169.) I- ' ^ 
 
 28. "Among our early statesmen was one who, though 
 engaged in political difEerences with many (163 and 162), 
 will always be remembered with esteem." 
 
 29. " Perhaps the best illustration we have (162) of the 
 eloquence of Paul is his address which he delivered (162) 
 before the Athenians on Mars Hill." 
 
 30. "The fact that some persons, seemingly without 
 definiteness of purpose (162), have met with success, proves 
 nothing to the contrary of this assertion." 
 
 31. " Was it right to execute Major Andre ?" (169.) 
 
 32. "And (168) I was not contented to remain behind, 
 so I packed my satchel and made ready to follow." 
 
 33. "First, the town of K , a model of beauty, is 
 
 passed." (169.) ' i^\ 
 
 34. "With what a unity of feeling (171) all parties 
 united in mourning for the honored Garfield !" 
 
 35. "It has purged slavery from the fair face of our 
 country, and ere long will wipe the last vestige of intem- 
 perance from our land." (162 and 169.) 
 
 36. "There are (162) a few old chestnut-trees standing 
 here and there upon it (1^8), and along the southern edge 
 we see thick woods." 
 
 37. "In this way the trader computes the value of the 
 goods he deals in (163), and informs himself (162) how 
 matters stand at any time." (169.) 
 
 88. " By this science the surveyor is directed how (162) 
 to draw a map of the country." 
 
74 PB ACTIO AL BHETOBIG. 
 
 39. "Just west of it is a high bluff with the light-keep 
 er's house standing alone upon it." (163.) -j . ,j 
 
 40. "Similar places have been passed through (163) 
 many times by our friend without notice." (164.) p.' - 
 
 41. "One ran and got (163) a cork-box and butterfly 
 net, while another took along his geologist's hammer." 
 
 43. " On the third floor are the four (163) rooms used by 
 the four literary societies of the school." 
 
 43. " One finds a charm in reading it (164) that is not to 
 be found in any other noTel." (178.) ^ . . '- 
 
 4A. " He was a firm believer in the equality of man, and 
 always mingled (167) freely with the common people, and 
 did away (167) with all ceremony." 
 
 45. " The rainy days were passed away (163) in reading 
 or lounging about the camp." 
 
 46. " To them she comes there (163) as their enemy." 
 
 47. "As (163) a natural outgrowth of this characteristic 
 was his jealousy." j „ 
 
 48. "Although he was (174) then nearly eighty years of 
 age, he sent to England for books and began the task." 
 
 49. "The place is London, where (163), amid the busy 
 multitudes of the metropolis (163), the author is able to 
 exercise to their full extent his extraordinary powers of 
 observation," 
 
 50. "Certainly, the spread of religion will elevate the 
 morals of a country if anything will." (166 and 169.) 
 
 51. "When once a custom is established by time, only 
 the most determined opposition (169) can change it." (163.) 
 
 53. "But as the other class constitutes the majority, we 
 should devote our attention to it." (163.) 
 
 53. " When I had gazed at him for a moment I clearly 
 perceived (179) that he was one of the (163) sons of Erin's 
 Isle, with a round, plump, (163) and sturdy frame." (164.) 
 
FORCE. 70 
 
 54. " Of his younger days there (162) is not much known, 
 except that he was wayward." 
 
 55. "She made her boast (163) to her friends of how 
 well her pupil was progressing." (162.) 
 
 56. "One of the customs of slavery was (162) that the 
 slaves were allowed to attend church on Sunday where their 
 masters did." (163.) 
 
 57. " So we, when reading Homer, (199 and 164) are 
 pleased to turn from his pictures of intrigue and war, etc." 
 
 58. "Among other traces of former parties we found 
 sticks crossed in the same manner (163) as Indians cross 
 them when they wish to cook." 
 
 59. "Soon we reached the place from which we had set 
 out (162) in the boat, and eagerly told those who had been 
 waiting there for our return, of our narrow escape." (199.) 
 
 60. "A mistaken idea obtains to some extent (188) that 
 a large number (162) of mining accidents are caused by the 
 cupidity of the owners." 
 
 61. " In the year that I became twenty-one (162) my 
 father lost all by a business venture." 
 
 62. " It was one of those rare days when the broad canopy 
 of the starry vault (179) shows to perfection its delicate 
 tinge of blue." 
 
 63. "Now that a way is provided, these very persons are 
 the first ones (162) to condemn the movement." 
 
 64. " Hyde Park is a very pleasant little village, and (164) 
 beautifully arranged." 
 
 65. " He felt that every man's hand was against him, 
 and he, (199) in bitterness of soul, hated mankind." 
 
 66. " What we desire is that a just and impartial decision 
 be given." (162 and 169.) 
 
 67. " It will be profitable to consider the kind of evi- 
 dence that this view rests upon." (163 and 169.) 
 
 68. " The evidence which proves this most conclusively 
 (162) is from different periods of geology." 
 
76 PRACTICAL REETOBIO. 
 
 69. " She, (199 and 164) by her innocence and modesty, 
 wins the afEections of all." 
 
 70. " Her sensitive spirit shrank from disclosing to the 
 public her sorrow." (169.) 
 
 71. "He, (199) through his brother, for the first time, 
 sees her true position." 
 
 73. "In his early manhood he espoused the then hated 
 abolitionist's cause." (169.) 
 
 73. " These were not rare exotics that needed the warm 
 air of crowded halls, and (175 and 176) they were beautiful 
 natural flowers." 
 
 74. " S is certainly nearer the centre of the State 
 
 than Albany is." (163.) 
 
 75. " At Albany there is no greater number of railroads 
 than here." (163.) 
 
 76. "Although the popularity of other places of resort 
 has drawn many visitors away, yet there are just as many 
 attractions there as there ever were." (163.) 
 
 77. " These things, in addition to (163) • the natural 
 beauties of the place, combine to make Trenton Falls a 
 favorite retreat." 
 
 78. " Glen, knowing their superstition and the probable 
 results if he did not give him the horse, gave it to him," 
 (199 and 163.) 
 
 79. " The Republicans seem to have regained whatever,, 
 advantage they may have lost there." (163.) t^ ^ 
 
 80. "The Democratic party cannot afford, (166) if it 
 wishes to retain a firm hold upon the Northern States, to 
 become the champion of readjusters. " 
 
 81. "In November, 1835, the Erie Canal, a stupen- 
 dous undertaking, which required for its completion a 
 period of eight years and four months, was completed." 
 199.) 
 
 83. "It was natural that it, (199) working upon hia 
 feelings, should have made him sad and gloomy." 
 
FORGE. 77 
 
 83. "He lived during the reign of Elizabeth, when so 
 many men of learning and power flourished." (169.) 
 
 84. "There are (162) many good men who think there 
 is no harm in attending the theatre." 
 
 85. "Men will quarrel, fight, and take one another's 
 life, though citizens of the same city and professing to love 
 the same country." (166.) 
 
 86. "In early times there was, (162 and 199) as you 
 know, little if any provision made for destitute children." 
 
 87. " Animals are very susceptible to the use of music 
 also." (169.) 
 
 88. " There are some colleges which (162) have already 
 seen the advantage of this change, and it is not at all to be 
 wondered at (162) that it is a college for women that takes 
 the lead." 
 
 89. "After she left the French chateau, this girl had 
 only her father to associate with." (163.) 
 
 90. "He, (199 and 164) with untiring devotion and 
 watchfulness, is sacrificing his whole life to shield his 
 daughter." 
 
 91. "The comparative usefulness in life (162) of genius 
 dnd perseverance has been aptly illustrated by the history 
 of the Great Eastern." 
 
 92. " Fritz, (199 and 164) at the age of seventeen, leaves 
 home to attend school in Erfurt." 
 
 93. "In the east the full moon was regally (169) rising." 
 
 94. " But still she lingers, unheeding the fast incoming 
 tide, which flows around the rock she is upon." (163.) 
 
 95. " We find her weaving a web for the destruction of 
 her loving uncle, and pointing joyously to the altar and 
 the tomb at once." (169.) 
 
 96. " She, (199 and 164) as you may have heard, wrote 
 to her father asking him to send her some "stamps." 
 
 97. " One of the party asked our guide to relate some 
 of the adventures he had met with (162) in the woods." 
 
78 PBAOTIOAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 98. " Can we wonder that Poe, with no firm foundation 
 upon which he sought to (162) rest his burden of doubt, , 
 died a victim of intemperance ?" 
 
 99. " The custom, once begun, (199) of adorning churches 
 with Bible scenes, has continued till the present day." 
 
 100. " In a week's time he could hardly tell whether ^here 
 was ever a hen in his garden or not." (163.) 
 
 101. ''The slaveholders feared that his godlike ao- 
 tributes, if cultivated, they (163) would free him from 
 bondage." 
 
 103. ''How much higher would his standing as a man 
 and a patriot be !" (163.) 
 
 103. " The main stalk could be traced through the whole 
 length of the plant. Thick, fleshy leaves grew on it, one 
 in about every four inches of the stalk." (162.) 
 
 104. " They regarded it as a brave act to commit sui- 
 cide." (162.) 
 
 105. "Nothing that will mar their enjoyment is pro- 
 duced." (169.) 
 
 106. " Will you please inform me how long time (162) I 
 must wait before I can see Mr. Smith?" 
 
 107. "The murderer has always strong hopes, in such a 
 case (164), of pardon." 
 
 108. " They hear the rattle of the gambler's tools, with 
 which he (192 and 199), under the influence of liquor, is 
 ruining himself and those dependent upon him." 
 
 109. "A war with England was caused by the latter 
 country's trying to uphold the immense trade in opium 
 (162) of British subjects with the Chinese." 
 
 110. "There are thousands of cases of children born 
 blind or deaf .or deformed." (162.) 
 
 111. "Her reception is cooler than before by Fannie's 
 friends." (199.) 
 
 112. "As one of their reasons for their desire for the 
 
FORGE. 79 
 
 possession of much property (162), people say that if they 
 were only rich they would give liberally to the poor." 
 
 113. " They are not sought by people who do not care 
 for them and whom they do not care for." (163.) 
 
 114. " In the best of light literature we find much that 
 is of value (164), in style, description, and delineation of 
 character." 
 
 115. "1 took the line, and scarcely had the change been 
 effected when there came a gentle pull on the. line." (162.) 
 
 116. "Washington Irving (164 and 199), in 'The Spectre 
 Bridegroom,' gives us a story which is at the same time 
 plausible and interesting." 
 
 117. "Along the end of it there (162) flowed a little 
 brook which reminded me every day of Tennyson's beauti- 
 ful poem." 
 
 118. " His undue haughtiness, sensitiveness, and extreme 
 timidity and embarrassment (162) were ever fruitful sources 
 of trouble to him." (163.) 
 
 119. "It may seem visionary and idealistic (164) to one 
 not in love and harmony with the simplicity of nature." 
 
 120. "The land no longer receives (167) its supply of 
 moisture; the vegetation begins to die." 
 
 121. "This terrible affliction has proved to be (162) a 
 blessing in disguise to her." (163.) 
 
 132. "Whenever there was (162) a church growing cold 
 or indifferent he was present in person." 
 
 123. "The story gives one a good idea of modern society 
 in its different phases in Great Britain." (163 and 169.) 
 
 124. "Here he plunges into the society he has been ac- 
 customed to." (163 and 169.) 
 
 125. " He (199), struck by remorse (164), makes every 
 effort to find her." 
 
 126. " These hills were at one time covered with luxu- 
 riant forests, and even now there are extensive pine woods 
 on them." (163 and 163.) 
 
80 PSAOTIGAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 137. " America is regarded as the country to whicli the 
 poor, degraded, and worthless of all countries maybe sent." 
 (163 and 169.) 
 
 128. " VTith this record of the data (162) of his life, let 
 us look m&re closely at his deeds." 
 
 ,,. 129. "As a meteor, suddenly appearing in the starry 
 vault (179) above us, excites the thoughtful query of the 
 eminent (162) scientist," etc. 
 
 130. "There are also a large number of fires (162) 
 caused by people while under the influence of liquor." 
 
 131. "Nearly half a mile below Lake View is Cowan's 
 Grove," and (168) Long Branch is on the outlet nearly hal/ 
 a mile from the lake." 
 
 132. "The story consists of the relation (162) of the ad- 
 ventures of a party in passing from one of these forests to 
 the other." 
 
 133. " The next morning, just as the sun cast his first 
 ray upon the cloudless azure of the sky (179), we left the 
 vrharf." -'>'' " 
 
 134. "Her mother did not retain for her that affection 
 which the rest of the family cherished." (169.) 
 
 135. " The teacher ought to be able to ascertain whether 
 the pupil is able to leave that study or not." (163 and 
 169.) 
 
 136. "Everyday some victim is carried to the insane 
 asylum on account of the overtaxing of the mind and nerves 
 by this same worry and anxiety." (162 and 164.) 
 
 137. "At this period the imaginative cast of his mind 
 was strongly developed and (168) his philosophical ten- 
 dency displayed itself with great vividness." 
 
 138. "The feeling that people have (162) toward the 
 execution of law greatly affects the administration of jus- 
 tice." 
 
 139. "The effect of two such tragedies on the popular 
 mind can be imagined, but it cannot be described." (185.) 
 
FORGE. 81 
 
 140. " The Norman method of warfare displaced that of 
 the Saxons. The Norman gentlemen fought on horseback 
 and (168) the common people used the long bow." 
 
 141'. " Just west of it is a high bluff with the light-keep- 
 er's house standing upon it." (163 and 164.) 
 
»3 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PRECISION. 
 
 Is one sense, precision is identical with clearness. 
 Clearness requires that a sentence be so constructed as to 
 have one, and only one, meaning. Precision requires that 
 words be so selected and combined as to convey exactly the 
 meaning intended by the writer; no more^ no less. By re- 
 jecting all unnecessary words, precision becomes also, in 
 one of its features, identical with force. One author puts 
 the definition forcibly by saying that precision demands 
 that the sentence shall "tell the truth, the whole truth, 
 and nothing but the truth." Another, " precision demands 
 that we use such words as cut off all we do not mean to ex- 
 press." 
 
 Perfect, or even approximate precision can be at- 
 tained only by the most careful and patient thought. Of 
 the requisites of good style, no other calls for such a severe 
 and constant use of the reasoning faculty. The perma- 
 nence of any composition will be found to vary very nearly 
 with the degree of precision manifest therein. Such writers 
 as Eobert Hall, Pitt, Moore, Burke, and many others of 
 equal or greater fame are known to have searched for days, 
 and even weeks, before finding the right word. In such a 
 search, the student of this decade has great and unprece- 
 dented helps. Of these, two should be owned and used by 
 every writer who aims at precision, — namely, Eoget's " The- 
 saurus" for suggesting synonymous words; and Smith's 
 " Synonyms Discriminated," for deciding between them. 
 The young writer is to be cautioned, however, against using 
 such books so frequently as thereby to lessen his self-reli- 
 ance. 
 
PBECISION. 83 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 200. Use toords in their proper sense. One of the most 
 common violations of this principle consists in giving to 
 such -well-authorized words as "nice," "grand," "splen- 
 did/* "lovely," etc., a slang signification. 
 
 Original. — " Many of them are situated very near the banks of 
 the ocean." 
 
 Improved. — Many of them are situated very near the shores of 
 the ocean. 
 
 "Bank" is used of rivers and creeks, "shore," of lakes, seas, 
 and oceans. 
 
 Note. — Exercises under this rule may be prolonged indefinitely 
 and with great profit, without a regular book of synonyms, by 
 using those given in the recent unabridged edition of Webster's 
 Dictionary. 
 
 201. A void confounding words formed from the same 
 root. This principle is put by many writers under the 
 head of propriety, as the demands of precision and of pro- 
 priety are here identical. 
 
 Original. — "National interference prevents the commitment of 
 a crime by a nation against its subjects." 
 
 Improved. — National interference prevents the commission of a 
 crime by a nation against its subjects. 
 
 "Commitment" mean^the act of handing over or putting in 
 charge; "commission" means the act of doing or performing, 
 generally in a bad sense. 
 
 202. Distinguish letween loords expressing different de- 
 grees of intensity. This is a common basis of difference in 
 so-called synonymous words. 
 
 Original. — " The vibrations increase like the waves made by 
 throwing a pebble upon the smooth surface of a lake." 
 
 Improved. — The vibrations increase like the ripples caused by 
 throwing a pebble upon the smooth surface of a lake. 
 
 203. Avoid general words. This is really but a repetition, 
 inversely, of a suggestion given under force. Its impor- 
 tance, however, warrants the repetition. Says Beecher, 
 " Don't whip with a switch that has the leaves on, if you 
 want to tingle." 
 
 Original. — " By this time the whole superstructure of the old 
 family mansion was wrapped in the devouring element." 
 
84 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 Improved.— "By this time the old house was completely wrapped 
 in flames. 
 
 204. Avoid the use of "do" and " did" as substitutes 
 for a verb repeated. 
 
 Origmal.—" You feel as perhaps you did, years ago, when you 
 jumped from a hay-mow." 
 
 Lnproved. — You feel as perhaps you fdt, years ago, when you 
 jumped from a hay-mow. 
 
 205. Distinguish belioeen the auxiliaries "shall" and 
 "will." The demands of precision and of purity are here 
 often identical. 
 
 White gives the following conjugations, and illustrates 
 them by the sentences attached. These two sentences af- 
 ford a practical test in^most cases: 
 
 FoTUEE OF Expectation. Future of Determination. 
 I shall go, We shall go, I will go. We will go. 
 
 Thou wilt go. You will go, Thou shalt go. You shall go. 
 He will go; They will go. He shall go; They shall go. 
 
 Thus, " I shall be drowned; nobody will help me/' in- 
 dicates expectation; but, "I will be drowned; nobody shall 
 help me," indicates determination. Mr. White further says: 
 
 206. "The radical signification of loill (Anglo-Saxon 
 tvillan) is purpose, intention," determination; that of shall 
 (Anglo-Saxon sceal, ought) is obligation. I wiUdo means, 
 I purpose doing — I am determined to do. I shall do means, 
 radically, I ought to do; and as a man is supposed to do 
 what he sees he ought to do, / sJi all do came to mean, I am 
 about doing — to be, in fact, a mere announcement of future 
 action, more or less remote. But so, you shall do means, 
 radically, you ought to do; and therefore, unless we mean 
 to impose an obligation or to announce an action on the 
 part of another person, over whom we claim some control, 
 shall, in speaking of the mere voluntary future action of 
 another person, is inappropriate; and we therefore say you 
 tuill, assuming that it is the volition of the other person to 
 do thus or so. Hence, in merely announcing future action, 
 we say, 7 or tve shall, yo2i, he, or they tuill; and in declaring 
 purpose on our own part, oi, on the part of another, obliga- 
 
PRECISION. 85 
 
 tion, or inevitable action, whicli we mean to control, we 
 say, for we will, you, he, or they shall. Official orders, 
 whioli are in the form you will, are but a seeming excep- 
 tion to this rule of speech, which they, in fact, illustrate. 
 For in them the courtesy of superior to subordinate, carried 
 to the extreme even in giving command, avoids the sem- 
 blance of compulsion, while it assumes obedience in its very 
 language." 
 
 Original. — " "We do not consider merely the fact that, as a re- 
 sult of this action, dishonest men shall be compelled to go into 
 obscurity." 
 
 Improrved. — We do not consider merely the fact that, as a result 
 of this action, dishonest men will be obliged to go into obscurity. 
 
 207. JJistitiguish between the auxiliary forms "should" 
 and "would." Tins is, of course, but a corollary to the 
 last suggestion. 
 
 Original. — " From the beginning of the campaign, the feeling 
 that the Democratic party should once more elect a chief magis- 
 trate was very strong." 
 
 /7ftpro»ed.— From the beginning of the campaign, the feeling 
 that the Democratic party toould once more elect a chief magis- 
 trate was very strong. 
 
 208. Distinguish between the nuxiliaries "may" and 
 "can." "May* denotes permission and possibility; "can" 
 denotes ability. 
 
 Original. — " The proprietor says that his employees can vote as 
 they please, so far as he is concerned." 
 
 Improved. — The proprietor says that his employees may vote as 
 they please so far as he is concerned. 
 
 209. Avoid using the verb "be," in the same clause, as 
 an auxiliary and as a principal verb. 
 
 Original. — " It was a great innovation, and looked upon gener- 
 ally with disfavor." 
 
 Improved. — It was a great innovation, and was looked upon 
 generally with disfavor. 
 
 210. Repeat the copula with the second of two connected 
 attributes, if they are contrasted or are not closely related. 
 This principle often applies as well to auxiliary verbs. 
 
 Original. — " The Salvation Army may be at fault in much, and 
 vet based upon lasting principles." 
 
86 PBAGTICAL BHETOEIC. 
 
 Improved. — The Salvation Army may be at fault in much, and 
 yet he based upon lasting principles. 
 
 211. Distinguish between synonymous tvords having, re- 
 sjpectively, an active and a passive meaning. 
 
 Original. — "His mental ability is such that it seems impossible 
 for him to understand a purely mathematical demonstration." 
 
 Improved. — His mental capacity is such that it seems impossible 
 for him to understand a purely mathematical demonstration. 
 
 212. Distinguish between abstract and concrete words, 
 and between abstract and concrete forms of the same word. 
 
 Original. — "What we especially need is increased labors in 
 special lines. " 
 
 Improved. — What we especially need is increased labor in 
 special lines. 
 
 213. Never use but one adjective, when one can be found 
 that will fairly convey the idea. This is a repetition, but 
 one waiTanted by the importance of the principle. The 
 BTolution of an excellent writer is generally marked by a 
 gradual diminution in the number of his adjectives. 
 
 Original. — "But, even in the practical, busy, happy life of the 
 nineteenth century, many philosophers believe more in the joys of 
 anticipation than in those of reality." 
 
 Improved. — But, even in this happy life of the nineteenth cen- 
 tury, many philosophers believe more in the joys of anticipation 
 than in those of reality. 
 
 214. Where two or more forms of the same verb are con- 
 nected by a conjunction, do not omit such' tense-forms as are 
 not common to each. The demands of precision and of 
 purity are here identical. 
 
 Original. — "The Indians would have, as in a few cases they 
 did, sell as much land as the Europeans would buy." 
 
 Improved. — The Indians would have sold, as in a few cases 
 they did sell, as much land as the Europeans would buy. 
 
 215. Distinguish betiveen negative and privative words. 
 A negative word, such as " disbelief," denies the existence 
 of a quality; a privative word, such as " unbelief," ex- 
 presses simply the absence of a quality. 
 
 Original. — " Law is natural, but miracles are unnatural." 
 Improved. — Law is natural, but miracles are supernatural. 
 
 216. Avoid joining incongruous loords, clauses, and sen- 
 
PBECISION. 87 
 
 tences, except for the purpose of epigram. This error, af 
 ready mentioned under clearness, is the source of many 
 ludicrous misapprehensions. 
 
 Original. — " At the same time, he kept up his practice of la-w- 
 and an active interest in the firm." 
 
 Improved. — At the same time, he kept up his practice of law, 
 -vrhile he retained an active interest in tlie firm. 
 
 217. Distinguish the cumulative form and meaning of 
 the verb from its simple form and meaning. 
 
 Original. — "His family magnified his stem and unbending 
 conduct, and at last thought him a cruel tyrant.'' 
 
 Improved.— His family magnified his stern and unbending con- 
 duct, and at last came to thii^ him a cruel tyrant. 
 
 218. Avoid careless contradictions and incongruities. 
 Original. — "Even the slight movement of the tapestry startled 
 
 me, and filled me with a strange foreboding, which in all my pre- 
 -vious life I had never experienced." 
 
 Improved. — ^Even the slight movement of the tapestry startled 
 me, and flUed me with a strange foreboding, such as in all my 
 previous life I had never experienced. 
 
 219. Precision may often be gained by using the word 
 " one" as a personal pronoun. This is gradually becoming - 
 warranted by the best usage. 
 
 Original. — " A finished education is not acquired by spendnig 
 the earher years of life in study alone, even if a person has the 
 best advantages that the country affords." 
 
 Invproved. — A finished education is not acquired by spending 
 the earher years of Ufe in study alone, even if one has the best 
 advantages that the country affords. 
 
 220. Avoid repetitions, except in the ?nore difficult forms 
 of exposition. Even here, it is possible so to expand and 
 repeat that, as Phelps says, "the thought is suffocated by 
 the multitude of -words employed to give it life." 
 
 Original. — " Mr. Chairman, this is a great question; it is a 
 question that must be looked at on all sides ; it is a question that 
 cannot be thoroughly discussed in a single hour ; it is a question 
 that demands long and severe reflection." 
 
 Improved. — Mr. Chairman, this is a great question ; it is one 
 that must be looked at on all sides ; it cannot be thoroughly dis- 
 cussed in a single hour ; it demands long and severe reflection. 
 
 231. Avoid bombast. Empty words, however sonorous, 
 
 can nevor be made to take the place of ideas. 
 
88 PRACTICAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 Oi-iginal—" From the majestic height of the hill one can see 
 the grand old West Canada Creek winding its way in graceful 
 curves." 
 
 Improved. — From the hill one can see the well-known "West 
 Canada Creek winding in graceful curves. 
 
 222. Be careful in using the word "any" and its com- 
 pounds. Without a negative, it means " every;" with a 
 negative it means " not a single one." Clearness and puri- 
 ty, as well as precision, are often violated by a careless use 
 of this word. 
 
 Original. — "The Governor is not bound to approve any bill 
 that the legislature may pass." 
 
 Improved. — The Governor is not bound to approve every bill 
 that the legislature may pass. 
 
 223. It is possible, tJiouc/h not common, to violate jpreci- 
 sion as well as clearness by too great condensation. 
 
 Original. — ■" There is more to be learned from the study of na- 
 ture than of books." 
 
 Improved. — There is more to be learned from the study of na- 
 ture than from that of books. 
 
 224. A void tautology. 
 
 Original. — "He is called the king of Borva, because of his 
 power over the rough islanders who inhabit the little fishing vil- 
 lage on the island." 
 
 Improved. — He is called the king of Borva because of his power 
 over the rough islanders who inhabit the little fishing village. 
 
 225. Where several words are emphatic, distinguish, by 
 position or by phrasing, between the different degrees of 
 emphasis belonging to each. 
 
 Original. — " A clear, musical voice was added to a modest yet 
 dignified bearing." 
 
 Improved. — To a modest yet dignified bearing was added a clear, 
 musical voice. 
 
 226. Repeat the article with the second of two connected 
 nouns. Failure to repeat the article sometimes violates 
 precision, though more frequently, clearness. 
 
 Original. — "Dependent upon an empty treasury and insufficient 
 army, he sought refuge in Hungary." 
 
 Improved. — Dependent upon an empty treasury and an insuffi- 
 cient army, he sought refuge in Hungary. 
 
 227. Place words and phrases grammatically connected 
 
PRECISION. 89 
 
 as near together as is consistent loith Vie otJier requisites of 
 
 good style. 
 
 Original. — "A single exception, scarcely, has been known." 
 Improved. — Scarcely a single exception has been known. 
 
 228. Uxe the conjunction "that " tvith all verbs expressing 
 mental action, luhere eupJwny and force permit. This con- 
 junction is frequently omitted by standard writers ; but the 
 habit of such omission where "that" is not necessary 
 endangers its omission where it is necessary. 
 
 Original. — "He said in after-years, but for his poverty, he 
 would have travelled over half the globe." 
 
 Improved. — He said in after- years that, but for his poverty, he 
 would have travelled over half the globe. 
 
 229. Use the conjunction "that" to introduce a result 
 clause. 
 
 Original. — " The king is portrayed as so brave and generous wk 
 cannot help admiring him. " 
 
 Improved. — ^The king is portrayed as so brave and generous 
 that we cannot help admiring him. 
 
 230. Use "couple'' for "two" only when different couples 
 are spoken of. 
 
 Original. — "A couple of small ponds of clear water constitute 
 the springs." 
 
 Improved. — Two small ponds of clear water constitute the 
 springs. 
 
 231. Do not icse a preposition as a connective. 
 Original. — "The acts of the agent are not valid without they 
 
 are approved by his employer. " 
 
 Improved. — The acts of the agent are not valid unless they are 
 approved by his employer. 
 
 232. Use the possessive rather than, the objective case 
 before a verbal noun. 
 
 Original. — " The senator did not like the idea of his colleague 
 refusing." 
 
 Improved. — The senator did not like the idea of his colleague's 
 refusing. 
 
 WORD-FORMATION. 
 
 Note. — There is, perhaps, no better exercise in precision than 
 that of analyzing polysyllabic words. With the aid- of a diction- 
 
90 
 
 PRACTICAL BEETORIC. 
 
 ary and the following tables of prefixes and sufBxes, let the stu- 
 dent analyze as many words (selected by the instructor) as the 
 time allowed for the study will permit. 
 
 In selecting words, such a work as Swinton's " Word- Analysis" 
 wiU be found invaluable. 
 
 PBEFIXES. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 PEBFES. 
 
 SIONimCATION. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 DEFINITIOS. 
 
 a- 
 ab- 
 
 abs- (before o 
 andt) 
 
 
 a-vert 
 
 to turn /rom 
 
 = from 
 
 ab-duct 
 abs-tain 
 
 to lead from 
 to hold from 
 
 ad- 
 
 
 ad-apt 
 
 to fit io 
 
 a- 
 
 
 a^gree 
 
 to be pleasing to 
 
 ae- Coefore c) 
 
 
 ac-cept 
 
 to take to 
 
 at- (before f) 
 
 
 af-fluent 
 
 flowing to 
 
 ag- (before g) 
 
 
 aggravate 
 
 to add to 
 
 al- (before 1) 
 
 ■=to 
 
 al-ly 
 
 to bind to 
 
 am- (before m) 
 
 am-munition 
 
 defence to 
 
 an- (before n) 
 
 
 an-nounce 
 
 to report to 
 
 ap- (before p) 
 
 
 ap-praise 
 
 to put a price to 
 
 ar- (before r) 
 
 
 arraign 
 
 to speak to 
 
 as- (before s) 
 
 
 as-similate 
 
 to make similar to 
 
 at- (before t) 
 
 
 at- test 
 
 to bear witness to 
 
 am- 
 
 = around, 
 about 
 
 am-putate 
 
 to cut around 
 
 amb- 
 
 amb-iguous 
 
 moving around 
 
 ante- 
 
 = before 
 
 ante-date 
 
 to date before 
 
 anti- 
 
 anti-cipate 
 
 to take before 
 
 bene- 
 
 = wen 
 
 bene-volent 
 
 wishing well 
 
 bl- 
 
 ■ = two, imice 
 
 bi-sect 
 
 to cut mto two pieces 
 
 bis- 
 
 bis-cuit (Frencb) 
 
 twice cooked 
 
 clrcnm- 
 
 — around. 
 
 circum-spect 
 
 looking about 
 
 circu- 
 
 about 
 
 circu-it 
 
 a journey around 
 
 con- 
 
 
 con-trat t 
 
 to draw together 
 
 co- 
 
 
 co-equal 
 
 equal wiih 
 
 cog- 
 col- 
 
 — tnith nr 
 
 cog-nate 
 
 born together 
 
 together 
 
 col-league 
 
 one united with in the 
 same office 
 
 com- 
 
 
 corn-pound 
 
 to put together 
 
 cor- 
 
 contra- 
 
 contro- 
 
 
 ^cor-rode 
 contra-position 
 
 to rub off, or together 
 a placing over against 
 
 counter- (French 
 contre) 
 
 = agamiit 
 
 contro-vert 
 
 to tui-n against 
 
 
 counter-weigh 
 
 to weigh against 
 
 de- 
 
 = down, from,, 
 
 de-cline, de-ciy 
 
 to bring douii, to cry 
 
 
 avjay 
 
 
 down 
 
 
 
 de-fend 
 
 to drive away 
 
 
 
 desert 
 
 topart/7-om 
 
 demi- 
 
 = Kalf 
 
 demi-groat 
 
 a half gioat 
 
 dig- 
 
 r = apart < 
 
 dissipate 
 di-vi(fe 
 
 to cause to go apart 
 to keep apart 
 
 dif- (before f) 
 
 dif-fer 
 
 to bear apart, disagree 
 
 
 
 'e-duce 
 
 to bring or draw out 
 
 6- (before d, n, 1, ' 
 
 
 e-licit 
 
 to draw out 
 
 m) 
 ef- (before f) 
 
 • — out of, out 
 
 ef-face 
 
 to scratch out, remove 
 from 
 
 ex- J 
 
 
 e-merge 
 
 growing out 
 
 
 
 e-nate 
 
 to rise out' of 
 
 
 
 ex-pire 
 
 to breathe out 
 
PBEomiom 
 
 91 
 
 extra- 
 
 in- 
 
 il- (before 1) 
 im- (before p and 
 
 m) 
 ir- (before r) 
 en-, em- (French). 
 
 inter- 
 
 intel- (before 1) 
 
 intra- 
 intro- 
 
 juxta- 
 
 male- (Fr. mat) 
 
 non- 
 
 ob- 
 
 : beyond 
 
 : in, inio^ on, 
 and not 
 
 i = 
 
 between and 
 araong 
 
 inside of 
 within and 
 
 into 
 near 
 ill 
 not 
 
 o- 
 
 00- 
 
 of- 
 
 = in front of, 
 against, 
 or out 
 
 op- 
 
 per- (Fr. par) 
 pel- (before 1) 
 
 post- 
 
 = though, 
 
 thoroughly, 
 by (when 
 alone) 
 
 = after 
 
 pre- 
 preter- 
 
 = before 
 = beyond 
 
 pro- (Fr. por and 1 _ 
 pour) >■ ■ 
 
 pol- (rarely) ) 
 
 i-e- 1 = 
 
 reil- r 
 
 retro- ' = 
 
 se- (_ = 
 
 sed- j 
 
 semi- = 
 
 sub- 
 sue- (before c) 
 suf- (before f ) 
 sug- (before g) 
 
 sum- (before m) 
 sup- (before p) 
 sur- (before r) 
 BUS- (before s) 
 
 subter- 
 
 STiper- (Fr. sur) 
 trans- (Fr. tres, 
 
 tre) 
 tra- 
 
 ulra- 
 
 = for, forth, 
 forward 
 
 ■ back, again, 
 
 anew 
 
 ■ backward 
 
 ' aside, apart, 
 away 
 
 ■.half 
 
 •- under, from 
 under, 
 after 
 
 extra-tropical 
 ia-sert 
 il laminate 
 im-merge 
 im-pious 
 ir-reparable 
 en-due 
 . em -pale 
 inter-micate 
 
 intel-ligent 
 
 intra-marginal 
 
 intro-spect 
 
 juxta-position 
 malevolent 
 uon-confoi'ming 
 ' ob-trude 
 o-mit 
 oc-cur 
 of-fend 
 op-posite 
 
 per-meate 
 
 pel-lucid 
 ^ post-date 
 
 pre-scient 
 preter-vection 
 
 I pro-pulsion 
 
 ( pro-tend 
 1 re-turn 
 1 re-dient 
 retro-vert 
 1 se-clude 
 
 ( sed-ition 
 
 semi-liquid 
 fsub-vene 
 
 suc-cumb 
 
 suf-fer 
 
 SUg-gPSt 
 
 summon 
 sup-port 
 
 sus-pect 
 subter-ranean 
 
 = under, 
 
 beneath 
 = above, over super-add 
 = across, be- I trans-mit 
 yond, through, < 
 
 over t tra-verse 
 
 = ''Z^^ly jultra-montane 
 
 beyond the tropics. 
 
 to put in 
 
 to throw light on 
 
 to plunge into 
 
 not pious 
 
 not reparable. 
 
 to put on to 
 
 to shut in 
 
 to shine between or 
 
 amovg 
 choosing between 
 inside of the margin 
 to look into or vrithin 
 
 a placing near 
 
 i7i-disposed 
 
 not conforming 
 
 to thrust in front of 
 
 to leave out 
 
 to run against 
 
 to strike against 
 
 placed over against , 
 
 to pass through the pores 
 
 of 
 thoroughly clear 
 
 to date after the real 
 time 
 
 knowing before 
 
 the ace of carrying be- 
 yond 
 
 the act of driving for- 
 ward 
 
 to stretch foiiih 
 
 bring or send back 
 
 going back 
 
 to turn backward 
 
 to shut up apart from 
 others 
 
 a going aside 
 
 half liquid 
 
 to come under 
 
 to lie down under 
 
 to undergo 
 
 to bring to mind from 
 under 
 
 to. hunt from under 
 
 toi bear up under 
 
 to look under 
 
 lying vjiderground 
 
 to add over and above 
 to cause to pass over or 
 
 through 
 to pass over 
 
 beyond the mountains 
 
 an- (before 
 vowels) 
 
 amphi- 
 
 Greeh, 
 
 [-««'^^*'««Htn*^^thetic 
 
 f = around,both^ J amphi-bious 
 f on both sides \ 
 
 that which cannot be cut 
 without pain 
 
 living in both land and 
 water 
 
92 
 
 PRACTICAL BHETOmC, 
 
 ana- 
 
 antj- 
 
 ant- 
 apo- 
 
 cata- 
 cath- 
 cat- 
 
 dia- 
 dis- 
 
 di- 
 
 dys- 
 
 ec- 
 
 ex- (before 
 
 vowels) 
 en- 
 em- (before m, b, 
 
 orp) 
 el- (beftire 1) J 
 
 epi- 
 ep- (before a 
 
 vowel) 
 eu- 
 ev- (before a 
 
 vowel) 
 hemi- 
 lijper- 
 
 Kypo- 
 metH- 
 
 met- (before 
 
 vowels) 
 ortlio- 
 para- 
 par- 
 peri- 
 philo- 
 phil- (before 
 
 vowels) 
 pro- 
 pros- 
 syn- 
 sy- 
 syl- 
 sym- 
 
 : lip f o, againy ( 
 
 hack, < an-alogy 
 
 throughout { 
 
 fanti-pode 
 = against^ I 
 
 opposite to 1 ant-agonist 
 
 -.a.ay,out \ll°^°^^ 
 
 : doivn, about^ I cata-comb 
 ngainst, -< cath-ollc 
 throughout { cat-astrophe 
 
 : through or 
 across 
 
 = two, double 
 
 = iU 
 
 -forth, out, 
 out of 
 
 upon, for 
 
 well, good 
 
 : half 
 
 ■ over, beyond 
 
 = under 
 
 I = beyond, \ 
 
 [ transfeiTcnce | 
 
 =-■ right, straight 
 1= by the side f 
 r of, near | 
 
 = around,rou7id 
 
 >■= loving -j 
 
 = before 
 ■.to 
 
 : with, 
 
 together 
 
 j dia-pbragm 
 
 j dis-syllable 
 ( di-atomic 
 dys-pepsia 
 
 j ec-lectic 
 ( ex-egesls 
 
 fen-grave 
 J em-phasis 
 
 (.el-lipsis 
 epi-taph 
 
 ep-hemeral 
 
 euphonious 
 
 ev-angel 
 
 hemi-sphere 
 hyper-bole 
 
 hypocrisy 
 
 meta-morphosis 
 met-onymy 
 
 orthography 
 para-Ilel 
 par-helion 
 peri-pate tic 
 
 pliilo-logisfc 
 phil-barmonic 
 
 pro phet 
 
 pros-elyte 
 
 syn-agogue 
 
 sy-stem 
 
 syl-Iogism 
 
 sym-phony 
 
 a reasoning bade 
 
 one whose feet are di- 
 rectly opposite 
 one who fights against 
 
 another 
 a turning away 
 away from the sun 
 a cavity doi/)7iward 
 throughout the whole 
 that which is turned 
 
 against 
 that which fences 
 
 through 
 a word of two syllables 
 consisting of two atoms 
 ill digestion 
 
 choosing out of 
 a guiding /orWi 
 
 to write upon 
 
 stress 071. 
 
 that which is written 
 
 upon something 
 lasting /oj' a day 
 
 sounding well 
 good news 
 
 half a sphere 
 
 a statement beyond the 
 
 truth, 
 acting under a mask 
 
 a transfei'rence in shape 
 transferrence in name 
 
 the art of spelling right 
 by the side of each other 
 by the side of the sun 
 walking around 
 
 one devoted to language 
 loving music 
 
 one who speaks before 
 to win to a religion 
 a meeting togetlier 
 part with part 
 a reckoning all together 
 a sounding together 
 
 at 
 
 after 
 all 
 be 
 
 for 
 
 fore 
 
 forth 
 
 fro 
 
 in 
 
 mis 
 
 Saxon. 
 
 : in, on, at, etc. a-head, abroad, aside, alive, etc. 
 : at at-one, at-onement. 
 
 : after after-math, after-part, after-ward 
 
 : all al-mighty, a-lone, lonely, also 
 
 ' ^UWe^fo?cl' i^®-*^®^^^' be-dizen, be-dew, be-draggled, etc. 
 
 '' ^ppo^tiU \ ^°^-^«^^' ^°^-b>^' fo»-^>'«' «tc- 
 
 1 fore-elosp, fore-stall, fore-oast, fore-run, etc. 
 
 : before < forth-wlth, forth-coming 
 
 ( fro-ward 
 
 : in in-bred, in-ure 
 
 : error mis-spell, mis-judge, mis-take, mis-trust 
 
PBECI8I0N. 
 
 98 
 
 n 
 
 off 
 
 on 
 
 out 
 
 over 
 
 to 
 
 un 
 
 under 
 
 up 
 with 
 
 = negative force 
 = from 
 
 = beyond 
 
 = over, above 
 I = a corruption J 
 f of the 1 
 
 = negation 
 1 = under, J 
 
 J beneath ( 
 
 = up 
 
 = opposition 
 
 n-eithc, n-ever, n-one 
 
 oft shout, off -set, oS-scouring 
 
 on-set, on-ward 
 
 out-break, out-cry, out-growth 
 
 over-take, over-haul 
 
 to-day, to-morrow 
 un-wise, un-wi11iDg, un-daunted 
 uiider-score, under-value, under-sell 
 uphold, up-risht, up-set 
 withhold, wiu. stand, with-draw 
 
 SUFFIXES. 
 
 Latin and Greek, 
 
 -able 
 
 -ible 
 -ble 
 
 -aceous 
 
 -acious 
 
 -acy 
 -age 
 
 -al 
 
 -an 
 
 -ane 
 
 -ance 
 
 -ancy 
 
 -and 
 
 -end 
 
 -ant 
 
 -enc 
 
 -ar 
 
 -er 
 -or 
 
 -ary 
 
 -ate 
 
 atlc (-aticus) 
 -cle 
 
 -cule 
 
 -eer 
 
 -ier 
 
 1 endur-able 
 = possibility < reprehens-ible 
 
 ( solu-ble 
 = relation, ( ..-j, •»„ 
 
 {foli-aceous 
 fallacious 
 = condition, )suprera-aoy 
 "•^^ (cur-acy 
 
 = relating io^ t origin-al 
 the act of, < reprov-al 
 that which ( coron-al 
 
 = relating to, J hum-an 
 the act of I mund-ane 
 f repent-ance 
 
 =state or qital- } 
 
 ityofoeing\ exuberancy 
 
 h 
 
 : beintf^ one 
 who 
 
 J vi-and 
 ■) leg-end 
 i as^ir-ant 
 
 ( nulit-Eint 
 ( resid-ent 
 _«!»<;„,. jn i muscul-ar 
 = relating to ) p,.oduc-er 
 (agency;, hte-j§i°°^j«* 
 
 fsecond-ary 
 = relating to, I legion-ary 
 one who, < 
 place wliere | api-ary 
 
 ,„, „„„, I substantiate 
 
 = agent, qual-) je^.ate 
 ity, caiise ' * 
 
 : small 
 
 ■■ one to lohom 
 
 ( carbon-ate 
 
 lun-atic 
 ( tubercle 
 } reti-cule 
 
 consign-ee 
 
 h 
 
 f charioteer 
 nnanc-ier 
 
 that may he endured 
 that may be blamed 
 that viay be dissolved 
 
 relating to the heart 
 
 having the quality of a 
 leaf 
 
 having the qtiality of 
 deceit 
 
 condition of being su- 
 preme 
 
 o^ceo/ a curate 
 
 condition of slaves 
 
 rekding to the origin 
 the act of reproving 
 that which crowns 
 relating to mankind 
 relating to the world 
 the state of being pen- 
 itent 
 the state of being exuber- 
 ant 
 
 one who aspires 
 
 being warlike 
 
 one who dwells in a place 
 
 relating to a muscle 
 
 one who produce% 
 
 one who directs 
 
 relating to the second 
 
 one who belongs to a le- 
 gion 
 
 a place where bees are 
 kept 
 
 to cattle to exist 
 
 one who is sent 
 
 quality of carbon 
 
 small projection 
 
 a small bag 
 
 one to whom a thing is 
 
 consigned 
 one who has charge of a 
 
 chariot 
 one who attends to fi' 
 
 nances 
 
94 
 
 PBAGTIGAL BHETOBIG. 
 
 -el Oe) 
 -en 
 
 -ence 
 
 -ency 
 
 -escence 
 
 -escent 
 
 -ess 
 
 -fei'ous 
 
 -fie 
 -fice 
 
 fy 
 
 -ic 
 
 -ical 
 -ice 
 
 •icle 
 
 -ics 
 
 -ic 
 
 -Id 
 •He 
 
 -ing 
 -ish 
 
 -i.se 
 
 -ize 
 
 -ism 
 
 -1st 
 -ite 
 
 -yte 
 
 -ity 
 
 ty 
 
 -ive 
 
 -ix 
 -lent 
 
 -mony 
 
 -on 
 •eoLi 
 
 = relating to 
 
 I = state of 
 Y being^ 
 I quality of 
 
 = agent y being 
 
 \ = state of 
 f becomdng 
 = beeomi^tg 
 = female 
 = bearing 
 ^ = making, 
 causing 
 -. something j 
 viade 1 
 
 : to make 
 
 = one who, like -j 
 
 : like, made of, J 
 relating to | 
 
 = that which 
 
 mors-el 
 ali-en 
 sat'in 
 terr-ene 
 
 perman-ence 
 
 pot-ency 
 presid-ent 
 
 evid-ent 
 
 < adol-escence 
 
 putr-escent 
 
 tiger-ess 
 
 argeoti-ferous 
 
 j terri-fic 
 
 I edi-fice 
 
 recti-fy 
 
 crit-ic 
 trag-ie 
 
 botau-ical 
 
 not -ice 
 
 i: 
 
 ; the science 
 
 of 
 : bei7ig, oving 
 : relating to, 
 
 apt for 
 :' relating to, 
 
 like 
 ■■ the act of, 
 
 -ing, 
 
 the state of 
 
 ■■ to make 
 ■■ to render, to 
 perform the- 
 act of 
 
 - the state or 
 act of, idiom 
 
 one skilled in 
 
 one who is, 
 being 
 
 = the state or 
 
 quality of 
 being 
 
 : one who is, 
 having the ■ 
 power 
 
 - feminine 
 
 1 = state of i 
 
 > being, that-l 
 ) which { 
 
 I = state of, j 
 i that which j 
 
 article 
 polit-ics 
 
 ' arithmetic 
 fior-id 
 
 infant- ile 
 
 serv-ile 
 
 can-ine 
 
 adamant-ine 
 
 cou tent-ion 
 
 couvuls-ion 
 
 act-ion 
 dimin-ish 
 
 en&i*anch-ise 
 civil- ize 
 
 American-ism 
 
 fanatic-ism 
 
 machin-ist 
 
 scient-ist 
 
 favor-ite 
 
 neoph-yte 
 
 vivac-ity 
 
 divisibil-ity 
 
 ,certain-ty 
 relat-ive 
 invent-ive a 
 
 executr-lx 
 i viru-lent 
 ' somno-lent 
 
 preferment 
 
 atone-ment 
 
 patri-mony 
 
 parsi-mony 
 
 glutt-on 
 
 pig-eon 
 
 relating to the earth 
 
 the quality of being per- 
 manent 
 
 the quality of being 
 powerful 
 
 one who is appointed to 
 
 being seen 
 
 state of growing 
 
 becoming putrid 
 a female tiger 
 bearing silver 
 
 educing terror 
 
 something built 
 
 to make right 
 one who criticises 
 relating to tragedy 
 
 relating to botany 
 
 that which is made 
 known 
 
 the science of govern- 
 ment 
 
 the science of number 
 
 bewigr bright 
 
 relating to infancy 
 
 apt for service 
 
 relating to a dog 
 
 like adamant 
 
 the act o/ contending 
 
 the state of being con- 
 vulsed 
 
 acting 
 
 to make smaller 
 
 to render tree 
 to render civil 
 
 American idiom, 
 the state of a fanatic 
 one skilled in machinery 
 one devoted to science 
 one who is favored 
 one who takes new vows 
 the state of being lively 
 the quality of being di- 
 vided 
 the state of being certain 
 one wJio is related 
 ha.ving the power to in- 
 vent 
 a female executor 
 
 act of being preferred 
 that which atones 
 
 that which Is inherited 
 
 from an ancestor 
 state of iUiberality 
 
PBEGI8I0N. 
 
 95 
 
 -ory 
 
 -ORe 
 
 -ous 
 
 -i".v 
 
 -sun 
 
 -so in 
 
 -ter 
 
 -tery 
 
 -tor 
 
 -tude 
 
 ty 
 
 -ule 
 -ulent 
 
 -ure 
 
 -y 
 
 f= 
 
 aqency, 
 quality 
 
 I fact-or 
 < goverii-or 
 ( ai'd-or 
 
 -. place whe,-e.\'''>^^^^-^'y 
 that which j promontory 
 
 I = abounding 
 
 = condition or 
 
 quality of 
 I = state or 
 
 quality of, 
 I being 
 ~ minuze 
 = abounding 
 
 verb-ose 
 
 nerv-ous 
 
 poetry, pedant- 
 sea-son 
 
 ti-ansom 
 
 vo-ter 
 
 mys-tery 
 
 moni-tor 
 ! recti-tude 
 > simili-tude 
 
 one who makes 
 that which governs 
 quality of burning 
 a place where provisions 
 
 are served 
 that which- projects 
 abounding m words 
 abounding in nerves 
 
 ry 
 
 -jpl- 
 
 [en-ty 
 
 ov-ule 
 truc-ulent 
 
 I = act or state I ten-ure 
 
 I o/, that which } vest-ure 
 
 = act or state of miser-y 
 
 qualiiy of being right 
 condition of likeness 
 
 a little egg 
 
 abounding in cruelty 
 
 act of holding 
 that which clothes 
 state of being miserable 
 
 Saxon, 
 
 -ar 
 
 -ard 
 
 -er 
 
 -yer 
 
 -ster 
 
 -d 
 
 -dom 
 
 -el 
 
 -en 
 
 -fast 
 
 •fold 
 -ful 
 -head 
 -hood 
 
 -ing 
 
 -ish 
 
 -bin 
 
 -less 
 
 -let 
 
 -ling 
 
 -like 
 
 -ly 
 
 -nesB 
 
 -ock 
 
 -ric 
 
 -ship 
 
 -scape 
 
 'Some 
 
 -teen 
 
 -ther 
 
 ^y ^ 
 
 -■ward 
 -wise 
 
 -y 
 
 [= 
 
 : agent, weaker, 
 : instrument 
 
 passive signification 
 condition, quality 
 diminutive 
 causative, diminutive 
 made of, feminine 
 firm 
 
 feminine 
 numeral {I fold) 
 full 
 state 
 state of 
 verbal ending 
 diminutive 
 quality of 
 : diminutive 
 
 : loss 
 
 -■ diminutive 
 
 ■ diminutive 
 
 ■ like 
 
 - state of 
 
 - diminutive 
 = power 
 = sha^e, form, condition 
 
 of 
 
 - participating m 
 zten 
 
 -- agent, instrument 
 : ten 
 
 : direction 
 : manner 
 = adjective ending 
 
 Tslugg-ard 
 J farm-er 
 I saw-yer 
 Lpun-ster 
 
 deed, like-d 
 
 martyr-dOm 
 
 satch-el 
 J striv-en, kitt-en, silk-en 
 ( vix-en 
 
 stead-fast 
 
 seamstr-ess 
 
 mani-fold 
 
 help-ful, cheer-ful 
 
 bulk-head 
 
 child-hood, man-hood 
 J mak-ing, reek-ing 
 I farth-ing 
 
 self-ish rak-ish 
 
 lamb-kiu 
 
 heart-less, child-less 
 
 brook-let 
 
 duck-Iiug, strip-ling 
 j God-like, home-like 
 "I worn an -ly 
 
 bloo-m from blow, stea-m from 
 stew 
 
 wild-ness, sad-ness 
 
 hill-ock 
 
 bishop-ric 
 j clerk-ship, wor-ship 
 1 land-scape 
 
 bh'the-some, ful-some 
 
 flf-teen 
 
 fa-ther 
 
 fif-ty 
 
 heaven-ward, back-ward 
 
 side- wise, length- wise 
 
 rain-y, cloud-y 
 
\ 
 
 96 PB ACTIO AL BHETOBIO. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PEECISION. 
 
 1. ''But the November wind, entering through the 
 broken panes and the windows, (334) did far more to sub- 
 due the spirit of mischief." ^. , 
 
 2. " Oliver Goldsmith embpdies_(300) an eminent illus- 
 tration of this/' _ __ 
 
 3. " The summer with its burning 7uly and August 
 suns (324) typifies the intensity of youth." 
 
 4. "He was brought up by wealthy parents, who de- 
 signed (300) him to marry a kinswoman of his who had 
 been reared in the same house." 
 
 5. "He demanded a restoration to the common people 
 of their former liberties." (337.) , ', 
 
 6. "He had been misconstrued (300) by his enemies." 
 
 7. "The younger of the two daughters is dependent, 
 fearful, (300) and drooping." ^ 
 
 8. "First in the vtjeabnlary (300) of good times we 
 would place a trip to the country." .') 
 
 9. '■ "We drove under the freight track ^^that goes (300) 
 around the city." 
 
 10. " It is to the glory of the nineteenth century that so 
 many things (300) are open to women in America, even to 
 college professorships in (334) our universities." 
 
 11. " These bluffs present rather (300) a singular appear- 
 ance, as the softer part of them (300) has been worn away." 
 
 12. "A lunch-basket formed a principal feature (300) 
 of the party." 
 
 13. " He wished to ward off the depredations (300) of 
 his property." 
 
 14. " One of the frequent southern storms has come up 
 with very little notice." (300.) 
 
 15. " The sun shines brightly again, and the tiny drops 
 of water sparkle as they reflect the rays of the sunlight." 
 (234.) 
 
PREGI8I0N. 97 
 
 16o " Beside (301) the animals already mentioned, are 
 found bears and other game." 
 
 17. "His beharior aggravated (200) me beyond measure. " 
 
 18. "The methods employed by them in a great measure 
 (327) are peculiar to themselves." 
 
 19. "Their manly course of action serves to decrease 
 (300) any feeling of disrespect." 
 
 30. "We need no better example (300) than is afforded 
 in our own time by England's queen, that one may take the 
 highest rank among her fellows and still be a high-souled, 
 pure-minded woman." 
 
 21. " This piece (300) contains much useful information 
 told (300) in the form of a story." 
 
 33. ''The Freshmen disobeyed legal (334) law: they 
 committed theft." 
 
 23. " Because a few Freshmen enjoy stealing cream, their 
 conduct ought (200) not to be justified." 
 
 34. " Our politicians have some of the same unprincipled 
 (300) characteristics : they wish the nation to bow to all 
 their notions." (300.) 
 
 35. "As long as woman is kept in ignorance, there will 
 be a tendency, when opportunity affords itself (311), to talk 
 upon a subject that does not require much thought." ^^ 
 ~26. " But when the antislavery question stirred (217) the 
 hearts of all, it furnished him with a theme that awoke his 
 latent fire and enthusiasm." ^.., ' ,,_^, 
 
 27. " The scene of the novel (200) covers several years, 
 and is laid at different places in Europe." 
 
 28. " Alfred's rival, {22^ Duke de Savois, is a French 
 gentleman of high birth." 
 
 :' 29. "To his cry, ' Oh, return ; I repent ! ' the dark night 
 alone bears witness. " (200. ) ^ , ^ c--. • ■- i 
 
 30. " The church should not -mete (200) the bounds of 
 amusement." 
 7 
 
98 PBAOTICAL B3ET0BIC. 
 
 31. " Witness her loving atteadance (300) on the whims 
 and fretfulness of her father." 
 
 33. "He was tall and strongly built, with luminous, 
 gray, (313) magnifieeitt-eyes, and luxuriant dark-hrown hair 
 oL^-eart"^Dfteess. " 
 
 33. "The college is tolerant tet^ids all religions." (300.) 
 
 34. "After years of political honor^, (313) he again re- 
 tired to private life." - 
 
 35. "When we found (338) it was still raining, we re- 
 packed our ti'unks." 
 
 36. "Why is it that people worn out with the toil and(^ 
 turmoil of trade wish to fly away to the enebantitcg^em- 
 braee (331) of rural life ?" ^ ^^'^ 
 
 37. " Scott possessed the same power of ^dwptirous im- 
 agination ^(300) Moore." ^-^ c^ 
 
 38. " Suppose that all the people should assemble to draw 
 up a code of laws and (310) vote upon each by ballot." 
 
 39. " But when oddBBBS-mid eccentricity spafcaad blemish 
 it so that it becomes disfi^sed a^ tarnished, (334) its 
 power to attract" is soon_lost." 
 
 40. " I venture (233) that no one could do more in a life- 
 time than write a perfect history of the Onondaga Valley." 
 
 41. " Andr6 at first hesitated to undertake so dangerous 
 "a-^ian, (300) for he well knew what might be the result." 
 
 43. 'kAls0f'(337) in the trial it wak shown that he had 
 been in correspondence with Arnold for nearly two years." 
 
 43. "I had often passed through the valley on the car^, 
 (300) but could thus catch only glimpses of the. scenery." 
 
 44. "The prize system tends to teeiie (300)jall with 
 greater zeal." ^ 
 
 45. " So long as he is industrious he gets along respect-' 
 feUy-" (201.) ^^^^^^ 
 
 46. " By reading the papers he-knows (200) what is oc 
 curring in distant parts of the world." 
 
PRECIi,IOW. 99 
 
 47. " Balance of power is the means of inferiors for hum- 
 bling a superior. " (223 . ) 
 
 48. " This may be partially true, but it is not entirely. ?Vo 
 (223.) 
 
 49. "The/at oncfe^(227) showed) forth the beauty and 
 the purity of his soul. 
 
 50. "America joyfully hailed the slave^ (300) songs of 
 Whittier." 
 
 51. " There are many grand (300) good people among the 
 residents of this city." 
 
 52. "As it is only a short distance through the trees, 
 (200) we soon reach the clearing and find (338) the fort is 
 not more than sixty rods distant." 
 
 53. "The wall is quite irregular, as, in many places, 
 wide gaps have been broken through." (200.) 
 
 64. "In the life of Sheridan there are three actuating 
 characteristics; a steady determination, fertility of re- 
 sources, (212) and a strong energy to enforce (200) his de- 
 signs." 
 
 55. "When a newly fledged lieutenant, his strategy (200) 
 was brought into effect in a battle with the Indians." 
 
 56. "Soon the leaves began to rustle, the sky was over- 
 cast, and the flashes of lightning were (317) blinding." 
 
 57. "Mr. Phillips became a leading member of the 
 much-hated abolitionists." (200.) 
 
 58. " But when thinking his argument over afterward, 
 they discovered (338) they were not convinced." 
 
 59. "By this science the architects take (300) their plans 
 for the structure (201) of temples, palaces, and bridges." 
 
 60. "Petition after petition was sent (333) Alexander 
 II. . entreating him to modify the autocracy or to change in 
 any (233) respect the official system." 
 
 61. "Although Damey proves to be the son of the Mar- 
 quis, notwithstanding (200) the Doctor works with all his 
 energy for his release." 
 
100 PRACTICAL BHETORIO. 
 
 €2. "The blood-stained demons must drink his blood 
 (324) as (223) an aristocrat," 
 
 63. " Yet we find this (228) is only the rough covering 
 of a peculiarly sensitive nature." 
 
 64. " All his life, he was chafed (200) by slender means." 
 
 65. "Thus we have a conglomeration of words which so 
 little (200) represent the spoken word." 
 
 66. "The scene is laid in a small hamlet in the lowlands, 
 and the story is described (200) in a very simple way." 
 
 67. " Hetty is a very beautiful, but frivolous, light-headed 
 (213 and 224) girl." 
 
 68. "She decides that she cannot even (227) let Dinah 
 know of her shame." 
 
 69. " She determines several times to throw herself into 
 some pool and end her misery, but her determination (200) 
 fails her." 
 
 70. " A few days before her execution, Dinah comes to 
 her and wins (200) her to confess." 
 
 71. "We set out about the first of August, hoping ihat 
 three weeks (223) would see us much improved in health 
 and size." (200.) 
 
 72. "There are two German churches besides (301) the 
 Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches." (334.) 
 
 73. " The only recreation Miss Ainslie has is (223) the 
 rides which she takes on her brother's old war horse." 
 
 74. "The building is the (223) shape of an oblong box." 
 
 75. "The summer-houses shield beautiful, bubbling 
 springs, whose water, clear as crystal, gurgles forth, spread- 
 ing (200) life to plant and animal." 
 
 76. "The sanitarium supports (200) a high moral tone." 
 
 77. " The value of a navy was shown in the earliest pages 
 (200) of history." 
 
 78. " We realize in him a type of men (212) often seen in 
 our late campaign." 
 
PRECISION. 101 
 
 79. " His words flowed as from a full, throbbing (300) 
 spring." 
 
 80. "They seek out Shylock, a well-known usurper, 
 (300) who, at first, pretends that it is impossible to raise so 
 large a sum." 
 
 81. " But when Cartwright became grown up (300) he 
 moved to Illinois." 
 
 83. "We find immigrants to be refugees from the laws 
 (300) of their natiye land." 
 
 83. "His tall, erect stature (300) and (333) polished 
 manners made him the centre of attraction." 
 
 84. "The records of crimes (313) and wrong-doings (313) 
 show that, in proportion to the population, the number of 
 crimes has decreased." 
 
 85. "Under the enervating (300) influences that were 
 about me I felt almost inspired." 
 
 86. "At this season of the year the teamsters are accus- 
 tomed to carry (300) logs and spars from the forest to the 
 railroad station." 
 
 87. "Does not this prove that it is lawful and (333) 
 should meet the approval of all good citizens ?" 
 
 88. "The heroism and self-sacrifice of patriotic armies 
 may be most effective, (318) but in the absence of law their 
 work is a failure." 
 
 89. "This was near the beginning of that bloody period 
 (200) known as the ' Wars of the Eoses.' " 
 
 90. "The possibility of winning a prize is a powerful 
 stimulant." (301.) 
 
 91. " There were many other interesting features of this 
 vacation's work, only a part of which (318) are mentioned 
 here." 
 
 93. "I have endeavored to seek the truth, taking my 
 work (300) only from reliable witnesses. " 
 
 93. "One of the most important points (300) brought 
 against the Chinese is that their labor is servile." 
 
102 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 94. "Near this a pair of stairs is built (200) to the depths 
 below." 
 
 95. "Being a man imbued (300) with a most complete 
 knowledge of scientific principles, he accomplishes great 
 results." 
 
 96. "He approaches one of the most wealthy (200) resi- 
 dences situated in the midst of a large park." 
 
 97. "Wendell Phillips was gentlemanly in all his bear- 
 ings, (212) but never above the lowest of his subjects." 
 (200.) 
 
 98. "The building is of modern pattern (200) and very 
 tasty ; around it are extensive grounds laid out with gi-eat 
 taste (224) and splendor." (200.) 
 
 99. "Henry soon learns to regard Lady Castlewood with 
 an affection almost (227) amounting to worship." 
 
 100. "He was respected by all for his sturdy integrity 
 and his grand (200) unselfishness." 
 
 101. "Mr. Holland has happily avoided this, and given 
 (214) us a concise and somewhat complete biography." 
 
 102. "For many years, tobacco was so expensive that only 
 the nobility could afford it ; but during the seventeenth 
 century it was (217) produced in larger quantities." 
 
 103. "Beside, (201) thought is in many ways turned 
 from the pursuit of a regular course of study." 
 
 104. "He was graceful (201) and affable equally in the 
 presence of a peasant or a king." 
 
 105. "The first white person to form (200) a permanent 
 home here was Ephraim Webster." 
 
 106. "But particularly (227) his executive ability is 
 shown in his plans for the defence of England against the 
 Spanish Armada." 
 
 107. "Party spirit tends to place (200) the mind and 
 heart on (200) a particular party." 
 
PBEGiaiON. 103 
 
 108. " The darkness had increased to such a degree (329) 
 the horses could with difficulty find the road." 
 
 109. " The next day Anne dies, and with her (333) her 
 income." 
 
 110. "No student feels like studying (323) Friday ; (333) 
 Saturday he is too busy, and (333) Sunday conscience for- 
 bids his doing so." 
 
 111. "We find him with an intellect clear and true, 
 (200) and with a heart warm and gentle." 
 
 113. " Any authentic records (313) of such an, awaken- 
 ing cannot fail to excite deep interest." 
 
 113. " The Chronicles also explain the conditions (313) 
 of the peasants which led to the peasant war." 
 
 114. "The men being allowed to rest on the Sabbath, 
 more work was produced (300) than CTer before." 
 
 115. "In 'Lucretia' he has closely connected learning 
 and crime, thus startling (200) even the indifEerent." 
 
 116. " There remains to the latter the silent but powerful 
 remedy «f (2^") ballot." 
 
 11|?. "He was advised to preach more popular sermons, 
 a matter '(200) impossible when (300) averse to his convic- 
 tions." 
 
 118. "Under differing circumstances these peculiarities 
 are fostered and ^fded (300) or distorted." 
 
 119. "The ears' (200) were puffing and blowing, and I 
 saw that the multitude, in great part, did not recognize 
 this holy day." , , 
 
 120. " Legend£(212) and wild stories grasped upon (200) 
 their moral natures." ,, , , , 
 
 121. " Tradition says that wonderful signs t-ook- place 
 (200) at hi's birth." j^,, ^ ( 
 
 122. "Having partaken of a bohnteous (301) supper, 
 they all retired." 
 
104 PBAOTICAL BEETOBIO. 
 
 123. "She is tept well housed and cared for until, 
 _ s65,reely (200 and 218) without an effort, she is_mg^ied to 
 
 Ivanhoe. " TTn^-v.- v ^^. 
 
 124. '.' He must arouse Scotland from her sfepy (224) 
 lethargy, jj^ _ ^^ 
 
 ^ 125. ^'.Winding around the hill, we slowly get (200) 
 above the heat." 
 
 126. ."The stage is partly responsible for this opposition, 
 but much of it is overdrawn." (200.) ^ *^' ; -'^ .^o/j,<c- 
 
 127. " Osbaldistone is a representative of the true mer- 
 chant. He is devoted to his profession "(200) and regards 
 commercial success and credit as the highgst honor." 
 
 128. "In 1753, Washington was (223) Adjutant-general," 
 
 129. "Woman's (213) position in politics has been dis- 
 cussed in every locality." 
 
 130. "He has i<^tiaaaHy kept (224) improving, until 
 now he has reached a high state of civilization." 
 
 131. " The Chinese are not quarrelsome and pu gaaeioas-; 
 (224) they are the most peaceful (201) race on the earth." 
 
 132. "It is one of the ffiaiffof lakes which -ft©w"p06) by 
 way of the Oswego Eiver into Lake Ontario." i g_t, 
 
 133. " If we think it right to act as we feel, we -v^ll, (Pr. 
 205) by persistent .efforti (212) feel as friendly as we act.^"" 
 
 134. "Hrwas uncompromismg ii]iits rebuke of fraud and 
 oppression! of whatever -eKaie, or race^' (200 and 223.) 
 
 135. " SiiTwasVis lat^ as 1849 (227) resorted to by in- 
 valids from India." 
 
 136. "Indeed we wiff-(205) find, on examination, that 
 many southern Indian tribes have attained a high civiliza- 
 tion." , ,; 
 
 137. "In 1636 Epger Williams bought part-of Ehode 
 Island (216) and t^^si^?) its founder." _ "— --^ 
 
 138. "The Indians were sparsely settled (jieie^ai iid ther e^ 
 (224) and could not live by hunting." 
 
PBECISIOF. ^ 105 
 
 139. " The city council objected to him (332) receiving 
 so high a salary." 
 
 140. " She was a cold, calculating, seheiBingr«elfiBh>jin- 
 iweiy woman." (213 and 224.) 
 
 141. "The onward mar ch of rel igion has swept away 
 the clouds of unbelief that}mveiope9^^(^37)for a long time 
 the early apostles -i»-efescuHiy." (224.) 
 
 142. "Entering upon life with scarcely any^Ewrmedge, 
 
 (200) Lincoln strove against every difficulty." 
 
 143. " The Earl addressed him in a most contemptiWe 
 
 (201) tone." , ^ 
 
 144. "This kind of a country must of necessity jpjfeduce 
 (200) some fine scenery." 
 
 145. " Would you then pefeili (200) our youths the right 
 of franchise at eleven years ?" 
 
 146. "It is time to stop and see if these demonstrations 
 are as teo^J^O) and thorough as those of geometry." 
 
 147. "This was the star that led him on through years 
 of discouragement^." (212.) 
 
 148. " A man that knowingly ruins himself by uaing any 
 form of alcohol, must necessarily have a weak Bain^." »M-OX 
 (200.) ^ 
 
 149. "Many firms have-feeen (217) bankrupt because 
 some of their employees havfr-^gjj© from them." 
 
 150. "At this time the provinces of (2£3-) Frauce and i|wH_- 
 England were separated by a wide forest." 
 
 151. "His sight/vras remarkable for a white man, and 
 rivalled even (22S)'the natives themselves." 
 
 152. " He thought tw^ie (200) of entering the ministry." * 
 
 153. " Their chief desire is to learn how they may.©arich^-^ 
 (300) their own pockets." ^^^ .m1.h^ 
 
 154. " The ship that will survive a hard thump (202) 
 may be sunk by tiny insects boring into its timbers." 
 
106 PBACTIOAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 155. "Of course,~^yery one will be there, aad for the 
 ^diScation ef those who are absent a full report will be 
 found in our next paper." (218.) i^^^^^^^w' 
 
 156. " Three of our number comply (200) joyfully to the 
 inviting zephyrs. " ^^^ ^.^^^^ ; 
 
 157. "Though the greater diflBculties are now aeeom- 
 plished, (200) still the great^ dare us on." 
 
 158. "It is here ■s^b^'t^O) the Methodists hold their 
 annual camp-meetings." 
 
 159. "Many now test their ability in feats of strength 
 and skill/aa_w&H as in running aud-juiBpiBg.r (224. ) 
 
 160. "If the abovet?aets( (200) be conceded, ought not 
 the ofiBce-holders to pay the expenses of the campaign ?" 
 
 161. " As the heat becomes more oppressive, a longing; 
 comes/£?ong/ who has been reared iH-^tSilMa^ry(especial^^ 
 (227) |o ily to the country." (224. ) ^ -" 
 
 163. "If we look to see what classes are striving for a 
 social union, we will- (205) find the bulk of the foreign ele- 
 ment a minus quantity." 
 
PUBITT. 107 
 
 CHAPTER lY. 
 
 PURITY. 
 
 PuEiTT requires that only such words and constructions 
 be selected as are warranted by good usage. Campbell^s 
 definition of "good usage," approved by all subsequent 
 writers, makes it to be that usage which is reputable, 
 national, and present. Usage mainly determines the laws 
 of syntax. That is, most of these laws were determined, 
 originally, by observing the usage of the best writers. 
 Purity, therefore, requires the avoidance of syntactical 
 errors. 
 
 SUGGESTIOJSrS. 
 
 233. Avoid coining wordu, or using tJwse newly coined. 
 The language that contained words enough to express the 
 ideas of Shakespeare and Macaulay surely contains enough 
 for us, excepting, of course, terms that have come as the 
 necessary accompaniments of new inventions and new con- 
 ditions of life. The language of a country has been well 
 compared to a grand national monument. He who de- 
 liberately warps a word to an unwarranted meaning, or coins 
 a word to express what might be as well expressed in one 
 already existing, is as culpable as one who should deliber- 
 ately attach some excrescence to a great public monument, 
 or chip a piece from one of its corners. If the monument 
 is to be remodelled in any way. let the work be left solely to 
 the great sculptors — ^the great writers and critics. Even 
 these are very slow to make changes. In all his dictionary 
 work, Noah "Webster is said to have coined but one word. 
 William Cullen Bryant, perhaps America's most judicious 
 literary critic, was very conservative on this point. While 
 
108 
 
 PRACTICAL BHETOBTC. 
 
 editor of the Evening Post he placed the following words 
 and expressions upon the proscribed list, directing all 
 writers connected with his journal to avoid them : 
 
 ^bove and over (for ' ' more 
 than"). 
 
 Artiste (for "artist"). 
 OAspirant. 
 
 Authoress. 
 
 Beat (for "defeat"). 
 
 Bagging (for ' ' capturing"). 
 
 Balance (for "remainder"). 
 
 Banquet (for ' ' dinner" or ' ' sup- 
 per"). 
 ■J Bogus. 
 
 Casket (for "coffin"). 
 
 Claimed (for "asserted"). 
 
 Collided. 
 ^Commence (for "begin"). 
 
 Cortege (for "procession"). 
 
 Cotemporary (for "contempo- 
 rary "). 
 
 Couple (for "two"). 
 
 Darky (for "negro"). 
 
 Day before yesterday (for " the 
 day before yesterday"). 
 
 D4but. 
 
 Decease (as a verb). 
 
 Democracy (appUed to a pohti- 
 cal party). 
 
 Develop (for "expose"). 
 
 Devouring element (for "fire"). 
 
 Donate. 
 
 Employ^. 
 
 Endorse (for "approve"). 
 
 Sn route. 
 
 Esq. 
 , Graduate (for " is graduated "). 
 
 Gents (for "gentlemen"). 
 
 Hon. 
 
 House (for ' ' House of Eepre- 
 sentatives"). 
 
 Humbug. 
 
 Inaugurate (for "begin"). 
 
 In our midst. 
 
 Item (for "particle, extract, or 
 paragraph"). 
 
 Is being done, and all passive;: 
 
 of this form. 
 Jeopardize. 
 
 Jubilant (for "rejoicing"). 
 Juvenile (for " boy"). 
 Lady (for "wife"). 
 Last (for " latest "). 
 Lengthy (for "long"), 
 -lieniency (for "lenity"). 
 Loafer. 
 Loan or loaned (for " lend" or 
 
 "lent"). 
 Located. 
 Majority (relating to places or 
 
 circumstances, for "most"). 
 Mrs. President, Mrs. Governor, 
 
 Mrs. General, and all similar 
 
 titles. 
 Mutual (for "common"). 
 Official (for "officer"). 
 Ovation. 
 On yesterday. 
 Over his signature. 
 Pants (for "pantaloons"). 
 Parties (for ' ' persons"). 
 Partially (for "partly"). 
 Past two weeks (for " last two 
 
 weeks," and all similar ex 
 
 pressions relating to a defi 
 
 nite time). 
 Poetess. 
 
 Portion (for "part"). 
 Posted (for "informed"). 
 -Progress (for " advance"). 
 Quite (prefixed to "good," 
 
 "large," etc.) 
 Raid (for "attack"). 
 Realized (for " obtained"). 
 Reliable (for "trustworthy"). 
 Repudiate (for "reject" or 
 
 "disown"). 
 Retire (as an active verbX 
 Rev. (for "the Rev."). 
 
PUJRITT. 
 
 109 
 
 E61e (for "part") 
 
 Rougas. 
 
 Rowdies. 
 
 Secesh. 
 
 Sensation (for " noteworthy 
 event "). 
 
 Standpoint (for " point of 
 view "). 
 
 State (for "say"). 
 
 Taboo. 
 
 Talent (for "talents" or "abili- 
 ty"). 
 
 Talented. 
 
 Tapis. 
 
 The deceased. 
 
 The United States as a singular 
 
 noun. 
 Transpire (for "occur")." 
 -Via (for "by the way of "). 
 Vicinity (for ' ' neighborhood "). 
 Wall street slang generally 
 
 ("bulls, bears, long, short, 
 
 flat, corner, tight, moribund, 
 
 comatose," etc.). 
 Which (with a noun, as ' ' which 
 
 man"). 
 Wharves (for "wharfs"). 
 Would seem (for " seems"). 
 
 Original. — " His religion was originally Lutherism." 
 Improved. — His religion was originally Lutheranism. 
 
 234. Avoid unwarranted combinations of old words and 
 syllables. This is a more common fault than that of origi- 
 nal coinage. Such expressions as "go-ahead-i-tiveness," 
 "never-to-be-forgotten," etc., are but the pitiable make- 
 shifts of a writer who is either too indolent or too ignorant 
 to select proper words. 
 
 Original. — "He was a man of great narrow-mindedness, and 
 yet by his sharp-sightedness he attained reasonable success. " 
 
 Improved. — He was a man of decidedly narrow views, and yet 
 of sufficient acumen to attain reasonable success. 
 
 235. Newspaper tisage is 7wt to be taken as a standard. 
 "A new word," says Blackley, "almost invariably becomes 
 general in conversational use before it appears in literature." 
 While such words as "boom," "crank," and "wire" may 
 be good English fifty years hence, they are to be used 
 now, if at all, only in conversation, and not in dignified 
 composition except as quotations. Of modem newspaper 
 abuses of this character the too popular term "donate" 
 may be taken as an example. Such a word violates all laws 
 of derivation. If "donate" (to give) can be derived from 
 the legitima,te word "donation" (a gift), then the word 
 "collation" (a repast) should similarly give to the verb 
 "collate" the meaning "to eat." 
 
110 PRACTICAL BSETORIC. 
 
 Original.-^" An unknown man, apparently about forty-five, 
 suicided last evening by jumping into the river." 
 
 Improved. — An unknown man, apparently about forty-five, 
 committed suicide last evening by jumping into the river. 
 
 236. Avoid colloquial expressions, especially contractions. 
 AVhile permissible in common conversation, these have no 
 place in dignified discourse. Such contractions as "don't/' 
 when used for the third personal form "does not," are to 
 be avoided even in conversation. "Doesn't" is, of course, 
 allowable. 
 
 Original. — " Under the present arrangement the laborer don't 
 have a chance to improve." 
 
 Improved. — Under the present arrangement the laborer has no 
 chance for improvement. 
 
 237. Avoid provincialisms. Bartlett's or De Vere's 
 dictionary of Americanisms may be consulted with profit. 
 The Yankee is known, the world over, by his substitution 
 of "I guess" for "I think." 
 
 Original. — " The leader acted like he was completely discour- 
 aged." 
 
 Improved. — The leader acted as if he were completely discour- 
 aged. 
 
 238. Avoid foreign words and expressions that liave not 
 been naturalized. There is no surer mark of affectation 
 and pedantry than the use of such words. The great 
 writers are the most conservative here. When asked why 
 he used no foreign words, Bryant replied, substantially, 
 that so far, during his eighty years, he had had no idea 
 that could not be better expressed in his mother tongue. 
 
 Original — "The General, entre nous, is a distant relative of our 
 hostess." 
 
 Improved. — The General, between ourselves, is a distant rela- 
 tive of our hostess. 
 
 Note. — The naturalization of a word is generally, though not 
 always, indicated by a change in spelling, in inflection, in accent, 
 or in meaning. 
 
 239. Avoid foreign idioms. This caution is especially 
 
 useful in making translations. 
 
 Original. — " He will not return before an hour." 
 Improved. — He will not return for an hour. 
 
PURITY. Ill 
 
 240. Avoid archaic prefixes and suffixes except in poetic 
 diction. 
 
 Oigrt'MoZ.— "The demagogue tendeth more to words than to 
 works." 
 Improved. — The demagogue tends more to words than to works. 
 
 241. Avoid using different constructions in the same 
 sentence. There is no more serious violation of purity than 
 this, and none more common. 
 
 Original. — " It is a petrified cedar-tree, having a diameter of 
 forty feet, a circumference of one hundred and thirty feet, and is 
 six hundred and sixty feet in length." 
 
 Improved. — It is a petrified cedar-tree, having a diameter of 
 forty feet, a circumference of one hundred and thirty feet, and 
 a length of six hundred and sixty feet. 
 
 242. A void placing an aduerb or other word bettveen the 
 infinitive mood and its sign. Some recent writers ignore 
 this rule. It is supported, however, by nearly all the 
 authorities. Similarly, the best usage generally avoids 
 placing an adverbial expression between auxiliaries, or an 
 auxiliary and its verb. 
 
 Original. — "They mean to so conduct themselves as to merit 
 the approval of Providence." 
 
 Improved. — They mean so to conduct themselves as to merit 
 the approval of Providence. 
 
 243. Use " so" instead of " as" after a negative, whether 
 expressed or implied. This is the usage of a majority of 
 the best writers. 
 
 Original. — " Nothing tending to the development of the highest 
 interests of the State is impossible to a nation as strong and as 
 powerful as ours. " 
 
 Improved — Nothing tending to the development of the highest 
 interests of the State is impossible to a nation so strong and so 
 powerful as ours. 
 
 244. Avoid syntactical errors. The following sixteen 
 
 suggestions might be condensed into this. Many of these 
 
 apply to violations of precision as well as of purity. 
 
 Original. — " What do you think in regards to the matter?" 
 Improved. — What do you think in regard to the matter ? 
 
 245. Avoid confounding the nominative with the objective 
 case, especially in the pronouns. 
 
112 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 Original—" He said that he might give the ring to -whosoever 
 he should first meet." 
 
 Improved. — He said that he might give the ring to whomsoever 
 he should first meet. 
 
 246. When two or more substantives forming a compound 
 subject denote different things, or express distinct ideas, and 
 are connected by "and," use a plural verb. When they 
 mean the same or nearly the same thing, or are connected 
 by " or/' use a singular verb. 
 
 Original. — "His nerve and fierce energy was well displayed in 
 the furious charge at Mission Ridge. " 
 
 Improved. — His nerve and fierce energy were weU displayed in 
 the furious charge at Mission Eidge. 
 
 247. When the individuals of a class denoted by a col- 
 lective noun are made especially prominent, use a plural 
 verb or pronoun; when the class is taken as a unit, use the 
 singular. 
 
 Original. — " His party found liim ever ready to defend their 
 tenets." 
 Improved — His party found him ever ready to defend its tenets. 
 
 248. In a long sentence, tvhere a singular subject is fol- 
 loived by a plural object or other substantive, be especially 
 careful not to use a plural verb, or a plural pronoun re- 
 ferring to the subject. 
 
 Original. — "A power surrounds these agencies without which 
 the permanence of their results are impossible. " 
 
 Improved. — A power surrounds these agencies without which 
 the permanence of their results is impossible. 
 
 249. Be careful not to use a singular verb where the sub- 
 ject is a foreign plural. (See Chapter II., under "Form.") 
 
 Original. — " The memoranda of the recent expedition to Ice- 
 land is very interesting." 
 
 Improved. — The memoranda of the recent expedition to Iceland 
 are very interesting. 
 
 250. When several subjects of the same verb differ in num- 
 ber, wake the verb agree with the subject most prominent in 
 thought. If neither is especially prominent, make the verb 
 agree with its nearest subject. In any case, it is better to 
 recast such a sentence so that no question can arise about 
 the number. 
 
PUBITT. 113 
 
 Original. — " The captain as well as the passengers were fright- 
 ened." 
 
 Improved. — The captain as well as the passengers was fright- 
 ened. 
 
 Original. — "Neither slander nor abuse nor taunts seems tfl 
 affect his determination in the least." 
 
 Improved. -^ISBiihsv slander nor abuse nor taunts se&m to af- 
 fect his determination in the least. 
 
 251. When the verb expresses contingency, place it in Hit 
 subjunctive mood. There is. Just now, a certain tendency 
 to obliterate the distinction between the indicative and sub- 
 junctive moods, but such a tendency can be only harmful 
 to accurate expression. 
 
 Original. — "If the language was spelled by sound, the same 
 antagonism would exist." 
 
 Improved. — If the language were speUed by sound, the same 
 antagonism would exist. 
 
 252. Avoid confounding the imperfect with the perfect 
 
 tense. 
 
 Original. — "The dwarf enters and confronts Mr. Vere, who 
 thought until now that Sir Edward Manley was safe in the mon- 
 astery." 
 
 Improved. — The dwarf enters and confronts Mr. Vere, who Jias 
 thought until now that Sir Edward Manley was safe in the mon- 
 astery. 
 
 253. Avoid confounding the imperfect tense with the 
 perfect participle of irregular verbs. 
 
 Original. — " Before our boat could reach her, the craft had sank 
 to rise no more." 
 
 Improved. — Before our boat could reach her, the craft had sunk 
 to rise no more. 
 
 254. Avoid confounding transitive with intransitive 
 verbs; especially "lie" and "Uy," "sit" and "set," 
 "rise" and " raise," etc. The commingling of transitive 
 and intransitive often violates suggestion 341 also. 
 
 Original. — " The Puritans denied themselves of all pleasures, 
 that they might crush out OavaUer vices." 
 
 Improved. — The Puritans denied themselves all pleasures, that 
 they might crush out Cavalier vices. 
 
 Original. — "The stick had laid there all summer." 
 
 Improved. — The stick had lain there all summer. 
 8 
 
114 PBACTICAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 255. Avoid using the perfect infinitive for the present 
 infinitive. 
 
 Original. — "I should like to have been present." 
 Improved. — I should have fiked to be present ; or, better, I 
 should have enjoyed being present. 
 
 256. State universal truths and permanent facts in the 
 present tense, especially when such a iiniversal truth or 
 permanent fact is given as maintained or denied by some 
 one in the past. 
 
 Oi-igmal. — " Men might often defeat the plans of the dishonest 
 if only they themselves knew what the law was." 
 
 Improved. — Men might often defeat the plans of the dishonest 
 if only they themselves knew what the law is. 
 
 257. Avoid using a double comparative or superlative, 
 and using a superlative ivhere only tioo are compiared. A 
 similar error is the attempt to compare words that do not 
 admit of comparison. 
 
 Original. — " Of these beliefs, the first is by far the most uni- 
 versal." 
 
 Improved. — Of these beliefs, the first is by far the most general. 
 
 Original. — "Which is best. High License or Prohibition ?" 
 
 Impi'oved. — Which is better, High License or Prohibition ? 
 
 Original. — "Honest poverty is more preferable than wealth 
 gained by such means. " 
 
 Improved. — Honest poverty is preferable to wealth gained by 
 such means. 
 
 258. Avoid using an adjective for an adverb. This is 
 permissible only in poetic diction. 
 
 Original. — "All these testify more eloquent than words to his 
 renown." 
 
 Improved. — All these testify more eloquently than words to his 
 renown. 
 
 259. Avoid using an adverb for an adjective. This is a 
 common- and a subtle error. The rule is, to use an adjec- 
 tive when a noun is qualified, and an adverb when a verb is 
 qualified. 
 
 Original— " 'He looks very badly" (i.e., He looks carelessly,' 
 or in the wrong direction). 
 
 Improved.— He looks very bad (i.e.. His appearance is bad). 
 One would har41y think of saying " How sadly he looks !" and 
 yet this would be as accurate as the original sentence above. 
 
PUBITT 115 
 
 260. Avoid using ancient and modern forms in the same 
 sentence. 
 
 Original. — " ' I thank thee,' said Norman, ' for the word that 
 you have spoken.' " 
 
 Improved. — " I thank thee," said Norman, " for the word that 
 thou hast spoken." 
 
 In general, it is well to observe the following condensa» 
 
 tion of Campbell's canons: 
 
 261. Of tioo nearly synonymous words or phrases, choose 
 
 that which has but one use or signification in preference to 
 
 that which has two or more. 
 
 Original. — " We spent the balance of the week at the hotel." 
 Improved. — "We spent the remainder of the week at the hotel. 
 
 262. Have regard, in choosing, to the analogy of the lan- 
 guage. 
 
 Original. — " The statement is one that cannot be proven." 
 Improved. — The statement is one that cannot be proved. 
 
 263. Prefer that which is most agreeable to the ear. The 
 
 demands of purity and of euphony are here the same. 
 
 Original. — "He conducted the investigation with great deli- 
 cateness. " 
 Improved. — He conducted the investigation with great delicacy. 
 
 264. Prefer the simpler expression. 
 Original. — " I do not doubt but that she is right." 
 Improved. — I have no doubt that she is right. 
 
 265. When the other canons fail to settle the doubt, pre- 
 fer that expression most conformable to ancient usage. 
 
 Original. — " Is not the subjection of American women as abso- 
 lute as that of Hindoostan women ?" 
 
 Improved. — Is not the subjection of American women as abso- 
 lute as that of the Hindoo women ? 
 
 Note. — Although belonging, in one sense, to purity, the " di- 
 Tisible relatives" and the contrasted auxiliary verbs are treated, 
 respectively, under their more relevant heads, Clearness and Pre- 
 cision. 
 
 266. Avoid placing neuter nouns in the possessive case, 
 unless euphony requires. The use of such an expression 
 as "in our midst" is a similar error. The English really 
 has no objective genitive. 
 
116 
 
 PBAGTICAL BHETOBIG. 
 
 Original.— ^^ As. I approached the city, its first sight impressed 
 me with the idea that it was not much of a place." 
 
 Improved.— As I approached the city, my first impression was 
 that it was not much of a place. 
 
 267. Use the auxiliary form of the present or of the im- 
 perfect tense -when continued action is to be represented. 
 
 driginal—" y7hi\e he spoke his opponent slept soundly." 
 Improved.— While he was speaking his opponent slept soundly. 
 
 268. Use prepositions to express only suph relations as 
 are authorized for each. 
 
 Where the word preceding the preposition consists partly 
 of a preposition (e.g., con in conversant), a translation of 
 that preposition will generally, though not always, give 
 the right one to follow the word. 
 
 Original. — " That human knowledge is the most excellent that 
 is conversant among the most excellent things. " 
 
 Improved. — That human knowledge is the most excellent that 
 is conversant with the most excellent things. 
 
 Lists of prepositions, with illustrations of the authorized 
 relations, are to be found in Worcester's Dictionary (pages xl. 
 and xli.), in Angus's "Handbook of the English Tongue" 
 (pages 325, 336), and in Campbell's " Handbook of Syno- 
 nyms and Prepositions" (pages 141-153). The last-named 
 work, by its abundant illustrations, is especially helpful in 
 settling doubtful cases. The following list is simply a 
 combination of those already mentioned: 
 
 Abhorrence of. 
 Abhorrent to. 
 Abound in or u>ith. 
 Absolve from. 
 Accede to. 
 
 Accommodate (a thing) to. 
 Accommodate (a person) with. 
 Accompanied hy or with. 
 Accord with (intransitive). 
 Accord to (transitive). 
 Accordance vMh. 
 According to. 
 Accountable to (a person). 
 Accountable for (a thing). 
 Accuse of. 
 
 Acquiesce in. 
 Acquaint with. 
 Acquit of. 
 
 Adapted to, for, from. 
 Add to. 
 Address to. 
 Adequate to. 
 Adhere to. 
 Adjourn to, at, for. 
 Adjudge to. 
 Adjust to. 
 
 Admission to (access), into (en- 
 trance). 
 Admit to, into, uithin, of. 
 Admonish of. 
 
PUBITT. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Advantage of, over. 
 
 Advise q^ to. 
 
 Advocate of, for. 
 
 Affinity to, with, between, for. 
 
 Agreeable to. 
 
 Agree toith (a person). 
 
 Agree to (a proposal). 
 
 Agree in (believing). 
 
 Agree among (themselves). 
 
 Alieii /rom, to. 
 
 Allied to, with. 
 
 Alter from, to, into. 
 
 Alteration in. 
 
 Ambitious of, for, after. 
 
 Amuse with, at, in. 
 
 Analogous to. 
 
 Analogy, between, to, with. 
 
 Angry with (a person). 
 
 Angry at (a thing). 
 
 Annex to. 
 
 Antagonistic to. 
 
 Antagonism to, between. 
 
 Antipathy to, against. 
 
 Answer to, for. 
 
 Anxious/or, about, on. 
 
 Apologize to, for. 
 
 Appoint to, over. 
 
 Apprehensive of. 
 
 Approve of. 
 
 Algae tvith, against. 
 
 Array with, in. 
 
 Arrive at, in, from. 
 
 Ask of (a person). 
 
 Ask /or (a thing). 
 
 Ask after (one's health). 
 
 Aspire to, after. 
 
 Assent to. 
 
 Assimilate to, with. 
 
 Astonished at, by. 
 
 Attend to (listen). 
 
 Attend upon (wait). 
 
 Attended by, unth, to, on, or 
 
 upon. 
 Avail one's self of. 
 Avenge one's self on. 
 Averse to. 
 BaUot/or. 
 Banish from, out of. 
 
 Bargain /or (a thing). 
 
 Bargain with (a person). 
 
 Base on or upon. 
 
 Believe in, on. 
 
 Bestow on or upon. 
 
 Boast of. 
 
 Bound for. 
 
 Bump against. 
 
 Burn up, doum, out, ivith. 
 
 Call on (a person). 
 
 Call at (a house). 
 
 Call for (a person or thing). 
 
 Call in (question). 
 
 Call after, by (the name). 
 
 Care /or, about, of. 
 
 Careful of, in. 
 
 Caution against. 
 
 Cautious against (evil). 
 
 Cautious in (a course of ac- 
 tion). 
 
 Celebrated for. 
 
 Certain of. 
 
 Change/or, with, to, into, from, 
 by. 
 
 Charge on, against (a person). 
 
 Charge u/ifh (a crime). 
 
 Charge to. 
 
 Cheat of, out of, with, by. 
 
 Clear of (harm), frmn (guilt). 
 
 Coincide with. 
 
 Collide with: 
 
 Combine unth, into. 
 
 Common to, unth. 
 
 Communicate to (transitive). 
 
 Communicate unth (intransi- 
 tive). 
 
 Compare ivith (quality). 
 
 Compare to (illustration). 
 
 Comparison unth, between. 
 
 Compatible uHth. 
 
 Complain of. 
 
 Complaint against, of. 
 
 Compliance toith. 
 
 Comply tvith. 
 
 Composed of. 
 
 Concerned at, for, with (a per- 
 son). 
 
 Concerned in (a proceeding). 
 
118 
 
 PRACTICAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 Concur with (a person). 
 Concur in (an opinion). 
 Confer on, upon. 
 Confide in (intransitive). 
 Confide to (transitive). 
 Conform to. 
 Conformable to. 
 Conformity with, to. 
 Congenial to. 
 Congratulate on or upon. 
 Connect with (an equal) . 
 Connect to (a subordinate). 
 Connive vnth (a person). 
 Connive at (a proceeding). 
 Consist 0/ (substance). 
 Consist with (harmony). 
 Consistent with, in. 
 Consonant to, with. 
 Consult with. 
 Contend unth (a person). 
 Contend for (a principle or ob- 
 ject). 
 Contend against (an obstacle). 
 Contiguous to. 
 Contradictory to. 
 Contrary to. 
 
 Contrast m^/j, to, between. 
 Controversy with (a person). 
 Controversy between (two). 
 Controversy about (a matter). 
 Convenient to, for. 
 Convert into. 
 Convince of. 
 Convict of. 
 
 Copy c^fter (an example). 
 Copy /rom (nature). 
 Copy out of (a. book). 
 Correspond with, to. 
 Correspondence loith. 
 Couple by, with, together, to, in. 
 Covered by, with. 
 Cure of. 
 
 Danger of, from. 
 Dash against, upon. 
 Dated at, from. 
 Deal in, vnth, by. 
 Decide on, upon. 
 Defend /roOT, against. 
 
 Deference to, for, toward. 
 
 Deficient in. 
 
 Delighted at, by, with, in. ; 
 
 Deliver from, out of, of, to (a 
 person), at (a place), over. 
 
 Demand of, from. 
 
 Denounce upon, against. 
 
 Depend on, upon, from. 
 
 Dependent on. 
 
 Deprive of. 
 
 Derogation to, from, of. 
 
 Derogatory to. 
 
 Deserve of, frotn. 
 
 Desire /or, of, after. 
 
 Desirous of. 
 
 Desist /rowi. 
 
 Die of, with, from (hunger, 
 etc.), 6y (the sword, etc.), /or 
 . (another). 
 
 Differ a>nong'(themselves), frmn 
 (one another), /rom or with 
 (in opinion), about, concern- 
 ing (a question). 
 
 Diiference uiith (a person), be- 
 tween (things compared). 
 
 Different ) ^ 
 
 Differently \ J^'^- 
 
 Difficulty in. 
 
 Dilate on, upon. 
 
 Diminution of. 
 
 Direct to, towards. 
 
 Disagree with (a person), to (a 
 thing proposed). 
 
 Disagreeable to. 
 
 Disappointed 0/ (something not 
 obtained). 
 
 Disappointed in (something ob- 
 tained). 
 
 Disapprove (with or without) of. 
 
 Discontented with. 
 
 Discourage from. 
 
 Discouragement to. 
 
 Discriminate between (two 
 things), from (one thing from 
 another). 
 
 Disdain for. 
 
 Disengaged from. 
 
 Disgusted ivith (a person). 
 
PURITY. 
 
 119 
 
 Disgusted vnth, at, or by (a 
 
 thing). 
 Dislike to, of. 
 Disqualify for, from. 
 Dissent from. 
 Dissuade from. 
 Distinguish between (two), from 
 
 (one another). 
 Distinguished by, for, from. 
 Distinction from. 
 Divest of. 
 Divide between (two), among 
 
 (several). 
 Due /rom, to. 
 Eager in, for, after. 
 Earnest in, for. 
 Embark in, at, for. 
 Embellished by (an artist). 
 Embellished with or by (en- 
 gravings). 
 Emerge /row. 
 
 Employ in, on, upon, about. 
 Emulous of 
 Enamoured of. 
 Encounter vMh. 
 Encouragement to. 
 Encroach on, upon. 
 Endeared to. 
 Endeavor after. 
 Engage in, with, for. 
 Engrave on, in. 
 Enjoin on, upon, to. 
 Enrage ujith, at, against. 
 Enrich by, with. 
 Enter into, in, on, or upon. 
 Entertain by, with. 
 Entrance on, upon, into. 
 Envious of, against, at. 
 Environ tvith. 
 Envy at, of. 
 Equal to, uAth. 
 Equally with. 
 Equivalent to. 
 
 Eseape/ro)» (sometimes out of). 
 Espouse to. 
 Estimated at. 
 Estranged/roOT. 
 Example to, for. 
 
 Exasperate against. 
 
 Except from. 
 
 Exception to. 
 
 Exclude /ro7». 
 
 Exclusive of. 
 
 Exhausted by, toith. 
 
 Exonerate from. 
 
 'Expect from or of (a pers6n). 
 
 Expel out of, from. 
 
 Expert in, at. 
 
 Expose to (as loss or danger), 
 to or for (sale). 
 
 Expostulate with. 
 
 Expressive of. 
 
 Exult over. 
 
 Fall under (observation, cen- 
 sure), from (a tree), into (a 
 pit, bad habits, etc.), on or 
 upon (an enemy), among 
 (thieves), to or on (the 
 ground). 
 
 Familiar to, with. 
 
 Favorable /(W, to. 
 
 Favorite of, loith. 
 
 Fawn on, upon. 
 
 Feed on, upon. 
 
 Fight unth, against, for. 
 
 Filled with. 
 
 Followed by. 
 
 Fond of. 
 
 Fondness for. 
 
 Forbear /rom. 
 
 Foreign to, from. 
 
 Formed of, from. 
 
 Founded on or upon (a basis)- 
 
 Founded in (truth). 
 
 Free from, with. 
 
 Friendly to, with, 
 
 Frightened at. 
 
 Frown at, upon. 
 
 Frugal of. 
 
 Fruitful in, of. 
 
 FuU of. 
 
 Furnished viith. 
 
 Give to. 
 
 Glad of, at. 
 
 Glance at, upon. 
 
 Glow with. 
 
120 
 
 PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 Good ai, /or, to, towards. 
 Graduate at, from, in (the 
 
 class). 
 Graft on, iipon, in, into. 
 Grapple icith. 
 Grateful to (a person), /<w (a 
 
 favor). 
 Greedy of, after. 
 Grieve at, for. 
 Guilty of. 
 Hanker ojter, for. 
 Happen to, on. 
 Harass hy, vMh. 
 Hatred to, of. 
 Healed of. 
 Hinder /roOT. 
 Hiss at. 
 
 Hold in, of, on. 
 Hunger /or, after. 
 ■Ignorant of. 
 Ill of 
 Illustrated hy (an artist^, with 
 
 or hy (woodcuts). 
 Immersed in. 
 
 Impatient with (a person), at 
 ■ (Ms conduct), of (restraint), 
 
 for (something wanted), un- 
 der (misfortune). 
 Impenetrable hy, to. 
 Impervious to. 
 Impose on or upon. 
 Impress on or upon, until, hy. 
 Imprint on or upon. 
 Inaccessible to. 
 Incapable of. 
 Incapacitate by, from. 
 Incensed unth, against. 
 Incentive to. 
 Include in. 
 Incompatible luith. 
 Incorporate into (to take into 
 
 the body of a thing), with (to 
 
 combine). 
 Inconsistent witJi 
 Inculcate on, upon. 
 Incumbent on, upon. 
 Independent of. 
 Indifferent to. 
 
 Indispensable to. 
 
 Indulge with (a single thing), 
 
 in (something habitual). 
 Indulgent to, of. 
 Infer /rom. 
 Inferior to. 
 
 Influence with, over, on. 
 Inform of, about, concerning. 
 Initiate into. 
 Inquire of, for, after, about, 
 
 concerning, into. 
 Inquiry into. 
 Inroad into. 
 Insensible to, of. 
 Inseparable from. 
 
 ][°^«^* \ in, into. 
 Insertion ) ' 
 
 Insight into. 
 
 Insinuate into, through, to. 
 
 Insist on, upon. 
 
 Inspection into, over. 
 
 Intent on, upon. 
 
 Interfere with, in, between. 
 
 Intermeddle with. 
 
 Intersperse among, through. 
 
 Intersperse with. 
 
 Intervene between 
 
 Intimate with. 
 
 Introduce into (a place), to (a 
 person). 
 
 Intrude into (a place), on or 
 upon (a person). 
 
 Intrust to, with. 
 
 Inure to. 
 
 Invest with. 
 
 Involve in (difficulties, obscuri- 
 ty). 
 
 Irritated by or against (a per- 
 son), hy and sometimes at 
 (an act). 
 
 Issue from, out of. 
 
 Jealous of. 
 
 Jeer at. 
 
 Join to (something greater), loith 
 (something equal). 
 
 Killed by (an enemy), loith (a 
 sword, fatigue). 
 
 Knock at, on. 
 
PURITY. 
 
 121 
 
 Know about, of, under (the 
 name ot). 
 
 Laden with. 
 
 Land at. 
 
 Laugh at. 
 
 Lean against (a wall), on or 
 upon (a staff), to or towards. 
 
 Level mift. 
 
 Liberal of, in, to. 
 
 Light from, down from, off. 
 
 Liken to. 
 
 Listen for (a sound expected), 
 to (a sound heard). 
 
 Live at (a village, or foreign 
 city), in (a city or country), 
 on (the earth), on or wpore 
 (food). 
 
 Loaded witli. 
 
 Long for, after. 
 
 Look /or (something expected), 
 for or after (something lost), 
 on or upon (to regard, con- 
 sider). 
 
 Look into, in. 
 
 Lord over. 
 
 Love of, for, to. 
 
 Make of, from, out of, with, 
 for. 
 
 Marry to, with. 
 
 Maxtyr for or to (a cause), to (a 
 disease). 
 
 Mastery over, of. 
 
 Matter with. 
 
 Meddle with, in. 
 
 Mediate between. 
 
 Meditate on, upon. 
 
 Meet udth. 
 
 MiUtate against. 
 
 Mindful of. 
 
 Mingle tidth. 
 
 Minister to. 
 
 Mistrustful of. 
 
 Mix with, in. 
 
 Model c^er, on, in. 
 
 Mortified urith, at. 
 
 Mourn /or, over. 
 
 Name after, sometimes, from. 
 
 Necessary to, for. 
 
 Necessity /or, of. 
 Need of. 
 Neglectful of. 
 Negotiate mth. 
 Notice of. 
 Obedient to. 
 Object to. 
 
 Objection to, against. 
 Oblivious of. 
 Obnoxious to. 
 Observance of. 
 Obtain /rojn, of. 
 Obtrude on, upon. 
 Obvious to. 
 Occasion /or, of. 
 Occupy by, with, in. 
 Offend against. 
 Oflfended unth, by, at. 
 Offensive to. 
 Offer to. 
 Operate on. 
 Opinion on, about. 
 Opportunity of, for. 
 Opposite to. 
 Opposition to. 
 Originate in, from. 
 Overwhelm with, by, in. 
 Parallel to, uiith. 
 Parcel out. 
 Parley ujith. 
 Part /rom, with. 
 Partake of. 
 
 Partial to, sometimes towards. 
 Partiality to, for. 
 Participate in, sometimes of. 
 Patient of, unth, toward, un- 
 der. 
 Pay for. 
 Peculiar to. 
 Pendent from. 
 Penetrate into, within, to. 
 Perish of, by, sometimes unth. 
 Persevere in. 
 Pertain to. 
 Pitch upon, on. 
 Pity on. 
 
 Play on, upon, with (at). 
 Pleased with, at. 
 
122 
 
 PBAGTIOAL RHETORIC. 
 
 Plunge into. 
 
 Possessed of, vAth, by. 
 
 Pounce on, upon. 
 
 Pour on, upon, into. 
 
 Pray /or, with. 
 
 Predisposed to, towards. 
 
 Prefer to, before, above. 
 
 Preferable to. 
 
 Preference to, over, above, he- 
 fore, for. 
 
 Prefix to. 
 
 Prejudice against. 
 
 Prejudicial to. 
 
 Prepare for. 
 
 Preserve /rom. 
 
 Present to, with. 
 
 Preside over. 
 
 Press on, upon. 
 
 Presume on, upon. 
 
 Pretend to. 
 
 Prevail on or upon, with (to 
 persuade), over or against (to 
 overcome). 
 
 Prevent /rowj. 
 
 Previous to. 
 
 Prey on, upon. 
 
 Prior to. 
 
 Productive of. 
 
 Profit by. 
 
 Profitable to, for. 
 
 Prohibit /row. 
 
 Prolific of. 
 
 Prone to. 
 
 Pronounce against (a person), 
 on (a thing). 
 
 Proper to. 
 
 Proportion to. 
 
 Propose to. 
 
 Protect others from, ourselves 
 against. 
 
 Protest against. 
 
 Proud of 
 
 Provide with, for, against. 
 
 Punish teith, by, for. 
 
 'Purge from, of. 
 
 Pursuance of. 
 
 Pursuant to. 
 
 Put into, in. 
 
 Quarrel with. 
 
 Quarter on, upon. 
 
 Question on, upon, by. 
 
 Bail at, against. 
 
 Bead in, out of, from, over. 
 
 Receive of, from. 
 
 Recite out of, from. 
 
 Reckon on, upon, toith. 
 
 Recline on, upon. 
 
 Reconcile to (to make friendly), 
 with (to make consistent). 
 
 Recover /rom, sometimes of. 
 
 Recreant to. 
 
 Reduce to (a state), under (sub- 
 jection). 
 
 Refer to. 
 
 Reflect on, upon. 
 
 Refrain from. 
 
 Regard /or, to. 
 
 Regret for. 
 
 Rejoice at (events), in (personal 
 qualities, etc.). 
 
 Relate to. 
 
 Release from. 
 
 Relieve /com, of. 
 
 Relish /or, of 
 
 Rely on, upon (not in). 
 
 Remain in, at. 
 
 Remark upon or on. 
 
 Remedy /or, against. 
 
 Remit to. 
 
 Remonstrate with (a person), 
 against (a proceeding). 
 
 Remove from. 
 
 Repeat (a passage) of, from, 
 out of. 
 
 Repent of. 
 
 Repine at. 
 
 Replete with. 
 
 Repose on, upon. 
 
 Reproach with, for. 
 
 Repugnant to. 
 
 Requisite for. 
 
 Research into. 
 
 Resemblance to. 
 
 Reside at, in. 
 
 Resolve on., upon. 
 
 Respect /or, to. 
 
PURITY. 
 
 123 
 
 Rest ht, at, on, tipon. 
 
 Restore to. 
 
 Restrain /»-ow, of. 
 
 Retire /rom, to. 
 
 Return to. 
 
 Reward with, by, for. 
 
 Rich in. 
 
 Rid of. 
 
 Hob of. 
 
 Rove about, over. 
 
 Bub against. 
 
 Rule over. 
 
 Rush against, on. upon. 
 
 Sail /or, to. 
 
 Sated with. 
 
 Satiate with. 
 
 Satisfy wit/i. 
 
 Saturate with. 
 
 S&yefrom. 
 
 Search for or (^er (a person), 
 into (particulars), otit (the 
 truth). 
 
 Seek /or, after, to. 
 
 Secure /roHi, of against. 
 
 Seize on, upon. 
 
 Seized by (an enemy), toith (an 
 illness). 
 
 Sell for, by auction (in Eng- 
 land), at auction (in the Uni- 
 ted States). 
 
 Send to, for. 
 
 Sensible of. 
 
 Share in, of. 
 
 Sick of, with. 
 
 Significant of. 
 
 Similar to. 
 
 Similarity to, between, of. 
 
 Smk into, in, beneath. 
 
 Sit on, upon, in. 
 
 Situated on (this side), in (Main 
 Street). 
 
 Skilful in, at. 
 
 Smile at, on, upon. 
 
 Snap at. 
 
 Snatch at. 
 
 Sneer at. 
 
 Solicitous about, for. 
 
 Sorry for. 
 
 Speak to (an audience), to or 
 with (a person), on or abotit 
 (a subject). 
 
 Stay in, at, with. 
 
 Stick to, by. 
 
 Strip of. 
 
 Strive icith or against (a per- 
 son), for (an object). 
 
 Subject to. 
 
 Submissive to. 
 
 Submit to. 
 
 Substitute for. 
 
 Subtract /?'o»n. 
 
 SuflBcient for. 
 
 Suitable to, for. 
 
 Surprised at, by, with. 
 
 Surround by, urith. 
 
 Suspected of, by. 
 
 Swerve from. 
 
 Sympathize ^v^th (a person), in 
 one's sorrow). 
 
 Sympathy with, for, between. 
 
 Taste of (a thing possessed), 
 for (a thing desired or rel- 
 ished). 
 
 Tax uiith, for. 
 
 Tend to, towards. 
 
 Thankful /or. 
 
 Thick with. 
 
 Think of, about, on. 
 
 Thirst /o?', after. 
 
 Threaten by, with. 
 
 Tire with, of, by. 
 
 Touch at, on, upon. 
 
 Translate from, out of, into. 
 
 Transmit to. 
 
 Treat of (v. i.) a subject. 
 
 Triumph over. 
 
 Troublesome to. 
 
 True to. 
 
 Trust in, to. 
 
 Unison with. 
 
 Unite to, with, in, by. 
 
 Unworthy of. 
 
 Useful /or, to. 
 
 Value oti, upon. 
 
 Variance with. 
 
 Versed in. 
 
124 PMACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 Weep at, for. 
 
 Witness of. 
 
 Worthy of. 
 
 Write /rowi (aplace),ctot««, out. 
 
 Yearn /or, after, towai-ds. 
 
 Yield to. 
 
 Yoke with. 
 
 Zealous /or, in. 
 
 Vest in (a person), viith (a 
 
 thing). ■ 
 Vexed with, at. 
 View o/, to. 
 Void o/. 
 
 Wait on, upon, for, at. 
 Want o/, with. 
 Weary of. 
 
 269. ie< the tenses of the same sentence or paragraph be 
 consistent, and in case of sequence let this he logical. 
 
 Ori^maZ.^" Montcalm suddenly collects a force of eight 
 thousand men, crossed Lake George, and laid siege to Fort William 
 Henry." 
 
 Improved. — Montcalm suddenly collects a force of eight thou- 
 sand men, crosses Lake Greorge, and lays siege to Fort William 
 Henry. 
 
 270. Avoid omitting the relative pronoun as an introduc- 
 tion to a relative clause. While this omission is sometimes 
 allowable, it is more frequently a mark of slovenliness. 
 
 Original. — " Whittier's poetry illustrates the wealth of beauty 
 an observant mind may find in familiar ground." 
 
 Improved. — Whittier's poetry illustrates the wealth of beauty 
 that an observant mind may find in familiar ground. 
 
 271. Avoid the use of a possessive as the antecedent of a 
 relative. 
 
 Original. — "He was sent on an errand to his uncle's, who lived 
 about three miles away." 
 
 Improved. — He was sent on an errand to the home of his uncle, 
 who lived about three miles away. 
 
 272. Avoid using a plural verb with such a word as 
 " each," "every," etc., as an antecedent. 
 
 Original.—'' It will not deprive any one of rights that they al- 
 ready possess." 
 Improved.— It will not deprive any one of rights that he already 
 
 possesses. 
 
 273. Avoid using a plural pronoun in referring to such 
 words as "each," "every," "one," etc. 
 
 Original—" Under such circumstances, one is warranted in 
 
 looking only to their own interests." 
 
 Improved.— Vndev such circu 
 looking only to his own interests, 
 
 ^^^I°yff'T^^^^^^^^!'^ circumstances one is warranted in 
 
PURITY. 125 
 
 EXERCISES IN PUEITT.. 
 
 1. "Scarcely an explosion occurs in England of (268) 
 which the dynamite' is not found to have been manufac- 
 tured in America." 
 
 2. "It is difficult to (242) readily distinguish between 
 the different shades." 
 
 3. " The plot of the story is easily seen thl-ough." (23G.) 
 
 4. " One may thus arrive at a higher appreciation of the 
 beauties of nature and eventually discover thjemselvqs (273) 
 to be not wholly wanting in the aesthetic." "''' 
 
 5. " The floor is nicely sanded, a garland (269) hung in 
 the window, and a picture of the poet is painted over the 
 door." 
 
 6. " Provisions and clothing can thus be bought much 
 cheaper (258) than when money is scarce." , j 
 
 7. "He has written articles pervaded by (268) humor 
 of the most curious kind." 
 
 8. "The study of science and the law (241) was thus 
 greatly encouraged." 
 
 9. "He became conversant in (268) many tongues." 
 
 10. "Women are apt to mix things, and some things 
 wiUnot^ix.'W^(254.) ,i , , 
 
 11. " She lives in our midst, (266) where you may find 
 her any day if you wish." ; 
 
 12. "It is safe to judge a f)erson by their (273) occupa- 
 tion^ and intimate friends." 
 
 13. "Through his influence as an ex-prisoner (233) a^t 
 the Bastile, Dr. Monette saves him." 
 
 14. " The sun shining down 9n his snowy locks, and his 
 pitiable wreck (341 and 266) iH mental vigor, brings tears 
 to our eyes." 
 
 15. " After the necessary arrangements, we went ab6ard 
 (236) the train." 
 
126 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 16. "If, therefore, the Salvation Army does any-goocl 
 which is not overbalanced by the harm dome, their (247) 
 mission is a success." ''^^ 
 
 17. " The village lies in a valley, surrounded by moun- 
 tains, covered with forests or by 0,68) green meadows." 
 
 18. "When sufficiently burnt ('353) the oven is allowed 
 to cool down." 
 
 19. " Children show a more democratic spirit than when 
 grown." (341.) s -. - 
 
 30. " By our silence in the matter we upheld (352) the 
 deed and paved the way for like deeds in the future." 
 
 31. "When he had consulted with his wife and (369) 
 built the gallows, he went to the king." 
 
 33. "In India, where formerly were (347) a people of 
 honor and integrity, a people of nobility, now are (347) a 
 people of dishonesty and corruption." 
 
 33. "Among the characters, the first in beauty, love, 
 and nobleness (363) of soul is Lucile." 
 
 34. " Have the tJrusades been (353) beneficial ?" 
 
 35. "With a decrease in poverty and crime would come 
 an increase of (368) happiness." 
 
 36. "Without books and newspapers we should have no 
 idea of what was~going^on (336) outside of our own vil- 
 
 37. "Although the tone of our papers is not what it 
 should be, yet are'|the2^(341) net civilizing and educating 
 in their influence ?'^ 
 
 38. " Milton perhaps exerted (353) more influence than 
 any other writer in our language." 
 
 39. " Just as his appearance was noble, so was (348) his 
 life aSwl character." o^w'iil ft/>i^ 
 
 30. "In his trip around the world. General Grant Iraa- 
 been (253) treated with universal honor and respect." 
 
PUBITY. 127 
 
 31. "He was so enthusiastic that he naturally went 
 where he could work aheadzflie fastest." (336.) 
 
 33. "Let us view some of the scenes-frcm (368) his past 
 life." 
 
 33. "But in a nionarchM(333) f OHffirSf- governfirept the 
 reverse is the case." uW-^ 
 
 34. " With this comparison df^ (368; the two govern- 
 ments, I will proceed to discuss the question-^ 
 
 35. "After aboiit three years he returns, and finding 
 that Agnes Wickfield -ha4 (369) really devoted her life to 
 him he marries her." ^ i ^ , „ 
 
 36. " The temptation to ruri a toll-gate seems to he ir- W 
 iresisfihig to a bicyclesj^^v- (333 and 363.) , 
 
 37. " Working side by side in our.^(OT, (366) these two 
 powers are checking the encroachments of vice." 
 
 38. "I could hear the rattle of musketry, and the 
 shouts of the victorious Frenchmen as they drcve (369) 
 Abercrombie's regulars from the field. Again I saw the 
 gallant Montcalm turning his boat-prows toward the north 
 as he il''^69) driven from this cherished port." - , 
 
 .ten -j'.i 
 
 39. " He is « stately -man of medium height, (341) pee- 
 sessing a stem countenance and aj^aughty bearing." 
 
 40. " BiieStimable ' (333) ~4e<1;he good realized by the ") 
 thousands who have read this book." cvtv ^■.^.'" 4-' ^^■''-■■^ "- ' 
 
 41. "The English government taxed the colonies and 
 sent forth thi^(347) arguments for so doing." 
 
 43. "AVe were content to sit here awhile and admire 
 (341) our surroundings and to pick some ferns growing in 
 the crevices of the rocks." ^ , ^ 
 
 43. "He succeeded in estbaaing (333^ and 363) the 
 whole company." , , 
 
 44. " The house-dog laid (354) outspread before the 
 fire." 
 
138 PBACTIOAL BSETOBIO. 
 
 45. "On the north is Canada, on the south is Mexico, 
 neither of which are (272) actiyely aggressive." ^_^ ^ 
 
 46. "And is this end to be gained by-rnitnmg men ' 
 down (23 6 j in every possible manner ?" 
 
 47. " Our friend had noticed from the steamer ^ttte many 
 vineyards, and (2^) "that the steep bank frequently dis- 
 closed deep ravines." 
 
 48. " Carton also loves Lucy Manette, but, conscious of 
 his dissolute life, he'iiever (252^ressed his suit." 
 
 49. " Darnay suddenly leaves for Paris to rescue a for- 
 mer servant who is in danger of (268) Ms life."i)^>/^' - 
 
 50. "Hawkeye, with his Mohican friends, Btart^(250) in 
 pursuit and trace5(250) them to a„Huron village." 
 
 51. "If a person is seekin^orest ■^, (236) I know of 
 no better place than the South "Woods." 
 
 52. "We resolved that we would either go on some 
 other day than Saturday, or, if we did go on Saturday, to'^ 
 stay (241) over Sunday." 
 
 53. " It was to this uncouth man that the nation looked 
 for (268)'a leader in the hour of its most extreme trial." 
 
 54. " It overlooks an undulating plain carpeted by (268) 
 a delicate covering of green." 
 
 55. "But it will be allowed that human organizations 
 , l^itLbe (269 and 356) subject to the weaknesses of human- 
 
 ity." 
 
 56. "The strong opposition to secret fraternities for 
 many years prevalent with (268) coUegeprofessors, has now 
 abated." ^•'•^•'■■' "^ ^ 
 
 57. " The author seems to pay little regard for (268) the 
 order of events." 
 
 58. "The news of his sudden death recall3(244) these 
 occasions with great vividness." ,■,■- 
 
 59. " They saw nothing but the gray rocks, lit)(253) up, 
 occasionally, by a flafih of lightning." 
 
PURITY. 129 
 
 60. "His father was a true Wue (337) Eevolutioii'(244) 
 Boldier and his mother a sincere Christian." 
 
 61. " The Steeplers to^'is surmounted hy a golden ball." 
 (266.) 
 
 63.. "They are ignorant and addicted to vulgarity and 
 drink.- (341.) ,: .- 
 
 63. " Coming thus in contact with leaders sf-(S68) vice, 
 they naturally select them as leaders." 
 
 64. "According to the customs of slavery, he became a 
 slave after (368) the rank of his mother." 
 
 65. " The overseers were somewhat alarmed at (368) 
 him because he was such a stubborn child." 
 
 66. "He has, in the same breath, (343) been called 
 kind and cruel, enlightened and a barbarian." (341.) 
 
 67. " Many suppose that Mr. Seward was the controlling 
 power in the administration. This was (356) not so." 
 
 68. " His success was the result that would be (369) ob- 
 tained when great ambition and perseverance unite with 
 strict integrity." 
 
 69. "He endeavored to enjoy the excitement of pleasure 
 and yet have left (336) none of its vices and evil effects." 
 
 70. " The most (344 and 357) ordinary method of min- 
 ing is by a shaft." 
 
 71. "And from all these lands there comes (344) not 
 the educated and refined, but in most cases the ignorant 
 and degraded." 
 
 73. " It might (369) truly be said that the necessity of 
 any public measure implies its justice." 
 
 73. " These stories are redeemed from being flashy bor- 
 der romances by the author's ability to so (S43) portray 
 character as to excite the reader's interest and admiration." 
 
 74. " In contrast to (368) these two, stand^i Mr, Moxon, 
 the minister of the village." 
 
 9 
 
130 PRACTICAL REETOBIC. 
 
 lb. "In his aimless, imaccomplishing, (233) dreaming 
 life we are not interested." 
 
 76. " She was surrounded in (368) a society where mor- 
 als and principles were not of the highest order." 
 
 77. "He neyer thought that the world is (269) growing 
 worse. He never sighed that times are (269) not as good 
 as when he was young." 
 
 78. "A friend once asked him why there was (244) so 
 many pins in his map of the world." 
 
 79. "His ability to logically and carefully (242) separate 
 truth from error shows his well-disciplined mind." 
 
 80. " Enough has been said to show how it affects the 
 individual, and that that influence is wholly evil." (241.) 
 
 81. "At noon he left home for a distant field, but be- 
 coming weary with walking he rests (269) upon the trunk 
 of a fallen tree." 
 
 82. "The true biographer will, for the most part, con- 
 fine himself to the deeds of the biographized." (233.) 
 
 83. "Our colored companion having bought a few pea- 
 nuts, with evident enjoyment eat (244) even the shells." 
 
 84. "He always avoids those positions in which his free- 
 dom of will and action are (348 and 269) restricted." 
 
 85. " This would be true if able men are (251 and 269) 
 nominated, as they probably would be." 
 
 86. "His talents were made effective by extraordinary . 
 laboriousness, (233) and great capacity of application." 
 
 87. "Does every one heed the minister's words ? It is 
 evident to every one that they (273) do not." 
 
 88. "I have proven (362) that, in (268) a literary and 
 professional point of view, the stage holds its own with the 
 other professions." 
 
 89. " They must not be regarded as the work of a man 
 well brought up, (236) well educated, and well read." 
 
 90. " At times we were obliged to stoop (254) our heads 
 
PURITY. 131 
 
 down to avoid being injured by the branches of trees. 
 Yet eyen this discomfort did not damp (344) our ardor." 
 
 91. "Next to her is Anne, delicate and gentle. Her 
 sphere was (269) the garden." 
 
 92. "Those who do manage to get here always look 
 tired out (236) all day." 
 
 93. "The princess succeeds in liberating Pentaur, who 
 had (369) been imprisoned by the conspirators." 
 
 94. " But while these changes had been taking place in 
 the curriculums (344 and Chap. II., Part I.) of our lead- 
 ing colleges, there has been an increasing demand for a 
 special course." 
 
 95. " England has been shaken from (368) her very 
 foundations by this party spirit." 
 
 96. " She is much above the medium height, with a 
 form that excites the admiration of artists; her every 
 movement was (269) with willowy grace." 
 
 97. " But that a woman of masculine intellect, a will of 
 iron. (241) and holding the position of an heiress, should 
 fall m love with a weak, vacillating man is remarkable." 
 
 98. " Her tutor had shaped and moulded her mind to 
 (268) his pleasure." 
 
 99. " The question arises whether the multiplication of 
 privileges do (248) not tend to weaken the pioneer spirit." 
 
 100. "He was chosen, with two others, to conciliate 
 (254) with Charles at Lucca." 
 
 101. " kSavonarola replied (354) by letter his humble de- 
 sire to comply with the request of the pope." 
 
 103. "But when the appointed day arrived they coward- 
 ly (358) withdrew." 
 
 103. " The present telegraph lines are at the mercy of a 
 few monopolists, who control its (344) vast interests for 
 their own personal gain." 
 
 104. " We have in polygamy an unnatural evil born in 
 our midst." (266.) 
 
132 PBAGTIOAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 105. " Eight here in oar midst (3C6) is a glaring evil." 
 
 106. "The Mormons are putting missionaries in (368) 
 the southern part of the Union to work among negroes." 
 
 107. "We need men who who are willing to cast their 
 vote (344) for men of character, regardless of party affilia- 
 tions." 
 
 108. "He is restored to his kingdom, and Ivanhoe and 
 Eowena were betrothed, (269) thereby coming into royal 
 favor." 
 
 109. "His ears reminded one of saucers, and, to crown 
 all, they were ornamented by (268) gold rings." 
 
 110. " Clear to (337) the top of the mountain, strips of 
 woodland are interspersed with cultivated fields." 
 
 111. "They met at a corner grocery, to which the 
 lawyer had come to get some crackers for his dinner, and 
 was eating (341) these while the grocer went across the 
 street." 
 
 113. " The history of noted horse-thieves are (248) also 
 read, and are (348) familiar to the public." 
 
 113. "A doctor's oifice and a dwelling only a few doors 
 from it have been converted to (268) saloons." 
 
 114. "He is a glutton, (341) lazy, and loves his bottle." 
 
 115. "Suppose a parent were to send a boy in (268) the 
 street to become a loafer." 
 
 116. " We must not waste time on that which injures 
 us full (358) as much as it benefits." 
 
 117. "There was no monotony to (268) us during the 
 entire summer." 
 
 118. "These flowers are thought to have been intro- 
 duced in (368) these places by the Indians." 
 
 119. " The realization of these possibilities depend, (248) 
 he says, upon certain conditions." 
 
 130. "The results of religious effort among the really 
 ignorant classes will not bear comparison to (368) the re- 
 sults of such efforts among the learned." 
 
PUBITT. 133 
 
 121. " His eloquence gathered about him the greatest of 
 the nobility and of science." (241.) 
 
 123. " How came these fall (244) back so far from Lake 
 Ontario? What mighty agency has separated these banks?" 
 
 123. "They passed their more (244 and 357) leisure 
 hours together in philosophical discussion." 
 
 124. "It stands out in striking contrast to (368) the 
 shallowness of fashionable society." 
 
 135. "We must consider the proportion of our coast 
 line with (268) that of Europe." 
 
 126. "And while he watched, there suddenly appears 
 (269) a light in the church-tower." 
 
 127. " The smooth waters of the river are dotted here 
 and there by (268) steamers." 
 
 138. " Brought up (237) amid the wilds of an unbroken 
 forest, he certainly displayed remarkable acquirements." 
 
 139. " His style of writing was such as to enable the, 
 people to (343) clearly understand his aim." 
 
 130. "He was thus enabled to bear 'anxieties under 
 which a weaker man would sink." (369.) 
 
 131. " The character of the people represented are (348) 
 such as only a great master of fiction like Black would 
 hare imagined." 
 
 133. " Although lecturing every one on their (373) fol- 
 lies, he is, nevertheless, a true friend." 
 
 133. " The land around the lake is unfertile, growing 
 up (337) mostly to berry bushes." 
 
 134. " It is instructing, (333 and 265) exciting, and a 
 true portraiture of American character." 
 
 135. " The hole was meant to be covered by the bridge 
 that we saw ahead, and which was (369) washed away by 
 the flood." 
 
 136. "The time was now fast approaching in (368) 
 which this event usually took place." 
 
134 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 137. "In the evening, long lines of street lamps may be 
 seen that seem like one grand torchlight parade escorting 
 their (344) leader to the White House." 
 
 138. " These rooms are generally occupied by the more 
 quiet (358) inclined of the travelling public." 
 
 139. "Patience, tact, and a brain fertile for (368) ex- 
 pedients, are necessary to unravel these knotty questions." 
 
 140. "There is much agitation over the impracticable 
 character of the instruction of (268) our public schools." 
 
PROPRIETY, 135 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 PROPRIETY. 
 
 The term "Propriety" has in rhetoric little, if any, tech- 
 nical meaning. It requires, simply, that only such forms 
 of expression be used as are appropriate to the subject and 
 to the circumstances generally. Some of the most common 
 Tiolations of this requirement arise from the fact of the 
 superior force that often belongs, or seems to belong, to a 
 coarse expression. Many of the demands of propriety are 
 identical with those of precision. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 274. Avoid coarse expressions. That such expressions 
 are sometimes very forcible, cannot be denied; but the writer 
 who cannot be forcible without being coarse confesses to a 
 serious weakness both in style and in thought. 
 
 Original. — "The motives of the prosecutor in the case were 
 simply damnable. " 
 
 Improved. — ^The motives of the prosecutor in this case were 
 simply villaiQous. 
 
 275. Avoid slang. Some slang expressions would come 
 under the first suggestion, while others would not. The 
 apparently superior force and point of slang terms is gen- 
 erally unreal; it results from the fact that less mental effort 
 is required to employ such a term than to select the right 
 word for the place. It is easier, for example, to say that a 
 thing is "boss" than to decide between such terms as 
 "admirable," '^charming," etc. Most slang is the result 
 either of mental laziness or of a desire to be funny. 
 
 Original. — ' Our first day in the woods was spent in slicking 
 up around the camp." 
 
136 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 Improved.— Onv first, day iu the woods was spent in improving 
 the appearance of our camp. 
 
 276. Avoid using " technical slang," unless addressing 
 only those among whom it has arisen. Even here, its use is 
 questionable. To every occupation, whether work or play, 
 belong certain words used in that occupation out of their 
 regular sense. In addressing general readers such terms 
 are out of place. 
 
 Original. — "By an amazing amount of cribbing, he succeeded 
 in passing up, and so secured his sheepskin." 
 
 Improved. — By an amazing amount of cheating, he succeeded 
 in passing his examinations, and so secured his diploma. 
 
 277. Avoid literal statement directly after metaphor, es- 
 pecially in the same sentence. This is but one form of the 
 error mentioned in (218) under Precision. 
 
 Original. — "He was the lion of the evening and the guest of 
 the Earl." 
 
 Improved. — Being the guest of the Earl, he attracted great 
 attention throughout the evening. 
 
 278. Avoid the use of figurative language in treating of 
 a prosaic subject. This is a form of bombast. 
 
 Original. — " The tax-collector makes his demands with all the 
 assurance of a Hercules." 
 
 Improved. — ^The tax-collector makes his demands with the 
 fullest assurance that they cannot be refused. 
 
 279. Use words according to their idiom. Words often 
 gain a particular meaning by being constantly coupled with 
 certain other words. Bardeen quotes the. following story 
 of the struggles of a foreigner with English idiom: 
 
 " I begin to understand your language better," said my French 
 friend, Mr. Dubois, to me, " but your verbs trouble me still; you 
 mix them up so with prepositions." 
 
 " I am sorry you find them troublesome," was all I could say. 
 
 " I saw your friend, Mrs. Murkeson, just now," he continued. 
 "She says she intends to break down housekeeping; am I right 
 there ?" 
 
 "Break up housekeeping, she must have said." 
 
 "Oh yes, I remember— break up housekeeping." 
 
 " Why does she do that ?" I asked. 
 
 " Because her health is broken into." 
 
 " Broken down.' 
 
PROPRIETY. 137 
 
 "Broken down? — oh yes. And, indeed, since the small-pox 
 has broken up in our city " 
 
 "Broken out." 
 
 "She thinks she will leave it for a few weeks.'' 
 
 "Will she leave the house alone ?" 
 
 "No, she is afraid it will be broken— broken — how do I say 
 that ?" 
 
 "Broken into." 
 
 " Certainly, it is what I meant to say." 
 
 " Is her son to be married soon ?" 
 
 " No, that engagement is broken — broken " 
 
 •"Broken off." 
 
 " Yes, broken off." 
 
 " Ah, I had not heard of that." 
 
 "She is very sorry about it. Her son only broke the news 
 down to her last week. Am I right ? I am anxious to speak 
 English well." 
 
 " He merely broke the news; no preposition this time." 
 
 " It is hard to understand. That young man, her son, is a fine 
 young fellow — a breaker, I think. " 
 
 "A broker, and a very fine young fellow. Good-day." 
 
 So much for the verb " to break." 
 
 Onginal.—r^^ By hjs literary efforts he has secured great celeb- 
 rity." 
 Improved. — By his literary efforts he has gained great celebrity. 
 
 280. Avoid "patch-work." By this is meant the too 
 common practice of interlarding one's composition with 
 fragmentary quotations, whether poetic or prose. Such a 
 practice reminds the sensible reader of the fable of the daw 
 in peacock's feathers. 
 
 Original. — " When the babbling brook has been released from 
 winter's icy chain, I love to wander, on the verge of dewy eve, 
 along its banks." 
 
 Improved. — In the early spring I love to wander at sunset 
 along the banks of some babbling brook. 
 
 281. Avoid the use of " we" for " I " except when writing 
 
 i)i the name of a number of persons, or including the reader 
 
 as a companion. The exception, of course, warrants the 
 
 " editorial we." The confusion is .commonly seen where, 
 
 in the same paragraph, the "we" is applied successively to 
 
 several persons and to the writer alone. 
 
 Original. — " When we arrive at such a state of civilization that 
 there are no more murders, then we may repeal this law. We 
 hold that every penalty should be commensurate with the crime." 
 
138 PRACTICAL RHETOBIC. 
 
 Imp7-oved.—l hold that every penalty should be commensurate 
 with the crime. 
 
 282. Avoid poetic inversions. 
 
 Original— " As the valley of the Salt Lake offered every in- 
 ducement, the Mormons determined there to stay." 
 
 Improved. — As the valley of the Salt Lake offered every induce- ■ 
 ment, the Mormons determined to stay there. 
 
 283. Avoid poetic elisions. 
 
 Original.— "'Ris death cast a gloom o'er the whole nation." 
 Improved, — His death cast a gloom over the whole nation. 
 
 284. Avoid poetic archaisms. 
 
 Original. — " Even the sin-distorted creatures of vice ofttimes 
 revere a holy man. " 
 
 Improved. — Even the sin-distorted creatures of vice often re- 
 vere a holy man. 
 
 285. Do not confuse metaphor. 
 
 Original. — "We cannot expect to reach the desired haven on 
 downy beds of ease." 
 
 Improved. — ^We cannot expect to reach the desired haven with- 
 out sailing through some stormy seas. 
 
 286. Avoid the use of metaphor that is incongruous with 
 the subject. One writer tells of a clergyman who prayed 
 that God would be "a rock to them that are afar off upon 
 the sea." 
 
 EXERCISES IN PROPRIETY. 
 
 1. " We may sit beneath the trees that were wont (284) 
 to shade them, and listen as they used." (283.) 
 
 2. " How pleasant it is to wander on the verge of dewy 
 eve (280) along some quiet valley !" 
 
 3. " And sometimes will unbidden start (282) the min- 
 gled tear of joy and sadness." 
 
 4. "On this ridge a score of men might have been seen 
 digging as if for hid (284) treasure." 
 
 5. " Tho' (283) she might now become the mother of 
 kings, she could ne'er become the queen of England." 
 
 6. "In 1795 a German, named Wolf, put out (276) a 
 work in which he denied the authenticity of the Homeric 
 poems." 
 
PROPRIETY. 139 
 
 7. "My victim was entrapped by my eloquence^ and 
 there was no let-up (375) iintil his name was on my sub- 
 scription-list." 
 
 8. "We (281) simply mention these as representatives 
 of great classes. We look upon Demosthenes and Plato as 
 almost more than mortal." 
 
 9. "Mr. M. was quite ill for a few days, but I was 
 around (275) as if nothing had happened." 
 
 10. "All present told (283) the annoyance that they 
 had experienced from this source." 
 
 11. " Though we (281) have no means of proving our 
 (281) statement, we readily agree that the lower animals 
 have not certain powers." 
 
 12. " If the holiday were on Monday, the student would 
 be urged on by visions of immediate flunking (275) next 
 day." 
 
 13. " But when I reflect upon the influence of a mother, 
 withal (384) of a pure, educated, and Christian woman, I 
 no longer doubt." 
 
 14. "The theatre is run (375) because it pays." 
 
 15. "The raging tempest ceases not (283) until the 
 throbbings of once happy hearts are hushed in the silence 
 of death." 
 
 16. " Weary of the world, he sought seclusion and soli- 
 tude in this isle." (384.) 
 
 17. "The news of his death resounded with a wail of 
 sorrow o'er (383) all England." 
 
 18. "His countenance assumed a fierce and vengeful 
 (384) look." 
 
 19. "The spirit of rivalry is not al,.ay (384) to be 
 frowned upon." 
 
 20. " '1 have no home,' said he, 'no parents have I, 
 (382) no friends except a few news-boys.' " 
 
 21. "The three months have passed, and Shylock ia 
 wild (275) for the fulfilment of the bond." 
 
140 PBACTICAL RHETORIC . 
 
 23. " One reason for seeking office is the opportunity it 
 affords of getting in with (375) a certain ring of politi- 
 cians." 
 
 23. " From young manhood much time and thought 
 had he given (382) to the condition of his church." 
 
 34. "Sorrow does but (383 and 284) soften the heart, 
 rendering the memory of young affections the more vivid 
 and lasting." 
 
 25. " Ever and anon (284) he wrings his hands in an- 
 guish, and moans in agony." 
 
 26. "The hook has no distinctive style, as have most of 
 our great English authors." (277). 
 
UNITT. 141 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 UNITY. 
 
 Unity requires that the sentence shall possess but one 
 fundamental idea. That is, that "every part shall be sub- 
 servient to one principal affirmation." "A sentence is 
 not," says Kellogg, " a bag to be stuffed with miscellane- 
 ous matter. It is rather a picture aiming to present a sin- 
 gle object with or without accessories." This requisite of 
 good style can doubtless best be defined by giving, in order, 
 what are known as " Blair's four laws of unity." They 
 are: — 
 
 287. In the course of the same sentence, do not shift the 
 scene. 
 
 Original. — " It was a time when the Quakers were despised in 
 England, and the year 1825 is to be remembered for its financial 
 embarrassments." 
 
 Improved. — It was a time when Quakers were despised in Eng- 
 land, and a time of flaancial as well as reUgious disturbance. 
 The year 1825 is to be remembered for its pecuniary embarrass- ■ 
 ments. 
 
 288. Avoid crowding into one sentence heterogeneous 
 ideas. 
 
 Original. — "Her mother came of a burgher family, and she 
 was strong and energetic in her character, strict and even harsh 
 in her discipline, and firm in her devotion to what she believed 
 to be right." 
 
 Improved. — His mother came of a burgher family. She was 
 strong and energetic in her character, strict and even harsh in 
 her discipline, and firm in her devotion to what she believed to 
 be right. 
 
 289. Avoid an excess of parenthetical clauses. 
 Original. — "People' in aflluent circumstances often, and it is 
 
 the rule rather than the exception, forget the poor about them." 
 
142 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 Improved. — It is the rule rather than the exception for people 
 in affluent circumstances to forget the poor about them. 
 
 290. Do not add members after a full and perfect close. 
 This principle has been given, substantially, under Force. 
 The demands of force and of unity are here identical. 
 
 Original.— ^' At the table we met a young English officer of 
 fine conversational powers, who lost his life a few weeks later in 
 the Soudan." 
 
 Improved. — At the table we met a young English officer of fine 
 conversational powers. We have since learned that he lost his 
 life, a few weeks later, in the Soudan. 
 
 FCETHEE SCGGESTIONS. 
 
 291. Ooniiect clauses and sentences smoothly. A series 
 of short, disconnected sentences seriously violates both 
 unity and euphony. 
 
 Original. — "Thomas De Quincey was the son of an English 
 merchant. Thomas was educated at Oxford. When about fifteen 
 years of age he made his way to London." 
 
 Improved. — Thomas De Quincey, the son of an English mer- 
 chant, was educated at Oxford until his fifteenth year, when he 
 made his way to London. 
 
 292. Avoid the insertion of relative clauses into those al- 
 ready relative. This is but a corollary to Blair's third law. 
 
 Original. — "The march of the Greeks was through an uncul- 
 tivated country, whose savage inhabitants fared hardly, having 
 no other riches than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank 
 -and unsavory, by reason of their continual feeding upon sea- 
 fish." 
 
 Improved. — The march of the Greeks was through an unculti- 
 vated country. Its savage inhabitants fared hardly, having no 
 other riches than a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh was rank and 
 unsavory, by reason of their continual feeding upon sea-fish. 
 
 EXERCISES IN UNITT. 
 
 1. "She is to wed Lord Earnsdifl, whose father the 
 dwarf had killed many years before. (3^1.) As the 
 young people love each other devotedly this is a pleasing 
 end to their trials." 
 
 2. "We have heard of married women taking the lead 
 
UNITY. 143 
 
 in political meetings. What must the home life of such 
 a woman be?" (291.) 
 
 ;). "A little mountain stream gushes down the rocks. 
 (•■J91.)u'' You catch a glimpse of a cascade as it comes 
 tumbling through a defile." 
 
 4. " The article entitled ' Toinette' describes the ' horse- 
 penning' on the islands off the coast of Maryland and 
 Virginia (288)». amxdt on this occasion the little maid, 
 Toinette, wanders off in the deep grass and is lost." 
 
 5. " Yolande goes off alone bravely to rescue her moth- 
 er. (391^.)l^ She shows her energy and beauty of character 
 in curing her mother of the accursed habit.'i.- 
 
 6. "Main Street is very long t and (2^) extends east 
 and forms the main street of another village." 
 
 7. "The Bible is justly considered the highest rule of 
 morality.' ■ G4i; best laws may*^e traiced to its influence. 
 
 .. Its code of morals is the fullest and purest that the world 
 has ever seen." (891.) 
 
 8. "I tool: a small skiff and rowed across the lake. 
 V ifter returning we went back to the railroad. During our 
 
 progress *we passed several camps of Italians." (391.) 
 
 9. " She had a well-trained intellect, and was admirably 
 fitted to supply the deficiencies in the management of 
 others ■«rndf ib forgptiany wrong that had been done* and 
 she used her infiuence to do much good." (288.) 
 
 10. " To the geologist is offered an excellent opportunity 
 to work in the igcks of the corniferous period^ Mere the 
 botanist edit' fiiid a wide variety of vegetation." ^91.) 
 
 11. "At the other side, gradually rises a far stretching 
 hill, on the top (^f which stands a small house, with a very 
 large red barn/^-tJVel" the summit of the hill project the 
 tree tops." (2Sfl:) 
 
 12. " Eowena, the ward of Cedric the Saxon, was tall, 
 fair, and commanding in figure. (29i,i) Shfrwas as proud 
 as she was beautiful." 
 
144 PBACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 13. "It was quite late when our work was completed. 
 (agiJ^vTOur supper was quickly prepared, however, and 
 we were soon sleeping soundly." 
 
 14. " Two of their leaders were taken prisoners and met 
 with a violent death at the hands of a mob. 1(891.) x, The 
 remnant of their party went to Utah." 
 
 15. "The water pours from these, and dodges here and 
 there in its rocky channel. (^^)^^ I* eddies under an 
 old stump." 
 
 16. " The scene of this novel is laid on the verge of the, j 
 Highlands of Scotland, within forty miles of Glasgow,;^- '' 
 commercial city which has a university." (388.) 
 
 17. "When seven years old, he was given some coppers; i^-.^ 
 childlike, he was immediately seized with a destre^to spend 
 them;, he accordingly set out for a toy-shop ;^6h the way 
 
 he met one of his mates." (291.) 
 
 18. "At thKftime^ Sherman made his famous march to 
 the sea. (291.) ' Grant himself started for Eichmond. 
 (291.) But h©' was not very successful. (291.) Jlt[,;was 
 slow work, and the people were in a hurry." " 
 
 19. "Peggoty is the faithful servant of Mrs. Copper- 
 field (291)f^ after that lady's death Peggoty marries Barkis 
 the stage driver." 
 
 20. "After the heathen become christianized a change 
 begins in their homes^ and the number of Chinese noble- 
 men is growing." (288.) 
 
EUPHONY. 145 
 
 CHAPTEK VII. 
 EUPHONY. 
 
 Euphony requires that words be so selected and ar- 
 ranged as to please the ear. It is the most aesthetic, as 
 Precision is the most scientific, element of good style. 
 Given the other requisites in a fair degree, it is this that 
 makes a composition classic. Precision, Purity, and Pro- 
 priety cut out the block of language; Clearness, Force, and 
 Unity decide its shape; but Euphony gives to it that which 
 makes it a thing of beauty for all the ages. Even the 
 writer of the least musical taste will recall expressions and 
 passages that have become immortal by their euphony 
 alone. For example: "The old man eloquent;" "The 
 old man of the mountain;" " Patience on a monument;" 
 " The light fantastic toe." Or much longer passages; as 
 this from the " Old Curiosity Shop," which can be scanned 
 with hardly a break: — 
 
 " She was dead. No sleep so beautiful and calm, so free from 
 trace of pain, so fair to look upon. She seemed a creature fresh 
 from the hand of God, and waiting for the breath of life; not one 
 who had lived and suffered death. Her couch was dressed with here 
 and there some winter berries and green leaves, gathered in a spot 
 she had been used to favor. ' When I die, put near me some- 
 thing that has loved the hght, and had the sky above it always.' 
 Those were her words. She was dead. Dear, gentle, patient, 
 noble Nell was dead. Her little bird — a poor slight thing the pres- 
 sure of a finger would have crushed — was stirring nimbly in its 
 cage; and the strong heart of its child-mistress was mute and 
 motionless forever. 
 
 "Oh! it is hard to take to heart the lesson that such deaths 
 will teach; but let no man reject it, for it is one that all must 
 learn, and is a mighty, universal Truth. When Death strikes 
 down the innocent and young, for every fragile form from which 
 he lets the panting spirit free, a hundred virtues rise, in shapes 
 of mercy, charity, and love, to walk the world and bless it. Of 
 10 
 
146 PB ACTIO AL RHETORIC. 
 
 every tear that sorrowing mortals shed on such green graves, 
 some good is born, some gentler nature comes. In the Destroyer's 
 steps there spring up bright creations that defy his power, and 
 his dark path becomes a way of light to Heaven. " 
 
 For further striking illustrations see George Eliot's 
 
 " Mill on the Floss,'' and her other works. 
 
 SUGGESTIOKS. 
 
 293. Avoid repeating in the same clause, sentence, or con- 
 nected group of sentences, any word or prominent syllable, 
 unless the repetition is necessary to give force or clearness. 
 This principle is often abused by being carried to an ex- 
 treme. 
 
 Oi'iginal. — " If other grain had been planted instead, the grain 
 would have been greatly increased." 
 
 Improved. — If other grain had been planted instead, the crop 
 would have been greatly increased. 
 
 294. liefer euphonious words, where they are equally ad- 
 missible on other grounds. 
 
 Original. — " He fetched the water every morning from the 
 spring. " 
 
 Improved. — He brought the water every morning from the 
 spring. 
 
 295. Avoid words and combinations of words involving 
 a cumulation of consonants. This principle is not to be 
 understood as forbidding alliteration, and is but one phase of 
 the last principle. 
 
 Original— "The fifth speaker next took the stand and startled 
 the audience by his strong statements." 
 
 Improved.— Speaker number five now took the stand, and made 
 assertions so forcible as to startle the audience. 
 
 296. Arrange words and clauses euphoniously, so far as 
 this can be done without violating other requisites. In this 
 respect, the demands of force and of euphony are generally 
 identical. 
 
 Original— " "Let only those who excel teach, and those who 
 have written well censure." 
 
 Improved.— 'L&t only those teach who excel, and let only those 
 censure who have written well. 
 
 297. Avoid words and combinations in which there is a 
 
EUPHONY. 147 
 
 clash of vowels. The common New England provincialism 
 seen in such expressions as "the idear of/' etc., illustrates 
 the value of this principle. 
 
 Oi'iginal. — "The idea of a union of the islands, you used to 
 say, was absurd." 
 
 Impromd. — You once declared the union of the islands to be 
 an absurd idea." 
 
 298. Avoid a succession of unaccented syllables. 
 Original. — "Absoluteness is an infrequent characteristic of 
 
 modern rulers." 
 Improved. — Modern rulers seldom attempt to be absolute. 
 
 299. Avoid a very long series of monosyllables. 
 Original. — " And yet time has not made one change in the 
 
 kind old face." 
 
 Improved. — And yet time has not made a single change in the 
 kind old face. 
 
 300. Avoid a succession of similar word-endings. 
 Original. — "The descent was comparatively easily and quickly 
 
 made." 
 
 Improved. — The descent was made with comparative ease and 
 quickness. 
 
 301. Sound may be adapted to sense in certain cases, 
 and excellence in making such adaptations indicates high 
 poetic ability. Among these cases are the following : — 
 
 (a) Where sounds are the subject-matter. 
 
 " I love the language, that soft bastard Latin, 
 Which melts like kisses from a female mouth, 
 And sounds as if it should be writ on satin, 
 
 With syllables that breathe of the sweet South, 
 And gentle hquids gliding all so pat in, 
 
 That not a single accent seems uncouth. 
 Like our harsh northern, whistling, grunting, guttural, 
 Which we're obhged to hiss, and spit and sputter all. " 
 
 — Byron. 
 {hi) Where motion is the subject-matter. 
 
 " Up the airy mountain, 
 
 Down the rushy glen, 
 We daren't go a-hunting 
 
 For fear of little men; 
 Wee folk, good folk, 
 
 Trooping all together; 
 Green jacket, red cap. 
 
 And white owl's feather!"— Allingham. 
 
148 PBACTIGAL RHETORIC. 
 
 (c) Where size is the subject -matter. 
 
 " Oh! then, I see, queen Mab hath been with you. 
 She is the fairies' midwife; and she comes 
 In shape no bigger than an agate-stone 
 On the fore-flnger of an alderman. 
 Drawn with a team of Uttle atomies 
 Over men's noses as they lie asleep: 
 Her wagon-spokes made of long spinners' legs; 
 The cover, of the wings of grasshoppers; 
 The traces, of the smallest spider's web; 
 The collars, of the moonshine's watery beams: 
 Her whip, of cricket's bone; the lash, of film: 
 Her wagoner, a small gray-coated gnat, 
 Not half so big as a round little worm 
 Pick'd from the lazy finger of a milkmaid. 
 Her chariot is an empty hazel-nut. 
 Made by the joiner squirrel, or old grub, 
 Time out of mind the fairies' coach-makers, 
 And in this state she gallops night by night 
 Through lovers' brains, and then they dream of love; 
 On courtiers' knees, that dream on court'sies straight; 
 O'er lawyers' fingers, who straight dream on fees; 
 O'er ladies' lips, who straight on kisses dream; 
 Which oft the angry Mab with blisters plagues. 
 Because their breaths with sweet-meats tainted are." 
 
 — Shakespeake. 
 
 ■' When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw 
 The line too labors, and the words move slow. 
 Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain. 
 Flies o'er the unbending corn, and skims along the main." 
 
 —Pope's ''Iliad.'" 
 
 {d) Where certain emotions, such as gayety and tie 
 reverse, are the subject-matter. 
 
 " Haste thee, Nymph, and bring with thee 
 Jest and youthful Jollity, 
 Quips and Cranks, and wanton Wiles, 
 Nods, and Becks, and wreathfed Smiles, 
 Such as hang on Hebe's cheek, 
 And love to live in dimple sleek; 
 Sport that wrinkled Care derides, 
 And Laughter holding both his sides, 
 Come, and trip it, as you go, 
 On the light fantastic toe; 
 And in thy right hand lead with thee 
 The mountain nymph, sweet Liberty." 
 
 —Milton in " Z' Allegro.-'' 
 
EUPHONY. 149 
 
 " Come, pensive nun, devout and pure, 
 Sober, steadfast, and demure, 
 All in a robe of darkest grain, 
 Flowing with majestic train. 
 And sable stole of Cyprus lawii. 
 Over thy decent shoulders drawn. 
 Come, but keep thy wonted state 
 With even step and musing gait; 
 And looks commercing with the skies, 
 Thy rapt soul sitting in thine eyes; 
 There, held in holy passion still. 
 Forget thyself to marble, till 
 Witii a sad leaden downward cast 
 Thou fix them on the earth as fast; 
 And join with thee calm Peace and Quiet, 
 Spare Fast, that oft with gods doth diet, 
 And hears the Muses in a ring, 
 Aye, round about Jove's altar sing; 
 And add to these retired Leisure, 
 That in trim gardens takes his pleasure. 
 But first, and chief est, with thee bring 
 Him that yon soars on golden wing. 
 Guiding the fiery- wheelSd throne. 
 The cherub Contemplation." 
 
 — Milton in "i? Penseroso." 
 
 302. Scatter adverbial elements, when several of these be- 
 long to one clause or sentence. 
 
 Origiiial. — " The train shot rapidly, with no hand to control it, 
 around the curve." 
 
 Improved. — "With no hand to control it, the train shot rapidly 
 around the curve. 
 
 303. Success in euphonious writing depends largely on 
 one's ability to mahe substitutions quicTcly and easily. In 
 seeking equivalents, none are more helpful than those of 
 the relative. Note the following: — 
 
 (a) TTie Participle. — "Those who desire to attend can procure 
 tickets of the secretary." 
 
 /Substitute. — Those desiring to attend can procure tickets of the 
 secretary. 
 
 (6) The Infinitive. — "She is not a woman who will decide 
 hastily." 
 
 Substitute. — She is not the woman to decide hastily. 
 
 (c) " Wlierehy, wherein,'''' eta. — "The means used are those by 
 which such an end is generally secured." 
 
150 PBAOTIOAL BHETOBIG. 
 
 Substitute.— The means used are those whereby suck an end is 
 generally secured. 
 
 {d) ^'If. "— " The government that does not protect its subjects 
 is unworthy the name. " 
 
 Substitute. — If a government does not protect its subjects, it is 
 unworthy the name. 
 
 (e) '^And this." — " He escaped with his life, which is all that 
 could be expected under the circumstances." 
 
 Substitute.— ^e escaped with his life, and this is all that could 
 be expected under the circumstances. 
 
 (/■) ' ' What. "— " He tells that which is most welcome news — that 
 all is well at home." 
 
 Substitute. — He tells us what is most welcome news — that all is 
 well at home. 
 
 304. Euphony is often gained ly the multiplication of 
 cotmectives. The philosophy of this seems to be that such 
 a multiplication causes the mind to dwell pleasantly upon 
 the thought. Witness the following passages: — 
 
 "For I am persuaded, that neither death, nor life, nor angels, 
 nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to 
 come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be able 
 to separate us from the love of God which is in Christ Jesus our 
 Lord." — Romans viii. 38, 39. 
 
 " Once upon a time, reader, a long, long while ago, I knew a 
 schoolmaster, and that schoolmaster had a wife; and she was 
 young, and fair, and learned; like that princess-pupil of old 
 Ascham, fair and learned as Sidney's sister, Pembroke's mother. 
 And her voice was ever soft, gentle, and low, reader — an excel- 
 lent thing in woman. And her fingers were quick at needlework, 
 and nimble in aU a housewife's cunning. And she could draw 
 sweet music from the ivory board; sweeter, stranger music from 
 the chUl life of her schoolmaster husband. And she was slow of 
 heart to understand mischief; but her feet ran swift to do good. 
 And she was simple with the simplicity of girlhood, and wise 
 with the wisdom that cometh only of the Lord — cometh only to 
 the children of the Kingdom. And her sweet young life was a 
 morning hymn, sung by a child-voice to rich organ-music. Time 
 shall throw his dart at death, ere death hath slain such another. 
 For she died, reader, a long, long while ago. And I stood once 
 by her grave— her green grave— not far from dear Dunedin. 
 Died, reader, for all she was so fair, and learned, and simple, 
 and good. And, I am told, it made a great difference to that 
 schoolmaster." — Day Dreams of a Schoolmaster. 
 
 305. Euphony is generally gained by the various forms of 
 balanced sentence. Here, again, the demands of Force 
 and of Euphony coincide. This is really rhythm in prose. 
 
EUPHONY. 151 
 
 Witness the following from Brutus' speech after the assas- 
 sination of Csesar: 
 
 "As Cassar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I 
 rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but as he was am- 
 bitious, I slew him. There is tears for his love, joy for his for- 
 tune, honor for his valor, and death for his ambition. Who is 
 here so base that would be a bondman ? If any, speak; for him 
 have I offended. Who is here so rude, that would not be a Ko- 
 man ? If any, speak; for him have I offended. Who is here so 
 vile, that will not love his country ? If any, speak; for him have 
 I offended. 
 
 Original. — " In form he was tall and ungainly, and somewhat 
 uncouth in manners. " 
 
 Improved. — In form he was tall and ungainly, and in manners 
 somewhat uncouth. 
 
 306. Other things being equal, short words should be 
 placed before longer and weaker before stronger. 
 
 Original. — "We camped next day in a beautiful, quiet, deep 
 wood." 
 
 Improved. — We camped next day in a deep, quiet, beautiful 
 wood. 
 
 307. Avoid short and abrupt words at the close of a sen- 
 tence, clause, or paragraph. HerSj again, the demands of 
 Euphony and of Force are nearly identical. The most melo- 
 dious endings are words like " appear" that close with a 
 continuing consonant sound, and words that close with one 
 or more unemphatic syllables, such as "liberty," ''pos- 
 terity," and the like. 
 
 Original. — " The story is a difficult one to learn the truth of." 
 Improved. — The story is one of whose truth it is difficult to learn. 
 
 308. Euphony often depends upon mere variety. Mo- 
 notony is never musical. Variety, again, can generally be 
 gained only by substitution and contraction. Prepositional 
 phrases may be changed to adjectives, adverbs, and nouns 
 in the possessive case, and vice versa; participles may be 
 changed to infinitive phrases, and vice versa, etc. 
 
 Original. — "Peace in the home is better than applause in 
 legislative halls." 
 
 Varied — Domestic peace is better than political glory. 
 
 Original. — "Having something to do and doing it is the true 
 metliod of gaining happiness." 
 
 Varied. — To have some work and to do it is the way to be happy. 
 
152 PBAOTIOAL REETORIG. 
 
 309. Avoid a series of similar beginnings. This, of 
 course, is not to be understood as opposed to alliteration. 
 
 Original. — " Just before we became becalmed we encountered 
 the enfilading fire of the enemy. " 
 
 Improved. — Just before we came to a stand-still the enemy 
 swept our decks with an enfilading fire. 
 
 310. Some ivriters advise the use of " an" before the as- 
 pirate h wJte);e the accent falls after the first syllable, e.g., 
 an "historical," an "hereditary;" but this usage seems 
 hardly to be predominant. 
 
 Original. — "His name is destined to become an household 
 word. " 
 Improved. — His name is destined to become a household word. 
 
 / ; . EXEBCKES IN EUPHONY. 
 
 1. "What influence Ms the criminal^ upon the govera- ^ 
 ment ? He (5aiises local disturbiices, bwfc-iiK-inflTDencJffi^ 
 not felt, at least to a great degree, in the government." 
 (293.) 
 
 3. " The loss of his woperty, hgwever, brings out what 
 is true a»d noble ll^^wM^, and ^S^&r^klifehe begins life 
 (393) in earnest.?' .a, 
 
 3. " But Shylock can be persuaded to accapf of nothing 
 (300) exfe^t the forfeit." .P-,j^ 
 
 4. "King Agrippa was moTed bv.his peiSasgre elo- 
 quence, and tlitdiitig (393) said to PmTp^Almost thou per- 
 suadest me,' etc."" ,, i 
 
 5. "A close study of the author will reveal some defects 
 that somewhat (393) affect the popularity of this work." 
 
 6. " But our interest centres upon a aill where now be- 
 
 - neath the sod many a ^^iac-sits-(aa^grim and jtil]rfK<^<*^ 
 f T\ 1. " Far above them, from the same spot, a fountain of 
 |/influence flows (396) around the world." 
 
 8. .^Ithou^ of such a cringing^ and forceless disposi- 
 tion,fw'e-find!3ihat he had real strength of character and in- 
 dependence." (305.) 
 
 9. "If a oliaiigfi j^tlspelling aceompaiiied a -chan|e~a' 
 
EUPKONT. r / 153 
 
 pronunciation there would be little changing of pronuncia- 
 tion." (293.) 
 
 10. " The change wouldc^Mgfr-ip the omission of silent 
 letters, andr-th^'^S^^e "of^^ulP' 'IT"" f " in laugh, and 
 oth^*JiSi:aa«#^^93.)«..n.->-^?>CUvl 
 
 11. " She is a gefiame heroine." (300.|_ 
 
 12. "However, his feelings are not'at all reciprocated." 
 (296.) • ^^^_U^ 
 
 13. "The patient is placed on a slab, and tkiwyS^y^t 
 kneaded, afts r^ ^ wfiM i he is thoroughly rubbed with a prep- 
 aration of vinegar and salt." (293.) 
 
 14. Join mejn a stroll aiboH#4h€ city, and in a secluded 
 portion of4he-«^ (293) you will find/ living a hermit-life, 
 /STnoble old man." 
 
 15. " But navies have not grown entirely from their mil- 
 itary value :raade and navigation are thet^arents of=sa- 
 vieg." (293.) 
 
 16. " Much of the commercial and political prestige of 
 England to-day is due to the founder of the Sb^eG" (293) 
 navy." 
 
 17. " It is disgusting to an ordinary laborer to be set at 
 work with a S®*^93) of these brawling foreigners." 
 
 18. " The best way to determine his character is to watch 
 him when jiaeedrin places (293) of great responsibility." 
 
 19. The law shonJdjiQld. as good when the government 
 is the employer asroen we Duilder-Wfflra^'^fesaan." (305.) 
 
 30. " But there are -seiBfe (293) ways of spending the 
 Sabbath hours which are somewhat questionable." 
 
 21. "We see the flowers growing just below the=sffl)w 
 limit, TfMktjasteabovea^ the regions of perpetual snow." 
 (293.) 
 
 22. " Some people of a sceptical turn of mind think that 
 Smith was a harmless fanatic. Some more radical people 
 (293) think that he was an arrant villain." 
 
154 PBACTICAL REETOBIG. 
 
 23. " Much might be said of the domestic evils of Mor- 
 monism ; but let us rather glance at the political aspect ol 
 the subject. The emissaries of Mormonism (393) are sent 
 to every land." 
 
 34. "Not a sound was to be heard except the shrill 
 shriek (301) of the blue-jay." 
 
 35. "In childhood, the loss of a ball or a top causes al- 
 most as much pain as the loss of a fortune causes (293 and 
 296) in later years." 
 
 26. "He supposed that his support (309) was assured. 
 
 27. "Therefore (296) we believe that the farmer re- 
 quires education." 
 
 38. " The field which in summer was covered with grain, 
 now was (396) brown and bare." 
 
 29. " And it is but just that we should strive to form a 
 just (293) conception of the city toward which we have 
 just turned our footsteps." 
 
 30. "It is an unscrupulous spirit : it scruples (393) at 
 nothing, no matter how base." 
 
 31. " Among his works there are but three in which he 
 has delineated crime, and he has placed crime (393) in 
 such a light that we abhor the crimes and recoil from the 
 criminals." 
 
 33. "His other writings seem insignificant beside these, 
 which seem (293) the natural outcome of his genius." 
 
 33. " Then (396) shall we leave all this in the hands of 
 a few corporations ?" 
 
 34. "Should therefore (396) the American government 
 retaliate by compelling these nations to receive her pork ?" 
 
 35. "This last is the most important reason (393), and 
 the one used by the most reasonable of those who are in 
 favor of excluding the Chinese." 
 
 36. "We had no pretty cottage, but had (393) a rough 
 board shanty." 
 
EUPHONY. 155 
 
 37. "The situation locally (:iJ96) of Jeanne was full of 
 euggestions." 
 
 38. " Its chief interest lies in its incidents." (309.) 
 
 39. " Our party was so large that only a part (293) could 
 be taken across at once." 
 
 40. " Often have we (296) heard members of different 
 denominations asking this question." 
 
 41. " Then (296) if the people are not qualified to vote 
 independently, they are incompetent to control the votes 
 of electors." 
 
 42. "Having experienced feelings which we cannot 
 utter, we reluctantly returned to the house with feelings 
 (293) of gratitude that we live in such a beautiful world." 
 
 43. " Artists have made this one of their favorite resorts, 
 and it has also become a summer resort (293) for those 
 who find pleasure in roaming among the mountains." 
 
 44. "But their kindness touches even the heart of a 
 book-agent, and reveals a tenderness not supposed to exist 
 in a book-agent's heart." (293.) 
 
TEACHER'S INDEX TO TREATMENT OF STYLE. 
 
 Note.— The following index will be found of great assistance 
 to the teacher in carrying out the suggestion given on page 55, 
 and in criticising essay manuscript. The figures at the right 
 indicate the number of the mggestion (given in bold-faced type). 
 
 Repeatarticle 133 
 
 Repeat preposition 137 
 
 Repeat antecedent. .. .._ 143 
 
 Repeat conjunction. . . .' 146 
 
 Relative, ambiguous 122 
 
 Superlative — same class 132 
 
 Substantive between subject 
 
 and relative 150 
 
 Technical words 158 
 
 Universal subject, negative 
 
 predicate 140 
 
 Verbal nouns 137 
 
 CLEAKNBSS. 
 
 Adjectives before possessives. 134 
 Adjective or adverb as ante 
 
 cedent 142 
 
 Adverbs, position of 149 
 
 "As" and "than," repeat 
 
 verb after 151 
 
 Ambiguous phrases 154 
 
 "At least," etc 126 
 
 "Certain," "some," "any," 
 
 etc 147 
 
 Circumlocutions 155 
 
 Collocation 160 
 
 Comparisons, same category. 141 
 Compared object, excluded, 
 
 etc 131 
 
 Connected words and clauses. 128 
 Demonstrative, ambiguous. . 121 
 Dependent clauses, avoid con- 
 founding 152 
 
 Different senses 157 
 
 Direct discourse 148 
 
 Divisible relative 123 
 
 Equivocal words 159 
 
 Infinitive of purpose 138 
 
 " Neither — nor," etc.- -simi- 
 lar constructions 144 
 
 "Not only —but also." 125 
 
 "Not," position of 139 
 
 Omissions 156 
 
 " Only," position of 124 
 
 " Or" — alternation, disjunc 
 
 tion 145 
 
 Participle, position of 135 
 
 Participial phrase, resolve . . 136 
 Parentheses, avoid long. . . . 161 
 Repeat word as summary. . . 153 
 
 Repeat subject 129 
 
 Repeat relative 130 
 
 Adverbial modifiers, order of. 172 
 
 " And," force and u.se of 176 
 
 "And which" 177 
 
 Antithesis, etc 187 
 
 Apposition 191 
 
 Balanced sentence 187 
 
 Climax, arrange to 186 
 
 Closing with short word— 
 
 exceptions 163 
 
 Conditional clause first 166 
 
 " Do" and " did" as exple- 
 tives 171 
 
 Emphatic words in emphatic 
 
 places 169 
 
 Exaggerations 178 
 
 " Pine writing" 179 
 
 Grammatically connected 
 
 words, etc 199 
 
 Imperative for " if " clause. . 190 
 
 Implied statement 189 
 
 Incongruous objects 194 
 
 Interrogative foi-m, use 183 
 
 Introductory clauses, telling 
 
 what is to follow 197 
 
 Metaphor, use 183 
 
INDEX TO TBEATMENT OF STYLE. 
 
 157 
 
 Negatives, multiplication of. 196 
 
 Object before verb 184 
 
 Omit conjimctions 175 
 
 Omit verb 173 
 
 Omit subject and verb 174 
 
 Participle or adjective as in- 
 troduction 167 
 
 Particular «». general terms. 180 
 
 Person for class 181 
 
 Phrase contracted to a vrord. 188 
 Prepositions, avoid two; split- 
 ting of particles 170 
 
 Prepositional phrases, substi- 
 tutes for 195 
 
 Repealing prominent word. . 192 
 
 Shoi. words, prefer 198 
 
 Special devices.— Brevity. . . 193 
 Subordinate clauses, several. 165 
 
 Suspense 164 
 
 Suspensive conjunctions. . . . 168 
 
 Truisms, etc., avoid 185 
 
 Unnecessary words 163 
 
 PKBCISION. 
 
 Abstract i>s. concrete forms. 212 
 Active and passive meanings, 
 
 distinguidi 211 
 
 Adjectives, use few 213 
 
 " Any," use of, etc 232 
 
 " Be," as auxiliary and prin- 
 cipal verb 209 
 
 Bombast, avoid 221 
 
 Contradictions and incongru- 
 ities, avoid careless 218 
 
 Condensation, avoid too gi'eat 223 
 
 Comparative emphasis 235 
 
 " Couple," for two 230 
 
 Cumulative fonn of verb. . . . 317 
 "Do" and "did" as .substi- 
 tutes 304 
 
 General words, avoid ... . . 303 
 Incongruous words and sen- 
 tences, avoid joining 316 
 
 Intensity, distinguish degrees 
 
 of 303 
 
 "May" and "can" 208 
 
 Modifiers, keep together. . . - 337 
 Negative from privative 
 
 words, distinguish 215 
 
 " One" as personal pronoun. 219 
 Preposition, avoid as connec- 
 tive 331 
 
 before verbal 
 
 nouns 232 
 
 Proper sense, use words in. . 200 
 
 Repeat copula, etc 310 
 
 Repetitions, avoid, etc 220 
 
 Repeat the article 226 
 
 Root, words from same 201 
 
 " Shall " and " will " 205 
 
 " Should " and " would "... 207 
 
 Tense forms, do not omit. . . 314 
 
 Tautology, avoid 334 
 
 "That," with verbs of men 
 
 tal action 238 
 
 " That," introducing result. . 329 
 
 PUBITY. 
 
 Adverb between infinitive 
 
 and sign 343 
 
 Adverb for adjective 359 
 
 Adjective for adverb 358 
 
 Agreeable words, prefer 363 
 
 Analogy, regard, in choice. . 362 
 
 Ancient usage, prefer 265 
 
 Archaic suffixes and prefixes. 240 
 
 "As" and "so" 9*3 
 
 Changing construction 241 
 
 Coining words 333 
 
 Colloquialisms 236 
 
 Combinations, unwarranted. 234 
 Collective nouns, number of 
 
 verb and pronoun for 247 
 
 Continued action, tense forms 
 
 expressing 367 
 
 Double comparatives, avoid. 257 
 "Each," "every," "any," 
 
 etc , verbs with 273 
 
 "Each," "every," "one," 
 etc , pronouns refen-ing to. 373 
 
 Foreign words 338 
 
 Foreign idioms 339 
 
 Foreign plurals, verbs with . 249 
 Imperfect ««. perfect tense. . 353 
 Imperfect tense for perfect 
 
 participle 353 
 
 Neuter possessives, avoid. . . 266 
 Newspaper usage not a crite- 
 rion 235 
 
 Nominative confounded with 
 
 objective 245 
 
 One signification, prefer 
 
 words of 361 
 
 Perfect, for present infinitive. 355 
 
158 
 
 PBACTIGAL RHETORIC. 
 
 Prepositions, proper use of. . 268 
 Possessive as antecedent, 
 
 avoid 371 
 
 Pronouns— mixed forms. . . . 360 
 
 Provincialisms 337 
 
 Eelative, avoid omitting 370 
 
 Several subjects of different 
 
 number 350 
 
 Simpler expression, prefer. . 364 
 Sing. subj. followed by plu- 
 ral object, eta — verb ■. 348 
 
 Subjunctive where contin- 
 gency is expressed 351 
 
 Superlative, double, or with 
 
 two objects 357 
 
 Syntactical errors 344 
 
 Two or more substantives, 
 
 verb with ■ 346 
 
 Tenses, keep consistent. . . . 369 
 Transitive ««. intransitive 
 
 verbs 354 
 
 Universal truths — tense 356 
 
 PKOPKIETY. 
 
 Coarse expressions 374 
 
 Figurative language with 
 
 prosaic subject 378 
 
 Idiom, use words according 
 
 to 379 
 
 Literal statement after meta- 
 phor 377 
 
 Metaphor, confused 385 
 
 Metaphor, incongruous 386 
 
 Poetic archaisms 384 
 
 Poetic patchwork 380 
 
 Poptic inversions 383 
 
 Poetic elisions 383 
 
 Slang 375 
 
 Technical slang 376 
 
 "We"for"I" 381 
 
 UNITY. 
 
 Added member after a close. 390 
 
 Connect smoothly 391 
 
 Heterogeneous ideas 388 
 
 Parenthetical clauses, excess 
 
 of 389 
 
 Relative clauses into relative. 393 
 Scene, do not change 387 
 
 BUPHONT. 
 
 Adverbial elements, scatter. 302 
 
 Arrange euphoniously 396 
 
 Balanced sentence 305 
 
 Closing with short and abrupt 
 
 words 307 
 
 Connectives, multiplication 
 
 of 304 
 
 Cumulation of consonants. . . 395 
 Euphonious words, prefer. . . 394 
 Indefinite article before h 
 
 and u 310 
 
 Monosyllables, succession of. 399 
 Repeated words and sylla- 
 bles 393 
 
 Similar endings, avoid 300 
 
 Similar beginnings, avoid . . . 309 
 
 Substitutes for relative 303 
 
 Shorter words before longer, 
 
 etc 306 
 
 Sound to sense 301 
 
 Unaccented syllables, suc- 
 cession of 298 
 
 Vowels, clash of 397 
 
 Variety conducive to eu- 
 phony 308 
 
GENERAL EXERCISES. 159 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 GENERAL EXERCISES. 
 
 Note. — The following abbreviations are used, in this chapter: 
 C. for Clearness; F. for Force; Pr. for Precision; Pu. for Purity; 
 Pro. for Propriety; U. for Unity; and E. for Euphony. 
 
 1. " The door, window-casings, etc., set ofE by (Pu. 268) 
 a coat of blue paint, conspire (Pr. 200) with the black- 
 boards to throw a gloom upon (Pu. 268) the inmates." 
 
 2. " But probably if the truth was (Pu. 351) known, the 
 stove lost its leg in an (E. 310) humbler, though perhaps 
 a severer struggle." 
 
 3. " Just opposite the entrance was a great furnace, 
 from the mouth of which a molten (Pr. x!27) stream of iron 
 (F. 169) was pouring forth." 
 
 4. "From here the finest view is obtained (Pr. 227) of 
 the most beautiful of the cascades, which is not a sheer 
 fall (U. 288) but a ledge of rock half way down (C. 161) 
 breaks the fall into two portions, and (XJ. 288) as the 
 water dashes over it with resistless fury, (C. 129) churns it 
 into foam." 
 
 5. " Great shelves of rock (0. 128) overhang the foot- 
 path (F. 167) that look as if only a slight force would hurl 
 them to the bottom of the chasm." 
 
 6. " Visitors are wont (Pro. 284) to retrace their steps 
 to a place called 'The Crow's Nest"; (U. 288) which is not, 
 as you might imagine, the home of a bird, but it is a plat- 
 form built out over the side of the gorge, from which a 
 view of the entire gorge (E. 293) with its successive cas- 
 cades may be obtained." (P. 169.) 
 
160 PB ACTIO AL BEETOBIO. 
 
 7. " The Genesee Eiver divides Eochester into two nearly 
 equal portions. (U. 391.) It is crossed by several bridges, 
 the most important being the one (F. 162) on Main St. 
 (U. 391.) This (0. 131) is so hemmed in by buildings 
 that it is difficult to realize that a river is flowing under- 
 neath," 
 
 8. "Entering one of these stores, from the rear windows 
 we see the turbid waters of the rapids, and (F. 168) beyond 
 a low stone archway crosses (Pu. 341) the river." 
 
 9. "But the chaperon thought (Pr. 338) we should 
 choose some place (Pu. 270) we had never before visited." 
 
 10. "The place (Pu. 337 and Pr. 300) was so very small 
 (Pr. 329) we could see nothing that resembled a hotel." 
 
 11. "Because (Pr. 300) many persons refer to the days 
 of childhood as being (F. 163) the days of their greatest 
 happiness, is no argument to prove the truth of their asser- 
 tion." 
 
 13. "As you stand at a distance and view it (F. 163) 
 the irregularities and imperfections loose (Pr. 201) their 
 distinctness." 
 
 13. "By his pen pictures, he produces (C. 157) a vivid 
 reality to the mind (F. 162 or Pr. 223) as can never be 
 produced on canvas." 
 
 14. " In the height of his glory he was appointed (F. 
 162) as Minister of the United States to the German Em- 
 pire; and then, when (U. 391) prostrated by disease (Pu. 
 269) he rises from his bed to perform his duty for his 
 country." 
 
 15. " Kossuth has passed his years at the large cities oi 
 Italy as a journalist, and as one has won (F. 163 and E. 
 293) considerable distinction." 
 
 16. " The new sphere of labor to which he was called 
 was the overseeing (C. 127) of the improvement of the 
 navigability of the mouth of the Danube River." (P. 162.) 
 
 17. "He was called to go on the greatest mission yet 
 
GENERAL EXEBCI8ES. 161 
 
 undertaken by him, namely, the conquering (C. 127 and 
 Pii. 241) and civilization of the Soudan." 
 
 18. "He became identified with the Anti-slavery pai-ty 
 and into which (C. 122 and P. 177) he threw his whole 
 soul." 
 
 19. " Fearing nothing, he defied both the slaveholders, 
 because they are (Pu. 269) such, and the United States 
 government." (P. 164.) 
 
 20. "Although he was (P. 174) a philosopher, he had 
 but little money, and what he received of (Pu. 268) his 
 friends he spent for books." 
 
 21. " He did not seek (Pr. 200) and reverence truth or 
 (C. 145) an over-scrnpulous conscience." 
 
 22. " The enormity of these offences is a good deal (Pr. 
 200 and Pu. 258) extenuated by his being conscious (0. 
 127) that he is digressing." 
 
 23. "John rises among the people, and (P. 163) be- 
 comes wealthy, and removes to Beechwood Hall. They 
 (C. 121) live to see their children grow up, and John dies 
 while upon the grass vdthout pain." (C. 128 and U. 288.) 
 
 24. "There are few works written (P. 162) of this kind 
 with (Pu. 268) language more simple." 
 
 25. "In fact, women are successful in every direction 
 (Pr. 200) they have as yet attempted." (Pu. 270.) 
 
 26. " Here was her character formed (Pro. 282) and her 
 life work planned (Pr. 223) which her subsequent life 
 (E. 293) proved was full of philanthropy." (C. 129 and 
 130.) 
 
 27. " I imagine (Pr. 228) with her sense of duty, what- 
 ever her sense of danger (E. 293), she must have possessed 
 that kind of courage that so pleased liapoleon (0. 153), 
 that thongh her face blanched she would push forward 
 without flinching." 
 
 28. " My window looks out on the northern range that 
 lays (Pu. 254) up against the sky, and forms the back- 
 
 11 
 
162 PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 ground to our picture (C, 156 and C. 137), the valley be- 
 neath with its three lines of railroa,ds (Pr. 212) and (C. 
 137) the Erie Canal." 
 
 29. " Along the base of these hills runs the track of the 
 "West Shore Kailroad. Their (C. 121) engine-house, di- 
 rectly in front, sends up its incense of smoke, and from 
 which (C. Vl'l and P. 177) last summer issued a most sat- 
 isfactory announcement that the Fourth of July had 
 come." 
 
 30. "Like a bird's nest, it nestles (E. 293) among the 
 hills, and (P, 168) the lake lies just beyond like a band of 
 silver." 
 
 31. " Looking down from our (Pro. 281) height we see 
 little beside (Pr. 201) spires and chimneys, the roofs of 
 buildings, and the smoke and the (P. 162) steam of our 
 industries." 
 
 32. " We gathered up our treasure and started on. A 
 stone-quarry soon was (Pro. 282) discovered. (U. 291.) 
 Here two men were busy blasting building-stones." 
 
 33. "A great portion of the everglades is only (0. 124) 
 accessible with (Pu. 268) almost superhuman exertion." 
 
 34. ''The negative description of Damey stands forth 
 prominent." (P. 169 and Pu. 258.) 
 
 35. "Careless, dissipated, even (Pr. 227) sometimes 
 drunken, there is developed within him a giant intellect 
 (C. 156) allowed to run to waste." 
 
 36. "Coarse gestures are resorted to (P. 162) on the 
 part of members, and many irreverent ejaculations are fre- 
 quent." (Pr. 224.) 
 
 37. "The place (Pr. 200 and Pu. 237) is very irregular 
 in shape (C. 156), one long, crooked street with short 
 ones branching out in all directions." 
 
 38. "Who can compute (Pr. 200) the amount of good 
 that Christian mothers are accomplishing in inculcating 
 
GENERAL EXERCISES. 163 
 
 right principles to (Pu. 268) those placed under their 
 care ?" 
 
 39. " Students are citizens, and ought to take no privi- 
 leges which they (0. 121) would not take under other cir- 
 cumstances." (Pr. 218.) 
 
 40. " To the casual observer, no doubt, the lower class 
 appear (Pu. 347) to be the dangerous element in a coun- 
 try." (Pr. 200.) 
 
 41. " His reputation extends beyond the limits of his own 
 place (Pr. 200 and Pu. 237), and he is nominated and 
 finally, perhaps, gets some position in (Pu. 268) the capital 
 (Pr. 200) of the nation." 
 
 42. " Do not country-stores and blacksmith-shops furnish 
 places of rendezvous for the assembling of (F. 162) gossips, 
 as cunning and contriving (Pu. 233) as ever assembled 
 (E. 293) at a quilting or at a church-sewing society ? If 
 you do not believe it (0. 121), look into this little grocery 
 on the corner." 
 
 43. " One party is much interested in discussing the 
 probability of the failure in business of a certain townsman 
 (F. 162), another is enjoying the discussion (Pr. 200) of the 
 difficulty that a certain man has had with his wife, while 
 still another is discussing (E. 293, Pr. 200) the various 
 members of the minister's family." 
 
 44. "I think it doubtful that (Pr. 200) in former times 
 there were (F. 162) more gossips found among women than 
 among men." 
 
 45. " The gossip is one of the busiest of beings, rising 
 early and sitting up (Pu. 236) late, and knows (U. 288) the 
 exact hour of the occurrence of an event; which fact (F. 191) 
 is weaved into a story, the limits of which (E. 293) cannot 
 be estimated." 
 
 46. "England has forced the opium and (C. 133) liquor 
 trade upon the Indian people (0. 129), who, less than a 
 century ago, were the most abstemious people (293) on the 
 
164 PEAOTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 globe. Why is this submissive, law-abiding people thus 
 oppressed, while the more independent people (B. 293) of 
 Canada escape ?" Such acts of injustice stain England. 
 (Pr. 323.) 
 
 47. " Silk, sugar, and cotton were imported from the 
 East, also (P. 164 and U. 291) many garden and orchard 
 fruits." 
 
 48. " Law became a science, and another profession be- 
 side (Pr. 201) that of arms (P. 169) was introduced." 
 
 49. " Philip Wakeman seems to us to be the real hero, 
 though some would call Tom Sullivan the hero." (F. 169 
 andE. 293.) 
 
 50. "Asceticism throws away a great power, given to 
 improve us, and abandons it to evil." (C. 128 and Pr. 200.) 
 
 51. "It certainly is a wiser way of treating young men 
 to ask them to observe rational distinctions than to shut 
 them in (Pr. 223) rules (Pu. 270) they have no mind to 
 observe." 
 
 52. " She accepts him, because she has an idea that her 
 father wants (Pr. 200) her to marry somebody (E. 294), 
 and because she likes him well enough." (C. 154.) 
 
 53. " Yolande has been brought up (Pu. 237 and Pr. 200) 
 all her life to believe that her mother died when she was a 
 child." 
 
 54. "Trees, however, are not mere things of beauty; 
 but (B. 175 and 0. 129) possess (Pr. 200) greater value to 
 us for purposes of fuel, furniture, ships (Pu. 241), houses, 
 and (Pu. 241) for their fruits." 
 
 55. " I have read of a tree in Ceylon whose leaves (Pr. 
 ^18) are large enough to cover ten men and keep them dry 
 in the rain." (E. 162.) 
 
 56. "They felt a desire to worthily (Pu. 242) honor, 
 love, and serve the infinitely powerful, wise, and beneficent 
 (Pr. 213) Creator and Preserver of the universe." (F. 162.) 
 
 57. " The stove-pipe hat (Pu. 237) was about one foot 
 
QENEEAL MXEBCISES. 165 
 
 long, and the diameter of the top was about half that dis- 
 tance." (Pr. 300 and P. 162.) 
 
 58. " It happened that the wearer was making faces at 
 an old lady behind her back, and (F. 175 and 167) a rowdy, 
 observing this, struck the young man's hat so hard that it 
 was pushed over his head and had to be cut ofE (Pr. 300) 
 before it (0. 131) could be released." (Pr. 200.) 
 
 59. "During this time he learnt (Pr. 284 and Pr. 200) 
 the languages and literatures of almost every age or (C. 145) 
 nation." 
 
 60. " He was recalled to England by the beginning of 
 the hostility (Pr. 21:i) of the people (P. 162) toward the 
 king." 
 
 61. "He is one of those characters in history who be- 
 lieves (Pu. 244) ' whatever is worth doing is worth doing 
 weU.'" (Pr. 238.) 
 
 62. "Grant will never be open -to the charge (Pu. 370) 
 Wendell Phillips made against (Pu. 368) the eulogies ot 
 Choate." 
 
 63. " He had a peculiar love of adventurous and roman- 
 tic incidencies (Pr. 301 and Pu. 233) and of nature (0. 152) 
 that was wholly his own (Pr. 224), and seemed to be as es- 
 sential to his life as his daily food was." (P. 163.) 
 
 64. "This brings him in (Pu. 268) relationship and 
 sympathy with his countrymen than any other poet en- 
 joys." (P. 169.) 
 
 65. "The difference in temperament, inclination, and 
 adaptability in persons (P. 162) likewise reach (Pu. 248) 
 almost to infinity." 
 
 66. " Above, in the belfry, the old bell (E. 296) svidngs 
 whose unexpected calls have been the subject of so many 
 bitter reproaches, yet whose tones oftentimes (Pro. 284) 
 have been (E. 296 and P. 187) so welcome." 
 
 67. "Above, we find the museum and music-room in one 
 
166 PRACTICAL RHETOBIO. 
 
 end (F. 169); the latter of which (C. 133) is often the 
 scene of much excitement." 
 
 68. " Clinton commanied him that under no considera- 
 tions should he enter the enemy's lines or disguise himself, 
 and last of all, not to take (Pu. 341) any papers that would 
 prove him a spy. (U. 391.) Andre disobeyed them all 
 (0. 131) in his eagerness to accomplish what was desired 
 of him." (F. 164.) 
 
 69. " His fate, though it may seem hard, was just, and 
 (C. 156) ought never to be censured." (Pr. 300.) 
 
 70. " Special work would be_ eagerly taken if only a prize 
 was (Pu. 351) offered to urge them (0. 121) on in their 
 work." 
 
 71. "To the result of (F. 163 and Pr. 318) their prize 
 systems some colleges owe no small portion of their renown 
 and their attractions." (Pr. 301.) 
 
 73. "Instead of gas, which was used formerly (C. 156), 
 they now use hot air, which is cheaper and much easier 
 (Pu. 358) obtained." 
 
 73. " But when international peace and personal rights 
 are endangered, it is both right and Justifiable (F. 198 and 
 Pr. 300) that something should be done to counteract it. 
 (0. 131.) When they (0. 131) overstep their rights and 
 privileges those who are injured can reasonably seek re- 
 dress." 
 
 74. "The ceiling of this (Pr. 233) is arched and (Pr. 
 333) not more than six feet from the floor, which is hard 
 and smooth and seems to have been cemented." (F. 164 
 and 163.) 
 
 75. " Every cause he (Pu. 270) espoused he put his whole 
 life (Pr. 300) into." (F. 163.) 
 
 76. "Although he was (F. 174) wealthy, and associated 
 (F. 167) with the cultured and aristocratic, he was a man 
 of the simplest habits and the least ostentatious." (Pu. 341.) 
 
 77. "0 (Pr. 200) how seldom it is (F. 174) we see a 
 
GENEBAL EXESCTSES. 167 
 
 man that possesses all the qualities (Pu. 270) Mr. Phillips 
 possessed V 
 
 78. '• It will be advantageous to treat the subject under 
 two heads, that differ (E. 303) from each other in character, 
 but are (F. 173) equally true in respect to certain princi- 
 ples." 
 
 79. " This bi:anch of mathematics is not only (0. 125) 
 useful to the merchant, but is equally as useful (F. 162) to 
 the millionaire and laborer." (C. 133.) 
 
 80. " No mechanical work can be inTented (Pr. 200) or 
 performed (F. 162) without its [mathematics] assisting 
 principles." 
 
 81. "I doubt if there has been (F. 162) any science so 
 much esteemed as this of mathematics (F. 176), nor with 
 so much industry become the care of great men and labored 
 in by the powerful of the world." (C. 154, etc.) 
 
 82. "But within three months after his succeeding (C. 
 127 and F. 162) to the throne he issued a proclamation 
 which dispelled (Pr. 223) hope that he would give the peo- 
 ple some share in the government." 
 
 83. "Because of this treatment, he lost confidence in 
 Christianity, and even doubted (Pr. 224) Christianity." 
 (F. 162 and E. 293.) 
 
 84. " The lady principle (Pr. 201) of the school sheds a 
 benign (F. 179) influence on all around, making the school 
 (E. 293) a place of eager (Pr. 200) attraction (Pr. 201) 
 rather than a task." (Pr. 200.) 
 
 85. "Friendly relations only (0. 124) exist, for the 
 weaker party dare not be otherwise." (Pu. 241.) 
 
 86. "With no more room at home (Pr. 223) to expand 
 and develop, they have to (Pr. 200 and Pu. 236) develop 
 elsewhere." 
 
 87. " Now, since we do not need a large army and navy 
 for the same reasons (C. 137) which other nations do (F. 
 162 and 171), we must look for other reasons." 
 
168 PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 88. " We do not need a large navy as a preventative (Pr, 
 233 and Pu. 263) from (Pu. 268) outside forces." 
 
 89. " One of the party had but lately arrived in the 
 place (Pr. 200 and Pu. 236), and was therefore a stranger 
 to its surroundings." 
 
 90. " In the fork of the glen we found our leader (C. 128) 
 buried and covered with dirt, who pointed (U. 288 and P. 
 164 and 167) to a hole in the side of the gorge (U. 291), 
 gave a wonderful description of the marvellous bear's den 
 he had just explored." 
 
 91. " But the only reflections our little party had (F. 169) 
 was (Pu. 344 and P. 191) they wished (Pr. 228) they had 
 brought along a gun." 
 
 92. " To create (Pr. 200) interest and attention, it is 
 only (C. 124) necessary to name the book's (Pu. 266) 
 author,* Charles Dickens." 
 
 93. "The awful French Eevolution closed this year (C. 
 154), and the main (Pr. 216) and most fascinating portion 
 of the story is (C. 156) during the ' Eeign of Terror ' of 
 that revolution." (F. 162.) 
 
 94. "The tyrannical and unjust (Pr. 224) oppression 
 and taxation gave the downtrodden and starved (Pr. 224 
 and F. 162) peasant, cause and excuse (F. 162) for resist- 
 ance." 
 
 95. "We see him in Germany, flute in hand, taking 
 (Pr. 200) a tour of Europe." 
 
 96. "We know from his own account, that the last 
 named work was written with no higher aim than for 
 money." (Pu. 241 and F. 162.) 
 
 97. " The record is one of the saddest and most brilliant 
 of any (F. 162 and 257) in the realm of English literature." 
 
 98. " He writes, before he is eighteen (P. 164), produc- 
 tions that are comparable to (Pu. 268) any of the (Pr. 223) 
 celebrated authors." 
 
 99. "If we enter (E. 309) one of the central entrances. 
 
GENERAL EXERCISES. 169 
 
 and turn and go to the left (F. 1G3) we will (Pr. 305) 
 pass through a large hall." 
 
 100. "Another explanation seems to be merely the com- 
 mon rejectance (Pu. 301) of every new (Pr. 334) or pecu- 
 liar change." 
 
 101. "Time seemed to dwell with light wings during 
 our stay (P. 179), and before we were hardly (Pr. 300 and 
 337) aware of it, the three weeks were past." (Pr. 300.) 
 
 103. "If we had stayed much longer we would have had 
 (Pr. 300) to order more (P. 163 and Pr. 318) clothes, with 
 revised measurements." 
 
 103. "About nine o'clock it was (Pr. 317 and Pu. 369) 
 very dark, and we started back to the American side." 
 
 104. "The cause of (P. 163 and Pr. 318) -the breaking 
 down (C. 137) of many young ladies can really be explained 
 on other grounds." 
 
 105. "But on his death-bed he acknowledged that he 
 had been, night after night (P. 199), up till a very late 
 (Pr. 300) hour in the morning." 
 
 106. "The surroundings are most enhancing (Pr. 301), 
 with the beautiful plain already described in front (P. 164), 
 and with parks to ramble in (P. 163 and 163) on every 
 hand." (P. 164.) 
 
 107. "These springs form a great attractions (Pu. 344) 
 coupled with those art furnishes (P. 169 and Pr. 334) in 
 the artificial streams, fountains, etc. Yet these (C. 131) 
 are but meagre when compared to (Pu. 368) the society of 
 the sanitarium." 
 
 108. " This organization was effected for the purpose, as 
 its name indicates, for the salvation (Pu. 341 and 368, and 
 P. 163) of those who never enter the pale of the church." 
 
 109. " People often join the ranks in (Pu. 368) the 
 same feeling as people (P. 163 and E. 393) rush to a grand 
 parade, or to witness (Pr. 337) a great caravan. No 
 
170 PBACTIOAL RHETORIC. 
 
 thought enters the mind of self denial (0. 128) ; but rather 
 of (C. 156) creating as large (Pr. 300) a show as possible." 
 
 110. "By this means there increases (F. 162) still 
 farther the tendency among the working classes to shirk 
 their various labors (Pr. 200 and 212) to (0. 138) attend 
 the meetings." 
 
 111. " This, surely, is (F. 196 and E. 293) not a proper 
 (P. 170), not to say irreverent, manner of preparation for 
 their work." 
 
 112. "Should you (Pro. 282) board a train on the New 
 York Central, and be swiftly borne to New York (E. 293) 
 City, when (U. 291 and Pu. 241), taking passage in one 
 of the palatial French line steamships, after perhaps an 
 eight days' sail (Pr. 200) you would find yourself in the 
 harbor of Paris." 
 
 113. "While at school, his gi-eat reservoir of imagina- 
 tion (Pr. 200 and Pro. 285) could not be restrained within 
 proper bounds." 
 
 114. "The French populace are in a measure returning 
 (Pr. 200) their debt of gratitude to their nation's bene- 
 factor in their great desire of seeing (Pr. 200) every oppor- 
 tunity to laud the great (E. 293) merits of the greatest of 
 French novelists." 
 
 115. "Thus is (Pro. 282) communication afforded with 
 the small towns which dot the shores of the lake and access 
 (C. 156) gained to its sandy (F. 162) banks, from whence 
 (Pr. 224) great quantities of sand are taken annually." 
 (F. 163 and 169.) 
 
 116. " A dozen steamers ply between the different points 
 of (Pu. 268) the lake, and by another year, which will 
 probably see a new railroad to South Bay (U. 288), regu- 
 lar trips will be made around the lake." (E. 293.) 
 
 117. "About this time, I (F. 199 and 164), in company 
 with a fellow student, might have been seen walking hur- 
 riedly toward the depot." (Pr. 200.) 
 
GENERAL EXERCISES. 171 
 
 118. "The Greek-lettered (Pu. 244) men must have 
 terribly (Pro. 375) confused the clerk, for they were so 
 long (Pr. 218 and 0. 156) that it seemed as if we should 
 not get to our rooms at all that night." 
 
 119. "Nine o'clock the next morning found us partak- 
 ing of (i'. 179) a hearty breakfast, which having been 
 finished (F. 163 and Pr. 200), we were (Pr. 309 and 317) 
 soon at the Masonic Hall." 
 
 130. "How can I do justice to this closing finalef" 
 (Pu. 338 and Pr. 224.) 
 
 131. "The development of the plot and the work 
 throughout show haste, and would be (Pu. 269) suscept- 
 ible (Pr. 200 and 211) of more work." (C. 156.) 
 
 132. "Mr. Dombey is a married man, but household 
 affairs trouble him but little, while (C. 159) everything is 
 perfectly orderly (E. 300) and stiffly genteel in his great 
 house." 
 
 133. " The delicate, old-fashioned Paul, after (F. 164) 
 being nursed carefully through his first six years, and his 
 education begun (Pu. 241), goes to join his mother." 
 
 124. " I can find (Pr. 200) no criticism to offer upon 
 the plot unless it be (C. 156) the undue prominence of the 
 minor characters." 
 
 125. " Time will not permit (Pu. 239 and C. 156) to re- 
 call the striking features of that sermon and those of the 
 lecturer upon these occasions (C. 160) of later date which 
 we were privileged to hear with profound interest." (F. 
 162 and 165.) 
 
 136. "Although it (C. 121) has been so still all day, 
 there is (P. 163) quite a heavy sea running (U. 291); a 
 long swell rolls through the channel." 
 
 127. "As our boat gets out into the lake it (0. 131) 
 rocks us so easily and quietly we (Pr. 339) hardly notice it." 
 
 128. "He grew up in the midst of the (F. 162) wild 
 
172 PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 scenes of nature, from which (C. 122) he receiTed the 
 greater part of his education." 
 
 129. "In his younger days he was associated (Pr. 211) 
 with uncouth and rough associates (E. 293) and was (Pr. 
 217) an outspoken infidel." 
 
 130. "He was a man of great physical endurance, as is 
 shown by (C. 156) enduring (B. 293) the hardships of a 
 frontier preacher for upwards of (Pu. 237) forty years." 
 
 131. "Cartwright had but (F. 175) little taste for 
 aesthetics; any but a plain and outspoken manner were 
 (Pu. 244, C. 156) out of place and sinful." 
 
 132. "In dress, he was very plain, and always rebuked 
 any whom he saw wearing any extra fixtures." (Pr. 200 
 and Pu. 237.) 
 
 133. " He advocated converting the slave and (C. 133) 
 slaveholder, and through this means (P. 162) secure (Pu. 
 241) the freedom of the slave." (E. 293.) 
 
 134. "He seemed to survey the whole ground at a 
 glance, and (C. 137) draw his (P. 162) conclusions, which 
 were (C. 123) usually logical." 
 
 135. "We find two nearly distinct classes; the better 
 (F. 187) class (E. 293), which is a very small per cent 
 (Pr. 201), and the lower class, which constitutes the mass." 
 
 136. "On the Sabbath they are found loitering about 
 places of vice, and there imbibe (Pu. 241 and Pr. 200) the 
 worst elements of our land." 
 
 137. "He wrapped (Pr. 200) at the door of their con- 
 science (Pu. 244), and turned their very abuses (Pr. 213) 
 into sympathy." 
 
 138. " His personal habits were usually (0. 159) strict, 
 always having his regular hours for labor and (C. 137) 
 recreation." 
 
 139. "He was very fond of wines, even to excess (Pr. 
 224) at times." (F. 163 and 0. 156.) 
 
GENERAL EXERCISES. 173 
 
 140. "There the remains of Charles Dickens were buried 
 from sight, and the whole world lamenting (Pu. 241) their 
 (Pr. 200, 0. 121, and Pu. 266) loss." 
 
 141. "The sky was clear, and (F. 175) the stars shone 
 brilliantly, and the moon seemed to rejoice in all her 
 glory." 
 
 142. " There is an inspiration in those grand old hills 
 that fills the whole soul with enthusiasm, and awakens 
 every latent force and power (Pr. 224) in a man." (F. 162 
 and 163.) 
 
 143. " There were (Pu. 250) a door and two windows in 
 the front side. (U. 291.) From one of these three bright 
 little forms (Pr. 200) were seen staring at me." 
 
 144. " He was the only slave in that part (Pu. 337 and 
 Pr. 200) who could read." 
 
 145. " The great object of his life was to liberate his 
 race, and (Pu. 241) that they should be elevated in the 
 sphere (Pr. 200) of humanity and (Pr. 210) enjoy the civil 
 and social rights of other men." (C. 159.) 
 
 146. "After he became a speaker, and was (Pu. 269) 
 both urged on and extolled by some, he became exalted 
 (Pr. 200) and seemed to expect more respect (E. 293) than 
 others in the same calling." 
 
 147. " Finding that New England, his home then (E. 
 296 and C. 160), was (Pu. 269) thoroughly revolutionized 
 in her principles of (Pr. 200) slavery, he went to Eochester, 
 N. Y." 
 
 148. "In that city he founded The Northern Star, 
 which became a popular newspaper, which (E. 293), in its 
 political views, was entirely abolition." (Pr. 223 and Pu. 
 244.) 
 
 149. "Yet she is a person in whose character, as in 
 every one's (Pu. 266 and P. l63), we may find much to 
 study." 
 
 150. " But in the case of this young lady, I can see that 
 
174 PRACTICAL RHETOBIO. 
 
 the great aflflietion of blindness has been a blessing to ihe 
 girl." (Pr. 224 and F. 163.) 
 
 151. " The whole plot is somewhat sensational, but yet 
 (F. 163) there is no essential part of it that is distinctly 
 (Pr. 200) improbable." 
 
 152. " He was much (Pu. 239 and 258) in the German 
 suburb, being attracted by the novelty of the German man- 
 ners." (F. 164 and 167.) 
 
 153. " How often do we see the old saying illustrated 
 (F. 169), ' The race is not to the swift or (C. 145) the bat- 
 tle to the strong.' " 
 
 154. " In describing the palace of Priam, he shows us a 
 stone building with a polished portico off from which 
 opened the fifty chambers for his (C. 121) sons, and on the 
 opposite side were (Pu. 241) the chambers (E. 293) of his 
 daughters." 
 
 155. " Their duties seem to have been not only to assist 
 in the work, but also to accompany their mistress as a 
 companion." (Pu. 244 and F- 169.) 
 
 156. "The princess runs over little Uarda, and becomes 
 unclean by entering the hut of Uarda's (F. 191 and E. 293) 
 grandfather." 
 
 157. "Few would like to confess that this is custom 
 (Pr. 200 and Pu. 244) with them." 
 
 158. " When all one's correspondence is left till Sunday, 
 it is in order that the time during the week might (Pu. 
 269) be used for something else." 
 
 159. "The older members of the party set out for an 
 island which we espied far out in the middle of the lake, 
 at a long distance from the shore." (Pr. 234 and F. 162.) 
 
 160. " Meanwhile we reached the island, launched (Pr. 
 300) our boats, and ascended the steep side of the island 
 (E. 393) to the top of it (F. -163), a few feet above." (F 
 163. ) 
 
 161. "It seems very clear (Pr. 30C) to suppose that 
 
GENERAL EXERCISES. 176 
 
 every man who has the good of society at heart should (Pr. 
 305 and Pu. 269) desire to have punishments connected 
 with all laws." 
 
 162. "There are those who have made this subject a 
 special study (U. 291); they have not changed their views 
 upon this question." (F. 162.) 
 
 163. " That one could easily come to this conclusion, I 
 frankly confess, if they (Pu. 3?3) only (C. 124) look (Pu. 
 269) at the exterior." (F. 164 and 169.) 
 
 164. " There is a divine power beneath rude forms (C. 
 128) that has quickened the moral sensibilities of those 
 who, a short time since (Pr. 200), were almost (Pr. 227) 
 considered beyond restoration." 
 
 165. "Because (Pr. 200) one of its members now and 
 then renounces (Pr. 200) his profession is no argument 
 against the army." 
 
 166. " Fancy a wooden building somewhat more than a 
 hundred feet in height, perpendicular on one side, and on 
 the opposite side (E. 305) the roof sloping nearly to the 
 ground, and you have the idea." (Pr. 200.) 
 
 167. " So we get on (Pu. 236 and F. 162) the carriage 
 again, and return to the surface once more." (Pr. 224.) 
 
 168. " To a person (Pr. 219) who has passed a succession 
 of dangerous rapids, it would doubtless be a peculiar pleas- 
 ure to recline at ease (F. 162) on the sunny banks of a 
 surging stream." (Pr. 213 and F. 179.) 
 
 169. "In early times, schools were supported in great 
 measure by private individuals; now the taxes of all support 
 them (Pu. 241); they were then (E. 305) attended by the 
 wealthier classes (C. 156); at the present day (F. 162) 
 their advantages are supposed to be enjoyed by all." 
 
 170. "In courts of law, even, one is not compelled to 
 swear by the Bible, if he has conscientious scruples against 
 so doing (F. 164); he (U. 291) may simply aflBrm." 
 
 171. " By all means, let morality be taught in our 
 
176 PBAGIICAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 schools, not alone by precept but also by that more forcible 
 method, by (Pu. 268 and B. 393) daily example." 
 
 173. "Whether, indeed, there ever was (Pu. 244) such 
 golden plates, or whether it is all a fabrication, these (P. 
 163) are questions which it is not our province to discuss." 
 
 173. "Pirst, an educational test is necessary to show 
 that the voter is competent to have an understanding (F. 
 163) of the question on which he is to vote ; second, (Pr. 
 333) as a means of educating the people." 
 
 173. "The birds are flitting about, securing their food 
 as nature's sweet and precious teacher (P. 163 and Pr. 213) 
 has taught them." 
 
 174. " Well down on the eastern boundary of Vermont 
 
 is the town of P • (U. 291). A very pleasant village 
 
 marks its (C. 121) central point, which (C. 122 and 128) 
 contains an excellent preparatory school." 
 
 175. "I bid, (Pu. 269 C. 156) good afternoon and passed 
 from there (F. 162) into the post-office, where I opened 
 my charge (Pr. 200 and Pro. 275) on the postmaster, hand- 
 ling my book with great dexterity." 
 
 176. " Our destination was a long distance north of the' 
 fore-named (Pu. 333) place." 
 
 177. " In an extinct specie (Pr. 301) of reptile there was 
 an elongation of the fifth finger, and a membrane is (Pu. 
 369) spread over the whole hand." 
 
 178. " Most (Pr. 301 and Pu. 336) all civilized nations 
 look upon some one of their past rulers as a great hero, — 
 England to (Pu. 241) her Alfred, France to her Napoleon, 
 and Russia to her Peter." 
 
 179. "Charles was very liberal, and, as with his other 
 good qualities, carried them (0. 131 and Pii. 344) to ex- 
 cess." 
 
 180. " She had a great love for dress, and by her con- 
 stant care bestowed upon it (P. 163) she contrived (Pr. 
 200) not to be eclipsed by her associates." 
 
OENERAL EXEBCISEa. 177 
 
 181. " This question has been agitated (Pr. 200 and F. 
 162) in the minds of all who seek to promote the dignity 
 of American labor." 
 
 182. " The Chinese sign the papers with the most (Pr. 
 201) sincerity and respect for their promise." (Pu. 344.) 
 
 183. "In regard to ethics, the Chinese have a systetoi 
 which does (Pr. 218 and Pu. 269) credit to any Christian 
 government." (Pr. 200.) 
 
 184. "They have a broad sense of moral ethics, (Pr. 
 224) also (U. 288) the prison statistics show that the num- 
 ber of Chinese in prison is comparatively very small." 
 
 185. "As a final conclusion (Pr. 224) I would say that 
 I think (F. 197) the (Pr. 228) prohibition of Chinese im- 
 migration was unnecessary to (C. 138) promote the welfare 
 of California." 
 
 186. "Just beyond the hotel a narrow road wends its 
 way (F. 179 and Pr. 200) up the rugged hillside." 
 
 187. " Near the end of tne road is a quarry from which 
 the people from the surrounding parts (Pr. 200 and Pu. 
 237) obtain building-stone." 
 
 188. " After ascending the hillside one would feel (F. 
 162 and Pu. 269) inclined to rest and (C. 137) look into 
 the depths from whence (Pr. 224) he came." 
 
 189. "His latest novel, 'A Young GirFs Wooing,' is 
 one of his best. His (Pr. 200) story begins (Pr. 200) in 
 New York." 
 
 190. " She, (F. 199 and 164) timid shadow that she is, 
 be:^ns to go with him in (Pu. 268) society, where she, (F. 
 199) one night seeing a society belle receiving very agree- 
 tibly the attentions of Muir, nearly faints." 
 
 191. " Two years after (C. 159) she returns to New York. 
 (U. 291) Muir also returns from Europe. He finds Miss 
 Wildmere still disengaged (Pr. 200 and Pu. 262) and de- 
 termines to press his suit." 
 
 192. "The reader can (F. 164 and 199) before getting 
 12 
 
178 PBAOTICAL BHETOEia. 
 
 far along (Pu. 236) in the story, guess even to particulars 
 of (F. 163) the way the tale will end." 
 
 193. " He introduces us into the highest society, and his 
 principal characters are (TJ. 388) cultivated, wealthy, and 
 handsome, and the reader almost forgets that he (C. 131) 
 is in a world where there is trouble and suffering." 
 
 194. "He shook the very foundation of the State, and 
 rooted out (Pro. 385) the evil that was sapping out (F. 163 
 and E. 393) the life-blood of the nation." 
 
 195. " The contraBting (Pr. 301) characters of the two 
 monarchs is (Pu. 344) well illustrated by one incident." 
 
 196. "Travels (Pr. 313) in the refined and cultured 
 Orient gave to the "Western people a knowledge of life in 
 other lands and widened to them its possibilities." 
 
 197. " A fine view can be seen (Pr. 300) from this point." 
 
 198. " The creek having been damned (Pr. 200) has ex- 
 panded, forming a small lake." 
 
 199. " The lower lands of this little scene are buried in 
 dark gloom." (Pr. 334.) 
 
 200. "While the character of theatres was "at a high 
 state (P. 163) there was no question of (Pu. 368) their 
 moral influence." 
 
 201. " Certainly the average theatre of to-day lacks a 
 great deal (P. 163 and E. 394) of attaining this ideal char- 
 acter." 
 
 203. " This could not be true if theatres have (Pu. 269) 
 the intellectual and moral culture that their high aim re- 
 quires. A sure sign Of the decrease (Pr. 200) in their 
 moral character is the low condition (Pr. 200) of morals 
 among the actors themselves." 
 
 203. " To mention (Pr. 233) that a person is connected 
 with the stage is to immediately (Pu. 343) raise doubts in 
 regard to their (Pu. 373) chastity and their general moral 
 worth." 
 
GENERAL EXERCISES. 179 
 
 20*. " There is (F. 162) no small amount of knowledge 
 required to so (Pu. 242) construct the stables that they 
 will (Pr. 205) be both healthful and convenient." 
 
 205. "In Washington, tho executive, legislative, (Pr. 
 223) foreign legations, etc., regulate the society of the 
 place." (P. 162 and Pu. 236.) 
 
 206. " It is necessary that our State capitol be positively 
 one side (Pr. 200) from our great cities." 
 
 207. " To those fitting themselves for certain (0. 147) 
 work (C. 156), as teaching or the ministry (Pu, 241), a 
 classical education is of great value; but to many, the only 
 possible argument that can be advanced (P. 162) is the 
 mental discipline that it affords." 
 
 208. " He is especially happy in the use of metaphors, 
 and (F. 168 and U. 291) the Scotch dialect adds much to 
 the force of his language." 
 
 209. "Owen affirmed that he would gladly have ex- 
 changed his learning for Bunyan's pulpit talents. The 
 height of his (C. 121) was not attained (U. 291) until 
 after his imprisonment." 
 
 210. "Bunyan's principal works were (Pu. 256) 'Pil- 
 grim's Progress,' and ' The Holy War,' which books (E. 
 296) were written in prison." 
 
 211. " The ideas of God and (C. 137) man in his rela- 
 tion to his fellow-men among heathen nations (P. 164) are 
 very rude." 
 
 212. "There are few, if any fashionable resorts where 
 the scenery is grander than it is here. (P. 169.) Por two 
 miles along the creek these falls, six in number, are scat- 
 tered." (P. 169.) 
 
 213. "The height of all the falls (Pr. 218 and C. 160) is 
 three hundred and twelve feet." 
 
 214. " There is (P. 162) no other (Pr. 218) problem of 
 tho day that demands more public attention than the 
 temperance question." 
 
180 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 .215. " Therefore, (E. 396) as the question is one of pub- 
 lic importance; inasmuch as it (C. 131) is essentially 
 wrong, and, therefore (Pr. 300 and C. 156), public senti- 
 ment should be aroused concerning the question, the legis- 
 ture should pass a prohibitory amendment." 
 
 216. "The lightning leaps and plays about as is (Pr. 
 300 and C. 156) seldom seen, and then fall (Pro. 282 and 
 Pi-. 317) large drops of rain followed by a heavy shower." 
 
 217. "At a distance of (F. 162) about twenty feet from 
 the top there is a table about (E. 293) three feet wide by 
 six long." 
 
 218. " There is a very offensire odor said to arise from 
 it in sultry weather." (P. 162.) 
 
 219. "His diction is so plain that Webster need not be 
 consulted in (Pu. 368) every sentence." (Pr. 318.) 
 
 330. "Again, when he was postmaster, not wishing to 
 have.(Pr. 300) an office for so little pay, (C. 156) made an 
 office (E. 393) of his hat." . 
 
 321. " Let us therefore consider first the influence that 
 it has (F. 163) upon the body." 
 
 323. " The many vulgar names under which tobacco is 
 sold are disgusting." (Pr. 334.) 
 
 223. " Not only (C. 125) the time given is not (F. 196) 
 sufficient, but there are other objectionable features of the 
 plan." 
 
 224. "The larger building is of cobble-stone, and im- 
 itates (Pr. 300 and 311) a castle of the fourteenth century." 
 
 335. "In the kitchen are large ovens holding (Pr. 318) 
 one hundred and twenty-five loaves of bread." 
 
 336. "By these misrepresentations, friendships have 
 been destroyed and lawsuits undertaken." (Pr. 200.) 
 
 337. " In the daily papers is printed matter which a 
 child hesitates (Pr. 218 and Pu. 269) to read." 
 
 338. " The third largest city in the world. New York, 
 is situated in the southeastern portion of New York State. ' 
 (B. 293.) 
 
GENERAL EXERCISES. 181 
 
 S29. "But two railroads enter the city itself." (Pr. SOO.) 
 230. " In the city are several parks, of which the finest 
 is Central. (Pr. 333.) At present its (C. 121) most at- 
 tractive object is the obelisk.'' (E. 309.) 
 
 331. " Many suppose the obelisk to be merely an imita- 
 tion, and ridicule the credulity of the United States." (Pr. 
 300.) 
 
 332. " It may be almost (Pr. 227) said that there was 
 no campaign. Few speeches were made and little canvass- 
 ing." (Pr. 333.) 
 
 233. " I have read that the Homeric Greek can be fa- 
 vorably {¥. 162 and Pr. 334) regarded as high-spirited. 
 Homer portrays him as patient, just, and not cruel." (Pu. 
 341.) 
 
 234. "Let me also (Pr. 327) recall the twenty years' 
 mourning of the faithful Penelope (C. 156) that respect 
 was shown to suppliants, and that all were bound by the 
 laws of hospitality." 
 
 235. " itfowhere in his works does Homer give evidence 
 that there was any dissolution of these vows allowable." 
 (P. 163, E. 296.) 
 
 336. " The North saw the hopes of a speedy reconcilia- 
 tion between (Pu. 368) the South grow less probable (F. 
 162 and Pr. 200) every day." 
 
 337. " The grand council fire of this nation was (with 
 the exception of a short time) (U. 389) held continuously 
 by (Pu. 368) the Onondagas." 
 
 238. "He was undoubtedly wrongly (E. 300) charged 
 with treason, that being only a reason (Pr. 200 and B. 293) 
 of James to rid himself of a man whom he feared." 
 
 239. "Plays, for the most part, abound in obscenities 
 and profanities." (Pu. 233 and Pr. 212.) 
 
 240. "'The last speaker,' said Mr. K, 'has introduced 
 an entirely new question, and (0. 156) in no way analogous 
 (Pr. 200) to the question.'" (F. 169 and 163 and E. 293.) 
 
183 TBAGTICAL RHETOBIO. 
 
 241. " He furnished him with (Pr. 300 and F. 163) his 
 street and number, and asked him to call that evening." 
 
 243. "But in every profession of life (F. 163) the same 
 is true. Then why attack the actors and not the other 
 professions (Pu. 241) of life?" (F. 162.) 
 
 343. " It cannot be denied that there are as honest and 
 as pure actors and actresses upon the stage as there (F. 
 162) are to be found in any other profession." (Pr. 300 
 and 218.) 
 
 244. "He had a passion for military glory which (C. 123 
 and 129) his strength, valor, and talents well fitted him to 
 win." (Pr. 300.) 
 
 245. " No one can deny but (F. 162) that Scott hasshown 
 as much talent in treating of English scenes as formerly 
 of Scottish." (B. 396 and 307.) 
 
 346. "If, however, Monday was (Pu. 351) a holiday, 
 these students would have time to return and be (Pr. 317) 
 rested before Tuesday." 
 
 247. " Any person (Pr. 219) who has travelled to any 
 (B. 293) extent over the Erie Kailroad must have seen 
 something of the village of A ." 
 
 248. "The village has also two banks which (C. 123) 
 are considered perfectly reliable." (F. 162.) 
 
 249. "He worked hour after hour on examples (Pr. 300) 
 which his more gifted classmate could work (Pr. 300 and 
 0. 157) in a short time." 
 
 250. "He was a genius, but he lacked perseveran-ce 
 (Pr. 233), without which no true success can be gained in 
 life." (F. 163.) 
 
 251. "It was the hour when the blind, (C. 133) lame, 
 and beggars (Pu. 241) of the street came to the monastery 
 for their daily allowance of bread which was given them 
 by the monks." (P. 162 and Pr. 224.) 
 
 353. "The family at home struggled with poverty 
 and want, but still found room in their hearts for little 
 
GENERAL EXEBCISE8. 183 
 
 orphan Eva, a distant relative of the family." (Pr. 334, 
 F. 16-2 and E. 393.) 
 
 253. "Varney and Lueretia devise a way to obtain 
 money, and Varney heavily forged." (E. 396 and Pu. 369.) 
 
 354. "Her modesty, her delicacy, and (C. 156) intuitive 
 sense of prosperity (Pr. 300) will never desert her." 
 
 355. "Just as a tree often becomes gnarled and crooked 
 unless care is taken of it, (E. 396) so our language, unless 
 carefully used, becomes tainted by (Pu. 368) slang words." 
 
 356. "Other conflicting industrial pursuits (P. 163 and 
 179) might be noticed, but they are all of minor im- 
 portance." 
 
 357. "Oftentimes (Pro. 384) unjust motives prevail 
 and tear down (Pro. 386) the monuments of equality, erect- 
 ing in their stead walls of caste." 
 
 358. "He was charitable, sympathetic, and patient, 
 which (C. 142) are (P. 173) the qualities which (C. 123) 
 make the world better." 
 
 259. "Jfone but those who have left the country to take 
 up their quarters (Pro. 375) in the busy mart (Pr. 200 and 
 P. 179) of city life can realize the happiness there is (P. 
 162) in the life of a rustic." 
 
 260. " He went to Utah, and in (P. 163) a year after 
 (Pr. 200) he informed Congress that the Mormon difficul- 
 ties were over." 
 
 261. "This America,/! colonist (Pr. 300) has grown into 
 a nation whose history will be the standard classic (P. 163 
 and Pr. 318) history of the future." 
 
 362. " The independent convictions of man's will power 
 (P. 162 and Pr. 234) are of paramount importance to a 
 constitutional government." 
 
 363. "To write (Pr. 200) the character of a man requires 
 the utmost caution, especially when we only (0. 134) have 
 (Pr. 300) so much of his character (E. 293) as the times, 
 surroundings, and climate would indicate." 
 
184 PRACTICAL RHETOIilC. 
 
 264. " The summer (Pr. 323) 1296 closed the war which 
 (C. 123) had desolated Scotland." 
 
 265. "All nations have gradually developed from a 
 state of barbarism to their present condition of enlighten- 
 ment; a state that is the growth of centuries." (Pr. 224 
 and P. 162.) 
 
 266. " As far back as authentic history will substantiate 
 our query, (P. 163 and Pr. 200) the tendency was (Pu. 252) 
 for man to enslave his fellows." 
 
 267. ".Has (Pu. 244) not he and his family, the dearest 
 tie (Pr. 200) to earthly (Pr. 224) mortals, been separated 
 and sold at the stake?" (Pro. 286.) 
 
 268. "It is then necessary (E. 296) that every one 
 should lay aside their (Pu. 273) cares, and step out for a 
 while from the struggle of life." 
 
 269. " Washington and Franklin both did (Pr. 200) ac- 
 tions that have (Pu. 269) a permanent efEect upon the hu- 
 man race." 
 
 270. " Washington has been called the American Fabius, 
 because his policy was that of great cautiousness (Pu. 233) 
 and never coming (C. 137) to a battle unless he had fair 
 prospects of success." 
 
 271. " Without Franklin's aid, America could not have 
 gained (Pr. 200) France to acknowledge America's (Pr. 
 324) independence." 
 
 273. " The best method of strengthening any organ or 
 function is to exercise them (Pu. 273) regularly." 
 
 273. " Her chief fault is a rather (Pr. 300 and Pu. 237) 
 hasty temper." 
 
 274. "There is a similarity in her works, and although 
 we cannot help noticing it (0. 131 and E. 293), still it is 
 not unpleasant." 
 
 275. " I admit that other governments have flourished 
 for many years (C. 129 and F. 164 and 169) whose people 
 liat>5 been, for the greater part, illiterate." 
 
GENERAL EXERCISES. 185 
 
 276. "All these problems were worked out by an in- 
 flexible purpose of will." (F. 163 and Pr. 324.) 
 
 277. "To Cicero must be accorded the greater versa- 
 tility of talents (Pr. 213 and F. 163) since his fame rests 
 not alone on his eloquence." 
 
 278. " Principles and even persons were sacrificed to 
 personal (E. 293) ambitions." (Pr. 212.) 
 
 279. "Truly is (F. 199 and Pro. 283) the story of Paul 
 and Virginia eloquently and pathetically told." (E. 300.) 
 
 280. "After years of doctoring (Pu. 236) she somewhat 
 (Pr. 200) recovered the use of her hands." 
 
 381. "He shows great ability as a statesman (TJ. 291). 
 His chief desire is for the welfare of Prussia and to see 
 (Pu. 241) her the first nation in Europe." 
 
 283. "The highest success crowned her efforts (P. 169 
 and U. 290), and also great glory." 
 
 383. "Her errors were those of judgment rather than 
 (Pu. 241 and E. 305) the result ef viciousness." 
 
 384. "He won the favor at once (Pr. 337 and E. 393) 
 of the virgin queen by his pleasantry." (F. 164.) 
 
 385. " He is well aware that he could not endure the 
 labor which (C. 123) would earn (Pr. 200) a living that 
 would (F. 163) serve a man of his social standing." 
 
 286. "The great interior region of Africa is the only 
 (C. 156) part of the earth (Pr. 218) which, by its size and 
 resources, offers any inducement to the civilized adventurer 
 or pioneer." 
 
 287. " Along its summit are a few mammoth trees whose 
 neighbors have met their fate at the hands of the woods- 
 man, and whose (C. 133 and Pr. 218) stumps are still 
 standing." 
 
 388. " On the same day (0. 156 and Pu. 370) they were 
 accused, they were arragned (Pr. 301), condemned, and 
 sentenced." 
 
 389. "A steamboat, run (Pu. 236) in connection with 
 the trains, starts each day for Glen Haven." 
 
186 TBAGTIGAL REETOBIC. 
 
 390. " It requires no prophet's eye to foresee the con- 
 sternation (Pr. 200 and B. 293 and 300) and peril that 
 will threaten this nation." 
 
 291. " It belongs in the list of historical novels, than 
 which there (P. 162) can nothing usually be found (E. 
 296 and P. 169) more tedious." 
 
 293. "Two men, sometimes great friends, go into a low 
 saloon and commence (Pr. 200) to play cards or (Pr. 223) 
 some other way of gambling." 
 
 293. "A great many crimes have been committed by 
 persons (Pr. 232) having read (C. 127) accounts of crimi- 
 nals in this paper. It is said that Jesse James was a 
 regular reader of this paper." (E. 293 and F. 169.) 
 
 294. " 'Sevenoaks' was (Pu. 256 and 269) the name of a 
 small town. Mr. Holland does not state definitely the lo- 
 cation of this town." (U. 291 and P. 162 and 169.) 
 
 295. " She bids him take his bond, but (C. 156 and Pu. 
 241) that if, in the cutting of it, he shed one drop of blood, 
 his lands and goods should (Pu. 269) be confiscated." 
 
 296. " They require an examination on the work gone 
 (Pr. 200) over during the term before passing the student 
 up (Pro. 275) on the same." 
 
 397. " If we look about us to see for what the chief end 
 of men's labor is (P. 163 and 163), we find (Pr. 228) it is 
 wealth." 
 
 298. " But if, by chance, this same picture was (Pu. 251) 
 marred by a daub of paint which had been (P. 162) brushed 
 on the most perfect part, the beauty would be destroyed." 
 
 299. " The New York Central Eailroad and (C. 133) 
 Erie Canal run through the town, side by side, and divide 
 it nearly equal in extent." (Pr. 200.) 
 
 300. " The Dutch element is strongly marked both by 
 (Pu. 2G8) the character of the people and (C. 137) their 
 names." 
 
BHETORICAL IMAGERY. 
 
 187 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 RHETORICAL IMAGERY. 
 
 Under this head may be classed all those forms by which 
 clearness, force, or beauty is given to the expression of an 
 idea through its relation to some other idea. 
 
 Of the multitude of figures noted by the ancient rheto- 
 ricianSj modern aiithorities generally recognize but fifteen, 
 namely: Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Allegory, Sy- 
 necdoche, Metonymy, Antithesis, Epigram, Hyperbole, Cli- 
 max, Apostrophe, Vision, Interrogation, Exclamation, 
 and Irony. To these should be added that which Karnes 
 has named the " Transferred Epithet." 
 
 The old rhetoricians classified these principal figures under 
 three heads : Resemblance, Contiguity, and Contrast; and 
 recent attempts to improve upon this classification have 
 been few and futile. In the following table we have merely 
 amplified this classification: — 
 
 Based on f Simile=Resemblance fully stated, 
 the idea of _ Metaphor^Resemblance implied. 
 Resem- ' Personification =Resemb!ance assumed, 
 blance. [_ Allegory=ResembIauce carried out in detail. 
 
 a, 1 , „ ( Of a whole with its parts. 
 
 Z?rl3^ \ Of parts with the whole. 
 Association ^ q^ definite with indefinite number. 
 
 ' Of cause with effect. 
 Of sign with thing signified. 
 Of place with inhabitant. 
 Of container with thing contained. 
 Of instrument with agent. 
 Of subject with attribute. 
 Of an author with his works. 
 Of progenitor with posterity. 
 [ Of material with thing made. 
 Exclamation=Association of strong emotion with Terba,"! 
 
 foi'ms 
 Hyperbole = Association of fact with co-existent emotion. 
 Apostrophe = Association of the absent with the present. 
 .Visions Association of past or future with present. 
 
 Based on 
 Contigu- 
 ity, or the 
 Law of As- 
 sociation. 
 
 Metonymy =: ^ 
 Association 
 
188 PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 Based on 
 
 tlie idea of- 
 
 Uontrast. 
 
 f Antithesis = Direct expressed contrast. 
 
 Climax = Contrast tiirough intermediates. 
 
 Epigram=Contrast often implied between real and ap- 
 parent meaning. 
 
 Interrogation = Implied contrast of affirmation and negar 
 tiou. 
 
 Irony=Implied contrast between truth and the contrary 
 assumption. 
 
 The "transferred epithet" may be classed under the 
 second head, as based on the association between the attri-' 
 bates of related sabjects. 
 
 We shall take up the figures above named in order, giving, 
 successively, definitions, rhetorical values, and illustrations 
 of each. 
 
 SECTION I. DEFINITIONS, VALUES, AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 I. SIMILE. 
 
 Definitions. — " A Simile is a sentence expressing a simi- 
 larity of relations. It is consequently a kind of rhetorical 
 proportion, and must, when fully expressed, contain four 
 terms ; e.g., the simile, 'As the plough turns up the land, 
 so the ship acts on the sea,' may be stated thus : ' The 
 plough is to the land as the ship is to the sea;' i.e., 
 A :B : :C :D." — Adapted from. Abboii and Seeley. 
 
 " A figure of speech in which a likeness is pointed out or 
 asserted between things in other respects unlike." — Kellogg. 
 
 "A resemblance is not a figure of speech unless the 
 things compared be different in kind." — Bain. 
 
 "A simile is the statement of the resemblance of one 
 object, act, or relation to another. ... It may be founded 
 on (1) direct resemblance ; {%) resemblance of causes; (3) 
 resemblance of effects; (4) resemblance of ratios." — D. J. 
 Hill. 
 
 Ehetorical Values. — 1. To aid the imder standing. For 
 
 example, in order to describe an object that has not been 
 
 seen, or cannot be seen, we make use of the description of 
 
 one that has been seen. Take the following : 
 
 (a) " Aluminum is a metal with a lustre like that of silver and 
 platinum." 
 
RHETORICAL IMAGERY. 189 
 
 (b) "The illusion that great men and great events came of tenor 
 in early times than now, is partly due to historical perspective 
 As, in a range of equidistant columns the farthest off look the 
 closest, so the conspicuous objects of the past seem more thickly 
 clustered, the more remote they are." 
 
 2. To impress the feelings. This is frequently brought 
 about by means of the surprise created in the mind of the 
 reader. " Whatever," says Karnes,* "is found more strange 
 or beautiful than was expected, is judged to be more 
 strange or beautiful than it is in reality." For example, 
 Ossian says, " The music of Caryl was like joys that are 
 past: pleasant and mournful to the soul." All witty similes 
 will be found to rest upon this idea of surprise. As another 
 illustration of a simile serving only to impress the feelings, 
 take the picture of the spinster aunt in Mrs. Browning's 
 "Aurora Leigh:" 
 
 ' ' Cheeks in which was yet a rose 
 Of perished summers like a rose in a book, 
 Kept more for ruth than pleasure — if past bloom. 
 Past fading also." 
 
 II. METAPHOK. 
 
 Definitions. — " A Metaphor differs from a simile in form 
 only, not in substance." — Karnes. 
 
 "A word substituted for anothet on account of the re- 
 semblance or analogy between their significations." — 
 Whately. 
 
 "A word used to imply a resemblance." — D. J. Hill 
 
 " The transference of the relation between one set of ob- 
 jects to another for the purpose of brief explanation." — 
 Abbott and Seeley. 
 
 " Metaphor indicates the resemblance of two objects by 
 appljdng the name, attribute, or act of one directly to the 
 other." — Qiiackenbos. 
 
 "A Metaphor is a figure of speech in which, assuming 
 the likeness between two things, we apply to one of them 
 the term which denotes the other." — Kellogg. 
 
 * " Elements of Criticism," p. 146. 
 
190 PBACTIGAL BEETOBIC. 
 
 Rhetorical Values. — 1. To aid the memory. Metaphor 
 multiplies meanings without multiplying words. If a dis- 
 tinct term were necessary to name every object, idea, and 
 relation, the number of words in any language would be so 
 great as to render the acquirement and retention of a fair 
 vocabulary most burdensome, if not impossible. By the 
 device of metaphor, however, one word has often many 
 significations,* each suggesting the other, yet each suffi- 
 ciently distinct. Take, for illustration, the adjective 
 "hard." Its simplest and earliest-learned use is to express 
 the degree of impenetrability of any material object. But 
 by making use of the idea of resemblance that underlies 
 metaphor, we say "& hard heart," " a hard task," "a hard 
 fate," "hard sense," etc.j etc. So general is this expan- 
 sion of the original idea, that the number of figurative sig- 
 nifications in any language doubtless far exceeds that of 
 the literal. After long-continued use of any figurative 
 meaning the word ceases to be regarded as a formal figure, 
 and is called a "faded metaphor." So numerous are these, 
 that Eichter has well called language " a dictionary of faded 
 metaphors." 
 
 2. To aid the understanding. "All that concerns the 
 relations of invisible things," says Abbott,* "consists of 
 implied metaphors; for we most naturally describe the re- 
 lations of those things which are not visible, tangible, etc., 
 by means of the relations of those things which are visible, 
 tangible, etc." This use of metaphor is especially helpful 
 and common in treating of the hidden operations of the 
 mind. Thus we speak of "a sally of humor," a flash of 
 wit," "a stroke of policy," "a ray of hope," etc.; while 
 such metaphysical terms as "perception," "comprehen- 
 sion," "reflection," etc., etc., are all faded metaphors. 
 To find the literal meaning of such words, we must, of- 
 course, trace them back to their roots in the language from 
 
 * " English Lessons for English People," p. 130. 
 
BHETORICAL IMAQEBT. 191 
 
 which they are derived — a most profitable and interesting 
 exercise. 
 
 3. To impress the feelings. " Of all the figures of 
 speech," says Blair,* "none approaches so near to painting 
 as metaphor. It gives light and strength to description, 
 and makes intellectual ideas in some degree visible, by giv- 
 ing them color, substance, and sensible qualities." This 
 use of metaphors constitutes one of the chief elements of 
 poetry; e.g.: 
 
 "The lawn 
 Which, after sweeping broadly round the house, 
 Went trickling through the shrubberies in a stream 
 Of tender turf." 
 
 4. To excite surprise or curiosity. This is, in some 
 cases, but a corollary to the last value mentioned. The 
 feeling of surprise is generally the first of the successive 
 sensations aroused by a striking metaphor. Moreover, the 
 idea of resemblance in a metaphor being only suggested, 
 not stated, the effect upon the reader is like that of a 
 conundrum. As Whatelysays,! "All men are more grati- 
 fied at catching the resemblance for themselves than in 
 having it pointed out to them." The following metaphors, 
 respectively, excite surprise and curiosity: 
 
 (a) "I have not stood long on the strand of life. 
 
 And these salt waters have had scarcely time 
 To creep so high up as to wet my feet." 
 
 (6) "Adversity is the grindstone of life." 
 
 5. To secure brevity and smoothness. This value is 
 especially apparent in comparison with simile. To say, 
 for example, that a man is "as sly as a fox" is not so brief 
 as to say that he is "a fox." In a rhetorical period, more- 
 over, a simile must have, from its nature, the same inter- 
 rupting effect as that of any other qualifying or parentheti- 
 cal clause; a metaphor, however, has no more of this effect 
 
 * "Lectures," p. 115. 
 
 t "Elements of Rhetoric," p. 191. 
 
192 PRACTICAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 than belongs to any other single word used in a literal 
 sense, and in direct construction. Of the greater brevity 
 of metaphor there is no better illustration than Spencer's 
 oft-quoted comparison:* "As, in passing through a prism, 
 the cryeial beams of white light are decomposed into the 
 colors of the rainbow; so, in traversing the many-sided, 
 transparent soul of the poet, the colorless rays of truth are 
 transformed into brightly tinted poetry." It is clear that in 
 receiving the double set of words expressing the two halves 
 of the comparison, and in carrying the one half to the 
 other, considerable attention is absorbed. Most of this is 
 saved, however, by putting the comparison in a metaphor- 
 ical form, thus: "The white light of truth, in traversing 
 the many-sided, transparent soul of the poet, is refracted 
 into iris-hued poetry." As to smoothness, compare, 
 "Sorrow, like a cloud on the sun, darkened his face," 
 with "A cloud of sorrow darkened his face." 
 
 Note.— Let the pupil point out the faded metaphors occurring in 
 any page or chapter of some volume common to the class. Let him 
 also trace back to their literal meanings such words as the following 
 (the list can easily be enlarged by reference to such works as those 
 of Trench): — 
 
 Melancholy, obvious, perception, insuperable, edify, apprehen- 
 sion, impediment, acuteness, comprehension, plague, ardor, adap- 
 tation, express, affliction, reflection, cordial, enhance, conception, 
 ruminate, detect, inculcate, recollection, salient, inspiration, 
 dainty, imagination, robust, sagacity, exaggerated, penetration, 
 umbrella, emotion, extravagant, dilapidated, intuition, digres- 
 sion, ponder, support, besiege, rival, exile, comfort, correct, as- 
 tonished, erriUi?, farthing, necessity, etc., etc. 
 
 III. PEKSONIFICATION. 
 
 Definitions. — " Personification consists in attributing 
 personality, or some of the attributes of personality, to an 
 inanimate object because of a fancied resemblance to a liv- 
 ing being."— 1>. /. Hill. 
 
 " A figure of speech in which things are raised to a plane 
 of being above their own." — Kellogg. 
 
 * "Philosophy of Style," p. 26. 
 
BHETORIGAL IMAGBBT. 193 
 
 " Personification consists in attributing life and mind to 
 inanimate things." — Bain. 
 
 " The bestowing of sensibility and voluntary motion on 
 things inanimate." — Barnes. 
 
 "It is the essence of a metaphor that it should be liter- 
 ally false. ... It is the essence of a personification that, 
 though founded on imagination, it is conceived to be liter- 
 ally iTXiQ."—Abholt. 
 
 "The highest degree of energy is produced by such 
 metaphors as attribute life and action to things inanimate." 
 — Whately. 
 
 From these definitions it will be seen that, while all per- 
 sonifications may be construed as metaphors, not all meta- 
 phors are personifications. Blair first, and since him near- 
 ly all rhetoricians, have called attention to three grades of 
 personification. These, in the order of their force and 
 prevalence, are : (1) where mere animals are raised to the 
 rank of man ; (2) where inanimate things are raised to the 
 rank of mere animals ; (3) where inanimate things are 
 raised to the rank of man. The relation underlying simile 
 and metaphor is that of similarity between visible and in- 
 visible objects ; that underlying personification is the rela- 
 tion of similarity between cnuse and ejfecf. Take, for ex- 
 ample, the proposition, " Grim-visaged war has smoothed 
 his wrinkled front." Here the effect of war in making its 
 participants grim-visaged is transferred to war itself. Sim- 
 ilarly, we speak of "wrinkled care," "gaunt famine," etc. 
 
 Rhetorical Values. — 1. To give to inanimate objects the 
 uJerest that attaches to persons. The strongest interest 
 naturally attaches to beings possessed of feelings and aspi- 
 rations similar to our own. For this reason, the most pop- 
 ular forms of composition, as shown by public-library sta- 
 tistics, are those of romance, history, biography, and travel ; 
 tnat is, those that deal especially with persons. " From 
 tne earliest times," says Bain,* " this interest has been ex- 
 
 * "English Composition and Rhetoric," p. 36. 
 13 
 
194 PBACTICAL BEETOBW. 
 
 tended, by ascribing human feelings to the objects of the 
 outer world on some pretext of remote resemblance. Thus, 
 the powers of nature, as the winds and running streams, 
 have been assimilated to living beings, and fancifully en- 
 dowed with will, purpose, and feeling, so as to be recom- 
 mended to our human sympathies. The highest merits of 
 style are expressed by the words animation, vivacity, live- 
 liness, as if the conferring of life were the means of awaken- 
 ing our strongest interest." By putting the following pas- 
 sage into strictly literal language, the degree of this value 
 will readily be seen : 
 
 " Just when Nature discloses to our perceptions any of 
 her grandest pictures. She shuts our lips. Whenever she 
 stirs our sense of the sublime, she sternly tells us, ' My 
 children, be dumb.'" 
 
 2. To increase the vocabulary of material objects. The 
 vocabulary expressing the varying acts, states, and relations 
 of humanity is so much greater than that descriptive mere- 
 ly of the material world, that personification is frequently 
 a necessity. For example, we speak of " sighing (or whis- 
 pering) winds," "babbling brooks," "howling storms," 
 "angry lightnings," etc., etc. Almost any stanza from 
 Tennyson's " Brook" aSords an illustration ; e.g. : 
 
 " I murmur under moon and stars 
 In brambly wildernesses; 
 I linger by my shingly bars; 
 I loiter round my cresses. " 
 
 Still more striking illustrations may be found in the lan- 
 guage of primitive religious faith, and in the fairy tales 
 and the like that are so popular with children. 
 
 IT. ALLEGOEY — FABLE — PAUABLE. 
 
 Definitions. — " A Metaphor is an act of the imagination 
 figuring one thing to be another. An Allegory requires no 
 such operation, nor is one thing figured to be another ; it 
 consists in choosing a subject having properties or circmn- 
 
BHETOBIGAL IMAGEBT. 195 
 
 stances resembling those of the principal subject ; and the 
 former is described in such a manner as to represent the 
 latter. The subject thus represented is kept out of view ; 
 we are left to discover it by reflection ; and we are pleased 
 with the discovery because it is our own work." — Karnes. 
 
 " When, with a view to some moral or instruction, sub- 
 jects remote from one another are brought into a compari- 
 son sustained throughout the details, the result is an alle- 
 gory." — Bain. 
 
 " The allegory is either ' a continued metaphor,' or sev- 
 eral cognate metaphors." — D. J. Hill. 
 
 "A fictitious narrative or description so constructed as 
 to suggest thoughts and facts entirely different from those 
 to which it appears to relate." — Haven. 
 
 " The narration of fictitious events whereby it is sought 
 to illustrate important truths." — Quackenios. 
 
 Rhetorical Value. — To describe one object or to express 
 one idea by describing or expressing a related object or idea. 
 
 "An allegory," says Kames,* "is in every respect simi- 
 lar to a hieroglyphical painting, excepting only that 
 words are used instead of colors. Their effects are precise- 
 ly the same; a hieroglyphic raises two images in the mind; 
 one seen, which represents one not seen; an allegory does 
 the same: the representative subject is described, and re- 
 semblance leads us to apply the description to the subject 
 represented." For example, in the third part of Shake- 
 speare's "Henry VI." act v. scene iv., after the loss of 
 her ablest generals, the Duke of Oxford and the Earl of 
 Warwick, together with a large proportion of her army. 
 Queen Margaret thus addresses her remaining nobles on 
 the plains near Tewksbury: — 
 
 ' ' Great lords, wise men ne'er sit and wail their loss, 
 But cheerly seek how to redress their harms. 
 What though the mast be now thrown overboard, 
 The cable broke, the holding anchor lost, 
 
 * " Elements of Criticism," p. 370. 
 
196 PBAOTICAL BHETOBIG. 
 
 And half our sailors swallowed in this flood; 
 Yet lives our pilot still. Is't meet that he 
 Should leave the helm, and, like a fearful lad, 
 With tearful eyes, add water so the sea, 
 , And give more strength to that which hath too much, 
 
 While in his moan the ship splits on the rock. 
 Which industry and courage might have saved ? 
 Ah, what a shame! ah, what a fault were this!" 
 
 A literal paraphrase of the above allegory will show how 
 much force is gained by use of the figure. The philosophy 
 of this superior force seems to be, that in allegory the rep- 
 resentative object or idea, being chosen arbitrarily, may 
 be, and generally is, more familiar to the reader, in its 
 character and relations, than is the object or idea repre- 
 sented. 
 
 Instances of allegory abound in our best literature. 
 Among these may be noted " Pilgrim's Progress," Spenser's 
 " Faerie Queene," the one hundred and thirtieth Psalm, 
 Pope's " Temple of Fame," Chaucer's " House of Fame," 
 Swift's "Tale of a Tub," and " Gulliver's Travels," Addi- 
 son's "Vision of Mirza," "The Paradise of Fools," and 
 " Luxury and Avarice," Thomson's " Castle of Indolence," 
 and the closing passage in Longfellow's " Ship of State." 
 
 The distinction between allegory and its allied forms, 
 fable and parable, is one not easily made. " All three 
 agree," says Hill,* "in not claiming to be the truth, but 
 merely vehicles of the truth." As a rule, the fable deals 
 with personifications of animals, as in the typical fables of 
 jEsop, and is followed by a literal application or "moral ;"' 
 while the application of the allegory is left to the imagina- 
 tion of the reader. According to Lessing, the fable em- 
 bodies a moral in a special case; it is invested with reality 
 and narrated as a story, which suggests the moral at once. 
 Thus, the narrative of " The Man and the Bundle of Sticks" 
 embodies an important truth — ^the power of union — in a 
 particular case, represented as real, and calculated to sug- 
 gest and bring home the moral. 
 
 * " Science of Bhetoric," p. 224. 
 
BHETORIGAL IMAGERY. 197 
 
 The Parable, or " Fictitious Example/' differs from the 
 Fable in being generally possible, if literally interpreted; 
 while the Fable would thus be impossible. In addition to 
 the numerous parables of the Bible, an illustration is af- 
 forded by the "Choice of Hercules," found in Xenophon's 
 "Memorabilia." 
 
 L- T. SYNECDOCHE. 
 
 Definitions. — "Synecdoche consists in putting the spe- 
 cies for the genus, the individual for the species, the genus 
 for the species, and the concrete for the abstract." — Bain. 
 
 " Synecdoche is using the name of a part for that of the 
 whole, the name of the whole for that of a part, or a defi- 
 nite number for an indefinite." — Quackenbos. 
 
 "A trope used to express something differing in degree 
 but not in kind." — Haven. 
 
 "In Synecdoche we do not change a name from one ob- 
 ject to another, but we give to an object a name which 
 literally expresses something more or something less than 
 we intend." — Hart. 
 
 Bhetorical Values. — 1. To limit attention to the concrete. 
 In putting the species for the genus, or a part for the 
 whole, we gain the advantage that belongs to all concrete 
 forms of expression. The mind can deal, primarily, with 
 only concrete images. The abstract word " color," for ex- 
 ample, can convey no clear meaning to the mind until it is 
 resolved, perhaps unconsciously, into one or more of its 
 specific forms. In other words, synecdoche calls particu- 
 lar attention to some prominent part of an object, which 
 part stands for the whole. For example, " The harbor is 
 crowded with mastis" is stronger than, "The harbor is 
 crowded with ships," because the masts are the most 
 prominent part of a ship. This value is especially marked 
 in the use of a definite for an indefinite number. Thus, 
 to say, " The citizens turned out by thousands" is more 
 expressive than to say that they came in great numbers. 
 
198 PBACTIOAL BMETOBIG. 
 
 3. To limit attention to the individual. This is but 
 carrying the first process a step farther. By calling a man 
 a Brutus, a Washington, a Milton, or a Hampden, we take 
 advantage of the conception already formed of these indi- 
 viduals by transferring it to the person to be described. 
 For example, "She was a very Jezebel" is stronger than, 
 " She was a cruel, designing woman." In this relation the 
 figure has received the technial name Antonomasia. 
 
 3. To convey the idea of magnitude. This is a rare use 
 of the figure; e.g., "The whole American nation was 
 aroused" is more effective than ''AH the citizens of the 
 United States were aroused." 
 
 4. To avoid harshness. In referring to the dead, for ex- 
 ample, it is customary to speak of them as "the departed;" 
 as those who have "fallen asleep," etc.; while in financial 
 circles an absconding bank-clerk is no longer a thief, but a 
 "defaulter." Men do not lie nowadays; they "prevari- 
 cate." In either case, the lack of definiteness makes the 
 expression less harsh. "When used for this purpose, synec- 
 doche has received the technical name Euphemism. 
 
 A VI. METOHTYMT. 
 
 Definitions. — "A figure in which a thing is named by 
 some accompaniment." — Bain. 
 
 "The exchange of names between things related." — 
 Quachenlos. 
 
 "A trope in which a word is used to express a thing dif- 
 fering from its original meaning only in kind." — Haven. 
 
 " The designation of an object by one of its accompani- 
 ments."—/). J. Hill. 
 
 " A figure of speech in which the name of one thing con- 
 nected to another by some bond, not of likeness or unlike- 
 ness, is taken to denote that other." — Kellogg. 
 
 Rhetorical Value. — To represent an unfamiliar or un- 
 impressive ohject or idea hy means of its relations to one 
 that is more familiar and more impressive. The substitu- 
 
BHETORICAL IMAGERY. 199 
 
 tions most generally recognized as illustrating this are the 
 following. — 
 
 (1) The exchange of names beUveeii cause and effect. 
 E.g. J " The sun drove them from the field," for. The heat of 
 the sun, etc.; " Death fell in showers," for, Bullets, the im- 
 plements (cause) of death, fell, etc. 
 
 (3) Between the sign and the thing Hignified. E.g., "The 
 stars and stripes now float over Alaska," for, The authority 
 of the United iStates now extends over Alaska. 
 
 (3) Between a place and its inhabitant. E.g., "Vieks- 
 burg at last surrendered," for. The garrison in Vicksburg, 
 etc. 
 
 (4) Between the container and the thing contained. 
 E,g., " The kettle boils," for. The water in the kettle, etc. 
 
 (5) Between the instrument and the agent. E.g., " The 
 ballot is more powerful than the bullet," for. The voter is 
 more powerful than the soldier. 
 
 (6) Between the subject and its attribute. E.g., " Touth 
 and age are jealous of each other," for. The young and the 
 old are, etc. 
 
 (7) Between an author and his ivorks. E.g., "He has 
 read Homer and Virgil," for. He has read the works of 
 Homer and Virgil. 
 
 (8) Between progenitor and posterity. E.g., " Moab 
 shall smite thee," for. The Moabites shall smite thee. 
 
 (9) Between the material and the thing made. E.g., 
 "He raised his glittering steel on high," for. He raised his 
 glittering dagger. By some modern writers, notably Bain 
 and D. J. Hill, this ninth substitution is classed under 
 Synecdoche; a classification for which the reasons do not 
 plainly appear. 
 
 VII. EXCLAMATIOK. 
 
 Definitions. — "When, from sudden and intense emo- 
 tion, we give utterance to some abrupt, inverted, or ellip- 
 tical expression, we are said to use an Exclamation," — ■ 
 Bain, 
 
200 PBAOTIOAL RHETORIC. 
 
 " Not every exclamation is a figure of speecli. Tlie ex- 
 pressions ' Oh ! ' ' Alas ! ' and the like, are plain language, 
 because they fail to fulfil the condition of figures, that one 
 thing is expressed in the form of another. Interjectiors 
 are as natural expressions of feeling as verbs and nouns arc. 
 respectively, of actions and OlDJects. The primary and nat- 
 ural expression of strong emotion is not 2t, proposition, bi.t 
 an interjection." — D. J. Hill. 
 
 Rhetorical Values. — 1. By its brevity, exclamation be- 
 comes more forcible than the declarative form of expres- 
 sion. This applies especially to the interjections, where a 
 single word, such as " Beware !" often expresses more than 
 would a long declarative sentence. It is an apt illustration 
 of Spencer's* law of the economy of the reader's attention: 
 "Carrying out the metaphor that language is the vehicle 
 of thought, there seems reason to think that the friction 
 and inertia of the vehicle deduct from its efficiency." 
 
 3. It is a more natural, and therefore a more easy, 
 method of expressing strong emotion than is the declarative 
 form. Paraphrase the following in the declarative form, 
 and note the loss of force and beauty: 
 
 ' ' What a piece of work is man ! how noble in reason ! how 
 infinite in faculties ! in form and moving, how express and admi- 
 rable ! in action, how like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a 
 god !" 
 
 VIII. HTPEKBOLB. 
 
 Definitions. — "An object of an uncommon size, either 
 very great of its kind, or very little, strikes us with surprise; 
 and this emotion produces a momentary conviction that 
 the object is greater or less than it is in reality. The same 
 efEect, precisely, attends figurative grandeur or littleness; 
 and hence the Hyperbole, which expresses that momentary 
 conviction. " — Earn es. 
 
 " Hyperbole consists in magnifying objects beyond their 
 
 * " Philosophy of Style," p. 6. 
 
RHETOniCAL IMAOERT. 201 
 
 natural bounds, so as to make them more intelligible." — 
 Bain. 
 
 '' The exaggeration of attributes, or the assigning to a 
 subject of a wonderful and impossible act, as the result of 
 ardent emotion. " — QuacJcenios. 
 
 "An expression which, literally understood, means more 
 than the writer really intends to utter." — Haven. 
 
 Rhetorical Values. — 1. To give to an object or an idea, 
 in the mind of the reader, that undue magnitude or 
 prominence that is ascribed to it by the imagination or the 
 passion of the tvriter " Every strong passion," says Bain,* 
 "magnifies whatever concerns it; and it is a generally ac- 
 cepted law that whatever occupies the attention exclusively 
 at one time, assumes a disproportionate relative magni- 
 tude." 
 
 Thus, tlie specialist, in any science or art, when speaking 
 of his particular field, is permitted to use expressions that, 
 in any one else, would appear to be unwarranted exaggera- 
 tions. All great writers in all languages furnish frequent 
 illustrations of this value of hyperbole. For example, 
 Virgil says that Camilla, the Volscian heroine, "outstripped 
 the winds in speed." This use of hyperbole is especially 
 marked and frequent in Milton, Shakespeare, and the 
 Biblical writers. 
 
 2. 7'o produce a humorous effect. This use of hyper- 
 bole is sometimes construed as an independent figure. 
 It is used to excess by all our modern humorous writers. 
 For instance, Burdette tells of a young man whose face so 
 burned with embarrassment that it "would scorch an ice- 
 berg brown in ten minutes." See also Mark Twain's solil- 
 oquy at " the tomb of Adam," etc. 
 
 IX. APOSTEOPHE. 
 
 Definitions. — " Apostrophe is an address to a real person, 
 but one who is either absent or dead, as if he were present 
 and listening to us." — Blair. 
 
 * "Rhetoric," p. 55. 
 
202 PRACTICAL BHETORIO. 
 
 " The bestowing of a momentary presence upon a sensi' 
 ble being who is absent. This figure is sometimes joined 
 with personification." — Karnes. 
 
 " A figure of speech in which the absent one is addressed 
 as though present, and the inanimate as though intelligent 
 and T^xewni."— Kellogg. 
 
 Bhetorical Values. — 1. To obliterate distinctions of fact 
 evident in unimpassioned moods, but not evident under 
 strong emotions. This figure presupposes the strongest 
 emotion on the part of both speaker and hearer. It is 
 used frequently by our best writers, but its very nature de- 
 mands that it be employed with great care. 
 
 2. To produce a humorous effect. Witness Burns's "Tarn 
 0' Shanter/' 
 
 " Ah, Tarn! ah, Tam! thou'lt get thy fairin!" 
 
 and many of Carlyle's apostrophes. And the following 
 
 from Charles Lamb: 
 
 " Hail to thy returning festival, old Bishop Valentine ! Great 
 is thy name in the rubric, thou venerable Arehflamen of Hymen! 
 Immortal Go-between, who and what manner of person art 
 thou ?" 
 
 Unless warranted by the degree of emotion, the use of 
 
 apostrophe is one of the worst forms of bombast. 
 
 X. VISIOK. 
 
 Definitions. — " Vision has sometimes been confounded 
 with apostrophe, but the two are entirely distinct. While 
 apostrophe consists in a direct address, vision treats the 
 past and the future as if they were the present. It does 
 not invoke, but describes." — D. J. Hill. 
 
 "The representation of past events, or imaginary ob- 
 jects and scenes, as actually present to the senses." — ■ 
 Quackenbos. 
 
 ' ' The representation of what is past, future, or absent, 
 or of fancied occurrence, as though it were present,"— 
 Haven. 
 
RHETORICAL IMAGERY. 203 
 
 Rhetorical Value. — To olUlerate distinctions in time hy 
 the aid of imagination, and thus to give to past, future, or 
 fancied erents that interest that belongs to the present. 
 Use the past in place of the "historical present" tense in 
 the following well-known passage from Webster, and note 
 the weakening effect : 
 
 "The assassin enters, through the window already prepared, 
 into an unoccupied apartment. With noiseless foot he paces the 
 lonely hall, half lighted by the moon; he winds up the ascent of 
 the stairs, and reaches the door of the chamber." 
 
 XI. THE TBANSFEEEED EPITHET. 
 
 Deflnitions. — "A figure in which the attributes of one 
 subject are extended to another with which it is connected. 
 The expression of such a thought must be considered a 
 figure, because the attribute is not applicable to the subject 
 in any proper sense." — Karnes. 
 
 Rhetorical Values. — To beautify or vivify one object or 
 idea by giving to it the attributes of another closely related. 
 The figure appears in several forms. We quote the follow- 
 ing from Karnes: * — 
 
 1. An attribute of the cause expressed as an attribute of 
 the effect: 
 
 " An impious mortal gave the daring wound." 
 
 2. An attribute of the effect placed as an attribute of the 
 cause: 
 
 "No wonder, fallen from such a, pernicious height." 
 
 3. The effect itself placed as an attribute of the cause: 
 
 " Casting a dim religious light." 
 
 4. An attribute of a subject given to one of its parts: 
 
 " To stoop with wearied wing and willing feet." 
 
 5. A quality of the agent given to the instrument: 
 
 ' ' He drew his coward sword. " 
 
 6. An attribute of the agent given to that upon which it 
 opeiates: 
 
 " The high cliinbing hill." 
 
 * " Elements of Criticism," pp. 366-7. 
 
204 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 7. A quality of one subject given to another: 
 
 ' ' He steers the fearless ship. " 
 
 8. A connected circumstance expressed as a quality of 
 the subject: 
 
 " 'Tis ours the chance of fighting fields to try." 
 
 XII. ANTITHESIS. 
 
 Definitions. — ''Antithesis, properly so called, consists in 
 the explicit statement of the contrast implied in the mean- 
 ing of any term or description." — Bain. 
 
 " It is a law of the mind's action to observe the differences 
 of objects, in one or more particulars that are alike in all 
 other respects. . . . Antithesis is the collocation of two 
 objects together that differ distinctly, at least in one par- 
 ticular, and agree in others. It is the union of objects by 
 their differences." — Haven. 
 
 "A. perfect antithesis requires that the objects belong to 
 the same generic class, though they must be the most 
 widely different of that class." — D. J. Hill. 
 
 Ehetorical Values. — 1. To give vividness to an object or 
 idea by contrasting it tvith its opposite. This principle 
 applies as well in the material world. A black object looks 
 blacker, and a short object shorter, when each is placed 
 side by side, respectively, with a white and a long object. 
 
 III. — " Faithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses- of 
 an enemy are deceitful." 
 
 2. To give vividness by contrasting an object with its as- 
 sociates in the same class. " We come to know heat," says 
 Bain,* " not merely by its fundamental opposite, cold, but 
 by its difference from light, another member of the class of 
 natural agents." 
 
 3. To excite interest through wonder. The biographei 
 often adds interest to his narrative by picturing the wonder- 
 ful contrast between the humble surroundings of his hero 
 in youth and his brilliant achievements in later years. For 
 
 *" Rhetoric," p. 47. 
 
BEETOBICAL IMAQERT. 205 
 
 example^ Cowley begins a paragraph of his essay on Crom- 
 ■well as follows: "What can be more extraordinary than 
 that a person of mean birth, no fortune, no eminent quali- 
 ties of body, which have sometimes — or of mind, which 
 have often — ^raised men to the highest dignities, should 
 have the courage to attempt, and the happiness to succeed, 
 in so improbable a design as the destruction of one of the 
 most ancient and most solidly founded monarchies upon 
 the earth?" 
 
 XIII. CLIMAX. 
 
 Definitions. — " Climax, or the rhetorical ladder, consists 
 in such an arrangement of ideas in a series as to secure a 
 gradual increase of impressiveness. It is based on the 
 principle of contrast. Antithesis contrasts objects by 
 bringing them together in opposition; climax contrasts ob- 
 jects by exhibiting their degrees of difference through a 
 series of intermediates." — D. J. Hill. 
 
 "The arrangement of a succession of words, clauses, 
 members, or sentences, in such a way that the weakest 
 may stand first; and that each in turn, to the end of the 
 sentence, may rise in importance and make a deeper im- 
 pression on the mind than that which preceded it." — 
 Qunchenios. 
 
 Ehetorical Value. — To adapt the force of successive ex- 
 pressions to the state of the mental sensibilities. Herbert 
 Spencer illustrates this point admirably, in his " Philosophy 
 of Style" (p. 39), when he says: "As immediately after 
 looking at the sun we cannot perceive the light of a fire, 
 while by looking at the fire first and the sun afterwards 
 we can perceive both, so, after receiving a brilliant or 
 weighty or terrible thought, we cannot appreciate a less 
 brilliant, less weighty, or less terrible one." 
 
 Xll^ — " To weep for fear is childish; to weep for anger is 
 womanish; to weep for grief is human; to weep for com- 
 passion is divine." 
 
206 PRACTICAL BEETOBIC. 
 
 XIV. EPIGKAir. 
 
 Definitions. — "In the Epigram t^e mind is roused by a 
 conflict or contradiction between the form of the language 
 and the meaning really conveyed." — Bain. 
 
 "An epigram proper is a sentence in prose, or a short 
 poem, treating of only one thing, and embracing some 
 striking or ingenious thought. It is now made to embrace 
 any brief expression of a startling thought." — Haven. 
 
 "That form of expression in which there is a contradic- 
 tion between the real and the apparent meaning." — D. J. 
 Hill. 
 
 Ehetorical Values. — 1. To excite sviprise and consequent 
 interest hy an apparent contradiction; e.g., 
 " The favorite has no friend." 
 
 2. To fix a thought in memory hy expressing it in con- 
 densed and paradoxical form. Many of our common prov^ 
 erbs illustrate this value; e.g., " The child is the father of 
 the man." 
 
 XV. INTEEEOGATIOK. 
 
 Definitions. — " The Interrogation aims at conveying an 
 opinion more strongly by giving it the form of a question. 
 The negative interrogation affirms, and the positive de- 
 nies." — Bain. 
 
 " An interrogation may be a part of plain speech. It 
 becomes figurative when it is an affirmation in the form of 
 a question." — D. J. Hill. 
 
 "The prime design of a question is to ask for informa- 
 tion; but as a question naturally arrests the attention as if 
 to demand a reply, it is often resorted to in excited feeling 
 to express an assertion, by assuming that no other reply 
 could be given than the one which the speaker believes to 
 be correct." — Haven. 
 
 Rhetorical Values. — 1. To make the reader or listener a 
 
RHETORICAL IMAGERY. 207 
 
 partner in the discourse. "We may be dull and listless 
 while a speaker is making mere declaration, but once let 
 him put to us a direct question, and common civility, as 
 well as interest, compels us to attend. Paraphrase the fol- 
 lowing in declarative form, and note the loss of force: 
 
 "Who fought your naval battles in the last war? Who led 
 you on to victory after victory, on the ocean and the lakes ? 
 Whose was the triumphant prowess before which the Eed Cross 
 of England paled with unwonted shames ? Were they not men of 
 New England ? Were these not foremost in those maritime en- 
 ODunters which humbled the pride and power of Great Britain ?" 
 
 2. To bring affirmative and negative answers into con- 
 trast. It will be seen that interrogation really depends 
 upon an implied antithesis. The affirmative is admitted 
 by virtue of the impossibility of the negative, or vice versa. 
 For example, " Who by searching can find out God ?" is 
 only a stronger way of saying, No one by searching can 
 find out God. 
 
 XVI. lEONT. 
 
 Deflnitions. — "Irony is a figure by which is expressed 
 directly the opposite of what it is intended shall be under- 
 stood. " — Quackenios. 
 
 " A species of wit used in discourse which, taken liter- 
 ally, conveys the very opposite of what is intended." — ■ 
 Kellogg. 
 
 " Irony expresses the contrary of what is meant, there 
 being something in the tone or manner to show the real 
 drift of the speaker." — Bain. 
 
 Rhetorical VaLues. — 1. In debate, to disarm an opponent. 
 An ironical remark, like innuendo, gives an opponent no 
 target, no tangible point, at which to direct his reply. 
 Irony is, therefore, a most effective weapon in argumenta- 
 tion. As an illustration of this value take the following : 
 
 " The atrocious crime of being a young man, which the honor- 
 able gentleman has with such spirit and decency charged upon 
 me, I shall attempt neither to palliate nor to deny." 
 
208 PBACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 And this from Fox : 
 
 " ' But we must pause ! ' says the honorable gentleman. If a 
 man were present now at the field of slaughter, and were to in- 
 quire for what they were fighting, ' Fighting! ' would be the an- 
 swer; ' they are not fighting, they are pausing.' Why is that man 
 expiring ? Why is that other writhing with agony ? What means 
 this inexplicable fury ? The answer must be, ' You are quite 
 wrong, sir. You deceive yourself ; they are not fighting. Do 
 not disturb them; they are merely patising.' " 
 
 2. " To expose false sentiment by asserting it so baldly as 
 to induce others to see its falsity." Thus, Dr. Johnson 
 gives a severe thrust to Lord Chesterfield, when that noble- 
 man comes with offers of patronage after the author has 
 begun to be independent, by asking, "Is not a patron, my 
 lord, one who looks with unconcern on a man struggling 
 for life in the water, and when he has reached the ground, 
 encounters him with help ?" 
 
 3. To amuse by stating inconsisteticies as true. This is 
 one of the most common and most admirable forms of wit, 
 
 • or, more properly, of humor. 
 
 Irony must here be carefully distinguished from Ridicule, 
 which involves the idea of contempt; from Derision, which 
 involves a feeling of personal hostility as well as of con- 
 tempt; from Mockery, which is insulting derision; from 
 Satire, which is witty mockery directed toward the refor- 
 mation of follies, vices, and abuses; and from Sarcasm, 
 which is disguised vituperation. These figures, as they 
 are sometimes called, are here given in the order of their 
 severity. Irony is sometimes ranked between satire and 
 sarcasm on the ground that it is disguised satire. 
 
 Such writers as Cervantes, Dickens, and Irving afford 
 numberless illustrations of the third value of irony; e.g.: 
 
 ' ' We are told that the ancient Germans had an admirable mode 
 of treating any question of importance; they first deliberated upon 
 it when drunk, and afterwards reconsidered it when sober. The 
 shrewder mobs of America, who dislike having two minds upon a 
 subject, both determine and act upon it drunk; by which means 
 a world of cold and tedious speculation is dispensed With. And as 
 it is universally allowed that when a man is drunk he sees double, 
 
BHETOBIOAL IMAGERY. 209 
 
 it follows most conclusively that he sees twice as well as his sober 
 neighbors." — ^'Knickerbocker History," Irving. 
 
 MINOR FIGURES. 
 
 Some of these may be noted briefly: — 
 --1. Innuendo, o^c Insinuation, that is, the suggeBtion of 
 a fault or a virtue, is effective, because, like Irony, it pre- 
 cludes reply. III. — " He did his party all the harm in his 
 power; he spoke for it and voted against it." 
 , 2. Onomatopceia, or the selection of words to imitate 
 certain articulate sounds, sometimes adds vividness to de- 
 scription; e.g., "Bang," "buzz," "whiz," etc. 
 
 " The cataract strong i 
 
 Then plunges along, 
 Striking and raging 
 As if a war raging . 
 
 Its caverns and rocks among; 
 Rising and leaping, 
 Sinking and creeping, 
 Swelling and sweeping, 
 Showering and springing, 
 Flying and flinging, 
 "Writhing and ringing. 
 Eddying and whisking. 
 Spouting and frLsking, 
 Turning and twisting, 
 Around and around 
 With endless rebound; 
 Smiting and fighting, 
 A sight to delight in; 
 Confounding, astounding. 
 Dizzying and deafening the ear with its sound." 
 
 3. Asyndeton, or the omission of connectives, already 
 noted under Force, Part II. E.g., " That thou givest them 
 they gather. Thou openest thine hand, they are filled 
 with good." 
 
 4. Apo2}liasis, Paralipsis, or Omission, is the pretended 
 suppression of what one is really saying; e.g., " I pass over 
 his conceit, his selfishness, his narrowness; I say nothing 
 of his treatment of his family," etc. The figure is con- 
 ducive to brevity. 
 
 14 
 
210 PRACTICAL REETOBIG. 
 
 .-/-' 5. Ellipsis, or the omission of a word or words essential 
 to the construction, often adds force. In this respect its 
 value resembles that of the interjection. III. — "Who 
 steals my purse steals trash." 
 
 6. Hypar'baton, or intentional inversion and the violent 
 transposition of words, is a form of poetical license, and is 
 used by some prose- writers; e.g., "He seeks the wide 
 world o'er." 
 
 —7. Enallage, or the use of one part of speech for another, 
 is also confined to poetic diction. 111. — "God answers 
 sharp and sudden on some prayers." 
 
 8. Syllepsis is the construing of words according to their 
 general meaning rather than their strict grammatical con- 
 struction; e.g., "We get no Christ from you." 
 —9. Pleonasm, or the use of superfluous words, is allow- 
 able in poetic diction, and in prose when expressing strong 
 emotion; e.g., " The boy, oh, where was he ?" 
 
 Of these nine minor figures, the last five are sometimes 
 called "figures of syntax," as they are deviations from lit- 
 eral construction rather than from literal meaning. 
 
 EXEECISES. 
 
 Note. — Let the pupil name the figure employed in each of the 
 following sentences, telling to what subdivision, if any, it belongs, 
 and stating its object, or rhetorical value. 
 
 1. How frightened hypocrisy hastens to defend itself! 
 3. Old people and children would come to their doors for 
 the bishop as they would for the sun. 3. Oh, Thou who 
 art ! Man names thee Father; but Solomon names thee 
 compassion, and that is the most beautiful of all thy 
 names. 
 
 4. Prejudices aire the real robbers ; vices the real mur- 
 derers. 
 
 5. His tenderness was the result of a strong conviction 
 filtered through life into his heart. 6. Commerce picks 
 half-drowned Holland up by the locks and pours gold into 
 
BEETORIOAL IMAGBBT. 211 
 
 her lap. t. Youth with gentleness has upon old men the 
 effect of sunshine without wind. 8. The soul is the only 
 bird which sustains its cage. 9. Distress is the nurse of 
 self-respect. 10. Misery is sometimes a mother. 11. De- 
 siring to be always in mourning, he clothed himself with 
 night. 13. Napoleon was the archangel of war. 13. Life 
 is a stage-scene in which there is little that is practical. 
 14. Happiness is an old sash painted on one side. 15. I 
 am sorry for despots; they have very delicate health. 
 
 16. He had the appearance of a caryatid in vacation. 
 17. His specialty was to succeed in nothing. 18. To err 
 is human, to loaf is Parisian. 19. Much forehead in a face 
 is like much sky in a horizon. 20. Death appeared to him 
 with huge epaulets, and he gave him almost a military 
 salute. 21. There is a way of meeting error while on the 
 road of truth. 
 
 22. He was the stupendous architect of a downfall. 23. 
 This flower of the shade, full of perfumes and poisons, 
 which is called love. 24. Destroy the cave, ignorance, and 
 you destroy the mole crime. 
 
 25. He had all the vices and aspired to all the crimes. 
 26. He was a fashion-plate living in distress. 27. Men in 
 fevers thread back the passage of delirium. 
 
 28. He who has seen the misery of man only has seen 
 nothing, he must see the misery of woman; he who has 
 seen the misery of woman only has seen nothing, he must 
 see the misery of childhood. 
 
 29. Despair is surrounded by fragile walls which all 
 open into vice or crime. 
 
 30. He sailed away with all his canvas spread. 31. In 
 the world, a man lives in his own age; in solitude, in all 
 ages. 
 
 32. Grace is said before meat. 33. Dean Swift aspired 
 to the mitre. 34. Come, seeling night, scarf up the tender 
 eye of pitiful day. 
 
 35. The crescent is waning before the cross. 
 
 36. Night had dropped her curtain down and pinned it 
 
312 PSAOTIOAL BHETORia. 
 
 with a star. 37. I thought that this man had been a lord 
 among wits, but I find that he is only a wit among lords. 
 38. Earth felt the wound. 
 
 39. He pours out all the vials of his wrath on my devoted 
 head. 40. His mind was a vast magazine of knowledge. 
 41. He was addicted to the bottle. 42. Up came the re- 
 serve of foot and horse. 43. He rose and addressed the 
 chair. 44. Eome, Eome, thou hast been a tender nurse 
 to me! 45. He received the lion's share of the profits. 46. 
 The green corn hath rotted ere his youth obtained a beard. 
 47. Their ranks are breaking like clouds before a gale. 48. 
 The coat does not make the man. 49. Talent is a cistern, 
 genius is a fountain. 50. The lamp is burning. 51. He 
 left his father's hearth. 
 
 52. The sanctity of the lawn should be kept unsullied. 
 53. The Athenians understand what is good, but the Lace- 
 demonians practise it. 54. Grim-visaged war hath smoothed 
 his wrinkled front. 55. He threw down the gauntlet of 
 debate. 56. Stop my house's ears. 57. His words were 
 shed softer than leaves from the pine. 58. His pocket 
 was afEected. 59. Blow, blow, thou winter wind. 60. 
 Yarn is the product of the spindle. 61. The palace should 
 not scorn the cottage. 62. Better to reign in hell than to 
 serve in heaven. 63 . Come to the bridal chamber, Death. 
 64. Necessity is the mother of invention. 65. The iron- 
 throated monster spoke all night long. 66. Ye storms re- 
 sound the praises of your king. 
 
 67. Tennyson's earliest poems are festoons of verbal 
 beauty. 68. She left the protection of his roof. 69. For 
 fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 70. There rose a 
 shout, prolonged and loud, that to the Ocean seemed to say. 
 Take her, Bridegroom, old and gray. 71. The moping 
 owl doth to the moon complain. 
 
 72. They follow their chief for the loaves and fishes. 73. 
 The valiant taste of death but once. 74. The kingdom of 
 God is like a grain of mustard seed. 
 
 75. He commanded a company of lance. 
 
BHETOBICAL IMAGERY. 213 
 
 76. Save the ermine from pollution. 
 
 77. The turban yields to the tartan. 
 
 78. Flag of the brave, thy folds shall fly the sign of hope 
 and triumph high! 
 
 79. Hope is swift, and flies with swallow's wings. 80. 
 He falls like Lucifer, never to hope again. 81. He baits 
 his hook for subscribers. 83. All his good intentions were 
 choked by the tares of evil habit. 83. Bees will not work 
 except in darkness; thought will not work except in silence. 
 84. She left his bed and board. 85. The pen is mightier 
 than the sword. 86. Tongue was the lawyer and argued 
 the case. 87. Political antagonists should not strike below 
 the belt. 88. The strong mind reeled under the blow. 89. 
 The little bird sits at his door, like a blossom among the 
 leaves. 
 
 90. His tongue grappled with a flood of words. 91. 
 Hope, enchanted, smiled, and waved her golden hair. 
 
 92. The commerce was carried on in British bottoms. 
 93. The bullet is giving way to the ballot. 94. Into the 
 ]aws of death, into the mouth of hell, rode the six hundred. 
 95. I will not be anybody's cat's-paw. 
 
 96. Anthony is but a limb of Cassar. 
 
 97. Their lives glide on like rivers that water the wood- 
 land. 
 
 98. He condemns the great. 99. He is fairly launched 
 upon the road to preferment. 100. We have prostrated 
 ourselves before the tlirone. 101. Sleep, gentle sleep. 
 Nature's soft nurse, how have I frightened thee that thou 
 no more wilt vfeigh my eyelids down? 103. The waves to 
 sleep had gone. 103. We should stop throwing grass and 
 begin to throw stones. 
 
 104. His rudeness is a sauce to his wit. 
 
 105. Poets commonly have no larger stock of tunes than 
 a hand-organ has. 
 
 106. The bench should be incorruptible. 107. The gown, 
 quarrelled with the town. 108. He bought forty head of 
 cattle. 109. The board at this little inn was excellent. 
 
314 PBAOTIOAL MEETOBia 
 
 110. The Tery stones of Eome will rise in mutiny. 111. 
 He can scarcely keep the wolf from his door. 113. It drop- 
 peth as the gentle rain from heaven upon the place be- 
 neath. 113. Disappointments nourish us in the desert 
 places of life, as the ravens fed the prophet in the wilder- 
 ness. 114. A pun, like a penny on the rails, may throw 
 the train of conversation off the track. 115. Pew Ameri- 
 can keels plough the ocean. 
 
 116. The breeze comes whispering to our ears. 
 
 117. It was written at a white heat. 
 
 118. She sat like Patience on a monument, smiling at 
 grief. 119. The pew does not always heed the pulpit. 
 130. He employs twenty-five hands. 131. The watched 
 pot never boils. 133. Bring with thee Sport that wrin- 
 kled Care derides, and Laughter holding both his sides. 
 133. He was a willow, not an oak. 134. She let conceal- 
 ment, like a worm in the bud, feed on her damask cheek, 
 135. The busy fingers toiled on, 136. It is a city of 
 spires. 137. I did some ezcellent things indifferently, 
 some bad things excellently. 128. Death fell in showers. 
 139. Great Father of your country, we heed your words. 
 130. Grim Pestilence stalked o'er the land, 131, Strike 
 while the iron is hot. 
 
 133. A fatal habit settles upon one like a vampire, and 
 sucks his blood. 
 
 133. Shoulder to shoulder South Carolina and Massa- 
 chusetts went through the Kevolution. 134. Freedom 
 shrieked when Kosciusko fell. 135. His eloquence never 
 blazed in sudden flashes. 136, As fire drives out fire, so 
 pity, pity. 137. The very walls will cry out against it. 
 
 138. The ship wrestles with the storm. 
 
 139. Locomotives fly across the continent like shuttles 
 across a web. 140. The sun pillows his chin upon an 
 orient wave. 
 
 141. The American sailor humbled the Barbary flag. 
 143, The hollow oak is our palace. 143. Flattery spits 
 
BEETOBICAL IMAGEBT. 215 
 
 poison at the mightiest peers. 144. Your flashes of merri- 
 ment that were wont to set the table on a roar. 
 
 145. Galileo raised his glass to the heavens. 146. He 
 is a very Croesus. 147. Who would not like to visit the 
 Old World? 148. Curses, like chickens, always come home 
 to roost. 149. The papers held my name up to keep it 
 from the mud. 150. The moon climbs up the sky. 151. 
 This is a drowsy night. 153. Addison was smooth, but 
 Prescott smoother. 153. Always respect old age. 154. 
 Silence is the most effective eloquence. 155. The thistle 
 that was in Lebanon sent to the cedar that was in Leba- 
 non, saying, Give thy daughter to my son to wife: and 
 there passed by a wild beast in Lebanon, and trod down 
 the thistle. 
 
 156. Thy resolution may fluctuate on the wild and 
 changeful billows of human opinion, but mine is anchored 
 on the Eock of Ages. 
 
 157. Adversity bends the heart as fire bends the stub- 
 bom steel. 158. It is thee only I address; and what can 
 counterbalance thy choice? 159. Shall I stoop my crest to 
 Eichard? 160. Europe shall hear the loud step of him she 
 has driven from her shores! 161. Thy mind is the garden 
 of the sluggard, and the weeds have rushed up, and con- 
 spired to choke the fair and wholesome blossom. 
 
 162. Have you never found your mind darkened, like 
 the sunny landscape, by the sudden cloud, which augurs a 
 a coming tempest? 163. They who jest with Majesty, even 
 in its gayest mood, are but toying with the lion's whelp, 
 which, on slight provocation, uses both fangs and claws. 
 164. Thinkest thou our word is a feather to be blown back- 
 ward and forward between us? 165. Do rocks melt with 
 the sun? 166. We have often thought that the public 
 mind in our country resembles that of the sea when the 
 tide is rising. Each successive wave rushes forward, breaks, 
 and rolls back; but the great flood is steadily coming on. 
 
 167. Nature from her seat sighing, through all her worka 
 gave signs of woe, that all was lost. 
 
218 PBACTICAL BEETOBIC. 
 
 168. Athens, the eye of Greece, mother of arts and elo- 
 quence. 
 
 169. A second Daniel come to judgment. 
 
 170. Teachers are the parents of the mind. 
 
 171. Favors to none, to all she smiles extends. 
 173. All Switzerland is in the field. 
 
 173. Galileo was the Columhus of the heavens. 
 
 174. Wisdom is gray hair to men. 
 
 175. By indignities men come to dignities. 
 
 176. No light, but rather darkness visible. 
 
 177. Faithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses 
 of an enemy are deceitful. 
 
 178. Terrors are turned upon me; they pursue my soul 
 as the wind, and my welfare passeth away as a cloud. 
 
 179. Before his honesty of purpose, calumny was dumb. 
 180. A frame of adamant, a soul of fire, no dangers fright 
 him, and no labors tire. 181. He lived to die, and died to 
 live. 
 
 182. 1 Censure is the tax a man pays to the public for 
 being eminent. 
 
 183. Panoplied in brass, they came from the ships and 
 tents. 184. Destruction and Death say, we have heard 
 thereof with our ears. 
 
 185. There be some who, with everything to make them 
 happy, plod their discontented and melancholy way through 
 life, less grateful than the dog which licks the hand that 
 feeds it. 186. Harmonious discord everywhere. 187. Be- 
 nevolence descends into the cellars, where Poverty lies on 
 the damp floor, while Pestilence stands at the door, like 
 the cherubim at the entrance of Eden, forbidding Selfish- 
 ness to enter. 188. Five thousand head of cattle perished 
 in the late storm. 189. But there are even some, Eo- 
 mans, who say that Catiline has been cast into exile by me. 
 That timid and very modest man, no doubt, was imable to 
 endure the voice of the consul; as soon as he was ordered 
 to go into exile, he obeyed, he went. 190. We catch love 
 and other fevers in the vulgar way. 
 
RHETORICAL IMAGEBT. 217 
 
 191. Kight is the summer when the soul grows ripe with 
 Life's full harvest. 
 
 193. In Demosthenes we find a fiery energy, but not that 
 polish and elegance that characterize Cicero. 193. If 1 
 had as many tongues as there are stars in heaven, as many 
 words as there are grains of sand on the shore, my tongues 
 would be tired, and my words exhausted, before I could do 
 justice to your immense merit. 
 
 194. His roof was at the service of the outcast; the un- 
 fortunate ever found a welcome at his threshold. 195. It 
 is the decree of Providence that man shall earn his bread 
 by the sweat of his brow. 
 
 196. How art thou fallen from heaven, Lucifer, son 
 of the morning! 
 
 197. Modesty is the epidermis of the soul. 
 
 198. Oh, the unfortunate! how pallid they are, how cold 
 they are! 199. Cities, like forests, have their dens. 200. 
 There was no more bread in the den, but there was tobacco. 
 201. They see truth gleaming forth, that daylight of the 
 human soul. 
 
 202. They have but one ambition, to be little. 
 
 203. A nebula is an ant-hill of stars. 
 
 204. A bit of mould is a pleiad of flowers. 
 
 205. "Women play with their beauty as children do with 
 their knives, they wound themselves with it. 306. History 
 relates and doe3 not inform against. 207. Despair is the 
 final arm which sometimes gives victory. 308. The pupil 
 dilates in the night, and at last finds day in it, even as the 
 soul dilates in misfortune, and at last finds God in it. 
 
 209. Ye are our epistles written in our hearts, known 
 and read of all men. 
 
 210. Zeal and duty are not slow, but on occasion's fore- 
 lock watchful wait. 
 
 209. Petitions having proved unsuccessful, it was next 
 determined to approach the throne more boldly. 210. 
 Hasten slowly. 
 
 211. A Scotch mist becomes a shower ; and a shower, a 
 
218 PBAOTIGAL REETOBIC. 
 
 flood ; and a flood, a storm ; and a storm, a tempest ; and 
 a tempest, thunder and lightning ; and thunder and light- 
 ning, heaven-quake and earthquake. 213. Gold cannot 
 make a man happy any more than rags can render him 
 miserable. 213. There were an Anthony would ruffle up 
 your spirits, and put a tongue in every wound of Csesar, 
 that should move the stones of Eome to rise in mutiny, 
 314. Early instill into your children's hearts the love of 
 cruelty, yet by no means call it by its true name, but en- 
 courage them in it under the name of fun. 215. Lord, how 
 long shall the wicked triumph ? 216. The easiest way of 
 doing nothing is to do it. 217. He is a man of principle 
 in proportion to his interest. 218. Out of books he taught 
 me all the ignorance of men. 219. I, alas, a wild bird 
 scarcely fledged, was brought to her cage, and she was 
 there to meet me. Very kind. Bring the clean water ; 
 give out the fresh seed. 220. The universe turned stranger. 
 221. She loved my father, and would love me too as long as 
 I deserved it. Very kind. 222. And thus my father's 
 sister was to me my mother's hater. 223. I read her books, 
 gave ear to her vicar, tea to her visitors. 224. Always he 
 was looking for the worms, I for the gods. 225. A life, a 
 poetry, which means life in life ! 
 
 SUCTION IL— USES AND AJBUSM OF FIOURSS. 
 
 Note. — It is suggested that the following principles be treated 
 in class as were those in chapters I. to VII. ; i.e., that the sen- 
 tences containing the figures, faulty or otherwise, be placed upon 
 slips and given to the pupil for criticism by applying the respec- 
 tive principles. 
 
 SIMILE. 
 
 1. An olject mvst not be compared to another of the same 
 
 kind, or to one which it already resembles. 
 
 Criticise. — "Milton like Homer wrote an epic, and like Homer 
 he was blind." 
 
 2. A simile must not be foxmded on too faint a resem- 
 blance. 
 
BHETORICAL IMAGERY. 219 
 
 Criticise. — " Then the bitter sea 
 
 Inexorably pushed between us both; 
 
 And, sweeping up the ship with my despair, 
 
 Threw us out as a pasture to the stars." 
 
 3. Trile similes are to be avuided. 
 
 Criticise. — " The city rose like a phoenix from its aslies, and its 
 defenders went forth again bold as lions to meet their hereditary 
 foe." 
 
 4. The comparison must ie more intelligible than the 
 thing compared. All similes founded on mere local tradi- 
 tions, on obscure mythological personages or events, on the 
 Tocabulaiy of science, or on the technicalities of any trade 
 or profession, are therefore objectionable. 
 
 Criticise. — " His movements were as sudden and unexpected as 
 those of an eccentric lathe." 
 
 5. Belittling similes should be avoided, except for the pur- 
 pose of burlesque. " In general," says Kames,* " it is a rule 
 that a grand object ought never to be resembled to one 
 that is diminutive, however delicate the resemblance may 
 be; for it is the peculiar character of a grand object to fix 
 the attention and swell the mind; in which state to contrast 
 it to a minute object is unpleasant." 
 
 Criticise. — "The moon is like a jewel in the sky.'' 
 
 6. Formal simile should not be introduced in the expres- 
 sion of strong passions siicJi as anguisb, terror, remorse, 
 despair, etc. " Since comparisons are the language of im- 
 agination rather than of passion," says Blair, f "an. author 
 can hardly commit a greater fault than in the midst of 
 passion to introduce a simile." 
 
 Criticise. — (The speaker being in terror of instant death.) 
 " So looks the pent-up lion o'er the wretch 
 That trembles under his devouring paws; 
 And so he walks insulting o'er his prey, 
 And so he comes to rend his limbs asunder. 
 Ah, gentle Clifford, kill me with thy sword, 
 And not with such a cruel, threatening look.'' 
 
 7. Except in burlesque, the comparison should not be 
 
 * "Elements of Criticism," p. 339. 
 f "Lectures," p. 130. 
 
220 PRACTICAL BEETORIC. 
 
 disproportionately greater or more elevated than the thing 
 compared. 
 
 Criticise.— " As the orator warmed with his theme, his voice 
 resounded like the roar of Niagara." 
 
 8. A simile should not be based on an image that is nav- 
 seous, vgly, or strongly disagreeable. Such similes often 
 excite laughter, and therefore add a certain interest, but 
 the loss in delicacy is greater than is the gain in force. 
 
 Criticise. — " The gentleman from Georgia bobs about, in his 
 excitement, like a hen with her head cut off."— i'V-owi a speech in 
 Congress. 
 
 9. The resemblance should depend upon a relevant cir- 
 cumstance. In some attempts at simile, the only shade of 
 resemblance lies in a certain word, not in a circumstance. 
 
 Criticise. — " But for their spirits and souls, this word rebellion 
 had froze them up as flsh are in a pond." 
 
 10. Tiie comparison should be more impressive than the 
 
 thing compared. 
 
 Criticise. — "The author's descriptions are so cold that they 
 surpass the Caspian snow. " 
 
 11. Mere intellectual comparisotis should be avoided. 
 
 The two cases last given may often be classed under this 
 
 principle, for irrelevant or unimpressive comparisons are 
 
 often merely intellectual rather than emotional. 
 
 Criticise. — " Reason to passion gives but edge and power, 
 
 As heaven's bless'd beam turns vinegar more sour." 
 
 12. The simile should generally be placed before the object 
 to ivlnch it is applied. This is but an application of Spen- 
 cer's law, that "whatever qualifies should precede what is 
 qualified." The principle maybe violated where the simile 
 is either very simple or very long. Transpose the following 
 and note the loss of force: "As mosses and fungi gather 
 on sickly trees, not on thriving ones, so odious habits fasten 
 only on natures that are already enfeebled." 
 
 13. The simile should be free from distasteful accom- 
 paniments. Thus, Bain justly criticises an otherwise beau- 
 tiful simile from Lucretius, because it assumes indirectly 
 that a man generally delights in witnessing the misery of 
 his fellows. 
 
CENERAL EXERCISES. 221 
 
 14. Formal comjmrisons are to be avoided in treating of 
 commonplace subjects, especially when there is no mental 
 excitement. On this ground Karnes, and after him many 
 rhetoricians, criticise the following speech of one of Shake- 
 speare's gardeners: 
 
 " Go, bind thou up yon dangling apricots, 
 Which, hke unruly children, make their sire 
 Stoop with oppression of their prodigal weight; 
 Give some supportance to the tender twigs. 
 Go thou, and, hke an executioner. 
 Out off the heads of too fast growing sprays, 
 That look too lofty in our commonwealth; 
 All must be even in our government." 
 
 15. Simile should be used neither frequently nor from mere 
 habit. Quackenbos well says that " only writers of tran- 
 scendent genius can indulge in continued ornament with 
 any hope of success." Among young writers of vivid im- 
 agination there are few more frequent forms of affectation 
 than a multiplicity of figures. 
 
 METAPHOB. 
 
 1. Mixed or incongruous metaphors are always to be 
 avoided. 
 
 Criticise. — "The fire of jealousy will soon root out all happiness 
 from the domestic circle.'" 
 
 2. A metaphor should not be "strained" or carried out 
 into irrelevant details. 
 
 Criticise. — "Since the vessel of thy unbounded ambition hath 
 been wrecked in the gulf of thy self-love, it would be proper that 
 thou shouldst take in the sails of thy temerity, and cast the an- 
 chor of repentance in the port of sincerity and justice, which is 
 the port of safety; lest the tempest of our vengeance make thee 
 perish in the sea of the punishment thou deservest. " 
 
 3. ^71 excess of metaphor is to be avoided. It is not well 
 to prepare a dinner wholly of spices. " When," says Karnes,* 
 "the subject is imagined to be first one thing and then 
 another in the same period without interval, the mind is 
 distracted by the rapid transition." 
 
 * " Elements of Criticism," p. 374. 
 
222 PBAOTICAL BHETORIO. 
 
 Cnticise. — "I am thankful for the iconoclastic spades which 
 are rooting up old saws that have become stripped of all signifi- 
 cance, like Cleopatra's Needle, by being removed from their nat- 
 ural surroundings." 
 
 4. Sense shoicld not he sacrificed to sound. This is some- 
 times but one form of the fault last mentioned. 
 
 Criticise. — "Ezekiel was a comet. Sharp, distinct yet nebulous, 
 swift, sword-shaped, blood-red, he hangs in the Old Testament 
 sky, rather burning as a portent than shining as a prophet." 
 
 5. A metaphor, like a simile, should not le based on a 
 
 faint resernblance. 
 
 Criticise. — " He cannot buckle his distempered cause within 
 the belt of rule." 
 
 6. Trite metaphors are to be avoided. 
 
 Criticise. — " The Turkish government seems to have decided to 
 let loose again the dogs of war. " 
 
 7. Metaphor, like simile, must not be far-fetched or ob- 
 scure. 
 
 Criticise. — " His arguments were inseparably dovetailed to- 
 gether." 
 
 8. The metaphor should be appropriate to the subject. 
 That which would be appropriate in one style of composi- 
 tion may be quite out of place in another. " Figures," 
 says Blair,* "are the dress of sentiment. They should 
 consequently be adapted to the ideas which they are in- 
 tended to adorn." Some subjects are too prosaic to admit 
 of any striking metaphor. 
 
 Criticise. — " Gold immediately soared to 137." 
 
 9. Metaphor should not be blended tvith plain language in 
 
 the same sentence. 
 
 Criticise. — "Now from my fond embrace by tempest torn, 
 Our other column of the State is born. 
 Nor took a kind adieu, nor sought consent." 
 
 10. Metaphors containing low or disagreeable allusions 
 
 are, of course, to be avoided. 
 
 Criticise. — " Senator Chandler is entitled to be called the bull- 
 dog of the treasury." 
 
 11.- Bombastic metaphors are equally objectionable. 
 
 They form, frequently, a violation of principle 8. 
 
 * "Lectures," p. 115. 
 
BHETOBIOAL IMAGEBT. 223 
 
 Criticise. — "The grand and sympathetic words of Queen Vic- 
 toria, which flashed on the wings of electricity over the Atlantic 
 cable, and hovered like a guardian angel over the bed of the dying 
 President Garfield, were words of pearls and diamonds set in the 
 necklace of international unity and harmony, hung around the 
 neck of the Goddess of Liberty." 
 
 12. As the rsverse of the last principle, it is in lad tasle 
 
 to compare great and voble things to those that are trivial 
 
 except for the purpose of burlesque. 
 
 Criticise. — " The sun having retired late the night before, arose 
 that morning with a very red eye." 
 
 13. Concrete metaphors are most effective. " The meta- 
 phor is most useful," says Hill,* " when it embodies the 
 abstract, intangible, or intellectual in the similitude of the 
 concrete visible and material." 
 
 pi. — "Candor is a delicate flower; so delicate that it maybe 
 withered merely by a laugh and its beauty can never be renewed." 
 
 PBESOIflFICATIOIf. 
 
 By confining the distinction of gender to living beings 
 that have sex, the English language offers an exceptional 
 field for the employment of this figure as compared with 
 languages like the Latin and German, whose gender is an 
 arbitrary grammatical form. 
 
 1. The highest form of personification should be used only 
 when the mind is strongly excited. 
 
 Critvdse. — " Many-tongued rumor, the unblest evangel of cal- 
 umny, has more than hinted that to the gUtter of gold have been 
 added the enchantments of beauty to warp the judgments of men, 
 and that the corporate Aladdins of the land, whose influence it is 
 impossible not to feel, even in the inner chambers of this temple, 
 have called to their councils both the sightless son of Ceres and 
 the star-eyed cyprian whose home is on the heights. " — From a 
 speech in Congress. 
 
 2. Except for the purpose of burlesque, descriptive per- 
 sonification should not be applied to undignified or familiar 
 objects. This caution is especially applicable in the case of 
 abstract terms. 
 
 * " Science of Rlietoric," p. 216. 
 
224 PBACTICAL REETOBIO. 
 
 Criticise. — "How now ! what noise ! 
 
 (ffl). . . . that spirit's possessed with haste, 
 
 That wounds the unresisting postern with these strokes." 
 
 ' ' O vale of bliss ! O softly swelling hiUs ! 
 (6.) On which the power of cultivation lies, 
 And joys to see the wonders of his toil." 
 
 3. Personificatio7i should be kept loWiin the hounds of 
 moderation. When too far strained, the reader's imagina- 
 tion refuses to aid in the delusion. 
 
 Criticise. — "The barge was like a burnished throne; 
 Purple the sails, and so perfumed that 
 The winds were love-sick with them." 
 
 4. Descriptive personification should be expres.sed briefly. 
 
 The use of too many words dissolves the charm. 
 
 Criticise. — " Her fate is whispered by the gentle breeze, 
 And told in sighs to all the trembling trees; 
 The trembling trees, in ev'ry plain and wood. 
 Her fate remurmur to the silver flood; 
 The silver flood, so lately calm, appears 
 Swell'd with new passion, and o'erflows with tears; 
 The winds, and trees, and floods, her death deplore, 
 Daphne, our grief ! our glory ! now no more." 
 
 5. Personification is not a consistent method of expressing 
 
 the dispiriting passions, such as remorse and the like. 
 
 Criticise. — " Be witness to me, O thou blessed moon, 
 O sovereign mistress of true melancholy, 
 The poisonous damp of night dispurge upon me, 
 That life, a very rebel to my will, 
 May hang no longer on me." 
 
 6. Personification should be adapted to the occasion as 
 well as to the subject. 
 
 7. Personification of the highest degree should be used 
 sparingly. Like metaphor, it is ornament, not substance, 
 and may be too frequent, even though the emotion be 
 strong enough to warrant it. 
 
 IV. ALLEGORY. 
 
 1. As with its basis, metaphor, allegory should not be 
 mingled with plain language. 
 
BHETOBIOAL IMAGERY. 225 
 
 " You took her up a tender little flower, 
 Just sprouted on a bank, which the next frost 
 Had nipped; and, with a careful loving hand 
 Transplanted her into your own fair garden, 
 Where the sun always shines. There long she flourished, 
 Grew sweet to sense and lovely to the eye, 
 TiL, at the last, a cruel spoiler came, 
 Cropt this fair girl and' rifled all her sweetness, 
 Then cast her like a loathsome weed away." 
 
 2. Like metapJior, the allegory must not ie mixed — it 
 must not be the expansion of incongmous metaphors or of 
 metaphor mixed with plain language. 
 
 3. The narrative must be so constructed as to be interest- 
 ing, independently of the literal meaning. 
 
 4. The relation between the allegory and its literal mean- 
 ing must be such as to be readily seen. Violations of the 
 last three rules will be found in the following passage from 
 Dryden's " Hind and Panther :" 
 
 " Panting and pensive now she [the R. C. Church] ranged alone, 
 
 And wandered in the kingdoms once her own; 
 
 The common hunt, though from their rage restrained 
 
 By sovereign power, her company disdained. 
 
 Grinned as they passed, and with a glaring eye 
 
 Gave gloomy signs of secret enmity. 
 
 'Tis true she bounded by and tripped so light, 
 
 They had not time to take a steady sight; 
 
 For truth has such a face and such a mien 
 
 As to be loved needs only to be seen. " 
 
 ******* 
 "The bristled Baptist Boar, impure as he, 
 
 But whitened with the foam of sanctity. 
 
 With fat pollutions filled the sacred place. 
 
 And mountains levelled in his furious race; 
 
 So first rebellion founded was in grace. 
 
 But, since the mighty ravage which he made 
 
 In German forests had his guilt betrayed. 
 
 With broken tusks and with a borrowed name, 
 
 He shunned the vengeance and concealed the shame. 
 
 So lurked in sects unseen." 
 
 In general, all the rules governing metaphors apply 
 equally well to allegories. They must be neither trite, 
 obscure, degrading, bombastic, far-fetched, nor unseason- 
 able. 
 
 15 
 
226 PB ACTIO AL BHETOBIC. 
 
 SYNECDOCHE. 
 
 1. The use of the genus for the species, or of the whole for 
 a part, must be confined to those cases where vast extent or 
 magnitude is to ie implied, or where a disagreeable word is 
 to be avoided by circumlocution. As the concrete is clearer 
 and more forcible than the abstract, this form of Synec- 
 doche must, froDj the nature of the case, be comparatively 
 rare. 
 
 Criticise. — " As the shades of night settled down on the battle- 
 field, the soldiers on either side busied themselves in burying the 
 departed." 
 
 2. In using the species for the genus, or the part for the 
 whole, the language must be put in such form that the reader 
 will not understand it to apply literally to the species rather 
 than to the genus. 
 
 Criticise. — "Eight souls were saved." 
 
 3. In Antonomasia the names of only such individuals 
 should be used as are universally hnown. Writers who are 
 somewhat familiar with classical literature are especially 
 liable to this error. They forget that, to the average popu- 
 lar audience, mythological personages are quite unknown. 
 
 Criticise. — "He was a regular Thersites." 
 
 4. A definite should be used for an indefinite number only 
 tvhen there is nn danger of a literal interpretation j that is, 
 when it would be difficult or impossible to determine the 
 exact number. 
 
 Criticise. — " The Democrats in the House of Eepresentatives 
 outnumber the Republicans three to one." 
 
 METOlirTMT. 
 
 1. In a good metonymy the name of the thing less known 
 ix exchanged for that of the thing that is better known. If 
 this exchange is reversed, the figure becomes a blemish 
 rather than a help. 
 
 Criticise. — ' ' He was always welcome to a plate at the table and 
 a seat by the hob " 
 
 3. Metonymy should rarely, if ever, be used in strict 
 
 scientific statement. 
 
BHETOEIOAL IMAOEBT. 227 
 
 Criticise. — "The pressure of the blood in the human arteries is 
 most clearly seen when one of these is severed by the surgeon's 
 steel." 
 
 EXCLAMATIOIS". 
 
 1. Exclamation presupposes strong mental excitement on 
 the part of both writer and reader, and therefore must not 
 be used in unimpassioiied discourse. Blair forcibly re- 
 marks,* "When an author is always calling upon us to enter 
 into transports which he has said nothing to inspire, he ex- 
 cites our disgust and indignation." 
 
 Criticise. — ' ' What a perfectly charming shade of ribbon ! Isn't 
 it lovely! Did you ever see anything so beautiful !" 
 
 3. For the same reason, the figure should not be employed 
 very frequently. Continual excitement is not only un- 
 natural, but even monotonous. 
 
 HYPERBOLE. 
 
 1. The use of Hyperbole must be suited to the mood of 
 those addressed. Unless the feelings of the reader are suflS- 
 ciently excited to come up to the hyperbolic expression, the 
 figure becomes to him mere exaggeration, and is therefore 
 a blemish rather than an ornament to the composition. 
 
 Criticise. — " The star that at your birth shone out so bright, 
 It stained the duller sun's meridian light." 
 
 — Dryden''s couplet on Charles II. 
 
 2. As a corollary to the last rule, the reader must be 
 warmed and prepared for a hyperbole. It is therefore out 
 of place at the beginning of a composition. 
 
 Criticise. — "So great our palaces are now, 
 
 They leave few acres to the plow.'.' 
 
 — First couplet of a poem. 
 
 3. Hyperbole should be used sparingly. A continued suc- 
 cession of hyperboles becomes exhausting and bombastic. 
 
 Criticise. — " The unparalleled hospitality of our host was 
 equalled only by the gorgeous magnificence of his home and the 
 peerless beauty of his wife and children." 
 
 * "Lectures," p. 134. 
 
328 PBACTIGAL BHETOBIG. 
 
 4. Like the other figures, a hyperlole may lose its force hy 
 lecoming trite. 
 
 Criticise.— ^^ The gladiator was as bold as a lion, as strong as 
 an ox, and as quick as lightning. " 
 
 5. Violent hyperbole is out of place in mere description 
 or narration. 
 
 Criticise. — " We were told that we would have to wait hut half 
 an hour for the street-car, but it seemed an age." 
 
 6. Hyperbole must not le extravagant or overstrained. 
 This requisite in the use of the figure calls for the nicest 
 discrimination. Longinus fitly compares an extravagant 
 hyperbole to a bowstring, which relaxes by overstraining, 
 and produces an effect directly opposite to what was in- 
 tended. 
 
 Criticise. — " England ne'er had a king until his time : 
 Virtue he had, deserving to command: 
 His brandish'd sword did blind men with its beams: 
 His arms spread wider than a dragon's wings: 
 His sparkling eyes, replete with awful fire. 
 More dazzled, and drove back his enemies. 
 Than midday sun fierce bent against their faces. 
 What shotTld I say ? his deeds exceed all speech: 
 He never lifted up his hand, but conquer'd. " 
 
 7. Hyperbole is out of place in delineating any dispirit- 
 ing passion. 
 
 Criticise. — " Draw them to Tiber's bank, and weep your tears 
 Into the channel, till the lowest stream 
 Do kiss the most exalted shores of all." 
 
 8. A hyperbole should be concisely expressed. If too 
 many words be used, time is thiis given to destroy the de- 
 lusion, and the charm is lost. Karnes quotes a French 
 sonnet where the whole fourteen lines are employed to say 
 that Phillis outshines the sun as the sun outshines the 
 stars, and compares this with Chaucer's line, 
 
 "Up rose the sun, and up rose Emilie." 
 
 9. It should not be so expressed as to be liable to literal 
 
 interpretation by a reader of ordinary intelligence. 
 
 Criticise.— "Talk about the fertility of California! Why, even 
 the sheep there produce two heavy fleeces every year." 
 
RHETOBIGAL IMAGERY. 229 
 
 10. It should be excluded from strictly scientific com- 
 position. 
 
 Oritidse. — "In order property to ventilate a schoolroom of 
 that size, oceans of fresh air should be constantly introduced." 
 
 APOSTEOPHE. 
 
 1. The use of this figure presupposes very strong emotion 
 and is absurd without it. It is in place only in the most 
 •impassioned flights of oratory and poetry. 
 
 Oritidse. — "O Greeley, thou great-hearted editor ! How has 
 the press degenerated since thou hast passed away !" 
 
 2. Even tvhen appropriate, apostrophe should not be used 
 very frequently : there is no surer mark of bombast. 
 
 VISI02J-. 
 
 1. Like hyperbole and apostrophe, this figure rests upon 
 a certain permissible delusion. It is therefore out of place 
 except when preceded by such trains of thought and feeling 
 as toill justify the deviation from strict truth. 
 
 Oritidse. — " Methinks I see before me the participants in the 
 recent strike. See them rush about ! How excited they are ! 
 See those men stopping that engine ! They feel that they have 
 been wronged !" 
 
 3. Hie imagined scene must not be pictured at too great 
 length or in too minute detail. 
 
 3. Like the other related figures, vision must not be em- 
 ployed too frequently. 
 
 ANTITHESIS. 
 
 1. Mere verbal antithesis should be avoided. In true an- 
 tithesis there must always be opposition in the ideas ex- 
 pressed, and not merely in the words used. Whately * well 
 compares mere verbal antithesis to "the false handles and 
 key-holes with which furniture is decorated, that serve no 
 other purpose than to correspond to the real ones." 
 
 Criticise. — "Farther, I say, and farther will maintain 
 Upon his had life to make all this good, 
 That he did plot the Duke of Gloster's death." 
 
 * " Elements of Rhetoric," p. 340. 
 
230 PRACTICAL BEETOBIO. 
 
 2. Fanciful aiititheses are to be avoided, except in hu- 
 morous composition. Though generally verbal, they are not 
 necessarily so. 
 
 Criticise. — "What, shall these papers lie like tell-tales here ?" 
 "If thou respect them, best to take them up." 
 " Nay, I was taken up for laying them down." 
 
 3. The contrasted inemlers should he similar in length 
 and in grammatical construction. The balanced form 
 brings out the contrast most clearly. Says Hart:* "If_ 
 two objects, one white and one black, are placed side by 
 side, the difference between them in color will be all the 
 more striking if the objects are in other respects alike." 
 
 Criticise. — "The peasant complains aloud ; the courtier grows 
 weary with concealing his injuries." 
 
 4. Unlike most of the other figures, antithesis requires 
 study and premeditation. It is not, like metaphor, a natu- 
 ral and easy mode of expression. "A maxim or moral 
 saying," says Blair,f "very properly receives this form be- 
 cause it is supposed to be the effect of meditation, and is 
 designed to be engraven on the memory, which recalls it 
 more easily by the aid of contrasted expressions." 
 
 5. Antithesis should be used sparingly. This is but a 
 
 corollary to the last principle. Frequent use of this figure 
 
 calls undue attention to the form rather than to the 
 
 thought, and thus gives to style an artificial character. 
 
 The pages of certain French writers, for example, are 
 
 merely so many strings of proverbs. 
 
 Criticise. — "Vanity has a right side and a wrong side: the 
 right side is stupid, it is the negro with his beads; the wrong side 
 is silly, it is the philosopher with his rags. I weep over one and 
 I laugh over the other. That which is called honors and digni- 
 ties, and even honor and dignity, is generally pinchbeck. Kings 
 make a plaything of human pride. Caligula made a horse con- 
 sul; Charles II. made a sirloin a knight." 
 
 CLIMAX. 
 
 1. Regular clim,ax, that is, climax proceeding by even, 
 proportionate steps, is too difficult to be spontaneous. When 
 
 * "Composition and Rhetoric," p. 170. j " Lectures," p. 133. 
 
BEETORICAL IMAGEBT. 231 
 
 used, therefore, in any but the most formal style of com- 
 position, care must be taken to conceal the underlying art. 
 For example, such a passage as the following would be out 
 of place in a composition that is supposed to have been 
 hastily produced : 
 
 " What shall we say, then, when a woman guilty of homicide, 
 a mother guilty of the murder of her innocent child, has com- 
 prised all those misdeeds in one single crime: a crime in its own 
 nature detestable; in a woman prodigious; in a mother incredi- 
 ble; and perpetrated against one whose age called for compas- 
 sion; whose near relation claimed affection; and whose innocence 
 deserved the highest favor ?" 
 
 2. Kames remarks* that "a climax never shows better 
 than in a swelling passion;" and illustrates with the fol- 
 lowing passage from " The Mourning Bride:" 
 
 " Let me not stir, nor breathe, lest I dissolve 
 That tender, lovely form, of painted air. 
 So like Almeria. Ha! it sinks, it falls; 
 I'U catch it ere it goes, and grasp her shade. 
 'Tis life! 'tis warm! 'tis she herself ! 
 It is Almeria, 'tis, it is my wife!" 
 
 3. As formal climax is more artificial than most of the 
 other figures, it should be used more sparingly. 
 
 EPIGRAM. 
 
 The principal caution to be given in reference to epigram 
 is against its excessive ttse. It generally embodies an an- 
 tithesis, and is subject to the same regulation as is that fig- 
 ure. Hill fitly observesf that " an epigrammatic style is 
 better adapted to be a depository of thought than to be a 
 medium of communication, since, when the sense is once 
 grasped, the brevity and paradox of the form of expression 
 fix it in the memory. The epigram, therefore, is the nat- 
 ural garb of the proverb." 
 
 INTERROGATION-. 
 
 This is a more natural and easy figure than either antith- 
 esis, climax, or epigram, and may therefore be used more 
 frequently without marring the style. Unlike most of the 
 
 * "Elemonts of Criticism," p. 220. 
 t " Science of Rhetoric," p. 241. 
 
232 PBAGTIOAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 other figtires, it may be employed in the closest and most 
 earnest reasoning. Its use, however, must not be so fre- 
 quent as to become a mannerism. 
 
 Criticise (from the beginning of an essay). — " What is the 
 condition of Ireland to-day ? "Where is the glory that once clus- 
 tered about her shores ? Where are her statesmen and her 
 poets ? Where are her schools and colleges ? What is the condi- 
 tion of the common people ? What encouragement is there for 
 Irish industry ? For years this island has been subjected to the 
 grossest tyranny, etc." 
 
 lEOSTT. 
 
 1. The use of irony must be suited to the occasion. Ex- 
 cept for the purpose of refuting an argument it is seldom 
 proper in treating of a serious or sacred theme. Whately 
 observes,* " If such a mode of argument be employed on 
 serious subjects, the ' weak brethren ' are sometimes scan- 
 dalized by what appears to them a profanation; not having 
 discernment to perceive when it is that the ridicule does, 
 and when it does not, affect the solemn subject itself." 
 But for the respect paid to Holy "Writ, the taunt of Elijah 
 against the prophets of Baal would probably appear to such 
 persons irreverent. 
 
 Critidse.— " This, then, was Jacob. Truly, an Israelite in 
 whom was no guile. See him, as he awkwardly tries to simulate 
 his brother's voice, while he pulls the kid-skin over his hands in 
 the presence of his poor, old, blind father. Faithful son ! admi- 
 rable character! AVhat a noble example to be held up before the 
 youth of the world for thirty centuries !" 
 
 2. Even in refutation there is danger that the wit may 
 obscure the argument. The proverb that "ridicule is not 
 the test of truth, causes most men to be suspicious of an 
 argument clothed in ironical form," says Whately. Again, 
 " He that can laugh at what is ludicrous, and at the same 
 time preserve a clear discernment of sound and unaound 
 reasoning, is no ordinary man." 
 
 3. Irony must be so expressed, by tone of voice, punctua- 
 tion, etc., as to enable the reader or hearer to perceive that 
 the meaning is irotiical rather than literal. Here, as in 
 
 * " Elements of Rlietoric," p. 100. 
 
BHETORIOAL IMAGERY. 233 
 
 many cases, rhetoric and elocution necessarily merge. 
 What is generally known as the "circumflex" inflection 
 brings out irony in reading. For example, the following 
 passage would have little force if read without the cir- 
 cumflex on the words "dog," "money," "cur," and 
 "ducats:" 
 
 " Hath a dog money ? Is it possible 
 A cur can lend three thousand ducats ?" 
 
 Again, the following passage would lose most of its ironi- 
 cal force if the dashes were omitted in punctuation: 
 
 " Have you not room in your own country to bury your dead 
 men ? If you come into mine, we will greet you — with bloody 
 hands, and welcome you — ^to hospitable graves." 
 
 4. Like antithesis, epigram, and climax, irony must not 
 
 be used too frequejitly . A writer who continually says what 
 
 he does not mean, soon comes to be mistrusted, even when 
 
 he speaks seriously. He is like the boy in the story who 
 
 cried " Wolf !" when there was no wolf, and so was not 
 
 believed when he gave the warning of real danger. 
 
 E-XERCISES IN FAULTY PIGUEES. 
 
 Note. — Let the student name and criticise the following figures, 
 giving, in each case, the principle or principles violated therein, 
 and recasting each, so far as possible, into good form: — 
 
 1. " Steep me in poverty to the very lips." 
 3. " A feeble and unconquerable flame creeps in his veins, 
 and drinks the streams of life." 
 
 3. " Thou hidst a thousand daggers in thy thoughts, 
 
 Which thou hast whetted on thy stony heart 
 To stab at half an hour of my frail life." 
 
 4. " Will you again nnknit 
 
 This churlish not of all-abhorred war. 
 And move in that obedient orb again. 
 Where you did give a fair and natural light?" 
 6. " But now from gathering clouds destruction pours, 
 Which ruins with mad rage our halcyon hours: 
 Mists from black jealousies the tempests form. 
 Whilst late divisions reinforce the storm." 
 
234 PBAOTIOAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 6. "The railway and the telegraph are breaking up the 
 lines of caste, and so swift-footed Mercury is tearing up 
 old Terminus." 
 
 7. " But who dare claim kindred with Ezekiel, the severe 
 the mystic, the unfathomable, the lonely, whose hot- 
 hurried breath we feel approaching us like the breath of a 
 furnace?" 
 
 8. "The apple of discord is now fairly in our midst, and 
 if not nipped in the bud it will burst forth into a confla- 
 gration that will deluge the sea of politics with an earthquake 
 of heresies." 
 
 9. " Many a youth launches forth on the journey of life 
 with no fixed end in view." 
 
 10. "I bridle in my struggling muse with pain. 
 
 That longs to launch into a nobler strain." 
 
 11. "His thoughts soared up from earth like fire, and 
 winged their flight to distant stars." 
 
 12. "0 Independence Day, thou chorus of the ages, we 
 hail thy glimmerings 'mid the cataracts of time!" 
 
 13. " General Hancock at Gettysburg was as bold as a 
 lion." 
 
 14. " Before retiring, he washed away from his soul by 
 tears all the stS,ins it had received during the day, as the 
 sun sets in water and is thereby kept unsullied." 
 
 15. "- Give me the crown. — Here, cousin, seize the crown: 
 
 Here on this side, my hand; on that side, thine. 
 Now is this golden crown like a deep well. 
 That owes two buckets, filling one another; 
 The emptier ever dancing in the air. 
 The other down, unseen, and full of water j 
 That bucket down, and full of tears, am I, 
 Drinking my griefs, whilst you mount up on high." 
 
 16. " This man, gentlemen of the jury, walks into court 
 like a motionless statue, with the cloak of hypocrisy in his 
 
RHETORICAL IMAGERY. 235 
 
 mouth, and is attempting to screw three large oaks out of 
 my client's pockets." 
 
 17. ' • In the ferment of political revolutions, the dregs 
 of society are sure to rise to the surface, and once there as- 
 sume the reins of power with bold and unscrupulous 
 hand." 
 
 18. "They are brittle wits, the edge whereof is soon 
 turned." 
 
 19. "With her lily hand, she looped back the raven 
 tresses from her ivory brow." 
 
 20. " At length the bill was floated through both houses 
 of Parliament on the tide of a great majority, and steered 
 into a safe harbor of royal approbation." 
 
 21. " He flung his powerful frame into the saddle and 
 his great soul into the cause." 
 
 22. " Nor could the Greeks repel the Lycian powers, 
 
 Nor the bold Lycians force the Grecian towers 
 
 As, on the confines of adjoining grounds. 
 
 Two stubborn swains with blows dispute their 
 
 bounds; 
 They tug, they sweat ; but neither gain nor yield 
 One foot, one inch, of the contended field." 
 
 23. " Let us cultivate thoroughly this branch of the 
 vineyard of life." 
 
 24. " Yet some unselfish hearts are ready to step forward 
 and pluck the thoughtless and erring, like brands, from 
 the abyss of life." 
 
 25. "0 Nero, take not thy seat in Heaven near either 
 pole, lest haply thy all-potent weight may overturn the 
 universe !" 
 
 26. " My mangled body shows. 
 
 My blood, my want of strength, my sick heart 
 
 shows. 
 That I must yield my body to the earth. 
 And, by my fall, the conquest to my foe. 
 
236 PB ACTIO AL BHETOBIC. 
 
 Thus yield, the cedar to the axe's edge. 
 Whose arms gave shelter to the princely eagle. 
 Under whose shade the ramping lion slept; 
 Whose top-branch overpowered Jove's spreading 
 
 tree, 
 And kept low shrubs from winter's powerful wind." 
 
 37. " Superior beings, when of late they saw 
 A mortal man unfold all nature's law. 
 Admired such wisdom in an earthly shape, 
 And showed a Newton as we show an ape." 
 
 28. " Boyle was the father of chemistry and brother to 
 the Earl of Cork." 
 
 29. " May the word which has been preached be like a 
 nail driven in a sure place, sending its roots downward and 
 its branches upward, spreading itself like a greenbay tree, 
 fair as the moon, clear as the sun, and terrible as an army 
 with banners!" 
 
 30. " The strong pillar of the church has fled." 
 
 31. " The chariot of day peers over the mountain-tops," 
 Zii. "Napoleon I. was of low moral calibre." 
 
 33. " Those whose minds are dull and heavy do not easily 
 penetrate into the folds and intricacies of an affair, and 
 therefore can only skim off what they find at the top." 
 
 34. "The last spark of life is ebbing, and the soul is 
 preparing to take its heavenward flight." 
 
 35. Augustus. "Look, Edith ! how lovely are those 
 fleecy cloudlets dappled over the — " 
 
 Edith. (Honestly) " Yes, 'xactly like gravy when it's get- 
 ting cold — isn't it?" 
 
 36. "From the throats of three hundred cannon poured 
 a shower of balls which winnowed the English ranks." 
 
 37. " Let us eradicate the scourge of intemperance." 
 
 38. " His bosom was swollen with the flame of patriot- 
 ism." 
 
 39. "Our thought should be seen through our words as 
 
BHETOBICAL IMAOEBT. 237 
 
 are twigs through their coating of ice after a cold rain in 
 winter." 
 
 40. "The parts of a climax grow in importance as a 
 wedge grows in thickness, the most forcible standing last 
 and making the deepest impression." 
 
 41. " He is swamped in the meshes of his argument." 
 
 42. "Such a quenching of eagle's talons was never seen 
 before." 
 
 43. " In simile, the subject and the predicate are but 
 Siamese twins ; a whip of the knife, and the two are divided 
 without damage to either." 
 
 44. "In want, what distress! In affluence, what satiety ! 
 The great are under as much difficulty to expend with 
 pleasure as the mean to labor with success. The ignorant, 
 through ill-grounded hope, are disappointed; the knowing, 
 through knowledge, desppnd. Ignorance occasions mis- 
 take; mistake, disappointment; and disappointment, misery. 
 Knowledge, on the other hand, gives true judgment; and 
 true judgment of human things gives a demonstration of 
 their insufficiency to our peace." 
 
 45. "He gave me a magnificent pair of gloves." 
 
 46. " See how the blue bended floors of the heavens are 
 frescoed !" 
 
 47. "Solve the mazes of this dark tragedy." 
 
 48. "He would not stoop to such lengths of meanness." 
 
 49. "In the main battle with his flaming crest 
 
 The mighty Turnus towers above the rest — 
 Silent they move, majestically slow. 
 Like ebbing Nile; or Ganges in his flow." 
 
 50. "The noble sister of Publicola, 
 
 The moon of Eome; chaste as the icicle 
 That's curled by the frost from purest snow. 
 And hangs on Dian's temple." 
 
 51. " But anxious cares already seized the queen. 
 
 That fed within her veins a flame unseen." 
 
238 PRACTICAL BEETOBTC. 
 
 53. " Good Margaret, run thee into the parlor; 
 There shalt thou find my cousin Beatrice; 
 Whisper her ear, and tell her, I and Ursula 
 Walk in the orchard, and our whole discourse 
 Is all of her; say that thou overheard'st us: 
 And bid her steal into the pleached bower. 
 Where honeysuckles, ripen'd by the sun. 
 Forbid the sun to enter; like to favorites, 
 Made proud by princes that advance their pride 
 Against that power that bred it." ' 
 
 53. Lucia, "Farewell, my Fortius, 
 
 Farewell, though death is in the word, forever ! 
 
 Fortius. Stay, Lucia, stay; what dost thou say ? 
 forever f 
 
 Lucia. Have I not sworn ? If, Fortius, thy success 
 Must throw thy brother on his fate, farewell. 
 Oh, how shall I repeat the vf audi, forever? 
 
 Fortius. Thus, o'er the dying lamp th' unsteady 
 flame 
 Hangs quivering on a point, leaps off by fits. 
 And falls again, as loath to quit its hold. 
 — Thou must not go; my soul still hovers o'er thee, 
 And can't get loose." 
 
 54. " With this we charg'd again; but out, alas ! 
 
 We bodg'd again; as I have seen a swan 
 
 With bootless labor swim against the tide. 
 
 And spend her strength with overmatching waves 
 
 Ah ! hark, the fatal followers do pursue; 
 
 And I am faint and cannot fly their fury. 
 
 The sands are number'd that make up my life; 
 
 Here must I stay, and here my life must end." 
 
 55. "So burns the vengeful hornet (soul all o'er) 
 
 Kepuls'd in vain, and thirsty still of gore; 
 (Bold son of air and heat) on angry wings 
 Untam'd, untir'd, he turns, attacks, and stings. 
 Fir'd with like ardor fierce Atrides flew. 
 And sent his soul with ev'ry lance he threw." 
 
RHETOBIGAL IMAGERY. 230 
 
 56. "0 thou fond many! with what loud applause 
 
 Didst thou beat heav'n with blessing Bolingbroke 
 Before he was what thou would'st have him be ! 
 And now being trimm'd up in thine own desires. 
 Thou, beastly feeder, art so full of him. 
 That thou provok'st thyself to cast him up. 
 And so, thou common dog, didst thou disgorge 
 Thy glutton bosom of the royal Richard, 
 And now thou would'st eat thy dead vomit up. 
 And howl'st to find it." 
 
 57. " From brightening fields of aether fair disclos'd. 
 
 Child of the sun, refulgent Summer comes. 
 
 In pride of youth, and felt through Nature's depth." 
 
 58. "In winter's tedious nights sit by the fire 
 
 With good old folks, and let them tell their tales 
 
 Of woful ages, long ago betid: 
 
 And ere thou bid good-night to quit their grief. 
 
 Tell them the lamentable fall of me. 
 
 And send the hearers weeping to their beds. 
 
 For why ! the senseless brands will sympathize 
 
 The heavy accent of thy moving tongue. 
 
 And in compassion weep the fire out." 
 
 59. Cleopatra. " Haste, bare my arm, and rouse the ser- 
 
 pent's fury. 
 Coward flesh, . . . 
 Wouldst thou conspire with Caesar to betray me. 
 As thou wert none of mine ? I'll force thee to 'i." 
 
 60. " Or from the shore 
 
 The plovers when to scatter o'er the heath 
 And sing their wild notes to the list'ning waste." 
 
 61. " Laris' hand 
 Dismember'd sought its owner on the strand; 
 The trembling fingers yet the falchion strain, 
 And threaten still the extended stroke in vain." 
 
240 PBACTIOAL MHETOBIO. 
 
 63. "Then sated Hunger bids his brother thirst. 
 Produce the mighty bowl: 
 Nor wanting is the brown October, drawn 
 Mature and perfect, from Ids dark retreat 
 Of thirty years, and now his honest front 
 Flames in the light refulgent." 
 
 63. "See Winter comes, to rule the vary'd year. 
 
 Sullen and sad with all his rising train. 
 Vapors and clouds and storms." 
 
 64. "She shall be dignified with this high honor. 
 
 To bear my lady's train; lest the base earth 
 Should from her vesture chance to steal a kiss; 
 And, of so great a favor growing proud. 
 Disdain to root the summer-swelling flower. 
 And make rough winter everlastingly." 
 
 65. Calista. "Is it the voice of thunder, or my father f 
 
 Madness ! Confusion ! let the storm come on! 
 Let the tumultuous roar drive all upon me, 
 D^sh my devoted bark; ye surges, break it; 
 'Tis for my ruin that the tempest rises. 
 When I am lost, sunk to the bottom low. 
 Peace shall return, and all be calm again." 
 
 66. Gonsalez. "0 my son ! from the blind dotage 
 
 Of a father's fondness these ills arose. 
 For thee I've been ambitious, base, and bloody: 
 For thee I've plung'd into this sea of sin; 
 Stemming the tide with only one weak hand, 
 While t'other bore the crown (to wreathe thy brow) 
 Whose weight has sunk me ere I reach'd the shore." 
 
PART III. 
 THE THOUGHT. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 THE SELECTION OF A SUBJECT. 
 
 Of all the tasks assigned to the average student, from 
 the grammar grades up through the college course, none 
 has been the subject of so much complaint as that of Eng- 
 lish composition. " That essay" is the bugbear of the 
 school curriculum, and has been since the days of the 
 fathers. The fact that this complaint is so often heard 
 from pupils who never become discouraged about their 
 ■work in other departments is evidence that the irksome- 
 ness of rhetorical work is not entirely attributable to the 
 character or the ability of the average student. 
 
 The first cause of difficulty in composition is doubtless 
 to be found in the tendency of young writers to select too 
 broad a subject. Indefinite thinking is always weak, con- 
 fused, difficult thinking. Take, for example, the following 
 subjects, quoted verbatim from actual programmes of semi- 
 nary rhetorical exercises: 
 
 Commerce, 
 
 Light, 
 
 Words, 
 
 Conflict, 
 
 Wealth, 
 
 Labor, 
 
 The Arts, 
 
 Sleep, 
 
 Newspapers, 
 
 Euins, 
 
 Life, 
 
 Hypocrisy, 
 
 Names, 
 
 Education, 
 
 Pride, 
 
 Dissatisfaction, 
 
 Envy, 
 
 Clouds, 
 
 Public Opinion, 
 
 Selfishness, 
 
 Curiosity. 
 
 And the list might be prolonged indefinitely from the 
 programmes offered in our intermediate schools. Now, in 
 16 
 
242 PBACTICAL BRETOBIG. 
 
 how many of the subjects quoted is any one line of thought 
 clearly indicated ? From what one could we tell what the 
 writer is really to write about ? 
 
 The first essential, then, in selecting a subject, is that it 
 be limited to one clear, fundamental idea ; in other words, 
 that it be so narrowed down that the writer shall con- 
 stantly be aiming in one direction instead of five or six. 
 Take, for example, the first subject in the list above quoted. 
 It contains at least eight good essay themes, viz. : — 
 
 1. The Importance of Commerce ; 
 
 2. The History of Commerce ; 
 
 3. Methods of Commerce ; 
 
 4. Obstructions to Commerce ; 
 
 5. Evils in Commerce ; 
 
 6. Possibilities of Commerce ; 
 
 7. Influence of Commerce on Morals ; 
 
 8. Dangers to Commerce. 
 
 And if the word " commerce" be taken in a figurative 
 sense, the number of themes may be increased indefinitely. 
 Again, taking from our list the subject Education. This 
 might be analyzed into themes as follows: — 
 
 1. What is an Education ? 
 
 2. Benefits of an Education ; 
 
 3. Methods of Education ; 
 
 4. The History of Education ; 
 
 5. Errors in Education ; 
 
 6. Essentials in Education ; 
 
 ,7. Great Names in Education, and so on. 
 
 The themes so far selected for illustration have been 
 mainly expository in character ; but there is equal danger 
 of too great breadth in stating an argumentative theme. 
 The trite proposition, "The pen is mightier than the 
 sword," afEords an illustration. From this we may ligiti- 
 mately draw the following: — 
 
 1. Newspapers are more powerful than armies ; 
 
 2. The Poet Homer was more powerful than Alexander ; 
 
 3. Mrs. Stowe accomplished more toward the abolition of 
 slavery than did John Brown ; 
 
 4. General education is a greater safeguard to a city than is a 
 strong police force ; 
 
 5. Popular instruction will do more for the temperance cause 
 than will legal enactment. 
 
TEE SELECTION OF A SUBJECT. 243 
 
 Almost any general proposition may be similarly nar- 
 rowed. 
 
 Sometimes, again, the process of narrowing down a theme 
 consists of seyeral snccessive steps. Take from our list, 
 for example, the subject, " The Arts." Successive analysis 
 gives us the following: — 
 
 1. Original general theme — The Arts. 
 
 3. Narrowed theme — The Fine Arts. 
 
 3. Narrowed farther — The Growth of the Fine Arts. 
 
 4. Narrowed still farther — The Growth of the Fine Arts in 
 
 America. 
 
 5. Still farther — ^The Growth of the Fine Arts in America since 
 1870. 
 
 Thus, by four successive steps, we obtain for our compo- 
 sition a theme that is excellent,' because it confines the 
 writer to one line of thought, and prevents "scattering." 
 It is, moreover, a theme involving only so many facts and 
 relations as may be fairly touched upon in an essay of from 
 five hundred to one thousand words. But to treat even 
 briefly the original, unnarrowed theme would require at 
 least an encyclopaedia volume ; and this could be done suc- 
 cessfully only by analyzing the theme and treating it under 
 several separate heads. 
 
 In the too common attempt to write upon such a general 
 theme, the pupil is like a traveller standing at the junction 
 of several paths. "Wishing to reach a certain destination, 
 he confidently, but often quite casually, selects his path, . 
 and f oUows this until it also branches out into many di- 
 verging ways. Then come hesitation, confusion, discour- 
 agement. If he is exceptionally determined, our writer- 
 traveller retraces his steps to the original starting-point, 
 puzzles his brain over the remaining paths, and then starts 
 out again only to repeat his first experience ; and so the 
 process of unthinking goes on, till the pupil is lost in a 
 maze of his own construction, and gives up the effort in 
 despair. That this is not an exaggerated picture, almost 
 any practical teacher of rhetoric will admit. With a prop- 
 erly narroAved theme, however, the writer has before him a 
 straight road, so plainly marked that any diverging by-paths 
 
244 PB ACTIO AL BHETOBIC. 
 
 which he may find will serve, merely by their subordinate 
 character, only to assure him that he is on the main 
 road. 
 
 Another advantage gained by carefully narrowing the 
 theme is that, in his preliminary reading, the writer can 
 thus easily select what is relevant. With a simple subject 
 and with the use of a good index, the writer may gain, in a 
 few moments, all that is relevant to his theme in a large 
 volume. With an indefinite subject, one may wander aim- 
 lessly through a book and secure, in the end, no valuable 
 accessions to his knowledge of that subject. 
 
 In certain kinds of composition, especially in Description 
 and JSTarration, weakness and bewilderment are caused, not 
 by confusing different lines of thought, but by endeavoring 
 to cover too much ground on one line. An illustration of 
 this may be found in our fifth narrowed theme on page 
 343. 
 
 Here, without some limiting date, such as IS'i'O, the sub- 
 ject would include so much as to be incapable of fair treat- 
 ment in an average essay. In descriptive and narrative 
 composition the author stands at the centre of a circle yet 
 to be constructed : his first care must be to limit the radius. 
 
 Although the first difficulty of composing, and the first 
 cause of indefiniteness and consequent weakness in too 
 many productions, have already been pointed out, some 
 further suggestions as to the selection of a subject may be 
 helpful. We give these in numerical order: — 
 
 1. Avoid trite suljects. The world is too full of un- 
 hackneyed themes ever to make it necessary for under- 
 graduates to dilate further on " Spring," " Home," 
 "Friendship," "The Benefits of Adversity," and the 
 like. 
 
 Let it be remembered, at the same time, that a trite 
 general subject may, by proper narrowing, furnish one that 
 is fresh as well as definite. For example, a very readable 
 essay might be written on "The Disadvantages of Close 
 Friendship." 
 
THE SELECTION OF A SUBJECT. 245 
 
 3. Gain themes and suggestions for themes by general 
 reading. There is hardly a chapter of such writers as 
 Motley, Macaulay, and Victor Hugo that does not contain 
 or suggest many fresh, interesting themes. Our best cur- 
 rent literature is also most proliiic in suggestion. 
 
 3. Select some theme in which you are personally inter- 
 ested. Forced interest is always weak interest. It is 
 doubtful whether it is ever wise in a teacher to assign to an 
 entire class, or to any pupil, a particular subject. By re- 
 stricting the subjects in a general way, all the advantages 
 of definite assignment are gained, and at the same time 
 room is left for individual tastes. 
 
 4. If the theme is to be argumentative, select one on which 
 you have personal convictions. Earnestness is the very 
 soul of eloquence. Convince your reader or hearer that 
 you are really in earnest, and his favorable attention is 
 secured. 
 
 5. Take a theme that is within your mental powers and 
 acquisitions. It is not necessary for men and women 
 under twenty-five years of age, or thereabouts, to enlighten 
 the world on such doctrines as those of Heredity, Evolu- 
 tion, Sanetification, Free-will, The Immortality of the 
 Soul, etc. "One of the best results of writing," says 
 President Hill,* " is that learners study a subject carefully 
 in order to write about it well. But the subject should not 
 be above the writer's ability to understand, with a reason- 
 able amount of reflection, advice, and reading." Many 
 weak essays have resulted from an ambition to deal with a 
 large subject. 
 
 6. State your theme iiitelligibly. The prime object in 
 stating the theme upon a title-page or printed programme, 
 or by word of mouth, is, that the mental effort of the 
 reader or hearer may be thus economized by giving him a 
 suggestion of what is to come. A popular violation of this 
 principle, and one upheld by some eminent authors, is that 
 
 * " Elements of Rhetoric," p. 8. 
 
246 PRACTICAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 of prefixing fanciful titles. Take, for example, sucli abstrac- 
 tions as Euskin's "A Crown of Wild Olives" and "Munera 
 Pulveris," Longfellow's " Hyperion," etc. 
 
 Here, too, such ambiguous titles as arise from a confu- 
 sion of genitives are to be avoided. For example, the title, 
 " The Pear of the Demigods" is wholly ambiguous. 
 
 7. Make the formal statement of the theme no Iroader 
 than the essay itself. Nearly every writer on a general 
 theme unconsciously narrows that theme down more or less. 
 If, for example, it is "The Importance of Trifles," let that 
 and not "Trifles" be the theme announced. 
 
 8. Adapt the theme to the views and inclinations of the 
 recipients. 
 
 In school and college exercises, a wide variety of themes 
 is allowable ; but these are only the beginning of practical 
 rhetoric. It is admitted that the success of any writer or 
 speaker, as measured by his ability to modify the acts and 
 the opinions of those whom he addresses, depends more 
 upon his skill in this matter of adaptation than upon any 
 other element. Bain* notes the fact that Milton, and after 
 him Erskine, each eminent as a master of elegant prose, 
 alike failed in securing the abolishment of the obnoxious 
 censorship of the press, because the arguments of each, 
 though invincible and eloquent, were addressed to motives 
 far above those that influenced the mass of English voters 
 and English statesmen. While a committee from the House 
 of Commons made up of men so obscure that Macaulay 
 does not even mention their names, readily secured the 
 repeal of the measure by calling the attention of Parliament 
 to points that were within the pale of popular comprehen- 
 sion and popular interest. 
 
 The writer who has just come from the elevated mental 
 surroundings of school life needs to be especially careful on 
 this point. He must remember that there are many topics 
 the discussion of which would be listened to with interest 
 
 * " Rhetoric," pages 230 to 323. 
 
THE SELEGTION OF A hUBJEGT. 247 
 
 by a company of educated men, yet would fail to gain even 
 respectful attention from a popular assemblage. 
 
 In general, the writer should know something of the 
 views, the characteristics, and especially the prejudices of 
 his readers or hearers before selecting his theme. It does 
 not follow from this principle that a writer or speaker 
 should descend to the absolute mental or moral plane of his 
 hearers; but he must take care that the step between his 
 plane and theirs be not too wide. Popular views can be 
 elevated only by gradual stages. 
 
 9. The theme must be adapted, also, to the occasion. Tem- 
 porarily prevailing sentiments of sorrow, joy, suspicion, 
 jealousy, vengeance, and the like, must not be disregarded. 
 Through a neglect to observe the proprieties of the occa- 
 sion, many a production which must otherwise have been 
 regarded as strong or brilliant has been worse than a failure. 
 
 Often the impropriety results from the nature of the cir- 
 cumstances rather than from any prevailing sentiment. 
 The college Junior who soberly addressed an audience com- 
 posed largely of young ladies on the requisites of a good 
 husband did not succeed in securing the grave attention 
 of his hearers. 
 
 Summary. — In a word, then, the subject selected should 
 contain but one definite line of thought; should not be 
 trite ; may often be suggested by general reading ; should 
 be one in which the writer is personally interested ; if argu- 
 mentative, one on which he has convictions; should be 
 suited to his abilities ; should be stated intelligibly; should 
 be stated as no broader than the essay; and should be 
 adapted to the views and the intelligence of those addressed 
 as well as to the occasion. 
 
248 PBACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 THE OUTLINE— ITS IMPORTANCE— METHODS OP 
 
 CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Next to the fault of selecting too broad a subject, and 
 still more productive of confusion and difficulty to the 
 young writer, is the habit of composing, or attempting to 
 compose, without having first constructed a careful frame- 
 work. That almost every writer does unconsciously form 
 a partial framework before beginning the definite work of 
 composition proves only the need of more careful attention 
 to this preliminary work. All composition really consists 
 of two distinct but essential steps: — 1. The collection and 
 classification of material by investigation, reading, reflec- 
 tion, etc. 3. The union of these into a smoothly con- 
 nected, harmonious whole by the use of such terms and 
 such arts of expression as may conduce to this end. 
 
 When pupils can be taught thoroughly to separate these 
 two steps, then the prevalent complaint about the diflQculty 
 of essay-writing will largely cease. JSTo mind can perform 
 two such tasks at once and perform each task well. Dis- 
 traction, neglect, and difSculty must always be the result 
 of such an attempt. It would be as wise for a carpenter to 
 attempt to unite with his trade the occupations of chopper, 
 carrier, sawyer, and lumber-dealer, stopping at every step 
 of his work to go again into the forest, fell a tree, haul it, 
 saw it, and prepare it for the real carpenter's use, as for a 
 student to attempt to put his ideas into clear, strong Eng- 
 lish at the same time that he is trying to originate or collect 
 those ideas. Either effort is enough at one time. 
 
 The real thinking, then, the real invention of an article, 
 should be almost entirely done before the first definite sen- 
 
THE OUTLINE. 249 
 
 tence is written. Of course, new ideas will be suggested 
 during the process of elaborating the various heads and sub- 
 heads of the outline. But if the first operation has been 
 thoroughly performed, these ideas will be of minor impor- 
 tance, and can easily be arranged in their proper places. The 
 obscure, clumsy style so common even among college gradu- 
 ates is not to be wondered at when we consider the constant 
 distractions arising from this harmful habit, as common as 
 it is harmful, of trying to do two things at once. 
 
 The construction of an essay, moreover, may profitably 
 be compared in several respects to the construction of a 
 frame house. The framework is just as necessary in the 
 one case as in the other. The builder who should take his 
 materials indiscriminately — placing first upon the ground, 
 perhaps, a bunch of shingles, then a load of boards, then a 
 few square timbers, then a keg of nails, then a pail of paint, 
 and so on, making only a confused heap of unassorted mat- 
 ter, to which he should give the name of a house — such a 
 man would be considered insane. Yet this is just the way 
 in which pupils too often attempt to write an essay. 
 
 True, there are varying degrees of confusion or of ar- 
 rangement, according to the varying ideas of order natural 
 to different persons, and unconsciously applied. 
 
 Some pupils lay the foundation (their general reading on 
 a subject) fairly, and put some of the main timbers (the 
 main heads of the outline) in their proper places, but fail 
 to complete this first step, thus leaving the structure one- 
 sided and disproportionate. The essay framework must be 
 complete ; that is, it must not omit, among its main tim- 
 bers, or heads, any important division or relation of the 
 theme. 
 
 Other pupils determine the main heads of the outline 
 and arrange these in their proper order, but fail to deter- 
 mine and classify the subheads under each; as if the builder 
 should try to nail the outside boards directly to the large 
 corner-posts without the intervening smaller timbers. 
 
 Others, again, insert sufiicient smaller timbers, but con- 
 
250 PRACTICAL RHETOBIO. 
 
 fiise these as to their places, putting those intended for the 
 lower story in the upper, and vice versa. The essay out- 
 line must have subheads carefully determined, and each 
 arranged logically under its appropriate main head. 
 
 Still other writers (and this is a very common weak- 
 ness) always build the front walk and porch before be- 
 ginning the main part of the structure. It is as wise in 
 building an essay as in building a house to leave the ap- 
 proaches till the rest is completed. Otherwise, there is 
 great danger of making the veranda, for example, too 
 large for the house. Long introductions are the favorite 
 weakness of young writers. To a young editor who wrote 
 to Horace Greeley asking what was the best method of 
 writing an editorial, the veteran replied, " Write the best 
 article you can; divide it in the middle, burn the first half, 
 and publish the last." To the same effect President Hill 
 prescribes * that the introduction should be "modest, mod- 
 erate, short, and natural," and should be "such as to excite 
 interest." 
 
 And, finally, a few writers give the weight of their 
 attention to the paint, cornice, and carving, neglecting the 
 fundamental features of the building. Rhetorical figures, 
 and the other ornaments of style, are valuable only when 
 used as ornaments; they can never take the place of plain, 
 earnest thought. 
 
 Besides simplifying his work and relieving him from con- 
 tinual distraction, the practice of making formal, prelim- 
 inary outlines gives to the writer many other advantages. 
 In the first place. 
 
 It enables him to write closely within prescribed limits. 
 With the development of general literary culture, and with 
 the multiplication of the sources of information, this requi- 
 site has become imperative. Enter, even temporarily, the 
 employ of any successful newspaper or magazine publisher, 
 and you will be asked to treat your subject within a certain 
 
 'Elcmetits of Ulietoric," p. 17. 
 
THE OUTLINE. 251 
 
 number of pages, a certain portion of a column, or in a 
 certain number of words. The production must vary but 
 the least in either direction from tlie limit. In such a situ- 
 ation the unmethodical writer is most helpless. And the 
 same is true of so-called extempore composition. The ner- 
 vous excitement attendant upon facing an audience acts, 
 in many cases, strongly as a stimulant to undue expansion. 
 Inspired by the occasion, the speaker "spins out" his 
 utterances in blissful unconsciousness of the fact that he ia 
 spinning at all. How often is the delegate to some con- 
 vention, or the participant in some general debate, where 
 only a definite number of minutes is allowed to each 
 speaker, called ruthlessly to his seat by the descending 
 gavel before he has fairly begun his introduction! When 
 analyzed, this undue expansion, in written as well as in 
 extempore composition, will be found to result almost en- 
 tirely from giving to some division or subdivision of the 
 subject more than its proportionate amount of space or 
 time. With a careful outline before him, however, the 
 writer has a constant check upon this tendency. The 
 framework is a gauge by which he can, at any point, com- 
 pare and estimate, thus learning where to prune and where 
 to expand. 
 
 By preparing a frameivork lefore beginning to put his 
 ideas into definite form, the ivriter is enabled to read up Ms 
 mbji'ct accurately and profitably. 
 
 With only a few hours available for the work, and with 
 anywhere from five to twenty volumes before him, each of 
 which may contain facts or suggestions pertinent to his 
 theme, he must have clearly in mind the points on which 
 he is seeking information, so that he may read by indexes 
 and tables of contents ; otherwise, his reading must result 
 only in confusion and failure. In such preliminary reading 
 it is not necessary to make long verbatim extracts. Only 
 short catch-words and expressions need be noted, with the 
 number of the page and volume attached, leaving the ver- 
 batim extracts till the subsequent process of writing. The 
 
262 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 amount of ground that can be covered in this way, even in 
 an hour, by a well-trained writer would astonish any one 
 who has been accustomed to " read up" subjects without 
 forming preliminary outlines. It will be found, also, that 
 this process of reading, like that of reflection on the re- 
 spective subdivisions of an outline, will often suggest to the 
 mind other subdivisions ; so that, to recur to our figure, 
 the builder will find, and insert or substitute, additional 
 small timbers in the framework while he is preparing the 
 boards to cover those already in place. For let it always 
 be remembered that, in the words of Whately, "the out- 
 line should not be allowed to fetter the writer. It should 
 serve merely as a track to mark out a path for him, and not 
 a groove to confine him." 
 
 If the theme is one with which the writer is compara- 
 tively unfamiliar, his reading may cause him to increase or 
 to rearrange even the main heads of his outline ; but this 
 will be only an additional proof of the need of an out- 
 line. 
 
 Let it also be remembered that the only practicable 
 method of reading in this age of the world is by indexes. 
 If a book has not a good index, better throw it aside and 
 take up one that has. No well-informed writer or publisher 
 will now issue such a volume. Among general indexes 
 doubtless the most helpful is that monumental volume, 
 ''Poole's Index." By this book, to be found in every good 
 public library, the reader is directed intelligently to the 
 best thoughts of the best contemporary thinners, on almost 
 every possible subject, for the last seventy-five years. By 
 its use, the current literature since 1809 becomes to the 
 writer a vast storehouse of information and suggestion. 
 Another most practical help in preliminary reading are the 
 monthly reference-lists issued by the librarian of the 
 Providence, E. I., public library. These lists give the 
 available bibliography of such subjects as are, for the time, 
 before the public mind, and of standard subjects arbitrarily 
 but judiciously selected. They are to be found in most of 
 
THE OUTLINE. 253 
 
 our college and public libraries, and afford an excellent 
 illustration of modern practical tendencies in this direction. 
 
 In concluding this section ve cannot, perhaps, do better 
 than to quote the following from Marsh: " 'What, read 
 books !' said one of the great lights of European physiolo- 
 gical science to a not less eminent American scholar. ' I 
 never read a book in my life except the Bible.' He had 
 time only to glance oyer the thousands of volumes which 
 lay around him, to consult them occasionally, to accept the 
 particular facts or illustrations which he needed to aid him 
 in his own researches." 
 
 The following outline for an essay on "The Character of 
 Mrs. Browning" will illustrate what has been said concern- 
 ing the method of reading with an outline. The books to 
 which reference is made, in brief, are: the "Encyclopedia 
 Brifcannica," " Chambers's Encyclopaedia, "the "Diamond" 
 and "Eed Line" editions of Mrs. Browning's poems, her cor- 
 respondence with Home, Miss Mitford's " EecoUections of 
 a Literary Life," Bayard Taylor's "Views Afoot;" an essay 
 by Theodore Tilton published in a collection called "Sanc- 
 tum Sanctorum," and found also as an introduction to the 
 four-volume edition of her poems, 1863; Hillard's "Six 
 Months in Italy;" and an article by E. C. Stedman in 
 Scribner's Magazine, vol. vii. 
 
 I. Influences surrounding her earlier years. 
 
 a. That of her father. — •' My Public and my Critic," Britan- 
 
 nica 391; Dedication in edition of 1844. 
 
 b. That of her tutor.— Tilton 37, Poems 89 and 97. 
 
 c. That of her general reading. — ^schylus, Plato, Shake- 
 
 speare, Mitford 172. 
 II. Phases of her character as indicated in her early works. 
 
 a. Her industry. — Tbe volume of Plato, Mitford 171, the 
 Hebrew Scriptures, Scribner 106, and Poems 331. 
 
 h. Effects of her brother's death. — Seclusion, Tilton 30. 
 
 c. Her independence. — Tilton 28. 
 III. Influence of marriage upon her character.— Scribner 108. 
 
 a. Love and courtship. — The compliment in ' ' Lady Geral- 
 dine's Courtship," Poems 498; The chance meet- 
 ing. Am. Cycl. 766, Tilton 32. 
 
 6. Her life in' Italy. —Tilton 36 and 7, Hillard. 
 
254 PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 c. Maternity.— Tilton 63, " Stand out into the Sun!" Poems 
 309. 
 
 IV. Her religious views.— "The Touch of Christ's Hand," Bri- 
 tannica 391; Earnestness, Scribner 113; Swedenborgianism, 
 Seribner 114, Tilton 56-7 and 59. 
 
 a. As manifested in her poems.— pp. 53, 88, 134, and 386. 
 6. As manifested in her own testimony.— Letters to Home. 
 
 V. Views of contemporary problems. 
 
 a. Slavery.— Tilton 41 and 54, Poems 134. 
 h. Juvenile labor.— Poems 399. 
 
 c. The social evil. — Poems 505. 
 
 d. Woman's rights. — Poems 341. 
 
 VI. Conclusion. 
 
 a. Her comparative standing as a poet. — Britannica 391 ; 
 compared with Landor, Scribner 104 ; Sonnets, 
 Scribner 109; compared with Thackeray, ibid. 111. 
 6. Her work for humanity. 
 
 1. Italy. — The monument, Hillard- Devotion to Italy, 
 
 Tilton 38 and 84. 
 3. England.— Tilton 35. 
 3. World at large.— Tilton 34. 
 
 A third advantage of outline construction is tlie mental 
 discipline afforded by the process. It is an admitted fact, 
 that the best mental training is afforded by those branches 
 that call for the most careful and continuous process of 
 analysis ; and this is pre-eminently the process employed in 
 forming an essay outline. It is a constant analysis, accom- 
 panied by that previous synthesis on which all analysis de- 
 pends. If a student were to write in this manner continu- 
 ally for four years, upon the widest variety of subjects, 
 reading and reflecting carefully on each and analyzing his 
 results, he could hardly fail thus to become liberally edu- 
 cated. The analytic mind is always the strong mind, 
 
 METHOD OF OUTLINE CONSTKUCTIOIT. 
 
 Having pointed out the importance of the outline, it re- 
 mains to offer some suggestions as to methods of construc- 
 tion. 
 
 The testimony of the most successful teachers is unani- 
 mous in favor of assigning subjects in a general way. To 
 leave the younger student free to select his own subject ia 
 
THE OUTLINE. 255 
 
 to encourage looseness of thought, and possibly plagiarism. 
 On the other hand, to assign to every member of a class the 
 same subject is to make the work of both the teacher and 
 the class, as a whole, monotonous and lifeless. The method 
 of assigning general subjects fairly avoids these dangers on 
 either side. 
 
 Suppose, then, that our theme is to be a description of 
 some object or collection of objects that we have personally 
 seen. Suppose, for example, that we take some large pub- 
 lic building with which we are familiar. There is perhaps 
 no better way than, as Hill says,* to "surround the theme 
 with questions." Concerning the theme in hand we might 
 ask as follows : — 
 
 1. Where is it ? 
 
 a. In what village or city, what county, state, etc.? 
 
 h. In what position with reference to surrounding objects ? 
 
 2. What is its shape ? 
 
 3. What is its size ? 
 
 4. Of what materials is it made ? 
 
 5. What is its architectural style ? 
 
 6. When was it built ? 
 
 7. For what purpose was it built ? 
 
 8. How does it fulfil that purpose ? 
 
 9. What is the arrangement inside ? 
 
 10. How is it finished inside ? 
 
 11. How is it furnished ? 
 13. How is it ventilated ? 
 
 13. How is it lighted ? 
 
 14. What did it cost? 
 
 15. How does it compare with other buildings of its kind ? 
 
 a. In cost ? 
 
 6. In architectural beauty ? 
 
 c. In convenience ? 
 
 16. What is its value to the town? 
 
 17. How is it finished outside ? 
 
 a. Cornice. 
 6. Tower, 
 c. Paint, etc. 
 
 Eearranging these questions logically, in tabular form, 
 
 and adding subdivisions naturally suggested, we have the 
 
 following outline : — 
 
 * " Elements of Khetorlc," p. 13. 
 
256 PRACTICAL BHETOBIG. 
 
 THE G OPESA-HOUSE. 
 
 I. Its location. 
 
 a. In what town, State, etc.? 
 6. Position with reference to prominent buildings, 
 c. At junction of what streets. 
 II. Its history. 
 
 a. When built, by whom, etc. 
 6. -Its purpose, 
 c. Its cdst. 
 
 III. Its exterior form, in general and in detail— use some type. 
 
 IV. Its Size, in general and in detail. 
 V. The material. 
 
 VI. Its architectural style. 
 VII. Its interior arrangement. 
 
 a. Main floor. 
 
 b. Stage. 
 
 c. Balconies and boxes. 
 
 d. Method of ventilation. 
 - e. Method of lighting. 
 
 VIII. Its adaptation to its purpose. 
 IX. The style of finish. 
 
 a. Outside — 1. Cornice ; 2. Tower ; 3. Paint, etc. 
 6. Inside — 1. Natural wood; 3. Frescoes; 3. Upholstery, etc* 
 X. The furniture. 
 
 XI. Comparison with other buildings of its kind. 
 a. In cost. 
 
 6. In architectural beauty. 
 c. In convenience. 
 XII. Conclusion. — Its value to the town as an educating influence. 
 
 This done, the next step is that of expanding these divi- 
 sions and subdivisions by reading, reflection, and conversa- 
 tion. For instance, on I. the writer will need to study a map 
 of the town and to observe the building from difEerent points 
 of view. On II. he will need to consult local histories, old 
 files of newspapers and the like, and to converse with older 
 citizens. The expansion of III., IV., and V. must depend 
 mainly on the writer's observation and imagination. On 
 VI. he will perhaps need to consult some encyclopasdia or 
 ■work on architecture. To expand some subheads of VII. 
 he may need to consult a practical artizan who is familiar 
 with the building. On VIII., IX., and X. he must ex- 
 pand by means of reflection, conversation, and observation. 
 Wherever technical terms are necessary for accurate descrip- 
 
THE OUTLINE. 257 
 
 tion he will need to consult technical works or technical 
 workers. XI. will be expanded by all three of the methods 
 first suggested, while XII. will depend mainly on reflection. 
 As fast as results are obtained by reading, reflection, etc., 
 let each be noted, under its appropriate head or subhead, 
 tvith sovie intelligible catch-word or expression, and, in the 
 case of readinrj, with the page and vohtme. It will readily 
 be seen that when this has been done the real burden of 
 the work on the essay has already been performed. It re- 
 mains for the writer only to put the ideas already obtained 
 into clear, elegant English sentences and paragraphs, giving 
 his undivided attention to questions of style and form rather 
 than of thought. And, as has been said, this is enough 
 for one mind to do at one time. Good English, to say 
 nothing of elegance, is almost a rarity. A similar method 
 may profitably be used in constructing outlines in Narra- 
 tion, Exposition, and Argumentation. A word, in conclu- 
 sion, as to the mechanical form of the outline. Too much 
 care cannot be taken to keep divisions and subdivisions dis- 
 tinct. This can best be done by using successively the 
 the Eoman, literal, and Arabic notations as in the outlines 
 already sketched. 
 
 SPECIMEN OUTLINES. 
 
 Note. — In iUostration of the preceding paragraphs of this 
 chapter, the following outhnes are appended. They are not given 
 as models, but simply as illustrations of results that haveactuaEy 
 been obtained by the methods already suggested. They are taken 
 verbatim from actual essays as these were presented for criticism. 
 
 A Quaker Town. (Description.) 
 
 I. Introduction. 
 
 a. Causes of special attention. 
 
 1. Sacredness attaching to the name of Quakers. 
 
 2. Historical role of Quakers in the United States. 
 
 3. Scarcity of Quakers in bodies. 
 6. Means of information. 
 
 II. Situation. 
 
 a. Geographically. 
 
 b. Advantages of same. 
 17 
 
258 PBAOTIGAL REETORIC. 
 
 c. Resemblance of situation to other places. 
 1. Historical. 
 3. Modern. 
 
 III. Inhabitants. 
 
 a. Number. 
 6. Disposition. 
 
 c. Habits. 
 
 d. Leading citizens. 
 
 1. Professional. 
 3. Business. 
 
 IV. Industries and public buildings. 
 
 a. Mechanical. 
 6. Mercantile. 
 
 c. Hotels, church, schools, etc. 
 V. Peculiarities of the town. 
 
 a. Quietness and quaintness. 
 
 h. No need of poor-master, constable, etc. 
 
 c. ' ' Friend "-liness. 
 
 d. Comparison of advantages and disadvantages over 
 
 other villages. 
 VI. Conclusion. — Impressions and Reflections. 
 
 Five Years' Experience with a Sunday-school Class. 
 (Narration.) 
 
 I. Introduction. 
 II. My hesitation about taking the class, and the first Sabbath, 
 
 III. The class. 
 
 a. Original members. 
 6. Changes. 
 
 IV. The scholars. 
 
 a. Personal appearance. 
 6. Characters, 
 c. Home surroundings. 
 V. The work. 
 
 a. Dilflculties. 
 
 6. Willingness of children to learn. 
 
 c. New perplexities. 
 
 d. One benefit. 
 VI. Memories. 
 
 a. The Sunday-school hour. 
 
 6. Confidence and good-will of the children, 
 
 c. A death-bed. 
 
 d. A Christmas morning. 
 
 VII. Scholars at present and a thought about the future. 
 
TEE OUTLINE. 2o9 
 
 Character of John E. Vassar. (Exposition.) 
 
 I. Introduction. 
 II. Who John Vassar was. 
 
 a. Cousin of Matthew Vassar. 
 6. Early life, 
 c. Conversion. 
 
 III. Life work. 
 
 a. Work for souls. 
 6. "Shepherd's dog." 
 
 IV. QuaMcations for work. 
 
 a. Power of endurance. 
 6. Magnetism. 
 
 c. Power to read character. 
 
 d. Sanctiiied common-sense. 
 
 e. Sincerity. 
 V. Methods of work. 
 
 a. "In season and out of season." 
 6. Came directly to the point, 
 c. Use of Bible in work. 
 VI. Character as seen in work. 
 a. Forgiving. 
 h. Devoted to work. 
 
 c. Prayerful. 
 
 d. Consecrated. 
 
 e. Humble. 
 Conclusion. 
 
 Morality op Homeric Men. (Exposition.) 
 
 I. Statement of subject. 
 II. Respect for gods. Shown: 
 
 a. By submission to their wiU. 
 6. By witnesses of compacts. 
 
 c. By solemnity of oaths. 
 
 d. By punishment of perjurers. 
 
 e. By prayers. 
 
 III. Self-restraint. Shown: 
 
 a. By moderation in laughter. 
 6. By silence. 
 
 1. On the march. 
 
 2. On the battle-field. 
 
 c. By patience. 
 
 d. Individual instances. 
 
 1. Achilles. 
 
 (a) Impulse to slay Agamemnon overcome. 
 (6) Reception of heralds, 
 
 2. Diomedes. 
 
 e. Moderation in wine-drinking. 
 
260 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 IV. Family affection. Stown: 
 a. By Ulysses. 
 6. By Simousius. 
 
 c. By parting of Hector and Andromache. 
 
 d. By Penelope. 
 
 e. In laws affecting suppliants and guests. 
 /. In marriage-vows. 
 
 V. Resume. 
 
 " A Tale of Two Cities." (Exposition.) 
 
 I. Introduction. 
 a. The author. 
 6. General idea of book, 
 c. Value of such a book. 
 1. When written. 
 3. Circumstances of writing. 
 II. Plot. 
 
 a. Groundwork. 
 
 1. Time. 
 
 2. Condition of society. 
 
 3. Place. 
 
 5. Story of plot. 
 
 III. Characters. 
 
 a. Principal: Lucy Manette, Dr. Manette, Mr. Lorry, 
 Madame Defarge, Darnay (Evremonde), Sidney 
 Carton. 
 
 6. Secondary: Jacques (Defarge and three), The Mar- 
 
 quis and Brother, Jno. Barsad, Roger Cly, Stryver, 
 Miss Pross, Gaspard, Cruncher. 
 
 IV. Criticisms. 
 
 a. Weak points. 
 
 1. Lengthy conversations. 
 3. Weak characters. 
 
 3. No definite point. 
 
 4. No particular hero. 
 6. Strong points. 
 
 1. Plot and characters real,— except Mr. Lorry and 
 
 Cruncher. 
 3. Strong description and decided views. 
 
 3. Interesting conversations. 
 
 4. Gradual increase of interest. 
 
 5. Excellent English. 
 
 6. Trench phrases omitted, 
 e. In general. 
 
 1. Comparison of man's emotions to nature. 
 
 2. Closes before the story is finished. 
 V. Impressions left on the reader. 
 
 a. Feeling of reader at close. 
 
THE OUTLINE. 261 
 
 5. Object of writing the book. 
 
 c. Gradual increase of plot from harmless to tragic. 
 VI. History of book. 
 
 Eccentricity. (Exposition.) 
 
 I. Introduction. 
 
 a. Value of a painting. 
 1. When perfect. 
 8. Whan marred. 
 h. Value of character. 
 11. Society's Laws. 
 
 a. Punishment for infringement. — Hermit. 
 
 III. Distinction between individuality and eccentricity. 
 
 a. Definition of each. 
 
 6. Simile of flower-garden, Rose and Weed. 
 
 IV. Comparison of Individuality and Eccentricity. 
 
 a. Eespective rank and value. Illustration, Oscar Wilde. 
 6. Genius ennobles and elevates. 
 
 c. Eccentricity hinders. 
 
 d. Eccentricity used as a cloak to cover vice. 
 V. Resumi. 
 
 High License or Prohibition ? (Argumentation.) 
 
 I. Introduction. 
 
 a. Power of conviction. 
 
 1. Individual. 
 
 2. National. 
 
 6. Our political condition. 
 
 e. Prohibition a conviction. 
 
 II. Diverse methods among temperance workers, 
 a. Extreme prohibitionists. 
 6. Partisan slaves, 
 c. High-license advocates. 
 III. Arguments of advocates of high license. 
 
 a. Legislation does not change character. 
 6. Reforms should be gradual. 
 
 c. Half loaf better than nothing. 
 
 d. No compromise, to abolish part of an evil when unable 
 
 to do more. 
 
 e. Successive steps to prohibition. 
 
 1. No sale to minors. 
 
 2. No sale to drunkards. 
 
 3. No sale of adulterated liquors. 
 
 4. High license. 
 
 5. Prohibition. 
 
 /. Close low groggerigg. 
 g. Revenue. 
 
262 PRACTICAL BHBTORIG. 
 
 IV. Arguments against higli license. 
 
 a. Moral and legal forces should be combined. 
 6. Wickedness of action may be suppressed by law, not 
 sinfulness of disposition. 
 
 c. High license centralizes and strengthens the rum 
 
 power. 
 
 d. Gilds the trafBc with respectability. 
 
 e. Increases gambling. 
 
 /. Does not succeed in closing low dram-shops. 
 
 g. High license a failure in practice — Hon. H. W. Hardy 
 
 —Hon. J. B. Finch. 
 h. Wrong in principle. 
 V. Conclusion. — Quotation from Cook. 
 
 Suggestion of Essay Themes fob a School Year. 
 
 Note — The following arrangement of general themes has been found 
 practical and progressive: — 
 
 FIRST TERM. 
 
 1. A description of some object or collection of objects which the 
 
 writer has actually seen. 
 3. An argumentative essay. 
 3. A narration of some personal experience, real or imaginary. 
 
 SECOND TERM. 
 
 1. An exposition of some historical or fictitious character. 
 
 2. An argumentative essay. 
 
 3. A book-review. 
 
 THIRD TERM. 
 
 1. An imaginary argumentative conversation between two or 
 
 more persons. 
 3. A paraphrase of some selection of standard verse in elegant 
 
 and accurate prose. 
 3. A paraphrase of some selection of standard prose in heroic 
 
 pentameter. 
 
DESCRIPTION. 263 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 DESCRIPTION. 
 
 CoMPOSiTioiir may be divided into Description, N^arration, 
 Exposition, Persuasion or Argumentation, and Versifica- 
 tion. These different kinds of composition, respectively, 
 may be aided by the use of certain general devices, and are 
 equally liable to be marred by certain general blemishes. 
 To state and illustrate these devices, and to warn against 
 these general errors, is the object of this chapter and of 
 those that immediately follow. 
 
 A mistaken idea of the dignity of descriptive writing is 
 more or less prevalent. Students are apt to be satisfied 
 with nothing less than the exposition of abstract ideas and 
 profound generalities ; a tendency that too often results in 
 the iteration of the merest platitudes. They forget that 
 there is no higher attainment in literature, none which 
 has given to its possessors more lasting fame, than the ability 
 to make pen- pictures — to so represent a scene in words that 
 the reader becomes, for the time, an actual observer. Every 
 community, every class in school or college, has those who 
 can ably maintain an argument or fairly expound an ab- 
 stract idea ; but masters of description are rare. 
 
 The ideal, in Description, is so to represent the object or 
 objects described that the same or similar impressions shall 
 be made upon the mind of the reader as were produced by 
 the actual object upon the mind of the observer. In other 
 words, the first essential is vividness. In securing this 
 vividness, certain methods are helpful. 
 
 1. The reader should gain a perfectly clear and perma- 
 nent idea of the general shape of the olject described. This 
 impression of shape is one of the first that the mind re- 
 
364 PRACTICAL RHETOBIC. 
 
 { 
 
 Ceives when confronting any object, and it is most clearly 
 conveyed by means of some well-known type or symbol. 
 For example, in shape, Italy is likened to a boot, or to the 
 letter L ; the earth, to an orange ; a building, to the letter 
 T; a constellation, to a dipper ; a piece of land, to a wedge, 
 and so on. The only requisite is that the symbol selected 
 be one that is generally understood. The following pas- 
 sages will illustrate the force of this suggestion (the 
 italics are ours) : — 
 
 " The floor was composed of earth mixed with lime, trodden 
 into a hard substance, such as is often employed in flooring our 
 modern barns. For about one quarter of the length of the apart- 
 ment the floor was raised by a step, and this space, which was 
 called the dais, was occupied only by the principal members of the 
 family and visitors of distinction. For this purpose, a table 
 richly covered with scarlet cloth was placed transversely across 
 the platform, from the middle of which ran the longer and lower 
 board, at which the domestics and inferior persons fed, down 
 towards the bottom of the hall. The whole resembled the form 
 of the letter T, or some of those ancient dinner-tables which, ar- 
 ranged on the same principles, may be still seen in the antique 
 colleges of Oxford or Cambridge. Massive chairs and settles of 
 carved oak were placed upon the dais, and over these seats and 
 the more elevated table was fastened a canopy of cloth, which 
 served in some degree to protect the dignitaries who occupied that 
 distinguished station from the weather, and especially from the 
 rain, which, in some places, found its way through the ill-con- 
 structed roof." — Description of the Hall of Cedric the Saxon in 
 BeotPs "Ivanhoe.^'' 
 
 " The scene was singularly romantic. On the verge of a wood, 
 which approached to within a mile of the town of Ashby, was an 
 extensive meadow, of the finest and most beautiful green turf, 
 surrounded on one side by the forest, and fringed on the other by 
 straggling oak-trees, some of which had grown to an immense 
 size. The ground, as if fashioned on purpose for the martial dis- 
 play which was intended, sloped gradually down on all sides to a ■ 
 level bottom, which was enclosed for the lists with strong palisades, 
 forming a space of a quarter of a mile in length, and about half 
 as broad. The form of the ermlosure was an oblong sqitare, save 
 that the corners were considerably rounded off in order to afford 
 more convenience for the spectators. The openings for the entry 
 of the combatants were at the northern and southern extremities 
 of the lists, accessible by strong wooden gates, each wide enough 
 to admit two horsemen riding abreast. At each of these portals 
 were stationed two heralds, attended by six trumpets, as" many 
 
DE8GRIPTI0K. 265 
 
 pursuivants, and a strong body of men-at-arms for maintaining 
 order, and ascertaining the quality of the knights who proposed 
 to engage in this martial game."— (Sco« in ''Ivanhoe." 
 
 " Those who would get a clear idea of the battle of "Waterloo 
 have only to lay down upon the ground in their minds a capital 
 A. The left stroke of the A is the road from Nivelles, the right 
 stroke is the road from Genappe, the cross of the A is the sunken 
 road from Ohain to Braine-le-Leude. The top of the A is Mont 
 Saint Jean, Wellington is there ; the left-hand lower point is 
 Hougomont, Reille is there with Jerome Bonaparte ; the right- 
 hand lower point is La Belle Alliance, Napoleon is there. A 
 little below the point whore the cross of the A meets and cuts the 
 right stroke is La Haie Sainte. At the middle of this cross is 
 the precise point where the final battle-word was spoken. There 
 the lion is placed, the involuntary symbol of the supreme heroism 
 of the Imperial Guard. The triangle contained at the top of the 
 A, between the two strokes and the cross, is the plateau of Mont 
 Saint Jean. The struggle for this plateau was the whole of the 
 battle." — Victor Hugo in "LesMisSrahles.''^ 
 
 %, Next in vividness to the impression of shape comes 
 that of magnitude. In stating the size and dimensions of 
 the object, the writer must employ not only absolute units of 
 measurement, such as inches, feet, miles, etc., but also rela- 
 tive units; that is, he must produce an impression of the size 
 of the unseen object by comparing it with that of one with 
 which the reader is familiar. If, for example, I am told 
 that a certain army contained so many thousand men, my 
 impression of the size is vague; but if I am told also that 
 the soldiers of that army, standing close, would just fill a 
 field with which I am familiar, the impression becomes 
 much more vivid. If told that a certain building in Egypt 
 is just as long, three times as wide, and twice as high as an 
 ordinary railway freight-car, most Americans would have 
 a very fair conception of its size. Take the following pas- 
 sage from Dickens's "American Notes" (the italics are 
 ours) : — 
 
 " Thus, in less than two minutes after coming upon it for the 
 first time, we all by common consent agreed that this state-room 
 was the pleasantest and most facetious and capital contrivance 
 possible; and that to have it one inch larger would have been 
 quite a disagreeable and deplorable state of things. And with' 
 
266 phaotioal beetorio. 
 
 this, and showing how we could manage to insinuate four people 
 into it, all at one time; and entreating each other to observe how 
 very airy it was, and how there was a beautiful port-hole which 
 could be kept open all day, and how there was quite a large bull's- 
 eye just over the looking-glass, which would render shaving a 
 perfectly easy and delightful process; we arrived, at last, at the 
 unanimous conclusion that it was rather spacious than otherwise: 
 though I do verily believe that, deducting the two berths, one 
 above the other, than which nothing smaller for sleeping in was 
 ever made except coffins, it was no bigger than one of those hack- 
 ney eahHolets which ham the door behind, and shoot their fares 
 out, like sacks of coals, upon the pavement." 
 
 ' ' The cars are like shabby omnibuses, but larger ; holding thirty, 
 forty, fifty people. The seats, instead of stretching from end to 
 end, are placed crosswise. Each seat holds two persons. There 
 is a long row of them on each side of the caravan, a narrow pas- 
 sage up the middle, and a door at both ends. In the centre of 
 the carriage there is usually a stove, fed with charcoal or anthra- 
 cite coal, which is for the most part red-hot. It is insufferably 
 close; and you see the hot air fluttering between yourself and any 
 other object you may happen to look at, like the ghost of smoke." 
 
 " It was a very dirty winter's day, and nothing in the whole 
 town looked old to me except the mud, which in some parts was 
 almost knee-deep, and might have been deposited there on the 
 subsiding of the waters after the Deluge. In one place there was 
 a new wooden church, which, having no steeple, and being yet 
 unpainted, looked like an enormous packing-case without any di- 
 rection upon it." 
 
 "After a night's rest we rose early, and in good time went 
 down to the wharf, and on board the packet New York for New 
 York. This was the first American steamboat of any size that I 
 had seen; and certainly to an English eye it was infinitely less 
 like a steamboat than a huge floating bath! I could hardly per- 
 suade myself, indeed, but th&t the bathing establishment off West- 
 minster Bridge, which I left a baby, had suddenly grown to an 
 enormous size, run away from home, and set up in foreign parts 
 as a steamer. " 
 
 3. Some oljeds, again, are so constructed that neither 
 their exteriial shape nor their size conveys to the reader a 
 vivid impression of their real form. This is especially true 
 of those that radiate from a common centre, like a tree, a 
 spider's web, or a wheel. For example, the visitor to the 
 city of Washington, although well informed about its size 
 and external form, is thoroughly mystified by its angular 
 
BESCRIPTION. 267 
 
 parks and diagonal streets, until he learns that the avenues 
 all branch out from the capitol as a common centre, while 
 the lettered and numbered streets, run, respectively, parallel 
 and at right angles each to each other; then, immediately, 
 all becomes clear. Often a canal, a river, or a principal 
 street affords the base-line by reference to which the other 
 parts of a town may be vividly described. Countries and 
 continents are likewise described by reference to central 
 mountain chains. The greatest opportunity is here offered 
 for the play of the imagination. The more original and 
 striking the type the more vivid the impression. In Les 
 Miserables, describing the sewerage system of Paris, Victor 
 Hugo says: 
 
 " Imagine Paris taken off like a cover, a bird's-eye view of the 
 subterranean network of the sewers will represent upon either 
 bank a sort of huge branch engrafted upon the river. Upon the 
 right bank, the belt-sewer will be the trunk of this branch, the 
 secondary conduits wiU be the limbs, and the primary drains will 
 be the twigs. This figure is only general and half exact, the right 
 angle, which is the ordinary angle of this kind of underground 
 ramification, being very rare in vegetation." 
 
 4. Sometimes the object or scene is of such a character 
 that it cannot be seen at one view and can be clearly de- 
 scribed only by representing it under a succession of 
 aspects. This method is known as "the panoramic view." 
 Aside from the necessities of the case, it gives vividness by 
 its resemblance to the actual manner in which such a col- 
 lection of objects is always seen. In making use of this 
 method the writer must be especially careful to shift the 
 scene completely and distinctly, so as not to commingle 
 and confuse different aspects of the panorama. Take the 
 following selections for illustration: — 
 
 " From this delicious spot, the Spaniards enjoyed one of the 
 grandest prospects in nature. Before them was the steep ascent 
 — ^much steeper after this point — which they were to climb. On 
 the right rose the Sierra Madre, girt with its dark belt of pines, 
 and its long lines of shadowy hills stretching away in the distance 
 To the south, in brilliant contrast, stood the mighty Orizaba 
 with his white robe of snow descending far down his sides, tow 
 ering in solitary grandeur, the giant spectre of the Andes. Be 
 
268 PBAOTICAL nHETOmO. 
 
 hind them, they beheld, unrolled at their feet, the magnificent 
 tierra caliente, with its gay confusion of meadows, streams, and 
 flowering forests, sprinkled over with shining Indian villages, 
 while a faint line of light on the edge of the horizon told them 
 that there was the ocean, heyond which were the kindred and 
 country they were many of them never more to see. " — Preicott 
 in " The Conquest of Mexiuo.'''' 
 
 " Nothing could be more grand than the view which met the 
 eye from the area on the truncated summit of the pyramid. To- 
 wards the west stretched that bold barrier of porphyritic rock 
 which nature has reared around the valley of Mexico, with the 
 huge Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl standing like two colossal 
 sentinels to guard the entrance to the enchanted region. Far 
 away to the east was seen the conical head of Orizaba soaring 
 high into the clouds, and nearer, the barren though beautifully- 
 shaped Sierra de la Mdleriche, throwing its broad shadows over 
 the plain of Tlascala. Three of these are volcanoes, higher than 
 the highest mountain-peak in Europe, and shrouded in snows 
 which never melt under the fierce sun of the tropics. At the 
 foot of the spectator lay the sacred city of Cholula, with its 
 bright towers and pinnacles sparkling in the sun, reposing amidst 
 gardens and verdant groves, which there thickly studded the 
 cultivated environs of the capital. Such was the magnificent 
 prospect which met the gaze of the Conquerors, and may still, 
 with slight change, meet that of the modern traveller, as from 
 the platform of the great pyramid the eye wanders over the fair- 
 est portion of the beautiful plateau of Puebla. " — Ihid. 
 
 " Stretching far away at their feet, were seen noble forests of 
 oak, sycamore, and cedar, and beyond yellow fields of maize and 
 the towering maguey, intermingled with orchards and blooming 
 gardens; for flowers, in such demand for their religious festivals, 
 were even more abundant in this populous valley than in other 
 parts of Anahuac. In the centre of the great basin were beheld 
 the lakes, occupying then a much larger portion of its sur- 
 face than at present; their borders thickly studded with towns 
 and hamlets, and, in the midst, — like some Indian empress with 
 her coronal of pearls, — the fair city of Mexico, with her white 
 towers aiid pyramidal temples, repoping, as it were, on the bosom 
 of the waters,— the far-famed "Venice of the Aztecs." High 
 over all rose the royal hill of Chapoltepec, the residence of the 
 Mexican monarchs, crowned with the same grove of gigantic cy- 
 presses which at this day fling their broad shadows over the 
 land. In the distance beyond the blue waters of the lake, and 
 nearly screened by intervening foliage, was seen a shining speck, 
 the rival capital of Tezouco, and, still farther on, the dark belt 
 of porphyry, girdling the valley around, like a rich setting which 
 Nature had devised for the fairest of her jewels."— 76id. 
 
DESCRIPTION 269 
 
 "That gloomy -looking prison on your right is a prison for 
 women; once it was a convent for Lazarists: a thousand unfor- 
 tunate individuals of the softer sex now occupy that mansion; 
 they bake, as we find in the guide-books, the bread of all the 
 other prisons; they mend and wash the shirts and stockings of 
 all the other prisoners. But we have passed the prison long ago, 
 and are at the Porte St. Denis itself. There is only time to take 
 a hasty glance as we pass: it commemorates some of the wonder- 
 ful feats of arms of Ludovicus Magnus, and abounds in ponder- 
 ous allegories — nymphs, and river-gods, and pyramids crowned 
 with fleurs-de-lis. Passing, then, round the gate, and not under 
 it (after the general custom, in respect of triumphal arches), you 
 cross the boulevard, which gives a glimpse of trees and sunshine, 
 and gleaming white buildings; then, dashing down the Rue de 
 Bourbon ViUeneuve, a dirty street, which seems interminable, 
 and the Rue 8t. Eustache, the conductor gives a last blast on his 
 horn, and the great vehicle clatters into the court-yard, where its 
 journey is destined to conclude." — Thackeray'' s "Paris Sketches." 
 
 5. A study of tlie masterpieces of description in any lan- 
 guage will show that these owe their power and vividness 
 mainly to the fact that they are intensely individual. That 
 is, the scene is represented just as it appeared at a certain 
 point of time. Every detail of color, of light and shade, 
 of form, attitude, and action, is wrought out minutely, giv- 
 ing, as it were, an instantaneous photograph. Thus, by 
 naming a few things many are suggested. 
 
 On this point Herbert Spencer says: — * 
 
 "To select fiQTD. the sentiment, scene, or event described, 
 those typical elements which carry many others along with 
 them, and so, by saying a few things but suggesting many, 
 to abridge the description, is the secret of producing a 
 viyid impression. An extract from Tennyson's ' Mariana' 
 will well illustrate this: 
 
 " ' All day within the dreamy house 
 
 The door upon the hinges creaked, , 
 
 The blue fly sung i' the pane ; the mouse 
 
 Behind the mouldering wainscot shrieked. 
 Or from the crevice peered about.' 
 
 " The several circumstances here specified bring with 
 
 them many appropriate associations. Our " attention is 
 
 * "Philosophy of Style," p. 30. 
 
270 PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 rarely drawn by the buzzing of a fly in the window, save 
 when ererything is still. While the inmates are moving 
 about the house, mice usually keep silence ; and it is only 
 when extreme quietness reigns that they peep from their 
 retreats. Hence, each of the facts mentioned presupposes 
 numerous others, calls up these with more or less distinct- 
 ness, and revives the feeling of dull solitude with which 
 they are connected in our experience. Were all these facts 
 detailed instead of suggested, our attention would be so 
 frittered away that little impression of dreariness would be 
 produced. Similarly in other cases. Whatever the nature 
 of the thought to be conveyed, this skilful selection of a 
 few particulars which imply the rest, is the key to success. 
 In the choice of competent ideas, as in the choice of expres- 
 sions, the aim must be to convey the greatest quantity of 
 thoughts with the smallest quantity of words.'"' 
 
 The following selections will further illustrate this method 
 of gaining vividness : — 
 
 " It was his own room. There was no doubt about that. But 
 it had undergone a surprising transformation. The walls and 
 ceiling were so hung with living green, that it looked a perfect 
 grove ; from every part of which, bright gleaming berries glis- 
 tened. The crisp leaves of holly, mistletoe, and ivy reflected back 
 the light, as if so many little mirrors had been scattered there ; 
 and such a mighty blaze went roaring up the chimney, as that 
 dull petrifaction of a hearth had never known in Scrooge's time, 
 or Marley's, or for many and many a winter season gone. Heaped 
 up on the floor, to form a kind of throne, were turkeys, geese, 
 game, poultry, brawn, great joints of meat, sucking-pigs, long 
 wreaths of sausages, mince-pies, plum-puddings, barrels of oysters, 
 red-hot chestnuts, cherry-cheeked apples, juicy oranges, luscious 
 pears, immense twelfth-cakes, and seething bowls of punch, that 
 made the chamber dim with their delicious steam. In easy state 
 upon this couch, there sat a joUy Giant, glorious to see ; who bore 
 a glowing torch, in shape not unlike Plenty's horn, and held it up, 
 high up, to shed its light on Scrooge, as he came peeping round 
 the door. " 
 
 "The poulterers' shops were still half open, and the fruiterers' 
 were radiant in their glory. There were great, round, pot-bellied 
 baskets of chestnuts, shaped like the waistcoats of jolly old gentle- 
 men, lolling at the doors, and tumbhng out into the street in 
 their apoplectic opulence. There were ruddy, brown-faced, broad- 
 girthed Spanish onions, shining in the fatness of their growth like 
 
BE8GBIPTI0N. 271 
 
 Spanish friars, and winlcing from their shelves in wanton slyness 
 at the girls as they went by, and glanced demurely at the hung- 
 up mistletoe. There were pears and apples, clustered high in 
 blooming pyramids ; there were bunches of grapes, made, in the 
 shopkeepers' benevolence, to dangle from conspicuous hooks, that 
 people's mouths might water gratis as they passed ; there were 
 piles of Alberts, mossy and brown, recalling, in their fragrance, 
 ancient walks among the woods, and pleasant shufflings ankle- 
 deep through withered leaves ; there were Norfolk biffins, squab 
 and swarthy, setting off the yellow of the oranges and lemons, and, 
 in the great compactness of their juicy persons, urgently entreat- 
 ing and beseeching to be carried home in paper bags and eaten 
 after dinner." — Dickens in " Christmas Carols.'''' 
 
 "The family always came to church en prince. They were 
 roUed majestically along in a carriage emblazoned with arms. 
 The crest glittered in silver radiance from every part of the 
 harness where a crest could possibly be placed. A fat coachman, 
 in a three-cornered hat, richly laced, and a flaxen wig, curling 
 close round his rosy face, was seated on the box, with a sleek 
 Danish dog beside him. Two footmen, in gorgeous liveries, with 
 huge bouquets, and gold-headed canes, lolled behind. The car- 
 riage rose and sunk on its long springs with peculiar stateliness 
 of motion. The very horses champed their bits, arched their 
 necks, and glanced their eyes more proudly than common horses ; 
 either because they had caught a little of the family feeling, or 
 were reined up more tightly than ordinary. 
 
 " I must not forget the two sons of this aspiring citizen, who 
 came to church in a dashing curricle, with outriders. They were 
 arrayed in the extremity of the mode, with all that pedantry of 
 dress which marks the man of questionable pretensions to style. 
 They kept entirely by themselves, eying every one askance that 
 came near them, as if measuring his claims to respectability; yet 
 they were without conversation, except the exchange of an occa- 
 sional cant phrase. They even moved artificially ; for their 
 bodies, in compliance with the caprice of the day, had been dis- 
 ciplined into the absence of all ease and freedom. Art had done 
 everything to accomplish them as men of fashion, but nature had 
 denied them the nameless grace. They were vulgarly shaped, 
 like men formed for the common purposes of life, and had the air 
 of supercilious assumption which is never seen in true gentle- 
 men." — Irving in " The Sketch-Book.'" 
 
 " I threw aside the newspaper, and explored my way to the 
 kitchen, to take a peep at the group that appeared to be so merry. 
 It was composed partly of travellers who had arrived some hours 
 before in a diligence, and partly of the usual attendants and 
 hangers-on of inns. They were seated round a great burnished 
 stove, that might have been mistaken for an altar, at which they 
 
272 PB ACTIO AL RHETORIC. 
 
 were worshipping. It was covered with various kili;hen vessels 
 of resplendent brightness ; among which steamed and hissed a 
 huge copper tpa-kettle. A large lamp threw a strong mass of 
 light upon the gi-oup, bringing out many odd features in strong 
 relief. Its yellow rays partially illumined the spacious kitchen, 
 dying duskily away into remote corners ; except where they 
 settled in mellow radiance on the broad side of a flitch of bacon, 
 or were reflected back from well-scoured utensils, that gleamed 
 from the midst of obscurity." — Ibid. 
 
 " Opposite us is a fruit-stand. The proprietor has a bald head, 
 a long face, and a nose like the beak of a hawk. He sits upon a 
 carpet spread upon the dust ; the wall is at his back ; overhead 
 hangs a scant curtain ; around him, within hand's reach and 
 arranged upon little stools, lie osier boxes full of almonds, grapes, 
 flgs, and pomegranates. To him now comes one at whom we can- 
 not help looking, though for another reason than that which 
 fixed our eyes upon the gladiators ; he is really beautiful — a 
 beautiful Greek. Around his temples, holding the waving hair, 
 is a crown of myrtle, to which still cling the pale flowers and half- 
 ripe berries. His tunic, scarlet in color, is of the softest woollen 
 fabric ; below the girdle of buff leather, which is clasped in front 
 by a fantastic device of shining gold, the skirt drops to the knee 
 in folds heavy with embroidery of the same royal metal ; a scarf, 
 also woollen, and of mixed white and yellow, crosses his throat 
 and falls trailing at his back ; his arms and legs, where exposed, 
 are white as ivory, and of the polish impossible except by perfect 
 treatment with bath, oil, brushes, and pincers." — Lew Wallace in 
 '■'■BenHur.'" 
 
 6. Reference to circumstances inseparably associated with 
 
 the object described gives vividness. Takethe following: 
 
 "After riding a short distance, we came to a spacious mansion 
 of freestone, built in the Grecian style. It was not in the purest 
 taste, yet it had an air of elegance, and the situation was delight- 
 ful. A fine lawn sloped away from it, studded with clumps of 
 trees, so disposed as to break a soft fertile country into a variety 
 of landscapes. The Mersey was seen winding, a broad quiet sheet 
 of water, through an expanse of green meadow-land ; while the 
 Welsh mountains, blended with clouds, and melting into distance, 
 bordered the h.ovizon.'"— Irving in " The 8ketch-Book." 
 
 "But hark ! The Waits are playing, and they break my child- 
 ish sleep ! What images do I associate with the Christmas music 
 as I see them set forth on the Christmas Tree ? Known before 
 all the others, keeping far apart from all the others, they gather 
 round my little bed. An angel, speaking to a group of shepherds 
 in a field ; some travellers, with eyes uplifted, following a star ; 
 a baby in a manger ; a child in a spacious temple, talking with 
 
DESCRIPTION. 273 
 
 grave men ; a solemn figure, with a mild and beautiful face, 
 raising a dead girl by the hand ; again, near a city gate, calling 
 back the son of a widow, on his bier, to life ; a crowd of people 
 looking through the opened roof of a chamber where he sits, 
 and letting down a sick person on a bed, with ropes ; the same, 
 in a tempest, walking on the water to a ship ; again, on a sea- 
 shore, teaching a great multitude ; again, with a child upon his 
 knee, and other children round ; again, restoring sight to the 
 blind, speech to the dumb, hearing to the deaf, health to the sick, 
 strength to the lame, knowledge to the ignorant; again, dying 
 upon a cross, watched by armed soldiers, a thick darkness coming 
 on, the earth beginning to shake, and only one voice heard, 
 ' Forgive them, for they know not what they do.' " — Dickens, in 
 " Christmas Stories." 
 
 " At the foot of these fairy mountains, the voyager may have 
 descried the Ught smoke curling up from a village, whose shingle- 
 roofs gleam among the trees, just where the blue tints of the up- 
 land melt away into the fresh green of the nearer landscape." — 
 '' iSketch-Book." 
 
 " So close in poplar shades, her children gone. 
 The mother nightingale laments alone. 
 Whose nest some prying churl had found, and thence 
 By stealth conveyed the unfeathered innocence." 
 
 — Virgil, '^ ffeorgics." 
 
 t. Again, reference to the liuman feelings naturally 
 associated with certain objects gives peculiar vividness in 
 Description. Take the following (the italics are ours) : 
 
 " Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson must remember 
 the Kaatskill mountains. They are a dismembered branch of the 
 great Appalachian family, and are seen away to the west of the 
 river, swelling up to a noble height, and lording it over the 
 surrounding country." — " Sketch-Book." 
 
 "They left the high-road by a well- remembered lane, and 
 soon approached a mansion of dull-red brick, with a little weather- 
 cock-surmounted cupola, on the roof, and a bell hanging in it. 
 It was a large house, but one of broken fortunes ; for the spacious 
 offices were little used, their walls were damp and mossy, their win- 
 dows broken, and their gates decayed. Fowls clucked and strutted 
 in the stables and the coach-houses and sheds were overrun 
 with grass. Nor was it more retentive of its ancient state, within ; 
 for entering the dreary hall, and glancing through the open doors 
 of many rooms, they found them poorly furnished, cold, and 
 vast. There was an earthy savor in the air, a chilly bareness in 
 the place, which associated itself someTww with too much getting 
 up by candle-light, and not too much to eat." — '^Christmas 
 Carols." 
 18 
 
274 PBACTIGAL BHETORIG. 
 
 8. Different particulars in Description necessarily aid 
 each other. A pen-picture of the valley of the Shenandoah 
 for instance must involve, and is assisted by, a description 
 of the mountain-ranges on either side. 
 
 9. Sometimes the use of a single word or expression in the 
 
 form of a figurative epithet illumines a scene as with a flood 
 
 of electric light. Oarlyle is noted for these master-strokes. 
 
 Note, also, the following: 
 
 (a.) "An impious mortal gave the daring wound." 
 
 (6.) " Casting a dim religious light." 
 
 (c). ... "And ready now 
 
 To stoop with wearied wing and willing feet.'' 
 (d.) "Why peep your coward swords half out their shells !" 
 (e.) " And howUng tempest, steers the fearless ship." 
 
 10. In general, it is better to use the present tense in 
 description of what has been seen in the past. This as- 
 sumes that the picture is actually before the reader, and 
 gives to the writer many advantages in the way of vivid- 
 ness. There is no surer way of deadening a description or 
 of confounding it with a narration than by making con- 
 tinual use of a past tense. 
 
 11. Finally, avoid confounding Description with Narra- 
 tion. Let there be, in the pen-picture, only so much of 
 narration as is absolutely necessary to introduce or prop- 
 erly to connect the whole. 
 
 Summary. — Vividness, then, is often secured by giving 
 a clear idea of shape through some symbol; by comparing 
 the size with that of some well-known object; sometimes 
 by using a radiating type; by making the scene individual 
 in time, attitude, color, etc.; by using the "panoramic 
 view" where this is necessary; by reference to inseparably 
 connected circumstances; by reference to the associated 
 human feelings; by making one particular assist anotbT, 
 and by using the "historical " present tense. 
 
narration: 275 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 NARRATION. 
 
 It is often difficult, sometimes almost impossible, to dis- 
 tinguish between narration and description. One often 
 seems to imply the other, especially when description is 
 based on the panoramic view. It should be remembered, 
 however, that narration is to time what description is to 
 space. 
 
 Pure description may be defined as the representation of 
 an aspect or succession of aspects in relation to space at one 
 definite point of time. 
 
 Pure narration, on the other hand, is the representation 
 of an event or succession of events in relation to time during 
 an interval more or less prolonged. Hill defines the theme 
 of narration as "a series of related events occurring in 
 time."* 
 
 " The basis of narration," says Bardeen, "is active prog- 
 ress; that of description is rest, abiding characteristics." f 
 
 The aim, in narration, is to produce upon the mind of 
 the reader or hearer, in so far as is possible, the impres- 
 sions that would have been produced had he been a partic- 
 ipant in the scenes related. 
 
 That such impressions can be produced by the writer, 
 depends upon the fact that the human mind is so consti- 
 tuted that we naturally sympathize with the states of feel- 
 ing seen or described as existing in our fellows. We exult 
 in displays of strength, whether of body or of mind, almost 
 
 * " Science of Rhetoric," p. 86. \ " Complete Rhetoric,'' p. 243. 
 
276 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 as much when exhibited by others as when by ourselves. 
 Likewise^ we are disheartened or displeased by the <iccounts 
 of weakness or failure. We are grave or gay, excited or 
 subdued, accordingly as, in imagination, we live over again, 
 ourselves, the scenes of which we read. 
 
 !N"arration has, naturally, two great advantages over de- 
 scription; the first arises from the constant employment of 
 human personality and the appeal to human sympathy. 
 The second is that of continual suspense. In most descrip- 
 tions, after the ground-plan is well sketched, the reader 
 can easily anticipate and fill out for himself many of the 
 intervening spaces, liot so with narration; the tendencies 
 of different individuals, and the possible result of circum- 
 stances in each case are so widely varied that no one can 
 easily foretell just what any actor in the drama will do 
 next. In these two characteristics, personality and natural 
 suspense, are to be found the reasons why narration, espe- 
 cially in the form of fiction, is by far the most popular of 
 all forms of composition. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 1. Oain a clear idea of the scene, and change it as little 
 as possible. 
 
 If the successive events in a narrative be represented by 
 a stream, then there must be an expanse of territory, a 
 channel through which that stream may flow. In other 
 words, there must be, expressed or understood, a clear idea 
 of the scene where the events are enacted. As the clear 
 understanding of the whole narrative depends upon its re- 
 lation to this ground-plan, it follows that the plan must be 
 changed or reconstructed as little, and as seldom, as pos- 
 sible. For example, if the essay be the story of a day's fish- 
 ing, the circumstances selected should be those so adapted 
 to some general scene that the latter need be sketched but 
 once for all. Or, again, if the narrative be that of a 
 drowning accident, let the successive occurrences be re- 
 
narration: 277 
 
 lated, if possible, as they would have appeared to one per- 
 son viewing the whole from one definite point of observa- 
 tion. A change of scene always tends toward confusion. 
 Carlyle opens the sixth chapter of his "French Kevolu- 
 tion" as follows : — 
 
 "And near before us is Versailles, new and old, with that 
 broad frondent Avenue de Versailles between — stately- frondent, 
 broad, 300 feet, as men reckon, with its four rows of elms ; and 
 then the Chateau de Versailles, ending in royal parks and plea- 
 sances, gleaming lakelets, arbors, and labyrinths." 
 
 2. In order to he forcible, every narrative must have a 
 climax, a culminating point of some kind. From almost 
 any series of events, however simple, one can generally be 
 selected to which all the rest have contributed, and toward 
 which all centre. Of course, this climax or " catastrophe" 
 of the plot, as it is technically called, will be more or less 
 striking according to the simplicity or complexity of the 
 narrative; but however simple the series of events, the 
 central purpose must be clearly determined at the outset 
 and kept constantly in view. IJpon its character, and its 
 relative position in the narrative, must depend largely the 
 selection or exclusion of different occurrences from a series 
 that has really happened. 
 
 Only those circumstances should be selected, therefore, 
 that are relevant to the purpose and cardinal in impor- 
 tance. While significant details are most important, and 
 result in giving interest to a narrative, the most common 
 blemish is the mention of commonplace and unimportant 
 occurrences, simply because they happened in connection 
 with those of more importance. To retain the interest of 
 the reader a narrative must not be so filled with unimpor- 
 tant details as to weary the memory. If, for example, the 
 essay is an account of a journey, it is not always necessary 
 for the reader, to know all about the start and the prepara- 
 tion for the start. The ability wisely to omit is one of the 
 first requisites for a successful narrator. 
 
 Another violation of this principle is that of undue "ex- 
 pansion. If the story is that of a camping expedition, the 
 
278 PBAOTICAL BEETOBIG. 
 
 reader does not need to know the entire biography of each 
 member of the party. 
 
 Another error, confined mainly to those writers of trashy 
 literature whose productions are paid for according to the 
 space that they fill, consists in attributing to persons in 
 certain critical situations forms of expression that would 
 be most unnatural in such a case. 
 
 3. Except in fictitious narration, give notice of a change of 
 scene. In case it is necessary to shift the scene, as some- 
 times occurs, let the most careful and formal notice of the 
 change always be given. This suggestion applies especially 
 to those cases where two or more concurring streams of 
 events are being carried forward at the same time. In in- 
 troducing the sixth chapter, book I., of his "Conquest of 
 Mexico," Irving says: 
 
 " "We must now take leave of the Spanisli camp and transport 
 ourselves to the distant capital of Mexico. " 
 
 And in Chapter IV., Book III., of the same work we 
 
 read: 
 
 "At the very time when Cortez was busy reconnoitring the 
 valley, preparatory to his siege of the capital, a busy faction in 
 Castile was laboring to subvert his authority and defeat his plans 
 of conquest altogether." 
 
 And again, in " Uncle Tom's Cabin," where the two 
 distinct but finally blending streams of events are carried 
 so long separately, we find similar introductions; for ex- 
 ample. Chapter XXI. opens as follows: 
 
 " Our readers may not be unwilling to glance back, for a brief 
 interval, at Uncle Tom's Cabin, on the Kentucky farm, and see 
 what has been transpiring [occurring] among those whom he had 
 left behind." 
 
 Without these formal notices of change, much confusion 
 would ensue. It is to be noted, however, that narration 
 can generally be so constructed as to render such formal 
 introductions unnecessary. This is the preferable method. 
 
 4. Folloio the natural order of events. Observing the 
 cautions already given, the best general method is, of 
 course, to follow the natural order of events. Although 
 
NARRATION. 279 
 
 SO simple, violations of this pi-inciple are not rare. In the 
 experiences of a pic-nic party, a pupil has been known to 
 relate what happened after reaching the woods, and after- 
 ward to giye the occurrences on the way thither. In the 
 higher narrative form of real history, this clearness of 
 natural sequence is greatly aided by the use of dates. 
 Chronology and geography have been called " the two eyes 
 of history." 
 
 5. Each occurrence narrated should help to explain and 
 prepare the way for the succeeding occurrences. Sufficient 
 detail and sufficient reference to otherwise irrelevant facts 
 must be included in the earlier parts of a narrative to 
 render the related events intelligible. To return to our 
 illustration of the camping party; the writer must give 
 enough of the chiiraeteristics of each member to enable the 
 reader to understand the part taken by each in the develop- 
 ment of the narrative. 
 
 6. For the purpose of suspense, the last principle is very 
 often violated at the opening of a narrative. It is the cus- 
 tom of many eminent novelists, at the same time that they 
 are sketching the principal geographical scene of the story, 
 to lay before the reader some striking situation of the 
 plot. When, therefore, the reader takes up the regular 
 order of events, each occurrence becomes to him, as it were, 
 an enigma in its relation to those already related, and the 
 interest is thus intensely stimulated. The opening chapter 
 cf any of the following well-known works will illustrate this 
 principle : "The Antiquary," ""Woodstock," "Our Mutual 
 Friend," " Little Dorrit," etc. 
 
 Substantially the same method is employed by those his- 
 torians who introduce their works by stating certain facts 
 and principles in existence at the time of writing, and then 
 trace the origin and development of these through pre- 
 ceding centuries. This principle of suspense will be found 
 equally applicable and valuable, however, in the simpler 
 forms of narration. 
 
 7. The narrative should be complete. As irrelevant 
 
280 PRACIICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 circumstances should be excluded, so all those that are 
 strictly relevant should be included. Some otherwise 
 admirable narratives hare been justly criticised for their in- 
 completeness. " What became of such a one ?" asks the 
 reader after finishing a certain story. The simple fact that 
 the question is asked is evidence that the narrative is not 
 complete. And here, again, is seen the importance of an 
 outline. By constructing a preliminary framework, the 
 writer can easily arrange so as not to admit more elements 
 into his narrative than he can fairly dispose of in the time 
 allowed. The practice, sometimes followed, of purposely 
 breaking off abruptly in the midst of a story has only the 
 merit that belongs to mere novelty. 
 
 8. Imaginative narration ; the plot must be plausible. 
 Perhaps no other method of cultivating the imagination 
 is so fruitful as that of narrating imaginary events. In- 
 deed, by this process, nearly every faculty of the mind is 
 brought into healthful action. The outline or "plot" of 
 such a narrative, as it is technically called, does not differ 
 materially from that of a narrative of real events: the one 
 represents what is past and real; the other what is possible. 
 The first requisite in such a narrative is that of plausibility. 
 The writer must constantly ask himself what action, what 
 speech, what results would be natural and reasonable under 
 certain imagined circumstances. It is here that the element 
 of suspense can be used with most striking effect. The 
 common occurrences of daily life are generally too simple 
 and too distinct to permit the writer to arrange them into 
 any strong climax; but once exchange fact for fancy, and 
 he may weave and interweave the threads of his tale till 
 the reader is lured into a delightful uncertainty concerning 
 the outcome; an uncertainty that intensifies his interest 
 till all is made plain by one grand catastrophe. 
 
 9. Historical narration; vse summaries and bacJcward 
 references. In the more dignified and extended forms of 
 narration, such as history, biography, and the like, clear- 
 ness and force are gained by frequent summaries and back- 
 
NARRATION. 281 
 
 ward references, placed, respectively at, the beginning and 
 end of successive chapters. Thus, Motley introduces his 
 "Rise of the Dutch Republic" by rapidly reviewing the 
 history of the Netherlands during the previous sixteen 
 centuries; and in concluding his first chapter he sum- 
 marizes as follows: 
 
 ' ' Thus in this rapid sketch of the course and development of 
 the Netherland nation during sixteen centuries, we have seen it 
 ever marked by one prevailing characteristic, one master passion 
 — the love of liberty, the instinct of self-government. Largely 
 compounded of the bravest Teutonic elements, Batavian and 
 Frisian, the race ever battles to the death with tyranny, organizes 
 extensive revolts in the age of Vespasian, maintains a partial in- 
 dependence even against the sagacious dominion of Charlemagne, 
 refuses in Friesland to accept the papal yoke or feudal chain, and 
 throughout the dark ages struggles resolutely towards the light, 
 wresting from a series of petty sovereigns a gradual and practical 
 recognition of the claims of humanity. " 
 
 Again, the author of that remarkable work, " Ecce 
 Homo," introduces a chapter as follows: 
 
 " Of the three parts into which our investigation is divided, 
 Christ's Call, his Legislation, and his Divine Royalty or. relation 
 to Jehovah, the first is now completed. We have considered the 
 nature of the Call, its difference from that which was given to 
 Abraham, the means which were taken to procure a body of men 
 such as might suitably form the foundation of a new and unique 
 Commonwealth, and the nature of the obligations they incurred 
 in accepting the Call." 
 
 Other writers, especially in tracing genealogies, etc., 
 borrow from the methods of Description and make use of 
 some type or symbol, like that of a tree. 
 
 This ninth suggestion would seem practically to concern 
 only those writers who are to make literature a life work ; 
 bat such is not the case. The narration of the simplest 
 series of real events may be essentially a history, and may 
 be greatly aided by this use of reviews, summaries, and 
 types. 
 
 10. Keep concurring series distinct. Finally, where the 
 occurrences are at all complicated, great care must ba 
 given to keep concurring series perfectly distinct. There 
 is no readier means of confusion than to mingle related 
 
282 PBAOTICAL MBETOBIC. 
 
 streams of events in the mind of the reader before the 
 actual point of commingling has been reached. 
 
 Summary. In order vividly to reproduce past occur- 
 rences, then, the scene should be distinct and unchanged ; 
 the narrative should verge toward a climax or " catastrophe;" 
 notice should be given of any change of scene ; the writer 
 should follow the natural order of events ; each occurrence 
 should, if possible, help to explain its successor ; the natural 
 order may be violated, within limits, for the sake of sus- 
 pense ; the narrative should be complete ; if imaginary, 
 the plot should be plausible ; if historical, it should be 
 aided by summaries and backward references, and con- 
 curring series of events should be kept distinct. 
 
EXPOSITION. 283 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 EXPOSITION. 
 
 JixposiTiON may be defined, practically, as the state- 
 ment and discussion of the essential attributes of some 
 abstract or general theme. If all the essential attributes 
 are discussed, the exposition is called "complete ;" if only 
 certain selected attributes are discussed, the exposition is 
 called "partial." Hill says,* "Exposition consists in 
 such an analysis of a general term as will make clear to the 
 mind the general notion of which it is the sign." Simi- 
 larly, Bain defines exposition to be f "the mode of hand- 
 ling applicable to knowledge or information in the form of 
 what is called the sciences." 
 
 SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 With Exposition in its strict scientific sense, the young 
 writer has little to do. Only years of experience and pro- 
 found study can enable a man wisely to enter the field of 
 scientific discussion. The narrower field of partial exposi- 
 tion, however, is perhaps the most popular of all the forms 
 of composition among undergraduates. Of the twenty- 
 one actual subjects quoted in Chapter I. (Part III.) every 
 one may fairly be classed under Exposition. The sugges- 
 tions under this head must be mainly negative. 
 
 1. Carefiil information necessary. Although most fre- 
 quently employed, there is no kind of composition that 
 
 * ■• Science of Rhetoric," p. 95. f " Rhetoric," p. 185. 
 
284 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 demands such careful and exhaustive reading, study, and 
 definition. In no other field is there such danger of mis- 
 taking trite commonplaces and aphorisms for real, original 
 thought. Vagueness and lack of point are the character- 
 istics of too many expository essays. Of course this 
 vagueness is largely due to the common failure to narrow 
 down the expository theme, as illustrated on pages 242-3. 
 
 2. Avoid conloiinding with other forms. As a matter 
 of fact, essays in exposition will often be found to contain 
 much of pure description and narration; but while some 
 Description may be necessary in exposition, it should be 
 limited to the least amount required. For example, an 
 essay on " Public Opinion," if intended to be expository, 
 does not need to contain the history of public opinion since 
 the founding of Eome, nor pen-pictures of Grecian institu- 
 tions. 
 
 3. SiiggeUive questions. The accurate treatment of a 
 theme in exposition is so rare, and apparently so diflS.cult to 
 the young writer, that a few suggestive questions may be 
 helpful. " Of almost any abstract subject," says Haven,* 
 "it may wisely be asked: Where is it found? How far 
 does it extend ? How long has it existed ? How great is its 
 power ? Is it useful or pernicious ? If both, where and 
 why is it the one, and when and why the other ? Is it often 
 confounded with some other subject ? If so, what, and why, 
 and how ? Is it connected with human conduct, and how ? 
 How does it appear by illustration and comparison with 
 other subjects ?" etc. etc. 
 
 4. Character sketches; avoid confounding tvith biog- 
 raphy. Of the different varieties of exposition, two have 
 been found most satisfactory in undergraduate work. The 
 first of these is the exposition of some historical or fictitious 
 character. The constant and common danger here is that 
 of confounding the exposition with narration in the form 
 of mere biography. The pupil flies to the encyclopaedias, 
 
 "* Rhetoric," p. 380. 
 
EXPOSITION. 285 
 
 gorges his mind with several articles, and then soberly re- 
 lates to us when and where the personage was born and 
 educated, what was his father's business, what successive 
 official positions he held, etc., and closes with a pathetic 
 description of the great man's death ; all of which is not 
 exposition, much less original composition. In fact, pure 
 biography and history almost preclude originality of thought. 
 In sketching a character, reference to such matters as place 
 of birth, parentage, education, etc., should be only second- 
 ary and incidental, and may often be entirely omitted. Of 
 course, the biography of the personage must be carefully 
 read as a preliminary step ; but that biography should be 
 made the subject of reflection and comparison rather than 
 a storehouse from which the writer may draw a few dry, 
 threadbare facts with which to weary his readers or hear- 
 ers. Let him rather take up such questions as the motives 
 of the personage ; his ideals ; how far he attained those 
 ideals ; his opportunities, and how he improved them ; 
 what he might have accomplished but for certain barriers ; 
 what another would have done in his place ; his success as 
 compared with that of others in similar spheres, and so on. 
 It will readily be seen that the field is broad enough not to 
 need enlargement by mere narration. 
 
 5. Book reviews; their essentiah. Another variety of 
 exposition, and one of the most instructive forms of com- 
 position in which the young writer can engage, is the re- 
 view of some work of fiction. 
 
 While all the suggestions that pertain to exposition, in 
 general, will apply here, certain specific requirements 
 should be noted. The aim of the writer is to produce upon 
 the mind of the reader of the essay the same impressions 
 that would be produced by reading the book. Together 
 with its general treatment, a good book-review should 
 therefore include: 
 
 a. The statement of the location of the principal scene in 
 time and place. This may involve very brief description, 
 possibly narration. 
 
286 PRACTICAL BSETOBIC. 
 
 b. A sketch of each of the principal characters. The 
 danger here will be that of undue expansion. Indeed, one 
 of the chief merits of this kind of composition is that it 
 helps to cultivate that rare faculty, condensation. A brief 
 quotation from the sayings of the personage, skilfully 
 chosen, may reveal more of his character than pages of 
 description. Take, for example, the "more !" of Oliver 
 Twist; the "I. 0. U," of Micawber; or the "Oh, how 
 shiftless !" of the Puritan aunt in "Uncle Tom's Cabin." 
 
 c. A brief outline of the plot. Here, again, the writer 
 must beware of undue expansion. He must select only the 
 main points of the story, dropping ruthlessly all details. 
 In an average essay the outline of the plot should not ex- 
 ceed one hundred words, at the most, and may often be 
 confined to fifty. This part of the composition will, — of 
 course, be purely narrative. In critically reviewing a new 
 book for the press, it is of course wise to refrain from 
 giving the details of the plot lest the future reader lose that 
 interest that comes from suspense. 
 
 d. A criticism of the characters. Are they true to life ? 
 Do they talk and act as real, living people would talk and 
 act under like circumstances ? If they are stilted and arti- 
 ficial, show where and why, using short quotations to illus- 
 trate. 
 
 e. Criticism of the plot. Is it plausible ? Are the 
 given results such as would naturally come from the given 
 causes and conditions ? If not, show where and why. Is 
 the suspense well maintained to the close of the story ? etc. 
 etc. 
 
 /. Criticism of the author's style. Is he clear and con- 
 cise ? Does he abound in long, involved sentences, in for- 
 eign words and idioms, in provincialisms, in technical 
 expressions, in obscure allusions, etc. ? Are his sentences 
 generally suspensive ? Are the pictures so drawn as to 
 appeal to popular interest ? and so on. This feature of 
 the exposition is the most pure in form and will require the 
 most careful thought. 
 
EXPOSITION. 287 
 
 g. The special object of the booh. If it has had a his- 
 tory (and it is a very wise rule not to review one that is less 
 than twenty-five years old), then the development of this 
 point will include both the statement of the object, and of 
 the degree to which the object has been attained. 
 
 For example: Dickens' "Nicholas Nickleby" aimed at 
 and secured the abolishment of the Yorkshire cheap 
 schools ; " Little Dorrit" was directed against the evils of 
 the debtor-prison system; " Uncle Tom's Cabin," against 
 those of slavery, and so on. 
 
 In conclusion, the pupil is cautioned against using the 
 seven points just given as the main heads of his essay-out- 
 line. While this might be done, it is equally well, and gen- 
 erally possible, to note these only incidentally, and so to 
 condense them that they shall compose but a minor part 
 of the essay. 
 
288 PRACTICAL BEETOBIG. 
 
 CHAPTEE VI. 
 PERSUASION. 
 
 Peksuasion may be defined as that form of composition 
 designed to influence the belief, and the conduct of men 
 according to the will of the writer. " It endeavors/' says 
 Bain^ " to obtain the co-operation of man's free impulses 
 for some proposed line of conduct by so presenting it in 
 language as to make it coincide with them." * 
 
 Of all the forms of composition, this is doubtless the 
 most important, both as a means of mental discipline and 
 as an agency in the practical affairs of life. One may 
 seldom feel it necessary to engage in formal description, 
 narration, or exposition ; but there is hardly an American 
 citizen whose interests do not often depend upon his ability 
 to influence the belief and conduct of his associates. More- 
 over, argumentation often includes all the other forms of 
 composition. As a school exercise, again, iiersuasion is 
 especially advantageous. In no other form of composition 
 is the pupil thrown so completely upon his own resources. 
 Encyclopaedias and reference-works, in general, ailord little 
 direct help. In order to argue well upon any but the very 
 tritest of themes, the writer must think. Persuasion neces- 
 sarily consists of two steps : first, the end in view must be 
 made to appear desirable ; and, second, the means proposed 
 must be proved to be conducive to that end. These steps are 
 known, — respectively, as Exhortation and Argumentation. 
 Suppose, for example, that the object be the construction, in 
 some town, of a system of public water- works, and that the 
 means proposed be the use of the direct-pressure, or HoUey 
 
 * Rhetoric, p. 312. 
 
PEBSUASION. 289 
 
 system. Three possible cases may exist : first, a majority 
 of the citizens may unite in believing that the direct-pres- 
 sure system is cheap and efficient, while only a minority 
 believe the construction of water-works to be really desir- 
 able ; second, a majority may agree that the construction 
 of such works is desirable, but may differ concerning the 
 most efficient and economical means of accomplishing that 
 end ; third, the citizens may be about equally divided be- 
 tween these two views. In the first case the effort of the 
 writer or speaker would necessarily be purely exhortative, 
 in the second case it would be argumentative, and in the 
 third case both combined. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS- 
 
 1. Decide clearly as to methods at the outset. The first 
 question for the writer to decide is, whether one, the other, 
 or both of these methods are to be employed. In real life, 
 this must be determined by a careful study of the circum- 
 stances and prevailing opinions in the case ; in school and 
 college exercises, the writer may be guided by his fancy ; 
 only, in either case, let the decision be clear before begin- 
 ning to write ; otherwise, time and thought will be wasted. 
 Most people have listened to profound discourses intended 
 to prove what the entire audience believed from the outset. 
 
 EXHOETATIOlSr. 
 
 2. hi exhortation, study the persons addressed. Exhor- 
 tation must be addressed mainly to the feelings. The 
 wi'iter must therefore use all possible means of becoming 
 well acquainted with the sentiments, prejudices, maxims, 
 and beliefs of the man whom he addresses, as well as of the 
 class to which the hearer belongs. Every period of life, 
 every decade, every country, every locality has its peculiar 
 views and prejudices. To ignore these in persuasive writ- 
 ing is to insure failure. The autobiographies of the world's 
 
 i9 
 
290 PRACTICAL BHETOBIG. 
 
 most influential persuasive writers and speakers give evi- 
 dence that this study of the persons addressed has been the 
 secret of their success. They have not addressed their 
 words of persuasion to those images (constructed in the 
 study) of what men ought to be ; they have rather adapted 
 their appeals to men as they have found and studied them, 
 in the street, on the farm, and in the shop. Just here is 
 to be found an explanation of the meagre results obtained 
 by many earnest and highly- cultured pulpit orators. 
 They continually address men as they "ought to" be rather 
 than as they are. As a preparation for persuasion, no 
 amount of theorizing can ever take the place of actual per- 
 sonal contact. 
 
 3. Exhortation may proceed iy description, narration, 
 or exposition. The vivid description of a drunkard's 
 abandoned home furnishes to the advocate of temperance 
 one of his strongest appeals. The recital, by Mrs. Stowe, 
 of the woes of one family of blacks proved the strongest of 
 all exhortations for the abolition of slavery. The exposi- 
 tion of the plan of redemption has been the most efEective 
 method of winning souls to Christ. 
 
 AROUMSNTATION : ITS NATURE AND CONDITIONS. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no better definition of an argument 
 than that formulated by Bain, who says: * "An argument 
 is a fact, principle, or set of facts or of principles adduced 
 as evidence of some other fact or principle." For example, 
 the fact that the highest official positions are generally held 
 by educated men is adduced as evidence of the principle 
 that education is profitable. 
 
 Two conditions must exist in order to make Argumenta- 
 tion possible : \a. " The fact or principle adduced must be 
 admitted and sufficiently believed in by the reader." b. 
 "A certain relation of similarity must be admitted to exist 
 
 * Rhetoric, p. 339. \ Adapted from Bain. 
 
PEB8UA8I0N. 291 
 
 between the facts or principles adduced and the point to be 
 established." To recur to our illustration^ there could be 
 no argument unless the hearer should admit that the highest 
 positions are generally held by educated men, and unless 
 he should also admit that, on the ground of nature's uni- 
 formity, they would continue so to be held. If either of 
 these conditions be absent, the argument must be fruitless. 
 To illustrate further : a farmer may admit that a certain 
 crop not planted during full moon has failed ; but unless he 
 admits that a similar relation between the moon and the 
 crop exists from year to year, the fact of failure is not, to 
 him, an evidence that the moon's phases influence vegetable 
 growth. The first step, then, in pure argumentation, is 
 to select as evidence facts that meet these two condi- 
 tions. 
 
 4. State the question affirmatively. Negative statement 
 is always weak statement. No man can prove a universal 
 negative. For example, the statement, "Great crises 
 make great men," may be proved, but the negative state- 
 ment, " Great crises do not make great men," could never 
 be proved ; for the writer could never be sure that he had 
 become conversant with all great crises. Some one crisis 
 that had produced a great man might remain unknown. 
 
 5. Expound the question clearly at the outset. Much 
 so-called " debate" is utterly idle and fruitless, from mutual 
 failure of the parties concerned to make clear definitions at 
 the outset. Men often oppose one another eloquently for 
 hours, only to find at last that they substantially agree, 
 and that they have really been talking about two distinct 
 questions. For example, take the proposition, "Nihilism 
 is justifiable." Before there can be any fair or profitable 
 argumentation, there must be a clear statement of just 
 what is meant by the terms " uihilism" and "justifiable," 
 and this statement must be such as to be admitted by both 
 sides. Otherwide, each debater will direct his blows against 
 some mere image of his own construction, instead of plant- 
 ing them squarely against his antagonist. In practical 
 
293 PBAOTICAL RHETOBIO. 
 
 life, debate, dispute, and resultant quarrelling might often 
 be averted by exposition. 
 
 6. State fully and fairly the other side of the question. 
 There is no surer method of producing distrust in the 
 nind of the hearer, and therefore of insuring failure, 
 
 than for the speaker to assume that truth, justice, and 
 ■wisdom are entirely on his side, and to begin his argument 
 by belittling the cause of his opponent. This is a mistake 
 too often made in debating societies. The writer or speaker 
 must produce and maintain the impression that he is treat- 
 ing his subject fairly. The moment that this impression 
 is changed, that moment his failure is insured. A glance 
 at the opening paragraphs in almost any of the speeches of 
 the world's great orators will confirm this principle. 
 
 7. In strong opposition, state agreement with an op- 
 ponent. As a corollary to the last suggestion, it may be 
 added that where strong opposition is expected, from popu- 
 lar prejudice, or other causes, it is essential that the debater 
 cause his agreement with his opponents to appear as com- 
 plete and as extensive as possible. As an illustration of 
 this, note the wonderful skill with which Antony begins 
 his speech to the rabble after the murder of Ceesar, and 
 after the speech of Brutus in apology for the deed : — 
 
 "Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your oars'; 
 I come to bury Ceesar, not to praise him; 
 The evil that men do lives after them ; 
 The good is oft interred -with their bones ; 
 So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus 
 Hath told you, Oeesar was ambitious: 
 If it were so, it was a grievous fault. 
 And grievously hath Ceesar answer'd it. 
 Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest, 
 (For Brutus is an honorable man ; 
 So are they all, all honorable men,) 
 Come I to speak in Csesar's funeral. 
 He was my friend, faithful and just to me. 
 But Brutus says, he was ambitious ; 
 And Brutus is an honorable man. 
 He hath brought many captives home to Rome 
 Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill. ' 
 Did this in Cresar seem ambitious ? 
 
persuasion: 293 
 
 When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept : 
 
 Ambition should be made of sterner stuff. 
 
 Yet Brutus says, he was ambitious ; 
 
 And Brutus is an honorable man. 
 
 You aU did see, that on the Lupercal 
 
 I thrice presented him a kingly crown, 
 
 Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition ? 
 
 Yet Brutus says, he was ambitious : 
 
 And, sure, he is an honorable man. 
 
 I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke, 
 
 But here I am to speak what I do know. 
 
 You all did love him once, not without cause : 
 
 What cause withholds you, then, to mourn for him ? 
 
 O judgment ! thou art fled to brutish beasts. 
 
 And men have lost their reason !— Bear with me ; 
 
 My heart is in the cofiBn there with Csesar, 
 
 And I must pause till it come back to me." 
 
 Note also the consummate skill of Paul as he appears 
 before the cynical Athenian philosophers : ^c^s xvii. 22-31. 
 
 The speaker must win the willing ear of his hearer at 
 any sacrifice. Otherwise he might as well address dead 
 walls. 
 
 8. Anticipate possible objections. In written argumen- 
 tation, where the debater is allowed but one speech, any 
 possible objections existing in the minds of those addressed 
 should be anticipated and carefully met. This should 
 generally be done soon after beginning the argumentation, 
 in order to free the hearer's mind from bias before he 
 listens to the main positive arguments. Here the imagina- 
 tion of the writer finds full scope. 
 
 9. Adduce the arguments separately. By this means 
 not only is clearness insured, but each successive argument 
 secures in the hearer's mind a definite habitation, so that 
 he may carry it and consider it in making up his final 
 decision. While the ordinal numbers may be used for this 
 purpose, it is even better to apply to each argument, if 
 possible, some terse epithet that will easily fix itself in the 
 mind of the hearer. For example, one of the most com- 
 mon arguments in favor of the tariff is familiarly known as 
 the "infant-industry^' argument. 
 
294 PBACTIOAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 Id. Mere number does not give force. The multiplica- 
 tion of points numerically is often a sign of -weakness. 
 The debater who ransacks the universe for arguments is 
 liable to produce the impression that his cause is desperate, 
 A drowning man will catch even at straws. 
 
 11. Arrange the arguments to a climax. Climacteric 
 writing, of any form, is always the most effective writing. 
 As the attention of those addressed becomes more and more 
 wearied, the mental stimulants administered must neces- 
 sarily be stronger. And here, again, appears the necessity 
 of a preliminary outline. Without first knowing just what 
 his arguments are to be, the writer cannot, of course, 
 arrange them to a climax. An argument that is essentially 
 weak is doubtless better omitted entirely, but among those 
 that are reasonably strong there is generally much differ- 
 ence in degree. 
 
 Exception. One wise violation of this principle should 
 be noted ; namely, the placing of one or more of the 
 stronger arguments at the opening of the speech or essay. 
 With arguments, as with individuals, first impressions are 
 very important. 
 
 1%. Beware of the fallacies arising from mere association 
 or succession. The fact that two phenomena frequently 
 occur together, or in succession, does not prove that one is 
 the effect of the other. This fallacy, known among logi- 
 cians as "post hoc ergo propter hoc," is by far the most com- 
 mon of all. In every political campaign thousands of votes 
 among the laboring classes are changed by the reasoning 
 that, since "hard times" have existed under the administra- 
 tion of one party, therefore those hard times have been dtie 
 to that administration, and there is need of "a, change." 
 To illustrate further: the fact that ten men who have used 
 tobacco all their lives have had remarkable health does not 
 prove that the use of tobacco is conducive to health. There 
 may be twenty other habitual tobacco-users who have been 
 life-long invalids. 
 
 13. Avoid confounding proof with illustration. Almost 
 
persuasion: 295 
 
 anything can be established by a simile^ even opposite sides 
 of the same question. Witness the following from a popu- 
 lar novel: — 
 
 "He. — 'If I wished to tell you how I would dwell in yo^I^ 
 thoughts, what poet has written anything equal to this half -open 
 burr ? It portrays our past, it gives our present relations, and it 
 suggests our future ; only, like all parables, it must not be pressed 
 too far or too much prominence given to mere detail. These 
 prickly outward-pointing spines represent the reserve and formal- 
 ity which keep comparative strangers apart. But now the burr 
 is half open, revealing its heart of sUk and down. So, if one 
 could get past the barriers which you, alike with all, turn toward 
 au indiflEerent or unfriendly world, a kindliness would be found 
 that would surround a cherished friend as these silken sides en- 
 velop this sole and favored chestnut. Again, note that the burr 
 is half open now, indicating, I hope, the progress we have made 
 toward such friendship. Moreover, this chestnut dwells alone in 
 the centre of the burr. "We do not like to share a supreme friend- 
 ship. There are some in whose esteem we would be first.' 
 
 "She — 'Mr. Gregory, will you lend me your penknife?' (He 
 complies, and she takes the burr from his hand.) 
 
 " ' Mr. Gregory, if I understand your rather far-fetched inter- 
 pretation of this little " parable of nature," you choose to repre- 
 sent yourself by this great, lonely chestnut occupying the space 
 where three might have grown. On observing this emblematic 
 nut closely, I detect something that may also have a place in your 
 parable,' and she pushed aside the little quirl at the small end of 
 the nut, which partially concealed a. worm-hole, and cutting 
 through the sheU showed the destroyer in the very heart of the 
 kernel. 
 
 " ' Mr. Gregory, you have been unfortunate in the choice of a 
 burr. Let me select one for you. First, you notice that it lies 
 entirely open; that indicates frankness. Again, the burr contains 
 three chestnuts, which indicates the sharing of one's regard among 
 others, although the fact that one is central and larger shows 
 that there may still be one supreme regard. Under the vigorous 
 blows of Jeff, the driver, this burr has suffered a terrific downfall, 
 and yet notice how faithfully the three nuts have clung together. 
 This teaches us that friends should stick together through the 
 downfalls of life,' " etc., etc. 
 
 In a word, it does not follow that what is true of the 
 symbol is necessarily true of the thing symbolized. Be- 
 cause the construction of a good essay resembles that of 
 a frame house, it does not follow that everything true 
 of the house is true of the essay. One object does not 
 
296 PRAOTIGAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 prove tlie other ; it simply illustrates. This method of 
 reasoning "by analogy," as it is called, while it has a cei>- 
 tain value, has much more weight, in the popular mind, 
 than is properly its due, and is therefore to be employed 
 with great caution. 
 
 14. Cite only accessible mitlwritics. In discussing ques- 
 tions that involve the testimony of authorities, in his own 
 or other languages, an appeal to authorities not easily eon- 
 suited by those addressed, renders the speaker liable to 
 charges of pedantry and subtlety. The hearer is apt to 
 consider such an appeal a mere makeshift employed in the 
 want of sound arguments. "Can you read Greek?" asked 
 a collegian who was being worsted in debate by a layman. 
 " I don't know ; I have never tried," was the quiet reply. 
 
 15. In refutation, analyze the arguments of your oppo- 
 nent. The first step in refutation is, if need be, so to 
 disentangle and arrange the arguments of the opposition 
 that the hearer, who is the judge, may be enabled to see 
 clearly just how many and what these are. And here, if 
 the opponent be one who has written without a careful pre- 
 liminary analysis, he will be found especially vulnerable. 
 In such cases mere analysis is sometimes in itself a com- 
 plete refutation. Damaging contradictions and misstate- 
 ments are often thus brought out, which compel an 
 antagonist to leave the field in shame. Another advantage 
 of this method is, that it enables the debater to meet what 
 is at once the common strength and the common weakness 
 of popular orators. Pox, the most eminent of these, main- 
 tained, we are told, that, to the multitude, one argument, 
 presented in five different dresses, is equal to five distinct 
 arguments. His success proves the correctness of his 
 theory ; and a study of the speeches of the popular orators 
 of our own day will show that they act, perhaps uncon- 
 sciously, on the same principle. If, however, one of these 
 silver-tongued orators is met upon the rostrum by an op- 
 ponent who can clearly show to the audience that they have 
 been listening, not to several strong, distinct arguments, 
 but rather to only one or two, dressed like, puppets, — in as 
 
PERSUASION. 297 
 
 many different garbs as there are occasions, the result must 
 be evident. 
 
 16. Avoid over-argumentation. This applies both to 
 positive argumentation and to refutation. In the iirst 
 case, especially where prejudice is to be met, there is danger 
 of reaction. That which the hearer is not fully prepared 
 to receive must not be urged too forcibly. In refutation, 
 over-argumentation is liable only to magnify in the hearer's 
 mind the weight of the argument answered. Great prep- 
 aration implies a great undertaking. The speaker who 
 hurls a ponderous refutation at a weak argument is like a 
 builder who should erect a huge derrick in order to lift 
 a small stone ; people would infer that the stone must be 
 much heavier than it looks. 
 
 17. Ignore arguments fiat are very weak. This is but a 
 a corollary to the last suggestion. By even noticing some 
 arguments the speaker only magnifies what was before in- 
 significant. 
 
 18. Always conclude with a summary. Though the last, 
 this is perhaps the most important of our long list of sug- 
 gestions. By its nature, argumentation involves the for- 
 mation of a decision by the hearer, the judge, after the rep- 
 resentatives or the representations of both sides have been 
 heard. In order to form any fair, intelligent decision, he 
 must catch, and carry in his mind, or upon paper, the 
 points made on each side. To enable the hearer to do this 
 easily and completely each debater should conclude with a 
 restatement of his arguments in the tersest language pos- 
 sible. Too much stiess cannot be laid on this principle. 
 The summary may be made by citing the arguments nu- 
 merically, or often more smoothly by weaving all into one 
 closing sentence.' By way of illustration, we append seve- 
 ral actual summaries taken verbatim from undergraduate 
 essays: — 
 
 " Inasmuch, therefore, as the Bible is the only book of morals ; 
 in view of its great truths and the richness of its literature ; in- 
 asmuch as it has always been a corrective for sceptical tenden- 
 cies, — we claim that it ought not to be excluded from the pubhc 
 schools." 
 
298 PBACTIGAL REETORIC. 
 
 " Since, then, intimate acquaintance with books, while it greatly 
 enriches life, at the same time tends to make men forgetful of 
 the great living world, and hence to make them selfish • since it 
 gives us knowledge of human nature by rule rather than by ex- 
 perience ; and since the writings are not greater than their 
 authors ; since direct knowledge of human nature increases our 
 opportunities for doing good, and is of real value even when it 
 displays the darker side of life ; since it opens rich stores of 
 romance and poetry ; and since it is obviously a duty to under- 
 stand the highest creations from the hand of God, — surely human 
 acquaintances and friendships are the better." 
 
 " Eemembering, then, that the excuse for war is the maintenance 
 of justice, and that justice depends on the reasoning faculties, not 
 on brute force ; considering that very many wars have proved 
 ineffectual ; that the issue of war, depending upon chance, — is un- 
 certain ; that many of the finer qualities of manhood are wanting 
 in the professional soldier ; that war assures its own continuance ; 
 that as rulers can agree to abide by the trial by war, so they can 
 as effectually appeal to arbitration — in view of all these facts, I 
 claim that war is unnecessary, does not accomplish its purpose, 
 and hence is inexpedient. " 
 
 "I hold, therefore, that it is not right for our government to 
 grant pensions to strong and healthy men : first, because the 
 country had a right to demand the service of its citizens, and, if 
 injured in no way, they are not entitled to a pension ; secondly, 
 because these men have received pay for their services, and as 
 this would release any contractor from aU obligation, so also it 
 ought to free the government. " 
 
 Summary. — In persuasion, then, the writer must decide 
 at the outset whether to use exhortation, argumentation, 
 or both ; must study the persons addressed ; may make use 
 of description, narration, or exposition ; should state the 
 question affirmatively; should expound it clearly at the 
 outset ; should state fairly the other side of the case ; in 
 case of strong opposition, should state agreement with his 
 opponent ; should anticipate possible objections ; should 
 adduce his arguments separately ; should avoid mere multi- 
 plication of arguments ; should arrange his arguments to a 
 climax ; should beware of the fallacy of association ; should 
 avoid confounding proof with illustration ; should cite only 
 accessible authorities; in refutation, should analyze the 
 arguments of his opponent; should avoid over-argumen- 
 tation ; should ignore arguments that are weak, and should 
 always conclude with a summary. 
 
OliAL DISCO UBSE. 299 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 ORAL DISCOURSE : ITS DISTINGUISHING CHARACTER- 
 ISTICS. 
 
 The oration is not a distinct form of composition. In 
 the preceding chapters, the term "essay" has been em- 
 ployed in reference both to composition intended for mere 
 perusal and to that intended for oral delivery. In reality, 
 no distinction is possible. It depends entirely upon cir- 
 cumstances whether any one of the four forms of com- 
 position shall come to those addressed from the lips of 
 the author, or from the written or printed page. Argu- 
 mentation, for example, is made by some authors syn- 
 onymous with oratory ; and yet the great mass of legal 
 argument, especially in civil cases, is never orally delivered. 
 At the same time, any article composed with a view to pub- 
 lic delivery, involving, as it generally will, all four forms 
 of composition, should have certain peculiar characteristics. 
 
 STJGGESTIOlirS. 
 
 1. Study the prospective audience carefully ief or etoriting. 
 This aU-important preliminary step, already urged in dis- 
 cussing theme-selection and argumentation, is especially 
 practicable in spoken discourse. He who writes only to be 
 read can neither select nor analyze his audience ; but, in 
 most cases, the writer for public delivery can obtain, by 
 observation, inquiry, and reflection, a fair idea of the mental 
 acquirements, views, and prejudices of his prospective au- 
 dience ; while, at the same time, he can adapt his composi- 
 tion to the conditions of time and place. Such a preliminary 
 study will enable him to avoid the too common pitfalls of 
 unintelligible terms and references, distasteful propositions, 
 and the like. 
 
300 PRACTICAL RnETOBIC. 
 
 2. Imagine the audience before you luJiile writing. Other 
 things being equal, he who has the more vivid imagination 
 will write the better oration. If every sentence, as it is 
 written, is addressed to a fancied audience, effective forms 
 of expression will be used almost unconsciously. 
 
 3. Use, frequently, direct forms of address. This will 
 result, naturally, from following the last suggestion. Put 
 a statement in the present tense and in the second person, 
 and you at once make the hearer a partner in the discourse, 
 with all the interest of partnership. Ask a man a question, 
 and simple respect compels his attention; whereas he might 
 have remained listless toward the statement of the same 
 point in declarative form. This method may be overdone, 
 but the tendency is not in that direction. 
 
 4. Perfect clearness is most important. The constant 
 aim in oratory should be to convey the ideas in such a man- 
 ner that the hearer may receive them fully with the least 
 possible mental effort. In written composition, if the 
 meaning is not perfectly clear, the reader may review the 
 sentence or paragraph at will until he fully understands it. 
 Not so with an oration. The only time given to the hearer 
 for the reception and comprehension of an idea is that 
 during its delivery. He must keep pace with the speaker. 
 If he stops to study out the meaning of an expression, he is 
 sure to lose what follows, if not the entire drift of the dis- 
 course. It will be seen, then, that absolute clearness is 
 essential. 
 
 5. Short sentences are preferable: This is but ^ corollary 
 to the last suggestion. Long or involved sentences may 
 sometimes be tolerated on the printed page, where they can 
 be reviewed, but never in oratory. The term " sentence," 
 as used here, does not, of course, refer to a rhetorical period. 
 Such a complex sentence, properly divided by semicolons 
 and other marked pauses, often makes the strongest oratori- 
 cal form, Neither is approval here intended for that 
 disconnected, "chippy" style so common and so objec- 
 tionable. Short sentences do not imply disconnection. 
 
ORAL DISCOURSE. 301 
 
 6. Force is more esuenfial. In written discourse, for 
 example, sentences may frequently end with short or unim- 
 portant words without notice by the reader, or at least 
 without seriously offending his ear. But once deliver these 
 sentences orally, and they appear thoroughly flat and weak. 
 In writing an oration, constant care must be given to select 
 for the closing expressions of sentences and paragraphs 
 those that will admit of delivery in full, round tones. 
 Other forms of weakness in style, too, are more tolerable in 
 written than in spoken discourse; although the latter is 
 often strengthened by an easy familiarity that would be 
 out of place in written discourse. 
 
 7. Suspense and climax are indispensable. Whatever 
 else is done or omitted, the speaker must gain and hold the 
 attention of his audience. When he fails in this, he fails in 
 all. To secure this end no other device is so effective as 
 that of suspense and its resultant, climax. Excite a man's 
 curiosity, and you fix his attention. The speaker who can 
 so manage the threads of his discourse that each shall lead 
 continually to a common centre, not clearly seen, at first, 
 by his hearers, is the speaker to whom men will listen. 
 
 Moreover, while suspense generally results in that figure, 
 a climax may often be constructed where there is no sus- 
 pense. Too much attention cannot be given to this point. 
 Study and declamation of the masterpieces of English and 
 American oratory will prove that the strongest and most 
 eloquent passages are invariably the climacteric passages. 
 
 8. Euphony must he especially regarded. At this point, 
 again, appears a striking difference between reading and 
 speaking. One may silently read pages of words inhar- 
 moniously combined, and feel comparatively little jarring 
 sensation. Eead the same pages aloud, and the most un- 
 trained ear will note the harsh effect. Everything that adds 
 to the good- will and pleasure of his audience is an aid to the 
 orator in securing his end. Indeed, it is proverbial that 
 weak, commonplace thoughts, if clothed in beautiful lan- 
 guage, are more effective with a popular audience than are 
 
302 PEAOTICAL RHETORIO. 
 
 strong, original thoughts, if inharmoniously expressed. The 
 demands of euphony, therefore, must not be neglected. It 
 is a safe and simple rule that any sentence -which cannot 
 easily be pronounced by its author, without repetition, is 
 an inharmonious sentence, and should be either thrown out 
 or recast. 
 
 9. The orator must use frequent summaries. The neces- 
 sity, noted in our fourth suggestion, that the hearer should 
 catch, instantly, each idea as presented is not sufficiently 
 met by clearness alone. His mind must be assisted and 
 refreshed, at appropriate intervals, by terse, pointed sum- 
 maries. With a book before him, he could make these 
 summaries for himself ; not so when listening to a speaker. 
 It is not what a man hears, but what he retains that pro- 
 duces or fails to produce conviction. 
 
 Summary. — In a word, then, the orator should study his 
 audience beforehand ; should imagine the audience before 
 him while composing ; should use direct forms of address ; 
 should prefer short sentences ; should pay especial attention 
 to Clearness, Force, Euphony, and Climax, and should make 
 frequent summaries. 
 
PART IV. 
 
 VERSIFICATION. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 POETIC DICTION— RHYTHM. 
 
 " The object of prose," says Abbott, " is, in general, to 
 convey information; that of poetry, to give pleasure. Hence 
 the prose-writer, in his choice of a word, will prefer that 
 which conveys his meaning most successfully: the poet 
 will prefer that which gives most pleasure. It is true that 
 each sort of writer will keep both objects in view at once, 
 but what is the primary object to the one will be the sec- 
 ondary object to the other, and vice versa."* From this 
 general principle arise the following 
 
 CHAEACTEKISTICS OF POETIC DICTION: — 
 
 1. It is Archaic. — It employs such words as " hallowed" 
 (for holy), and "woe," "ken," "dire," "ire," "thrall," 
 "steed," "charger," and many other such words that are 
 not found in ordinary modern prose. 
 
 Abbott says further: "The explanation of the archaism 
 of poetic diction seems to be this. Poetry, being less con- 
 versational than prose, is less affected than is prose by the 
 changes of a living language, and more affected by the lan- 
 guage and traditions of the poetry of past ages. Not all 
 
 * "English Lessons for English People," p. 54. 
 
304 PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 words are adapted for metre, and therefore the limitations 
 of metre in themselves are suflQcient to explain the prefer- 
 ence in poetry for certain forms and words. These forms 
 and words, constantly repeated by successive poets, become, 
 as it were, the legitimate inheritance of all who write poe- 
 try. Thus tljey acquire poetic associations in addition to 
 their original adaptability for metre, and they therefore 
 maintain their ground in poetry, even when displaced from 
 prose." 
 
 This characteristic extends, also, to such archaic phrases 
 as "methinks," "meseems," "perchance," "erstwhile," 
 "or e'er," etc. 
 
 2. It is concrete and particular. It discards vague and 
 general terms, and prefers those that are particular, spe- 
 cific, and vivid. It prefers "rose" to "flower," "haw- 
 thorn" to "tree," "Solomon in all his glory" to "a glori- 
 ous monarch," "some village Hampden" to "some patri- 
 otic citizen," etc. 
 
 3. It often substitutes an epithet for the thing denoted. 
 It not only uses an attribute for the subject, as in a regu- 
 lar prose metonymy, but it precedes that attribute by an- 
 other adjective — a construction that is rare and difficult in 
 prose; e.g., "The breezy blue," "the dead past," "the 
 rolling deep," etc. 
 
 4. It adds epithets merely to give color and vividness; 
 that is, adjectives or other epithets that are not required 
 by the strict sense; e.g., 
 
 " His dog attends him . . . and now with many a frisk 
 Wide scampering snatches up the drifted snow 
 With ivory teeth." — Cowper. 
 
 ' ' The bold adventurer ploughs his way 
 Through rocks amidst the foaming sea." — Parnell. 
 
 " Through optic glass the Tuscan artist views 
 Eivers or mountains in her spotty globe. " — Milton 
 
 In these quotations the words "ivory," "foaming " and 
 " spotty" are known as " ornamental epithets," for thev 
 are not needed to convey the strict sense. 
 
POETIC DICTION— BETTEM. 305 
 
 5. It is concise. This characteristic is manifested in 
 several ways: 
 
 a. By the omission of connectives; e.g., 
 
 ' ' To thee, my only rock, I fly, 
 Thy mercy in thy justice praise." 
 
 b. By dropping auxiliaries; e.g., " Gives not the haw- 
 thorn bush as sweet a shade?" for "Does not the haw- 
 thorn bush give," etc. 
 
 c. By substituting " phrase-epithets" for phrases; e.g., 
 "Clime of the unforgoften Irave" instead of the brave who 
 are unforgotten. " Eeturns indignant to the slighted 
 plough." So, "the rolling moon," " the glowing hours," 
 etc. 
 
 d. By prefeiTing brief words and constructions; e.g., 
 "questionless" for "unquestionably," "ere" for "before," 
 "don" for "put on," etc. 
 
 Sometimes, of course, long words are emphatic and ap- 
 propriate in poetic diction; e.g., 
 
 ' ' One mom a Peri at the gate 
 Of Eden stood disconsolate." — Moore. 
 " Unattainable treasure, adieu." — Cowper. 
 
 6. It makes elisions not allmoaile in prosaic diction; e.g., 
 "o'er" for over," "'tis" for "it is," "e'er" for "ever," 
 "'neath" for "beneath," etc. 
 
 7. It employs inversions not allowable in prosaic diction; 
 e.g., " Forth goes the woodman" for, " The woodman goes 
 forth," " Nor stopped he nor stayed he" for, " He neither 
 stopped nor stayed," " Short views we take, nor see the 
 lengths behind " for, " We take," etc. 
 
 8. It employs compounds not allotoable in prosaic diction ; 
 
 e.g., 
 
 " A king sate on the rocky brow 
 That looks o'er sea-horn Salamis." — Byron. 
 " The always-ivind-obeying deep." — Shakespeare. 
 "The cloud-compelling Jove." — Eomer. 
 " Sun-flUed," " Angel- guarded," etc. 
 
 9. It prefers words that are euphonious, either from 
 form or from, association. For example, it often drops the 
 
 30 
 
306 PRAOTICAL BnETOBIO. 
 
 possessiye termination, thus avoiding the unpleasant hiss- 
 ing sound of thes; e.g., "Albion" for "England," "Oo- 
 lumbia" for "America," "Erin" for "Ireland," and "the 
 Cyprus wars," the " Philippi fields," etc. 
 
 10. It often uses simile where prose would prefer meta- 
 phor. This is not a violation of poetic brevity, but is due to 
 the fact that the prime object of poetry is to give pleasure, 
 and that it is therefore warranted in lingering over a figure 
 which, like simile, is designed mainly to affect the feelings. 
 Such a prolonged simile as the following, for instance, 
 would be out of place in prosaic diction: 
 
 "I only thought 
 Of lying quiet where I was thrown 
 Like sea- weed on the rocks and suffering her [the aunt] 
 To prick me to a pattern with her pin, 
 Fibre from fibre, delicate leaf from leaf. 
 And dry out from my drowned anatomy 
 The last sea salt left in me." 
 
 — Mrs. Browning'' s "Aurora Leigh." 
 
 11. It makes more frequent use of enallage, or the sub- 
 stitution of one part of speech for another; e.g., "They 
 fall successive and successive rise;" " The parlor splen- 
 dors of that festive place." 
 
 13. It employs all forms of rhetorical imagery more freely 
 than is alloivable in prose. "We characterize as 'poeti- 
 cal,'" says Spencer, "the prose which uses these applian- 
 ces of language with any frequency, and condemn it as 
 ' over-florid,' or ' affected ' long before they occur with the 
 profusion allowed in verse." * 
 
 By observing the characteristics enumerated above, it 
 will readily be seen that poetic diction is by no means con- 
 fined to versification, and that poetry and versification are 
 far from being synonymous terms. Perhaps one half of 
 the real poetry in our literature is not expressed in metri- 
 cal form, while the versification that has no valid claim to 
 the title " poetry" is painfully common. 
 
 * " Philosophy of Style," p. 33. 
 
POETIC DICTION— RHYTHM. 307 
 
 IMPASSIONEB PEOSE — EHTTHM. 
 
 Between actual prose, such as that used in common con- 
 Tersation or in treating of some scientific subject, and ac- 
 tual poetry in metrical form, stands "Impassioned Prose." 
 This form of composition displays some of the characteris- 
 tics of poetic diction, though not so many as are found in 
 poetry proper. The use of these characteristics, such as 
 archaisms, etc., is not, however, a necessity in impassioned 
 prose, and is to be held carefully in check. The best prose- 
 writers, such as Milton, Burke, Euskin, and Thackeray, 
 use the diction of prose rather than that of poetry. 
 
 Rhythm. — The most essential characteristic of impas- 
 sioned prose is Rhythm. This is well defined by Abbott as 
 "a principle of proportion introduced into language." 
 This proportion, in prose, is not so regular that it can be 
 reduced to adefinite law, and yet it will be found to be the 
 fundamental characteristic of what is commonly called elo- 
 quence. Sometimes it may be detected in the tendency 
 to use the balanced form of sentence; sometimes, in a 
 fondness for grouping adjectives in series of three each, and 
 sometimes in climax; but in most cases it can only be felt, 
 not seen. 
 
 In the following illustrations of poetic prose, note boththa 
 rhythm and the rarity of the characteristics of pure poetic 
 diction. The only expressions involving any of the ele- 
 ments of poetic diction are italicized. 
 
 "The boat reappeared, but brother and sister ha.i gone down 
 in an embrace never to be parted; living through again, in one 
 supreme moment, the days when they had clasped their httle 
 hands in love, and roamed the daisied fields together. "— ffeorg-e 
 Miot. 
 
 " Blessed influence of one true loving human soul on another ! 
 Not calculable by algebra, not dedueible by logic, but mysterious, 
 effectual, mighty as the hidden process by- which the tiny seed is 
 quickened and bursts forth into tall stem and broad leaf and 
 growing tasselled flower. Ideas are often poor ghosts; our eun- 
 fllled eyes cannot discern them; they pass athwart us in thin 
 vapor, and cannot make themselves felt. But sometimes they are 
 made flesh: they breathe upon us with warm breath, they touch 
 
308 PEAOTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 us with soft responsive hands, they look at us with sad sincere 
 eyes, and speak to us in appealing tones,— they are clothed in a 
 living soul with all its conflicts, its faith, and its love. Then, 
 their presence is a power." — Ihid. 
 
 "For so have I seen a lark rising from his bed of grass and 
 soaring upwards, singing as he rises, and [he] hopes to get to 
 heaven and climb above the clouds; but the poor bird was beaten 
 back with the loud sighings of an eastern wind, and hLs motion 
 made irregular and inconstant, descending more at every breath 
 of the tempest than it could recover by the libration and frequent 
 weighing of his wings; tiU the little creature was forced to sit 
 down and pant, and stay till the storm was over; and then it 
 made a prosperous flight, and did rise and sing as if it had 
 learned music and motion from an angel as he passed some time 
 through the air about his ministries here below : so is the prayer 
 of a good man." — Jeremy Taylor. 
 
 "Let us watch him [man] with reverence as he sets side by side 
 the burning gems, and smooths with soft sculpture the jasper 
 pillars that are to reflect a ceaseless sunshine, and rise into a 
 cloudless sky: but not with less reverence let us stand by him 
 when, with rough strength and hurried stroke, he smites an un- 
 couth animation out of the rocks which he has torn from among 
 the moss of the moorland, and heaves into the darkened air the 
 pile of iron buttress and rugged wall, instinct with work of an 
 imagination as wild and wayward as the Northern sea: creations 
 of ungainly shape and rigid limb, but full of wolfish life: tierce as 
 the winds that beat, and changeful as the clouds that shade 
 them. ' ' — Ruskin. 
 
 " And in the midst of it [St. Mark's at Venice] the solemn forms 
 of angels, sceptred, and robed to the feet, and leaning to each 
 other across the gates, their figures indistinct among the gleam- 
 ing of the golden ground through the leaves beside them, inter- 
 rupted and dim like the morning light as it faded back among 
 the branches of Eden, when first its gates were angel-guarded 
 long ago."— /feid. 
 
 "Polarity, or action and reaction, we meet in every part of 
 nature: in darkness and light; in heat and cold; in the ebb and 
 flow of waters; in male and female; in the inspiration and ex- 
 piration of plants and animals. All things are double, one 
 against another. Tit for tat; an eye for an eye; a tooth for a 
 tooth; blood for blood; measure for measure; love for love."— 
 Emerson. 
 
 " Again the pealing organ heaves its thrilling thunders, com- 
 presshig air into music, and rolling it forth upon the soul. What 
 long-drawn cadences ! What solemn sweeping concords ! It 
 grows more and more dense and powerful; it fills the vast pile, 
 it seems to Jar its very walls; the oar is stunned, the sense is 
 overwhelmed. And now it is rising from the earth to heaven 
 
POETIC DICTION— BHTTHM. 309 
 
 the very soul seems rapt away and floated upwards on the swell- 
 ing tide of harmony." — Ii'ving's description of Westminster 
 Abbey. 
 
 ' ' What, thought I, is this vast assemblage of sepulchres but a 
 treasury of humiliation; a huge pile of reiterated homilies on the 
 emptiness of renown and the certainty of oblivion ? It is, indeed, 
 the empire of Death, his great and shadowy palace, where he sits 
 in state, mocking at the relics of human glory, and spreading dust 
 and forgetfulness on the monuments of princes. How idle a 
 boast, after all, is the immortality of a name ! Time is ever 
 silently turning over Ms pages. We are too much engrossed by 
 the story of the present to think of, the character and anecdotes 
 that gave interest to the past; and each age is a volume thrown 
 aside to be speedily forgotten. The idol of to-day pushes the 
 hero of yesterday out of our recollection; and will, in turn, be 
 supplanted by his successor of to-morrow." — Ibid. 
 
 " It was a mild, serene, midsummer's night; the sky was with- 
 out a cloud; the winds were quiet; the Pleiades, just above the 
 horizon, shed their sweet influence in the 6ast. At length the 
 timid approach of twilight became more perceptible; the intense 
 blue of the sky began to soften; the smaller stars, like little 
 children, went first to rest. Hands of angels, hidden from mor- 
 tal eyes, shifted the scenery of the heavens; the glories of the 
 night dissolved into the glories of the dawn." — "Sunrise," Ed- 
 ward Everett. 
 
 POETRY PKOPEK — CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 Poetry proper — that is, poetry in metrical form — is gener- 
 ally divided into three great classes ; the Epic, the Lyric, 
 and the Dramatic. To this classification some writers add 
 elegiac, didactic, and pastoral poetry; but the broader clas- 
 sification is suflflcient for all practical purposes. 
 
 The Epic. — An -epic poem may be defined as "the poetic 
 recital of some great and heroic enterprise." It is at 
 once the longest, highest, and most difficult of all poetical 
 compositions. Very few epics of tlie highest form have 
 been written. They are— Homer's " Iliad " and " Odyssey," 
 Virgil's "^neid,"the " Niebelungen-Lied," Dante's "Di- 
 Tina Gommedia," "The Lusiad," Tasso's "Jerusalem De- 
 livered," and Milton's "Paradise Lost." 
 
 " The Great Epic." — From a study of any or all of these, 
 it will be seen that "a great epic," as such a poem is tech- 
 nically called, must have certain qualities : — 
 
310 PBAOTTCAL BEETOBIO. 
 
 (1) Its siit)ject must be dignified and heroic, e.g., the 
 Siege of Troy, the Founding of Eome, the Fall of Man, 
 etc. 
 
 (3) It must have unity and completeness. The epic is 
 necessarily a form of narration, and unity of plot is even 
 more important than in a novel. One main idea or 
 end must be constantly kept in view, and to this aU the 
 minor events must bend. Most of the epic poets employ 
 the device, already noticed under "Narration" in Part III., 
 of beginning at the middle of the story and thus holding 
 the reader's attention in suspense while the explanation of 
 the opening scene is gradually brought out. 
 
 (3) It must have a hero. As in a novel, again, there 
 must be one chief character about whom the interest shall 
 centre. 
 
 (4) There must be numerous actors, and the plot must 
 be somewhat intricate. However noble and sublime the 
 career of one or two isolated men may be, it could never be- 
 come the theme of a great epic. 
 
 (5) The prevalent tone must be grave. This is readily 
 seen by examining any one of the great epics. Flashes of 
 humor are seen in a few cases, but they are very rare. 
 
 (6) The story itself must be interesting aside from the 
 poetic interest. Here, again, the epic resembles the novel. 
 
 Aside from "the great epic," certain other metrical com- 
 positions are to be classed under this head. 
 
 The Metrical Romance. — This is less dignified than "the 
 great epic," deals less with the supernatural agencies, and 
 is more fully under human control. Among well-known 
 illustrations may be mentioned Chaucer's "Eomauntof the 
 Eose," Spenser's "Faerie Queene," Scott's "Marmion" 
 and "Lady of the Lake," Butler's " Hudibras," Tennyson's 
 " Idyls of the King," Mrs. Browning's "Aurora Leigh," and 
 Longfellow's ' ' Evangeline. " 
 
 Tlie Tale. — This is still less dignified than the metrical 
 romance, and admits the humorous still more freely. Wit- 
 ness, Chaucer's "Knight's "J'ale," Shakespeare's "Eape of 
 
POETIO DICTION— RHYTHM. 311 
 
 liucrece," Byron's "Giaour" and "Corsair,"' Crabbe's 
 "Tales," Tennyson's "Enocli Arden," and Longfellow's 
 ""Wayside Inn." 
 
 The Ballad. — This is generally short, simple, and con- 
 densed. It merely suggests, where the higher epic forms 
 would relate. Witness, " Chevy Chase," Hood's "Eugene 
 Aram," Schiller's " Diver," Macaulay's " Lay of Horatius," 
 etc., etc. 
 
 The Metrical History. — This has few poetical qualities 
 except that of metre. Dryden's "Annus Mirabilis" is a 
 well-known illustration. 
 
 " The Mixed Epic." — This title is given to a few poems, 
 like Byron's "Childe Harold," that have the moral charac- 
 teristics of an epic without any continuous plot. 
 
 The Pastoral, the Idyl, etc. — These are classed under the 
 epic by reason of their narrative character, though in some 
 this is but slight. Witness, Keats's " Endymion," Burns's 
 "Cotter's Saturday Night," Wordsworth's "Excursion," 
 Scott's " Minstrel," Tennyson's " Princess," Cowper's 
 "Task," etc., etc. 
 
 LYKIC POETET. 
 
 This term was originally applied to those compositions 
 that were intended to be sung to the accompaniment of the 
 lyre. In its modern use it covers those short, condensed 
 poems that are the expression of some strong passion or 
 sentiment. It is emotional, while epic poetry is narrative. 
 It is the oldest form of poetry in every literature, and is 
 farthest removed from simple prose. It differs also from 
 dramatic poetry in that it expresses the emotions and ideas 
 of one person, the author, while in a drama the author's 
 personality disappears, the emotions expressed being those 
 of the different characters. 
 
 Lyric poetry may be divided into songs, odes, elegies, 
 sonnets, and "simple lyrics." 
 
 Tlie Song. — This is usually short, and is dividgd into dis- 
 tinct stanzas, each complete in itself. Songs are generally 
 
312 PBAGTIOAL RHETOBIC. 
 
 subdivided into sacred songs, or hymns, and secular songs. 
 The latter are again divided as follows : 
 
 {a) The "War Song. This is frequently employed as a 
 means of persuasion to patriotic duty, e.g., Burns's " Scots 
 wha hae wi' Wallace bled," the "Marseillaise," " God save 
 the Queen," " The Star-spangled Banner," etc., etc. 
 
 {h) The Love Song. This includes not only amatory 
 songs, like Byron's "Maid of Athens," but those expressing 
 love of country and of kindred. Moore and Burns were 
 most prolific in this form of lyric composition. 
 
 (c) Bacchanalian Songs. These are, of course, less com- 
 mon as society advances in moral development ; and yet 
 some of the most finished pieces of versification in early 
 English belong to this class. 
 
 {(l) The Political Song. This generally represents some 
 ephemeral outburst of party feeling, and seldom obtains a 
 permanence greater than the excitement that gave it birth. 
 Most of the political songs that have been preserved are in- 
 teresting only as curiosities. Some, howevei-, like the 
 Jacobin songs, have a permanent historical value. 
 
 Other divisions, such as the sentimental song, the comic 
 song, etc., may generally be classified under one of the 
 heads already given. 
 
 The Ode. — The ode differs from the song in that it ex- 
 presses a loftier and more intense feeling, is not intended 
 to be sung, and is more complicated and continuous in its 
 versification. In point of variety in metre it is the most 
 elaborate form of metrical composition. Among well- 
 known odes are Dryden's " Alexander's Feast " and "Ode 
 on St. Cecilia's Day," Milton's "Hymn on the Nativity," 
 Collins's " Ode on the Passions," Gray's " Bard," and Low- 
 ell's " Commemoration Ode." 
 
 The Elegy. — This is written almost invariably in iambic 
 pentameter, and is concerned chiefly with the expression of 
 the merits of some departed friend or hero. Milton's 
 ''Lycidas," Gray's "Elegy," and Tennyson's "In Memo- 
 riam" are the common illustrations. 
 
POETIC DICTION— HBYTHM. 313 
 
 The Sonnet. — The metrical peculiarities of the sonnet 
 will be described in a succeeding chapter. It is an Italian 
 invention introduced into the English by Wyatt, in the 
 reign of Henry VIII. It is sometimes descriptive, but is 
 generally the condensed expression of a single phase of 
 feeling. Being emotional rather than narrative, it must 
 be classed as a lyric. 
 
 The Simple Lyric. This name is given to a nonde- 
 script class of verse that cannot strictly come under any of 
 the foregoing heads. Illustrations may be found in Burns's 
 "Mountain Daisy," "Mouse's Nest," etc.; in Tennyson's 
 " St. Agnes Eve," Wordsworth's " Cuckoo," etc. 
 
 DEAMATIC POETET. 
 
 In its higher form, dramatic poetry resembles the epic 
 in many points. It must have a great and heroic theme, 
 it must be continuous, must centre about one leading 
 character, and must have even a more intricate plot. In 
 one respect, however, the difference is marked. In the 
 epic the author narrates in his own person ; in the drama 
 he does not personally appear. "In the one," says Kames,* 
 "sentiments are expressed second-hand. In the other, 
 persons express their own sentiments." The one is narra- 
 tion ; the other is dialogue. Sometimes, indeed, dialogue 
 is introduced into an epic, but is not predominant, while 
 in the drama it is the exclusive form. 
 
 In addition to unity in its subject, the original drama 
 required the unities of time and place. That is, the drama 
 must be so constructed that the scenes depicted might be 
 imagined really to take place within the actual time occu- 
 pied by the play, and in the one place represented by the 
 stage. Since the division of the drama into acts and 
 scenes, and the introduction of modern stage scenery, how- 
 ever, the unities of time and place have been widely disre- 
 garded. Both the scene and the time are often imagined 
 
 * " Elements of Criticism," p. 415. 
 
314 PBAOTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 to have been decidedly changed between the fall and rise 
 of the curtain. Dramatic poetry is subdirided into Tragedy 
 and Comedy. This subdivision is much more clearly 
 marked than is that between the three grand divisions of 
 poetry. 
 
 Tragedy. — This is the more serious and dignified of the 
 two subdivisions, and in that respect more closely resem- 
 bles the epic. Aristotle defined tragedy as the representa- 
 tion of a complete illustrious action, in poetic language, 
 with the design of purifying the moral character of the 
 beholders through the passions of pity and fear. In the 
 early tragedies the interest always centred around some 
 case of great and unmerited suffering. Thus, Kames 
 says that "the happiest subject of a tragedy would be a 
 man of integrity falling into a great misfortune by the 
 committal of some innocent action which he is led in some 
 way to suppose criminal." Of this high form of tragedy 
 the purest modern types are Shakespeare's "King Lear" 
 and Milton's "Samson Agonistes." In the more recent 
 tragedies, and even in several of those of Shakespeare, the 
 original severity has been greatly modified, so that the play 
 does not necessarily end with the death of the principal 
 characters ; but, after many trials and sufferings, a haj)py 
 conclusion is often reached. 
 
 Comedy. — The chief element in comedy is the ludicrouss 
 though other means of exciting pleasure are employed in a' 
 ^ secondary way. It is, of course, much less dignified than 
 tragedy both in the personages and in the events with 
 which it deals. Satire and ridicule occupy a prominent, 
 place in most of our standard comedies, and a happy ending 
 is almost invariable. 
 
 Comedy is subdivided into High or Genteel Comedj', 
 Low Comedy, and Farce. 
 
 The Farce. — This differs from the comedy proper, mainly 
 in being much shorter and in having no corrective aim. 
 It therefore eschews satire, and depends for its interest 
 entirely upon the ludicrous. For example, in Shakespeare 
 
POETIC DIOTION—BHYTHM. 315 
 
 " Comedy of Errors," the introduction of the two Dromios 
 transforms into pure farce certain scenes tliat were pure 
 comedy in the original form of the play by Plautus. 
 
 The Opera is simply a drama in which the parts are in- 
 tended to be sung instead of being spoken. 
 
 The Melodrama. — This name is given to a composition 
 part of which is intended to be spoken and part sung. Its 
 most prominent characteristic is a cei'tain exaggeration of 
 sentiment and effect. The term is now loosely applied to 
 sentimental minor plays in general. In both the opera and 
 the melodrama the composition is aided by stage fixtures, 
 dress, etc., to an extent not allowable in strict tragedy or 
 comedy. 
 
316 PBAOTICAL BHETOniG. 
 
 CHAPTEE II. 
 
 METRE. 
 
 Whebt the rhythm of a composition becomes so regular 
 that it can be reduced to a law, it is called Metre. Like 
 rhythm, metre is employed, primarily, for the pleasurable 
 expression of high passion, but it is often applied in cases 
 where there is little passion, and where its only warrant is 
 the pleasurable effect produced. Abbott observes that 
 "the unrhythmical expression of intense passion is, when 
 prolonged, extremely painful, producing pain untempered 
 by any feeling of artistic pleasure," and calls attention to 
 the fact that while Shakespeare uses prose for dialogue, 
 light conversation, letters, etc., he almost invariably em- 
 ploys metre when the feeling of the speaker becomes im- 
 passioned. For example, in the following speech of 
 Brutus to the Eoman populace, just after the assassination 
 of Cffisar, the first six lines are intentionally directed to 
 the understanding of the mob rather than to its feelings ; 
 but as the orator begins to appeal to its feelings, in the 
 seventh line, note how nearly he approaches to metre, 
 while in the eighth and following lines the scansion be- 
 comes almost perfect: 
 
 " As Cffisar loved me, I weep for him: 
 As he was fortunate, I rejoice at it: 
 As he was valiant, I honor him: 
 But, as he was ambitious, I slew him. 
 There is tears for his love; Joy for his fortune; 
 Honor for his valor; and death for his ambition. 
 "Who is here so base that would be a bondman ? 
 If an I y, speak | ; for him | have I | offended. 
 Who is here so rude that would not be a Eoman ? 
 If any, speak; for him have I offended. 
 
METRE. 317 
 
 Who is here so vile that will not love his country ? 
 If any, speak; for him have I offlended. 
 I pause for a reply. 
 * ' ' All. None, Brutus, none. 
 
 ^^ £rutus. Then none have I offended." 
 
 While, therefore, prose seems to be the most natural and 
 easy form of composition, it is yet an historical fact that in 
 the literature of every nation poetry has preceded prose. 
 For example, the "Iliad " of Homer and the " Niebelungen- 
 Lied" of the early Germans were each composed and 
 handed down from mouth to mouth long before there was 
 any prose literature in either the Greek or the German lan- 
 guage respectively. This seeming paradox is to be ex- 
 plained on the same ground as is the more frequent use of 
 figurative language among all early and uncultivated peo- 
 ples: living near to nature, they spoke the language of 
 nature — which is poetry. A recent writer* (Dr. Eay- 
 mond of Princeton College) propounds the following in- 
 genious theory of the development of metre: "Before the 
 age of books, those who prepared literature published it by 
 repeating it in public. Every man who did this had, of 
 course, his own peculiarities of utterance, which, as he 
 continued to repeat his productions, he would cultivate 
 and render more and more peculiar. . . . These peculiari- 
 ties, moreover, would be shown in the arrangement of his 
 words and sentences, so as to fit his elocution. ... A 
 further development in this direction would cause these 
 reciters after a time to use versification, etc., etc." 
 
 Apparently by force of the example of the early poets, 
 the philosophers who immediately followed them cast 
 their compositions in the same inetrical form, though the 
 spirit and the diction of poetry were almost entirely absent. 
 The same example has been followed in much modern 
 verse; such, for example, as that in Pope's "Essay on 
 Man,'' and his "Essay on Criticism," Bickersteth's "Yes- 
 terday, To-day, and Forever," and much of Holland's 
 
 * '"Poetry as a Kepresentative Art,'' p. 20. 
 
318 PBACTICAL BEETORIC. 
 
 "Katrina" and of Longfellow's "Courtship of Miles 
 Standish." The term didactic poetry, given to some of 
 this modem versej is really a misnomer; didactic verse 
 would be more proper. Poetry belongs to passion and im- 
 agination^ not to the mere communication of dry facts and 
 theories. The only warrant for using a metrical arrange- 
 ment in treating of a purely prosaic subject is the aid thus 
 given to the memory. This value of metre is thus ex- 
 plained by Herbert Spencer :* 
 
 "That we do take advantage of metrical language to ad- 
 just our perceptive faculties to the force of the expected 
 articulations is clear from the fact that we are balked by 
 halting versification. Much as, at the bottom of a flight 
 of stairs, a step more or less than we counted upon gives 
 us a shock, so, too, does a misplaced accent or a super- 
 numerary syllable." 
 
 Perhaps the most common illustration of this use of 
 metre merely as an aid to the memory is found in the well- 
 known doggerel verse beginning, 
 
 " Thirty days hath September," etc. 
 
 It is a use which, considered independently, is as limited 
 as it is generally objectionable. 
 
 By reference to the definition of _ metre given at the be- 
 ginning of this chapter, it will be seen that it is not re- 
 quired that the rhythm of all composition be reducible to 
 the same law in order to become metre, but only that 
 some definite law be observable. For example, in the first 
 verse of Milton's "Paradise Lost," 
 
 " Of man's first disobedience and the fall," 
 the law may be stated in the form of a mathematical pro- 
 portion: i.e., on the basis of accent, the first syllable is to 
 the second as the third is to the fourth or the fifth is to 
 the sixth, etc. ; but in the following verse from an early 
 English poet the law, though easily perceptible, ia based 
 
 " Philosophy of Style," p. 35. 
 
METRE. 319 
 
 upon the recurrence of certain initial letters rather than 
 upon accentj as in the first case: 
 
 "In a somer seson, when softe was the sonne." 
 The laws of metre in general will be found to depend, 
 respectively, upon some one of the five following bases: — 
 
 1. Number. — Syllables merely counted and not otherwise 
 classified. This is a very rare basis. An approximate il- 
 lustration is found in certain forms of French verse, where, 
 as in French prose, the accents are not marked. 
 
 2. QuantHy. — Syllables classified according to the time 
 necessary to pronounce them. This is most clearly seen in 
 the Greek and Latin verse. In one sense it applies to 
 modern English verse; for though ours is an accentual 
 rhythm, it is evident that more time is really employed in 
 pronouncing an accented than an unaccented syllable. 
 Take the following detached verses from Robert Browning 
 for illustration : 
 
 (a) ' ' Would hide head safe when hand had flung its stone. " 
 (6) " Makes slow mute passage through two ranks as mute." 
 
 3. Alliteration. — Syllables classified according to their 
 initial letters. This is exemplified in the early English 
 verse, some of which, however, is based on accent as well. 
 The law of this alliteration was, that at least two impor- 
 tant words in the first verse and one in the second verse of 
 every couplet must begin with the same letter; e.g., 
 
 ' ' Yet Tioved [waited] there an hundred 
 In ^owes [caps] of silk." 
 
 4. Accent. — Syllables classified accordingly as they are 
 pronounced more or less loudly than those next to them. 
 This is seen, primarily, in modern English blank verse; 
 e.g., ''Almighty! Thine this universal frame." Here the 
 second, fourth, sixth, eighth, and tenth syllables, counting 
 consecutively from the left, are pronounced more loudly 
 than are the first, third, fifth, etc. 
 
 5. Rhyme. — Syllables classified accordingly as they have 
 the same vowel sound, followed by the same, and preceded 
 
330 PBACTICAL RHMTOBIO. 
 
 by a difEerent, consonant sound. Rhyme as a basis is, of 
 course, necessarily associated with accent. 
 
 METRICAL FEET. 
 
 The smallest recurring combination of accented and un= 
 accented syllables for metrical purposes is called a Foot. 
 The smallest recurring combination of feet is called a Verse. 
 The number of feet in English verse varies from one to 
 eight. 
 
 The smallest recurring combination of verses is called a 
 Couplet. This consists of two rhyming verses, generally, 
 though not always, of five accents each. Larger combina- 
 tions or groups of verses are known as Stanzas. A stanza 
 generally consists of four, six, or eight verses, as the case 
 may be; though an odd number of verses is sometimes 
 combined. 
 
 The largest formal group of verses is known as the Son- 
 net, and consists of fourteen lines with a peculiar arrange- 
 ment of the final rhymes. 
 
 77*6 Monosyllabic Foot. — Sometimes a single monosylla- 
 ble may be considered as forming an independent foot.' 
 This rarely occurs except as a substitute for a dissyllabic 
 foot at the beginning or end of a verse. 
 
 Perhaps the first verse of the following couplet is to be 
 construed as made up of four monosyllabic feet: 
 
 "Gold, gold, gold, gold! 
 Heavy to get and hard to hold." 
 
 The following detached verses illustrate the use of the 
 monosyllabic verse as a substitute: 
 
 "Stay, I the king | has thrown | his war | der down." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 "Now I it shin | eth, now | it rain | eth fast." — Chaucer. 
 
 DissyllaMc Feet. — When the accented syllable comes 
 first in order, the foot is called a Trochee. For example 
 the words "morning," " gloaming," " father," " hasten " 
 etc., taken independently, form each a trochee. 
 
M ETUIS. 331 
 
 "When the unaccented syllable comes first, the foot is 
 called an Iambic, iambus, or iamb. Bach of the follow- 
 ing words is, in itself, an iambic: "contain," "foretell," 
 "suppose," "repeat," etc. It must be observed, how- 
 ever, that these, like the trisyllabic feet, can be formed 
 equally well by combining the syllables of different words 
 when these stand together. Note how, in the following 
 verses, different syllables of the same word help to form 
 different feet: 
 
 " Time was | ere yet, | in these | degen | erate days, 
 Igno I ble themes | obtained | mista | ken praise, 
 "When sense | and wit | with po | esy | allied, 
 No fa I bled gra | ces flour | ished side | by side." 
 
 Trisyllabic Feet. — "WTien the accented syllable comes 
 first, the fort is called a Dactyl. This is illustrated by the 
 single words ' ' canopy. " ' ' intricate, " " fortunate, " ' 'edify, " 
 etc. 
 
 "When the accented syllable comes second, the foot is 
 called an Amphibrach; e.g., "repining," "compulsion," 
 "intention," 'incarnate," etc. It is claimed by some 
 writers that the amphibrach is not a legitimate foot, on 
 the ground that it is not required for the scansion of verso 
 in general; but while it may not be necessary, it is cer- 
 tainly convenient, and for that reason alone may be con- 
 sidered legitimate. 
 
 "When the accented syllcble comes third, or last, the foot 
 is called an Anapaest; e.g., "comprehend," "undertake," 
 "persevere," "reinstate," etc. 
 
 The following extracts are made up, respectively, of 
 trochees, iambics, dactyls, amphibrachs, and anapests, in 
 the order named: 
 
 Trochaic Metre. 
 
 " O the I long and | dreary | winter ! 
 O the I cold and | cruel | winter ! 
 Ever— thicker,— thicker,— thicker 
 Froze the | ice on | lake and | river." 
 
 " Hiawatha'' — Longfellow. 
 21 
 
322 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 Iambic Metre. 
 
 " Come, sleep, | sleep, | the cer | tain knot | of peace, 
 The bait | ing place | of wit, | the balm | of woe, 
 The poor | man's wealth, | the pris | oner's | release, 
 Th' indif | f erent judge | between | the high | and low. 
 
 Dactylic Metre. 
 
 " Make no deep | scrutiny 
 Into her | mutiny, 
 Eash and un | dutiful." — Hood. 
 
 Ampldhrachic Metre. 
 
 "I galloped, J Dirck galloped, | we galloped \ all three." 
 
 Browning. 
 
 Anapaestic Metre. 
 
 " The Assyr | iaii came down | like a wolf | on the fold. 
 And his co | horts were gleam | ing with pur | pie and gold; 
 And the sheen I of their spears | was like stars \ on the sea, 
 Whjn the blue | wave rolls night j ly on deep | Galilee." 
 
 Byron. 
 
 LAWS OF METRICAL ACCENT. 
 
 The following laws are subject to no exceptions save 
 those that arise from contractions in pronunciation : — 
 
 1. If the metrical accent fall on any syllable in a word, 
 it viust fall on tJie primary word-accent. For example, if 
 the metrical accent falls on any syllable of the word "for- 
 tunate" it must be on the first, though it may also fall on 
 the third under certain circumstances. So with the words 
 " merry," " constant," etc. In the word "receiving," the 
 metrical accent must fall on the second syllable, and in 
 '• comprehend " on the third. If a word have two or more 
 accents, as in "l^gisMtive," it may take two metrical 
 accents ; but it cannot have a metrical accent on the 
 secondary word-accent unless there is one upon the primary 
 word-accent. The first law of metre is violated in the fol- 
 lowing couplet, which Shakespeare puts into Prologue's 
 mouth in the "Midsummer Night's Dream :" 
 
 "But won I der on | till truth [ makes all | things plain 
 This beau | teous la | dy This 1 by is | certain." ' 
 
METRE. 328 
 
 2. We can never have three consecutive, clearly prn~ 
 nounced syllaUes without a metrical accent. This is eyi- 
 dent from the character of the polysyllabic feet. The only 
 method of bringing three unaccented syllables together 
 would be to place a dactyl before either an iambic, an am- 
 phibraoh, or an anapaest, or to place a trochee before an 
 anapaest; but none of these combinations is found in good 
 English verse. The reason for the law lies in the fact that 
 such a combination of unaccented syllables violates a nat- 
 ural principle of rhythm. The ear revolts against such an 
 arrangement as either of the following: 
 
 " Terrible, I indeed | was all | the blood | y scene." 
 
 " Absalom ] beholding | the scene | was moved | to wrath." 
 
 " Tacitly | understood | was the sign | that he made | to his men." 
 
 "Brilliant ] repartee | was heard | from man | y a guest." 
 
 The second law applies to monosyllables as well as to 
 polysyllables. 
 
 3. Metrical acce?it cannot fall icpon two consecutive sylla- 
 bles in the satne word. There are four possible arrange- 
 ments that would bring two metrically accented syllables 
 together, — ^namely; an iambic followed by a trochee, an 
 iambic followed by a dactyl, an anapaest followed by a 
 trochee, and an anapaest followed by a dactyl ; neither of 
 thesf^ arrangements^ however, is common. In blank verse, 
 r,n iambic is sometimes followed by a trochee, but the two 
 feet are made up of distinct words ; e.g., 
 
 "Be in I their flow | ing cups | freshly | remembered." 
 
 4. If metrical accent falls on more than one syllaile of a 
 polysyilaile, it must fall on alternate syllables. This, 
 obviously, is but a corollary to the second and third laws. 
 For, if the metrical accent must fall on one of any three 
 consecutive syllables in a word, and cannot fall on each of 
 two consecutive syllables, it must, of course, fall on alter- 
 nate syllables. The arrangement of word-accent generally, 
 though not always, follows the same law. For example, 
 we have "incompatibility," "transfiguration," etc. 
 
394 FU ACTIO AL BHETORIC. 
 
 From an examination of the foregoing laws, it is evident 
 that accent favors dissyllabic metre. For one, and only 
 one, of the syllables of a dissyllable is sure to have a word- 
 accent ; and therefore dissyllables can easily be arranged so 
 as to harmonize with the laws. Some polysyllables, indeed, 
 such as those of four syllables with the accent on the first, 
 like "impiously," "exigency," etc., cannot be used in 
 anapaestic metre, because the use would be a violation of 
 the fourth law. 
 
 It will be observed also that, by the second law, a metr'i- 
 cal accent must sometimes ie placed upon a syllable that has 
 little or no loord-accent. Thus, if such a word as "po- 
 tency" or " merrily" is followed by .n unemphatic syr^blo, 
 tbere must be a metrical accent on the final syllable ; '.nd 
 if such a word ,be used in strict dissyllabic metre, there 
 must be a metrical accent upon the final syllable, no matter 
 by what kind of a syllable it is followed. Thus, 
 
 (a) "Full mer | rily | the hfim | ble bee | doth sing." 
 (6) " Good g§n I tlemen, | look fr^sh | and mer | rily." 
 
 Shahespeare. 
 
 MONOSYLLABIC ACCENT. 
 
 All monosyllables are in themselves neittral as to accenf. 
 That is, they can be used either with or without metrical 
 accent. It must be remembered, however, that, by the 
 second law, if these monosyllables stand in a verse together, 
 at least one must take a metrical accent, while a monosylla- 
 ble that stands between two unaccented syllables of any 
 kind must also take a metrical accent. Often the mono- 
 syllable that thus necessarily takes a metrical accent is 
 quite unemphatic, while one that has no metrical accent is 
 emphatic. Emphasis must not be confounded with metri- 
 cal accent. It is such a confusion that gives rise to that 
 sing-song manner of reading verse which is as objection- 
 able as it is common. 
 
 In thcs following detached verses, note the unemphatic 
 monosyllables that necessarily receive a metrical accent 
 
METRE. 325 
 
 and obserye the unpleasant effect of making these emphatic 
 in reading : — 
 
 " Her eyes | were o | pen, hut \ she still beheld." — Keats. 
 
 " Where is | thy na | tive sim | pie heart?" — Collins. 
 
 "The soul I secured in her \ exist | ence smiles 
 
 At the I drawn dag | ger and | defies | its point." — Addison. 
 
 "So calm I are we | when pas | sions are \ no more." — Waller. 
 
 "Then of \ thy beau | ty do | I ques | tion make." — Ludlow: 
 
 It will be noticed that in each of the foregoing cases the 
 unemphatic, metrically accented syllable is followed by an 
 emphatic, non-accented syllable. Abbott observes:* "This 
 sequence, so common in our best poets, seems not to be 
 mere accident. The lightness of the unemphatic accent is 
 perhaps compensated by the length and emphasis of the 
 following unaccented syllable." Certainly the strongest 
 emphasis in the whole verse often falls upon the unaccented 
 monosyllable in question. 
 
 It will be observed, also, that the accent falls more easily 
 on an unemphatic monosyllable when the syllable preced- 
 ing is still less emphatic ; that is, when the preceding is 
 the final unaccented syllable of a polysyllable. Take the 
 following detached verses from Pope: — 
 
 (a) " Soon as thy letters tTexabling /unclose." 
 (6) "A wit's a feather, and a chief a rod." 
 (c) " All fame is foreign but of true desert." 
 Id) "Thou Caesar urith a senate at his heels." 
 
 The Use of Unemphatic Accents. — As has already been 
 suggested, indirectly, the object of unemphatic metrical 
 accents is to avoid the intolerable monotony that would 
 result if all the accents in a poem were emphatic. Tho 
 number of emphatic accents in any verse is widely variable, 
 depending, as it does, entirely upon the general laws of 
 emphasis. Occasionally, as in the following verses, the 
 weight of each of the different accents is nearly or quite equal : 
 
 " But look, the mom, in russet mantle clad, 
 Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastward hill." — Shakespeare. 
 
 * "English Lessons," p. 158. 
 
336 PRACTICAL BHETORIG. 
 
 SUBSTITUTED FEET, 
 
 Although in a complete verse of given metre the num- 
 ber of metrical accents must always be the same, much 
 latitude is allowed as to the number of unemphatic sylla- 
 bles in such a verse. To avoid monotony, the number of 
 unemphatic syllables is often purposely varied by substitut- 
 ing the different monosyllabic, dissyllabic, and trisyllabic 
 feet one for another. Of these substitutions the following 
 may be noted : — 
 
 1. A monosyllable for an Iambic. This generally occurs 
 at the beginning, middle, or end of a line. 
 
 " Life / I I know | not what | thou art, 
 But know I that thou | and I | must part." — Barhauld. 
 
 " We know | not what | it is, | dear, \ this sleep | so calm | and 
 still; 
 The fold I ed hands, | the aw | ful calm, | the cheek | so pale I 
 and chill. " — Bodge. 
 
 2. A mnno-iyllable for a Trochee. 
 
 "On whosp I track the | vulture ] swoops 
 When they | ride in | state." 
 
 "Lord, dis [ miss us | with thy | blessing ; 
 Fill our I hearts with ' joy and | peace." 
 
 "And they | perish | of the | plague I where the I breeze of I 
 health is | blowing." ' 
 
 3. Monosyllable for Dactyl. 
 
 " Up in the | morning as | soon as 'twas | light, 
 Out with the | birds and the | butterflies | bright, 
 Skipping a | bout till the 1 coming of | night." 
 
 5. Monosyllable fur Anapaest. 
 
 " You have sold | the la | boring man, | squire. 
 Both bod I y and soid | to shame, 
 To pay I for your seat | in the House, | squire, 
 And to pay | for the feed | of your ga.me."—Mngsley. 
 
 6. An Iambic for a Trochee. This is very rare. 
 
 " Winter's | ruins; | from whose | breast 
 All the I gums and \ spice of | the East."~Careu\ 
 
METRE 327 
 
 7. Iambic for Anapaest. 
 
 "And the sin | uous paths | of lawn \ and of moss 
 Which led | through the gar | den along | and across, 
 Some o I pen at once | to the sun | and the breeze, 
 Some lost \ among bowera | of the bios | soming trees." 
 
 8. Trochee for Iambic. 
 
 (a) '■'■Beauty \ is but | a vain | and doubt | ful good." 
 (6) ''Floated I amid | the live | lier light." 
 
 (c) "Healthy \ and ro | sy, fresh | from slum | ber sweet." 
 
 (d) " In the | full strength | of years, | matron \ and maid." 
 
 Bryant. 
 
 9. Trochee for Anapaest. 
 
 " How the wild | crowd go | swaying a I long, 
 Hailing each | other with | humor and | song !" — Watson. 
 
 10. Trochee for Dactyl. 
 
 "Ere her limbs, | frigidly, 
 Stiffen too | rigidly. 
 Decently, | kindly, 
 Smooth and com | pose them." — Hood. 
 
 11. Dactyl for Trochee. 
 
 " Could ye come | back to me, | Douglas, | Douglas, 
 In the old | likeness | that I | knew ; 
 I'd be so I faithful, | so loving, | Douglas, — 
 Douglas, I Douglas, | tender and | true." — Craik. 
 
 12. Anapaest for Iambic. 
 
 "Thou hn | gering star, | with less' | ning ray." — Bums. 
 
 " I know I his spir | it feels I no more | his wea | ry load | of flesh, 
 But his sleep | is blessed | with end | less dreams | of joy | 
 forev I er fresh." — Moultrie. 
 
 13. Amphibrach for Iambic. 
 
 ''Hove it, I Hove it! \ and who | shall dare 
 To chide me | for loving \ that old | arm-chair ? 
 In child I hood's hour | I lin | gered near, 
 That hal | lowed seat | with lis | tening ear." — Cook. 
 
 14. Iambic for Amphibrach. 
 
 ' ' You bells in | the steeple | ring, ring out | your changes, 
 How many | soever | tliey be." — Jean Ingelow. 
 
328 Pn ACTIO AL RHETORIC.- 
 
 15. Amphibrach for Trochee. 
 
 " Eose a | nurse of I ninety j years. 
 Set his I chUd up | on her | knee, — 
 Like summer I tempest | came her | tears, 
 Sweet my | child, I | live for | thee."— Tewnysow. 
 
 There is generally but one, and never more than two 
 
 substitutions in a single verse. In his poem " Christabel," 
 
 Coleridge ignores this usage and substitutes the metrical 
 
 feet with no limit except that the number of accents shall 
 
 never be more than four, and the whole number of syllables 
 
 never more than twelve; that is, with all his license, h^ does 
 
 not. violate the second law of metrical accent, which requires 
 
 f*.!" ^east one accent to every three syllables; e.g., 
 
 ' ' There is not wind enough in the air 
 To move away the ringlet curl 
 From the lovely lady's cheek ; 
 There is not wind enough to twirl 
 The one red leaf, the last of its clan, 
 That dances as often as dance it can. 
 Hanging so light, and hanging so high, 
 On the topmost twig that looks up at the sky." 
 
 This theory of Coleridge has not been generally accepted 
 or adopted. Perhaps an approach to it may be found in 
 some verses of Longfellow^s " Evangeline." 
 
 The Prevalent Foot. — As a result of the frequency of 
 foot-substitution, it is not always possible to determine the 
 metre of a poem by scanning any single verse. 
 
 Enough verses must be scanned to determine what is the 
 prevalent foot. Thus, in the following stanza from Dray- 
 ton, the first three verses may be scanned equally well 
 either as iambic or dactylic ; it is not until the fourth verse 
 is reached that the prevalent foot is seen to be dactylic : 
 
 " Pair stood the wind for France, 
 When we our sails advance, 
 Nor now to prove our chance 
 Longer will | tarry." 
 
 And the same is true of Longfellow's stanza, 
 
 " Speak ! speak ! thou fearful guest, 
 Who with thy hollow breast, 
 Still in rude armor drest, 
 Oomest to I daunt me." 
 
METRE. 329 
 
 And of the first verse in Cowper's "Poplars:" 
 
 " The pop I lars are felled, | farewell | to the shade 
 And the whis | pering sound | of the cool \ colonnade." 
 
 EHTME. 
 
 As already observed, syllables are said to rhyme when 
 they have the same vowel sound, preceded by a different 
 and followed by the same consonant sound. It is not 
 necessary that the vowel chai-acters be the same, provided 
 only that the sounds be the same. Thus, the words "mate," 
 " eight," " strait," and "great" all rhyme perfectly, though 
 spelled with varying vowel characters. Likewise the words 
 "her," "myrrh," "sir," "fur," etc. 
 
 According to strict English usage, syllables that are en- 
 tirely identical do not form a perfect rhyme; e.g., "Incline" 
 and "recUne," "tTansmiite" and " commicte," etc. This 
 is an Italian usage, but is followed in a few instances by 
 standard English writers ; even then, however, it is employed 
 only where the rhymes are widely separated. 
 
 Faults iti Rhyming. — Of these there are two: first, that 
 of dragging in useless or inappropriate words merely be- 
 cause they rhyme. Thus, in the following couplets, the 
 words "elf" and "show" arc inappropriate and meaning- 
 less: 
 
 (o) "I do not rhyme to that dull elf 
 
 Who cannot picture to himself." — Scott. 
 
 (6) " To Rokeby next he louted low, 
 
 Then stood erect his tale to show.'''' — Ihid. 
 
 There is no more palpable form of the fault of sacrificing 
 sense to sound than this. 
 
 Second, the use of inexact rhymes such as "heaven" and 
 "given," "sod" and "broad,' etc. Such rhymes are 
 allowed to a moderate extent by all our best writers, es- 
 pecially in lyric verse. The usage is to be regarded, how- 
 ever, as an exception and not a rule. For the the number 
 of inexact rhymes found in some of our modern hymn-books 
 there is neither warrant nor reason. 
 
S30 PBACTIGAL BEETOBIG. 
 
 Double and Triple Rhymes. — Strictly speaking, there is no 
 iouble rhyme ; for in rhyme so called the final syllables are 
 identical, and the real rhyme occurs between the penulti- 
 mate syllables, e.g., "gladden" and "sadden," "dreaming" 
 and " seeming,^' and the like. Such rhymes are more flez- 
 Ible than single rhymes, and are especially adapted to light 
 or humorous verse; e.g., 
 
 " When tinkers bawled, aloud to settle 
 Church discipline, for patching kettle: 
 The oyster-women locked their fish up. 
 And trudged away to cry ' No Bishop.' " — Butler. 
 
 In triple rhymes like " motherly" and " brotherly," etc., 
 the real rhyme, again, occurs between the antepenultimate 
 syllaoles. Double and triple rhymes are, of course, more 
 difficult and therefore more rare than single rhymes. Some 
 of our modern verses, like Lowell's "Bigelow Papers," show 
 great ingenuity in this direction. 
 
 A curiosity in rhyme is Hood's " Nocturnal Sketch," of 
 which we give the opening lines: 
 
 " Even is come ; and from the dark Park, hark ! 
 The signal of the setting sun — one gun ! 
 And six is sounding from the chime, prime time 
 To go and see the Drury-lane Dane slain, — 
 Or hear Othello's jealous doubt spout out, — 
 Or Macbeth raving at that shade made blade, 
 Denying to his frantic clutch much touch," etc. 
 
 The occurrence of rhyme or an approach to rhyme where 
 it is not expected, as in prose or in the middle of a verse, is 
 regarded as a blemish, unless purposely introduced to give 
 harshness; e.g., 
 
 ' ' Prince. Is it upon rec6rd, or else reported 
 
 Successively from age to age he built it ? 
 '^Buckingham. Upon rec6rd,my gracious Idrd." 
 
 Bichard III. 
 
 " Who writes to make his barrenness appear. 
 And strains from hard-bound brains ten lines a year." 
 
 Pope. 
 
METRE. 331 
 
 QUANTITY. 
 
 By this term is meant the comparative time required for 
 the distinct pronunciation of a syllable. Spencer observes* 
 that •■' a certain effort, though commonly an inappreciable 
 one, is required to recognize every vowel and consonant," 
 and illustrates the statement by saying that "if, as all 
 know, it is tiresome to listen to an indistinct speaker or to 
 read a badly written manuscript ; and if, as we cannot 
 doubt, the fatigue is a cumulative result of the attention 
 needed to catch successive syllables, it follows that atten- 
 tion is in such cases absorbed by each syllable." And he 
 might have added, by each letter. By this reasoning it will 
 be seen that if both syllables of such a word as "abject" 
 are equally accented, the second syllable is really longer 
 than the first. As a matter of fact, the stronger accent 
 given to the first syllable of such a word nullifies the dis- 
 tinction of quantity, and so the real length or "time" of syl- 
 lables is of only secondary importance in English verse. 
 While, therefore, its freedom from any strict laws of quan- 
 tity gives to English verse a wider latitude than is found in 
 any other, this very freedom greatly complicates the reduc- 
 tion of our verse to fixed metrical laws. In Greek and Latin 
 verse, however, syllables are divided by certain rules into 
 " long" and " short," and the metre consists in the regu- 
 lar recurrence and alternation of these syllables without re- 
 gard to accent. 
 
 The effect of quantity on English metre is most clearly 
 seen in those verses where a "long," emphatic monosyllable 
 is so placed as to receive no metrical accent. This is illus- 
 trated in the quotations on page 319, and more clearly 
 in the following detached verses from Browning: — 
 
 (a) " Held deep down, strained hard off from side to side !" 
 (6) " So well could firm fist help intrepid eye ." 
 
 (c) " Should I turn art's fixed fabric upside down !" 
 
 (d) " No such thin fare feeds flesh and blood like mine." 
 
 (e) " Clinch-flst stows figs away, cheats government !" 
 
 * " Philosophy of Style," page 7. 
 
332 PRACTICAL BHETORIC. 
 
 (/) " Since old wine's ripe and new verse raw, you judge-" 
 (g) " Gray brow still bent on ground, upraised at length. ^^ 
 Qi) " Should life prove half true life's term-death the rest. 
 
 Compare the time required for reading any one of the 
 verses just quoted with that required for reading any verse 
 (of the same number of syllables) in the opening stanza of 
 Gray's " Elegy:" 
 
 " The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
 The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea, 
 The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
 And leaves the world to darkness and to me." 
 
 Most of the possible adaptations of sound to sense, 
 treated under "Euphony" in Part II., will be found to 
 depend primarily upon quantity. 
 
 Another evident influence of quantity is seen in the case 
 of such words as "mainsail," "good-man," etc. These, 
 being formerly considered as compound words, received 
 but one accent; whereas now each is resolved into its con- 
 stituent monosyllables. 
 
 SUPEKFLUOUS SYLLABLES. 
 
 These are of two kinds: (1) Those that are so little no- 
 ticed in pronunciation ihat they are totally suppressed. 
 These are known technically as " slurred syllables." (3) 
 Those syllables that, though not slurred, are not sufficiently 
 prominent to break the flow of the metre, and are allowed 
 or employed to break the monotony and decisiveness of 
 regular metre. 
 
 There are various degrees of slurring, from the e in such 
 words as " wandering" and "faltering" to the o in "timor- 
 ous" and "honorable." Prom the greater number of un- 
 accented syllables in trisyllabic metre it follows that it has 
 far less slurred syllables than has dissyllabic metre. Thus, 
 the middle vowel of the word "faltering" must be slurred 
 in scanning this dissyllabic verse from Bryant: 
 
 ' ' How on 1 the f al | tering foot | steps of | uecay. " 
 
METRE. 333 
 
 But in the following trisyllabic verse the same vowel must 
 be distinctiy pronounced in scansion: 
 
 " 'Twas the fal | tering voice | of a half- | sobbing child." 
 
 The practice of slurring syllables was much more com- 
 mon among the earlier English poets than at present. The 
 elision was generally marked by an apostrophe, but it was 
 carried even to the dropping of prefixes and final syllables. 
 Thus, iu the dramatic verse of the Elizabethan age we 
 find 'gainst for against, 'stall for install, tli' for the, ivi' for 
 with, etc. Our common expression "good-by" comes from 
 "God be wi' ye," which was the slurred form of "God be 
 with you." 
 
 Milton was especially fond of eliding the final y before a 
 vowel. Thus, 
 
 "Impressed, | the efful | genceof \ his glor | y abides." 
 
 And he sometimes followed the same custom with other 
 vowel terminations, as in 
 
 " Anguish | and doubt | and fear | and sor | vow and pain." 
 Sometimes the extra syllable is attached to the end of the 
 complete verse. The only law governing the insertion of 
 superfluous syllables in modern English verse is, that any 
 such may be admitted that are felt not seriously to interfere 
 with the regular flow of the metre. The ear is the only guide. 
 
 PAUSE. 
 
 Nearly every six-accent English verse can be divided 
 equally, by a marked pause, into two distinct, three-accent 
 verses; e.g., 
 
 " With clangor rings the field, || resounds the vaulted sky." 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 Similarly, the so-called seven-accent verse divides by pauses 
 into alternating lines of three and four accents; e.g., 
 
 " There rode the brood of false Lorraine, || the curses of our land ! 
 And dark Mayenne was in the midst, || a truncheon in his hand; 
 And as we looked on them, we thought | of Seine's empurpled 
 
 flood. 
 And good Coligni's hoary hair || all dabbled with his blood." 
 
 Macaiday. 
 
334 PRACTICAL RHETOmC. 
 
 And tke so-called eight-accent verse might equally well 
 be written as four-accent; e.g.j 
 
 • • Speak and tell us, our Ximena, || looking northward far away, 
 O'er the camp of the invaders, || o'er the Mexican array, 
 Who is losing ? who is winning ? || Are they far or come they 
 
 near? 
 Look abroad, and tell us, sister, || whither rolls the storm we 
 
 hear." Whittier. 
 
 In five-accent metre the efiect of pause is not to divide 
 the verses regularly, and yet it plays an important part in 
 giving variety to such verse. A piece of dramatic verse 
 may scan perfectly, but if pause be neglected in reading 
 it, the effect will be seriously monotonous. It is not neces- 
 sary that each verse should contain a pause, though the 
 best poetry has one in nearly every verse. Neither is it 
 necessary that the pause should be in the same place in 
 each verse. It may come after or in the middle of any 
 foot. At the same time, certain writers exhibit a preference, 
 respectively, for putting the pause in a given place. For 
 illustration, the place of the pause may be denoted by a 
 number put opposite each line, and expressing the number 
 otfeet that precede the pause. Thus, in the following pas- 
 sages, it will be seen that Milton prefers the pauses denoted 
 by 1 and 1\; Tennyson, those of 1^ and ^•, Pope, those 
 of 2 and 2^; while Dryden has less pause than either, but 
 prefers that of 3. 
 
 H and 3 " Instruct me, for thou know'st; thou from the first 
 li Wast present; and with mighty wings outspread, 
 Dove-like sat'st brooding on the vast abyss 
 2^ And mad'st it pregnant: what in me is dark 
 li Illumine; what is low raise and support." — Milton. 
 
 " Close on the borders of a ten-itory 
 Wherein were bandit earls and caitifE knights, 
 li Assassins, and all flyers from the hand 
 I4 Of justice, and whatever loathes a law." 
 
 ******* 
 
 4i " Once for wrong done you by confusion; next 
 
 1, 3 and 4^ For thanks, it seems, till now neglected; last 
 
 4i For these your dainty gambols." — Tennyson. 
 
METRE. 335 
 
 a " Some err in that, but many err in this. 
 3 Ten censure ill for one who writes amiss. 
 3 For forms of faith, let graceless zealots fight; 
 He can't be wrong whose life is in the right. 
 3 Here then we rest: the Universal Cause 
 3 Acts to one end, but acts by various laws." 
 
 3i " Who starves by nobles, or with nobles eats ? 
 3f The wretch that trusts them, or the rogue that 
 cheats ?" — Pope. 
 
 "Of these the false Achitophel was first, 
 A name to all succeeding ages curst; 
 
 For close designs and crooked counsels fit, 
 li and 3 Sagacious, bold, and turbulent of wit. 
 
 1 Restless, unfixed in principles and place, 
 
 3 In power unpleased, impatient of disgrace, 
 
 3 A fiery soul, which, working out its way, 
 
 Fretted the pigmy body to decay, 
 
 And o'er-informed the tenement of clay." — Bryden. 
 
 Notice, also, that the pauses denoted by the integral num- 
 bers produce an iambic effect, or rather do not interfere 
 with the iambic effect throughout the Terse, while those 
 denoted by the fractional numbers produce, in that part of 
 the verse which follows, a decidedly trochaic effect. 
 
 Compensation in Pause. — In rhyming couplets like those 
 of Pope, when one line is pauseless, it is customary to in- 
 troduce several pauses into the other line of the couplet by 
 way of compensation. Thus, 
 
 ' ' Here files of pins extend their shining rows, 
 (a) Puffs, powders, patches. Bibles, billets-doux." 
 
 " Latighed at the loss of friends he never had, 
 (6) The dull, the proud, the wicked, and the mad." 
 
 " I only wear it in the land of Hectors, ■ , 
 
 (c) Thieves, supercargoes, sharpers, and directors." 
 
 By observing the quotations already made, it will be seen 
 that very many of the pauses so essential in giving variety 
 to verse arise from the omission of conjunctions, thus con- 
 firming the statement made in Chapter I. as to the unfitness 
 of conjunctions for poetic diction. 
 
 Among other peculiarities in the position of pause, Abbott 
 
336 PBAOTIGAL RHElVlilV. 
 
 observes that that denoted by 2| is peculiarly favorable for 
 introducing a subject, and especially a simile. • I'hus, 
 (a) " No more with glories, in th' ethereal plain," eta.— Pope- 
 lb) " Some foreign writers, some our own despise," etc. — Ibid. 
 
 (c) " As some lone miser, visiting his store," eto.-0oldsm.ith. 
 
 (d) " As some fair tulip, by a storm oppressed," etc.— Bi-yden. 
 
 It will be observed, also, that in the rhyming couplet like 
 those of Pope already quoted, a pause occurs almost inva- 
 riably at the end of the first verse, and always at the end 
 of the second verse. In this consists the main difference 
 between the "rhyming couplet " proper and the rhyming 
 iambic of narrative verse. In the former a pause follows 
 nearly every line, .and the rhymes are therefore emphatic; 
 but in the narrative verse pause is not required, nor is it 
 frequent after either of the rhyming verses. The rhymes 
 are therefore comparatively unemphatic, and a new para- 
 graph often begins with the second of two rhyming verses, 
 a thing unknown in the rhyming couplet proper. These 
 distinctions will readily be seen by comparing the two fol- 
 lowing passages: — 
 
 " 'Tis not enough no harshness gives offence, 
 The sound must seem an echo to the sense; 
 Soft is the strain when zephyr gently blows, 
 And the smooth stream in smoother numbers flows; 
 But when loud surges lash the sounding shore 
 The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar. 
 When Ajax strives some rock's vast weight to throw, 
 The line too labors, and the words move slow : 
 Not so when swift Camilla scours the plain, 
 Flies o'er the unbending corn, and skims along the main." 
 
 Pope. 
 
 ■' But midst the loud victorious shouts he heard 
 Her footsteps drawing nearer, and the sound 
 Of fluttering raiment, and, thereat afeard. 
 His flushed and eager face he tiirne'd arbuHd, 
 And even there he felt her past him bound 
 Fleet as the wind, but scarcely saw her there 
 Till on the goal she laid her fingers iair."— Morris. 
 
 " And on his head he had a russet hood; 
 And in his hand two spears of cornel- wood. 
 Well steeled and bound with brazen bands, he shook. 
 
 Then from the Centaur's hands at last he took 
 The tokens of his birth, the ring and horn. — Ibid. 
 
METRE. 337 
 
 In conclusion, let it be remembered that pause must be 
 carefully heeded in reading verse, or much of the rhythmi- 
 cal effect will be lost. 
 
 ALLITERATION. 
 
 Like quantity, alliteration is not recognized as an essen- 
 tial element of modem English verse, and yet all our best 
 poets employ it even more frequently than quantity. Its 
 simplest form is seen in the following: 
 
 " /Silently sat the artist alone, 
 Curving a Christ from the ivory bone, 
 iittle by Zittle with tml and pain, 
 He iDOTi his way through the sightless grain." 
 
 Boker. 
 
 "Sere rests Ms Aead upon the lap of Earth 
 A youth to 2'brtune and to J^me unknown; 
 .Ftur Science /rowned not on his humble birth. 
 And JIfelancholy ?«arked him for her own." — Chray. 
 
 Coucealed Alliteration. — This is more common in such 
 writers as Pope, Milton, and Tennyson than is the simple 
 alliteration of successive initial syllables, already illustrated. 
 Sometimes the alliterated words are simply separated, as 
 in — 
 
 " Of all the causes which conspire to blind 
 iifan's erring judgment, and misguide the mind, : 
 
 What the we:&\ head with strongest bias rules. 
 Is Pride, the never-/ailing vice of /ools." — Pope. 
 
 More frequently the alliteration is double, and the corre- 
 sponding letters are interchanged. Thus, 
 
 "The air 
 fi P! /) P- -Floats as they pass, /aun'd with unnumber'd plumes, 
 
 From branch to branch, the smaller birds with song 
 s, w; s, w. (Solaced the woods, and spread their painted wings 
 
 Till even. " — Milton. 
 
 Or, again, one letter may be a "mean proportional" be- 
 tween two others. Thus, 
 
 h,t,t,h. (a) " The ^allow'd^aper trembling in thy tend." — Pope. 
 I, h, h, t.(b) " One Zaced the Tielm, another held the Zance." 
 
 Dryden. 
 s, m, m, s. (c) ' ' (Sonorous metal wiaking martial sounds. " — Milton. 
 22 
 
338 PRACTICAL BHETOBIG. 
 
 Again, the alliteration may occur between middle, ratliei 
 
 than initial syllables. Thus, 
 
 (a) " The Zustre of the tong convoZvuZuses."— re'iwj'soTO. 
 (6) " The Zeague-Zong roZfer thundering on the reef." — Ibid. 
 
 Or it may be between corresponding letters like p and h, 
 f and V, t and d, etc. 
 
 6, p. " The 6oast of heraldry, the _pomp of power, 
 
 And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, 
 Await alike the inevitable hour: 
 
 p, b. The^aths of glory lead 6ut to the grave " — Gray. 
 
 And, finally, the alliterated syllables may occur in differ- 
 ent lines. Thus, 
 
 " There at the/oot of yonder nodding beach 
 That wreathes its old/antastic root so high." — Gh'ay. 
 
 Early English Alliteration. — As has already been stated, 
 alliteration formed the essential characteristic of early Eng- 
 lish verse. "That verse consisted," says Abbott,* "of 
 couplets, in which each section contained two or more ac- 
 cented initial syllables. Of these four syllables, the two in 
 the first section, and, as a rule, the first of the two in the 
 second section, were alliterated." Thus, 
 
 "And now is religion a rider, 
 A roamer by the streets, 
 A feader of Zove-days, 
 And a Zand-buyer." — Piers Plowman. 
 
 Sometimes, though rarely, both the accented syllables 
 in the second section were alliterated: — 
 
 ' ' Wroth-like he wrung his fist ; he thought him to tf reak 
 With works or with words, when he seeth his time." — Ibid. 
 
 More frequently there were more than two aUiteratiye 
 syllables in the first section and one in the second: 
 
 " Thow myghtest bettre meete myst 
 On Jfalverne hilles, 
 Than gete a mom of hire mouth. 
 Til moneie be shewed." — Ibid. 
 
 * "English Lessons for English People," p. 187, 
 
METRE. 339 
 
 This form, however, is to be regarded as an exception in 
 comparison with the first form given. 
 
 The transition from the early to the modern form of 
 English verse is marked, especially, by the introduction of 
 rhyme. The feature of alliteration, however, did not van- 
 ish at once, but was retained for a time by some writers as 
 an accompaniment of rhyme. Thus, as late as 1600 a.d. 
 we have such verses as the following: 
 
 " Sitting by a river's side, 
 Where a silent stream did glide, 
 Jfuse I did of many things 
 That the mind in quiet brings." — Greene. 
 
 "It was.A'osty winter season 
 And /air i^lora's wealth was geason. 
 When I saw a sTiepherd fold 
 SAeep in cote to shun the cold." — Ibid. 
 
 " To trust the /ayned /ace, to rue on/orced tears, 
 To credit /inely /orgSd tales, wherein there oft appeares 
 And 6reathes as from the 6reast a smoke of kindled smart, 
 Where only lurkes a depe. deceit within the follow Aart." 
 
 This retention of alliteration became gradually recog- 
 nized as an archaism; and so we find Shakespeare ridiculing 
 it in the "Midsummer Night's Dream:" 
 
 "Whereat with 6Zade, with 6Zoody ftZameful 61ade, 
 He ftravely ftroach'd his 6oiSng 6toody ftreast." 
 
 Vowel AlKteratiou. — This is found in early English 
 verse, though it is neither so obvious nor so common as is the 
 alliteration of consonants. It was not necessary that the 
 vowels at the beginning of the accented syllables should be 
 identical. Any vowel beginnings were sufficient for the 
 purpose. Milton frequently employs vowel alliteration: — 
 
 (a) " /nvoke thy aid to my adventurous song." 
 (6) "With scattered arms and ensigns, till anon." 
 (c) "His legions, angel forms, who lay entranced." 
 
 "THE CATCH." 
 
 In studying the substitution of metrical feet, it has been 
 seen that more variety occurs in the initial foot than in any 
 
340 PBACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 other part of the verse. The syllable or syllables, which, 
 in early English verse, sometimes preceded the first ac- 
 cented syllable were known as " the catch," and the effect 
 of such syllables is seen in the modern English initial foot. 
 In the early alliterative poetry, the number of syllables in 
 a verse was not counted; in the foreign rhyming metre the 
 syllables were counted. And when, after the Norman Con- 
 quest, these two totally distinct systems blended together, 
 the early English license of disregarding unaccented sylla- 
 bles was curtailed, though not destroyed, in the middle of 
 the verse; but at the beginning of the verse, and after a 
 marked pause, the license was retained almost unimpaired; 
 and it is in these parts of the verse that the most variation 
 now occurs. 
 
 SPECIAL METEES. 
 
 It remains only to give illustrations of the different spe- 
 cial metres, with brief observations on their frequency and 
 their peculiar adaptation. 
 
 One-accent Iambic Metre. — Iambic one-accent verses are 
 found singly in some lyric poems of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury, and frequently in Shakespeare, where they are nearly 
 always used to express either an appellation or an ejacula- 
 tion. They are also found in some modern lyric poems. 
 
 (a) " Clifford. 'Wherefore do you come ? To murder me ? 
 
 "Murderer. Ay, Ay.'''' 
 (6) "Messenger. First, lie commends him to your noble self. 
 
 "Hastings. What,tJien?" 
 
 " Q. Eatherine. How now !" 
 H. " An't please your grace, the two great cardinals wait in the 
 presence." 
 
 ' ' With prayer ' ' His wit 
 No more So smart 
 
 Shall they Has hit 
 
 Adore."— ^t/roM. My heart."— J.Mom. 
 
 One-accent Troclmic. — This metre is very rarely found. 
 Like the one-accent iambic, it generally occurs in connec- 
 tion with longer lines. 
 
METRE. 341 
 
 "Turning, 
 Burning, 
 Changing, 
 Ranging, 
 Full of grief and full of pain. " — Addison. 
 
 "Dancing, 
 Flirting, 
 
 Skimming along. 
 Beautiful snow! it can do nothing wrong." — Watson. 
 
 "Softly, 
 She is lying with her Ups apart; 
 Softly, 
 She is dying of a broken heart. " — Hood 
 
 Ttoo-accent lamMc. — This metre is found frequently in 
 
 odes, and especially in the lyric poems of the seventeenth 
 
 century. 
 
 "Yet, yet, oh fly; 
 Ye cannot die. 
 But they 
 Shall pass away. " — Byron. 
 
 " Sweeter and sweeter, 
 Soft and low, 
 Neat little nymph, 
 Thy numbers flow." — Palmer. 
 
 "If with a frown 
 I am cast down, 
 PhiUis, smiling 
 And beguiling. 
 Makes me happier than before." — Sedley. 
 
 Two-accent Trochaic. — This is seen in two verses of 
 
 the last quotation. 
 
 "Laugh at all things. 
 Great and small things. 
 Sick or well, at sea or shore; 
 While we're quaffing 
 Let's have laughing." — Byron. 
 
 "And is the swallow gone ? 
 Who beheld it? 
 Which way sailed it ? 
 Farewell bade it none ?" — Howitt.. 
 
 Truncated Tioo-Accent Trochaic. — When the last sylla- 
 ble of any particular metre is dropped, the line is said to 
 
342 PRACTICAL BHETOBIC. 
 
 be "truncated/' though the term "truncated metre" is 
 sometimes applied technically to truncated four-accent 
 trochaic metre. The truncated two-accent trochaic is 
 especially adapted to burlesque. 
 
 "See bim stride 
 
 Valleys wide, 
 
 Over woods, 
 
 Over Q.ooAa." Swift. 
 
 " From his nose 
 Clouds he blows; 
 When he speaks. 
 Thunder breaks; 
 When he eats, 
 Famine threats; 
 When he drinks, 
 Neptune shrinks." — Pope. 
 
 Three-accent Iambic. — This metre is very common in 
 
 ballads and hymns, though it occurs most frequently in 
 
 alternation with four-accent iambic lines. 
 
 " When all thy mercies, O my God, 
 My rising soul surveys, 
 Transported with the view, I'm lost 
 In wonder, love, and praise. " — Addison. 
 
 Frequently, a four-accent line is introduced as the third 
 of a four-line stanza. This was a favorite arrangement 
 with Wesley and Watts. 
 
 "I long to see thy face; 
 Thy Spirit I implore, 
 The living water of thy grace, 
 That I may thirst no more." — Wesley. 
 
 " How gentle God's commands ! 
 How kind his precepts are ! 
 Come cast your burdens on the Lord, 
 And trust his constant care." — Doddridge. 
 
 The four-accent iambic metre is frequently used by 
 Shakespeare in rapid retort, as a variation from the even 
 flow of the dramatic verse in the longer speeches of his 
 characters. Thus, in "Richard III.," Anne says: 
 
 " I would I knew thy heart." 
 And Gloucester replies, 
 
 " 'Tis figured in my tongue." 
 
METRE. 343 
 
 Sometimes this metre is modified by adding an unac- 
 cented syllable in alternate lines. 
 
 " Among the beautiful pictures 
 That hang on Memory's wall 
 Is one of a dim old forest, 
 That seemeth best of all." — Alice Cary. 
 
 " Let Whig and Tory stir their blood; 
 There must be stormy weather; 
 But for some true result of good 
 All parties work together." — Tennyson. 
 
 Three-accent Trochaic. — This metre is also rare, except 
 in alternation. It is often connected, as in the following 
 passage, with an irregular trochaic verse having an extra 
 Byllable in the first foot: 
 
 " Up the I airy | mountain, 
 Down I the rushy | glen, 
 (We) daren't | go a | hunting 
 For fear of little men." — AlUngham. 
 
 ' ' Who is I he that I cometh 
 Like an | honored | guest ? 
 (With) banner | and with | music, 
 (With) soldier | and with | priest, 
 With a I nation i weeping, 
 (And) breaking | on my | rest ?" — Tennyson. 
 
 Truncated Three-accent Trochaic. — This is seldom 
 found except in early English verse, and is not very com- 
 mon, even there. 
 
 ' ' For, an | he were | there 
 We need | never | fear 
 Of the I feindes | blake; 
 For I undertake 
 He would so brag and croke. 
 That he would then make 
 The devils to quake." — Skelton. 
 
 Four-accent Iambic. — This is the common form of bal- 
 lad narrative, as seen in the poems of Scott. Unless other 
 metres are interspersed, it soon becomes monotonous. One 
 marked difference is to be noted between the earlier and 
 the present forms of this metre. In the following stanzas 
 by Wyatt, written about 1535, it will be seen that each 
 
344 PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 complete yerse may be divided equally without dividing a 
 word: — 
 
 " Forget not yet II the tried intent 
 
 Of such a trust || has I have meant; 
 
 My great travail II so gladly spent, 
 
 Forget not yet ! 
 
 ' ' Forget not yet the great assays, 
 The cruel wrong, the scornful ways, 
 The painful patience in delays. 
 Forget not yet !" 
 
 But in the foUovring lines from Scott's "Marmion/' 
 note the impossibility of such a division: 
 
 " Burned Marmion's swarthy cheek like fire. 
 And shook his very frame for ire. — 
 ' He who does England's message here. 
 Although the meanest in her state, 
 May well, proud Angus, be thy mate.' " 
 
 Hymn Stanzas. — The three methods of combination al- 
 ready noted are respectively known in hymnology as Long, 
 Short, and Common metres. 
 
 The Long-metre stanza consists entirely of four-accent 
 iambic verses. In the Short- metre stanza, the first, second, 
 and fourth verses are three-accent iambic, while the third 
 verse is four-accent iambic. In the Common-metre stanza, 
 the first and third verses are four-accent iambic, while the 
 second and fourth are three-accent iambic. These stanzas 
 may be graphically represented as follows : — 
 
 
 LONG 
 
 METRE. 
 
 
 1 -- 
 
 1 ^ — 
 
 1 — — 
 
 1 -.- 1 
 
 1 -- 
 
 1 '-' — 
 
 1 -- 
 
 1 -- 1 
 
 1 -- 
 
 1 -- 
 
 1 ^_ 
 
 1 -- 1 
 
 1 w_ 
 
 1 ^ — 
 
 1 --- 
 
 1 -- 1 
 
 
 SHORT 
 
 METRE. 
 
 
 
 1 -- 
 
 1 ^ — 
 
 1 -- 1 
 
 
 1 -- 
 
 1 -- 
 
 1 -- 1 
 
 , >..._ 
 
 1 -- 
 
 1 ^ — 
 
 1 -- 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 -- 1 
 
METRE. 346 
 
 COMMON METRE. 
 
 I -- I -- I --- I -- I 
 
 I -- I -- I -- I 
 I ^_ I ^_ I __ I __ I 
 
 f ^_ I ^_ I ^_ I 
 
 In many of our hymn-books, figures are found after the 
 titles, expressing the number of syllables in each verse of 
 the stanza. Such a notation is valueless, as it gives no 
 hint of the real metre or movement of the stanza. 
 
 For the purpose of giving vivacity, an extra unaccented 
 syllable is sometimes added to alternate verses in this metre. 
 In this case, as in others where an unaccented syllable is 
 added, the final foot may, of course, be construed as an am- 
 phibrach substituted for the iambic. Butler's " Hudibras" 
 affords the best-known illustration of this form of icmbic 
 t-etraaneter : 
 
 "Enlarged his legions in fierce bustles 
 With periwinkles, prawns, and muscles, 
 And led his troops with furious gallops 
 To charge whole regiments of shallops." 
 
 Four-accent Trochaic. — This metre was employed during 
 the Blizabethen period much more frequently than at 
 present. It is favored by the English tendency to throw 
 back the accent on dissyllabic words. It is especially 
 adapted to lively, bustling movement, as is seen in Milton's 
 " L' Allegro." In view of the required double rhyme, it is 
 not suitable to a long poem. 
 
 "Straight mine eye hath caught new pleasures, 
 Whilst the landscape round it measures." 
 
 Even in the "Allegro" it is more frequently truncated. 
 
 Its most long-continued use is in Longfellow's "Hiawatha." 
 
 As no attempt of rhyming is here made, the metre becomes 
 
 very easy. 
 
 " O the long and dreary winter ! 
 O the cold and cruel winter ! 
 Ever thicker, thicker, thicker, 
 FeU the ice on lake and river ; 
 Ever deeper, deeper, deeper. 
 Fell the snow o'er all the landscape." 
 
846 PRACTICAL RHETORIC. 
 
 Truncated Four-accent TrocJtaic— As already observed, 
 this is much more common than the full form, and is 
 known technically as "truncated metre." 
 
 " Haste thee, nymph, and bring with thee 
 Jest and youthful ioUity, — 
 Quips and cranks and wanton wiles, 
 Kods and becks and wreathed smiles." — Milton. 
 
 ' ' Bound about them orchards sweep, 
 Apple and peach tree printed deep." — Whittier. 
 
 The truncated frequently alternates with the full form 
 in hymns and other four-line stanzas. 
 
 ' ' In the cross of Christ I glory. 
 Towering o'er the wrecks of time ; 
 All the light of sacred story 
 Gathers round its head sublime." — 
 
 " In her ear he whispers gayly. 
 If my heart by signs can tell, 
 Maiden, I have watched thee daily, 
 And I think thou lov'st me well." — Tennyson. 
 
 If, as is often the case, a monosyllable be added at the 
 beginning of any truncated verse, the whole may be scanned 
 as iambic. This is seen in many lines from " L' Allegro," 
 such as, 
 
 (a) " (But) come, thou goddess fair and free." 
 (6) " (And) in thy right hand lead with thee 
 (The) mountain njmiph sweet Liberty." 
 
 This variation of the initial foot is one of the most com- 
 mon illustrations of the influence of the " catch," akeady 
 noted. Frequently, the first foot is a dactyl, as in 
 
 " Under the hawthorn in the ddle." 
 
 In the middle of the four-accent trochaic verse, no sub- 
 stitute for the trochee is allowed save the monosyllable, 
 thus: 
 
 "Ruby I lips, | cherry j cheeks. 
 Such rare | mixture | Venus | seeks." — Greene. 
 
METRE. 347 
 
 Five-accent lamltc. — This metre without rhyme, known 
 also as "blank verse," "dramatic verse," "heroic pen- 
 tameter," etc., is that in which all our great epic poems 
 and our great dramas have been written. It bears to the 
 English the same relation that the iambic hexameter, as 
 based on quantity, bears to the Greek and Latin, and seems 
 to be especially adapted for dramatic expression. It is 
 therefore the form into which the great epic and dramatic 
 poems have been translated from languages foreign to our 
 own. Being unhampered by rhyme, and representing, as 
 it does, the language of every-day life, the dramatic verse 
 approaches most nearly to prose, and enjoys more license 
 than any other metre. A trochee may be freely substituted 
 for an iambic after any pause, however slight ; and one, 
 sometimes two, extra syllables are allowed at the end of a 
 line or sentence. The first case has already been illustrated 
 in the discussion of substituted feet. Shakespeare and 
 Milton afford frequent illustrations of the added syllable 
 or syllables : — 
 
 " I dare | avouch | it, sir. | What ! flf | ty fol | lowers f — Lear. 
 
 " Thy words, with grace divine 
 Imbued, | bring to | their sweet | ness no | sati | eiy." 
 
 Paradise Lost. 
 
 Extra syllables are also to be found in other besides the 
 final feet, as where an amphibrach or an anapaest is sub- 
 stituted for the iambic. Modern blank verse exhibits less 
 license in this respect than does that of the Elizabethan 
 age ; but any extra syllables that are felt not to interfere 
 with the regular recurrence of the accent are still admitted. 
 
 Voivel Elision. — Where the extra syllable in the middle 
 of a verse begins with a vowel, the scansion is often made 
 regular by eliding such a syllable. This is especially com- 
 mon in Milton. 
 
 " Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit." 
 
 " Before all temples th(e) upright heart and pure." 
 
 "Anger and obstinac(2/) and hate and guile." 
 
348 PRACTICAL HEETOBIC. 
 
 The pause required before an inserted trochee in dra- 
 matic verse need not be grammatical; sometimes only the 
 rhetorical pause is required for the pronunciation of a 
 "long'' syllable. Some pause, however, is essential; and 
 therefore it is not allowable to insert two trochees in suc- 
 cession. The reason for the necessity of a pause before a 
 substituted trochee seems to be that between two accented 
 syllables the voice needs time to recover itself. Thus, 
 "Be in | their flow | ing cups \ freshly | remembered" 
 is allowable by reason of the rhetorical pause after "cups." 
 But 
 
 "Be in | their hap | piness | freshly | remembered" 
 is not admissible. 
 
 By the same reasoning we obtain the law that a suhsti- 
 ttited trochee must not folloto an unemphatic accent. Like 
 most general laws, this has a few exceptions in standard 
 authors. 
 
 Five-accent Iambic with Rhyme. — This metre is neces- 
 sarily more strict than the corresponding blank verse, be- 
 cause the requirement of rhyme precludes the addition of 
 extra syllables at the end of any line. Less substitutions 
 also will be found in the middle of the verse. As ob- 
 served in the discussion of pause, the rhyming iambic of 
 narrative verse, like that of Chaucer, is less precise than 
 that in the rhyming couplet of Pope. 
 
 Five-accent Trochaic— This verse is very rare, except in 
 its truncated form. Sometimes, however, the full and the 
 truncated form alternate: — 
 
 "Spoke full I well in | language | quaint and | olden 
 One who | dwelleth | by the | tastled miiue.''— Longfellow. 
 
 " Gorgeous flowerets in the sunlight shining 
 Blossoms flaunting in the eye of day, 
 Tremulous leaves with soft and silver lining, 
 Buds that open only to decay;" — 
 
 Truncated Five-accent Trochaic. 
 
 "Stand here | by my | side and | turn, I | pray, 
 On the lake below thy gentle eyes."— Bryant. 
 
METRE. 349 
 
 Tlie Alexandrine. — When a six-accent iambic line con- 
 tains no pause at which it can be divided into three-accent 
 lines, rhyming or otherwise, it is called an Alexandrine. 
 Dryden and Spenser use it very frequently. (See example 
 on page 351). 
 
 Six-accent Iambic. — This metre does not seem to be 
 adapted to the genius of the English language, and is 
 therefore seldom found. 
 
 " How long these maidens have been sleeping know I not ; 
 Therefore I wake them. They, the young, shall be amazed; 
 Yet also bearded ones who sit below and wait. " — Anon. 
 
 Six-accent Trochaic. — Metre so called has been written, 
 but such verse is generally resolvable into two three-accent 
 verses, as in the following; — 
 
 " Up the airy mountain || Health is bounding lightly." 
 But, 
 
 "On a I mountain | stretched be | neath a | hoary | willow" 
 
 is Indivisible. 
 
 Seven-accent Metres. — Most of the so-called seven-accent 
 metre can be divided into alternating four and three-accent 
 lines. Thus, the stanza 
 
 " Now glory to the Lord of Hosts, || from whom all glories are ! 
 And glory to our Sovereign Liege, || King Henry of Navarre ! 
 Now let there be the merry sound || of music and the dance, 
 Through thy corn-fields green, and sunny vales, |1 pleasant 
 land of France !" \Macaulay) — 
 
 might equally well be written in four verses as divided. 
 The truncated trochaic seven-accent lines in Poe's " Bells" 
 are not so easily divided: — 
 
 (a) " What a gush of euphony voluminously swells ! 
 
 (6) What a world of merriment their harmony foretells ! 
 
 Eight-accent Metres. — Of these, the trochaic is quite 
 common, especially in its truncated form. In the ma- 
 jority of cases, however, the verses can be regularly divided 
 so as to make it a four-accent metre. In Poe's " Eaven" 
 the half -verses are even made to rhyme: 
 
350 PRACTICAL BHETORIC. 
 
 "Ah, distinctly I remember || it was in the bleak December, 
 And each separate dying ember || wrought its ghost upon tne 
 
 floor ; n -Li J. 1. 
 
 Eagerly I wished the morrow; II vainly I had sought to borrow 
 From my books surcease of sorrow II sorrow for the lost lie- 
 nor e." 
 
 In Tennyson's " Locksley Hall" we have the same metre 
 in a simpler and more compact form: 
 
 " And at night along the dusky highway near and nearer drawn, 
 Sees in heaven the light of London flaring like a dreary dawn." 
 
 * ****** 
 
 " Woman is the lesser man, and all thy passions, match'd with 
 mine, 
 Are as moonlight unto sunlight, and as water unto wine." 
 
 VEKSE-COMBIlfATIONS. 
 
 Before noticing the different varieties of trisyllabic 
 metre, it is important to observe three peculiar combina- 
 tions of dissyllabic verses. These are known, respectively, 
 as the " Rhythm Royal," the " Spenserian Stanza," and the 
 " Sonnet." They differ materially in form from the regular 
 four-, six-, or eight-line stanzas of common verse. 
 
 The Rhythm Royal. — This is a seven-line stanza, the in- 
 vention of Chaucer, and not now in common use. It is 
 made up gf five-accent iambic verses, with a peculiar ar- 
 rangement of the rhymes. The first four lines rhyme al- 
 ternately; the fifth line repeats the rhyme of the fourth, 
 and the last two form a couplet. Thus: 
 
 " She seemed all earthly matters to forget; 
 Of all tormenting lines her face was clear; 
 Her wide gray eyes upon the goal were set 
 Calm and unmoved as though no soul were near; 
 But her foe trembled as a man in fear, 
 Nor from her loveliness one moment turned 
 His anxious face with fierce desire that burned." 
 
 Atlanta's Rae?. 
 
 The Spenserian Stanza. — This consists of nine verses, the 
 first eight of which are five accent iambics, while the last is 
 an Alexandrine. Of these nine lines, the second rhymes 
 
METRE. 351 
 
 with the fourth, fifth, and seventh, the sixth with the 
 eighth and ninth, and the first with the third. This ar- 
 rangement of the rhymes will be most clearly seen by giv- 
 ing to each rhyme a specific number : 
 
 "One day, nigh, wearie of the yrksome way, 1 
 
 From her unhastie beast she did alight ; 2 
 
 And on the grass her dainty limbs did lay 1 
 
 In secrete shadow, far from all men's sight ; 2 
 
 From her fair head her fillet she undight, 2 
 
 And layd her stole aside. Her angel's face 3 
 
 As the great eye of heaven shinfed bright, 2 
 
 And made a sunshine in the shady place ; 3 
 
 Did never mortaU eye behold such heavenly grace.'' 3 
 
 The Sonnet. — The sonnet proper is an Italian invention; 
 consists of fourteen five-accent iambic verses. It is di- 
 vided into two distinct portions known as the major and the 
 minor, or the octette and the sestette, the major containing 
 eight, and the minor six verses. The major part, again, 
 consists of two four-line stanzas, and the minor part, of 
 two three-line stanzas. In each of the four-line stanzas the 
 two middle lines rhyme together, as do the two outside lines. 
 In the minor division the first, second, and third lines of 
 the first stanza rhyme respectively with the first, second, 
 and third lines of the second. This arrangement may also 
 be graphically represented by figures. 
 
 ("When I consider how my light is spent, 1 
 
 Ere half my days in this dark world and wide, 2 
 
 And that one talent which is death to hide 2 
 
 Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent 1 
 
 C To serve therewith my Maker and present 1 
 
 J My true account, lest He returning chide. 2 
 
 ] ' Doth God exact day -labor, light denied ?' 2 
 
 [ I fondly ask ; but Patience, to prevent 1 
 
 f That murmur, soon replies : ' God doth not need 3 
 
 \ Either man's work or His own gifts ; who besc 4 
 
 [ Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state 5 
 
 Is kingly ; thousands at his bidding speed, 3 
 
 And post o'er land and ocean without rest : 4 
 
 They also serve who only stand and wait,' " 5 
 
 Milton. 
 
352 PRACTICAL BEETOBIC. 
 
 In this ideal Italian form, the sonnet is rarely found in 
 English. The minor part is especially subject to variation, 
 as in the following from Milton : 
 
 " O nightingale, that on yon bloomy spray 1 
 
 Warblest at eve, when all the woods are still ; 2 
 
 Thou with fresh hope the lover's heart dost fill, 2 
 
 While the joUy hours lead on propitious May. 1 
 
 Thy liquid notes that close the eve of day, 1 
 
 First heard before the shallow cuckoo's bill, 3 
 
 Portend success in love. Oh, if Jove's wiU 2 
 
 Have linked that amorous power to thy soft lay, 1 
 
 Now timely sing, ere the rude bird of hate 3 
 
 Foretell my hopeless doom in some grove nigh : 4 
 
 As thou from year to year hast sung too late 3 
 
 For my relief, yet hadst no reason why : 4 
 
 Whether the Muse or Love call thee his mate, 3 
 
 Both them I serve, and of their train am J." 4 
 
 In Shakespeare's sonnet the first twelve lines rhyme alter- 
 nately, and the last two rhyme together. Wordsworth holds 
 more closely to the ideal form, but often ends with a rhym- 
 ing couplet. 
 
 The object of each of these three verse-combinations is; 
 (1) to secure unity by making it impossible to break up the 
 whole into couplets ; (2) to diifuse the effect thoughout the 
 whole and to avoid anything like an epigram at the end. 
 Because of the intricacy of the rhyme-arrangement, they 
 represent the most difficult forms of versification. 
 
 TRISYLLABIC METBES, 
 
 Anapaestic English verse was written nearly or quite as 
 early as the iambic or trochaic, but the dactylic and amphi- 
 brachic metres are of comparatively recent date. Hardly 
 a specimen of dactylic verse can be found prior to the be- 
 ginning of the nineteenth century. The most common 
 verse in each of the trisyllabic metres is that of four ac- 
 cents, in either its full or its truncated form, or in both 
 alternating. Some other trisyllabic verses are found, 
 though generally in combination with a longer line. 
 
 Two-accent Anapaestic. — With some substitutions and 
 
METRE. 353 
 
 added syllables, this metre is found in Moore's well-known 
 lyric : 
 
 '' 'Tis the last | rose of summer, 
 
 Left bloom I ing aJone ; 
 
 All her love | ly companions 
 
 Are fa | ded and gone. " 
 
 Some of the four-accent anapaestic verse might equally 
 well be written as two-accent verse, and vice versa. 
 
 Two-accent Dactylic. — Some of our best-known short 
 poems are in this metre, such as the hymn "Nearer, My 
 God, to Thee," Hood's " Bridge of Sighs," and others. 
 
 "Cannon to right of them, 
 Cannon to left of them, 
 Cannon in front of them, 
 Volleyed and thundered." — Tennyson. 
 
 Two-accent Amphibrachic. — This is specially adapted to 
 the imitation of sound and motion: 
 
 " Collecting, projecting. 
 Receding and speeding, 
 And shocking and rocking, 
 And darting and parting. 
 And threading and spreading. 
 And moaning and groaning." 
 
 " The Cataract" — Southey. 
 
 Three-accent Anapaestic. — This is more rare than the 
 two-accent verse: 
 
 " I am monarch of all I survey ; 
 My right there is none to dispute ; 
 From the centre all round to the sea 
 I am lord of the fowl and the brute." — Cowper. 
 
 Three-accent Dactylic. — This is probably never found, 
 except as mingled with other metres. An approach to it is 
 seen in the "Gospel Hymn:" 
 
 " Oh to be nothing, nothing. 
 
 Only to lie at his feet — 
 ****** 
 
 Only an | instrument | ready 
 His praises to sound at his will ; 
 Willing, should he not require me. 
 In silence to wait on him still !" 
 
354 PRACTICAL BHETOBIO. 
 
 Three-accent AmpMbracMc. — This, again, is adapted to 
 onomatopoeia: 
 
 " Dividing and gliding and sliding, 
 And falling and brawling and sprawling, 
 And driving and riving and striving. 
 And clattering and battering and shattering." — Southey. 
 
 Four-accent Anapaestic. — This is found sometimes regu- 
 lar and sometimes alternating with the three-accent form: 
 
 " And the widows of Ashur are loud in their wail, 
 And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal ; 
 And the might of the Gentile, unsmote by the sword, 
 Hath melted like snow in the glance of the Lord ! " 
 
 Byron. 
 
 " There's a legend that's told of a gypsy who dwelt 
 In the lands where the pyramids be ; 
 And her robe was embroidered with stars, and her belt 
 With devices right wondrous to see." 
 
 Francis Mdhony. 
 
 Four-accent Dactylic. — This is found in some humorous 
 verse in alternation with a truncated four-accent line : 
 
 " Bachelor's Hall, what a quare-looking place it is ! 
 Kape me from such all the days of my life ! 
 Sure but I think what a burnin' disgrace it is 
 Niver at all to be gettin' a wife." — Mnley. 
 
 And also in Heber's "Epiphany Hymn:" 
 
 " Brightest and best of the sons of the morning. 
 Dawn on our darkness and lend us thine aid ; 
 Star of the East, the horizon adorning. 
 Guide where our infant Redeemer is laid." 
 
 Four-accent AmpMbracMc. — This, also, generally occurs 
 in alternation with a truncated line: 
 
 " How dear to this heart are the scenes of my childhood, 
 When fond recollection presents them to view ! 
 The orchard, the meadow, the deep-tangled wild-wood 
 And every loved spot which my infancy knew." ' 
 
 Woodworth. 
 Truncated Four-accent AmpMbracMc. — This is more 
 common than either the full or the mixed form : 
 
METRE. 355 
 
 " In slumbers of midniglit the sailor-boy lay, 
 
 His hammock swung loose at the sport of the wind; 
 But, watch-worn and weary, his cares flew away. 
 And visions of happiness danced o'er his mind." 
 
 Dimond. 
 
 Of longer trisyllabic metres, two are sometimes found, 
 though not without many substitutions. 
 Truncated Six-accent Dactylic. 
 
 " Thus he de | livered his | message, the | dexterous | writer of | 
 letters — 
 Did not embellish the theme, nor array it in beautiful phrases, 
 But came straight to the point and blurted it out like a school- 
 boy ; 
 Even the Captain himself could hardly have said it more bluntly. 
 Mute with amazement and sorrow, Priseilla the Puritan maiden 
 Looked into Alden's face, her eyes dilated with wonder. 
 Feeling his words like a blow, that stunned her and rendered 
 her speechless. " Longfellow. 
 
 Truncated Six-accent Amphiiracldc. 
 
 " Ah ! little they know of true happiness, they whom satiety 
 
 fills. 
 Who, flung on the rich breast of luxury, eat of the rankness 
 
 that kills. 
 Ah ! little they know of the blessedness toil-purchased slumber 
 
 enjoys 
 Who, stretched on the hard rock of indolence, taste of the sleep 
 
 that destroys." MacCarthy. 
 
 MIXED VEKSE. 
 
 In some well-known compositions the license of substitu- 
 tion is carried so far that there is hardly any one prevalent 
 foot. Such is known as "mixed verse." It is generally 
 most successful when combined with rhyme, and when the 
 lines are short. We append a few specimens: — 
 
 " Here let us sport. 
 Boys, as we sit; 
 Laughter and wit 
 Flashing so free. 
 Life is but short, — 
 When we are gone, 
 Let them sing on, 
 Round the old tree."— Thackeray. 
 
356 PBAGTICAL REETOBIO. 
 
 ' ' By the flow of the inland river, 
 Whence the fleets of iron have fled, 
 Where the blades of the grave-grass quiver, 
 Asleep are the ranks of the dead, 
 Under the sod and the dew, 
 Waiting the judgment day ;— 
 Under the one, the Blue ; 
 Under the other, the Qmy."— Finch. 
 
 " We are two travellers, Koger and I. 
 Eoger's my dog,— come here, you scamp ! 
 Jump for the gentlemen,— mind your eye ! 
 Over the table, — look out for the lamp ! 
 The rogue is growing a little old ; 
 Five years we've tramped through wind and weather, 
 And slept out-doors when nights were cold. 
 And ate and drank — and starved together." 
 
 Trowbridge. 
 
 " Up from the south at break of day, 
 Bringing to Winchester fresh dismay. 
 The affrighted air with a shudder bore, 
 Like a herald in haste, to the chieftain's door. 
 The terrible grumble and rumble and roar. 
 Telling the battle was on once more, 
 And Sheridan twenty miles away." — Read. 
 
 " Many a weary year had passed since the burning of Grand-Pr6, 
 When on the falling tide the freighted vessels departed. 
 Bearing a nation, with all its household gods, into exile, 
 Exile without an end, and without an example in story." 
 
 Longfellow's ' ' Evangeline.'" 
 
 The general effect in "Evangeline" is clearly dactylic; 
 but so many iambics, trochees, anapaests, and amphibrachs 
 are substituted" that they nearly or quite outnumber the 
 dactyls. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be said that the habit of observing 
 and deciding upon the kind of metre in any verse that 
 comes before one's eyes from day to day — noting the various 
 substitutions of feet with the emphatic and unemphatic 
 metrical accents, etc. — is one of the best means of acquir- 
 ing, almost unconsciously, that feature of good style that 
 is at once the highest, the rarest, and the most delicate, — 
 the feature of euphony. 
 
STUDENTS' SPECIAL INDE^ TO PARTS I. AND 11. 
 
 Note. — The following special index is similar to the Teachers' 
 Index on pages 156-158, except that the titles are given by consecutive 
 numbers instead of being an-anged alphabetically. It is intended to 
 aid the student in applying the suggestions of the teacher, by numbers 
 on the essay margin, according to notes on pages 2 and 55, and to aid 
 him also in correcting the exercises, both special and general. 
 
 ^^ The numbers refer to paragraphs, not pages. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 GENERAL. 
 
 Spacing 1 
 
 One underscore 3 
 
 Two underscores 3 
 
 Three underscores 4 
 
 Spelling in general 5 
 
 Foreign plurals, spelling of . 6 
 
 CAPITALS. 
 
 First word of a sentence ... 7 
 Proper names and adjectives. 8 
 Proper adjectives, etc.; cap- 
 ital dropped 8a 
 
 Titles of office, etc 9 
 
 Common joined to a proper 
 
 nonn 10 
 
 Cardinal points 11 
 
 Strong pei'soniflcation 12 
 
 Verse, line of 13 
 
 Appellations of Deity 14 
 
 Direct formal quotations. ... 15 
 
 Titles of books, chapters, etc. 16 
 
 Prominent words of subject 17 
 "I" and "O." — "O" w. 
 
 "Oh" 18 
 
 Important events, etc 19 
 
 Items of a series 20 
 
 Broken line 21 
 
 "Heaven" 22 
 
 "Bible" 23 
 
 Appellations of Deity in gen- 
 eral 24 
 
 "Academy," " college," etc. 25 
 Compounds of proper and 
 
 common noun 26 
 
 General rule— permanent spe- 
 cific names 27 
 
 Superfluous capitals 27fli 
 
 THE PERIOD. 
 
 Complete declarative sen- 
 tence 28 
 
 Abbreviations, double, etc. . 29 
 
 Titles and headings 30 
 
 Roman numerals 31 
 
 THE rPTTEBROGATION POINT. 
 
 Complete direct question 32 
 
 Several questions — common 
 
 dependence 38 
 
 In parentheses 34 
 
 THE EXCLAMATION-POINT. 
 
 Interjections and emotional 
 
 expressions 35 
 
 Incomplete members 36 
 
 THE COLON. 
 
 Members loosely connected. . 37 
 
358 
 
 STUDENTS' SPECIAL INDEX. 
 
 Before formal enumeration. . 38 
 Expression indicating an ad- 
 dition 39 
 
 Long formal quotation 40 
 
 Major division, compound 
 
 sentence 41 
 
 THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 Members loosely connected . . 43 
 
 Conditions of connection. ... 43 
 
 Between particulars 44 
 
 Before informal enumeration 45 
 
 Before "as" 46 
 
 Clauses of common depend- 
 ence 47 
 
 Between major divisions ... 48 
 
 THE COMMA. 
 
 Negative clauses 49 
 
 Omissions 50 
 
 Words in apposition 51 
 
 Scholastic titles 52 
 
 Vocative words 53 
 
 Absolute participial clauses. . 54 
 Short members of a com- 
 pound sentence 55 
 
 " Or," introducing an equiv- 
 alent 56 
 
 Same parts of speech 57 
 
 Adjective modifying another 
 
 adjective 58 
 
 Repeated words 59 
 
 Pairs of words 60 
 
 Before a short formal quota- 
 tion 61 
 
 To separate figures 62 
 
 Statistics and sums of money 63 
 
 Before last of a series 64 
 
 Parenthetical words, etc 65 
 
 " Yes," " no," etc , at begin- 
 ning 66 
 
 Dependent clauses — " if , " 
 
 "until," etc 67 
 
 Relative clauses, not restric- 
 tive 68 
 
 After a surname 69 
 
 Transposed clauses 70 
 
 Logical subject 71 
 
 Compound predicate 72 
 
 Correlative terms 73 
 
 "To," "as," " in order to". . 74 
 
 Informal enumeration 75 
 
 Demanded for clearness 76 
 
 THE DASH. 
 
 Break, suspension, etc 77 
 
 Rhetorical pause 78 
 
 After period, colon, etc 79 
 
 Hesitating repetitions 80 
 
 Omission of letters 81 
 
 Parenthesis within parenthe- 
 ses 83 
 
 Common dependence on final 
 
 clause 83 
 
 Parts of a dialogue 84 
 
 Extremes of a series 85 
 
 Heterogeneous ideas 86 
 
 THE PARENTHESIS. 
 
 Inserted expressions 87 
 
 Punctuation within 88 
 
 Marks of approval 89 
 
 Enclosing interrogation- 
 marks 90 
 
 THE APOSTBOPHE. 
 
 Possessive case 91 
 
 Possessive phrase after object 93 
 
 Omitted letters 93 
 
 Omitted syllables and words. 94 
 
 Plural of letters and figures.. 95 
 
 Omission of century 96 
 
 THE HYPHEN. 
 
 Broken line 97 
 
 Compound word 98 
 
 For diaeresis 99 
 
 Syllabication loo 
 
 QUOTATION-MAEKS. 
 
 Direct formal quotation 101 
 
 Altered quotations 103 
 
 Quotation witbin a quotation. 103 
 
 Titles of books 104 
 
 Punctuation within a quota- 
 tion 105 
 
 Punctuation before the last 
 
 marks 106 
 
 ITALICS. 
 
 Superfluous italics 107 
 
 Foreign words 108 
 
 Papers, magazines, etc 109 
 
 Ships, coaches, etc no 
 
 Side-heads, etc m 
 
 PABAGRAPHING. 
 
 Follow the outline 112 
 
STUDENTS' SPECIAL INDEX. 
 
 359 
 
 Opening sentence, introduc- 
 tory 113 
 
 Opening sentence short 114 
 
 Keverse bearing 115 
 
 Connect smoothly 116 
 
 Connective phrases 117 
 
 Connective inversion 118 
 
 Cumulative form 119 
 
 Superfluous paragraphing.. .119a 
 
 STYLE. 
 
 CLEABNESS. 
 
 Demonstrative, ambiguous. . 121 
 
 Relative, ambiguous 133 
 
 Divisible relative 133 
 
 " Only," position of 134 
 
 "Not only— but also" 135 
 
 " At least," etc 136 
 
 Verbal nouns 137 
 
 Connected words and clauses. 138 
 
 Repeat subject 129 
 
 Repeat relative 130 
 
 Compared object excluded, 
 
 etc 131 
 
 Superlative— same class. . . . 133 
 
 Repeat article 133 
 
 Adjective before possessive.. 134 
 
 Participle, position of 135 
 
 Participial phrase, resolve. . . 136 
 
 Repeat preposition 137 
 
 Infinitive of purpose 138 
 
 " Not," position of 139 
 
 Universal subject, negative 
 
 predicate 140 
 
 Comparisons, same category. 141 
 Adjective or adverb as ante- 
 cedent 143 
 
 Repeat antecedent 143 
 
 ' ' Neither — nor, " etc. — sim- 
 ilar constructions 144 
 
 " Or," alternation, disjunc- 
 tion 145 
 
 Repeat conjunction 146 
 
 " Certain," " some," "any," 
 
 etc 147 
 
 Direct discourse 148 
 
 Adverbs, position of 149 
 
 Substantive between subject 
 
 and relative 150 
 
 "As" and "than," repeat 
 
 verb after 151 
 
 Dependent clauses, avoid 
 
 confounding 153 
 
 Repeat word as summary. . . 153 
 Ambiguous phrases 154 
 
 Circumlocutions 155 
 
 Omissions 156 
 
 Different senses 157 
 
 Technical words 158 
 
 Equivocal words 159 
 
 Collocation 160 
 
 Parentheses, avoid long 161 
 
 Unnecessary words 162 
 
 Closing with short word — 
 
 exceptions 163 
 
 Suspense , . . 164 
 
 Subordinate clauses, several. 165 
 
 Conditional clause, first 166 
 
 Participle or adjective as in- 
 troduction 167 
 
 Suspensive conjunctions 168 
 
 Emphatic words in emphatic 
 
 places 169 
 
 Prepositions, avoid two; split- 
 ting of particles 170 
 
 "Do" and "did "as exple- 
 tives 171 
 
 Adverbial modifiers, order of. 173 
 
 Omit verb 173 
 
 Omit subject and verb 174 
 
 Omit conjunction 175 
 
 " And," force and use of 176 
 
 " And which" 177 
 
 " Exaggeration" 178 
 
 " Pine writing" 179 
 
 Particular w. general terms. 180 
 
 Person for class 181 
 
 Metaphor, use 183 
 
 Interrogative form, use 183 
 
 Object before verb 184 
 
 Truisms, etc., avoid 185 
 
 Climax, arrange to 186 
 
 Balanced sentence, antithesis. 187 
 Phrase contracted to a word . 188 
 
 Implied statement 189 
 
 Imperative for " if clause".. . 190 
 Apposition 191 
 
360 
 
 STUDENTS' SPECIAL INDEX. 
 
 Eepeat prominent word 192 
 
 Special devices — brevity . . . 193 
 
 Incongi'uous objects 194 
 
 Prepositional phrases, substi- 
 tutes for 195 
 
 Negatives, multiplication of. 196 
 Introductory clauses, avoid. . 197 
 
 Short vpords, prefer 198 
 
 Grammatically connected 
 
 words, etc 199 
 
 PEBCISIOIT. 
 
 Proper sense, use words in. . 300 
 
 Root words confounded 201 
 
 Intensity, distinguish degrees 
 
 of 302 
 
 General words, avoid 203 
 
 "Do" and "did" as substi- 
 tutes 304 
 
 "Shall" and "will" 305 
 
 Radical signification of 
 
 "will" 306 
 
 " Should " and " would "... 307 
 
 " May" and " can" 308 
 
 "Be" as auxiliary and as 
 
 principal verb 309 
 
 Repeat copula, etc 310 
 
 Active and passive meanings, 
 
 distinguish 311 
 
 Abstract m. concrete forms. . 313 
 
 Adjectives, use few 313 
 
 Tense forms, do not omit. . . 314 
 Negative from privative 
 
 words, distinguish. . . . 315 
 Incongruous words and sen- 
 tences, avoid joining.. 316 
 Cumulative form of verb, 
 
 use 317 
 
 Contradictions and incongrui- 
 ties, avoid 318 
 
 " One" as a personal pronoun. 319 
 
 Repetitions, avoid, etc 330 
 
 Bombast, avoid 331 
 
 " Any," use of, etc 333 
 
 Condensation, avoid too great 333 
 
 Tautology, avoid 324 
 
 Comparative emphasis 335 
 
 Repeat the article 336 
 
 Modifiers, keep together 337 
 
 " That" with verbs of mental 
 
 action 338 
 
 " That " introducing result. . 339 
 " Couple" for " two" 230 
 
 Preposition, avoid as connec- 
 tive 231 
 
 Possessive before verbal 
 
 nouns 232 
 
 PtJRITT. 
 
 Coining words 233 
 
 Combinations, unwairanted. 334 
 Newspaper usage not a crite- 
 rion 235 
 
 Colloquialisms 236 
 
 Provincialisms, avoid 337 
 
 Foreign words, avoid 238 
 
 Foreigp idioms, avoid 339 
 
 Archaic sufiixes and prefixes, 340 
 
 Changing construction 241 
 
 Adverb between infinitive 
 
 and sign 343 
 
 " As" and " so," distinguish . 343 
 
 Syntactical errors 344 
 
 Nominative confounded with 
 
 objective 345 
 
 Two or more substantives, 
 
 verb with 346 
 
 Collective nouns, number of 
 
 verb, etc 347 
 
 Singular subject, plural ob- 
 ject, etc. — verb 348 
 
 Foreign plural, verb with ... 349 
 Several subjects of different 
 
 number 350 
 
 Use subjunctive for contin- 
 gency 351 
 
 Imperfect vs. perfect tense. . 353 
 Imperfect tense for perfect 
 
 participle 253 
 
 Transitive vs. inti-ansitive 
 
 verbs 354 
 
 Perfect, for present infinitive. 255 
 Universal truths— tense ex- 
 pressing 256 
 
 Superlative, double, or with 
 
 two objects 257 
 
 Adjective for adverb, avoid 
 
 using 358 
 
 Adverb for adjective, avoid 
 
 using 359 
 
 Pronouns— mixed forms 360 
 
 One signification, prefer 
 
 words of 261 
 
 Analogy, regard in choice . . . 263 
 
 Agreeable words, prefer 363 
 
 Simpler expression, prefer. . 364 
 
STUl)fSj\T.V SPKCIAL INDKX. 
 
 361 
 
 Ancient usLge, prefer 265 
 
 Neuter possessives, avoLcl. . . . 366 
 Continued action, tense-forms 
 
 expressing 267 
 
 Preposition, use tlie proper. 268 
 
 Tenses, keep consistent 269 
 
 Relative, avoid omitting 270 
 
 Possessive as antecedent, 
 
 avoid 271 
 
 "Each," "every," "any," 
 
 etc., verbs -with 272 
 
 "Each," "every," "one," 
 
 etc., pronouns with. . . 273 
 
 PSOPRIBTY. 
 
 Coarse expressions, avoid . . . 374 
 
 Slang, avoid 275 
 
 Technical slang, when allow- 
 able 276 
 
 Literal statement after meta- 
 phor 377 
 
 Figurative language— prosaic 
 
 subject 278 
 
 Idiom,iise words according to. 279 
 
 Poetic patchwork, avoid 280 
 
 "We" for "I" 281 
 
 Poetic inversions, avoid 382 
 
 Poetic elisions, avoid 383 
 
 Poetic archaisms, avoid 384 
 
 Metaphor, confused, avoid. . 385 
 Metaphor, incongruous 286 
 
 XWITT. 
 
 Scene, do not change 287 
 
 Heterogeneous ideas 388 
 
 Parenthetical clauses, excess 
 
 of 289 
 
 Added member after a close . 390 
 
 Connect smoothly 291 
 
 Relative clauses within rela- 
 tive 293 
 
 EUPHONY. 
 
 Repeated words and syllables. 393 
 Euphonious words, prefer. . . 394 
 Cumulation of consonants, 
 
 avoid 395 
 
 Arrange euphoniously 396 
 
 Vowels, clash of, avoid 397 
 
 Unaccented syllables, succes- 
 sion of 398 
 
 Monosyllables, succession of. 399 
 
 Similar endings, avoid 300 
 
 Sound to sense, adapt 301 
 
 Adverbial elements, scatter.. 302 
 
 Substitutes for relative 303 
 
 Connectives, multiplication 
 
 of 304 
 
 Balanced sentence 305 
 
 Shorter words before longer, 
 
 etc 306 
 
 Closing with short and ab- 
 rupt words 307 
 
 Variety conducive to eupliony 308 
 Similar beginnings, avoid . . . 309 
 Indefinite article before h 
 
 and u 310 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Note.— The numbers at the extreme right refer to the page; those in 
 parentheses, to the number of the paragraph. 
 
 Abbott, quoted. 188, 189, 190, 193, 
 303, 316, 325, 336, 338 
 Abbreviation, period after 
 
 every (29), 14 
 
 not made by dash (81), 22 
 
 Abbreviated words, two or 
 
 more (29), 14 
 
 Absolute constructions, punc- 
 tuation of (54), 19 
 
 Abstractions, common iii 
 
 Abstract word, mental proc- 
 ess with an (180), 67 
 
 from concrete words, dis- 
 tinguish (212), 86 
 
 "Academy," when capital- 
 ized (25), 12 
 
 Accent as a metrical basis. . . 319 
 Active and passive meanings, 
 
 distinguish (211), 86 
 
 Acts, quotation from the 293 
 
 Adaptation to audience 246 
 
 Addison quoted. 31, 325, 341, 342 
 Addition, punctuation indi- 
 cating an (39), 16 
 
 Added membere, after close, 
 
 (290), 142 
 Adduce arguments separ- 
 ately 293 
 
 Adjective modifying another, 
 
 punctuation (58), 19 
 
 as antecedent, avoid . (142), 51 
 before a possessive. . . (134), 50 
 for adjective clause. . (193), 70 
 use as introduction. .(167 1, 64 
 
 use but one (213), 86 
 
 for an adverb, avoid, 
 
 (258), 114 
 
 Advantages of a narrow 
 
 theme 343 
 
 Adverb for adjective, avoid, 
 
 (259), 114 
 between infinitive and 
 
 sign (242), 111 
 
 between auxiliary and 
 
 verb (242), 111 
 
 Adverbs, position of (149), 53 
 
 Adverbial modifiers, order 
 
 of (172), 66 
 
 Adverbial elements, scatter, 
 
 (302), 149 
 
 Adversative conjunctions 29 
 
 Advertisement, vfords in an, 
 
 (16), 11 
 
 Affectation, avoid (179), 67 
 
 Affirmative statement, im- 
 portance of 291 
 
 Agreeable words, prefer (263), 115 
 Agreement with an opponent, 
 
 state 292 
 
 Alexandiine, the 349 
 
 Allegory, definitions of 194 
 
 rhetorical value of 195 
 
 philosophy of 196 
 
 rules governing 224-225 
 
 Allegories, list of noted 196 
 
 Allingham quoted 147, 343 
 
 Alliteration 337-9 
 
 concealed 337 
 
 early English 338 
 
 as a metrical basis 319 
 
 the law of 319 
 
 Allusions, low— metaphor. . . 222 
 " Alone," the best position 
 
 for (124), 48 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 363 
 
 Altered quotation, punctua- 
 tion of (102), 25 
 
 Alternate syllables, metiical 
 
 accent 323 
 
 "Always," etc., position of 
 
 (126), 49 
 Ambiguous demonstrative, 
 
 the (131), 48 
 
 relative, the (123), 48 
 
 phrases, avoid (154), 54 
 
 " An" before h. (310), 152 
 
 Analysis, discipline from 254 
 
 Analogy, argumentation by. . 296 
 regard in choosing. .(263), 115 
 
 Anapest, the, defined 321 
 
 for an iambic 337 
 
 Anapestic metre 333 
 
 " American Notes," quota- 
 tions from 265-6 
 
 Amphibrachic metre 322 
 
 Amphibrach, the, defined... 321 
 
 for an iambic 827 
 
 for a trochee 328 
 
 Ancient usage, regard in 
 
 choice (265), 115 
 
 "And," the force and use 
 
 of (176), 66 
 
 "And which," avoid using, 
 
 (177), 67 
 
 Angus's " Handbook" 116 
 
 Angus quoted 30 
 
 Animated style, meaning of. 194 
 Anticipate possible objections 393 
 
 Antithesis, force of (187), 69 
 
 definitions of 304 
 
 rhetorical values of 204 
 
 rules governing 229-280 
 
 Antouomasia defined 198 
 
 rule governing 226 
 
 Antony's speech, quotation 
 
 from 292 
 
 Antecedent, repeat the. ..(143), 53 
 "Any"— two meanings of, 
 
 (147), 52 
 precision in using. . .(333), 88 
 
 two meanings of (233), 88 
 
 Apophasis defined 309 
 
 Apostrophe, uses of the 34 
 
 definitions of 201 
 
 rules governing 339 
 
 rhetorical values of 203 
 
 Apposition, brevity and force 
 
 of (191), 69 
 
 Apposition, punctuation of 
 
 words in, (51), 18 
 
 —exceptions (51), 18 
 
 Approval, marks of, in pa- 
 renthesis (89), 23 
 
 Arbitrary emphasis not to be 
 
 required (107), 27 
 
 Archaic phi-ases — poetry. . . . 304 
 
 prefixes, avoid (240), 111 
 
 sufiSxes, avoid (240), 111 
 
 Archaisms, poetic 303 
 
 poetic, philosophy of . . . 303 
 
 Arguments, ignore weak 297 
 
 Argumentation 390 
 
 defined 390 
 
 two conditions of 390 
 
 M. exhortation 389 
 
 Aristotle quoted 314 
 
 Arnold, Matthew, quoted. . . 45 
 Arrange euphoniously. .(296), 146 
 
 Arrangement of parts vli 
 
 Article, repeat the (138), 50 
 
 repeat the (236), 88 
 
 " As," semicolon before. .(46), 17 
 m. " so" after a negative, 
 
 (348), 111 
 Assigning subjects, best meth- 
 od 214 
 
 Association, the fallacy of. . . 294 
 Associated circumstaiices — 
 
 description 272 
 
 Asyndeton defined 209 
 
 " At all events," etc. , position 
 
 of (126), 49 
 
 "At least," etc., position of, 
 
 (136), 49 
 "Atlanta's Race," quotation 
 
 from 350 
 
 Audience, study the prospec- 
 tive 399 
 
 imagine while writing. . 300 
 " Aurora Leigh," . quotation 
 
 from 306 
 
 Authorities, cite only acces- 
 sible 396 
 
 Author, custom of the vii 
 
 and his works, relation of 199 
 Auxiliary and verb, adverb 
 
 between (343), 111 
 
 Auxiliaries dropped— poetic 
 
 diction ." 305 
 
 Bacchanalian song, the. 
 
 313 
 
364 
 
 GKNKRAL INDEX. 
 
 Bain quoted. . .188, 193, 195, 197, 
 
 198,199,201,204, 206, 207, 
 
 220, 246, 283, 288, 290 
 
 Balanced sentence, force of, • 
 
 (187), 69 
 
 euphony (305), 150 
 
 Ballad, the 311 
 
 Barbauld quoted 326 
 
 Bardeen quoted 45, 275 
 
 Barnes quoted 193 
 
 Bartlett's DicUofMry of Ameri- 
 canisms (237), 110 
 
 Bases of metrical laws 319 
 
 " Be" as auxiliary and prin- 
 cipal verb (209), 85 
 
 Bearing, reverse, of sentences, 
 
 (115), 29 
 Beauty, recognition of a. . . . iv 
 
 Beecher, H. W., quoted 83 
 
 Beginnings, avoid similar, 
 
 (309), 152 
 
 Belittling similes, avoid 219 
 
 "Bells," the, quotation from. 349 
 " Ben Hur," quotation from . 372 
 "Bible," when capitalized, 
 
 (23), 12 
 
 Blair's laws of unity 141 
 
 Blair quoted. ..191, 301, 319, 222, 
 227, 230 
 
 Blaekley quoted (235), 109 
 
 Blank verse 348 
 
 Blemish, recognition of a. . . iv 
 
 Board-work, melhod of viii 
 
 suggestion about 55 
 
 Baker quoted 337 
 
 Bombast, avoid (231), 87 
 
 Bombastic metaphor 222 
 
 Book reviews, their essentials 285 
 
 the aim of 385 
 
 Books, titles of, in quota- 
 tions (104), 25 
 
 titles of, italics (109), 27 
 
 Break, suspension, etc., — 
 
 dash (77), 33 
 
 "Break," our idiom with... 137 
 Brief words preferred — 
 
 poetry 305 
 
 Broken line, latter part of, 
 
 capital (3l)_ 13 
 
 q\iotation, punctuation 
 
 . of a (65), 20 
 
 line, liyplien to con- 
 nect , (97), 24 
 
 Browning, Eobt., quoted, 
 
 319. 323, 331 
 
 Browning, Mrs., quoted, 189, 191, 
 
 253, 306 
 
 Brutus, speech of, quoted. 151. 316 
 
 Bryant quoted 327, 333, 348 
 
 on foreign words. .(338), 1 10 
 
 proscribed words 108 
 
 Burke quoted 31 
 
 Burns quoted 202, 337 
 
 Burdette quoted 201 
 
 Butler quoted 330, 345 
 
 Byron quoted 147, 305, 323, 
 
 340, 341, 354 
 
 Campbell, quoted 107 
 
 Campbell's canons 115 
 
 "Handbook of Syno- 
 nyms," etc 116 
 
 "Can" and "may," distin- 
 guish ....(208), 85 
 
 Capitals, how indicated (4), 4 
 
 the use of, in general. .10-13 
 special cases, 13 
 Capitalizing, suggestion for 
 
 practising • 10-12 
 
 Cardinal points (11), 11 
 
 Carelessness in form 3 
 
 Carew quoted 326 
 
 Carlyle quoted 203, 377 
 
 Carpenter, writer compared 
 
 to a 248 
 
 Caiy, Alice, quoted 343 
 
 " Catch," the 339 
 
 Catch-words, use of, in read 
 
 ing 351 
 
 Cause and effect, relation of. 199 
 " Certain" — two meanings, 
 
 (147). 52 
 
 Circumflex inflection 333 
 
 Circumlocutions, avoid. (155), 54 
 Change of scene, notice of a, 278 
 Character sketches, caution 
 
 about 384 
 
 confusion in 385 
 
 not often original 285 
 
 Characters, sketch of princi- 
 pal 286 
 
 criticism of the 286 
 
 Chaucer quoted 328, 330 
 
 " Christabel," the metre of. .' 338 
 " Christmas Stories," quota- 
 tion from 373 
 
GENEUAL IjMDEX. 
 
 365 
 
 "Christmas Carols," quota- 
 tions from. . . .370-273, 273 
 Cbronologyand geography — 
 
 narraliou 279 
 
 Clash of vowels, avoid. (297), 146 
 Class, use purson for a. .(181), 68 
 
 Clearness, the ainn in 47 
 
 defined 47 
 
 suggestions for securing, 
 
 48-55 
 comma used to give. .(76), 31 
 
 exercises in 55-63 
 
 in oral discourse 300 
 
 Climax, importance of a — 
 
 narration 277 
 
 arrang.- words, etc., to a, 
 
 (186), 68 
 different bases of . . .(186), 68 
 
 definitions of 205 
 
 rhetorioal value of 205 
 
 rules governing 330-381 
 
 arrange arguments to a. . 394 
 
 in oral discourse 301 
 
 Climacteric writing, philos- 
 ophy of 294 
 
 Close, words at (163), 68 
 
 Cluinsy style common 249 
 
 Coarse expressions, avoid (374), 135 
 
 the force of (274), 135 
 
 Coaches, railway, names of, 
 
 (110), 37 
 Coining words, avoid. . .(238), 107 
 Coleridge's metre in ''Chris- 
 
 tabel" 328 
 
 Collective noun, number of 
 
 verb (247), 112 
 
 number of pronoun (347), 113 
 "College," when capitalized, 
 
 (35), 13 
 College graduates, criticism of v 
 
 grades, method with ix 
 
 Collegiate education, criti- 
 cism of V 
 
 Collocation, clearness violated 
 
 by (160), 55 
 
 Colloquial expressions, avoid, 
 
 (336), 110 
 
 Colon, uses of the 16 
 
 use of, in title-pages. .(37), 16 
 
 Collins quoted 325 
 
 Combinations, unwarranted, 
 
 (334), 109 
 Comedy, characteristics of. . . 314 
 
 Comedy, subdivisions of . . . . 314 
 Comma, contrasted with semi- 
 colon (43), 17 
 
 relative uses of 30 
 
 uses of the 18-31 
 
 absolute uses of the 18 
 
 " " illustrated 18 
 "Commerce," as an essay 
 
 theme 242 
 
 Common metre 344 
 
 Common dependence— several 
 
 questions (33), 15 
 
 punctuation (47,) 17 
 
 noun joined to a proper, 
 
 (10), 10 
 Comparison, more impressive 330 
 
 mere intellectual 330 
 
 Comparisons — same category, 
 
 (141), 51 
 object excluded— "other," 
 
 (131), 50 
 Comparative emphasis, indi- 
 cate (335), 88 
 
 Comparative, avoid a double, 
 
 (257), 114 
 
 Completeness necessary 349 
 
 necessity of — narration.. 379 
 
 Compensation in pause 835 
 
 Composition, the kinds of 368 
 
 two essential steps in 348 
 
 popular forms of 193 
 
 Compositions, manual for 
 
 criticising vil 
 
 Compounds, poetic 305 
 
 Compound word, capitalizing 
 
 of (26), 13 
 
 hyphen to connect. . . .(98), 34 
 Compound predicate, comma 
 
 after (73), 31 
 
 Complete sentence — capital (7), 10 
 question, interrogation- 
 point after (33), 15 
 
 Concealed alliteration . 837 
 
 Conciseness — poetic diction. . 305 
 Concrete m. abstract words, 
 
 (313), 86 
 
 terms— poetry 304 
 
 Concurring series, keep dis- 
 tinct 381 
 
 Condensation, precision vio- 
 lated by (238), 83 
 
 Conditional clause, place 
 
 first (166), 64 
 
366 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Condensation, aim toward. . . vii 
 Confused metaphor. . . .(385), 138 
 Conjunction, omit the. . .(175), 66 
 
 repeat the (146), 53 
 
 Conjunctions, relative 39 
 
 adversative 39 
 
 cumulative 39 
 
 Connected words, avoid sep- 
 arating (199), 71 
 
 keep together — precision, 
 
 (337), 88 
 Connectives, omission of — 
 
 poetry 305 
 
 omission of (116), 39 
 
 substitutes for (117), 30 
 
 multiplication of. . .(304), 150 
 
 Connective phrases (117), 30 
 
 Connection, very loose — colon, 
 
 (87), 16 
 
 make smooth (391), 143 
 
 smooth (116), 39 
 
 loose— semicolon (42), 17 
 
 conditions of loose (43), 17 
 
 " Conquest of Mexico," quota- 
 tions from 367, 378 
 
 Consecutive syllables, metrical 
 
 accent 333 
 
 Consonants, avoid a cumula- 
 
 . tionof (295), 146 
 
 Constructions, avoid different, 
 
 (341), 111 
 Contingency, use subjunctive, 
 
 (351), 113 
 Container and thing contained, 
 
 relation of 199 
 
 Contiguity, figures based on . 187 
 Continued action, verb-form 
 
 (367), 116 
 Contractions, colloquial, avoid, 
 
 (336), 110 
 Contrast, figures based on. . . 188 
 Contradictions, avoid careless 
 
 (318), 87 
 
 method of showing 296 
 
 Cook quoted 337 
 
 Co-ordinate conjunctions, 
 
 when used (144), 52 
 
 Copula, repeat the (310)[ 85 
 
 Correlative clauses— punctua- 
 tion (73)_ 31 
 
 "Couple," when used for 
 
 "two" (230), 89 
 
 Couplet, a. defined 330 
 
 Cowley quoted 305 
 
 Cowper quoted, 304, 305, 358, 839 
 
 Craik quoted.. 337 
 
 Criticising essays, suggestion 
 
 for 2 
 
 Crocker quoted (104), 35 
 
 Cumulative conjunctions. ... 39 
 
 form of verb (317), 87 
 
 form of paragraph ... (119), 30 
 Cumulation of consonants, 
 
 avoid (395), 146 
 
 Current literature — " Poole's 
 
 Index" 353 
 
 Dactyl, the, defined 331 
 
 for a trochee 327 
 
 Dactylic metre, specimen of. 333 
 Dash after period, colon, etc., 
 
 (79), 33 
 
 uses of the 33 
 
 abuses of the 33 
 
 when used after colon (40), 16 
 Dates, century omitted.. (96), 34 
 "Day-dreams of a School- 
 master" 150 
 
 Decimal, period before a.(31), 15 
 number of word after, 
 
 (31), 15 
 Declarative sentence, period 
 
 after (28), 14 
 
 Definition necessary before 
 
 debate 391 
 
 Deity, appellationsof, in plu- 
 ral (34), 13 
 
 particular appellations 
 
 of tlie (14), 11 
 
 Demonstrative, the ambigu- 
 ous (131), 48 
 
 Dependent clauses — punctu- 
 ation (67), so 
 
 avoid confounding.. (153), 53 
 Dependence, common, on 
 
 final clause (83), 23 
 
 Derision defined". 2O8 
 
 Description, confounded 
 
 with narration 274 
 
 discussed 263 
 
 the ideal in .' ." 263 
 
 confusion in 344 
 
 Descriptive writing, dignity 
 
 „ . . of;.-. 263 
 
 jJetails, insignificant— narra- 
 tion 277 
 
OENKB.iL INDEX. 
 
 367 
 
 De Vorc's "Dictionary of 
 
 Americanisms". .(237), 110 
 Dialogue, spuecUes of, ilasli. 
 
 (84), 23 
 Diseresis, byplion in placu 
 
 of (99), 25 
 
 Dickens qiioU'il U5, 365. 273 
 
 "Did" ami "Uu," us exple- 
 tives (171), 65 
 
 as substilules (204), 8t 
 
 " Didactic poetry" 318 
 
 Different senses, avoid us- 
 ing (157), 54 
 
 constructiiins, avoid.(341), 111 
 
 Dimond quoted 855 
 
 Direct address, use forms of. 300 
 the advantages of ... . 300 
 
 punctuation (53), 19 
 
 discourse, use wheu.(148), 53 
 
 Disagreeable simile 230 
 
 Discipline, mental, from out- 
 line 354 
 
 Dissyllabic feet 320 
 
 metre, accent in 823 
 
 Disproportionate simile 219 
 
 Distasteful accompaniments 
 
 —simile 220 
 
 Distinct statement, "and" 
 
 with a (176), 66 
 
 " Divisible relative," the, de- 
 fined.. (68), 30 
 
 the (123), 48 
 
 "Do" and " did " as substi- 
 tutes (204), 84 
 
 as expletives (171), 65 
 
 Doddridge quoted 842 
 
 Dodge quoted. 326 
 
 Dogmatic statement, objec- 
 tions to 46 
 
 "Don't" for "does not", 
 
 (236), 110 
 ' Donate," the objection to, 
 
 (235), 109 
 Double comparative, avoid 
 
 a (2.57), 114 
 
 superlative, avoid a, (257), 114 
 
 alliteration 337 
 
 rhymes 330 
 
 Doubling of letters 8 
 
 Doubt, punctuation in case 
 
 of (76). 21 
 
 Drayton quoted 328 
 
 Dramatic verse, pause in. . . . 848 
 
 Dramatic poetry 313-15 
 
 defined 313 
 
 Dress, importance of, ma- 
 
 Dry den quoted.225, 227, 333, 335, 
 8^6 
 
 "Bach," "every,'' etc., num- 
 ber of verb (273), 124 
 
 of pronoun (273), 124 
 
 Early English nlliteriilioii . . . 338 
 " Ecce Homo," quotation 
 
 from 281 
 
 Economy, Spencer's law of. 200 
 "Education" as an essay 
 
 Iheme 343 
 
 Eight-accent verse, division 
 
 of 334 
 
 metres 349 
 
 Elegy, the 313 
 
 Elijah, the taunt of 332 
 
 Eliot, George, quoted 307 
 
 Elisions, avoid poetic. .(283), 138 
 
 poetic 305 
 
 Ellipsis defined 310 
 
 Elocution, temptation to tres- 
 pass on (107), 27 
 
 merged with rhetoric. . 283 
 
 Emerson quoted 308 
 
 Emotional expressions, punc- 
 tuation after (35), 15 
 
 Emotions the subject-mat- 
 ter 148 
 
 Emphatic accents, number of 
 
 in verse 325 
 
 places, the, defined. (169), 65 
 words in emphatic 
 
 places (169), 65 
 
 Emphasis m. metrical accent. 324 
 comparative, indicate, 
 
 (325). 88 
 
 Enallage, use of, in verse 306 
 
 defined 210 
 
 " Eng/ish Lessons for English 
 
 people" viii 
 
 composition — irksome- 
 
 ness 241 
 
 Enumeration, formal, punc- 
 tuation before (38), 16 
 
 long, dash before a. .(39), 16 
 informal, punctuation 
 
 before (45), 17 
 
 Epic, the, defined 309 
 
368 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Epic, the "mixed" 311 
 
 "great" 309 
 
 Epigram, definitions of 206 
 
 rhetorical values of 206 
 
 caution concerning use.. 231 
 "Epiphany Hymn," quota- 
 tion from 354 
 
 Epitbet, apply to argument.. 393 
 
 as a subslilule 304 
 
 figurative — deecription.. 374 
 Epilliets.ornampulal — poetry 804 
 Equivalence, "or" introduc- 
 ing (56), 19 
 
 Equivocal words, avoid us- 
 ing (159), 55 
 
 Error, common, as to form.. 3 
 
 Erskine in argument 346 
 
 Essay themes suggested for 
 
 year 262 
 
 Essays", subjects assigned 
 
 for ix 
 
 Euphemism defined 198 
 
 Euphonious expressions. . . . 145 
 
 words, prefer (294), 146 
 
 arrangement (296), 146 
 
 words, association 305 
 
 Euphony, exercises in . . . 152-154 
 the requirements of . . . . 145 
 
 the importance of 145 
 
 suggestions for securing, 
 
 146-152 
 
 exercises in 153-154 
 
 method of cultivating.. 856 
 
 in oral discourse 301 
 
 a test of 303 
 
 "Evangeline,"quotationfrom 356 
 Eeening Post, words pro- 
 scribed in 108 
 
 Everett, Edward, quoted 309 
 
 "Every," verb and pronoun 
 
 with (372), 134 
 
 Exaggeration, avoid (178), 67 
 
 Exaiiiplrs, nature of the. ... vii 
 Exclamaiion, definitions of... 193 
 
 rhetorical values of 200 
 
 rules governing 337 
 
 point before last quota- 
 tion (106), 26 
 
 point, uses of the 15 
 
 Exercises in unity 143-144 
 
 in clearness 55-63 
 
 in discriminating flg 
 ures 210-316 
 
 Exercises in gaining pro- 
 priety 188-140 
 
 under puiity 125-134 
 
 in faulty figures 233-240 
 
 in eupliony 162-154 
 
 inform 33-42 
 
 general 159-186 
 
 in gaining force 71-81 
 
 in precision 96-106 
 
 suggestions for using. . . ix 
 
 published separately x 
 
 Exhortation m. argumenta- 
 tion. 289 
 
 suggestions about 289 
 
 by description 290 
 
 narration 290 
 
 exposition 290 
 
 Expanding an outline, illus- 
 trated 256 
 
 Expansion, undue — narra- 
 tion 277 
 
 undue, the cause of 351 
 
 Exposition, treatment of.. 288-287 
 
 defined 283 
 
 complete m. part.al 283 
 
 danger of confounding.. 284 
 Expletives, "do "and "did," 
 
 as (171), 65 
 
 Extremes of a series : .(85), 33 
 
 Extra syllables— versification 347 
 
 Fable defined 196 
 
 Faded metaphors ] 90 
 
 exercise in 193 
 
 Faint resemblance — meta- 
 
 Plior 222 
 
 Farce, the 314 
 
 Faults in rhyming 339 
 
 Faulty figures, exercise in, 
 
 288-240 
 Feet, metrical, combinations 
 
 of 320 
 
 Feet, substituted 836 
 
 Figures of syntax. 210 
 
 plural of— apostrophe,(95), 24 
 comma to separate. . .(63), 19 
 
 rhetorical, classified 187 
 
 rhetorical, discussed 187 
 
 exercises in discrimirat- 
 
 ing 210-318 
 
 uses and abuses of. .218-333 
 Piguraliv.e epithet— descrip- 
 tion 374 
 
GENICliAL INDEX. 
 
 369 
 
 Figurative language, pro- 
 saic subject (278), 136 
 
 Final"e" 7 
 
 "y" 8 
 
 Finley quoted 354 
 
 Finch quoted 356 
 
 ■Fine writing," avoid. .,(179), 67 
 Five-accent metre, pause in... 334 
 
 iauibic 347 
 
 license of 347 
 
 iambic with rhyme 348 
 
 trocliaic 348 
 
 Foot, a metrical, defined 330 
 
 Force, exercises in gaining.. 71-81 
 
 defined ■.•■.••• 63 
 
 suggestions for gaining, 
 
 "63-71 
 
 in oral discourse 301 
 
 Foreign plurals, spelling of. (6), 5 
 plural, verb with a. (249), 112 
 
 idioms, avoid (239), 110 
 
 words, avoid (238), 110 
 
 words, etc., italics.. (108) 27 
 
 Form, exercises in 32-42 
 
 treatment of the 1-44 
 
 Formal divisions, to be con- 
 cealed (113), 29 
 
 enumeration, punctua- 
 tion within (44). 17 
 
 enumeration, punctua- 
 tion before (38), 16 
 
 simile — commou place 
 
 subjects 221 
 
 Four-accent iambic 343 
 
 in Shakespeare 342 
 
 early and later forms.. 344 
 
 trocliaic 345 
 
 dactylic 354 
 
 anapestic. 354 
 
 amphihrachic 354 
 
 Fox quoted 208 
 
 Frankness, the importance of 292 
 French writers, style of 
 
 certain 230 
 
 "French Revolution," quo- 
 tation from 277 
 
 French plurals 6 
 
 Future of expectation con- 
 jugated (205), 84 
 
 determination conju- 
 gated (205), 84 
 
 flenealoffies, method of trac- 
 ing 281 
 
 24 
 
 General words, avoid (203), 83 
 
 terms ««. particular.. (1 80), 67 
 
 exercises 159-186 
 
 Genitives, confusion of 246 
 
 ' ' Georgics, " quotation from . 273 
 
 Goldsmith quoted 336 
 
 Grammatically connected 
 
 words (138), 49 
 
 Gray quoted 337, 338 
 
 Gray's " Elegy," quotatiou 
 
 from 333 
 
 "Great epic," qualities of the 310 
 
 Greek plurals 6 
 
 prefixes 91 
 
 Greene quoted 339 
 
 Harris quoted 31 
 
 Hart quoted 1 97, 230 
 
 Haven quoted 195, 197, 198, 
 
 201, 202, 204, 206 
 " Heaven,'' when capitalized. 
 
 (23), 12 
 
 Heroic pentameter 348 
 
 Heterogeneous ideas, do not 
 
 mingle (288), 141 
 
 words, dash between. .(86), 23 
 " Hiawatha," quotations from, 
 
 321, 345 
 Hieroglyph ical painting like 
 
 allegory 195 
 
 Hill, D. J., quoted ..5, 188, 189, 
 
 192, 195, 196, 198, 200, 203, 204, 
 
 205, 206, 231, 245, 250, 255, 375. 
 
 283 
 
 Historical epochs — capitals, 
 
 (19), 11 
 methods in simple events 281 
 
 Homer quoted 305 
 
 Hood quoted 832, 330, 341 
 
 Horace Greeley on long intro- 
 ductions 350 
 
 House, essay.compared to a 849 
 
 Howitt quoted 341 
 
 " Hudibras," quotation from 345 
 
 Hudson quoted 45 
 
 Htigo, Victor, quoted. . .365, 267 
 Human feelings, associated 
 
 — description 273 
 
 Hymn stanzas, specimens. .344-5 
 Hyperbole, definitions of... 200 
 
 rhetorical values of 201 
 
 Hyperbole, rules governing 
 
 237-339 
 
370 
 
 QKNKRAL INDEX. 
 
 Hypcrbaton defined 210 
 
 Hyphen, uses of llie 24 
 
 "I," capital (18), 11 
 
 "I,"DS. "we" (281;, 137 
 
 Iambic metre, specimen of. . 322 
 
 Iambic, tlie, defined 321 
 
 f 01' a trocliee 326 
 
 for an anapest 826 
 
 for an amphibracb 337 
 
 Idiom, use words according 
 
 to (279), 136 
 
 struggle of a foreigner 
 
 witb our 136 
 
 Idioms, avoid foreign. .(239), 110 
 
 Idyl, the 311 
 
 "If clause," substitute im- 
 perative (190), 69 
 
 Iliad, Pope's, quotation from 148 
 
 Illative conjunctions 29 
 
 Illustration, proof confound- 
 ed with 294 
 
 "11 Penseroso" quotation 
 
 from 149 
 
 Imagination, cultivation of 
 
 — narration 280 
 
 "Impassioned prose," de- 
 fined 307 
 
 illustrations of 307-9 
 
 Imperfect, m. perfect parti- 
 ciple (253), 113 
 
 Imperfect confounded with 
 
 perfect (352), 113 
 
 Imperative, force of, as sub- 
 stitute (190), 69 
 
 Implied statement, the force 
 
 of (189), 69 
 
 Important events; capitals. 
 
 . . (19). 11 
 
 Impression, importance of a 
 
 good first 3 
 
 Iniippropriiite rhymes 349 
 
 Incomplete members — ex- 
 clamation (36), 15 
 
 Incompleleness, punctuation 
 
 indicating (39), 16 
 
 Incongruous objects— force, 
 
 (194), 70 
 words, avoid joining, 
 
 (216), 86 
 
 metaphor (286), 138 
 
 Incongruities, avoid careless, 
 
 (218), 87 
 
 Index, teachers' special, to 
 
 Parti 43 
 
 general 363-381 
 
 teacliers' special to Part 
 
 II 156 
 
 students' special 357 
 
 Indexes, use of, in reading. . 253 
 Individual name, permanent, 
 
 (27), 12 
 Individuality, sacredness of. . vi 
 
 collective noun (347), 113 
 
 peculiar — italics (110), 27 
 
 in description 369 
 
 " Infant-industry"argument, 
 
 the 293 
 
 Inferior points, capitals after, 
 
 (21), 13 
 Infinitive of purpose, distin- 
 guish the (138), 51 
 
 adverb between, and sign, 
 
 (342), 111 
 Informal enumeration, com- 
 ma between parts. .(75), 31 
 punctuation before. . . (45), 17 
 Information, necessity of iu 
 
 exposition 283 
 
 Initial foot, variation in the 346 
 
 the catch in the 340 
 
 Inexact rhymes 329 
 
 Ingelow, Jean, quoted 327 
 
 Innuendo defined 309 
 
 "In order to, " use (138), 51 
 
 " In our midst." (266), 115 
 
 Inserted expressions, paren- 
 theses for (87), 23 
 
 Insinuation, defined 209 
 
 Instrument and agent, rela- 
 tion of 199 
 
 Intelligibility demanded 14 
 
 of a theme 245 
 
 Intellectual comparison 220 
 
 Intensity, degrees of. . . .(202), 83 
 Interjections, punctuation 
 
 al'ter (35), 15 
 
 Intermediate schools, ar- 
 rangement for ix 
 
 Interrogation, definitions of. 206 
 
 rhetorical values of 206 
 
 principle governing. . . . 331 
 
 in close reasoning 232 
 
 Interrogation point before 
 
 last quotation... (106), 36 
 uses of the 15 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 371 
 
 Interrogative form, force of 
 
 tlie ...(183), 68 
 
 Intransitive i>s. Irausitive 
 
 verbs (35-1), 113 
 
 Introductions, long, con- 
 demned 250 
 
 Introductory clauses, avoid, 
 
 wlien (197), 70 
 
 ■words, comma after. .(66), 20 
 Inversion, connective. . .(118), 30 
 
 avoid poetic (383), 188 
 
 poetic 305 
 
 Invention, melLod of learn- 
 ing vi 
 
 not to be taught vi 
 
 Irony, defluilious of 207 
 
 rhetorical values of 207 
 
 rules governing 332 
 
 elocution in 233 
 
 punctuation indicating. 333 
 distinguished from lidi- 
 
 cule, etc 308 
 
 Irving quoted. 208, 372, 373, 278. 
 309 
 
 Italics, uses of 27 
 
 superfluous (107). 37 
 
 how indicated (2), 4 
 
 Italian plurals 7 
 
 Items in tabular form — capi- 
 tals (30), 11 
 
 " Ivanhoe," quotations from, 
 
 264, 265 
 
 Johnson quoted 308 
 
 Joining incongruous v^ords, 
 
 etc (216), 86 
 
 Karnes quoted ..26, 189, 195, 200, 
 
 203, 203, 219, 221, 231. 
 
 313, 314 
 
 Keats quoted 325 
 
 Kellogg quoted 141, 189, 193. 
 
 198, 202, 207 
 
 Kingsley quoted 326 
 
 "King Lear," quotation 
 
 from 347 
 
 " L' Allegro," quotations 
 
 from... 148, 345, 346 
 
 Lamb quoted 202 
 
 Last of ii series, punctuation 
 
 before the (64), 20 
 
 Latin plurals 5 
 
 Latin prefixes 90 
 
 and Greek sulHxes 93 
 
 Laws of metre, basis of 319 
 
 Legal argumentation, cliar- 
 
 acterof 299 
 
 contests, punctuation ... 14 
 " Les Miserables," quotation 
 
 from 265, 267 
 
 Lessiug quoted 196 
 
 " Lie" m. "lay" (354), 118 
 
 Limits, ability to write within 250 
 ability to spealcwithin. . 350 
 Literal statement after meta- 
 phor (277), 186 
 
 "Locksley Hall," quotation 
 
 from 350 
 
 Logical order in outline 250 
 
 Logical connection — punctu- 
 ation (47), 17 
 
 Logical subject.comma after, 
 
 (71), 21 
 
 Long metre 844 
 
 Long words, exceptional — 
 
 poetry 305 
 
 Long parentheses, avoid. .(61), 55 
 Longfellow quoted.. 321, 348, 355 
 Loose connection, conditions 
 
 of (87), 16 
 
 Love song, the 312 
 
 Lucretius refei'red to 220 
 
 Ludlow quoted .-.325, 328 
 
 Lyric, the "simple" 313 
 
 Lyric poetry 311-313 
 
 definition of 311 
 
 MacCarthy quoted 355 
 
 Macaulay quoted 333,349 
 
 Magnitude, idea of, in de- 
 scription. . . .'.265, 270, 271 
 Magazines, titles of, when in 
 
 quotations (104), 25 
 
 titles of— italics. . . .(109), 37 
 
 Mahony quoted 354 
 
 Major divisions, colon to 
 
 separate (41), 16 
 
 semicolon to separate (48), 18 
 Manner, adverbs of — posi- 
 tion (173) 66 
 
 Many adjectives, avoid:. (213) 86 
 " Marmion," quotation from. 344 
 
 Marsh quoted. 353 
 
 Material and thing made, re- 
 lation of 199 
 
372 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 "May" and "can," distin- 
 guish (208), 85 
 
 Mean proportional — allitera- 
 tion 337 
 
 Melodrama, the 315 
 
 Melodious endings (307), 151 
 
 Members added after a close, 
 
 (290), 143 
 
 Mental discipline from out- 
 line 254 
 
 powers, theme within . . 345 
 
 Metre discussed 316 
 
 defined 816 
 
 as an aid to memory 31 8 
 
 the law of 318 
 
 Metaphor, appropriate 232 
 
 mixed with plain lan- 
 guage 233 
 
 bombastic 222 
 
 concrete most effective. 228 
 T\iles for the use of. .231-323 
 
 mixed 281 
 
 strained 321 
 
 excess of 221 
 
 the force of .(182), 68 
 
 literal statement, after, 
 
 (277) 186 
 
 definitions of 189 
 
 rhetorical values of 190 
 
 resemblance of to a 
 
 painting 191 
 
 conducive to brevity... 191 
 
 confused (285), 138 
 
 incongruous . . .(286), 138 
 
 Metaphors, faded 1 90 
 
 Metonymy, definitions of.... 198 
 
 rhetotieal value of 198 
 
 varieties of 199 
 
 rules governing 286 
 
 Metrical romance, the 310 
 
 accent compared with 
 
 word- accent 324 
 
 accent, the laws of 3i2 
 
 history, the 311 
 
 philosophy 317 
 
 feet, combinations of. . . 830 
 
 "Midsummer Night's Dre.im," 
 
 quotation from 339 
 
 Milton quoted 148, 149, 304, 
 
 384, 837, 346, 847 
 in argument 246 
 
 Minor figures 309 
 
 Mixed epic, the 311 
 
 Mixed forms, avoid (360), 115 
 
 metaphor 231 
 
 verse 355 
 
 Mockery defined 308 
 
 Moore quoted 305, 353 
 
 Monosyllables, avoid a series 
 
 of (299), 147 
 
 unemphatic 325 
 
 accent of 325 
 
 Monosyllable for a trochee. . 826 
 
 for an iambic 326 
 
 for an anapest 886 
 
 for a dactyl 836 
 
 Monosyllabic ifoot, the 320 
 
 accent 334 
 
 Monlhs,namesof — capitals,(8), 10 
 Monument, language com- 
 pared to a (383), 107 
 
 Morris quoted 836 
 
 Motion the snbject-malter. . . 147 
 
 Motley quoted 281 
 
 Moultrie quoted 337 
 
 Multiplication of connec- 
 tives (804), 150 
 
 Multiplying negatives, avoid, 
 
 (196), 70 
 Mythological beings — capi- 
 tals when (24), 12 
 
 Name, permanent individual. 
 
 (37), 13 
 Narration, advantages over 
 
 description 376 
 
 suggestions about. . .376-282 
 
 confusion in 244 
 
 treatment of 275-282 
 
 defined 275 
 
 compared with descrip- 
 tion... 275 
 
 the aim in 275 
 
 Narrative verse «s. rhyming 
 
 couplet 386 
 
 Narrow theme, important in 
 
 exposition 384 
 
 advantages of a 244 
 
 Narrowing down a subject.. 242 
 
 Nation, llie. quoted (64), 20 
 
 Natural order of events, fol- 
 low the 878' 
 
 Naturalization, how indi- 
 cated 110 
 
 Negatives, avoid multiply- 
 ing (196), 70 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 373 
 
 Negative clauses, comma 
 
 with (49), 18 
 
 from primitive words, 
 
 distiiiguisli (315), 86 
 
 Neuter possessives, avoid, 
 
 (366), 115 
 New word, development of 
 
 a (335), 109 
 
 Newspaper usage not a 
 
 standard (235), 109 
 
 " Nocturnal Sketcli," quota- 
 tion from 330 
 
 Nominative confounded witli 
 
 ol)jective (245), 111 
 
 " Not," position of (189), 51 
 
 " Not only— but also". . .(125), 49 
 Noun for adjective — brevity, 
 
 (193), 70 
 Number of verb — several 
 
 subjects (246), 113 
 
 plural object (248), 112 
 
 of arguments, tlie 394 
 
 of syllables — metrical 
 
 basis 319 
 
 Numbers, comma to separate, 
 
 (63), 19 
 
 method of expressing (63), 20 
 
 Numerals in parenthesis.. (90), 24 
 
 "O" M. "Oh" (18), 11 
 
 " O "—capital (18), 11 
 
 " 0," punctuation after. .(85), 15 
 
 Object of book-review 287 
 
 when best before verb, 
 
 (184), 68 
 Objections, anticipate possi- 
 ble 293 
 
 Objective confounded with 
 
 nominative (245), 111 
 
 Obscure metaphor 233 
 
 Occasion, adapt theme to.. 247 
 
 Ode, the 312 
 
 Office, titles of, capitals. . .(9), 10 
 Official orders. " will " in. . . 85 
 
 "Oil" OT. "O" (18), 11 
 
 "Old Curiosity Shop," quo- 
 tation from 145 
 
 Omit the conjunction. . .(175), 66 
 
 the verb when (178), 66 
 
 subject and verb (174), 66 
 
 Omission, dasii to denote.(81), 33 
 
 defined 309 
 
 clearness violated by. (156), 54 
 
 Omission, comma to denote 
 
 (50), 18 
 of letters, apostrophe to 
 
 indicate (93), 24 
 
 of syllables — apostrophe, 
 
 (94), 24 
 of century — apostrophe, 
 
 (96), 24 
 Omissions, certain advised. . vii 
 
 Oue-accent iambic 840 
 
 trochaic 340 
 
 " One" as a personal pro- 
 noun (219), 87 
 
 verb and pronoun with 
 
 (273), 134 
 One signification, prefer 
 
 words of (361), 115 
 
 "Only," tlie best position 
 
 for (124), 48 
 
 Onomatopoeia, defined 209 
 
 Opening sentence, short (114), 29 
 relation of, to paragraph, 
 
 (113), 28 
 
 Opera, the 315 
 
 " Or," introducing equiva- 
 lence (56), 19 
 
 the use of (14.5), 53 
 
 Oral discourse, characteris- 
 tics of 299-303 
 
 Oration, the, defined 299 
 
 Originality, lack of, in ex- 
 position 284 
 
 Ornamental epithets — poetry 304 
 Ornamentation, relative im- 
 portance of 250 
 
 Ossian quoted 189 
 
 Outline construction, method 
 
 of 254r-257 
 
 a specimen 256 
 
 of plot 286 
 
 the, discussed 248-363 
 
 importance of the 348 
 
 use of, in piiragrapbing, 
 
 (113), 28 
 Over-argumentation, avoid.. 297 
 
 Pairs of words, punctuation 
 
 of (60), 19 
 
 Palmer quoted 841 
 
 " Panorutnic view," Ihe. . . . 367 
 Papers, titles of— italics.(109), 37 
 "Paradise Lost," quotation 
 
 from 347 
 
374 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Parable defined 197 
 
 Paragraph defined 28 
 
 object of the 28 
 
 fundamental ideas of the 28 
 Paragranhs, titles of, in ital- 
 ics (HI), 37 
 
 method of numbering. . 2 
 Paragraphing, examples in. . 30 
 
 exercise in 33 
 
 superfluous (119a), 80 
 
 treatment of 28-33 
 
 difficulty of good 28 
 
 problems in, different. . 28 
 
 Paralipsis defined 309 
 
 Parenthesis within parenthe- 
 sis (83), 33 
 
 uses of the 33 
 
 avoid long (161), 55 
 
 compared with commas 
 
 (65), 20 
 enclosing Interrogation- 
 point (34), 15 
 
 punctuation within. .(88), 23 
 to include proper nouns 
 
 (89), 23 
 Parenthetical clauses, excess 
 
 of (389), 141 
 
 words, etc., — punctua- 
 tion (65), 20 
 
 " Paris Sketches," quotation 
 
 from 369 
 
 Parnell quoted 304 
 
 Particular terms — poetry... 304 
 
 prefer (180), 67 
 
 Particulars, different, mutu- 
 ally helpful 374 
 
 Participle, position of the, 
 
 (135), 50 
 use as introduction. .(167), 64 
 Participial clauses, punctua- 
 tion of (54), 19 
 
 phrase, resolve (136), 51 
 
 Partial subject, positive 
 
 predicate (140), 51 
 
 Particles, "splitting of,'' 
 
 (170), 65 
 
 Pastoral, the 311 
 
 Passion, simile in 319 
 
 Passive m. active meanings, 
 
 (311), 86 
 " Patch-work,'' avoid poetic, 
 
 etc (380), 137 
 
 Paul, skill of— persuasion. . . 293 
 
 Pause, metrical effect of . . .. 335 
 
 compensation in 335 
 
 treatment of 333-337 
 
 method of marking 334 
 
 in five-accent metre. . . . 334 
 Perfect confounded with im- 
 perfect (353), 113 
 
 vs. present infinitive, 
 
 (355), 114 
 participle vs. imperfect 
 
 tense (353), 113 
 
 Period, uses of the 14^15 
 
 Permanent facts, present 
 
 tense (256), 114 
 
 individual name (37), 13 
 
 Person, use for class. . . .(181), 68 
 Persons addressed, study the 289 
 Personal interest in the theme 345 
 conviction — argumenta- 
 tion 245 
 
 Personality, value of, in nar- 
 ration 276 
 
 Personification, definitions of 193 
 
 rhetorical values of 193 
 
 three grades of 193 
 
 rules governing 233-334 
 
 field for, in English.... 323 
 highest form of, used 
 
 when 233 
 
 strong— capital (13), 11 
 
 Persuasion, treatment of 288 
 
 defined 388 
 
 importance of 288 
 
 necessarily original 388 
 
 Phenomena, peculiar — capi- 
 tals (19), H 
 
 Philosophy, metrical 317 
 
 "Phrase-epithets" as substi- 
 tutes 305 
 
 Phrase, contracted to a 
 
 word (188), 69 
 
 "Piers Ploughman," quota- 
 tion from 838 
 
 Place and inhabitant, rela- 
 tions of 199 
 
 adverbs of— position (173), 66 
 Plausibility necessary in a 
 
 plot , 280 
 
 Pleonasm defined 210 
 
 Plot, outline of the 386 
 
 criticism of the 386 
 
 Plural of figures, etc., — 
 
 apostrophe (95), 34 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 376 
 
 Poetic compounds 305 
 
 diction, treatment of. 803-309 
 cliaracteristics of . . . 303 
 
 elisions 305 
 
 inversions 305 
 
 ability, marlc of. . ..(301), 147 
 archaisms, avoid. .(384), 138 
 inversions, avoid. .(282), 138 
 
 elisions, avoid (383), 138 
 
 Poetry, didactic 318 
 
 dramatic 313-315 
 
 dialogue in 313 
 
 the unities in 313 
 
 subdivisions of 314 
 
 proper — classification... 309 
 
 lyric 311-313 
 
 contrasted with versifi- 
 cation 306 
 
 the object of 303 
 
 Political Song, the 312 
 
 "Poole's Index," the value 
 
 of 253 
 
 Pope quoted, 335, 330, 335, 336, 
 337, 342 
 Pope's "Iliad," quotatiou 
 
 from 148 
 
 ' ' Pogt hoc ergo propter hoc " . . 394 
 Possessive, adjective before 
 
 a (134), 50 
 
 avoid as antecedent (371), 124 
 case, apostrophe to de- 
 note .(91), 24 
 
 phrase, apostrophe over, 
 
 (91), 24 
 Possessives, avoid neuter, 
 
 (266), 115 
 Practicability, requisites of. v 
 
 Precision, defined 82 
 
 the importance of 82 
 
 helps in gaining 82 
 
 suggestions for gaining, 
 
 83-96 
 
 exercises in 96-106 
 
 Prejudices of hearers 247 
 
 Preface v 
 
 Prefer euphonious words, 
 
 (294), 146 
 Prefixes, avoid archaic. (240), 11 
 
 Latin 90 
 
 Greek 91 
 
 Saxon 93 
 
 Preliminary exposition — nar- 
 ration 291 
 
 Preposition, repeat the. .(137), 51 
 avoid as connective. (331), 89 
 Prepositions, avoid two. (170), 65 
 use in right relations, 
 
 (268), 116 
 
 list of (116), 133 
 
 Prepositional phrase — brev- 
 ity (193), 70 
 
 substitute for (195), 70 
 
 phrases — substitutes, 
 
 (308), 151 
 Present vs. perfect infiniiive, 
 
 (355), 114 
 Present tense, use of, in de- 
 scription 274 
 
 Prescott quoted 267 
 
 Press, criticism by the v 
 
 Prevalent foot, the 328 
 
 Primary word-accent — metri- 
 cal .iccent 323 
 
 Principles, method of fixing ix 
 Principles, few new intro- 
 duced vii 
 
 Privative M. negative words, 
 
 (215), 86 
 Progenitor and posterity, re- 
 lation of 199 
 
 Prominent word, repeat the 
 
 —force.... (193), 70 
 
 avoid repeating. . . .(293) 146 
 Pronouns, avoid mixed 
 
 forms (260), 115 
 
 Proof confounded with il' 
 
 lustration 394 
 
 Prosaic subject — figurative 
 
 language (378), 136 
 
 Prose, the object of 303 
 
 Proper adjectives — capitals 
 
 dropped (8a), 10 
 
 capitals (8), 10 
 
 nouns — capitals (8), 10 
 
 Proper sense, use words in 
 
 their (200), 83 
 
 Propriety, exercises in gain- 
 ing 138-140 
 
 tlie requirements of 135 
 
 suggestions for gaininc, 
 
 135-138 
 Proverb, epigram suited to 
 
 the 231 
 
 Provincialisms, avoid. .(237), 110 
 Publisliing-liousos, usages of. 13 
 Pulpit orators, mistake of. . . 290 
 
376 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Punctuation 13-26 
 
 suggestions for practis- 
 ing 14 
 
 common estimate of 13 
 
 excuses for careless 13 
 
 real importance of 13 
 
 serious results from 
 
 faulty 13 
 
 meaning dependent on 
 
 (note), 16 
 
 often faulty v 
 
 a matter of necessity. . . 36 
 
 superfluous (106a), 26 
 
 dependent, not primary. 26 
 
 lis. arrangement 26 
 
 Purity, the requirements of. 107 
 suggestions for gaininar, 
 
 107-134 
 exercises In gaining. 125-134 
 
 Quackenbos quoted 45, 189, 
 
 195, 197, 198, 201, 202, 205, 
 
 207, 231 
 
 Quantity as a metrical basis. 319 
 
 defined, etc 830 
 
 the recognition of 330 
 
 effect of, on English me- 
 tre 330 
 
 in compound words . . . 332 
 Question, complete, punctua- 
 tion after (32), 15 
 
 Questions about a theme 255 
 
 suggestive, exposition.. 284 
 Quibbling, suggestion for 
 
 avoiding x 
 
 Quotation within a quota- 
 tion (103), 25 
 
 Quotation-marks, uses of... . 25 
 
 when omitted (102), 25 
 
 punctuation within. (105), 35 
 
 before the last (106), 26 
 
 Quotation, direct formal. .(15), 11 
 long formal punctua- 
 tion (40), 16 
 
 broken, punctuation of a, 
 
 (65), 20 
 Quotations direct, formal — 
 
 punctuation (101), 35 
 
 comma before short. .(61), 19 
 clauses resembling — 
 
 punctuation (61), 19 
 
 Quoted paragraphs, several, 
 
 (103), 35 
 
 Ead iating object — descripti on 366 
 
 Raymond, Dr., quoted 317 
 
 "Kaven," the, quotation 
 
 from 7^.. 350 
 
 Read quoted 356 
 
 Reading, outline a help in.. . 251 
 
 gain themes by 245 
 
 Reference lists, monthly. . . . 253 
 
 works used vii 
 
 Refutation, analyze oppos- 
 ing arguments 296 
 
 Relative, the ambiguous.(123), 48 
 avoid omitting the. (370), 134 
 
 substitutes for the 149 
 
 repeat the (130), 50 
 
 the " divisible" (123), 48 
 
 Relative clauses, not restric- 
 tive (68), 30 
 
 clauses within relative, 
 
 (292), 142 
 Relevant circumstance, sim- 
 ile 220 
 
 Repeat the preposition. .(137), 51 
 preposition after "than," 
 
 etc (151), 58 
 
 the article (183), 50 
 
 the conjunction. . . .(146), 52 
 
 the copula (210), 85 
 
 the article — precision, 
 
 (226), 88 
 subject as summary.(]53), 54 
 
 the antecedent (143), 53 
 
 verb after "than," etc., 
 
 (151), 53 
 Repeated words, punctua- 
 tion after (59), 19 
 
 Repeating the prominent 
 
 word (192), 70 
 
 Repetition, avoid — euphony, 
 
 (293), 146 
 Repetitions, avoid except 
 
 when (230), 87 
 
 abrupt, dash before. .(80), 32 
 Resemblance, not too faint. . 319 
 
 figures based on 187 
 
 Reverse bearing (115), 29 
 
 Revision, facilitating vi 
 
 Rhetoric, its place in our 
 
 schools vi 
 
 kind daily employed... vi 
 Rhetorical Imagery, use of, in 
 
 verse 306 
 
 imagery defined 187 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 377 
 
 Rhetorical training often 
 
 fruitless v 
 
 training, the only prac- 
 tical vi 
 
 pause, dash indicating, 
 
 (78), 32 
 Rhyme as a metrical basis.. 319 
 
 treatment of 339-30 
 
 defined 329 
 
 Rhyming, faults in 329 
 
 " Rhyming couplet " vs. nar- 
 rative verse 336 
 
 Rhymes, inexact 329 
 
 inappropriate 339 
 
 double 330 
 
 triple 330 
 
 Rhythm, definition of 307 
 
 royal, the 350 
 
 "Richard III.," quotation 
 
 from 330 
 
 Richter quoted 190 
 
 Ridicule defined 308 
 
 "Rise of the Dutch Repub- 
 lic," quotation from. . 281 
 
 " Rise" m. ' ' raise" (354), 1 1 3 
 
 RogeL's " Tliesaurus" 83 
 
 Roman numeral, period af- 
 ter (31), 15 
 
 Romans, Epistle to, quoted. . 150 
 
 Romance, the metrical 310 
 
 Root, confounding words 
 
 from same (301), 83 
 
 Ruskin quoted 308 
 
 Sarcasm defined 208 
 
 Satan, appellations of, in 
 
 plural (34), 13 
 
 Satire defined 208 
 
 Same parts of speech — punc- 
 tuation (57), 19 
 
 Saxon suffixes 95 
 
 prefixes 92 
 
 Scatter adverbial elements, 
 
 (802), 149 
 Scene, do not shift the. .(387), 141 
 do not change in narra- 
 tion 276 
 
 clear idea of, necessary. 376 
 Scholastic titles, comma to 
 
 set off.... (59), 18 
 
 Scott quoted. ..264, 365, 339, 344 
 
 Seasons, names of (8), 10 
 
 Sedley quoted 341 
 
 Selection of a subject, the 
 n . , 341-247 
 
 Semicolon, contrasted wilh 
 
 comma (43), 17 
 
 uses of the ' 17 
 
 Sense sacrificed to sound 222 
 
 sound adapted to. .(301), 147 
 Sequence of terms, logical 
 
 (369), 124 
 Series, extremes of — dash 
 
 (85), 33 
 before the last of a. . .(64), 20 
 of monosyllables, avoid 
 
 (399), 147 
 Seven-accent verse, division 
 
 of 333 
 
 metres 349 
 
 Several questions, common 
 
 dependence (83), 15 
 
 subjects, different num- 
 ber (350), 112 
 
 Shakespeare, quoted 148, 195 
 
 393, 305, 316, 330, 333, 324, 
 325, 339, 340 
 
 metre in 316 
 
 Shakespeare's Sonnet 352 
 
 " Shall, "radical signification 
 
 of (306), 84 
 
 and "will," distinguish, 
 
 (205), 84 
 Shape, importance of idea of. 363 
 Ships, names of— italics.. (110), 27 
 Short words at close, avoid, 
 
 (163), 63 
 
 prefer (198), 71 
 
 before longer (306), 151 
 
 at close (307), 151 
 
 Short members, comma to 
 
 separate (55), 19 
 
 metre 344 
 
 sentences, oral discourse 300 
 
 not disconnected 301 
 
 "Should" and "would," 
 
 distinguish (207), 85 
 
 Side-heads, in italics (111), 27 
 
 period after (30), 15 
 
 Sidney quoted 323 
 
 Sign and thing signified, re- 
 lation of 199 
 
 Simile, definitions of 188 
 
 rhetorical values of < 188 
 
 disproportionate 319 
 
 disagreeable 330 
 
378 
 
 QE^JERAL INDEX. 
 
 Simile, not too frequent 231 
 
 pri iiciples governing use, 
 
 318-221 
 
 uso of, in poetry 306 
 
 the position of 220 
 
 Similar beginnings (309), 153 
 
 constructions — conjunc- 
 tions (144), 52 
 
 endings, avoid (800), 147 
 
 spelling — hyphen. . . .(99), 25 
 Simpler expression, prefer 
 
 the (264), 115 
 
 Single quotation-marks. .(102), 35 
 Singular subject — plural ob- 
 ject—verb (248), 112 
 
 pronoun (248), 112 
 
 "Sit "to. "set" (254), 113 
 
 Six-accent iambic 349 
 
 trochaic 349 
 
 verse, division of 383' 
 
 Size the subject-matter 148 
 
 Skelton quoted 343 
 
 "Sketch-book," quotations 
 
 from 273, 273 
 
 Slang significations (200), 83 
 
 avoid (275), 135 
 
 terms, the force of.. (375), 135 
 
 origin of (375), 185 
 
 Slips, method of using ix 
 
 Slurred syllable 332 
 
 Slurring, degrees of 332 
 
 among early poets 333 
 
 Small capitals, how indi- 
 cated (3), 4 
 
 Smooth connection, make, 
 
 (291), 142 
 "So," use after a negative, 
 
 (243), 111 
 "Some," two meanings (147), 52 
 
 Song, the 311 
 
 Sonnet, the, defined 313 
 
 the, discussed 850 
 
 Sounds, the subject-matter. . 147 
 
 Sound .to sense, sacrificing. . 329 
 
 adapted to sense. . .(301), 147 
 
 Southey quoted 853, 854 
 
 Space, lack of, bad 4 
 
 Spacing, rule for (1), 4 
 
 faulty 4 
 
 Special cases, capitalizing. . . 13 
 
 metres 340-350 
 
 index to Part I 43 
 
 Specimen outlines 357-262 
 
 Spell, the ability to (5), 5 
 
 method of learning to. . .(5), 5 
 Spelling, treatment of. .... . 5-9 
 
 rules of 7 
 
 Spencer quoted, 45, 47, 63, 67, 
 
 192, 200, 205, 320, 269, 806, 
 
 318, 331 
 
 Spenserian stanza, the 350 
 
 Stanzas, different, defined. . . 330 
 Statistics, method of express- 
 ing (68), 20 
 
 " State," etc., when capital- 
 ized (25), 12 
 
 Statement of theme, narrow. 246 
 
 Strained metaphor 231 
 
 Stream, narration compared 
 
 to a 276 
 
 Strong argument,placea,first 294 
 
 Style, criticism of the 286 
 
 graces of, not taught. ... vi 
 
 introduction to 45 
 
 definitions of 45 
 
 largely formed how vi 
 
 qualities of, classified 46 
 
 Sub-heads, necessity of 250 
 
 Subject and attribute, rela- 
 tion of 199 
 
 and verb, omit (174), 66 
 
 prominent words of. .(17), 11 
 
 repeat the (129), 49 
 
 how written 4 
 
 the selection of a 241-247 
 
 too broad a 241 
 
 Subjects, best method of as- 
 signing 254 
 
 Subjunctive, use in contin- 
 gency (251), 113 
 
 Subordinate clauses, position 
 
 of (165), 64 
 
 Substantive between substan- 
 tive etc (150), 53 
 
 Substituted trochee, law of. . 348 
 
 „ feet 326 
 
 Substitutions— for euphony, 
 
 (303), 149 
 Succession of unaccented 
 
 syllables (298), 147 
 
 Succeeding occurrences, pre- 
 paratory 279 
 
 Succession, the fallacy of 294 
 
 Suffixes, avoid archaic. (240), 111 
 Suggestive questions, exposi- 
 tion 284 
 
OENERAL INDEX. 
 
 379 
 
 Suggestions to teachers ix 
 
 Summaiy of oral discourse. . 303 
 of suggestions — descrip- 
 tion 274 
 
 selection of a theme 247 
 
 conclude with a 397 
 
 under persuasion 298 
 
 repeat word as a (153), 54 
 
 Summaries, punctuation in, 
 
 (47), 17 
 importance of, in narra- 
 tion 280 
 
 importance of — persua- 
 sion 297 
 
 specimen 297, 298 
 
 in oral discourse 302 
 
 Sums of money, method of 
 
 expressing (63), 30 
 
 "Yes," "no," etc., intro- 
 ductory (66), 20 
 
 Suffixes, Latin and Greek. . . 93 
 
 Saxon 95 
 
 Superfluous syllables 833 
 
 syllables, law governing, 333 
 
 pimctuation (106a), 26 
 
 italics (107), 27 
 
 paragraphing (1 19a!), 30 
 
 Superlative — same class. (133), 50 
 
 avoid a double (357), 114 
 
 Surname, comma after. ..(69), 31 
 Suspense, value of in narra- 
 tion 276 
 
 regard in construction, 
 
 (164), 64 
 when violated in narra- 
 tion 379 
 
 in historical composition 379 
 
 in oral discourse 301 
 
 Suspensive conjunctions, 
 
 use (168), 65 
 
 Swift quoted 343 
 
 Symbol, some needed — 
 
 shape 364 
 
 the essential of a 364 
 
 Sympathy as a basis of narra- 
 tion 275 
 
 Synecdoche, rules govern- 
 ing 236 
 
 Syllabication, hyphen for, 
 
 (100), 25 
 
 Syllepsis defined 210 
 
 Synecdoche, definitions of. . 197 
 rhetorical values of 197 
 
 Synonyms discriminated .... 83 
 Syntactical errors, avoid 
 
 (244), 111 
 
 Syntax, figures of 210 
 
 laws of, how determined 107 
 
 T lie, the — verse 310 
 
 Tautology, avoid (234), 88 
 
 Taylor, Jeremy, quoted.. 30, 308 
 
 Teachers, suggestions to ix 
 
 Technical words, use of. .(158) 54 
 slang, the use of. . .(376), 136 
 Tennyson quoted. .194, 369, 338, 
 334, 838, 343, 346, 853 
 Tenses, keep consistent (369), 134 
 Tense-forms, do not omit 
 
 common (314), 86 
 
 Text-books, failure of some., v 
 
 Thackerajr quoted 269, 355 
 
 "Tliat" with verbs of mental 
 
 action (338), 89 
 
 when used as a relative, 
 
 (123), 48 
 introducing result. .(339), 89 
 "Than" and "as," repeat 
 
 verbafler (151), 53 
 
 " The Mourning Bride," quo- 
 tation from 231 
 
 The other side, state fairly.. 393 
 "The Cataract," quotation 
 
 from 353 
 
 "The Arts" as an essay 
 
 theme 343 
 
 Think, method of learning to. vi 
 
 Thought, the. Part III 241 
 
 ' ' Thought-stroke, "the 23 
 
 Three accent iambic 843 
 
 anapestic 353 
 
 amphibrachic 854 
 
 dactylic 358 
 
 trochaic - 843 
 
 Time, adverbs of — position, 
 
 (173), 66 
 Titles, etc., period after.. (80), 15 
 usage as to writing . . (104), 25 ■ 
 of office, etc., capitals. (9), 10 
 of books, etc., words 
 
 in (16), 11 
 
 '"To" meaning "in order 
 
 to," comma after. .(74), 21 
 
 Tobacco argument, the 394 
 
 Tragedy, Aristotle's defini- 
 tion of 314 
 
380 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Transition, marks of — versi- 
 
 ficalion 339 
 
 Transferred epithet, the, def- 
 inition of 303 
 
 rhetorical values of 203 
 
 different forms of 203 
 
 Transitive confounded with 
 
 intransitive verbs (254), 113 
 
 Triple rhymes 380 
 
 Trisyllabic feet 821 
 
 metres 352-5 
 
 Trite subjects, avoid 244 
 
 subjects, possibilities of. 244 
 
 sayings, avoid (185), 68 
 
 similes 219 
 
 Trochaic metre, specimen of. 821 
 the, defined 320 
 
 Trochee for a dactyl 337 
 
 for an anapest 327 
 
 for an iambic. 326 
 
 Transposed words, etc. — 
 
 punctuation (70), 21 
 
 Trowbridge quoted 356 
 
 Truisms, avoid (185), 68 
 
 "Truncated verse," mono- 
 syllable added 346 
 
 three-accent trochaic . . . 343 
 four-accent trochaic. . . . 345 
 
 five-accent trochaic 348 
 
 four-accent amphibrachlc 354 
 six-accent amphibrachlc 355 
 
 six-accent dactylic 355 
 
 two-accent trochaic 341 
 
 " Truncated metre" 341 
 
 Two prepositions, avoid us- 
 ing (170), 65 
 
 Two or more subjects, num- 
 ber of verb (246), 112 
 
 Two-accent anapestic 351 
 
 amphibrachlc 353 
 
 dactylic 353 
 
 trochaic 341 
 
 iambic 341 
 
 "Two," couple when used 
 
 for (230), 89 
 
 Typical elements in descrip- 
 tion 269 
 
 Type, some needed — shape. . 264 
 
 Unaccented syllables, succes- 
 sion of (298), 147 
 
 "Uncle Tom's Cabin," quo- 
 tation from 278 
 
 Unnatural expression — nar- 
 ration 278 
 
 Underscoring, importance 
 
 of 4 
 
 rules for 4 
 
 Unemphatio accents, object 
 
 of 325 
 
 monosyllables 325 
 
 Unexpected rhyme a blemish. 330 
 Unity, suggestions for gain- 
 ing 141, 143 
 
 Blair's laws of 141 
 
 exercises in gaining.. 142-144 
 
 the requirements of 141 
 
 Unimportant words at close, 
 
 (163), 63 
 Universal subject, negative 
 
 predicate (140), 51 
 
 truths, pi'esent tense (356), 114 
 "University," when capilal- 
 
 ized (25), 12 
 
 Unnecessary words (162), 63 
 
 Unwarranted combinations, 
 
 (334), 109 
 Usage, good, defined 107 
 
 Variety conducive to eu- 
 phony (308). 151 
 
 Verb, omitted when (178), 66 
 
 Verbal nouns, avoid (127), 49 
 
 noun, possessive before, 
 
 (232), 89 
 
 Verse, a, defined 820 
 
 first word of every,. . (13), 11 
 combinations 350-352 
 
 Versification, early use of. . . 317 
 philosophy of early use. 317 
 contrasted with poetry.. 306 
 treatment of 303 
 
 Virgil qupted 201,273 
 
 Vision, definitions of 303 
 
 rhetorical values of 203 
 
 rules governing 339 
 
 Vocabulaiy, one's actual 5 
 
 Vocative clauses, punctuation 
 
 after (35), 15 
 
 Vowel elision 347 
 
 alliteration 339 
 
 Vowels, avoid clash of.. (297), 146 
 
 Wallace, Lew, quoted 372 
 
 Waller quoted 3J5 
 
 Warsong, the " 313 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 381 
 
 Washington City, description 
 
 of 266 
 
 Watson quoted 337, 341 
 
 " Wc" for "I," the use of. 
 
 (381), 137 
 
 Weak arguments, omit 394 
 
 Weak words before stronger, 
 
 (306), 151 
 
 Weak arguments, ignore 297 
 
 Webster quoted 203 
 
 Weeks, names of days — cap- 
 itals (8), 10 
 
 Welch quoted 11 
 
 Wesley quoted 342 
 
 favorite metre of 843 
 
 Westminster Abbey, descrip- 
 tion of 309 
 
 Whately quoted 189, 191, 193, 
 
 239, 333, 253 
 
 " While." the use of (168), 65 
 
 White. R. Or., quoted 65 
 
 Whittier quoted 334, 346 
 
 "Will "and " shaJl," distin- 
 guish (205), 84 
 
 radical signification of. 
 
 (806), 84 
 
 Woodworth quoted 354 
 
 "Word Analysis," Swinton's 90 
 Word-endings, avoid similar, 
 
 (300), 147 
 Word formation, suggestion 
 
 concerning 89 
 
 treated ..90-95 
 
 Words, too many (163), 63 
 
 Worcester's Dictionary 116 
 
 " Would " and " should, " dis- 
 tinguish (307), 85 
 
 Written instruments, etc. — 
 
 capitals (19), 11 
 
 Wyatt quoted 344 
 
 "Yes,"' "no,"' etc., at the 
 
 beginning (66), 20 
 
SMITH'S SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED: 
 A Dictionary of Synonymous Words in the 
 English Language, Illustrated with Quota- 
 tions from Standard Writers. By Charles 
 John Smith, M.A. New Edition, with the 
 Author's Latest Corrections and Additions, 
 lamo. pp. 781. $2.25. 
 
 AN unusually full and fresh treatment of this subject. The author 
 is not content to give the usual cut-and-drled generalizations, 
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 tinctions and relations between the words interesting and living as well 
 as clear. The quotations from authors are a noteworthy feature of the 
 book. They are numerous enough to illustrate all the important dis- 
 tinctions, yet every passage is selected with care, not simply with refer- 
 ence to the illustration in question, but also because it is an example 
 of forcible writing. 
 
 The derivaiion of words is given wherever necessary to an under- 
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 not allowed to overburden it. 
 
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 A Higher English Grammar. New edition, revised and enlarged. By 
 
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